PESTALOZZI AND HIS EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM BY HENRY BARNARD, LL.D. SYRACUSE, N. Y. C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER 190? SENERAL A WORD FROM THE PUBLISHER No man did more to make the work of Pestalozzi known in America than Dr. Barnard. In Vol. Ill of the Journal he published von Raumer's Life of Pestalozzi, and Vol. VII is nearly half devoted to translations of Pestalozzi's writ- ings, still the most complete exposition of them in English. One of the earliest and the most valuable of all his separate books was "Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism", of which a small edition was published in I860. For von Raumer's opinion of this book see p. 128 of this volume. The edition was soon exhausted, and he planned an extended reprint under the title " Pestalozzi and Swiss Pedagogy". When his plates came to me I found several boxes so marked and containing most of the material in this volume. This second book was however never printed, and mean- time he had accumulated much more material about Pes- talozzi, so that in issuing the book I have thought best to give it a title slightly different, to distinguish it from the book that was published, containing about two-thirds of the matter here given, and from the book announced but not published. This volume contains every thing about Pestalozzi that Dr. Barnard gathered, and is much the most complete exposition of the man and of his work that has appeared. If it were rewritten it would be somewhat modified by books that have been published since it was completed, especially "Pestalozzi, his Aim and Work" by Baron Roger de Guimps (Paris, 1874, English by Margaret Cuthbertson Crombie, Syracuse, 1889, another translation by J. Russell, London, 1890). But I have not ventured to make any changes in Dr. Barnard's pages. They were a labor of love, and form a noble contribution. The translations of Pestalozzi's works here given are, as I have said, the most complete in English. I have com- 3 4 PESTALOZZI AND HIS EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM pared them with the original German editions and think perhaps a few bibliographical notes may be of interest. Of "Leonard and Gertrude", the earliest edition I have of the original is that of Zurich and Leipzig, 1790 for the first two parts, and 1792 for the third part. It does not number the chapters, or give nearly all the divisions and headings of chapters in the translation. In Pestalozzi's complete works (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1820, see p. 167 of this volume) the first four volumes are given to Leonard and Gertrude. Here the chapters are numbered, and Vol. I gives Dr. Barnard's 100 chapters. In Mann's edition (Langensalza, 1878) Leonard and Ger- trude occupies two of the four volumes, and in the little Reclam Leipzig edition it makes a single volume with 170 chapters. The last 70 chapters Dr. Barnard has condensed into "The School at Bonnal". The translation is that of an English edition (London, 1825), though the punctuation is changed, and Dr. Barn- ard's headings are often fuller; as for instance to chapter "LXXXII in the London edition "The old coachman", in Barnard, "A coachman who loves his master's son", in the original, "Kin Kutscher, dem seines Junkers Sohn lieb ist". Another edition of Leonard and Gertrude was published in Philadelphia in 1801 and dedicated to William Wilber- force. The title page reads, "Written originally in German, translated into French, and now attempted in English, with the hope of its being useful to all classes of society." It gives the same 100 chapters. This is a wholly different text, the value of which may be judged the fact that the second sentence gives Gertrude five children instead of seven. It is cheaply printed. Dr. Barnard evidently realized that "How Gertrude teaches her children " (Vol. V of complete works) was ped- agogically more important than " Leonard and Gertrude ", and has given more of it than had before appeared in En- glish. The entire volume has since been translated (Syra- cuse, 1898), and in that edition "Pestalozzi's account of his own educational experience " in this volume is 12 pages of the first letter, written Jan. 1^1901 (pp. 29-41). "Meth- ods of Elementary Instruction " begins in the 6th letter and A WORD FROM THE PUBLISHER 5 extends through the 9th (pp. 145-219). It might be wished that more of Pestalozzi's methods be made available in English. " Pestalozzi's Erziehungs- unternehmung im Verhaltniss zur Zeitkultur '.' ( Iserten, 1812) does not appear in the list of Pestalozzi's works in De Guimp and I do not know any extended reference to it in English. The first text-book of Pestalozzi's I have found is " Anschaunngslehre der Zahlenveraltnisse " in three vol- umes (Zurich, 1803, see p. 168 of this volume). It has been adapted to American schools by James II. Hoose under the title "Pestalozzian Series of Arithmetic"(Syracuse, 1882), and is in considerable use in public schools. In 1821 P. H. Pullen who had previously translated Pestalozzi's " Buch der Mutter " (Zurich, 1803) published " Pestalozzi's Intel- lectual or Intuitive Arithmetic ", not following Pestalozzi so closely, and the similar work in this country by Warren Colburn is well known. ' * Lessons on Number as given a Pestalozzian School, Cheam, Surrey. The Master's Manual by C. Reiner, teacher of mathematics at Cheam School. With a preface by Dr. Mayo, setting forth the basis of Pestalozzi's method/' and a similar ' ' Lessons on Form ' ' were published in England in 1835. In 1893 I purchased the remainder of the edition and published it with a short preface; but the books have all been sold, and are not likely to be reprinted. The original edition bears on the fly-leaf the general title "Pestalozzi's Elementar-Bucher ". of which another volume is " A B C der Anschauung oder Anschauung-Lehre der Massverhaltnisse " (Zurich, 1803), which called out Herbart's " Pestalozzisldee eines A B C der Anschauung " (Gottingen, 1804; Sammtliche Werke, Leipzig, 1882, i. 169- 291). The " New Year's Address" is one of the " Reden an sein Haus " which are given in Mann's edition (iv. 1-158) for 1808, 1809, 1810, 1811, 1812, 18l8,the last being his "Ad- dress on his ?3d birthday " (complete works, ix. 151) " The Evening Hour of a Hermit " appears in all col- lected editions of his works. The Letters to Greaves were never published in German. The book is mentioned under its English title in Vol. XVI 6 PESTALOZZI AND HIS EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM of Seyffarth's edition of his works (Blandenburg, 1872). They were printed in English in London, 1827, and re- printed in Syracuse, 1898. The extracts from the " Swan Song " (" Schwanenge- sang ", Mann iv. 159-361) are of course meagre. A better idea will be got from Chapter XVII of De Guimp (pp. 245- 57) If" The single page from the " Mother's Book '" is certainly characteristic. 8 Except the portrait, p. 514, the illustrations were not a part of Dr. Barnard's plan, and have been added from var- ious sources. Those of places are mainly from the litho- graphs in Christoffel's "Pestalozzi's Leben und Ansichteu" (Zurich, 1846, seep. 169 of this volume). The two pictures of the school at Stanz, differing in detail but not in char- acter, are familiar. While the portrait on p. 512 is well known and was the one chosen by Dr. Barnard, two others are often printed, the one on the right from Biber's "Henry Pestalozzi" (1831). Of this William Woodbridge says in the Annals of Education (i. 597): "We regret that the portrait should present us with the mere remains of Pesta- lozzi. We are so fortunate as to possess a better one, whose correctness we have known from personal intercourse with this amiable man." CONTENTS PARTI PESTALOZZI AND HIS WORK 17 Dr. Barnard's Final "Words on Pestalozzi 17 JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU 19 Emile 23, 52, 61, 67 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI, CARL VON RAUMER 49 early school days 50 teachers 51 marriage 54 Neuhof 57, 48,* 114, 161 "Evening Hour of a Hermit" 59, 117 "Leonard and Gertrude" 62, 118, 298, 517 " Christopher and Alice" 65, 366, 665 "Figures to my A B C book" 66 "Researches into the course of nature" 66, 118 Stanz 69,130* Burgdorf 71, 130,* 434, 720 Kriisi 71, 88, 103, 105, 323 ^Hqw Gertrude teaches her children". 72, 117, 118, 669 ^ form, number ,77, 262, 263, 276 magical power of words 78 Ramsauer's account of Burgdorf 84, 118 >'The A B C of observation" 86 ' Lessons on the relation of numbers" 86 "Book for mothers".. 86 Fellenburg and Hof wyl , 87,109, 281,437 Buchsee 87, 90 Yverdun 88, 130*, 131, 399,, 435, 442*, 734 controversy with Niederer, 88, 106, 108, 109, 113, 293,334 Schmid 88, 92, 97, 104-8, 115, 301 Ramaauer 91, 305 mission of enquiry 96 address on 73d birthday.. !....109, 121-3, 712 10 PBSTALOZZI AND HIS EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM Clindy US. Greaves 112,438 Xeuhof 114 "Song of the dying swan" 115 "Fortunes of my life" 115 Zeller 115, 250, 309, 437 death 116 religious instruction poverty 124 a self-taught man IS 4 Basedow 1S5 biographies of Pestalozzi 127, 167 Clindy school 1S9 student life at Yverdun 131 reminiscenced of Dr. Mayo 143 Brougham on Pestalozzi 144 PESTALOZZIAN ISM ix GERMANY 145 Johaan Gottlieb Fichte 145 Diesterweg 147 Pestalozzi 's educational labors for the poor 161 school house at Birr, with PestalozzPs memorial... 166*, publications by and relating to Pestalozzi (see p. 127)... 167 OBJECT TEACHING, PRINCIPLES AND METHODS, F. BUSSE, 185 Conversations on objects, C. Marcel SIT exercises in perception in observation SS4 in reflection ASSISTANTS AND DISCIPLES OF PESTALOZZI 249 Frederick Froebel on Pestalozzi FroebeFs law of opposites S73 Pestalozzi, De Fellenberg and Wehrle 281 Johannes Xiederer Johannes Buss Joseph Schmid 301 Hans Georg Xageli Johann Rarnsauer 305 Karl August Zeller 309 John Ernst Plamann 313 Friedrich Adolf. Wilhelm Diesterweg 316, 387 Bernhard Gottlieb Denzel... ...319 COHTEXT8 11 Wilhelm Uarnisch 321 Hermann Krusi 323 views and plans of education 349 facsimile of manuscript of Pestalozzi and assistants... 360* John George Tobler 361 Karl Christian Wilhelm Ton Turk 369 Robert Owen and factory population 375 intuitions in object teaching 387 PESTALOZZIANISM IN THE UNITED STATES 389 William Maclure 389,435 Joseph Xeff 393, 435 The Academician 395 John Griscom 399,437 report of the Oswego committee ; . ..405 specimen lessons 417 ^history of object teaching 429 William Russell 437 William C. Woodbridge 437 in England 438 in Oswego 438 E. A. Sheldon 439 report on object-teaching, S. S. Greene 443 in Oswego ..463,479 E. A. Sheldon on object-teaching 469 objections to object-teaching at Oswego,H. B. Wilbur... 479 PESTALOZZIANISM IN ENGLAND 499 Robert Hebert Quick 499 Oscar Browning 504 James Leitch 505 James Tilleard 507 Dr. Biber 510 PESTALOZZIANISM IN FRANCE 511 Gabriel Compayre 511 Pestalozzi, Rousseau, and Froebel in France 513 PART II SELECTIONS FROM THE WRITINGS OF PESTALOZZI 513 LEONARD AND GERTRUDE 513 The school in Bonnal 649 CHRISTOPHER AND ALICE 665 How GERTRUDE TEACHES HER CHILDREN 669 12 l'K>TALOZZI AND HIS EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM PESTALOZZI'S EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCE 671 methods of elementary instruction 675 Pestalozzi as the father of a family 703 New Year's address, 1809 712 Paternal instructions 720 Evening hour of a hermit 72S Letters to Greaves 735- Swan song 737 Pestalozri's hundredth birthday 743' Memorial to Pestalozzi . .. 752: ILLUSTRATIONS Portrait of Henry Barnard, frontispiece Another portrait of Henry Barnard 16 Portrait of Pestalozzi, 514 Pestalozzi in his school at Stans 17, 403 Xeuhoff, near Birr, 48, 166,752 Staus 130 Burgdorf 130 Yverdun 130, 442, 734 School house at Birr, with Pestalozzi Memorial 166, ?5 - 2 Manuscript of Pestalozzi, Ramsauer, Xiederer, Tobler 360 Pestalozzi in his school at Stanz 403 Yverdun 442 The castle at Yverdun 734 Memorial to Pestalozzi at Birr... ...T-V2 13 PESTALOZZI AND HIS EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM HENRY BARNARD IN 1881 PESTALOZZI AND PESTALOZZIANISM. LAST WORDS. We shall close our editorial studies and publications respecting the great Swiss educator with this, and possibly one additional chapter in the current volume of the Journal. The articles which follow will amply repay the closest attention. The first gives an interesting picture of the daily life of Pestalozzi's Family School in the old castle of Yverdun, at a time when his reputation had drawn together pupils and assistants from every nation in Europe. In spite of the unappreciative spirit of the writer, and the evidence of the astounding incapacity of the principal for the administration of affairs, we see and feel the strenpth and warmth of his great heart which brought and kept together such widely differing antagonisms, of his constant forgetfulness of self in his immense devotion to the interests of his fellowmen, and of his insight into the true philosophy and means of human culture, without the trained faculties in himself, the result of his own imper- fect education, to perfect and apply the methods. The second article gives us at once an appreciative account. of the principles of the Pestalozzian system, by one competent to under- stand it, and at the same time gives us the first glimpses of the K ndersrarten, as it revealed itself to Froebel in his profound study of the child at play and in school. The third article, in the list of over three hundred distinct treatises on Pestalozzi and his system, and which is far from being -complete, shows both the originality and value of his views, so largely and variously discussed, and opens up a rich field of special study to the student of human culture. These and other papers, published in the early volumes of the American Journal of Education, will appear in a separate volume {the contents of which is given on the next page), as soon as there is any evidence that a revised edit'on is wanted. HENRY BARNARD. HARTFOKD, CONN., March 15, 1881. JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU. JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU, whose educational as well as political speculations exerted a mighty influence on his age, was born at Geneva, in Switzerland, June 28th, 1712. His father was a watchmaker, a good mechanic, and fond of reading ; and his mother a woman of considerable beauty, and great intelligence. She died in giving him birth, and for some years he seems to have had little or no instruction or guidance of any kind except from his father, who was too poor, too busy, and, apparently, not quite judicious enough, for the purpose. They read together, before the boy was seven years old, whole nights through, some romances which had been his mother's ; and when those were finished, some books of divinity and translations of the classics. Thus the boy learned to love reading, but evidently could not acquire good habits, either physical or mental; and his "Confessions" show that he stole, lied, and played dirty tricks. In short, he was a "bright" boy, but indolent, irritable, mischievous, thoroughly un- principled, untrained, and ill-bred. With these wretched early habits, which had strengthened his natural evil tendencies, and in a condition of poverty which both pre- vented their ready gratification and made their precise opposites the indispensable conditions to prosperity and happiness, he entered upon the vagrant and unhappy series of wanderings and adventures which might have been expected. He was placed with an attorney, who discharged him for negligence ; then with an engraver, whom he left, as he says, on account of his harshness, which undoubtedly was only proper strictness. He next ran away from home, for fear of being punished for his vices; and he took refuge with Borney, Catholic bishop of Annecy. Here he asserted himself a convert to Catholicism, and was placed, for religious instruction, with a Madame de Warens, herself a recent proselyte. She in turn sent him to a Catholic semi- nary, at Turin, where he completed the required preparations, publicly recanted his Protestant belief, and then declined to study for the priesthood. Upon this they dismissed him, with twenty florins ; which he spent, became servant to a countess, stole a ribbon, and managed to have the blame laid on a decent waiting-maid in the family. When the countess died he took a place in the family of a nobleman, whose son treated him like a companion, and instructed him. After a time, however, he was disobedient and insolent, and 20 JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU. was dismissed. Penniless, he returned to Madame de Warens, with whom he lived, as a sort of paid lover, for about ten years. She ob- tained for him a place in a surveying commission, established by tho King of Sardinia, and other employments ; none of which he had the decency or the industry to retain ; forgave him for twice eloping from her ; but, becoming at last disgusted by his unfaithfulness, secured him employment as a tutor in a gentleman's family at Lyons. But the desultory studies in music and mathematics, and occasional em- ployment as music teacher, which had occupied him while with her, had not rendered him fit for the regular and decent duties of an in- structor; and in a tit of anger and shame he resigned the place, in 1741. He now walked to Paris, with fifteen louis, his entire means, in his pocket ; in some way got into good literary society ; offered the musicians of the city a new scheme of musical notation, which was at once rejected ; lived in penury two years, supported by music- copying and obscure employments. At the end of that time his friends obtained him a place as secretary to the French ambassador at Venice, where he stayed two years, living a shamelessly vicious life, quarreled with his superior, and returned to Paris. Here he hired a small room, and became attached to Therese Le- vasseur, a vulgar and stupid girl, who lived with him as his mistress for twenty years, and whom he then married. They had five children, all of whom the father quietly placed in the foundling hospital, and whom he never afterward tried to identify ; nor was he at all in- terested when some of his friends sought to find them for him. After his death, his wife married a hostler. He earned a scanty living, after this last removal to Paris, by copy- ing music ; and failed in the attempt at operatic composition. After a time he obtained the place of clerk to one of the farmers-general of the revenue, from the profits of which he sent some little money to Madame de Warens, then in great poverty. About 1748, he was employed to write some articles on music for the "JEncyclopcedia" which he did, he says, " very quickly and very ill." During his life in Paris, his' associates were literary men, especially of the school of Diderot and D'Alembert, and a crew of licentious and swindling men of rank and fashion, whom he calls " very agree- able and very respectable." In 1749, at the age of 37, he made his first successful attempt at authorship, by writing an answer to a prize question proposed by the Academy of Dijon, " Whether the progress of the arts and sciences has tended to the purification of manners and morals.'" At the sug- gestion of Diderot, who reminded him of the greater notoriety which he could gain on the wrong side, he took the negative, and found his JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU. 21 line of argument exactly adapted to his modes of thought and feel- ing. He rapidly composed a violent, brilliant, and eloquent, but sophistical and inconsistent denunciation of civilized life, won the prize, and at once saw himself comparatively eminent. In 1752, he once more tried operatic composition. His "Devin du Village" (Village Conjuror,) was very successful ; and he also wrote a tragedy and three comedies, none of them of much value. Dur- ing the following year he competed for a second prize offered by the Academy of Dijon, for the best answer to the question, " What is the cause of inequality among men ?" but did not succeed. The charac- ter of this production, and the audacity of his philosophical methods, may be judged of from his own remark that, in composing this treat- ise, he purposely " looked away from all the facts of history." The attacks which his first prize essay had occasioned, and others which were caused by a "Letter on French Music" in which he con- tended that the French had not and could not have any vocal music, by reason of the defects of the language, had now gained him con- siderable reputation. In fact, he had taken advantage of this, to re- visit his birthplace, Geneva ; and it was while there that he com- posed his unsuccessful prize essay. He was much caressed ; became filled with republican enthusiasm ; and, being, in his own words, "ashamed of being excluded from my rights as a citizen by the pro- fession of a faith not that of my fathers," he made another recanta- tion, and publicly professed himself a Protestant. Having returned to Paris, he gave up, out of fear of persecution, a government appointment, for which he had exchanged his clerkship, and for a long time afterward lived chiefly upon the bounty of his friends, contributed in the shape of wages for copying music. In 1756, Rousseau, in pursuance of an invitation from Madame d' Epinay, established himself at a house called ]' Hermitage, upon her estate at Montmorenci, not far from Paris. Here he remained for about ten years, and wrote some of his most celebrated works ; "La Nouvelle Heloise," "Emile," and the "Contrat Social." The "Heloise" is a novel, without a good plot, and without well- drawn characters ; attractive for vigorous language, passionate feel- ing, and opinions dangerous but seductively expressed. It appeared in 1759, and was followed, in 1762, by "JSmile" perhaps his greatest or, at least, most celebrated work. This was written for Madame de Luxembourg, and is a singular compound of acute observation, truth, sophistry, rhetoric, and irreligion. ' It was not so well received by the public as some of his other works, and was with justice condemned by the archbishop and the parliament of Paris. It had a powerful influence on a class of educators, both in Germany and Switzerland. The "Contrat Social' 1 ' 1 came out very soon afterward. It is only -22 JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU. one part of a great work on political institutions, which he had cle signed as early as his stay in Venice, and is a scheme of entire social equality. Before the whole of it was printed, the author was in- formed that government intended to imprison him, and fled to Swit- zerland. Geneva refused to receive him, and, both there and at Paris, his work was publicly burned by the common hangman. He finally found rest with Marshal Keith, in Neufchatel, where he wrote an an- swer to the decree of the archbishop of Paris for the burning of " Emile" and his "Lett-res de la Montague" in which he attacked the clergy and the republic of Geneva, and renounced his citizenship of the latter. A mob, how instigated it is not quite clear, drove him away, and he fled to an island in the lake of Bienne. Having in vain sought an asylum in Berne, he now went to Strasburg, and thence to Paris, where he arrived in great destitution, and became acquainted with Hume, the historian, then English charge d'affaires there. Hume, out of sympathy and kindness, carried him to England and placed him in a comfortable situation there. Rousseau, however, who seems by this time actually to have become monomaniac on the subject of persecution, soon imagined that Hume was secretly attacking his rep- utation, wrote him an abusive letter, renounced a pension which he had secured for him from the English government, and returned to France. Here he wandered about the country for a year or two, busying himself with botanical studies, which he pursued eagerly and with success. It was during this period that he published his "Dic- tionnaire de Musique, r rewritten from his articles in the "Encyclopae- dia;" a work, like all his writings, containing many acute observations and just remarks, but full of errors, and misleading in tendency ; and during the same period it was that he united himself in marriage to Therese Levasseur, with whom he had lived since 1*745. In 1770, he obtained, through his friends, permission to come to Paris, where otherwise he would still have been liable to imprison- ment under the sentence passed on account of "Emile" He was, however, obliged to promise not to write upon politics or religion, which he accordingly did not do ; and was officially cautioned against publicity; which admonition he took pleasure in setting at defiance, and, contrary to his previous shy habits, he went much into society. He was, however, now reduced to an excessively unhealthy mental condition, had become extremely rude and testy in manner, irritable and suspicious ; his health was also failing, and he was falling into deep poverty. In 1778, the Marquis de Girardin invited him and his wife to occupy a small house near his country-seat of Ermenon- ville, some thirty miles from Paris. He accepted the invitation, but had been established there scarcely two months when he died from a stroke of apoplexy, July 3d, 1778. ROUSSEAU'S EMILE 33 ROUSSEAU'S EMILE THE Emile of Rousseau is not a system of pedagogy m the usual sense of the term. " My system," says Rousseau, " is nature's course of development." After a short general introduction, he discusses, in the first book, the management of new-born children, and. in particu- lar, of Emile, up to the time when he learned to talk; the second book treats of his education from that time to his twelfth year ; the third ends when he is fifteen ; the fourth brings him to his marriage; and, in the fifth, are described Sophia, his wife, and her education. The work is rendered still more different from a system, because it contains a large number of digressions upon subjects which have lit- tle or nothing to do with pedagogy. It would be a vain endeavor to attempt to bring it into a systematic form. I shall, therefore, follow the author, step by step, (except in the digressions,) and thus give a general view of his book. Rousseau's skill as a writer renders it diffi- cult for the reader of Emile to estimate calmly his paradoxes, and to see through his sophistries. It is my hope that the following view may serve as a clear plan of this labyrinth of Rousseau's, and that the remarks which I have added may form a guide through it. Preface. The book, says the author, was originally written for a thought- ful mother. Even if the thoughts contained in it are of no value in themselves, they ought to serve to awaken valuable thoughts in others. Every body writes and cries out against the usual methods of instruction, but no one suggests a bet- ter one. The knowledge of our century serves much more for destroying than for building ii|>. Childhood is not understood. The most judicious, in their teaching, confine themselves to that which it is necessary for a man to know ; without considering what children are fit to learn. They are always seeking for a man in the child, without ever thinking what the child is before it becomes a man. My system is nature's course of development. This term will be mistaken by many of my ivaders. They will take my book to be, not a work upon education, but the dreams of a visionary. I do not see as others do ; but can I give myself others' eyes ? I can not change my views ; I can only suspect them. It has been often said to me, Propose only what can be accomplished. This means, pro- pose something which is done now ; or, at least, something good, of such a kind that it will come into agreement with prevalent evils. Such a collocation would destroy the good without healing the bad. I would rather adhere entirely to what is already received than to try any half measures. In order that the plans proposed may be well received and practicable, they must correspond with the nature of things ; in the present case, for instance, the plan of education laid down must be adapted to human nature. A second work must consider accidental relations, such as the relations of mnn in certain countries or in certain conditions. I do not concern^jnysa^' with such relations, but treat only of the education of the human being in itseTW'V As Rousseau, in his treatises upon the inequality of man, traces the progress of our race from the natural to the civilized, he proposes here an entirely similar problem. Emile, his pupil, is humanity per- sonified, in the natural condition of childhood ; a tutor teaches this child of nature naturally. He is afterward to come into a civilized 24 ROUSSEAU'S EM1LE. condition, into the relations of the present world ; even to live in Paris, under Louis XV. Would not Emile, appear in such a position as a natural Don Quixote in the higher circles, as Rousseau himself appeared ? With received notions Rousseau had no intercourse ; he sets up his educational principles, as something absolutely good, against the former, as something absolutely bad. Without reading further, we may here conclude that there is only one who has the right to say,. "Put not new wine into old bottles." Whether it is right to deal with the education of man, in the ab- stract, to discuss the personified idea of human childhood, instead of the education of a Frenchman or a German, of a townsman,. farmer, etc., we shall inquire more particularly hereafter. At this- time it will suffice to say that, in this, Rousseau contradicts himself. Emile, upon careful consideration, will be seen to be only a French- man in puris naturalibus, who, as he grows up, is adorned with a laced coat, peruke on head, and sword by side. Still it would have been beneficial, if Rousseau had, by this, reminded the French that they came into the world naked, and that naked they will go out. FIRST BOOK. INTRODUCTION. FJKST YEAR OF EMILE'S LIFE. 1. Nature and Art. All is good, as it comes from the hand of the Creator ; all degenerates, under the hands of man. He forces one country to produce the fruits of another, one tree to bear that of another ; he confounds climates, elements, and seasons ; he mutilates his dog, his horse, his slave ; turns every thing topsy-turvy, disfigures every thing; he will have nothing as nature made it, not even man himself; he must be trained like a managed horse ; trimmed like a tree in a garden. If this does not happen, things turn out still worse ; our race will not be satisfied with being half modified. Under present circumstances, a man who should live from birth upward, among others, and be entirely left to himself, would be deformed more than any other. Prejudice, authority, force, example, all the social influ- ences which gather over us, could stifle nature in him, and set nothing in her place. He would be like the young tree which has grown up by chance in the street ; it must soon be destroyed by the crowd of persons passing over it, who tread it down on all sides, and bend it in every direction. I turn to the fond and wise mother, who knows how to remove the child from the street, and to pre- serve the growing tree from contact with human opinions. Bacon defines art, " homo rebus additus" by this we may under- stand that to man, as to the image of God, is given not only the do- minion over nature, but also the charge of a sort of education of her, so that under his hands she may look more beautiful ; even human. Rousseau, instead of honorable and divinely-intended art, sees, in his bitterness, only a caricature ; only what depraved men have done to disfigure nature ; and, at the same time puts forth such perversions as these, as most refreshing improvements. Would he prefer the crab tree to a Borsdorfer apple, as he does the ignorant savage man ROUSSEAU'S EMILE 25< to one of enlightened mind ? The child would become, according to him, under the usual education, a caricature ; it is the mother's duty to prevent this as far as possible. Education is her business much more than that of the father. In this Rousseau is a forerunner of Pestalozzi. 2. Three Teachers. Education of Men and of Citizens. We come weak into the world, and need strength ; bare of every thing, and. net'd assistance. All which we have not at our birth, and have when we grow up, we acquire by education. This education we receive either from nature, from man, or from things. The inner development of our powers and organs is the education of nature ; the use which we are taught to make of this development,, is education by man ; and what we learn by our own experience of the circum- stances which have an influence upon us, the education by things. We have no power over education by nature ; and, therefore, we must shape both the other kinds of education by it. It is said : nature is nothing but habit.. This is true so far as habit corresponds with nature, and is not forcibly and unnat- urally constrained. Born with perceptions, we seek or flee from things which are agreeable or dis- agreeable to us ; which seem to promote or hinder our happiness and our im- provement. Such desires and aversions, so far as they do not suffer variations through the actions or the opinions of others, are what we call nature. Every thing in education must be so related to these, that all three of the modes of edu- cation may constitute a harmonious whole. But nature and the conditions of citi- zenship are at variance in many ways ; and it is necessary to determine whether we will educate a man or a citizen. Every partial society, as of one nation, &c., estranges from universal human society. Yet it is necessary, before all things, to deal rightly with those together with whom we live. Trust no cosmopolitan, who loves the Tartars, in order to be excused from the duty of loving his neighbors. The natural man is complete within himself; his is the numerical unity; an absolute whole, which has relations only with itself, or with its like. The man of society is only a fraction, which depends upon its denominator, and whose value is determined by its relations to the whole ; to the social body. Those modes of education are best for society, which are most efficient in perverting men from nature ; in robbing him of his absolute existence, in giving him the relative one, such that after it he will feel and act only as a member of a society. This opposition between education for a citizen and fora man, corresponds with the opposition between public education together, and private education in the family. The former existed in Sparta ; but exists no longer, for there is no longer any fatherland, or any citizens. Thus, there remains for us only private education, or that of nature. But what would the man educated only for himself become atterward, among others? To know this, it is necessary to know the completely educated man : and also the natural man. This book is intended to assist in gaining such knowledge. What now is necessary to be done to educate the natural man ? Much, no doubt ; chiefly in order to hinder any thing from being done. The child should be educated for the common human vocation, not for any special situation ; he must merely live, in good or evil, as life should bring them r and should learn more by experience than by teaching. Considering the instability of human affairs, and the restless, rebellious spirit of the present centu- \ ry,- which is overturning every thing, no more unnatural method of education 1 could be devised than that which deals with a child as if he was never to leave \ home, or the companionship of his own friends. As soon as the unhappy pupil has gone a step away, he is lost. Nothing is thought of but the support of a child ; yet he must sometime die Less care is taken to preserve him from death, than to contrive how he may live.. But life is not merely breathing, but acting ; the exertion of the organs, senses,, faculties, all which gives us the feeling of our existence. Thus far the introduction ; partly in agreement with the preface.. 26 ROUSSEAU S EMILE. Tin- more they are considered, the MKMV mi>t y and indefinite do many of Rousseau's ideas IK-IV appear; and especially tin; iuVa of nature. She must instruct men, since she develops their powers and limbs; and again, she is an instinctive ; a more or less rational sympathy and antipathy. What is the use of the expression, " Education of nature ?" When a seed is buried in the earth, and the plant develops itself and grows up, nobody calls this " nature's art of gardening." Art, on the con- trary, is universally set in opposition to nature ; and education is an art. No one, who finds the basis of a well-ordered national life in a well- ordered domestic life, based upon family love, would set domestic in- struction in violent opposition to that of the citizen ; he would much rather consider it the only one from which good citizens can come ; not citizens who see and criticix-, in th-ir kings and princes, meiv employed agents, but who honor them as a power set over them by God. But is it to be wondered at that Rousseau, a contemporary of the wicked Regent, and of Louis XV., should speak thus, in pre science of the coining revolution, which dissolved all sacred ties? 3. New-born Children. Mothers* Nurses. Nurses shape the outside- of the heads of children, and philosophers tin- inside ; in this respect the Caribsare more skillful than we. The swaddling of children is a most unnatural martyrdom ; it hinders all the .ry iiinvt menta of the limbs and of tin- blood. It is an invention of serv- ants for the sake of convenience. Mothers no longer nurse their children. Nurses share the children's love with the mothers, while they follow their pleasures. II, re is the ehief cause of the dissolution of all family relations, of all mutual love among members of a family ; each one is thinking only of himself, and pursuing his own pl< a>mv. And the influence of family life is the best antidote to bad morals. Of quite opposite eharaet- r is the effeminate spoiling of children by mothers. Nature does not treat children so ; by teething and various other ways she m- s them many pains, for the sake of hardening them. Why do they not imitate na- ture in this.' (Especially are young children managed worst. Either ire do every thing they want, or require from them every tiling we want : \\e an- sub- jected to their whims, or th--y to ours. Thus the child commands before it can sp' ;ik, or obeys before it can aet ; a ehild is trained into a l)ein_ r after our im- agination, not into a natural man. If its peculiarities are to he preserved, the maintenance of them must be can-d for from the moment of its birth until it grows up to be a man. These remarks of Rousseau upon the duties of mothers, which are in agreement with Comenius, had a very good influence. 4. Father. As the mother is the proper nurse of the child, the lather is its proper teacher. The custom is, for him, not to have the IK < ssarv time; and thus children are placed in boarding-schools, seminaries, &c., where they are deprived of all love ; and the scattered members of one family scarcely know each other. A heavy curse lies upon those who neglect their paternal duties. Rousseau was thinking here of his own sins. How forcibly does he speak of the dissolution of family ties ! ROUSSEAU'S EMILE 27 5. The Tutor. The Pupil. The father who is otherwise oceupied, must find a tutor. This tutor must be well educated and voting; and, above all, he should not be employed for money ; should be no hireling.* Jle must put himself into close relations with the pupil ; must be his p!av-fello\v ; must remain with him from his birth to somewhere about his twenty -fifth year ; must be his teacher and educator. This pupil, Kmile, is suppos. d not to have a particularly remarkable mind, but to be of good birth, rich, and an orphan. If his parents were alive, he should respect them, hut should obey his tutor only. Tutor and pupil should look upon their relation with < ach other as indissoluble, in order that they may not become estranged from each oth r. This pupil is supposed, also, to com from some country in the temperate /.one, France for instance ; and must he healthy, lie (Rousseau.) could not be a wait- er upon s'ck people, while tutor ; he eou'd not tdueate any child who should be a burden to himself or to others. The body must have power to obey the soul ; the weaker it is, so much the more will it be faulty ; and the stronger, so mueh the better will it obey. Me.iieine makes us mean ; if it cures the body, it destroys the courage. Mod- eration and bodily labor should supply the place of medicine. Doctors with their r.-cipes, philosophers with th -ir pr -eepts. priests with their admonitions, make the heart faint ; they are the cause why men foriret death. By nature, man suffers patiently, and dies in peace. Rousseau indicates clearly that such a tutor as he requires is not to be found, but if he was supposing such a one, why not rather a rich father like Pascal's, to devote all his time and powers to the edu- cation of his son ? There would then have been no need of the chilling idea that Emile was to honor his parents, but to obey his tutor. The natural mutual love of father and child would have been a living motive of the whole course of instruction. But of such love nothing would be said by a man who sent his own children to the foundling h<-).it;il ; or, it' it is mentioned, it is never the heartfelt ba>is of his art of education. Emile, it is clear from this description, is, by no means, an abso- lute, natural man. the personification of a child. His native country, climate, property, health, are all determined in advance. The body is very well characterized, as the servant of the soul, but health is valued too highly, after the rude and Spartan manner. Rousseau would have thought tin- new-born juggler, who called him- self the northern Hercules, well worthy of his instruction ; not the new-born, weakly, seven months' child, the intellectual He'rcules, Kep- ler. With characteristic exaggeration, Rousseau entirely rejects medicine, instead of giving some positive idea of it. Had Rousseau seen a natural man die in peace, or did he feign this peace after the analogy of dying beasts ?f 6. First Instruction under the Tutor. If the mother does not nurse her child herself, the tutor must select a nurse, 'Rousseau declares himself unfit to be a tutor; and, in writing upon pedagogy, hede scribes, in his tutor, himself. t In the second book of Emile it is said that savages, like beasts, struggle little at death, and suffer it almost without complaints. og KOI - MILK IT" with her and the child into the country, and not icmain in the city, \\liich is unhealthy, by reason of the closely packed crowd of men.* Baths, and crawl, ng about, are very good tor children. \Ve come into the worKl entirely ignorant,, and with an incapable body, but with the capacity to learn. The education of a child begins with its birth ; and who can determine the limit to which it is possible for man to attain ? By nine exp. ru -nee, without any instruction, a man will learn an incredible quantity in the first year of his life. If all human knowledge were to be divided into two parts, one common to all men, and the >econd peculiar to the learned, the latter would be very simple in comparison with the former; the former is. lio\\<\vr. overlooked, because it is learned early, without knowing it, before we come to our understanding. No habits should be taught to children, no regular hours for sleeping, ating. Arc. He should be accustomed only to have no habits ; should be train, d to in- dependence. And he should be suffered to acquire no fear of ill-looking animals, ma*ks. ivports of weapons. oVc. 1\ iv.-ption by the senses atVords the tirst mate- rials for childish knowledge ; it is therefore important, that the impressions slmuld be caused to oeenr to him :n a su, table order. Especially lie should b<_- made to. compare the impr. - _ht with those of feeling. By moving they learn to .>p no longer after distant things. Rousseau'* advice, t> arrange methodically the tirst impressions upon the niiiul of tlie child, even before he can speak, lias K-eii fol- lowed repeatedly, a&d, a> far a> possible. 1>\ l>a>edow, Wolke. and even 1 Vstalo/zi ! Children speak, at first, in the universal natural language, which is not, it is true, articulate, but is extended, and intelligible. Nur-<> understand better than we do. and converse in this language with children : any words which they use in it are insignificant; their accent only being to be considered. Thoe are as- sisted by the gestures and quick and varying pantomime of the children. Cry- ing \s their expression of hunger, heat. cold. Arc. Their elders try to check and soothe this crying, but often misunderstand it. and try to silence them by coaxing or blows. Children's first tears are : f attention is paid to them, tin > soon begin to command. They begin with helping themselves, and with making others wait upon them. All the had conduct of children comes from weakness ; make them strong and they will be gocd. He who can use all his faculties will not do ill. Before we" attain to understanding, there is no morality in our actions : "al- though expressions of it are sometimes seen in the sense which children show of what others do to them." The destructive tend.-ncies of children do not come from wickedness, but from an evident desire for activity. Their \\ vents the greater M > wh eh they might do. They <* - - k to pake instruim Jits of their elders; to make these repair tin- harm which their weakness ha- c;m not bad ; is not sour, but sweet. How opp urustine to Rousseau ! " Can there be," asks the former. M any ofood in a child, when he ci i what could only hurt him if he got it .' When he gets into a violent rage at grown-up people who an- not und.-r his authority, and e\.-n * Man's breath is fatal to his like. This is true, both figuratively and literally Cities ar* the charnel house of the human race." ROl SSEAUS EMILE 29 at his own parents; when lie tries to injure, by blows, those wiser than lie, if they do not obey him at the moment ? it is the weakness of the limbs of infants, not their minds, that is innocent." Children, (to return to Rousseau,) must be helped where it is necessary, but their faults are not to be attended to, and they must be left to help themselves as much as possible. The needless crying of children will be best quieted by paying no attention to it ; for even a child does not willingly exert himself for nothing. Crying can be gti >i>[., With tin- po\\, i> ,.! mv th-- happin- -vs of thr cliil.l : An.l u hat is hapj>iin>* .' l ; hap . .'tiid In- iinliai Do HI \'ur inistakfii pain-, than liuin nm :ily a child. -ran i- ri^ht in opposing the useless tearhinir -t' \\liat th.> chikl will l.-arn of himself; such teaching as is found in too many of our elemen ob, 1 1 is rejection of the belief that piuii-h- men ^ against evil in children, follows frin hi> dM.-lirf in original sin. 8. Dependence of Children instead of Obedience. '..- is truly free wishes only for what is an ,.1 thus .]. what pit-as < 1 1 M Thi principle shoul.l l>- appli. 1 l<> rhihlrni. :. '.! should I- ! hi weakness, bat shou dependent, bat li- mast ask, but od II' < "j">> an iucom- om. is a dependence upon things, based in n. man, bam.-d in the social state. The ' \Mth ip..rais. anunishti nta as hare i t<> bis assumptions, In \\hit natur- r- <[Uirt* tor. nt cif thr In^ly. thr utno.t {KWsible -!i"nM IK- | - .nt if imi*t I it- <-are should bi taken t< il paid to t! in <--urtly forms of spee- se" nn.l I- m tetttc that tli 1 have no limit ; onl\ ( , IchXa \ \4iii i.r mat isor- !K? the cas . - i.- as littl. Miital)!.- for chiMri.'!! a- ^ -liquid not have any thing merely because hensks f..i it. ;ily becaose it is necessary for him; he HUM I. MILE. ;,1 necessity. ll\v ditl'iMvnt IN tin- thrr\ !' 1 'e-tal>//i ! ;iti<'ii U an acute one, that cliililivn j>er\vrt the forms of request mmainU; hi> naming i- V.TV just, against the unlimited giv- ing to them of every tiling th-v le-'nv. 9. Reasoning with Children. Locke's maxim is now universally foll..\\ 'ed : that children should with. IJut the ivsults do not speak m favor i.f tin- piaet !ren are sil- lier than those who have b. en mueh reasoned with. CM' ail the faculti. s. the understand. nu r is d- \ -eloped the latest ; ati>l yet it is overstrained to make it In Ip in developing th "th> is. This is : . : the end. If children understood 'hem. fiom an early |- riotl, what they do m.t understand. a.-L'ii>t<>ms them to I.e .-atistied with mere - lid to th'-rn, to think tlu-m selves as wise hers, to be disputatious and perverse, and to do what they are sup- posed to do from reasoiiahle < i e..\. t"nvi,e>> ..i tear or van- ity, which are i; li.di arc ,' n eessity added to those of reason. hildren he children. If we ehoo-,- f r. v. r-e the . rd. r of things, we shall get premature and tlav.,il,>s tru its. wh;eh MH.M decay : we shall have young doc- tors and old children. \\ e might as well e.xj. n to be five feet high, as to have judgment in their tenth year. In tr : the duty ' and threats are . what is still w. and promises. Thus th. y pretend to be con- ..-on, when !.y self-interest, or drr think you have convineed them. u!. ri. .1 or fright' ried them. Thus you accustom them to eonc al their ral m>t:\.s hthind pr- t< nd d ones, make sport UM not a . whieh is a : to them willingly,.; them unwil- lingly ; but let what you refuse be irrevocably refus. :nty in- 11 must absolutely nothinjj from the child, or you ;: mony. to the most imp! v child in v. , Impute with him without , nd n u shall lw i it th.it the child should be master, once for all. Exceedingly important truth. 1". Against Jetuitical Means of Education. since children have l>. i-.'ini: tliein. but niiii .-ni-ss, and debased passions. - think tli iren bid. in order Mess. Then they say gravely. " Sn. h is i is your d - .iitimial j: 'reii; when their backs :iij roguish tricks. Very true. 11. Against Original Sin. There is no original depravity in the human heart : there is not one single vice in the heart, of \\h,h itcan'n.-t be told how, and by what road, it came in ,'ood. out the pur- pose of doing harm. I; ha purpose, he would be al- most hopelessly bad * N fn-ttrnrtion to the Twelfth Year. f children is Mi.-h as if ehildr' n leaped, at one bound "Onthifi -roduction ROUSSEAl > I Mil i; from the mother's breast to the age of reason. An ml i rvly opposite method ) the necessary on,-; an entirely i Mj \\li.ch does not teach \irtue ;,nd truth, hut se, k t prenrre ib heart fr,-m \,c,-s. and tin- understanding tVi m : If you can hrin-r y'nr pupil t his twelfth year healthy ami strong, - if he could not distinguish his n;ht hainl tV'iii his left, tin- cy,s of ln> nnd< r- standmg would open to your first lesson in reason ; tor he would have no pn ju- .'.ny thinir t< sUinl in tin- way of the Micaey of your efforts. II, wouli 1 SIM, n b come, under your hands, the wisest of men; anu began with doing nothing, you would have accomplished a wonder of educa- tion. Do the opposite of what is usual and you will almost always do right. Fn.in tin- effort to make the child not a child, hut a doctor, come the multiplied fault-tindings, flatteries, threats, and reasonings of fathers and t, aeh- -rs. I',-- i- a sonablc enough not to reason with your pupil. Make him ; l>ody, his limhs, his senses, his faculties; hut keep his soul as inactive as possible ; let the character of childhood ripen in the child, lly such delay you LMIII tune to learn the gradually dev,|,.|nni; ,' \,,ur |upil. 1> fore \ ,.u un,l-r!ake to -;. it, and make pree ikes. Rousseau rightly opposes the unwise endeavor to give a child the \\ixlora of an adult, as early as possible; in preferring rather to !i nothing, than to use such inappropriate m in- Th, i- i-, however, a positive course of discipline of which Rousseau, as we shall see, knows nothing, and refuses to know any thing. ]'-. Education in the Country. It is difficult, almost impottsihlc, entire! the child against bad influ- ences ; but best in the country. The teacher : ih<- love of the neighborhood, and thus to secure its favorable influences upon his pupil. 1 I Judicial Instruction. It is unnatural to speak to children <>f tluir duties, ami nt of their rights; the Brat idea of right oomes to chiMnn. not from what they are bound to do, but from what others are bound to do for them The idea of property is firat communicated to children by some means more effectual than mere explanations. Nothing is said about love. 15. Moral and Religious Education. The teacher is to blame for all the lies of children. Why does he make so many promise*, and make so many impiine*. uh-n anything has happen If children are to be made tak.-n t ehun-h. where they get tired. Us making them ? , :min:ihle prayers, they are mad- to l,,n^ f>r the happiness ,.; .Sliced to pray to (iod any nior,-. To teaeh them nevolrnce. they are made to give alms; as if their teachers were ashamed to give them themselves. It is not the child, hut the te.ich.-r, who should j And u hat is the child made to give ? Moi: ue to him : or something which is always made up to him again. Locke's advice i*, so to ar- range matters that the "children shall observe, for themselves, that \\i<^< \\lio rlie hest. That is to educate, apparently to generosity, hut in to avarice. iily moral instruction proper for children is, to do nothing bad. To this end they must ho isolated as much as poss'il' the social state, the good of one is, by necessity, the evil ,.f another. ( Inldreii can not possibly become perverse, mean, false, and greedy, unless others have sown the seeds of these vices in their hearts. What a frightful load of sins against children does Rousseau pile upon the souls of all parents and U*a.-h.-r- IIMT. -1\ to liis ROUSH.U - I. Mil. I- 33 mistaken doctrine <>f tin; nun .-xi-ten.-e of original sin! After his sojhi>tu-:il fashion, he gives his assertion the appearance of truth, by a>>uming that the teacher proceeds entirely wrongly, or in a most tJOltt manner. 16. Forming Opinions about Children. Ri al weakness of intellect is difficult to distinguish from that apparent v . -ak- ness which indicates a powerful min.l. The really stupid child is until for any thing ; the appaivnily so. seems to be. Accordingly, do not form opinions about children t a> :\ ; let nature operate a long time before you venture to step into her place. The facility with which children learn is only apparent ; tin \ only re- tain words which they do not understand. Very true. 17. Conceptions. Ideas. Conceptions are only the absolute pictures of natural objects ; ideas are notions of such objects, determined by their relations. A conception may be entirely jJone in the mind ; but every id- a supposes other ideas. I'.y e.>n< .-riving, we see; by ideas, we compare. For mental impressions, we only hold ourselves passive; while, on th> contrary, our ideas spring from the active originating principle. the child arrives at his understanding, he receives only impressions, such as sounds, &c. ; he does not originate ideas in himself, and retain them. 11 > incapable of judgment, and has no real memory. 18. Words. Learning Language. The pedagogues teach children words, nothing but words, and no real knowl- edge. What has been said I do not believe ; that even one child, such as are called remarkable children, ever actually learned two languages, before his twelfth or fif- teenth y.-ar. For each language has its own peculiar spirit, and the thoughts iak.- th> color of the id t'ntil the child comes to its understanding, it has only its mother tongn- In ord.-r to be master of two languages, it must be able to compare ideas. Kut. it may b,- an-u. i.d. there hav.- 1..-, n children who have spoken fiv. languages. But how did they s|K-ak them.' the (i.rinan child, tor instance, speaks (i. rman-l r. nch. n-Italian ; so that, although its words \\ in. its language was. Id languages are dead. The imitation of what is found in the Latin classics, is called speaking Latin. Boys are made to translate French nto Latin nd att< i ward to patch together phrases from Cicero and verses from Vir- -:!. Th.-n tl>. t -a. -hers think their scholars can speak Latin ; and where are th people to contradict th. in .' The German boy, who speaks Latin, usually says something in German-Latin, <>r nothing, in Latin verses learned by rote. Comenius had already zealously opposed the teaching of mere \\Mi.K without any real basis; the continual employment of scholars in the world of conceptions, the world of language, without concern- ing themselves, in the least, with the original things. 19. Geographical Instruction. In any science, a knowledge of representations, without that of the things re- presented, is of no value. In the instruction of children, however, such repre- ss* -illations are adhered to. Thus, in geography, maps are shown, and the names of countries, places, &o., are taught, \\li.n. t'o'r the child, they only exist on the ographical manual began with the questions, " What is the world ?" An an- or'iven was: "A ball of pasteboard." A tier I wo years of the usual instruction in ir'sion made upon one sense by that upon another. Let the pupil measure, count, weigh, and compare. The Mind have the most acute touch ; seeing children could cultivate the same by practice and plays in the dark ; by which those fears which the activity of the imagination occasions in the dark, would be removed. The tips of the fingers should be fine skinned and susceptible ; many things can be known more clearly and certainly by the touch than by the eye. On the contrary the soles of the feet should be hardened by going barefoot. Rousseau is quite right in laying stress upon the training of the senses. But he does it in such a manner that he seems to be show- ing how to train a Carib child for the exact sciences of the French, or a French child for the life of a savage. Nothing is said of the edu- cation of the eyes for the beautiful ; as nothing is said anywhere of the beautiful, but only of the u>oful. 28. Sef.ing. Drawing and Geometry. The vision often errs by reason of its wide field of operations and the multitude of objects which it embraces ; whieh render it liable to hasty judgments. The illusions of perspective are indispensable for the measurement of distances ; without the gradations of size and light, we could measure no distances, or rather there would be none to us. If a large tree one hundred paces distant, seemed as large and distinct as another only ten paces distant, it would appear to us that they stood together. If two objects appeared to us of their actual size, we should have no knowledge of places. The size of the angle at the eye, at which we see objects, is determined by their size and distance. But how shall we distinguish, when one object appears small- er to us than another, whether this is by reason of its real size, or of its greater distance ? Children must be practiced in estimating sizes and distances, as architects, field surv.-yors. Are., are. Without feeling, without movement, with measuring, the best of eyes can L'ive us no idea of room. For the oyster, the universe is a point. With this exercise of children in estimating distances, is connected drawing,, which depends entirely upon the laws of perspective. They should not however [>ies, but should draw from nature; and in this it is of more importance that th^y see and understand coneetly, than that they should draw artistically. Geometry, like drawing, is for children an exercise of the eye, based upon see- 36 ROUSSEAU'S EM1LE. ing. Make correct figures, put them together, place one upon the other, aua prove their relations. By proceeding from observation to observation, you will go on through the whole of elementary geometry, without seeing any thing of defini- tions or problems, or of any other form of demonstration, except that of superim- position. Correctness in diagrams is usually neglected ; the figure is shown, and the demonstration given. But it would be of much more value to draw linfei as straight, correct, and similar as possible, and squares and circles as true as possible. In Turin, they gave a boy cakes of the same size, but of the most various shapes ; he tried every possible means to determine which form held the most. ' , Children's plays should exercise their eyes, and all their members. How much can be accomplished in this direction is shown by the feats of rope-dancers. Is there any children's diversion which the instructor can not make instructive to them? What Rousseau here says of teaching geometry is worthy of spe- cial consideration. From real pure geometrical drawings there are de- veloped true and pure geometrical ideas. 29. Hearing. Speaking and Singing. The child should compare such impressions on the sight and hearing as belong together ; as, for instance, that the lightning is seen before the thundar is heard. The voice, as an active organ, corresponds with the passive one of the hearing; and they assist each other. The pupil should speak in a plain manner. He should not be permitted to de- claim ; he should have too much sound sense to express, with tones and feelings which he has not, things which he does not understand. Teach him to speak dis- tinctly, without hesitation, without affectation, and loud enough to be understood ; teach him to sing correctly and in tune, but no operatic music ; train his ear for time and harmony. Rousseau's musical faculty made him forget his Iroquois ideal ; and he does not ask the question, what is the use of music ? 30. The Taste. In the beginning, that nourishment was most healthful for simple men which tasted best. In children this primitive taste should be preserved as much as pos- sible ; their food should be common and simple, not high seasoned ; flesh is im- proper for them. Of the proper food they should be permitted to eat as much as they wish. Eating is the passion of children. Therefore they should be managed iby means of their palate ; this natural and appropriate motive is far prefer- able to those of vanity. Love of eating will decrease and vanity will increase with years. 31. The Smell. This is related to the taste, as sight is to feeling. In children it is not very ao live. 32. The Common Sense. Formation of Ideas.* A sixth sense comes from a proper employment of the other senses; namely : *' the common sense." This is resident in the brain ; and its sensations are called perceptions, or ideas. (?) The number of 5 these ideas indicates the extent of our knowledge ; and the power of comparing them with each other is called human reason. The sensitive, or child's reason, forms simple ideas, by bringing together several impressions upon the senses ; the intellectual reason forms compound ideas from several simple ones. 33. Character of Emile, at Twelve Years Old. His exterior indicates self-possession and ease ; he speaks with simplicity, and .does not talk unnecessarily. His ideas are confined and clear; he knows nothing .by rote, but much by experience. If he does not read so well in books, he reads * Sec. 17, 42. ROUSSEAU'S EMILE. 37 better in the book of nature ; he has less memory than power of judgment; he speaks but one language, but understands what he says. If he does not speak so well as others, he is much more capable of doing. He knows nothing of routine, custom, or habit ; and what he did yesterday does not indicate what he will do to- day. Neither authority nor example impose upon him 5 he does and says only what seems good to him. He knows nothing of study, speech, or manners ; but his language corresponds with his ideas, and his behavior arises from his wishes. He has few moral ideas, but they are such as correspond to his age. Speak to- him of duty or obedience, he does not know what you mean ; order him, he doe not understand you ; but say to him, if you will do this to please me, I will some- time do something to please you, and he will instantly exert himself to comply with your wish ; for nothing will please him more than to add to his legitimate influence over you, which he holds inviolable. If he needs help himself, he makes use of the first that comes to hand, whether it be a king or a servant ; for all men are alike to his sight. He shows to him. whom he asks, that he does not consider any one bound to grant his request. He is simple and laconic in his expressions, and neither servile nor arrogant. Grant his request, and he does not thank you, but feels that he is your debtor , refuse it, and he does not complain nor urge you, but lets the matter drop. Lively, active, he undertakes nothing too great for his powers, but which he has tried and understands. He has an observing and intelligent eye ; and asks no useless questions about what he sees, but examines it himself. As his imagination is yet inactive, and nothing has been done to stimulate it, he sees only what really exists, does not over-estimate danger, and is always cool. Business and play are the same to him, his play is his business ; he finds no difference between them. Among city children, there is none more dexterous than he, and all are weaker; he is equal to country children in strength, and surpasses them in dexterity. He is fit to lead his companions, by -his talent and experience, without any other authority, without wishing to command ; he is at the head of the rest, and they obey him without knowing it. He is a mature child, and has lived a child's life ; his happiness has not been exchanged for his education. If he dies young, his death is to be mourned, but not his life. Ordinary men would not understand a boy so trained ; they would see in him nothing but a scapegrace. A teacher could make no parade with him, could ask him no show questions ; and those are the chief of the education of the day. A healthy, strong, dexterous, corporeally well-trained boy, systematic- ally educated, for a purely earthly existence, and for cold independ- ence ; a Frenchified Carib, or Caribized French boy, without fancy, poetry, love, or God. THIRD BOOK. EMILE, FROM HIB TWELFTH TO HIS FIFTEENTH YEAR. 34. Desire of Knowledge. Methods. Regard for Authority. Curiosity will now begin to operate, and will henceforth stimulate the boy. With natural curiosity is connected the vain endeavor to appear learned. Im- pressions upon the senses must be developed into ideas ; only, we should not pass too suddenly from material to intellectual objects. The world and things in books must be the teachers ; mere words should not be learned. The pupil knows nothing because you have said it to him, but because he has comprehended it ; he does not learn his acquirements ; he discovers them. If once you give him authority, instead of reason, he will no longer think for him- self, but wi'll be the sport of strange opinions. One extreme introduces another. Because earlier, ignorant, and harsh teachers treated boys like empty vessels, which they were to fill up with Latin vocables, geometrical demonstrations, &c., therefore, according to Rousseau, now they must find out every thing for them selves ; because earlier tyrannical teachers based every thing on author- 38 ROUSSEAU'S EMLLE. ity maintained by force, now all at once there is to be no authority at all. From the pedagogical age of Louis XIV., we are to be trans- ferred at once into the age of the revolution. Woe to the boy to whom no authority is sacred ; who is destitute of all reverence and love toward his parents and teachers. 35. Rudiments of Astronomy. A beautiful sunrise. - The teacher is in an ecstacy ; but the boy of thirteen is not yet ready to take pleasure in a beautiful spring morning. It would be foolish for the teacher to take pains to talk the pupil into his own enthusiasm. No writings are proper for a boy, no eloquence or poetry ; he has no business with feeling or taste. Be to him clear, simple, and cold ; direct his attention to the places of the rising and the setting of the sun, and let him wonder how it gets back from the west to the east. The observation that it passes from the east to west every day will suggest an answer. Again, draw his attention to the change of the place of sunrise and sunset at different seasons of the year. All this must be done without any armillary sphere ; its circles confuse the pupil. Either, according to Rousseau, we must boil over with pseudo- poetry, at a beautiful sunrise, or as he recommends before the boy of twelve freeze with astronomical observations. Is there no medium ? 36. Rudiments of Geography and Physics. Methods. Geographical instruction should begin with the house and place of abode. The pupil should draw maps of the neighborhood, to learn how they are made, and what they show. It is of less importance to teach the boy sciences, than to give him a taste for them, and methods for learning them when that taste shall have been more de- veloped. At this age, also, he should be taught to follow up one subject with persevering attention, but yet not to weariness. If he asks questions for his own information, answer him just so much as is necessary, in order to stimulate his curiosity ; but do not let him weary you with endless silly questions. Philosophy developes the sciences from their principles ; but instruction does not. In this, each subject explains and introduces another, and thus curiosity keeps alive the attention. If the pupil has found out the noon-mark, by a shadow, and drawn it, show him that the compass will give him the same line. Instruction in physics should begin with the simplest experiments, not with instruments. These must follow after such experiments ; and, though ever so imperfect, should be constructed by the teacher and the pupil, themselves. By such independent efforts are attained ideas of greater clearness and certainty. The numerous instruments which have been invented to guide us in experiments, and to make up for the defective accuracy of the senses, are the reason why the senses are less used. The more perfect our tools are, the more blunt and in- efficient will our organs become. Purely speculative knowledge is not for children ; not even when they approach the age of youth. Yet it must be contrived that their experiments shall form a chain, by the aid of which they may be better retained in the memory ; for facts and demonstrations entirely isolated do not remain there. In investigating nature's laws, begin always with thp more common and obvious phenomenon. This is a most valuable observation upon elementary instruction in the natural sciences. Comenius already, and Pestalozzi afterward, commenced the study of Geography with the immediate neighborhood. Any bright boy will, however, make himself acquainted with it, if he is permitted, without taking wearisome topographical walks with his ROUSSEAU'S EMILE. 39 teacher. Nothing should be taught which the boy will freely learn himself, without any assistance. Rousseau's tutor, always teaching the boys something in every trip, and even in every game, would necessarily become intolerable to them. 37. No Authority. The boy should do nothing at the word ; nothing is good to him except what he himself recognizes &s good. By your wisdom you rob him of his mother- wit ; he becomes accustomed always to be led, and to be only a machine in the hands of others. To require obedience of the child, means to require that, when grown up, he shall be credulous ; shall be made a fool of. It is of no use to say to the boy that he is ordered for his own good, and that, when he is grown up, he will see it. To do so is to play into the hands of every visionary charlatan and impostor, who shall in after life desire to entangle the boy in his nets.* 38. Against premature Learning. " What is the Use ?" The child should learn what is necessary for his own age ; and not, premature- ly, what will be necessary in after years. But, you say, can what is necessary be learned, at the moment when it is to be applied ? I answer, I know not ; but this I know, that it can not be learned before ; for our real teachers are experience and feeling ; we only learn what is right in the experiences of actual life. When we have given the pupil the idea of usefulness, we have thus a new mode of guiding him ; he sees that this word is related to his present well-being. " What is the use of it?" is the sacred question, the word which must decide every thing be- tween the teacher and the scholar ; it is the question with which the former can answer the host of useless questions of the latter, and which he again can, upon occasion, put to the teacher. There are harmful anticipations in learning, but there are also necessary ones. Seeds may be planted in the child's mind which shall sleep for years as if dead, but which shall spring into life at the right moment. Old men encourage themselves, in the hour of death, with verses from the funeral hymns which they learned when chil- dren. 39. Strengthening the Weak. Laconicism. Vanity as a, Motive. Who is the teacher who can confess to the scholar that he has erred ? If the teacher has no answer at hand to the scholar's question, he should say so without more ado. Above all, avoid tedious explanations, which are often made by teachers, only with a view to show themselves off to visitors who may be present. Adhere to facts. We lay too much stress upon words ; and our talking educa- tion trains up talkers. A boy who is lost will find out better how to set himself right by the sun, than he would by a long demonstration. Wherever possible, teach by things themselves. What the boy learns only through an appeal to his vanity, he had better not learn at all. Very true. 40. Books. Robinson Crusoe. Workshops. From books men learn to talk about what they do not understand. But there is one book which may be considered as a most valuable treatise upon natural educa- tion ; a book which might, for a long time, constitute the entire library of the pu- pil ; namely, Robinson Crusoe. Robinson, alone upon an island, obliged himself to make every thing necessary to him, becomes the boy's ideal ; he will ask only for what would be necessary for him upon a Robinson's island. The teacher should frequent workshops, with his pupil, and should permit him to take hold of the work himself ; and by this means he will learn to understand See 34. 10 ROUSSEAU'S EMILE. them better th;in by many explanations, lie will learn at tin- saint- time to value- more highly really useful artisans, than the so-called artists, who are so much esteemed by the world. He will esteem more highly a locksmith than a gold- smith ; engravers and gilders will be, in his eyes, only idlers, busy in us.-l.-ss amus, -ments ; even watehmakers will be of small aeeount with him. He will re- speet all human labor, and in like manner all produetions of nature, in proportion as they Contribute more to his necessities, his knowledge, and his comfort. Ik- will value iron more highly than gold, glass than diamonds. It is not meant that the pupil should beeome aet|uaintetl with everv trade, but only that he should know the most necessary ones, and their COIIIH etion with eaeh other. Here it appears more clearly what Rousseau means by his ques- tion, What is the use ? He barbarously only values what is necessary for human subsistence, to a life as nearly as possible to that of a beast. Watchmakers would be of but little account with him ; he does not even mention the higher arts, the fine arts, so useless do they seem to him. 11. Equality. Revolution. Learning and Trade. Your education of men should be adapted to what they are in themselves; not to any thing external. By training him exclusively for one condition, you make him until for any other, and unfortunate, if his situation should ever change. How ridiculous is a great lord who has become a beggar, and who holds in his the prejudices of his birth; how contemptible the rieh man become poor, who fools himself completely degraded! You acquiesce in the social order of the present, without considering that this order is subject to unavoidable changes ; and that it is impossible for you to fore- see or to prevent the revolution which may come upon your children. The great will become small, the rich poor, the monarch a subject. We are approaching a crisis; the e.-ntury of revolutions. It is impossible that the great mna]. Europe can last long. And who can say what shall then happen to you? What men have made, men can destroy; only the character given by nature is inl -s- tructible; and nature makes neither princes, nor rich men, nor great lords. What will the satrap do in his debasement, who has been educated only for his high po- sition ? What will the farmer- general do. in his [Miverty, who lives only UJMHI his money ? Happy will he be, then, who shall understand how to leave the condition which has left him, and to remain a man in spite of fate. The cultivation of the earth is the best of all employments ; yet. when evil times come, the artisan is more independent. Make your son, therefore, learn some respectable trade, the carpenter's for example. This will also serve to cure him of the prejudices against trades. Only beware of nourishing one vanity while you are exerting yourself to oppose another. The great secret of education is, to manage it so that the training of the mind and body shall serve to assist each other. Here Rousseau foretells the revolution almost thirty years before its coming. As a great architect outlines the church whose form stands before his mind, before even the corner-stone is laid, so the great master of destruction draws the picture of horrors and dissolution before the soul, before the multitude taught by him put hand to the work. 42. Impressions upon the Senses. Ideas. Opinions* Aft.-r the body and senses of the pupil have first been educated, we should tram his understanding and his judgment. lastly, we should teach him to u< iv.'ptioii. or the idea, it is active, placing together, comparing and determin- ing relations which the senses do not determine. The judgment leads to error, particularly in the case of learned men, whose vain til-sire to shine by giving opinions outruns their knowledge. Ignorance, wh'ch says " What have I to do with it?" is the only safety from error. Thus speak savages and wise men. Our pupil must not speak so; lie is a savage, but destined to live in cities. We learn best to judge by laboring to simplify our experience, and, having acquired experience, by seeking rather to avoid error than a positive knowledge of the truth ; and by rather confessing ignorance, than by endeavoring to explain any thing insufficiently. 43. Emilc in his Fifteenth Year. Being obliged to learn by means of himself, he uses his own understanding r not that of other men ; and yields nothing to authority. For most of our errors come less from ourselves than from others. By this continual practice, his mind has acquired a strength like that which is given to the body by labor and hard- ship. For the same reason his powers develop themselves only in proportion to- his growth. He remembers only what has commended itself to his understand- ing. Thus he has little knowledge, but no half-knowledge. He knows that his knowledge is not i;r-at ; his mind is open, decided, and, if not instructed, at least capable of instruction. Of all that he does he knows the use, and of all he be- lii-vt-s, the reason. He proceeds slowly, but thoroughly. He possesses only natural knowledge ; none of history, and none of mathematics and ethics. He knows little of generalizing and forming abstractions ; he observes properties common to many bodies, without reasoning upon the existence of these properties. What is strange to him he values only by its relations to himself, but this valua- tion is sufficient and certain. What is most useful to him he values most, and- cares nothing for opinion. Emile is laborious, moderate, patient, persevering, and courageous. His thn< y, not heated in any way, never magnifies danger ; he can endure sorrow with forti- tude, for he has not been trained to oppose himself to fate. What death is, he does not rightly know, but, being a accustomed to submit without resistance to the laws of necessity, he will die, when he must, without sighing and without pre- tense. Nature does not require more of us, in that moment, so abhbrred by all. To live free, to set the heart as little as possible upon human things, is the surest means of learning to di< -. Emile is destitute of the social virtues. He acts without respect to others ; and it is right in his eyes that others should have no regard to him. He makes DO demands upon others, he thinks himself under no obligation to any one. Stand- ing alone in society, he counts only upon himself, and is capable of more than others at his age. He has no errors or vices, except such as are unavoidable. His body is healthy, his members are disciplined, his understanding correct and without prejudices, his heart free and without passions. Self-esteem, first and most natural of all the passions, has scarcely awakened in him. Without des- troying the peace of any one, he has lived as peacefully, happily, and freely a* nature will permit. Do you find that the child, thus educated to his fifteenth year, has wasted his earliest years? Rousseau asks this question as if he were sure of his answer. What I have already said of Emile at twelve is still truer of him at fifteen. We freeze at the character of the cold boy, who has by the skill of his tutor been brought to such an independence that he ask& neither about God or man, feels no need of love, has no feeling for 42 ROUSSEAU'S EMILE. poetry. A superficial understanding of the material world, and the bodily activity of a savage, are the highest of his attainments. A real ethical idea is out of the question, where love, the heart of all the virtues, is wanting. Only the earthly being is considered ; death brings this pedagogical masterpiece to an end ; and Emile endures this with the resignation of a wild beast. FOURTH BOOK. EMILE FROM HIS FIFTEENTH YEAR TO HIS MARRIAGE. 44. Puberty. Selfishness. Self-esteem. Innocence. The age of puberty now comes, and with it spring up passions whose source is selfishness. This impels every one to care for his own profit. What is useful to us we seek for that reason ; what desires to serve us, we love ; what hurts us we flee from ; and what seeks to harm us, we hate. A child is benevolent at first, because all who are around him wait on him. But, as the circle of his ac- quaintance enlarges, the feeling of his relations to others grows up, he compares himself with them, and his selfishness changes into self-esteem, which lifts him above others, and requires them to hold him higher than themselves. Heat and anger spring from self-esteem. It is true that children, since they can never live alone, can live together only with difficulty. From selfishness, changed into self-esteem, comes, in simple souls, vanity, and in great ones, pride; which spring in the hearts of children only by our fault, and in our pupils even against our will. The age of puberty is unnaturally hastened ; it should be delayed as long as possible. In regard to the relations of the sexes, lies should not be told to chil- dren, but care should be taken not to awaken their curiosity upon such subjects; silence should be observed in regard to them ; but what can not be hidden from them should be told them. A child who is not born with a bad nature, and who has kept his innocence to his twentieth year, is at this age the most magnanimous, best, most loving and lov- able of men. If you have never heard of this, I can easily believe it ; your phi- losophers, bred up in the deepest depravity of the schools, could not know it. Emile is now coining into the years when increasing freedom de- velopes his sinful tendencies more freely ; and the fig leaves of Rous- seau's sophistry are less and less able to cover them. Still he ad- heres to his principle, that every thing wicked comes, not from the heart, but into the head from others. 45. Happiness. Love. Sympathy. Gratitude. There now follow directions for ethical education ; for example, the pupil is to be taught not to take apparent happiness for real and de- sirable happiness, and not phrases of hypocritical pretenses of love and sympathy, but to exercise real sympathy. Ingratitude is not natural to men, but is caused by such benefactors as seek their own advantage. 46. Knowledge of Men. As self-esteem grows in Emile, he compares himself with his equals and en- deavors to hold the highest place among thorn. Now is the time to instruct him in the social relations, and in the natural and civic inequality of men. He should know men in and under the masks of society, should mourn over them, but not learn to aid them. Emile knows that men are by nature good, but understands that they have become bad and depraved by means of society ; in their prejudices he sees the source of all their vices ; and feels himself impelled to value each single one of them, but to despise them collectively. ROUSSEAU'S EMILE. 40 47. The Study of History. It is now time to introduce Emile to history. Unfortunately, historical writers relate only bad things, and the good remain unknown ; they misrepresent facts, do not follow the connection of cause and effect, and give their own judgments instead of leaving this to the reader. Away with the modern historians ! Their works have no character ; and they look upon all the men of the present day as exactly alike. Especially useless are the systematic historians who will not see things as they are, but only as they fit into their system. Others exhibit men only as they appear in the state; and not at all as they appear at home. Of all the ancient historians, Plutarch is far the best for youth, in particular because he does not despise relating the apparently trifling traits of eminent men. 48. Emile upon the Theatre of the World. Presumption. Emile now for the first time appears upon the theatre of the world 5 or rather he stands behind the scenes, sees the players dress and undress themselves; and by what coarse means the spectators are deceived. It will elevate him to see how the human race makes sport of itself. Educated in entire freedom, he will sorrow over the misery of kings, those slaves of all those who obey them ; false wise men, in the chains of their vain honors; rich fools, the martyrs to their own luxury. He will be in danger of thinking himself wise, and all others fools ; and only mortifying experience can protect him from such vanity. Pedagogy disappears more and more. The natural man, Emile, turns into the revolutionary misanthrope ; he is Rousseau himself, un- der the name of Emile. 49. Emile a Natural Man. I shall be thought a visionary, and Emile a phantasy, because he is so different from ordinary youths. It is overlooked that he is a natural man, but that other youths are brought up according to the notions of men. Others, at Emile's age, are already philosophers and theologians ; while he does not know yet what philosophy is, and even has not yet heard God spoken of. I am no visionary ; my pedagogy is based upon experience ; since without regard to rank, nation, &c., I have found what is proper to all men, and have educated Emile according to that; not as a savage for the woods, but as a man who will have to maintain himself independent in the whirlpool of society. 50. Religious Instruction. We are brought up in close connection with the natural world; and for the abstract, the purely intellectual, we have scarcely any comprehension. God with- draws our senses from themselves; the word mind has a meaning only for the philosophers. Monotheism has come, by a process of generalization, from ma- terial polytheism. In his fifteenth year, Emile does not yet know that he has a soul ; and perhaps he will find it out too early in his eighteenth. After this follows an argument against catechetical instruction. The faith of children and of many grown persons is a matter of geography ; it depends merely upon whether they were born in Rome or in Mecca. Does salvation depend upon that ? A child, it is said, must be brought up in the religion of his father ; and he must be taught that this alone is true ; and that others are absurd. But if the power of this instruction extends only so far as the country in which it is given, and depends only upon authority, for which Emile has been taught to have no regard, what then? In what religion shall we educate him? To this there is only the simple answer, in none; we will only put him in a condition to choose for himself, that to which the best use of his own reason may bring him. 44 ROUSSEAU'S EMILE. In this connection, we will introduce an extract from one of the numerous episodes with which the book abounds, that of the Profes- sion of Faith of a Savoyard Curate, in which a comparison is made between Christ and Socrates : I confess to you that the majesty of the whole Scriptures puts me in astonish- ment. The sanctity of Gospel speaks to my heart. By its side, how little do the books of the philosophers appear, with all tlu-ir magnificence! And is it possible that a book at once so lofty ami simple- ean be the work of man? Is it possible that he, whose history is contained in it. was only a man ? Are his words those of an enthusiast, or of the ambitious founder of a sect? What mildness, what purity in his morals! What elevation in his maxims! What profound wisdom in his language ! What presence of mind, acuteness. and pertinence in his answers! What command of his passions! Where shall we find a man, a wise man even, who has known how to act, to suffer, ami to die, without weaki ostentation.' When Plato paints his ideal of an upright man, who is eovered with all th shame of guilt, and who deserves praise for every virtue, he draws Jesus. Christ, line for line : the similarity is so striking that all the fathers of the church have observed it What prejudice, what blindness is it to compare the son of Sophroniscus with the son off Mary! How wide a difference is there between them! Socrates, dying without pain, without disgrace, bore his part, without difficulty, to his death ; and if this easy death had not given honor to his life, we might doubt whether, with all his intellect, he was any thing more than a sophist. It is said that hi* founded morals. Others had practiced morals, and his teachings, were based upon their examples. Aristides was just before Socrates defined : Leonidas died for his country, before Socrates defined patriotism to be a duty. IJefoiv he defined virtu-, (ir-cce had had a multitude of virtuous men. But where had Jesus found, among his own people, that lofty and pure morality which he alone practiced and taught ? From the bosom of the most raging fanati- cism was this highest of all wisdom developed ; and the simplicity of the most heroic virtue reflected honor upon the m..>t despised of all nations. The death of Socrates, who died peacefully philosophizing among his friends, is the easiest which could be desired; but that of Christ, in tortures, reviled, despised, accursed by a whole people, is the most terrible and fearful. Socrates, as he look the rup of poison, blessed the weeping man who handed it to him ; Jesus, amidst t In- most horrible torture's, prayed for his enraged and hostile executioners. If the life and death of Socrates were those of a wise man, the life ancT death of Christ were those of a God. Shall we say that the history of evangelists is an arbitrary invention ? No, it is not so ; the actions of Socrates, of which no one doubts, are less authentic than those of Christ. If this extract were to be taken, apart from its connection, it could only be believed that one who loved and reverenced Christ from his heart, could lm\v written it. But before and after this passage stands the most wanton mockery of Christianity, the very passages which subjected him and his book to the condemnation of the Parliament of Paris, which, on the 9th of June, 1762, sentenced the book to be torn to pieces and burned, the author to be imprisoned, and his property to be confiscated. The same fate awaited it in Geneva. In his fifth book, he describes Sophie, as the model of a maiden. The tutor contrives the marriage of Emile and Sophie. When Einile becomes a father, he dismisses the tutor with the words, " God forbid that I should permit you to educate my son after you have educated his father ; that a duty so holy and sweet should be performed 'bv any other than myself." KOUrWBAlTS EMII.E 45 Locke says, in his pedagogical work, " When my pupil is at an age to marry, it is time to leave him to himself." "As for me," says Rousseau, "I should beware how I imitated Locke in this." So Einile is unnaturally betutored until he becomes a father. The mar- riage thus planned and brought about by the tutor has a miserable end. Sophie is untrue to Emile, who gives himself up to despair, and at last falls into slavery in Algiers.* According to Locke's recommendation I break off here, and the more willingly as the digressions become more and more numerous in the fourth book even, and the pedagogical design is more and more lost sight of.f The sketch which I have given of Emile will be made clearer by regarding it as a book at once instructive and corrupting. Sur- rounded by civilization, overwhelmed with corruption, the misanthrope fell upon many instructive notions, by merely reversing what was generally received. But hate will not bring truth into existence, even from the basis of the deepest degradation of a people. It is only love which can do this ; it is love alone which can cure it. Rousseau is corrupting, because he mingles truth and falsehood, good and evil, in the most cunning manner; so that good and bad are to be dis- tinguished only by an exceedingly watchful and critical reader. I close with repeating my wish, that the preceding sketch, and the subjoined remarks, may assist the reader in such a critical separation. ROUSSEAU AND FEBTALOZZI. A comparison between the two men repeatedly suggests itself. How noble, pure, and true is PestalozzPs letterj to Anna Schulthess, and how completely is it the opposite of Rousseau's understanding with Therese Levasseur ! In 1819, I published a dialogue entitled "The Progressives," (Die >r.) This also ended with a comparison of the French Swiss and the German Swiss. One of the speakers in this says : " Do not take me for so bigoted an admirer and repeater of Rousseau, as to have hoped for every tiling good from him. Nothing is further from the truth. I can not, however, but wonder at him, when I compare him with his French and European cotemporaries, to observe how in him the force of na- ture, which had been choked by an elaborately unnatural system, burst forth, ami awakened the degraded conscience of the day. In *In a fragment entitled '-Emile et Sophie on lea solitaires," this is related by Rousseau, who intends thus to show how a man educated upon his principles will remain unconquered in rhe most miserable condition. 1 There are, however, some valuable remarks in this book ; as upon the chastity of the Bible language, and unchastity of French ; upon the extravagant life of power, vanity, Ac. I Life of Pestalozzi. Am. Jour, of Ed. Vol. III., p 407. 46 ROUSSEAU'S EMILE. him, that age confessed itself; as a worn out and repentant harlot washes off her paint, lays aside her false hair, and shudderingly looks upon her naked hideousness in the glass. In full consciousness of his errors and sins, he stands burdened with the curse of the age r and powerless to renew his life in freshness and holiness." From the blinding fiery column of the French volcano, which served the German mariners as a beacon, but devastated its own country, we gladly turn to the mild star which rose over Germany, of Pestalozzi. Despairing misanthropy inspired Rousseau, and, in truth, such an age, and in such circumstances, he was little blamable for it. His leading idea was, that if he rejected every thing received by his age, and adopted its opposite, he would reach the truth. And so evil were the times, that, by following this malevolent impulse, he produced many excellent ideas. Pestalozzi, however, was inspired by love of humanity, and by a desire to benefit the poor ; not by a war with the rich, but by educa- ting them. And, although he unostentatiously turned away from the overrefinement of his age, and, in evangelical imitation of Christ, went to the neglected poor, yet God blessed the purity of his aspira- tions, and granted him more than he asked ; the joyful expectation of a great future, and to plant, by his writings and his wisdom, the of never-ending development. p w mm THE LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. BY GAEL VON RAUMER,* JOHN HENRF PESTALOZZI was born at Zurich on the 12th of Jan- uary, 1746. His father was a medical practitioner; his mother, whose maiden name was Hotze, was a native of Wadenschwyl on the Lake of Zurich, and first cousin to the Austrian general Hotze, who fell at Schannis in 1799. The father died prematurely, when Pestalozzi was only six years old ; from this time forward, therefore, " every thing was wanting, in the influences around him, which a manly education of the facul- ties so urgently requires at that age." " I was brought up," he re- lates, " by the hand of the best of mothers like a spoilt darling, such that you will not easily find a greater. From one year to another I never left the domestic hearth ; in short, all the essential means and inducements to the development of manly vigor, manly experience, manly ways of thinking, and manly exercises, were just as much wanting to me, as, from the peculiarity and weakness of my temper- ament, I especially needed them." This peculiarity, according to Pestalozzi's own statement, was, that with the most sensitive feelings and the liveliest imagination, he was deficient in the power of sustained attention, in reflection, circum- spection, and foresight. His mother devoted herself wholly to the education of her three children, in which she was assisted by a faithful servant girl from the country, of the name of Babeli. Pestalozzi's father, on his death- bed, sent for this girl. "Babeli," said he, "for the sake of God and inc.Mw, do not leave my wife; when I am dead, she will be forlorn, and my children will fall into strange and cruel hands." " I will not leave your wife when you die," replied Babeli ; "I will remain with her till death, if she has need of me." Her words pacified the dying father; she kept her promise, and remained till her death with the * Iu this article we follow literally, but with occasional abridgments, the translation of Prof. J. Tilleard. originally published in the Educational Expositor for 18"vM. and afterward co.iected in a volume of 80 pages, by Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans ; London . 50 11FE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZ1. mother. " Her great fidelity," Festalozzi says, " was the result of her strong, simple, and pious faith." As the mother was in very straitened circumstances, Babeli economized wherever she could ; she even restrained the children when they wanted to go into the street, or to any place where they had no business to go, with the words,, " why will you needlessly wear out your shoes and clothes ? See how much your mother denies herself, in order to be able to give you an education ; how for weeks and months together she never goes out any where, but saves every farthing for your schooling.'^ Nevertheless, the mother was liberal in those expenses which respect ability requires, nor did she let the children be without handsome Sunday clothes. These, however, they were allowed to wear but seldom, and they had to take them off again as soon as they came home. "I saw the world," says Pestalozzi, "only within the narrow limits of my mother's parlor, and within the equally narrow limits of my school-room ; to real human life I was almost as great a stranger, as if I did not live in the world in which I dwelt." Pestalozzi's grandfather on the mother's side was minister at Hongg,, a village three miles from Zurich. With him Pestalozzi spent several months every year, from the time when he was nine years old. The old man conscientiously cared for the souls of his flock, and thereby exercised a great influence upon the village school; his piety made a deep and lasting impression on his grandson. Of his early school days, Pestalozzi relates the following : "In all boys' games, I was the most clumsy and helpless among all my school fellows, and nevertheless, in a certain way, I always wanted to excel the others. This caused some of them very fre- quently to pass their jokes upon me. One of them gave me the nickname l Harry Whimsical of Foolstown.' Most of them, however, liked my good natured and obliging disposition; though they knew my general clumsiness and awkwardness, as well as my carelessness and thoughtlessness in everything that did not particularly interest me. "Accordingly, although one of the best pupils, I nevertheless- ' committed, with incomprehensible thoughtlessness, faults of which not even the worst of them was ever guilty. While I generally seized with quickness and accuracy upon the essential matter of the subjects of instruction, I was generally very indifferent and thought- less as to the forms in which it was given. At the same time that I was far behind my fellow scholars in some parts of a subject, in other parts of the same subject I often surpassed them in an unusual. LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. j degree. This is so true, that once, when one of my professors, who had a very good knowledge of Greek, but not the least eloquence of tyle, translated and published some orations of Demosthenes, I had the boldness, with the limited school rudiments which I then possessed, to translate one of these orations myself, and to give it in, at the examination, as a specimen of my progress in this branch of study. A portion of this translation was printed in the Linden Journal, in connection with an article entitled 'Agis.' Just in the same manner as I made incomparably more progress in certain parts of my subjects of instruction than in others, so generally it was of far more import- ance to me to be sensibly affected by, (I dare not say to understand thoroughly,) the branches of knowledge which I was to learn, than to exercise myself in the means of practicing them. At the same time, the wish to be acquainted with some branches of knowledge that took hold on my heart and my imagination, even though I neg- lected the means of acquiring them, was nevertheless enthusiastically- alive within me ; and unfortunately, the tone of public instruction in\ my native town at this period was in a high degree calculated to fos- ter this visionary fancy of taking an active interest in, and believing one's self capable of, the practice of things in which one had by no means had sufficient exercise, and this fancy was very prevalent among the youth of my native town generally." What a foreshad- owing is Pestalozzi's childhood of the whole of his subsequent career i Among Pestalozzi's teachers, there were three who exercised an in- fluence upon him in his youth, Bodmer, Breitinger, and Stein brii- chel. Bodmer was Professor of History from 1725 to 1775 ; he is known by his literary controversies with Gottsched and Lessing, his edition of the Minniesingers, and his epic poem upon the Deluge. Breitinger, Professor of Greek and Hebrew from 1731 to 1776, edi- ted the Septuagint. Steinbruchel is described as a witty and learned man, but very much inclined to infidel "illumination." "Indepen- dence, freedom, beneficence, self-sacrifice, and patriotism, were the watchwords of our public education," says Pestalozzi. "But the means of attaining all this which was particularly commended to us mental distinction was left without solid and sufficient training of the practical ability which is its essential condition. We were taught, in a visionary manner, to seek for independence in an abstract acquaintance with truth, without being made to feel strongly what was essentially necessary to the security both of our inward and of our outward domestic and civil independence. The tone of the in- struction which we received, led us, with much vivacity and many attractive representations, to be so short-sighted and inconsiderate as, 52 I-'FE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. to set little value upon, and almost to despise, the external means of wealth, honor, and consideration. This was carried to such a length, that we imagined, while we were yet in the condition of boys, that, by a superficial school acquaintance with the great civil life of Greece and Rome, we could eminently prepare ourselves for the little civil life in one of the Swiss cantons." Pestalozzi further relates, that the appearance of the writings of Rousseau was a great means of keeping alive the errors into which the noble flight of true and patriotic sentiment had led the more dis- tinguished of the young Swiss. ''They had run," he says, "into one- sided, rash, and confused notions, into which Voltaire's seductive infidelity, being opposed to the pure holiness of religion, and to its simplicity and innocence, had helped to lead them. Out of all this," he tells us, " a new tendency was produced, which was totally incon- sistent with the real welfare of our native town, constituted as it was according to the old-fashioned style of the imperial free cities, which was neither calculated to preserve what was good in the old institu- tions, nor to introduce any that were substantially better." At this time, Pestalozzi's contemporary, Lavater, founded a league which Pestalozzi joined, being then a lad of fifteen. The young men who formed this league, with Lavater at their head, brought a public charge of injustice against Grebel, the governor of the canton, im- peached the character of Brunner, the mayor of Zurich, and declared war against unworthy ministers of religion. " The moment Rousseau's Emile appeared," says Pestalozzi, " my visionary and highly speculative mind was enthusiastically seized by this visionary and highly speculative book. I compared the educa- tion which I enjoyed in the corner of my mother's parlor, and also in the school which I frequented, with what Rousseau demanded for the education of his Emilus. The home as well as the public education of the whole world, and of all ranks of society, appeared to me alto- gether as a crippled thing, which was to find a universal remedy for its present pitiful condition in Rousseau's lofty ideas. " The ideal system of liberty, also, to which Rousseau imparted fresh animation, increased in me the visionary desire for a more ex- tended sphere of activity, in which I might promote the welfare and happiness of the people. Juvenile ideas as to what it was necessary and possible to do in this respect in my native town, induced me to abandon the clerical profession, to which I had formerly leaned, and for which I had been destined, and caused the thought to spring up within me, that it might be possible, by the study of the law, to find a career that would be likely to procure for me, sooner or later, the LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZ! 53 opportunity and means of exercising an active influence on the civil condition of my native town, and even of my native land." There was at this time a great controversy in the canton of Zurich, particularly between the town and the country. Pestalozzi had already as a boy, when living with his grandfather, the village pastor, won the affection of the people of the country, and might early have heard the complaint of the country clergy, omne malum ex urbe, 'all harm comes from the town." A fierce hatred toward the aris- tocracy who oppressed the country people was kindled in his young heart, and even in old age it was not altogether extinguished. This warmth of anger coexisted in him with great warmth of love for the people ; Gothe's saying " Youth's wings should trim themselves for flight Ere youthful strength be gone, Thro' hate of wrong and love of right To bear him bravely on " characterizes not only the young Pestalozzi, but also the old man ; it characterizes most of his writings. He was seconded at this time by a friend of the name of Blunt- schli, but a pulmonary complaint laid this young man upon his death- bed. He sent for Pestalozzi, and said to him, " I die, and when you are left to yourself, you must not plunge into any Career which from your good natured and confiding disposition, might become danger- ous to you. Seek for a quiet, tranquil career ; and unless you have at your side a man who will faithfully assist you with a calm, dispas- sionate knowledge of men and things, by no means embark in any extensive undertaking whose failure would in any way be perilous to you." An opinion of Pestalozzi's character which was strikingly confirmed by almost every subsequent event of his life. Soon after his friend's death, Pestalozzi himself became danger- ously ill, probably in consequence of his overstrained exertion in the pursuit of his legal and historical studies. His physicians advised him to give up scientific pursuits for a time, and to recreate himself in the country. This advice, \vliirh was strengthened by Rousseau's anti- scientific diatribes, Pestalozzi followed too faithfully. He renounced the study of books, burnt his manuscripts, went to his maternal rela- tion, Dr. Ilotze at Richterswyl, and from thence to Kirchberg, in the canton of Bern, to TschifTeli, a farmer of considerable reputation. From him Pestalozzi sought advice as to how he might best realize his plans for the country people. "I had come to him," says Pestal- ozzi, " a political visionary, though with many profound and correct attainments, views, and prospects in political matters ; and I went ,54 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. away from him just as great an agricultural visionary, though with many enlarged and correct ideas and intentions in regard to agricul- ture. My stay with him only had this effect that the gigantic views in relation to my exertions were awakened within me afresh by his agricultural plans, which, though difficult of execution, and in part impracticable, were bold and extensive ; and that, at the same time, they caused me, in my thoughtlessness as to the means of car- rying them out, to fall into a callousness, the consequences of which contributed in a decisive manner to the pecuniary embarrassment into which I was plunged in the very first years of my rural life." Tschiffeli's plantations of madder were exciting great attention at that time, and induced Pestalozzi to make a similar experiment. He iearnt that near the village of Birr there was a large tract of barren 2halky heath-land to be sold, which was only used for a sheep-walk. 3e joined a rich mercantile firm in Zurich, and bought about 100 acres of this land, at the nominal price of ten florins. A builder erected for him, on the land he had purchased, a dwelling house in the Italian style; Pestalozzi himself calls this an injudicious and im prudent step. To the whole estate he gave the name of Neuhof. Among the friends of Pestalozzi's youth, was Schulthess, (the son of a wealthy merchant in Zurich,) for whose beautiful sister, Anna Schulthess, Pestalozzi entertained an affection. A letter which he wrote to the beautiful maiden, gives us a profound insight into the workings of his heart, and even into his future life. In this letter he lays before her his hopes and resolutions, and also, with the utmost candor and with great self-knowledge, his faults. He thus writes : " MY DEAR, MY ONLY FRIEND. 44 Our whole future life, our whole happiness, our duties toward our country and our posterity, and the security of virtue, call upon us to follow the only correct guide in our actions Truth. I will, with all candor, made known to you the serious reflection I have had in these solemn days upon the relation subsisting between us ; I am happy that I know before-hand, that my friend will find more true love in the calm truth of this contemplation, which so intimately concerns our happiness, than in the ardor of pleasant, but often not too wise, outpourings of a feeling heart, which I now with difficulty restrain. " Dear friend, first cf all I must tell you that in future I shall but seldom dare to approach you. I have already come too frequently and too imprudently to your brother's house ; I see that it becomes ray duty to limit my visits to you ; I have not the slightest ability to conceal my feelings. My sole art in this respect consists in fleeing from those who observe them ; I should not be able to be in company LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. 55 with you for even half an evening, without its being possible for a moderately acute observer to perceive that I was in a disturbed state of mind. We know each other sufficiently, dear, to be able to rely upon mutual straightforward honesty and sincerity. I propose to you a correspondence in which we shall make our undisguised thoughts known to each other with all the freedom of oral conversation. Yes, I will open myself fully and freely to you ; I will even now with the greatest candor, let you look as deep into my heart as I am myself able to penetrate ; I will show you my views in the light of my pres- ent and future condition, as clearly as I see them myself. " Dearest Schulthess, those of my faults which appear to me the most important in relation to the situation in which I may be placed in after-life, are improvidence, incautiousness, and a want of presence of mind to meet unexpected changes in my future prospects, when ever they may occur. I know not how far they may be diminished by my efforts to counteract them, by calm judgment and experience At present, I have them still in such a degree, that I dare not concea- them from the maiden whom I love ; they are faults, my dear, which deserve your fullest consideration. I have other faults, arising from my irritability and sensitiveness, which oftentimes will not submit to my judgment. I very frequently allow myself to run into excesses in praising and blaming, in my likings and dislikings ; I cleave so strongly to many things which I possess, that the force with which I feel myself bound to them often exceeds the limits which reason assigns ; whenever my country or my friend is unhappy, I am myself unhappy. Direct your whole attention to this weakness ; there will be times when the cheerfulness and tranquillity of my soul will suffer under it. If even it does not hinder me in the discharge of my duties, yet I shall scarcely ever be great enough to fulfill them, in such adverse circumstances, with the cheerfulness and tranquillity of a wise man, who is ever true to himself. Of my great, and indeed very reprehensible negligence in all matters of etiquette, and gene- rally in all matters which are not in themselves of importance, I need not speak ; any one may see them at first sight of me. I also owe you the open confession, my dear, that I shall always consider my duties toward my beloved partner subordinate to my duties toward my country ; and that, although I shall be the tenderest husband, nevertheless I hold it to be my duty to be inexorable to the tears of my wife, if she should ever attempt to restrain me by them from the direct performance of my duties as a citizen, whatever this might lead to. My wife shall be the confident of my heart, the partner of all my most secret counsels. A great and honest simplicity 56 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. shall reign in my house. And one thing more. My life will not pass without important and very critical undertakings. I shall not forget ihe precepts of Menalk, and my first resolutions to devote my- self wholly to my country ; I shall never from fear of man, refrain from speaking, when I see that the good of my country calls upon me to speak : my whole heart is my country's ; I will risk all to alle- viate the need and misery of my fellow countrymen. What conse- quences may the undertakings to which I feel myself urged on, draw after them ; how unequal to them am I ; and how imperative is my duty to show you the possibility of the great dangers which they may bring upon me ! "My dear, my beloved friend, I have now spoken candidly of my character and my aspirations. Reflect upon every thing. If the traits which it was my duty to mention, diminish your respect for me, you will still esteem my sincerity, and you will not think less highly of me, that I did not take advantage of your want of acquaintance with my character, for the attainment of my inmost wishes. Decide now whether you can give your heart to a man with these faults and in such a condition, and be happy. "My dear friend, I love you so truly from my heart, and with such fervor, that this step has cost me much ; I fear to lose you, dear, when you see me as I am ; I had often determined to be silent ; at last I have conquered myself. My conscience called loudly to me, that I should be a seducer and not a lover, if I were to hide from my be- loved a trait of my heart, or a circumstance, which might one day disgust her and render her unhappy ; I now rejoice at what I have done. If the circumstances into which -duty and country shall call me, set a limit to my efforts and my hopes, still I shall not have been base-minded, not vicious ; I have not sought to please you in a mask, I have not deceived you with chimerical hopes of a happiness that is not to be looked for; I have concealed from you no danger and no sorrow of the future ; I have nothing to reproach myself with." It was in the year 1767 that Pestalozzi removed to Neuhof. On the 24th of January, 1769, two years later, he married Anna Schul- thess, being then only twenty-four years old. It was not long before troubles came upon the young married couple. The madder planta- tion did not prosper; an assistant whom Pestalozzi had engaged, caused himself to be hated by every body ; the Zurich firm, which had advanced money to Pestalozzi, sent two competent judges to examine into the condition of the estate both of them reported so unfavorably upon it, especially upon the buildings, that the firm preferred taking back their capital with loss, to trusting it any longer in Pestalozzi's LIFE AN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. 57 hands. " The cause of the failure of my undertaking," says he, " lav essentially and exclusively in myself, and in my pronounced incapacity for .-very kind of undertaking which requires eminent practical ability." Notwithstanding the great distress into which he fell, he resolved not only to go on with farming, but to combine with it a school for poor child ivn. u I wished," says he, " to make my estate a centre for my educational and agricultural labors. In spite of all difficulties, I wanted, like a visionary, to reach the highest point in every respect, at the same time that I lacked the faculties, abilities, and skill, from which alone can proceed a proper attention to the first and humblest beginnings and preparatory steps to the great things which I sought after. So great, so unspeakably great, in consequence of the peculiarity of my mind, was the contrast between what I wished to do and what I did and was able to do, which arose from the disproportion between my good natured zeal, on the one side, and my mental impotency and unskillful ness in the affairs of life on the other." By mental impotency, we must understand only a want of school- ing or intellectual disciplining of the mind, for just at this time Pes- talozzi's literary talent made itself known. He came forward with a plan for the establishment of the Poor School. His views and prin- ciples met with so much approbation in an economical point of veiw, in spite of the want of confidence, in his practical ability, that he received offers of assistance from Zurich, Bern, and Basel, and many poor children were sent to him. Thus began the Neuhof Poor School in the year 1775 ; it had soon fifty pupils. In the summer, the children were to be chiefly em- ployed in field-work, in winter, with spinning and other handicrafts. During the time that they were engaged in the handicrafts, Pesta- lozzi gave them instruction ; exercises in speaking were predominant. But no long time elapsed before the establishment declined ; to which result many things contributed. The children, who were to earn their support by their work, were, although beggar children, spoilt and full of demands. Their parents, who every Sunday be- sieged Neuhof, confirmed them in this, and also ran off with them as soon as they had got new clothes. None of the authorities protected Pestalozzi against this misconduct, from which the farming suffered a great deal. " But these difficulties," says Pestalozzi, " might gradually have been more or less overcome, if I had not sought to carry out my experiment on a scale that was quite disproportioned to my strength, and had not, with almost incredible thoughtlessness, wanted to convert it, in the very beginning, into an undertaking which pre- 58 WE AND EDUCATIONAL SY-IKM i>l I'l >l M <>//! supposed a thorough knowledge of maimtaetmvx, m.-ii, ami in which I was deficient in the same proportion asth-\ \\.-n- r-nd. i,-,] necessary to me by the direction which I now gave niv und.-rt.-iK I, who so much disapproved of the hurrying to the higher stages of instruction, before a thorough foundation had been laid in tin- l.-mm- tary steps of the lower stages, and looked upon it as the fundamental error in the education of the day, and who also believed that I was myself endeavoring with all my might to counteract it in inv plan of education, allowed myself to be carried away by illusions of the greater remunerativeness of the higher branches of industry, without knowing even remotely either them or the means of learning and introdm -in^ them, and to commit the very faults in teaching my school children spinning and weaving which, as I have just said, I so strongly repro- bated and denounced in the whole of my views on education, and which I considered dangerous to the domestic happiness of all classes. I wanted to have the finest thread spun, before my childivn had gained any steadiness or sureness of hand in spinning even the coarser kinds, and, in lik.- manner to, make mu>lin fabrics, before my weavers had acquired sufficient steadiness and readiness in the weaving of common cotton goods. Practiced and skillful manufactuivrs ruin themselves by such preposterous conduct, how much ID..IV certain to be ruined by such conduct was I, who was so blind in the discernment of what was necessary to success, that 1 must .li-tinctly say, that who- ever took but a thread of mine into his hand was at once in a posi- tion to cause half of its value to vanish for me ! Before I was aware of it, too, I was deeply involved in debt, and the greater part of my dear wife's property and expectations had in an instant, as it were, gone up in smoke. Our misfortune was decided. I was now poor. The extent and rapidity of my misfortune was owing to this among other causes that, in this undertaking, as in the first, I readily, very readily, received an unquestioning confidence. My plan soon m- 1 with a degree of confidence which an attentive consideration of my former conduct would have shown that which I did not merit in the present undertaking. After all the experience they had had of my errors in this respect, people still did not think the extent of my i pacity for everything practical w r as so great as it really was. I yet enjoyed for a while, to all appearance, an extensive confidence, l.ut when my experiment went rapidly to wreck, as it necessarily did, this feeling changed, in my neighborhood, into just as inconsiderate a degree of the contrary, into a totally blind abandonment of even the last shadow of respect for my endeavors, and of belief in my fitness for the accomplishment of any part of them. It is the course LIFE AM) EDUCATIONAL SVSTKM <>F I'liS 1 Al.< >//! 59 of the world, and it happened to me as it happens to every one who thus 1 ec"iii'-> poor through his own fault. Such a man generally !o-_;vther with his money, the belief and the contidfiicr in what hi- i-f.-illv is and is able to do. The bdii-f in tin- qualifications which I it-ally had for attaining my objects was now lost, along with the belief in those which, erring in my self-deception, I gave myself credit for, but which I really had not." Thus it haj.prn. d, that in the year 1780, lVstalo//i was obliged to bivak up the establishment at Neulmf, at't-r it had b'-en ii\.- \.-ars in operation. His situation was frightful. Frequently in his only too elegant country house he wanted money, hivad, fin-1, in ord.-r to pro tect himself against hunger and cold. His faithful wife, who had pledged nearly the whole of her property for him, fell into a severe and tedious illness. "My fri.-nd>," relates Pe>taW.xi, "now only lo\vd me without hope; in the whole circuit of the surrounding dis- trict it was every where said that I was a lost man. that nothing more could be done for me." The breaking up of the establishment at Neuhof was a fortunate thing for Pestalozzi and for tin- world He was no longer to fritter away his strength in efforts to which he was not equal. And, never- thel . his Kvere mental and physical labor was not to have been in vain, but was to bear precious fruit-. As the first of these fruits, there appeared in 1780 a paper of his, brief but full of meaning, in Iselin's Ephemerides, under th- title, The Evening Hour of a Hermit. It contains a series of aphorisms, which nevertheless are cast in one mould, and -tand among one another in the closest connection. Fruits of the past years of Pestalozzi's life, they are at the same time seeds of the following years, programme and key to his educa- tional labors. "Iselin's KplM-m.-rid.-s,'' he writ.-s in 1801, alluding to this Evening Hour, "bear witness, that the dream of my wishes is not more comprehensive now, than it was when at that time I sought to leali/r it. It is scarcely possible to make a selection from these concise and thought-teeming aphorisms, the more so because they form, as I have said, a beautiful and ingenious whole, which suffers in the selection. Nevertheless, I will run the risk of selecting some of the principal thought*. The paper begins with melancholy seriousness. "Pastors and teachers of the nations, know you man ; is it with you a matter of conscience to understand his nature and destiny ? "All mankind are in their nature alike, they have but one path to contentment. The natural faculties of each one are to be perfected 60 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. into pure human wisdom. This general education of man must serve- as the foundation to every education of a particular rank. " The faculties grow by exercise. " The intellectual powers of children must not be urged on to re- mote distances before they have acquired strength by exercise in things near them. "The circle of knowledge commences close around a man, and from thence stretches out concentrically. " Real knowledge must take precedence of word-teaching and mere talk. "All human wisdom is based upon the strength of a good heart, obedient to truth. Knowledge and ambition must be subordinated to inward peace and calm enjoyment. "As the education for the closest relations precedes the education for more remote ones, so must education in the duties of members of families precede education in the duties of citizens. But nearer than father or mother is God, ' the closest relation of mankind is their relation to Him.' "Faith in God is 'the confiding, childlike feeling of mankind to- ward the paternal mind of the Supreme Being.' This faith is not the result and consequence of cultivated wisdom, but is purely an instinct of simplicity ; a childlike and obedient mind is not the consequence of a finished education, but the early and first foundation of human culture. Out of the faith in God springs the hope of eternal life. 'Children of God are immortal.' " Belief in God sanctifies and strengthens the tie between parents and children, between subjects and rulers ; unbelief loosens all ties, annihilates all blessings. " Sin is the source and consequence of unbelief, it is acting con- trary to the inward witness of right and wrong, the loss of the child- like mind toward God. " Freedom is based upon justice, justice upon love, therefore free- dom also is based upon love. "Justice in families, the purest, most productive of blessings, has love for its source. " Pure childlike feeling is the true source of the freedom that is based upon justice, and pure paternal feeling is the source of all power of governing, that is noble enough to do justice and to love freedom. And the source of justice and of all worldly blessings, the source of the love and brotherly feeling of mankind toward one an- other, this is based upon the great thought of religion, that we are children of God, and that the belief in this truth is the sure ground LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. (J] of all worldly blessings. In this great thought of religion lies ever the spirit of all true state policy th'at seeks only the blessing of the people, for all inward power of morality, enlightenment and worldly wisdom, is based upon this ground of the belief of mankind in God ; and ungodliness, misapprehension of the relation of mankind as chil- dren to the Supreme Being, is the source which dissolves all the power with which morals, enlightenment, and wisdom, are capable of blessing mankind. Therefore the loss of this childlike feeling of mankind toward God is the greatest misfortune of the world, as it renders impossible all paternal education on the part of God, and the restoration of this lost childlike feeling is the redemption of the lost children of God on earth. "The Son of God, who with suffering and death has restored tc mankind the universally lost feeling of filial love toward God, is the Re- deemer of the world, He is the sacrificed Priest of the Lord, He is Mediator between God and sinful mankind. His doctrine is pure jus- tice, educative national philosophy ; it is the revelation of God the Father to the lost race of his children." Much might be said upon these aphorisms ; each is a text for a discourse ; indeed, Pestalozzi's life is a paraphrase in facts of these texts. We must accuse human weakness, if the realization of his great anticipations henceforward also turns out but miserably, nay. only too often stands in the most glaring contradiction with ".hem. The plan of an inventive builder, however, retains its value, if even the builder himself lack the skill to carry out the building according tc the plan. Rousseau's Emile appeared eighteen years before Pestalozzi's Eve- ning Hour ; in what relation does Rousseau stand to Pestalozzi ? In particular points they frequently agree. Like Pestalozzi, Rousseau requires real knowledge and trained skill in the business of life, not an empty display of words, without an insight into'the things them- selves, and a ready power of acting. Like Pestalozzi, Rousseau also ; ridicules the plan of giving children a discursive knowledge about things remote, and leaving them in ignorance of the things in their immediate vicinity ; he requires, like Pestalozzi, that they should first be at home in this vicinity. In this manner many other things might be pointed out in which both men agree, arising principally from their common aversion tc a ba&eltiss^jie.ad talkativeness, without any real intelligence, activity of mind, or readiness of action. But when viewed more closely, how immensely different are the two men in all that is most essential. Rousseau will not have God named before children ; he is of opinion 62 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. that long physical and metaphysical study is necessary to enable us- to think of God. With Pestalozzi, God is the nearest, the most inti- ^nate being to man, the Alpha and Omega of his whole life. Rous- seau's God is no paternal God of love, his Emile no child of God. The man who put his children into a foundling hospital, knew nothing of paternal and filial love ; still less of rulers as the fathers of the natons, and of the childlike obedience of subjects; his ideal was a cold, heartless freedom, which was not based upon love, but was de- 'ensive, isolating, and altogether selfish. While, therefore, according to Pestalozzi, the belief in God pene- trates, strengthens, attunes, sanctifies all the relations of men ; while one relations between ruler and subjects, between fathers and children, and the paternal love of God to his children, men, are every where ".effected in his paper with Rousseau there is never any mention of such bonds of love,. A year after the publication of the Evening Hour, namely, in 1781, appeared the first part of that work of Pestalozzi's which established pis reputation, which exercised an extensive and wholesome influence at the time, and which will continue to exercise an influence in future. That work is " Leonard and Gertrude : A Book for the People." It was undertaken at a time, when, as he relates, " my old friends looked upon it as almost settled that I should end my days in a workhouse, or in a lunatic asylum." The form was suggested by Marmontel's Conies moraux\ and* he was stimulated to effort, by a few words of encouragement from the bookseller Fiissli, of Zurich, or rather of the brother better known as JFuseli, the painter. After a few attempts at composition with which he was not satisfied, "the history of Leonard and Gertrude flowed from my pen, I know not how, and developed itself of its own accord, without my having the slightest plan in my head, and even without my thinking of one. In a few weeks, the book stood there, without my knowing exactly how I had done it. I felt its value, but only as a man in his sleep feels the value of some piece of good fortune of which he is just dreaming. " The book appeared, and excited quite a remarkable degree of interest in my own country and throughout the whole of Germany. Nearly all the journals spoke in its praise, and, what is perhaps still more, nearly all the almanacs became full of it; but the most unex- pected thing to me was that, immediately after its appearance, the Agricultural Society of Bern awarded me their great gold medal, with a letter of thanks." LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. Q$ Pestalozzi himself has repeatedly spoken of the character and ob- ject of Leonard and Gertrude. In the preface to the first edition of the work, he says: "In that which I here relate, and which I have for .the most part seen and heard myself in the course of an active life, I have even taken care not once to add my own opinion to what I saw and heard the people themselves feeling, judging, believing, speaking, and attempting. And now this will show itself: If the results of my observation are true, and if I gave them as I received them, and as it is my aim to do, they will find acceptance with all those who themselves have daily before their eyes the things which I relate. If, however, they are incorrect, if they are the work of my imagination and the preaching of my own opinions, they will, like other Sunday sermons, vanish on the Monday." In the preface to the second edition, Pestalozzi gives as the object of the book, "To bring about a better popular education, based upon the true condition of the people and their natural relations." "It was," he says, "my first word to the heart of the poor and destitute in the land. It was my first word to the heart of those who stand in God's stead to the poor and destitute in the land. It was my first word to the mothers in the land, and to the heart which God gave them, to be *.D theirs what no one on earth can be in their stead." "I desired nothing, and to-day, (1800,) I desire nothing else, as the object of my life, but the welfare of the people, whom I love, and whom I feel to be miserable as few feel them to be miserable, having with them, borne their sufferings as few have borne them." The remarks which I have cited characterize the soul of Leonard and Gertrude. In the severe years of suffering at Neuhof, Pestalozzi appeared to have wrought and suffered in vain. " To the accomplish- ment of my purpose," he says, " there stood opposed my entire want of trained practical skill, and a vast disproportion between the extent of my will and the limits of my ability." He did not work in vain, however ; what was denied him on the one side turned out to his advantage on the other. If he lacked all skill in carrying out his ideas, he possessed on the other hand, in the highest degree, the faculty of observing, comprehending, and por- traying character. If he was not able to exhibit to the world his ideal realized, it was given to him to infuse the loving desires of his heart into the hearts of others, by means of his talent of poetical delineation. He might hope that men of practical ability would be among the readers of his book, and would be incited by it to realize what he only knew how to picuire. He has found such readers. Leonard and Gertrude is in so many hands, that it is almost superflu- ous to give a selection from the work. On.y this The principal \ 64 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. person in it is Gertrude, the wife of Leonard, a good-natured but rather weak man, whose stay and guardian she is. The manner in which she keeps house and instructs and trains her children, is Pesta- lozzi's ideal. Such house-keeping, such a manner of instructing .and training, he desires for all people. Gertrude is consulted even in the management of the village school. Her house-keeping is the bright side of the circumstances depicted ; in contrast with her is a terribly dark side, a peasant community in the deepest depravity. It is re- lated of what Arner, the equally benevolent and intelligent lord of the village, does to check the depravity. Pestalozzi wished to give the people the knowledge and skill need- ft" for them chiefly by means of a good elementary instruction. If this instruction began at the right place, and proceeded properly, wnat an entirely different race would arise out of the children so instructed, a race made independent by intelligence and skill ! In vain, however, did Pestalozzi look around him for elementary teachers who could and would instruct after his manner and in his spirit. Seminaries, too, were wanting in which such teachers could l>e trained. Then the thought occurred to him who had grown up in his mother's parlor: "I will place the education of the people in the hand-* of the mothers; I will transplant it out of the school-room into the parlor." Gertrude was to be the model of mothers. But how are the mothers in the lower classes to be qualified for instructing? We shall see how Pestalozzi's Compendium* are meant to be an an- swer to this question, to supply the place of knowledge and teaching talent. The mothers have only to keep strictly to these books in the instruction of their children ; if they do this, the mother of the most limited capacity will instruct just as well as the most talented ; com- pendiums and method are to equalize their minds: such was Pesta- lozzi's ideal, to whirh I shall afterward come back. With extreme short-sightedness, the persons in immediate inter- course with Pestalozzi saw in this book of his dearly-bought expe- rience nothing more than a proof that its author was born for novel writing, and would in future be able to earn his bread by it. Others understood better tlio value of the book. Karl von Hon- *tetten entreated Pestalozzi to come and live with him on his estate in Italian Switzerland; the Austrian Minister of Finance, Count Zin- zendorf, wished to have him in his neighborhood. Subsequently, he became known, through Count Hohenwart, in Florence, to the Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany, who was about to give him an appoint- ment, when he was called by the death of Joseph II., to the imperial throne of Germany, and the appointment, was therefore not made. LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. ^tj If it be asked whether he would have been of any use in a post of importance, a word of Lavater's upon this subject may contain the answer. Pestalozzi tells us " He once said to his wife, ' If I were a prince, I would consult Pestalozzi in every thing that concerns the people and the improvement of their condition ; but I would never trust him with a farthing of money.' At another time, he said to my- self, * When I only once see a line of yours without a mistake, I will believe you capable of much, very much, that you would like to do and to be.' " FOR seventeen years after the publication of Leonard and Gertrude, Pestalozzi continued to drag on his needy and depressed existence at Neuhof, where he spent altogether thirty years. Of his outward life during those seventeen years, we learn little else, besides the general fact just stated. It is worthy of mention, that in this period he en- tered the order of Illuminati, an order which was characterized by infidelity, exaggerated ideas of enlightenment, and destructive but not reconstructive principles, and that he even became eventually the head of the order in Switzerland. He soon discovered his mistake, how- ever, and withdrew from it. "That which is undertaken by associa- tions," he says, " usually falls into the hands of intriguers." In this period he wrote several books. In the year 1782, he published "Christopher and Alice." He himself relates the origin of this work. People had imbibed from Leonard and Gertrude the idea, that all the depravity among the common people proceeded from the subordinate functionaries in the villages. "In Christopher and Alice," says Pestalozzi, "I wished to make apparent to the educated public the connection of those causes of popular depravity which are to be found higher in the social scale, but which on this account are also more disguised and concealed, with the naked, undisguised, and unconcealed causes of it, as they are manifested in the villages in the persons of the unworthy function- aries. For this purpose, I made .a peasant family read together Leon- ard and Gertrude, and say things about the story of that work, and the persons introduced in it, which I thought might not occur of themselves to everybody's mind." So says Pestalozzi in the year 1826; but he spoke otherwise in the preface to the book when it first appeared, in 1782. " Reader! " he says, " this book which thou takest into thy hand is an attempt to produce a manual of instruction for the use of the universal school of humanity, the parlor. I wish it to be read in every cottage." 5 QQ LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. This wish was not accomplished, as we learn from the preface to the second edition, (1824,) which commences thus, "This book has not found its way at all into the hands of the people. In my native land, even in the canton of my native town, and in the very village in which I once lived, it has remained as strange and unknown, as if it had not been in existence." In the same year, 1782, and the one following, Pestalozzi edited " A Swiss Journal," of which a number appeared every week. In this Journal, he communicated, among other things, memoirs of de- ceased friends. Thus he wrote the memoirs of Frolich, the pastor of Birr, who had died young. Pestalozzi says of him, " he dedicated himself to the work of the great divine calling, but eternal love dedi- cated him to the liberty of eternal life." The way in which he speak& of the excellent Iselin, who had died in 1782, is particularly affecting. " I should have perished in the depths into which I had fallen," he says, " if Iselin had not raised me up. Iselin made me feel that I had done something, even in the poor school." The discourse " on Legislation and Infanticide " also appeared in 1782. About 1783, Pestalozzi contemplated the establishment of a lunatic asylum and a reformatory institution, and wrote upon the subject; the manuscript, however, was lost. In the years between 1780 and 1790, in the days of the approach- ing French revolution, and in the first symptoms of the dangers which its influence on Switzerland might entail," * he wrote " The Figures to my ABC-Book; they were not published, however, till 1795: a new edition, under the title of "Fables," came out in 1805. They relate principally to the condition of Switzerland at that time. In the summer of 1792, he went to Germany, at the invitation of his sister in Leipzig, and became acquainted with Gothe, Herder, Wieland, Klopstock, and Jacobi ; he also visited several normal schools. In 1798 appeared Pestalozzi's "Researches into the Course of Na- ture in the Development of the Human Race." He says himself, speaking of this book, "I wrought at it for three long years with in- credible toil, chiefly with the view of clearing up my own mind upon the tendency of my favorite notions, and of bringing my natural feelings into harmony with my ideas of civil rights and morality. But this work too is, to me, only another evidence of my inward helplessness, the mere play of my powers of research ; my views were *Pesfalo/.zi's words in the preface to the " Figures." LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SVSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. g^ altogether one-sided, while I was without a proportionate degree of control over myself in regard to them, and the work was left void of any adequate effort after practical excellence, which was so necessary for my purpose. The disproportion between my ability and my views only increased the more. The effect of my book upon those by whom I was surrounded was like the effect of all that I did ; scarcely any one understood me, and I did not find in my vicinity two men who did not half give me to understand that they looked upon the entire book as so much balderdash/' Pestalozzi here assumes three states of man : an original, instinct- like, innocent, animal state of nature, out of which he passes into the social state, (this reminds us of Rosseau ;) he works himself out of the social state and raises himself to the moral. The social man is in an unhappy middle condition between animal propensities and moral elevation. The original animal state of nature can not be pointed to in any one individual man ; the innocence of that state ceases with the first cry of the new-born child, and " animal depravity arises from whatever stands opposed to the normal condition of our animal existence." Against this depravity, man seeks for aid in the social state, but finds, it not ; it is only the moral will that can save him, " the force of which he opposes to the force of his nature. He will fear a God, in order that the animal instincts of his nature shall not degrade him in . his inmost soul. He feels what he can do in this respect, and then he makes what he can do the law to himself of what he ought to do. Subjected to this law, which he imposes upon himself, he is distin- guished from all other creatures with which we are acquainted." Where and when, for example, did Pestalozzi's man of nature ever exist an innocent animal man, endowed with instinct ? * This character does not apply to Adam in .Paradise, who was not an animal, but a lord of the animals, and still less does it apply to any child of Adam. In how simple and sublime a manner, on the * Voltaire wrote the following characteristic letter to Rosseau about his discourse, pre- pared and offered for the prize proposed by the Academy of Dixon, on the origin of the inequality among men, and published in 1775 : " I have received your new book against the human race,' and thank you for it. You will please men, to whom you speak the truth, but not make them better. No one could paint in stronger colors the horrors of human society, from which our ignorance and weakness promise themselves so many delights. Never has any one employed so much genius to make us into beasts ; when one reads your book, one is seized with a desire to go down on all fours. Nevertheless, as I have left off this habit already more than sixty years, I feel, unfortunately, that it is impossible for me to take to it again, and I leave this natural mode of walking to others who are more worthy of it than you and I. Neither can I take ship, in order to visit the savages -of Canada, firstly, oecause the maladies to which I am condemned, render a European physician necessary to me ; then again, because there is at present war in that country, .and the examples of our nations has made the savages almost as bad as we are ourselves. I am content to live as a peaceful eavage in the lonely district adjoining your native land, &c " (J8 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. contrary, do the Holy Scriptures comprehend and characterize the whole human race. Thus we see Pestalozzi but little or not at all engaged in educa- tional undertakings during the eighteen years from 1780 to 1798* his writings too, during this time are mainly of a philosophical and political character, and relate only indirectly to education. But the French revolution introduced a new epoch, for Pestalozzi, as well as for Switzerland. The revolutionary armies of France pressed into the country, old forms were destroyed, the whole of Switzerland was consolidated into an " inseparable republic," at the head of which stood five directors, after the model of the French directional government of that time. Among these was Legrand, a man of a class that is always becoming more rare. I visited the amiable octogenarian in Steinthal, where formerly, with his friend Oberlin, he had labored for the welfare of the communes. When the conversation turned on the happiness or the education of the people, or on the education of youth generally, the old man became animated with youthful enthusiasm, and tears started to his eyes. Legrand was a friend of Pestalozzi's ; no wonder, seeing that the two men very nearly resembled each other in their way of thinking, as well as in their enthusiastic activity and their unbounded hopeful- ness. Pestalozzi joined the new republic, while, at the same time, he did all in his power to subdue the Jacobinical element in it. He wrote a paper " On the Present Condition and Disposition of Man- kind." In this paper, as also in the " Swiss People's Journal," which he edited at the instigation of the government, he pressed upon the attention of the people the necessity of a return to the integrity and piety of their ancestors ; the instruction arid education of youth, he represented, were the means for attaining this object. Although, in pointing to an ennobling education of youth, and especially the youth of the people and the poor, as the securest guar- antee of a lawfully ordered political condition, he only did that which he could not leave undone ; still most people believed that he was speaking and writing thus industriously, merely with the view of pro- curing for himself an office under the new government, when an op- portunity should arise. The government on whom he urged with far too much vehemence the importance of order, justice, and law, actu* ally offered him an appointment, in the hope that he would then be quiet. But what was their astonishment, when, in reply to their in- quiry as to what office he would be willing to accept, he said, " I WILL BE A SCHOOLMASTER." But few understood him, only those who, LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. 69 like himself, were earnestly desirous for the foundation of a truly equitable political condition. Legrand entered into the idea ; and Pestalozzi was already about to open an educational institution in the canton of Argovia, when one of the misfortunes of war intervened. On the 9th of September, 1798, Stanz in Unterwalden was burnt by the French, the entire can-- ton was laid waste, and a multitude of fatherless and motherless children were wandering about destitute and without a shelter. Le- grand now called upon Pestalozzi to go to Stanz and undertake the care of the destitute children. Pestalozzi went ; what he experienced he has himself told us. The convent of the Ursulines there was given up to him ; he took up his abode in it, accompanied only by a housekeeper, before it was even put into a fit condition for the reception of children. Gradually he gathered around him as many as eighty poor children, from four to ten years old, some of them orphans, horribly neglected, infected with the itch and scurvy, and covered with vermin. Among ten of them, scarcely one could say the alphabet. He describes the educa- tional experiments which he made with such children, and speaks of these experiments as " a sort of feeler of the pulse of the science which he sought to improve, a venturesome effort." "A person with the use of his eyes," he adds, " would certainly not have ventured it; fortunately, I was blind." For example, under the most difficult circumstances, he wanted to prove, by actual experiment, that those things in which domestic edu- cation possesses advantages must be imitated in public education. He gave the children no set lessons on religion ; being suspected by the Roman Catholic parents, as a Protestant, and at the same time as an adherent of the new government, he did not dare ; but when- ever the occurrence of daily life presented an opportunity, he would make them the groundwork of inculcating some religious or moral lesson. As he had formerly done at Neuhof, he sought to combine intellectual instruction with manual labor, the establishment for in- struction with that for industrial occupations, and to fuse the two into each other. But it became clear to him, that the first stages of in- tellectual training must be separated from those of industrial training and precede the fusion of the two. It was here in Stanz also that Pestalozzi, for want of other assistants, set children to instruct chil- dren, a plan which Lancaster was similarly led to adopt in conse- quence of the inability of the teacher to instruct the large numbers of children who were placed under his charge.* Pestalozzi remarks, * Lancaster's monitors, t.e children, set to teach and superintend other children. "At that time, (1798,)" says I'estalozzi. " nobody had begun to ppeak of mutual instruction." 70 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. without disapprobation, that a feeling of honor was bv this means, awakened in the children ; a remark which directly contradicts his opinion, that the performance of the duties of the monitor proceeded from a disposition similar to brotherly love. Another plan, which is now imitated in countless elementary schools, was likewise tried by Pestalozzi at Stanz, namely, that of making a number of children pronounce the same sentences simultaneously, syllable for syllable.* u The confusion arising from a number of children repeating after me at once," he says, " led me to see the ne- cessity of a measured pace in speaking, and this measured pace heightened the effect of the lesson." Pestalozzi repeats, in his account of the Stanz institution, what he had brought forward in Leonard and Gertrude. " My aim," he says, " was to carry the simplification of the means of teaching so far, that all the common people might easily be brought to teach their chil- dren, and gradually to render the schools almost superfluous for the first elements of instruction. As the mother is the first to nourish her child physically, so also, by the appointment of God, she must be the first to give it spiritual nourishment ; I reckon that very great evils have been engendered by sending children too early to school, and by all the artificial means of educating them away from home. The time will come, so soon as we shall have simplified instruction, when every mother will be able to teach, without the help of others, and thereby, at the same time, to go on herself always learning." I refer the reader to Pestalozzi's own description of his singularly active labors in Stanz, where he was not only the teacher and trainer of eighty children, but, as he says, paymaster, manservant, and al- most housemaid, at the same time. In addition to this, sickness broke out among the children, and the parents showed themselves shamelessly ungrateful. Pestalozzi would have sunk under these efforts had he not been liberated on the 8th of June, 1799, by the French, who, being hard pressed by the Austrians, came to Stanz, and converted one wing of the convent into a military hospital. This induced him to let the children return to their friends, and he went himself up the Gurnigel mountains, to a medicinal spring. Only twenty-two children re- mained ; these, says Mr. Heussler, " were attended to, taught, and trained, if not in Pestalozzi's spirit, still with care and with more :>rder and cleanliness, under the guidance of the reverend Mr. Businger." * The plan of simultaneous reading and speaking had been introduced into the Austrian schools at an earlier period. LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. 7^ " On the Gurnigel," says Pestalozzi, " I enjoyed days of recreation. I required them ; it is a wonder that I am still alive. I shall not for- get those days, as long as I live : they saved me, but I could njt live without my work." Pestalozzi was much blamed for giving up the Stanz institution, although necessity had compelled him to do so. " People said to my face," he says, " that it was a piece of folly, to believe that, because a man had written something sensible in his thirtieth year, he would therefore be capable of doing something sensible in his fiftieth year. I was said to be brooding over a beautiful dream." Pestalozzi came down from the Gurnigel ; at the advice of Chief Justice Schnell, he went to Burgdorf, the second town in the canton of Bern, where through the influence of well-wishers, Pestalozzi ob- tained leave to give instruction in the primary schools. * He had many enemies. The head master of the schools imagined that Pes- talozzi wanted to supplant him in his appointment : the report spread that the Heidelberg catechism was in danger : " it was whispered," says Pestalozzi, " that I myself could not write, nor work accounts, nor even read properly. Popular reports are not always entirely des- titute of truth," he adds ; " it is true that I could not write, nor read, nor work accounts well. As far as the regulations of the school would allow, Pestalozzi pro- secuted here the experiments in elementary instruction which he had begun at Stanz. M. Glayre, a member of the executive council of the canton, to whom he endeavored to explain the tendency of these experiments, made the ominous remark, " You want to render educa- tion mechanical." "He hit the nail on the head," says Pestalozzi, " and supplied me with the very expression that indicated the object of my endeavors, and of the means which I employed for attaining it." Pestalozzi had not been schoolmaster at Burgdorf, quite a year, when he had a pulmonary attack; in consequence of this he gav<- up the appointment, and a new epoch of his life commenced. M. Fis- cher, secretary to the Helvetian minister of public instruction, had entertained the idea of founding a normal school in the castle of Burgdorf, but had died before carrying it into execution. With this end in view, he had induced M. Kriisi to come to Burgdorf. Kriisi was a native of Gaiss, in the canton of Appenzell, was schoolmaster there at the early age of eighteen, and had migrated thence in the year 1799, taking with him 28 children. Pestalozzi now proposed * In a school in which children from four ro eight years old received instructions in reading and writing, under the general superintendence of a female teacher. 72 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZl. to Kriisi to join him in establishing an educational institution : Kriisi willingly agreed, and through him the cooperation of M. Tobler, who had been for the last five years tutor in a family in Basel, was obtained; through Tobler, that of M. Buss, of Tubingen. With these three assistants, Pestalozzi opened the institution in the winter of 1800. It was in Burgclorf that Pestalozzi commenced a work whicfy with the " Evening Hour," and " Leonard and Gertrude," stands otit con- picuously amongst his writings. It was commenced on the 1st of January, 1801. I It bears the queer title, " How Gertrude teaches her children : an attempt to give Directions to Mothers how to instruct their own Chil- dren." The reader must not be misled by the title ; the book contains any thing but directions for mothers." There are numerous contradictions throughout the book, as well as on the title page ; and it is therefore a most difficult task to give a condensed view of it. Almost the only way to accomplish this will be to resolve it into its elements. Nothing can be more touching than the passage in which the author speaks of the desire of his whole life to alleviate the condition of the suffering people of his inability to satisfy this desire of his many blunders and of his despair of himself; and then humbly thanks God, who had preserved him, when he had cast himself away, and who graciously permitted him, even in old age, to look forward to a brighter future. It is impossible to read any thing more affecting. The second element of this book is a fierce and fulminating battle against the sins and faults of his time. He advances to the assault at storm-pace, and clears every thing before him with the irresistible force of truth. He directs his attack principally against the hollow education of our time, particularly in the higher ranks of society. He calls the members of the aristocracy " miserable creatures of mere words, who by the artificialities of their mode of life are rendered incapable of feeling that they themselves stand on stilts, and that they must come down off their wretched wooden legs, in order to stand on God's earth with even the same amount of firmness as the people." In another part of the book, Pestalozzi declaims warmly against all the education of the present age. " It sacrifices, (he says,) the sub stance of all instruction to the nonsense about particular isolated sys- tem of instruction, and by filling the mind with fragments of truth, it quenches the spirit of truth itself, and deprives mankind of the power of independence which is based thereon. I have found, what AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. 73 was very obvious, that this system of instruction, does nut base the use of particular means either on elementary principles or elementary forms. The state of popular instruction rendered it inevitable that Europe should sink into error, or rather madness, and into this it really did sink. On the one hand, it raised itself into a gigantic height in particular arts ; on the other, it lost for the whole of its people all the stability and support which are to be obtained by rest- ing on the guidance of nature. On the one side, no quarter of the globe ever stood so high ; but on the other, no quarter of the globe has ever sunk so low. With the golden head of its particular arts, it touches the clouds, like the image of the prophet ; but popular instruction, which ought to be the basis and support of this golden head, is every where, on the contrary, the most wretched, fragile, good-for-nothing clay, like the feet of that gigantic image." . For this incongruity in our intellectual culture, he blames chiefly the art of printing, through which, he says, the eyes have become book-eyes men have become book-men. ^^^^ Throughout the work, he speaks against the senseless use of the tongue against the habit of talking without any real purpose. " The babbling disposition of our time, (he says,) is so much bound up with the struggle of tens of thousands and hundreds of thousands for their daily bread, and with their slavish adherence to custom, that it will be long, very long, before this temporizing race shall gladly receive into their hearts truths so much opposed to their sensual de- pravity. Wherever the fundamental faculties of the human mind are allowed to lie dormant, and on those dormant faculties empty words are propt up, there you are making dreamers, whose visions are all the more visionary because the words that were propt up on their miserable yawning existence, were high-sounding, and full of preten- sions. As a matter of course, such pupils will dream any and every" thing before they will dream that they are sleeping and dreaming ; but all those about them who are awake, perceive their presumption, and, (when it suits,) put them down as somnambulists. "The meaningless declamation of this superficial knowledge pro- duces men who fancy that they have reached the goal in all branches of study, just because their whole life is a belabored prating about that goal ; but they never accomplish so much as to make an effort to reach it, because through their life it never had that alluring charm in their eyes which any object must possess to induce a man to make an effort to attain it. The present age abounds in men of this class,, and is diseased by a kind of wisdom which carries us forward pro forma, as cripples are borne along a race-course, to the goal of knowl- 4 74 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. edge, when, at the same time, it could never enable us to advance toward this gaol by our own efforts, before our feet had been healed." In other parts of the book he attacks governments as indifferent to the welfare of the people. " The lower classes of Europe, (he says,) are neglected and wretched : most of those who stand sufficiently near to be able to help them, have no time for thinking what may be for their welfare they have always something to do quite different from this." From this, the second and polemical element of the book, I pass to the third and positive one, namely, the kind of education by which , Pestalozzi proposes to replace the false education of our time. This l might in some measure be anticipated from the polemical passages 1 which have been cited. He thus enunciates the problem which he proposed to himself to solve : " In the empirical researches which 1 made in reference to my subject, I did not start from any positive system ; I was not ac- ouainted with any one; I simply put to myself the question, What would you do, if you wanted to give a single child all the theoretical knowledge and practical skill which he requires in order to be able to attend properly to the great concerns of life, and so attain to inward contentment ?" Theoretical knowledge and practical skill constitute, accordingly, the most important subjects of the work. They are treated with u special relation to the two questions, What knowledge and skill do children require ? and, How are these best imparted to them ? The aim is to point out the proper object of education, and the way to attain that object. Of practical skill, however, there is comparatively very little said, notwithstanding that Pestalozzi sets so high a value upon it. " Knowl- edge without skill, (he says,) is perhaps the most fatal gift which an evil genius has bestowed upon the present age." But Festal* i/x.i'd ideas in relation to practical skill, and the method of attaining it, seem to have been still indistinct. On the other hand, he is quite at home in the region of theoretical knowledge : to show the starting-point, the road, and the destination, in the journey through this region, is the main design of his work. His polemic against senseless talking shows that he had sought and found the real root of the tree of which words are the spiritual blossoms. The beginning of all knowledge, according to Pestalozzi, is observa- tion ; the last point to be attained, a clear notion. He says: "If I look back and ask myself what 1 really have done toward the LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. tj ^ improvement of the methods of elementary instruction, I find that, .1 recognizing observation as the absolute basis of all knowledge, I have established the first and most important principle of instruction, and that, setting aside all particular systems of instructions, I have endeav- ored to discover what ought to be the character of the instruction itself, and what are the fundamental laws according to which the edu- cation of the human race must be determined by nature." In another place, he requires it to be acknowledged, "that observation is the ab- solute basis of all knowledge, in other words, that all knowledge must proceed from observation and must admit of being retraced to that source." But what does Pestalozzi understand by observation? "It Is, (he says,) simply directing the senses to outward objects, and exciting con- sciousness of the impression produced on them by those objects." He refers, of course, principally to the sense of sight. But the ear is not to be neglected. " When sounds are produced so as to be heard by the child, and its consciousness of the impression which these sounds make on its mind through the sense of hearing is aroused, this, to the child, is just as much observation, as when objects are placed before its eyes, and consciousness is awakened by the impres- sion which the objects make on the sense of sight. By the aid of 'his spelling book, therefore, the child's ear is to be familiarized with the series of elementary sounds which constitutes the foundation of a knowledge of language, just as it is to be made acquainted wi:h visible objects by the aid of his Book for Mothers. According to this, observation would mean every impression whicL the mind receives through the eye and the ear. Does Pestalozzi exclude the remaining senses ? No ; for he fre- quently, speaks of the impressions of the jive senses, and he says that the understanding collects the impressions which the senses receive from external nature into a whole, or into a notion, and then develops this idea until it attains clearness. And elsewhere he says that the mechanical form of all instruction should be regulated by the eternal laws according to which the human mind rises from the perceptions of sense to clear notions. Pestalozzi repeatedly dwells upon this process of intellectual development. Above every thing, he will have attention given to the first step in the process, namely observation. Care is to be taken that the objeccs are seen separately by the children", not dimly at a distance, but close at hand and distinctly ; then also that there shall be placed before the children, not abnoimal, but characteristic specimens of any class 76 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PE8TALOZZI. of objects such as will convey a correct idea of the thing and of its; most important properties. Thus, for example, a lame, one-eyed, or six-fingered man, he says, would not be proper to convey the idea of the human form. Out of the observation of an object, the first thing that arises, he says, is the necessity of naming it; from naming it, we pass on to determining its properties, that is to description ; out of a clear des- cription is finally developed the definition the distinct idea of the object. The full maturity of this, the last fruit of all instruction, de- pends materially on the vigorous germination of the seed sown in the first instance on the amount of wisdom exercised in guiding the children to habits of observation. Definitions not founded on obser vations, he says, produce a superficial and unprofitable kind of knowledge. Just when we begin to think that we understand Pestalozzi's views, he again leads us into uncertainty as to the idea which he attaches to observation. He says the idea had only lately struck him, " that all our knowl- edge arises out of number, form, and words." On this triple basis,, he says, education must proceed ; and " 1. It must teach the children to look attentively at every object which they are made to perceive as unity, that is, as separated from, those other objects with which it appears in connection. 2. It must make them acquainted with the form of every object, that is, its size and proportion. 3. It must teach them as early as possible the names and words applicable to all the objects with which they are acquainted." Pestalozzi found it difficult, however, to answer the question, " Why are not all the other properties which the five senses enable us to per- ceive in objects, just as much elements of our knowledge, as number, form, and name ?" His answer is, "All possible objects have neces- sarily number, form, and name ; but the remaining properties which the senses enable us to perceive are not possessed by any object in common with all others, but this property is shared with one object, and that with another." When Pestalozzi made form a category to embrace all and every thing, he only thought of the visible, as is evidenced by the further development of his instruction in form, which deals chiefly with the measuring of visible objects. But there are innumerable observations which have nothing what- ever to do with form and number ; for example, tasting honey,, smelling roses, &c. . LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. The prominence which Pestalozzi gave to form and number caused him to undertake a new treatment of the subjects of geometry and arithmetics Subsequently he divided geometry into instruction i i 'form and instruction in spaces, for the reason that we perceive shape and size, (mathematical quality and quantity,) independently of each other ; drawing he made a part of the instruction in form writing a part of drawing. But what became of Pestalozzi's principle, that observation is ^he foundation of all intelligence, when he thus gave an undue prominence to form and number, and neglected all other properties? Suppose that we put a glass cube into the hands of a child and he observes in respect to it nothing else, but that it has the cubic form, and, over and above this, that it is one cube, so far this glass cube is in no way distinguished from a wooden one. But if I require to take notice of other properties, such as color, transparency, weight. - Pestalozzi, is the only way of training the child in religion. It pre- supposes a mother pure as an angel, and a child originally quite in- nocent. The mother is also, like a saint, to take the child under her wings, when it grows up and is enticed to evil by the world, which is not innocent, "as God first created it." According to this view, motherless orphans must remain entirely without religious training. There is scarcely a word about the father ; just once he is mentioned, and then it is said that he is " tied to his workshop," and can not give up his time to the child. In short, the mother is represented as the mediator between God and the child. But not once is it mentioned that she herself needs a mediator ; not once in the whole book does the name of Christ occur. It is nowhere said that the mother is a Christian mother, a member of the church, and that she teaches the child what she, as a member of the church, has learnt. Holy writ is ignored ; the mother draws her theology out of her own heart. There pervades this work there- fore a decided alienation from Christ. But we shall afterward see. Q4 LIFE Ai\D EDUCATIONAL SYSTKM OF PESTALOZZI. tliat it would be unjust to measure Pestalozzi's ideas on religious in- struction by the untenable theory brought forward in the last chapters of this work. Having thus considered the contents of this book, which was writ- ten and had its origin in Burgdorf, which contains fundamental edu- cational principles of the highest value and importance, side by side with the most glaring educational blunders and absurdities, it will be of the greatest interest to hear how Pestalozzi performed his work as a teacher, and as the director of his institution, in Burgdorf. We shall obtain information on this point from a small but in many respects highly interesting and valuable pamphlet, entitled "A Short Sketch of my Educational Life, by John Ramsauer."* The writer, who was the son of a tradesman, and was born in 1790 at Herissu in the Swiss canton of Appenzell, migrated thence in 1800, along with forty-four other children from ten to fourteen years of age, at a time when several cantons, Appenzell among the rest, had "been totally desolated in consequence of the French revolution ; and he came thus to Schleumen, not far from Burgdorf. While at Schleuraen, he attended the lower burgh school of Burgdorf, in which, as already stated, Pestalozzi taught. He gives the following account of Pesta- lozzi's teaching : " I got about as much regular schooling as the other scholars, namely, none at all f but his, (Pestalozzi's,) sacred zeal, his devoted love, which caused him to be entirely unmindful of himself, his serious and depressed state of mind, which struck even the children, made the deepest impression on me, and knit my childlike and grateful heart to his forever. It is impossible to give a clear picture of this school as a whole ; ah 1 that I can do is to sketch a few partial views. Pestalozzi's intention was that all the instruction given in this school should start from form, number, and language, and should have a constant refer- ence to these elements. There was no regular plan hi existence, neither was there a time-table, for which reason Pestalozzi did not tie himself down to any particular hours, but generally went on with the same subject for two or three hours together. There were about sixty of us, boys and girls, of ages varying from eight to fifteen years; the school-hours were from 8 till 11 in the morning, and from 2 to 4 in the afternoon. The instruction which we received was en- tirely limited to drawing, ciphering, and exercises in language. We neither read nor wrote, and accordingly we had neither reading nor writing books ; nor were we required to commit to memory any thing secular or sacred. For the drawing, we had neither copies to draw from nor directions what to draw, but only crayons and boards ; and we were told to draw " what we liked " during the tune that Pestalozzi was reading aloud sentences about natural history, (as exercises in language.) But we did not know what to draw, and so it happened that some drew men and women, some houses, and others strings, knots, arabesques, or whatever else came into their heads. Pestalozzi never looked to see what we had drawn, or rather scribbled ; but the clothes of all the scholars, especially the sleeves and elbows, gave unmistakable evidence that they had been making due use of their crayons. For the ciphering, we had between every two scholars a small table * When Pestalozzi himself speaks of his teaching, he is too apt to mix up what he intended with what he really effected. LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. 5 nasted on mill-board, on which in quadrangular fields were marked dots, which we had to count, to add together, to subtract, to multiply, and divide by one another. It was out of these exercises that Kriisi and Buss constructed, first, the Unity Table, and afterward the Fraction Tables. But, as Pestalozzi only allowed the scholars to go over and to repeat the exercises in their turns, and never questioned them nor set them tasks, these exercises, which were other- wise very good, remained without any great utility. He had not sufficient pa- tience to allow things to be gone over again, or to put questions ; and in his enormous zeal for the instruction of the whole school, he seemed not to concern himself in the slightest degree for the individual scholar. The best things we had with him were the exercises in language, at least those which he gave us on the paper-hangings of the school-room, and which were real exercises in observation. These hangings were very old and a good deal torn, and before these we had frequently to stand for two or three hours together, and say what we observed in respect to the form, number, position and color of the figures painted on them, and the holes torn in them, and to express what we observed in sentences gradually increasing in length. On such occasions, he would say: "Boys, what do you see?" (He never named the girls.) Answer. A hole, (or rent,) in the wainscoat. Pestalozzi. Very good. Now repeat after me : I see a hole in the wainscoat. I see a long hole in the wainscoat. Through the hole I see the wall. Through the long narrow hole I see the wall Pestalozzi. Repeat after me : I see figures on the paper-hangings. I see black figures on the paper-hangings. I see round black figures on the paper-hangings. I see a square yellow figure on the paper-hangings. Besides the square yellow figure, I see a black round figure. The square figure is joined to the round one by a thick black stroke. And so on. Of less utility were those exercises in language which he took from natural history, and in which we had to repeat after him, and at the same time to draw, as I have already mentioned. He would say : Amphibious animals. Crawling amphibious animals. Creeping amphibious animals. Monkeys. Long-tailed monkeys. Short-tailed monkeys. And so on. We did not understand a word of this, for not a word was explained, and it was all spoken hi such a sing-song tone, and so rapidly and indistinctly, that it would have been a wonder if any one had understood any thing of it, and had learnt any thing from it ; besides, Pestalozzi cried out so dreadfully loud and so continuously, that he could not hear us repeat after him, the less so as he never waited for us when he had read out a sentence, but went on without intermis- sion and read off a whole page at once. What he thus read out was drawn up on a hdlf-sheet of large-sized mill-board, and our repetition consisted for the most part in saying the last word or syllable of each phrase, thus " monkeys mon- keys," or "keys keys." There was never any questioning or recapitulation. As Pestalozzi in his zeal, did not tie himself to any particular time, we gene- rally went on till eleven o'clock with whatever he had commenced at eight, and by ten o'clock he was always tired and hoarse. We knew when it was eleven by the noise of other school children in the street, and then usually we all ran out without bidding good-bye. Although Pestalozzi had at all times strictly prohibited his assistants from using any kind of corporal punishment, yet he by no means dispensed with it himself, but very often dealt out boxes on the ears right and left. But most of the scholars rendered his life very unhappy, so much so that I felt a real sym- pathy for him, and kept myself all the more quiet. This he soon observed, and many a time he took me for a walk at eleven o'clock, for in fine weather he went every day to the banks of the river Emme, and for recreation and amuse- ment looked for different kinds of stones. I had to take part in this occupation $6 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI myself, although it appeared to me a strange one, seeing that millions of stones lay there, and I did not know which to search for. He himself was acquainted with only a few kinds, but nevertheless he dragged along home from this place every day with his pocket and his pocket handkerchief full of stones, though after they were deposited at home, they were never looked at again. He re- tained this fancy throughout his life. It was not an easy thing to find a single entire pocket handkerchief in the whole of the institution at Burgdorf, for all of them had been torn with carrying stones. There is one thing which, though indeed unimportant, I must not forget to mention. The first time that I was taken in to Pestalozzi's school he cordially welcomed and kissed me, then he quickly assigned me a place, and the whole morning did not speak another word to me, but kept on reading out sentences without halting for a moment. As I did not understand a bit of what \\ as .going on, when I heard the word "monkey, monkey," come every time at the end of a sentence, and as Pestalozzi, who was very ugly, ran about the room -as though he was wild, without a coat and without a neck-cloth, his long shirt- sleeves hanging down over his arms and hands, which swung negligently about, I was seized with real terror, and might soon have believed that he "himself was a monkey. During the first few days too, I was all the more afraid of him, as he had, on my arrival, given me a kiss with his strong, prickly beard, the first kiss which I remembered having received in my life. Ramsauer does not relate so much about the instruction given by the other teachers. Among the fruits of their instruction were two of the three elementary works which appeared in 1803, under Pesta- lozzi's name: (1.) "The ABC of Observation, or Lessons on the Relations of Size," (2.) "Lessons on the Relations of Number." (3.) The third elementary work alone was written by Pestalozzi himself; it is the one already mentioned, the "Book for Mothers, or Guide for Mothers in teaching their children to observe and speak." The institution at Burgdorf attracted more and more notice ; people came from a distance to visit it, induced particularly by Pestalozzi's work, " How Gertrude teaches her children." M. Decan Ith, who was sent by the Helvetian government in 1802, to examine the institution, made a very favorable report on it, in consequence of which the government recognized it as a public institution, and granted small salaries to the teachers out of the public funds. But that government was dissolved by Napoleon the very next year, and the constitution of the cantons restored. The Bernese government now fixed on the castle of Burgdorf, as the seat of one .of the chief magistrates of the canton ; and Pestalozzi had to clear out of it, on the 22d of August, 1804. In 1802, during Pestalozzi's stay at Burgdorf, Napoleon required the Swiss people to send a deputation to him at Paris. Two districts chose Pestalozzi as a deputy. Before his departure, he published a pamphlet, entitled " Views on the Objects to which the Legislature of Helvetia has to direct its attention." He put a memorandum on the wants of Switzerland into the hands of the First Consul, who paid as little attention to it as he did to Pestalozzi's educational efforts, declaring that he could not mix himself up with the teach' og of the ABC. LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. 3*7 The Bernese government gave up the monastery of Buchsee to Pestalozzi for his institution, and had the building properly arranged for him. Close by Buchsee lies the estate of Hofwyl, where Fellen- berg resided, and to whom the teachers gave the principal direction of the institution, "not without my consent," says Pestalozzi, "but to my profound mortification." Notwithstanding, Pestalozzi allows Fellenberg to have possessed in a high degree the talent of governing. In Fellenberg the intellect predominated, as in Pestalozzi the feelings ; in the institution at Buchsee, therefore, " that love and warmth was missing which, inspir- ing all who came within its influence, rendered every one at Burg- dorf so happy and cheerful : at Buchsee every thing was, in this respect, totally different. Still Buchsee had this advantage, that in it more order prevailed, and more was learned than at Burgdorf." Pestalozzi perceived that his institution would not become inde- pendent of Fellenberg, so long as it should remain at Buchsee, and he gladly accepted, therefore, a highly advantageous proposal on the part of the inhabitants of Yverdun, that he should remove his insti- tution to their town. He repaired thither, with some of his teachers and eight pupils ; half a year later, the remaining teachers followed, having, as Pestalozzi remarks, soon found the government of Fellen- berg far more distasteful than the want of government, under him, had ever been to them. We now enter on a period when Pestalozzi and his institution ac- quired a European reputation, when Pestalozzian teachers had schools in Madrid, Naples, and St. Petersburg, when the emperor of Russia gave the venerable old man a personal proof of his favor and esteem, and when Fichte saw in Pestalozzi and his labors the commencement of a renovation of humanity. But to write the history of this period is a task of unusual difficul- ty. On one side stand extravagant admirers of Pestalozzi, on the oth- er bitter censurers ; a closer examination shows us that both are right, and both wrong. A fearful dissension arises, in the institution itself, among the teachers ; at the head of the two parties stand Niederer and Schmid, who abuse each other in a manner unheard of. With which party shall we side ; or shall we side with neither, or with both ? If we ask to which party Pestalozzi inclined, or whether he held himself above the parties, and then go entirely according to his judg- ment, our embarrassment will only be increased. He pronounced a very different opinion on the same man at different times : at one time be saw in him a helping angel, before whom he humbled himself 88 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. more than was seemly, and from whom he expected every benefit to his institution ; at another time, he saw in him an almost fiendish being, who was only bent on ruining the institution. If any fancy that they have a sure source of information in the account drawn up by Pestalozzi and Nieder, and published in 1807, namely, the " Report on the State of the Pestalozzian Institution, ad- dressed to the Parents of the Pupils and to the Public ;" they will be undeceived by some remarks which Pestalozzi himself added to that report at a later period, in the collected edition of his works, but still more so in, u The Fortunes of my Life." This work is altogether at variance with those which give a high degree of praise to the Pesta- lozzian Institution, in its former condition. From the year in which the dispute between Niederer and Schmid, broke out, (1810,) most of those who give any information on the subject range themselves on Niederer's side ; while Pestalozzi himself, from the year 1815 till his death, holds unchangeably with Schmid. I should despair of ever being able to thread my way in this laby- rinth with any degree of certainty, were it not for the fact that I re- sided some time in the institution, namely, from October, 1809, till May 1810, and there became more intimately acquainted with persons and circumstances than I could otherwise have been. A friend, (Rudolph von Przystanowski,) accompanied me to Yver- dun, where we arrived toward the end of October. It was in the evening of a cold rainy day that we alighted at the hotel called the- Red House. The next morning we went to the old castle, built by Charles the Bold, which with its four great round towers incloses a courtyard. Here we met a multitude of boys ; we were conducted to Pestalozzi. He was dressed in the most negligent manner : he had on an old grey overcoat, no waistcoat, a pair of breeches, and stockings hanging down over his slippers ; his coarse bushy black hair uncombed and frightful. His brow was deeply furrowed, his dark brown eyes were now soft and mild, now full of fire. You hardly noticed that the old man, so full of geniality, was ugly ; you read in his singular features long continued suffering and great hopes. Soon after, we saw Niederer,* who gave me the impression of a young Roman Catholic priest ; Kriisi,* who was somewhat corpu- lent, fair, blue-eyed, mild and benevolent ; and Schmid,* who was, if possible, more cynical in his dress than Pestalozzi, with sharp features and eyes like those of a bird of prey. At that time 137 pupils, of ages varying from six to seventeen * A biographical sketch of Niederer, Kriisi, and Schmid, will be given at the close of th life of Pestalozzi. ED. LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEiM OF PfcSTALOZZI. gg, years, lived in the institution ; 28 lodged in the town, but dined in the institution. There were in all, therefore, 165 pupils. Among them there were 78 Swiss ; the rest were Germans, French, Russians, Italians, Spaniards, and Americans. Fifteen teachers resided in the institution, nine of whom were Swiss teachers, who had been educated there. Besides these, there were 32 persons who were studying the method : seven of them were natives of Switzerland. The interior of the building made a mournful impression on me ; but the situation was extremely beautiful. An extensive meadow separates it from the southern end of the glorious lake of Neufchatel, on the west side of which rises the Jura, range of mountains, covered with vineyards. From the heights of the Jura, above the village of Granson, rendered famous by the defeat of Charles the Bold, you survey on the one side the entire chain of the Alps, from Mount Pilatus, near Lucerne, to Mount Blanc ; on the other side you see far away into France. A short time after my arrival, I went to live in the institution, where I took my meals, and slept along with the children. If I wanted to do any work for myself, I had to do it while standing at a writing desk in the midst of the tumult of one of the classes. None of the teachers had a sitting-room to himself. I was fully determined to devote all my energies thenceforth to the institution, and accord- ingly I had brought with me Freddy Reichardt, the brother of my future wife, a boy of eight years, and now placed him among the other scholars. My position was well suited to enable me to compare the reports on the institution with what I daily saw and experienced. The higher my expectations had been raised by that report, the deep- er was my pain, as I was gradually undeceived ; I even thought I saw the last hopes of my native land disappear. It is scarcely necessary for me to particularize the respects in which I was undeceived ; they may be learnt from Pestalozzi's notes to the latter copy of his report, but especially from his work, "The Fortunes of my Life." Nevertheless I will advert to one or two principal points. I will particularly advert to what is said in the report about tl ' spirit of the institution, which is represented as being similar to thao which pervades a family. " We may with a good conscience, declare publicly, that the children in our institution are happy and cheerful ; that their innocence is preserved, their reli- gious disposition cherished, their mind formed, ther knowledge increased, their hearts elevated. The arrangements which have been adopted for attaining these objects possess a quiet inward power. They are based principally on the benev- olent and amiable character which distinguishes the teachers of our house, and which is supported by a vigorous activity. There reigns throughout the entire- institution the spirit of a great domestic union, in which, according to the re- quirements of such a union, a pure paternal and fraternal feeling every where 4)0 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. shines forth. The children feel themselves free, their aeiivity finds even a pow- erful charm in their employments ; the confidence reposed in them, and the af- fection shown toward them, elevate their sentiments." "The life in the house is, to a rare extent, a school for cultivating domestic affection and domestic un- ity." " All the teachers in common, acting as an organized whole, do for all the children what a careful mother does for the few children of her own family.' 1 The body of teachers " attains the. most perfect unity of thought and action, and appears to the children as only one person." " In general, it is to be remarked that we seek throughout to awaken and to footer the spirit of peace, of love, and of mutual brotherly fellowship. The dis- position of the great body of our inmates is good. A spirit of strength, of re- pose, and of endeavor rests on the whole. There is much in our midst ihnt is eminently good. Some pupils evince an angelic disposition, full of love and of a presentiment of higher thoughts and a higher existence. The bad ones do not feel themselves comfortable in the midst of our life and labor ; on the other land, every spark of good and noble feeling which still glimmers even in the lae;iran< v of the most amiable household has the most undisturbed play in our midst. The children's feelings are not lightly wounded. The weak 'an- not made to com] 'an- themselves with the strong, but with themselves. We never ask a pupil if he can do what another does. We only ask him if he can do a 'hinu. J!;it \\e always ask him if he con doit perfectly. As littleof the strug- gle of competition takes place between one pupil and another, as between affectionate brothers and sisters who live with a loving mother in a happy condition." " We live together united in brotherly love, free and cheerful, and are, in re- spect to that which we aeknowledge as the one thing needful, one heart and one soul. We may also say that our pupils are one heart and one soul with us. They feel that we treat them in a fatherly manner; they feel that we serve them, and that we are glad to serve them ; they feel that we do not merely instruct them ; they feel that for their education we give life and motion to every thing in them that belongs to the character of man. They also hang with their whole hearts on our actions. They live in the constant consciousness of their own strength." Must not even a sober reader of these passages be led to believe that a spirit of the most cordial love and concord reigned in a rare manner in the Pestalozzian institution. How much more did I believe so, who, deeply distressed by the calamities of those days, and inspired with hope by the eloquence of Fichte, perceived in Yverdun the commencement of a better time, and ardently longed to hasten its approach. Those who did not themselves live through those years of anguish, in which injustice increased and love waxed cold in the hearts of many, may perhaps smile at the enthusiasm of despair. Pestalozzi himself says of the institution that, as early as the time when it was removed from Buchsee to Yverdun, it bare within itself " the seeds of its own internal decay, (these are his own words,) in the unequal and contradictory character of the abilities, opinions, inclina- tions, and claims of its members ; although as yet this dissension had done any thing but declare itself general, unrestrained, and fierce." He says, that nevertheless many of the members were still desirous for peace, and that others were moderate in their views and feelings. *' But the seeds of our decay had been sown, and though they were still invisible in many places, had taken deep root. Led aside by LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. 91 worldly temptations and apparent good fortune from the purity, sim- plicity, and innocence of our first endeavors, divided among ourselves in our inmost feelings, and from the first made incapable, by the heterogeneous nature of our peculiarities of ever becoming of one mind and one heart in spirit and in truth for the attainment of our objects, we stood there outwardly united, even deceiving ourselves with respect to the real truth of our inclination to this union, and unfortunately we advanced; each one in his own manner, with firm and at one time with rapid steps along a path which, without our being really conscious of it, separated us every day further from the possibility of our ever being united. What Ramsauer says entirely agrees with this. In Burgdorf, he says, there reigned a kindly spirit. "This ceased when the family life was transformed in the institution into a constitutional state existence. Now the individual was more easily lost in the crowd : thus there arose a desire on his part to make himself felt and noticed. Egotism made its appearance every day in more offensive forms. Envy and jealousy rankled in the breasts of many." "Much indeed was said about 'a domestic life,' which ought to prevail in an educa- tional establishment, just as a very great deal was said and written about an * harmonious development of all the faculties of the pupil ;' but both existed more in theory than in practice. It is true, that a good deal of common interest was evinced in the general working of the institution, but the details were allowed to go on or stand still very much as they might, and the tone of the whole house was more a tone of pushing and driving than one of domestic quietude." In the report is this passage- : " In respect to the execution of the design, we may say decidedly, that the institution has stood the fiery ordeal of eight severe years." On this passage Pestalozzi remarks as follows in 1823 : " What is Lere said in confirmation of this view is altogether a consequence of the great delusion under which we lay at that period, namely, that all those things in regard to which we had strong intentions and some -clear ideas, were really as they ought to have been, and as we should have liked to make them. But the consequences of the partial truth which in this instance had hold of our minds were, from want of suf- -ficient knowledge, ability, and skill for carrying it out, fixed in our midst, confused, and made the seed of countless weeds, by which the good seed that lay in the ground was on all sides crowded, and here ind there choked. Neither did we perceive the weeds at that time; indeed, as we then lived, thought, acted, and dreamt, it was impossi- ble that we should perceive them." 92 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. I am fully aware that by some these later observations of Pestalozzi have been attributed partly to the weakness of old -age, partly to the influence of Schmid. To this I can not assent. As early as new year's day, 1808, at the same time as the report appeared, Pestalozzi said to his teachers : " My work was founded in love ; love vanished from our midst ; it could not but vanish. We deceived ourselves as to the strength which this love de- mands ; it could not but vanish. I am no longer in a position to provide any help for it. The poison which eats into the heart of our work is accumulating hi our midst. Worldly honor will increase this poison. God, grant that wo may no longer be overcome by our delusion. I look upon the laurels which arc- strewn in our path as laurels set up over a skeleton. I see before my eyes the skeleton of my work, in so far as it is my work. I desire to place it before your eyes. I saw the skeleton which is hi my house Appear crowned with laurels be- fore my eyes, and the laurels suddenly go up in flames. They cannot bear the fire of affliction which must and will come upon my house ; they will disap- pear ; they must disappear. My work will stand. But the consequences of my faults will not pass away. I shall be vanquished by them. My deliverance is the grave. I go away, but you remain, Would that these words now stood before your eyes in flames of fire ! Friends, make yourselves better than I was, that God may finish his work through you, as he does not finish it through me. Make yourselves better than I was. Do not by your faults lay those same hin- drances in your way that I have lain in mine. Do not let the appearance of success deceive you, as it deceived me. You are called to higher, to general sacrifice, or you too will fail to save my work. Enjoy the passing hour, enjoy the full- ness of worldly honor, the measure of which has risen for us to its greatest height; but remember that it vanishes like the flower of the field, which blooms for a little while, but soon passes away." What contradictions ! Does then the same fountain send forth both sweet and bitter ? Was the report actually intended to deceive the world ? Never; but Pestalozzi was not entirely free from an unfortunate spirit of worldly calculation, although his calculations in most cases turned out incorrect. Ever full of the idea of spreading happiness over many lands, in a short time, by means of his methods of instruc- tion and education, he naturally considered it all-important that peo- ple should have a good opinion of his institution. By the bulk of (he public, indeed, the institution was taken as substantial evidence for or against the excellence and practicability of his educational ideas : with it they stood or fell. The concern which Pestalozzi felt about the reputation of his establishment became especially apparent when foreigners, .particularly persons of distinction, visited Yverdun. "As many hundred times in the course of the year," says Ramsauer, "as foreigners visited the Pestalozzian Institution, so many hundred times did Pesta- lozzi allow himself, in his enthusiasm, to be deceived by them. On the arrival of every fresh visitor, he would go to the teachers in whom he placed most con- fidence and say to them : ' This is an important personage, who wants to become acquainted with all we are doing. Take your best pupils and their analysis-books, (copy-books in which the lessons were written out,) and show him what we can do and what we wish to do.' Hundreds and hundreds of times there came to the institution, silly, curious, and often totally uneducated persons, who came because it was the 'the fashion.' On their account, we LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. 93 usually had to interrupt the class instruction and hold a kind of examination. In 1814, the aged Prince Esterhazy came. Pestalozzi ran all over the house, calling out : 'Ramsauer, Ramsauer, where are you? Come directly with your best pupils to the Red House, (the hotel at which the Prince had alighted.) He is a person of the highest importance and of infinite wealth ; he has thou- sands of bond-slaves in Hungary and Austria. He is certain to build schools and set free his slaves, if he is made to take an interest in the matter.' I took about fifteen pupils to the hotel. Pestalozzi presented me to the Prince with these words : ' This is the teacher of these scholars, a young man who fifteen years ago migrated with other poor children from the canton of Appenzell and came to me. But he received an elementary education, according to his individ- ual aptitudes, without let or hindrance. Now he is himself a teacher. Thus you see that there is as much ability in the poor as in the richest, frequently more ; but in the former it is seldom developed, and even then, not methodically. It is for this reason that the improvement of the popular schools is so highly im- portant, i But he will show you every tiling that we do better than I could. I will, therefore, leave him with you for the present/ I now examined the pupils, taught, explained, and bawled, hi my zeal, till I was quite hoarse, believing that the Prince was thoroughly convinced about every thing. At the end of an hour, Pestalozzi returned. The Prince expressed his pleasure at what he had seen. He then took leave, and Pestalozzi, standing on the steps of the hotel, said : ' He is quite convinced, quite convinced, and will certainly establish schools on his Hungarian estates.' When we had descended the stairs, Pesta- lozzi said : ' "Whatever ails my arm ? It is so painful. Why, see, it is quite swollen, I can't bend it.' And in truth his wide sleeve was now too small for his arm. I looked at the key of the house-door of the maison rouge and said to Pestalozzi ; ' Look here, you struck yourself against this key when we were going to the Prince an hour ago.' On closer observation it appeared that Pesta- lozzi had actually bent the key by hitting his elbow against it. In the first hour afterward he had not noticed the pain, for the excess of his zeal and his joy. So ardent and zealous was the good old man, already numbering seventy years, when he thought he had an opportunity of doing good. I could adduce many such instances. It was nothing rare in summer for strangers to come to the castle four or five times in the same day, and for us to have to interrupt the instruction on their account two, three or four times." After this highly characteristic account, I ask the reader whether he will cast a stone at the amiable and enthusiastic old man? I cer- tainly will not, though I could heartily have wished that, faithful in small things and mindful of the grain of mustard seed, he had plant- ed his work in stillness, and that it had been slow and sound in its growth, even if it had been observed by only a few. The source of the internal contradiction which runs through the life of Pestalozzi, was, as we saw from his own confessions, the fact \ that, in spite of his grand ideal, which comprehended the whole human race, he did not possess the ability and skill requisite for conducting even the smallest village school. His highly active imagination led him to consider and describe as actually existing in the institution whatever he hoped sooner or later to see realized. His hopeful spir- it foresaw future development in what was already accomplished, and expected that others would benevolently do the same. This bold as- sumption has an effect on many, especially on the teachers of the institution. This appears to explain how, in the report on the institu- tion, so much could be said bond fide which a sober spectator was forced to pronounce untrue. 94 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI But this self-delusion is never of long duration ; tin- period of over- strung enthusiasm is followed by one of hopelessness and dejection. The heart of man is indeed an alternately proud and dejected thing !' Such an ebb and flow of lofty enthusiasm and utter despair pervades the entire life of Pestalozzi. The address which he delivered to his- teachers in 1808 appears almost as the caput mortuumof the report: the truth at last makes itself hoard in tones of bitter remorse. Pes- talozzi makes a more tranquil confession concerning the early times of Yverdun, at a later period of his life, in .his autobiography. More than sixteen years had elapsed, and passion had cooled down. He- states soberly what he had enthusiastically wished to accomplish in those earlier days ; he acknowledges that he had deceived himself and he can now therefore relate the history of the institution clearly and truthfully. But the times less removed from him are still too- present to his feelings, too near to his impassioned gaze, for him to- be able to delineate them with the same historical clearness in that work. The report speaks of the instruction imparted in the institution in a way which can not have failed to give offense to persons who were not enthusiastically prejudiced in favor of Pestalozzi. Listen to these remarks : With regard to the subjects of the instruction generally, the following is- what may be stated. The child learns to know and exercise himself, that is. his physical, intellectual, moral, and religious faculties. With this instruction to the child about himself, instruction about nature keeps pace. Commencing with the child in his domestic relations, the latter instruction gradually embraces hu- man nature in all the above mentioned aspects. And in the same way, com- mencing with the circle of the child's oliservation.it gradually embraces tin- whole of external nature. From the first starting point, the child is led to an.- insight into the essential relations of mankind and society; from the second to an insiirht into the relations in which the human race stands to external nature, and external nature to the human race. Man and nature, and their mutual re- lation, constitute, therefore, the primary matter of the instruction: and from these subjects the knowledge of all sep; irate brandies of study is developed. It must here be remarked, however, that the aim of the instruction is not to make the pupils comprehend man and nature merely externally, that is, merely in so far as they present isolated imperical characteristics, capable of bem- arranged either in a logical sequence of separate units, or in any other order that may be convenient. The aim is rather to make the pupils observe things as a living ami organic whole, harmoniously bound together by necessary and eternal laws, and developing itsdf from something simple and original, so that we may thus brin- them to see how one thing is linked in another. The instruction, as a whole. does not proceed from any theory, but from the very life and substance r,f na- ture ; and every theory appears only as the expression and representation of this observed life and substance." I am relieved from the necessity of offering any criticism on this passage by a note which Pestalozzi added to it fifteen years later. " In this and several other passages," says the venerable old man, u I express, not so much my own peculiar views on education in their original simplicity, as certain immature philosophical views, with. LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. 0,5 which, at that time, notwithstanding all our good intentions, most of the inmates of our house, myself among the rest, must needs perplex our heads, and which brought me personally to a standstill in my en- deavors. These views caused the house and the institution, both of which attained at this period a seeming flourishing condition, to go rotten at the roots ; and they are to be looked upon as the hidden source of all the misfortunes which have since come upon me.' r It would take too long to follow the report in the accounts which it gives of the instruction in the separate branches of knowledge. In every thing Pestalozzi wants to be entirely novel, and just for this rea- son he falls into mistakes. Take, as a specimen, the following on the instruction in geography : " The instruction in this subject begins with the observation of the district in which we live, as a type of what the surface of the earth presents. It is then separated into elementary instruction, which includes physical, mathematical, and political geography, and (2,) the topographical part, in which each of the de- partments of the subject suggested by the observation of the surrounding dis- trict is prosecuted in a graduated course, and their reciprocal bearings brought out. By this foundation, the pupils are prepared for forming a clear and com- prehensive view of the earth and man, and their mutual influence on each oth- er, of the condition of states and peoples, of the progress of the human race .in intellectual culture, and lastly of physical science in its broader outlines and more general relations. The children are made acquainted with the statistical portion of the subject, that is, the natural productions, the number of inhabit- ants, form of government, Ac., by means of tabular views." After this, need we wonder when we find Pestalozzi, in his me- moirs, speaking of the earlier days of Yverdun in the following manner? "The desire of governing, in itself unnatural, was called forth among us at this period, on the one hand, by the reputation of our modes of instruction, which continued to increase after our return to Yverdun, and the intoxicating good fortune that streamed to in-.-ir- ly every fool who hung out the sign-board of an elementary method which, in reality, did not as yet exist ; on the other, by the audacity of our behavior toward the whole world, and toward every thing that was done in education and was not cast in our mould. The tiling is melancholy ; but it is true. We poor weak birds presumed to take our little nestlings, ere they were fairly out of their shells, on flights which even the strongest birds do not attempt until their young ones have gained strength in many previous trials. We announced pub- licly things which we had neither the strength nor the means to accomplish. There are hundreds and hundreds of these vain boastings of which I do not like to speak." No wonder that, in this state of things, there arose a determined opposition to the institution. In Switzerland especially, Pestalozzi says, the public journals began "to speak decidedly against our pretensions, asserting that what \v<- did was by no means what we vjtf LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTKM OF I'KSTALOZZI. considered and represented ours.-l\vs to be doing. But, (he contin- ues,) instead of penitently returning to modesty, we sturdily resisted this opposition. While participating in this temerity, which is now incomprehensible to me, I began to be sensible that we were treading in paths which might lead us astray, and that, in truth, many things in the midst of us were not as they should have been, and as we endeavored to make them appear in the eyes of the world." Other members of the institution thought quite differently ; full of self-confidence, they pressed for a formal examination ; and in the month of May, 1809, an application to that effect was made to the Swiss Diet, then assembled at Freiburg. The request was granted, and Merian, member of the executive council of Basel ; Trechsel, professor of mathematics, at Bern ; and Pere Girard, of Freiburg, were commissioned by Governor D'Affry to examine the institution. In November, 1809, just after I had arrived in Yverdun, this com- mission of inquiry came down and remained five days. They were five sultry days for Pestalozzi and his teachers ; it was felt that the commission, which confined itself strictly to actual results, would make no very enthusiastic report. Pere Gerard wrote the report in French, Professor Trechsel translated it into German ; on the 1 2th of May, 1810, it was presented to the Diet, then assembled at Solothurn. In the following year, the thanks of the country were accorded to Pestalozzi, by the Diet ; and there the matter was allowed to rest. I believe that the commission pronounced an impartial judgment ; the conclusion of the report speaks for the whole. "The educational methods of the institution, (say the commissioners,) stand only in very imperfect connection with our establishments for public instruc- tion. The institution has in no way aimed at coming into harmony with these public schools. Determined at any price to interest all the faculties of children, in order to guide their development according to its own principles, it has taken counsel of its own views only, and be- trays an irresistible desire to open for itself new paths, even at the cost of never treading in those which usage has now established. This was perhaps the right means for arriving at useful discoveries, but it was also a design which rendered harmony impossible. The institution pursues its own way ; the public institutions pursue theirs ; and there is no probability that both ways will very soon meet. It is a pity that the force of circumstances has always driven Mr. Pesta- lozzi beyond the career which his pure zeal and his fervent charity had marked out for him. A good intention, noble endeavors, indefatiga- ble perseverance, should and will always meet with justice. Let us profit by the excellent ideas which lie at the foundation of the whole LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. 9*7 undertaking; let us follow its instructive examples; but let us also lament that an adverse fate must hang over a man, who, by the force of circumstances, is constantly hindered from doing what he would wish to do." After the publication of the report, there arose a long and violent literary warfare, which did any thing but add to the credit of the in- stitution.* With this war against .external foes, was unfortunately associated an internal feud, which ended in the departure of Schmid and others of the teachers. One of Pestalozzi's biographers states, that Schmid's pride and pre- tensions had grown to such an extent, that he had acted with the greatest harshness toward Pestalozzi, Niederer, and Kriisi. "This was caused," continues the biographer, " by some ideas which he had partially caught up from two scientific men who were then stopping with Pestalozzi, (one of them is now a man of note in Silesia.) Per- haps at that time these ideas were not very clearly defined in the minds of those men themselves."! The biographer means me and my friend ; I shall therefore not be misunderstood, if I relate briefly the matter to which he refers. I had come to learn and to render service. On this account, I took up my quarters entirely in the old building of the institution, slept in one of the large dormitories, took my meals with the chil- dren, attended the lessons, morning and evening prayers, and the con- ferences of the teachers. I listened and observed attentively in silence ; but I was far from thinking of commencing myself to teach. My opinion upon all the things that I saw and heard was formed very much with reference to the boy of eight years intrusted to my care, accordingly as they contributed to his comfort or otherwise. Several weeks had passed on in this way, when I was one evening with Pes- talozzi and the rest of the teachers at the hotel of the Wild Man, where they used to meet I think once a fortnight. After supper, Pestalozzi called me into an adjoining room ; we were quite alone. ** My teachers are afraid of you," he said, " because you only listen and look on in silence ; why do you not teach ?" I answered that before teaching, I wished to learn to learn in silence. After the * The well-known K. L. von Haller noticed the report of the commission in terms of high praise, in the G'ottirtgen Lite.rary Advertiser, of the 13th of April, 1811, and at the same time accused the Pestalozzian Institution of inspiring its pupils with an aversion from religion, the constituted authorities, and the aristocracy. In reply to this, Niederer wrote "The Pesta- \n".-r.\p.n Institution to the Public." This pamphlet appeared in a new form in 1812, under the title, " Pestalozzi's Educational Undertaking in relation to ihe Civilization of the Present Time." Bremi, of Zurich, wrote in reply to the former pamphlet ; Pestalozzi and Niederer wrote again in reply to Bremi. Niederer professes to have convicted Bremi of ninety-two lies, thirty-six falsifications, and twenty calumnies. t Henning, in the Schulrath, (an educational periodical ) 7 98 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZ1. conversation had touched on one thing and another, he frankly told me'things about several of his teachers which put me into a state of astonishment, and which stood in direct contradiction with what I had read in the report, but not with what I had myself already observed or expected. Pestalozzi followed up these disclosures with the pro- posal, that I and my friend, in company with Schmid, whom he highly praised, especially for hjs practical ability and his activity r should set to work to renovate the institution. The proposal came upon me so unexpectedly, that I begged for time to think of it, and discussed the matter with my friend, who was just as much surprised as I was. We were both naturally brought by this means into a closer relation with Schmid, became in a short time acquainted with the arcana imperil, and honestly considered what obstacles stood in the way of the prosperity of the institution, and what could be done to remove them. Foremost of these was the intermixture of German and French boys, which doubly pained me, as I had come from Paris. The pa- rents thought otherwise: they perceived in this very intermixture a fortunate means of training their children in the easiest way to speak both languages : whereas the result was, that the children could 'speak neither. With such a medley of children, the institution was devoid of a predominant mother-tongue, and assumed the mongrel character of border-provinces. Pestalozzi read the prayers every morning and evening, first in German, then in French ! At the lessons in the Ger- man language, intended for German children, I found French children who did not understand the most common German word. This, and much more that was to be said against this intermixture, was now discussed with Pestalozzi, and the proposal was made to him, to sep- arate the institution into two departments, one for German, the other for French children. Only in this way, it was represented to him, could the. education of each class of children be successfully conducted. The proposal was not accepted, chiefly on account of external ob- stacles, which might however have been overcome. A passage in Pestalozzi's " Fortunes " shows that he afterward thoroughly agreed with us. In this passage he calls it an unnatural circumstance, that the institution was transplanted from Burgdorf to Yverdun, " from German to French soil." " When we first come here," he continues, " our pupils were nearly all Germans ; but there was very soon added to them an almost equal number of French children. Most of the German children were now intrusted to us, not with any particular reference to any elementary or other education, but simply in order LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. 99 that they might learn to speak French in a German house, and this was the very thing that we were least able to teach them ; so also- most of the French parents intrusted their children to us, in order that they might learn German in our German house : and here we stood between these two claims, equally unable to satisfy either the one or the other. At the same time, the persons on either side, who committed their children to our care, saw with as little distinctness what they really wished of us, as we did the extent of our inability to satisfy their real wishes. But it had now become the fashion to send us children from all sides ; and so, in respect to pecuniary resources and eulogistic prattle, things went on for a considerable time in their old glittering but deceptive path." The second evil was this. Much as is said in the report about the life in the institution having quite the character of that in a family, and even excelling it in many respects, still nothing could be less do- mestic than this life was. Leaving out of consideration Pestalozzi's residence, there were indeed in the old castle class rooms, dining rooms, and bed rooms, but the parlor, so justly esteemed by Pesta- lo/zi, was altogether wanting. Older boys who, as the expression is, had arrived at years of indiscretion, may have felt this want less ; but so much the more was it felt by the youngest by children of six to ten years. I felt deeply on this account for my little Freddy, who,, until he came to the institution, had grown up under the care of a tender mother in a lovely family circle. His present uncomfortable , and even desolate existence grieved me much, and troubled my con- science. For his sake, and at the same time, for the sake of the rest of the little boys, we begged Pestalozzi to rent a beautiful dwelling house in the vicinity of Yverdun, where the children might iind a friendly compensation for the life of the family circle which they had lost. We offered to take up our abode with them. This proposal also was declined. It may easily be supposed that in the consultation upon it, the weak side of the institution, the want of a 'parlor, and the impossibility even of supplying the place of the family life, was very fully discussed.* Many of the conversations I had with Pestalozzi I shall never for- get. One of them concerned the teachers of the institution, in par- ticular the under-teachers. I saw that many of them labored with the greatest fidelity and conscientiousness, even sacrificing themselves * We made a third proposal, because it appeared to us to be impossible that Pestalozzi's ideas could be realized in Yverdun under the then existing circumstances. We asked him to establish in the canton of Argovia the long promised popr school, and offered to engage in the work ourselves to the best of our ability. As he declined this proposal also, I thought it my duty, especially on account of the boy confided to me, to leave the institution. 100 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. for the good of the institution. I need only refer the reader to the autobiography of honest, manful Ranlsauer, for evidence of this fact. But still there was something wanting in most of the teachers ; this Pestalozzi himself could not help feeling. In his new year's address of 1811, he said to them: "Do not attach a higher value to the ability to teach well, than that which it really has in relation to edu- cation as a whole. You have, perhaps, too early in your lives had to bear burdens which may have diminished somewhat the lovely bloom of your youth ; but to you as educators, that bloom is indispensable. You must seek to restore it. I am not ignorant of your ability, your worth ; but just because I know them, I would wish to set upon them the crown of an amiable disposition, which will increase your worth and make even your ability a blessing." In what then were the teachers deficient ? Pestalozzi points out one thing : many who had grown up in the institution had too early borne burdens, and had been kept in uninterrupted exertion. " Those teachers who had been pupils of Pestalozzi," says Ramsauer, " were particularly hard worked, for he at all times required much more from tin-ill, than he did from the other teachers ; he expected them to live entirely for the house, to be day and night concerned for the wel fare of the house and the pupils. They were to help to bear every burden, every unpleasantness, every domestic care, and to be respon- sible for every thing. Thus, for example, in their leisure hours, (that is when they had no lessons to give,) they were required at one time to work some hours every day in the garden, at another to chop wood for the fires, and, for some time, even to light them early in the morning, or transcribe, &c. There were some years in which no one of us were found in bed after three o'clock in the morning ; and we had to work summer and winter, from three in the morning till six in the evening."* Nearly all the work consisted in the direct perform- ance of school duties ; the teachers had no time to think of their own improvement. There was another thing. Most of the teachers of the institution might be regarded as so many separate and independent teachers, who had indeed received their first instruction there, but who had passed much too soon from learning to teaching, and wished to see how they could fight their way through. There was never any such thing as a real pedagogical lecture. Under such a course of training, it could not happen otherwise than that some of the teachers should strike into peculiar paths : of this Schmid gave an example. But it was an Ramsauer's time-table shows that, from two or three o'clock in the morning till nine in it-d Yverdun. He remained in the institution >ix \v<-.-ks ; his observations were embodied in two works.* During the war of 1814, the hospital department of the Austrian army required that the buildings of the institution should l>e givon up for a hospital. Fortunately, tin- Emperor Alexander \va> then at Basel : Pestalo//i immudiaU-ly went to him, and wa> iv.-eived in the most friendly inanm-r; in consequence of the interposition of the emperor, the hospital was not established at Yverdun at all, and in November of the same year Pestalozzi received the order of St. Vladimir, fourth class. Schmid's departure from the institution caused a very sen>i!le void, the existence of which was painfully felt. Letters which Pestalozzi wrote to Niederer at that time, bear witness t<> the evil plight in which the institution was placed. "0 Niederer," he writes, "without strength and purity of purpose in those who surround us, all our en- deavors after what i> gr.-at and hiirh are lost' the sublime and good can not easily unfold tli.-mx-lves where weakness and worthless- ness peer forth from all corners our greatest enemies are under our own roof, and eat from the same dish with us it is better to be alone than to accept delusive aid from baseness." In a second letter, Pestalozzi writes : " The internal weakness of our house has opened the mouth of the weakest among us, for them to give us monkey's advice and hold public conferences about us among themselves. The great evil of our house comes from boys who here play the part of men, but who at every other place would be schoolboys." In this period falls also the visit of the Prussian Chancellor of State, von Beyme, who entered the institution " with a great predis- position in favor of Pestalozzi," and before he left it expressed himself to the effect, that if the institution held together for another year, he should look upon it as the greatest wonder, for that, in the instruction which he had seen given there, things were wanting which teachers in the lowest village schools would be ashamed to have neglected. Niederer felt more than any one else the void created by the de- parture of Schmid. As -arly as the end of the year 1813, he wrote to Schmid in the most conciliatory manner, and writing on the 10th * Precis 8ur I'inslitut d" Yverdun en Suisse, 1812 ; and Esprit de la methods d'education de M. Pestalozzi. LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI ^5 of February, 1815, he >ays : M With Pestalozzi, I stake every thing I have upon bringing you back. Alone I can do nothing. You know wherein I am deficient, but with you and a few other extinguished and noble minded men, I do not doubt of the realization of an educa- tional heaven on earth." iV-talox/i adduces these passages' as certain proofs of Schmid's ability, and the high value of his services to the institution : but they aUo testify to an honorable mind on the part of Niederer, who did not attempt to conceal his own practical incompetency, and who re- 1 a d -ep- seated antipathy to Schmid, in order to realize his educational ideal. Schmid was then at the head of a school in Bregenz. At Nieder- er's pressing invitation, he returned to Yverdun in the Easter of 1815, and now commenced a comprehensive reform of the institution, >j- ( ially in an economical point of view. There soon arose a silent but general antipathy to him. On the llth of the following December, 'Madame Pestalozzi died, aged nearly eighty years, having been the faithful and patient partner of her husband during forty-five years, through times of severe suffer- ing. At her funeral, after a hymn had been sung, Pestalozzi, turning toward the coffin, said : u We were shunned and contemned by all, sickness and poverty bowed u-> down, and we ate dry bread with tears; what wa* it that, in those days of severe trial, gave you and me strength to persevere and not cast away our hope ? M Thereupon he took up a Bible, which was lyini; near at hand, pressed it on the breast of the corpse, and >aid : u From this source you and I drew courage, and strength, and peace." Her grave is under two tall walnut trees in the garden of the castle. On this sorrowful day, the antipathy of many of the teachers toward Schmid first broke out into open enmity, which was never again appeased, and which positively poisoned the last twelve years of the poor old man's life. From that time every blessing seemed to forsake the institution, and every new undertaking in which Pestalozzi engaged. Most of the teachers were against Schmid. Blochmann, for many years director of a flourishing educational establishment at Dresden, drew up a formal complaint against him, which was signed by Kriisi, Ramsauer, Stern, Ackermann, and others, in all twelve teachers. In the year 1816, these men left the institution, among them even Kriisi, so many years the fellow-laborer of Pestalozzi. " Father," he wrote to Pestalozzi, u my time of enjoying your presence is past. I must leave your institution, as it is now conducted, if I am not IOQ LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. forever to !>. mv courage and strength to live tor you and your work. F<>r all that you were to me, and all that I was able to be to you, I thank God ; for all my shortcomings, I pray God and yourself to forgive me. At length, in 1817, Niederer also separated from the institution ; Pestalozzi tried in vain the following year to reconcile him with Schmid. Both of them acknowledged Pestalozzi as their master, and yet the reconciliation was impossible. They were too much opposed to each other, not merely in natural endowments, but in their aim ami object, in the educational idea which each endeavored to realize in the institution. Niederer saw in Pestalozzi a man who had grasped with instinctive profundity the subject of human culture, but had given only a frag- mentary view of it, and who could not control the ideas which, as it were, possessed him. Niederer felt himself called to control tin -in philosophically to build up out of those mighty educational fragments a complete systematic theory. At first, Pestalozzi could not comprehend him, not understanding his philosophical language. At a later period, Pestalozzi saw in him the one man in the institution, who, standing on the pinnacle of Ger- man culture, was fitted to assign to the new method its proper place in the region of human culture generally. Only by such a man, he thought, could the educated world, especially Germany, be won over to his educational plans ; by such a man must his Swiss idiom be translated into an intelligible high German. Nay, for some time he even thought that Niederer understood him better than he understood himself. Niederer was deficient in the practical skill requisite for carrying out his educational theory, as he himself frequently acknowledged. His intention in the institution was more to observe the results of the practical talent at work there, and in this manner to learn what he could, but at the same time to see that all the teachers wrought together with one mind toward one and the same object the realiza- tion of the educational theory. No wonder that Pestalozzi, as he again and again affirmed, did not feel himself attracted by Niederer's peculiar character, even at times when the two men stood in a very friendly relation toward each other ; and just as little need we wonder that the old man subsequently- dissolved a connection, which had been formed by his will rather than his inclination. But how entirely different was his relation to Schmid ! u Inexpli caple feelings," he says, " drew me toward him from the moment of LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. 10 7 liis appearance in our circle, as I have never felt myself drawn toward any oth-r pupil." Pestalozzi writes characteristically: "I must trace from its origin the strength which alone appeared capable of holding us together in this unhappy state." This personified strength was no other than the shepherd boy Schmid, who had migrated from the Tyrolese mountains to Burgdorf. Pestalozzi says that he soon left his teachers behind him. " By his practical talent and incessant activity," continues Pestulo/zi, " he soared above the influence of every other person in the house. I did not conceal that I looked upon the strength of this pupil, though still so young, as the main stay of my house." Pestalozzi characterizes Schmid in the same way in an address which he delivered in the year 1818. " T will not," he says, " make more of him than he is to me. I know him. He has a natural power which, in its artlessness, penetrates where much art has often before my own eyes failed to enter. Schmid threw a hard shell about the kernel of my vanishing labors, and saved me." Niederer also acknowledged in the fullest measure, the ability and activity of Schmid. Like Pestalozzi, Niederer saw in him a most indefatigable teacher of mathematics and drawing, who, by his ex- ample, as well as by severe censure, could incite the remaining teach- ers to conscientious activity ; he also saw in him a man who, being a pupil of Pestalozzi, was regarded as one of the fruits of the method, and who consequently impressed foreign visitors with a favorable idea of it. Thus it came that, in the year 1814, he hoped every thing from a reconciliation with Schmid. But how deceived he found himself, when Pestalozzi gave into Schmid's hands the sceptre over the entire institution. Blochmann, too, in his complaint, acknowledges Schmid's "activity, perseverance, endurance, punctuality, administrative ability, his meri- torious services in establishing greater order in the institution, his skill in teaching the elementary branches of mathematics a rare talent." All these were qualities which neither Pestalozzi nor Niederer possessed, and which, therefore, marked out Schmid as an indispensa- ble member of the staff of teachers. But, if Blochmann and the other teachers who signed the complaint acknowledged this, why did they press for Schmid's removal ? Because, they answer, in that document, " the source of all that Schmid does is complete selfish- ness, ability without humility, without love, without self-denial, sound- ing brass, a tinkling cymbal, and Schmid himself is wise as the serpent, ^ut not harmless as the dove." In a letter, (19th March, 1818,) to Pestalozzi, Niederer reproaches him with having overrated the ability of Schmid, and ability generally. 108 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. "Ruin," he says, "entered your institution, when, dazzled and led away by individual instances of brilliant talents and results, you ceased to bestow any particular attention on that which by its nature can work only in silence, although it stands higher than talent, and alone can render the development of talent possible ; when you be- gan so to act as if you owed every thing to that with which you could make a display, and nothing to that which was not suited to this pur- pose. Under this fundamental error, I say more, under this funda- mental injustice, the mathematical side of the method and the insti- tution was made prominent, as if that singly and solely were the essence of the method and the salvation of humanity. Low and >ii<'-siJed qualities were honored at expense of the higher ones. The qualities of good temper, fidelity, love, if they were not joined with those external qualities, were slighted and depreciated in the persons in whom they existed. In the kind of praise which you u'ave to the manual dexterity of utterly inexperienced youths in particular department-, you placed this dexterity above intelligence, knowledge and experience." Let us now return to the history of the institution. In the Easter of 1816, M. Jullien, already mentioned, came to Yverdun, bringing twenty-four pupils with him from France ; but, annoyed, it is said, by Schmid, he quitted the institution the very next year. As already stated, Niederer separated from the institution in 1817, from which time he conducted the girls' school only, in company with his wife. In the same year, a most ignominious and lamentable law- suit, which lasted seven years, arose concerning the pecuniary affairs of this school, between Pestalozzi and Schmid, on one side, and Niederer, on the other. "It was in July, 1817," says Pestalozzi, "that a letter referring to that quarrel suddenly threw me into a state of inward rage, which was accompanied by an outbreak of real de- lirium, and placed me in danger of completely losing my reason, and sinking into utter insensibility." Schmid took the old man to Blilet, on the Jura, whose cooling heights acted wholesomely on the endan- gered state of his nerves. There he poured out his sufferings in poems, in which his soul, now caught in the trammels of the most painful and ignoble relations, utters with wailing, its aspirations after heavenly freedom. Here is one of those poems : Fair bow, that smil'st amid the storm, Thoutellest of the bliss of God 1 With those soft beams of many hues, shine in this afflicted heart Amid its wild and life-long storm 1 UFE AND ElHT.vnoNAI, SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. ]^ Tell me of brighter morn to come, tell me of a better day, Fair bow, that joinest earth to heav'nl Through all the dark and stormy days, The Lordluith bvn a rock to me, My soul shall praise His holy name Must I be call'd from this fair earth, Ere thou appeaivst in my heart, And bringest with thee heavenly joys And that long wished for better day : Must I drink out the bitter cup The cup of fierce contending strife And enmity not reconciled Till I have 'drained the deepest dregs: Must I from hence depart, Ere peace, the peace I seek, is found? 1 own my burthen of offense, My many weaknesses I own, And with affection and with tears, All my offenders I forgive ; But death will bring me peace, And after death's long night of rest, A better day will dawn for me ! Thou herald of that better day, How lovely then wilt thou appear Above my still and lonesome grave : Fair bow that shin'st like Hope through tears. Like snow new fallen on the ground, Like those bright flakes of winter-tide Which, beaming lovely in the sun, Sank into that new open'd gravo, Where lay the partner of my days : Fair bow, that shin'st with heaven's light, Thus lovely, in the hour of death, Do thou appear once more to me. Through all the dark and stormy days, The Lord hath been a rock to me ! My soul shall praise his holy name ! An attempt, which Pestalozzi made in 1817, to enter into connec- tion with Fellenberg, was unsuccessful. In 1818, Schniid made ar arrangement with Cotta, (the great Leipsig publisher,) for the publica- tion of a complete edition of Pestalozzi's works ; subscriptions to a considerable amount soon flowed in. The emperor of Russia sub- scribed 5,000 roubles ; the king of Prussia, 400 dollars ; the king of Bavaria, 700 guilders. Thereupon, Pestalozzi's hopes revived. In a remarkable address, already mentioned, which he delivered on his seventy-third birth-day, the 12th of January, 1818, he stated that he should appropriate to educational purposes, 50,000 French livres, -which the subscription would yield. In the same address, Pestalozzi speaks freely on the subject of his relations to Niederer and Schmid, and justifies himself for having separated from the former and joined with the latter. He hits off Niederer admirably when he says : " I am conscious of a high and T V") LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZ! fervent love for him. Only he should not require me to value in. him what I do not understand ; he should ascribe it to the weakness of my head, not to the hardness of my heart, if I fail to do so, and should not on that account pronounce me ungrateful. But what shall I say ? Here lies the very ground of complaint against rne, namely,, that I am no longer capable of following the spirit of my endeavors, and that through my incapacity, I cripple and destroy the strength of those who are further advanced in that spirit than myself. It is- an old complaint, that my spirit has left me ; that I have outlived my- self, and that the truth and the right of my labors have passed from, mine into other hands. I know well, also, and I feel it deeply, that I do not possess, in the least degree, some qualifications which are es- sential to the furtherance of my views ; on the other hand I know just as certainly, that all those qualifications which I formerly pos- sessed, I still feel myself to possess in some vitality, and with an impulse to apply them to use." Of this the address affords sufficient proofs ; I will quote some passages. " Man has a conscience. The voice of God speaks in every man, and leaves no one unconvinced as to what is good, and what bad ; what is right and what wrong." " Contemplate man in the entire range of his development. See, he grows, he is educated, he is trained. He grows by the strength of his own self; lie grows by the strength of his very b-inir. lie is educated by accident, by the accidental that lies in his condition, in his circumstances, and in his relations. He is trained by art and by the will of man. The growth of man and his pow- ers is God's doing. It proceeds according to eternal and divine laws. The edu- cation of man is accidental and dependent on the varying circumstance's in which a man finds himself placed. The training of man is moral. Only by the ac- cordance of the influences of education and training with the eternal laws of human growth is 'man really educated and trained; by contradiction betwee_ the means of his education and training and those eternal laws, man is mis- educated and mis-trained." Pestalozzi gives a striking delineation of the contrast between the old time and the new. "The time in which we live, is really a time of excessive artificial refinement, in contradistinction to a high and pure sense of innocence, love, and faith, and that powerful attachment to truth and right which springs from these virtues. "Who among us, if he be not an alien that neither knows the present time and its spirit, nor has searched into the tune of our fathers and its spirit, but must acknowledge that the time of our fathers was a better time, their spirit a better spirit ; that their sincerity of purpose had its foundations laid immeasurably deeper, in the religion of the heart, in strong earnestness in domestic and civil life, and in the daily exercise of industry in the good works of a simple and sat- isfying professional life, than can possibly be the case in our paralysing refine- ment of the powers of body and soul. Our fathers were cheerful, reasonable, and benevolent, in all simplicity. Their circumstances were peculiarly fitted to lead them daily and hourly in all innocence, in faith, and in love, to be good- tempered, reflective, and industrious ; but our artificial refinement has rendered us disgusted with our fathers' mode of life, and with the sources of their moral, domestic, and political elevation. We have almost entirely departed from their spirit arid their mode of life. But it is for this reason that we have sunk so low LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZ/a. j j| in respect to the education of the people. "We have the semblance of faith, love,, and wisdom, but not the qualities themselves ; and we live in a delusion, really without the virtues of our fathers, while they, though possessing those virtues, were by no means satisfied with themselves, as we are. The good and pious foundation which our fathers had in their mode of life itself for their views, feel- ings, opinions, and usages generally, and particularly in respect to the training of children and the relief of the poor, has sunk under our feet through the de- ception of our present artificial and frivolous mode of life. We are no longer what we were, and we have even lost the feeling that we ought to become again in spirit and in truth what we were. While we praise our fathers with our mouths, we are in heart far from them, and in our doings we stand at the very antipodes of them. We have substituted for their ability to do what was necessary, and their ignorance of what was useless, a large acquaintance with what is useless and an inability to do what is necessary. Instead of their healthy spirit, well exercised in mother- wit, we have forms, not so much of thinking as of verbal expressions about what has been thought, which suck the blood out of good sense, like a marten that fixes itself upon the neck of a poor dove. We no longer know our neighbors, our fellow citizens, or even our poor relations ; but we make up for it by reading the newspapers and periodicals, by learning the genealogical register of the kings of the world, the anecdotes of courts, of the theatre, and of capital cities, and we raise ourselves to a daily change in our political and religious opinions, as in our clothes, running, on one side, from infidelity to capucinade, and from capucinade to infidelity, just as, on the other side, we run from sans-cullottism to tight-lacing and leading strings. Our fathers cultivated a general, simple, and powerful intellect ; but few of them troubled themselves with researches into higher truths, which are difficult to fathom : we do very little indeed toward rendering ourselves capable of cultiva- ting a general and profound spirit of thought and research : but we all learn to talk a great deal about sublime and almost unfathomable truths, and strive very zealously to get to read the results of the profoundest thinking in the popular descriptions of almanacs and daily pamphlets, and to put them into the mouth of people generally. Among our fathers, every honest man sought to do one thing well at least, namely, the work of his calling, and every man might with honor learn every trade ; now our notables are mostly born to their callings. Num- berless individuals are ashamed of the rank and profession of their fathers, and believe themselves to be called to pry into and carp at the professional knowl- edge of all ranks ; and the habit of prating about all professions and discharg- ing one's own imperfectly is becoming more general every day, among both the notable and unnotable men of our time. All spirit of political strength has fled from amongst us. In the present state of society we no longer ask what we really are, but what we possess and what we know, and how we may set out all our possessions and knowledge for show, put them up for sale, and barter them for the means of feasting ourselves, so that we may tickle our palates with the refined enjoyments of all the five divisions of the globe, whose appe- tites must by such conduct be almost inevitably engendered in us. And when we have in this way succeeded in rendering ourselves powerless and degraded in body and soul, in respect to the pure claims of the humanity of our nature, and of the eternal and divine essence which lies at its foundation, then, in the state of debility and giddiness into which the fever has thrown us, we further seek to force up the appearance of a character whose truth and purity we en- tirely lack. In this state, we seek to cover over the outward appearances of our debility and desolation by a violent employment of the means of adjustment and concealment, which kill heart and spirit and humanity ; and verily we have sunk to the employment of such means in many matters connected with the ed- ucation of the people and the relief of the poor. Thus it is that we kill, in ourselves, the very essence of the powers of the soul, those human gifts divine ; and then, when a shadow of the powers which we have killed flutters in us r we ornament the works of its fluttering with golden frames, and hang them up in splendid apartments, whose shining floors are unable to bear any of the good works of the ordinary life of man." In another place, Pestalozzi says : " The gardener plants and waters, Vut God giveth the increase." It is not the educator that implants 1)2 MFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. any faculty in man ; it is not the educator that gives breath and lif to any faculty : he only takes care that no external influence shall fetter and disturb the natural course of the development of man's in- dividual faculties. "The moral, the spiritual, and the artistic capabilities of our nature must grow out of themselves, and by no means out of the results produced by art, which has been mixed up with their education. Faith must be called forth again by faith, and not by the knowledge of what is believed ; thinking must be called forth again by thinking, and not by the knowledge of what is thought, or of the laws of thinking ; love must be called forth again by loving, and not by the knowledge of what is loveable or of love itself; and art must be called forth again by ability, and not by endless talk about ability." The reader can judge from the passages just cited whether any de- gree of youthful freshness still lingered in the mind and heart of the both of you again, as far as I can. what I then was. How I long for the- time when our hearts shall bring us to ourselves again, and when, in the path <>f ival self-knowledge we shall attain to love, which is equally our duty a< Christians, and the pressing need of our condition. Oh! Niederer, how I long for the time when strengthened and sanctified by this renewed love, we shall be- able to go once more to the Holy Sacrament, when the festival comes round, without having to fear that the entire commune in which we live, scandalix.ed by our conduct, will shudder at our coming to the Lord's table, and will cast upon us looks of indignation as well as pity. Oh ! Niederer, the path of this renewed love is the only one which will lead to true honor, as it is also the only one which will lead to the restoration of a lost semblance of honor. Oh! Niederer, think not that the tricks and chicanery of law can ever bring us to the pinnacle of honor to which we can raise ourselves by the restoration of our love. My old friend, let us make clean the inside of the platter, before we trouble ourselves about the false glitter of the outside." These lamentable lawsuits had naturally the worst influence on the hybrid institution. Pestalozzi felt this most painfully, and thought that his poor school would succeed, if he could only transfer it from unlucky Yverdun to Neuhof, in the canton of Argovia the same Neuhof where, many years before, he had made his first important edu- cational experiments. He had a new house built there for the purpose. Each of the poor children who had been admitted into the school had bound himself toremainin it five years, from 1818 till 1823. The five years ran out. Pestalozzi confidently hoped that many of these children would follow him to Neuhof, and form the nucleus of the new establishment. But not one remained. As I have already remarked, they had imbibed grander ideas from the instruction which they had enjoyed, and they sought to make their fortune in other ways. " They considered it," says Pestalozzi, " beneath their dignity to be appointed teachers in a Pestalozzian poor school at Neuhof.'* When at last even a favorite pupil of his rejected all his offers, and went away clandestinely from Yverdun, the old man's heart was full. "The illusion, in my mind," he says, "as to the possibility of trans- planting to Neuhof an establishment in Yverdun of which not an inch was in reality any longer mine, was now entirely dispelled. To resign myself to this conviction, required me to do no less than aban- don all my hopes and aims in regard to this project, as for me com- pletely unattainable. I did so at last, and on March 17th, 1824, I announced my total inability further to fulfill the expectations and hopes which I had excited, by my projected poor school, in the hearts of so many philanthropists and friends of education." At length, in the year 1825, Pestalozzi also broke up the institution, after it had stood for a quarter of a century ; and he returned, an old man of eighty years, and tired of life, to Neuhof, where, exactly half LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. 1^5, a century before, he had begun his first poor school. " Verily," he says, " it was as if I was putting an end to my life itself by thi& return, so much pain did it give me." Pestalozzi had but one child, a son, who was born in 1770, and died at the early age of twenty-four, leaving a son himself.* This grand- son of Pestalozzi was in possession of the estate of Neuhof ; to him the old man went. In these last years of his life, he wrote the " Song of the Dying Swan " and the " Fortunes of my Life." He looked back with deep pain on so many shipwrecked enterprises, and acknowledged that the blame was his, as the wreck had been brought on by his incompetency to manage the helm. He -speaks, as we have seen, with equal candor of his fellow-workers. These last writings of Pestalozzi have been regarded by many as the melancholy and languid outpourings of the heart of a dying old man. As far as concerns the old man's judgments on the institution^ as it was at the time of my stay at Yverdun, I have already remarke.l that I consider them for the most part highly truthful, and as afford- ing evidence that he was not deficient in manly clearness and penetration even in his old age. In May of the year 1825, he was elected President of the Helvetian, Society of Shinznach, of which he was the oldest member. The fol- low ing year he delivered a lecture before the Education Society of Brugg, on, " The simplest means which art can employ to educate the child, from the cradle, jto the sixth year, in the domestic circle." Thus the gentle influence of home education remained to the last the object of his love, as it had been fifty-six years before, when he wrote "Leonard and Gertrude." On the 21st of July, 1826, Pestalozzi, in company with Schmid. visited the establishment of the excellent Zeller in Bruggen. The children received him with singing. An oak wreath was handed to him, but he did not accept it : " Not to me," he said, " but to Innocence belongs the wreath." The children sang to him the song by Goethe which he has introduced into " Leonard and Gertrude." Thou art from highest skies, Every storm and sorrow stilling ; Hearts that doubled anguish tries Doubly with thy sweetness filling ; On the wave of passion driven, Oh, how longs my soul for rest ! Peace of Heaven Come, oh come within my breast. Tears choked the voice of the old man. The widow, an excellent woman, subsequently married a Mr. Kuster, and remains attached to Pestalozzi with true affection. 116 MFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALC7SI From his youth, Pestalozzi had been weakly in constitution, and he had repeatedly suffered severe attacks of illness. In the year 1806, he was suddenly knocked down in the street by the pole of a carriage, and trampled under foot by the horses. " It is a great wonder," he said in an address on New Year's Day, 1808, ''that I was saved from under the horses' feet. See, they tore the clothes from off my back, but did not touch my body." In the year 1812, he suffered very severely for a long time from accidentally running a knitting needle into his ear. But, notwithstanding slight ailments and dangerous accidents, his life was prolonged to a vn-y advanced age. At length he approached the end of his earthly existence. Some time before his death, he said : " I forgive my enemies ; may they find peace now that I go to eternal rest. I should liked to have lived another month, to have completed my last labors; but I again thank God, who in His Providence calls me away from this earthly scene. And you, my children, remain in quiet attachment to one another, and seek for happiness in the domestic circle." Soon after, he breathed his last. He had lain ill only a few days. On the 15th of February, 1827, he had been removed from his country house to the town of Brugg, in order that he might be nearer to his physician; on the morning of the 17th he died, after violent parox- ysms of fever; and on the 19th he was buried. His corpse was carried past the new poor school which he had begun to build, but could not complete, and was interred with, a quiet and modest funeral service at the village of Birr. Few strangers attended his funeral, for the snow lay thick on the ground, and his interment took place sooner than might have been expected ; the news of his death had scarcely been received in the canton of Argovia. Schoolmasters and children from the surrounding villages sang their thanks to the departed in artless strains over his grave.* Pestalozzi rests from the labors of his toilsome life. At the grave a Sabbath stillness sets in ; we look back upon the past, but, at the same time, we look forward into the eternal life of the departed, and ask whether, in time, he seriously prepared himself for eternity whether all the labors of his life were done in the Lord, and whether he died in the Lord. Not as severe judges do we ask, but in all the humility of co- redeemed sinful fellow-men ; we ask with the fond wish that he may b blessed eternally. Heussler. LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. j 17 In a It-ttrr written in the year 1793, Pestalozzi says, "Wavering b'-tWi-en/wfiM'/.v, which dn-w me toward religion, and opinions, which led me away from it, I went the dead way of my time ; I let the es- sential part of religion grow cold in my inmost heart, without really deciding against religion." That is the judgment which he pronounced upon himself in his forty-eighth year ; at the time of Robespierre, when the earthy polit- ical element reigned to such a degree in the minds of men, that no quiet abode remained for the religious element. The * Evening Hour of a Hermit," written thirteen years earlier, when the world was more tranquil, and as yet not off its hinges, con- tains passages which are penetrated with true Christian unction. T:> these belongs especially the concluding passage of the whole, already quoted, in which Pestalozzi speaks of Christ as "the Son of God, who with suffering and death has restored to mankind the universally lost feeling of filial love toward God the Redeemer of the World the sacrificed Priest of the Lord the Mediator between God and sinful mankind ;" and of his doctrine as " the revelation of God the Father to the lost race of his children." But other passages of this paper, enticing as they sound, are at variance with essential doctrines of Christianity. Thus the one in which Pestalozzi says, " Faith in God, thou art the pure sense of simplicity the ear of innocence listening to the voice of nature, which proclaims that God is father." Where is the ear of innocence to be found ? The Scripture saith : " There is none righteous, no not one : There is none that understand- eth, there is none that seeketh after God. They are all gone out of the way, they are together become unprofitable ; there is none that doeth good, no, not one." (Romans iii., 10, 11, 12.) Where is the ear of innocence ? If it were to be found among men, then it might certainly hear a voice of nature, proclaiming that God is father. In that case, the heathen might also have prayed, 44 Our Father.'* But nowhere do we find the slightest evidence that til-- ancients loved their gods, not to say God, with filial love. And, could man by nature love God, to what purpose were Christ th.- restorer of the lost filial love of mankind ? But this very ex- pression itself appears to me to be almost a euphemism for "The I*ORD hath laid on him the iniquity of us all." (Isaiah liii., 6.) We saw, in considering the book, " How Gertrude teaches her Children," how deep an influence PestalozzPs notion of the innocence of children exercised upon his educational theory ; like Rousseau, he wanted to gather fi^s of ?hi^tl-<. Did he retain this notion to the end of his lif.- \\'c shall nnwer thi> -mention in the negative. I t q LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI In " Leonard and Gertrude," all the stress is laid upon active Chris- tianity, love is occasionally placed almost in opposition to faith : a dead, hypocritical faith not being always distinguished with sufficient exactitude from true faith, which is active in love. The clergyman in Leonard and Gertrude is an honest man, but strongly inclined to mere moralizing ; his care of his flock is more that of a faithful personal friend, than of one acting in the spirit and strength of a church. In the " Researches," Christianity is styled a religion of morality an effort to make the spirit subdue the flesh. If, according to the let- ter cited, Pestalozzi wavered between feelings, which drew him toward religion, and opinions, which led him away from it, both feeling and Christianity give place, in the work just mentioned, to this belabored product of the intellect. In the book, "How Gertrude teaches her children," the educa- tional theory is, as we have seen, extremely weak on the religious side ; it is more a rhetorical theory of intellectual developments estranged from Christ. I'nit in this book, also, Pestalozzi's feelings repeatedly glances through ; there stand forth the aim and yearning desire of his toil- some life, the depth of a love which brought upon the poor helpless man countless sorrows and almost drove him to despair. From the depths of his necessity, he then cries to God, praying, hoping, offering up his thanks : " Friend," he writes to Gesner, " let me now for a moment forget my aim and my labors, and abandon myself entirely to the feeling of melancholy which comes over me, when I remember that I still live, though I am no longer myself. I have lost every thing, I have lost myself ; nevertheless, thou, Lord, hast preserved in me the desires of my life, and hast not shattered to pieces before my eyes the aim of my suffering, as thou hast shattered the aim of thousands of men, who corrupted themselves in their own ways. Thou hast preserved to me the work of my life, in the midst of my own ruin, and hast caused to arise upon me, in my hopeless declining age, an evening brightness, the sight of whose loveliness outweighs the sufferings of my life. Lord, I am not worthy of the mercy and faithfulness which thou hast shown toward me. Thou, thou alon.-, hast had mercy on the trampled worm ; thou alone hast not broken the bruised reed ; thou alone hast not quenched the smoking flax ; and hast not, to the latest period of my life, turned away thy face from the offering, which from childhood I have desired to bring to the forsaken in the land, but have never been able to bring." Before I consider the religious character of Pestalozzi's later works, T will first look at that of his institution. It is best delineated bj Kam-auor. Ho entered th- institution at Burgdorf in 1800, as LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. 119 a boy of ten years ; he left it at the age of twenty-six, as head teach- er, when he went from Yverdun to Wiirzburg. Thus he had, both as a learner and as a teacher, become acquainted with the religious ten- dency of the institution. When, in later years, the deep truth and solemn sanctity of Christianity dawned upon his awakened conscience, which impelled him to self-knowledge, then first did he learn to form a just estimate of that religious tendency. He narrates as follows: " In Burgdorf, an active and entirely new mode of life opened to me ; there reigned so much love and simplicity in the institution, the life was so genial T could almost say patriarchal ; not much was learned, it is true, but Pestalozzi was the father, and the teachers were the friends of the pupils ; Pestalozzi's morning and evening prayers had such a fervor and simplicity, that they carried away every one who took part in them ; he prayed fervently, read and ex- plained i;.-!l.-rt's hymns impressively, exhorted each of the pupils individually to private prayer, and saw that some pupils said aloud in the bedrooms, every evening, the prayers which they had learned at home, while he explained, at the same time, that the mere repeating of prayers by rote was worthless, and that every one should rather pray from his own heart. Such exhortations became more and more rare at Yverdun, and the praying aloud ceased altogeth- er, like so much else that had a genial character, "tt'e all felt that more must be learned than at Burgdorf; but we all fell, in consequence, into a restless pushing and driving, and the individual teachers into a scramble after distinction. Pestalozzi, indeed, remained the same noble-hearted old man, wholly forgetting himself, and living only for the welfare of others, and infusing his own spirit into the entire household ; but, as it arose not so much from the religious ar- rangements and from Pestalozzi's principles, as from his personal character, that so genial a lit'" '-ad prevailed at Burgdorf that spirit could not last long, it could not gain strength and elevate itself into a Christian spirit. On the other hand, so long as the institution was small, Pestalozzi could, by his thoroughly amiable personal character, adjust at once every slight discordance ; he stood in much closer relation with every individual member of the circle, and could thus observe every peculiarity of disposition, and influence it according to necessity. This ceased when the family life was transformed in the institution into a con- stitutional state existence. Now the individual was more easily lost in the crowd ; thus there arose a desire, on the part of each, to make himself felt and noticed. Egotism made its appearance every day in more pointed forms. Envy and jealousy rankled in the breasts of many. The instruction, calculated only for the development of the mind, nourished feelings of selfishness and pride ; and the counterpoise, which only the fear of God could have given, was not known. Instead of being told that only that teacher could labor with God's blessing who had attained to the knowledge and the belief of the highest truths, and had thus come to see that he was nothing of himself but that he had to thank God for whatever he was enabled to be or to do, and that every Christian, but especially the educator, had daily cause to pray to God for pa- tience, love, and humility, and for wisdom in doing and avoiding ; instead of this, we heard day after day that man could do every thing that he wished, that he could do every thing of himself, and that he alone could help himself. Had the otherwise so noble Pestalozzi made the Bible the foundation of all moral and religious education, I verily believe that the institution wquld still have been in existence, even as those institutions are still in existence and working with suc- cess which were founded by Franke, upward of one hundred years ago, with small means, but in full reliance on God. But, instead of making the pupils fa- miliar with the Bible, Pestalozzi, and those of his assistants who gave the so-called religious instruction, or conducted the so-called morning and evening prayers, fell more and more in each succeeding year into a mere empty moral- izing; and hence it may be understood how it could happen that I grew up in this institution, was confirmed there, and for sixteen years led a very active and morally good life, without acquiring even the slightest acquaintance with the word of God. I did, indeed, many a time hear the Bible named, and even heard 120 LI FE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZ1. Pestalozzi complain that nobody read it, and say that in his youth things had 1 been better in this respect ; at the domestic worship on Sundays, and during my confirmation instruction, I also frequently heard individual texts read and arbi- trarily explained ; but neither I nor any other of the young men obtained any idea of the sacredness and connection of God's word. Just as Pestalo/./.i. \>y ih'c force of his personal character, attached most of his assistants to himself for years, so that they forgot themselves as he forgot himself, when good was to be done, so also, and much more, might he have inspired them for the Gospel, and the blessing of God would then have rested on him and them, and the institution would have become a Christian seminary. It would not have been necessary on this account to hang out a sign-board with the words " Christian Educational Institution," displayed upon it; on the contrary, the more quietly and modestly 1'estaloxxi and his assistants had conducted themselves, the more effectively would they have worked, and even the most noisy blusterer would soon have come to perceive how very little he could be and do of himself and thus would have become capable of learning something from strangers. Perhaps sonic per- son or other may be disposed to reproach me with one-sidedness, injustice, or even ingratitude, toward Pestalozzi, and to oppose to my testimony the tact that at Yverdun Pestalozzi employed every Friday morning principally in represent- ing Jesus to us as the great exemplar of love and self sacrifice ; or I may be asked whether I have quite forgotten the zeal with which Niederer often gave the confirmation instruction. But, in reply to this, I can only refer to the facts which I have just detailed." I could add but little to this statement of Ramsauer. When I was in the institution, the religious instruction was given by Niederer, but no stranger was allowed to be present at it. We may form a tolera- bly correct notion, however, of the manner in which he gave it, from what is said on the subject in the " Report to the Parents."* " All the elder pupils, (says the report,) receive positive religious instruction twice a week. The guiding thread that is used for this purpose is the course of the religious development of the human race, as described in the Holy Scrip- tures, from the Mosaic records downward, and, based on this, the pure doc- trines of Jesus Christ, as he announced them in his Gospel. We base the teaching of moral duties chiefly on Christ's sermon on the mount, and the teach- ing of doctrines chiefly on St. John's Gospel. The latter is read connectedly and explained from itself and from Christ's eternal fundamental view of God and of himself as the visible image and representative of the god-head and the god- like, of the relation of mankind to God, and of the life in God. We seek, by the example of Christ, and by the manner in which he viewed and treated men and things and their relations, to awaken in the children an intuitive leaning toward the life and conduct, the belief and hope, which are founded in the un- changeable nature of religion, and to render these things habitual to them, and by the development of those graces through which the Father shone in Him, to raise them to such a mind and mode of life, that God may shine in them also We do not combat religious error, but endeavor to impart only religious truth We seek the ground of all dogmas and the source of all religious views in the nature of religion, in the nature of man, and in his propensities, powers, wants, and relations, in order that the child may learn to distinguish the truth in every garb and the substance in every form. The course pursued for the at- tainment of the last-named object, or the elementary religious instruction, pre- paratory to the positive doctrines of revelation, is based specially on the solution of the following questions : 1. What is the original religious capability in human nature, or what are the elements of all religious development and education, in so far as they exist in man himself, and proceed from him as something implanted in him by God ? These elements are perceptions and feelings. 2. By what means and in what manner must these primitive religious perceptions and feel- ings necessarily be excited and brought to consciousness in him ? Here it is especially the relation to father and mother, to nature, and to society, that is * There is no doubt that this passage is from Niederer's pen. LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. ]O j regarded as a means of religious excitation and education. 3. By what means- and in what manner does man originally and necessarily express the religious perceptions and feelings excited in him ? And to what does all this lead man ? We find here principally the expression of the religious disposition as a gesture ; the expression of the religious notion as a word ; the expression of the religious contemplation as an image. The first develops itself as ceremony, the second as instruction and doctrine, the last as symbol and image-worship. With the course of this development is connected the development of what utters itself unchangeably in human nature as veritable and eternal religion, every where operative, and of what, as sensual degeneracy, errors of the passions, and person- al depravity, leads to superstition and infidelity, to idolatry and image-worship, to hypocritical self-delusion and deception of others, and lastly, to the contempt- uous rejection of all that is divine and sacred. The pupil finds the key to the clear comprehension of this in the intuitive consciousness of the awaking and course of his own feelings, in the impressions which things make on his own mind, and in the religious arrangements by which he is surrounded. As matter of fact, the whole is exemplified in the history of the religious culture of man- kind. The indication thereof, or the thread to which the explanation must be attached, in giving the instruction, exists in the language of every nation. The most important results to be accomplished by the instruction are : That the pu- pil shall lay hold of the true and the eternal in their origin ; that he shall look upon the human race as essentially religious, and as an organic whole, develop- ing itself according to necessary and divine laws ; that, understanding also in its origin and in its consequences the fall from God and the god-like, he shall all the more earnestly and faithfully follow the way of return to God and to the life in Him. so that, being thus prepared, he may comprehend the worship of God in spirit and in truth" the significance of the eternal Gospel ; so that he may attain to an inward godly existence, as he lives outwardly in an intelligent existence." I have quoted the whole of this passage, because it shows how far the religious instruction was removed from all believing fervor and childlike simplicity, from Christian simplicity, as we meet with it in Luther's small catechism. But this passage characterizes only the religious instruction in the institution, and by no means Pestalozzi's religious views and practice. Still it is clear that at Yverdun he also had in view much less mor- al education than intellectual. He wished, by means of the latter, to lay before the world striking results of the method ; but how shall he show passing strangers the results of moral education, a humble mind and a loving heart, or shall he even expose them rudely to public gaze by an examination ? To which was added, that in the multitude of boys he despaired of being able to take each one individually to his heart as a father would do, who never loves his children only en masse, I now return to Pestalozzi's writings, and come to those which he wrote in his old age. In several of his addresses to the inmates of his house, there are passages which bear witness that even during the years which he passed at Yverdun, Christianity still lived in his inmost soul ; peaceful Sabbath and festival tones soar above the restless and noisy week-day work. So in his Christmas address of 1810. " I have been told by old people, (lie said,) and I have partly seen myself 122 LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTKM OF 1'KSTAI.OZZI that Christmas Kvo used to be a night like no other. The day of the highest earthly joy was not its shadow. The anniversary of the deliverance of the country from slavery, the anniversary of freedom, was not to be compared to it. It was quite a heavenly night, a night of heavenly joy. In its still service ded- icated to God, resounded the words : 'Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will toward men.' When the angels still assembled, as it were, over the heads of men, at this hour, and praised God that the Saviour of the world was born, what a night was Christmas Eve ! Who can describe its joy? Who ean tell its bliss? The earth was, on that ni^ht, translorined into a heaven. On that night, God was celebrated on high, peace was on earth, and men showed a cheerful good will. Brothers, friends, children, could I but cam you back into the old Christian world, and show you the celebration of this hour in the days of innocence and faith, when half the world still accounted it a small thing to die for the faith in Christ Jesus! Could I but show you t of Christmas Eve in the picture of those days! The heart full of the ]|',. l\ < elevate us, that Jesus Christ may now appear to us as the visible divine love, as he sacriliced himself and gave himself up to death li.r us. May we rejoice in the hour in which he became man, because he brought into the world for us tin- great gift of his life, and laid it upon the altar of divine love. From this hour. he was the priest of the Lord, sacrificed for us. Friends, brothers, sisters, let us pray; God, give us them again, those fair days of the world, in which the hu- man race truly rejoiced in the birth of Jesus Christ, the Redeemer. Give us again the times in which the hearts of men were at this hour, full of the Holy and their hands full of human gifts for their brethren. Father in .. thou wilt give us them again, if we but truly desire them." In the address already mentioned, which Pestalozzi delivered in 1818, when he was seventy-two years old, occur passages whirh make a profound impression on the mind. He there declares that happi- is to be expected from Christianity alone. "The artificial spirit of our times, (he says.) has also annihilated the influence which the religious feeling of our fathers exercised upon this centre of human happiness. This religious spirit which caused the happiness of the quiet and circumscribed domestic relations, has sunk down amongst us into an insolent spirit of reasoning upon all that is sacred and divine; still we must also acknowledge that the primesource of the real poison of our artificiality, namely, the irreligious feeling of the present age, seems to be shaken in the very depths of its destructive powers; the blessed spirit of the true ehristian doctrine appears to strike deeper root again in the midst of the corruption of our race. and to preserve inward purity of life in thousands and thousands of men, and, indeed, with regard to popular education, it is from this quarter alone that we can derive the expectation, that we shall ever attain to measures really calcula- ted to reach with sufficient efficacy the views, dispositions, appetites, and habits of our present mode of life, which we must look upon as the original source of our popular depravity and the misfortunes of our times." The conclusion of the address is particularly important : Friends, brothers, become renovators of my house, restorers of its old spirit, and witnesses that the spirit of my youth, which is seen blossoming in ' Leon- ard and Gertrude,' and nearer maturity in ' How Gertrude teaches her children,' still lives in me. In that spirit, become joint founders of the present result of LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI. 123 the old Original, philanthropic ami beneficent purpose of my institution. In that spirit, and in no other, 1 call you all, who are members of my institution, to a sacivd union in and through love. Love one another, as Jesus Christ loved us. ' Love sullereth long, and is kind ; love envieth not ; love vaunteth not it- s.-lf, is not pulled up, doth not behave itself unseemly, seeketh not its own, is not easily provoked, thinketh no evil; rejoiceth not in iniquity, but rejoiceth in the truth: l.ruivth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all things, endureth all tiling-' Friends, brothers, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you. Heap coals of fire on the heads of your enemies. Let not the sun go down upon your wrath. If thou bring thy gift tothealtar. first be reconciled to thy brother, and then conic and offer thy gift. All unrelenting severity, even toward those who do us wrong, be far from our house. Let all human severity be lost in the gentleness of our faith. Let no one among you attempt to exeiH.- his severity toward those who are in tin.* wrong. Let no one say that Jesus Christ did not love those who did wrong. He did love them. He loved them with divine love. He died for them. He came not to call the righteous, but sinners, to repentance. He did not find sinners faithful. Inn mad" them faithful. He did not find them humble, but made them humble, by his own humility. Verily, verily, it was with the high and holy service of his humility that he Conquered the pride of sinners, and chained them by laith to 'the heart of his divine lo\.-. Friends, brothers, it' we do this, if we love one another, as Jesus Christ loved us, we shall overcome all the obstacles which stand in the way of our life's purpose, and be able to ground the welfare 1 of our institution upon the -ting rock, on which < !od himself has built the weltan- of the human race, through Jesus Christ. Amen." At the grave, I have asked after Pestalozzi's confession of faith ; I have sought it in his writings, as well as in his life, and communicated to the reader what he himself confessed in 1793 about his Christianity at that period of his life, when, perhaps, he had separated himself furthest from Christ, and lived only in a speculative and political ele- ment. " Wavering, (so went the confession,) between feelings which drew me. toward religion, and opinions which led me away from it, I went the dead way of my time." This confession we have found con- firmed in his writings, as in his life ; but in his earliest, and again in his latest writings, religious feeling has been seen soaring above a sceptical intellect. And throughout his long life how high soars a love which would not despair under any suffering, any ingratitude; :how high it soars above all doubts, in the pure air of heaven ! Men are seduced into infidelity by superficial reflection, which, misap- prehending and over-estimating the measure of insight possible to man, fails to judge aright where a clear self-knowledge believes with intelligent resignation. But Christ, who takes the strong for his spoil, reigns ever in the inmost heart of christians as episcopus in partibus infidelium ; even in times, when their faith wavers, he remains faithful to them. This we see in Pestalozzi, both in his words and in his works. Who shall dare cast a stone at him, who shall dare condemn him ? To him shall much be forgiven, for he loved much. Aye, the whole of his toilsome life is pervaded by love by a yearning desire to alle- viate the condition of the poor suffering people. That love was the ] j i I UK AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PE8TALO//I passion of his heart ; it kindled in him a burning anger against all who stood in the way of the attainment of its object. It is true, that the chief oltacle in hi* way was himself. With God, counsel and action go together; with men, th y an- only too often separated. Thus we have seen that Pestalozzi, with the -l.-ar- ->t knowledge of men, was incapable of managing and governing them ; with the most amiable ideals, he was blind when he had to show tin- way to those ideals. Nay, in endeavoring to realize his pvat concep- tions, he frequently took the course most opposed to th in. No one was further than he was from a cleanly domotic existence; yet no one desired such an existence more earnestly, or understood its value better, than he did. Tin* delineations of Gertrude's hou-ek ing prove that a poet can truthfully depict not only what he possesses in full degree, l.ut what he longs for with his whole heart because he - lacks it altogether. He passed the greater part of his life in pn-s>in^ want: thus he could scarcely fail to feel a true mid sp..ntan.-..us xyinj.athy with the poor and abandoned. If lie was cynical in evil days from necessity ; in better days, he was so on principle. Corresponding to the bodily cynicism, there was in the character of his mind, something which I would call, not spiritual poverty, but intellectual cynicism : an a\er-ion to the aristoc- racy of education. And yet, as one of the contradictions of which his character is full, he felt himself called to lay new foundations un- der the lofty structure of this education, instead of tin- <>ld pernicious ones. He wanted to support the upper story of the building, with- out troubling himself about that story itself. On one occasion, he even made it the subject of a boast, that he had not read a book for thirty years. Hence it came, as I have already said, that he committed so many mistakes usual with self-taught men. He wants the historical basis ; things which others had discovered long before appear to him to be quite new when thought of by himself or any one of his teachers. He also Corments himself to invent things which had been invented and brought to perfection long before, and might have been used by him, if he had only known of them. For example, how useful an ae.jiiaintaince with the excellent Werner's treatment of the mineralog- ical characters of rocks would have been to him, especially in the def- inition of the ideas, observations, naming, description, n. Self- taught men, I >ay, want tin- discipline of the school. It is not simply that, in the province of the intellectual, they often find only aft*-!- lone; wandering \\hat tln-v ini^ht easily have attained by a direct and beaten path ; they \\aiit aUo the ethical discipline, which restrains us from running according to caprice after intellectual enjoyments, and whoK-s,,mely compels us to deny ourselves and follow the path indicated to u> by the teacher. Many, it is true, fear that the oracular instinct of the self-taught illicit sutler from the school. But, if the school is of the right sort, this instinct, if genuine, will be strengthened by it ; deep-felt, dreamy, ami passiv,. presentiments are transfigured into sound, waking, and active observation. This s.-lt-taught character of Pestalozzi's mind showed itself in hU treatment of s.-v-ral branches of instruction. What are his names of towns, \\hich he takes in alphabetical order from the index of a geography book, without possessing any knowledge of the subject; what are the heaps of words transcribed from Scheller's Lexicon: what else are they but the trials of an undisciplined mind, to find out * new ways <>t writing school books ? r>ut when the self-taught man forsakes the old highways, he finds, - in spite of much going astray, many short by-ways, the knowledge of which i- welcome to the students of the subject, and induces them to make new experiments themselves. In this manner, Pestalozzi exercised an influence even upon his adversaries. Generally, Pestalozzi's personal influence on the methods of teach- ing particular subjects was small; but, on the other hand, he com-X. pelled the scholastic world to revise the whole of their task, to reflect on the nature and destiny of man, as also on the proper way of leading him from his youth toward that destiny. And this was done, not in the superficial rationalistic manner of Basedow* and his school, but so profoundly, that even a man like Fichte anticipated very great thing-* from it. But it is to be lamented, that the actual attempts made by Pesta- Baaedow founded an educational institution called the " Philanthropiu," at Dessua, in 1774. In this institution, the educational views of Rousseau, as expounded in his " Emile," were exclusively followed, and every effort made to realize them. Rousseau was at that time the pharos of many educationists in Germany and Switzerland, as he was the pharos of the men of the revolution in France. The Philanthropin excited a good deal of attention at the time. The name of the Philanthropin still survives, but it has almost become a term ni reproach to signify any shallow educational enterprise. It appears, however, that, together with much that was whimsical and even foolish, the institution presented many honest ani unselfish efforts on the part of faithful workers, and produced many wholesome fruits See R(ii/>nrr\ arrount of the Philanthrnjnn. ]._>,; LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF PE8TALOZZI. lozzi and his fellow-laborers to set up new methods of teaching vari- ous subjects, have met with such r>jx H ial approbation and imitation. An examination of Pestalozzi's profound principles, and an insight into the contradiction between these principles and his practice, would have conduced much more to the discovery of new methods, re:lly answering to the principles. This is appplicable, for instance, to what I have said upon the exercises in observation, falsely so called. Most of the imitators of the great man have fallen in love with his dark side, the endeavor to mechanise education. When those purely ex- ternal appliances and artifices which he employed for mechanising ed- ucation shall have been so modified as to be no longer recognizable, or shall have been entirely laid aside and forgotten then Pestalozzi's "Leonard and Gertrude," the "Evening Hour of a Hermit," and "How Gertrude teaches her Children," will still live on and exercise an influence, though even these works, like every thing else that is hu- man, are not altogether free from spot or blemish. Profound' thoughts, born of a holy love under severe pains, they are thoughts of eternal life, and, like love, shall never cease. t)F I'KsTALO/./l. 12 T The following summary view of the principal Biographies of Pestalozzi is taken substantially from Guillaume's Memoir in Buisson's Dictionaire de Pedagogic: Several "biographical notices of Pestalozzi were published soon after his death, in 1827-8, two in the French language; the first by Charles Monard of Lausanne, and the second by Madame Adele du Thon, the wife of the Prefect of Yverdun. REV. CHARLES MAYO, in 1826, printed, with other papers, a Memoir of I\ Main//!, read before the Royal Institution; and in 1856. DR. E. BIBER, the author of a pamphlet in 1827, entitled Contribution, to the ltioyri)hy of Henry Pestalozzi, in 1831 published in English a biog- raphy of Pestalozzi under the title, Henry Pestalozzi and his Plan of Ed- ucation; being an account of his Life and Writings, with copious extract* from his works, and details illustrative of the practical parts of his method. REV. WILLIAM C. WOODBRIDGE published in the Annals of Education, for January, 1837, a carefully-prepared Life of Pestalozzi, with a critical examination of his principles and methods of education, which was re- issued by H. Barnard in 1856. DR. A. H. DIESTERWEQ printed in the Rheinische Blatter, 1827 to 1831,. si-vt-ral biographical sketches on different periods of his career, and in 1846 a Commemorative Discourse on his Influence on Popular Education in Germany. KARL VON RAUMER (1843) in the second volume of his History of Pedagogy, devotes a very interesting and valuable chapter of over a hundred pages to Pestaloz/i. The Academy of Political and Moral Science, at Paris, announced as a subject for the Felix de Beaujour prize, A Critical Examination of Pesta- lozzi's System of Instruction and Education, with especial regard to the lator of Leonard and Gertrude, and an old .scholar in the institution at Yvcrdun, publi.-hed in 1874, being greatly aided by tin- re-, arches of Moil' and Varth, a Histoirt de Pestalozzi. This is the best book on the >ul>j. < -t in the French language. We are indebted to him for many facts about the inner life, studies, scholars, etc., of tin- in.Mitiition of Yverduu at that time, for which \\<- >--k in vain HM- where. HEKMAN Kui>i, the son of Pestalozzi's tir>t assistant, published in 1875 (Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati) a volume of 248 pp., enti- tled Pestalozzi'* Lti\e memoir of Pestalozzi, prepared by .!. (riiillaume. MADAMK XI.II.NDKR-STADLIK, of Zurich, in 1875, announced the publi- cation of a great work on Pestalozzi, in seven volume.-, which should embrace many unpublished manuscripts concerning him (copies of which she had procured), his own correspondence, and all documents which would throw light on the life of the great Zurich educator. The first volume appeared in ls7.">, under the title, Pcstalozzi : Idee und Maclit der menchhd, Band : Zeit und Vorzeit von 1 ' irkelung. Madame Stadlin died while this volume was in j DK o Ih N/IKKU. in 1881-2 began a series of publications on Pcsta- of \\liieli the principal are (not to mention the Pe*talozzi -Blatter, of which he was the editor) Ptttalozzfs Versuch der Arment -r: idm iiy >ij \ nhof ton cinem Mitglied der Commission fur das Pentalozzi-^; chen. 1831. Deutche Blatter of F.Mann (1882) and two essays (1881- 1884) on the composition of Leonard and G< II. MniiK, I)AGOGY. Memoir and Kducational Princi- ples of John Henry Pestal 0/7. i. with Biounipliical Bketche0 of other em i nent Swiss Educators, and some account of Swiss Pedagogj r in other Countries. Edited by Henry Barnard, LL.D. Revised Edition, 816 pages. $3.50 in cloth (binding Of this Memoir, as issued in 1862, in a volume of 484 pages, with the title of Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism, Prof. Raumcr wrote from Erlangen. "In your Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism you have collected with the greatest diligence all that relates to Pestalozzi and his school. I can ardly understand how you could have made such a collection in Amer- ica, or out of it either, even by the aid of well informed correspondents. I know how great is the difficulty of collecting authorities, by my o\\ n experience during the composition of my History of Pedagogy, where I had to obtain them with much pains from German and Swiss Libraries and even from France." "It is the most comprehensive, reliable, and satisfactory work I have seen on the great Swiss educator." M.uX/rs I'l.AN H'|; Yl.'Al.MNi; '] I.Ac IIK1> J29 From cotemporaneous accounts of the school at Clindy, by a pupil, recently printed (1880), it is clear that Prof. Raumer in his memoir of Pestalozzi (p. ll'J-ll.'J), did not possess full informa- tion respecting Pestalozzi's object in establishing it, or in the satis- factory results, as long as he possessed adequate means to continue it on its original plan. No one saw more clearly the necessity of a well trained, equipped and experienced principal with natural aptitude for such a Normal School as he contemplated, but he was not as fortunate as Fellenberg was in a similar plan, in finding a Vehrli to develop it. THE CLINDY SCHOOL. In 1818, Pestalozzi desired to found at Neuhof an institution for poor and orphaned children, where scholars of both sexes could be educated ami trained for teachers. The requisite building not being found tin iv. lie rented, in the little village of dimly, about a mUefrom Yvrnlun, a building to receive the new school. In May, 18l5T~h<\ announced tlnoiiirh the ./**////*// that twelve poor scholars, of either) would l>r received free of charge, and maintained during live years at Clindy. where they would he prepared for the career of tejujjers. 1 From the number applying for admission, twelve of the best character^ and the mo-t intelligence \\ere selected. The establishment of Clindy \va- formally opened on Monday. SeptembcjJLa^^SlS, by an address by !oy./.5. which was printed, but which is not to be found in any regular edition .f }\\ work-. The boys were put under the charge of ,id. and the ;rirls under Marie Schmid. a -i-ler of .Joseph Schmid. and a former pupil of the School for (Tirls. The instruction was given by the teacher- of the Institution at Yvrnlun. Much li.irht is thrown on the genesis and brief hi-tory of this school at Clindy. in the bio'jraphy of Jacob lieu i. one of the twelve free .scholar* of the institution, who died at Leip/ie in 1883, after having been pn>lVor for fifty-eight years in different institutions in England and (Jermany. Al'trr isn, Pestalozzi had frequent visits from different Englishmen at Yvrnlun, who showed especial interest in the Clindy School. Thinking that through their interest at home he mi^ht find the resources for supporting his school, he planned an English edition of his works, and i-sned an a]. peal to the English public, printed at Yverdun, September 14, 1818. Its title was, "The address of Pestalozzi to the British Public, soliciting them to aid by subscriptions his plan of preparing School Masters and Mi-tn-e- f,, r the people, that Mankind may in time receive the first Principles of Intellectual Instruction from the Mother-." He pledges himself to the people of England, who are interested in the subject, to devote their subscriptions, deducting the cost of translating and printing, to a permanent fund for this school. 4 8TAN8 DORF STUDENT LIFE AT YVEKDUN UNDEE PESTALOZZL KKMIMSCENCES OF A WESTMINSTER BOY. THE KKMIMM ENT.* The writer of these reminiscences of his student life at Yverdun [about 1>U4] was taken by liis lather from the hard forms and birchen discipline of Westminster School, then under Dr. Page, under some- what xauirerutcd expectations of Pestalozzi's Boarding School, which arc well described by himself. " Urn- was a school composed of boys gathered from all parts of the habit- alile v.lohe, when- each, by simply carrying over a little of his mother tongue, might, in n short time, become a youthful Mezzofante, and take his choice of many in return ; a school which, wisely eschewing the routine service of hunks, suff'-ivd neither dictionary, gradu>. i_ r rammar, imr spelling book to be even seen on the premi.s, - ; a .-clnnl for morals, where, in educating 'he head, the right training of the lieart was never for a moment neglected ; a school for the progress of the mind, where much discernment . hi. -nding itself with kindness, . (1 ih" tii>t dawnin-s of the intellect, and carefully protected the feeble pn\\. T- nf memory from U-ing overtaxed where delighted Alma, in the prog- lopment. miijit se< urcK enjoy many privileges and immunities wholly denied to her at hoim where even philosophy, stooping to conquer, had hecome sfwrti'n the het;er to y rs/nA .- when- t'tie poet's vow was actually reali/.ed tin- bodily health liein- as diligently ! r as that of the mind or the afiVetioits ; la-tly. where they found no righting imr hull\iiii:, as at home, but auri.-n'tr.r and _ \ mna.-tic> instituted in their stead." To Midi encomiums on the M-hool w.-re added, and with more justice and truth, a cnm- niend .rion on old Pe-talo/./.i himself, the real liberality of whoM- -entiments,. jind the overflowing of whose pateni.il love, could not, it was argued, and did not, f:>i! to prove 1 enetieial to all within the sphere of their influence. The .vei-lit of Midi >upp'-ed ; d \ a n t.ej - turned tin- >ca!e for not a few just entering ' pupillary state, and >ettl-d their future destination. The account which follows, after due allowance for its unsyinpathi/.- oe, throws nmrh li-ht on the internal economy of the institution. INTERNAL CONDI T I "N The PetM&m, durin- 'he perio.l of our sojourn at Yverdnn, contained about n hundred and '-'-v Fnr..p-an and <-f >..me < >rie,,tal rfmitin mode of distribution into class,.,, According to ago and ae,uiivments. durin- school hours, was completely chanyrd in j.lay-time, when the boys, tindin-j it easier to speak their own tongue than to acquire a new one, -et of men, with little refinement, less pretension, and wholly without learning. A distich from Crabbe describes them perfectly "Men who, 'mid noise and dirt, and play and prate, Could calmly mend the pen and wash the slat Punishments were rare; iml- -ed, Homing was absolutely prohibited ; and the -ettini: an inij>osition would have l.ecn equally against the genius loci, had lesson- hook- existed out of which to hear it afterwards. A short imprisonment in an unfurnished room a not very formidable black hole with the loss of & goutte now and then, and at very long intervals, formed the mild summary of tin- penal "code Pestalo//.i." It was Saturday, and a half-holiday, when we arrived at Vverdtin, and oh the confusion of tongues which there prevailed ! All Bedlam and rarua us, let loose to rave together, could not have come np to that diapason of discords with which the high corridor- were ringing, a-, pa --in- through the throng, we were conducted to the venerable head of the establishment in his private apart- ments beyond. In this gallery of mixed portraits might be seen long-haired, high-born, and high-cheek-boned Germans ; a scantling of French gaming much better dressed ; some dark-eyed Italians ; Greeks in most foreigneering attire ; here and there a fair ingenuous Ku--ian lace; several swart, sinister-looking Spaniards, models only for their own Carravagio; some dirty specimens of the universal Pole; one or two unmistakable Knglish, ready to shake hands with a .compatriot; and Swiss from every canton of the Helvetic confederacy. To .this promiscuous multitude we were shortly introduced, the kind old man him- :self taking us by the hand, and acting as master of the ceremonies. When .the whole school had crowded round to f-tare at the new importation, " Here," said he, "are four English boys come from their distant home, to be naturalized in this establishment, and made members of our family. Boys, receive them kindly, and remember they are henceforth your brothers." A shout from the crowd proclaiming its ready assent and cordial participation in the adoption, toothing remained but to shake hands d I'Anglaise, and to fraternize without loss ^pMirne. The next day being Sunday, our skulls were craniologically studied by Herr Schmidt, the head usher; and whatever various bumps or depressions phrenology might have discovered thereon were all duly registered in a large book. After this examination was concluded, a week's furlough was allowed, in order that Herr Schmidt might have an opportunity afforded him of seeing how far our real character squared with phrenological observation and measure- ment, entering this also into the same ledger as a note. What a contrast were we unavoidably drawing all this time between Yverdun and Westminster, and how enjoyable was the change to us ! The reader will please to imagine, as well as he can, the sensations of a lately pent-up chrysalis, STUDENT LIFE AT VVKKDl N I'NDEK PESTALOZZI. 133 cm first finding himself a butterfly, or the not less agreeable surprise of some newly metamorphose -d tadpole, when, taring his associates in the mud and -n.r:i slime, he floats at liberty on the surface of the pool, endowed with lungs and a voice, if he would at all enter into the exultation of our feelings on chunking the penitential air of Millbank for the fresh mountain breezes of the l'a\ - iK- Vaud. It seemed as if we had nay, we had actually entered upon a new existenee, so thoroughly had all the elements of the old been altered and improved. If we looked back, and compared past and present experiences, there, at the wrong end of the mental telescope, stood that small dingy house r in that little mis-yclept Great Smith Street, with its tiny cocoon of a bed-room, whilom our close and airless prison ; here, at the other end, and in immediate contact with the eye, a noble chateau, full of roomy rooms, enough and to spare. Another letroepecthre peep, and there was Tothill Fields and it- seedy cricket ground ; and here, again, a level equally perfect, but carpeted with fine turf, and extending to the margin of a broad, living lake, instead of terminating in a nauseous duck pond; while the cold, clammy cloisters adjoining Dean's Yard were not less favorably replaced by a large, open, airy play ground, inter- sect!. 1 by two clear trout streams and a sky as unlike that above Bird Cage Walk as the interposed atmosphere was different ; whilst, in place of the start- ling, discordant h't/i usmata of bargees, joined to the creaking, stunning noise of commerce in a great city, few out-of-door sounds to meet our ear, ami these few, with the exception of our own, all quiet, pastoral, and soothing, such as, later in life, make " Silence in the heart For thought to do her part," and which are not without their charm, even to him "who whistles as he goes, for want of thought." No wonder, then, it' Yverdun seemed Paradisaical in its landscapes. Nor was this all. If the views outside were charming, our domestic and social relations within doors were not less pleasing. At first, the unwelcome vision of the late head-master would sometimes haunt us, clad in his flowing black D.D. robes "tri- MS in vultu, atque in verbis fides," looking as if he intended to flog, ami his words never belying his looks. That terrible Olympian arm, rai.-ed and ready to .-trike, was again shadowed forth to view ; while we could almost fancy ourselves once more at that judicial table, one of twenty boys who were to draw lots for a " hander." How sooth- ingly, then, came the pleasing consciousness, breaking our reverie, that a very different person was now our head-master a most indulgent old man whom we should meet ere long, with hands uplifted, indeed, but only for the purpose of clutching us tight while he inflicted a salute on both checks, and pronounced his a ff ectionate guten moryen, lit IMS kind, as he hastened on to bestow the fatherly greeting upon every pupil in turn. THE DORMITORY. The sleeping apartments at the chateau occupied three of the four sides of its inner quadrangle, and consisted of as many long rooms, each with a double row of windows ; whereof one looked into the aforesaid quadrangle, while the opposite rows commanded, severally, views of the garden, the open country, and the Grande Place of the town. They were accommodated with sixty uncurtained stump bedsteads, fifty-nine of which afforded i/ite to a like number of boys ; and one, in no respect superior to the rest, was destined to receive the athletic form of Ilerr Gottlieb, son in law to Vater Pestalozzi, to whose partic- 1 , ! .i:.NT I.IFK AT V\ KKDl N UNDER PESTALOZZI. uhir charge we were consigned during the hours of the night. These bed he in. ii' a- lofty as they were long, broad, and overfurnished with windows, \\ere always ventilated ; hut tin- in draught of air, which was sufficient to keep them cool during the hotte.-t day in i-ummer, rendered thfin coal, and soinctiiii' cold, in the winter. In that sea.-on, accordingly, especially when the /- -rcat tower, or even threaten a foicil.le entry at the windows, nobody'- ear- were scared into unwelcome i-nnscii.usne-> by sounds so familiar to them all. It was tlie expectation nf a blast louder e\ ,-n than theirs that would keep OU1 a blast aLoiit to i>uc from the bed of Ilerr Gottlieb, and thundering enough, when it issued, to startle the \< ry <>f winds himself! Often, a- the dnaded six A.M. drew ni^li, when the third ijnarter ]>ast five had, ten minute- since, come \\ith a sou-h and a rattle against the casements, and still dottlieb -lept on. w- would take c. n to dream with our eye- open, that his slumbers mi^ht be prolonged a little; his face, turned upward-, !<>,,kt be more than live miniile- to six miirht nENT LIFE AT YVEHIMN I'NDER PESTALOZZI. 135 In lep.-citie, on the plea of general indispo-itioii, though it was well known beforehand what the result would be. Herr Gottlieb, in such a case, would' presently appear at the bedside of the delinquent patient, with very little compassion in his countenance, and in a bnatneas tone, proceed to inquire from him. Why not up ? and on receiving for reply, in a niel.mdioly vuio-, that the would-be invalid was -/// krn,,L; would instantly pass the word for the doctor to be summoned. That doctor we knew him well, and everv truant knew was a quondam French armv surgeon a sworn di-cii.le of the Broii.-sais school, whose heroic remedies at the chateau resolved themselves into one of two i.e. a starve or a vomit, alternately admin- istered, according as the idiosyncrasy of the patient, or a- this or that symptom tun:'-d the scale, now in favor of storming the stomach, now of starving it into capitulation. Just as the welcome hot nn->s of bread and milk was about to be served to tin- rot, this dapper little Sangrado would make his appearance, feel the pnl- . in-peet the tongue, ask a few questions, and finding, gcn<-rally, indi- cations of what he would term une Itglre gastrite, recommend di!te absolve; then piv-erihing a mawkish tinnn- : of any ^anlen herlis at hand, and pocket- ing lancet- ;;nd stethoscope, would Lave the patient to ivco\ cr v///.s n.'ointl a moemblcd in their respective class-rooms. The rats and mice, which had had the run ofx the-e duriiiL: the nii;ht, would be still in oceup-.ition when we entered ; and Mich was tin- audacity of these vermin that none cared alone to lx> the first to plant :! on his desk. But, by entering en masse, we ea-ily routed the i;,ln,ii-r.><>m. At half-past four pre- cisely, a goute was served out, which consisted of a whacking slice <>!' bread, and either a repetition of the morning's milk and water, or cafe au lait, (without sugar " bien entendu,") or twenty-live walnuts, or a couple of ounces of strong- tasted grvyere, or a plateful of schnitz (cuttings of dried apples, pears, and plums). We might choose any one of these several dainties we liked, but not more. Some dangerous characters not to be imitated would occasionally, while young Fran Schmidt stood doling out the supplies from her cupboard among the assembled throng, make the disingenuous attempt to obtain cheese with one hand and schnitz with the other. But the artifice, we are happy to say, seldom succeeded ; for that vigilant lady, quick-eyed and active, and who, of all things, hated to be imposed upon, would turn round upon the false claim- ant, and bid him hold up both his hands at once which he, ambidexter as he was, durst not do, and thus he was exposed to the laughter and jeers of the rest. At nine the bell sounded a feeble call to a soidisoit supper : but fi w of us cared for a basin of tisane under the name of lentil soup or a pappy potato, salted in the boiling and soon after we all repaired to our bed-rooms made a noise for a short time, then undressed, and were speedily asleep under our duvets, and as sound, if not as musical, as tops. Our common fare, as the reader has now seen, was sorry enough ; but we had our Carnival and gala days as well as our Lent. Vater Festal ozzi's birth- day, in summer, and the first day of the new year, were the most conspicuous. On each of these occasions we enjoyed a whole week's holiday ; and as these were also the periods for slaughtering the pigs, we fed (twice a year for a whole week!) upon black puddings and pork t. and hi'ii-iu at halt-pa.-t eight As the summons-hell sounded, the hovs cume rushing and tumbling in. and ere a minute had elapsed were swarming 1 over, and settling upon, the high reading desks the master, already at his work, was chalking out the business of the hour , and as this took some little time to accomplish, the youngsters, not to sit unemployed, would be assiduously engaged in impressing sundry animal forms among which the donkey was a favorite cut out iu cloth, and well powdered, upon one another's backs. When Herr G had finished his chalkings, and was gone to the corner of the room for his show-perch, a skeleton map of Europe might be seen, by those who choose to look that way, covering the slate . this, however, was what the major- ity of the a. enilily never dreampt of, or only dreampt they were doing. The class generally though ready when called upon to give the efficient support of their tongues kept their eyes to gape elsewhere, and, like Solomon's fool, had them where they had no business to be. The map, too often repeated to attract from its novelty, had no claim to respect on other grounds. It was one of a class accurately designated by that careful geographer, old Homer, as " fiaty ov Kara Kna/nov." Coarse and clumsy, however, as it necessarily would be, it might still have proved of service had the boys been the draughtsmen. As it was, the following mechanically Herr G 's wand to join in the general chorus of the last census of a city, the perpendicular altitude of a mountain, or the length and breadth of a lake, could obviously convey no useful instruc- tion to any one. But, useful or otherwise, such was our regim*, to set one of from fifty to sixty lads, day after day, week after week, repeating facts and figures notorious to every little reader of penny guides to science, till all had the last statistical returns at their tongue's tip, and knew, when 'all was done, as much of what geography really meant as on the day of their first matricula- tion. Small wonder, then, if some should later have foresworn this study, and been revolted at the bare sight of a ma)) ' All our recollections of map, unlike those of personal travel, are sufficiently distasteful Often have we yawned wearily over them at Yverdun, when our eyes were demanded to follow the titubations of Herr G '& magic wand, which, in its uncertain route, would skip from Europe to Africa and back again qui modo Thebas wodo me ponit At hen is ; and our dislike to them since has increased amazingly. Does the reader care to be told the reason of this 1 Let him in order to obtain the pragmatic sanction of some stiff-necked examiner have to "get up" all the anastomosing routes of St. Paul's several journcyiugs , have to follow those rebellious Israelites in all their wanderings through the desert , to draw the line round them when in Palestine ; going from Dan to Beersheba, and " meting out the valley of Succoth " ; or, finally, have to cover a large sheet of foolscap with a progressive survey of the spread of Christianity during the three first centuries and he will easily enter into our feelings. To return to the class- room The geographical lesson, though of daily infliction was accurately cir- cumscribed in its duration. Old time kept a sharp look-out over his blooming daughters, and never suffered one hour to tread upon the heels or trench upon the province of a sister hour. Sixty minutes to all, and not an extra minute to any, was the old gentleman's impartial rule ; and he took care to see it was strictly adhered to. As the clock struck ten, geography was shoved aside by the muse of mathematics. A sea of dirty water had washed out in a twinkling all traces of the continent of Europe, and the palimpset slate presented a clean face for whatever figures might next be traced upon it 14'J >Tt DENT LIFE AT YVERDUN UNDER PESTALOZZI. The hour for Euclidizing was arrived, and ation the black parallelogram \vas intersected with numerous triangles of the Isosceles and Scalene pattern ; but, notwithstanding this promising debut, we did not make much quicker progress here than in the previous lesson. How should we, who had not only the diffi- culties inseparable from the subject to cope with, but a much more formidable difficulty vi/., the obstruction which we opposed to each other's advance, by the plan, so unwisely adopted, of making all the cla.-s do the same thing, that they might keep pace together. It is a polite piece of folly enough for a whole party to be kept waiting dinner by a lounging guest, who chooses to ride in the park when he ought to be at his toilet; but we were the victims of a much greater absurdity, who lost what might have proved an hour of profitable work, out of tenderness to some incorrigibly idle or Boeotian boy, who could not get over the Pons Asinorum, (every proposition was a pons to some asinus or other,) and so made those who were over stand still, or come back to help him across. Neither was this, though a very considerable drawback, our only hindrance the guides were not always safe. Sometimes he who acted in that capacity would shout " Eureka " too soon ; and having undertaken to lead the van. lead it astray till just about, as he supposed, to come down upon the proof itself, and to come down with a Q. E. D. : the master would stop him short, and bid him as Coleridge told the ingenious author of Guesses at Truth "to- guess again." But suppose the "guess" fortunate, or that a boy had even suc- ceeded, by his own industry or reflection, in mastering a proposition, did it follow that he would be a clear expositor of what he knew ? It was far other- \\ise. Our young Archimedes unacquainted with the terms of the science,. and being also (as we have hinted) lamentably detective in his knowledge of. the power of words would mix up such a " fan-ago " of irrelevancies and rep- etitious with the proof, as, in fact, to render it to the majority no proof at all. Kuelid should be taught in his own words, just enough and none to spare : the employment of less must engender obscurity : and of more, a want of neat- ness and perspicacity. The best geometrician ani-ni^st us would have cut but a bad figure by the side of a lad of very avera^-.- ability brought up to know Euclid by book. Another twitch of the bell announced that the hour for playing at triangles - had expired. In five minutes the slate was covered with bars of minims and crotchets, and the music lesson begun. This, in the general tone of its delivery, bore a striking r. semblance to the geographical one of two hours before; the- only difference being that " ut, re, me," had succeeded to names of certain cities, and " fa, so, la," to the number of their inhabitants. It \\<.uid be as- vain an attempt to describe all the noise we made as to show its rationale or motive. It was loud enough to have cowed a lion, stopped a donke\ in mid- bray to have excited the envy of the vocal Lablache, or to have sent any pnma donna into hysterics. When this third hour had been bellowed away. and the bell had rung unheard the advent of a fourth presto in came Mons D , to relieve the meek man who had acted as corypha-us to the music class : and after a little tugging had soon produced from his pocket that without which you never catch a Frenchman a thtmp. The theme heinir announced, we proceeded (not quite tant lien que mat) to scribble it down at his diet; tim, and to amend its orthography afterwards from a corrected copy on the slate. Once more the indefatigable bell obtruded its tinkle, to proclaim that Ilerr Roth was coming with n Fable of Gellert, or a chapter from Vater Pestalo/.x.i's serious , STUDENT LIFE AT YVEUDUN UMDER PESTALOZZI. 14$ novel, (iinnal und Lino, to read and expound, and catechise upon. This la 'ii lu-i'oiv dinner was always accompanied hy frequent yawns and other un- repressed symptoms of fatigue; and at its conclusion we all rose with a shout ind rushed into the corridors. On resuming work in the afternoon, there was even less attention and method observed than before. The classes were then broken up, and private lessons were given in accomplishments, or in some of the useful arts. Drawing dogs and cows, with a master to look after the trees and the hedges; whistling and spitting through a flute; playing on the patience of a violin; turning at a lathe; or fencing with a powerful muttre d' Armes; such were the general occupations. It was then, however, that we English withdrew to our Greek and Latin ; and, under a kind master, Dr. M , acquired (with the exception, of a love for natural history, and a very unambitious turn of mind) al' that really could deserve the name of education. We have now described the sedentary life at the chateau. In the next paper the reader shall be carried to the gymnasium ; the drill-ground behind the lake ; to our small menageries of kids, Guinea-pigs, and rabbits; be present at our ball and skating bouts in winter, and at our bathings, fishings, frog-spearings, and rambles over the Jura in summer. We regret not to have seen the second installment of this English boy's Reminiscences of Student Life at Yverdun. If written, it was not pub- lished in the magazine in which the first appeared. The student does not appear to have appreciated or have profited by Pestalozzi's origi- nal methods, which are herein so well set forth. He was not caught young enough and had become too hardened in the unvitalized and mere memory processes of the English public schools. REMINISCENCES OF DR. MAYO. We find in the reminiscences and life of another English visitor, who became both student and assistant at Yverdun, a more hearty apprecia- tion of the great educator's personal character, and the fruitful results of his sojourn in the old feudal castle and in the somewhat noisy family and not very wisely administered institution of Pestalozzi. We close this chapter with an extract from a pamphlet issued by Rev. Charles Mayo, LL.D., in 1826, giving the substance of several lectures deliv- ered by him in the Hoyal Institution in Albemarle Street (founded by that great practical educator and countryman of ours, Count Rumford Benjamin Thompson, of Walpole, Mass.), on the principles of Pesta- lozzi's educational system. Dr. Mayo and his daughter introduced into England the Pestalozzi improved methods of infant and child instruc- tion, which were pursued in the Model and Training Schools, of the Home and Colonial Society in London, and which Mr. Sheldon intro- duced a quarter of a century later into the Model and Training Institu- tion of Ostvrgo, N. Y. Some years ago an Irish gentleman, traveling through Yverdun, in the Pays de Viiud, was prevailed on to spend a couple of hours in the Institution of iV-talozzi The iirst class he inspected was carried on in a language not famil- iar to him, yet was In- much struck with the intelligence and vivacity portrayed in the features of the pupils. But when, the following hour, he witnessed the j 44 STUDENT LIFE AT YVEBDUN UNDER PESTALOZZI. power of the method in its application to arithmetic, he discovered in the schol- ars a clear conception of number and its relations, a precision and rapidity in mental calculation, and an animation and interest in their employment, which convinced him that a secret had been discovered by Pestalozzi, and he was resolved, if possible, to penetrate it. The proposed visit of two hours termin- ated at the expiration of three months ; nor wns his admiration of the method confined to a bare speculative reception of the principles ; he transplanted into his own country the practical truths he had learned in Switzerland, and though Providence has interrupted the course of his more extended labors, he still, in the bosom of his own family, applies the lessons of Pestalozzi, and teaches his children to revere his name. It was not a theoretical examination of the method that effected this conviction and animated to these exertions ; it was a personal view of the practical influence of the system, in scenes lit up by the genius and warmed with the benevolence of Pestalozzi himself. Could I transport you in thought to the scenes where Pestalozzi lived, and taught, and suffered with his scholars, tin- heart would feel even before the understanding discerned the beauty, the truth of his principles. A skeleton view of his system might lead you to a cold approbation of his views, Tbat it must be the living, the breathing portraiture of the man that must awaken your love, and dispose you to imitate what you have learned to admire. I have seen him surrounded by his pupils, have marked the overflowings of his tenderness; I have read in a thousand traits of good-nature the confirmation of his history. I have witnessed the affecting simplicity, the abandon with which he speaks of all he has done and essayed to do for humanity. Could I convey to others the sentiments I feel for him, Pestalozzi would be loved and honored as he deserves. Three years of intimate connection with him, every day marked with some proof of his affec- tion, may well have knit my heart to his; and among the most cherish. d r, -col- lections of the past is, that Pestalo/./.i honored me with his friendship, and thanked me for cheering his decline. HENRY (LORD) BROUGHAM. Among the English visitors to Pestalozzi, whose testimony to the originality and value of his methods as well as to the disinterested character of the man, before the Education Committee of 1818, car- ried immense weight wherever the proceedings of the English parlia- ment were known, was Henry Brougham. He commenced in 1816 that public agitation of the claims of the people to better schools which culminated in the legislation of 1870. It was Pestalozzi and men of his type who inspired the Great Commoner of England, as Henry Brougham was called before a title had confounded him with a group of much inferior men, with his exalted estimate of the schoolmaster in his peaceful vocation. "His calling is high and holy; his fame is the property of nations; his renown will fill the earth in after ages in proportion as it sounds not far off in his own time. Each one of these great teachers of the world, possessing his soul in peace, performs his appointed course, awaits hi patience the fulfillment of the promises, resting from his labors, bequeaths his memory to the genera- tion whom his works have blessed, and sleeps under the humble but not inglo- rious epitaph, commemorating one in whom mankind lost a friend, and no man got rid of an enemy." ' PESTALOZZIANISM IN GERMANY, JOHAAN GOTTLIEB FICHTE. JOHAAN GOTTLIEB FICHTE, whose rousing addresses to the Ger- man nation in behalf of National Education on the Pestalozzian system, in the hour of her greatest humiliation, was worth more than a victorious onset of arms against her foes, was born at Ram- menau, in Upper Lusatia, in 1762, of parents of Swedish de- scent, and in humble circumstances. His father was a ribbon weaver, and the son was indebted for his superior opportunities of education to the Baron Von Miltitz, who secured a place for him first in a clergyman's family at Niederau, then at the town school at Meissen, and at the Princes' school at Pforta (1774-80), closing with higher and larger opportunities at Jena and Leipsic. While a private tutor at Zurich (1789 to 1792), he became acquainted with the educational views of Pestalozzi, and with Johanna Rahn, a neice of the poet Klopstock, to whom he was married in 1793. Thus equipped he entered the field of intellectual and moral philosophy, and by his publications and lectures achieved a repu- tation which ranks him high among the great thinkers of Germany, and by his bold advocacy of a national system of popular and liberal education, when a foreign army had possession of all the fortresses and cities of the country, entitles him to a place among the world's great educators. His death, in 1812, cut short the influential career which his connection with the new University of Berlin opened. FICHTE'S ADDRESSES TO THE GERMAN PEOPLE, 1809. Fichte's addresses to the German people belong primarily to the political history of the nation in the period of its deepest humil- iation, but they are well entitled to a distinguished and honor- able place in its literary and educational annals. Among the many striking phenomena of that eventful period, there is none that exceed in real interest and instructiveness this one of a liter- ary man, single handed and surrounded by foreign troops, setting before him as a duty which he of all others was called upon to fulfil, the task of a people's regeneration. Uniting the patriot's 14tt PESTALOZZIANI8M IN GERMANY. enthusiasm with the prophet's inspiration, Fichte raised a voice- which rang through every corner of Germany, and summoned to* the rescue of his country, all that remained of nobleness and devotion among her sons. It was to no vain display of military glory that he roused and directed their efforts; he sought to erect the structure of his country's future welfare and fame on a far deeper and surer foundation. In strains of the most fervid and impassioned eloquence he pointed out the true remedies for the national degradation, the culture of moral dignity, spiritual free- dom, and mental independence. In these addresses he first announced the plan, and delineated all the chief features of tl at celebrated system of public instruction which has since been de- veloped to the inestimable benefit of Prussia, and raised her in this respect to a proud preeminence among the nations of Europe. Never were a people called upon to arouse themselves to a nobler enterprise, and never was such a summons pealed forth in tones of more manly and spirit-stirring energy. These addresses were fourteen in number. After speaking of the general principles of the new education which he proposed, Fichte devoted several lectures to the question of national charac- teristics, to the main difference between the German and tho other Teutonic peoples, as revealed in history, and in their general life, and to the question of what really constituted a nation in the higher significance of the term, as well as what constitutes true patriotism. In the tenth address he comes to a more definite treatment of the details of the education which he proposes; and in the addresses which follow, he points out the classes on whom rest the responsibility of executing this plan, and what are the proper means of its execution. We cite a few passages from the tenth address on Pestalozzi and his system. "Pestalozzi must needs remain in the history of our age one of the- most extraordinary and beautiful phenomena. This his contemporaries fed; posterity \\ifl Appreciate it still more deeply." To the course of instruction which has lu-cn invented and l>nniL r lit forward by Henry Pestalozzi, and which is now being successfully carried out under his direction must we look for our regeneration. . . With thi< system of popular education for the entire rising generation must the- nation address itself at once and persistently. It will be seen from the following pages, taken from the His- tory of Primary Public Instruction in Prussia (Barnard's National Education in Different Countries; volume one German States, pp. 360-69), that the trial of Pestalozzianism in Normal and Mod- el Schools had already begun before Fichte's eloquent voice had been heard in its advocacy. IN GERMANY 147 Dr. Diesterweg concludes his Pestalozzian centennial discourse at Bei lin in 1846 as follows: By these men and these means men trained in the Institution at Y verdun under I'otalo/./.i and the study of his publication, and the appli- cation of these principles in the model and normal schools of Prussia after 1808, was the present Prussian or rather Prussian-Pestalozzian school system established for he is entitled to at least half the fame of the <;ennan popular schools. Whatever of excellence or eminence they have, they really owe to no one but him. Wherever his principles have been deviated from, there has followed a decline. \Yhatever of progress- \ yet remain* visible is a development of his principles. Whatever in our .1 is based on human nature, is taken from him. His experiments have secured their world-wide fame to the German schools. From France. England, Italy, Spain, Russia, Poland, Norway, Sweden, Holland, Denmark, America, whoever desires to study the best schools, * resorts to Germany. Whatever fame they have, they owe to Pestalo/./.i. Wise people have made use of his creations for orirani/.imr improved in stitutions for training teachers. But the first impulse was given to the movement by the noble Swiss. As the waters flow from that land in every direction, in like manner have fruitful principles of instruction been diffused from it into every country where improvement can be detected. The men and women by whom especially the method and spirit of iozzi were diffused in Germany are : Frederick William III and his- Consort Louise ;* state councilors Nicolovius and Suvern ; the philoso- pher Fichte. by his immortal addresses to the German nation ; high school- councilor Zeller in Konii:>berg; the Prussian teachers trained at Y ver- dun; namely, Kawerau, Dn i-i, Ilenning, Braun, Steger, Marsch. the two Bernhards, Hanel, Titze, Runge, Baltrusch, Pat/in. Preus>. Krat/, and Rendschmidt ; royal and school councilor Von Turk in Potsdam : ^ mi- narv director (Jruner in Idstein; professor Ladomus in Cailsruhe; the prelate Hen/el in E^lingen; seminary-director Stern in Carlsruhe; prin- cipal Plamaun, in Berlin; seminary director Harnisch in Breslaa; Karo- line Rudolphi in Heidelberir: P<-tty Gleim in Bremen and Elbcrfcld; Ramsaucr, royal tutor in Oldenberg; professor Schacht in Mentz; M m inary-inspector Kruirer in Hun/.lau; seminary director Hientzsch in Pots- dam; principal Scholz in Breslau; Dr. Tillich in Dessau; director Bloch- mann in Dresden; principal Ackermann in Frankfort on the Mayne;. principal de Laspe in Wiesbaden; seminary-inspector Wagner in Bri'ihl; seminary director Braun in Neuwied; seminary-preceptor Muhl in Trier; seminary-director (iraffmann in Stettin; eatechi-t Kroger in Hamburg- inspector Collmann in Cassel; and others. By means of these men. the Pestalozzian common schools were set in operation throughout all Germany; and in Prussia, the Prus-iaii-Pestalozzian system. As during IVstalo/./.i's life Y verdun was a place of pilgrimage for teachers, so after- ward, from Europe, America, and elsewhere, men came to observe the German and Prussian common schools. Queen Louise. \\hn superintended (he education of her own children, visited frequently tin- schools o-omliictccl on the plans and im-thoils nf IVstalozzi. s|eii(linf towns, not to speak of the peasant.-, had hitherto been scarcely willing to be educated, however earnestly the government labored in their behalf. A man of the rural population, >till kept in bondage, could not become a teacher, even if he had been willing, unless his grace the feudal lord consented, who, as Rochow himself says, was "king of Prussia'' on his estate. Abbot Stcinmetz of Klostei actually boasted in 1737 that Magdeburg were a good plare in whi.-h to procure pupils for his normal school from among the immigrating foreign journeymen ; the feudal lords, too, who were at his " pedagogium," con- ducted by him in Klostei l>erren, frequently left servants who wu-e ii.- convenient as candidates for schoolmasterships at the normal school, instead of taking them along with tin in to the University. We ivad in Krucnitz's "The Village Schools, Berlin, IT'.'l :" "The schooling either a soldier, school-boy, servant, or he ha> l>em preceptor, famulus or domestic to a member of the consistory." " Those of the tirst named MS of life, mostly show great looseness in morals, and an- ig- norant of the duties of their future po>ition ;" nor does he say any thing favorable of the others. The teachers, as a class, were mostly recruited in a peculiar manner, somewhat similar to the 'strand-right.' Frederic II was certainly not so very wrong, seeing the difficulty of filling the vacancies or increasing the number of teachers, when he calls his invalid corporals a source from which any supply could be drawn. A sullicimt number of teachers, coming regularly and freely from the people, could not be relied on whilst servitude existed. So long as the ma>s of a people consists of bondmen, who expend their best energies in working for their lords, receiving the poorest pay, so long can they have no inducement tly to try to develop their intellectual powers or to educate their children. It is scarcely just to call it want of moral power, when they betray opposition to their children's attending school ; they are sullen, they are indifferent, they are altogether morally crushed. Why learn any thing, many a father may have asked, when the children have no other prospect but villein socage ? And this may perhaps make it com- prehensible why Sack, the counselor of the consistory, ventured to say publicly : "It sounds very fine, when we speak of the family of a hard- working peasant, sitting round their comfortable hearth on long winter evenings, listening to the father or son, as he reads from a useful book ; but this is certainly nothing but an ideal, which will do very well for a romance, but which can scarcely be realized in this matter-of-fact world, at least in the Mark, for some time to come." And the peasants of the Mark were not worse off than those of other sections. 2. Frederic William III deserves the highest praise for having lifted I'l HI.H l.NMUl ( 1ION IN IMU'SWIA. 14Q from tin- nir;il population the weight of serfdom, which prevented all development <>f the pcojil.-, and for having placed them in a condition to become free men. The nation awoke, after the reform of the State organ- ization, to the consciousness of its power, and developed it; a sufficient number of well qualified individuals of the rural population showed henceforth a stead ilv increa.-ing desire to become teachers or to acquire know -ledge. The >eed scattered during school time could now take root and thrive in town and village. The town population derived at the same time great advantages from the new " city constitution,'' which granted them the right of self-government, under the liberal control of the State. It may so happen, that even at the present time the aldermen <-f >>iiie poor little towns, far di>tant from active commercial intercourse, have not yet done all that could be desired, i. e. there may be such places in which the schools have not yet been properly established and cared for ; yet the town-schools of Prussia have reached such development and have been M liberally endowed during the fifty years of the existence of the city constitution, that ail preceding efforts appear trifling, and their future rity is fully assured. This is especially true of Berlin.* ies the liberal legislation which made it possible that schools could tiouri>h, other expedients were employed by which the improvement and extension of public schools in Prussia were promoted. The assistance of new and progressive elements from abroad was introduced, as for ex- ample by Carl August /eller (1809) of Wiirtemburg; and by many able men, who were sent into other countries to obtain there not only a better understanding of the great problems of human culture, but to be inspired with greater enthu>ia>m for their solution. In the letter which Baron von Altenstein, then at the head of the education section of the depart- ment of the Interior, afterwards Minister of Education and Worship, wrote, under date of September llth, 1808, to Pestalozzi, he says : "the young men to be >ent mu>t draw information at the purest source, must study not some branches of your >ystem of education and instruction, but become intimately penetrated with its animating spirit, must learn how all the branches work in their mutual relation and in their intimate connection; must learn, under the guidance of its venerable originator and hi d assistants, how to apply it; must, in the intercourse with you, not only thoroughly develop their intellects, but also warm their hearts for their duties as educators ; must become animated with the >ame convictions of the sacredness of their duties and with the same ardent desire, which inspired you to devote your whole life to iff Thus were gathered a large number of young men from Prussia round Pesta- * Fur the very in-triictiv.- hi-tnry of the development <>f public instruction in that city, which takes precedence of all other cities in the liberal expenditure for the establishment and mainte- nance of public schools, see the .Idmini-trntirr Reports on schools of the city of Berlin, which have been drawn up nnd published by the mngistrate of Berlin, annually, since 1842. Those from 1851 to 1860 are republished in the ''Berliner Blattter" (1864.) No. 2 to 20. Consult also Studies on the Mark, Vol. IX. ; Dietr. Ritterhausen : Contribution* to the history of the Berlin iturij .-r/ino/.*, I'.iTlri. 1-04. pfijro 144. t Stolzcnberg's Contriln r//i> to Hi-t,,r>i. p. -.'. 150 ITMI.ir INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. loz/i ; who faithfully garnered up the teachings of that Swiss educator, brought them into their country, cultivated and developed them, as the head of recently-established normal schools, or as members of the Board f Kducation, according to the peculiar condition and the wants of the country, and rendered the name of Pestalozzi better known and honored than it had ever been before. Among these were llennig and Dreist of Riigenwalde in Pomerania, Kawerau of Elbing, Kratz of Winzig in Si- lesia, Renschmidt of Rosenburg in Silesia, Preuss and Patzig of Kast Prussia; the brothers Bernhard of Halle, Ilaenel of Breslau, Stegcr of Prus>ia, Marsh of Silesia, Ksionzek of East Prussia, Titze of Silesia, Runge, later in Potsdam and Bromberg, and Baltrusch of East Prussia. It was quite natural that the Pestalozzian school, as it may be called for brevity's sake, (it originated with Pestalozzi, yet it was intellectually and popularly, though not politically, developed in Prussia, whilst it re- mained unchanged in other German States,) took hold of, or rather placed itsi-lf in connection with, every thing that could be rendered useful. Thus (1.) all that had reference to the country, its geography and his- tory, were taught with the German language, from a pedagogic and pat- ri<>ti 'point of view ; (2,) Vocal exercises, in the social meetings, from which the modern singing societies, even the singing festivals, derive their origin ;* (3,) Instruction in drawing, principally promoted by the private drawing school of Peter Schmidt in Berlin; (4,) Instruction in music ; (5.) Perfect development of the body, either by placing them- selves in connection with already existing establishments for physical culture, ( TnriKtnatalten,) or establishing new ones. The Prussian Pestalozzi school was essentially religious, and had even more of positive Christianity than the original school itself of Pestalozzi, yet it tolerated all difference of opinion ; it was more religious and tol- erant than its age. Though active in various directions, it had a sound foundation ; though narrow-minded in some respects, it had a liberalizing principle; it inspired patriotism in the hearts of the young; it showed courage in its weakness ; the friendly hand of government assisted it in its troubles, and therefore it has attained glory and produced glory. King Frederic William IV was well acquainted with Pestalozzi's ideas, and he wrote to the founders of the German Pestalozzian sehool : "The spirit which animated Pestalozzi in his life and actions was that of moral earnestness, of humility, and of self-sacrificing love of these Christian virtues, which he, inspired by something higher, exercised during all his life, although the true understanding of the source from which he de- rived his power, was only revealed to him in later years. For he himself confessed to me that he had found in Christianity alone the comfort which he had formerly sought in vain in a different direction." 3. The government of the State, in the hands of men like Silvern, Nicolovius, and other noble spirits, was little, influenced by customs, *The ninging societies of men (Maennergesang fercine,) owe their origin and development mainly to Fr. Wilh. Berner, music teacher at the Normal School in Breslau, 1813. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 151 many of which experience had proved to be decrepid and worn out, but were animated by an ideal which appeared to promise the realization of their hopes. The Prussian government, with faith in the regenerating power of a true national education, determined to introduce it. And thus it was that Prussia, still smarting under Napoleon's scourge, took for some time the lead of all the German States, not by issuing more or less ineffective decrees, but by actual experiments in the details of na- tional education. There was spirit and life in Prussia, there was much activity in doing and liberty in contriving, with little outward parade. Any foreigner, visiting Prussia, might observe that the vitalizing breath of government, like the spirit of God, was acting upon the whole people. Even the less impulsive could riot help being influenced and carried away by this career of progress, because the government showed a firm resolution to press right on toward the desired goal. The work was cer- tainly begun at the root, by the most earnest endeavor to create a body of professional teachers for public schools ; which class of men, consid- ering either their education, or their number, or their origin, or by any law, did not exist. There were plenty of sacristans, school-keepers, and their assistants, but in truth no real teachers of the people. How could there have been any demand for such teachers before there was a people? There always were, in Prussia as well as elsewhere, individuals, noble- men, citizens, peasants, common people, but there was no Prussian people, no nation in the kingdom of Prussia. Frederic William III has created it, essentially by the abolition of serfdom, verbally by his sub- sequent appeal " To my people," which brought every individual into a close community of a common life, death, battle, and victory, with its king ; and induced all to embark in an enterprise and to pass through trials, the most sacred which exist for a nation. The youths of that nation, no longer in the state of serfdom, but faithful to their king to the death, required teachers, if there was any real intention of educating them. This work could hardly be done either by the buckram old sa- cristans, or by the class of schoolmasters, recruited from among ancient tailors. It was the older Pestalozzians, so graphically characterized by Harnisch, who were the progenitors of the older and middle-aged teachers in the Eastern provinces, and among whom a great variety of shades of opinion may be observed. In Saxony, for instance, the education of the teachers if it may be so called received a certain coloring from the rationalism of the clergymen. New normal schools were established every year, mostly by the government, but also by private enterprise, particularly in Saxony, to satisfy the increasing demand for teachers among them. There were new normal schools in Karalene (1811,) Braunsberg (1810,) Marienburg (1814,) Jenkau, (1815,) Graudenz (1817,) Neuzelle (1817,) Coeslin (1816,) one in 1816 in connection with the orphan asylum in Bunzlau (founded 1744.) Older establishments were reorganized, as the Evangelic normal school in Breslau in 1812 (founded 1753 ;) the Catholic normal school in Breslau in 1813 (founded 1765 ; l.VJ PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. the old Benin seminary for sacristans was transferred to Potsdam irv 1817. The work of educating teachers was carried on in many of the- most favored of these establishments, perhaps with a one-sided zeal, but always with an earnestness and with a success which reflects honor on their founders and directors. Nor can their merits be disputed of having given the main impulse to public education, of having been its principal promoters, of having laid the foundation to the structure of the national M'stcm of schools, whose magnificence is now so evident, and which had never before existed, or even been thought possible in any country. In these institutions, mental powers were awakened, young men educated,, grown men inspired with enthusiasm for the welfare of the nation, methods devised, materials found out and rendered useful, objects of teaching rendered accessible to public schools, expedients for a better school administration pointed out, institutions proposed all of which undoubtedly bear witness to an activity never thought of before. Schools multiplied, books for teachers and pupils were written, pedagogic period icals published;* all of which favored the growth of a literature I'm- teachers, who, as a class, became more and more prominent, educated, and respected, whilst they were formerly scarcely known and never mentioned. Labor, for those who were active in the normal schools at that time, was a real enjoyment ; the school was considered the nn-nt* vagus of the organism of the State, and the instrument by which life was to be reformed, ennobled, and elevated. " The teachers could not but work with their whole heart for the advancement and glory of the country. They would eat and drink, of course ; the Searcher of hearts knows that they in their weakness tried to advance their professional and individual honor, and that they frequently were feeble laborers in His empire ; but they possessed a consciousness which others did not pos- --- ; they felt that they were not only instructors, not only school- masters, but also educators of the nation without being demagogues, friends of the people without being their flatterers, and they had great influence over their minds." " The Prussian Pestalozzi school was intrin- sically religious; it spread all over the country from 1812 to 1820, having been, though in the beginning, with a certain caution, very properly rec- ommended to its young advocates by the authorities, because many organs of State and school, lost in their old-fashioned practice, considered them suspicious innovators." Harnish believes he is justified in saying "that in 1820 to 1825 the spirit of modern school-organization had become the ruling spirit of education in the whole Prussian empire." This extension was greatly assisted by certain courses of lectures, (i. e. those delivered by Bernhard, Tuerk, and others,) as well as by teachers' associations, the best known and most influential of which was that in Berlin, (now called the Elder Teachers' Association,) and another in Among them may be mentioned ''The School Adviser on the Oder," 1814 to 1819, a period- ical which represents the vigorous spirit of thnt time, edited by the director of the Catholic norinnl school. Dr. D. Krueger, nnd the director of the Evnnnelic. normal school, Dr. W. Hnrnish, in a spirit of harmonious teacher fellowship never before evinced. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN 1'IllSSIA. 153- uiii. The principal centres, from which this spirit radiated, were the normal schools; wherefore the most prominent counselors of the Board of Kducation were more or less in connection with them. This is espe- cially true of Tuerk, Bernhard, Schroer, Gass, Sckeyde, and Neumann. All these men, laboring in the same spirit, were in intimate cooperation, being either personally acquainted with each other from the start, or brought together by personal visits or correspondence. Official Reaction against Pestatozzianism. 4. During the great events of 1813 to 1815, and as long as their glow- ing fire continued to inspire statesmen and leaders of the people, i. e. till 1819, it was difficult to decide whether the schools derived their import- ance from the life which surged around them, or whether their importance was due to their intrinsic power, very carefully fostered by the State authorities. Up to that time the friends of the national schools in Prussia had been animated by an exclusively educational zeal. But soon after 1817, in which year the king had created a separate ministry for eccle- siastic and medical affairs, and for instruction, and given it to Baron von Altenstein, other influence obtained ascendancy over the government both of Prussia and other States. The school had become an organ of the body politic, both of the State and in the affection of the people, which could not be undervalued; the school, which, in the opinion of some over-cautious men, had taken an indiscreet, progressive course, was checked, though at first mildly, in its apparently too ardent zeal. The encouragements of the authorities were no longer cheering, natural, frank, or frequent ; the authorities, who had formerly favored and actually fos- tered the Pestalozzian spirit and method among teachers, especially in Silesia and other Eastern provinces, allowed it to be felt that a degree of displeasure had been produced by the openly expressed desire to infuse more of that spirit into public education ; and they even took occasion to express to Pestalozzians their dissatisfaction of the strict observance of the methods of their school, without being able to propose any remedy or substitute. They considered it necessary to advise tlu-m not to act too ra>hly, not to attempt to teach, to try or to oppose too much at the time being. They then began to speak of attempting too much, and recom- mended and praised moderation. The time arrived when they dared to speak of u the limited intellect of a subject, as though a subject was not a citizen and a man." Who would like to describe that period of reac- tion, after having lived through it? For the young, who did not, it has been delineated with sufficient power in Menzel's general history, (vol. xii, p. 80, sq.) But the normal schools had diffused already too much fresh blood and spirit into the teachers of the so-called " old provinces," and the previous magnanimous administration had allowed it to affect the schools too far, that the fire which they themselves had kindled, could be easily quenched. Silesia had been placed in advance of the other provinces by the influ- 154 PUBLIC JNsnii c IIO.N I.N i-ui i.\ ence of young Harnisch,* in Breslau and later in Bunzlau, under the con- fiding and inspiring administration of president Mcrkel, and of Gass, the counselor of the consistory. A clergyman of the Mark represents in " School-counselor," (Schulrath on the Oder, page 120,) the Silesian schools which he had seen, to be superior to those of the Mark ; they were certainly superior to those of Saxony, which had been under the Westphalian regime. Why should Harnisch have been transferred from Silesia to Saxony, unless for the purpose of purifying these institutions of their spirit of trivial rationalism, (established by Dinterand Zerrenner, who had bee*i considered the true guardians of education,) and to instil into the minds of the young generation of teachers, sounder Prussian ideas and feelings. Superintendent Handel labored in Neisse in harmony with Harnisch, though with more moderation, calling to his assistance Christian Gottlieb Scholz, (later so well known as a practical schoolman by his many wri- tings, and by his zeal,) and published with him together the " Schulbote" which was widely circulated and read in the province. Tuerk had initiated rather than effected a radical reform in Potsdam, when Strieg, now honorably pensioned, began his beneficent activity as director of the normal school, later as counselor of the Board of Kduca- tion, and continued to work with zeal and success for many years by his sound judgment and moderation. There was in Berlin, even in 1825, when Beckedorf began to publish his periodical, no remarkable pedagogic zeal. 15. HISTORICAL REMARKS ON TUB SEVERAL NEWLY-ACQUIRED PROVINCES. 1. Saxony. a. The province of Saxony, containing four hundred and sixty square miles, with two millions of inhabitants, mostly Evangelic, is partly composed of portions of the oldest hereditary possessions, partly of comparatively recent acquisitions, (duchy of Magdeburg, principalities of Halberstadt and Erfurt, the former cities of the empire, Miihlhausen, Nordhausen, and portions of the Eichsfeld,) and lastly of a portion of the kingdom of Saxony. That is, it was formed of portions of Germany in which the Reformation had its birthplace, and where the German organization of schools had been first accepted by the people. W T hen the districts before mentioned were annexed by Prussia, there was no neces- sity for the government to establish schools ; it had only to foster and to improve them. Magdeburg with Klosterbergen, Halle with its Francke foundation, Halberstadt with its teachers, became c.-ntres for a quiet but not ineffective instructional activity ; so were Erfurt and Miihlhausen, in their own way and according to their power, though the district of the Altmark left much to be desired for a long time. The schools, particu- larly those in the country, bore, in form and nature, more or less the character of those of the other German States of the same religious con- * See Hnrnisch " The Morning of My Life." PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 155 fessioii and family, viz., the teachers were mostly sacristans who taught according to old routine, and were destitute of any progressive spirit ; the arrangements were poor and traditional ; their effect on general edu- cation very moderate. The intrinsic value of the schools in the province of Saxony was measured by the capacity of individual teachers; the tra- ditional institutions offered no other obstacle to their development than the teachers themselves. Where there happened to be teachers of talent, zeal, and self-acquired education and where among the clever men in Saxony, where among Evangelic men had such teacher ever been abso- lutely wanting? there were some schools which might be held out as patterns to others. Franke's pedagogic efforts in Halle, and the activity of the philanthropists in Saxony and Thuringia had always kept alive a feeble and intermittent love of instruction and education among clergy- men and teachers.* I. When the districts beyond the Elbe were torn from the Prussian monarchy in 1807, to form the so-called Westphalian kingdom, their administration came under the influence of Jerome's government, estab- lished in Cassel ; and their schools were not in a very favorable condi- tion. How could a work be done in those times of war, which can flourish only in peace ; how, in those days of intense and universal selfishness, could the Held of education, which requires self-denial and devotion, be tilled ? There were at that time clergymen and teachers enough, whose labors had no other object than to earn the applause and the favor of the ministers who ruled in Cassel. Zerrenner in Magdeburg, clergyman, teacher, director of the normal school, &c., did not shrink from the task of composing and publishing a ''Westphalian Children's Friend," and to dedicate it to a prominent man of the Westphalian bureaucracy, in order to show Westphalian patriotism. He gained by the book honor and position, and thus a great influence over teachers and schools ; it brought Magdeburg into the repute of being foremost in the organization of city schools, and in an effective system of instruction. With the hunianitarianism, the dignity, the circumspection and prudence peculiar to him, he organized the schools of the district according to his own views, and succeeded by his utilitarianism and sentimentality in sat- isfying the population of those districts. Some of his disciples have even been able to make their fortune by the liberal use of Zerrenner's writings and precepts. c. The centre of the pedagogic activity in the formerly Prussian Saxony, Halle, having allowed Franke's spirit to escape from among them, had ceased to be the representative of the Saxon views of an im- proved system of instruction and education. Niemeyer's eclecticism could not obtain or restore this influence either by his pedagogic lectures or by his three volumes of " Principles of education and instruction" The centre of gravity had shifted to Dresden, at the time when Dinter had become a prominent ecclesiastic and pedagogic individual. If Zer- renner may be called the magnus Apollo, then Dinter deserves to be * Barnard's " German Educational Reformers" 156 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. Kotv6s of the rational and sentimental art of teaching at that time." Their names had a great inHuenee with the teachers, their clever method in teaching gained them friends, their comprehensive writings were con- sidered to be very practical and very useful by the teachers of the Elbe districts of Prussia and Saxony, and even in other places where Pesta- lozzi's method has never been able to gain a firm footing. Dinter made I'e.-talo/xi the hero of a satirical poem, which he published in Erfurt, and with which the publishers made me a present, some years later ; subse- quently he declared Pestalozzi, in the Napoleonic style of those years, to be king of the lower classes, whilst he exalted Socrates to the leadership- of the higher, at the same time reserving for himself a position above both. Zerrenner, the eclectic and diluted mixture of Von Rochow, Bascdow, and Niemeyer, considered Pestalozzi to be a man who inconvenienced himself and his disciples a great deal too much by the amount of activity which he desired and made necessary ; the same results could, in his opinion, be obtained much easier by the gentle application of enlightening inform- ation. "To enlighten the brains," to produce correct conceptions by good definitions, that was his preference, his passion, his talent. His influence and his writings overflowed land and people, under the pretext that they aimed at a popular rationalism, and that they taught an en- lightened religion, comprehensively expressed, in place of an obsolete theology. Quails rex, tails grex^ at least in that school of teachers which had its origin in that mar. DNtinjrui.-hed by a gentlemanly appearance, by pliant smoothness and caution of expression, it seems that this school was wanting in power, animation, concentration, and particularly in a truly Christian spirit. To teach generally useful knowledge in the abstract, a historical comprehension is necessary, which it did not pos- sess. Its object was to grow more clever and smarter than those people who lived before us in utter darkness, from which to have escaped people should be thankful. This is not the proper place to show the connection of the "friends of light" with the head-quarters of ' / rrenner, but so iniu-h is certain, that both moved on the same circumference > although it can not be said that the doctrines of the friends of light orig- inated with Zerrenner. '/. Whilst the old Saxon districts of Prussia were influenced by Zer- renner, the new Saxon districts were under the influence of Dinter, because many teachers had been his pupils, and most of them were readers and admirers of his writings. The Prussian government trans- ferred Harnisch as soon as possible, (1822,) from Breslau to Weissenfels, in the southeastern portion of the province of Saxony, as director of the normal school. The writer of these lines was sent (1840) to Erfurt, in the southwestern portion of the province, where Molkr had labored so- long as teacher at the normal school, and as counselor of the consistory, with as much circumspection as success. This was done to protect the increasing number of young teachers in Thuringia against the widely spread rationalism which had already taken possession of the souls or * See Barnard's " Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism." PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 157 was bi-ing nourished from \Veimar and Gotha, (by Roehr and Bret- schneider.) Whilst in the South of the province the Prussian teachers opened their hearts to a Christian life in and with the people, and spread their influence with more or less evident success, as particularly in Miihl- hausen by the beneficent cooperation of the brave teachers Otto and Fehre: the North of the province had to wait patiently for a long time, till the Magdeburg normal school could be removed to Barby, till the extinction or dissolution of private normal schools, which had existed so long in Eilenburg and Grosstreben under Zerrenner's patronage, could be effected, till the normal school at Eisleben could be reorganized, and a new normal school could be established in Elsterwerda. It is more than probable that the schools, particularly in the Northern and central por- tions of the province, had their silent foster-fathers and tenacious repre- sentatives in opposition to those, who had been influenced by the new normal school in Weissenfels since 1822, and in Erfurt, both previous to 1829 and subsequently in 1840. e, Harnish did not escape the contests which Beckendorf had expected to be in store for him, when he went to Saxony. Though he alludes to them in his "Description of the Weissenfels normal school, Berlin, 1838," it is to be regretted that he has not been able to continue his biography, because the plain manner in which he wrote would have represented his position in all its importance during these conflicts. Short allusions can be found at the conclusion of Harnish's work, " The morning of my life" p. 449! "When Erfurt had become a Prussian town again, a normal school was soon established there, originally by the private exertions of several brave men who had the improvement of schools at heart, such as counselor K. Hahn, dean Moller, Cantor Fischer, K. Reinthaler, candidate for ordination, &c. ; it became (1829) a State institution by the influence of Zerrenner, who succeeded in procuring for parson Sickel, his disciple, the place of the former director, Moller.* He was succeeded by Philo, in -October, 1840, who labored to revive in that establishment a spirit more in harmony with the Gospel than that which had hitherto governed it. Stralsund and Pomerania. 2. The governmental district of Stralsund, which includes the duchy of Vor Pommern or Swedish Pomerania, (to distinguish it from the duchy of Vor Pommern belonging to the district of Stettin,) and the prin- cipality of Riigen, hence the country North of the Peene river, contains fourteen towns, and was annexed in 1815.t There reigned, till 1637, the * Dieslerweg's Pedagogic Germany, Vol. I., p. 286. t The contributor of these communications has labored these eight yean as a teacher in different places in Vor Pommern ; he therefore writes partly from his own observation and personal expe- rience. Moreover there have been consulted : Mohnike and Zober, Stralsund Cfironicl., 2 vols. Stralsund, 1833 ; John Jacob Grumbke, JVew and minute geographical, statistical, and historical Notes on the island of Riigen, 2 vols., 1819 ; Biederstedt's Collection of all ecclesiastic, 6rc. reso- lutions in the duchy of Vor Pommern and Riigen, 2 vols., Stralsund, 1817 ; Ohm's Chronicl. of the town of Barth ; Count Krassow, Contributions to the history of JVeio Vor Pommern and Rugen, fifty years ago ; and at the present time, Greifswalde, 1865, Some official documents and manuscripts. 158 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN 1'Kl SMA dukes of Ponnnern-Wolgast, and after the death of the hist descendant of this line (Bogislav XIV.,) under which the duchies of Wolga>t and Stettin had been united, they fell, together with the country South of the Scene river, (Old Vor Pommern,) the mouths of the Oder, and Stettin, to the Swedish crown, to which they belonged for two centuries. That is a long period, and the inhabitants of Vor Pommern and Riigen have been quite comfortable under the mild government of the kings of Sweden ; in their almost patriarchal condition, they had but rarely to complain of claims on their willingness to sacrifice something to the general welfare of the State. But as for intellectual culture, and particularly as for the educa- tion of the lower classes, almost nothing was done ; at least the attempts of government to improve the schools produced no effect worth mentioning. The first schools for the people appear to have been established soon after the Reformation.* They were mostly kept by sacristans in villages that had churches. At the same time, a higher class of schools, called Rector-schools, were established in towns, to supply the want of the citizens. a. Totcn-whool*. Johannes JEpinus published in Stralsund as early as 1525,t particular regulations for Church and School, according to which two jree-scftool* for the young of both sexes were to be established. The principal object in view was instruction in God's Word. A superin- tendent was to be at their head, a Latin teacher and two other school- masters were to be employed. The whole regulation- consists of five sec- tions, of which the second, third and fifth run thus: "God having commanded all parents that the children should receive instruction in His laws, two schools are needed, one for boys and one for girls." "Be- cause we profess to be Christians, we should be careful that such schools should be established according to Christian law, that the youths may not only receive information in the word of God, but that they should be fortified to act according to it" The main work the schools are ex- pected to do is, to instruct the children in doing right, and to teach them how to live in compliance to God's word." A second organization of Church and School for Stralsund was pub- lished in 1535 by Dr. John Bugenhagen. It does not essentially differ from the one issued ten years before. Thus it says: "We also direct that two schools shall be established, for the poor and for the rich living here who reside within the limits of the town ; in the one shall Latin and German be taught, in the other shall girls be educated." The boys* At the meeting in Treptow, (December 13th, 1534.) of the dukes Philip I and Barnim IX, it was resolved, " that the preaching of the Gospel should be allowed without hindrance, that churches and schools should be established, and that the estates of the Roman Catholic Church should be confiscated." t About the author of this regulation for Church and School, Mohnike says: "There lived at that time in Stralsund. as director of the school at St. John's Churchyard, a man called John ^Epinus, whose real name was Hoeck or Hoch ; he played later, in 1528 and 1529, an important pert in the history of the church of Hamburg. This man, though not mentioned as a clergyman in Stralsund, must have enjoyed great authority in consequence of his learning and practical ability, for it was he, and not Ketelhodt, who was applied to, to draft this regulation." PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 159 school was to have one rector and five assistants. The school consisted,, as magistcr Philippus Melancthon has directed in his book for the visita- tions in Saxony, of three classes, yet the rector was authorized to form a fourth class. This institution has not been an elementary school, nor a high-school either, but a rector-school, what we would now call a common* town-school. The educational establishments in the other towns were of a similar character, but little is known about them, before the province was annexed by Prussia. The town and provincial school * at Bergen was established after the Reformation, and had only one class for boys. The girls received instruc- tion in the school of the sacristan, which may have been in existence before the Reformation. John Empel was the first rector in 1562. The reports are not very cheering ; those of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries contain almost nothing but complaints about the individual and public distress, the wretched condition of the schools, and the unpro- ductive exertions of the city authorities to relieve them. The country suffered much during the Thirty Years' War. The school derived no assistance from the Swedish government, when it had taken possession, of Pomerania. The inhabitants of Bergen took the oath of allegiance to Adolphus Frederic in 1754, and thought this a good opportunity to give some hints at the necessity that the very dilapidated school-house should be repaired. They therefore made a transparency with this motto : " If the hand of the Almighty had not protected me, I should long since have been a heap of rubbish." And another, showing the temple of Minerva, had this motto : " As Adolphus Frederic will rebuild the temple, this school-house will also be repaired by him." Yet, fallacem hwninum spem et inanes nostras contentiones ! There were no repairs made. The school in Barth is mentioned in a document as early as 1325, in which Wratislaf, duke of Pomerania and prince of the Riigians, says : 44 1 also authorize my privy council to appoint a schoolmaster and a sacristan whenever there is a vacancy." The oldest instruction for a school organization in Barth is by duke Bogislaf XIII, in the year 1584; it contains much detail, and is closely connected with the organization of the church. But in how sad a con- dition the schools were, even after a lapse of two centuries, may be seen from the following lawsuit in 1743. Rector Zunghen requested that the school fees should be increased, because the price of wood was so very high ; the council did not approve of this request. The rector therefore had no longer any fire made in the school-room, and had even the benches removed. The council made complaints to the consistory, but received no answer. The council renewed the complaint, stating that there had not been any school for three weeks ; then the rector was ordered (1743). to have the school-room properly heated, on the penalty of a fine of thirty thalers. But Junghen did not obey ; on the contrary, he protested *The denomination provincial school is a mere title, because the inhabitants of the province, i. e. of the country about Bergen, contributed nothing to the salary of teachers, fitc., nor did they generally send their children to that school. 160 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. against the sentence and continued the lawsuit. All the while there was no instruction given to the children, because there was but one school- room. The rector gives a description of this room, and tries to prove by figures that the quantity of wood furnished to him was altogether insuffi- cient. The room was twenty-eight feet long, twenty feet wide, and ten feet high ; the walls were of brick and loam, yet the seams, not being filled up with mortar, were mostly quite open. The clergyman of Bod- stedt gave it officially as his opinion, that the room required ten cords of the best beach and oak wood, to be properly heated from 7 A. M. to 4 P. M. during the winter season. The school had two classes in 1774, and in 1789 most likely three, for there is mentioned a subrector, besides a rector, a writing-master, a teacher of arithmetic, and a sacristan. There were similar schools in Grimmen, Loitz, Tribsees, Lassan, and Darngarten, some under a rector, others under a deacon ; there was in Wolgast, Barth and Bergen, (with some interruptions) a subrector, besides the rector. The undersigned has not obtained any special reports on Wolgast, but, to judge from some old statistics, schools must have been in a flourishing condition, most likely because the dukes resided there for a long time. In Franzburg, Richlenberg, and Garz, were schools kept by the sacristans. So had the market-town Gingst a so-called German school, in which the deacon (just licensed to preach) had to give two lessons every day. The town of Sagard on Yasmund (a peninsula of Riigen,) established a school in 1792, liberally assisted by the Swedish Count Brahe; it had but one teacher, who was at the same time parish clerk and organist. A more detailed description of the development of the town-schools is not an object of this article, but it may be mentioned that in 1815, the two towns which had gymnasiums, viz., Stralsund and Greifswalde, sup- ported, besides the sacristans' schools, each a citizens' (industrial) school and a school for orphans. PESTALOZZFS EDUCATIONAL LABORS FOR THE POOR, AND FOR POPULAR SCHOOLS. " IT is to the charitable efforts of Pestalozzi" remarks M. Demetz, the founder of the most complete and successful institution of reformatory education in the world, in a report on the Agricultural Reformatory Colo- nies of France, " that we owe the establishment of agricultural colonies," that is, of institutions, organized on the basis, and in the spirit of the family, with agricultural employment as the principal means of industrial training, and with methods of instruction, moral, intellectual, and physi- cal, so fur as applied, good enough for children of any class of society, and yet capable of being followed by an intelligent mother in the home of the poor. Not that Pestalozzi's own plans and methods under his own application, were eminently successful for they were not. His in- stitution at Neuhof, was a disastrous failure, in its immediate results, both as a school, and as a pecuniary speculation. But the Christian spirit in which this excellent man labored the family organization into which he gathered, even the outcasts of society, living among such pupils as a father, as well as pastor and teacher, and denying himself the quiet seclusion and comforts of the home which the fortune of his noble minded wife had secured for him, that he might inspire the orphan, and the abandoned and even criminal child with filial attachments, cultivate habits of self-reliance and profitable industry, and thus enable them " to live in the world like men" this spirit, system and aim, the dream and labor of his long and troubled life, imperfectly inaugurated at Neuhof, and never fully realized at Stanz, Burgdorf, and Yverden, but widely diffused by his writings, and the better success, under more favorable conditions, of his pupils and disciples in Switzerland and Germany, have led to the establishment of new educational institutions for rich and poor, of schools of practical agriculture, as well as of agricultural reformatories, and at the same time has regenerated the methods of popular education generally. To the con- nected and comprehensive survey of Pestalozzi's Life and Educational System by von Raumer, we add a notice of his labors at Neuhof by Dr. Blochmann, of Dresden, and by Dr. Diesterweg, of Berlin, from discourses pronounced on the occasion of the Centennial celebration of Pestalozzi's birth-day on the 12th of January, 1846. PESTALOZZI'S POOR SCHOOL AT NEUHOF. PESTALOZZI having failed in a plantation of madder which he had com- menced in connection with a mercantile house of Zurich, on an estate of about one hundred acres of land on which he commenced a house in the 162 PESTAI.OZZI'S POOR SCHOOL AT MTIIuF Italian villa style, to which he gave the name of Neuhof, projected the plan of an educational establishment respecting which Dr. Blochmann,* admiring pupil ami avowed follower thus writes: It was not in Pestalozzi's nntuic to sink under misfortune, so long as ht could pursue the attainment of the object of his lift'. IK- had early learned and deeply fixed in his mind the maxim, ' Tu ne cede mails, sed contra fortior ito." lie advanced like a roused lion, with resolute courage, against alf unfriendly influences. In spite of the severe distress into which the- unforseen withdrawal of the Zurich house plunged him, he determined to go on, and to make his landed estate the centre of operations for his educational and agricultural plans. He resolved even upon more and higher designs. Henceforward he will live amongst beggar children, and share his bread in poverty amongst them ; will live like a beggar him self, that he may learn to teach beggars to live like men. He also proposed to render his establishment an institution for the poor. This undertaking attracted attention. It was considered a noble and benevolent enterprise; and his views and prinripl-> had .-o much influence, in spite of the mistrust of his practical ability, that he found assistance in Zurich, Bern and Basle, and was aM- without much diffi- culty to obtain the necessary funds for the institution, by the aid of a loan, for several years, without interest His friends on all >ides .1 him ; more especially Iselin of Basle, whom he had met and known in the Helvetic Diet, and who introduced the beloved enterprise to public notice in his Ephemerides. The Institution for the Poor at Neuhof was opened in 1775. Poor children flocked in from all direction-, many of them gathered by Pestalozzi himself from their misery, and out of tin- >tn-et>. He had soon fifty children, whom he kept busy in summer with Held labor, and in winter with spinning and other handicrafts, instructing them .ill the time, and developing and clearing up their mental facultio, < -|H . ially by oral recitations and mental arithmetic.! Pestalozzi had early ]nri\ed * HENRY PBSTALOEZI Touches at a Picture of his Life and Labors : from his own testi- mony, from observation, and communication. By Dr. Karl Justus Blochmaun, Privy School' ( mi ncilor and Professor: Leiptic. 1846. t The idea of such a school for the poor, in which agricultural and industrial labor were to oe combined with instruction, accompanied Pestaloxzi. to whose mind it was so new and' stimulating, all his life ; and even remained like a sunbeam shining from behind the dark sad clouds of the past, his last lore, his last active desire. What, however, he never completely accomplished, has been done by Emanuel von Fellenberg, who was assisted in the work, not only by his certain and practical skill and experience, but especially by his good fortune in dis- covering in Vehrli, such a man a-s is very seldom to be found, but absolutely necessary in the actual realization of such a school Whoever, like myself and there are thousands has be- lome thoroughly acqua'nted with Vehrli's school in Hofwyl, must he convinced that in institu- tions for the education of the poor so organized, conducted in such a spirit, with such love and self-sacrifice, there is to be found an inestimable blessing for the slate and the people. Pel- .enberg has shown from his account books, that ;i poor hoy. received at his ninth year, and re- maining in the institution through his eighteenth, pays by h s labor during the last half of bin stay, for the excess of the expense of maintaining him over his earnings, during the first half. Lange, in his work on ' The Country Edurational Institutions for Poor Children." (f.andflclu, Erxiehungt An $t alien fvr Arinrnleindrr.'j has made very thorough researches into tli *. PESTALOZZPS POOR SCHOOL AT N Ell HOP. 10$ that in the nature of every man are innate powers and means sufficient to assure him an adequate support ; and that the hindrances arising from exterior circumstances, to the development of the natural endowments, are not in their nature insuperable. The usual means of benevolence and mercy (as he was accustomed to name the orphan houses, institutions for supporting the poor, < ; that the inborn natural powers of every man to provide for his own necessities, and sufficiently to perform the business, duties and obligations oi his being, should be developed, encouraged, and set upon an independ- ent footing. With this conviction the impulse increased within him to labor for this definite purpose ; thai it should become practicable for the poorest in the land to be assured of the development of their bodily, spiritual and moral powers both in relation to their own characters, and to their personal, domestic and social relations ; and through this devel- opment to obtain the sure basis of a peaceful and sufficient means, of existence. lie had already taken the first step in this direction, by admitting into his house beggar children and others abandoned to neglect, that he might rescue them from their debasing condition, lead them Kirk to manhood and a hiirlnT destiny, and thus prove to himself and those, around him more and more clearly the truth of his opinion. His institu- tion was to comprise the means for a sutlici.-nt in>trurtion in Held labor, in domestic work, and in associated indu-trv. This was not, !. the ultimate purpose. That was, a training to manhood ; and for it, these other department! were onlv pr-'paratorv. First of all, he proposed to train hi> pour hildreii to exertion and -elt- control, by forbearing ami assiduous discipline, and b\- the ever powerful stimulus of love. He aimed to possess himself of their hearts, and from that starting point to brinjr them to the consciousness and the attainment of every thing noble and great in humanity. u I had from my youth " he 8, "a high instinctive value of the influence of domestic training in the education of poor children, and likewise a decided preference for field labor, as the most comprehensive and unobjectionable external basis for this training, and also for another reason : as it is the condition of the manufacturing population which is increasing so rapidly amongst us, who, abandoned to the operations of a mercantile and speculating subject, not only from other writings upon institutions for the poor after the model of Fellen- berg's, but from his own repeated and extensive travels and personal observation. Our own teacher's association (ptidagogiiche rerein. at Dresden,) has proposed as a chief aim of its practical efforts, the realization of an institution for the education of poor and abandoned children, after Pestalozzi's model ; for which purpose, it purchased some eight years since, a property in great part already in cultivation, and with a roomy mansion house, near the Liibfaner Schlage, which was deilicarul on MIH l'2th of January. 1845, by the name of UK. Ptslalozzi Foundation, (PtMulozzi Stiftunc.) 164 PESTALOZZ1S POOR SCHOOL AT NEUIIOF. interest, wholly destitute of humanity, are in danger, in case of unforseen accident, of being able totiml within themselyea no means of ex-ape from entire ruin.* Full of a love for my father-land, which hoped for it almost impossible things, and longed to lead it back to its native dignity and power, I sought with the greatest activity not only for the possible but for the certain means of averting the coming evil, and of awakening anew the remainder of the ancient home happiness, home industry, and home manners. These designs sank deep into my heart and often made me feel with sorrow what a high and indispensable human duty it is to labor for the poor and miserable, with all the means which our race possesses, in church, state or individuals, that he may attain to a consciousness of his own dignity through his feeling of the universal pow- ers and endowments which he possesses, awakened within him ; that he may not only learn to gabble over by rote the religious maxim that * man is created in the image of God, and is bound to live and die as the child of God,' but may himself experience its truth by virtue of the divine power within him, so that IK- may be invsi.-tibly and really elevated not only above the ploughing oxen, but above the man in purple and silk, who lives unworthily of his high destiny." With such lofty and magnificent views, and with a heart at even a higher level of love, Pestalozzi labored at Neuhof from sunrise to sunset, amongst his beggar children. He lived steadily up to his principles, laboring in his vocation to the full extent of his powers ; always knew what he was seeking, cared not for the morrow, but felt from moment to moment the needs of the present Among his children were very many ungovernable ones of a better class, and still worse, many who had brought themselves from a better condition to beggary, and who were pivMimptuous and pretentious by reason of their former situation ; to whom the energetic discipline which he applied, according to his design, was at first hateful. They considered their situation with him as more degrading than that in which they had been before. Neuhof was full every Sunday of the mothers and relatives of children who found their situation not what they had expected. All the impertinences which a miserable rabble of beggars could indulge in a house without visible protection or imposing exterior, were practiced, to encourage the children in their discontent ; even so far that they were often tempted to run away by night just after they had been washed clean and clad in their Sunday clothes. However, these difficulties would little by little * Upon the influence of manufacturing wealth amongst the Swiss at that time. Pestalozzi expresses himself thus in another place : " The paternal love of the upper and the filial love of the lower classes, in consequence of the increase of the manufacturing interest, is going more and more to ruin under the effects of ignoble wealth. The blinding height of arro- gance derived from an eminent position obtained by money, the deceitful cornucopia of an unreliable life of mere pleasure, has drawn all within its destructive influence, even down to the commonest of the people, and carried them into the crooked path of a spiritless and pow- erless routine life. Truth, honor, sympathy, moderation, are daily vanishing. Pride, insolence, recklessness, contemptuousness, laxity, immorality, the eager pursuit of vain and ostentatious pleasure, the cherishing of boundless selfishness, have taken the place of the ancient simplicity, faith and honor. l'i:sr.\l.u//l s I'OOR SCHOOL AT NEUHOF. 165 nave- been overcome, had not Pestalozzi pushed his undertaking to an extent altogether beyond his means, and undertaken to modify it according to the original design, which supposed the possession of the utmost knowledge of manufacturing and of human nature ; qualities in which he was lacking in the same measure, in which he needed them urgently for managing his institution. Moreover, he hurried on to the higher branches of instruction, before supplying the solid foundation of acquaintance with the lower; an error recognized as the leading one of the teaching of the age, against which he had striven in his scheme of education with all his strength. For the sake of a fallacious prospect of greater profit, in higher branches of industry, he committed, in teaching his children to spin and weave, the very faults which he had so strongly abjured in all his expressed opinions upon education, and which he saw to be so dangerous to children of all classes. He would attempt to secure the finest spinning, before his children had acquired even a small amount of firmness and surety of hand in coarse work ; and undertook to manufacture muslin before his weavers had attained skill in weaving common cotton stuff. Through these and the like mistakes, through his ignorance of business, and his great lack of a sound practical faculty of learning it, it happened that Pestalozzi fell every year deeper in debts ; and when these also from time to time had been paid by the self-sacrificing generosity of his noble wife, there came at last an end of this means of help, and in a few years the greater part of his substance and his expected inheritance was dissolved into smoke. The great confidence which he had enjoyed among his neighbors, changed when his undertaking failed so soon, into an utter and blind rejection of any shadow even of faith in his enterprise, or of belief in his possessing any capacity at all as a teacher. But such is the way of the world ; it treated Pestalozzi, when poor, as it treats all who become poor by their own faults. Their money being gone, it with- draws also its confidence from them, in matters where they really are capable and efficient. His enterprise failed, in a manner excessively painful, both to himself and his wife, in the year 1780, in the fifth year of its existence. His misfortune was complete; he was 'now poor. He felt most deeply the condition of his noble hearted wife, who in the excess of her devotion had mortgaged away for him nearly all her possessions. His situation was indeed shocking. In his over handsome country house, he was often destitute of bread, wood, and a few pennies, wherewith to defend himself from cold and hunger. Only the entire forbearance of his creditors and the kind help of his friends preserved him from despair and entire ruin. Thus he lived a poor and destitute life in Neuhof for eighteen years, fighting with want and misery. He lived as a poor man amongst the poor ; suffered what the common people suffered, and saw what they were. He studied the wants of the lower classes and the sources of their misery, in a manner which would have been impossible for one in better circumstances THE 8CHOOLHOU8E AT BIRB, WITH PESTALOZZl'S MEMORIAL PUBLICATIONS BY AND RELATING TO PESTALOZZL I. WORKS BY PESTALOZZI.* PESTALOZZI'S WORKS, (Werke,) Tubingen, 1819-26. Gotta, lo vola These include : a. Leonard and Gertrude, (Lienhard und Gertrud,) vols. 1 4. b. How Gertrude teaches Tier children, ( Wie Gertrud ihr Kinder lehrt,) vol. 5. C. To the innocence, earnestness, and nobility of my fatherland, (An die Unschuld, den Ernst und den Edelmuth meines Vaterlandes,) vol. 6. d. My researches upon the course of nature in the development of the human race, (Meine Nachforschungen uber den Gang der Natur in der Entwick- lung des Menschengeschlechts,) vol. 7. e. On legislation and child-murder, (Ueber Gesetzgebung und Kindermord,) vols. 7 and 8. t On the idea of elementary education. An address delivered at Lenzburg, 1809, (Ueber die Idee der ElementarbUdung. Eine Rede, gehalten in Lenzburg.) vol. 8. (" In jrreat part the work of Niederer." Biber. It first appeared in the Weekly for Human Development," [ Wochtn*chriftf*r Menschenbil- g. Pestalozzi's ktter to a friend upon his residence at Stanz, (Pestalozzi's Brief an einen Freund uber seinen Aufenthalt in Stanz,) vol. 9. (This first appeared in the " Weekly.") h. Views on industry, education, and politics, (Ansichten uber Industrie, Erzie- hung und Politik,) vol. 9. i. Address to my household, delivered Jan. 12, 1818, (Rede an mein Haus. gehalten den 12 Jdnner, 1818,) vol. 9. k. Figures to my A B C-Book, (Figuren zu meinem A B C-Buch,) vol. 10. I. Views and experiences relative to the idea of elementary education, (Ansichten und Erfahrungen, die Idee der Elementarbildung betreffend,) vol. 11. (This had before appeared under the name of " II. Pestalowi'a views. xperiences, and means to secure a mode of education adapted to hu- man nature." Leipzig, 1807.) m. On the principles and plan of a periodical, announced in the year 1807, (Ueber die Grundsatze und den Plan einer im Jahre 1807 angekiindigten Zeitschrift,)\ol 11. n. Report to parents and the public on the condition and organization of Pestalozzi's institution in the year 1807, (Bericht an dl>- i'llf.-m >//,. ,,,,,.1 W ua re- printed in the- kk Weekly for Human Development," in 1807.) c. A Swiss Gazette, (Ein Schweizer-Blatt,) in two volumes, 1782 and 1783. (Not being acquainted with this, 1 do not know whether I'estaloz/i was sole editor or not. About 17'.-^ he published anot /tp- ular Gazette" under authori/ation from p>\ eminent. > d. Pestalozzi's elementary works, (Pestalozzi's Elementarbucher,) especially the " Book for Mothers,' 1 (Buch der Mutter,) Tubingen, 1803. The " Intui- tional Theory of the Relations of Size," (Anschauungslehre der Mass- verhdltnisse,) and the "Intuitional Theory of the Relations of Numbers," (Anschauungslehre der Zahlenverhdltnisse,) by Kriisi, are quite as im- portant for Pestalozzi's works as the theories of Number, Form, and Size, by Schmid, in vols. 14 and 15. e. Views on Subjects to which the Helvetian Legislature ought specially to direct its attention, (Ansichten fiber die Gegenstande auf welche die Gesetz- gebung Helvetians ihr Augenmerk vorzuglich zu richten hat,) Bern, 1802. The Fate of my Ltfe, as Principal of my Educational Institutions at Burg- dorf and Yverdun, by Pestalozzi, (Meine Lebensschicksale als Vorsteher meiner Ensiehungs-ins'titute in Burgdorfund Iferten,) Leipzig, 1826. g. The Instruction of the Sitting-Room, (Die Kinderldire der Wohnstube.) (Published in " ROM*!** Monthly.") b. Weekly for Human Development, (Wochenschrifl fur MenschenbOdung,) 4 vols., 18071811. ifis, as was stat* 1 I 'estalozzi's Letter nn his residence at Stan/, the Report on the Institution at Vverdun, and the Lenzbuig address.) L Pestalozzfs Educational Enterprise, as related to the culture of the age, (Pestalozzi' s Erziehungs- Unternehmung im Verhaltniss zur Zeit-cultur,} (by Niederer,) 1812. i In tliis is a letter from Pestalo/ rcr.) k. Declaration against Canon Bremfs three dozen Newspaper Questions, (Erk- larung gegen Herrn Chorherr Bremfs drey Dutzend Burklische Zeitungs- fragen,) Yverdun, 1812. 3. WORKS OF PESTALOZZI in part not included in the above list, or in a new arrangement. 1. Paternal Instruction, in moral explanation of words. A legacy from Father Pestalozzi to his pupils. (Vaterlehren in sittlichen Wort- deuteungen. Ein Vermddilniss von Voter Pestalozzi au seine Zoylinge.) Revised and collected by Herman Krusi. Trogeh, 1829. (The MS. .f this work \\ d by Pestalozzi to Kriisi, who ed- ited it with addition and alteration.) 2. Letters on Early Education. Addressed to J. P. Greaves, Esq., with a memoir of Pestalozzi. London, 1829. 3. Pestahzzts Life and Views, in verbatim extracts from the complete works of Pestalozzi. (PestalozzCs Leben und Ansichten, in wortgetreuen Auszuge seiner gesammten Schnftm.) Published with reference to the festival of his hundredth birthday. By Roget Christoffel. Zurich, 1847. (An excellent selection, affording probably the best general view acces- sible of the whole subject, and made on a principle whieh renders it reliable for reference. We give the Table of Contents.) \ LOZZ1. LITERATURE. 169- CHKISIOKKKL, R., u IVstalo/./.i's, Life and Views," (Leben und Ansichten, in wortyei reuen Auszuge seiner gesammten Schriften.) Znreih, 1847. PART I . PESTALOZZI'S BIOGRAPHY, IN EXTRACTS FROM His c.u.V WHITINGS. PAOC. I. Character as a child 1 J Hume,. 2 3. Grandfather, 5 4. City M-hool ^ 5 .">. Similar character of an ancestor,.' 6 I. School years 8 7. Choice of vocation,. V 11 ihof, 12 mit-< mi author, 16 ID. I'.iMTty nnd friendship 21 11 Kv mii:.' hour of a hermit 23 LOI 32 13. Schoolmaster at Burgdorf, 48 14. Joins with Kriisi 55 I."). Hurgdorf institution,. Hi Moves to Muiichen-Buchsee 62 17. Yverdun 63 18. The institution in prosperity, 64 19. New Years, 1808 81 20. " " 1810 90 21. Chmtmas, 1810, 100 22. New Years, 1811 108 23. " " 181-2 117 24. 72d birthday 124 25. At Neuhof.'in his old age 141 APPENDIX TO PART I. a. To Jacob Frohlich, V. I). M 144 b. To Secretary Iselin 147 PART II. VIEWS OF NATURE AND MEN. I. Spring 153 II. Summer 154 III. Fables, 88 in number 159 IV. Tales :- J . 1'oor Kunigunde, 213 2. The braggart of freedom, 234 3. The cotton-spinner, 238 4. The village shoemaker 239 V. Essays: I. Industry and its perils, J The farming population . 3. < >n child-murder -J7 \ 4. Tithes 5. Wake up, people! (Revolutionary speech,). 293 6. Something about religion, 299 PART III. VIEWS ON EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION. I. EDUCATION. 1. Sketch of natural education 305 2. System and aim of true education 313 3. From maternal love, the child proeeeds to love of men and of God, 316 4. Character of father and mother influence result of education 319 5. Development of child to true manhood, with relation to It-Mow -men 3-J3 6. Development of child in relation to natun , :(.'." 7. Result of want of parental character in earliest instruction, 3-J7 8. Faith in God will supply to parents the proper feelings iUii 9. Sketch of an institution for education of the poor 333 II. INSTRUCTION. 1. Elementary means of instruction are num- ber, form, speech 337 2. First means, sound :t:t'.i A . Tones 33ear bad, 373 9. He who dujoins the principles of arith- metic and the sense ol truth, puts asunder whnt Go An Address at the festival on his hun- d.odtli birthday. January rJth, 1846, delivered at Berlin by A Diesterweg. {h. Pestalozzi. Rede bei der Manner- Feier seines hunderfydhrigen Geburtstages am 12 Januar 1846, zu Berlin geJialten von Adolph Diesterweg.) Berlin. 1846. SAME. Pestalozzi. A word on him and his immortal services to children and their parents, at the first centennial festival of his birth. By A. D. Third edition. (//. Pestalozzi. Ein Wort uber ihn und seine unsterblichen Verdiente,fur die Kinder und deren Eltern, zu dem ersten Sacularfeste seiner GtburL Von A. D. Dritte Auftage.) Berlin. 1845. DIESTERWEG, Ratisch, and Mnssmann. Festival of the hundredth birthday of H. Pestalo/./.i. !! -rim, January 12, 1845. (Die Feier des IQQsten Geburtstages ffeinricJi Pestalozzi's, in Berlin am 12 Januar 1845.) Berlin. 1845. Essays for and against Pestalozzi's System of Instruction. 1806. (Aufsatze fur und gegen die Pestalozzische Unterrichtsmethode.) KWALD, J. LUDWIO, Lectures on the theory and art of education, for fathers, mothers, and educators. ( Vorlesungen uber die Erziehungskunst fur Vat- ler, und Erzietutr.) 3 vola. Manheim. 1808. GRUNER, ANTON*, Letters from Burgdorf on Pestalozzi, his method and his institution. Second edition, enlarged. (Briefe aus Burgdorf uber Pestalozzi, seine Methode und Anstalt. Zweite Aufttige.) Frankfort-on-the-Maino. 1806. HKNXIXI;. (of Coslin.) Information on Pestalozzi's peculiarities, life, and edu- cational institutions. (Jfittheilungen uber H. Pestalozzi's Eigenthumlichkeit, Leben, und Erziehungs-Anstalten.) (In Harnisch's "School Councilor on the Oder," (Schulrath an der Oder,) Parti. 1814.) HERBART. Pestalozzi's idea of the rudiments of instruction. (Pestalozzi's Idee eines ABC des Anschauungs, von Herbart) Gottingen. 1804. HEUSSLER. Pestalozzi's results in education, (Pestalozzi's Leistungen im Er- ziehungsfache.) Basle. 1836. ITHO, JOHANN, Official Rei>ort on the Pestalozzi Institution. (Amtlicher Be- riclit uber die Pestalozzische AnstaU.) KROGER, J. C., Information on Pestalozzi and his methods of education. {Mitthetiuntjen uber Pestalozzi und seine Erziehungs- Methode.) Hamburg. 1846. KRUSI. Recollections of my pedagogical life, before, during, and since my connection with Pestalozzi. (Erinnerungen aus meinen padagogischen Leben und Wirken, &c.) Stuttgardt: Cast. 1840. MONNICH, W. B., J. H. Pestalozzi, painted by himself and by others. (J. H. Pestalozzi, nach ihm selbst und Andern geschildert.) In the " Cotemporaries," (Zeitgenossen.) Leipzig. 1813. NIEDERER. Pestalozzi's educational undertakings, in their relation to the cul- ture of the age. (Pestalozzi's Erztiehungs-Unternehmung im VerhaUnisse zur Zeitcultur.) 1812. PESTALOZZI-FOUNDATIOX. The German Pestalozzi-Foumlation. First finao- STAI n//i. i.nr.KAii 1:1: 171 , /"//'. '/--('iff'/ : t n/itt'l>iiji^htn Lebens.) Oldenburg. 1838. RAUMER, K. von, History of pedagogy. (Geschichte der Padagogik.) Vol. 2, pp. 287, -Hii. Remarks against Pestalozzi's system of instruction. By Steinmiiller, pastor. 1803. W. VON TURK. Letters from Miirichen-Buchsee upon Pestalozzi and his method of elementary training. (Briefe aus Miinchen-Buchsee ubcr Pestalozzi und seine Elementar-Bildungsimtiiod.) Leipzig, 1806. 2 vols. FRENCH WORKS ON PESTALOZZI. JULMEN, MARC ANTOINE, Spirit of the method followed and practiced by Pestalozzi in the educational institution at Yverdun. (&prit de la mtthode de Pestalozzi, suivie et praliqute dans F tnstitut d 1 education Yverdun.) 2 vols. .Milan. 1812. PESTALOZZI. Manuel des meres. Traduit del' Alleraand. Geneva and Paris. 1821. ENGLISH WORKS RELATIVE TO PESTALOZZI. UIISKR, E, Henry Pestalozxi. and his plan of education; being an account of his life and writings; with copious extracts from his works, and extensive details illustrative of the practical parts of his method. London. 1831. BLACKWOOD'S MAGAZINE. I' si a Ic/./.i's system. Vol. 66, p. 93. EDINBURGH REVIKW. Pe0talauTs Bjvtem Vol. 47, p. 119. \\ KS. J. P., Letters and extracts from MS. writings. Ham Common. Surrey. 1843. HINTS TO PARENTS on the cultivation of children, in the spirit of Pestalozzi's method. London. 1827. (Six parts.) PESTALOZZI. Letters on early education. Addressed to J. P. Greaves, Esq. Translated from the German. With a memoir of Pestalozzi. London. 1827. PESTALOZZI. Leonard and Gertrude. Translated from the German. 2 vols., 12 mo. London. 1825. AMERICAN WORKS ON PESTALOZZI. ACADEMICIAN. This educational monthly, edited by A. and J. W. Pickett, "N. Y., 1818-19, contains a brief article on Pcstulozzi'a system, p. 214, No. 14; and a series of seven articles on the same subject, in Nos. 16-23; the first on p. 245, ALCOTT, A. B., Pestalozzi's principles and methods of instruction. (Article in American Journal of Education, Vol IV., No. 2, March and April, 1829, p. 97.) ALCOTT, A. B., Review of " Maternal Instruction, Ac. In the spirit of Pes- talozzi." "American Journal of Education" Vol. IV., No. 1, January and Feb- ruary, 1829, p. 53. DIAL. Memoir of J. P. Greaves. October 1842, and January 1843. LIVING AGE. Pestalozzi's system. Vol. XXII., p. 461. MATERNAL INSTRUCTION, OR HINTS TO PARENTS. In the spirit of Pestal- ozzi's method. Salem, Mass. 1825. MUSEUM. Memoir. Vol. XIII., p. 278, and Vol. XIX., p. 493. RIPLEY, GEORGE, Memoir of Pestalozzi, in " Christian Examiner." Vol. XI , p. 347. UNITED STATES LITERARY GAZETTE. Pestalozzi's system. Vol. I., pp. 344, PESTALOZZIAN LITERATURE. III. PUBLICATIONS ON PESTALOZZI AND PESTALOZZIANISM.* ABS, Jos. TIIEOD. Darstellung meiner Aimi-mlting der Pestalozzi'schen- BiUlnngsmethode. Halberstudt, 1811. Pestalozzi's Anstrrnmingen fiir Menschenbildung gesdiichtlirh dar Ct-stfllt. Halberstadt, 1815. ACADEMICIAN of 1818-19. Pcstalozzi a Series of Articles by a " Citizen of Clinton County," N. Y. A portion Republished in Russell's American. Journal >f Kducation for 1829. Ac KE KM AN.V, \V. H. Erinncrungen aus meinem Leben bei Pestalozzi. Frankfurt a/M., 1846. ALBBRTI, C. E. R. H. Pestalozzi. In der Sammlung gemeinverstiindlicher v i>M-ii-h;ift!k'her Vortrage von R. Virchow und Fr. von llolt/i'tidorff. (Heft 79.) Berlin, 1869. ALCOTT A. BKOXSON. Pestalozzi, Principles and Methods, 99 p., 1829. AMERICAN ANNALS OF EDUCATION. Life and System of Pestalozzi, com- pared with Basedow. Woodbridge, 1837. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, ed. by H. Barnard. Pestalozzi and his Svstein. Papers to the aggregate of 800 pages, in Volumes III., IV , VI., VII.; X . XXX. XXXI. Hartford, 1857-1880. AMOROS. Mi'tnoire, In a la Societe pour 1'instruction elK-mentaire, sur les avantatres de la nic-thode d'education de Pestalozzi et sur 'experience decisive faite en Espague en faveur de cette methode. Paris, 1815. AUCH ANSICHTEN und Erfahrungen uber Institute und Schulen, eine Priifung des Schmitl'srlien Buches "Erfahrungen und Ansichten." Deutschland, 1811. AUCH EIN WORT. s. Keller. AUFFORDERUNGEN und Vorschlage zur Veredlung des Schulund Erziehungs- wesens. Leipzig, 1800. AUFSATZE. For and against Pestalozzi's System, s. Homer. D'AUTEL, A. H. Priifung des Werthes der Pestalozzi 'schen Methode. Stut r.trart, 1810. BABLER, J. J. Ein bescheidenes Bliimchen auf das Grab Pestalozzi's.. Glarus, 1846. BAR. s. Pestalozzi. BAOOE, E. \V. G. Pestalozzi. Frankfurt a/M., 1847. BANDLIN, DR. J. B. Pestalozzi. Schaffhausen, 1843. Der Genius von Vater Pestalozzi. Zurich, 1846. BARNARD, HENRY. Pestalozzi, Franklin and Oberlin, true Popular Educa- tors: 24 p. Hartford, 1839. Edition of 1880, 80 p. Pestalozzi's Educational Labors for the Poor, and the Popular Schools, in Barnard's Reformatory and Preventive Institutions, 16 p. Hartford, 1847. Pestalozzi and his Method of Instruction, 48 p. Hartford, 1849. Life and Educational Views, from Rammer, 126 p. Hartford, 1857. Pestalozzi and his Assistants and Disciples, 224 p. Hartford, 1858. Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism, 474 p. 1862. Third Edition, with Fellenberg and Wehrli, p. 528. 1870. Leonard and Gertrude, translated from Ed. of 1781, 152 p. Second Edition, with Evening Hour of a Hermit; New Year and Christmas Addresses to his Family, 221 p. Hartford, 1860. Pestalozzi, Fellenberg and Wehrli, in relation to the Industrial Element in Education, 16 p. Hartford, 1861. Pestalozzi and Froebel in Child Culture, 32 p. 1881. Pestalozzi's One Hundredth Birth- Day, and the Literature of Pesta- lozzianism. Second Edition, 32 p. 1881. Pestalozzi and other Swiss Educators (Zwingle, Calvin, Rousseau, Girard, Frllenberg, Wehrli, Kuratli, Agassiz, etc.). Memoirs and Educational Views, 740 p. Hartford, 1883. * Revised to 1883. Mainly from " Catalogue of tt'orka on Pcstalozzi '' by A. Schumann, of Zoflrxf , printed in Schweizerische Zeitschrift jur Gememnuelzigkrit. Zurich, 1879. rii iTALOZZIAN LITEUATURE. 178 (iJ.vi-KK). Pest:ilu//i (U-r Krvolutionar. Von eincm Zoglinge desselben. ( harlutti-iilmri;. 1^46. BELEUCHTUNG der Pestalozzi 'schen Grosssprechereien. Erfurt, 1804. BKMKHK.UNGEN iiber Krziehmigs Unterrieht. Gewidmet deu Gonnern und IV'fordiTi'ni der hirsigon Anstalt nach Pestalozzi'schen Grundsatzen. Bei ijlelegenheit der zweiten Priifung. Basel, 1811. BERICHT iiber die Pestalozzi'sche Erziehunpsanstalt zu Yverdon an S. Excel- lenz den Herrn Landammann und die h. Tars;itzung der Schweiz. Eidgenossrn- vschaft. Gudruckt auf Befehl der Tagsatzung. Bern, 1810 (von G'irard, Tnclt*tl, Merian). BIBER, E. Beitrng zur Biographie H. Pestalozzi's. St. Gallen, 1827 Henry Pestalozzi, and his plan of education. London, 1831. BIOGRAPHIE de Henri Pestalozzi, s. Chavannes. BITZIUS, s. Gotthelf. BLACKWOOD'S MAGAZINE. Pestalozziana. Reminiscences of an English Student (before 1818). Vol. 66, 1849. BLATTER, rheinische, fur Erziehnng und Unterrieht. Herausgegeben von A. Diestcrweg. Essen. Jahrgange, 1845 47. Band, 31 36. vorlaufige, von den Verhandlungen der schweizerischen Gesellschaft fur Erziehung. 1808. BLOCHMANN, K. J. Heinrich Pestalozzi. Leipzig, 1846. Pestalozzi; Poor School at Neuhof, in Barnard's Reform'y Ed. 1857. BONAPARTE, Talleyrand, et Stapfer, 18001803. Zurich, 1869. BORDIKK. ancien pasteur, Pestalozzi. Neuchatcl, 1873. BORN HA USER, TH. Pestalozzi's Andenken. Gedicht, an der Feier des Vaters Pesta!o/./i bei seinem hundertsten Geburtstage den 12. Jan., 1846, ge- sungen von der thurg. Lehrerschaft in Weinfelden. BREBII, J. H. Ueber die Schrift: Pestalozzi's Erziehungsunternehmung u. s. w. Ziirich, 1812. BRIEFE. s. Pestalozzi. BROUGHAM, HENRY. Evidence before Education Committee. 1818. BiicHi, J. J. Ein Wort iiber Pest'zi's Leben und Wirken. Winterthur, 1846. BUEL, J. Was soil in den Landschulen der Schweiz gelehrt und nicht gelehrt werden? Winterthur, 1801. BDRGWARDT, HBINRICH. Heinr. Pestalozzi. Altona, 1846. BURKHART, K. F. E. War Heinrich Pestalozzi ein Unglaubiger ? Leipzig, '41 Pestalozzi und seine Leistungen nach deren Einfluss auf eine religise. Volkserziehung. Leipzig, 1846. BUSINGER. Die Geschichten des Volks von Unterwalden ob und nid dem Wald. 2 Bande. Luzern, 1878. CHAVANNES, D. AL. Expose de la mthode elementaire de Pestalozzi, suivi d'une notice sur cet homme celebre. Paris, 1805. Vevey, 1806. Nouv. ed. Paris et Geneve, 1809. (CHAVANNBS, MLLB.) Biographic de H. Pestalozzi. Lausanne, 1853. CHRISTIAN EXAMINER. Boston. Articles by J. Walker, vi. p. 287 ; G Ripley, xi. 347 ; W. P. Atkinson, Ixviii. 63. CHRISTMANN, W. L. Versuch einer Metakritik der Weltverbesserung oder ein Wort ueber Pestalozzi und Pestalozzismus. Ulm, 1812. CHRISTOFFEL, R. Pestalozzi's Leben und Ansichten. Zurich, 1846. COCHIN. Essai sur le vie d'Henri Pestalozzi, p. 96. 1848. COLLMANN, C. L. Mittheilungen aus dem Leben und den Schriften H. Pes- talozzi's, zum Gebrauche in Familien und Schulen. Kassel, 1845. Ein Wort zur Erinnerung an den 100. Geburtstag Pestalozzi's. 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Ilerausgegeben von T. Ziller. 1874. S. 1-15. (SciiEiDLER.) Pcstalozziana. A us dem Jannarheft der " Minerva." 1846. SCHKNKEL, DR. DAN. Joh. H inrirh Pestalozzi. Heidelberg, 1863, SCIIEDENSTDHL, J. P. Pestalozzi Verhaltniss /.urn inodcmen Leben und zur nuxlt-rnen Wisscnscliaft. Kin Vortrag im Lehrerverein zu Nuernberg. Ansbach. 1846. S. IILEOEL, J. J. Droi Schulmanner der Ostschweiz. Lebensbild von J. K. St. imnueller und biographische Skizzen ueber H. Kruesi und J. J. Wehrli. Zurirh, 1879. Sen MID, K. A. Padagog. Encyklopiidie, s. Palmer. JOSEPH, die Elemente der Form und Grosse nach Pestalozzischen Grundsutzen bearboitet- 2 Thle. Bern, 1809. - die Elemente des Zeichnens nach Pestalozzi'schen Grunul>li/.irt werden soll-ii. -- Prstali/./i iiml s.-in N.-uhuf. Xurich, 1847. Scii\iii>r, ]]. Schulf ilcr I'.r/i.'liuii- in l.in^raphischcn Umrissen. Berlin, 1846. FKRD. Hcinrich l'->tal(//i. Berlin, H. Kastuer (Jurjendschrifi}. J. F. IV.-talo/./i's ( ; r,",<> -iili-hre als Fundament der Arithnietik uml Geometric betrachtt-t. Halle, 1805. Die K. Gcschichti- d-r Piidagogik; 2 Aufl. Ilerausgegeben von Dr. W. Lange. Kothen, 1867. SCHNEIDER, K. Rousseau und Pestaiozzi. BroniLeiir. 1866. 2 Aufl., 1873. SCHNELL. Bexirksstatthalter in Burgdorf, an seinen Freund K. ueber Pc-tali.//i's Lihranstalt. Benj, 1800. F. AHS dfin Leben eines preus.sisch.cn Schulmanns der Pestalozzi'schen Scbnle. Leipzig, 1863. SOHORV, A. John. Heinridi IN-stal-././i. In: " Gesrhiehte der Piidagogik in \'. ..-l.ildiTii uml BiMt-ru." Leipzig, 1873. (7 AuJL, 1879.) S. 197-221. 182 PESTALOZZIAN LITERATURE. SCHORNSTEIN, R. Pestalozzi's Mission a. d. Muetter. Elberf., 1856. SCHULLEHRER, der, des 19 Jahrhunderts. 2 Bd. 2 Aufl. Stuttgart, 1839. Enthalt u. A.: Die Pestalozzi 'sche Familie. Geschichte des Anschauugs- unterrichts. I. Pestalozzi. SCHULTHESS, J. Genauere Finsidht der neuesten Versuche einer bessera Erziehung und Bildung der Jugend. Zurich, 1810. (In Band IV von: Schidthesa, Beitrage zur Jtenntniss und Forderung des Kirchen- u. Schulwesens in tier Schweiz. S. 65.) SCHWARZ, F. H. E. Pestalozzi's Methode und ihre Anwendung in Volks- schulen. Bremen, 1803. SETFFARTH, L. W. Pestalozzi's siimmtliche Werke, gesichtet, vervoilsi.m- digt und mit erlauternden Einleitungen versehen. 16 Bde. und 2 Nachtrage. Brandenburg, 1 869 ff. Pestalozzi nach seinem Leben und aus seinen Werken dargestellt. 6 Aufl. Leipzig, 1876. Padagogische Reisebriefe (im " Preussischen Schulblatt "). Berlin, 1871/72. SIGRIST, H. Briefe an Schmid uebes seine Erfahrungen und Ansichten. Luzern, 1811. SNETHLAGE. Bemerknngen ueber P.'s Lehrmethode. Berlin, 1803. SOTADX. Pestalozzi, seine Lehrart u. seine Anstalten. Leipzig, 1803. STAEL, Madame de, de I'AUemagne. STEINMULLER, J. R. Bemerkungen gegen Pestalozzi's Unterrichtsmethode Zurich, 1803. STKRX, nach seinem Leben und Wirken geschildert von K. F. R. Ledderhose. Heidelberg, 1877. STOLZENBDRO, W. A. H. Geschichte des Bunzlauer Waisenhauses. Breslau, 1854. STROM. Precis succinct de la melhode d'instruire de Pestalozzi. Kopen- hagen, 1805. StfssKiND, F. G. Ueber die P.'sche Lehrmethode. Stuttg., 1809. THAULOW, DR. G. Rede bei der Sakular- und Geburtstagsfeier Pestalozzi's. Kiel, 1846. THILO, W. Reden und Gesange bei Pestalozzi's Sakulargeburtsfeier im kgl. Seminar zu Erfurt. Berlin, 1806. Prenssisches Volksschulwesen nach Geschichte u. Statistik. Gotha, 1867. ( Vgl. dagegen " Weinische Blatter," 1868 u. 69.) DD THON, ADELE. Notice sur Pestalozzi. Genf, 1827. TILLEARD, J. Life and Educational System of Pestalozzi. London, 1855. TILLICH, E. Analyse der Pestalozzi'schen Sehrift: "Wie Gertrnd ihre Kinder lehrt," und ueber den eijienthuc-mlichen Charakter der Pestalozzi'schen Lehrart. In: Beitrage zur Erziehungskunst von Weiss u. Tillich. 2 Bde. Leipzig, 1803 und 1806. Pestalozzi's Rechenmethode und Schmid's Elemente der Zahl. Stutt- gart, 1810. TORLITZ, J. H. A. Reise in der Schweiz. Veranlastt durch Pestalozzi u. dessen Lehranstalt. Kopenhagen u. Leipzig, 1807. TRAPP, E. CHR. Ueber Pestalozzi in Briefeu an Biester. In : " Neue Berlinische Monatschrift" Novbr., 1804 (S. 321 bis 346), Juni, 1805 (S. 424). TtfRK, W. vox. Briefe aus Muenchenbuchsee ueber Pestalozzi und seine Elementarbildungsmethode. 2 Thle. ' Leipzig, 1806. Ueber zweckmassipe Einrichtunj* der offentlichen Schul- und Unter- richtsanstalten, mit vorzueglicher Ruecksicht auf Mecklenburg. Neu-Strelitz, 1804. Nachricht von den in Oldenburg angestellten Versuchen Pestalozzi'. cher Lehrart. Oldenburg; 1806. PESTALOZZIAN LITERATURE. 183 Ti UK, \V. VON. Beitriige zur Keniitnias einiger deutscher Elementar- Schuiiuistnlten. Leipzig, 1806. - Lehen u. Wirken d. Reg.- u. Schulraths Tuerk. Potsdam, 1859. V \ iKKi.KHREN, a Kruesi. YEKHANDLUNGEN der Schweizcrischen Gesollschaft fur Erziehung. 1812. VIM K, AL Zum Andenken Pestalozzi's. In den Verhandlungen der helvetischen Gesellschaft 1827 (6*. 20-41). VORTRAGE an der Pestalozzifeier in Basel von Heussler, Lehmann, etc. B;wl, 1846. VULLIKMIN, L. Souvenirs. Lausanne, 1872. WANDKR, K. FR. W. Ueber P.'s Brfolgung der Lehre Jesu. In : "Schlesische Provinzialbliitter." Bd. 123 (1846 Februarheft). WEISS, DR. CH. Vorschalg zu einem Denkmal Pesttilozzi's. Merseburg, 1846. W i EL AND, s. Merkur. WIESINGER, J. Pestalozzi's Antheil an der Erneuerung des deutschen Volkes. Kissingen, 1873. WITTI:, KARL. Bericht an S. Majestat von Preussen ueber das Pestalozzi'- sche Institut in Burgdorf, Leipzig, 1805. WOCHENSCHRIFT, s. Niederer. WOODBIDGE, W. C. Pestalozzi Life and Principles. Boston, 1837. ZAHN, Schulchronik, Nr. 1. 1846. ZEHNDER, Jos. Geb. Stadlin, Pestalozzi, Idee und Macht der menschlichen Entwicklung. Erster Band. Gotha, 1875. ZELLKR, C. A. Historische Nachricht von einem Versuch ueber die Anwend- barkcit tie Pestalozzi'schen Lehrart in Volksschulen. Tuebingen, 1804. Neue Auflagc, 1810. ueber Sonntagsschulen nach Pestalozzi'schen Grnndsatzen. Leipzig, 1804. historisch-kritischer Bericht ueber das Normnlinstitut f. d. Landschullehrer d. Kts. Zurich i. Hiedtli b Zurich. Winterthur, 1807. - Die Gm milage einer bessern Zukunft. In Briefen an die Fuerstin von Lippe -DetnioM. Zurich, 1808. ZEZSCHWITZ, G. v. Der Padagog Hch. Pestalozzi. Erlangen, 1871. ZOLLNER, J. C. Ideen ueber Nationalerziehuug. Berlin, 1804. ZOLLER, DR. FR. Rousseau und Pestalozzi. Frankfurt a. M , 1851. ZSCHOKKE, HCH. Historische Denkwuerdigkeiten der helvetischen Staat- sumwiilzung. 1 804. Zwei Briefe ueber Pestalozzi's Leben und Lehre an einen Mann von Stande ("his" 1805, S. 695). Physiologische Umrisse einiger ausgezeichneter Schweizer (Miszellen 1809, S. 333). Ueber Heinrich Pestalozzi und die Ausgabe seiner Werke (" Ueber- zieferuny zur Geschichte unserer Zeit t geaammdt von H. Zchokke" Jahrganq, 1807, 5.' 359-366). Erinnerungen an H. Pestalozzi (In : " Prometheus fur Licht und Recht," I Thi 1832, S. 245-261). Selbstschau. Aarau, 1842. Reader : Please to communicate any omission in the foregoing list known to you to Henry Barnard, Hartford, Conn. i a i U.M//1AN I.IH.KVi fount KM in* "f P Kui >t. of Zurich, has published tv.o editions of Leonard and Gertrude, following tin- text of the original cdii: L781, 17 s -'., 17 s .'), and 1787. Tlio !;; .Mished in is:ji. in 4 vols., and the second in 18-1 ; l'i Jl KUSBUM, < stahlisln d at Zurich in 1879, appointed a committee (.11 the occasion of the c< ntennial of the tirM publication of Leonard and G' trutlf, to iue a new edition of that work in t\\o vol<. : " Liinliard und Gertrud, enter und zirt it, r Tin il, neu herausyegeben zmn /uil-Ausffabe torn ,l by Dr. I!un/iker. M \NN (Yo:i Friedrich) ha> jMihlisln-il M \ r.il of IYst:ilo/.yi'> best works in Meyer's Bibliothek padagogiker Clasriker (Langensal/ J. If. Pcttalozzi's ausgewaJiUe Werke, mil PcstalozzCs Biographic; 4 vols. M:um'> edition contains the following works: Leonard un<1 G< rtrude ; The Evening Hour of a Hermit ; h'.rlnt<-tsfroin the N-/< in itzcrbbtlt ; &,j,,i /// at Stan: ; II'r Gertrude ttache* her Cfii', the only com; edition which has U-en edited since that of Cotta, under the title: Pestalozzfs sammtlichc Werke, getichtet, vert>oU*tni ///// den Einleitungen versehen, ton L. W. Seyffarth, Rector uinl }li'f.j>r zn I.nrk, niralde. Tin's edition was published at Brandenburg in itzteOI r. -ular voli. and two stipplementary, and contains all of PMalo/./.i's works which SeyflFartli had been able to procure. It is more nearly complete than Cot- ta's, and the text is taken from that of tl 1 nlitions except that of Leonard and Oertrude, in which he is believed to have followed the text of the first four volumes of Cotta's edition, which became in 1 the tiiM four parts of the romance, and under the headinir of part tl ha> added what appeared as the fourth part in 1787, and which was omit- ted in Cotta's edition. D. ('. II' ath & Co., Boston, published in 1885, "Leonard . :.d abridged by Kva Channinir." pp. 1S1, lUni". in a thin volume of KM; es a summary of P Teila^oiry in extracts fi-fin liis principal writings. Pul li-h d at I'ernburi: in 1882. J. Uaemei-- The Milton Bradley Company, Sprinirtield, ^lass., issued, in 1887: - PEDAGOGY IN ins OWN WMKI>S; with a Summary of his by American. K:iLrli-h, uiek. Wood bridge, and others. OBJECT TEACHING -PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. [From the German of F. Basse, Principal of the Girls' High School of Berlin.*] 1. AIMS AND PRINCIPLES. PKDAGOGICAL authorities have the most diverse views upon object- teaching, both in regard to its position and value in general, and to it* principal and subsidiary objects in particular. The reason of this is, that no other discipline embraces the individuality of the child on its physical and spiritual sides to such a degree as this does. We speak of exercise in observation, object-teaching, practice in thinking, or practice in under- standing, practice in speaking or in language, just according as we are thinking more especially of the sense-organs and observation, the ability to think, the speaking a language. From the standpoint of an enlightened science of teaching, the averaging of these various views, and the uniting of these aims, is a necessity. Since object-teaching is the earliest teaching, and that which begins before the child is old enough to go to school (Pestalozzi, Froebel), since it takes hold of the child in the full, undiflerentiated unity of his powers, it is of importance to presuppose that the child has an inborn individuality. That clumsy view which considers that what we call indi- viduality does not arise until it is produced by the influence of time and place, persons and circumstances, and, most of all, by education and instruction, that view, I repeat, prevails amongst those who strive to- dispiritualize nature everywhere, and especially human nature, and is unworthy of an enlightened science of teaching. Just as little as instruc- tion can form its empirical conditions that is, mental capacity and organ* of speech in the child, but, instead of that, presupposes them, just so little can it dispense with the logical conditions ; namely, the /, endowed with powers of observation, discernment, feeling, and willing, what Genesis calls " the living soul," what Solomon calls " the breath of the divine power." No investigator has yet succeeded in drawing the wonderful boundary- line between the spiritual and the physical in human nature ; but if we are trying to establish the meaning of the important idea, " intuition," we must keep the physical and spiritual sides of our being apart. Man, as a sensibly spiritual being, has, first of all, a receptivity for impressions of that which is about him and goes on before him. This receptivity is called sense. The activities, capacities, and powers of the soul which come first into consideration are, therefore, of a purely receptive kind. It is the decidedly preponderant activity of sense. While the im- pressions of the exterior world are in the act of being appropriated by the soul, the first soul-formations, the sensations and perceptions, arise. * From Diesterweg's Wegwcitser, edition of 1873. 186 OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. These are all matters of experience. We need only call to mind the popular expression, "The stupid quarter of a year," which ends with the child's first smile, that beam of consciousness which is greeted with infinite joy. The child has at this period the ordinary vicissitudes and excite- ments of its nervous life in pleasure and pain, as well as the wonderful modifications of them in its sense-organs. It hears a fondling voice, looks into a faithful eye, tastes the sweet milk, feels the mother's breast, the gentle lifting and carrying of the arms, and the swinging motion of the cradle. These are the sense-impressions, or sensations, which flow towards him daily during the short moments of wakefulness. With admirable wisdom, nature has so regulated the organism of the child that it passes these first days and weeks in the arms of sleep ; for could it immediately, like the young lambkin or colt, use its limbs, such an immeasurable, incomprehensible world of impressions would stream in upon its inner being, that self-consciousness, unable to master them, would be forever overcome and unable to develop itself. Do not we teachers have the corresponding experience daily in the dissipated and distracted youth of our great cities? Do we not have it hourly when, in the presen- tation of a new subject, we give too much at once, and overstep the limits which lie in the power of self-consciousness ? But the child has not merely sense-impressions or sensations, which bear the token of individuality ; it has also sense-intuitions, that is, a multi- plicity of sensations which are united together into a unit by the syn- thesis of the interior sense, (named by Kant " the table of the inner sense," of which the five senses are only radiations.) The beast also shares in both the sense-impressions and the sense-intui- tions, and indeed, as we must confess, possesses these to a higher degree than does man, since it belongs entirely to the world of sense, and is endowed with sharper organs of sense, so that it may exist in that world. When, for instance, the ape is busy with an apple, he has, in the first place, the sense-impression of sight, by means of his eye ; in the second place, that of feeling in his hand ; in the third place, the impression of smell, if he holds it to his nose ; in the fourth place, that of taste upon his tongue ; and, finally, also that of hearing, if the fruit falls to the ground, or seeds rattle. But these five different impressions do not remain in him as one multitude, but are united upon the table of his inner sense without his participation, and yet with infallible certainty, so that he has the unity comprehended within itself of the sense-impression of the apple. Let us look at the horse. He hears the crack and swing of the whip ; he has often enough felt the smarting impressions of it, and sees it imme- diately when the coachman has the instrument in his hand ; but these three sense-impressions remain in him, not as any thing isolated, but blend into the unity of a sense-intuition. The child is similarly circumstanced in relation to the external world. As soon as longer pauses of wakefulness take place, the eye follows the movements of the mother, and the impressions of her friendly face, of her tender voice, of the nourishment she gives, of the lifting and carrying and OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. 187 other cares she bestows upon him, unite in a total picture, in a unity of the ense-intuition. The sense-impressions are the first, the sense-intuitions the second, and the latter murk already a step of the greater powerfulness of life in gen- eral, and of the development of sense in particular. But, while the animal rises up into the world of sense-impressions and sense-intuitions, the power of the inborn and now gently moving self- consciousness raises the sense-impressions into perceptions, and thereby raises also the sense-intuitions into intellectual intuitions. The perceiving is next becoming assured of something, and in itself is yet an undefined, general turning or application of the subjectivity to an object, a direction of the spirit to an outside thing, a consciousness of parts, character, and differences now becoming clear. But if a perception is internally grasped and worked up, and the perception takes place with a more decided consciousness, then the occurrence becomes a spiritual intuition. Intellectual intuition (or intuition absolutely) is each conscious, more distinct perception or unity of several perceptions, with an internal summary. Intuition is quite a significant word. To look (or to inspect) expresses subjective activity, not mere seeing, as the eye of the animal may be said to attach itself to the external object attracting the senses, but ex- presses the act of sounding it. Intuition signifies such inspection as exalte the object to the contemplator's real objectivity. An intuition presupposes : 1. An immediately present object. 2. The influence of the same upon one or several sense-organs. 3. A spiritual activity, to bring this influence to the consciousness ; therefore the active directions of the spirit, and the grasping of the same.* The mind of the child now incessantly works on. He obtains mastery more and more swiftly, and more and more victoriously over the sense- impressions and sense-intuitions ; the wealth of perceptions and intellectual intuitions, and his self-certainty in them, becomes ever greater ; finally, the power of intuitive thinking becomes so great that single intellectual intui- tions become IDEAS. It is these which have always left behind in the child's soul the deepest traces, and they become ideas as soon as the mind has power to objectivate them ; that is, to dispose of them as of things owned, and, independently of the world of sense, to be able at will to call them forth out of itself, or to thrust them back. But here comes in the need of a sign ; that is, of a word, not as if the * REMARK. Intuition, in the narrower, original sense, is a conscious impression obtained through the sensation of sight. To intuit means, first of all, only the activity of the soul called forth by sight. -But since the most distinct and the most surely defined impressions are called forth, and all other sense-perceptions are supported, perfected, and even corrected by the sight, the word intuition has, since the time of Kant, been extended to all sensuous perceptions. In the wider sense, every impression which is elevated by the sensibility (feeling) is an intuition; what IB external thereby becomes internal. 183 OBJECT TEACHING. BUS8E. word called forth the idea, not as if it were the creator of the idea, but it serves as the seal of the idea, as the signature of a mental possession. Long before the first attempts at speaking, a little hoard of ripening ideas has been formed, and a joy, a rapture accompanies the first efforts to speak, for the child has need of feeling itself and enjoying itself in its self- certainty. From the idea fixed in the word, man finally rises in maturer age to the conception, but let us add, only imperfectly. Few men who are accustomed to think, take the trouble so to shape the hoard of their ideas and unde- veloped conceptions that they become fixed according to their contents and scope. The great multitude allow themselves to be satisfied with ideas and conceptions as nature and life obtrude them, as it were, and let us say just in this place : object-teaching cannot and will not give an understand- ing of the external world, which will be clearly conformable to its contents. Whoever should aim to sharpen the formal side of this instruction in such a way, would, in consideration of the mental immaturity of the child, com- mit the severest mistake, and would give into the hands of the opponents- of this system the sharpest weapons. Also exclusively to accentuate the material or practical side of this instruction, the exercise of the senses and the enrichment of the intuitions and ideas, would be censurable, since this instruction is only of value when opposites are connected.* Where an extent of phenomena is given, an intent or content must also be sought. Where the external world is brought before the observation (too often, alas ! only by pictures), the way to the understanding of it must also be opened, and the later grasping of the conception in due proportion to its contents must be prepared for. Intuition without thinking would be blind, and thinking without intuition would be empty, dead, word-cram, trifling. Luther, with all the force of his German nature, was zealous in his oppo- sition to that dead, abstract teaching and learning, and urged on the in- tuitive method. " Now," he said, " let us look directly upon the created things rather than upon popedom. For we are beginning, thank God, to recognize his glorious works and wonders in the little flower ; when we think how power- ful and beneficent God is, let us always praise and prize and thank him for it. In his creatures we recognize how powerful is his word, how prodigious it is." He also drew attention to the relation of the thing to the word, and considered the understanding of the word only possible by the under- standing of the thing. " The art of grammar," he says, " points out and teaches what the words are called and what they mean, but we must first understand and know what the thing or the cause is. Whoever wishes to learn and preach, therefore, must first know both what the thing is and what it is called be- fore he speaks of it recognition of two kinds, one of the word, the other of the thin?. Now to him who has not the knowledge of the thing or action, the knowledge of the word is no assistance. According to an * In other words, when the organ of comparison is brought into play. OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. 189 *old proverb, ' what one does not understand and know well, he cannot -speak of well.' " No creative transformation of the essence of education could, however, proceed from the school, which remained for centuries the serving-maid less of the Church than of Churchdom. The British giant Bacon had first to give us his Novum Organum Scientiarum, that fiery token of a new time, which had its central point in the natural sciences, and to bring on the abso- lute break with the middle ages as well as with antiquity. As Luther came forth against a mass of human traditions by which the manifestations of God in the Holy Scriptures were disfigured, so Bacon appeared against the traditions of human institutions which darkened the manifestations of God in creation. Men were from that time forth no longer obliged to read the arbitrary and fanciful interpretations of both manifestations, but could read the manifestations themselves. He wished men to demand the imme- diate contemplation of creation. " Hence let us never turn the eyes of the mind," he says, " away from the things themselves, but take their images into us just as they are." He saw how in his time the physics of Aristotle \\ere studied, but not Nature. Men read in books what the earth is, what their authors related about stones, plants, animals, &c. ; but with their own eyes to investigate these stones, plants, and animals, occurred to no one's mind. And thus men were obliged to surrender at discretion to the authority of those authors, since they ne\er thought of making a critical examination of their descrip- tions and stories by their own immediate experiments. But such a prov- ing was so much the more necessary because these authors themselves had their information at third or fourth hand. It is incredible now what a mass of untruth and fable has been heaped up everywhere in books of natural history, what monsters their geology created, what magic powers they gave to stones, &c. (See Raumer's Pad.) When Bacon summoned the world to turn their minds from the past and to look with open eyes into living nature, he not only gave to the experimental sciences (including also pedagogics) a new impulse in general, but he was also the father of realistic pedagogy. Ratichius and Comenius learnt from him, and the ' real 1 school, the industrial school, the polytechnic institutions, down to the object-teaching of Father Pestalozzi, have in him their foundation. When Bacon's pupil, John Locke, set up " the healthy soul in the healthy body " as the chief maxim in education, is it not the same thing as when Pestalozzi and Froebel desired " the harmonious development of human nature," and preached conformity to nature in edu- cation and instruction ? In opposition to the empty, deadening word-teaching that grew rank in the schools, " the poisonous seed of scholasticism," Ratichius exclaimed : " Everything according to the ordering and course of nature, for all un- natural and arbitrary violent teaching is injurious and weakens nature. Let us have every thing without constraint and by inward necessity. First the thing itself, then the conception or meaning of the thing. No rule before we have the substance. Rules without substance lead the understanding astray. Every thing through experiment, minute investigation. 190 OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. " No authority is good for anything, if there is not reason and a foundation* for it. No rule and no system is to be allowed which is not radically ex- plored anew, and really founded upon proof." Truly when one hears such golden words, one is tempted to ask, " Why were those battles on the field of pedagogy necessary ? Why must a Franke,. a Rousseau, a Basedow, a Pestalozzi, a Diesterweg, a Frcebel come, if, a&- Jean Paul said in his Levana, ' merely to repeat that a hundred times, which is a hundred times forgotten ' r " In the path which Ratichius had trodden, strode forward a sovereign,, and with all the power and burning zeal of a reformer, Amos Comenius. the author of the first picture-book for children, the orbis pictus, in which- every thing that can address the childish love of objects and representa- tions of objects, whether in heaven or on earth, in the human or the animal world, is illustrated and explained by description and comment He is to be estimated, starting from a sound, compendious observation, of human nature and its relations, as well as of pedagogic problems, as th& spirited father of the so-called object-teaching as a special discipline. He says : " With real insight, not with verbal description, must the in- struction begin. Out of such insight develops certain knowledge. Not the shadows of things, but things themselves, which work upon the mind and the imaginative powers, are to lie ever near to the young. Place every thing before the mind. Insight is evidence. Only where the things- are actually absent, is one helped by the pictorial representation. " Men must be led, as far as possible, to create their wisdom, not out of books, but out of the contemplation of heaven and earth, oaks and beeches ; that is, they must learn to see and investigate the things themselves. Let the objects of physical instruction be solid, real, useful things, which affect the senses and the powers of the imagination. That happens when they are brought near to the senses, visible to the eyes, audible to the ears, fra- grant to the nose, agreeable to the taste, grateful to the touch. The begin- ning of knowledge should be from the senses. What man has an insight into with his senses, impresses itself deeply on the memory, never to bfr forgotten. " Man first uses his senses, then his memory, next his understanding, and lastly his judgment. Let us teach not merely to understand, but to- express what is understood. Speech and the knowledge of things must keep step. Teaching of things and of speech must go hand in hand. Words- without the knowledge of things are empty words." This running parallel of the simultaneous learning of things and words- was the deep secret of the method of Comenius. In the time of Hermann Franke, who, as the noble friend of man, the- father of the poor and the orphan, the great champion of the German peo- ple's-school, deserves to be called the forerunner of Pestalozzi, in organiz- ing talent so far superior to him, the elevation of burger life had become so great, the relations of trade and commerce had been so widened, and the- pedagogics of Comenius had created so much esteem and astonishment ia the realists (physicists), that the ' Real'-School was able to blossom forth upon the ground of that truly practical piety which raised morality to a OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. 191 principle of education. The general law of the method was continual con- versation with the pupils ; catechism was the soul of the instruction. All subjects which had heretofore been taken for granted must be looked into- and examined critically at the moment. Rare objects of nature were col- lected in a naturalist's cabinet. Especially were the children to become acquainted with the nature lying around them, with the occupations of hu man life, witli the workshops of the handicrafts. When such pedagogic wisdom as this did not bear the hoped-for fruits,-- when the schools, which had been added to life, as it were, by a beneficent piety, were estranged from it again by an ossified pietism the blame lay, as always and chiefly, in the direction which has hitherto fettered the human mind whenever it has set form above essence. But as in the domain of statesmanship, so also in the domain of pedagogy, a revolution was preparing in France. It was Rousseau who, in " Emil," wrote a book for the literature of th* world which Gothe called " the Gospel of human nature." Let us turn our eyes wholly away from the external and unsuccessful experiment, since " Emil " is indeed only the form for proclaiming the doctrine of the Pedagogy, the candlestick for these flames, the setting for these pearls ; this book was and is, especially for France, as well as for the world-wide development of Pedagogy generally, a fact. Only Pestalozzi has with equally imposing power fought for the means of education gained by listening to Nature itself, for the beginning of educa- tion at birth, for instruction gained by insight and self-activity, for self- formation through experience ; but Pestalozzi stands higher than Rousseau, for as the latter had not the conception of the mother, so was wanting in him the paternal power of the heart, with which he might, with his " Emil," have grasped and sustained a unique and fully authorized influence over that great whole a nation. In the meantime, the flood of light which flowed from him over Pedagogy, was so potent that the power which block- heads opposed to the illumination could only be compared to the mist which softens the light of the sun. Under the influence of this spirit, which came to be dominant, the school of the philanthropists was formed, which earnestly pursued the ideas of Rousseau : " Everything through and for the harmonious development of man." The founder and representative of this aim was the energetic Basedow. In his elementary work, accompanied with one hundred Chodowieckischer copper-plates (the forerunner of our picture-plates), he gave out an arranged plan of all necessary knowledge for the instruction of youth from the begin- ning up to the academic age. This normal work was followed by the " Philantropin," at Dessau, as a nor- mal school. Distinguished men, Campe, Salzmann, Rochow, worked still further in the spirit of Basedow. The noble Von Rochow wrote : " Youth is the time to be taught. First in school comes the practice of the senses and the application of the souls in attention or watchfulness, particularly the habit of sight-seeing and hearing ; then practice in reflection upon every thing which happens, and in comparison and discrimination." In the Basedow-Rochow period there was a strong opposition to the care- 192 OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. less old school-ways. Instead of the one-sided training of the memory, they wished for an awakening, soul-refreshing instruction and development of the thinking power in the pupil. In order to secure this, they proceeded to teach them to think, to speak, to observe, to investigate ; they recog- nized that above all things, correctly apprehending senses were a funda- mental condition for correct judgment. Now they insisted upon further material apparatus for culture, and upon a better method, upon enriching the pupils' minds with material knowledge and multiplied accomplishments. The King in this kingdom, the genius of Christian-Jin man pedayogy was Pestalozzi. In the midst of the wrecks of his life he still found, as a single costly pearl, the motto of education for all times : The development of human nature on the ground of nature ; education of the people on the firm ground of the people and the people's needs. In opposition to the petty and pernicious principle of utility he found in the eternal ideal of human life the welfare of man. Tlie development of human nature on the ground of nature is the grand thought to which Pestalozzi sought to give permanence to his method ("Book for Mothers "), which his truest pupil, Froebel, sought in the kin- dergarten, and their followers in the so-called object-teaching. """"When I look back and ask myself," says Pestalozzi, "what I have offered peculiarly for the cause of human instruction, I find that I have established the highest, most advanced principles of instruction in the recognition of intuition as the absolute foundation of all knowledge ; and setting aside all single doctrines, have endeavored to find the essence of teaching itself and the ultimate form by which the culture of our race must be determined as by nature itself." """ All the pedagogues were agreed then, that for the first instruction visible material, lying within the sphere of the child and accessible to him, is to be chosen for observation, expression, and information, together with the first practice in reading, writing, and counting. An object-teaching conformable to nature, aiming to produce self-activity in the child, was the word of the new pedagogy. We will now pass on to the contemplation of the place, of the aim, and of the method of object-teaching. The foundation of instruction forever won by Pestalozzi in the principle of intuition, soon made an end to the so-called pure-thinking exercises of the Basedow school, which, executed with arbitrarily selected and most unmeaning material, occupied an isolated place in the instruction, and missed the living connection. It had been seen that these thinking exer- cises, ignoring the material worth of knowledge, led to an empty formalism ; that the one-sided enlightening of the understanding must lead to poverty of mind in other fields. Now since Pestalozzi had demanded for each subject of instruction the power of intuition, the plunge into the material, its all-sided consumption and its organic relations, the isolated exercises in pure thinking were no longer needed, and they were struck out from the plan of the lessons, and the so-called object-teaching took their place. Pestalozzi, in his strivings OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. 193 to seize upon the truth, did homage to the thinking exercises, and once, it is said, passed six weeks with the children musing over a hole in the car- pet. Later, as the importance of nature as the best teacher disclosed itself to him, he set up (see " The Mother's Book ") the human body as, ac- cording to his view, the nearest and ever-present object-lesson to the child. The body is certainly the nearest material object to the child, but it is not thg nearest material for object-teaching. Does not the child direct his eyes first to things around him, to furniture, plants, animals, &c., before he directs them to his own person ? to colors and forms rather than to his limbs and their movements ? Not merely the object in itself, but the appli- cation of it in pointing out and naming the different parts of the body, a mere mass of names, the situation of the different parts and exclamations of wonder about them, the connection and use of the limbs, &c., is not a lesson conformable to nature. If Pestalozzi's scholars repeated the mouth is under the nose, the nose is over the mouth, and similar remarks, the material gain for the children must have been like that of the peasant when he threshes empty straw. The mistake of that experiment time and progress has swept away. Pestalozzi's scholars soon went on in a more natural manner, and struck out the following sequence : schoolroom, fam- ily, house, house-floor, the sitting-room, the kitchen, the ground, the cellar, the yard, the habitation, the city, the village, the garden, the field, the meadow, the wood, the water, the atmosphere, the sky, the season, the year and its festivals, man, body and soul God. Others endeavored to add essentially similar material in the course of the year. This instruction in and from nature, which developed continually into thoughtful intuition and intuitive thinking, and unfolded the power of speech in every aspect, from the simplest forms up to poetical ones and to song, in short, which took captive the whole child in his intuition, his thinking, feeling, and willing, and enticed him to self-activity, seemed to certain inspired pupils of Pestalozzi to be materially and formally so im- portant that they declared a special place for it in their plan of instruction to be quite insufficient, and that it was the all-important CENTRE and sup- port, with wholesale condemnation of the material aim of reading and writing in the first school-year. With object-teaching as the common foundation, drawing, writing, sounding the letters (lautireri), reading, de- claiming, singing, exercises in grammar and composition, geometry, arithmetic, domestic economy, natural science up to religion, were to be developed in a natural way. The Vogel Schools in Leipzig have sought to realize these high ideas. It must indeed be confessed that these ideas can be realized in the hands of a teacher who is furnished with rich pedagogical experience, who has a profound understanding of his mother-tongue in grammatical and aesthetic relations, and who, above all other things, has preserved his childlike dis- position. Such a teacher will succeed in reaching this summit of educa- tional art founded on the great law of human development from unbroken unity up to the unfolding of principles into their reunion in a still higher unity ; and he will, in all probability, do more in the two first school-years to bring the children farther on, to lay a wise and correct foundation of 194 OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. culture, than if he began according to the old practice, with separate branches of instruction from the first hour. But whether it is possible to fix the central point in a series of normal words, which, planned on a one- sided principle, are yet expected to serve the most varied principles, is more than questionable. One of the most important testimonies to the place and value of object- teaching, is Grassmann, who, in his " Guide to Exercises in Speaking and Thinking," as the natural foundation for the sum-total of instruction, con- fesses himself friendly to this high culture. He says : " The first exercises in language must be in conversations, which are to make the children acquaint- ed with the things of the external world, their properties, their relations and connections, and lead them to receive this outward world correctly in:o themselves, to portray it again, to shape it, and to make an inward representative world of it which will exactly correspond to the outer ; also to guide them to readiness in speech, especially upon the objects of the senses." In later times, Richter (of Leipzig) has described this standpoint in the most striking manner in his prize treatise upon Object-Teaching. Testimonies have likewise been given to the opposite view. Based upon the predominating formal aim of object-teaching, together with the sug- gestion of postponing the material aim of reading and writing, and the duty and right to handle every subject and to strive at every step for the whole in the quite antiquated maxims of the word method and the culti- vation of the memory, they have not merely left out the object-teaching to this extent, but have stricken it especially and wholly from the programme of lessons, and have tried to prepare the same fate for it as was decided upon for the abstract exercises in thinking. For two decades has resounded from that side the saying : no indepen- dent object-teaching but in connection with the Reader. Reasons : a. The object of observation (Anschauung) and conversation upon it is for the most part too prosaic to the child's cirole of thinking and ideas to give any exciting elements of knowledge. b. The artistic systematic treatment of objects, and the specialties to be sought out in every individual thing, (size, parts, situation, color, form, use,) is a torment to children and teachers. c. The desire that children should already speak upon whole proposi- tions is opposed to the way and manner in which backward-speaking chil- dren improve and enrich their speech. They need in the beginning more single words and expressions for things and actions which they perceive, rather than little propositions which they may repeat like parrots. d. If we wish to help the thinking and speaking of the young, we need no special objects lying around ; but the means of help and culture lie in instruction, in speech and reading, and in biblical history. e. Our object-teaching was only an hour of gabble, a training without any special value. The judgment of another voice is : " If it was meant that the object-teaching should belong specially or strikingly only to the earlier years of development, or should serve only for the elementary OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. 195 material of teaching, there lies at the foundation of this conception a false idea of the nature of man, as well as a false idea of what man has to appropriate for the development and nourishment of his morally spiritual nature. Insight belongs to thinking as warmth belongs to the sunlight. Where it is wanting to the thinking, the pulse-beat of spiritual life is wanting. The method of insight must show itself power- fully for the development and exercise of the mental activity during the whole period of teaching. Object-teaching is to be brought into requisition in every stage of learning." Beautiful and true as these words sound, they are yet one-sided. Do those, then, who wish to recommend independent object-teaching mis- understand and deny the necessity and worth of teaching by intuition? By no means. Reading, writing, counting, memorizing, singing, biblical stories, are the departments of instruction of the elementary classes. It is not contradictory to unite and sprinkle in exercises in thinking, observing, and speaking, and above all to do this lovingly and with power. Yet how is it with the progressive ordering of this physical (realen) fundamental knowledge? Does not our object-teaching bring its order with it in the most natural manner, while the exercises in observation and in language,, in this addition to the primer and the reader, have a great dispersive* power, a want of design, an instability, and dissipating, of the mind ? What Volter says is scarcely more than an empty phrase : " What a. pupil already knows, what is not new to him, what he learns without in- struction, is not the object of his curiosity, and consequently cannot be the means of awakening his mental power." But the object-teaching will reach several ends at once: It joins on its material to what is already known, adds something new and interesting to this material for culture, so that the mind is excited and awakened, called , into activity, and its circle widened. It would be indeed a misconception , and a failure if we should talk with the little ones about nothing but what they already know and have heard and felt. We would have no hold of them, it would be flat and uninteresting, and would only get them to sleep.. No one would designate this as the object-teaching we so highly prize. The famous Prussian Regulation of October 3d, 1854, expresses itself plainly in regard to object-teaching : "Since all the instruction is to be based upon observation, and must be used as well for thinking as for speaking, abstract instruction in observation, thinking, and speaki' g, is not in place in the elementary school of a single class." Goltzsch, as the one interpreter of the Regulations, sees in object-instru.^ tion only " empty, unessential exercises in thinking and speaking, and puts in its place memory-cramming. The seizing, imitating, and appro- priating of worthy and rich thoughts presented in fit material, in excellent spoken expression, with which the child must busy himself long and re- peatedly, according to the nature of the thing, leads him yet unpractised in thinking, and especially the child poor in words, farther on in his thought and speech-forming than the tedious nml wearisome exercises in his own. OBJECT Tll.\ HIM!. BUSSE. thinking upon all sorts of dry stuff which is adapted neither to work ex- citingly upon his thinking powers nor his feelings." The words sound sophistical, for they seem to be directed against the long rejected exercises in thinking, while they really mean object-teaching. The better interpreter of the Regulation, Vormann. rich in experience, restores object-teaching through a back door, when he says, " It is abso- lutely necessary (that is, under all circumstances) to have conversations with children to a certain extent, and of u certain kind, as they usually can neither speak coherently themselves nor understand the coherent speech of the teacher. This is because they need to be made susceptible of further instruction, whether oral or from the book. But these conversations must not be about abstractions like space and number ; they must be about real objects in their immediate surroundings." " Some cultivation in thinking and speaking is one of the first and most indispensable requisitions," says Goltzsch, thus contradicting himself, if a real instruction in reading is to be possible, and if any instruction is to an- swer its aim. A methodical man, Otto, of Miihlhausen, (Allgcm. Schulzcitung. Juliheft, 1842,) rather arrogantly allows himself to perceive that, " Intelli- gent exercises in observation have been organized into a certain teaching of objects, but the practical part of this is nothing else but domestic economy, natural science, geometry, counting, &c., in their elements. There is no reality in it as a particular subject. Now follow the evidence that we only see and look into, that which we have known and understood, and from that is inferred the strange assertion that it is not the observation, and consequently not the object-teaching, which helps to correct representa- tions and conceptions, but language, and especially book-language" We will let Mr. Otto take the second step before he has taken the first, and rather hold to the sayings of Gothe, the master of language : " I think also from out of the truth, but from out of the truth of the five senses/' Xature is the only book that offers great things of intrinsic worth on all its leaves." " I am the deadly enemy of empty words." " I must go so far, that every thing must be known from observation, and nothing by tradition or name." In gigantic proportions by the depth of his grasp above the afore- mentioned opponents of object-teaching stands the Bavarian school- counsellor, Riethammer; and we could make no reply to that-witty censur- ing voice, if we did not know that in spite of all, that there is an object-teaching which, imparted with vivacity on the part of the teacher, is suited in full measure to the nature of the child, and to the material, so far as the child has relation to it ; and if we had not a hundred times had living evidence how this instruction works when a skilful hand makes use of it, how the class are all eye and ear, how the children live in it, and how eagerly they look forward to these hours as their most delightful ones. On the contrary, it makes a sad impression wh^n this contemporary of Pestalozzi confesses to the following views: OBJECT TKA THING. BUSSE. 197 " The only exercises in intuition, which are essential as an artistic direction of the mind in every kind of first instruction, are those on ohjects of the inner world, which are not like those of the outer world, indepen- dent of the mind itself, but must first be brought to view. These exercises must begin early, before the mind loses its pliability to them by the pre- ponderating influence of the outside world ; and it is, therefore, a double loss to fill up this season of formation with outside things which can offer nothing to the mind so long as it is not ripe for profound contemplation, and yet, which take up, unavoidably, such a broad span of our lives. " Exercise of observation of spiritual subjects, as the earliest instruction, is nothing else but the exercise of memory. " For the independent observation of intellectual subjects, that is, for intellectual comprehension of the world of ideas, the youthful mind is not yet ripe ; it needs to be much more exercised first. But this exercise requires that, before all things else, it shall learn to fix intellectual objects, and bring them into view. For that, it is necessary that they become objective ; they will become so when stated in words, in the expressions in which they have received form by devout and spiritual-minded men. To accept ideas in this objective form, is called, bringing spiritual subjects to the intuition ; and in memorizing such expressions, the problem for the beginning of instruction is consequently solved." It is only astonishing to us that Riethammer does not propose for this process of objectiving (of bringing spiritual subjects to the intuition) the language of the republic of letters, Latin, as was the custom a hundred years ago. A compromise is no longer possible here. The memory-cram is to solve the problem of a natural educational instruction. The " word method " is to be mind-forming ; mechanism and death are to be called life ! Katichius, Comenius, Franke, Rousseau, Basedow, Rochow, Pestalozzi, have lived and striven in vain. Hold f,i-t what thou hast, that no man may take away thy crown," says Scripture ; and object-teaching is such a crown. But to take the medium between the extremes is our task. We cannot follow the idealist of object-teaching so far as to grant him, at once, the exclusiveness he desires for this foundation, because the pedagogic endowment, presupposed for its success, which extols the handling of the material to the point of art, is found only in the rarest cases; and also, because we must take into account the demands of parents and relatives upon the schools. For, in the very first school year they follow the development of the child with disproportioned interest, and base the measure of their judgment upon his progress in reading, writing, and arithmetic. Still less will we reject all object-teaching, but will demand for the sake of its personal aim, that it shall be made the underpinning, and retaining the principle of the intuitive method in all domains and with all kinds of material, and the handling of all the branches of instruction, as of an organic whole, that it shall be intrusted, at least three or four times a week, for two hours at least, not to the hands of the youngest, most inex- 19H OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. perlenced teacher, man or woman, but to the most skilful, practical, ana experienced. In this view of ours the majority of the schools in Germany, at this period, agree. The more the material for the exercises in observation and language in the first school years is selected in reference to the most childlike demands, and the more adapted to their minds, the more exciting to independent action are the exercises, the more will the child show earnestness in observ- ing, and the better judgment will he form about things, circumstances, ap- pearances ; the more likely will he be to judge correctly how and what they are in themselves, and what connection they have with life itself. The endeavor should not be to urge the children into all kinds of physical knowledge in a dry and meagre manner, but to enrich them with such knowledge whose ample material for the purpose of instruction leads to good strong fundamental principles. These should be wisely limited (the introduction into all possible physical knowledge being kept in view), as a check upon vague and confused wandering. Instruction gains in contents and value when it handles in good order a worthy, comprehensive, and able material, and rises into independent ob- ject-teaching in the first school years. Different Kinds of Intuitions for Object Teaching* 1. Sensuous intuitions : not given merely mediately through the senses, but immediately ; outward objects. 2. Mathematical intuitions : representations of space, time, number, and motion ; also belonging to the outward world, not directly given by the senses, but mediately. 3. Moral intuitions, arising out of the phenomena of virtuous life in man. 4. Religious intuitions, arising in the nature of man, whose sentiments relate him to God. 5. ^Esthetic intuitions, from the beautiful and sublime phenomena of nature and human life, (including artistic representations.) 6. Purely human intuitions, which relate to the noble, mutual relations of man in love, faith, friendship, &c. 7. Social intuitions, which comprise the unifying of men in the great whole ; in corporations, in community and state life. The school cannot offer all these subjects of intuition according to their different natures and their origin, for it will not take the place of life ; it only supposes them, connects itself with them, and refers to them, but it points them out in all their compass, occupies itself with them, and builds up with them on all sides the foundation of intelligence. The sensuous intuitions relate to the corporeal world and the changes in it. The pupil must see with his own eyes as much as possible, must hear * We here add a beautiful resume of the intuitions as they were given by our old master Dietrterweg in answer to the questions: "What intuitions? What shall we waken ? Out of what fields, whence, shall they be taken ? >' " Let us look at the different kinds," he says; " let us enumerate them." OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. 199 with his own ears, must use all his senses, seek out the sensuous tokens of things in their phenomena upon, under, and abov the ground, in min- erals, plants, animals, men and their works, sun, moon, and stars, physical phenomena, c. The mathematical intuitions are developed out of the sensuous by easy abstractions lying near at hand ; the representations of the expansion of space compared one with another ; the things of time one after another ; the representations of number the how much; the representations "of change in space, and the progression of the same. The simplest of these representations are those of space ; the rest become objects of intuition by means of these, by points, lines, and surfaces; in arithmetic, for ex- ample, points, lines, and their parts are the material of intuitions. The moral intuitions come to the pupils through their lives with theii relatives, or in school through school-mates and teachers. These are natu- rally inward intuitions, which are embodied in the expression of the coun- tenance, in the eye, and in the speech. The pupil's personal experience here, as everywhere, is the chief thing. Happy the child who is sur- rounded by thoroughly moral, pure men, whose manifestations lay in him the moral foundation of life. The moral facts of history are pointed out to him by the teacher in a living manner, by means of the living word of the eloquent lips and the feeling heart. To religious intuitions the child comes through the contemplation of nature, its phenomena and beneficent workings ; through the piety of his parents, the commands of the father and mother ; through the contempla- tion of the community in the house of worship ; through religious songs in the school ; through religious instruction and confirmation in the school and church ; through religious-minded teachers and pastors ; through biblical stories, &c. ^Esthetic intuitions are awakened by the sight of beautiful and sublime objects of nature (stars, crystals, sky and sea, rocky mountains, landscapes, storms, thunder-showers, flowers, trees, flowing rivers, &c.), and of objects of art (pictures and picture galleries, statues, gardens, products of the poet- ical art and of human speech). We can classify their specific differences, calling them moral, aesthetic, &c., but I hold it better to place them in one category. The strong moral law, equally binding upon all men, is not included in this field, for its contents cannot be unconditionally required. That belongs to the free beautifully human development which is dependent upon conditions that are not attainable by every one. The so -called purely human intuitions are furnished by the nobly-formed human lives of individual men, whose characters proceed from the strong- est conceptions of morality and duty, from sympathetic affections, friend- ship, love, compassion, and loving fellowship, and other shining phenomena of human life as they are met with in the more refined development and culture of lofty and pure men. Happy is the child who is in their sphere ! If the home has nothing to offer in this respect, it is difficult to supply the want. Let the teacher do what is possible by the hold he has upon the school and by all his own manifestations. The social intuitions, that is, the social circumstances of men in a large 200 (MULCT TKAriiiNr,. in sense, are determined for the child by the manifestations of the community in the schools, in the churches, in the assemblies of the people, in public festivals, and especially by the stories in which the living insight of the teacher into the life of states, peoples, and warlike communities defines to the scholar the best living representations of great deeds. Our early state's life, which was domestic . not public, was an obstacle to the growth of these intuitions, so important to development. How can he who has experienced nothing, understand history P How can he who has not observed the people, make a living picture of its life ? Small re- publics have a great advantage in respect to the observation of public life and patriotic sentiment. Words, even the most eloquent, give a very un- satisfactory compensation for observation. The year 1848 has in this re- spect brought most important steps of progress. Prominent above all other considerations is the importance of the life, the standpoint, the intelligence, the character of the teacher, for laying the foundation of living observation in the soul, in the mind, in the disposition of the pupil. What the teacher does not carry in his own bosom, he cr.nnot awaken in the bosom of another. It can be compensated by nothing else, if there is failure in him. The teacher must himself have seen, observed, experienced, investigated, lived and thought as much as possible, and should set up a model in moral, religious, esthetic, and purely human and social respects. So much as he is, so much is his instruction worth. He is to his pupils the most instructive, the most appreciable, the most striking object of observation. The Immediate Aim* of Object-teaching. Thus far we have considered object-teaching in its relations to teaching in general. Now we must turn our attention to its immediate aims. 1st. Object-teaching may be made the special means of training the senses. Such teaching would consist of exercises in observation, in order to develop the latent strength of each sense, that of the eye in particular. 2d. The chief aim of object-teaching may be to develop forms of observation and the laws of thought. These exercises we may call exercises in thinking. 3d. Object-teaching may have for its main purpose the development of lan- guage, and all the lessons therein may be exercises in speaking and writing. The proper thing to do is to unite sense-training, thinking, teaching, and language exercises, and work them together, the great aim of object- teaching. The training of the senses lies at the foundation of all, and must be made the chief means of all teaching. But it must be conceded that an intelligent guidance to right seeing and hearing is a wonderful help. Thousands have eyes and see not ; ears, and hear not. Thousands go through a museum and come out none the wiser. They have in fact seen nothing, because they have not intelligence. Observation without repre sentations and conceptions remain blind. Real exercises in observation without exercises in thinking are an impossibility. On the other side, exercises in thinking must work injuriously rather than usefully if they have not found in living observation a fountain of unconquerable interest. OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. ^01 And since it is a striking fact that no representation, no conception exists without a word, since we cannot think except in language, thoughtful ob- serving and observing thoughtfulness, in connection with a continuous development of the mother-tongue, is the chief aim of object-teaching.* To this aim, as soon as a child is abie to write down a proposition, also to confirm to some extent what is expressed, which must be reached to- ward the end of the first school year, two subordinate aims are allied : 1. Preliminary exercises in grammar in the systematic use of cases, of prepositions, and of adverbs of time and place hut above all of word-for- mations. 2. Exercises in composition by writing down little groups of proposi- tions connected according to the sense. II. THE METHOD. The chief laws of the method are : 1. Instruction by actual inspection. Life wakes up life. The real object is therefore to be shown before the picture of it, (if the secret of life does not work so attractively that th" in- struction becomes impossible ; but in the cas of living animals, a living stork or dog in the schoolroom abolishes the possibility of instruction, for the interest of the children is so powerful in the iife itself that it does not objectivate the individual thing, which is thus forgotten.) Amoiii: pictures, the model takes the precedence of the drawing; among the drawings, tin- mlon-d of the shaded; and the shaded again are to be prT'-nvil to the linear d'awinj;. Every object that is spoken of, and aa their relations must stand out clear and defined before the outer sensuous and the inner mental observa- tion (or inspection) of the scholar, and on that account must be advanced from the real, sensuous, to the inner abstract inspection. There is nothing more aimless than object-teaching without actual obser- vation (inspection). The instruction can first bear justly and correctly the name of object-teaching and of the intuitive quality, when it is based upon the actual observation (inspection) of things or relations. What many words and long definitions will not effect, will be effected by imme- diate observation (or inspection). Object-teaching, therefore, needs the beat use and application of the material of observation. The kindergarten justly uses little staff*, sticks of various lengths, cubes of various kinds of wood, building boxes. The teachers of the lower classes in the elementary schools do right to show various objects, models made of wood or paper, plants in nature, or colored pictures of animals, plants, and human productions. Such apparatus for observation works in the most favorable manner upon the development of the children. In many ways the principle was good in the early object- teaching, but the observation defective ; they took care to impart knowl- * We turn wholly away from the little speaking-exercises whieli figure as a part of the first instructions in reading, and have only tho outward aim of making clear and) distinct, individual sounds, and cannot therefore argue with Luben, that object-teaching and the teaching of roading should form an undivided whole. 202 OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. dge, but made too many words, and neglected the apparatus. Since all recognition or understanding of things proceeds from observation, is founded upon incentives to it, upon perceptions and inspection, and in the mental work already proceeds from observations gained, it is above aC 1 things important that clear and correct observation be attained by means of real things. An object-teaching without apparatus for observation is like a house without a foundation. Instruct by means of observation while you are aiming at the waking up of the inner sense. As soon as you have attained a little whole, within an hour, convince yourself of the condition of the observation (or inspection) thus gained, before you put away the object or the picture of it, in order to let the child re-produce what he has gained. 2. Go from the easy to the difficult. a. Then, from the known to the unknown, from the near to the distant. Go on and add something to the observations which you know the child has made, and when you have united all these widen the image as fast as the comprehensive power of the child will allow you to do so. It. must uot be a question here of setting up a special way as a generally desirable one. Whether one places the room in the foreground, and passes out from the schoolhouse, in ever wider circles up to the sky, with the sun, moon, and stars, or whether one looks upon the year, with its phenomena, as th^ nearest real thing, and adds to the changes of the seasons the material which nature and culture offer, it is all the same ; both may be excellent ; everything depends upon the handling. b. Go from the simple to the complex; then from single objects to two and several, that the acts of comparison and discrimination may come into play. Then let more objects come into the group. Groups form at last a collected image. Go also in language from the simple to the complex ; from naked pro- position to the widened, connected-compound, abbreviated propositions, &c. c. Go from the concrete to the abstract. Proceed from the contemplation of the sensuous signs, before you draw upon the higher laws of thought. Do not apply foundation and consequence, or even condition, if cause and effect have not previously been made clear. Go first from the real, then from the possible and necessary ; first the individual thing, then the particular thing, then the general thing. 3. Give in each hour, if possible, a little whole in contents and form. Work out every lesson in writing, for only so can you satisfy this kind of instruction in which contents and form are equally important and must develop themselves symmetrically ; thus only can you know to be perfected what you have already given, what you are now giving, and what you wish to give next; then this instruction, like no other, will show you its forma- tive reaction. But be cautious not to overstrain the child in your strivings to round off and complete his power. Instruct according to the nature of the material, but instruct also according to the nature of the child. 4. Use poetry in the service of this instruction. An infinite numjber of the most beautiful poems offer themselves as il pontaneously, as flowers of contemplation. You will in years have the OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. 203 richest variety ; and do not forget, when you lay this instruction before your- self and build it up as a whole, that it is poetry which seizes and ennobles the man the whole man. 5. Use conversation. As to the outer form of the method, no instruction offers so much scope for exciting richly compensating conversation as this. Obviously, as in every catechism (Socratic method), there is given back, from sentence to sentence, a clear group of well-arranged observations, in the most naturally connected principles possible. Thus the teacher has the richest opportunity to introduce in a living manner, from-time to time, little poems and stones. III. IMPORTANT WRITINGS AND AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 1. Easy Directions for Intelligent Instruction in the German Language, including Speaking, Drawing, Reading and Writing, Observation by Inspection and Understanding. By W. HARNISCH. Breslau, 1839. This pamphlet, which is specially a guide to the first instruction in lan- guage, belongs here, because it at the same time contains exercises in observation and speaking. The first section of the second part treats of them: 1. The beginning of this instruction; 2. To know and to name objects; 3. The counting of things; 4. The parts of things; 5. Color; . Form and situation ; 7. Size ; 8. Sound ; 9. Feeling, smell, and taste ; 10. Prime material of things, circumstance, and use ; 11. The arranging and order of things; 12. Cause and effect; 13. Necessity and arbitrari- ness, means and aims; 14. Representation and sign; 15. Surroundings and relations ; 16. Summary of the foregoing in one whole. The author's view of the value and place of this instruction may be seen in the following remarks : " The exercises in observation contain not merely many germs, which may develop into godliness (religion), but almost the beginnings of all other objects of instruction ; they form the roots of instruction. Think- ing especially cannot exist without them, and without thinking there is no instruction in language properly so called. The exercises in observation must there, as everywhere, take the precedence of exercises in thinking and understanding. " Exercises in thinking and understanding without exercises in observa- tion are plants without roots. We see this in common life. For the more man has seen and experienced, the more all-sided are his thinking-powers ; and all exercises in understanding which have proceeded only out of the forms of the understanding without insight or reality, we are accustomed to call by the contemptuous name of school-wisdom. 1 ' 2. Guide to Exercises in Thinking and Speaking as the Natural Founda- tion for General Instruction; particularly for the First Instruction in Language in the Peoples Schools. By F. H. G. GRASSMAN. With three Copperplates. Second edition. Berlin, 1834 : by G. Reimer. This is a desirable treatise " upon the natural treatment of instruction in language in the people's schools ; and upon its connection with the other -subjects of instruction in these schools." We point out the chief thoughts R far as they touch upon our subject. 204 OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. Reading is not to be the first or beginning of instruction in tin- schooL The objection to this beginning is based upon the aversion which children have to learning their letters. Nature has decreed that in the first year* of life the child shall receive and picture to himself the outer sense-world, and that the inner spiritual life shall be awakened by occupation with sen- suous things, till the time comes when this inner spiritual life and impulse shall be itself the object of contemplation. This development by means of the outward world has not ended when the child enters the school. The inner world of representation needs an outer world in which it may embody itself language or speech. The representation pictures itself outwardly by means of the word, and thereby becomes a communicable representation, and this representation first attains thereby its definite, perfected existence. By means of language, the child arrives at the intel- ligent recognition of the objects around him and of their relations to each other. Writing is a picture of speech, and by this (indirectly) a picture of the inner representative world of man.* So as man is to learn to know the pro- totype earlier than the image, especially if there does not exist between the two a natural and necessary, but an arbitrary connection (our letters are to be looked upon as signs arbitrarily chosen), the child must first learn to speak before it learns to read. If we connect this with what has gone before, it follows that : The first instruction in language must consist of conversations which make the children acquainted with the things of the outward world, their properties and mutual relations, and give them the opportunity to learn to speak of them correctly, intelligently, and significantly. These exercises in thinking and speaking are to be the common trunk from which all oth^r objects of instruction are to branch out as twigs. In regard to the material, it must contain the elements of all the single objects of the instruction ; in regard to form, it must be so arranged, as far as pos- sible, that the children shall learn not merely parts of speech, but all kinds of words, and these in their various forms, inflections, derivations, and combinations, and in an easy way. The language itself must not be an object of contemplation, but a collection of words must be made, out of which in future the general rules and laws of the language can be developed. In the arrangement of the material, the progress must be in regular steps from the nearer to the more distant ; from the known to the less known, and from this to the quite unknown ; from that which falls directly upon the senses to that which is first found by the help of the accompany- ing activity of the understanding. If the instruction in reading and writing goes side by side with this from the first entrance of the children into the school, one hour a day, or from three to four hours a week, should be devoted to this object-instruction. CONTENTS : 1. Names of things ; 2. Whole, and parts of the whole ; 3. Number of things ; 4. Place, position, attitude ; 5. Light, color ; 6. Form ; 7. Size; 8. Direction; 9. Sound; 10. Perceptions by feeling, smell, and taste; 11. Rest and motion ; 12. Connection of things ; 13. Time. The whole is brought out partly in a catechetical way. partly by prin- OIMKCT TEACHING. BUSSE. 205 ciples, which are to be discovered by the developing conversation. This is a model work and a master-work, actual head-work, the most advanced course of teaching-exercises in observation and experience to be found in our literature (of the present time). No teacher should be without it. But whether the whole can be carried out in the elementary school, as the majority of these schools now are, we doubt ; indeed, our verdict is against it. There must be rarely favorable circumstances secured, if a teacher, as the Professor hopes, shall be able to carry the child through this course by the end of the ninth year of his age. We must apply the wise view which the author makes apparent for the carrying out of his opinion upon instruction in language, and also upon these exercises in speaking and thinking. He says : " Many weighty and well-founded recol- lections and doubts recur to the mind, which, in view of the reality of exist- ing relations of life, and of prevailing and dominant customs, opinions, and judgments of the present generation, may easily be advanced, and are well known to every practical schoolman. No one can feel it more keenly than I do, or know it better than I do ; as it is on account of the well-founded existence of such recollections of long standing that I require, before the introduction of this plan, the condition that it shall be freed from all the limitations which arise out of the present condition of things." But with full conviction we agree with the following opinions : " In view of the plan which we introduce, it is of the highest importance that we carry in our souls an ideal of every occupation which one has to execute, of every office which is to be filled, how it should be done, and how it would be done, if every hindrance and disturbance were out of the way, and if every power which is brought into play worked as perfectly as it can by virtue of its nature. To let such an ideal enter wholly into life as its guide, rarely ever happens, since the reality of life meets it at every step and on every side, limiting and destroying its influence ; yet the strivings of those who wish to better things must have their roots in the ideal, and must find in it the goal of their activity. For whoever carries it within his breast, and seeks to approach it more and more, as far as circumstances and relations permit him to do so, takes care so to arrange and form every individual influence that it may correspond to the image before him, and thus prepare for the future presentation of the whole, and he seizes every opportunity to form in others the correct view of this subject. He thus brings insight and skill into all his acts, while he who has not such a goal before his eyes cannot, with all his best efforts, and the most indefatigable industry, demand the best thing of himself, and often loses it." This course of instruction is to be contemplated as such an ideal for the elementary schools in general. Would that the teachers might comprehend it in its essence, and approach it in fact and truth ! The most earnest study of this work is just what is needed for the elementary method. But for those teachers who are obliged to limit themselves to a less thorough course of thinking and speaking exercises, we recommend the following works (certainly with a few exceptions) of Fuhr & Ortmann. On account of the necessary attention to the existing state of things every- where, with rare exceptions, we have placed the aim and the standard of 206 OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. these exercises lower, in order that the attempts made to realize them shall be really successful. 3. Instruction in the Little Children's School ; or, the Beginning of In- struction and Formation in the People's Schools. Fourth improved edi- tion. Bielefeld, 1845. Published by Belhagen & Klasing. This pamphlet proposes a course of instruction : (1) which is throughout practical and easily applied ; (2) which chooses its material out of the imme- diate surroundings of the school-children, and avoids all costly and foreign apparatus ; (3) it is worked out with the utmost clearness and perspicacity, so that it will easily enable every teacher to introduce the exercises in ob- servation and speaking into the school. Contents of the First Section. Knowledge of Objects in the School-Room. 1st Exercise : Naming and describing these objects. 2d Ex. : Compar- ison and discrimination. 3d Ex. : Contemplation of definite bodies. Second Section. First Elements of Natural History and Domestic Econ- omy. 1st Ex. : The human body. 2d Ex. : The plants of the home gar- den. 3d Ex. : Domestic animals. 4th Ex. : The house. 5th Ex. : The- dwelling. 6th Ex. : The elements. Third Section. Preliminary Exercise in Drawing and Writing. Fourth Section. Instruction in Reading. Fifth Section. Beginning of Arithmetic. Sixth Section. Beginning of Instruction in Singing. Seventh Section. Exercises in Memory or Tunes for Head and Heart. Eighth Section. Furthering Instruction, and School Aims in general. The individual exercises are offered not in the catechetical, but in a more- familiar form ; methodical remarks, hints, and views are given in them. In consonance with the above-mentioned didactic rules, the objects are not to be treated according to the common conceptions of size, form, color, number, &c., but every subject according to its own peculiarities, or elemen- tarily, or, as Herr Griibe says, organically. (See Griibe's Inst. in Arith.) 4. Methodical Guide for Exercises in the Cultivation of Language in the Lower Class of the Elementary School. By C. G. EHRLICH, Director of the Seminary of Soest, in Nassau. Second improved edition, 1839. Fr. Heischer, in Leipzig. The author shares with others the view that reflection and the art of speaking must be awakened and stimulated specially in the lower class of the elementary school, since the neglect of a deep, firm foundation for it during the whole school season, can never be made good afterwards ; but he differs from other writers and teachers upon the subject ia thinking that the exercises in speaking should be exercises in the language itself. Authors before mentioned give precedence to exercises in speaking, observation, and thinking, and postpone those in language, but employ the thinking and speaking powers upon the materials of the surrounding world. Herr Ehrlich also agrees in this when he adds his exercises upon the immediate experiences and observations of the child ; but he takes into consideration. in this the knowledge of language, in what way will become clear when we OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. 207 point out the chief contents of his treatise, and sketch the characteristic signs of this treatment of the material. The book is divided into twf parts, the theoretical and practical. First Part. Aim and requisitions of the exercises in language in tht- lower class.. Second Part. Examples : (1) The elementary school is to rise up from below. (2) Exercises in language the special means. (3) Extent of the same. (4) Comparison between the conversation of the mother and the teacher. (5) Chief requisites of such exercises : a, Course of teaching, and of some material ; 6, Preface to the conversation ; c, General choice of the material ; d, Language of the teacher ; e, Superintendence of the conversa- tion ; y, Means of exciting emulation ; g, Outward arrangements. The knowledge of the forms of speech (in a practical way) in which it i- brought to the consciousness of the children, leads the author into the consideration of the contents and order. He gives his view in the following precepts, which are worth considering : First. " If you lead the child to thoughtful seeing, you do much more for him than if you bring him forward in reading and writing. His reading and writing without thinking are worthless. Men make the least use of these arts " (is it not so ?) " but a really seeing eye, a really hearing ear, and a thinking mind, every one needs every moment of his life." (Does it injure thousands, nay, millions of men to read?) " 1. Because they do not use this art very generally in life, or they unlearn it again even when they have once learned it in the regular way. 2. Because the books which are put into their hands contain much that is useless, much that is untrue, dis- torted ; obsolete views, superstitious opinions, &c. Hence there are re- gions in Germany where learning to read is of questionable advantage ; for it may be used for the planting and sustaining of superstition and similar perverseness." (Why not also for the destruction of the same ; and why does Catholicism strive against the common-school law?) "For it is not by reading that man cultivates himself. It depends upon what he reads, and his capability of reading with understanding." Second. " The effect upon the cultivation of the mind of learning to speak is very clear, for the following reasons : By knowing the names of things, and of their properties, the attention is often for the first time drawn to the things themselves. In the same manner, also 'by the varieties of the names to the varieties of the things ; for instance, the different kinds of the color of green grass-green, mountain-green, apple-green, finch-green, bottle- green, bronze-green, sea-green, &c. Also, by means of language our atten- tion is drawn in early childhood from lower to higher conceptions, (for instance, ' The goose is a bird.') By naming these, we hold firmly in the mind representations and conceptions of things, and learn to think in lan- guage." Second Part. This portion of the book is the most important, viz. : The Examples. (1) Conversations with children from six to seven years of 208 OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. age : two conversations with new-comers ; the surroundings in the schooi- room ; handwork ; the kitchen ; domestic animals ; words of endearment (diminutives) ; abstract conceptions ; single verbs. (2) Conversations with the whole lower class, or with children from seven to ten years. Preparation of the teacher for exercises in speaking. These conversations are rich in instruction : 1. Because they are so com- municated, not as if they were written out before the hour, but as if they were really held in the school of the seminary by the author. 2. Because they are to be looked upon as a model in a wide sense of the word (not like the asses-bridge, to be used slavishly). Herr Ehrlich is a master in conversation with children. Therefore this book is a gift to be thankful for. Having proceeded from the very soil of the school, in the strongest sense of the word, the teacher can learn from it how to make living and in- structive conversation with children, since an old master has done it before him. Remarks which join the single examples unite the second part of the book with the first, and the results following each talk given in a review show what should be reached in the single talks. The author believes, as we do, in the use of signs. A wave of the right hand means that all the scholars shall speak ; a circular motion with the left hand (a zero) a full answer. To wink means repeat the whole. We hope the reader will not consider these as puerilities. We are sorry that want of space forbids us laying before the reader one of these instructive conversations, with all its outward and inward in- trospections ; but we recommend this thoroughly practical treatise. 6. Ouide to the Principles of Education and Instruction. By DENZEL. Third Part, First Division, First Course : Object-Teaching for Children from 6 to 8 Years of Age. Stuttgart: Mezler, 1828. Third edition. The distinguishing or discriminating character of this course consists in the author's connecting the religious with the material and formal points of view, that is, the exercises in observation or introspection have the dis- tinct aim of undertaking to develop the religious consciousness. The author's caution and circumspection are well known. 6. SCHLOTTERBECK : Theoretical and Practical Handbook for the Instruc- tion of the First School Year. For Teachers and Female Educators just beginning. 1. Domestic Science in the First School Year. 2. First In- struction in Language, Reading and Writing. 3. Exercises for the Cultivation of the Senses. Wismar, Rostock, and Ludwigsluft. Pub- lication house of the Hinstorff bookstore. 1868. We have here a work of great industry, arising out of a deep interest in the cause. Just on account of its one-sidedness, it has an effect upon the present time. It follows Schlotterbeck in recommending " gymnastics of the senses " for the people's school, and at the end the " introduction of Froebel's kindergarten into the elementary classes." The views taken from Schlotterbeck are the following : 1. The chief aim of object-teaching is the cultivation of the senses and of formal nature. " What object-teaching has hitherto striven for is not to be reached by OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. 209 the means of the exercises proposed. It is only exercises of the senses, -which are designed to give them a greater perfection for the correct com- prehension of the outward world, and to assist the mind of the child in its development through its perceptions. "The cultivation of the senses is to strengthen and support the whole instruction by giving efficiency to the organs of observation, and by the reception of new observations in the child's mind." 2. Object-teaching must move in the field of the world of the senses, and adjust it. 3. For this aim the objects must be brought to the children's view in their naked reality, and be treated objectively throughout. 4. The representation of the object observed must also have its rights It gives the best proof of the correctness of the comprehension of it. 5. What has been observed can be represented by language. 6. What has been observed can also be represented in a plastic form. 7. By the cultivation of the organs of the senses, and by the plastic rep- resentation of the object, more is done for widening the child's circle of representation than by the most searching exercises. 8. Therefore, we desire to have cultivation of the senses in the school, and for the elementary class in especial, first, a yearly course of from four to five hours a week, which we designate by the once common name of object- teaching. After that time let it cease, not because the cultivation of the senses is then looked upon as perfected, but because it can be carried on at home, and the further instruction in the school must undertake wider culture. 9. Object-teaching does not exclude exercises in language ; but these must not be the chief aim. 10. Object-teaching need not be looked upon as the foundation of in- struction in physics. 11. Religious knowledge, so far as it allows itself to be mediated by ob- servation, does not belong to the domain of object-teaching. Object-teach- ing must be allowed to take the precedence of the religious element as little as of the instruction in language or natural science. It must move according to its nature on the domain of the sense-world, and fails wholly in its aim if the religious element is not the chief object. 12. Object-teaching must not aim at clothing the material in a poetic form. " This would stand in direct opposition to its aim. By object-teach- ing the comprehension of the world of sense is indirectly imparted, the correct relation between cause and effect, foundation and superstructure, life and death, is established, therefore the objects must be brought before the child in their naked reality, and be treated objectively by the teacher throughout. The living sense of the child will lay in poetry of itself, and abundantly enough where the ripened understanding sees only dead and cold material. Real poetry lies in nature itself, and is therefore given out by it at the same time wiih the objective comprehension." The course of teaching planned on the above principles is divided into three sections : 1. Cultivation of the eye by the color, form and position, size and dis- tance, of bodies. 210 OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. 2. Cultivation of the ear by exercises in time and hearing. 3. Cultivation of feeling by direct exercises in the cultivation of the senses of touch and taste ; and by exercises for attaining a greater security and solidity of the body, namely, by strengthening the limbs. This treatise is in quite the spirit of Froebel. The author plans the exercises which Froebel had chiefly intended for the kindergarten for the first school-year of the elementary class. They are as excellent for the kin- dergarten, where they have proved themselves so well adapted for the cul- tivation of the senses and the development of the mind, as they are out of place in the school. Here the ground-principle must be firmly estab- lished ; the culture of the senses must be aimed at with suitable material* To aim at merely formal culture lies outside of it. What cultivation of the uenses is to be reached in the school must come out of the contemplation of the objects of the object-teaching, primarily out of the contemplation of nat- ural bodies. From them the child learns their " colors, forms, and varie- ties," and every intelligent teacher goes back from this to ground colors and ground forms. By the " quantities n the instruction in arithmetic makes- known the theory of forms and the instruction in drawing. For " cultiva- tion of the eye " the instruction is given by writing, drawing, scientific, geo- graphical, and mathematical observation; for "cultivation of the ear," in- struction in speaking, reading, and singing ; for " cultivation of the hand,'* writing, drawing, and handwork. Hence it happens that a great part of these exercises in our full school classes are not practicable, as, for exam- ple, the coloring of pictures, the cutting of paper, the building with cubes, the plaiting with strips of paper, the folding of paper, the pricking of fig- ures, the clay work, whittling of wood, the observation of forms of things at different distances and in different positions, &c. It is impossible for a teacher to watch all these exercises, and prevent the dangerous use of col- ors, scissors, knives, pricking-needles, &c. Besides this, the author places little value upon the spoken statement, but would use the exercises in language chiefly for the instruction in reading. But if the object-teaching is to sharpen the senses, and thereby excite the attention, it must also assist the development of language. Observation enchains and quickens the thinking power, and brings the judgment to the tongue, which fastens the same in a word. When the children have been- accustomed by the object-teaching to see sharply and precisely the things brought to their contemplation and description, and, where the opportunity offers, also to hear distinctly and feel strikingly, the school certainly offers all it can to satisfy just claims. But the author is of the opinion that salvation lies only in Froebel, whose- play-school must go into the people's school. We can look upon this only as a pedagogic error. For the gymnastics of the senses, life must do the best, not the school-room with its bare walls. Finally, why shall we not use the tongue and the nose as chemistry does ? At the Vienna Exposition we really saw a whole series of innocent, variously smelling, and tasting, apparatus for object-teaching, designed for the elementary school. We cannot recommend the work for the object-teaching we defend, how- ever dear it may be to FroebePs scholars, who will find much in it that i* stimulating. OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. 211 7. Theoretical and Practical Handbook for Object-teaching, with particu- lar reference to Elementary Instruction in Physics. Frederick Harder Altona, 1867. Four editions. A book of such significant compass, which has lived through four edi- tions in twelve years, must have some value. This value lies in the correct and practical observations from which the author proceeds, and which he develops into a guide systematically executed, as well as rich and various in the material offered for the instruction. He gives the key to his work in the title. He is of the opinion that object-teaching, whose centre must be sought in physics, is not to be fin- ished in the elementary class, and on that account adds : 1. A course which shall give, after object-instruction proper, a second course, also designed for the underpinning, which works out the elements of physics with the scholars who have been mentally strengthened by object-teaching (in the space of another half-year). This course of instruction is essentially the well-known one. The author begins with the first conversation of the teacher with the fresh elementary scholars, then passes into the school with its contents, speaks of the same to the whole and to individuals, introduces comparisons of things in the. school-room, passes to the people in the school, then considers the school-- house and teachers' dwelling-house, the occupants of the parental house, the- dwelling-place, buildings, squares, streets, inhabitants. The sections, which ^ make the specialty of the work, treat very practically of men, animals, and the plant world, and contain a preparation of instruction in geography and natural science. The work recommends itself by specially rich and richly- suggestive material, arranged in suitable sequence on methodical principles. The author is of the opinion that this instruction stands independently and is to be stretched over the whole school life. 8. Principles and Course of Teaching for Instruction in Speaking and Heading. AUGUST LUBEN, Germany, Director in Bremen. Third im- proved edition. Leipzig, 1868. Liiben's writings should be intelligently studied by every elementary teacher. The practice of the author to connect object-teaching with reading and writing is well known. Richter has energetically protested against this union, and we indorse the protest, while we think that the exercises in speaking, known to all, and which smooth the path to the sounding of thf letters (lautiren), do not take the place of the object-teaching proper. Al- though the author does not consider merely the exercises in speaking, but also those in language, yet the object-teaching, which has its own aims and course, is not justly estimated. The aim of object-teaching Liiben also discusses briefly : 1. To practise the child in correct seeing and contemplation. 2. To enrich the powers of his understanding with worthy representation^ 3. To cultivate his judgment. 4. To increase his readiness in language. OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. Many good things are given in the examples, and the little treatise, which, on account of its authorship, is an authority in the domain of instruc- tion in the mother-tongue, is worth reading. 9. Object -teach ing in the Elementary Schools. Represented according to its Aims, its Place, and its Means. By CARL RICHTEE. Crowned prize- work. Leipzig, 1869. This treatise is a rich accession to the literature upon object-teaching. In a theoretic point of view it is the best work which exists upon that sub- ject. By the ideal which Richter would realize in object-teaching, he will gain many opponents without injury to the various opinions in practice. The work should be known to every elementary teacher, although it is only theoretical. Cultivation of the senses is one chief thing with the author. Schlotterbeck seems to have excited him much. It is now generally the laudable endeavor to enlarge the material of observation for the elementary classes as far as it is practicable, although on the other side the limit can easily be passed which protects it from extravagance. The rich contents of the book consist of a guide, three sections, and a review. The guide contains historical matter upon object-teaching, concep- tion of essence of observation, relation of observation to language, and importance of observation to the mental life. 1. The first section speaks of the task of object-teaching, and paragraphs have the following titles : Condition of the Child's Mind before the School Age ; the School and its First Task ; Cultivation of Observation in Gen- eral; Scientific (real) Culture ; Cultivation of the Senses; Cultivation of Language ; Moral and Religious Culture ; Choice and Arrangements of the Objects for Object-teaching. 2. The second section treats of the place of object-teaching, and is di- vided into four paragraphs : Rejection of Object-teaching ; Isolated Place of Object-teaching ; Connection of Object-teaching with Reading and Writ- ing ; the Vogel-Method. 3. The third section speaks of the means of object-teaching, and treats of the position of Objects of Instruction in Nature, Models and Pictures, Drawing and Measuring. This work contains no finished programme of object-teaching, but is a work upon that subject which cannot be read without lively interest, and which treats with extraordinary clearness the question of object-teaching, its place in other courses, and the means requisite for carrying it out It will be of lasting use, and is urgently recommended. 10. Object-teaching. Its History, its Place in the Elementary School, and its Methodical Treatment. By W. AEMSTROFF. Langensalza, 1869. This is also a theoretical treatise of the same general character with that of Richter, but not so exhaustive. It recommends itself to the teacher by its simplicity and clearness. Object-teaching is, with this author, that instruction of the elementary classes in which single things are taken from the nearest sur- roundings of the pupils, observed by the senses, described, and thus brought to their comprehension. It must not be confounded with " instruction by OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. 213 observation." And it must not be considered identical with exercises m thinking and speaking, with domestic economy, cosmology, and useful com- mon knowledge. All these subjects are kindred, but not in congruity. In his statement of the historical development of this instruction upon topics, the author goes back to Luther's and Melancthon's efforts, and draws treasures from the labors 1. Of Bacon: "Everything depends upon our never turning the eyes of the mind from things themselves and their images just as they are absorbed into us." 2. Of Comenius : " The first connection of the thing with the knowl- edge of language." 3. Of the Philanthropist : " The culture of the understanding must pro- ceed from actual inspection ; Physics (ftealieri) must be the chief objects of fundamental teaching." 4. From Pestalozzi : " Observation is the foundation of all knowledge." After discussing these historical points, treatises which exclusively pursue the formal aim of development, for which the material need not be too vari- ous, he goes on to the exercises in understanding and thinking of Zerrener, Erause, Grassman, and finishes with Graser, Diesterweg, Wurst, Scholz, and Hariisch, who combated the connection between the formal and scien- tific principle. The mission of object-teaching is fully shown by the psychological devel- opment. It is designed to raise the observations and representations al- ready in hand with the children into clearness, order, and consciousness, so as to help the pupils to a wealth of intuitions at the same time that they are using their senses j to excite their self-activity, and accustom them to a habit of attention ; and out of the intuitions gained to develop conceptions, judgments, &c., and thereby to sharpen the understanding, put them in possession of book language, cultivate their sensibilities, and prepare them for instruction in science (real). As means of object-teaching the author designates, chiefly, nature, man, God. He urges original, direct observa- tion, and only where the means for this are not present, or in natura, does he recommend pictures. The treatise answers the following questions : 1. Where is the origin of object-teaching to be sought, and how has it developed itself in the course of time ? 2. Wherein consists the problem of object- teaching? 3. What place in instruction shall it take ? 4. By what means are the aims which it pursues to be reached P While Richter makes object-teaching the all-ruling centre in the pro- gramme, Armstroff confines himself to Liiben's point of view, with whom object-teaching, reading, and writing, are to be united into one whole. Armstrongs work is worth reading next to Richter's. 11. Theoretico-pradical Guide to Object-teaching for Elementary Teachers and Parents. By CARL DAMBECK, School Director. Hamburg, 1869. A parallel treatise with Richter's, but very valuable practically. It is divided into two parts, a theoretic, and a practical part. In the 214 OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. theoretic part the author speaks of the aim, the method, the teacher, and the apparatus for object-teaching, which is with him the fundamental and preparatory instruction for the other branches. The practical part treats of the collection, grouping, and distribution cf the material. The author closes with a sketch of a methodical course of object- teaching for two years. The first course for children from six to eight years of age groups the material for the four years which are to be used as designated. The second course arranges the material for children between eight and nine, according to psychological development and the branches of instruc- tion; it also serves as preparation for instruction in language, for mathe- matics, the natural sciences, geography, history, religion, with much refer- ence to the capability of the children. It is hence made a material which for the greater part can be used in the middle course. In conclusion, the author enumerates the material of the instruction which is necessary for the success of this department ; namely, models, mathematical bodies, a collection of the most important coins, the measures and weights of the country, minerals, fresh or dried plants, the fruits and seeds of the most important plants, animals either stuffed or preserved in spirits, products of industry, large single pictures, black or colored, a col- lection of the leaves and twigs of the most important plants. The author assigns an independent place for the object-teaching, and lets reading and writing follow next. In his limitation of the subject he agrees with Richtcr and Armstroff ; with them he assigns the place for it in the two or three first school years. We cannot deny that the work has proceeded from a vital interest as well for the subject as for childhood, and also shows long practice. It is original in spite of the fact that the idea of spreading the use of the material over all the years given to instruction, and of holding the child in living connection with nature all that time, is not in itself new. The little work is cordially recommended. 12. Object-teaching for the Lower and Middle Classes of the People's School. By GEORGE Luz. Also Teaching and Heading Material for Ob- ject-teaching in the Lower and Middle Classes. Wieseusteig, 1871. The first part of the book discusses the theory of object-teaching. In twelve sections the author treats the following rich contents : 1. The origin of object-teaching, and its introduction into the people's school. 2. Object-teaching as the first and preparatory instruction. 3. Conception of object-teaching. 4. Aims of object-teaching. 5. Forms of object-teaching. 6. Opponents of object-teaching. 7. The working of independent object- teaching. 8. The annexation of object-teaching to the reading-book. 9. Characteristics of different readers for the middle class. 10. Review of the programme of instruction of the author. OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. 215 11. Treatment of object-teaching. 12. Some examples of conversation. The second part is to be the reader for the use of pupils. The work is by a pupil of Denzel, but is distinguished by its extraordi- nary simplicity from the one to be noticed next, by Wrage. Not merely skill in the catechetical treatment of material constitutes the good teacher (and from pages 82 to 90 we find masterly conversations), but also his command of the material. But only he has command over his material who under- stands how to select it in reference to the nature of childhood ; and from this author \ve learn to know his conceptions of a teacher, and a bettei could not be wished for; " the enemy of all shams, allflunkery ; thefriena, of simplicity, of sound discretion in shorty one who really knows ihr nature of childhood." Of this loving absorption into the nature of childhood, the material for reading and the inculcation of principles in the infant is eloquent testimony. It is a preparatory book for the teacher in behalf of object-teaching, and a copious reader for the lower classes. The problem of how object-teaching can stand in the closest connection with the reader, and yet be indepen- dently progressive, is here solved in the happiest manner. What the teacher has hitherto observed and described, the children read after him, and thus reach two things : progress in understanding what they read, reading ar<* repeating with feeling, and comprehension of what they have heard. 13. Object-teaching in the People's School ; or, Observing, TJiinkina, Speak- ing, and Writing, as the Foundation for Physical Studies, for Style, and Grammar. By J. H. FUIIR and J. H. ORTMANN. In four double sheets. Four sheets of Object-teaching, interspersed with Sentences, Fables, and Stories, in Prose and Poetry, arranged according to the Four Sea- sons. Bound in with the Object-teaching, four sheets of Exercises, in all Styles, for all Classes, after the Preparatory Class in Grammar. Second enlarged and improved Edition. Dillenburg, 1873. According to this author, observation is the element and foundation of all knowledge ; and object-teaching, pursued according to its aim, is the only instruction that can be materially and formally truly preparatory and fundamental for the collected instruction of the people's schools, which can rest only upon the firm ground of observation. Object-teaching must strive for correct observation and attention, clear conceptions, correct expression of thoughts, acquisition of useful knowledge of practical things, and cul- tivation of feeling. A full supply of poetic material serves for the latter purpose and point of connection. Contents : In twenty conversations are, first, preparatory exercises offered to the teacher, which aim at exciting the feelings of the child, so that it may be confiding and animated. Then the children are led on according to the principle, from the near to the remote, by the following circles of ob- servation : School, house and yard, garden, meadow, field and wood. In order to give the best possible intuitive foundation for physical science, the animals in the family and yard are described, so that they are under- stood to be representatives, or types of the one, two and four-hoofed 216 OBJECT TEACHING. BUSSE. animals, the beasts of prey, the insect-eaters, the rodents, the fowls, doves, swimming-birds, swamp-birds, singing-birds, and birds of prey. Then follows the contemplation of trees, shrubs, and herbs. The second part may be regarded as a complete course of natural his- tory, and used with much benefit. The third sheet is peculiarly of Object-teaching. The second part of this treats of the premonitions of Spring in the plant world. Walk in the garden, and naming of the things fcund in it. Plants; growth; (as specialties, the snowdrops, the garden violets, daisies.) Then follows a premonition of Spring in the animal world (field-larks, stork, cuckoo, the white wagtail). Then the Spring itself ; (the usher of Spring is the com- mon primrose.) At last, the fruit-garden (gooseberries, currant-bushes, cherry-trees, and damson-trees). In every lesson, the cultivation of the senses, of language, and of feeling is aimed at By interspersed speeches^ sentences, riddles, fables, tales, in prose and verse, the instruction con- tains the right nourishment for the understanding, the heart, and the life. A little volume is soon to follow this part, which will contain the rest of the material, so far as concerns the domain of natural history and physics, (mineralogy, domestic economy, and natural science.) The catechetical treatment of many of the lessons, lend, by their numerous suggestions, a peculiar value to the whole work. As to the rest, the author is of the opinion that the material offered in the school should not be used in a slavish manner, as it lies before the view. These materials offer much for the teacher, because they will excite him to studies and contemplations in Nature herself. Of the first three parts of this splendid work, only the two first lie before us upon object-teaching, and the first of the exercises in style ; a definite judgment of it is, therefore, not yet possible. The splendid fullness of the useful material surprises the reader, and he feels delighted with per- ceiving that he has to do with two teachers, who give nothing but what they have proved by long practice. Every lesson seems to be given as if the talk had been held in the class. The arrangement of the exercise* in style are appropriate, so far as we have been able to look them over. If we dared to make one criticism (snap our fingers at the authors), it would be this : It seems as if by the parallel contents of the exercises in observation and style, a certain monotony would be unavoidable in the later propositions. The pupil will rarely go farther in this field than ta descriptions and stories. Pictures overtax his powers. The real mine from whence he will draw his compositions, outside of the nature that forms his surroundings, is human life, fable, parable, proverbs, universal history, and, above all, literature, with its incomparable riches. But we trust to the pedagogic skill of the authors, that they will avoid monotony, and that they will draw from their excellent material with proper judgment. The whole work is so important, by the wealth of its contents and the abundance of its methodical directions, that every teacher ought to be acquainted with it. We are still so poor in proper apparatus for object- teaching, that we are glad to mention a book that has already found a place for itself in the world's literature. CONVERSATIONS ON OBJECTS. PRACTICAL COURSE OF ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION IN LANGUAGE, MENTAL DEVELOPMENT. CONVERSATIONS ON OBJECTS commencing with the earliest indi cations of the infant faculties, and proportioned to the progressive development of reason which varies in different individuals, will be found not only to be an excellent substitute for the irksome and me- chanical processes of almost all our elementary schools, but the best vehicle of diversified knowledge and the ground-work of mental dis- cipline, while it is introducing children to a practical acquaintance with their native tongue. We shall adopt in the discussion of this subject a chapter from C. Marcel's admirable treatise on Language.* Although the order in which the various conversations on objects have been introduced may be modified according to circumstances, it must not be regarded as altogether a matter of indifference ; for we have endeavored to conform to that which nature follows in gradually inuring the mind to habits of investigation. She imperatively en- joins that the first efforts of the child should be directed to the im- provement of those powers by which he may form clear and correct notions of things. He should therefore be made to pass progres- sively through the exercises in perception, observation, reflection, and reasoning. Another rule which should be strictly adhered to is, that, whenever a topic, an exercise, or a branch of information, acknowledged to- be useful, has been entered upon, it should be occasionally repeated, until the children have a clear insight into the subject brought before them, or until the object proposed from it has been attained. It should also be borne in mind that the following course, although in- tended as a preparation for the scholastic instruction of boys, is equally suitable to girls ; for, until the age of twelve, the intellectual education should be the same. SECT. I. EXERCISES IN PERCEPTION. 1 . Names of objects, their Par/*, Matter, and Color. From the moment that a child articulates distinctly, various famil- * "Language as a Means of Mental Culture. 1 ' London. 2 vols. 21S CONVERSATIONS ON OBJECTS. iar objects should be offered to his notio-, and their use explained; their names being, at the same time, clearly uttnvd for him, he should be made to repeat them slowly and aloud. But he mu*t not be forced into premature efforts to speak, lest be should acquire habits of indistinct and defective utterance. Premature walking is not more injurious to the organs of motion than is premature speaking to the vocal organs. In order also to guard against fatiguing him by a dry repetition of words, the instructor should enliven the exercise by mak- ing, in plain language and in a playful manner, some simple ol tions on the nature and use of the things which he is called upon to name. This exercise should, at first, be limited to a few objects at one time, and the same things should be repeatedly presented to him as- Hn-iated with tlu-ir names, until he perfectly knows these names. His vocabulary should be gradually extended by the introduction of new ol>j ets which he is made to observe and name, such as articles of dress, food, furniture, every tiling which he can hold in his hand, or which may be seen either from the window or out of doors. This mode of proceeding will soon put a young child in possession of a considerable number of useful nouns. It is a triple exercise in per- ception, articulation, and memory, which must, from the variety of objects and the movement required in passing from one to the other, be more interesting to the child, as it certainly is more profitable at this age, than the ordinary practices of conning for m..ntli> ,v.-r the same six-and-twenty, to him, unmeaning letters, reading nonsensical trash, or learning by rote the unconnected words of a spelling-book or dictionary. As the child's intellect opens and becomes capable of examining objects minutely, of distinguishing their resemblances and differ- ences, of noticing their parts, their matter, their color, their form, and their number, his attention should be successively directed to all iii<-- points. Thus will his mind be early brought in contact with the ex- ternal world, and be duly exercised by ascribing to every object of aense its qualities and peculiar condition. He will also easily reiu 111- ber the words, when the ideas they signify are once clearly appre- hended. A correct acquaintance with the meaning and application of words must not be deemed a matter of little moment in the first years of life. If we consider the disastrous results to which igno- rant- on these points has led, and the inconvenience which often arises to the best educated among us from this single source, we shall find that time well employed, which is devoted to securing a knowl- edge of the meaning of words. This practical instruction may be EXERCISES IN PERCEPTION. 219 commenced with the >.-c"inl period of youth at the age of six. Curi- <>Mtv and the perceptive powers being then in full activity, the child's attention may be easily cultivated through them, and a spirit of ob- s. r\,ition, analysis, and comparison, the foundation of a correct judg- ment. \><- early fostered. The first inquiry to be made in the examination of an object con- sists in ascertaining the parts of which it is composed. These are sumrtiin<-> BO minute that considerable attention is requisite to dis- cern them all. So important is this inquiry, that an acquaintance, for example, with all the parts of a plant, and with their forms and colors, constitutes the knowledge of its botanic character, and involves a considerable portion of the botanic technology. The child must be shown how all the parts of an object are connected, how they har- monize, and how far each is indispensable to the completion and pleasing effect of the whole : thus will he be accustomed to discrimi- nate what is principal from what is accessory, what is useful from what is merely ornamental. By attending to the matter of which the object and its parts are composed, the child will learn how to distinguish animal, vegetable, and minerable substances ; he will form clear ideas of what is natu- ral and artificial, simple and compound, native and foreign, indigen- ous and exotic. The next consideration will be that of color : this beautiful prop- erty of matter, diffused over all the works of nature and art, will, by the infinite variety of its shades and combinations, offer to the visual faculty an endless means of exercise. Accuracy of perception in reference to it will prove useful for various branches of knowledge and pursuits in life. A due attention to the diversity of colors, to the proportion of parts, and to the gracefulness of forms, considered as the elements of beauty, will sow the seeds of taste. An acquaintance with colors can be very early imparted to a child. To enable him the better to distinguish them and recollect their names, the instructor should be provided with a tabular illustration of their prismatic order ; he should, first, point out to him the primi- tive colors, red, yellow, and blue, then the three intervening com- pound colors, orange, green, and violet; and, afterwards, their various shades, from the lightest to the deepest hue. Glasses of different colors, placed by pairs one over the other, would afford him the means of perceiving the effect of the mixture of colors. He may be shown that white is the color of 'light, or the blending of the pris- matic colors, and that black is the absence of them. As all imagin. able shades of color can be produced by a diversified mixture of red, 220 CONVERSATIONS ON OBJECTS yellow, blue, white, and black, the child may be exercised in discov- ering which of these elements prevails in any cor.ipound color piv- sented to his sight. 2. Numbers; Ball-Frame. The elements of arithmetic may enter as part of the exercises of this early period: the practical nature of its first rules is well suited' to the understanding of children. Relations of number and arith- metical calculations are also, from their simplicity and mathematical accuracy, admirably adapted to the training of the young mind to habits of attention and reasoning. But, before a child is exercised in mental calculation, which at this early period might overtask his reflective powers, and before he is taught the numerical figures, which are signs of abstract ideas, he should be accustomed to associate the numerical adjectives with the names of objects which admit of com- putation ; tor these adjectives, when used by themselves, being mere attractions can not impart clear and correct notions of number. A variety of similar tiling should be employed, particularly the current coins of the country, counters, cards, inch square, or cubic blocks, which, by gradual addition and subtraction of units and groups, would teach the value and relation of numbers as also the fuuda- in.-ntal rules of arithmetic; he should be taught to express in num- bers the dimensions of objects by applying to them a unit of m a- ure, the inch or foot, as the case may require. When the child has frequently associated real objects with the ideas of number, the nu- iiifiiral nam> > and figures will easily pass in his mind from the con- crete to the abstract state. The ball-frame, consisting of one hundred sliding balls on ten hori- zontal parallel rods. may. in the hands of a skillful instructor, not only assist in explaining the numeration, that is, the formation and names of numbers, but also serve to leach how to solve readily the elementary questions of addition and subtraction, multiplication and division. If the balls be of two contrasting colors and strung alter- nately, the eye will be pleased, attention captivated, and calculations considerably facilitated. With this frame a child can himself dis- >\er the products of the multiplication of any two factors under ten; he sees that these factors can be inverted, that multiplication is only an abbreviated form of addition, and thereby clearly understands the principles of this operation. The mental act, also, by which he fines out these products will enable him to recollect them better than the absurd mechanical parroting of the multiplication-table. This frame is not a late invention, as may be seen in Friend's work on Arithmetic, published fifty years ago ; it has been used for a long EXERCISES IN PKIU EPT1ON 221 tiim- in the primary schools of France and (Jcnnany. It must not l.c contounuVd with the abacus of the ancients, in which one line of beads or balls was made to stand for units, the next for tens, another for hundreds, and so on. But. although the abacus was originally intended for casting up accounts, it might also prove useful in teach- ing the first principles of arithmetic. The Russians and the Chinese have, from time immemorial, performed calculations by means of such frames ; but that of the latter, called shwan-pan, differs from the one adverted to here by its having only five beads on each wire, the rela- tivr values of which are distinguished by their size and color. The one hundred ball-frame is preferable to that which is com- posed of 144 balls, and is adopted in many infant schools in this country, inasmuch as it answers all the purposes of calculation, and besides clearly illustrates the principle of the decimal system, since the relation of units to tens and hundreds is observable through all combinations and computations. It is a matter of great importance that a child should in his first conception of number perceive the simple and beautiful arrangement by which a place is assigned to the different powers of ten that compose any number. In fact, a knowl- edge thus acquired of the composition of numbers leads to a rapid understanding of the mode of representing them by numerical figures. To effect this last object, pasteboard, wood, or brass figures would be found more convenient and more interesting to a young child than writing on paper or slate. At a more advanced age, toward the end of the second period, he should be exercised in mental calculation, passing very gradually from simple to complex operations. This exercise, which admits of endless variety, accomplishes several objects : it brings into action the reflective and recollective powers ; it disciplines the understanding in exact reasoning ; and gives habits of calculation, such as the daily transactions of life require. But not only is arithmetical expertness useful in the practical business of life, it is also indispensable as the basis of all real progress in the mathematical and experimental sci- ences, in which the learner has constant need of applying the rules and performing the operations of arithmetic. 3. Fractional Numbers; Fractional Apparatus. When a child has a clear idea of numeration and of the element- ary rules in whole numbers, he may be initiated into the first notions of fractional arithmetic. These notions, intricate as they are, when taught abstractedly through the fractional notation, become extremely simple and intelligible, even at a very tender age, when explained by 222 CONVERSATIONS ON OBJECTS. means of visible illustrations. The different objects which have been mentioned for counting in whole Dnmben may equally serve for im- parting to young people the first notions of fractions. A number of such objects, being considered as a whole and variously divided into- equal parts or fractional numbers, would, by the addition and subdi- vision of these, illustrate the relative value and the elementary opera- tions of simple fractions. This, however, may perhaps be still better effected by the following contrivance : Let about 16 or 18 thin slips of wood or pasteboard, about half an inch in breadth, be made all exactly the same length, say one foot. (This length is convenient, and will, besides, accustom the eye of the child to a useful measure.) Let them be divided by a line across the breadth, the first into two equal portions, the second into three, the the third into four, and so on up to the eleventh, which will be com- posed of twelve equal parts ; a few other slips may be respectively divided into 15, 18, 20, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, and 84 equal parts* which numbers are chosen on account of their having a great num- ber of divisors. Let the lines indicating different subdivisions be of different colors, and those indicating equal portions in the different slips be of the same color all the halves throughout being thus of one color, all the thirds of another, and so on. Let also the denom- inator, that is, the number of parts into which the foot-slips are divided, be marked at one of the ends of each slip. These colored lines and written denominators will greatly assist in distinguishing at once the different fractions, reducing them to their lowest terms, and finding out their common denominator. The pupil with these slips placed side by side under his eye, should be called upon to observe the various subdivisions of the foot which are marked on them, and be told the names by which are denom- inated the equal parts of each slip, halves, thirds, fourths or quarters^ apparatus, a magnetic needle is placed on a pivot fixed on one of the mountains, thus indicating the relative geographical position of every spot We need scarcely say that a geographical lesson founded on these elements is highly instructive and entertaining to young children. Their natural curiosity is excited at the sight of this model ; and they anxiously expect any information which the instructor is about to impart to them on the physical constitution of the globe, and the natural phenomena connected with its existence. They may be called upon to define in their own words all the terms, of which they have the sensible signification before their eyes ; they see that an island is the counterpart of a lake; a cape, of a bay; an isthmus, of a strait : guided by the needle, they may be made to state the relative position of different places, as well as the direction of streams and chains of mountains in reference to the points of the compass. A survey of this fac-simile will give them an idea of the innumer- able beauties of the terrestrial surface ; it will bring to their notice its verdant plains, its diversified hills, its winding rivers, expanding as they run down to the sea, which spreads its immense sheet over more than half the globe. They may be told of the indispensable agency of water toward the fertility of the earth, the existence of man, the arts of life, and international communication ; they may be told of navigation in modern and ancient times, of the mariner's compass and the polar star, of sailing and steam vessels, of maritime discoveries, of celebrated navigators and travelers, and of many other interesting subjects, which would be called to mind by the sight of land and water. Children take a lively pleasure in traveling, with the end of a pointer, over this Lilliputian world, and naming each place as they journey on, sometimes following down a river from its source to its mouth, or seeking a defile in a mountain to pass into the valley at the other side ; sometimes resting on a table-land, or ascending a peak ; at other times, going along the coasts over strands and cliffs, EXERCISES IN REFLEITION. 233 standing on a promontory, or venturing on a sand-bank ; now and then shouting with joy at the discovery of a volcano, a cavern, a grotto, a cascade, or a cataract All these objects will recall to the iniii'l of an instructor conversant with the wonders of our planet, the MX '*t remarkable among their corresponding realities ; the occasional ID- ution of them, at the moment when his young hearers' attention i< ri*'ti-d on the subject, could not fail to be eagerly received. These :raphical topics will by an immediate connection turn the conver- >ation on geological and atmospheric inquiries, on the structure of thf t-arth, and the distribution of organic life over its surface ; its mines of coal, salt, metals, and diamonds; its various strata and fos- sil remains; on tides and winds, hot and mineral springs, water- spouts, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and a thousand other natural phenomena. Thus will they, in an impressive manner, become rap- idly and thoroughly acquainted with the elements of physical geog- raphy and the great laws of nature, and be "excited, at their entrance upon these studies, by the desire of proceeding farther. When a child has been familiarized with these elements, his next step will consist in being made acquainted with the nature of maps, that he may early know how to use them, and be induced to refer to them in the course of his reading. This he will accomplish most effectually by constructing some himself, under the guidance of his instructor. If he has been early encouraged to sketch from nature, he will easily draw with reference to the points of the compass the plan or map of the room in which he studies, and afterwards that of the premises and grounds surrounding the house in which he liv.-s. This will enable him the better to understand the relations which maps bear to the reality, and consequently to refer to them with the more profit. Afti-r he has executed several maps of particular places, he may iind'-rtake the tracing of whole countries. A black globe of two in diameter, at the least, made so as to admit of delineations in chalk, would considerably facilitate this object and enable him to solve many geographical questions.* The clear notions of number and measures which the child may, l.y this time, have acquired will facilitate his further progress in the study of geography, by enabling him to conceive rightly the various numerical considerations which occur as part of that science, such as the superficies of the earth, the extent of countries, the relative dis- tance of places, the amount of population, the length of rivers, the hight of mountains, the measure of degrees, and others. * Such Globes are made by Candee & Co., New Haven, Conn. 234 CONVERSATIONS ON OBJECTS. 3. Political Geography; Globe with National Flags. Equal in importance to a knowledge of the physical constitution of our globe is an acquaintance with the various races of men who cover its surface, and the numerous political communities into which they are formed. A complete course of geography should comprise these different subjects of consideration. When children have clear notions of the extent, form, composition, and external configuration of the earth, they may with profit be told of the different countries into which it has been subdivided, and be informed of their resources, and of every thing relating to the nations by which they are inhab- ited. This information constitutes political geography, which is the foundation of political science ; for, unless we know the condition of a country and its inhabitants, we can not reason correctly on their wants, customs, and means of prosperity. The elements of the condition of a country are either natural or artificial. The natural elements are its geographical position, its climate, its boundaries, its coast-line, the character of its rivers, and the quality of its soil, its mineral, vegetable, or animal productions, and lastly, its population ; the artificial elements consist of the civil and political institutions of the people, their agriculture, manufacture, and commerce; their progress in the arts and sciences; their Ian guage, literature, religion, and mode of life. The attention of the learners should be directed to all these subjects in turn, as circum- stances afford opportunities of entering upon them. They should, especially, be shown how the natural elements of a country, by de- termining the character and peculiar energies of the people, influ- ence their industrial, social, moral, and intellectual habits. As an introduction to the first elements of political geography we would recommend the use of a globe containing only the terrestrial and aqueous configuration of the earth, with the national boundaries of the different countries and an indication of their capitals. The ohild, who has to learn these first notions, can, with this globe, easily attend to them without the confusion which, in using the ordinary maps and globe, arises from the numerous names and lines of rivers with which they are covered, and which are not needed at the out- set. But to render this first study more impressive and more inter- esting, we connect it with another branch of information, which, although most useful through life, has been totally overlooked in the education of youth. We allude to those emblems which, floating in the breeze, proclaim all over the globe the existence and power of the nations which they represent. EXERCISES IN REFLECTION. UNIVERSITY or An acquaintance with national flags is indispensable to naval and military men, and useful to all the members of a commercial com- munity ; for they serve to distinguish the different nations in their political, military, and commercial relations. The distinctive flags of the numerous ships which crowd our harbors arid docks are to him who is acquainted with them the source of much valuable in- formation. They exhibit in one view our commercial intercourse with foreign nations; they lead the mind to an inquiry into the nature of our imports and exports, and hence into an investigation of our agricultural and manufacturing produce. The child, having been told the names of the nations to which the flags belong, is desired to place these in the capitals of the countries to which they belong, and which are indicated by small holes into which the ends of the flag-staffs are made to fit. It may be easily conceived how amusing and instructive he will find the occupation of planting these standards in their proper places. When they have been distributed all over the globe, the pleasing effect which their variegated colors and their different emblems present to his eye pow- erfully fixes his attention : he sees at one glance, and in a striking manner, the relative positions of all nations, and their various pos- sessions abroad. In order to extend still farther the utility of this geographical ap- paratus, the size of the flags should vary with the degree of political power of each nation, and the length of the staff's with the extent of territory of each country. On the staffs may be inscribed the amount of population of the respective countries, their superficies in square miles, and the names of their capitals. In addition to these fundamental notions, the instructor could, now and then, as any. flag engages the attention of his young pupils, associate with it much useful information concerning the people to whom it belongs. He may speak of their mode of government, their customs, national character, and degree of civilization ; of the pursuits in which they -are most remarkable, and the discoveries and inventions with which they have benefited humanity ; of their standard works, and the ad- Tantages to be derived from a knowledge of their language. With this apparatus, and in the case especially of- young persons of the upper ranks, a well-informed teacher may highly entertain his pupils with interesting narratives relating to the veneration of people for their national flags, the honor attached to their defense, or to the taking of one belonging to an enemy, and the deeds of valor to -which both gave rise in ancient and modern wars. A description of- the armorial bearings of nations and noble families, which originated 236 CONVERSATIONS ON OBJECTS. in the crusades, and are emblazoned on their different banners ana coats of arms, as also an account of the origin of feudal distinctions, and their emblematic mode of transmission to posterity through the devices of heraldry, would excite in high spirited youths a lively in- terest in the chivalrous exploits of their ancestors, and in the history of the middle ages ; the inquiries might be continued down to mod- ern times, in following the traces of these distinctions still percepti ble in the military uniforms of nations and the liveries of privaie- families. In concluding these suggestions on the mode of introducing young persons to the study of geography, we will extract from an Ameri- can writer (Horace Mann's '-'Report on Schools in Europe?} u short and lively description of a lesson on this subject, delivered in his presence by a German professor to an elementary class. We fed the more inclined to do so, as it shows the value of linear drawing in teaching, and presents a new feature in geographical instruction. "The teacher stood by the blackboard with the chalk in his hand. After casting his eye over the class to see that all were ready, he struck at the middle of the board. With a rapidity of hand which my eye could hardly follow, lie made a series of those short diver- gent lines, or shadings, employed by map-engravers to represent a chain of mountains. He had scarcely turned an angle, or shot off a sjtur, when the scholars began to cry out, 'Carpathian Mountains r Hungary, Black Forest Mountains, Wirtemberg,' t, the surface of the earth is a blank. The busy scene of nature passes before an uii practiced eye, without communicating an idea to the mind, and without kindling the spirit of devout adoration of Him, whose universal lo\v smiles everywhere. It is but another proof of the harmony of design in all the works of the Creator, that this method of directly cultivating the observing faculty can not be adequately carried out without a certain amount of muscular exertion, and of daily exposure to the open air, in col- 1'Tting and examining the varied objects of interest with which crea- tion abounds. In other words, we can not benefit the perceptive fac- ulties without, at the same time, benefiting the muscular system and th" organs of respiration, circulation, and digestion ; and this grand recommendation in the eye of reason pursuing study in the field of nature instead of in books alone is actually, though not avow- edly, that which retards its adoption in ordinary education. A ram- ble from the school-room into the country to survey the works of God, is deemed an encouragement to idleness and a love of pleasure ; and, therefore, it is denied. In rural excursions the sight should be exercised in distinguishing remote objects, and appreciating their number, forms, and dimen- sions ; their distance should be estimated by the eye, and immedi- ately verified by measurement. Short distances may be ascertained by paces, and longer ones by noticing the time consumed in passing over them. Thus, the relation existing between space, time, and motion may be shown in measuring the one by the other. Let the child find out what space can be passed over in a given time, or with a u'iven velocity; what time is required to walk or run, at a certain rate, over a certain distance ; what rapidity of motion is requisite to reach a determined point in a given time. Such practices would prove useful iu many ways. The estimating of distances at sight, which in some people seems an intuitive act, is merely the result of habit ; yet, how few can judge with even tolerable accuracy of the EXERCISES IN REFLECTION. 241 Distances at which objects are from each other, and from their own eye ! To estimate the angle which objects make at the eye, is an- other practice of real utility to all men, and to naval and military men in particular. A country residence is most favorable for pursuing all these exer- cises. To those who are confined within the precincts of a town we would recommend occasional visits to foundries, factories, and work- shops : art, as well as nature, abounds in sources of instruction. In these visits a child would witness the facts which have already been made the subjects of his conversations, and would see the applica- tion of the .sciences which will subsequently demand his attention. Thus would mechanical and intellectual pursuits assist each other. >k What an immense stock of scientific principles," says Dugald Stew- art, " lie buried amid the details of manufactures and of arts ! We may form an idea of this from an acknowledgment of Mr. Boyle, that he had learned more by frequenting the shops of tradesmen than from all the volumes he had read." He whose mind has been early familiarized with the interesting scenes of nature and the wonders of art, will never lose the impres- sive lessons which they teach. Long after, in the ardor of literary composition, or amidst the excitement of public assemblies, their vivid images will reappear in their pristine luster to give happy expression to thoughts which shall then be awakened by passing events. 6. Natural History, Mineralogy, Geology, Botany, Zoology. When, by casual consideration of objects, children have been famil- iarized with a variety of natural substances, the teacher, introducing more order into his lessons, may venture on classifications, and treat methodically of the three kingdoms of nature. This subject will fur- nish favorable opportunities for making frequent reference to physical geography, with which it is closely associated, by reason of the diver- sity of organic and inorganic beings, consequent on the difference of climate in various parts of the globe; whilst the practice of distin- guishing the characteristic features of these beings, and following the chain which connects them, is highly calculated to improve the per- ceptive and observant powers, and to create habits of nice discrimina- tion. The amazing variety of interesting objects which natural his- tory offers for consideration, and the admirable adaptation of means - to ends which they exhibit, render it the fittest branch of knowledge for exciting in young people a spirit of inquiry, and a sense of the infinite power, wisdom, and goodness of God. Mineralogy may be made an object of attention in the first stages 242 CONVERSATIONS ON OBJECTS. of instruction. The distinctive qualities of inert matter are more sim- ple and less numerous than those of vegetable and animal substan- ces ; they are more distinct and better defined. Minerals, different from plants and animals, can be kept within reach, and exhibited in all their different states. The brilliant colors of gems and metallic ores, as also their crystallization, a most striking feature of the ex- ternal character of minerals, are well calculated 10 excite the curiosity of children and to fix their attention. The singular properties of diamonds, gold, quicksilver, and the loadstone, and the great diver- sity of purposes to which these minerals, and, more especially, silver, copper, lead, and iron, are appropriated, should be offered to their notice, as also the chief attributes of metals their, luster, sonorous- ness, tenacity, malleability, ductility, fusibility, specific gravity. The examination of metals will naturally lead to the mention of mines, the modes of working them, the countries where they are found, and the curious processes of metallurgy. . Closely connected with mineralogy is geology, which presents a most interesting field of research ; it carries the mind from the con- sideration of rocks and mines, of mountains and valleys, to the pe- riod of their creation, and, by a natural transition, to Him who created them. Geology is, as it were, the earth's autobiography, written in symbolical and unmistakable language. Young persons should be familiarized with its elements and general outlines as soon as they can comprehend them. They may be told of the composi- tion and arrangement of the materials which form the crust of our globe, of the changes which are continually wrought on its surface by the agency of inundations, earthquakes, volcanoes, and of the admirable contrivances by which it has been rendered, throughout successive ages, capable of supporting countless myriads of organic existences. The important functions which plants perform in the economy of nature, the arts of civilization, and the support of life, claim for bot- any a prominent place in modern education. Few objects in the external world are more interesting than vegetable productions, and, especially, flowers and fruits, whose richness of coloring, as well as endless diversity of hues, forms, fragrance, and flavor, excite admira- tion for the wonderful display of power and goodness which they proclaim in their Author. The instructor should bring to his pupil's notice the influence of climate and culture on vegetation, the im- mense variety of plants, their exquisite perfection and universal use- fulness ; he should explain their structure and the functions of their organs, their mode of nourishment, of propagation, and their growth, EXERCISES IN REFLECTION. 243 the nutritious properties of some and medicinal properties of others. Every botanical fact shows design, and affords matter for serious con- sideration, such as the natural dissemination of seeds, the successive changes of plants, the invariable direction of roots and branches, the circulation of the sap, the transpiration of the leaves, their happy distribution for the reception of light, air, and water, the purification of the atmosphere by their absorbent powers, and many other sur- prising phenomena of the vegetable kingdom. To make children acquainted with plants, their names and botani- cal character, the instructor may, at first, place before them only a few of the most familiar species, and gradually introduce to their notice flowers, shrubs, and trees, less common passing from indige- nous to exotic, with the assistance of pictorial representations. By helping them to examine in what particular each differs from the others independently, however, at first, of scientific nomenclature he will enable them soon to distinguish the leading characters of a great number of plants, and will open their minds to endless subjects of admiration in the infinite variety of nature. Different specimens of timber may also be presented to them, which will further engage their attention in discriminating between the properties of wood, and thence lead to a consideration of its usefulness. There is scarcely a plant of which the whole or some portion is not employed for food, medicine, clothing, or furniture, for distilling, dying, tanning, building, or other useful arts of life. In fact, the innumerable uses to which vegetable as well as mineral sub- stances are applied by man for satisfying his wants or multiplying his enjoyments, may be exhibited in every thing around : such co^ siderations will be an excellent preparation for entering upon the study of the physical sciences. Zoology will afford endless subjects of familiar conversation, both amusing and instructive. The lively interest which children usually take in animals renders these suitable objects for giving them ele- mentary notions of natural history. The domestic species should, at first, engage their attention, and, afterwards, by means of colored prints, the most remarkable among those which do not come within daily observation, may be made the subjects of very useful lessons. The fidelity and sagacity of the dog, the docility of the horse, the intelligence of the elephant, the industry of the beaver, the persever- ing fortitude of the camel, the generous magnanimity of the lion, will supply matter for entertaining narratives, serious reflections, and incentives to further inquiries. The instructor may speak of the varieties of animals differing with the latitudes in which they live,,^ 244 CONVERSATIONS ON OBJECTS. of their external forms and characteristic qualities ; of their food, dispositions, and instincts, in accordance with their organization ; of the tender solicitude they display for their young ; and of the ser- vices which many of them render to man. Particular mention should be made of those which supply his wants or administer to his well- being, during their lives, with their strength, swiftness, and sagacity, their milk and honey, their wool and silk, and, after their death, with their flesh, skin, fur, hair, feathers, bones, horn, ivory, shell, and other useful articles. If the conversation turn upon birds, he may expa- tiate on their varieties, plumage, migratory instincts, nest-building, power of imitation and melody. These subjects would lead incident- ally to the different modes of fowling, hunting, and fishing in vari- ous countries. Fishes and insects should, in their turn, become objects of inquiry ; their diversified conformation, their amazing fecundity, and their won- derful adaptation both to the elements in which they move and to their modes of existence, will challenge admiration. The multiplicity of insects, and, especially of animalcula, is so vast as to baffle the most minute investigation : every plant, every leaf, every drop of water, is the abode of myriads which escape the naked eye, and are visible only by the aid of the microscope. The transformations which some instincts undergo, the ingenuity and industry which others display in the structure of their habitations; their diverse ways of procuring food, their instinctive skill in selecting places of safety for the deposition of their eggs, and in providing for the future wants of the young; their contrivances to guard their dwellings from the assaults of enemies, their modes of defense when attacked, their social habits we may almost say, their municipal regulations and political constitutions and innumerable other instances of the wise arrange- ment of a bountiful God, in providing for the preservation and well- being of his creatures, may be opportunely presented to children by a judicious and enlightened instructor. It is when the young are filled with admiration for the tender care which the Creator has bestowed on his creatures, that benevolent feelings can be most effectively awakened in their hearts ; they may be impressed with the idea that the lower animals, having sensations in common with humanity, cruelty to them is a crime. Pity to ani- mals begets charity to men. The seasonable narration of some remarkable trait of the instinct of animals, of some anecdote of their attachment or sagacity, would interest children, call for their sym- pathies, and, at the same time, inspire them with a wish to inquire further into natural history. Many celebrated philosophers and EXERCISES IN REFLECTION. 245 naturalists have acquired their taste for science from some pleasur- able association of their earliest childhood. Linnaeus attributed his love for the study of plants to some observations on a flower which his father made to him when he was about four years of age. The biography of eminent men would furnish multitudes of incidents which have similarly determined in them corresponding peculiarities of character. 7. Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Physiology, and Mental Philosophy. When the children's attention has been, for some time, engaged in acquiring a knowledge of the external forms and characters of ob- jects, the description of which constitutes natural history, they may be made acquainted with the most curious and most important among the innumerable phenomena of nature, the secret causes of which are unveiled by natural philosophy. They may be led to consider the effects of bodies acting on each other, the laws of gravitation, motion, equilibrium, and the various mechanical powers the lever, the pul- ley, the wedge, the screw, the inclined plane. They should be shown to what immense advantage to civilized man are these mechanical appliances and others, such as wind, water, steam, and the electro- magnetic fluid. The governing laws of mechanics may be illustrated by implements of domestic use the poker, scissors, nut-crackers, steelyard, will exhibit various forms of levers ; the very playthings of children a top, a hoop, a kite, a ball, marbles, soap-bubbles, a sucker, a pop-gun, will exemplify diverse principles of science ; no toy is despicable, no occupation is frivolous, which can assist in the elucidation of truth. The pressure, levels, motion, elasticity, weight, and other prop- erties of fluids, as well as the specific gravity of bodies, may be elicited in a familiar way, by the scientific results which bear more immediately on the occupations of life. Swimming, the floating of vessels, canals, water-mills, the water-press and water-clock, forcing and lifting pumps, the fire-engine, syphon, diving-bell, and many other philosophical contrivances, could be made the subjects of most interesting conversations in illustration of the properties of air and water. In alluding especially to the air, its nature and use in the arts may be further explained, and rendered sensible by means of the wind-mill, barometer, thermometer, air-pump, bellows, balloons, &c. Air being the medium of sound, its investigations would naturally lead to the consideration of acoustic phenomena, which may be elu- cidated by the vibration of bells, the effects of echoes, thunder, gun- powder, whispering-galleries, the speaking-trumpet, wind and string instruments, musical -glasses, &c. 246 CONVERSATIONS ON OBJECTS. It would be impossible here to enumerate the various familiar modes by which may be illustrated the principles of mechanics, hy- drodynamics, pneumatics, electricity, galvanism, magnetism, optics, and astronomy. Books should be consulted by the teacher, both as means of enriching his own mind, and as stores from which he may select such information or such experiments as may be best suited to the understandings of his pupils ; but the order in which are usually pursued all serious studies is, by no means, that which we should adopt in communicating the facts, or teaching the language of science to children. His chief object should be, by indulging their taste for variety and taking advantage of circumstances, to inspire them with an earnest love of knowledge. No branch of instruction is better calculated than natural philosophy for exciting and gratify- ing their curiosity ; and, whatever be the way or the order in which they acquire the elements of that science, if they are once conversant with them, every thing they read afterwards will find its place. The particular circumstances of time, place, fortune, or social position, in which the learners are placed, will best suggest to a well informed instructor the department of the science and the modes of illustra- tion which are available or appropriate ; but there can be no doubt that, with diagrams and experiments, such as may be found in many popular works on the subject, the elements of natural philosophy may be brought within the comprehension of children under the age of twelve. With regard to chemistry, the instructor may, as occasion suggests, examine with his pupils the affinity between various substances, their elements, their mutual action, and all attractions and repulsions which form its basis. He should particularly communicate to them information respecting the various bodies and natural elements which are constantly exercising their influence on our condition, and on all .things around us, as air, water, steam, gases, light, heat, and elec- tricity ; he should explain the nature of bodies in their three states, solid, fluid, and aeriform, their characteristic properties, the laws of composition and decomposition, of evaporation and condensation, of combustion, oxidation, and many other chemical operations of nature or art, which would receive additional interest from experi- ments introduced for their illustration, or from instances of their ap- plication to the arts of modern civilization. Dr. David B. Reid has shown that the leading principles of this science may be easily adapted to the most elementary instruction, and rendered accessible to all classes of society, at such a moderate charge as will not pre- vent those even in the humbler ranks from attending to them. EXERCISES IN REFLECTION. 247 All investigations of nature, even those of the most elementary kind, will be found of eminent service in developing and training the mind to habits of observation, inquiry and reflection. They draw attention to natural theology, and are highly calculated to elevate the soul by the admiration which the wonders of creation can not fail to excite, at the same time that they provide young people with an inexhaustible source of mental enjoyment, and afford them posi- tive advantages for the practical purposes of life. This is particu- larly the case with chemistry, the application of which is so universal and so immediately connected with the arts and all the wants of man. " In this new magic," says Cuvier, " the chemist has only to wish : every thing can be changed into any thing, and any thing can be extracted from every thing." The minds of young persons will be opened to a train of thinking, which, in some, may lead to most im- portant results, if they are occasionally shown by experiments that the infinite varieties of the material world are only different com- pounds of a few elements. The thoughts of children may also be directed to their bodily frames, which present all the considerations of color, form, dimen- sion, properties, uses, &c., belonging to matter. The teacher may explain the functions of the sensitive, the vocal, and the muscular organs, the utility of which can be made obvious to the youngest child ; he may, as an example of that admirable adaptation to each other of all the parts of the animal economy in man, show them how beautiful is the mechanism of the hand, how wonderfully calculated it is to execute the commands of the human mind. They will thus be impressed with the consciousness of the infinite wisdom of Him who, in making man superior to all other animals by his intellectual powers, has given him the instrument with which he can exercise his sovereignty over the creation. From a consideration of the external organs he may pass to that of the internal ; he may examine with his pupils the functions of the stomach, the lungs, the heart, and the brain ; the structure of the bones; the manner in which the different joints, muscles, nerves, and vessels perform their office ; their mutual subserviency and happy adaptation to the preservation, strength, motion of the body, in fact to the whole constitution of man. Few subjects are more easily taught orally than physiology and anatomy. The presence of the living body precludes, to a great extent, the necessity of written descrip- tions, of preparations, models, or skeletons. With instruction on this subject should be combined explanations of the great hygienic principles, the observance of which is indispensable. Young persons 248 CONVERSATIONS ON OBJECTS. should be made acquainted with the constitution of the atmosphere,, and with the relation of its elements to the functions of respiration, and to the composition of the blood : they should be shown the in- fluence of exercise on the muscles and bones, on digestion and circu- lation. The} 7 will be less tempted to violate the physical laws of their nature, when they are aware of the consequences of the viola- tion. They will better guard against accident or disease, when they know in what manner the human constitution is influenced by air, food, exercise, and moral causes. Every parent is bound to give to- his children that information on which their future existence and well-being so greatly depend. A knowledge of physiology more universally diffused would be a check on medical quackery. The close dependence and analogy which exist between the func- tions of the physical and those of the mental faculties, will render inquiries about the latter both easy and interesting. There is noth- ing, for example, in our introductory Book which may not be made as plain to children twelve or thirteen years old, as any other subject of inquiry to which we have adverted. The study of the mind as well as that of the body, is founded on familiar facts placed within his powers of observation and discrimination. He can early be made to consider the different states and actions of his own mind, and to discriminate between attention and reflection, memory and imagination, judgment and reasoning. He may be made to observe what passes within himself when he receives perceptions, when he associates ideas, when he compares and draws conclusions, when he has desires and contracts habits. He can be shown when he applies properly or otherwise his moral and intellectual faculties. He will thus acquire a knowledge of himself and a habit of self-examination, which will teach him how to use his faculties to the greatest advant- age ; at the same time that it will make him feel his dignity as an intellectual being and as a creature destined to immortality. " But," says Alison, " the great advantage which he will derive from in- quiry into the laws of his own mind, is much less in the addition which it gives to his own power or wisdom, than in the evidence which it affords him of the wisdom with which his constitution is framed, and the magnificent purposes for which it is framed." ASSISTANTS AND DISCIPLES OF PESTALOZZI. PESTALOZZI'S power, as a doer of good, was based upon his untirin^ energy and his impregnable benevolence and faith in human nature. His intellectual endowments, in the endeavor to develop into a complete sj'stem the principles which he felt so strongly, failed him, and he con- tinually became obscure and contradictory. His method of instruction was as spontaneously and unpremeditatedly the result of instinct, as the benevolence which inspired him ; but he was unable to state its princi- ples philosophically, or to develop his methodology logically. Thus he was obliged to rely, to a degree unusual for the leader of a great reform, upon assistants, even for the statement of his views, and the details of his modes of operation ; and, accordingly, an account of himself, and of his labors, must, in order to be complete, contain an ap- parently excessive proportion of narrative relating to them. In finding such assistants, Pestalozzi was remarkably fortunate. Nie- derer, Schmid, Kriisi, Buss, Tobler, and many more of the numerous teachers at Burgdorf and Yverdun, were all men of remarkable capacity, either for some one department of investigation and instruction, or for good qualities of mind and heart, which endeared them to Pestalozzi, each other, and the pupils ; often for both. And still more remarkable than such endowments is the eminent and persevering self-denial with which some of them as Niederer giving up positions of comfort and influence, already secured, entered the ill-managed and disorderly in- stitution, and remained there, year after year, sometimes with small salaries and sometimes with none, and not even always finding abund- ance of ordinary food, through evil report and good report, until abso- lutely convinced that their usefulness in it was ended. Nor was this all. With the single exception of Schmid, Pestalozzi's teachers resigned to him whatever of fame and profit might have come from the manuals they compiled in their respective studies, and the books were published either as by Pestalozzi himself, or as the productions of the institution. Ac- counts of these assistants will be found in the following pages ; some of them reasonably complete, but some, owing to the scarcity of accessible materials, somewhat scanty. The present work also contains short biographies of some of the more prominent of those who were instrumental in propagating Pestalozzi's views and methods in Germany. The introduction of his system into Germany constitutes the most remarkable chapter in the history of modern education. Of this chapter, a portion, complete within itself, and both interesting 250 PREFACE. and important, consists of the introduction of Pestalozzianism into the \ingdom of Prussia. During the subjugation of Germany under Napoleon, the minds of the best and ablest of the Prussian statesmen and philosophers were most eagerly occupied in inventing means which, if not available for an imme- diate struggle for independence, should at once begin the work of raising the moral, mental, and physical character of the nation to a standard of elevated development, which might insure such a struggle in future, and its success. Among the instrumentalities used for this purpose, which, together, amounted almost to an entire reorganization of the kingdom, the improve- ment in education, resulting from the introduction of the Pestalozzian sys- tem and still more of the spirit of that system occupied a prominent place. To the King and Queen, to the ministry of education, to Fichte, in short, to the most influential public men of that day, Pestalozzi's views sec-mod to promise the happiest results ; and, with a rare liberality and decision, measures were at once taken to prove them experimentally and thoroughly. Tln-se measures were two: the employment of an able Pestalozzian in founding or reforming institutions already existing, and the sending to Yverdun young men of promise, to draw their inspiration, as teachers, from the fountain-head of the new method. Carl August Zeller was chosen to perform the former task, and was, in the year 1809, invited from Wirtemberg, where he had been laboring zealously among the teachers to introduce the new method, to Konigs- berg, in East Prussia, on terms honorable to the government and to him- self. He was received with enthusiasm, and set himself earnestly to work, lecturing, instructing, reorganizing, with untiring zeal, industry, and efficiency. Notwithstanding a few errors of judgment, his labors gave a great and lasting impulse to education in that portion of Prussia ; and one at least of the institutions he founded, at Karalene (i. e., Livo- nian for " Queen,") in the government of Gumbinnen, is yet useful as an orphan-house and teachers' seminary. The second measure taken by government was the sending of young men to be educated as teachers in the Pestalozzian principles. Those se- lected were mostly chosen from among the most promising of the theo- logical students. Two, Marias Schmid and Dr. Harnisch,* were sent to Plamann's institution, at Berlin ; the remaining ones, Henning, Dreist, Kawerau, Kratz, Rendschmidt, Preuss, Patzig, Braun, Steger, Marsch, Ksionzek, the brothers Bernhard, and four already teachers by profes- sion, Hanel, Titze, Runge, and Baltrusch, were sent to Yverdun at various times during a series of years, their expenses being paid by government. Upon their return, they were employed in various institutions for the training of teachers, most of them with success. Thus a large body of *Wilhelm Harnisch, the well-known educator, from whose Present Condition oft Prussian Common School System." (.Leipzig. 144.) much of the information in *his article is lerived. PREFACE. 251 competent instructors in the new method was, in a comparatively short time, >rattered among the Prussian schools; the spirit of the Pestalozzian method satisfied the needs of the age; and, with the powerful twofold aid of popular favor and the earnest influence of the whole power of the government, it speedily took possession of the entire common school sys- tem. Every where, the authorities co-operated zealously with the teach- ers under the new methods. Queen Louise, and under her influence the King, took so deep an interest in the reform, that they often visited the schools where it was introduced. The Queen, especially, often remained in them for hours ; caused reports to be made to her on the progress of the schools generally ; and was judicious and liberal in encouraging and rewarding instructors and educators. While these measures effectually inaugurated the new system, a share of the credit of it is due to those teachers and school officers who, though not themselves trained under Pestalozzi, and not always accept- ing his methods of instruction, in every particular, yet entered fully into his spirit, and labored in union with his more immediate disciples, with a zeal and efficiency, perhaps, rather increased than decreased by the free development of the individualities of their various views. Indeed, one of the most valuable features of what may be called the Prussian- Pestalozzian system, was its deliberate and careful but free advance to- ward such improvements upon the system of Pestalozzi himself; a pro- ceeding which has secured the highest excellence of the original system, has added to it much that is valuable, has insured that vivid and inter- ested activity in the teachers which is the first requisite of successful in- struction, and has prevented the decay and deadness into which servile followers of exclusive rules must necessarily fall. The praises thus bestowed upon the Prussian common schools, as thus reformed, reflect no blame upon those teachers and conductors who neg- lected, or even opposed, the new methods. The principal among these were followers of Basedow and the Philanthropists ; institutions of this class were the Schnepfenthal Institution, and the Hartung School, and the Real School, at Berlin ; and among the men were Nolte, Zerrenner, and Dinter.* The introduction of the Pestalozzian system into the schools of Prus- sia, may be said to have been in progress from 1812 to 1825 ; at the end of which time it had, substantially, possession of the whole common school system. Dr. Harnisch enumerates, as among the chief advant- ages resulting from it, 1. Patriotic feeling, causing more thorough study of the German language, home geography, &c. ; 2. Giving a high value and place to vocal music, as a study ; 3. The same of drawing, espe- cially under the teachings of Peter Schmid ; 4. Introduction of thor- ough musical instruction ; 5. Introduction, or readoption of thorough system of bodily training. * However strongly Dinter may have professed to hold on to tli^ <>!rl ways, no avowed Pes- alozzian ever labored more devotedly in the spirit, i H| \v t!i the aims and methods of Pes- tlozzi, as our readers will see in the memoir, p 2N 252 . PREFACE. From Prussia the principles and practice of the school of Pestalozzt< were widely diffused in other countries, through travelers, often coming exclusively for the purpose of investigating the Prussian system, and sometimes sent by foreign governments for the purpose. Dr. Harnisch gives a long list of names of visitors to a single seminary only, mostly of persons eminent in education, among which are mentioned those of Hon. Horace Mann, and Profs. Stowe and Bache, from the United States. The present occasion does not admit of any extended reference to the further spread of Pestalozzianism. We can only say that prominent among those who transferred the system into France, was Victor Cousin, whose able report is well known ; and Chevalier Jullien, who, at an ear- lier date, drew up an extended report upon the school of Yverdun, and the educational principles and methods of Pestalozzi. The labors of Dr. Biber, Mr. Greaves, and at a later date of Dr. Mayo and Miss Mayo, and of Sir James Kay Shuttleworth, M. Tilleard, and Mr. Tait, have done much to spread the system in England. And among its advocates and propa- gators in America were William Russell, editor of the "American Journal of Education ;" Warren Colburn, whose celebrated arithmetics are strictly Pestalozzian ; A. Bronson Alcott ; W. C. Woodbridge, tho geographer and editor of the "Annals;" and Lowell Mason, the veteran and efficient instructor in vocal music. FRIEDERICH FROBEL UPON PESTALOZZI, LETTER TO THE PRINCESS-REGENT OF SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT, April 27, 1809. MAN AS THE SUBJECT OF EDUCATION. PESTALOZZI'S principles of education and instruction and his pro- ceedings, growing out of them, and the means for their application are founded entirely upon the phenomena of his existence as a created being. Man as he is represented to us is a union of three chief attributes ; body, soul, mind ; to cultivate these harmoniously and as a whole is his object. Pestalozzi goes from this existence of man into the phenomena, that is, from that which he is by. the sum of his powers and according to his destiny (its suitable culture). Hence he takes man into consid- eration according to this sum of his powers as a bodily, intellectual and emotional being, and works upon him in this sum of his powers and for their harmonious development and culture, from which first arises that whole which is called man. Pestalozzi, therefore, works not merely upon the bodily powers and their development, not only upon the culture of the mind and its devel- opment, nor only upon the soul and its development (although he is accused of doing so), nor merely upon two of these at once, as body and mind, or body and soul, or soul and mind. No ! Pestalozzi develops man, works upon man in the totality of his powers. Man in his manifestations must run through three principal epochs, according to his powers ; that of the body, that of the soul, that of the mind ; he runs through them not separated, or singly, so that he first runs through that of the body, then that of the soul, and at last that of the mind ; no, these epochs are convertible in the man developed in per- fectly undisturbed natural relations ; their circular course returns ever again, and the more so the more perfect the man becomes until the limits of his powers as well as of their development fall away and are removed, and the continuous whole man stands before us. It would be highly unjust, therefore, to say of Pestalozzi that be de- veloped men, the powers of men, each power separately at three differ- ent epochs, first the body, then the soul, and then the mind, since he really takes them all into view at once in harmonious and brotherly union, and although he seems, perhaps, for the time to be treating merely the physical powers, he is observing and taking into considera- tion equally the influence of this treatment upon mind and soul. He has man as a whole in his eye, as an unseparated and inseparable whole, and in all that he does and wishes to do for him and his culti- vation, he does it for him as a whole. At no time does he act only for 4 254 FllCi-ILSEL ON PESTALOZZI. the development of one power, leaving the others without nourishment ^ for example, he never is acting for the mind alone and leaving uncon- sidered, unsatisfied and uncared for and in inaction the body and the soul ; all the powers are cared for at all times. But often one or other of the three great divisions of man's nature stands forth and apparently dominates the others. Pestalozzi takes into view man according to and in his manifestation, according to the laws of nature and those which are grounded in the mind of man, when he works specially upon the predominant power ; it is not done in an isolated and divided way, but in order to work through his treatment upon the other equal but slumbering and resting powers. So, for example, in one and the same epoch upon the senses,, through these upon the body, and through these again upon the feel- ings, and so in a perpetual round. Pestalozzi takes man according to his manifestation. But man does not manifest himself alone, for and through himself; he manifests himself under conditions determined by nature and by his mother, and both these united that is, by love. So the man becomes child, that is, the sum and substance of the love of the father and mother. Pestalozzi then wishes to develop and cultivate the man in his mani- festation as child, through the conditions under which he appears, that is, the love of the father and mother. We think of the father and mother as united by love in order to exalt the child, i. e., the sum of their love, into an independent being by means of education. Can there be a truer, more careful nurse and developer of this love made visible, this independent essence, this child, than the father and the mother, than the two united by mutual love, to which the child owes his existence indeed, whose sum and substance the child is ? Pestalozzi thus wishes only what nature and the being of man wishes ; he wishes that man in his manifestation as child shall be de- veloped by his father and mother, and in their mutual love be culti- vated throughout and educated according to his capacities as a corporeal, feeling and intellectual being. MAN IN HIS MANIFESTATION AS A CHILD. The existence of mind and soul in the child is expressed merely by simple life. Mind and soul appear limited by and in the mass, the body for still all parts in the body are one ; the mind and the senses by which the world without works through the body upon the mind and soul are not yet distinguishable. The body of the child is still a mass ; it appears so tender and frail, so much too material and awkward for the mind and the soul of the child, yet slumbering and weak, to work through it. By degrees the senses, feeling, sight, etc., develop and separate. FROEBEL ON PESTALOZZi. 255. The child feels the warmth of the mother's breast and the breath of her loving lips ; it smiles (the first appearance of the soul, the first sign of the soul's existence). The child perceives the mother ;' it feels her nearness, her distance, etc. ; the child louks (the first appearance of mind the first sign of its existence). At the moment of the beginning of this separation of the senses, the- true mother works upon the unfolding and development of the child according to its various capacities ; the love of the mother makes the child feel, see, hear. Thus are developed, without giving any account of themselves yielding only to holy feeling, to the demands of their nature the senses of the child, which are the paths to its mind and soul. Here is the third point, where Pestalozzi takes into account the par- ents where he appeals to them with the view of exalting the being of their love to the higher life, to conscious independence where he gives- them means and guidance to develop and cultivate the capacities of their child. What Pestalozzi wishes as means of development he had pointed out in his Book for Mothers, which many have misunderstood and which is yet the highest which can be given to man, the most loving feeling could create, the highest and best gift which he could bestow in the present circumstances upon his brethren and sisters. What Pestalozzi expresses in that book are only suggestions of what lies in his soul, as a great, glorious, living and unspeakable whole. His soul felt the joys of heaven in his intuition of the perception of the father and mother following the call of nature by the education of their children. Overpowered by this heavenly joy, he sat down and wrote, not for word-catchers and quibblers no ! he wrote for parents, for fathers, for mothers, who he thought would conceive and feel as he did, to whom he only needed to point out what they should do, what they could do, and how they could do it. The highest object of recognition, of the intuition of mind and soul to man, is humanity. Pestalozzi took pleasure, in his Book for Mothers, in pointing out to man what he wished ; and, in order to point out all that he wished, could he choose anything higher and more perfect than man, whose body is destined for the earth and whose being is destined for heaven ? That he chose the highest, the most perfect thing, is now made a re- proach to him ! But is there a more glorious, more exalted, more beautiful, more worthy object of observation and recognition than man ? and is not the body the house of our spirit, which is destined for eternity and for communion with God? Can it, as he himself says, be contrary to nat- ure to learn to know it early, to respect it early, to rejoice in it early, that it may be made holy for us ? Can it, as they charge Pestalozzi, 256 FROE13EL ON 1'ESTALOZZl. be contrary to nature to orient one's self early in the house where one dwells ? As I stand before you, it cannot be my aim to contradict the objec- tions of Pestalozzi's opposers, who for the most part misunderstand him, since I am merely striving to represent literally the essence of Pestalozzi's fundamental efforts according to his own representation ; I merely say that a great part of the objections made to these efforts consists in this; that Pestalozzi, for various reasons, errs very much when he enlists the child himself in the first cognition and develop- ment of himself and the man, and even starts from the body of the child. But how can it be a crime; how can it be against nature to re- spect the body early, to learn early to know the body and its use, the use to which we all owe everything, by which alone we learn to know the world without, which helps us to sustain and battle for our life, as it helps us to recognize God, to do good, and to rescue our brothers and sisters with strong arms from the brink of perdition? ' Truly, whoever wishes to teach the child to respect his body must respect himself ; if he wishes to learn to know it, he must know him- self ; whoever wishes to instruct in the use of it, must know it himself, all this must come to his consciousness ; whoever works to make the child feel the sacredness of his body, to himself it must be sacred ! Indeed, no man could understand Pestalozzi who had not in his soul, when this elementary book first fell into his hands, that which Pesta- lozzi felt to be exalted in humanity ; to him those principles were dead forms without sense or significance, and afterwards one person, perhaps without examination, repeated the judgment of another who seemed to him well-informed. But were all these men parents to whom Pestalozzi spoke ? Noble Princess, if I were not afraid of wearying you, I could say much upon the excellence and the principles of Pestalozzi, of the man himself ; I only permit myself to express one thing of which I am deeply per- suaded in my own mind. Many a young man and boy, powerful by the nature of their collec- tive capacities, would not have lost his powers in the bloom of his youth, if his parents or teachers had followed in his education the principles laid down by Pestalozzi in his Book for Mothers. Many a young man would have known how to be a useful and esti- mable subject, in the years of his ripeness and understanding, if his body could have fulfilled the requisitions of his mind and heart. Pestalozzi's Book for Mothers is only a suggestion of what he wishes to do ; he wrote significantly ; " or a guide for mothers in the observa- tion of their children, and to teach them to speak." But man is not the only thing upon earth ; the whole outward world is the object of his recognition, and the means for his development and culture. FROEBEL ON PESTALOZZI. 257 Pestalozzi said, therefore, and still says : " As I have shown you that you can bring man by degrees through gradual development of the child to the conscious inspection and recognition of tlie world without, so bring every other object of the world without to his inspection and recognition, every object which approaches the child, which lies in his circle, in his world, as he himself lies in this world ! " Scarcely does it seem possible that herein can lie anything contrary to nature, difficult to be recognized, or difficult to be carried out, and yet the opponents of Pestalozzi find more than all this in it. Pestalozzi's opponents reproach him strongly that he merely speaks of this obser- vation and recognition. But we observe with all our senses, and how could Pestalozzi believe that any one would accuse him, when he used the word observation, of meaning simple observation with the eyes ? The Book for Mothers is to teach the mother, in the first place, to develop and to cultivate the senses of the child both singly and in their harmonious united working. In the second place, it is to show how and in what natural series of steps, one may bring the objects of the world in which he lives to the observation and recognition of the child. In the third place, it is to put the mothers and the teachers in a condition to teach the child the use and destination of his powers and capacities, as well as the use and design of the objects of the world without ; and to bring them to his consciousness. And in all this they accuse Pestalozzi of expressing one-sided princi- ples and methods of instruction, although it is surely impossible to fulfill the conditions he requires without developing and cultivating man in all the directions of his great powers. Others came forward and said, Pestalozzi would have dead words and repetitions ; what he gives is dead and therefore killing. Still others came forward and said what Pestalozzi wishes the child to know should be taught him earlier and better ; they point to the number of children's books that have appeared for every age, and for children of all conditions ; to the books that have been written on natural history, on excursions, journeys, stories and picture books of all kinds, etc. By all these means that has not been done which Pestalozzi wishes to have done. Everything is given to the child prepared and related, so that his understanding has no work to do. The powers of the child's mind are not rendered active and self- forking. The understanding of the adult has already prepared every- thing so that the activity of the child's understanding and recognition are left without employment. The consequence of this is weakness of mind and especially of the self-acting judgment of the child, and his egress out of his own inner world instead of making him at home in it and acquainted with it. They have also reproached Pestalozzi for the form of his Book for Mothers. But when he wrote, it was not his opinion that the father, 25S FltOEBEL ON PESTALOZZ1. mother, teacher, whose hand-book he designed it to be, would neces- sarily confine himself strictly and anxiously to his representations. He strove only to represent what was essential in general, so far as this was possible for him to do so, and to touch upon all parts of the whole. Some complained in regard to the book that the sequence was not logical enough ; but Pestalozzi wished neither to establish a strong logi- cal sequence, nor, still less, to confine the use and application of it. What Pestalozzi had really contemplated was in the opinion of others too precise and stiff. Although it was hardly possible that Pestalozzi should not begin his list of the parts of the human body with the head, he did not say that if other parts, the hand for example, should attract the attention of the child, it should be withdrawn from that and directed to the head because that happened to stand first in the book. Pestalozzi says expressly, the peculiar Book for Mothers is the nature of the child in its manifestations. I know a mother who has treated her child now two and a quarter years old in the spirit of Pestalozzi, and according to his meaning. It is delightful and exalting to the heart to see that mother and child. And surely the object of that mother's activity, the inner life of her soul, could not permit her through her love for her child, indeed, would make it impossible for her, to follow to the letter the directions in Pestalozzi's book ; yet this mother did not find his writings contrary to nature, nor killing to the mind of her child ; no ! It was what Pesta- lozzi wished that she comprehended in her inmost soul. It is a joy to see that child with his angelic voice, his childlike innocence, and his love not only for his mother, but for everything that surrounds him. It is the highest enjoyment to see how at home the child is in his world, how continually active and occupied he is in it. He stands now at a higher point of knowledge and acquaintance with the world around him, but uninjured in his innocent childishness. This child lives a gentle inner life ; he rejoices inwardly in awaken- ing nature, and seizes everything with attention that strikes his senses which his early awakened powers of body and mind make easily pos- sible to him. The mother followed Pestalozzi ; what she did she did by following his meaning. It is not possible in the working of these prin- ciples to see the limits of the culture of body, soul and mind. Often and willingly has this mother said, who always strove to do her duty before she knew of Pestalozzi, that from Pestalozzi she had learned how to be a mother. Pestalozzi's Book for Mothers would have been much less unjustly judged if the second part had yet appeared. It is still wanting, alas ! Pestalozzi has not expressed his idea fully in its application ; this is an important view which every one should take before forming a judgment^ As much and even more should be taken into consideration in judg- ing of the book, is that what Pestalozzi wishes is not limited to the FKOEBEL ON 1'KSTALOZZI. ?59 time when the faculty of speech appears in the child, or even wnen it actually begins to speak; no! it begins in the working and application at the moment when the child perceives outward impressions decid- edly, that is, discriminates between light and darkness. The mother must already have taught the child to observe everything, to separate everything which conies within the circle of his life, before the peculiar moment of time when the development of language begins. I know children so treated who were a year and a halt' old before they began to speak, but who could discriminate between all things that immediately surrounded them, and appeared to have distinct and quite significant conceptions of everything. If the child has been so treated it has the very essential and useful advantage, when it does begin to speak, of knowing well the objects it is about to name, and hence needs not to divide its powers but can apply them unitedly in the naming of them. It can now make important progress in speaking, and this is really the case with such children. The Book for Mothers first gave a guide for teaching the child to observe that language is the medium of sympathy. The mother must work according to nature, at the same time upon the child's capacity for language and its development. To elevate the social life between mother, father and child, the mother widens the child's power of language. The father, the mother, the members of the family, now teach the child the meaning of the language they speak,, that they may mutually understand each other more easily, and sympa- thize about everything that surrounds them. But Pestalozzi not only wishes that everything that happens uncon- sciously shall be brought to the consciousness, that that which has hap- pened shall not be left to chance, but that it shall happen consecutively, . all-sidedly and comprehensively, and in conformity with the developing progress of the child. The meaning of language which Pestalozzi now wishes to have the" child learn is the meaning of it in the closest sense, the special mean- ing ; for only from the knowledge of the particular and individual thing can man rise to the knowledge and command of the universal. The child is taught then the meaning of every single word, every sin- gle expression. The manner in which this is done lies darkly in the demands of human nature, but the Book for Mothers gives this guidance in the first place. According to Pestalozzi the child is now to learn by observation, for example, the meaning of contrasted words which it either hears or even speaks already intelligibly; as dark, bright; heavy, light; black, white ; transparent, opaque ; there, here ; furniture, tool ; animal, stone ; go, sit ; run, creep ; coarse, fine ; more, less ; one, many ; living, dead ; prick, cut, etc. Pestalozzi here shows particularly how contrast, which he always designates as to be found in every conception, is special 1 .- cultivating. 260 FRoKisi.i. <>N ri-:> i M.-././I. Thus far the mother has developed the child's capacity of language according to Pestalozzi's method ; she has taught it to speak. But now before she carries it farther, she and other members of her family ni -I eaks. By all that th" mother has hitherto done for the child, it is now in a condition to know precisely the objects with \vhich it is surrounded, to observe them singly, to separate them from each other. Its power to observe is perfectly awakened, and in full activity. The circle of its knowledge widens as its world widens; it accompanies its mother wherever her employments call her. It is continually led to know more objects of the surrounding world. The objects themselves stand forth more and more prominently. It recognizes intelligibly what was hitherto unknown and unsepa- rated, and still lies partly so, and will continue to be more or less so un- til it consciously surveys a fixed portion of the outward world, and free and independent of that world, can again create and represent it. To raise the child to this perfectly conscious recognition of the out- ward world, must hence be the object of its mother's striving. The glorious kingdom of nature now opens by degrees to the child ; led by its mother's hand it enters that glorious kingdom. Nature is now its world ; the child creates nature from its world. A hundred little stones, a hundred little plants, flowers, leaves, a hun- dred little animals, innumerable objects of nature accompany its steps; its heart beats loudly. It finds friends, it carries about and takes care of objects ; but it does not know why it is happy, why it carries about and takes care of these objects, why its heart beats so loudly. Should these impressions be allowed to vanish without having been firmly retained ? According to Pestalozzi, the mother now teaches the child to perceive these objects on all sides, to recognize all their qualities, that is, \\ ith the help of all their senses ; she teaches it to use its observation upon the whole aspect of them, and to give an account of them to others. The child now holds firm points to which it can fasten its joy, sound, motion, shape, form, smoothness, etc. It sees the connection of these qualities and a hundred others to qualities partly determinable, or merely supposable ; so that the child is now first conscious of its joy. How happy is the child now whom its mother has made conscious of all these impressions, so that he possesses a* firm point by which the outward world stands in contact with him, so that he does not remain in the dark with his heart oppressed with feeling ; so that he does not wander in a mist like the traveler who journeys through a pleasing country on a spring morning when nature is partly wrapped in vapor and shows him the light that gleams through it, promising a delightful . i:i. ON !; 261 A> man longingly wait> tWthf dispersion of the mist by the nyso! thi- sun, so that the objects of nature may appear in light and elearn.-ss, so the child \\aits for the guidance of the loving mother who will explain to him the rapture of his heart and show him why he re- joi'vs in anticipation. What a calling for the mother! She teaches the child to become ious of his joys, of the objects of his delight ; she teaches it how to give an account of all it sees and feels, to express it in words and to it with others. The mother thus raises the child into a creature of intelligence and ng; she teaches him the qualities of objects; she listens to every remark, every discovery, every word of her child ; she rejoices when he lejoices; she receives his love and sympathy in her own breast, she locates it and guides it with delight. As the nature of the child receives life and significance thus, so the lan- which the child, the mother, the father, the family speaks, receives life and significance. Every word becomes an object, an impression, a picture; to every word the child joins a world, a cycle of impressions; he goes in his remarks upon the qualities of things, from the easier to cue more difficult, from the simple to the complex; he loves to seek and find it all himself; "Dear mother, let me find it myself," he says. Often have I with joy and light-heartedness heard children make this prayer with shining, sparkling eyes ! I iter, the mother leads her child to classifying similar things (which it tends to do of itself) and to discriminating between different things; thus the child learns to compare what it sees. The child besides observing, also imitates. Imitation betters and perfects his observations. The mother not only allows this imitation, she not only rejoices in it, but she aids it. The child likes above all things to imitate the sound which it has evoked from some inanimate object perhaps, or which it seems to him to produce. It tries to imitate the sound of everything, falling, jump- ing, breathing, moving. All the objects of nature, animate and inani- mate, seem to emit sounds ; they speak audibly to him. The mother rejoices in the child's delight when in the spring it imitates the sounds of nature, and she challenges him to do it ; she does it unconsciously when her impulse to do it is not disturbed. Who has not seen a poor mother playing with her child or heard her say, " What does the sheep do? What does the dog say, the ox, the bird?" The child's imita- tions increase ; it imitates the twittering of the bird, and thus its own human tone is awakened. If the mother sings, and accompanies the song of the birds with her human tones, he will imitate this, and thus will not only his feeling be awakened for the highest human expression, song, but his whole being A exalted, from the humming of the bees to the representation of hi jwn feelings by simple, connected and varied human tones. FKoi:ui:i. UN PK8TALOZZI, I" he outward world is now no longer to the child, guided I >\ 1 Y-stalozzi's method, the chaotic, confused, misty mass, which it was earlier. 1. It is iiow individualized. What is separated it can name. ;\. It can seize it at a glance independent of other relations, and according t<> it-. relation to himself and to others. 4. It can designate what it ota and all its relations 1>\ language; it can speak and knows the meaning of the language of its parents. 5. It knows an object not only oil side but on several sides. 6. It can take an object in at a glance in many relations. 7. It can compare one object with another and recog- nize the peculiar qualities of each. Ideas of Number. The first general quality of objects is their computability. Objects are now individually separated to the child's mind, consequently follow- ing each other in time and thus appear computable. The mother now teaches her child to recognize the computability of objects, and to separate the qualities and relations of computable objects in nature, with real objects before it, and not first by counting in an abstract manner. By the exercises arranged by Pestalozzi the mother brings to the consciousness of the child something which hitherto was merely an obscure presentiment, scarcely a conscious feeling ; she brings the con- ception of number, the precise knowledge of the qualities and relations of the computable, to his clear, intelligible consciousness. The mother teaches the child that one stone and again one stone are two stones, etc. Farther, she teach' s him to know the value of numbers by the oppo- site process, for example, ten nuts less one nut are nine nuts. Already this little exercise has brought conversation to life between mother and child, when, for example, in the first case, she says to the child, " Lay down two flowers and one flower ; how many flowers have you? how many times one flower have you? how many times two flowers have you ? " etc. Or, in the second case, for the solving of numbers, she says to the child, " Put away one of your six beans ; now how many have you ? how many times one bean have you still ? " The mother goes a step farther ; she now lets him add two, three and four ; for example : "One stone and two stones are three stones." The child learns by observation that 5 are 5 times 1, are 4 and 1, and 3 and 2. Or, 1 and 3 are 4, 4 and 3 are 7, 7 and 3 are 10 objects. The mother then goes backwards over the same ground. For exam- ple : if you take 2 from 15, 13 remain. Questions enliven and elevate conversation between the mother and Child. The mother may work in the field or in the house ; the child sits near Ki;"i-:iJKi. OS i-K>i AI.C/.ZI. 263 and plays with stones or flowers. The mother asks : " When you put '2 Ho \\ers to 1, how many have you?" All this is play to the child ; it handles its favorite objects ; it moves th.-in about, and sees a purpose in doing it, for in all its plays the child gives itself a problem. The child is with its mother, so it is happy, And its mind and feelings are awakened. When the child knows how to count in these different ways, and knows the qualities of numbers thus represented, it will soon find that the pea 1-at' has L } times 2 little leaves, and the rose leaf 2 times 3 little leaves. A hint to the mother, and she carries her child still another step in the knowledge of computation. The child has several single objects around it. " Place your little blocks," the mother says, " so that 2 will lie in every heap. Have you done it? Count how many times - you have." The child will count : " I have 2 times 2, 3 times 2, or I have 1 time 2 ;" or it will say perhaps a little later, " I have 1 two heap ; 2 two heaps," etc. The mother goes farther and says : " Place your things so that 3 or 4 or 5 will lie together, and tell me how many times 3 or 4 or 5, etc., you have." [She selects one of these numbers, of course. We omit many similar exercises in numbers now familiar to kindergartners.] FORM. So Pestalozzi would have the mother teach the child form in its play. 11 re is a lath it is straight; here is a branch it is crooked." The child remarks the laths on the fence, the prongs on the rake ; they are at equal distances from each other. His mother tells him they are parallel. The ribs on the leaf of the large plantain unite in a point; they are radiating. The child goes into the woods with its mother ; it sees the fir trees and the pines, it is pleased with the variety ; and it knows how to describe it. The needles of the fir tree are parallel, those of the pine unite in a point. The child observes the relations of the branches to the stem. Its mother has taught it to observe angles. The branches and the stems form angles, but these joinings of branch and stem make in one tree quite a different impression upon the child from those in another tree. How delighted it now is to recognize this variety, so that it has a firm point to which it can fasten its impressions. It is the greater or less inclination of the branch to the stem. So in the surroundings in nature, which is its world it recognizes, led by its mother, it sees 3 or 4, or many cornered forms. The intersection of the hemlock twig forms a regular pentagonal (or five corners). The mother leads the child to a regular comparison of this form and to seek its variety. The child will soon pluck leaves and find other objects in view of their forms, and with childish critical senses will separate them from the ob- jects to which they belong. He will po farther than I venture to describe. " See, mother, what round leaves I have found," and the child shows 261 / FROEBEL ON PESTALOZZI. the mother many such leaves, of larger and smaller sizes, which he has picked. " See how little this one is, and how big this one is ! " he thus leads himself to the contemplation of size. A hint, a word from the mother, and the child has received a new item of culture. He selects three leaves, lays them upon each other, and says : " That is the largest leaf, that is smaller, but that is the smallest." " Mother, look at this long stalk. The staik of the flax is only half as long," he will perhaps say, if he has learned the meaning of the word half. Or, after the mother has laid the flax upon the corn stalk, he will say, " this is 2 times as long," or perhaps as long again as that one, or he breaks a pear leaf in the middle, lengthwise, and finds both halves equally long; perhaps he cannot describe what he finds and his mother tells him that these two parts of a whole are called halves, and thus widens the circle of his knowledge again. Pestalozzi wishes to make known intelligibly in small things the at- tributes of form as well as the recognition of the foundation of its. qualities. The child will lead on the attentive mother and father still farther. The child will soon come to the consideration of large equal objects in comparison with large unequal objects ; he will find that a part is smaller than the whole, the whole is larger than a part. Objects of nature as well as of art will lead the child to this com- parison. Everything in his circle, in his world, will thus become means of in- formation, material for development. If the child is in its earliest years where the mother is, and rightly guided, it costs but a suggestion from her and it can busy itself many hours. It accumulates objects, arranges and investigates them ; it is quiet and happy. One will scarcely realize that fee cLuH is occupied, and yet the powers of its soul and mind are coming lorward and developing themselves by practice. In this way all the capacities and powers of the child are now devel- oped according to Pestalozzi's method ; his senses cultivated, his inner and outer being exalted to true life ; he errs no more unconsciously as one enveloped in mist ; the way is open for every kind of knowledge, every shade of feeling. Sympathy, that beautiful attribute of man, is possible to him in its whole scope ; his language is formed. With deepest love he hangs upon the glance of his mother, his father the parents to whom he owes all this joy. All which has thus far been done by the mother was the object of the Book for Mothers, and suggested by it; at least this is what Pestalozzi wished for as belonging to the calling of the mother. Pestalozzi wishes that the child shall live in this manner seven happy,, delightful years. FROEBEL ON PESTALOZZI. 265- The child has now, thus guided, received its culture through the mother, for what is now in the child, what now transports it will always jllive in it, will give value to its life, dignity to its being. She now sur- renders it fully prepared to the father, the parental teacher, or to his^ representative, the school-master, for definite instruction, definite teaching. , The instruction which the father or school-master will now give to the child will join on where the mother ended. The child should find no other difference between this teaching and that of its mother; now every object stands singly, all instruction has I a determined time. The manner of handling the subjects of instruc- tion must be in harmony with that of its mother. Man as a Scholar. [The next division of this article upon Pestalozzi is entitled MAN AS A SCHOLAR, and in it Frobel describes minutely Pestalozzi's mode o* teaching everything :] Language the mother tongue in reference to its meaning, the formal part of language ; descriptions of nature, of the products of art, of the earth's surface. Second course of geographical instruction, the knowl- edge of numbers, forms, size, singing, drawing (Schmidt's method;, reading, writing. This instruction is not given from books, but from life, observation of nature, walks, examination of works of art and use, etc., etc. INTRODUCTION OF THIS METHOD INTO THE SCHOOLS. The demands which Pestalozzi makes upon the teacher are simple and s natural ; they are founded in the nature of the teacher as well as in the ~* nature of the scEoIari Therefore they will be intelligible and easy of execution and representation to every teacher, even the country school- teacher, who can unite good will with power and understanding, as soon as he has suitably prepared himself in the method. Tt is the same with the subjects which Pestalozzi wishes to have taught. They go from the simple, their march is connected in a determined sequence lying in the~~naure of every subject of instruction. If the teacher has been taught only the first point, the nature and essence of his subject, through observation in his own practice, he can not only proceed easily according to the demand of that subject, but even instruct the scholar in it con- secutively. The teacher with good will and the impulse to perfect himself (and upon what teacher who wishes to perfect others would not this requisi- tion be made ?) will very soon perceive with the utmost joy the glorious effects of the Pestalozzian method upon himself; he will find it grounded in his nature. The Pestalozzian principles will thus become his own ; they will flow into his whole life ; and thus he will express it with mind, love, warmth, life and freedom in all his acts, and instruct 266 FROEBEL ON PESTALOZZl. and represent it to his scholars according to their needs, as to his own children and brethren. There would be few difficulties in introducing Pestalozzi's method into the schools, if teachers, and those who feel it their destiny to be such, should make themselves familiar at his institution with his princi- ples, and should acquire the readiness and dexterity in applying them, which they could do on the spot. Supposing that they know and honor the duties and demands of their calling, strive to fulfill tht-m with all their power, and, thinking for themselves, not act mechanically, tjbeir efforts would be facilitated by the Pestalozzian method ; in the first place because it corresponds to their natures as well as to that of their pupils, and again because its workings will fill them and their pupils with inward joy and exhilarating pleasure ; it would enable them to fulfill their calling not only with love and joy, but with power and enthusiasm. They will not be behindhand in their own self-perfecting when they teach their scholars, even the lowly among the people, even the preliminary points of every subject ; they will have the opportunity for thought whereby their own minds will be farther developed. Their human hearts, their loving souls, will be filled with nourishment. They will never be machines even when they are teaching the simplest thing ; for they will never depend upon arbitrarily given rules, followed every day regularly without farther thought. Indeed, if they wish to teach according to Pestalozzi's principles, it will be necessary to think, jso that what they teach will be living and active in itself, and be. presented livingly and glowingly so as to awaken life and activity in others. By their knowledge of this method, the teachers, ir> order to under- stand its introduction, will make it not only possible to fulfill their duty far more comprehensively and better than before, but will find their work much facilitated by it, for by its conformity to nature it bears within itself the quality that every advanced scholar will be able to teach and instruct others. Very essential and many-sided advantages will arise out of this to both scholars and schools. 1. All the scholars will be, according to their needs and at all times, employed under a teacher, will be always under inspection, and never left to themselves or to indolence, a thing so common in schools, but will be at all times engaged in their development and culture. 2. For the instructed and assistant pupils will themselves penetrate deeper into the method, and hence be better able to comprehend the teaching they will receive. Their power of thought and judgment will be in continual exercise, their feelings and souls will have the opportu- nity to practice love and ready service, and thus, while upon one side their understandings will be cultivated, on the other they will rise to practical humanity. The school itself will thus be sustained like a family, the teacher of which is the father, the pupils of which are the children ; these will be like brothers and sisters of the same family, in which the weaker will be sustained by the stronger. FROEBEL ON PESTALOZZI. 267 Whose heart does not be.it quickly to see the schools of his beloved fatherland thus exalted? The assistant teacher will receive thus the most highly essential advantage ; he must never weaken his powers by frittering .them away, that he may always be able to devote them wholly to the department taught by him. The school receives this essential advantage that unity reigns in the whole instruction. So much more important progress will the pupils make. The school can thus naturally answer perfectly to the demands of the parents, the children always be suitably and directly employed, and all things work together for their culture. The instruction will thus gain in life, interest and variety by every xilass of the pupils being occupied specially and particularly according to their ages. If we were to take into consideration the wants of the people in the arrangement and application of subjects of instruction in the people's schools and the country schools, a teacher in a country or village school, supported by some of his most capable pupils, could fulfill the demands of Pestalozzi for eighty or more scholars by seven hours of daily in- struction (two afternoons being excepted). Since the child is first capable at eight years of age of being treated as a scholar, according to Pestalozzi's principles, if hitherto but little nas been done for his development by his parents and his mother, a fixed time, to fall between the sixth and seventh year, must be arranged t by local conditions to receive him into the school in order to supply what the first education at home has neglected. Therefore at first all the children who go to the school will be divided into two principal classes or divisions. The first division will constitute the children's class, and these pupils will be under eight years of age. The manner of their treatment wilt be determined by their age, for they are children in the narrow sense of the word ; they have not emerged from the circle determined by the foregoing representation of the Book for Mothers. The second division will consist of the school classes, and the pupils will be from eight years up to the age in which they usually leave school. The manner of their treatment is determined by Pestalozzi's method of instruction. This second division must be divided again into two parts ; into the lower class in which the pupils are at all events from eight to eleven years old, and the upper class which contains the pupils from eleven years of age to the end of the school time. The whole school would be divided then into three classes ; the first or child's class ; the second or lower school class ; the third or upper school class. According to this division of the classes the following subjects of n^" instruction are possible : The second class could receive two hours' instruction in the descrip- 268 FKOEBEL ON PESTALOZZI. tion of nature ; the third class two hours in natural history. In this- way the pupils become acquainted not only with the greater part of the- natural products of their fatherland, particularly of the region in which they live, but also of the foreign natural products of essential impor- tance to that region. The second class could devote two hours in the week to the descrip- tion of products of art; the third class two hours to technology. And here what is essential to the pupils in the circle in which they live is alone necessary. Then two hours of description of the earth for the second class, and- two hours of knowledge of different countries. The second class could, give one of these hours in the middle of the week to a walk. Thus they would learn to know Germany (its physical limits) and especially the Thuringian valley accurately, and have a general view of Europe. In the description of other countries, they are taught the products of. nature and art in each country, the manner of life and system of gov- ernment of the inhabitants, and the relations of every land and of the inhabitants of each to the territories in which they live. The fatherland of the pupils stands first in importance in all these three topics. The second class can have six hours of arithmetic. The third class also six hours of the same. In the second class it will be chiefly men- tal arithmetic, in the third class chiefly ciphering or written arithmetic (on the slate). The second class can have four hours upon the theory of forms and drawing ; the third class four hours in geometry and drawing. To fix more sharply the relation of the hours for arithmetic, theory of forms, geometry and drawing, a part should be precise local knowledge, a part dependent upon what knowledge the pupils of the child's class in the lower school class already have. The second class can have six hours of reading and mother tongue ;. the third class four hours of the formal theory of language. The exercises in beautiful handwriting can be connected afterwards with grammatical exercises. The third class needs neither special hours for reading or writing, because the pupils have been firmly grounded in these before they passed into the third class. To practice and cultivate themselves more in both, they find sufficient opportunity in writing upon the other topics. The second class can have three hours in singing, and the third class the same. Lastly, the second class can have six hours of religious instruction, and the third class nine hours. In the third class this consists of the reports of the preaching, passages of scripture and songs ; in the recita- tion of Bible texts and songs, not only in the words but in the signiiie^r tion which the pupil has given to both. The particulars of the instruction in the first or child's class I pass: FROEBEL ON PESTALOZZi. 69 over, since the subjects, as well as their treatment, are designated in the way in which they are represented. In no other than the Pestalozzian method can the child be employed in such a variety of ways, or in so few hours could such a goal be reached on every topic. According to Pestalozzi's meaning and principles, no topic should ^ stand isolated ; only in organic union do they lead to the desired goal, which is the cultivation and education of the child and pupil. This suggestion for the assignment of hours and subjects is only made for the country schools ; for the city schools, there are generally three regular teachers for greater perfection of instruction. But the organization of a school according to Pestalozzi's principles makes two essential requisitions ; first, that the children of the school age can only be received into the school at two fixed seasons ; and that all school children, except iu the vacations, shall come to school punctu- ally and uninterruptedly. If a single hour is neglected by the pupil, it is never possible to make it wholly up without great disadvantage to his companions in that topic, since this method makes a steady advance and is characterized by a continuous progress. All the faults which hitherto may be found in country and city schools are prevented by the introduction of this method. Order, permanent and spontaneous occupation, taking into account both mind and character, gradual progress in culture, living and funda- mental knowledge in the pupil, love, true love of it on his part, love for the school and for the teacher, contempt for all superficial knowledge in the schools of all kinds, or among the people. These are the essen- tial consequences of schools directed on Pestalozzi's principles. To every one who relies upon the school for his circle of knowledge, he has marked out the path for perfecting and ennobling himself. Love for teachers and companions, parents and family, will in riper age become a more exalted love of country, deep reverence for the princes who are to be regarded as superior fathers. The many-sided practical power, the strength of mind and body he \ has acquired, will make it possible for every one so trained to act not only with power for the welfare of his own family, but to be an actively working subject for the good of the people. Simplicity, contentment with his condition of firm independence of character, thoughtful action, the promotion of family and public happi- ness, practical virtue, true religion, will characterize the citizens edu- cated according to Pestalozzi's method. Upon the Possibility of introducing Pestalozzfs Method among the Mothers and Parents of the People, for the Natural Education and Treatment of their Children up to the Sixth Year. Even the introduction of Pestalozzi's method into the families is not so difficult as it is thought to be, for every mother loves her child, has 270 FRO'EBEL ox PESTALOZZI. him with her most of the time up to a certain age, and willingly con verses and occupies herself with him. It needs little guidance, therefore, even of the uncultivated mother, in order to teach her .' ow to treat her child according to its nature and to lead it farther on than usual ; it depends upon how this guidance is. given to her. Mere words will work quite in a contrary way, but every mother like:* to have people interested in her child. Could these dispositions of the mother be used to give her confidence- in Pestalozzi's method so that she could converse with her child and occupy herself with it in an intelligent manner, one might so interest the mother herself in it that she would soon perceive the benefit and joy of the child in her occupation with it ; while she occupies herself with the child she cultivates herself also. But what is thus naturally given must not go beyond her power of N conception and representation. The more simple, easy and comprehen- sible what is given her the better. And what country teacher or country clergyman has not often an opportunity so to influence parents and child ! If even but little can be effected, what is really essential might be done by a country teacher or pastor, with the help of a few members of the community, to spread the knowledge of a better nurture of little children, one more conformable to nature. By the direction of the schools according to the principles of Pestalozzi, where the older and more advanced pupils teach the more backward ones, the introduction and generalizing of the above mentioned treatment of the children would surely be possible, and made far easier because the older mem- bers of families are so often left in charge of the younger ones by their parents. By such direction of the schools, these representatives of the parents may receive the material with which they can develop and cultivate their little brothers and sisters by occupying them happily. How many evils which so often are inflicted upon children might be averted in this way ! The child so guided will never give itself by way of pastime to evil habits ; it will become accustomed early to a proper way of thinking and feeling and will then never have any pleasure in idleness. The number of children deserving of compassion who run about under the name of " blackguards " and do not know what to do with their time, would vanish out of sight under this influence. All would strive con- sciously and unconsciously for the high aim of becoming productive and estimable citizens, and of protecting those who are weaker in their endeavors to seek the same goal. Honored princess, linger a moment over this picture ; find in it the happiness which this method will spread abroad over all conditions of men. FKOEBE1 JN PESTALOZZI. l .7l And how much more glorious would be the effect of such schools, when the pupil youth so guided shall become a father, and the young woman educated on these principles shall once be a mother. She will be a true mother ; unconsciously and without farther guidance she will impart to her child what is in herself ; she will naturally treat and edu- cate her child according to Pestalozzi. Capable young people who feel the calling within themselves can thus cultivate themselves for still higher work, and be useful whether as husbands or fathers by their information, counsel and acts. Let them unite with some others of the community who are most active for its welfare ; let them use this spirit to do good with. On Sundays and feast-days let them come together, if only a few, to gather the youths and maidens around them ; let them invite some of the fathers and mothers to make it more agreeable. Let the knowledge of the world and of nature be the subject of their conversation, not formally or discursively ; no, let it proceed from their own observation and examination how they as well as children learn to occupy themselves from the simplest thing to the most complex. At least let the possibility of the introduction of the Pestalozzian method among the people be shown. By its introduction to the schools its in- fluence among the people will be so much the more secure and rich in consequences. Upon the Connection of the Elementary Instruction of Pestalozzi with higher Scientific Instruction. The series of elementary instruction continues uninterruptedly into the higher and scientific. To represent this progress in detail would carry me too far. Permit me simply to indicate the connection. Language retains as higher scientific construction both the directions it had taken as elementary instruction. In one direction, and indeed formally, it rises to the philosophy of language (form is here taken in a wider sense) ; in the other direction it rises to scientific and artistic representation. Classification or system proceeds from the description of nature directly, according to one direction ; according to the other, the history of the products of nature. Both run parallel. As the description of nature rises to individual classification, so from natural history proceeds the individual histories of the species. The description of the surTice of the earth becomes in uninterrupted sequence the history of th& earth's surface ; afterwards it necessarily blends with ancient geography. Since the old geography proceeds according to its elements from the highest point of the earth's sur- face, this determines the biblical geography to be the beginning of this topic. 272 FROEBEL ON PESTALOZZI. Description of men becomes anthropology, physiology and psychol- ogy (which must come out of history and through which, first receives here its true meaning) and at last human history. Here first comes the history of individual men, then their history as fathers of families, then the history of the whole family of the people and the nation. Only biblical history corresponds to this natural continuous progress, since it ascends from the individual to the whole, therefore the begin- ning would be made with it ; in it lies the starting point for farther progress. Here comes in the study and learning of the ancient lan- guages. History and ancient geography now run parallel. The introduction of the Pestalozzian method of instruction in geog- raphy is highly essential to the study of ancient geography. Arithmetic develops without a break into the mathematics of abstract computable quantities in all its branches. Geometry develops in a similar uninterrupted succession into the mathematics of fixed magnitudes in its whole extent and all its subdi- visions. Knowledge of the elementary powers of nature develops into natural history in the wider sense and in all its compass. The description of the products of art becomes the history of the products of art in its greatest range. Elementary drawing rises to drawing as an art and proceeds to plas- tic representation of different kinds. The theory of form according to its essence must stand in a highei contact with the aesthetic ; their connection is not yet found. Song rises to art and founds instrumental music in its various forms. Thus, according to Pestalozzi, the whole is carried out till all these sciences and arts meet again in one point from which they all issued MAN. The first of this encounter is Philosophy ; to recognize it makes the scholar a learned man. When he finds himself at this point, he may determine by himself the direction and aim of his life with clearness and true consciousness. And thus the Pestalozzian method sets man forth on his endless path of development and culture on the way to knowledge, bound to no time and no space, a development to which there is no limit, no hindrance, no bounds 1 A. FROEBEL. GENERAL IDEAS. PECULIARITIES OF METHOD. 273 Law of Opposites and their Reconcilement. What, then, is the process of the human mind in reflection ? The systematic process, as it is the same for all minds. Every thought must relate to something that we know, and first of all to visible objects ; we must have an object of thought. This object of thought must not only be taken in by the senses as a whole, so that a general idea of it is gained, as of a foreign plant that has been seen superficially in a picture, without the details of leaves, blossoms, sta- mens, etc. It must be observed and studied in all its parts and details. If we want to acquire a thorough knowledge of a foreign plant we must compare all its properties with those of plants known to us. When the properties or qualities of different objects are all exactly the same we cannot compare them ; if there is to be comparison, there must be a certain amount of difference but difference, side-by-side with similarity. The qualities which are similar will be the universal ones, which everything possesses, as form, size, color, material, etc., for there is nothing that does not possess these qualities. The different, or contrasting qualities, will consist in variations of the universal ones of form, size, etc., as for instance, round and square, great and little, hard and soft, etc. Such differences in properties that have a general resemblance are called opposites. All such opposites, however, are at the same time connected and bound together. The greatest size that we can imagine to ourselves is connected with the smallest by all the different sizes that lie between; the darkest color with all the lightest by all the intermediate shades ; from an angular shape one can gradually go over to a round one through a scries of modifications of form ; and from hard to soft through all the different gradations. Not that one and the same object can ever be both hard or soft, dark or light, great or little, but the collective qual- ities of all existing objects go over from their superlative on the one side to their superlative on the other, hardest to softest, darkest to lightest, and so on. The gradations of great and little, hard and soft, etc., which lie between the opposites, are the connecting links, or, as Frobel puts it, " the means of reconciliation of opposites " (and F rebel's system can- not be rightly understood unless this principle, which forms the basis. of it, be acknowledged). This "reconciliation" is effected through affinity of qualities. Black and white are not alike, but opposite ; the darkest red, however, is in affinity with black, as the lightest red is with white, and all the different gradations of red connect together the opposites, black and white. NOW T any one who has compared an unknown plant with known ones, in all the details of its different parts leaf, flower, fruit, etc., is in a position to pass judgment on it, and to draw a conclusion as to whether it belongs to this or that known genus of plants, and what is its species. Thus the natural process of thought is as follows : percep- tion, observation, comparison, judgment and conclusion. 274 SENSUAL ni-:.\s.- ri:< ri.iAi;n n:s OF \Vithout this series of preliminary steps no thought can be worked out, and the ruling principle is the law of the reconciliation of oppo- sites, or the finding out the like and unlike qualities of things. It matters not how far the thinker be conscious or unconscious of t!ie process going on in his mind. The child is entirely unconscious of it, and therefore takes longer to reach from one stage to another. At ti ist it receives only general impressions ; then perception comes in ; gradually ideas begin to shape themselves in its mind, and it then learns to compare and distinguish ; but judging and concluding do not begin till the third or fourth year, and then only vaguely and dimly. Nevertheless, the same systematic process is at work as in the coa- scious thought of the adult. Pestalozzi't Fundamental Law. Any system of instruction which is to be effectual must therefore take into account this law of thought (or logic); it must apply the fun- damental principle of connecting the known with the unknown by means of comparison. This principle is, however, everlastingly sinned against, and people talk to children about things and communicate to them opinions and thoughts concerning them, of which children have no con- ception and can form none. And this is done even after Pestalozzi 1 >y his "method of observation and its practical application" has placed in- struction on a true basis. Of the manner in which Frobel has built upon this foundation we- shall speak later. We have here to deal first with education, to show how far it differs from instruction, and, whether a systematic or meth- odical process is applicable to it, as Frobel considers it to be. When Pestalozzi was endeavoring to construct his " Fundamental Method of Instruction " ( Urform des Lehrens ") according to some definite principle, he recognized the truth that the problem of educa- tion cannot be fully solved by any merely instructional system how- ever much in accordance with the laws of nature. He saw that the moral forces of the human soul, feeling and will, require to be dealt with in a manner analogous to the cultivation of the intellectual fa< -ill- ties, that any merely instructional method is inadequate to the t a k, and that a training-school of another sort is needed for the moral side of cultivation one in which the power of moral action may be ac- quired. While searching for some such "psychological basis" to his method he exclaimed, " I am still as the voice of one crying in the wilderness." As a means to this end he requires an A B C of the science and a system of moral exercises, and he says : " The culture of the moral faculties rests on the same organic laws which are the foundation of our intellectual culture." Fichte (in his " Discourses ") insists on an "A B C of perception,"" which is to precede Pestalozzi's "A B C of observation," and speaks as- follows : " The new method must be able to shape and determine its pupil's course of life according to fixed and infallible rules." .} :UAI. 11>KAS. -PECULIARITIES OF MKTIlnD. 275 " There must be a definite system of rules by which always, without :>tiou, a linn will may hi- produced." The development of children into men and women must be brought under the laws of a well-considered system, which shall never fail to accomplish its end, viz., the cultivation in them of a firm and invaria- bly right will. This moral activity, which has to be developed in the pupil, is with- out doubt based on laws, which laws the agent finds out for himself by direct personal experience, and the same holds good of the voluntary development carried on later, which cannot be fruitful of good results unless based on the fundamental laws of nature. Thus Pestalozzi and Fichte like all thinkers on the question of edu- cation searched for the laws of human nature, in order to apply these laws in the cultivation of human nature. Frobel strove to refer back all these manifold laws to one funda- mental law which he called the " reconciliation of opposites " (of rela- tive opposites). In order to arrive at a clear and comprehensive conception, where there is plurality and variety, we seek a point of unity, in which all the different parts or laws may center, and to which they may be re- ferred. For the undeveloped mind of the child this is an absolute necessity. The method, which is to be the rule of his activity, must, be as simple and as single as possible. This necessity will be made plain when we come to the application of Frbbel's theory in practice. F rebel's observations of the human soul are in accord with the gen- eral results of modern psychology, in spite of small deviations which cannot be considered important. Science has not by a long way arrived at final conclusions on this subject, and must, therefore, give its due weight to every reASonable assumption ; it would be most unprofitable to drag Frobel's system into the judgment hall of scientific schools, in order to decide how far it agreed with these schools or not. Its impor- tance lies for the moment chiefly in its practical side. In order to pre- serve this part of it from becoming mechanical, and to maintain its vitality, its connection with the theoretical side must be understood and expounded more and more thoroughly. With the advance of sci- ence Frobel's philosophy of the universe must, in course of time have its proper place assigned to it, and his educational system, which is. grounded on his philosophy, will be brought into the necessary connec- tion with other scientific discoveries. The great endeavor of modern educationalists is to replace the arti- ficiality and restraint in which the purely conventional educational sys- tems of earlier times have resulted by something more corresponding to human nature. To this end it was necessary to go back to the ground motives of all education whatsoever : the laws of development of the human being. It was necessary at the same time to determine the reason of educational mea>ures in order to elevate them into coo.- 276 GENERAL IDEAS. PECULIARITIES OF METHOD. scious, purposeful action. Former conventional systems of education worked only unconsciously, according to established custom, without any deep knowledge of human nature or fundamental relation to it. The science of humanity was then in its infancy, and, although it has since made great progress, the knowledge of child nature is still very meager. The services rendered by Rousseau, as the first pioneer of modern educational theories, and the many errors and eccentricities mixed up with his great truths, must here be assumed to be known.* Insufficiency of Pestalozzi's Doctrine of Form. Pestalozzi, who carried on the work in the same track, fixed the ele- ments of his "Urform des Lelirens" in form, number, and words, as the fundamental conditions of human mental activity, and which can only be acquired and gained by observation. For instance, every visible and every thinkable thing has a form which makes it what it is. There are things of like and things of dif- ferent form, and there is a plurality of things w r hich stands in opposi- tion to every single thing. Through the division of things arises num- ber, and the proportions and relations of things to one another. In order to express these different proportions of form and number, we have need of words. Thus in these three elements we have the most primitive facts on which thought is based. In every form, every number, and every word there exist two connected or united opposites. In every form, for in- stance, we find the two opposites, beginning and end, right and left, upper and under, inner and outer, and so forth. With regard to number, unity and plurality, as well as odd and even numbers, constitute opposites. Then form and number are in them- selves opposites, for form has to do with the whole, number with the separate parts. But the word by which they are described reconciles these opposites by comprehending them both in one expression. Pestalozzi has begun the work of basing instruction systematically on the most primitive facts and workings of the human mind. To carry on this work, and also to find the equally necessary basis for moral and practical culture, with which must be combined exercises for the intellectual powers before the period allotted to instruction, is the task that remains ,to be accomplished. Pestalozzi's plan and prac- tical methods are not altogether sufficient for the first years of life. It is a false use of language which separates education from instruc- tion. The word education, in its full meaning of human culture, as a whole, includes instruction as a part, and comprises in itself mental, moral, and physical development ; but in its narrower use it signifies, more especially, moral culture. *An elaborate exposition of Rousseau's system, principles and methods will be found in Barnard's Journal of Education, v. pp. 459-486; also in Barnard's French Pedagogy. GENERAL IDEAS. PECULIARITIES OF METHOD. 27? One of the reasons why instruction has been so much more consid- ered and systematized than the moral side of education is, undoubt- edly, that the former is in the hands of educational and school author- ities who possess the mental training and capacity necessary for their vocation. No one is allowed to be a professional teacher who has not proved himself to possess a certain degree of proficiency for the task. Moral education, on the other hand, falls to the supervision of the fam- ily, as the first and natural guardians of its children, and here neither the father nor the mother, nor any of the other sharers in the work, are really fitted for it ; not one of them has received a special prepara- tion, and it depends entirely upon the higher or lower degree of general culture of the parents, and their natural capacity or non-capacity for their educational calling, how far the moral culture of the children will extend. But over and above the preparatory training of parents and other natural guardians which was already insisted on and striven after by Pestalozzi moral education will only then be placed on a par with intellectual instruction when a real foundation has been given to it by the application of a fixed system of rules, such a foundation as the laws of thought afford for instruction. 'The human soul is one, all its powers and functions have a like aim, and, therefore, feeling and willing as factors of moral life cannot be developed in any other way than thought. The parts which make up the whole of education must be subject to the same laws as the whole, and conversely the whole must be developed in like manner as the parts. The moral world is concerned with two aspects of things the good and the beautiful while the understanding has the discoveiy of truth for its object. Both the good and the beautiful have their roots in the heart or the feelings, and belong thus to the inner part of man to his spiritual world. The power and habit of feeling rightly and beautifully consti- tute moral inclination, which influences the will, but does not yet nec- essarily lead it to action. In its connection with the outer world morality appears in the form of action. Through action, or the carrying out of the good that is willed, the character is formed. The practice of the beautiful, on the other hand, leads to art and artistic creation. Thus education, in its essentially moral aspect, has to do with the cultivation of the feelings and the will. It need hardly be said that the element of instruction cannot be altogether dispensed with, even in this department, any more than the cultivation of the intellect can be carried on without a certain amount of moral development. In earliest childhood .the three different natures of the human being are fused in one and must be dealt with accordingly. The good and the beautiful, like all other qualities, are known through their opposites. Only by contrast v/ith the not good, or bad, 278 GENERAL IDEAS. PECULIARITIES OF METHOD. the not beautiful, or ugly, are the good and the beautiful apprehended by our consciousness. As mental conceptions, the good and the bad, the beautiful and the ugly, the true and the untrue, are irreconcilable (absolute) opposites. Pure thought, however, has to deal with the absolute. In all the man- ifestations of the actual world everything that exists is only relatively good and bad, ugly and beautiful, true and untrue ; all opposites exist here only relatively. No human being is perfectly good or perfectly bad, just as nobody is completely developed or completely undeveloped. So, too, no work of art is in an absolute sense perfectly beautiful, or perfectly ugly whether as a whole or in its parts. As, therefore, in all and everything belonging to the human world opposites are found existing together, so, also, do they pass over into one another and are "reconciled." Thus everything is connected together, and constitutes an immense chain of different members. We do not mean to say that already in the actual world all opposites are reconciled, all discords solved, and the great world-harmony com- plete; but it is going on to completion. This is the aim and end of all movements, all life, and all endeavor, and an end which is only fully attainable to human beings by the cessation of all self-seeking (as in Christ), the absorption of all individuals into humanity; and this by means of the highest individual development and self -existence; not by transforming the individual into the universal. In the most fundamental bases of good and evil we find again two new opposites. In whatever form evil manifests itself, it is always at bottom self- seeking of some sort; or else it is error or madness. Ambition, pride, avarice, envy, dishonesty, murder, hatred, etc., may always be traced back to self-seeking, even though it be disguised in the form of extrav- agant affection for others, or for one other. So, too, what we call dia- bolical is, in reality, self-seeking. And whatever shape good may take it must be essentially the expres- sion of love to others. A solitary individual in no way connected with fellow-creatures w r ould have as little opportunity for good as for evil. All the impulses and passions of a human being have for their object the procurance of personal happiness and well-being and the avoidance of personal annoyance. And as long as the happiness and well-being of others is not disturbed, nor the individual himself injured, there is nothing to be said. The conflict between good and evil begins when the happiness of an individual is procured at the cost of others or of the community. True goodness consists, with rare exceptions, in preferring the wel- fare of the many or of the whole of human society, to personal, ego- tistical advantage; in striving after an ideal which, without self-sacri- ficing love, would be unthinkable. Love towards God, moreover, com- pels love towards mankind. 14 GENERAL IDEAS. PECULIARITIES OF METHOD. 279 The moral battle-field is always between the two extremities of per- sonal and universal interest, and the reconciliation of the two is the result aimed at. There also where the battle goes on in the inner world of the human soul it is a question of personal against general interest, or of the opposition between the sensual and the spiritual nat- ures of the individual. The object of man's earthly existence is to reconcile the rights of personality, self-preservation and independence with the duties of necessary devotion and self-sacrifice to society. The personal services rendered to the ivhole, in any circle of life, determine the worth of the individual to society, and moral greatness consists in the love which, going out beyond the personal, seeks to embrace the whole of God's world and therewith God himself. For God has herein placed the destiny of man, viz., to expand from the circle of in- dividual existence, through all intermediate circles, to the great circle of humanity. Jn the world of the beautiful we meet with the same law, viz., " the reconciliation of opposites." What do we mean by the beautiful? That which is harmonious or rhythmical. Harmony is the co-operation of all the parts of a whole towards the object of the whole. If the innermost nature of beauty baffles our attempts at full definition, harmony is, nevertheless, its fun- damental condition. But a necessary condition of harmony is the balance of parts tending in opposite directions. Beauty of form (plastic art) depends on -the opposites, height and breadth, for instance, being rightly proportioned or balanced ; on the contracting horizontal and perpendicular lines being kept in balance by their connecting lines. In the circle we have the perfect balance of all opposite parts, and the circular line is, therefore, the line of beauty. In architecture the triangle is the fundamental shape that is to say, two lines starting from one point and running in opposite directions are connected together by a third line. And so forth. Beauty in the world of color is the harmonious blending together of the opposites, light and shade, by means of the scale of color this at least is the primary condition. The mixing of colors, too, consists in the right fusion of the elementary colors red, blue, yellow, which in themselves form opposites. In the world of sound beauty is in like manner conditioned by the harmony of single tones amongst each other. The basis of musical har- mony is the simple chord, L e., the opposites, which the key-note and the fifth constitute, are reconciled by the third. In poetry rhythm is obtained by the regular connection of long and short syllables And so forth. The ugly, the imperfect, in all arts, is on the other hand the inhar- moniousor the result of want of proportion and correspondence in opposites or the absence of transitions to connect them together. RUDENPLATZ, ZURICH. THE MIDDLE HOUSE WAS PESTALOZZl'S BIRTHPLACE PESTALOZZI, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI, AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. BY WILLIAM DE FELLENBERG. EAKLY in the year 1798, Switzerland, whilst at peace with the French* republic, was invaded by a numerous French army on the most frivolous pretexts. Amongst the Swiss Cantons which offered the most energetic resistance to the encroachments of the French Directory, Unterwalden stood in the first rank. Fearful was the vengeance of the enraged French soldiery, who devastated that unhappy country with fire and sword. The inhabitants who did not fall in battle (women as well as men having shared in the fight) fled, some into the mountains, some into the churches ; but the churches did not protect them from the flames or bayonets, to which all the native sufferers became a prey ; the children were however spared ; and crowds of these homeless orphans were to be seen, after the departure of the French, wandering about amidst the ruins of the villages. A wail resounded through Switzerland when this was known. The first philanthropist who devoted himself to the succor of these helpless objects, was Henry Pestalozzi, then Theological candidate. He had just before broken down utterly in preaching his probationary ser- mon a circumstance which was a bar to his prospects in the church, especially at such a seat of learning as Zurich. He did not know where to direct his steps ; the career of professional theology was closed to him, but not that of Christianity. He converted his little property into money, tied up his bundle, and set off to the Canton of Unterwalden, there to become the guardian of the poor deserted children. The season was inclement, but he succeeded, with the help of some kind-hearted friends, in forming a shelter for his new family, amongst the ruins of the little village of Hanz. Here Pestalozzi fed, clothed, and housed the gath- ering flock, increasing in numbers till he was obliged to consider how he could bring them under some kind of discipline ; but for this purpose he had no help except from the children themselves. He therefore chose from amongst them the most intelligent, taking care to select those who had most influence with their companions. These he appointed his assist- ants ("lieutenants") in the lessons, as well as in the necessary household work, such as keeping the place in order, mending clothes, collecting, wood, &c. He soon added to these occupations the cultivation of a small. Communicated to the " National Association for the Promotion of Social Science," b- Lady Noel Byron, -and published in the " Transactions " for 1858. 60* FE8TAI.UZZI. 1)E Fi:i.l.i:M5i:U<; AM> Ul.lli.l.l of land ; and the little colony assumed ilu- igped "1 an orderly community. In the meantime patriots from various parts of Switzerland had arrived in Han/, lirin^in-; provisions and stores of all kinds. The fugitive in habitants gradually returned from the mountains, and all fell into theii 1 inner way of life. Pestalozzi's school was welcome to all as long as the children were fed and provided for in it ; but his funds being exhausted, and the aid of the benevolent being required for the returning fugitives on their own account, there were no means of maintaining the establish- ment. Thus, to the great sorrow of every one, Pestalozzi felt the neces- sity of separating from his beloved children. Still the recollection of his Unterwalden family, and of the kind of training which he had been driven to employ from the failure of other resources, remained a living picture in his mind. It gave a distinct and tangible aim to his deep in- ward longing to serve his fellow creatures ; it became the vision of his dreams, the object of all his plans; and he caught at whatever promised to bring him nearer to the desired end. In consequence, all his inter- course with friends for he found many after the events of Unterwal- den was dire.-ted to the same end. To most of them, however, he spoke in riddles, since they could not have understood him unless they had like him learned, by experience, how powerful an instrument for training the young is to be found in labor for bread, when under skillful management By all true philanthropists, indeed, the full value of Pes- talozzi's work in Unterwalden was recognized; and in its merits his un- successful sermon was forgotten. Great hopes were formed of the results of such rare self-devotion, and many anticipated that a new light on edu- cation would be kindled by it. When he made known his project of an educational institute, the government of the canton of Berne offered him the use of the Chateau of Burgdorf for that purpose. He accepted the offer, and opened a school in that place. Pestalozzi's reputation, founded upon some striking works for the people, "Leonard and Gertrude" with others, brought him immediately a great number of pupils ; some of them out of the most influential families, with whom he had an opportunity of putting in practice one part of his educational system, called by himself the " Anschauungs Lehre," teaching by sight and other senses. But his industrial training could not be carried into effect, because his pupils were chiefly of aristocratic fam- ilies, and not obliged to support themselves by manual labor. He con- soled himself, however, with the hope of saving enough out of the income derived from the school payments of the rich, to establish a small agri- cultural school for the poor, on his own plan, in connection with the institute. His new system already began to excite public attention. Young men of the teachers' class thronged around him, and endeavored, with more or less success, to acquire his method, hoping thereby to make their for- tunes in the novelty-loving world ; but amongst all those who were thus "brought into contact with him, there was not one who could omprehcnd H sTAl.OZZI, I>K FKI.I.KMiKKC; AM) WEHKJ.l 283 his irivut idea, that of making LABOR, more especially Agricultural La- bor, a principal moans of training tin- young ; indeed, had he found Mich a OIK- it could not have helped him ; for in his fortress there vvas not a foot of ground in which any thiiiu could )>e planted. An opportunity was soon afforded of carrying out the aim of his heart by these circumstances. Amongst the acquaintances Pestulozzi had made in earlier times, during a journey before he went to L'nterwalden, was the family of Tcharner, of Wilden Stein. Tcharner, who was the Bernese Landvogl, appeared to Pestalozzi to realize his idea of what a governor ought to be, such as he had drawn in his most celebrated work, " Leonard and Gertrude" in the character of Arner. Through this fam- ily he became acquainted with that of De Fellenberg, who succeeded Tcharner in the government of Wilden Stein ; and a young De Fellen- berg became one of Pestalo/./i's most attentive listeners. This young man accompanied him on several journeys, and was one of the few who afterwards entered into, and adopted, his idea of industrial education. But it was a circuitous route by which De Fellenberg came to the reso- lution of acting out Pestalozzi's idea. He was educated for a political < an . -r, but his mother's character had implanted in him the germ which enabled, him to receive and comprehend the ideas of Pestalozzi. His mother used to say to him : " The Rich have always helpers enough, help thon the Poor" It was during the early days of the French Revolution that he studied law at the University of Tubingen, in < iermany. Returning just as the ditliculties of Switzerland with tin- French were beginning, he then heard of IV.Malozzi's school in Unterwalden, and was vividly reminded of his former acquaintance with him. Other circumstances also con- curred to -rive the bent to his mind, which changed his path in life from that of a politician to that of a philanthropist. The trenu -ndou> war taxes which the French Directory exacted from the Swiss, and the pressure of the military occupation on the country, brought Switzerland to the brink of despair, and it was resolved to send an embassy consisting of the leading men to Paris, in order to entreat the directory to lighten the>c burthens. De Fellenberg accompanied one of these amha->a-lir> as secretary; and what he then saw of French freedom, and the political tendencies of that time, convinced him that he must seek another path. He returned to Switzerland, more than ever determined to serve his country in the spirit which had been awakened in his early youth by that saying of his mother. He soon afterwards married the grand-daughter of Tcharner, the before-mentioned friend of Pestalozzi, and was henceforward brought more into contact vith him About this time De Fellenberg's father, who was professor of law in Bern, purchased the estate of Ilofwyl, near to that city, in order to give his son a field of action. Ilofwyl is only nine English miles distant from Bwgdurf Thus De Fellenberg and Pestalozzi became neighbors, and this led to frequent interchange of thought between them, in which PCS- taloz/i endeavored to induce \) Fellenberg to employ his estate in real- 284 PESTALOZZI, UE FELLENBERG AND WEHRL1. izing his favorite idea of industrial education. Pestalozzi had at that time competent teachers for the promulgation of his method of teaching.. Each of these teachers imagined himself at least a younger Pestalozzi,, who owed the father Pestalozzi just as much subordination as seemed good to themselves, and no more. Thus, in a few years after its founda- tion, the institute presented a picture of anarchy ; and Pestalozzi felt, himself incapable, through diminished practical powers, of reorganizing it as was required, and placing it on a firm basis, which he thought De Fellenberg could best accomplish. The Bernese government possessed a building, once a convent, near Hofwyl, called Miinchen Buchsee, and Pestalozzi proposed to the author- ities to give it him instead of t Burgdorf. He offered the entire manage- ment of his institute to De Fellenberg, and the government consented. De Fellenberg made a stipulation that he should have the power of dig- missing any of the teachers who should not conform to his regulations. Pestalozzi agreed to this, and transplanted his establishment to Miinchen Buchsee, which is only ten minutes' walk from Hofwyl. Here De Fel- lenberg had an opportunity of judging of Pestalozzi's method, and of seeing both its strong and weak points. He was also able to enter into IVstalo/zi's further schemes. It is scarcely to be doubted that the dom- inant idea of Pestalozzi would have been then carried out at Hofwyl un- der his own eyes, if the characters of the two men had been such that they could labor together in the same work with success. But in their dnily intercourse it soon appeared, that Pestalozzi's excessive kindness of ht'.'irt led him to regard as tyranny a consistent prosecution of that plan ; while De Fellenbenr, from his characteristic energy, bore Pestalozzi's want of decision impatiently, and treated it as loss of time. It was,, therefore, not diflicult for Pestalozzi's assistants to persuade him that he- had fallen into the hands of a tyrant, from who he should release himself at any cost. He therefore accepted at once the offer from the govern- ment of the Canton Waadt (Pays de Vaud) to give up to him the Schloss Yverdun, on the lake of Neuch&tel, for the reception of his institute ; and thus ended the connection between Pestalozzi and De Fellenberg, without, however, any personal disagreement. Pestalozzi rejoiced ex- tremely when, in ] 80(i, De Fellenberg sent one of his sons to him to be educated, accompanied by a young man, as tutor, who should acquire a. knowledge of Pestalozzi's system. De Fellenberg meanwhile, at Hofwyl, had come to the determination, to begin the work of industrial education, and the only question with him now was, to find an able assistant who could fill the position of " Father "io his pupils, and as such embody his idea. After having sought among a considerable number of young men of the educating class in Switzerland, he found the right one in the following manner. Pestalozzi's method of teaching had excited great attention among all engaged in education throughout Switzerland. It seemed so simple to 'lead the pupil by enlisting his own will, and rousing his own reason to- assist in his own instruction, that every n-flicting teacher could only PESTALOZZL UE FELLENBEIIG AM) VVE1JK1J 285 -wonder why the idea had not occurred to him long before, as the num ber of children in a school rendered some such method almost necessary. Many, therefore, endeavored to apply what they had heard of his sys- tem, apparently so simple, to the subjects then taught in their schools, reading, writing, the catechism, &c. ; but they soon found the task to be much more difficult than they had imagined. Many, therefore, were anxious to study the Pestalozzian method from Pestalozzi himself; but this was too expensive for most of them. The pecuniary affairs of the institute were so involved from mismanagement, that Pestalozzi could not admit any such supernumeraries except for a considerable sum. This led De Fellenberg to think of opening a course of instruction in the Pes- talozzian method ; on the one hand, to offer to earnest teachers this oppor- tunity of improvement ; on the other, with the hope, among the numbers who might assemble at Hofwyl, to find an assistant for his own particular object He communicated his scheme to Pestalozzi, who was delighted with it, and sent him a young man from Prussia named Zeller, no less thor- oughly imbued with his method than enthusiastic in promoting it. De Fellenberg was thus able to open his course of instruction, 1st May, 1806. For this purpose he had a cottage built in a little wood, beneath .great linden trees, on twelve posts, and with a single roof. The upper part served as a sleeping-room, the ground-floor as a school-room. In the morning, the hours from five to seven, and from eight till twelve, were devoted to lessons. In the afternoon the teachers worked in the fields and in the garden of Hofwyl. In the evening they prepared the vegetables for the next day's meals. During the harvest they assisted in the fields during the whole day. De Fellenberg, in this way, showed them how an industrial school ought to be organized. He gave them also every morning, a lesson in agriculture, in which he explained the various field operations and their connection. He conversed with them on the subject of making agricultural labor a valuable aid in education, and a subject of instruction for boys. Each evening he talked over with them the labors of the following day. Thus he led the teachers to do their M'ork with intelligence ; to take pleasure in it, and to see how advanta- .geous would be to themselves the knowledge thus obtained of agricul- ture, as the means of making the soil more productive during the rest of their life ; for most teachers in Switzerland depend for the principal part of their subsistence on a few acres of public ground. All this instruction was in accordance with Pestalozzi's ideas De Fel- lenberg even carried them further than their originator for Pestalozzi based his system on the perception of the senses (Anschauung,) making this the ground work of memory. Former systems had only concerned themselves with the memory, and with matters which could be made ob- jects of perception ; De Fellenberg then went beyond Pestalozzi, inas- much as he added the action to the perception ; u for," said he, "what has been done, and done with thought, will be retained more firmly by the memory, and will bring a surer experience than that which has been only seen or heard." Earlier schools made the ear and words the subject- 286 PESTALOZZI, I)E FELLENBERG AM) WEIIKU matter of mimo:y Pestalozzi, the eye and picture De Fellenberg, the. action. Zeller, though versed in Pestalozzi's method, followed De Fel- lenberg's step in advance of it, with the readiness of one desirous of im- provement; and brought his objective teaching, as far as possible, into- relation with the daily lessons of the teachers the effect of which was- to render them more interesting and animated. The teachers who took part in these courses of instruction have been, heard, even years after, to describe the scene so vividly that it seemed as if they had just come from it ; and it has been often proved that whilst other teachers, from want of knowledge of farming, have been ruined in times- of distress, such as 1816, 1817, the Hofwyllers, as they were called, struggled out of their difficulties by their own exertions. About thirty joined in the first season's lessons. These, on their re- turn home, mentioned them to their acquaintances. The following spring, no less than eighty teachers made their appearance at Hofwyh This influx created difficulties for De Fellenberg, as an individual, and caused him some pecuniary embarrassment In order to carry out his plans he was obliged to find different kinds of labor, which he would not, perhaps, otherwise have thought of. Among these was drainage, then effected only by means of stones, or with wooden pipes ; and as the Hofwyl land was extremely stony, this- answered two purposes at once. The drainage water also was turned to account, in watering the low-lying meadows. All these occupations again gave Zeller the opportunity of extending his object-lessons. In- struction in drawing was joined with them ; this art being regarded by De Fellenberg and Zeller as a connecting link between perception and action. The second course was attended by a little schoolmaster, named. Wehrli, from the canton of Thurgovie. Although an elderly man, he had set off, on hearing of the new method of teaching, and traveled orv foot about one hundred and fifty miles, in order to improve himself in, his profession. He was one of the most zealous and attentive students,, and endeavored to inform himself as thoroughly as possibly on all points, that were new to him. When De Fellenberg, at times, explained to the- teachers how agricultural labor might be made a means of education, de- claring his own wish to establish an example of such industrial training,. if he could only find a capable assistant, it was always old Wehrli \\ ho, after the lesson, had most questions to ask ; and at the end of the course he said that he had a son whom he could recommend to carry the plan into effect. Induced by his description of his son, De Fellenberg invited him to Hofwyl : and shortly afterwards there appeared before him a youth of eighteen, with a pleasing expression of countenance, modest bearing, but fearless gbnce, commissioned by his father to inter the ser- vice of De Fellenberg. Young Jacob Wehrli was not long in compre- hending what De Fellenberg required of him. He only wished, as soon as possible, to be put in command of boys with whom he could set to- work. De Fellen .\ rg v. as so convinced of the certainty of success in- PESTALOZZI, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. 287 his undertaking, that he did not hesitate to give the first beggar-boy whom he found, as a pupil to young Wehrli. Wehrli was no less confi- dent in its being an easy task to change the most unmanageable of vag- abonds into an industrious member of society ; and, in fact, the first few weeks of kind treatment, not omitting better food, seemed to make the desired impression which De Fellenberg and Wehrli ascribed to their system. This result was, however, not a little attributable to Wehrli's having shared all the occupations of his pupil, so that when the boy felt weary or idle, he was ashamed to let his master, as he called Wehrli r work alone. When, however, after a few weeks, the better food and kindly treatment were no longer new T , the beggar-boy began to long after his former u free life," and tried, instead of working, to go after birds* nests, the eggs of which had formed the luxuries of his former diet; or else he sought out a snug corner to sleep in. When Wehrli said to him r " Those who will not work shall not eat," he took up his tools again, it is true, but as his thoughts were not in his work, his labor was worth nothing, and Wehrli saw that he should not attain his purpose in that way. So it was necessary that the boy should experience the conse- quence of his idleness, and go to bed one evening without his food. "What," thought he, "I am deprived of my liberty, and must hunger into the bargain?" and the next morning, very early, he took his depart- ure. Thus Wehrli had now no pupil. De Fellenberg himself was as- , tonished that the beggar-boy had not known better how to appreciate his kindness, and he then made a fresh experiment with the son of an in- dustrious laborer, who, burthened with a large family, was glad of the opportunity of providing for one of his children. He was a weakly boy, but willing and anxious to learn, and gave Wehrli more satisfaction. It was riot so wonderful that a child out of a laborer's family, should be trained to industry. Still it was attended with much trouble to accus- tom the boy, somewhat enfeebled by his mother's care, to field-labor. De Fellenberg had said that they would not take a second boy till the first was in good order, that the example of the one might influence the other. The prospect of such a result with this weakly boy was unfavor- able, and Wehrli found that he should have to go through the whole winter with but one pupil. At the beginning of the cold days, however, our young friend, the beggar-boy, made his appearance, and promised, if he were received back, to work hard for his bread. It really seemed as if the young vagabond had instituted some comparisons between his "free life" and Eofwyl training, to the advantage of the latter. The two new comrades soon strove which should do his work best a contest in which the beggar-boy soon gained the upper hand, and took the posi- tion of teacher, as he displayed much more skill and aptitude than the other. This satisfied his ambition, and Wehrli took care not to weaken this first germ of civilization in him, but rather endeavored to convince De Fellenberg that they might now receive a third boy ; as he had a strong and intelligent assistant in the beggar-boy, and could, at least, de- pend on the good will of the other lad. Soon there followed a third and 288 FESTALozzr, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. a fourth ; but care was taken not to increase the vagrant element, till the inner strength of the little family might make it safe to do so. This was the commencement of the agricultural school for the poor at Hofwyl, in which the OBJECTIVE TEACHING of Pestalozzi was brought into action in concurrence with labor. When the pupils reached ten in num- ber Wehrli was able to promote some of them to be his assistants; not so much in school-teaching, as in the direction of work, arranging that each older pupil should take charge of a younger one, as an apprentice. Such was the type of the ultimate development of the school ; just as in a well-ordered family the elder children lead on the younger ones by their example. Agricultural labors offer a richer field for this purpose than any other employment. Every sort of capacity is brought into action. Each member of the family performs his part of the common labor, and en- joys the elevating consciousness of being useful to the community. In striving to fill his position well, he learns to act from a sense of duty, and strengthens this virtue by practice. De Fellenberg's pupils, however, weiv not confined to agricultural labor ; the requirements of his farm, and afterwards of his educational establishment for the upper classes, gave employment to various artizans, as cart makers, carpenters, joiners, black- smiths, locksmiths, workers in wood, iron, leather, mechanics, shoe- makers, tailors. Therefore, the pupils of the lower school, if they wished to learn a handicraft, had a wide choice open to them, without being obliged, during their apprenticeship, to neglect the instruction from books in which they had become interested. Wrhrli's school, gradually increasing from a small family circle to a youthful community, reached the number of 150 pupils, without dimin- ishing in moral strength or intellectual energy. Amongst these a con- siderable number were trained to become teachers in national schools, and superintendents of similar establishments; such as are now to be found in most of the cantons of Switzerland, in many German states, in France, in the Netherlands, in Italy, and elsewhere. The greatest ser- vice rendered by the system of industrial training, in schools modeled after Wehrlfs, has been in those devoted to rescuing juvenile offenders from the path of ruin, and restoring them to society. Up to the p' sent time, the Rettungs Haus, at Bachtele, near Berne, in Switzerlaix is one of the best institutions of this nature, and Dr. Wichern, the founder of the Rauhen Haus, near Hamburg, and De Metz, founder of the Colo- nie Penitentiare, at Mettrai, in France, have employed this system, &s the only effectual mode of reclaiming the most abandoned juvenile delinquents. We must not omit to mention here an observation, confirmed by facts, that wherever such schools have been established with success, they have always, as in the case of Wehrli's, at Hofwyl, arisen out of the small family principle gradually extended. There have not been wanting at- tempts to organize such schools on a gigantic scale, but few of these Tiave proved themselves strong enough to live. It has always been de- PESTALOZZI, DE FEI.LENBEKG AND WEII11U. 289 xnonstrated that it is not the system that can give life, but the spirit ; the strength, love, and faith of the founder; and all these will naturally in- crease from the smallest germ, and become strong by exercise. This was proved, too, in Hofwyl itself, for when after forty years' exertions, Wehrli was recalled to his native canton of Thurgovie, to conduct there an in- stitution for the education of teachers, after the model of Hofwyl, De Fellenberg sought his successor from amongst the numerous teachers of the lower school ; but not one of the chosen "step-fathers" could take Wehrli's place. The school lost with him its peculiar vitality, and it would have been better to have begun it afresh. De Fellenberg had felt from the first the true position of the wealthy in relation to the poorer classes, and that it would be only half doing his work in the world, if he merely showed what treasures existed in the working classes to be drawn forth. The rich must be taught, at the same time, by what means they could succeed in extracting those treasures. Witnesses were wanted out of the upper classes to the educational elevation of the labor- ing classes witnesses who might afterwards carry forward his work. About the time at which he made his first experiment in industrial train- ing, he began an agricultural course for landowners. The success of his plan of deep-soil ploughing, draining, and irrigation, upon the for- merly somewhat neglected ground of his estate, was much approved, and brought him a large number of pupils, many of whom also took an inter- est in his education of the poor. But these young men remained so short a time under his direction, that he could not anticipate the exten- sion of his views in a wider circle through them. He therefore opened, in 1809, his educational institute for the upper classes, of the same kind as that which Pestalozzi conducted at Iverdun afterwards extensively known and he here made use of the experience which Pestaloz/i had gained during many years with his objective lessons. In working out his method, Pestalozzi had arrived at a somewhat one- sided system of instruction, founding all on his pupil's own perceptions. He excluded traditions far too much, so that it was said of him that the whole past of human cultivation was lost to his pupils as, for instance, history. De Fellenberg endeavored to avoid this one-sidedness in his school, by giving the study of history its place, adapting it with care to the young. On the other hand, he strove by every means to afford to the pupils of his higher school a field for the development of their pow- ers of action. He introduced extensive gymnastics, including military exercises, swimming, riding, pedestrian exercises, turning, and similar mechanical occupations, gardening, and skating. At the same time, under the guidance of a special master, the boys formed a kind of inde- pendent community amongst themselves, for the management of their own affairs out of school-hours ; arranging their various occupations, as well as games of all kinds, their walking tours, gardening, &c. They chose their own officers, punished casual offenders, and thus practiced obedience to self-imposed law. In this manner De Fellenberg strove, nvith these pupils also, to promote action and the discipline of life, as the 90 PE8TALOZZI, UE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. actual means of education ; and to lay the foundation of self-reliance in the man by the cultivation of self-government, and various capabilities in the hoy and youth, so that in the upper school also, the prominent feature was education ly action, which coincided with the industrial training of the lower or poor school. The two institutions were brought into contact in many ways. Pupils of the upper school who required physical strengthening, or muscular exhaustion, so to speak, as was the case with many, were sent for a time to field-labor in the lower school. In both cases, labor acted as a whole-' some medicine, whilst the boys themselves regarded getting up at three in the morning to earn a breakfast with a thrashing flail as one of their greatest pleasures. Many amusements were shared by both schools for instance, skating and sledging in winter, and gymnastic games in sum- mer. The sons of the wealthy learnt from pupils of the lower school to respect labor, whilst the poor viewed their richer companions not as ene- mies but as sympathizing friends. The pupils of the upper school kept a poor-box, into which were paid all the small fines, and the voluntary contributions of the boys also, on Sundays, after the religious services. These funds afforded them the means of helping the sick and infirm peo pie whom they met with in their visits to the poor families round HofwyL Such visits were usually made on Sunday afternoons. Thus also was Sunday sanctified, not by words only, but by deeds. In order to awaken yet more sympathy in the sons of the rich for the education of the poor, a little colony from the lower school was at one time established in a wood, about six miles from Hofwyl, on an inclosure of about twelve acres. The walls of the dwellings were of clay, and were the work of the pupils of the upper school. The doors, windows,, floor, ceilings, partitions, beds, tables, chairs, and cupboards, were made by the young carpenters of both schools ; and it was a common festival for all when the first four pupils, with their teacher, were established in the new colony, on which occasion the chief enjoyment consisted in this, that both schools joined in digging and in preparing for planting the piece of ground destined for a garden. For several years, one of the most favor- ite Sunday walks was to visit the new colony and observe its progress. Thus it was that the practical working, as well as the theory, of agri- cultural poor schools was carried by Uofwyl pupils into distant countries ; and thus, too, the boys of the upper school took away with them more correct notions of active beneficence, as well as of the duties which prop- erty imposes upon its possessor. This education earned much approbation from the public, and the number of pupils increased in a short time. Their payments enabled De Fellenberg to extend the Poor School, which we before mentioned. It also made it possible for him to give several "courses" for the benefit of earnest teachers ; and amongst them he discovered young men who attached themselves, willingly and efficiently, to his work of training the poor, assisting him to spread it abroad. Among the many strangers who visited Hofwyl, some, who were not PESTA1.0ZZI, DE FELI.ENiiERG AND WEI1RL1. 291 satisfied with seeing what was done there, inquired into the possibility of founding similar institutions in their own homes. Then it always ap- peared necessary, as a first condition, to have a Wehrli ; and De Fellen- berg perceived that, if all these good intentions should be carried into effect, he must consider how he could procure more than Wehrli. He was now able to make use of those young men whom he had found qualified, in the course of his classes, for teachers, and without whom it would have been impossible for him to extend his system thus widely in so short a time. For however simple at first sight the idea might appear, that the same means which renders the individual capable of self-support namely, his development as a worker, should be made the chief agent in his education nevertheless, such simple ideas are only suggested by that common sense which Diogenes sought with a lantern in broad daylight. To carry them out into practice requires a self-denial and devotion, which is the fruit of a long exercise of Christian virtues. Pestalozzi's original ideal was thus realized in Hofwyl. He had practiced his method of instruction at Iverdun, at first with great suc- cess ; but here, again, his want of capacity for management stood in his way. We are far, however, from wishing to depreciate, in the smallest de- gree, the great service which he rendered in the furtherance of true- popular education. If his objective system did not entirely develop in- dustrial training, it may at least be considered as having given the first impulse in that direction. What must above all be regarded in all he did is his inexhaustible love for the young, to express which, he could scarcely find words. It inspired every one with whom he came in con- tact, and became the distinguishing characteristic of his true disciples. If' his system embraced but few subjects of teaching, its deficiencies were compensated for by the intensity with which it acted upon such as could: be brought within its sphere. Pestalozzi's simple motto was, " Nothing can be learned except through , comparison of the unknown with the known;" and, again, "Every thing is contained in the child ; the teacher must know how to draw it out by love and patience : love can always find means." To teachers he often/ said, 4 'Go, and learn of the mother." The young, according to his view, could only know by the physical perception which requires repeated exercise to advance to mental percep- tion. What the eye sees must be thoroughly comprehended by means of feeling, hearing, smelling, tasting, in order that the verbal description of the object and its properties may be perfectly understood. Then the teacher proceeded to numbers and measures, and lastly drawing came m to complete the external image. From this short sketch of the course pursued by Pestalozzi's method, of objective teaching, it will be seen that it was especially calculated to, qualify and prepare its scholars for the study of natural science ; and it is evident that in agriculture lay the richest mine for the practice of objective teaching. As a farther development of his system, PestalozzL PESTALOZZI, DE FELLKNliEKG AND WE11RL1. could not fail to look with satisfaction on De Fellenberg's agricultural school at Hofwyl. If we cast a glance at the studies of the naturalist as widely comprehensive as they are deep and searching and upon their manifold uses in common life, we can scarcely fail to acknowledge, with gratitude, in Pestalozzi's system one of the influences which have helped to promote and facilitate scientific pursuits. De Fellenberg pursued his work at Hofwyl, in the manner before described, till the year 1844. We have mentioned how offshoots of his work for educating the poor were formed with success in most of the cantons of Switzerland, and the adjoining countries ; and he could look upon his life with the consciousness of having begun a work that would advance and develop itself through the inherent truth of the principle which it represented. It is very significant of the effect produced by the efforts of Pestalozzi and De Fellenberg, that when, in 1844, the erection of a national monu- ment to Pestalozzi was talked of, and men of all ranks met to consider the subject, it was agreed, without opposition from any quarter, to abandon the idea of a stone or bronze statue, and raise instead of it, a living memorial to the father of Swiss education, consisting of an insti- tution for the training of poor children of both sexes, in accordance with his ideas, and after the model of Wehrli's school at Hofwyl. This monument is still flourishing, and will be a blessing to corning generations, De Fellenberg's institutions at Hofwyl did not escape the fate of all human affairs. He died in 1844. The political events of 1845-48 caused a dissolution of his schools at the moment; but his system was too firmly established in Switzerland, by means of numerous training and other schools, to be effected by the continuance or discontinuance of Hof- wyl. That which he sought to accomplish by means of his schools was achieved : 1. Switzerland had obtained a system of popular education, having its foundation in the wants of the nation, and which it could henceforth develop independently, as there was scarcely a place of any importance in the country where there was not a pupil, either of Pesta- lozzi or De Fellenberg, to take an active interest in the schools. 2. The idea of training by action, by productive and civilizing labor, had ad- vanced from theory into practice. The same means which are pointed out to man for his material support were now brought to serve as an effective instrument in his education ; and, as the great mass of man- kind are destined to maintain themselves by labor, the most effective means of civilizing and educating this large majority was thus discov- ered in labor. The chief point which remained to be considered was, how the leading classes of society, the employers, could be trained to recognize their duty, to educate and elevate morally the working classes, with the same interest with which they make use of hired labor to in- crease their own property. De Fellenberg indicated the way to this end also, and made the first step by the establishment of his educational institution, described above, for the higher classes. JOHANNES NIEDERER. JOHANNES NIEDERER, whose reputation as a teacher is nearly con- nected with that of Pestalozzi, and stands high amongst those of his fellow-laborers, was born in 1778, in Appenzell. Having completed his studies, he was already settled as pastor when the fame of Pes- talozzi's plans and labors reached him, and set his whole soul in motion. Unlike those who can not soon enough shake the dust of the school from their feet to seat themselves in the pulpit, Niederer resigned his pastorate in 1800, and hastened to connect himself with Pestalozzi. In the institution of the latter, he had special charge of the religious instruction. His manner in giving this, and in his whole labors as a teacher, is so well described by his efficient fellow-laborer, Kriisi, in his recent u Recollections of my pedagogical life and work? (Erinnerungen aus meinem pddagogischen Leben und Wirkeri,) p. 39, that we shall make an extract : Kriisi says, " To be present at the religious instruction of Niederer, and at his confirmations, was sure to have a good influence upon the heart. Good preparatory instruc- tion in intellect and language was necessary, in order to appreciate it, it is true ; but this was to be enjoyed in the institution. Although he soon passed over the history of creation, the gospel of John, and the sermon on the mount, yet the instruction he derived from these sources as to the faith, had a complete character, and afforded deep views of the essence of religion and of the scope of human duty. I several times attended the whole course ; and how highly I valued the privilege may be inferred from the fact that I forthwith sent three of my children to attend, that they might learn from him the happiness of religion. Niederer filled an important part in Pestal- ozzi's institution and history. He earnestly devoted his time and strength to the subjects of religion, language, literature, and philos- ophy. He first studied Pestalozzi's works, in their various applica- tions to pedagogy, politics, legislation, -.. - .> . > > - : : " :?.# iiliiir me in gaining a more fiworahte position. When, therefore. lurflsi ia> :-:-.. ::.-. ::.,: 1\ <:.-.: ::: < -. . -.-. -.,;-, : . : .. > w.-,^ ,-/. : ?-:". .-c..v . ' ,- , :' ,- ' >:: ;- :< ,--.:'..-,- [ ..,.-,-_;. I was. as I have before stated, folly aware of my deficiencies :. and the hop* that I should meet with an opportunity of improving myselC had no small share in my determination to go to BurgdorC in spite of the warnings which 1 598 JOHAiNNKS IH'S>. received from several quarters against forming any connection with Pestnlozzi. wlio, they told me, was half mad, and knew not himself what he was about! In proof of this assertion they related various stories ; as. for instance, that he once came to Easel, having his shoes tied with straw, because he had given his silver buckles to a beggar on the road. I had road " l.>mtrd and Ger- trude," and had, therefore, little doubt about the buckles; but that ho was mad that I questioned. In short, I was determined to try. I went to Burgdorf. I can not describe the feelings I had at our first interview. He came down from an upper room with Ziemssen, who was just then on a visit with him, his stock- ings hanging down about his heels, and his coat covered with dust. His whole appearance was so miserable that 1 was inclined to pity him, and yet there \\a> in his expression something so great, that I viewed him with astonishment and veneration. This, then, was Pestalozzi? His benevolence, the cordial recep- tion he gave to me, a perfect stranger, his unpretending simplicity, and tin- di- lapidated condition in which he stood before me; the whole man, taken together, impressed me most powerfully. 1 was his in one instant. No man had ever so sought my heart ; but none, likewise, has ever so fully won my confidence. The following morning 1 entered his school : and, at first, I con loss 1 saw in it nothing but apparent disorder, and an uncomfortable bustle. But I had heard Ziemssen express himself, the day before, with great warmth concerning Pestalozzi's plan ; my attention was exeited, and, conquering in myself the first impression, I endeavored to watch the thing more closely. It was not long before I discovered some of the advantages of the new method. At first I thought the children were detained too long at one point; but I was soon reconciled to this, when I saw the perfection which they attained in their first exercises, and the advantages which it insured to them in their further progress. I now perceived, for the first time, the disadvantages under which I myself had labored, in consequence of the incoher- ent and desultory manner in which I had been taught in my boyhood ; and I be- gan to think that, if I had been kept to the first elements with similar persever- ance, I should have been able afterward to help myself, and thus to escape all the sufferings and mclaneholy which I had endured. This notion of mine perfectly agrees with Pestalozzi's principle, that by his method men are to be enabled to help themselves, since there is no one, as he says, in God's wide world, that is willing or able to help them. I shuddered when I rend this passage for the first time in " Leonard and Gertrude." But, alas, the experience of my life lias taught me that, unless a man be able to help him- self, there is actually no one, in God's wide world, able or willing to help him. I now saw quite clearly that my inability to pursue the plan of my younger years in an independent manner, arose from the superficiality with which I had been taught, and which had prevented me from attaining that degree of intrinsic pow- er of which I stood in need. I had learned an art, but I was ignorant of the basis on which it rested ; and now that I was called on to apply it, in a manner consistent with its nature. I found myself utterly at a loss to know what that na- ture was. With all the attention and zeal I brought to the subject, I could not understand the peculiar view which Pestalozzi took of drawing, and 1 could not at all make out his meaning, when he told me that lines, angles, and curves were the basis of drawing. By way of explanation, he added, that in this, as in all other matters, the human mind must be led from indistinct intuitions to clear ideas. But I had no idea, whatever, how this was to be done by drawing. He said it must be done by dividing the square and the curve, by distinguishing their simple elements, and comparing them with each other. I now tried to find out what these simple elements were, but I knew not how to get at simple elements ; and, in endeavoring to reach them, I drew an endless variety of figures, which, it is true, might be called simple, in a certain sense, but which were utterly unfit, nevertheless, to illustrate the elementary laws which Pestalozzi was in search of. Unfortunately he was himself no proficient either in writing or drawing ; though, in a manner to me inconceivable, he had carried his children pretty far in both these attainments. In short, months passed away before I understood what was to be done with the elementary lines which he put down for me. At last I began to suspect that I ought to know less than I did know ; or that, at least, I must throw my knowledge, as it were, overboard, in order to descend to those simple t leirents by which I saw him produce such powerful, and, to me, unattainable JOHANNES BUSS. 299 effects. My difficulties were immense. But the constant observation of the progress which his children made in dwelling perseveringly on his " elements," brought my mind, at last, to maturity on that point ; I did violence to myself, and, abandoning my preconceived notions of the subject, I endeavored to view all things in the light of those same elements ; till, at last, having reached the point of simplicity, I found it easy, in the course of a few days, to draw up my sketch of an alphabet of forms. Whatever my eyes glanced upon from that moment, I saw between lines which determined its outline. Hitherto I had never separated the outline from -the ob- ject, in my imagination ; now I perceived the outline invariably as distinct from the object, as a measurable form, the slightest deviation from which I could easily ascertain. But I now fell into another extreme. Before I had seen nothing but objects; now I saw nothing but lines; and I imagined that children must be ex- ercised on these lines exclusively, in every branch of drawing, before real objects were to be placed before them for imitation, or even for comparison. But Pesta- lozzi viewed his drawing-lessons in connection with the whole of his method, and with nature, who will not allow any branch of art to remain isolated in the hu- man mind. His intention was, from the first beginning, to lay before the child two distinct series of figures, of which one should be contained in his book for the earliest infancy, and the other should furnish practical illustrations for a course of lessons on abstract forms. The first were intended to form, as it were, a supple- ment to nature, in giving children an intuitive knowledge of things and their names. The second was calculated to combine the practical application of art with the theoretical knowledge of its laws, by connecting the perception of ab- stract forms with an intuitive examination of the objects that fitted into those forms.* In this manner, he meant to bring nature and art to bear upon each other ; so that, as soon as the children were able to draw a line, or a figure, real objects should be presented to them, so exactly corresponding as to render their imitation a mere repetition of the same exercise which they had before performed in the abstract. I was afraid lest, by giving the child real objects, his perception of the outline should be disturbed ;"but Pestalozzi did not wish to cultivate any power against nature, and he said, concerning this subject : " Nature gives no lines, but only ob- jects to the child ; the lines must be given to the child, that he may view the objects correctly; but to take the objects from him, in order to make him see lines only, would be exceedingly wrong." But there was another difficulty in which I had entangled myself. Pestalozzi told me that children must learn to read those outlines like so many words, by denominating the different parts, the lines, angles, and curves, with different let- ters, so that their combinations may be as easily expressed in language, and put down in writing, as any other word by the composition of its letters. In this man- ner an alphabet of forms was to be established and a technical language created, by means of which the nicest distinctions of the different forms might be clearly brought before the mind, and appropriately expressed in words calculated to illus- trate them by the difference of the formation. Pestalozzi persevered until I understood him. I saw that I gave him a great deal of trouble, and I was sorry for it. It was, however, unavoidable ; and but for ; his patience we should never have made an alphabet of forms. At last I succeeded. I began by the letter A. I showed him what I had done ; he approved of it, and now one thing'followed from the other without any difficulty. In fact, the figures being once completed, the whole was done ; but I was unable to see all that I had done ; I had neither the power of expressing myself clearly on the subject, nor the capability of understanding the expression of others. To remedy the defect under which I labored is, however, one of the most es- sential objects of Pestalozzi's method, which connects language throughout with the knowledge gained from nature by the assistance of art, and supplies the pupil at every stage of instruction with appropriate expressions for what he has learned. It was an observation which we all of us made upon ourselves, that we were unable to give a distinct and accurate account, even of those things of which we had a clear and comprehensive idea. Pestalozzi himself, when explaining his views on education, had great difficulties in find ing always the precise term which "would convey his meaning. 300 JOHANNES BUSS. It was this want of precise language, in fact, which caused me to remain so- long in the dark concerning the nature of my task, and prevented me from per- ceiving what Pestalozzi's views were on that subject. After I had overcome all these difficulties, my progress was rapid, and I felt every day more the advantages of his method. 1 saw how much may be done by precision and clearness of language on the subject of instruction, whether it be one of nature or of art, to assist the mind in forming a correct notion of forms and their proportions, and in distinguishing them clearly from each other ; and I could not, therefore, but be aware of the paramount importance of enlightened and careful instruction in the signs which language supplies for the designation of things, their properties, relations, and distinctions. Experience confirmed the conjecture which I had formed, that children taught upon this method would make more accurate distinctions, than even men accustomed, from earlv life, to- measuring and drawing; and the progress which many of our children made was beyond comparison, greater than that which is commonly obtained in schools. It is very true, I saw the whole of Pestalozzi's method only through the me- dium, as it were, of my peculiar branch of instruction, and judged of its value by the effects which it produced in particular application to my art. But my anxiety to enter fully into the spirit of it, led me, in spite of that limitation, by degrees to investigate the bearing which it had upon other branches ; and, at last,, assisted by the practical illustrations which drawing afforded me, I succeeded in< comprehending Pestalozzi's views on language and arithmetic. [ saw that, as it was possible to proceed from lines to angles, from angles to figures, and from fig- ures to real objects, in the art of drawing, so it must likewise be possible, in lan- guage, to proceed b) T degrees from sounds to words, and from words to sentences, and thereby lead the child to equal clearness on that subject. As regard! arith- metic, I was laboring under the same error as before, with reference to the intu- ition of objects. As I looked at these without reference to their outline, so did I view numbers without a clear notion of the real value or contents of each. Now,. on the contrary, I acquired a distinct and intuitive idea of the extent of each number, and I perceived, at the same time, the progress which the children made in this branch of instruction. At length, it seemed to me a point of essential importance, that the knowledge and practice of the elements of every art should be founded upon number, form, and language. This led me to understand the difficulties with which I had so long been struggling in my own department. I saw how I had stuck fast from want of clearness of language, and how I was impeded by a confused idea of number. It seemed very obvious that the child can not imagine, with any degree of precision, the division of any figure into its- component parts, unless he have a clear idea of the number of those parts ; that, for instance, if he is in the dark as to the extent of the number four, he must be equallv in the dark on the division of any figure into four parts. I felt my own mind daily clearing up ; I saw that what I had attained had in itself a power, as it were, to carry me further and further ; and applying this experience to the child, I came to the conviction, that the effect of Pestalozzi's method is, to render every individual intellectually independent, by awakening and strengthening in him the power of advancing by himself in every branch of knowledge. It seemed like a great wheel, which, if once set going, would con- tinue to turn round of itself. Nor did it appear so to me only. Hundreds came, and saw, and said : '' It can not fail." Poor ignorant men and women said : " Why, that's what I can do myselY at home with my child ! " And they were right. The whole of the method is mere play for any one who has laid hold of the first elements, and has followed its progress sufficiently to be secured against the danger of straying into those circuitous paths which lead man away from the foundation of nature, on which alone all his knowledge and art can securely rest,. and from which he can not depart without entangling himself in endless and inextricable difficulties. Nature herself demands nothing of us but what is easy, provided we seek it in the right way, and under her guidance. One word more, and 1 have done. My acquaintance with Pestalozzi's method has in a great measure restored to me the cheerfulness and energy of my younger dav^. and has rekindled in my bosom those hopes of improvement for myself and mv jpecies, which I had for a long time esteemed as vain dreams, and cast away in opposition to the voice of my own heart. JOSEPH SCHMID. JOSEPH SCHMID, one of the best known of Pestalozzi's assistants, was a native of Tyrol, and, when he entered the institution as a scholar, was a Catholic, and excessively ignorant. He possessed great native talent for mathematics, and this, together with his habits of industry, order, and thoroughness, raised him in time to the rank of the most influential of Pestalozzi's teachers. Although his talents as a mathematician, and still more his great business capacity, rendered him quite indispensable as a member of the institution, yet his con- duct, and his demeanor in his intercourse with his fellow-instructors, became so unsatisfactory to them, that in 1810 he was dismissed from the institution. He soon after established himself as teacher of a school at Bregenz, and vindicated himself by publishing a work en- titled " My Experience and Ideas on Education, Institutions, and Schools: 1 But the absence of his financial guidance brought the institution to such a point of confusion, that, notwithstanding the deep ill-feeling against him on the part of the teachers, he was recalled five years afterward, in 1815. From this time onward, he was in opposition to all the remaining teachers, except Pestalozzi himself, who unflinch- ingly stood his friend to the day of his death. But the dislike of the other teachers against him, although unable to eject him from the institution, resulted, with other causes, in its ruin. Twelve of the teachers, including Blochmann, Kriisi, Stern, Ramsauer, Ackermann, ^fec., left at one time ; having drawn up and signed a document attrib- uting their departure to the faults and misconduct of Schmid. Others were appointed in their places, but the day of the institution was over, and it gradually sank into entire decay. Schmid now conceived the idea of an edition of the complete works of Pestalozzi, and himself made the arrangements with the publisher, Cotta, and applied for subscriptions in all quarters, with so much vigor and success that the net profits of the undertaking to Pestalozzi were 50,000 francs. He also appears to have assisted in revising and rewriting portions of the works ; which, however, do not contain a number of important compositions by Pestalozzi, while some of Schmid's own. embodying them, are published among them. Sch raid's personal appearance was somewhat striking. He was 302 JOSEPH SCHMID muscular and strong, of dark complexion, and keen black eyes, \\\th a harsh voice, and a sharp look. Of his life, subsequent to the year 1817, we have no precise information. We give below Pestalozzi's- own estimate of Schmid, as published in 1825 : u I must trace from its source the powers which seemed the only ones capable of holding us together in these sad circumstances. While we were at Burgdorf, in the beginning of the evil consequences of our unnatural union there, there came to us, from the mountains of Tyrol, a lad showing not a single trace of the exaggerated refine- ment of our time, but endowed with inward gifts whose depth and subsequent use were anticipated by none not even by myself. But some unexplained feeling drew me toward him on the first instant of his appearance in our midst, as I had never been drawn to any other pupil. His characteristics were, from the first, quiet, efficient activity, circumscribed within himself: great religious fervency, after the Cath- olic persuasion, and of a simple but powerful kind ; and eager efforts after every attainment in learning or wisdom which he judged neces- sary. Tn the exercises in elementary means of education, mental and practical, he soon surpassed all his teachers, and soon even became the instructor of those who a little before had looked upon him as the most uncultivated child they had ever seen in our institution. This son of nature who even at this day owes nothing to the culture of the time, and, in all that he has accomplished, is as ignorant of the usual outward forms of every intellectual science as he was the day he came from the mountains into our midst, with his Ave Maria in his mouth and his beads in 'his pocket, but with a powerful intellect,. a peaceful heart, and courage ready for every struggle soon excited, by. his whole conduct amongst us, extraordinary expectations ; and, on my part, that close friendship which I felt for him almost as strongly in the first hour of our meeting. Schmid passed the years of his youth in these quiet but active labors; and, recognized at his first appearance as an extraordinary child of nature, his mind, developed in the power of thinking and. managing by many experiences of practical life, could not fail soon to recognize the unnaturalness and weakness of our organization, and of all our doings and efforts. As soon as the influence of his preponder- ating powers had insured him a recognized right to do it, he did not delay to declare himself, with Tyrolian open-heartedness, against the presumption of the one-sided and narrow views of the tablet-phan- tasta, and of the equally narrow and one-sided as well as superficial praises of our methods of intellectual instruction ; and, most of all r against the continually-increasing inefficiency, love of mere amuse ment, disorder, insubordination, and neglect of positive duties there- JOSEPH SCI1MID. 303 with connected. He required, without any exception, of each and all of the members of our association, from morning to evening, the thorough performance of all the duties properly pertaining to the members of a well-ordered household. He was equally clear and distinct in rejecting every boast of the elevation and importance of our principles and efforts, which was not proved amongst us by actual facts, as idle babble ; and was accustomed to ask, when any thing of this kind was said, * How is this put into practice ? What use is made of it? ' And, if the answer did not please him, he would hear no more of the subject. This conduct, however, very soon and very generally gave very great offense." Fortunes of My Life, pp. 22 to- 24, 34, 36. HANS GEORG NAGELI. HANS GEORG NAGELI, by whose compositions and teaching the Pestalozzian method of instruction was applied to the study of music, was born, May 17, 1773, at Wetzekon, a village in the canton of Zu- rich, of which his father was pastor. After receiving his rudimentary education at home, he went to Zurich in 1786, to continue his studies ; but homesickness soon drew him back to his father's home, where he devoted himself carefully to the study of music, and in 1790 he again resorted to Zurich, when in a few years we find him in a music store and musical circulating library of his own, and at the same time giving lessons in singing. He became a composer and publisher of music, and in 1800 he established a periodical principally, devoted to his favorite art. His song, " Life let us cherish," accompaniments of harp and harpsichord, published in 1794, passed the parlor, and the fireside, and the social gathering of rich and poor, all over Europe ; and the same popularity has marked other productions of his. Nageli was one of the earliest founders, even if he did not originate, the Swiss musical league or union, which set the example of great musical festivals, attended by concourses of people, practically engaged in or lovers of the art. He went out frequently to give instruction, to musical societies in the different cantons, to lecture on the subject to conventions of teachers, and, in 1810, published, in connection with M. T. PfeifFer, " The Theory of Instruction in Singing, on Pes- talozzian Principles," (Die Gesangbildungslehre nach Pestalozzischen Grundsatzen,) by which a new epoch in this department of education was introduced. The treatise was the best realization of the method of Pestalozzi, and soon made singing a regular study in the popular schools of Europe, particularly those of Switzerland and Germany. By the efforts of William C. Woodbridge and Lowell Mason, the method of Nageli was introduced into the United States ; and, in con- sequence, the study of music became much more philosophical and general, and is fast passing into the course of instruction in our com- mon schools. Nageli died at Zurich, on the 26th of December, 1836, from a cold he contracted in discharge of his duties as a member of the council of education. JOHANN RAMSAUEB. JOHANX RAMSAUER was born in May, 1790, in Herisau, in the Swiss canton of Appenzell, where his father carried on a small manufac- tory, and a trade in the machines and tools used in spinning and weaving-factories. In his fourth year he lost his father, whose busi- ness was continued by his mother. He was the youngest of her seven remaining children ; and was occupied in the labors of the establish- ment, and in accompanying his older brothers and sisters to market. At home he learned to work, and to be orderly, industrious, and obe- dient. At eight he was sent to a wretched school, where, in two years, he learned, with great difficulty, to write and read ill. During this period of his life he learned much more from the good examples set him at home than from the incompetent schoolmaster. In the " Brief Sketch of My Pedagogical Life," furnished originally for Diesterweg's " Pedagogical Germany," we are told : "When the French Revolution, during the years 1796 to 1799, caused stagnation of trade, general loss of employment, and even famine and all sorts of misery throughout Switzerland, especially the eastern part, there gradually wandered away, out of the cantons of Uri, Schwytz, Unterwalden, Zug, Glarus, and Appenzell, five thousand three hundred boys and girls of from seven to fourteen ; partly to Basle and Neuenburg, but chiefly to the great cantons of Zurich and Bern, where they were received humanely, and in most cases treated even with parental kindness and fidelity. Although I did not belong to such a troop of utterly destitute children, my mother yielded to my often -repeated request to be also allowed to emigrate ; and thus, in February, 1800, I left my home and wandered off with forty-four boys of from ten to fourteen years old." He entered, while a boy, a school at Burgdorf, which Kriisi was teaching ; and soon after that of Pestalozzi. " In the public school, where Pestalozzi taught six hours daily, I learned, school-fashion, no more than the rest. But his holy zeal, his deep and entirely self-forgetting love, and his earn- est manner, impressive even to the children, made the deepest im- pression upon me, and knit my childish, grateful heart to his forever." He continued for several years at Burgdorf, as scholar, table-waiter, and under-under-teacher. Ramsaner became a favorite scholar of Pestalozzi, and accompanied him, often acting as his private secretary 306 JOHANN RAMSAUER. during his stay at Burgdorf, Miinchen-Buchsee, and Yverdun. At the latter place he acquired a knowledge of mechanics, with the view of assisting in a school planned by Pestalozzi for the education of the poor. He left Yverdun in April, 1816, to become a teacher in a school newly established at Wiirzburg ; departing from Pestal- ozzi with great reluctance, but feeling that the influence and character of Schmid rendered him of little further use there, and in part in- duced by the privilege of free attendance upon lectures at the Univers- ity of Wiirzburg. Here Ramsauer lived happily, making short journeys from time to time, giving private instruction, acquiring new knowledge from the university lectures, of a kind which afforded a useful complement to his previous practical studies, and growing so rapidly in reputation that, in October, 1816, of four invitations to other situations as teacher, two were from Stuttgardt, one inviting him to become instructor of the princes Alexander and Peter of Oldenburg, and another to become head of an important school for the elementary instruction of children of the educated classes. Both these invita- tions he accepted, and went to Stuttgardt in March, 1817. While here, he undertook a third employment as teacher in a new real school; his own institute being discontinued, and the male pupils entering the real school, while the female ones, whom he continued to teach, attended the Katharinemtift, a female school established by the Queen of Wirtemburg, and opened with an address by the queen herself. The young princes of Oldenburg leaving Stuttgardt in 1 820, for the court of their grandfather, the Duke of Oldenburg, Ramsauer attended them thither, to continue their education in mathermUics, drawing, and gymnastics. Some months afterward he opened a school for girls of the educated classes, which he was still conducting with success in 1838. In 1826 he was appointed teacher of the duchesses Amalia and Frederica of Oldenburg, whom he instructed for ten years. After- ward he established in Oldenburg a school for the daughters of per- sons of the educated classes. Here he published his u Instruction in Form, Size, and Substance ; being the elements of Geometry meth- odized. With fifteen lithographic plates. 1826." He had before published his work on " Drawing, " in two volumes, thirty-one litho- graphic plates. Ramsauer sums up his pedagogical experience as follows : 1. I learned, in my father's house, up to my tenth year, to pray and to obey. 2. In Schleumen, to run, climb, and jump. 3. With Pestalozzi, from rny eleventh to my twenty-sixth year, to work, to think, and to observe. JOHANN RAMSAUER. 307 4. During my various journeys, to be independent, and to help myself. 5. In Wiirzburg and Stuttgardt, to be more modest, and to some extent a knowledge of the world and of family life. 6. In Oldenburg, the word of God ; to endure good and evil with equanimi- ty, well-knowing whence and why they come ; and in many ways the knowl- edge that we live upon a beautiful and wonderful earth, but that to care and strive for things connected with it, is a troubled life ; that it is well worth while to pay regard to the spirit of the age ; and that it is possible to live very hap- pily here below, and, at the same time, to prepare one's self well for the better future life. We give some further extracts from the " Sketches" which may be interesting to readers connected with the work of education. I have already said that the finer social graces must either be inborn or de- veloped by culture. Even of the simple politeness of a boy's manners this is true. I have found this always to be the case. Those to whom this gift is nat- ural are usually of rather weak or superficial intellects ; but, as the saying is, they get well through the world that is, easily attain eminence in society. This opinion has led me to another and a more important one, namely, that in practical life it is of little moment whether one has "a good head," (ein guter kopf.) It is of much greater importance, however, what is one's character for truthfulness and perseverance ; and much more, that he keep his faith. Through this last, if it be of the right kind, comes the blessing. As to the point of prac- tical efficiency, every one of even moderate experience in the world will agree with me that those men who have filled important places in the world, are in- debted to their truthfulness, perseverance, and uprightness, much more than to- their "good head," or their "genius." This is especially true of those of the burgher class. Even in the elementary school, this truthfulness and persever- ance can be cultivated, proved, and established ; but it is home education which must do most of it. It has often troubled me to hear of a " smart boy " (guien Jcopfe,) in a family or school, and to see those undervalued who lacked such a qualification. Such conduct discourages those reckoned inferior, (who subsequently very probably may excel them,) and only makes those possessed of this apparent talent con- ceited and heartless. Faith and good feeling forbid such doing; unless we are - born merely for the span of present existence! Young teachers, just com- mencing, are especially prone to fix upon such smart boys; but commonly de- ceive themselves, by setting a high value upon a mere partial quickness of apprehension. There are even teachers, whether from the fear of men or from some other discreditable weakness, who praise every thing they see in their scholars ; or who, after they have complained to their colleagues about scholars all the year, will, at the end of the term, make out for them certificates of unqualified excellence. I have known not only hundreds but thousands of proofs that, however un- pleasant a strict teacher my be to a bad scholar, such a scholar will, in the end, feel toward him more respect, and gratitude, and love; provided only that the strictness was just that is, without respect of persons, partiality, or passion- ateness. Even the most spoiled of children will endure ten times more from such a teacher than from another, provided only that the parents acquiesce in it. There are also teachers who lay great stress upon learning quickly ; forget- ting that the most superficial scholars are often the quickest. Such will find, by experiments enough, that these forget just as quickly ; while things acquired with more pains remain longer in the memory, and are better understood. The principal thing is thoroughness; it is this only which truly educates which tells upon character. Merely to know more or less is of little significance : whoever imagines that he knows very much, does, in fact, know pitifully little. This thoroughness should be a characteristic even of the lowest elementary school ; and is a constituent of what I have already referred to as perseverance. A condition preparatory to this thoroughness is, that the scholar be constrained (without any apparent force, however,) into thinking and laboring independ- ently. Thus I have often said to an indolent or compliant scholar, who imitated others rather too easily, "Your own eating must make you fat; that you^ 308 JOHANN RAMSAUER. know very well. Just so, your own thinking must make you \\ ise ; and your own practice must make you dexterous." A condition of thoroughness is repetition ; constant repetition. This means is, to many teachers, too wearisome, or too slow : the latter, to those who instruct mechanically only ; the former, to those who have never perceived and learned for themselves, but only out of books. But a teacher whose heart is really in his work will be drilling often and earnestly, and always in new ways ; so that both the scholar and he himself will always be getting at a new and interesting side of the subject. But a teacher who labors in two or three departments of study with vivacity and pleasure, and gives really thorough instruction such as really educates will naturally have neither time nor wish to expend several hours daily hi a club or in other mere amusements. His greatest happiness will be in his calling ; and in daily progress in whatever is truly useful for time and eternity. Such a teacher will live as much as possible amongst his own children, if he has them ; and the more he does so, the better will he compre- hend other children, and, therefore, the better will he manage them. Among my own children, as well as among those of others, I have repeatedly experienced that there is a school understanding, a conversation understanding, and a life or practical understanding ; all three very clearly distinct, especially the first and the third. If the teacher only understands the first of these, he only half-understands even that ; and is hi great danger of exacting too much or too little from his scholars. In like manner, parents are liable to do the teacher injustice, if they judge of their children only by their words and actions at home. Girls especialty, who in school hardly dare open their mouths, often appear astonishingly quick and intelligent outside ; so that those will be much deceived who overlook the multitude of cases in which children imitate the words and actions of adults, and pass off their sayings for their own coin. The school understanding is the most suitable for scholars; as their passions are less liable to come into play in connection with it, and all matters which are regu- larly arranged and under rules assist its onward progress. From this differ- ence it often follows that the same scholar who is industrious, efficient, and intelligent in school, and seems there to be far forward for his age, is wholly a child when outside of it, childish and simple (as he should be,) and apparently quite backward in understanding, and this especially where he needs to govern himself and to exhibit character. Such experiences of a hundred others will lead every observing teacher I do not state this as any thing new, but merely as something of psychological importance, and therefore not susceptible of too frequent repetition to require from his scholars neither too much nor too little, and to hope from them neither too much nor too little. And I believe that the frequent enforcement of such experiences would materially ease the difficult calling of the teacher, especially at its commencement, and would save beginners our trouble at Pestalozzi's In- stitute ; that is, from spending all the first years of their work in proving and experimenting, without the advantage of being able to learn of their prede- cessors. ; KARL AUGUST ZELLER KARL AUGUST ZELLER, High School Councillor and Royal Council- lor of the Kingdom of Prussia, was born August 15th, 1774, in Ludwigsburg, Wirtemberg. He was educated in a theological semi- nary, and in 1798 received an appointment as teacher and assistant preacher in the evangelical congregation at Brunn. In 1803, he pro- ceeded to Pestalozzi's establishment at Burgdorf, for the purpose of making himself acquainted with his new system of instruction. AD offer, which he accepted, to accompany a young man of the Von Palm family upon his travels, gave him occasion, while at Tubingen in the winter of 1804, to establish a charity school for the purpose of trying Pestalozzi's plans, and afterwards, at the request of some of his scholars at Brunn, a Sunday-school. Both are described in a work dedicated to that friend of education, the late Pauline, Princess of Detmold, who gave him the appointment of Councillor, and retained a decided interest in his prosperity until her death. Zeller became pastor at St. Gall, and teacher in the gymnasium there, in 1805. In 1806, he became acquainted, in Zurich, with the Senator Rusterholz, who had a scheme for educating all the teachers of the cantons in normal schools, which he was prevented from carry- ing out by sickness. Becoming much interested for the sick man and his designs, he agreed to remain in Zurich and endeavor to assist him ; to which cooperation the authorities of the cantons agreed. The first course of instruction was opened in 1806, with thirty pupils, by a commission of school councillors, under the presidency of Superintendent Gessner. The lectures, here devoted to the principles of correct school discipline, gave Zeller an opportunity of composing bis " School for Teachers" After the decisive experiment of this course, seven thousand florins were appropriated to defray the expense of a Normal School, Pestalozzi's arithmetic was introduced, and a plan of teaching drawn up by Zeller was printed and introduced into the pa- rochial schools of the canton. A second and a third part to this treatise soon followed. Being appointed Director of the Normal Institute, he trained, in 1807, among others, a Catholic clergyman, sent to him by the government of Lucerne, and who was followed by three canons from the same canton, who had been studying at Kreutzlingen in the KARL AUGUST ZELLER. Thurgan, under the patronage of Von Wessenberg. Meanwhile, a favorable report was made by a commission of clergymen upon the result of the first three courses of the normal school ; and, whereupon, Zeller published a work on the subject, in the form of letters ad- dressed to the Princess Pauline. Three courses of lectures now fol- lowed, one of which was delivered before the Swiss Diet, and the attention of the Confederation was thus drawn to the subject of them. The year 1808 found Zeller with Pestalozzi, teaching and learn- ing, and enjoying himself amongst the children. In returning, he passed through Hofwyl, where a young Bernese gave him fifty Caro- lines, with the request that he would undertake a school for teachers among his country people in that neighborhood. Upon the invitation of the consistory, who added thirty Carolines, forty teachers assembled, and remained under his instruction ten months. A French teacher, under an assumed name, also attended this course, and afterwards pursued his vocation in his own country. By reason of the open recognition by the Bernese government of his efforts, in spite of mali- cious opposition, and having a little before received a call from Zofin- gen, Zeller had meditated spending the remainder of his life as a Swiss burgher ; but the visit of the King of Wirtemberg to Hofwyl gave another direction to his life. The king had attended five of his lectures, and was so much pleased with what he saw and heard, that he declared that he could not per- mit Zeller to remain in that place. In fact, he shortly after received the appointment of school-inspector at Heilbronn, and, two months later, an appointment at Konigsberg from the Prussian minister of state, Von Schrotter, whom War-councillor Schiffner had made acquainted with the "Letters to the Princess Pauline" Not yet actually employed in Heilbronn, Zeller requested permission to accept the latter ; but an order to the teachers of the vicinity to assemble there, and to himself as the proper schoolmaster to instruct them, was the answer. Forty-two teachers assembled, including one minis- ter, and remained, at their own expense, six weeks. The assembly was characterized by the same pleasant activity, good nature and success, which had appeared in Switzerland. In April, 1809, with the office of Councillor in the government of East Prussia, he was authorized to organize the Orphan House at Konigsberg as a model school, in which young clergymen and teachers might be in- structed, with courses of lectures on the administration and instruction of schools, and traverse all the provinces of the kingdom for similar pur- poses. On condition that he should deliver one more course of lectures to clergymen of all three confessions, the King of Wirtemberg at length KARL AUGUST ZELLER. 311 allowed him to accept the appointment. Fifty-two eminent clergy- men and six teachers assembled, and remained under his instruction during four weeks. A commission from the High Consistory of the kingdom and from the Council of Catholic Clergy held an examination upon the result, and Zeller, accompanied by one of Pestalozzi's pupils, now for the first time proceeded to the Baltic. The new organization of the orphan home at Konigsberg in a short time excited so much interest, that a considerable number of official persons were desirous of some report upon Zeller's methods and or- ganization. Further ; the noble and intellectual men who were labor- ing with Scharnhorst to reestablish the warlike fame of Prussia, learned hence to consider the relation between a correct school disci- pline and military discipline. October 7, the king, queen and minis- try, made a personal inspection of the school, and the dignity of High School Councillor, conferred upon the director, showed their gratifica- tion with the visit. In May, 1810, the institution had so grown that the first course of lectures was attended by a hundred and four deans, superintendents and pastors, and the second by seventy clergy- men and teachers. In 1811, he organized a second institution at Braunsberg for the province of Ermeland, and a third at Karalene, for Lithuania. He would gladly have remained in the latter pleasant place, but his official duties would not permit. He was intending to go to Stettin also, but the approach of Napoleon's expedition to Russia prevented. An " ex- traordinary compensation " was now decreed him, in consequence of this disappointment, and as a testimony of the satisfaction of the king and the ministry with the results of his exertions in East and West Prussia and Lithuania. This was the gift of the domain of Munster- walde, near Marienwerder, on the condition that he should continue to perform the functions of his appointment. He accordingly pub- lished a manual for the Prussian army-schools, and a work upon his experiments in organizing the school of correction at Graudenz, con- taining a statement of the methods upon which all his labors hitherto had been conducted. For several years Zeller resided at Kreutznach, Wetzlar and Bonn, busily engaged in writing and in the support of his numerous family. His only son devoted himself to the study of theology at Bonn, and at the same place, his wife, the mother of his seven chil- dren, died. He became desirous of revisiting his native country ; and, having been raised by the King of Prussia to the third class of the " red order of nobility," he removed to Stuttgart in 1834. His last labors were devoted to his own country ; the institution at 312 ZELLER. Lichtenstein owes to him its foundation and progress, a building worth eleven hundred florins, and continued care and advocacy. The requirements of his situation obliged him to remove to Stuttgart again in the autumn of 1837. His very busy and varied life came to an end in the beginning of the year 1847, while he was absent from home on a short journey ; a life that knew no rest, and whose quiet pulses often seemed like rest- less wandering ; a life which, without despising an open recognition of its deserts, yet often forgot itself in true sacrifices for the sake of doing good ; that willingly bestowed its strength wherever any benefi- cial purpose was to be served, and especially if any alleviations in the condition of the children of the poor common people were in prospect. His mission was, not to maintain and carry on an enterprise already commenced, with long-suffering and victorious patience and constancy, but rather to erect edifices upon waste and desert ground for others to furnish. Especially valuable for young theologians are the many stirring thoughts contained in his "Thomas, or John and Paul?" published in 1833. The desire and labor of his life was to improve the common schools. The study of singing in that class of Prussian schools began with him. He was energetic, not only in introducing new discoveries in pedagogical science, but also in independently sift- ing and ingeniously improving its principles already accepted. Zeller's best known educational works, as given in Hergang's ' Manual of Pedagogical Literature" are : The Schoolmaster School ; or, instructions in school education on the plan of the institutions for saving children (Kinder-Rettungsan- stalt). Leipzig, 1839. Elementary Schools; their personal, local and administrative organi- zation. Konigsberg, 1815. The Evangel of Jesus Christ ; or his character as such ; not de- veloped chronologically, but in its various elements and relations ; as exhibited in a harmony of the four gospels. Stuttgart, 1839. Methods of Learning, for use of common schools on the mutual system. Eleme7itary Geometry for Common Schools. Three parts. Stutt- gart, 1839. Elementary Singing-Book for Common Schools. Three parts. Stuttgart, 1839. JOHN ERNST PLAMANN. JOHN ERNST PLAMANN, an earnest and influential teacher and apostle of the Pestalozzian system, in Prussia, was born on the 22d of June, 1771, at Repzin, of poor but respectable parents of the burgher class, and received his elementary education at the Royal Real School in Berlin, from which he was removed to the Joachims- thai Gymnasium, then under the charge of the celebrated Meierotto In 1796 he resorted to Halle to study theology, and at the same time acquire the principles of pedagogy under Niemeyer. After spending a few years as a private tutor in the family of his brother-in-law, and passing his examination for a license to teach, he returned to Berlin, to continue his classical studies, and, at the same time, to give instruc- tion in the Messow Institute and other industrial schools, preparatory to founding one of the same class for himself. At this time the fame of Pestalozzi had spread into Germany, and Plamann resolved to see for himself the great schoolmaster who was so extravagantly praised and beloved. Having read " How Gertrude teaches her Children" he could not rest ; but, borrowing some money to pay his expenses, he set out in May, 1803, for Switzerland ; having announced his intention to Pestalozzi in a letter, from which the following is an extract : Thanks is a powerless word to express the enthusiasm which your letters upon instruction have kindled in me. But you will not despise my utterance ; indeed you will not hear it, amid the loud praises which nations are giving you. Of that your heart assures me, noble man, who have so acutely and truly dis- played the inmost laws of the development of the human soul, and with a wise and strong hand laid out the path and the art of training it. You have so radiated upon me the light of truth, and so inspired my breast, that I also feel the sacred call to labor in my fatherland to the same end, according to my powers. The saying of our great teacher, "Many are called, but few chosen," shall not discourage me if I can enjoy your instructions and wise direction. With that I can escape from the old, lifeless, beaten track, which I have been obliged to follow in my labor as a teacher, and will be able to do something in the necessary work of teaching the neglected to elevate them- selves. 0, if you will give me power ; if you will make me an example of your methods ; if you will instruct me thoroughly in your system ; then I hope, with confidence and success, to sow the seed which your benevolence shall have entrusted to me, &c. Pestalozzi was then at Burgdorf. There soon sprung up between him and Plamann a friendship based upon mutual appreciation ; for Plamann, with his thorough knowledge of the labor of former schools 16 JOHN ERNST PLAMANN. in pedagogy, his scientific attainments, his philosophical intellect and psychological insight, was a valuable supplementary person to the Swiss reformer, who had only his own experience of the results of his always original mental action. The latter candidly explained to him what he was seeking, both by means of written and oral communica- tion, until he understood him and his system thoroughly. Plamann writes : Pestalozzi received me like a father. No man ever looked so quickly and deeply into my soul as he. At once he comprehended my whole being, and pressed me to his breast with the warmth of a brother. At his side I learned to feel how many were my faults as a man. I was modest, and told him of my discovery with tearful eyes. ** You are a child of nature," he answei*ed ; " an adept in the rules of science and art, which I am not ; and which, never- theless, a man must be in this world." Thus he used to encourage me to have more confidence in myself. A poem which I gave bim moved him to tears. He smothered me with kisses, and said, " No one has understood me so well." Plamann remained several months in Burgdorf, laboring zealously at the new method ; and became so dear to Pestalozzi, that he could not endure to have him depart, and even offered him money sufficient to enable him to bring his betrothed to Switzerland. But he was impa- tient to introduce the new method into his fatherland. Immediately after his return to Berlin, Plamann proceeded to put his newly-gotten knowledge into practice in the institution where he was teaching, and to apply the method also to other subjects. He maintained a regular correspondence with Pestalozzi and his assistants, especially with Niederer. The Swiss took the utmost interest in his labors, kept him acquainted with their researches, and awaited with solicitude the result of his undertakings. In 1805 Plamann published his work, " Some Principles of the art of Instruction according to Pestalozzi 's Method, applied to Natu- ral History, Geography, and Language" (Einzige Grundregel der Unterrichtskunst nach Pestalozzi's Methode, angewandt in der Na- turgeschichte. Geographic und Sprache.} In this publication, he showed upon what a deep psychological basis Pestalozzi's system rested, and how it is necessarily derived from the laws of human thought. While, however, they commence with the same principles, follow them out with like results, and in like manner connect them with others, their related ones, Plamann differs from Pestalozzi on the view laid down in the "Book for Mothers" that education should begin with instruction on the human body, on the ground that the similarity of it with the bodies of animals does not much concern the child, and that instruction by a teacher should not be given so early. He thought it more proper for the mother to teach the child about such objects as are within the sphere of the child's knowledge ; the JOHN ERNST PLAMANN. 315 house, furniture, clothes, &c. He then proceeds to apply the method to the three departments of natural history, to geography, and to the German language. He promised in the second part to continue the course of instructions on language and geography, as well as on tech- nology and history ; but this has never been published. On account of his high standing with Pestalozzi, his zeal in study- ing the method, and in extending it by his writings, he became a centre for the operations of those who were following the new views in Prussia, and were endeavoring to spread them there. All applied to him for directions, school-books, plans for schools, and information as to the spread and results of the new method; and he was also in communication with persons in foreign countries. Soon after his return to Prussia from Switzerland, Plamann under- took himself to found an institution for the practice of Pestalozzi's methods. For this he obtained the royal permission, Nov. 29, 1803, and opened the institution at Michaelmas, 1805, with his friend Schmidt ; obtaining also, soon after, an assistant from Switzerland, Breissig by name. His undertaking drew much attention, and proved quite suc- cessful. In the following year he published two instructive works : " Course of Instruction for a Pestalozzian School for Boys." (Anord7iuny des Unterrichts fur ein Pestalozzische Knaben Schule.) " Elementary Methods of Instruction in Language and Science" (Elementarformen, Sprach-u. wissenschaftlichm Unterrichtskunst.) At Easter, 1812, Plamann gave up his school, and visited once more his beloved Pestalozzi, to make himself acquainted with the progress of the method, and to observe what was going on in the schools of Switzerland. Upon his return he at once commenced again to " Pestalozzianize," as he expressed himself, and bought a house in Berlin, in which to erect an institution. In the same year he com- menced a publication, which he finished in 1815, entitled, " Contribu- tions to Pedagogical Criticism ; in Defence of the Pestalozzian Meth- od" (Beitrage zur P ddagogischen Kritik ; zur Vertheidigung der Pestalozzischen Methode ) A full description of his new Pestalozzian institution will be found in the " Biography of Plamann, by Doctor Franz Bredow" Pla- mann adhered closely to the Pestalozzian principles throughout ; pro- ceeding strictly according to the forms of the Swiss at first, but using more and more independent methods as he went on. His school was resorted to by young men from all quarters, who were ambitious to understand and disseminate the improved methods of teaching, and he was never more popular than when he gave up his school from the pressure of bodily infirmities, against which he had long struggled. He died on the 3d of September, 1834. FRIEDRICH ADOLF WILHELM DIESTERWEG. FRIEDRICH ADOLF WILHELM DIESTERWEG, an eminent educator, and efficient promoter of the general principles of Pestalozzi, was- born in the then Rhine provinces of Prussia, at Seigen, in Nassau, October 29th, 1790. His first education was received at the Latin school of his native place. Thence he went to the univers- ity of Herborn, intending to devote himself to the study of theol- ogy ; but his academic course was finished at Tubingen. At first a private tutor in Manheim, he was afterward second teacher in the secondary school at Worms; and in 1811 entered the model school at Frankfort-on-the-Mayne, where his holy zeal accomplished muck good. Having become known as a scientifically-trained and well- practiced educator, he was chosen second rector of the Latin school at Elberfeld. From this place he was called, in 1820, to be director of the teachers' seminary at Meurs. In this place he labored with intelligence, energy, and singleness of purpose, during a series of years, for the cause of elementary instruction, which, under the French domination, had been entirely neglected on the Rhine, lie was, moreover, very useful as a writer discussing more particularly mathematics and the German language. In 1827, he commenced publishing (by Schwerz, in Schwelin,) the " Rhenish Gazette of Education and Instruction " (Rheinische Blatter fur Erziebung und Unterricht,) with especial reference to the common schools. The first volume contained much valuable matter, much condensed ; and the succeeding volumes (to ] 859,) have not fallen beneath it in excel- lence. Through this periodical, the educationists of the Rhine prov- inces were afforded a good opportunity for discussing pedagogical subjects; upon which much interest was then beginning to appear. In 1833, Diesterweg was appointed director of the royal seminary for city teachers, at Berlin. Here he labored for eighteen years ; his eyes fixed fast and unvarying upon his object exposing all sorts of pedagogical faults and weaknesses, seeking in every way to raise the position of teachers, and pursuing his work without any fear of men. The meetings of the Pedagogical Society of Berlin were set on foot by him. In 1849, his connection with the seminary was terminated. by the government, in eorisoipK-nre of his popular sympathies iu 10 FRIEDR1CH ADOLF WILIIELM DIESTERWEG 317 1848. During this period, Diesterweg published " Autobiographies of Distinguished Educators f " Education of the Lower Classes" " Degeneracy of our Universities" " Education for Patriotism, t days after his arrival, Kriisi was ptvs.-iit at some of the conversations I had with Fischer on the subject of popular education, when I expressed my decided disap- probation of the Socratic manner of our young candidates, adding, that it was not my wish to bring children to a premature judgment, on any subject, but that my endeavor was rather to eheek their judgment, until the children should have an opportunity of viewing the subject from all sides, and under a variety of circum- stanci s, and until they should be perfectly familiar with the words expressive of its nature and its i|iialit ; es. Kriisi was struck with these remarks: he felt it \\a- there that his own deficiency la} ; he found that he himself stood in need of that same elementary instruction uhich I designed for my children. Fischer exerted himself with all his power to introduce Kriisi to different de- partments of science, that he might he able afterward to leach them. But Kriisi felt every day more that the way of books was not the one for him to make progress in, because on every subject he was destitute of that preliminary knowledge of things and their naiiu s. \\hich, t< a Beater or lesser extent, l>ooks presuppose. Mn the other hand, he witnessed the effect which I produced upon my children, by leading them back to the first elements of human knowledge, and by dwelling on these rleim nts with unwearied patience; and the result of his observation tended to confirm him in the notions he had formed concerning the causes of his own inability. Thus by degrees his whole view of instruction under- went a great change, and he began in his own mind to place it on a different foundation. He now perceived clearly the tendency of my experiments, which was to develop the internal power of the child rather than to produce those results which, nevertheless, were produced as the necessary consequences of my proe , nd seeing the application of this principle to the development of different faculties ly diffen-nt branches of instruction, he came to the conviction that the effect of my method was to lay in the child a foundation of knowledge and further progress, such as it would be impossible to obtain by any other. Fischer's death accelerated the union between Pestalozzi and Kriisi, which had been contemplated by the latter almost from the first moment of his acquaintance with his paternal friend. The following account of the view which he took of Pestalozzi's plan, after he had for some time enjoyed the advantage of practical co-operation with him, is, notwithstanding its great deficiencies, an interesting testimony in favor of the experiment, in the course of which these ideas urged themselves upon an evidently unprejudiced mind. 1. A well-arranged nomenclature, indelibly impressed upon the mind, is to serve as a general foundation, on the ground of which both teacher and children may, subsequently, develop clear and distinct ideas on every branch of knowledge, by a gradual but well-secured progress from the first elements. 2. Exercises concerning lines, angles, curves, &c., (such as I began to introduce at that time,) are calculated to give children such a distinctness and precision in the perception of objects, as will enable them to form a clear notion of whatever falls within the sphere of their observation. 3. The mode of beginning arithmetical instruction by means of real objects, or at least strokes and dots, representing the different numbers, gives great precision HERMANN KRUSI 331 and certainty in the- elements, ami secures tin- further progress of the child against error and confusion. 4. The sentences, ill scriptu v of tli acts of walking, standing, lying, sitting, &e., winch I gave the children to Irani. led Kriisi to perceive the connection "> tween the beginnings of my instruction and the purpose at which 1 was aiming, viz., to produce a general clearness in tin.- mind on all subjects. He soon felt, -fit if children are made to describe in this manner tilings which are so clear to v\ m that experience' can not render them any clearer, they must thereby be r-ecked in the presumption of descr.bing things of which they have no knowledge ; ml, at the sain time, they mint acquir- the power of describing whatever they Uo know, to a de^i-.-e which wdl enable them to give consistent, definite, concise, and comprehensive descriptions of whatever falls \vilh:n reach of their observation. ,Y A few words which I dropped on one occasion, on the tendency of my .ictho 1 to abate prejudice, struck him very forcibly. Speaking of the manifold xcrtions, and the tedious artrum.-nts, by which prejudices are generally ombated, I observed that the* means had about as much power to counteract .jem as the ringing of the bells had to disperse thunder-storms,* but that the .nlv true safeguard against the influences of pivjudiee was a conviction of the .ruth, founded upon self-observation. For truth, so acquired, is in its very nature jn impediment to the reception of prejudice and error in the mind ; so much so, hat if men thus taught are made acquainted with the existence of prevailing false notions l.y th<' never-ceasing cant of society, there is not in their minds any ground for Miat iirnohl,- seed to rest on, or to grow up in, and the effect must therefore be very differ. 'lit from what it proves to be in the common-place men of our age, who have both truth and error thrust into their imagination, not by intuition and at:on. but by the mere charm of words, as it were by a magic lantern. \Vh 'ii reflecting upon these remarks, he came to the conviction, that the silence with which, in my plan of instruction, errors and prejudge were passed over, was likely to prove mor. tVeetiial in counteracting them than all the endless verbiage which he had hitherto seen employed for that purpose. I!. In consequence, of our gathering plants during the summer, and of the con- versations to which this ijave rise, h was brought to the conviction that the whole round of knowledge, to the acquisition of which our senses are instrumental. d'-pend.-d "ii an att iitive observation of nature, and on a careful collection and preservation of whatever she presents to our thirst of knowledge. These were the views on the irround of which he conceived the possibility of establishing such a method of instruction ash" f dt was most needed; viz., one which would cause all the branches of knowledge to bear upon one another, with such coherence and consistenev as would require, on the part of the master, nothing but a knowledge of the mode of applying it, and, with that knowledge, would enable him to obtain, not only for his children but even for himself, all that is considered to be the object of instruction. That is to say, he saw that, with this method, positive learning mi^hl be dispensed with, and that nothing was wanted hut sound common sense, and practicable abilitv in teaching, in order not only to lead the minds of children to the acquirement of solid information, but likewise to brinir parents and teachers to a satisfactory degree of independence and unfett'-red mental activity concerning those branches of knowledge, in which they would submit themselves to the course prescribed by the method. During his six years' experience as village schoolmaster, a considerable number of children, of all ages, had passed through his hands; but with all the pains he took, he had never seen the faculties of the children developed to the degree to which they were carried by my plan ; nor had he ever witnessed in 'them such an extent and solidity of knowledge, precision of thought, and independence of feeling. He inquired into the causes of the difference between his school and mine. He found, in the first instance, that, even at the earliest period of instruction, a certain feeling of energy was not so much produced, for it exists in every mind not enervated by artificial treatment, as an evidence of innate power, as tept alive in cons -quence of my beginning at the very easiest task, and exercising * It is a superstitious practice, kept up to this day in many parts of Switzerland and Ger- many, to ring the church-bells at the approach of a thunder-storm, under the impression that ie sacred toll will effectually remove the danger. 332 HERMANN KRUS1. it to a point of practical perfection before I proceeded ; which, again, was not done in an incoherent manner, but by a gradual and almost insensible addition to what the child had already acquired. With this method, he used to say, you need not push on children, you have only to lead them. Formerly, whatever he wanted to teach, he was obliged to introduce by some such phrase as this : " Pray, do think, if you please !" " Can't you remember, now ?" It could not be otherwise. If, for instance, in arithmetic, he asked, " How many times seven are there in sixty-three ?" the child had no palpable basis on which to rest his inquiry for the answer, and was, therefore, unable to solve the question, otherwise than by a wearisome process of recollection ; but, according to my method, he has nine times seven objects before him, which he has learned to count as nine sevens ; the answer to the above question is, therefore, with him, not a matter of memory ; for although the question, perhaps, may be put to him for the first time, yet he knew long ago, by intuition and practice, that in sixty- three there are nine sevens ; and the same is the case in all the other branches of my method. To adduce another instance : he had in vain endeavored to accustom his children to write the initials of substantives with capital letters ;* the rule by which they were to go was constantly forgotten. Now, on the contrary, the same children, having read through some pages of a vocabulary constructed on my plan, conceived of themselves the idea of continuing that vocabulary out of their own resources, and, by writing long lists of substantives, proved that they had a clear notion of the distinctive character of that sort of words. The remark which Kriisi made, that with this method children do not want to be pushed on, is so correct, that it may be considered as a proof of something imperfect in the mode of instruction, if the child still requires any kind of stimulus to thought; and the method can be considered as perfect only where every exercise proposed to the child is so immediately the result of what he has learned before, that it requires no other exertion on his part than the application of what he already knows. Kriisi further observed that the detached words and pictures, which I used to lay before the children in teaching them to read, produced upon their minds a very different effect from that of the compound phrases commonly used in schools. He, therefore, now began to examine these phrases themselves somewhat more closely, and he found that it was utterly impossible for children to form any distinct notions of the different words of which they are composed ; because they do not consist of simple elements before known to the children, and put together in an obvious connection, but that they are unintelligible combinations of objects mostly or entirely unknown. To employ children's minds in the unraveling of such phrases is contrary to nature ; it exceeds their powers, and leads to delusion,, inasmuch as it introduces them to trains of ideas which are perfectly foreign to them, as regards not only the nature of the objects to which they ivfeT, Imt likewise the artificial language in which they are clothed, and of which the child ren have not even acquired the bare elements. Kriisi saw th.it I was no ad vocate for this hodge-podge of pedantry ; but that I did with my children as nature does with savages, first bringing an image before their eyes, and then seeking a word to express the perception to which it gives rise. He saw that, from so simple an acquaintance with the object, no conclusions, no inferences followed ; that there was no doctrine, no point of opinion inculcated, nothing that would prematurely excite them to decide between truth and error ; it was a mere matter of intuition, a real basis for conclusions and inferences to be drawn hereafter ; a guide to future discoveries, which, as well as their past experience, they might associate with the substantial knowledge thus acquired. He entered more and more into the spirit of my method ; he perceived that every thing depended on reducing the different branches of knowledge to their very simplest elements, and proceeding from them in an uninterrupted progress, by small and gradual additions. He became every day better fitted to second me in the experiments which I myself made on the ground of the above principles; and, with his assistance, I completed, in a short time, a spelling-book, and a course of arithmetic, upon my own plan. * In the German langiiaee, every substantive, and every word used as n substantive is written at the beginning with a cap'i ;il letter. HERMANN KRUSI. 833 Kriisi himself considered the time he spent in Burgdorf the iiappiest -and most fruitful of all his life. The conviction that they were laboring for a cau.su which was to exert an influence for good upon thousands of their fellow-men filled all the laborers there with enthu- Usin, and made every effort and every new creation a delight which ;iey would not have exchanged for all the treasures of earth. The important year 1805, in which Napoleon decreed the resepa- .nion of Switzerland, brought the institution at Burgdorf to an end ; ne castle reverted to the canton and was occupied by the high bailiff'. ?estalozzi, after contemplating for some time the transfer of his insti- ;ution to Miinchenbuchsee, determined to continue it at Yverdun, on the lake of Neufchatel. ' For this purpose he received permission to use the old castle there ; and all his teachers joyfully gathered around ^iim again. In Yverdun, the institution acquired a European reputa- tion ; from all directions there resorted to it not only pupils, (of whom .t contained in its most prosperous condition above two hundred,) but ulso youths and men of riper age and experience, who sought to become acquainted with the discoveries of Pestalozzi, in order to fit themselves for learning and teaching in the great field of human edu- cation. An active and significant life grew up within the walls of the modest little institution, to which there gathered pilgrims both great and small from all parts of Europe. The seed there sown bore fruit a thousand-fold throughout all parts of Germany, and especially in Prussia, where the benevolent king highly valued the efforts and the method of Pestalozzi, and sent several young men of talents to make themselves acquainted with the latter. Besides this undertaking, whose good influence was intended to reach boys, youths, and men of all classes and of all beliefs, Pestalozzi's scheme contemplated also the extension of the advantages of an improved education to girls, in order that they might be trained in their great vocation as mothers. To this end he connected with his institution, in 1806, a girls' institute, under the management of Kriisi and Hopf, the latter of whom was married. This institution succeeded. Pestalozzi's best teachers helped to instruct in it. Among those who patronized i<\ Kriisi always remembered with affection a wealthy .andowner, (Stamm,) of Schleitheim, who sent to Yverdun not only four daughters, but a niece as a sort of guardian, two nephews, and a young man who he was assisting to train himself for the work of teaching. Truly we might almost say, in the words of Jesus, * I have not found such faith, no, not in Israel !" Of the operations of the nstitution Kriisi says : " It gives us heartfelt pleasure ; but we had x>t foreseen \he continually greater demands to be made upon our 334 HERMANN KRU8I. strength and time in order to comply with its i^::."..emer ts We had, therefore, only the choice remaining to devo'* "_r.^elv< i s wholly to one institution or the other. Pestalozzi undertook the management of the new institution, with which I remained in friendly communica- tion. The domestic management and moral instruction WPJ-C all under the charge of several female teachers, until Rosette Kasthofer, afterward Niederer's wife, resolved to make it the object of her life to conduct the institution, in order to the accomplishment of Pestalozzi's views. To this purpose she yet remains true. Although the shortness of my experience will not allow me to claim the ability to educate skillful female teachers and good mothers of families, it will always give me pleasure to remember that the united efforts of my celebrated friend and myself called the institution into life.* 1 Kriisi's wife also received her education in this institution ; but after he had resigned the management of it. We, and a.'l who knew him, must agree that the simplicity and goodness of his disposition peculiarly fitted him for teaching girls, although he first undertook it at the age of thirty. Kriisi's recollections of this period were numerous ; but we must confine ourselves to a very few of them. His acquaintance with. Katherine Egger, afterward his wife, had already commenced in 1810-12. She subsequently removed to Miihlhausen. to assist her sister in her school there ; and we shall derive part of our information from the correspondence between them. In this correspondence he speaks most frequently of Father Pesta- lozzi, and of Niederer, who was always intellectually active, but at that time often depressed in spirits. The reverence and love with which all the friends and fellow-laborers there, to the ends of tin ir lives, spoke of Father Pestalozzi, sufficiently refute the incorrect things now frequently heard on this subject. Thus Kriisi says in one place : 44 Father Pestalozzi is always cheerful, and works with youthful; energy. We often wonder at his enthusiasm, which will yield neither to labor nor to age. I seek to avoid unpleasant collisions between dissimilar views; and sincerely desire that my labor may always satisfy him." And again, about Niederer. 44 Niederer is working like a giant. A defence of the institution against wrong impressions and - tru* oyrv^:*' ~* *t;ilozzi's- designs will soon appear "'n ^nr>* Few mti. ...'-. .;<: \.v won? like him." Even from these few lines we obtain a deep view of the charart" HERMANN KRUSI. 335- of these three fellow-workmen. Of Kriisi's own labors in the institu- tion we shall let Pestalozzi himself speak, further on. A letter from Kriisi, January loth, 1812, on occasion of Pestalozzi's birth-day, gives us a view of the feelings and relations of the pupils toward the father of the institution : " The day," (writes Kriisi to his betrothed,) " was a glorious one, and rich in seeds- and fruits tor the growth and strengthening of the soul and the heart. I can give you only points of recollections of it : from these points you may complete the lines and the whole picture from your own fancy." He proceeds to give a cir- cumstantial account of the festivities in the schoolroom of each class. The decora- tions in those of the third and fourth classes were especially ingenious. In the third were to be seen : a. A transparency of Neuhof, the village of Birr, and the high land of Brunegg. (It was here that Pestalozzi first attempted to realize his benevolent plans for the education of poor factory children.) b. Opposite to this Pestalozzi's bust, of wood, crowned with a wreath of laurels and immortals. 0. On each side of this, a transparency with an inscription : on the right, in German, " May God who gave thee to us, bless thy work and us long through thee !" on the left, in French, " Homage to our father ! the pure joy of our hearts proclaims our happiness." The room of the fourth class was arranged to represent a landscape, in which were to be seen : a. Cultivated land and meadows. b. A rock. c. A spring rising at the foot of the rock, and a brook flowing from it and fer- tilizing the land. d. Near this a poor dwelling ; a hut roofed with straw. e. Over its door the words, " May his age be peaceful." f. In another place an altar. g. Over it the words, in a transparency, " May poverty remember him !" h. On one side of it. " May we live like him !" 1. Upon it, a poor's-box, with a letter from all the members of the class. As soon as Father Pestalozzi entered the chamber, a little geuius came forward from the hut to meet him, and handed him the poor's-box and the letter. He was so surprised and affected that he could scarcely read it. Its contents were as follows : u Dear Herr Pestalozzi ; " It is very little, it is true, which we. both the present and former members f the class, save in the course of the year; which amount we now offer you as a feeble testimony of the depth of our love ; but we are glad to be able to say that at least it comes from sincere hearts; and shall this please you, our end will have been gained. It may express to you our purpose hereafter doing still .more for \he poor, and like yourself, of finding our own happiness in that of others. May we use well the time of our stay here, and by our efforts evermore deserve rour love. May you oe nappy among us ! Full of gratitude to God, we embrace ;ou affectionately, with *he wish that you may live to see us fulfill this promise." The money given amounted to fifty-two Swiss francs. Besides the displays of Ihe children, the printers had a transparency with the words, " May the press send forth hereafter no longer your life, but only the ripe and beautiful fruit of lhat life." Kriisi also describes some festivities which Pestalozzi arranged for /lis pupils in order on his part to give them pleasure. From this pro- duction it is evident with what love and reverence he was regarded by the members of his household, and how they all endeavored to- make his days pass in happiness and comfort. In 1812 Pestalozzi contracted &y carelessness a severe illness,. 386 HERMANN KRUSl. during which he would have Kriisi almost incessantly with L, nurse. The latter performed that office with his usual tenderx- ? f self-sacrifice; bearing patiently with his weaknesses, and a 1 ^ pleasure in every remarkable expression of his friend. Tp'^ ^ writes from the side of the sick bed to his betrothed : Our father is remarkable even in his sickness. He is wishing and longing to be well again, and to be able to apply himself to his labors once more ^'>\ renewed strength ; but yet he looks peacefully upon death, close before rfr . One day while his doctors were consulting about sending to Lausanne tor t surgeon, he asked them cheerfully if he must set his house in order. When th<7 were gone, he said to Elizabeth, his faithful housekeeper, ( Kriisi 's sister-in-law } that he was willing to die ; that the world cost him no regrets. To be able r mother. Thou decidest the doubt whether a teacher can be in the nlace o A father and mother. Go and fill thy place still more efficiently and completely. Kriisi, upon the* ilso I build great hopes, [t is not enough to know the method of human education ; the teacher must know the mild and easy steps with which the kind mother leads along that road. That way thou knowest and .goest ; and thou dost keep the child longer in that loving road of his first instruc- tion than even his mother can. Complete thy knowledge; and tell us the begin- nings of childish knowledge, with thine own inimitable union of childlikeness and definite ness. Thou didst bring Niederer hither as thy brother, and livest with him in oneness of mind and soul. May the bond of your old friendship ever knit itself more closely ; you are the firstlings of my house ; and the only ones that Temain of them. I am not always of the same mind with you ; but my soul depends upon you. I should no longer know my house, and should fear for its -continuance, were your united strength to be removed from it. But you will not leave it, beloved, only remaining firstlings of my house. We may see from the deep feeling and strong expressions of these words how much Pestalozzi valued Kriisi's quiet and modest labors, and how well Kriisi deserved that value. Scarcely one out of twenty teachers has the ability to enter fully into the nature and needs of children, to bear patiently with their weaknesses, to be pleased with the smallest step of progress, and to become fully accomplished in the profession. Upon the management of such young natures, Kriisi gives hk opinion in a letter upon the significance of the smallest opinions. We give an extract from it, as useful and important to all teachers. It requires much experience to develop the heavenly from the earthly. I can assure you of this, that the world is by no means the comedy that it seems-, and vhat we call indifference is often far more definitely good or bad than men con- sider. The common appearances of life are only indifferent to us when we do not understand their connections, and set too little value upon their influence over us, for weal or woe. But the purer our soul is, the clearer is our perception of die value or worthlessness of every day and usual affairs ; the more do we become able to perceive fine distinctions, and the freer do we become in our own choice and the more independent in our connections. lie whose perceptions of the infinite varieties of plants have not been cultivated sees nothing in the meadow but grass ; and a whole mountain will contain for him scarcely a dozen blossoms which attract his attention. How different is the case with him who knows the wonders of their construction. He hears himself adilivssed from every side; the smallest thing has significance for him; he could employ a thousand eyes instead of his two. In their least parts, even to the very dust that clings to his fingers, he perceives mysteries which lead his mind to the loftiest views, and give his heart the liveliest pleasure. As it is here so it is everywhere. One mother will see only the coarsest physical wants of her child, and hears it only when it begins to cry. Another will penetrate entirely into its inner being ; and as she is able to direct this, so she is entirely different in respect to its outwf \ management. Nothing that concerns it is indifferent to her. Every thing 4r> expression of its being; and thus even the least thing acquires a high signifiean. a her eyes. The small and /oveable children who were so often sent to the Pes- f&lozzian institution much to its credit always attached themselves especially to Kriisi. From his views as above given, we may imagine with what wisdom he taught these little ones, and sought to awaken their minds and preserve their innocence. To l.he same purpose are IIERMANN KRUS1. the following notices in his diary, which it is true contain no very im- portant facts, but which nevertheless, are the clear marks of a mai. inspired by the holiness of his calling : " I often pray at evening when T go to bed, that the dear God will let me fina something new in nature," said W. M. , a boy of ten years old, who had found in one of his walks, a stone which he had not before known. This holy habit, (continues Kriisi,) of referring every thing immediately to the Almighty hand, is a sure sign of a pure soul ; every expression of it was therefore of infinite value to me. I thanked God that by means of it I had been able to see further into the heart of this good child. " It is hard for me to write a letter," said S , when he was set to write to- his parents, and found it difficult. Why ? said I ; adding, you are now a year older, and ought to be better able to do it. " Yes," said he, " but a year ago 1 could say every thing I knew ; but now I know more than I can say." This answer astonished me. It came from deep within the being of the child. Every child, in his liking and capacity for writing letters, must pass through periods^ which it is necessary for his parents or teachers to know, lest without knowing or wishing it, they should do the children some harm. E , nine years old, said yesterday, " One who is clever should not be told what ' clever ' means. But one who is stupid will not understand it, and he may be told as much as you like." Th. T , six years old, sees God everywhere as an omnipresent man before him. God gives the birds their food 5 God has a thousand hands 5 God sits upon all the trees and flowers. J. T , on the contrary, has an entirely different view of God. To him he is a being far off, but who from afar sees, hears, and controls every thing. Are you also dear to God ? I asked him. " I do not know," he answered ; "but I know that you are dear to him. All good men arc dear to him." I was so as- tonished to hear the child thus express his views of God, and of myself, and his childlike respect and dependence upon his teacher, that I dared question him no longer, lest I should not treat with sufficient tenderness and wisdom, this spark of the divine. These extracts will sufficiently show that Kriisi considered the hearts of his pupils as holy things, which it was his business to keep in the right path. He was never ashamed, even in his old age, ta learn from children ; and the traits and efforts of earliest childhood often afforded him help in the construction of a natural system of instruction. Every child that I have ever observed, writes Kriisi, in his "Efforts and Experiences," (Bestrebungen tind Erfahrungen,) during all my life, has pass.-d through certain remarkable questioning periods, which seem to originate from hi* inner being. After each had passed through the early time of lisping and stam- mering, into that of speaking, and had come to the questioning period, he re- oeated at every new phenomenon, the question, "What is that?" If for answer he received a name of the thing, it completely satisfied him ; he wished t' know no more. After a number of months, a second state made its appearance .n which the child followed its first question with a second : " What is there ii it ?" After some more months, there came of itself the third question : " Whc made it?" and lastly, the fourth, "What do they do with it?" These questions had much interest for me, and I spent much reflection upon them. In the end it became clear to me, that the child had struck out the right method for developing its thinking faculties. In the first question. "What is that?" he was try ing to g't a consciousness of the thing lying before him. By the second, " What is tlier* in it?" he was trying to perceive and understand its interior, and its general and special marks. The third, "Who made it?" pointed towards the origin and creation of the thing ; and the fourth, " What do they do with it ?" evidently points at the use, and design of the thing. Thus this series of questions seemed to me- HERMANN KRU81. 389 to include in itself the complete system of mental training. That this originated with the child is not only no objection to it, but is strong indication that the laws of thought are within the nature of the child in their simplest and most ennobling form. That Kriisi was now writing his experiences with a view to others, and was continually occupying his mind with reflections upon all the appearances of nature and of life, the following words show : Thus I have again gained a whole hour of instruction. I had four divisions in mental arithmetic. Each of them, as soon as it had found the clue, taught itself; all that I had to do was to oversee, and to assist. It is a pleasure to teach in that way, and a sweet consciousness rewards the labor. But still, arithmetic is not the chief subject which occupies my mind. For had I the opportunity, I could do something in the investigation of language. For if matters turn out as I am in hopes they may, I shall give some proof that I have not lived in vain. The study of language leads me on the one hand to nature and on the other to the Bible. To study the phenomena of the former, and to become familiar with the contents of the latter, are the two great objects which now demand from me much time, much industry, and a pure and natural observation of childish character. The little work alluded to in the above lines, bears the title, " Bib- lical views upon the works and ways of God." (Biblische Ansichten uber die werke und wege Gottes ;) and in it the exposition of God's operations in nature, stated in Biblical language, was carried through upon a regular plan. Kriisi would perhaps have undertaken the work in a different manner at a later period ; but the Bible was always to him a valued volume, in which he studied not only the divine teach- ings and similitudes of the New Testament, but also the lofty natural descriptions of Moses, Job, David, &c. The charge of deficiency in biblical religious feeling has often been brought against the Pestaloz- zians. For my part I can testify that even the first of them had studied the Bible through and through, and placed uncommon value upon it. Their child-like faith and love for everything good and true, fitted them especially for doing so ; moreover, they were inspired by Pestalozzi's energetic Christianity. The fact that they always endeav- ored to bring a religious spirit into every study, and especially into that of language, by awakening a love of truth, and an active prepara- tion for every thing good and beautiful, is a clear proof that a high and Christian ideal was always before their eyes. Kriisi's heart was, so to speak, in love with the beauties of nature all his life. In his seventieth year, every flower, tree, sunrise and sunset, spoke to him as distinctly as the first time he saw them. He perceived in nature that plain impression of the divine energy which is often dim to adult men, and is most plainly seen by children. And he always returned to nature to learn from her. How she awakened his sensibilities will appear from the following extract which he- wrote in his diary and afterward sent to his betrothed : It is Sunday, ;md a divinely beautiful morning. More than an hour before the' Ming cf tin- sun, the brightness of the morning light could be sc'en upon tho- 340 HERMANN KRUSI summits of the great Alpine chain, from Mont. Blanc, to the Titlis in Unterwalden. Now the majestic sun himself in heavenly splendor, arises and lights up everything before me. Why does he begin his course so quietly that we must watch like a sparrow hawk, lest he escape our attention and stand there before us unawares ? If the roll of the thunder were to accompany his rising, how exceedingly seldom would the dwellers in cities and villages keep themselves away from this divine spectacle, which no other earthly show even approaches ? And yet none will be away when the roll of the drum announces the coming of an earthly prince. So I thought for a moment ; but soon saw the silliness of my meditations. It is the very nature of light to distribute its blessings in silence. In the moral world it is the same. The nearer one approaches to the fountain of life, the more silent are his endeavors to spread around him light and blessings. At the breaking of such a day it is as if a world were being created again. Light, air, water, land, plants, beasts, and men, appear to our eyes almost in the same order in which they were created. How quickly is everything done which our Lord God creates ! and how fright- fully slow are we in understanding even the smallest of them ! And besides all this quickness in creating, and slowness in comprehending, how infinite is the number of things which God places before our eyes! No wonder that our knowl- edge always remains mere patchwork, and that we have to postpone so many things to the other side of the grave, in the hope that there, free from the bonds of the earthly body, we shall progress with an ever increasing speed from knowl- edge to knowledge, and shall clearly understand how everything exists, in God, which was dim and perplexed to us here. A strong and encouraging indication of our own inward worth appears in the expression, " The spirit explaineth all things, even the deep things of God." But it is a trouble to most men, that they cannot approach God by some other means than by the spirit; by their perceptions, or by their knowledge. He only can approach God by the spirit, to whom nature opens her mysteries ; to whom her operations and her purposes are known. But how few are there who attain ev.-n to an A B C of knowledge of the world, from which, as from a living spring, they may gain a pure and worthy conception of their creator. How often must even he who has made the study of nature the business of his life, whose knowledge surpasses that of millions of his fellow beings, stand still before the most common physical, mental, or moral phenomenon, and exclaim : such mystery is too won- derful for me, and too high ; I can not understand it. Then hail to thee, human heart ! Through thy feelings is it, that we can ap proach more nearly to God than through our intellectual powers. The fundamental human relation is that of childhood. It is based entirely upon love. Without our own consent we enter into it. And this same condition is again the highest aim which man can propose to himself, as his best preparative for heaven. The mind loses nothing by this preeminence of the heart ; on the contrary, it is this very preeminence in the growth of feeling, and in purity, which gives a higher character to the power and exercise of the mind. The effort of men to know things here, as God knows them, to display the order of the heavens, the powers of the earth, and the relation of the mind, in the light of earthly truth, are a holy trait of humanity, but men in general can not find rest by these efforts. Everything elevating in the idea of the creator and ruler of the world must appear to them under the mild aspect of a father, if it is to be beneficial and elevating to them. Without this appearance, his omnipotence would be fearful to the weak mortal, his presence painful, his wisdom indifferent, and his justice a two edged sword, which hangs continually over his head and threatens to destroy him. Only by childlike faith in the fatherhood of God can our race feel itself cared for, elevated, supported and guided ; or cultivate confi- dence, gratitude, love and hope, without a destructive conflict with opposing feelings. The reestablishment of this child -like condition and the revivification of the holiness which proceeds from it, are the things by which Christ has opened a way to God, and become the saviour of the world. Through him is it that the pure in heart may see God. The simplest man baa the powers necessary for this purpose. They are only the powers that the child exerts when he recognizes the love of his parents, in the care which they bestow upon him. HERMANN KRUSI. 341 Truly, it is wonderful how both termini of the development of our nature the being a child, and the becoming a child of God, should be so nearly connected with each other. A holy confidence in God is shown in the letters in which he speaks of his prospects for a certain support in the future. His be- trothed, who like him had been left destitute by the storm of the revolution, had wandered away from Glarus, her native land, with a troop of poor children, and had been received and supported by some respectable and benevolent people in Zurich, had of course no prop- erty : and Krusi's new place with Pestalozzi, had much more attract- ion for the friend and follower, than for one prudent in pecuniary matters. Although Krusi's approaching marriage must have made a certain income more desirable to him, he still felt no solicitude about it, like a true believer in the words of Jesus, "Take ye no thought," etc., but expressed himself as follows : God will provide. Whoever is conscious of strong love and honest aims in lift.-, should act with freedom, and believe in the prophecy that all things will be for the best. Has not the being who guides all things, thus far watched wonder- fully and benevolently over us and our connection ? Many are troubled lest they shall not receive what is their own. Is it carelessness in me that I have no such feelings ? I thank God for the powers which he has given you and me for our duties ; I feel much more solicitude that we may use these powers worthily of the benevo- lent God. At every rising of uneasiness I seem to hear God saying to me as Christ did to his disciples on the sea, 4i Oh ye of little faith !" Kriisi at last managed to complete the indispensable arrangements for bringing his wife from Miihlhausen ; and he was married at Lenz- burg, in 1812. His wife entered with confidence upon her new sphere of life, with a man who was not only her lover, but her teacher and her paternal friend. He was not an inexperienced youth, but a man thirty-seven years old, in the prime of his strength, and with a ripeness of experience and thought, seldom found even at his years. His wife too, although considerably younger, had also seen the rougher side of life, and had also felt the inspiring influence of a right method of education. After his marriage, Kriisi occupied a private house near the castle, where he had charge of the deaf and dumb children of his friend Naf, as long as his connection as teacher with the Pestalozzian institution continued. This now soon came to an end, and under cir- cumstances so unpleasant that we should prefer to be silent upon them, were it not for removing from one of Pestalozzi's oldest teach- ers the charge of ingratitude, which many well informed readers have believed in consequence of this separation. There has seldom been a man who has had so many friends and so few enemies, among so great a variety of men, as Kriisi ; thanks to his mild and peace loving disposition. It was his principle always 342 HERMANN KRUSI rather to withdraw himself, than to make the evil greater by obstinacy or violence in maintaining- his views. This habit stood him in good stead in the quarrel which at this time threatened to destroy Pesta- lozzi's institution. But how was it possible, it may be asked, that men engaged in such a noble enterprise, could not go on in harmony with each other? It was the work of one man, a graduate of the Pesta- lozzian institution, endowed with uncommon mathematical talents, who sacrificed the peace of the institution to his unbounded ambition. This man, Schmid by name, had contrived, under the name of a guardian, to gain the entire control of the aged Pestalozzi, and little by little to alienate him from all his old friends. As early as 1808, Kriisi had concluded that he could not with honor remain longer in the institution, and had accordingly written an affecting letter of farewell to Pestalozzi, from which we make the following extracts : Dear Herr Pestalozzi : God knows that I have always sought with an honest heart, the accomplish- ment of your holy plans. Whenever I have thought it necessary to differ from you, it has been without any ulterior views, from love for you and for the good of humanity. For eight years the undisturbed possession of your paternal love has made me the happiest of men. Your present expressions upon the sequel of this relation, pierce so much the more deeply, the less I feel that they are deserved. (Here follow some reasons for his withdrawal.) If it shall be permitted to me to live for the darlings of your heart, the poor, and to prepare their children to receive the benefits which your efforts have se- cured for them, there will again awaken in your soul some faith in my gratitude, my love, and my earnest endeavor not to have lived by your side, in vain. Still further, dearest Pestalozzi ; if I have been to blame toward you, it was only by error. Forgive the child who with sorrow and grief tears himself away from his father and his friend. Whether this letter was delivered to Pestalozzi, is not known. Kriisi did not leave at that time, although Tobler did, dissatisfied for various reasons, and sought another field of labor at Basle. Schmid was at last, in 1810, removed from the institution, and for a few years the old good understanding prevailed there again. But when he returned and took charge of the financial department, (Pes- talozzi, who was well known for a bad housekeeper, not being compe- tent for it,) the quarrel came up again, directed this time chiefly against Niederer and his noble wife, but also against all the other faith- ful laborers in the institution. Thus, by a departure of many of the best teachers, especially the German ones, it lost many of its brightest ornaments; and in the year 1816, Kriisi also, with a bleeding heart, sent his resignation to Pestalozzi, whom even in his error he loved and respected ; but for whom at that time another person spoke, in terms of the bitterest contempt, and most irritating coldness. There is, however, some trace of the old affection, in Pestalozzi's answer to Krusi's letter : HERMANN KRUSI. 343 With sorrow I see a connection dissolved, which I would willingly have contin- ued unto my death, had it been possible. It was not, however, and I receive your explanation with the affection which I have always felt for you, praying God to better my pecuniary condition, so that I may be enabled before my death to show that I respect the relation in which I have so long stood to you. Greet your wife and embrace your child for me, and believe me ever your true friend, Yverdun, 17th Feb., 1816. PESTALOZZI. In the letter of Kriisi, just quoted, he expresses his earnest wish to labor for the education of the poor. The same is found in the fol- lowing to his betrothed ; " My inmost wish is to be able to labor in some way, according to the idea of our father, for the education of poor children. We both know what poverty is, and how sorely the children of the poor need help, that they may live worthy and satis- factory lives. It is for us to afford this help. I feel it my vocation, and feel that I have the ability, to do for the poor whatever God has rendered me capable of doing. You must help me. Female instinct must join with manly strength for the accomplishment of this object." The wish thus expressed was never gratified. It was to be Kriisi's chief occupation to instruct the children of parents in good circum- stances, until at a later period his situation in a seminary whose pupils were then, and have been since, mostly from the poorer classes, and who thus have influence both upon the poor and the rich, at least per- mitted it partial gratification. After his separation from Pestalozzi, Krusi set about the establish- ment of an institution of his own, which he did in fact afterward open, with very little other help than his confidence in God. He purchased a small house, pleasantly situated on the Orbe, by the assistance of a benevolent friend, who lent him a considerable sum, without security, and had the pleasure of seeing an increasing number of parents send their children to him. It was especially gratifying to his patriotism that his first pupils were from his native place of Gais, where they yet live as respectable citizens. In his institution he pro- ceeded upon the Pestalozzian plans ; and the happiness of his labors was only troubled by the knowledge that his paternal friend was con- tinually more closely entangled in the snares of the intriguing Schmid, so that even Niederer was forced to leave the institution in 1817. Although Kriisi was now happily established as father of a family, his first child was born in 1814, and teacher of a prosperous school, yet another destiny was before him, and as previously, without his own cooperation. In his own little native territory, the public-spirited Hans Caspar Zellweger and others, had conceived the useful idea of seeing a canto- nal school for the higher education of native youth, who were then HERMANN KRUSI. able to command no other means of instruction in their own country than the ordinary village school. Herr Zuberbiihler was appointed to- the charge of the institution. He had been in the troop of poor children who went with Kriisi to Burgdorf ; and was peculiarly fitted for his place, by his acquirements and by the mildness of his charac- ter. But man proposes and God disposes. Zuberbiihler was soon seized by an illness, which brought him to the edge of the grave, and which profoundly impressed him with the idea of his own helplessness and the danger from it to his institution. It being necessary to employ another teacher, he invited Kriisi, who was now well known in that neighborhood since his abode near it, and who had besides during the journey into Appenzell, in 1819, made himself acquainted with various influential men there. Soon after this journey he made another to Karlsruhe, Frankfort, Wiesbaden and Schnepfeuthal, near Gotha, where he visited the excellent Gutsmuths, who has done so- much for the art of gymnastics. It was in 1822 that the news of Zuberbiihler's illness reached him, and of his own invitation to the place of director. The prospect of being useful to his fatherland was- irresistible to him ; and he was also influenced by the promises of an assured income and of entire freedom in modes of instruction. The reputation of his own institution was already great, as will be under- stood from Kriisi's own mention of the fact as a rare one, that even while he was at Yverdun, pupils were sent to him from three-quarters of the world ; some by French merchants from Alexandria, in Egypt, and one from the capital of Persia, Teheran, 800 leagues distant. This may, however, be in some measure ascribed to the fame of the Pestalozzian institution. A very respectable lady from Memel had besides taken lodgings in Krusi's house with her two daughters, in order to learn under his guidance how to instruct them ; and the same thing happened afterwards with an English family at Gais. Kriisi, however, did not hesitate long, but accepted Zellweger's offei in a respectful letter. He himself went first alone to Trogen, and pro- ceeded to his sick friend, Zuberbiihler. He says, " When I entered the room Zuberbiihler put his hands before his eyes and burst into- tears. It relieved his heart to know that I had come to continue the work which he had so well begun." In fact, he grew better from that very day, and was soon completely well. In his native place of Gais, Kriisi attached himself, especially to his early friend Kern, who had traveled to Yverdun to see him. He also had the great pleasure of finding his old friend, the good-natured Tobler, at the head of an institution in St. Gall ; where afterwards he often visited him. Having after a time removed thither his effects and his family, Kriisi HERMANN KRtlSl. 345- with his two assistants, pastor Banziger from Wolfhalden, and Egli from Hittnem, commenced operations in his new place, in the cantonal school at Trogen. Want of space will oblige me to be brief in our account of Kriisi's stay at Trogen and Gais. Most readers are however better acquainted with this part of his life than with the earlier. This earlier period is especially valuable for teachers, as being that of the Pestalozzian discoveries, and of the enthusiasm which attended them. The later period is occupied more particularly with the further development of it. The institution at Trogen soon gained reputation. At first, most of the pupils were from Appenzell ; but afterwards quite a number came from the canton and city of Zurich, and a less number from the cantons of Biindten, Thurgan, St. Gall and Basle, and several from Milan. There was an annual exhibition, which was always interest- ing, both as showing the progress of the pupils, and the spirit of the institution, and from the addresses made by the director, and Herren Kasper Zellweger, and Dean Frei ; most of which have also appeared in print. The situation of the institution, in a somewhat retired place, had the advantage of withdrawing the pupils from material pleasures and the attractions of the world ; in the stead of which were offered many enjoyments of a nobler kind in the pleasure of nature, and in the use of an excellent play-ground and garden. Although none of the studies, (which included the ancient and modern langua- ges,) were carried so far as in many institutions of a higher grade, its results were very favorable, from the harmonious labors of the three teachers, and from the efficient character of the method by which Krusi aimed always at increasing the capabilities of his scholars, and the industry of most of the pupils. There were, it is true, sad excep- tions ; and if the teachers did not succeed with any such pupils, there were often put under their charge a number of ill-taught or orphan children. Many were by Kriisi's friendly and earnest admonitions, caused to reflect, and brought into the path of virtue, no more to leave it. Krusi, who always himself took charge of the instruction and management of such pupils, tried mild methods at first, as long as he had any hopes of succeeding with them ; at lessons he was cheerful, pursuing every study with love and pleasantly encouraging every smile from his scholars which proceeded from honest animation. He became severe however upon the appearance of any falsehood,, rudeness or immorality, and at such times every one feared the wrath of the angry and troubled father. In 1832, one of the places of assistant teacher became vacant by the death of Herr pastor Biiriziger, in whose stead he placed Herr 346 HERMANN KRUSI. Siegfried of Zurich, an active and learned man. Meanwhile anoth^i change was at hand in Kriisi's lot. His earnest wish to devote him- self to the training of teachers was to be gratified ; although even in the cantonal school he had done something in this direction. Since the year 1830 the cause of popular education had been gain- ing new life in many cantons of Switzerland. Funds were raised in many places for the establishment of new schools which were to be assisted by the State ; the position of teacher began to be considered more respectable, and to be better paid ; although neither a fair price nor this respect were paid in more than a few places. Clear- minded men however saw that in order to the improvement of popu- lar education, the teacher must first be educated ; that for this purpose teachers' seminaries must be established. The question of the choice of a director for the seminary at Zurich, being under con- sideration, Kriisi was mentioned by various persons, and particularly by the celebrated composer and firm admirer of Pestalozzi, Nageli. Although this place, as the sequel showed, was not the right one for Kriisi, he still considered it his duty to think over the matter, and to communicate his views upon it, which he did in a letter to his friend Bod m er, at Zurich, from which we extract the following : The higher education was always the field in which I hoped to labor, if it were th'- \\ill of' God, and to plant in it some good seed for the common schools of my native land. Thirty years ago, I hoped that I had found such a Held, in the Swiss seminary, established in 1802, by the Helvetian government, under Pestalozzi as teacher. The act of mediation broke up the plan by disuniting tli- cantons, and the schools for the common people with them ; but the investigation of the laws of i-dneation had always been since that a favorite pursuit with me. During a rich experience at Prstalozzi's side, and during researches up to this time uninter- rupted, for the purpose of establishing a system of natural education, it has been my hope to be able to labor efficiently for the school system of my native land. The canton of Zurich is one which rather than any other I would glady see the first in Switzerland in furthering this most high and noble object. But I ought not to hide from you my fears, whether : 1. I can count upon being able to carry out Pestalozzi's system of elementary education, freely and without hindrance. In that I recognize the only means of awakening the intellectual life of the teacher, or of bringing the same into the chool. 2. The strict necessity of cooperating labor would be regarded in the choice of a second teacher. They should each supplement the work of the other ; and this can only happen when their efforts are put forth in the same spirit and for the same object. 3. There should be a model school, which I consider an indisputable necessity for the seminary. It is not as a place of probation for new scholars that I desire this, but as affording an example of the correct bodily, material, moral and religious training of the children. 4. Sufficient care should be taken in the selection of a place for the seminary, that the supervision of its morals should be as much facilitated as possible. The pupils of such a seminary are usually of an age most difficult to manage ; and their own moral character subsequently has a strong influence upon that of their scholars. When Kriisi at last entered upon his long desired field of labor, in 1833, being appointed director of the teachers' seminary, erected in HERMANN KRUSI. 317 that year, he felt the liveliest pleasure. The object of his life seemed to him now to stand in a clear light before him, and to open to him the prospect that his country men would reap the harvest, whose seed he had sown in the spring of youth, and watched over in the sum- mer. Honor to our Grand Council, and to those who were the cause of the resolution, to spread such manifold blessings among our people and blooming youth. Honor to them, that they gave to poor but upright and study-loving youth, the means of training themselves for teachers in their own country, and of learning its necessities, that they might be able to labor for their relief. With gratitude to God, the wise disposer of his fate, Kriisi left the cantonal school, and proceeded to Gais ; recalling with emotion the time forty years before, when as an ignorant youth he had there taken up the profession of teaching, himself afterward to become a teacher of teachers. He considered the years of his labor in Gais, among the happiest of his life. To pass the evening of his days in his native country and liis native town, to communicate the accumulated treasures of his teachings and experience to intelligent youth, to labor surrounded by his own family and with their aid, and to benefit so many pupils, all tins was the utmost that he had ever dared wish for. This wish was however to be entirely realized. He conducted five courses, attended by sixty-four pupils, and with the assistance of his valued friend, pas- tor Weishaupt, of his own eldest son, and of Gahler, a graduate of the seminary itself. During the latter course death overtook him. A boys' school, and a girls' school conducted by his second daughter, soon arose near the seminary, forming a complete whole, over which Kriisi's kind feeling and paternal supervision exercised a beneficial influence. Hardly ever did three institutions proceed in happier unity. Many pleasant reminiscences of this period present themselves ; but the space is wanting for them. Kriisi's skill as educator and teacher were the same here as elsewhere. He used the same method, showed the same mild disposition, love of nature and enthusiasm for every thing beautiful and good. He occupied a posi- tion even higher in respect of insight and experience, in the comple- tion of his system of education, as adapted to nature ; and a more honorable one by reason of his old age and the gray hairs which began to ornament his temples. But despite of his age, whose weak nesses his always vigorous health permitted him to feel but little, he ever preserved the same freshness of spirit. His method of instruction -did not grow effete, as is often the case with old teachers. He was always seeking to approach his subject from a new side ; and felt the -same animation as of old, at finding any new fruits from his method 348 HERMANN KKUB1. or his labors. His kind and friendly manners won all his pupils,, whether boys and girls, or older youth. Nor is it strange that all tin* other members of the establishment also looked upon him as a father. An expression of their love and respect appeared on the occasion < f h's birthday, which they made a day of festival, with a simple ceremonial speeches and songs. Upon such occasions he was wont to recall the time of his abode with Pestalozzi ; and his affectionate heart always impelled him to speak in beautifully grateful language of his never- to-be-forgotten father and friend, the originator of his own useful labors, and all his happiness. The crowning event of his happiness was the presentation on his sixty-ninth birthday, in 1843, the fiftieth year of his labors as a teacher, by all the teachers who had been instructed by him, of a beautiful silver pitcher, as an expression of their gratitude. He looked hopefully upon so large a number of hi> pupils, and gave them his paternal blessing. Two of his birthday addresses have appeared in print. Until April of that yar, Kriisi continued to teach in the seminary and connected schools. After the completion of his fifth course, he had hoped to be able to completely work out his system of instruction and moro fully to write his biography; but this was not to be per- mitted him. He was able at leisure times to write and publish much matter ; the last of these was a collection of his poems. These are valuable, not as artistic productions, but as true pictures of his pure and vivid feeling for every thing good and beautiful. The fact that bo- wrote many of his songs to the airs of his friend, pastor Weishaiipt, shows that he valued high-toned musical instruction. This love of singing remained with him to the end of his life; and his face always givw animated if he saw men, youth and maidens, or young children, enjoying either alone or in pleasant companionship, that elevating pleasure. At the annual parish festival of 1844, the old man now seventy, w;^ present :n Trogen, entering heartily into the exercises of the occasion, and particularly, the powerful chotal, " Alles Leben stromt aus Dir" which was sung by a thousand men's voices, and an elo- quent discourse on common education, by Landarman Nagel. The fatigue, excitement, and exposure to the weather, which was damp and cold, were too much for his strength, and in the evening he was ill, and on the following day he was visited by a paralytic attack, from which he never recovered, but closed his earthly career on the 25th of July, 1844. His funeral was attended by a multitude of mourners from far and near, and his body was borne to its last resting; place in the churchyard of Un\<. Ky the pupils of the seminary. THE GENERAL MEANS OF EDUCATION. WITH AN ACCOUNT OF A NEW INSTITUTION FOR BOYS. BY HERMANN THE following " Coup cTceir of the General Means of Education, the Plan of the new Institution which Krusi afterward organ- ized and managed, was published at Yverdun, in 1818, and presents the ideas and methods of Pestalozzi, as held by one of his early assistants and avowed disciples. The principal means for the education of man are three, viz., 1. Domestic Life. 2. Intellectual Kducation, or the Culture of the Mind. 3. Religious Training. I. DOMESTIC LIFE. The object of domestic life is the preservation of the body and the development of its powers. It may therefore be considered the basis of physical life. The body is a s.-e.l. enveloping the germ of intellectual, moral and religious ac- tivity. Domestic life is the fertile soil in which this seed is deposited, and in which this germ is to expand and prosper. There are three principal relations of domestic life ; of parents to children, of children to parents, an 1 of children to each other. In domestic life, love is the center of all the sentiments and actions. It is inan- il'e>te i in tli-' parents by uiircmittini; care and unbounded self-sacrifice ; in the children, in return, by perfect confidence and obedience ; and among brothers and by endeavors to promote each other's happiness. Every event, almost every moment, of domestic life, stimulates the entire bring, body, mind and soul, into activity, Ueyond the domestic circle, and the further \\v move from it, the more remarkable do.-s tin- particular tendency and the isolated action of each faculty become. . A seminary should exemplify domestic life in all its purity. The t.-aeher* should regard the pupils as their children ; the children should regard the teach- ers as parents, and i aeh other as brothers and sisters. The purest love should inspire all these relations; and the result should be cares, sacrifices, confidence, obedience, and reciprocal endeavors to aid in attaining the objects desired. Such a domestic life prepares the child for mental improvement and religious -development and habits. Without it, religion will gain no access to the and intellectual cultivation will only be a means for satisfying the selfish demands of the animal nature. I Jut with it, the child is prepared for the successful exer- cise of the same good qualities and the maintenance of the like relations in a wider sphere as a man, a citizen, and a Christian. II. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. The aim of this should be, on one hand, to develop the faculties, and on the other to develop executive power. The faculties must all be developed together ; an end only to be attained by the exercises of the active and productive faculties. In order to real development, the mind must act of itself; and moreover, the active and productive faculties can not be exercised without at the same time ex- ercising those which are passive and receptive, (namely, those of comprehension and retention,) and preparing them for future service with increased advantage. That alone can be considered the elementary means of developing the mental 350 KRlJSI, VIEWS AND PLAN OF EDUCATION. faculties, which is essentially the product of the human mind: \\hirh tin- mind of each individual can, and does in fact, to a certain degree produce, independent of all instruction ; that which spontaneously exhibits itself in each department, and is, as it were the germ of attainment in it. These essential productions of UK.- human mind are three; number, form, and language. The ultimate element of number is unity ; of form, a line; of language, ideas, which are interior, and sound, which is exterior. Each of these three m< ans may be employed in two different directions ; to develop, on one hand, the power of discerning truth, and on the other, that of disc.Tmn^ beauty. The faculties of the individual can not be developed without his acquiring, at the same time, a certain amount of knowledge, and a certain bodily skill in the execution of what the mind has conceived ; and it is an important truth that an enlightened mind will succeed much better than an unenlightened one in the ac- quirement of knowledge as well as of every kind of executive ability. Exercises intended to develop the faculties, like those intended to communicate knowledge, should succeed one another in a logical (natural or necessary) order;. BO that each shall contain the germ of that which is to follow, should lead to it, and prepare for it. The development of the principal faculties, and the acquirement of a certain amount of information, are necessary to qualify every individual for his duties as a man, a citizen, and a Christian. This degree of development, and this amount of information, constitute the province of elementary education, properly so called, which would be the same for all. But beyond these limits, the character and ex- tent of studies should vary, on one hand, according to the indications of nature,, which destines individuals by different capacities for different callings ; and on the other hand, according to his situation in life. In the acquisition of knowledge, an elementary path should be followed, intro- ductory and preparatory to a scientific method of study. This is suited t<> ih< child, because it leads from a series of particular facts, it leads upward to the dis- covery of general truths. The scientific method is suitable only to mature and enlarged minds, proceeding from general principles, displaying them in their whole extent, and thus arriving at particular truths. We shall now point out the proper means of development, and the principal ob- jects to be attained by th- in ; afterward considering the different ages of child- hood, and the successive steps in development and order of studies. First means of development. Number * SECTION 1. Exercises in number, with reference to truth. A. Mental calculation ; to give intuitive knowledge of numb.Ts. and their rela- tions : including a. exercises on units. b. " simple fractions. c. u compound fractions or complex fractions. In - ach of these three series there are different degrees, namely, First, (Pre paratory,) Numeration, or learning to count. Second, Composition of Numbers; e. g., all numbers are composed of units All even numbers are composed of twos; all triple ones of thnts. vY<-. A]M>, decomposition of numbers, e. g. ; all numbers may be decomposed into units ; all even numbers into twos; all triple ones into threes, &e. Also, transformations of numbers. That is, the mode of composing new numbers from the threes,, twos or units, coming from the decomposition of an old one. Third, Determinations of simple relations and proportions. B. Calculations by symbols. (Figures. 1 -tiers, <" double world : of an exterior and physical world to which the three kingdoms of nacir* " I have endeavored in the Coup d'oeil which precedes this announcement, to state the means of education such as I conceive them to be. This exposition will be the model and the basis of my work. It is evident that these views and tlicse means can not all be devel- oped by a single man or a single institution. It is a task in which all the friends of education must cooperate. KRUSI, VIEWS AND PLAN OF EDUCATION. 359 oelong, and alsc the earth which contains them and all exterior nature ; and of an interior world, intellectual and moral, which, proceeding from the faculties and the powers 01 our nature, contains all the whole sphere of the connections of man, and of his du- ties toward himself, toward his fellow creatures, and toward God. The child should be as familiar with this interior world as with the exterior and physical world. Intellectual cultivation should be accompanied by cultivation of the heart. The physical powers should also be developed, in order that the body may be able to per- form what the mind has conceived and the will has resolved. Bodily exercise in this respect possesses an essential and incontestible value. The mind and the heart stand in need of the body in all the actions of life. The operations of the soul are hamp- ered in proportion as the body is neglected, or unequal to execute its orders. In regard to the admission and residence of pupils in my school, I desire 'parents who propose to intrust their children to my care, to fully weigh the following consid- erations. The two most decisive epochs in education are that of early infancy under the mother's care, and that where the youth enters into manhood. If these two periods are successfully passed, it may be considered that the education has succeeded. If either has been neglected or ill-directed, the man feels it during his whole life. The a.ge of boyhood being the intermediate perio:! between early infancy and youth, is of unmis- takable importance, as the development of the first period, and the germ, of the third ; but in no case does this age influence either decisively, by repairing previous defects or neg- lects, or bi/ in-taring what shallfollow. In the first age the child belongs by preference to its mother, to be taken care of by her; in the second age it belongs by preference to its father, to be directed by him. As a young man, a new existence opens to him, he ceases to be the child of his parents ; and becomes their friend. The son, at maturity, becomes the tender, intimate and faithful friend of his parents, as he was, in his mi- nority, their amiable, docile, and faithful child. With regard to exterior life, the child must sooner or later become an orphan, and when this misfortune befalls him in his minority, society provides that a guardian shall " supply the place of parents until he comes of age. For the interior life, no one can sup- ply this place for him. Nothing but intellectual and moral strength in the child himself, and strengthened by that wisdom and that love which proceed from God, can bring us near to HIM and supply the place of the wisdom and the love of our father and mother. When the young man has attained this point, it is only as a friend that he remains the child of his parents. If he is not brought up in these noble dispositions, an unhappy consequence follows; the lx>nds of nature are broken on his coming of age. because these bonds were only of force with respect to physical life ; and the child, who, in this first friendship in this friendship whose objects are nearest to him has not supported the trial of fidelity, will never bear the test for any being upon earth. Therefore it is that this period in education is so important, so decisive, and so ex- acting more than any other. On the one hand it requires the purity and tender affec- tion of domestic life, and on the other side, solid and wholesome food for the mind. In this exigency a means presents itself which ought to be the keystone in the edu- cation of the child, the resting place for the passage from minority to majority, the foundation of a new life ; a means raised above every other, namely, Religion the revelation of all that is divine in man manifested by Jesus Christ. The young man, who in body, as a mortal, ceases to be a child, should become a new child in soul, and as an immortal being. After entering this new state, he ought in general to cease to be the pupil of men, to raise himself above their direction, and to become the pupil of himself, that is to say, of that wisdom and that love which comes to us from God and raises us to him. So long as a man has not attained this point, his education is incomplete. The aim of education is to enable him to reach it. To strive incessantly toward this object, is the task of the institution here announced YVKRDUN, Pestalozzi's birthday, 1818. This facsimile of a page from one of Pestalozzi's manu- scripts, shows the curiously compos- ite character of the books issued as his. The matter at the top is in P.esta- lozzi's handwrit- ing, and seems by no means so illeg- ible as represented. The addition be- low is by Ram- sauer (p. 305), who has been so of- ten charged with "editing " Pesta- lozzi's writings till they became his own. The writing on the side is probablyNiederer's ( p. 293), while the note crossed out seems to be by Tobler(p.361). We regret that it is impossible here to show the difference in the ink, four different kinds of which are plainly used at as many different dates. The original was lent us by Her- mann Krtisi. the son of Prof. Krusi (p. 323), who was born at Yverdun, and was christened by Pestalozzi. He was well known as a teacher in t h e Oswego Normal. JOHN GEORGE TOBLEK. JOHN GEORGE TOBLER, an educator of the Pestalozzian school,, was born at Trogen, in the canton of Appenzell-Ausserrhoden, in Switzerland, October 17, 1769. He lost his mother in his third year, and his father in his tenth. His education was very inadequate, as was usual in those times. His disposition inclined him to become a preacher. Want of means, however, prevented him until his twenty- third year, when with a very insufficient preparation he entered the University of Basle. With all the other qualifications for becoming a valuable preacher and catechist, his memory for words failed him in respect to the acquisition of foreign languages. This defect decided him entirely to give up entering for the examination as candidate. He was to find a greater sphere of usefulness in another career. He exchanged his theological studies for the practical employment of a tutor and teacher. In 1799. he placed himself at the head of a school for the female children of emigrants at Basle. An invitation from Pestalozzi brought him to Burgdorf in May, 1800. He there became the friend of Buss and Krlisi, and married, and after a short disagreement with Pestalozzi, labored with him for seven years at Munchen Buchsee and Yverdun. Circumstances brought him to Miihlhausen, where, besides other exertions, he founded his labor-school, which quickly increased so as to contain from four to six hundred scholars, but which came to an end in 181 1, in the midst of a prosperous career. Tobler returned to Basle, and set about collecting his pedagogical views and experiences, and preparing for the press a geography upon Pestalozzi's principles. His pecuniary needs, however, obliging him to seek another situa- tion, he obtained a place as teacher in a private institution in Glarus. On New Year's day of 1817, together with his fellow-teachers, he was dismissed, by reason of the famine. He immediately turned to- his profession of tutor, and held a situation for three entire years, in an eminent family of the neighborhood. The children being after- ward sent to a newly erected cantonal school, he went to Arbon .on the Lake of Constance, with the design of erecting there, instead of a school, a superior orphan-house ; but the place was too small. A. year afterward he went to St. Gall. Here, the real star of his peda 362 JOHN GEORGE TOBLER. gogical career shone out upon him. That place J-->.-r\vs -latitude for having afforded him ten years together, of free and unimpeded room for the display of his talents as teacher and educator. One of the noblest fruits of this time, was the education of a son to follow his father's honorable example. In 1831, this son was able to graduate from school, and in 1836, lie left St. Gall, and accompanied Niederer to Yverdun. and then to Geneva, at both of which places he was at the head of institutions of his own ; and was also of very great service to Niederer's school for girls. At present he tills the place of director of a cantonal school at Trogen. Tobler passed his latter years at Basle, in part with his second son, the principal of a boys 1 school at Nyon ; where he died in his seventy- fourth year, after a short sickness, Aug. 10, 1843. The last months of his life were rendered happy by an elevated self-consciousness, by the pleasant prospect of ending his days at his native place, as he desired, and by incessant and active occupation in setting in order his writings and his domestic affairs. His inner life was as happy and elevated above earthly things as the evening sun, amidst the eternal blue of heaven. After this short sketch of Tobler's life, varied and struggling as it was, although not fateful, we may devote a few words to his intellectual peculiarities, his rank as a teacher, and his services to humanity and human culture. His moral and religious nature was his predominating trait; the key-tone of his mind. His father, who filled the place of both father and mother to his sensitive nature, inspired these sentiments into him while yet a child. The maxim "Seek first the kingdom of God (oj what was with him its equivalent, the sphere of attainments accord- ing to Christ) and its righteousness, and all other things shall be added unto you," was his rule of life; and in his teaching and his example, afforded him constant assistance in answering such questions as arose during his labors for moral improvement. As soon as he could write, he commenced the practice of taking down sermons and catechizings; and thus acquired great facility in his German style, and a mastery of analytic methods which afterward stood him in good stead by enabling him to deliver extemporaneous sermons and addresses to children, and to compose excellent sketches of sermons. His popular and instructive style occasioned various congregations, after hearing him, to desire him for a pastor. His morning and evening prayers with pupils and children were exceedingly simple, pathetic, clear, and impressive. In moments of higher excite- ment, the very spirit of the Apostle John's epistles spoke through JOHN GEORGE TOBLER. 363 His religious instruction and other Sabbath exercises exerted a profound influence upon the neglected children of the manufacturing school at Miihlhausen. While a student at Basle, Tobler exercised a predominating influ- ence over numbers of his fellow students, in inciting them to industry, and inspiring them with the idea of the honorableness of their future calling. He was one of the founders there of a society for intel- lectual improvement; an enterprise which later events rendered pro- phetical. A very remarkable difference was to be observed between the after lives of those who were his friends, and others. While he was teacher and director of the female school at Basle, he followed in general the doctrines of Basedow, Campe, and Salzmann. His method of teaching was substantially that which has since been named the Socratic. By strictly adhering to this method he endeavored to call into life and to develop the minds and hearts of his scholars, not however in the ancient Greek spirit, but in that of Christ ; and thus he proceeded until the man appeared upon the stage, who gave an entirely new meaning to the word Education, who completely ap- prehended the entire subjects of education and instruction, who estab- lished them as an independent art and science, and made an epoch in their history. To Pestalozzi Tobler adhered, and was afterward his steady disciple. Tobler fully comprehended Pestalozzi's idea and method, in their .general collective significance for humanity and education. Their individual principle separately was more difficult of comprehension to him. He understood it to be Spontaneous Activity. This, however, he considered only as a receiving and working faculty, to be developed by perception and drilling (i. e. Receptivity and Spontaneity ; Nature and Capacity ; Faculties ;) and in this opinion he was quite correct, as well as in regard to the relation of these faculties to the three sub- jects of instruction, nature, man, and God. But Pestalozzi had deter- mined a third sub-division of this Spontaneous Activity, before un- recognized, and had distinguished within it the elements pertaining to the intellect and to the feelings, viz., that of the productive spon- taneous activity of the moral and intellectual powers, (the talents ?) In this consists the peculiarity and importance of Pestalozzi's dis- coveries in method, and of the discoveries and the revolution thus originated. It is by operating according to this distinction that the progress of the development and general training of human nature is assured, and the real intellectual and moral emancipation of the schools substantially established. During the first period of Pestalozzi's institution, Tobler took part 364 JOHN GEORGE TOBLER. with all in everything as a beloved teacher and pupil. In a genera! activity of this kind consisted what might be called Festalozzi's. jubilee. Then, all the teachers were pupils, and all the pupils teach ers ; so far as they brought forward independent matter of their own,, and furnished results of their own inner activity. After a time, how- ever, the necessity of the separation and ordering of different depart- ments of instruction and drilling, rendered it necessary for Tobler to- select some special department of labor ; and he selected the real branches ; and among them, that of elementary geography. He estab- lished the principles of this study by reference to the actual surface of earth, and to the pupil's own sphere of vision, with a success which entitles him to the name of the father of the new method in. geography. Hitter, who knew his labors, and proceeded onward from their termination, passed beyond the sphere of education, by a giant stride forward in his science. Tobler's personal relations with Pestalozzi were neither fortunate nor enduring. Pestalozzi had not the faculty of determining the proper place for each of his assistants, and of laying out for each of them his appointed work. He was neither an organizer nor adminis- trator ; and he regarded Tobler's wishes in this respect as mere as- sumption and weakness. Tobler could not bring out the real value of his views, without their complete display in actual operation. Whoever could at once put a matter into a distinctly practical form could in Pestalozzi's eyes do everything ; and whoever fell at all short of this, nothing. Tobler, therefore, wholly absorbed in the business of elementarizing, did nothing to please or satisfy Pestalozzi. The elementarizing of instruction, and of the so-called "real branches," required too much at once ; namely, the investigation and harmonious arrangement of the elements and laws of two spheres, viz., that of children's powers, and that of the proposed subject-matter of them. Pestalozzi required from Tobler, simple, rapid and immediate results from this investigation, even when the indispensable materials for them were wanting. Both Tobler and Pestalozzi, moreover, were in the habit of very plain speaking; and as husband and father, Tobler could not devote his entire life to Pestaloza. This false position of Tobler's gradually became that of the teach- ers and pupils of the institution. And Pestalozzi's disposition and j opinions passed more and more under the influence of a single one of the assistant teachers (Schmid.) At Miinchen Buchsee, Tobler was a promoter of the separation be- tween Pestalozzi and von Fellenberg. Cooperation with the latter,, was possible only on condition of complete submission to his authority;. JOHN GEORGE TOBLER. 365 a claim which von Fellenberg made on the ground of his social posi- tion. But tli 3 views of the two men were too radically differ, nt; of ! the world, .of men, and of pedagogy. It is true that pedagogical ly, von Fellenberg proceeded on Pestalozzi's principles; but it was upon those principles as he entertained them when he wrote Leonard and Oertrude; when he considered the common school as a valuable in- strumentality for the training by society of its needed members; i.e., for education to agriculture, manufacturing, and trades. This view was in harmony with the caste-spirit of society; "The individual was not considered as a moral person, and society subordinated to him as to a superior being, but he was placed quite below it." Pestalozzi had, while at Stanz and Burgdorf, risen very far above this view. He had turned about, let go his consideration of mere purposes, and had laid hold upon the principle of personal exterior independence; not merely as a negative, but as a positive fact. This starting point von Fellen- berg did not recognize; and Tobler, therefore, could not agree with him. The true reason why no union between von Fellenberg and Pestalozzi and the Pestalozzians never took place is, therefore, not to be sought amongst any accidental circumstances, but in their radical op- position of views. In Miihlhausen, and afterward in Glarus, Tobler established new schools. His want of adaptedness to the demands of the times upon the teacher and educator here came sharply out. He experienced, by the severe lesson of falling into poverty and want, the truth, that no one, even if possessed of a lofty new truth, strong by nature, and really deserving of confidence and support, can unpunished oppose himself to the tendencies of the age. Every new truth has its martyrs ; and a pedagogical truth as well as others. His real excellence, and his maturest, he showed at St. Gall, while director and center of his school there, as educator and instructor of his pupils, as guide to his assistants, and as unwearied and unsatisfied investigator after new applications of the Pestalozzian method to language, geography and Natural History. He invented a useful alphabetical and reading machine, arranged a simplified mode of Vnap- drawing, and a good though unfinished course of instruction in Na- tural History. Having continual reference to the common schools, he paid much attention to the subject of obtaining cheap materials for instruction, and took great interest in the training of teachers, for which also he accomplished considerable good. An idea which never left him after his connection with Pestalozzi, was the training of mothers as teachers ; and the establishment of the belief of the destiny and fitness of the female sex for this high 366 JOHN GEORGE TOBLER. calling. Even in his latter years he was still enthusiastic upon this- subject, and Niederer's female school at Geneva, owes to him much that is valuable. The following account of Tobler's educational experiments and failures, is given in his own words, in Pestalozzi's "Eliza and Christopher." " After having been, for six years, practically engaged in education, I found the result of my labors by no means answering my expectations. The energy of the children, their internal powers, did not increase according to the measure of my exertions, nor even in proportion to the extent of positive information which they had acquired : nor did the knowledge which I imparted to them appear to me to have a sufficiently strong hold upon their minds, or to be so well connected in its various parts, as J felt it ought to be. I made use of the best juvenile works that were to be had at that time. But these books contained words, of which the greater part were unintelligible to children, and ideas far beyond the sphere of their own experience ; and conse- quently formed, altogether, so strong a contrast with the mode of thinking, feel- ing, and speaking, natural to their age, that it took endless time and trouble to ex- plain all that they could not understand. But this process of explaining was in itself a tedious job, and, after all, it did no more toward advancing their true in- ternal development, than is done toward dispelling darkness by introducing a few detached rays of light in a dark room, or in the obscurity of a dense, impenetrable mist. The reason of this was, that these books descended to the profoundest depths of human knowledge, or ascended above the clouds, nay, and to the upper- most heavens of eternal glory, before an opportunity was offered to the children of resting their feet on the solid ground of mother earth ; on which, nevertheless v it is absolutely necessary that men should be allowed to stand, if they are to learn walking before flying-, and for the latter, moreover, if it is to be flying indeed, their wings must have time to grow. An obscure foreboding of those truths in my mind, induced me, at an early period, to try to entertain my younger pupils with matters of immediate perception, and to clear up the ideas of the elder ones by Socratic conversations. The result' of the former plan was, that the little ones acquired a variety of knowledge not generally to be met with at that age. I endeavored to combine this mode of in- struction with the methods I found in the most approved works ; but whichever of those books I took in hand, they were all written in such a manner as to pre- suppose the very thing which the children were in a great measure to acquire by them, viz., the knowledge of language. The consequence was, that my Socratio conversations with the elder pupils led to no better result than all other explana- tions of words by words, to which no real knowledge corresponds in the children's minds, and of which they have, consequently, no clear notion, as regards either each of them taken separately, or the connection in which they are placed together. This was the case with my pupils, and, therefore, the explanation which they seemed to understand to-day, would a few days after be completely vanished from their minds, in a manner to me incomprehensible ; and the more pains I took to make everything plain to them, the less did they evince energy or desire to rescue things from that obscurity and confusion in which they naturally appear. "With such experience daily before me, I felt myself invincibly impeded in my progress to the end which I had proposed to myself. I began to converse on the subject with as many schoolmasters, and others engaged or interested in education, as were accessible to me, in whatever direction : but I found, that although their libraries were well furnished with works on education, of which our age has been so productive, yet they saw themselves placed in the same difficulty with myself, and were no more successful with their pupils than I was with mine. Seeing this, I felt with what an increased weight these difficulties must oppress the mas- ters of public schools, unless, indeed, they were rendered too callous for such a feeling by a professional spirit. I had a strong, but, unfortunately, not a clear im- pression of the defects of education in all its departments, and I exerted myself to the utmost to find a remedy. I made a determination to collect, partly from my JOHN GEORGE TOBLER. 36T own experience, and partly from works on the subject, all the means, methods,, and contrivances, by which it seemed to me possible that the difficulties under which I labored, might be removed at every stage of instruction. But I soon found that my life would not suffice for that purpose. Meanwhile I had already completed whole volumes of scraps and extracts, when Fischer, in several of his letters, drew my attention to the method of Pestalozzi. I soon began to suspect that he was about to reach the end I was aiming at, without my circuitous means ; and that most of my difficulties arose out of the very nature of the plan which I followed, and which was far too scientific and systematic. I then began to see, that in the same manner the artificial methods, invented in our age, were the very sources of all the defects of modern education. On the contrary, I saw Pestalozzi equally free from my peculiar difficulties, and from the general failings, and I ac- counted for this by the fact, that he rejected all our ingenious contrivances, all our well-framed systems. Some of the means employed by him, that for instance of making children draw on slates, seemed to me so simple, that my only puzzle was, how I could have gone on so long without hitting upon them. I was struck with the idea that all his discoveries, seemed to be of the kind which might be termed " obvious ," they were none of them far-fetched. But what most attached me to his method, was his principle of re-educating mothers for that for which they are originally destined by nature, for this principle I had long cherished and kept in view, in the course of my experiments. I was confirmed in these views by Kriisi, who, at his visit in Basle, gave, in the girls' school, practical specimens of Pestalozzi's mode of teaching spelling, read- ing, and arithmetic. Pastor Faesch, and Mr. De Brunn, who had in part organiz- ed the instruction and management of that institution, according to the loose hints which had as yet reached us on the Pestalozzian method, perceived immediately what a powerful impression was produced upon the children by their spelling and reading together in a stated measure of time. Kriisi had also brought with him some school materials for the instruction in writing and arithmetic, and some leaves of a vocabulary, which Pestalozzi intended to draw up as a first reading- book for children ; which enabled us to see the bearing which Pestalozzi's method had upon the development of the different faculties of human nature. All this contributed to mature in me, very rapidly, the determination to join Pestalozzi, according to his wish. I went to Burgdorf, and the first impression of the experiment, in the state in which it then was, fully answered my expectations. I was astonished to see what a striking degree of energy the children generally evinced, and how simple, and yet manifold, were the means of development by which that energy was elicited. Pestalozzi took no notice whatever of all the existing systems and methods ; the ideas which he presented to the minds of his pupils were all extremely simple ; his means of instruction were distinctly subdivided, each part being calculated for a precise period in the progress of development ; whatever was complicated and confused, he rejected ; by a few words he conveyed much, and with little apparent exertion produced a powerful effect ; he kept always close to the point then under consideration ; some of his branches of instruction seemed like a new creation, raised from the elements of art and nature : all this I saw, and my attention was excited to the highest degree. There were some parts of his experiment, it is true, which seemed to me rather unnatural ; of this description was, for instance, the repetition of difficult and corn- plicated sentences, which could not, at first, but make a very confused impression upon his pupils. But I saw, on the other hand, what a power he had of leading children into clear ideas ; yet I mentioned my doubts to him. His answer was, that nature herself presented all sorts of perceptions to our senses in confusion and obscurity, and that she brings them to clearness afterward. To this argument I had nothing to reply,* especially as I saw that he attached no value to the details *The obvious reply was, that the perceptions which nature presents, however confused, or otherwise obscure, they may be, are realities, and therefore contain in themselves the very elements of clearness, and at the same time, a strong inducement to search for those elements. But confused impressions made upon us by words, are not realities, but mere shadows ; they have in themselves the elements of confusion, and they offer neither an inducement, nor th* means, for clearing them up. The former call out the mind, the latter cramp it. The very power which Pestalozzi possessed over his pupils, what was it owing to, according to the statements both of himself and his friends, but to his making a rule of supplying the child with a clear and distinct notion of the reality, before he gave him the sign or shadow, the name 1 368 JOHN GEORGE TOBLER. cf his experiment, but tried many of them with a view to throw them aside again, s soon as they should have answered thc-ir temporary purpose. With many o c them he had no other object than to increase the internal power of the children, and to obtain for himself further information concerning the fundamental princi- ples on which all his proceedings rested. I resolved, therefore, not to mind the apparent inadequacy of some of his means, so much the more as I had come to the conviction, that the further pursuit of the experiment necessarily involved the im- provement of the details of the method. This was perfectly evident already in arithmetic, in drawing, and in the rudiments of language. I perceived, likewise, that by the connection which his different means of in- struction had with each other, every one of them, individually, was instrumental in promoting the success of all the others, and, especially, in developing and strengthening the faculties generally. Long before he began to lay down his principles in stated terms, I saw, in the daily observation of their practical effect, the approaching maturity of the whole undertaking, and, as an infallible conse- quence of it, the gradual attainment of the object he had in view. In trying the details of his method, he never leaves any single exercise until he has so far in- vestigated and simplified it, that it seems physically impossible to advance any further. Seeing the indefatigable zeal with which he did this, I was more and more confirmed in a sentiment, of which I had before had some indistinct notion, that all the attempts at fostering the development of human nature, by means of a complicated and artificial language, must necessarily end in a failure ; but that, on the contrary, a method intended to assist nature in the course of human develop- ment, must be characterised by the utmost simplicity in 'oil the means of instruc- tion, and more especially in language, which should be a faithful expression of the simplicity of both the child's own mind, and the objects and ideas which are em- ployed for its cultivation. I now began to understand, by degrees, what he meant by introducing a variety of distinctions in the instruction of language ; by aiming, in his arithmetical instruction, at nothing else but producing in the<:hild's mind a clear and indelible conviction that all arithmetic was nothing else but an abridgment of tlu- simple process of enumeration, and the numbers themselves nothing but an abridgment of the wearisome repetition, one, and one, and one, and one ; and, lastly, by declaring an early development of the faculty of drawing lines, angles, curves, and figures, to be the groundwork of art, and even of the capacity, which so few men possess, of taking a distinct view of visible objects. I could not but feel every day more confirmed in the notions which I had formed of the manifold advantages of his method, by being a constant witness of the ef- fects produced by general development of the mental faculties in the arts of measuring, calculating, writing, and drawing. I grew more and more convinced that it was possible to accomplish what I have before stated to have been the lead- ing object of my own pursuits at a previous period, viz., to re-educate mothers for the fulfillment of that sacred task assigned to them by nature, the result of which would be, that even the first instruction imparted in schools, would have previous maternal tuition for a foundation to rest on. I saw a practical method discovered, which, admitting of universal application, would enable parents, who have the welfare of their offspring at heart, to become themselves the teachers of their little ones. From that moment, popular improvement ceased to be depend- ent on the circuitous plan of training teachers in expensive seminaries, and with the aid of extensive libraries. In short, the result of the first impression produced upon my mind by the whole of Pestalozzi's experiment, and of the observations I have since been able to make on the details of his method, has been, to re-establish in my heart that faith which I held so dear at the onset of my career, but which I had almost lost under the pressure of systems sanctioned by the fashion of the day, faith in the practicability of popular improvement." In the progress of his narrative he declares himself, that it was one of the characteristic fea- tures of his method of teaching language, (hat he reduced it to the utmost simplicity, " by ex eluding from it every combination of words which presupposes a knowledge of language." He was not, however, at all times, equally clear on this point, although it lies at the very foundation of all his improvements in elementary instruction. KARL CHRISTIAN WILHELM YON TURK KARL CHRISTIAN WILHELM VON TURK, was born at Meiningen, January 8, 1774. He was the youngest son of Chamber-president and High Marshal von Turk, who was of a noble Courland family, and in the service of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen. At his mother's death, when a boy of six years old, he was transferred to the family of his mother's brother, Grand Huntsman von Bibra, at Hildburg- hausen, where he was brought up with his cousins under a strict tutor. At seventeen and a quarter years old, without having attended any public school, he entered the University of Jena, where he found in his elder brother Ludwig, who had already been studying there a year And a half, a true friend and a pattern of industry and good conduct ; and where he contracted a close friendship with several cotemporaries, amongst whom were T. von Hardenberg, known as a poet under the name of Novalis, and von Bassewitz, afterward Chief President and hi* own official superior. After completing his legal studies, in 1793, he offered himself for an office under government in Meiningen, which had been promised him while his father was Chamber-president and his brother a govern- ment official, notwithstanding the strictness of the examination. What, however, his knowledge and capacity did not enable him to attain, he secured by means of a very ordinary social talent. During a visit in Hilillmrghausen, the Prince, then Duke Karl of Mecklenburg, father of Queen Louise of Prussia, found that he was a skillful ombre-player ; and he took so strong a liking to him that afterward, upon receiving the principality by the unexpected death of his brother, he determined to fix him within his dominions. Accordingly, in the very next year, 1794, he appointed von Turk chancery auditor, and two years later, Chamberlain and chancery councilor. In 1800, his official senior von Kamptz, afterward well known as Prussian minister, was appointed to a public station in Mecklenburg, and von Turk was appointed in his stead to take the oversight of the school system, with his judicial employments. The inquiries which his new place suggested to him drew his attention in such directions that he became gradually estranged from the occupations to which he had been earlier devoted. In 1804. von Turk took a furlough for six months, visited various 370 VON TURK. , and made the acquaintance especially, of Olivier, Tillich and I'ohhnann, then distinguished teachers of the day. In the same \.-ur, ho remained during som- months, at Pestalozzi's institution at Miinchen-Buchsee, and made himself acquainted with his views, and with J. Schmid's system for geometry and mathematics He pub- lished the results of his stay with Pestalozzi, in his " Letters from Munchen-Buchsee" (Leipzig, 1808); one of the most practical and, useful accounts of Pestalozzi's method. After his return to Mecklenburg, he could not resist his impulse tx> become a teacher. He gathered together a troop of boys, instructed them two hours daily and made teachers acquainted with Pestalozzi's method. During his educational journeys he had become acquainted with the prince of Oldenburg, and at the end of 1805. he was ap- pointed to a lucrative office as Justice and Consistory Councilor ia Oldenburg, with an annual salary of fourteen^hundred thalers, (about $1050.) In his new place he experienced the same impulse to exertion as a teacher and educator. Here also he gathered a troop of boys whom he instructed two hours a day ; and he received into his house a number of young people, and gave them a complete education. These operations however did not meet the approval of tli<- ')'* W imrkcil r> gnbt rl>i furs a day with a single set of hands; and they did not scruple to employ children of both sexes from the age of eight. We actually found a c msiderable number under that age. It need not bo sa d that such a system could not be maintained without corporal punishment. Most of the overseers openly carried stout leather thongs, and we frequently saw even the youngest children severely beaten. We sought out the surgeons who were in the habit of attending these children, noting their names and the facts to which they testified. Their .-tories h:iunted my dreams. In some large factories, from one-fourth to Din- fifth of the children were either cripples or otherwise deformed, or p rmuneii'ly injured by excessive toil, sometimes by brutal abuse. The y >;mger children seldom held out more than three or four years without severe illness, often ending in death. When we expressed surprise that parents should voluntarily condemn their sons and daughters to slavery so intolerable, tiie explanation seemed :o bo that many of the fathers were out of work themselves, and so were i;: u measure driven to the sacrifice for lack of bread; while others, imbtMti'd by intemperance, saw with indifference an abuse of the infant faculties compared to which the infanticide of China may almost be termed humane. In London my father laid before several members of Parliament the muss of evidence he had collected, and a bill which he had prepared, for- iing the employment in factories of child-workers under twelve years <>f uge, and fixing the hours ihey might be employed at ten a day. Finally he obtained from the elder Sir Robert Peel (father of the well- known Prime Minister, and then between sixty and seventy years old), a promise to introduce this humane measure into the House of Commons. Sir Robert, then one of the r.chest cotton-spinners in the kingdom, and a iiber of twenty-five years' standing, possessed considerable influence. i he exerted it heartily, I think (and my father thought) that the measure might have been carried the first session. But, in several inter- vi -\vs with him to which I accompanied my father, even my inexperience a slackness of purpose and an indisposition to offend his fellow ;;ifacturers, who were almost all violently opposed to the measure. I think it probable that his hesitation was mainly due to a conscioi: it ill became him to denounce cruelties, in causing which he had himself had a pr.miineut share. The bill dragged through the House for four sessions ; and when passed at last, it was in a mutilated and compar- atively valueless form. Pending its discussion I frequently attended with my fatherthe sessions <>f a committee of the House appointed to collect evidence and report on the condition of factory children. He was a chief witness, and one day had to >; and (and did stand unmoved) a bitter cross-examination by Sir ''hilips, a "cotton lord." as the millionaires among mill owners t r ere then popularly called. This oppressor of childhood questioned my ither as to his religious opinions, and other personal matters equally 366 PRACTICAL EDUCATORS ROBERT OWEN. irrelevant, in a tone so insolent, that, to my utter shame, I could not repress my tears. They were arrested, however, when Lord Brougham (then plain Henry) called the offender to order, and a'ter commenting, in terms that were caustic to my h art's content, on the impertinent charac- ter of Sir George's cross-examination, moved that it be expunged from the records of the committee a motion which was carried without a dissent- ing voice. Throughout the four years during which this reformatory measure was- in progress, my father (in truth the soul of the movement) was unremit- ting in his endeavors to bring the evidence he had obtained before the public. The periodical press aided him in this ; an! I remember that one touching story in particular had a wide circulation. It came out in evidence given before the committee by an assistant overseer of the poor. He was called upon to relieve a father out of employment, and found his only child, a factory girl, quite ill ; and he testifies further as follows : " Some time after, the father came to me with tears in his eyes. ' What's- ' the matter, Thomas ? ' I asked. He said, ' My little girl is gone ; she died in the night ; and what breaks my heart is this though she was not able to do her work, I had to let her go to the mill yesterday morning. She promised to pay a little boy a half-penny on Saturday, if he would help her so she could rest a little. I told her he should have a penny.' At night the child could not walk home, fell several times by the way, and had to be carried at last to her father's house by her companions. She never spoke intelligibly afterwards. She was ten years old." Industrial Element Diversions Military Drill. My father sought to make education as practical as possible. The girls. were taught sewing and knitting, and both sexes, in the upper classes, besides geography and natural history, had simple lessons in drawing. Yet it was not the graver studies that chiefly interested and pleased our numerous visitors ; the dancing and music lessons formed the chief at- traction. The juvenile performers were dressed alike, all in tartan, the boys wearing the Highland kilt and hose. Carefully instructed in the dances then in vogue, as a lesson, not as a performance, they went through their reels and quadrilles with an ease and grace that would not have shamed a fashionable ball room, coupled with a simplicity and un- consciousness natural to children when they are not spoiled, but which in higher circles is often sadly lacking. The class for vocal music numbered, at one time, a hundred and fifty and under a well-qualified teacher they made wonderful progress. I selected, and had printed for them, on a succession of pasteboard sheets,, a collection of simple airs, chiefly national Scottish melodies, which th j y rendered with a homely pathos scarcely attainable, perhaps, except by those who are " to the manner born." Another feature in our schools which proved very popular with visitors was the military training of the older children. Drilled by a superan- nuated soldier whom my father had hired for the purpose, and preceded by a boy -band of a drum or two and four or five fifes, they made a VPTV creditable appearance. INTUITIONS IN OBJKCT TEACHING. SUITABLE TO THE KINDERGARTEN PERIOD.* DIESTERWEG, in answer to the questions of his pupils, "What are th?.- intuitions that shall be addressed V' : "What shall we awaken?" " Out of what fields?" "Whence shall we take them?" gave the following beau- tiful resume. 1 4 Let us look at the different kinds of intuit ions let us enumerate t hem. 1. Sensuous intuitions not given merely mediately through the senses, but immediately or directly outward objects. 2. Mathematical intuitions representations of space, time, number, and motion, also belonging to the outward world and not directly given by the senses, but mediately through them. 3. Moral intuitions The phenomena of virtuous life in man. 4. Religious intuitions, oiiginating in man whose sentiments relate him to God. 5. ^Esthetic intuitions, from the beautiful and sublime phenomena in nature and human life (artistic representations). 6. Purely human intuitions, which relate to the noble mutual relations of man in love, faith, friendship, etc. Social intuitions, which comprise the unifying of men in the great whole in corporations, in communities, and State life. The school cannot offer all these subjects of intuition according to their differ- ent natures and their origin; for the school will not take the place- of life; it only supposes them, connects itself with them, and refers to them, it points them out in all their compass, occupies itself with them, and builds up with them on all sides the foundation of intel ligence. The sensuous intuitions relate to the corporeal world and the changes in it. The pupil must see with his own eyes, as much as possible, must hear with his own ears, use all his senses, seek the sensuous tokens of things in their phenomena upon, under, and above the ground, in minerals, plants, animals, men and their works, sun, moon, and stars, physical phe- nomena, etc. The mathematical intuitions are developed out of the sensuous, by easy abstractions lying near at hand, the representations of the expansion of sp;irc compared one with another, those of time in succession, the repre- sentations of number the how much the ever-moving representations of change in space, and the progression of the same. The simplest of these representations are those of space; the rest become objects of intui- tion by means of these, by points, lines, and surfaces. In arithmetic, for instance, points, lines, and their parts, bodies and their parts are the ma- terial of intuitions. The moral intuitions come to tho pupil through man, through his iife with his relatives, as in the school through schoolmates and teachers. These are naturally inward intuitions which embody themselves in the *Taken from Chapter on Auschauungsunterricht (' Intuitional 1 ' or "Object Teaching") in the edition of Die Wegweiser fiir Deutcfie Lehrer, issued by Diesfenveg's friends after his death in numbers from 1873 to 1879. The Chapter entire will be found ii:-> Barnard's Journal of Education for 1880, p. 417. 388 INTUITIONAL OR OBJECT TEACHING. expression of the countenance, in the eye, in the speech. The pupil's own experience is the chief thing here as elsewhere. Happy the child thai i< surrounded by thoroughly moral, pure men, whose manifestations lay in him the moral foundation of life. The moral facts of history are pointed out to him by the teacher from his own intuition, in H living manner by means of the' living word, the eloquent lips, and die feeling heart. To religion* intuitions the child comes through ilie eoLtempiation of r.u- ture, its phenomena and beneficent workings, through the piety of /,/* parents, the commands of the lather and mother, through contemplating the community in the house of worship, through religious songs in the school, through religious instruction and confirmation in school and church, through religious-minded teachers and pastors, biblical stories, etc. ^Esthetic intuitions are awakened by the sight of beautiful and sublime objects of nature (flowers, trees, stars, crystals, sky, and sea, rocky moun- tains, landscapes, storms, thunder-showers, etc.), and the real objects of ait, pictures and picture-galleries, statues, gardens, poetical products, and human speech. We can classify their specific differences, calling them moral, aesthetic, etc., but I hold it better to place them in one category. The strong moral law equally binding upon all men, this field of view does not include, for its contents cannot be unconditionally required. That belongs to the free, beautifully human development, which is de pendent upon conditions that are not attainable by every one. The so-called purely human intuitions are related to the nobly formed human lives of individual men whose characters (Inhalt) proceed from the strongest conceptions of morality and duty, from sympathetic affections, friendship, and love, compassion, and loving fellowship, and other shining phenomena of exalted human life as they arc met with in the more refined development and culture of lofty and pure men. Happy is the child who is in their sphere! If the home offers nothing in this respect, it is difficult to supply the want. Let the teacher do what is possible by the hold he ha* upon the school and by all his own manifestations. The AMsfai intuitions, that is the social circumstances of men in a large sense are determined for the child by the manifestations of the community in the schools, in the churches, in the assemblies of the people, in public festivals, and especially in .-lories in which the teacher, by his living in-ight into states, nations, and warlike communities, defines to the scholar the best living representations of great deeds. Our early domes- tic life, not a public one, was an obstacle to the growth of these so impor- tant intuitions. How can he who has experienced nothing, understand history? How can he who has not seen the people make a living picture of IN' life? Small republics have endless advantage in respect to the observation of public life and patriotic sentiment. Words, even the most eloquent, give a very weak, un-alisi'artory compensation for observation. 'The year ls4s has in this respect, brought most important steps of pro- -.* Prominent above all other consideration* is the importance of the life, the intelligence, the standpoint, the character of the teacher, for lay- ing the foundation of living ol)M-rvaiion in the soul, in the mind, and ic the disposition of the pupil. What he does not cany in his own bosom b he cannot awaken in the bosom of another. Nothing else can for the want of this. The teacher must himself have seen, observed. -experienced, investigated, lived, and thought as much as possible, a*id should exhibit a model in moral, religious, {esthetic, and purely human and social respects. So much a- he is. M> much is his educational instruc- tion worth. He is to his pupils the most instructive, the most appreciable, the most striking object of observation. * " We hope." ?ays Diepterweg's biographer, "that Father Diesterweg would have been satisfied with the "progress from 1848 to 1871 if he could have experienced it, but let us keep watch of ourselves in spite of nil lliat, for security. The chief battle of the German nation seems but just now (1873) to be beginning." PESTALOZZIANISM IN THE UNITED STATES. II1STOKICAL DATA. THE earliest presentation of the principles of Pestalozzi to the people of the United States, which has met my eye, was in a communication based on the authority of William Macluro in the Xational [ntelliyencer, printed in Washington on the 6th of June, 1806. This was followed on the 9th and 30th of the same month by an elaborate exposition of his method, taken from Dr. Chavannes' treatise published in Paris in 1805, and subsequently printed in the Italian and Spanish languages. WILLIAM MACLURE. WILLIAM MACLURE, to whose broad humanitarianism science and popular education in the United States are largely indebted r w;is born at Ayr in Scotland in the year 1763, and died in San ;ol in Mexico in 1840. He first visited New York in 1782, in the interest of the London mercantile firm of Millar, Hart & Co., in which he soon after became a partner, with his residence in London. He visited this country again in 1796; and in 1803 he had become so identified with it, that he was associated by Pres- ident Jefferson with Messrs. Mercer and Barnet in a Commission to settle with the French government for claims of our merchants for spoliations committed in the revolutionary period. Satisfied with a moderate pecuniary independence, Mr. Maclure retired from mercantile business in 1806, and entered on a course of scientific investigations in the great field of natural history, and especially of its mineralogy and geology, which won for him the distinction of the Father of American Geology. W ithout the pat- ronage of a single State, or association, and at a time when there was little knowledge and sympathy with scientific pursuits, he commenced a geological survey of the United States, which extended from the river St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico, and which before its conclusion led him fifty times over the Alloghany range, crossing and recrossing it at different points in every State over pathless tracts and dreary solitudes and with * A memoir by S. G. Morton, read before the American Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and printed in Silliman's Journal of Science, April, 1844. Also bio- graphical references in Maclurc's Opinions on Various Subjects. 21 ; ; i ( " WILLIAM MA( I great privations and exposures, month after month and year after year, until he submitted a final memoir to the American Phil- osophical Society, in 1817, having read a preliminary paper eight years before, covering three years' work. For several years before entering on this survey which extended over eleven years, Mr. Maclure devoted a portion of every year to the geology of Europe, and particularly of Switzerland, and dur- ing his visits there he became deeply interested in the educat work of Pestalozzi at Yverdun, and Fellenberg at Hofwyl, and by pen and conversation, and substantial offers and aid, labored to make their principles and methods known in his adopted country. To this part of his history we will return after noticing further his singularly disinterested labors in the field of science. From 1812 Mr. Maclure took an active interest in the early his- tory, endowment, and transactions of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia where he usually spent his intervals of rest. To its museum and library he gave valuable books and specimens, under his auspices lectures were instituted, and a Journal was commenced. Of this academy he was elected President in 1817, and continued to the time of his death, a period of twenty- two years; and to this institution he donated a large collection of books and minerals in 1819 and 1835, and from time to time made subscriptions of over $20,000 to a fund for the erection of a fire-proof edifice, which was began in 1839 and completed in 1840. In 1817 he issued his Observations on the Geology of the United .1 with some Remarks on the Nature and Fertility of Soils, a corrected report of the memoirs of his survey in the transactions of the American Philosophical Society in 1809 and 1816. In the winter of 1816-17, Mr. Maclure visited the West Indies to make personal observations on the geological features of the Antilles; and submitted a memoir to the Academy in 1817, which is printed in Vol. I of its Journal. In 1819 he visited France and Spain, and while in Paris pre- pared several essays for the Revue Encyclopedique which were excluded by the Censors of the press as too democratic. These essays were afterwards translated into Spanish and printed in Madrid, to which the author had resorted in consequence of the liberal constitution promulgated by the Cortes. Here his benefi- cent activity was expended in scientific explorations and the improvement of the system of elementary instruction by the introduction of Pestalozzi 's methods, and of an agricultural school WILLIAM MA i i 391 after the model of Fellenberg'.s in which manual labor should be corn!):::. -'I with moral and intellectual culture. To facilitate his 'd a memoir of 1'estalozzi, and Chavannes* report on > to be printed in Spanish, and bought of the govern- men: ID. 000 acres of land near the city of Alicant, which had belonged to a suppressed convent. In 1823 the constitution was overthrown, and the lands were returned to the church; and Mr. .Ma lure in his mineralogical excursions in the mountains was in danger of being kidnapped and held as a slave until a ransom to amount was paid for his liberation. In 1824 Mr. Maclure returned to the United States, intent on establishing an agricultural school on a plan similar to that pro- jected in Spain; and sympathizing with Mr. Robert Owen in his ing object, 'The greatest good for the greatest number, 1 and especially in giving to the laborer with his hands the benefits of an instructed brain, he resolved to make trial of his own plans in the neighborhood of New Harmony, in Indiana, thirty miles i the mouth of W abash River, where Mr. Owen had located his settlement for the trial of his new Social System. Mr. Maclure does not seem to have entered into the communism of Mr. Owen's village organization, but to have confined himself to his own edu- cational work in the immediate neighborhood, where he erected a building for residence, to which he removed his private library, philosophical instruments, and collections of natural history, and to which he invited his friends, Mr. Say, Mr. Lesuer, Dr. Troost, and others, who already had an enviable scientific reputation. In the autumn of 1827. the plan of an educational establish- ment of a delicate and original character, not succeeding, or at least not developing as rapidly as the proprietors hoped, in the natural hindrances of a new settlement like that of New Harmony, increased by discordant elements brought together from different countries in the expectation of a New Jerusalem, as it were, coming down from heaven Mr. Maclure, with his friend Mr. Say, embarked for Mexico to secure the benefits of a more genial climate. Here he found ample scope for his scientific investiga- tions and his socio-economical observations and speculations, which are embodied in his Letters from Mexico, printed in the New Harmony Disseminator, and embodied in his volume of Ojrinmns on 1 'arious Subjects. Here his convictions of the immense importance of Pestalozzi's and Pellenberg's principles of education :m t ) incur expense for their dissemination, and for a second elL-n to establish an agricultural seminary in which the industrial element should be an essential part of the organization and 392 WILLIAM MACLt RE. instruction. He was present at a meeting of the American Geo- logical Society at New Haven in November, 1828, and there,, among other designs, announced his purpose to bring back with him from Mexico a number of young native Indians in order to- have them educated in the United States, and subsequently to- become the pioneers of a better civilization among the people of their own race. But he did not live to return from his second visit to Mexico his constitution, never very robust, yielded rap- idly to the advance of age and disease, and after making great efforts to reach Vera Cruz, (with the co-operation of his friend, the American consul there,) on his return to Philadelphia, he died at the country house of Valentine Gomez Farias, ex- President of Mexico, March 23, 1840, in the seventy-seventh year of his age. Educated in the best methods of the grammar schools of Scot- land, trained by the responsibilities of large mercantile trans- actions to habits of bold and yet careful calculation, liberalized by the widest observation of natural phenonema, as well as the lar- gest experience of mankind under different forms of government and widely varying conditions of occupation, Mr. Maclure devoted h : s talents and his wealth, not to the acquisition of a greater for- tune, or personal aggrandizement, or sensual indulgence, but to the advancement of science and the amelioration of the condition of his fellow men, born and living in circumstances not as favorable to happiness as himself . Prof. Silliman remarked: ' It is rare that affluence, liberality, and the possession and love of science unite so signally in the same individual.' The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, although assisted by valuable contribu- tions from many individuals, is a monument of his liberality. At the time of his death there was not a cabinet of natural history, public or private, in the whole country, which had not been aug- mented by his contributions; not a scientific publication of an expensive character which had net been aided by his timely sub- scription to its completion. In 1805 he enabled a young French- man (Mr. Godon) to go from Paris to the United States, who delivered in Boston and Philadelphia the first lectures that were given in mineralogy in any part of the Union. He furnished the earliest information, both in printed reports and private letters, in 1805 and 1806, for an intelligent description of the educational views of Pestalozzi in the public press of this country; and in 1800 he paid the expenses of travel and residence in Philadelphia for two years, to enable Mr. Joseph Neef, a pupil of Pestalozzi, to open a school on his principles in Philadelphia. PESTALOZZIANISM IN THE UNITED STATES. 393: Joseph Necf, who opened the first avowedly Pestalozzian school in the United States, was born in Alsace about 1777, and was for a time a pupil, and in 1801 became a teacher, at Burgdorf. In 1803 he was sent by Pestalozzi, on the application of an orphan school and at the sug- gestion of Count de Lezay-Marnesia, Prefect of Upper Rhine, to Paris, where he taught the new method under such conditions, that in the year following, Bonaparte, then first Consul, according to Pompee (in his Study of the Life and Works of Pestalozzi, Paris, 1850 and 1878) attended a public examination of his pupils. In 1805, William Maclure, with Mr. C. Cabal of Virginia, returned to- Paris from Yverdun, where he had become deeply interested in Pestalozzi and his method ; sought out Neef, who tells the story of the interview and results as follows : "On what terms," said Mr. Maclure, "will you go to my country and introduce there your method of education ? I have seen Pestalozzi, I know his system"; my country needs it, and will receive it with enthusi- asm. I engage to pay your passage and meet all expenses. Go and be your master's apostle in the new world!" My soul was warmed with admiration at such uncommon generosity. Republican by inclination and principle, and, of course, not at all pleased with the new order of things at home, I was not only glad to quit Europe, but I burnt with desire to see that country, to live in and be useful to a country which could boast of such citizens. But what still more exalts Mr. Maclure's magnanimity is that I did not at that period understand English at all. Two years at least were to be allowed for my acquiring sufficient knowledge of the language, during which time I had no resource but Mr. Maclure's generosity. But neither this nor any other consideration could stagger liis resolution. Thus it was that I became an inhabitant of the new world." Mr. Neef opened his school near Germantown in June, 1809, and in 1811, the Providence (R. I.) American, publishes a letter in answer to inquiries respecting the new system, which was copied into Niles' Weekly Register (Baltimore), of September 28th. From this reprint our extracts are taken. Everything I have said, or which the power of language could express, would fall short of an adequate description of the effects already pro- duced by Neef's system, which will not have been two years in operation till the '9th of June. Such indeed are the effects, that many who go- there and see and hear are amazed, become incredulous, only because they can not see how it is produced. I, who have been a constant visitor, have had an opportunity to mark the principle of the method, as well aa to note the astonishing ease, certainty, and simplicity of the process. . . . By the old system, children have a primer or horn book put inta their hands, and they begin to learn the arbitrary and unmeaning names of certain signs called the alphabet. By Neef's system, they begin to learn the names of all their limbs, mem- bers, and different relations and uses of all parts of the human body. Nearly two years elapse before they hear of an alphabet or a book; nor pen and ink, until they are able to read and write. This is an apparent parodox ; but it is nevertheless true. The second stage of the old system is to spell single syllables. The second stage of Neef's method is to put a slate and pencil before' the boy, and to bring his hand to the habit of drawing a straight line- without the aid of a rule, and to draw the line to any given number of 394 PESTALOZZIANISM IN THE UNITED STATES. inches as called for, by the eye only, and without any rule to measure, except utter it is done, to exhibit its accuracy. The third stage in the new is to divide the straight line into any required number of parts by the eye instantly, and with an exactness that shall stand the test of the compass and rule. The fourth stage of the old school is words of four syllables. The fourth stage of the new school, is to discriminate between the properties of lines horizontal, vertical, and oblique, and so he pro- ceeds to visible objects Strange as it may appear, these lessons with the pencil lead to the art of alphabetical writing, and the Alphabet alter this course is not a matter of mere rote, but is established in the mind with precise ideas of its uses, as an agent for convenience to the memory, not as the essential object of learning. The lessona :in- conducted like sports, and they are rarely more than an hour at any time in the school-room; nor do the lesson* proceed in an arbitrary rotation. There is a certain order, but it is in the teacher's mind. The preceding lesson invariably leads to. and aids that which is to follow Their morning rambles over hills and valleys, rocks and declivities, are nothing more than exercises in gymnastics, or in natural history; minerals, earths, plants, and trees are investigated; the measurement of a triangle by the eye on a slate is now applied to the measurement of a similar figure in the open fields, and the chain of perches perform the operations which are assigned to the compass in the school-room. Tin regular course embraces six years, but can be extended both in subjects and time should the parents desire or the pupil be qualified. The ordinary course consists of General Astronomy, Chemistry. Botany. Mat hematic*.. Natural Philosophy, Geography, and Drawing. all taught with accuracy by a strict analysis of real object^, as tar as attainable. Pupils are al'l taught to swim in summer and skate in winter, and their propensities to mechanics or gardening are encouraged, the fullest oppor- tunities being given to unfold their faculties in such work. The boys come to town occasionally, but what is not very usual, they are glad to go back to school again, the town being of less interest to them than their home and school life in the country. ' The terms are $200, which include tuition, board, washing, and every attention to health and happiness. Before opening his school, Neef published in 1808, a Sketch of a Plan and Method of Education, founded on an Analysis of the Human Faculties and Natural Reason suitable for the offspring of a Free People. At the date of this publication, Neef had not yet attained such mastery of English as to justify his publishing his views of Education (which are, however, strictly Pestalozzian,) in that language. In 181 } he issued a second volume on Language, which met with less favor than the first; on the whole Neef did not achieve very brilliant results in Philadelphia, nor was he very widely known in his new field of labor in Lexington, Kentucky, where he conducted the "Pestalozzian De- partment " (the Primary and English students) in the Eclectic Institute, established by Rev. B. O. Peers in 1830. In both instances the school was not so situated as to admit of being freely visited, and its peculiar merits much written about in the press. Neef died in Lexington in 1835. Dr. Keagy (John M.), a teacher in Harrisburg and Philadelphia from 1826 to 1836, was far more successful in his school manuals, and in public meetings of teachers, in commending the Pestalozzian system of Object Teaching to the people of Pennsylvania. PESTALOZZIAXISM IN THE UNITED STATES. 395 THE ACADEMICIAN 1819. In 1819 we find several elaborate and extended notices in the Academician, edited by Messrs. Albert and John Picket of New York. In Number 14, for January, there appears an article on Pestalozzi's " Method of teaching Religious and Moral Principles to Children:' Pestalozzi, in the first place, by questions adapted to the tender age of the pupil, endeavored to ascertain whether any idea existed in his mind upon the subject to which he wished to direct his attention; and from any one clear idea of which he found the child in possession he led him on, by a series of questions, to the acquirement of such other ideas as were most intimately connected with that primary conception. Thus, for example, suppose that he found in the child an idea of the existence of a being whom he called God. He, instead of teaching him to repeat by rote the notions communicated by divine revelation on what constitutes the ba an instructor. These pupils were exercised before us, in drawing. in arithmetic, and in music. The girls, seated round a table, and busy with their needles, had questions iu arithmetic given them by the mistress, which they were to solve by their heads. They are thus led on from the most simple beginnings to "comprehend the principles of arithmetic, and to work questions with great expertness, solely by a mental process. A male teacher is provided for the boys, though the mistress often assists in the instruction. This little school promises to be well cared for, and of ice to the Pestalozzian cause. We were much pleased with its appear- a rice, and with the assurance it affords, that whatever there is of value and importance in this system will not be lost. The success of this mode of instruction, greatly depends on the per- sonal qualifications of those who undertake to conduct it. There is nothing of mechanism in it. as in the Lancasterian plan ; no laying down of precise rules for managing classes, etc. It is all mind and feeling. Its arrange- ments must always depend on the ages, talents, and tempers of the schol- ars, and require, on the part of the teachers the most diligent and faithful attention. Above all. it requires that the teacher should "consider himself as the father and bosom friend of his pupils, and to be animated with the most affectionate desires for their good. Pestalozzi himself is all this, His heart glows with such a spirit that the good old man can hardly refrain from bestowing kisses on all with whom he is concerned. He holds out his hands to his pupils on every occasion, and they love him as a child loves its mother. His plan of teaching is just fit for the domestic th\ >ide. with a father or mother in the center, and a circle of happy chil- dren around them. He is aware of this, and wishes to extend the knowl- edge of his plan to every parent. Pestalozzi is seventy-two years of age, It has been quite unfortunate for the progress of his system on the con- tinent, that he pays so little attention to exteriors, repmiinsr dress, furni- ture, etc.. as of no moment, provided the mind and heart be right. The weather continuing wi-t. we resolved to wait till the morrow, and take the diligence to Lausanne and Geneva, Much of the day was spent at the castle, in the school-rooms, and in conversation with Greaves. I omitted to mention that we attended, last evening, to the religious exercise which terminates the business of the day. The scholars assembled in a room called the chapel, but very simply furnished with benches and a table. When all wire collected. Pestalozzi, directing his face chiefly to the boys, began to speak in German, moving about, from side to - directing his attention for some time to the boys on his right and then advancing toward those on his left. This motion. backward*and forward. continued about twenty minutes; he was constantly speaking, and some- times \\ith considerable earnestness. It was altogether unintelligible to me. but I afterward learned that it consisted of a recapitulation of the occunvnees of the day. noticing particularly everything of moment, and intermingling the whole with short prayers. "adapted loathe eireumst; mentioned in the discourse. If. for example, any of the boys had quar- reled or behaved unseemly to each other, or to their teacher, he would speak to the ca>c. and accompany his remarks with a pious ejaculation, It is probable that he sometimes* engai vrmally in this exercise, V- it was. it appeared to gain the whole attention of his audience. It was concluded by reading from a small book what appeared to be a hymn .T psalm. A mpany of English visitors attended at the castle to-day, consisting of men and women. The boys performed some of their siymnastie i eises before them, consisting chieflv of simple but simultaneous move- ments of the arms. legs. feet. head. etc.. stepping, marching, turning, and jumping, all intended to exercise the various muscles which give motion to the limbs and head, and to make the boys acquainted with the elements of all those movements. This exercise took place in one of the larsrc bedrooms. We attended, bv invitation. la>: I lecture given 402 PESTALOZZIANISM IN THE UNITED STATES. by Schmidt, the head teacher, to a number of young men, among whom were four Russians, sent by the Emperor, to gain information in England and other countries relative to the best modes of teaching. They had been in England, and spoke our language tolerably well. The lectures are to illustrate more fully the principles and processes adopted in the Pestalozzian institution. We had the company, this evening, at our lodgings, of Frederick Bucholz, who was lately a chaplain to the king's German legion in Eng- land. He had been some time with Pestalozzi, and was able to give us more information with respect to some parts of the system than we could obtain by a short visit to the school itself. We have had at our table d'hote, during the last two days, ten or twelve boys, with their three preceptors, constituting a boarding-school at Geneva. They are on an excursion round the lake of Geneva, taking Yverdun in the way. They came to this place on foot, through the rain, and intended to perform the whole journey on foot; but the weather continuing very wet, they went off this morning in carriages. One of them is a young prince of Wirtemburg, about twelve years of age, of plain juvenile man- ners, no extraordinary talent, but apparently of an amiable temper. We left Yverdun in the diligence, after going again to the castle, and taking leave of some of the professors. Pestalozzi was not in ; he had been to see us at the inn, but missed of us. Before we set off, however, the good old man came down again, and parted with us very affection- ately. In the course of two days which we have spent at the castle he several times pressed my hand to his lips, and seemed to possess all the love and fervency of a true disciple in the cause in which he is engaged. If his personal talents, address, and management were equal either to his genius or his zeal, his influence would have been much greater even than it has been. Nevertheless, the period of his life and labors will, I fully believe, be hereafter regarded as a most important epoch in the history of education. When his principles come to be more generally understood, they will be found to contain much that is extremely valuable. It is to be feared, however, that many years will still elapse before the world is put in possession of a complete explanatory view of his whole system. He does not himself possess the faculty (as Bucholz informed me) of explaining in familiar and intelligible terms his own principles. He con- ceives with wonderful acuteness, and expresses himself in language of extraordinary force and energy; but it requires a deep and steady atten- tion to be able to embrace his whole meaning. He has published* largely in explanation and in support of his plans of instruction; but there is so< much of vernacular pith of idiomatic force and peculiarity in his style and manner, as to render it rather difficult to read him, and still more so to translate his writings. He is now, however, anxious to have all his works translated into English, fully believing that the merit of his plans will be better understood, and his principles more industriously supported, by the English nation than by his own people. His career has been maVked with perplexities. He has had to struggle intensely against poverty, neg- lect, prejudice, and gross misrepresentation; but his patience, his meek ness, his perseverance, his ardent love of his fellow-creatures, have borne him through all his trials; and notwithstanding his advanced age the reputation of his school is now as high, if not higher, than it ever has been. Toward those who have generously contributed to aid him in his pecuniary difficulties his heart glows with the liveliest gratitude. Of two of my acquaintances, one of London, and the other of Philadelphia, who had thus befriended him, he could not speak without emotion. Prof. Griscom, in his account of Fellenberg's Institution at Hofwyl, and particularly of the School of "Wehrli, remarks, that Pestalozzi's methods of instruction were followed in both. PRIMARY INSTRUCTION BY OBJECT LESSONS REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF THE CITY OF OSWEGO, IN NEW YORK. THE Committee selected by the Board of Education of the city of Oswego to attend an examination of the primary schools of that city, held on the llth, 12th, and 13th days of February, 1862, with special reference to an investigation of the system of "Object Teaching" recently introduced into said schools, and to an expression of opinion thereon, beg leave respectfully to REPORT, That the system in question is designed and claimed to be in accordance with those principles so prominently exemplified by the great Swiss educator, Henry Pestalozzi, who lived and labor- ed during the last half of the eighteenth century. Of him the Hon. Henry Barnard justly remarks that, " Although his per- sonal labors were confined to his native country, and their imme- diate influence was weakened by many defects of character, still r his general views of education were so sound and just that they are now adopted by teachers who never read a word of his life or writings, and by many who never even heard his name. They have become the common property of teachers and educators throughout the world." These principles lie down deep in the nature of man. They recognize the great truth that this nature is threefold material, intellectual, moral, and that it has its laws of growth and devel- opment. Pestalozzi believed, as we believe and know, that hu- man beings possess affections and a moral sense as well as rea- son, and intelligence, and sensation. NATURE OP EDUCATION. He therefore assumed faith and love as the only true founda- tion of a system of education. He asserts that education, in or- der to fit man for his destination, must proceed according to nat- ural laws ; that it should not act as an arbitrary mediator be- tween the child and nature between man and God but that it should assist the course of natural development instead of doing 40fi OSWEGO EDUCATIONAL CONVENTION. it violence ; that it should watch and follow its progress, instead of attempting to mark out a path agreeably to some vague pre- conceived system. He sought to develop and strengthen the fac- ulties of the child by a steady course of excitement to self-activ- ity, with a limited degree of assistance to his efforts. He aimed to discover the proper point for commencing the ed- ucation of the young, and then to proceed in a slow and gradual, but progressive and unbroken course from one step to another, always waiting until the preceding steps should have a certain degree of distinctness in the mind of the child before entering upon the presentation of a new step. DISTINCTIVE PRINCIPLES. Pestalozzi believed that education in its essence consists in the harmonious and uniform development of every faculty, so that the body should not be in advance of the mind nor*the mind of the body, nor should the affections be neglected; and that prompt- itude and skill in action should, as far as possible, keep pace with the acquisition of knowledge. He required close attention and special reference to the individual peculiarities of each child and of each sex, as well as to the characteristics of the people among whom he lived, to the end that each might be educated for that sphere of activity and usefulness to which the Creator had destined him. He regarded Form, Number, and Language as the essential condition of definite and distinct knowledge, and insisted that these elements should be taught inith the utmost simplicity, com- prehensiveness, and mutual connection. Pestalozzi, as well as Basedow, desired that instruction should begin with the simple perception of external objects and their re- lations. He wished that the art of observing should be acquired. He thought the thing perceived of less importance than the cul- tivation of the perceptive powers, which should enable the child to observe completely, and to exhaust as far as possible the sub- jects which should be brought before him. He maintained that every subject of instruction should become an exercise of thought, and that lessons on form, size, number, place, etc., would give the best occasion for it. He thought highly of arithmetic as a means of strengthening the mind, and he also introduced Geometry into the elementary schools, with the arts of drawing, designing, and modeling grow- ing out of it. REPORT OP THE COMMiTTEE. 407 He would train the hand, tlie eye, the touch, and the senses cil by the Committee was a review of the C class, primary. Ages of children, 6 to 7 years. LESSON ON FORM. The children stood in a semicircular line on one side of the table, on which were placed several of the more common solids, as a sphere, a cube, a cone, etc. The teacher called upon the children to distinguish different solids, as the sphere, hemisphere, cylinder, cone, and cube, and to give their names. Then, holding up a cylinder, she asked, '' What is this called?" Children. "A cylinder." Teacfier. " Yes, this is a cylinder ; and when we see any object of this shape we say it is cylindrical. Now look about the room, and see if you can see any thing that is of this shape." C. The stove-pipe the post. T. Yes ; and because the stove-pipe and the post are of this shape, we call them C "Cylindrical." In this manner the terms spherical, conical, etc., were presented to the chil- dren. The teacher placed a cube before the children, and requested them to name objects of that form ; then a sphere, and to name objects of a spherical form, etc. Several of the solids being placed on the table, the teacher naming objects, as orange, stick of candy, church spire, etc., the children would say which solid; they resembled in shape. To show that the children understood the terms face and surface, they were requested to touch the surface of a sphere, the outside of a sphere, the faces of a cube and of a cylinder ; then to point out the plane and curved faces of dif- ferent solids ; then to take solids, and tell by what faces they were bounded. RBPORT OF T1IK COMMITTEE. 4^3 The manner of conducting this exercise, and the familiarity manifested with the subject, gave evidence that the children possessed a knowledge of it other than that derived from the words themselves. The second exercise was a LESSON ON SIZE. Review of C class, primary. Ages of children, 5 to 7. They had attended school nine months; have had instruction in size during some eight weeks, about twenty minutes per day. The children were requested to hold their forefingers one inch apart while the teacher measured the space between them. Then children were required to draw lines on the blackboard an inch in length, and others to measure them, stating whether too long, too short, or correct. Next they were required to tear papers an inch in length ; then to tear them two inches in length ; then to fold them three inches in length, and so on, the teacher measuring them meanwhile. At least two out of each three tore and folded their papers of the exact length named. Then the children were requested to draw lines on the blackboard one foot in length, then to divide them into twelve inches. They readily measured inches, and feet, and yards, both with the rule and with the eye, and drew lines representing them, showing that they understood the relations of these to each other, as well as the lengths of each. FORM AND SIZE. Review of A class, primary. Ages of children from 7 to 9. Teacher. Find me a solid whose surface is not divided. The children took from the table spheres and spheroids. Teacher. Find me a solid whose surface is divided into two parts or faces one divided into three faces one divided into six faces. Now a solid with one plane and one curved face. In each case the children selected the correct object. The teacher then called upon one pupil to draw upon the blackboard the plane face of a square two inches on a side ; another one of a square six inches on a side ; another of a rhomb two inches on each side ; an equal triangle one inch on a side ; a plane face of a cylinder three inches in diameter ; a square twelve inches on a side. The children then drew lines of various lengths, as called for by members of the Committee ; also plane figures of various sizes, and, among others, circles two feet in diameter, then of two feet in circumference. The teacher called upon the children, one at a time, to select laths of given lengths, and place them on the floor so as to represent the elevation of one end of a house. Another pupil drew each part of the house on the blackboard as it was represented by the laths. TUESDAY AFTERNOON, LESSON ON FORM. Showing the transition from Form to Elementary Geometry. Review of C class, junior. Ages of children, 9 to 12. The children drew lines on the blackboard, and described them. They rep- resented, and then gave definitions of a point, straight line, length, direction, and of the distinction between different kinds of angles. 414 OSWEGO EDUCATIONAL CONVENTION. A pupil drew upon the blackboard a horizontal line, and an oblique one in^ tersecting the first, and then proceeded to demonstrate that, "if two straight lines intersect each other, the opposite or vertical angles are equal." In giving the demonstration, the pupils used letters to designate the lines and angles. At the suggestion of one of the Committee, figures were substituted for the let- ters, and one of the same pupils called to demonstrate the proposition. The readiness with which the pupil went through with it, using figures in place of letters, was very satisfactory to the audience, their approbation being mani- fested by applause. LESSON ON COLOR Review of C class. Ages of children, 6 to 8. Object of the lesson to culti- vate the perception of color. Worsted, and cards of various colors, were placed upon the table. The teach- er called upon one child to select all the reds, and place them together; anoth- er, to select all the yellows, and place them together ; another, the blues ; an- other, the greens, etc. The children were then requested to name all the red objects that they could see in the room ; then those of the other colors successively. Next, one child was called upon to name a color, and another to name an object of the same color. Then one child would name an object, and another name its color. DISTINGUISHING SHADES AND TINTS OF BLUE. The teacher next proceeded to give a neiu lesson to the same class, the object of which was "to teach the children to distinguish blue, audits shades and tints." The teacher requested the children to find the bluest of the blue objects on, the table. They having selected cards which the teacher pronounced correct, she took tli" cards, told them all to close their eyes, then she placed the same cards upon the table again among the other blue ones, and requested the chil- dren to find them again. When they could readily select the bluest cards, the teacher told them that the bluest blue is called the standard blue. Then the children were exercised in finding the standard blue. Next, two cards were held up, one dark blue and one light blue, and the chil- dren told that the light blue is called a tint of blue, and the dark blue a shade of blue the tint is lighter than the standard blue, and the shade is darker than the standard blue. Then the children were exercised in finding tints and shades of blue. LESSON IN MIXING COLORS. Review of A class, primary. Children from 9 to 10 years of age. The children were led to distinguish primary, secondary, and tertiary colors from mixing colors. The teacher held up vials containing liquids of red, yel- low, and blue. She then mixed some of each of the red and yellow liquids, and the children said the color produced by the mixture is oranrjc. She then mix- ed yellow and blue, and the children said that green had been produced. Then she mixed blue and red, and purple was the result. The teacher printed the result of each mixture on the blackboard thus : REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE. 4l$ First Colors, or Primaries. Second Colors, or .Secondaries. Red 4- Yellow = Orange. Blue + Yellow = Green. Blue + Red Purple. Next she proceeded to show how the idea and term tertiary is derived from the secondaries by mixing the secondaries, and printing the result on the board as before : Secondaries. Third Colors, or Terliaries. Green + Orange Citrine. Orange + Purple Russet. Purple + Green = Olive. After the children had read over in concert what had been printed on the board, it was erased, and the pupils were required to state from memory what colors are produced by mixing primaries, with the names of each secondary ; also, what by mixing the secondaries, and the name of each tertiary. An ex- ercise on Harmony of Colors was then given to the same class of children. They were requested to select two colors that would look well together, and place them side by side ; then two were placed together that do not harmonize. Dur- ing these exercises, the teacher printed on the board, Primary yellow harmonizes with secondary purph. " red " " " yreen. 11 blue *' orange. This was read by the pupils, then erased, and the individuals were called upon to state what color will harmonize with these several colors, as their names were respectively given. TUESDAY EVENING, The exercises were held in Doolittle Hall, and were witnessed by a large au- dience. First there was given a LESSON ON OBJECTS 5th STEP, to the B class, junior school, the aim of which was to lead the children to dis- tinguish acids from alkalies, and to show some of the effects of each. A class of boys and girls were arranged upon the stage so that they could ob- serve the vials of liquids and solids upon the table in the centre. After intro- ductory remarks by the teacher, alluding to the classification of children in school according to their knowledge, she requested one to arrange the vials upon the table into classes. He placed the vials containing solids in one group, and those containing liquids in another. The teacher remarked that, although that was one way to classify them, yet there was a better way, and that was by tast- ing, placing those which have a similar taste in the same class. The children were each given some cream of tartar to taste ; they pronounced the taste sour. The name of the substance was written on the blackboard. Then they were given some sal soda to Taste, and they said it tasted " bitter and burning/' The name of this was written on another part of the board. The teacher then told the children that we called those substances which taste sour acids, and wrote the word acids over cream of tartar. She then told them that the name for those substances which have a "bitter, burning taste," is alkalies. 416 OSWEGO EDUCATIONAL CONVENTION. This word was written over sal soda. Then the children were given some vin- egar to taste, and required to tell in which column its name should be written. They gave "acids." The teacher proceeded in a similar manner with ley, pearlash, tartaric acid, and soda, and the children designated the column in which the word should be placed. Some oxalic acid was produced, and the children told that it was poison, hence should not be tasted, but that it also was sour, and requested them to name the column in which its name should be vvrit- ten. The words on the blackboard were written thus : ACIDS. ALKALIES. Cream of tartar. Sal soda. Vinegar. Ley. Tartaric acid. Pearlash. Oxalic acid. Soda. The children having learned a distinction between acids and alkalies, the teacher produced a vegetable dye, obtained by boiling a purple or red cabbage in water. She poured equal quantities into two glasses. Into one of these she poured some acid, and into the other a little alkali. The children were re- quired to observe the effects of the acid and of the alkali upon the vegetable dye, and then to describe these effects. Children. The acid turns the vegetable dye to a red. The alkali changes it to a yreen. Teacher. Now what can you say of the taste of acids? C. They taste sour. The teacher now wrote on the board, " Acids have a sour taste " T. What can you say of the effect of acids upon a vegetable dye ? C. Acids turn vegetable dyes to red. The teacher wrote this on the board also. T. Now what can you say of the taste of alkalies ? C. They have a bitter, burning taste. T. We call this bitter, burning taste of alkalies an acrid taste. What do we call the taste of alkalies? C. An acrid taste. The teacher wrote on the board, "Alkalies have an acrid taste." T. What can you say of the effect of alkalies upon vegetable dyes? C. Alkalies change vegetable dyes to green. This was also written on the board. Afterward the red and green dyes were mixed, when the whole assumed its original color. After trying similar examples with other acids and alkalies upon the purple water or vegetable dye, the children were told that acids and alkalies neutralize or destroy each other. The teacher then wrote on the black- board, Adds and alkalies, when mixed together, neutralize each other. Next a bottle partly filled with soft water was produced, and a little soft soap added, when it was given to the pupils to shake. Soapsuds were produced. A few drops of acid were then added to the contents of this bottle, and on shaking it again the suds disappeared. Then a little ley was poured into it, and on being shaken suds were again produced. Then the children were led by an- other experiment to perceive that acids and alkalies neutralize each other when mixed. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE. 417 A few other experiments were tried, illustrating in similar methods the proc- es of teaching children things and ideas before the words of description are given. Whenever the terms or words given by the pupils in describing what they saw were inappropriate, these were corrected by the teacher.* WEDNESDAY MORNING, LESSON ON ANIMALS. THE SEAL. 3d STEP. This was a new lesson, given to children of the average age of eight years, from the C class, primary school. The object of the lesson was to show the children how the parts of the animal are adapted to the habits of it. The teacher held before the children a picture of the seal, upon land, by the side of open water. T. Where, in this picture, do you see the animal ? C. On the land. T. What do you see near it ? C. Water. T. Where do you think it lives ? C. In the water. T. Does it spend all of its time in the water? C. No ; it spends part of its time on land. T. What other animals live in the water ? C. Fishes. T. Fish breathe by taking the air from the water by means of their gills. The water and air passes into its mouth, and the water passes out through the gills. The seal breathes as we do, therefore he can not remain under the wa- ter as fish do. His head must be above the water to breathe. The seal feeds on fish. Now can you tell me why he goes into the water at all ? C, To catch fishes for food. The teacher now printed upon the blackboard, "The seal can live in water and on land." This was read by the children. They now pointed out in the picture the parts of the seal, and described their shape. In developing the idea of round, the teacher showed the children a round and a flat object, and they named the one which most nearly resembled the shape of the body. In developing the idea of tapering, the children were requested to point out the largest part of the body, and the smallest. T. Why does the seal need a round, tapering body ? To develop this idea, they were asked which boat would move through the water most easily, one with a blunt end or one with a sharp end ? Their atten- tion was then called to the small head and tapering shoulders of the seal, and thus to its adaptation for moving through the water. The teacher then print- ed on the board, The body of the seal is round and tapering. This was read by the children in concert. A picture of a fish was now shown, and the children requested to observe its shape. The teacher then led them to compare its organs of progressive motion * At the close of this lesson, a paper, written by Miss Jones, of London, at present the prin- cipal of the Training School in Oswego, was read ; also an address was delivered by N. A. Calkins, of New York. Both of these papers may be found at the close of this report. 418 OSWBGO EDUCATIONAL CONVENTION. with those of the seal, and to observe the adaptation of these organs to the spe- cial purposes for which they are designed. C. The seal lias broad, flat feet, which it uses to aid it in swimming. This was printed on the blackboard. T. "Why would not fins suit the seal as well as they do the fishes? C. Because the seal could not go on land with fins. The children were then led to compare the covering of the seal with that of the fish, to show the adaptation of the warm fur to its mode of life. Their at- tention was also directed to the intelligence and docility of the seal, and the resemblance of its head, in shape, to that of the dog. His disposition was com- pared with that of the dog; humane feelings excited by describing the manner of hunting and killing the seals, and kindness inculcated. As a summary, the children read what had been written on the board ; then repeated it after it had been erased. LESSON ON HORNS OF ANIMALS. 4th STEP. A class, primary. Average ages 10 years. The object of the lesson was to give a general idea of horns, their form, po- sition, and uses. Children were requested to name animals having horns. Afterward the teacher presented to them pictures of a cow, goat, and a deer, and the class were requested to observe them carefully, and to state how their horns differ. C. The cow's horns have no branches ; the goat's horns have no branches ; the deer's horns have branches. T. Look at the form of the horns. C. The horns differ in form. To lead the children to the idea of horns differing in position, lines were drawn upon the blackboard in different positions. When" this idea had been gained, their attention was directed to the position of the horns of the cow. These were described as being placed on each side of the head, and slanting w/v ward and outward. The horns of the. goat were described as placed on the top of the head, and slant upicard. and backward. The horns of the deer are placed on the top of its head, and slant in different di- rections. These descriptions were printed on the blackboard. To develop the idea of the shape of the cow's horns, a pair of horns was pre- sented, and the children requested to describe them. C. The horns of the cow are round, large at the base, and tapering. The teacher not having a pair of goat's horns present, pointed to the picture, and told the children that the horns of the goat are more slender, and less curved than those of the cow. Deer's horns were shown, and described as spreading out like the branches of a tree. The children were led to observe that the cow's horns are hollow, while those of the deer are solid. They were told that the goat's horns were also hollow ; and that, while the cow's and goat's horns were fixed, or remained permanent upon the heads of these animals, the horns of the deer are shed ev- en- year, new ones growing each summer. The attention of the children was called to the uses of horns to animals as weapons of defense, and of their uses to man in the manufacture of combs and various other articles. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE. 419 LESSON ON SHELLS 3d STEP OF OBJECTS. Given to a C class, primary ; ages of children 5 to 6 years. Object of the lesson was to lead the children to observe the parts of the shell, also to perceive the appropriateness of the names given to the parts. The teacher, holding up a shell before the class, told them that an animal once lived in that shell, and then asked, "What do you live in?" Children. Houses. T. This was the house of an animal. Now I want you to look at it, and see if you can find different parts of this shell. James may point to some part of it. The boy touched the small point at one end. The teacher said this part is called the apex of the shell. Now point to the apex of this cone; of the pyra- mid. The word apex was now printed on the blackboard. Mary may touch some other part of the shell. She put her finger upon the largest part, or body of it ; and the teacher said, this is called the body of the shell, and printed the word on the board. Pointing to the whorl on the shell, the teacher said, " Look at this ; see how it winds around the shell ; this part looks as if it whirled around, so we call it the ichor I." This word was also printed on the board. The opening of the shell was pointed at, and the children asked to give it a name. No one replied, and the teacher requested a boy to open his mouth, and the other children to look at it, upon which several of them suggested the word mouth as a good name for the opening of the shell. This was printed on the board, and the children told that it is the name for that part of the shell. Next the edges of the mouth were pointed at, and the children referred to parts of their own mouths for a name. Lips was readily given, and printed OR the board. The groove leading to the mouth was pointed at, and the children told to call it a canal. The word was then printed. The attention of the children was directed to the lower part of the shell, con- taining the canal, and the children asked if they had ever seen any part of a bird that resembled it in shape. "The bird's beak," was the replv. "That is right; and we will call this the beak of the shell," said the teacher. This word was also printed on the board. A child was now called to take the shell and point out the parts as the chil- dren named them. The teacher pointed out the parts, and the children named them. LESSON ON SHELLS 4th STEP OF OBJECTS. Given to an A class, primary, ten children. Ages 8 to 10. Object of the lesson, to show the use of shells, their formation, and general classification. The children were shown several shells, and asked where they are found. Children. On the lake-shore, the sea-shore, and in rivers. T. How arc shells obtained from the sea ? C. The waves wash them on shore. T. The creatures found inside of the shell are called mollusks. The word was written on the blackboard, and the children told that it means soft. To develop this idea, the children were directed to press their fingers upon their 420 OSWEOO KDfCATIOXAL CONVENTION. cheeks, then upon their forehead, and to tell how they feel. They were asked whether they had seen oysters, and how they feel; and why they feel soft? The answer obtained was that the oyster has no bones. T. What can we say of the oyster because it has no bones ? C. It is boneless. The teacher printed on the board, and the children repeated together, Mo Husks are soft and boneless. The children were referred to the white cold fluid or blood of the oyster, and it was compared with their own red warm blood. The teacher wrote on the blackboard, The blood of the viollusk is cold and colorless, and the children repeated it together. The shells were given to the children to examine, and see if they could tell of what materials they are made, and who made them. To develop the idea of their formation, a piece of chalk was shown, and the children told that one of the substances of which the shell is made was like that. They were asked if a shell made of so brittle a substance would be strong. The children were now told that the shell is made of lime which is obtained from the water, and this is mixed with a gluey substance, which the mollusk obtains from a portion of its own body, to stick it together. They were shown the smooth, polished outside of the shell, and told that the mantle which covers it deposits a sub- stance which hardens and forms the beautiful polished surface. The children were also told how the little mollusk increases the size of its shell from year to year, as the animal itself grows larger, by making additions on the edge of the shell. Sometimes, when the shells are dashed against the rocks by the waves and broken, the mollusk re j wins the broken part. The idea that the shells arc a means of defense for the mollusk was devel- oped, and the teacher wrote on the board, Shells serve as a house and armor to the mo//>isl>\ and the children repeated it. Following this, the idea of God's wisdom and goodness was presented in providing every thing so wisely for these little animals. The teacher also gave some exercise in the classification of shells into uni- valves, bivalves, and multivalves. And, as a summary, the pupils read from the blackboard, Shelh are inhabited by animals called moflusks. Mollusks are sq/l and boneless. The blond of the nio/hisk /.> cold and colorless. Shel/s nre cowjiosed of Ihne and a kind of nlucy substance. Sheila serve as a house and armor to the molln>k. WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, Exercises were held in the school-room. LESSON ON PLACE. A review of a C class, primary. Ages of children G to 7 years. The Object of the lesson was to distinguish and define place, as nearer, farther, between, to the right, to the left. 2d. To represent objects in these relations. 3d. To distinguish the cardinal and semi-cardinal points. KU'OKT OF THE COMMITTEE. 421 First, objects were placed on a table, and the children requested to observe the position of each, after which the teacher would remove them, and call upon individuals to put them in the same position again. Then the position of these objects on the table were represented by drawing on a slate held in a horizontal position. Then the same positions were represented by drawings on the black- board. Children were called upon to point with their fingers ; also to walk in different directions ; also to tell in what direction they must walk to go from their seat to some given part of the room. The teacher would name a point of compass, and request the children to point toward it, while she would point in some other direction. This made each pupil think and act for himself. LESSON ON PLACE. Given to the A Class, primary. A review. Children, average age 9 years. An outline map of the city of Oswego was placed before the class, and the children were required to point out the various localities, tell the distance of one from another, the direction in which a person must go in proceeding from one place to the other. The outline map was drawn on a scale of one foot to the mile ; the pupils ascertained distances, after estimating by the eye, by taking a tape measure and ascertaining the number of feet from one point to the other. A drawing of the school-room made to a scale, previously placed upon the blackboard, was exhibited. Rivers, lakes, canals, dams, locks in canals, etc., were described by the pupils in answer to questions by members of the Committee. LESSON ON NUMBER. A review of the C class, primary. Ages of children 6 to 7 years. The object of this exercise was to show how addition, subtraction, and multi- plication are worked out w r ith objects. The children were arranged in front of a shelf containing pebbles in boxes or compartments. The teacher said to the first pupil, " I will give you 1 peb- ble ; how many must you add to it to make ten?" To the next she said, "I will give you 3 pebbles ; how many must you add to these to make ten ?" To the next, "I will give you 2 pebbles; how many must you add to make ten?" The children would proceed to take other pebbles from the boxes, and count- ing, add enough to make ten. As each finished the number, the hand would be raised. When all had completed the number assigned, the teacher com- menced by asking the first pupil, " How many did I give you ?" Child. "One." T. " How many did you add to make ten?" C. "Nine." T. (To the next pupil.) "How many did I give you?" C. "Three." T. " How many did you add to make ten ?" C. "Seven." In this manner the teacher kept all the pupils at work, and each at work on a separate problem. Subsequently the pupils were requested to see in how many ways they could arrange given numbers. One was to arrange the num- 422 OSWEGO EDUCATIONAL CONVENTION. ber Jive in as many ways as possible, as 4 and 1, 2 and 3, 2 and 2 and 1, 2 and 1 and I and 1, 1 and 3 and 1, etc. Another was told to arrange six, an- other seven, another eight, in as many ways as they could with the pebbles. The teacher gave them numbers, and then told them to take away less num- bers, as, "1 give you 8 pebbles; take away 5, and tell me how many re- main," etc. The teacher having placed six marks on the board thus, j | | | | | , rub- bed out two, and asked, " What have I done ?" C. ''Rubbed out two marks." T. " How many marks remain ?" C. "Four marks." T. " What may you say, then ?" wer questions relative to the event. At the close of this exer- cise the school arose and repeated together the Lord's Prayer. The entire ex- ercise seemed very interesting to the children, all of whom gave strict attention, and it was a beautiful sight to the observers. OBJECT LESSON. 3d STEP. Given to the C class, primary. Children 6 to 7 years of age. The object of the lesson was to develop one quality the idea of maUeabMUifr and give the term.' The children were shown pieces of lead, and asked to say something about it. Children. Lead is heavy. Lead is gray. Lead shines when cut. Lead is opaque. Lead is tenacious. The children handle the lead, passing it around. The teacher beats a piece of lead with a hammer, and having flattened it so that it is quite thin, she shows it to the children again. They say it lias been tlattcned. Tin- teacher then added, ''Lead will flatten by Ix-ing Ix-atcn, and because we can flatten it by beating it we say had is mmUeMl." The children repeat this. Next the teacher pounded a stone, and asked if it would flatten by beating it. She then a-ked. " N the stone malleable?" C. Stcn.- i- not malleable. /. Why? C. Because we can not flatten it by beating it. The teacher then pounded a piece of chalk, that the children might see that we can not flatten it as we can lead, and hence that is not called malleable. The pupils were now requested to mention other objects that are malleable. They having named several, she inquired, ''Why are these objects said to be malleable ?" C. Iecau-e we can flatten them by beating them. The teacher and pupils then icjKiated together, Any thing that can be flattened by beatimj it is said to be malleable. LESSON ON ANIMALS. THE IBIS. 3d STEP. Given to a C class, primary. Ages 7 to 8. The object of the lesson was to show parts, and the adaptation of these to the habits, mode of life, etc. The teacher held the picture of the ibis before the children, and called upon one to come and point out some part of the bird. The child pointed to the head. T. What can you say of the head of the ibis? C. The ibis has a small head. Another comes and points to the eyes, and says, "The ibis has small eyes.'' Another points to its beak, and says, "The ibis has a long, curved, tapering, sharp beak." T. Why do you say the beak is tapering? C. Because it is smaller at one end than it is at the other. The children were requested to observe the neck, and one was called to point to it in the pieture and describe it. C. The ibis has a long, slender neck." KKl'..l;T >! rill. i;iMMUTEIi 425- T. What can you say of its legs? C. It has long slender legs. T. Where do you think it lives? C. In >wampy places. T. Why? C. Because ir has long legs. T. Why dot-s it need a long neck ? C. To reach down in the water and mud to pet its food. '/" Why would not short legs do as well ? ' '. Tin- waves would wash him away. T. Why does he have a long beak ? (7. So it can reach its food without putting its head under the water. OBJECT LESSON. PEPPER. Given to an A class, primary. Ages of children 1) to 10. Object of the lesson to develop qualities of the object. Grains of pepper are shown to the children. They say it is vegetable. The teacher prints on the board, Pcftper is a vegetable. The children say it is hard. One of them spells hard, while the teacher prints, Pepper is hard. After tasting it, they say, "Pepper is biting pungent." This is printed on the board as the children spell the words. T. Why do you say pepper is pungent ? C. Because it has a burning ta- T. Can you think of any thing else that can be said of pepper ? C. It is black. It is rough. It is spherical. These sentences were placed on the board as the words were spelled. All- spice was shown them, and the two compared. They said, "Pepper is rough, and allspice is -inooth." T. What can you say of its uses ? C. It is used tor preserving things. T. What els2 may be said of it ? C. Pepper is stimulating, because it has a burning taste. It is wholesome. T. It grows iu very warm countries, hence we say it is tropical. It does not grow in our country, so we say it is foreign. This was followed, as usual, with a brief summary of what had been gone over, to fix the important points in the memory. A CLASS FROM A COUNTRY SCHOOL INTRODUCED. In accordance with a request of the Committee of Examination, and that they might see the first steps in teaching children who have never had any in- struction by the system of Object Lessons, a class of children was procured from- a school out-id.- i,f the ri-y and placed before one of the teachers. There was placed on the table before them cubes, spheres, cylinders, cones, and other solids. The attention of the children was first called to a sphere. They were told ta oUerv it- -hape ; then its name was told them, and they required to repeat it. Then they \\vir requested to s?lect a sphere from the objects on the table; then to point to other ol>j (* having the same shape. The children having: 426 OSWEGO EDUCATIONAL CONVENTION. learned to distinguish this form, their attention was called to the cylinder, and they were led to select others like it. Then its name was told them. After- ward they were requested to look about the room and find something that had the shape of the cylinder. The children pointed to the stove-pipe, also to the pillars in the centre of the school-room. It was observed that the children dis- tinguished resemblances in different objects much more readily at the close of the exercise than at its commencement. The same class was next placed in charge of another teacher. She under- took to develop the idea of vegetable. A small rose-bush was shown them, and they were asked if they had ever seen any thing like it before. Then they were requested to name some other plant which they had seen. They mentioned rose-bush, gooseberry, currant. They were asked what plants they eat which grow in the garden, and their re- ply was "Cabbage." They were shown a picture of a leaf and a real leaf, and an effort was made to teach them to express a distinction between them ; but it was discovered that they were German children, and had learned so little of our language that the teacher must explain new words which expressed qualities to them in German before they could comprehend them. THURSDAY AFTERNOON, Exercises were held in the Court-house, and devoted to PHONETIC READING. Exercises were given with a C class, primary, in the 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th steps. 1st Step. Teaching letters by their forms. I was described as one perpendicular line. V " " " two slanting lines. D " " " one perpendicular line, and one curved line on the right, touching the perpendicular line at the top and bottom. B was described as one perpendicular line, and two curved lines on the right, touching the perpendicular line at the top, in the centre, and at the bottom. The design of this exercise \v&s,jirst, to secure accurate observation ; second, to secure accurate expression. These were to constitute the foundation of sub- sequent teaching. The children were also given slips of straight and curved pasteboard, from which to form these letters and then to tell their names. 2d Step. The sounds of the letters were repeated as simple vocal exercises, without referring them to the letters which represent them. 3d Step. Now initial consonants were combined with syllables consisting of a vowel followed by a consonant, as, b ud, bud, d og, dog, c ot, cot, c at, cat, In this exercise, the powers or sounds of the letters only are used. 4th Step. Here two initial consonants were used, as, bl ack, black, br ay, bray, cl oth, cloth, br ow, brow, The meaning of the words are given in this step. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE. 437 The ~ith and fith Steps were illustrated with the A class, primary, children about i) years of age. Anomalous sounds were considered, and the same sounds represented by dif- ferent characters, also the same characters representing different sounds. 5//i Step. The three sounds of ch, also silent letters, initial, central, and term- inal letters, were considered : Ch has .the English sound, as in church, chair, chap, chip, chin, chat. Ch has a hard sound, as in chyme, churn, choir, etc. Cli has a French sound, as in Chicago, charade, chaise, Chemung, etc. The words showing examples of these different sounds were given by the pu- pils, while the teacher wrote them on the blackboard. Initial silent Letters. H is an initial silent letter in hour, honor. Central silent Letters. D and G are central silent letters in bridge, edge, sign, etc. Terminal silent Letters. B and N are terminal silent letters in thumb, plumb, autumn, hymn. Gt/t Step. Sounds expressed by ou ; and long sound of o expressed by dif- ferent letters; classification of letters, and rules of spelling. The proper sound of o is expressed by ou in ground, found, round. " long " o " " " " soul, mould, court. " broad . " o " " " " sought, fought. " close " u " " " " couple. " long " u " " " croup. The long sound of o is expressed by different letters, as in oat, boat, floor, doc, chateau, sew, coast, sorrow. Classification of Letters. Letters are classified, with reference to their sound, into Vowels, a, e, o, u, and semi -vowels, w, y; liquids, 1, m, n, r, ng; mutes, sharp, p, t, f, th, as in thin ; mute flats, b, d, v, th, as in then ; diphthongs, i, oi, oy, and aspirate h. In addition to the foregoing exercises, a few simple rules for spelling were deduced from examples of words given, and the exercises of the examination closed. CONCLUSIONS OF THE COMMITTEE. In view of all they have witnessed in the exercises, of which the foregoing are brief sketches, and in the light of the best in- formation which they have been able from various sources to obtain upon the subject of "Object Teaching," and what is known as the Pestalozzian system generally, they feel warranted in giving expression to the following conclusions : 1. That the principles of that system are philosophical anfc sound ; that they are founded in, and are in harmony with the nature of man, and hence are best adapted to secure to him such an education as will conduce in the highest degree to his wel- fare and happiness, present and future. 2. That the particular methods of instruction presented in the 428 OSVVKGO EDUCATIONAL CONVENTION. exercises before us as illustrative of those principles merit and receive our hearty approbation, subject to such modifications a* experience and the characteristics of our people may determine to be wise and expedient. In conclusion, the Committee beg leave to present in the form of resolutions the following recommendations: Resolved, That in the opinion of your Committee, the System of Object Teaching is admirably adapted to cultivate the per- ceptive fa/ulties of the child, to furnish him with clear concep- tions and the power of accurate expression, and thus to prepare him for the prosecution of the sciences or the pursuits of active life; and that the Committee do recommend the adoption of the system in whole or in part, wherever such introduction is prac- ticable. Resolved, That this system of primary education, which sub- stitutes in great measure the teachers for the book, demands in its instructors varied knowledge and thorough culture ; and that attempts to introduce it by those who do not clearly compre- hend its principles, and who have not been trained in its meth- ods, can result only in failure. \ All which is respectfully submitted. (Signed) WM. F. PIIELPS, D. H. COCIIKAN, DAVID N. CAMP, ,- -r. TT Special Committee THOMAS F. HARRISON, > * TT -o ,, T on Report. H. P. WILBUR, GEO. L. FARXHAM, W. NlCOLL, Approved by the General Committee, and read before the Con- vention, in Doolittle Hall, on Thursday evening, February 13th,. 1862. THE HISTORY OF OBJECT TEACHING. HISTORY furnishes no records of attention to elementary edu- cation prior to the seventeenth century. The ancients neglected the instruction of their children, although they provided schools of philosophy for their young men. The prevailing idea on the subject of education appears to have been that knowledge con- sisted in the memory of rules and words rather than in things and thoughts. The practice of teaching by requiring the pupils to memorize all lessons, without' regard to an understanding of their meaning, had come down from the monastic schools of earlier a'ges. The principles of development by primary educa- tion were then unknown in all the plans of teaching. Just before the dawn of the seventeenth century, a keen ob- server of nature and men, having noticed that artisans worked out their results by inductive processes of reasoning, also that the arts and sciences were progressing, while philosophy and education remained stationary, borrowed the principle of utility and progress from the workshops of his time, applied it to phi- losophy and education, and the world was aroused by the tri- umphal progress of a new system of philosophy which immor- talized the name of Francis Bacon. This philosopher taught that the powers of memory alone can do but little toward the advancement of science or education. He classed those school achievements in mere memory with the physical achievements of the mountebanks: "The two perform- ances are much of the same sort. The one is an abuse of the powers of the mind; the other is an abuse of the powers of the body. Both may excite our wonder, but neither is entitled to our respect." Although Bacon's attention was chiefly confined to philosophy, yet he struck the key-note of those great principles of education which have become the foundation of the most philosophical methods of teaching now practiced throughout the civilized world. Said he, " Men read in books what authors say concern- ing stones, plants, animals, and the like, but to inspect these 430 THE HISTORY OF OBJECT TEACHING. stones, plants, and animals with their own eyes is far enough from their thoughts ; whereas we should fix the eyes of our mind upon things themselves, and thereby form a true concep- tion of them." Little, however, was accomplished during Ba- con's time in devising plans for the primary education of chil- dren. Early in the seventeenth century the inductive system of Ba- con attracted the attention of a thinking, earnest teacher of Austria John Amos Comenius. He seems almost to have been endowed with an intuition which gave him, to a remarkable de- gree, a knowledge of the true principles of education. He saw more clearly than any of his predecessors what was necessary for the improvement of the methods of instruction, and he soon made an application of the principles of Bacon's inductive system to primary education. In 1657 he published the first school- book in which pictures were used to illustrate the various topics discussed in it. This work continued to- be a text-book in the German schools for nearly two hundred years. Comenius was an evangelical preacher as well as an educator, and on the issue of a decree in 1624 that all persons must leave the Austrian dominions who would not become Catholics, he took his departure for Poland with thirty thousand families, of whom five hundred were of noble blood. As he came upon the range of mountains at the boundary, he paused to look once more back to his native land, and, with his brethren, fell upon his knees and prayed, with many tears, that God would not suf- fer His Word to be entirely destroyed in that country, but would preserve some seed of it there. Who will say that those prayers were not answered, when, within five years afterward, Comenius was himself permitted to return and labor for the improvement of the schools of Bohemia. Subsequently he went to Lissa, Poland, where he became pres- ident of the school, and bishop of the Moravian brethren a sect which has been distinguished for its good schools wherever its colonies have been planted. Here he published his first work, the Janua Linguarum Eeserata a new method of teaching languages, in connection with instruction in the elements of the sciences. This work soon carried his fame to other lands, and every where it developed the necessity of a reform in education. By an Act of Parliament Comenius was invited to England in 1641, to undertake the reformation of their schools. His labors there were defeated by the disturbances in Ireland and the civil THE HISTORY OF OBJECT TEACHING. 431 wars. A similar invitation having been extended to him by the government of Sweden, he left England and went to Stockholm in 1G42. War again interrupting his labors, he returned to Lissa. Subsequently he visited Hungary and other places to prosecute- his efforts in behalf of education. Again he returned to Lissa, but only to encounter greater misfortunes. Amid the disturb- ances between the Catholic Poles and the Moravian Protestants, the city was burned, and he lost his house, his library, and his manuscripts, the labors of many years. He subsequently went to Holland, and found an asylum in the city of Amsterdam, where he reproduced several of his lost works. He died in 1671, at the age of eighty. Comenius was the great educator of the seventeenth century. Such was his enduring earnestness that, although exiled from his native land, wandering, persecuted, and homeless, during the des- olating thirty-years' war of that period, still he continued to labor unweariedly in the cause of education, not only inspiring several countries of Europe with an enthusiastic desire for a better sys- tem of instruction, but introducing new principles of education, which greatly modified the practices in teaching, and prepared the way, by gradual changes, for the more thorough reformation of schools which followed under the labors of subsequent edu- cators. In his educational works may be found the first promulgation of the principles and plans of Object Teaching, and of a gradu- ated system of instruction adapted to the wants of the age in which he lived. Some of his leading ideas on the subject of education we will briefly state : " Since the beginning of knowledge must be with the senses, the beginning of teaching should be made by dealing with actual things. The object must be a real, useful thing, ca- pable of making an impression upon the senses. To this end it must be brought into communication with them ; if visible, with the eyes ; if audible, with the ears ; if tangible, with the touch ; if odorous, with the nose ; if sapid, with the taste. First the presentation of the thing itself, and the real intuition of it; then the oral explanation for the farther elucidation of it." But inasmuch as the presentation of the thing itself is so fre- quently impossible, he advised the use of pictures as the repre- sentatives of things, that the words which related to them might be understood. The course of instruction laid down by Comenius commenced 432 THE HISTOKY OF OBJKCT TKACUlNir. with infancy. During the first six years the children were to learn to know animals, plants, stones, ami the names and uses of the members of their own body. They were also to be led to distinguish colors, and to delight their eyes with beautiful things. They should begin Geography with the knowledge of the room, the streets, the fields, the farm Arithmetic, with counting ob- jects Geometry, with understanding 'the ideas of lines, circles, angles, length, breadth, an inch, a foot, etc. Music, with hearing singing History, with a knowledge of what happened to them yesterday and the day before Chronology, with the knowledge of day and night, hours, weeks, and festivals. The views of Comenius are so completely in harmony with lihe natural means of acquiring knowledge through the exercise of the senses, and with the laws of mental development, and also with the observations and experiences of many succeeding educators, that we deem the presentation of a few of his thoughts, in language more literally his own, due even in this brief history of Object Teaching. For the following extracts from his writings we are indebted to that most valuable of all collections of educa- tional literature, Barnard's American Journal of Education. Said Comenius : "The best years of my own youth were wasted in useless school exercises. How often, since I have learned to know better, have I shed tears at the remembrance of lost hours. But u'rirt' is vain. Only one thing remains; only one thing is possible to leave posterity what advice I can by showing the way in which our teachers have led us into errors, and the meth- od of remedying these errors." His practical views of education may be discerned in the suc- ceeding quotations : " Instruction will usually succeed if it follows the course of Nature. Whatever is natural goes forward of itself." " The first education should be of the perceptions, then of the memory, then of the understanding, then of the judgment." " Instruction must begin with actual inspection, not with ver- bal description of things." "To learn is to proceed from something known to the knowl- edge of something unknown; in which there are three things, the known, the unknown, and the mental effort to reach the un- known from the known." " We first proceed toward knowledge by the perception and understanding of the present ; and afterward go on from the present to the absent by means of the information of others." THE HISTORY OF OBJECT TEACHING. 433 "The attention should be fixed upon only one object at a time; and upon the whole first, and the parts afterward." " A second point should not be undertaken until the first is learned ; and with the second, the first should be repeated." "Sight will supply the place of demonstration. It is good to use several senses in understanding one thing." "To know any thing is to be able to represent it, either by the mind, or the hand, or the tongue. We learn, not only in order to understand, but also to express and to use what we un- derstand. As much as any one understands, so much ought he to accustom himself to express; and, on the other hand, he should understand whatever he says. Speech and knowledge should proceed with equal steps." "Hitherto the schools have done nothing with the view of developing children, like young trees, from the growing impulse of their own roots, but only with that of hanging them over with twigs broken off elsewhere. They teach youth to adorn themselves with others' feathers, like the crow in JEsop's Fables. They do not show them things as they are, but tell them what one and another, and a third, and a tenth has thought and writ- ten about them ; so that it is considered a mark of great wisdom for a man to know a great many opinions which contradict each other." " The schools are wrong in first teaching language and then proceeding to things. The thing is the substance, and the word the accident ; the thing is the body, and the word the clothing. Things and words should be studied together, but things espe- cially, as the objects both of the understanding and of language." " In God are the original ideas, which He impresses upon things ; things, again, impress their representations upon the senses ; the senses impart them to the mind ; the mind to the tongue, and the tongue to the ears of others. The mind thinks the tongue speaks the hand makes; hence the arts of speak- ing and working, and the sciences of things." Such are a few of the principles in education which Comenius taught and they have since been confirmed by the experiences of two centuries. It is difficult to judge to what extent the later educators Lock, Rousseau, and Pestalozzi were indebted to Comenius for those principles which they severally taught subsequently, but we find much in the writings of each that is entirely in accord- ance with the teachings of this great pioneer in educational re* 434 THE HISTORY OF OBJECT TEACH I Ml. forms. It is not too much to say that a careful study of the his- tory of education would result in the conviction that many of the best methods of instruction, and the principles of education on which are based so great a number of the modern improve- ments in modes of teaching, were conceived and taught by Co- menius more than two hundred years ago. He planted the seeds which have germinated from time to time, under the fostering care of various educators, and to-day we behold their most vig- orous growth. The labors of Comenius were performed during the first two thirds of the seventeenth century. John Locke, the distinguished English philosopher, lived during the last two thirds of that cen- tury. He urged, as the chief business of primary education, the development of the faculties of the child ; that as the first ideas of children are derived from sensation, so the perceptive facul- ties should be the first cultivated or developed. The main ele- ments of his methods of education were attention to the physical wants of the child, and the development of the intellectual pow- ers through the instrumentality of things. Rousseau, who acknowledged his indebtedness to Locke, and who embodied ideas similar to those of that philosopher in a treatise on education called "Emile," lived during nearly three fourths of the eighteenth century. Pestalozzi was born about the middle of the eighteenth, and died soon after the close of the first quarter of the nineteenth century. He said : " Observation is the absolute basis of all knowledge. The first object then, in education, must be to lead a child to observe with accuracy ; the second, to express with correctness the result of his observations." "The development of man commences with natural perceptions through the senses. Its highest attainment, intellectually, is the exercise of reason." Although we find no direct acknowledgment of Pestalozzi's in- debtedness to Comenius, as we do of the relation of the latter to Bacon, no one can examine the systems of these educators of the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries without discovering many remarkable similarities. It was doubtless owing to the general diffusion of the principles so widely taught by Comenius that the methods for applying them, which were subsequently devised by Pestalozzi, became at once so popular and widely successful. The dawn of the present century beheld Pestalozzi at Bourg- dorf, engaged with Kriisi in making a more detailed npplica- mi: n i. -TORY u' OHJK T TKACIIIXC. 435 tion of those principles of education which were disseminated 1)\ Comenius a century and a half before, in methods chiefly devised by himself. While there, Pestalozzi wrote that work I low Gertrude teaches her Children" which attracted so much attention to his system of education from all parts of Europe. A- early as 1807 we find him in charge of the institution at Yverdun, where he attained his highest renown, and where he remained for nearly a quarter of a century. So widely had his lame extended, that persons went thither from almost every country of Europe, and even from America ; riot merely those who were led by the impulses which inspired him, but by the agents of kings and noblemen, and of public institutions, who de- sired to make themselves acquainted with his methods of teach- ing, in order to their introduction into other countries. No sim- ilar institution has ever attained so great fame, and no other has exerted so wide an influence on the methods of teaching. Just before Pestalozzi opened his institution at Yverdun, be received a request from a philanthropic society in Paris to send a teacher there who could introduce his system of instruction into France. Accordingly, he selected Mr. Joseph Neef, who had been associated with him as a teacher, and who possessed tlw? additional qualifications of understanding both the German and French languages. Mr. Neef went to Paris, and remained some. two years, laboring with a good degree of success. During the summer of 1805, Mr. William Mac Clure, of Phil- adelphia, while traveling in Switzerland, visited IVst.-ilozzi's school, and was so much pleased with the system of teaching that he resolved to introduce it into America. On returning to O Paris he sought out Mr. Neef, and invited him to come to this Count rv. " On what terms," said Mr. Mac Clure, " would yon o to my country and introduce your method of education ? I have seen Pestalozzi ; I know his system ; my country wants it, and will receive it with enthusiasm. I will engage to pay your passnge, also to secure your livelihood. Go, and be your master's apostle in the New World." So generous an invitation awakened an earnest desire in Mr. Neef to visit this country. He would fain have accepted it, but he did not know our language. "Two years shall be allowed you for acquiring that language, during which time I will sup- port you," said this noble benefactor. This generous proposi- 436 THE HISTORY OF OlI.JKCT TEACHING. tion decided the mission. Mr. Neef came to Philadelphia, stud- ied the language, and in 1809 published a small volume setting forth, somewhat in the style of an extended prospectus, the plans and .principles of a new method of education which he proposed to introduce into a private school that he should establish in the suburbs of that city. He labored there for several years, but from some cause, probably owing to his inability to adapt him- self to the American mind and habits, his enterprise failed. Judging from a second volume which he issued in 1813, on lan- guage, he must have been not only impractical, but also have failed to comprehend the necessity of Americanizing the system instead of merely transplanting it. He probably sought to quote his own words, uttered in view of the fate which might attend his school " some obscure vil- lage whose hardy youth want a schoolmaster ;" for, said he, " to become an obscure, useful country schoolmaster is the highest pitch of my worldly ambition." Although Pestalozzi founded his system on correct principles, he frequently erred in his practice of teaching. Many of his ex- pedients for Object Teaching were faulty, and not even in ac- cordance with his own system. In his zeal for the improvement of the mind itself, and for methods of instruction which were calculated to invigorate its faculties, he forgot the necessity of positive knowledge as the materials for thought and practical use in future life. So frequently did he violate his own system in the exercises of the school-room, that one of his intimate friends and admirers said of him, "His province is to educate ideas, not children." Nevertheless, he succeeded in reviving the true principles of teaching, and instituting the greatest educa- tional movement of the century. He had the good fortune to associate with him Neiderer, Krtisi, Schmid, Zeller, and Fellen- berg,to whose systematic development of his methods, and their dissemination of them, the subsequent success of his system is largely due. Many of his teachers even resigned to him what- ever of fame and profit might come from publishing the manuals which they compiled for their respective branches of study while engaged as instructors in his institution. During the suV>j illation of Germany under Napoleon, the minds of the ablest Prussian statesmen were eagerly occupied in 'le vising means for raising the moral, mental, and physical char- acter of the nation to a standard of elevated development, which, .although it might be of little immediate use in their struggle for THE HISTORY OF OlUKCT TEACHING. 437 independence, yet might insure the success of such :i struggle in the future. Among the prominent instrumentalities sought for this purpose was an improvement in their schools, by the intro- duction of the Pestalozzian system of teaching. The king, the queen, and the ministry looked upon this movement with hopes of the happiest results. Accordingly, extensive measures were at once taken to test these plans. Carl August Zeller, who had been one of Pestalozzi's teachers at Bourgdorf, also at Yverdun, was engaged by the government of Prussia to organize normal schools for training teachers in this system of instruction. In addition to this means, several young men were sent to Yverdun, also to other similar institu- tions, to acquire the best methods of teaching. Thus, in a com- paratively short time, a large body of competent instructors were scattered among the Prussian schools. Introduced as the system thus was under the most favorable fcuspices, yet with some modifications, its spirit proved satisfac- tory in meeting the needs of the people for a more thorough intellectual development of the nation. This introduction was commenced about 1810, and in 1825 it had possession of the en- tire common school system of that country. From Prussia and the German states the system of Pestalozzi has been widely diffused in other countries by visitors who went there for the purpose of examining the workings of their schools. It was partially transferred to France by Cousin and Jullien. The principles of this system now prevail in the best schools of England, Denmark, Switzerland, Prussia, Germany, Sardinia, Greece, and many of the colonies of Great Britain. The meth- ods of teaching which prevail in the United States have been materially influenced by the promulgation of these principles. Some thirty Years ago efforts were made in Boston, and oth- er portions of New England, to introduce the system of Pes- taloxxi into their schools by Prof. William Russell, William C. Woodbridge, Carter, Gallaudet, Alcott, and Dr. Griscom. Able articles were published on this subject by Prof. Russell, in the " Journal of Education" as long ago as 1829. In 1830 and '31, William C. Woodbridge wrote a series of articles for the "Annals of Education" describing the principles of teaching in the insti- tution of Fellenberg, at Hofwyl, where improved methods of Pestaloxzi's system were practiced. These articles treated chief- ly upon the principles of the system, without giving details of the methods. Notwithstanding the diffusion of the principles 488 'ni'-- HISTUKY or oi;.n.< T of Object Teaching in this country during that period, its prac- tice died out through the want of teachers trained in the system. was at hand, familiar with the system, to give instruc- tion cither in its principles or methods. As a substitute for this, and the guidance of one trained in the practice of Object Teach- ing, once during each week teachers and superintendent met to compare notes of lessons and notes of progress. The oldest teacluTs, av \\ell us the youngest, studied in preparation for the work before them. The teachers became more and more interested in the system as they >aw its results in their pupils. The interest of the pu- pils grew stronger as the teachers learned to practice the system better. Such were the efforts for the first systematic introduc- tion of Object Teaching into the United States ; and the honor of this achievement is due to the city of Oswego, her earnest su- perintendent, E. A. Sheldon, Esq., and her progressive Board of Education. During the regular annual examinations for promotions, about one year ago, the subject of Object Lessons was added to the list of studies in which examinations were to be made. It was my pleasure to be present for several days, and witness the ex- ercises. Notes from parents requesting that Henry, William, and Mary might be allowed to remain in the primary school an- other term, "they are so much interested in their Object Les- sons," told in unmistakable language of its appreciation by the parents. They found their children becoming unusually inter- ested in school, and more attentive and observing at home ; and their hearts were gladdened in view of the changes that were being wrought in their boys and girls. My own gratification has since been repeatedly expressed in words similar to the following: "To any one who may desire to see the practical operations of Object Teaching, and the best system of elementary instruction to be found in this country, let me say, make a visit to Oswego." It was at length discovered that to meet the wants of their schools, and secure the complete introduction and continued practice of the system, a Training School was needed. Accord- ingly, application was made to the " Home and Colonial School Society" of London for a training teacher. They responded by sending Miss M. E. M. Jones, who arrived here on the first of May last, and immediately entered upon her duties. In response to an announcement that a few teachers would be admitted in the class besides those engaged in the public schools Till: HISToKV (>F OlMKrT I ! A< KING. of Oswego, a dozen other ladies assembled there on the 6th of August last. Others were subsequently admitted. Several mem- bers of this training- elass liave already left to engage in tcaehino-. Rooms liave been fitted up in the New York State Normal School ut Albany for a Model School in Object Ti aching, where til.- future graduates from that institution will be instructed in this s\>;em. This Model Department will lie under the charge of a lady who was trained in the elass at Oswego. The Hoard of Trustees of the New Jersey Slate Normal School, appreciating the advantages of the system, sent a lady teacher to attend this training class, and defrayed her expei to prepaiv herself for introducing it into their school at Tren- ton. Some of the practices of Object Teaching have been intro- duced into the Normal School at Ypsilanti, Mich., by the princi- pal of that institution. Already several cities and many towns are taking steps pre- paratory to iix introduction, and some have been practicing its lessons for several months. Among those thus actively inter- d. we may mention Syracuse, New York, Paterson, X. J., Chicago, 111., Toledo and Cincinnati, Ohio, Rochester, X. Y., San Francisco, and might add a large number of smaller places.* The irreat interest manifested in this system of instruction is shown by the numerous articles on the subject which appear in the educational journals of the country, and in the repeated and * XOTK. The author of this Addr--< ha- omitted to state s. me I-K-N. of a personal natniv, which are important to an accurate history of tin- ] re-cnt movement in primary education in this country. In the summer of 1860, Mr. Calkins commenced the active j reparation of a work on "Object Le mi-." \\hii-h wa- publi-hcd in July, 1801. Within six months from its first presentation to the public- it had reached its fourth edition, and it is u-ed wherever there is any interest in Object Teaching. In addition to this, and in resj>onse to numerous invitations from Teachers' Institutes and Teacher-* A Delations, he has delivered lectures on this subject in various parts of the states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and in Massachusetts. Of his labors in the State of New York, the State Superintendent remark- in his last Annual Report: "A large number of school commissioners, having interested themselves in the subject, secured the services of X. A. Calkins, Esq. a gentleman who has given the system much attention and study who vi-ited and conducted quite a number of institutes, lecturing upon the principles, and giving instruction in the practice of ' Object Teaching.' In this way the attention of many hundreds of our teachers has been directed to definite aims in the elevation of the char- acter of the educational work/' Board of Education, Oswego. Till: IllsTuUV OF nlUKCT TEACHING. 44l numerous inquiries relative to its plans. Amid this general in- terest in the system, and the popular excitement concerning it, there is great danger that the well-meaning, but not well-inform- ed, may make fatal mistakes in attempting to practice it. Object Teaching is based on philosophical principles, and the teacher must know what those principles are before she can apply its methods successfully. The true system of teaching takes Nature lor its guide ; its dangers lie in the want of observation and con- 1'iM-mity to the relations of knowledge and the laws of mental development. During the time of Pestalozzi, Yverdun was the fountain from whence the teachers of Europe and America sought a new and better system of education. When, subsequently, the Prussian schools had been modified by the methods employed at Yverdun, educators journeyed thither to observe and to learn. To-day educators and teachers from several states, and from various parts of our own state, have come up to Oswego to see with their own eyes what they have heard with their ears of the schools, and the system of instruction pursued here. Their hearts have been made glad by what has already been witnessed, and their longings for some sound philosophical improvement, for some means \vherebymore satisfactory and practical results in elementary education may be attained, has been gratified by the hope that the glorious day lia< already dawned on our sho when they////7o.s-oy,//// of Bacon, tin i>ri >!>', ^Us of Comem'"** tin #yxti ,n <>f /Vs-/,/Ac.r/. /' Ol>ject 7'< e thoroughly incorporated into the system of instruction in all the schools of our country. YV KK DUN OBJECT TEACHING; ITS GENERAL PRINCIPLES, AND THE OSWEGO SYSTEM. Report (driiwn up by Prof. S. S. Greene) of a committee appointed by the National Teachers' Association in 1864 to the Annual Meeting in 1865.* IN presenting the report of a large committee, residing at great distances from each other, it is but just to say that nothing like concert of action could be secured. All the members have been invited to express their opinions upon the subject of the report. The writer alone has .visited Os- wego for the specific purpose of obtaining the requisite facts. The opinions of the other members, so far as expressed, are the results of their individual experience, their observations of object teaching in Oswego or elsewhere, or of their general views of the possibili- ties of the system. These opinions will have their appropriate places in the report. An excellent communication from Rev. Dr. Hill, President of Harvard University, obtained at the solicitation of the writer, will also be referred to. It is but just to say that the opinion f Mr. Pennell, of St. Louis, was, as a whole, somewhat adverse to any thing like systematic object teaching. Without further preliminary remarks, your committee proceed to inquire, 1. What place do external objects hold in the acquisition of knowledge ? Are they the exclusive source of our knowledge ? 2. So far as our knowledge is obtained from external objects as a -source, how far can any educational processes facilitate the acquisi- tion of it ? 3. Are the measures adopted at Oswego in accordance with the general principles resulting from these inquiries ? That all our knowledge comes from external objects as a source, no one who has examined the capacities of the human mind pre- tends to claim. Yet no inconsiderable part springs directly from this source. Nature itself is but the unfolding and expression of ideals from the great fountain and storehouse of all thought. * The Committee consisted of Barnas Sears, D. D., Providence, R. I.; Prof. S. S. Greene, Prov- idence, R. I.; J. L. Pickard, Superintendent of Schools, Chicago, 111.; J. D. Philbrick, Superin- tendent of Schools, Boston, Mass ; Diivid N. Camp, State Superintendent of Schools, Connecti tut; R. Edwnrds, Principal of Normal School, Illinois: C. L. Pennell, St. Louis, Mo 444 OBJECT TEACHING. With the Creator the ideal is the original, the outward form, its- embodiment, or expression. The rose is a thought of God ex- pressed. With us the forms of Nature are the originals, the de- rived conceptions, our borrowed thoughts, borrowed, since it is the thought of the Creator through the mediation of Nature that, en- tering our minds, becomes our thought. His claim to originality is most valid who approaches nearest the divine source, observes most faithfully, and interprets most accurately. The page of Na- ture lies open to all. No intellect is so weak as not to read some- thing, none so profound as to exhaust her unfathomable depths. She has an aspect to attract the gaze of early infancy. She re- wards the restless curiosity of childhood. She repays the more thoughtful examinations of youth, and crowns \sith unfading laurels the profoundest researches of the philosopher. She stimulates by present acquisitions and prospective attainments. The well known of to-day is bordered by the imperfectly known, the attracting field of research for the morrow. What we know and can express is accompanied with much that we know, but have no power at present to expiv-- . Says the Rev. Dr. Hill, " It is the thought of God in the object that stimulates the child's thought." Again, "Text-book and lec- ture without illustrations frequently fail in giving just ami vivid images, and generally fail in awakening that peculiar reverence which may be excited by direct contact with Nature ;" and again, "Nature is infinite in its expressions, and a natural object contains more than can be expressed in words. The great object is to teach the child to see and read more than you yourself could <-\pi words." He gives an example in the case of his own child, \\hirh very forcibly illustrates this point. "I was walking," he says,. " yesterday with my little girl, and showing her plants and insects- and birds as we walked along. We were looking at lichens on the trees, when she suddenly and without hint from me said, 'The ma- ple trees have different lichens from the ash ; I mean to see if I can tell trees by their trunks without looking at the leaves.' So for a long distance she kept her eyes down, saying to the trees as she passed, l Elm, maple, ash, pine,' etc., and never failing. Now, neither she nor I would find it easy to express in words the differ- ence between some of the elms and some of the ashes, though the difference was easy to see." How emphatically true is this last re- mark ! and how true it is that, even if these should at any time be clothed with language, other marks and distinctions would unfold themselves equally obvious to the eye, hut quite as difficult to be- OIJJHCT TI:\( -HIM; 445 v\|ivs.M.-d .' They r\]>n tliniiM-lvrs to our senses, and through tlu'iu t" <>ur andentandtnga, but we lack words to bind them into <>ur forms of thought. In other words, the forms of nature are tilled with thoughts which are, at all times, revealing themselves to as in advance of our power of speech. The thought is infolded in tin.' form, ami the form unfolds the thought. It becomes ours only when we have experienced it. Human speech may recall, but can nrvrr originate it. To be known it must be seen, or realized by the senses. This necessarily lays the foundation for object teaching. But while Nature is thus the source of a vast amount of our knowledge, we have other sources, concerning which the most we can say of the objects in Nature is, they are only the occasions which call it forth. It springs spontaneously and intuitively from the depths of the soul. Such thoughts are not in the object, but in the mind. The object neither embodies nor in any way ex- presses them. It serves merely as the occasion to call them into consciousness. The boy drops his ball into the eddying current, and it passes beyond his reach. Though he may not be in a mood sufficiently philosophical to put into form the intuitive truth that one and the same object can not be in the hand and out of it at the same time, yet his vexation and grief will sufficiently express it. That thought, no one will pretend, is in the ball or in the water, or is expressed by either. It is simply in the mind. So in the use of -a native language, objects are most efficient aids in giving precision to the application of words, but they can never supply that wonderful power of discrimination in the expression of thought which marks the earliest and latest periods of life. Says the Rev. Dr. Sears, the chairman of this committee, "The eloquent speaker does not, in his highest bursts of oratory, first select words and parts of a sentence, and from them afterwards construct a whole, but he begins with the whole, as a germ in his mind, and from it develops the parts. This power in language is instinctive, and can no more be achieved by rules and canons of criticism than can a work of genius. A philosopher with his great intellect can not learn to speak a language idiomatically, feelingly, and naturally, any quicker than a child. The understanding alone may make a linuiiUt, or a critic, but not a natural, fluent, and easy speaker. Study and analysis ;iit invariably descend to the concrete even with hi* adult disciples? Hence it was that the common people heard him gladly. Whoever will study the lessons given by him will see with what unparalleled skill he passed from concrete forms up to abstract truths. He seldom commenced with the abstract. "A s it his first, second, and last aim to teach realities, wi 1 ! soon discover two essential conditions. He must know the present capacity and attainments of the child, and then vhnt realities are united to them. If it were not for one fact, our Primary Schools .vould be filled with a cabinet of natural objects as varied as those that fill halls of our highest institutions, and that is the simple fact that children can remember -vords as words, without associating them with any idea whatever. They can use words which mean much, yet with them they mean nothing. They can repeat them fluently, give emphasis to them in imitation of the *-.'?Ver's voice. They can use them as though they really meant something. Yet more they can see that the teacher accepts them as though all was right. Now here is a double evil. The teacher is a stranger to the child's real condition, and the child supposes he is actually learning something. One reason why so many are opposed to Object Teaching or Reality Teaching it should be called is the simple fact that they can not readily free themselves from the impression that their knowledge of the subjects to be taught is somehow necessarily con- nected with the janguage of the text-book. They have never tried to disengage it from the particular forms into which some author has molded it They use technical terms and the worst of technical terms because they know no other. There is an almost servile dependence upon the use of certain terms. And if the whole truth were known, it might appear that the idea is not sufficiently mas- 456 OBJECT TEACHING. tered to disengage it from the term. How can such a teacher do otherwise than cling to authority ? Yet the very essence of teaching lies in a living apprehension of the subject itself such an apprehension as will enable the teacher to adapt his instruction to the child's real wants just what a text- book, if good, can not do. "Teach realities" is the true teacher's motto. To this he commits himself; nay, crosses the river and burns the bridge. He is ashamed of his teaching if it is any thing short of this. Hence, his ingenuity, his aptness, his versatility, his varied resorts in an emergency. He can teach with a text-book, or without it. A text-book in his hand becomes alive. It must be understood. Would you really know whether a candidate for the teacher's office is a good teacher or not ? You need not examine him with difficult questions in Arithmetic, in Algebra, in Geography, or in History. You need not examine him at all. But put him into the school-room, take from it every printed page for the use of the teacher or pupil. Give him blackboards, give them slates ; Let him have ears of corn, pine cones, shells, and as many other objects as he chooses to collect, and then require him to give lessons in reading, spelling, arithmetic, geography, and the English language. If the children come home full of curious questions, if they love to talk of what they do at school, if at the end of a week you find them thinking earnestly of their occupation at school, deeply inter- ested, intent upon their school exercises, then employ him, em- ploy him at any price, though he may not have graduated at the University, the Academy, or even the Normal School. Whenever needed, allow him or the children books. You are sure of a good school. How much is the spirit of that teacher improved who leads his pupil directly to the fountain of truth, and pays willing homage to it as truth ! Teachers may be divided in this respect into three classes. The first are those who are servilely bound to a text- book ; who are scarcely able to conceive a truth apart from the an- cient term employed to express it ; wno never see it in its freshness ; sticklers for exact verbal recitations ; formalists, not to say dogma- tists ; inveterate advocates for authority, and firm defenders of what they regard as a healthful conservatism in education. The second are those who have so far broken away from the trammels of methods and forms as to investigate the truth for them selves; who taste its vivifying power, draw from its pure sources, but who are anxious to promulgate and perpetuate, not so much OBJECT TEACHING. 457 the truth, as truth, as their own opinions of it ; who would make themselves the head of a party or school, having followers who think as they think, believe as they believe, employ terms as they employ terms, defend methods and forms as they defend them ; influential they are and must be. They do good ; they are lights in the profession. The third class are those who are anxious, not that their pupils should see the truth just as they see it, but that they should see and experience the truth itself; solicitous, not to propogate views, but living truth ; not the Rabbi who would reject the audible voice from above, if not uttered first to the priest and through him to the people, but rather Eli bidding the young prophet elect, about to succeed him in office, to enter the audience chamber of the Al- mighty to hear the voice for himself; nay, Eli directing the boy, his own pupil, to return with a faithful report of what he hears. These are they who rise to the true dignity of the teacher's pro- fession ; who lead their pupils into communion with nature, because she unfolds the thoughts of the Eternal One; who reverence truth, rather than the dogmas of any sect or party ; who aim rather to render their own services unnecessary, than to restrain, for any selfish end, a free access to the truth. Such are some of the uses of Object Teaching in the broad and true sense of the term. That any faultless system can be devised to carry it out we may not hope. That all persons will be equally successful in practicing it is too much to expect. That something called Object Teaching has been tried and failed as, with the meth- ods employed, it ought to do, no one denies. That some have pur- sued a kind of Obiect Teaching, and have met with indifferent suc- cess, is also conceded. It should never be the only exercise of the school-room. It should never displace regular work, but rather become a part of it. It should give life and zest to it. It should never be made a hobby, or carried to an extreme. It should never be used as an end. On this point Mr. Pickard, a member of the committee, says : (1.) I fear that Object Teaching, as generally conducted, looks rather to im- mediate than to less showy, but more valuable, results. (2.) Its tendency, unless very carefully checked, is to make of children pass- ive recipients, while teachers talk more than they instruct. (3.) Carefully used, it will awaken to new thought, and will encourage to the mastery of difficulties suggested or rather thrown in the way of pupils. But only master minds can so use it. Not every school teacher has the power of Agassiz. (4.) And yet the nature of the child demands such teaching, and will not be satisfied without it, though not by any means, as I conceive, to the exclusion of other methods of teaching. Object Teaching is very good; but if it have no object, it is thenceforth good for nothing but to be trodden under foot of men. 468 OBJECT TEACHING Again, object lessons should not be allowed to fall into a mere? routine, or to follow implicitly the models of some text-book, and not the leadings of the subject in question, gathering inspiration from some incidental circumstance which may change the shape of the lesson. They may often be made more apt and opportune by ^ome occurrence, as a thunder-storm, or the presence of some im- pressive scene. They should be varied with every varying occasion, varied in form, varied in matter, varied in the manner of giving them, and cease as formal exercises whenever the pupil can draw thoughts skillfully and successfully from the abstract statements of a text-book. There remains yet one subject to be considered. Shall children never begin with the abstract ? Shall they never commit to mem- ory forms which are beyond their comprehension ? These are fair questions, and should be candidly and fairly answered. We will not say, that in no case should such matter be commit- ted to memory. It has been the practice for ages. Able and dis- tinguished educators have advocated it. The custom of requiring simple memoriter recitations prevails in many of our schools. Shall it continue ? Or shall all intelligent and earnest educators enter upon an important reform in this direction ? The most strenuous advocates of 'this kind of teaching do not claim that for intellectual purposes abstract statements are of any material value till explained or illustrated, or till the mind of the learner has grown up to them. They readily admit that, while borne in mind by mere force of memory as words, they can yield no immediate fruit. But they claim 1. That such work furnishes the children something to do in the way of private or solitary study between the hours of recitation, and does much towards establishing early habits of study. 2. That the very act of committing to memory is a good disci- pline for that faculty. 3. That the terse and well-considered statements of a good text- book are better than any that the learner can substitute, and are, therefore, good models of the use of language. 4. That, if held in the memory sufficiently long, these statements will at length yield up their meaning, at first faintly, later along more clearly, and finally with their full significance and breadth of meaning. 5. That they are ever furnishing the child, ready at hand, sub- jects for an intellectual struggle, being results which minds more mature than his have reached by processes of thought to which he should always aspire. OBJECT TEACHING. 45g 6. That the power to utter forms of thought at present not con- prehended inspires in the learner a most salutary habit of paying advance. It were well if the future waves of improvement in the same direction should roll as quietly and steadily forward on the- shores of coming time. But a graded system of school instruction brings out a new want. A large class of children are brought together, with little or no- previous instruction, and almost too young for the continuous atten- tion and thought required to master the elementary branches of the- school-room, as taught in the ordinary way. They are deprived of those educational influences that so pervaded the atmosphere of the school-room of mixed grades and which insinuated themselves into every avenue to the active mind of childhood. They are now de- pendent for improvement upon the exercise of their own intuitive powers and upon the resources of the teacher. We need not stop to discuss the question, whether, viewed in re- lation to the proper orderly and harmonious development of their faculties, these children should be in school at all, thus early, for in school they are. And so it happens, that under the new circum- stances, that which should be the work of nature, is brought within the function of the teacher, and accordingly new topics and method*!, of instruction must be introduced. It hardly need be pointed out with what extreme diffidence we should approach any task that in- volves any interference with nature's methods, or how zealous should be the endeavor when such interference is necessitated to follow her analogous teachings, and how promptly we should cease our inter- OSWEGO SYSTEM OF OBJECT INSTRUCTION. 483 ference at the first moment practicable. The natural channels to the pupil's mind are first to be opened before they can be used for receiving or imparting instruction. Again, the natural avenues are to be used before what may be called the conventional ones are brought in requisition. And so the powers of observation and speech (or spoken language) are to be cultivated before any positive instruction in reading and writing is attempted. Cultivated it should be remembered for purposes and ends mainly practical and discipli- nary. Has it occurred to those of you who have seen blind chil- dren spelling out with busy fingers and delighted faces the page of raised letters and thus receiving food for their active minds through a channel wrought out for them by the agency of a sense perverted from its legitimate function, that in teaching ordinary children to read from the printed, or written page, the same thing is substan- tially done ; that is, the eye is made to perform the natural office of the ear that a new gift is imparted. One result of bringing together children of the same grade is, to bring out more distinctly the class mental peculiarities, the class educational needs, and so more obviously the proper modes of meet- ing those needs. I have elsewhere stated, in a summary way, my idea of the scope and aim of a proper elementary education, which I will venture to reproduce. " That we should educate the senses and through the senses, the intelligence and will, and then apply and subordinate the engendered habits of accurate observation and the cultivated intellectual activity and power, to proper methods of ac- quiring the elementary studies and their outgrowing attainments." In seeking to accomplish the ends thus defined, the main reliance of the educator is upon a proper study and comprehension of the characteristics of childhood, the natural order, mode, and rate of development of the childish faculties. The proof of this is furnished by recalling any synoptical statement of the principles of education, and noticing how many of them relate to these very points. It is of importance to remember this because much time and labor have been lately wasted in devising methods of instruction based upon foundations merely speculative, and some injury done by attempting to put these methods in practice. I may illustrate this by citing two or three forms of theoretical error in this regard representing quite a diversity of opinion all " idols of the cave." The first of these is a method based upon a theory that every child must "rediscover for himself the truths and results to be ac- quired in each department of knowledge undertaken by the learner," and the corollary from this, " that no truth or knowledge which is- 484 OSWEGO SYSTEM OF OBJECT INSTRUCTION. in its nature a consequent on some other truths or knowledge can by any possibility be in reality attained by any mind, until after that mind has first secured and rightly appreciated those antecedent truths or knowings." This involves, it will be observed, a form of instruction always absolutely synthetical. This is partially true true as far as intuitive education is concerned and true no farther. Another error, not unheard of by this Association, is a theory that there is a rational order of development in the course of the sciences, and that it ought to be followed in common education ; for the reason that it is claimed that this order of succession in the sciences corresponds precisely to the order of evolution of the fac- ulties. Now this is an assumption based upon the most fanciful analogies, but as I find it asserted with great emphasis, in a report to which my own name is signed, I leave it for others to deal with. One other theory deserves a passing notice. It will be found elaborated by Herbert Spencer and cropping out quite generally in the essays and discussions that have since appeared upon educa- tional topics. After admitting the distinction between education as relates to discipline and to the value of the knowledge acquired, he at once assumes that what is best for the one end is also best for the other. He then proceeds to develop a scheme for education based upon the relative and practical uses of knowledge. If his course of reasoning proves anything it proves that physiology should be the first study of childhood, then the means of getting a livelihood, then the treatment of offspring and the government of children, and finally the study of social science. Let me now examine briefly the mode in which the Oswego Sys- tem aims to accomplish the ends I have supposed. To be sure it claims to be more than a system of Primary School instruction. It .claims to be the only correct system for any stage of education. "That if adopted, it will lead to a complete revolution in our meth- ods of teaching in this country," (where it is asserted " we have never had any system based on sound philosophical principles,) as also in the profession of teaching itself, or rather it will make teach- ing a profession a title it has yet to earn." In making a somewhat hurried preparation for the part assigned me on this occasion, I have spent some time in the examination of the various manuals designed for the instruction of teachers in the new system. I confess the result has been somewhat discouraging. The principles laid down are somewhat contradictory in their char- acter. They are wanting in definiteness, and, most of all, they are OSWEGO SYSTEM OF OBJECT INSTRUCTION. 485 so enveloped in the voluminous details of methods, that it is difficult to discover the distinctive features, and somewhat confusing to one attempting to discuss them. Referring then to the Oswego manuals, I find first a statement of what are called Pestalozzian plans and principles. On examination, I find that some latitude has been used in applying the term Pesta- lozzian. Transmutation as well as translation will be seen in their treatment of the great reformer. It may be remarked of these gen- erally, that whatever of them are sound have not the claim of nov- elty to American teachers, and what are new of no value, if not leading to positive error. 1. Activity is a law of childhood. Accustom the child to do educate the hand. 2. Cultivate the faculties in their natural order first form the mind, then furnish it. 3. Begin with the senses, and never tell a child what he can discover for himself. 4. Reduce every subject to its elements one difficulty at a time is enough for a child. 5. Proceed step by step. Be thorough. The measure of information is not what the teacher can give, but what the child can receive. ' 6. Let every lesson have a point, except in junior schools, where more than one lesson is required before the point is reached, each successively tending to- wards it. 7. Develop the idea then give the term cultivate language. 8. Proceed from the known to the unknown from the particular to the gen- eral from the concrete to the abstract from the simple to the more difficult. 9. First synthesis, then analysis not the order of the subject, but the order of nature. Let us examine these principles briefly. " 1st. Activity is a law of childhood. Accustom the child to do educate the hand." It will be observed, first, that there is an implied restriction of this law of childhood to his physical system. Of the second clause should it not rather be said, let the child do. Let him use not only his hands, but his physical system generally. The distinction between letting the child do and accustoming him to do, at this early stage, is an important one, and is related (if activity is a gen- eral law of childhood) not only to physical actions, but also to the senses and the faculties which act spontaneously on the presentation of their proper objects. Should not a system of so much pretension direct us wisely here on the very threshhold ? " 2d. Cultivate the faculties in their natural order first form the mind, then furnish it." The truth enunciated here is older than Pestalozzi; and may be found in some form or another in half the works on education pub- lished in this country during the last thirty years. As to the second 486 O8WEGO SYSTEM OF OBJECT INSTRUCTION. clause, one might naturally ask, is it a corollary from the first? or only meant as a reiteration ? or what ? " 3d. Begin with the senses, and never tell a child what he can discover for himself." What is the designed relation between the two clauses of this rule ? Must we never tell a child what he can discover for himself? " 4th. Reduce every subject to its elements one difficulty at a time is enough for a child." This seems a harmless proposition. But the practical inferences in the way of method, that the manuals are full of, gives it another aspect. " 5th. Proceed step by step. Be thorough. The measure of in- formation is not what the teacher can give, but what the child can receive." Would not these directions indicate that the process of education is not always and strictly a development exercise, in which the child is the main actor ? " Vth. Develop the idea then give the term cultivate language." If this rule were designed only to enforce the truth that ideas should precede language, no comment would be necessary. But herewith is connected one of the most vicious methods of the Os- wego System. In the light of their practical teachings it means that with the idea the term must be invariably connected ; that the observation and language must be inseparably connected. And it is assumed that when the idea is mastered, there is no difficulty in retaining the appropriate term on the part of the pupil. It is claimed that the peculiar phraseology of the summary is strictly a resultant of the workings of the class mind. And so we find in connection with each lesson, or series of observations, the W. B. (writing on the board) and the S. R (simultaneous repeti- tion) to fix in the pupil's mind the set phrase and the stereotyped formula that the teacher furnishes as the summary of the particular class exercise. But the partisans of the Oswego System, or their progenitors in England, were not the original sinners. It was precisely here where Pestalozzi went so grievously astray from his own early principles, as to draw from one of his cotemporaries the remark, that "he kicked over with his feet what he built up with his hands." And these very practices of his have been discarded by intelligent edu- cators everywhere, even when professedly following the doctrines of the German school. " Observation (said he) is the absolute basis of all knowledge. OSWEGO SYSTEM OF OBJECT INSTRUCTION. 487 The first object, then, in education must be, to lead a child to ob serve with accuracy ; the second, to express with correctness the result of his observations." There is abundant evidence from his works that he did not mean by this, that observation should be the principal object of instruction at its earlier stage and language at a later period. The English and Oswego disciples have faithfully copied the defects of their master. Now is it necessary to affirm in this presence, that language has absolutely nothing to do with observation as far as it concerns the pupil ? That the observing powers are exercised for a long period in childhood before the gift of language is received, and that the child not only uses the senses, but discriminates, compares, reasons, judges, decides, and wills in connection with such use of the senses, and all this without the use of any language ? But the time comes when language is necessary for the express- ion of wants and ideas, and then it is given. In the roll of educa- tion the teacher avails himself of this natural gift, this child-language, to test the progress of the child, and so it is properly connected with observation and with the growth of ideas. Again, a period comes when language which has been acquired in- tuitively, and without any conscious effort on the part of the child, may be properly a subject of positive instruction, by methods so wisely suggested in the opening address of the President of this As- sociation ; for when the higher and reflective powers of the mind are brought into active exercise, language precise and adequate be- comes necessary as the means of thought. Language (let me repeat again) which in the infancy of the indi- vidual, as well as that of the race, is a mere means of expressing the immediate wants of the individual or the race in its then condition ; expands not only commensurately with increasing desires, but ab- solutely acquires another function ; that is, as the instrument of higher, continuous, and abstract thought; and this fact, or the growth of language to meet social needs, suggests the principle that should oftiide in the introduction of language, as an exercise in the school-room. I have on another occasion referred to this topic anl so I can only hint at the dangers of thus early and intimately con- necting the study of language with the development of tne faculties of observation. The thing signified is lost in the effort to remem- ber the sign. Have you not all seen a bright boy in a class, wha could and would answer almost intuitively a question in numbers like the following, hesitate and stammer, grow confused and fail, in attempting to cloak the fully comprehended truth in the long syllo- :gistic formula required of him by the teacher ? Thus 488 OSWEGO SYSTEM OF OBJECT INSTRUCTION. If 2 bunches of matches cost 4 cents, what will 4 bunches cost ? The pupil repeats the question and gives the solution. If 2 bunches of matches cost 4 cents, what will 4 bunches cost? 1 bunch of matches will cost one-half as much as 2 bunches of matches. If 2 bunches of matches cost 4 cents, 1 bunch of matches will cost one-half of 4 cents, which are 2 cents. 4 bunches of matches will cost 4 times as much as 1 bunch of matches. If 1 bunch cost 2 cents, 4 bunches will cost 4 times 2 cents, which are 8 cents. Therefore, if 2 bunches of matches cost 4 cents, 4 bunches of matches will cost 8 cents. The very tendency of formulated language is to routine. The foundations of the childish memory and the childish principle of association are upset, and the natural observation of childhood en- tirely devitalized. But an illustration, furnished by the same mas- ter-hand that gave us the Yorkshire boarding-school, will answer my purpose better. No teacher before me, who has read Dickens' " Hard Times," will fail to recall the following scene : Mr. Gradgrind, the town magnate and school patron, is present in the model school of his own creation, where Mr. McChoakumchild surcharges the youthful Coke-towners with grim facts. After a preliminary address to the teachers in this vein "Now what I want is facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but facts. Facts alone are wanted in life. Plant nothing else, and root out everything, else. You can only form the mind of reasoning animals upon facts ; nothing else will ever be of any service to them. This is the principle upon which I bring up my own children, and this is the principle on which I bring up these children. Stick to facts, Sir I" Having thus relieved himself, that his self-love may be gratified by witness- ing the triumphs of his own educational scheming, he calls out, by an appropri- ate management and catechising, its distinctive features. Sissy Jupe, Girl No. 20, the daughter of a strolling circus actor, whose life, no small share of it. has been passed under the canvass ; whose knowledge of horse, generic and specific, extends back as far as memory reaches ; familiar with the form and food, the powers and habits and everything relating to the- horse ; knowing it through several senses ; Sissy Jupe has been asked to define horse. Astonished at hearing her father stigmatized as a veterinary surgeon, a farrier and horse-breaker ; bewildered by the striking want of resemblance be- tween the horse of her own conceptions and the prescribed formula that repre- sents the animal in the books of the Home and Colonial Society, she dares not trust herself with the confusing description, and shrinks from it in silence and alarm. "Girl No. 20 unable to define a horse," said Mr. Gradgrind. Girl No. 20 i declared possessed of no facts in reference to one of the commonest of animals, and appeal is made to one red-eyed Bitzer, who knows horse practically only as he has seen a picture of a horse, or as he has, perhaps, sometimes safely weathered the perils of a crowded street crossing. "Bitzer," (said Thomas Gradgrind,) "your definition of a horse!" "Quadruped. Graminivorous. Forty teeth, namely: twenty-four grinders, four eye teeth, and twelve incisive. Sheds coat in the Spring ; in marshy coun- tries sheds hoofs too. Hoofs hard, but requiring to be shod with iron. Age- known by marks in mouth." Thus (and much more) Bitzer. . "Now Girl No. 20," said Mr. Gradgrind, "you know what a horse is." The features of a school system thus graphically described are the features of the Home and Colonial Society's system, and I regret to say that what is known in this country as the Oswego System is its dneal descendant. OSWEGO SYSTEM OF OBJECT INSTRUCTION. 489- That this is no misrepresentation (see lessons on objects, page-. 97.) LESSON TWENTY-THIRD. jl Lady Bird. Ideas to be developed hemispherical, fragile, jointed. Parts. Qualities. The head Tt is animal. " eyes Natural. " feelers or palpi Hemispherical. " horns or antennae The wing cases are red. " wings Spotted. " wing cases or elytra Bright. " thorax Hard. " legs The wing cases are brittle. " body Opaque. " back Stiff. " spots The outside is convex. " surface The inside is concave. " claws One margin straight. The other curved. The wings are membranaceous, pliable, thin, transparent, " fragile. The body is oval, " black. The legs -are jointed, short, black. The lesson above cited is one of a large number sketched for the- use of teachers ; all models for still others of a similar character to be framed as they shall be needed, and designed to cover the whole period of school instruction. Is such endless repetition of obvious qualities a natural and nourishing food for the childish mind ? Will it never tire of such thin gruel of utilitarianism ? And looking at the real object of a public school system as our own, supported from the public treasury, designed to obviate the accidents of birth or fortune, by placing the keys of knowledge in every youthful hand, is such chaff a substitute for a thorough grounding in the elementary branches ? is it a good preparation, even, for the same ? But con- ceding that these exercises accomplish the end for which they were designed, is it not a cultivation of the perceptive faculties too exclu- sive, and at the expense of the other powers of the pupil ? It is claimed, however, that thus are laid the foundations for a future structure of science ; that we ascend from form to geometry, from place to geography, &c., ystcm and repudiate the obnoxious features, or claim that these are but experiments, looking towards something to be perfected in the alembic of the future. And when the vicious tendencies of the system, as a whole, are pointed out, then these same parties fall back upon the quality of their motives. But the very exclusiveness of their theory forbids any hope of improvement with the best intentions that underlie it. They are on record at the very outset in this wise. The system as presented to the American public is claimed to embody " the light and experience of the best schools of Europe, where these 'methods have been longest and most thoroughly tested." That it is " a definite course of elementary instruction adapted to philosophic riews of the laws of childhood," &c., ut for the best means of thus raising them, and decided that it could 3 effected, not by any improvement in their outward circumstances, but JT an education which should make them what their Creator intended iem to be, and should give them the use and the consciousness of all leir inborn faculties. From my youth up, I felt what a high and indispensable human duty is to labor for the poor and miserable; . . that he may attain to a isciousness of. his own dignity through his feeling of the universal wers and endowments which he possesses awakened within him; that may not only learn to gabble over by role the religious maxim that nan* is created in the image of God, and is bound to live and die as a Id of God," but may himself experience its truth by virtue of the vine power within him, so that he may be raised, not only above the \vinu; oxen, but also above the man in purple and silk who lives worthily of his high destiny. A.gain he says (and I quote at length on the point, as it is indeed the y to Pestalozzianism): iy have I insisted so strongly on attention to early physical and ellectual education? Because I consider these as merely leading to a rher aim, to qualify the human being for the free and full use of all faculties implanted by the Creator, and to direct all these faculties ard the perfection of the whole being of man, that he may be enabled act in his peculiar station as an instrument of that All-wise and mighty Power that has called him into life. Believing in this high aim of education, Pestalozzi required a proper rly training for all alike. Every human being has a claim to a judicious development of his julties by those to whom the care of his infancy is confided. Pestalozzi therefore most earnestly addressed himself to mothers, to Qvince them of the power placed in their hands, and to teach them to use it. The mother is qualified, and qualified by the Creator Himself, to come the principal a^ent in the development of her child; . . and iat is demanded of her is a thinking love. . God has given to 500 PESTALOZZIANISM IN ENGLAND - QUICK. thy child all the faculties of our nature, but the grand point remains undecided how shall this heart, this head, these hands, be employed? To whose service shall they be dedicated? A question the answer to which involves a futurity of happiness or misery to a life so dear to thee. . It is recorded that God opened the heavens to the patriarch of old, and showed him a ladder leading thither. This ladder is let down to every descendant of Adam ; it is offered to thy child. But he must be taught to climb it. And let him not attempt it by the cold calculations of the head, or the mere impulse of the heart; but let all these powers combine, and the noble enterprise will be crowned with success. These powers are already bestowed on him, but to thee it is given to assist in calling them forth. Maternal love is the first agent in education. . Through it the child is led to love and trust his Creator and his Redeemer. From the theory of development which lay at the root of Pestalozzi's views of education, it followed that the imparting of knowledge and the training for special pursuits held only a subordinate position in his scheme. Education, instead of merely considering what is to be imparted to children, ought to consider first what they may be said already to pos- sess, if not as a developed, at least as an involved faculty capable of development. Or if, instead of speaking thus in the abstract, we will but recollect that it is to the great Author of life that man owes the pos- session, and is responsible for the use, of his innate faculties, education .should not only decide what is to be made of a child, but rather inquire, what it was intended that he should become? What is his destiny as a created and responsible being? What are his faculties as a rational and 1 moral being? What are the means for their perfection, and the end held out as the highest object of their efforts by the Almighty Father of all, ,both in creation and in the page of revelation? Education, then, must consist in a continual benevolent superintend- ence, with the object of calling forth all the faculties which Providence has implanted; and its province, thus enlarged, will yet be with less difficulty surveyed from one point of view, and will have more of a systematic and truly philosophical character, than an incoherent mass of exercises arranged without unity of principle, and gone through with- out interest which too often usurps its name. An education of the latter description he denounced with the refor lory zeal of a Luther. The present race of schoolmasters sacrifice the essence of true teaching to separate and disconnected teaching in a complete jumble of subjects. By dishing up fragments of all kinds of truths, they destroy the spirit of truth itself, and extinguish the power of self-dependence which, witl that spirit, cannot exist. With Pestalozzi teaching was not so much to be thought of as training. Training must be found for the child's heart, head, and hand, and the capacities of the heart and head must be developed by practice no less than those of the hand. The heart, as we have seen, is first influenced by the mother. At a later period Pestalozzi would have the charities of the family circle introduced into the school-room (rather ignoring the difference which the altered ratio of the young to the adults makes in the conditions of the problem), and would have the child taught virtue by his -affections being exercised and his benevolence guided to action. There is an interesting instance on record of the way in which he himself applied this principle. When he was at Stanz, news arrived of the destruction of Altdorf . Pestalozzi depicted to his scholars the misery of the children ihere. "Hundreds," said he, "are at this moment wandering about as SUMMARY AND ESTIMATE OF PESTALOZZIANISM. 501 i| you were last year, without ti home, perhaps without food or clothing." lie tlieu asked them if they would uot wish to receive some of these children among them? This, of course, they were eager to do. Pesta- lo/xi then pointed out the sacrifices it would involve on their part, that thi'V would have to share everything with the new comers, and to eat ness and work more than before. Only when they promised to make | these sacrifices ungrudgingly, he undertook to apply to Government I that the children's wish might be granted. It was thus that Pestalozzi I endeavored to develop the moral and religious life of the children, which || is based on trust and love. The child's thinking faculty is capable, according to Pestalozzi, of be- ling exercised almost from the commencement of consciousness. Indeed, lit has been objected against Pestalozzi's system that he cultivated the mere intellectual powers at the expense of the poetical and imaginative. I All knowledge, he taught, is acquired by sensation and observation: [sometimes it has been thought that he traces everything originally to the Ithe senses; but he seems to extend the word 'Anschauung to every expe- firience of which the mind becomes conscious. The child, then, must be made to observe accurately, and to reflect on its observations. The best subject-matter for the lessons will be the most /ordinary things that can be found. Not only is there not one of the little incidents in the life of a child, [fin his amusements and recreations, in his relation to his parents, and friends, and playfellows; but there is actually not anything within the teach of a child's attention, whether it belong to nature or to the employ- ments and arts of life, that may not be made the object of a lesson by which some useful knowledge may be imparted, and, what is still more [important, by which the child may not be familiarized with the habit of thinking on what he sees, and speaking after he has thought. The mode f doing this is not by any means to talk much to a child, but to enter nto conversation with a child; not to address to him many words, how- ever familiar and well chosen, but to bring him to express himself on the feubject; not to exhaust the subject, but to question the child about it fend to let him find out and correct the answers. It would be ridiculous [to expect that the volatile spirits of a child could be brought to follow any lengthy explanations. The attention is deadened by long exposi- tions, but roused by animated questions. Let these questions be short, jlear, and intelligible. Let them not merely lead the child to repeat in me same, or in varied terms, what he has heard just before. Let them [excite him to observe what is before him, to recollect what he has learned, land to muster his little stock of knowledge for materials for an answer. Know him a certain quality in one thing, and let him find out the same in others. Tell him that the shape of a ball is called round, and if, [accordingly, you bring him to point out other objects to which the same fcroperty belongs, you have employed him more usefully than by the most perfect discourse on rotundity. In the one instance he would have Iliad to listen and to recollect, in the other he has to observe and to think. 8 From observation and memory there is only one step to reflection, plough imperfect, this operation is often found among the early exer- cises of the infant mind. The powerful stimulus of inquisitiveness prompts to exertions which, if successful or encouraged by others, will ead to a habit of thought. Words, which are the signs of things, must never be taught the child [ill he has grasped the idea of the thing signified. When an object has been submitted to his senses, he must be led to the I'l.M Al.ii/./IAMSM IN KNi.I.AND (,Me impres>. Last of all, In- muyt ascend to the definition <>f tin- object. Tin- object -lessons Pestalozzi divided into three -real cla-ses. under the heads of (1) Form; (2) Number; (8) Speech. It was his constant endeavor to make his pupils distinguish betu< iuN and acd dentals, amkwith his habit of constant analysis, which seems pushed to an extreme that to children would be repulsive, he Bought to reduce Form, Number, and Speech to their elements. In his alphabet of Form : \ thin L r was represented as having the square as its base. In Number all operations were traced back to 1 + 1. In Speech the children, in their cradles, were to be taught the elements of sound, as ba, ba, ba, da, da, da, ma, ma, ma, etc. This elementary teaching Pestalozzi considered of the greatest importance, and when he himself instructed lie went over the ground very slowly. Huss tells us that when he first joined P lo/./.i the delay over the prime elements seemed to him a waste of time, but that afterward he was 'convinced of its being the right plan. Not only have the first elements of knowledge in every subject the most important bearing on its complete outline, but the child's confidence and interest are gained by perfect attainment even in the lowest stage of instruction. i;\ bdi <>) Meet-lessons Pestalozzi aimed at 1, enlarging gradually the spin re of a child's intuition, i. e . increasing the number of objects fall- ing under his immediate perception; 2, impressing upon him those per- ceptions of which he had become conscious, with certainty, clearness, and precision; :{. imparting to him a comprehensive knowledge of Ian for the expression of whatever had become or was becoming an object of his consciousness, in consequence either of the spontaneous impulse <>f his own nature, or of the assistance of tuition. Of all the instruction given at Yvenlun. the most successful, in the opinion of those who visited the school, was the instruction in arithmetic. The children are described as performing with great rapidity very diffi- cult tasks in head calculation. IY-:a!o//i la>ed hi- method here, a- in other subjects, on the principle that the individual should be brought to knowledge by a road similar to that which the whole race had used in founding the science. Actual counting of things preceded the first Cocker, as actual measuring of land preceded the original Euclid. The child then must be taught to count things, and to find out the various processes experimentally in the concrete before he is given any abstract rule, or is put to any abstract e\en -M - This plan N now commonly adopted in German schools, and many ingenious contrivances have been introduced by which the combinations of things can be pre-ent- d to the children's sight. Next to the education of the affections and intellect conn- th < exer- cises in which the body is more prominent. I do not know that there' was anything distinctive in IV-talo/./i's views and practices in physical education, although he attached the due importance to it which had pre- viously been perceived only by Locke and Housscau, and in Germany by Basedow and his colleagues of the Philanthropin. MMAi; ESTIMATE 'l 1 KSTALn/XIANlS.M 503 Great pains should be taken with the cultivation of the senses, and finally tin- artistic faculty (Kmmtki'uft) should be developed, in which {he power of i lie mind and that of the senses are united. Music and drawing played a leading part in Pestalozzi's schools. They were taught to all the chili In -n. even the youngest, and were not limited to the conventional two hours a week. It is natural to children to imitate; thus they acquire language, and thus, with proper direction and encouragement, they will find pleasure in attempting to sing the melodies they hear, and to draw the simple objects around them. By drawing, the eye is trained as weH as the hand. A per -m who is in the habit of drawing, especially from nature, wil eti-ilv p-Tceive many circumstances which are commonly overlooked, and will form a much more correct impression, even of such objects as he not stop to examine minutely, than one who has never been taught to look upon what he MM with an intention of reproducing a likeness of it. The attention to the exact shape of the whole, and the proportion of the parts, which is KM juisite for the taking of an adequate sketch, is convert. (1 into a habit and becomes both instructive and amusing. Besides drawing, Pestalozzi recommended modeling, a hint which was afterward worked out by Fr5bel in his Kindergarten. Differing from Locke and Bftsedow, Pestalozzi was no friend to the notion of giving instruction always in the guise of amusement. I am convinced that such a notion will forever preclude solidity of knowledge, and, from want of sufficient exertions on the part of the pupil-, will 1 -ad to that very result which I wish to avoid by my prin- ciple of a constant employment of the thinking powers. A child must very early in life he taught the lesson that exertion is indispensable for (fee attainment of knowledge. But a child -hould not be taught to look upon exertion as an evil. He should IK- encouraged, not frightened into it. An in ten -t in study is the first thing which a taacher should endeavor .'itc and kerp alive There are scarcely any circumstances in \\ hich a want of application in children does not proceed from a want of inter- md there are perhaps none in which the want of inten -i docs not originate in the mode of teaching adopted by the teacher. I would go SO far as to lay it down as a rule, that whenever children are inattentive and apparently take no inten-t in a lesson, the teacher should always tir-t look to him-elf for the rea-on. . . Could we conceive the inde-criba- ble tedium which mu-t oppn the younir mind while the weary hours ire slowl} p.--ini; away one aftT another in occupation which it can neither reli-h nor understand, could we remember the like -ceiie- which our own childhood has p;i~-rd through, we should no longer be -urpri-ed at the renii-sness () f the schoolboy, "creepini: like -nail unwillingly to 1 " . . To chan-e all tlii>, we must adopt a better mode of instruction, by which the children are le-- 1,-ft to themsrlvc-. le>- thrown upon the unwelcome employment of passive listening, less harshly treated for little excusable failings; but more roused by . animated by illustrations, interested and won by kindnc-s. There i- H most remarkable reciprocal action between the interest which the teacher takes and that which he communicates to his pupils. If he is n<>t with his whole mind present at the subject, if he does not .\hether he is understood or not, whether his manner is liked or not, he will alienate the affections of his pupils, and render them indiflVn -nt to what he says. Hut real interest taken in the task of instruction kind words and kinder feelin-s the very expression of the features, and the glance of the eye, are never lost upon children. 504 SUMMARY OP PESTALOZZIANISM. BROWNING. OSCAR BROWNING, Assistant Master at Eton College and Senior Fellow and Lecturer of King's College, Cambridge, in his Introduction to the History of Educational Theories (Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., London, 1881), devotes a chapter (X) to Pestalozzi's Life, Theories, and Influence, from which we take the following summary and estimate: According to Pestalozzi The end of education is the harmonious development of all the natural powers. If we provide for this harmonious development we shall have given the education which we desire. There is a certain order determined for us which our development should follow, there are certain laws which it should observe, there are impulses and tendencies implanted in us- which cannot be extinguished or subdued. The natural course of our development comes from these impulses. A man wishes to do every- thing which he feels himself strong enough to do, and in virtue of this in- dwelling impulse he wills to do this. The feeling of this inward strength is the expression of the everlasting, inextinguishable, unalterable laws which lie at the bottom of a man's nature. These laws are different for different individuals, but they have a certain harmony and continuity for the human race. Now that alone can be considered of educative power for a man which grapples with all the faculties of his nature, with heart, mind, and body. On the other hand, any one-sided influence which deals only with one of these faculties by itself, undermines and destroys the equilibrium of our forces, and leads to an education which is contrary to nature. If we wish to raise and ennoble ourselves we must accept, as the true foundation for this effort, the unity of all our human powers. What God has joined together let not man put asunder. Pestalozzi finds the best, and only natural means of elementary instruc- tion, in intuitional object teaching, viz. : in making clear and intelligible to- the child, by his own experience, reflection, and expression, the object tyhich comes before his eyes or his consciousness by enabling him to- distinguish in language, spoken or written, or represent by drawing, the individual thing or conception, and then to apply this same method to- music, geography, history, and natural phenomena. Beyond these simple parts of instruction reading, writing, and arithmetic Pestalozzi does not go; but there is no doubt that his influ- ence over education was enormous. Poor, and without learning, he tried to reform the science of the world. He was enthusiastically supported and scornfully abused. His place among educationalists is now no longer a matter of doubt, and it has grown year by year since his death. His methods of teaching words, forms, and numbers were accepted. Speak- ing was taught by pictures, arithmetic was reformed ; methods of geome- try, of natural history, of geography, of singing and drawing were com- posed after Pestalozzi's example. Still greater was the influence which he exerted over the general theory and practice of education. It is due to him that we have accepted as a truth that the foundation of education lies in the development of the powers of each individual. The method which begins by educating the senses, and which through them works on the intellect, must be considered as derived from his teaching. The kindergarten of Frobel is only the particular development of a portion >f his general scheme. His example also gave a strong impulse to the Caching of the poor and destitute. We live so completely in the system which Pestalozzi helped to form, that it is difficult for us to realize how great a man he was. He may have had many faults as an organizer and an instructor, but he gave hi& Vfe for the lambs of the flock. He was the first teacher who inculcated unbounded faith in the power of human love and sympathy. He divested himself of everything, and spent the whole of a long life in the service of the poor and lowly, subduing himself to those whom he taught, and entering into the secrets of their minds and hearts. He loved much, and manv shortcomings may be forgiven him. SUMMARY AND ESTIMATE OF PESTALOZZIANISM. 505- PROFESSOR JAMES LEITCH, principal of the Church of Scotland Normal School at Glasgow, in his Practical Educationists and Their Systems of Teaching (Glasgow: Maclehose, 1876), devotes a chap- ter to Pestalozzi, from which the following passages are taken: In spite of his ungainly appearance, however, the personal influence of the man was very great; as there was a spirit and a power in his very look which was quite irresistible. To this fact Ramsauer testifies " In Burgdorf, an active and entirely new mode of life opened to me; there reigned so much love and simplicity in the institution ; the life was so genial I could almost say patriarchal ; not much was learned, it is true, but Pestalozzi was the father, and the teachers were the friends of the pupils; his morning and evening prayers had such a fervour and simplicity, that they carried away every one who took part in them; he prayed fervently, read and explained Gellert's hymns impressively, exhorted each of the pupils individually to private prayer, and saw that some pupils said aloud in the bedrooms every evening the prayers which they had learned at home, while he explained at the same time that the mere repeating of prayers by rote was worthless, and that every one should rather pray from his own heart." Pestalozzi enumerates the following pedagogical principles: (1) The foundation of teaching is shewing (demonstration). (2) In every branch, teaching should begin with the simplest elements, and should proceed from these by steps suited to the child's development, observing in regard to this the laws of psychology. (3) The teacher should dwell on each point till the matter of instruction becomes the free mental pos- session of the pupil. (4) The acquisition of knowledge and skill is not the chief end of elementary teaching, but the development and strength- ening of the mental powers. (5) The relation between pupil and teacher, especially also the school discipline ; should be based on and be regulated by love. (6) Teaching should keep in view the purpose of education. The following is Pestalozzi's estimate of what a teacher should be : "The schoolmaster should at least be an open-hearted, cheerful, affec- "*} tionate, and kind man, who would be as a father to the children; a man -^ made on purpose to open children's hearts and their mouths, and to draw - forth their understandings, as it were, from the hindermost corner. In most schools, however, it is just the contrary. The schoolmaster seems, i I as if he were made on purpose to shut up children's mouths and hearts, and to bury their good understandings ever so deep under ground. That is the reason why healthy and cheerful children, whose hearts are full of joy and gladness, hardly ever like school." And his opinion of the duty of teachers to interest: "An interest in study is the first thing which a teacher should endeavor to excite and keep alive. There are scarcely any circumstances in which a want of application in children does not proceed from a want of interest ; and there are perhaps none in which the want of interest does not originate in the mode of teaching adopted by the teacher. I would go so far as to lay it down as a rule, that wherever children are inattentive, and apparently take no interest in a lesson, the teacher should always first look to himself for the reason. There is a most remarkable reciprocal action between the interest which the teacher takes, and that which he communicates to his pupils. If he is not with his whole mind present at the subject, if he does not care whether he is understood or not, whether his manner is liked or not, he will alienate the affections of his pupils, and render them indifferent to what he says. But real interest taken in the task of instruction kind words and kinder feelings the very expression of the features, and the glance of the eye, are never lost upon children." Prof. Leitch thus characterizes Pestalozzi and Fellenberg: Experience had brought both to the conclusion that society was to be purified only by an improved and extended education for all classes, particularly for the poor; and with this object in view, they each. 5()<; LEITCH'S ESTIMATE OF PESTALOZZI AND FELLENBERG. founded and personally conducted educational institutions, which they intended to serve as models for general imitation. They agreed in many of their opinions on educational method, Fellenberg having adopted sev- eral principles directly from Pestalozzi, who was his senior by a quarter of a century. They resembled each other also in possessing, in a high degree, the qualities of enthusiasm, energy, perseverance, and moral courage. They had each to encounter much opposition, and to over- come many difficulties; but nothing could turn them from their purpose, or abate their ardor. Here the parallel ends, and the points of difference begin. Pestalozzi was the greater man in that he had genius, sensibility, and imagination, in addition to the qualities which were common to both. His literary works prove that he combined many of the highest qualities of the philosopher and the poet. Fellenberg, on the other hand, had no literary powers, but he possessed a class of qualities in which Pestalozzi was singularly deficient, and which are indispensable to the success of practical undertakings on a large scale. He had a thoroughly disciplined mind, great firmness of will, a sound judgment, remarkable sagacity, keen powers of calculation, foresight, inventive skill, governing tact in short, all the qualifications which constitute a successful admin- istrator. Thus it happened that while Pestalozzi's undertakings fre- quently failed, Fellenberg's generally succeeded. Pestalozzi brought ruin and misery upon himself and his family; Fellenberg enriched him- self. The life of Pestalozzi was sorely troubled by unseemly contentions among his assistants ; around Fellenberg everything worked harmoni- ously. Pestalozzi often contradicted his theory in attempting to apply it to practice; with Fellenberg theory and practice always went hand in hand. Pestalozzi allowed his enthusiasm and his genial temper to lead him into all sorts of extravagancies; Fellenberg, though a man of strong passions, rarely acted impulsively. This remarkable dissimilarity between the two men was no doubt owing, in a great measure, to a difference in their natural endowment, but it was also the result of a difference of education. Fellenberg had enjoyed the counsel, control, and example of a well-educated father, who carefully trained him for the duties of active life. Pestalozzi was early deprived of the blessings of a father's influ- ence, which no other person can well supply. In the stirring politics of the times in which they lived, the two men took opposite sides Pesta- lozzi, sprung from the middle classes, and indignant at the harsh and oppressive rule of the aristocracv, was an adherent of the reforming party, and welcomed the French Revolution; Fellenberg, by birth a member of the aristocracy, was one of the most active in resisting the French invasion, and had to flee for his life. He did not approve, li<>\\ ever, of the exclusive pretensions of his order, whom he advised to win back the alienated affections of the peasantry by showing a noble zeal for the safety of their country. The main difference between the educa- tional views of the two men was this, Pestalozzi taught that the object of national education should be to develop the mental and moral faculties of every individual member of society, without distinction of rank. This cultivation of the general intelligence of the children of the nation, he maintained, should be the foundation for the special education needed to qualify them for any particular rank or pursuit. Fellenberg adopted this principle in the main, but held that Pestalozzi carried it too far. He maintained that the general culture should apply only to the earliest period of a child's education, which should be limited in its duration by the capacity and circumstances in life of each individual; and that this preliminary training should be followed by one chiefly devoted to the acquisition of such positive knowledge as would fit him for the discharge of his duties as a member of society. This principle of adapting the education of the pupil to the requirements of his probable station and occupation in after-life commends itself at once to practical minds as a sound and important one; nor is it at all at variance with the Pestalozzian principle of general development, for the teaching of almost any branch of knowledge may be so conducted as to have a highly educative influ- ence on the mind of the learner. SUMMARY AND ESTIMATE OP PESTALOZZIANISM. 507 Prof. JAMES TILLEARD, one of the teachers selected by Dr. Kay and Mr. Tufnell to inaugurate the Battersea Training School, writes of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg in " The Museum" (a Quarterly Journal of Education), for July, 1861, as follows: Their experience led them both, at an early period of their lives, to the 'Conviction that the amelioration of society was to be hoped for only from an improved and extended education of all classes, particularly for the poor. To the furtherane of this object they both resolved to devote tlit-ir lives, and they kept their resolve. They each founded and person- ally conducted educational institutions which they intended to serve as models for general imitation. They each promulgated their views on the -objects and methods of education. They influenced, and still continue to influence the education of the whole world. They agreed in mai:y of their opinions of educational methods. Fellenberg, indeed, adopted many principles directly from Pestalozzi, who was his senior by a quarter of a century. Pestalozzi taught that instead of making the child the passive recipient of the ideas of others, as most teachers before his time had done,* it was the duty of the teacher to develop his faculties and form his character, .so as to" enable him to think and act for himself. In developing the fac- ulties IV-talo/./i thought that the order of Nature should be followed. He held, with Locke, that all our ideas originate in the knowledge de- rived through our perceptive faculties, and this cultivation should be made the foundation of education. To use his own forcible expression, he turned the European educational vessel round and put it on a new track. These, and others of his opinions, were adopted by Fellenberg, who has, therefore, not incorrectly been called his disciple. They resemble each other, also, in possessing, in a high degree, the qualities of enthusiasm, energy, perseverance, and moral courage. They -each had to encounter much opposition, and to overcome many difficul- ties: Imt nothing could turn them from their purpose, or abate the ardor of their zeal. . . . The main difference between the educational views of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg waa this: Pestalozzi taught as a fundamental principle that the object of the national education should be to develop the mental and moral faculties of every individual member of society, without distinction of rank. This cultivation of the general intelligence of the pupils, he maintained, should be the foundation for the special education needed to qualify them for any particular rank or pursuit. Such a view of national education was a legitimate corollary of his opinions as a political reformer. Fellenberg (one of the governing class at that date, in Berne), with a deirree of liberality and moral courage that it is difficult now to estimate justly, adopted this principle in the main. But his practical mind saw that it was carried by Pestalozzi beyond the just limits of its application at that date, in Switzerland. He maintained that it applied more particu- larly to the earliest period of education, the duration of which should vary with the capacity and circumstances in the life of the individual pupil ; and that this period should be followed by one chiefly devoted to the acquisition of such positive knowledge as would fit him for the dis- charge of his duties as a member of society. This principle of adapting the education of the pupil to the requirements of his probable station and occupation in after life commends itself at once to practical minds as sound and important; nor is it at all at variance with the Pestalozzian principle of general development. * The majority (before Pestalozzi) only attempted to pour into the mind a vast amount of knowledge of every kind, and thought an intelligent man must be the result. Learned fools, rather with mind nciihi-r for the present or the future; who like finite beings, in another sense, are continuously created, but never able to create; heirs of all ideas, but originators of none; they are indeed samples of their education, but no proofs of its ex- cellence. Kichter's Lemnn, Bug. ed., p. 41G. 508 SUMMARY AND ESTIMATE OF PESTALOZZIANISM. JOHN GILL, Professor of Education in the Normal School at Cheltenham, in his Systems of Education advocated by Eminent Edu- cationists (Longman, 1876), gives the following summary of the- Principles and Methods of Pestalozzi as interpreted by Rev. Charles Mayo in a lecture before the Royal Institution in 1826, and applied by him in his Pestalozzian School at Cheam: The basis of all sound knowledge is the accurate observation of things acting on the outward senses. Unless physical conceptions be formed with distinctness, our abstractions will be vague, and our judgments and reasoning unstable. The first object then in education must be to lead a child to observe with accuracy; the second, to express with correctness the result of his observation. The practice of embodying in language the conceptions we form gives permanence to the impressions; and 'the habit of expressing ourselves with the utmost precision of which we are capable, mainly assists the faculty of thinking with accuracy and remem- bering with fidelity. This being the leading idea of his method, the following are the prin- ciples by which it should be pursued. Education should be essentially religious. Its end and aim should be to lead a creature, born for immortality, to that conformity to the image of God in which the glory and happiness of immortality consists. In pursuing this end, the instructor must regard himself as standing in God's stead to the child ; and as by the revelation of God's love is the spiritual transformation of man accomplished, so must the earthly teacher build all his moral agencies on the manifestation of his own love towards the pupil. Then, as "we love God because He first loved us," so will the affections of the pupil be awakened towards his instructor, w r hen lie- feels himself the object of that instructor's regard. Again, as love to God generates conformity to His will, so will obedience to the instructor be the consequence of awakened affection. Education should be essentially moral. The principles and standard of its morality should be derived from the precepts of the gospel, as. *llustrated by the example of the Redeemer. Moral instruction, to be availing, must be the purified and elevated expression of moral life actually pervading the scene of education. In carrying on the business of the school-room, or in watching over the diversions of the playground, the motives and restraints of the purest morality, and those only, must be employed. Moral diseases are not to be counteracted by moral poi- sons; nor is intellectual attainment to be furthered at the expense of moral good. Education should be essentially organic. A stone increases in size by the mechanical deposition of matter on its external surface; a plant, on the other hand, grows by continual expansion of those organs which lie folded up in its germ. Elementary education, as ordinarily carried on, is a mechanical inculcation of knowledge: in the Pestalozzian system it is an organic development of the human faculties, moral, intellectual, and physical. Moral education does not consist in preventing immoral actions in the pupil, but in cultivating dispositions, forming principles, and establishing habits. Nor does intellectual education attain its end by the mere communication of intellectual truths, but rather in the development of those faculties by which truth is recognized and discov- ered. And, lastly, physical education, instead of confining itself to instruction in particular arts, must be directed to the improvement of the outward senses, and the increase of activity and strength. Activity is the great means of development, for action is the parent of power. The sentiments of the heart, the faculties of the mind, the powers of the body, advance to their maturity through a succession of acting in conformity to their nature. Opportunities for the exercise of moral 50 SUMMARY AND ESTIMATE OF PESTALOZZIANISM. virtue should be carefully sought out, or, at least, diligently applied. To cultivate benevolent dispositions, the pupil should be invited to relieve the indigent ; to overcome his selfishness, he should be induced to share or to part with the objects of his own desire. In intellectual culture every branch of instruction should be so presented to the pupil's mind, as to bring into the highest activity the faculties most legitimately employed upon it. That these may be that action that leads to development, there must be liberty. It may be possible by a system of coercion, to produce a negative exterior morality, which shall endure as long as the circum- stances on which it is built remain in force ; but no interior moral power, that shall survive a change of outward circumstances, can be formed, unless such moral liberty be enjoyed as leaves to the Judgment room for discerning between good and evil ; to the moral choice the adoption of the one, and the rejection of the other; to the conscience the approval and rewarding of right, the condemnation and punishment of wrong. Restraint is useful to check the career of passion, to arrest the progress and diffusion of moral mischief, to remove the incentives to evil, and to restore to that position in which the moral principle may again exert its influence. Still it is only a negative, not a positive means. All the real development of man, moral, intellectual, and physical, arises from moral, intellectual, and physical liberty. This liberty must be directed by an influence essentially parental; where there is no mother there can be no child, is as true morally as it is physically. It is the order of providence that maternal affection and maternal wisdom should call forth the dawning powers of childhood; and that the wisdom and firmness of a father should build up and con- solidate the fabric which reposes on a mother's love. The Pestalozzian instructor must combine the character of each relation, but exhibit them in different proportions according to the age and disposition of his pupil. The development of the faculties should be harmonious. In some cases the intellectual, or moral, or both, are sacrificed to the physical; in some, the moral, or physical, or both, to the intellectual. A Pestalozzian edu- cator respects the rights of each. He fortifies the body by gymnastic exercises, while he cultivates the understanding, and trains the senti- ments. He endeavors to preserve the equipoise in each, as well as between each of the three departments, to mingle firmness with sweet- ness, judgment with taste, activity with strength. His object will be, not to develop a disproportionate strength in one faculty, but to produce that general harmony of mind and character which is the most conducive to the happiness and usefulness of the individual. Development should be essentially progressive. The sentiments should be gradually led to take a higher direction and a wider range. The motives of well-doing must be by degrees elevated and purified in their character; the duty which was discharged at first in obedience to an earthly father must be set forth as the requirements of a heavenly one ; the charities of life must be exercised towards those in immediate con- tact ; by degrees an interest may be cultivated in operations embracing a wider or distant sphere of usefulness. In every branch of study, the point de depart is sought in the actual experience of the child; and from that point where he intellectually is, he is progressively led to that point where the instructor wishes him to be. Thus he proceeds from the known to the unknown, by a process that connects the latter with the former, and, instead of being abruptly placed in contact with the abstract elements of a science, he is led by a sourse of analytical investigations of the knowledge actually possessed, to form for himself those intellectual abstractions which are in general presented as the primary truths. These principles are recognized in the Aims and Methods of the Normal and Model Schools of the Home and Colonial Infant School Society established in 1836. 510 SUMMARY AND ESTIMATE OF PESTALOZZIANISM. DR. BIBER, who had the best opportunity to form an intelligent opin- ion of Pestalozzi's personal character, and influence on assistants and pu- pils, in his " Life of Pestalozzi," in 1831, remarks: At the opening of his school at Stantz he had no plan of lessons, no- method, no school book, except one, and even this he scarcely used at all. Nor did he attempt to form a plan, to sketch out a method, or to compose a book. The only object of his attention was to find out at each mo- ment what instruction his children stood peculiarly in need of, and what was the best manner of connecting it with the knowledge they already possessed, or deducing it from the observations which they had an op- portunity of making within the sphere of their daily iffe. Nothing could be more unsystematic than his proceeding; the meanest school- master would have thought it beneath him to assist in the management of a school which was kept together, as it were, on the spur of the moment. But though there was in it little or no method, the children felt attracted, interested, stimulated. They had no tasks to get, but they had always something to investigate or to think about ; they gained little positive knowledge, but they gained daily in the love of knowledge and in the power of acquiring it; they might have been at a loss if called upon to quote texts in support of any particular doctrine of Christianity, but in the practice of its virtues they were perpetually exercised. The whole tendency of Pestalozzi's instruction was not to initiate his children into the use of those phrases which form the currency of the scientific, liter- ary, political, and religious world, nor to habituate them to any sort of routine for the future purposes of business, but to raise their state intel- lectually and morally, by a treatment conformable to the laws of God in human nature. To discover this law, and to learn by experience the bearing which it had upon the development of the child, was the great object of his present exertions, he had thrown off the fetters by which human society generally disqualifies man for the higher freedom in which God would lead him on ; whenever he saw a landmark of truth he steered his course towards it, and the result was that when the events of the war had banished him from Stantz, before the expiration of a twelve month, he left it with a distinct view of the nature of his task, and with a thou- sand floating ideas of the means by which it might best be accomplished. Of the Institution at Yverdun in its earliest days, before dissension had broken out among his assistants, Dr. Biber writes : Never, perhaps, has the idea of domestic life, in the highest sense of the word, been more beautifully realized; never the effect of a family spirit been more fully illustrated, than it was in the flourishing times o'f the establishment at Yverdun, in which persons of all ages, of all ranks, of all nations, persons of the most different gifts and abilities, and of the most opposite characters, were united together by that unaffected love which Pestalozzi, in years a man verging to the grave, but in heart and mind a genuine child, seemed to breathe out continually, and to impart to all that came within his circle. His children forgot that they had any other home; his teachers, that there was any world beside the Institution. Even the oldest members of this great family, men who had attained all the maturity of manhood, venerated Pestalozzi with all the reverence of true filial affection, and cherished towards each other, and toward the younger teachers and pupils, a genuine brotherly feeling, such as has, perhaps, never existed on earth since the days of the pristine Christian Church. There was no man that claimed any privileges for himself, none that sought anything apart from the others. All the goods of the earth, and all the gifts of immortality, by whomsoever they might be possessed, were enjoyed in common by all; every individual, with all that he had, and all that he could command, devoted himself to the happiness and the improvement of all. There were not times and places set apart for duty, and times and places left without duty; in every place, and in every mo- ment, there was a claim of duty upon the conscience of every individual; the discharge of that duty was not a toilsome drudgery, but a true delight. SUMMARY AND ESTIMATE OF PESTALOZZIANISM. -lit GABRIEL COMPAYRE, born in 1843, a pupil of the Lycee Louis le Grand, and holding a diploma of graduation from the Superior Normal School at Paris in 1865, and Professor of Pedagogy in the Normal School of Fontenay-aux- Roses, in his History of Edu- cation in France since the IQth Century (Paris, 1879, 2 vols.),.thus characterizes Pestalozzi : It is not for us here to describe in detail the attractive characteristics of that grand teacher, the Rollin of primary education, who might well be proud to say, what he often repeated so simply, "I am only a school master." During twenty-four years of his long and arduous life he was> in turn, director of Elementary Schools, chief of an agricultural and charitable institution, the organizer of a college for special and applied education, the author of educational romances such as "Leonard and Gertrude," at Neuhof, at Stanz, at Berthoud, and at Yverdun ; and through all this period and in all these relations Pestalozzi never ceased to. love the children and to work for them. War and the want of the good wishes and sympathy of his countrymen well nigh destroyed his schools, but he rebuilt them at a greater distance, and never despaired ; always ready to listen to new theories, always picking up orphans and vagabonds like an abductor of children on a new plan ; forgetting that he was poor when he would beicharitable and that he was ill when he must teach. ; in fine, pursuing with an indomitable energy that overcame all obstacles to- his apostleship of pedagogy. "Success or death ! " he cried ; " my zeal to* accomplish the dream of my life would take me through fire and water, even to the highest peak of the Alps." Compayre closes his interesting chapter on Pestalozzi, in his. History of Pedagogy, translated by Prof. Payne [Boston, Heath & Co., 1886], with the following remarks of his own and citations from Morf, Pestalozzi's latest biographer, and Yulliemen, a bright pupil of his at Yverdun. The teaching of Pestalozzi was in reality a long groping in unexplored ways a ceaseless search after the best methods. Following his pedagogic instinct, his loving desire to please and develop the child's mind, and avail- ing himself of the immediate practical skill of such assistants as were at his command (most of them young, and pupil-teachers who had come to study his system), he never worked out his own theories to complete satisfac- tion or clearly formulated them in manuals for the guidance of others. He made many important innovations on the old routine of school work, and set many logical minds in the right track of psychological inquiry, and through them settled definitely the aims and processes of elementary instruction in all countries, and primarily in Germany, and particularly in Prussia and Wurtemberg. Vulliemen thus summarizes the essential principles and processes of Pestalozzi as applied by himself at Yverdun : Instruction was addressed to the intelligence rather than to the memory. "Attempt, said Pestalozzi to his colleagues, to develop the child, and not to train him as one trains a dog." Language was taught us by the aid of intuition; we learned to see correctly, and through this very process to form for ourselves a correct idea of the relations of things. What we had conceived clearly we had no difficulty in expressing clearly. The first elements of geography were taught us on the spot. . . * 512 PESTALOZZIA^lS.M IX FRANCE.- COMPAYItfi. Then we reproduced in relief with clay the valley of which we had just made a study. We were made to invent geometry by having marked out for us the end to reach, and by being put on the route. The same course was followed in arithmetic; our computations were made in the head and viva wee, without the aid of paper. There was neither book nor copy-book in the schools of Berthoud. The children had nothing to learn by heart. They had to repeat all at once and in accord the instructions of the master. Each lesson lasted but an hour, and was followed by a short interval devoted to recreation. Manual labor, making paper boxes, working in the garden, gymnastics, were associated with mental labor. The last hour of each day was devoted to optional labor. The pupils said, "We are working for ourselves." A few hours a week were devoted to military exercises. Pestalozzi in his first letter to Gessner adopts Fischer's formula as expressing the five essential principles his own system : 1. To give the mind an intensive culture, and not simply extensive: to form the mind, and not to content one's self with furnishing it; 2. To connect all instruction with the study of language; 3. To furnish the mind for all its operations with fundamental data, mother ideas ; 4. To simplify the mechanism of instruction and study; 5. To popularize science. Morf, the latest biographer of Pestalozzi, condenses into a few maxims the pedagogy of the great master : 1. Intuition is the basis of instruction; 2. Language ought to be associated with intuition; 3. The time to learn is not that of judging and of criticizing; 4. In each branch, instruction ought to begin with the simplest ele- ments, and to progress by degrees while following the development of the child, that is to say, through a series of steps psychologically connected ; 5. We should dwell long enough on each part of the instruction for the pupil to gain a complete mastery of it; 6. Instruction ought to follow the order of natural development, and not that of synthetic exposition ; 7. The individuality of the child is sacred; 8. The principal end of elementary instruction is not to cause the 'Child to acquire knowledge and talents, but to develop and increase the forces of his intelligence ; 9. To wisdom there must be joined power; to theoretical knowledge, practical skill ; 10. The relations between master and pupil ought to be based on love ; 11. Instruction proper ought to be made subordinate to the higher purpose of education. The processes of the teacher are as follows : The child should know how to speak before learning to read. For reading, use should be made of movable letters glued on paste- board. Before writing, the pupil should draw. The first exercises in writing should be upon slates. In the study of language, the evolution of nature should be followed, first studying nouns, then qualificatives, and finally prepositions. The elements of computation shall be taught by the aid of material objects taken as units, or at least by means of strokes drawn on a board. Oral computation shall be the most employed. The pupil ought, in order to form an accurate and exact idea of num- bers, to conceive them always as a collection of strokes or of concrete things, and not as abstract figures. A small table divided into squares in which points are represented, serves to teach addition, subtraction, etc. PESTALOZZI, ROUSSEAU, AND FR(EBEL IN FRANCE. 51'? The great superiority of Pestalozzi over Rousseau is that he worked for the people, that he applied to a great number of children the princi- ples which Rousseau embodied only in an individual and privileged edu- cation. Enaile after all is an aristocrat. He is rich and of good ances-^^X" try; and is endowed with all the gifts of nature and fortune. Real pupils do not offer, in general, to the action of teachers, material as docile and complaisant. Pestalozzi had to do only with children of the common people, who have everything to learn at school, because they have 1'ound at home, with busy or careless parents, neither encouragement nor exam pie, because their early years have been only a long intellectual slumber. For these benumbed natures, many exercises are necessary, which would properly be regarded as useless if it were a question of instructing child- ren of another condition. . . The real organizer of the education of childhood and of the people, Pestalozzi has a right to the plaudits of all those who are interested in the future of the masses of mankind. Whatever degree of approval we extend to the fundamental doctrine and processes of the Kindergarten and the Infant School, may be justly J claimed for Pestalozzi who recognized the play spirit, the spontaneous S and pleasurable activity of the child as the solid basis of human culture. v Froebel was avowedly a loving pupil and disciple of Pestalozzi, and \ followed in his own kindergarten the principles and spirit of the j methods of the Master. Greard thus states the needs of the child-aims and processes of FrcebePfl child-culture : 1. The taste for observation: "All the senses of the child are on the alert; all the objects which his sight or his hand encounters attract him, interest him, delight him." "2. The need of activity, tin; taste for construction: "It is not enough that we show him objects; it is necessary that he touch them, that he handle them, that he appropriate them to him- self. . . . He takes delight in constructing; he is naturally a geometrician and artist." 3. Finally, the sentiment of personality: "He wishes to have his own place, his own occupation, his own teacher." Now Frcebel's method has precisely for its object the satisfaction of these different instincts. " To place the child before a common table," says Greard, "but with his own chair and a place that belongs to him, so that he feels that he is the owner of his little domain; to excite at the very beginning his good will by the promise of an interesting game; to develop in succession under his very eyes the marvels of the five gifts; to tench him in the first place from concrete objects exposed to his sight, balls of colored worsted and geometrical solids, to distinguish color, form, material, the different parts of a body, -so as to accustom him to see, that is. to seize the aspects, the figures, the resemblances, the differences, the relations of things; then to place the objects in his hands, and to teach him to make with the balls of colored worsted combinations of colors agreeable to the eye, to arrange, with matches united by balls of cork, squares, angles, triangles of all sorts, to set up little cubes in the form of crosses, pyra- mids, etc.; then either by means of strips of colored paper placed in different directions, interlaced into one another, braided as a weaver would make a fabric, or with the crayon to drill him in reproducing, in creating, designs representing all the geometrical forms, so that to the habit of observation is gradually joined that of invention; finally, while his hand is busy in concert with his intelligence, and while his need of activity is satisfied, to take advantage of this awakened and satisfied attention to fix in his mind by appropriate questions some notions of the properties and uses of forms, by relating them to some great principle of general order, simple and fruitful, to mingle the practical lesson with moral observations, drawn in particular from the incidents of the school this, in its natural progress and its normal development is the method of Froebel." PESTALOZZI SELECTIONS FROM THE PUBLICATIONS OF PESTALOZZI. [Translated or Revised for the American Journal of Education.] THE choice of selections from the works of Pestalozzi is rendered diffi- cult by the character of the mind that produced them. Taken as a whole, they display remarkable powers of observation, considerable insight into the operations of the mind and feelings, great appreciation of character, and a graphic and forcible style. But to select from their whole extent portions which shall give a connected view of his principles, is almost im- possible, from the fact that his mind was strongly intuitional in tendency and habit, and rapid and impulsive in action, and that his powers of re- flection, combination, and logical expression were not correspondingly great. Thus he often said too much or too little ; was contradictory or inconsistent ; and has nowhere, even where expressly undertaking to do- it, as in " How Gertrude Teaches Her Children" given an adequate presentation of his principles or practice. "Leonard and Gertrude" is presented as the book which, more than any other one work, was the foundation of Pestalozzi's fame, and as in. itself to the present generation a new and interesting picture of life in the German Swiss villages of the last half of the last century. It has also additional value as containing many of the author's views on educational and social questions, although diffused throughout the work. A brief extract from " Christopher and Alice" is given, sufficient to exhibit the mode of treatment of the subject. The work was compara- tively a failure, and has moreover little interest to readers in this country and this age, being closely and exclusively local in aim. " The Evening Hour of a Hermit" is termed by Karl von Raumer " the key of Pestalozzi's educational views." And Pestalozzi himself observed, in his old age, that even at the early date of its composition, he had already arrived at the fundamental principles which controlled the labors and expositions of all his subsequent life. The various addresses from which extracts are next given are interest- ing as affording a view of one mode of communication between Pesta- lozzi and his associates. They are doubtless freer and more spontaneous expressions of his peculiar modes of thought and feeling than his more formal expositions. "Sow Gertrude Teaches Her Children" was intended by Pestalozzi to give a logical and connected view of his methods of instruction, in, PREFACE. some detail The extracts presented embody the most important portion of the work, and exhibit also some of his characteristic defects in arrangement and exposition. The extracts from the "Paternal Instructions " are valuable as a speci- men of a mode of combining instruction in language with sound lessons in morals ; upon a principle which Pestalozzi carried very far in theory, and to a great extent in practice ; namely, that of teaching through one and the same vehicle, if possible, in the departments both of intellect and morals. The London translation of "Leonard and Gertrude" with corrections, has been followed in that work, except in the extracts added from the subsequently written part of the book. The liberty has been taken of extracting from Dr. Biber's valuable biography of Pestalozzi, his transla- tion from "Christopher and Alice" and from the "Paternal Instructions" The "Evening Hour of a Hermit" the extracts from the second part of "Leonard and Gertrude" and from "How Gertrude Teaches Her Children" and the several addresses of Pestalozzi, were translated by FREDERICK B. PERKINS, Esq., of Hartford, Librarian of the Connecticut Historical So- ciety ; and are from Cotta's edition of Pestalozzi's works, Yon Raumer's "History of Education," or Christoffel's "Life and Views." LEONARD AND GERTRUDE CONTENTS. PACK. CHAPTER I. A kfnd-heaited man, who yet makes his wife and children very un- happy, 9 CHAPTKR n. A woman who forms a reso- lution, net- up to it, and finds a lord of the manor, who has the heirt of a father to- ward his dependents, 11 CHAPTKR in. A brute appears, 13 CHAPTER iv. He is with his own set, and it is there that rogues show themselves, 15 CHAPTER v. He finds his master, 16 CHAPTER vi. Conversation amongst coun- try people, 19 CHAPTKR vn. The bailiff begins some bai- liff's business 23 CHAPTKR VIH. When the wheels are greased the wagon goes, 24 CHAPTKR ix. On the righu of the country, 25 CHAPTER x. The barber's dog drinks up wnter at an unlucky moment, and plays the bailiff a sad trick 26 CHAPTKR xi. Well-laid plots of a rogue,. . 28 CHAPTER xit. Domestic happiness, 3() CHAPTER XHI. A proof that Gertrude was dear to her husband 32 CHAPTER xiv. Mean selfishness, 36 CHAPTER xv. The wise goose lays an egg; or, a blunder which costs a glass of wine,. 37 CHAPTER xvi. The death-bed 38 CHAPTER xvn. The sick woman's behavior 40 CHAPTER xvm. A poor boy aaks pardon for having stolen potatoes, and the sick women dies, 43 CHAPTER xix. Good spirits comfort, cheer, and support a man, but anxiety is a con- tinual torment, 45 CHAPTER xx. Foolish gossiping leads to idleness, 46 CHAPTER xxi. Ingratitude and envy, 46 CHAPTER xxn. Remorse for perjury can not be allayed by crafty arts, 47 CHAPTER xxni. A hypocrite, and a suffer- ing woman, 49 CHAPTER xxiv. An honest, joyful, thank- ful heart 51 CHAPTER xxv. How rogues talk to each other,.. .. 51 PAOB, CHAPTER xxvi. Pride, in poverty and dis- tress, leads to the most unnatural and horri- ble deeds 52 CHAPTER xxvu. Activity and industry, without a kind and grateful heart, 54 CHAPTER XXVIH. A Saturday evening in the house of a bailiff, who is a land- lord, 55 CHAPTER xxix. Continuation of the con- versation of rogues with each other, 57 CHAPTER xxx. Continuation of the con- versation of rogues with each other, in a different style 60 CHAPTER xxxi. The even ing before a Sab- bath in the house of a good mother, 62 CHAPTER xxxn. The happiness of the hour of prayer, 63 CHAPTER xxxui. The seriousness of the hour of prayer, 64 CHAPTER xxxiv. A mother's instruction,. 65 CHAPTER xxxv. A Saturday even ing pray- CHAPTER xxxvi. Pure devotion and lift- ing up of the soul to God, 67 CHAPTER xxxvu. Kindness toward a poor man,.. .. 69 CHAPTER xxxvm. The pure and peaceful greatness of a benevolent heart,. 73 CHAPTKR xxxix. A sermon 74 CHAPTER XL. A proof that the sermon was good ; It, in. on knowledge and error, and what is called oppressing the poor, 77 CHAPTER XLI. A church-warden informs the pastor of improper conduct, 81 CHAPTER XLII. An addition to the morn- ing's discourse, 82 CHAPTER XLIII. The countrymen in the tavern are disturbed, 82 CHAPTER XLIV. Description of a wicked man's feelings during the sacrament, 83 CHAPTER XLV. The bailiff's wife tells her husband some weighty truths, hut many years too Inte, 84 CHAPTER XLVI. Soliloquy of a man whose thoughts unhappily lead him too far, 85 CHAPTER XLVII. Domesticjinppinesson the Sabbath da v 86 LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. PAGE. CHAPTER XLVIII. Some observations upon sin, 88 CHAPTER XLIX. The character and educa- tion of children, 88 CHAPTER L. Conceit and bad habits inter- fere with our happiness, even when we are doing a kind action, 91 CHAPTER LI. No man can tell what happy consequences may result from even the most trifling good action, 92 CHAPTER LII. Early in the morning is too * late for what ought to be done the evening before, 93 CHAPTER LIII. The more culpable a man is himself, the more violently does he abuse another who has done wrong 93 CHAPTER LIV. Useless labor for poor peo- pie, CHAPTER LV. A hypocrite makes friends with a rogue, 94 CHAPTER LVI. It is decided that the bailiff must no longer be a landlord, 96 CHAPTER LVII. His conduct upon the oc- casion, 96 CHAPTER LVIII. His companion, 97 CHAPTER LIX. Explanation of a difficulty, 97 CHAPTER LX. A digression, 98 CHAPTER LXI. An old man lays open his heart 98 CHAPTER LXII. The horrors of an uneasy conscience, 1UO CHAPTER LXIII. Kindness and sympathy ave a wretched man from becoming utter- ly distracted, 100 CHAPTER LXIV. A pastor's treatment of a case of conscience 100 CHAPTER LXV. There is often a delicacy in the poorest people, even when they are receiving favors for which they have asked, 102 CHAPTER LXVI. A forester who does not believe in ghosts, 103 CHAPTER LXVII. A man who desires to remove a landmark, and would willingly disbelieve in the existence of spirits, but dares not 104 CHAPTER LXVIII. The setting sun, and a poor, lost wretch, 104 CHAPTER LXIX. How a man should con- duct himself, who would prosper in the management of others, 105 CHAPTER LXX. A man who is a rogue and thief behaves honorably, and the mason's wife shows her good sense, 105 CHAPTER LXXI. The catastrophe draws r~*r.. .. 107 PACK CHAPTER LXXII. His last hope forsakes the bailiff, ............................ 108 CHAPTER LXXIII. He sets about removing the landmark, ......................... 108 CHAPTER LXXIV. Night greatly deceives drunkards and rogues, especially when they are in trouble, ................... 100- CHAPTER LXXV. The village is in an up- roar .................................. 109 CHAPTER LXXVI. The pastor comes to the tavern, ............................... 110 CHAPTER LXXVII. Care of souls ......... Ill CHAPTER LXXVHI. Two letters from the pastor to Arner, ........ . .............. 114. First letter, ........................... 114 Second letter, ..................... ____ 114 CHAPTER LXXIX. The poulterer's informa- tion, ................................. 115 CHAPTER LXXX. The squire's answer to the pastor, ............................ 116- CHAPTER LXXXI. A good cow-man, ..... 117 CHAPTER LXXXII. A coachman who loves his master's son, ....................... 117 CHAPTER LXXXIII. The squire with his workmen, ............................ 118 CHAPTER LXXXIV A squire and a pastor, who have equally kind hearts, .......... 118 CHAPTER LXXXV. The squire's feelings toward his guilty bailiff, ................ 119 CHAPTER LXXXVI. The pastor again shows his kindness of heart ................... 119 CHAPTER LXXXVII. On a cheerful disposi- tion, and on ghosts, .................... 120 CHAPTER LXXXVIII. On ghosts, in a differ- ent tone, .............................. 123 CHAPTER LXXXIX. A judgment, ......... 124 CHAPTER xc. The proposal of Hartknopf, the church-warden, .................... 125 CHAPTER xci. The squire's reply, ....... 126 CHAPTER xcii. Speech of the poulterer to the meeting, .................... ...... 127 CHAPTER xcni. The poor are gainers by the comedy, .......................... 128 CHAPTER xciv. The squire thanks the pas- tor 12 CHAPTER xcv. The squire asks forgiveness from a poor man, whom his grandfather had injured, 130 CHAPTER xcvi. Generosity of a poor man toward his enemy, 131 CHAPTER xcvii. His gratitude to the .. 132 squire, CHAPTER xcvm. A scene to touch the heart 132 CHAPTER xcix. A pleasing prospect,.... 133 CHAPTER c. The poulterer's reward,.... 133 LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. HEADER In the following pages I have attempted, through the medium of a tale, to communicate some important truths to the people, in the way most likely to make an impression upon their understandings and their feelings. It has also been my endeavor, to ground both the tale and the instructions derived from it, upon the most careful imitation of nature, and upon the simple description of what is every where to be found. In what is here related, (the greatest part of which I have, in the course of an active life, myself observed,) I have been careful never to set down my own opin- ions, instead of what I have seen and heard the people themselves feel, judge, say r and attempt. If my observations be just, and if I have been successful in my endeavor to give them with the simplicity of truth, they will be well received by all those r before whose eyes the things which I relate are continually passing. If they be false, if they be the creatures of my imagination, the trifles of my own brain, they will, like other Sunday discourses, be forgotten on the Monday. I will say no more, except to add two passages which appear calculated to illus- trate my opinions as to the means to be adopted for a wise instruction of the people. The first is from a work of our immortal Luther ; every line of whose pen breathes humanity, insight into the character of the people, and a desire to in- struct them. He says : " The holy scriptures are so graciously adapted to our wants, that they do not tell us merely of the great deeds of holy men, but also relate their common dis- course, and disclose to us the inmost motives and principles of their hearts." The second is from the writings of a Jewish Eabbi, and, according to a Latin translation, is as follows : " There were amongst the heathen nations, who dwelt round about the inherit- ance of Abraham, men full of wisdom, whose equals were not to be found far or near. These said : ' Let us go to the kings and to their great men, and teach them how to make the people happy upon the earth.' "And the wise men went out, and learned the language of the houses of the kings and of their great men, and spoke to the kings and to their great men, in their own language. " And the kings and the great men praised the wise men, and gave them gold,, and silk, and frankincense ; but treated the people as before. And the wise men were blinded by the gold, and the silk, and the frankincense, and no longer saw that the kings and the great men behaved ill and foolishly to all the people who lived upon the earth. "But a man of our nation reproved the wise men of the heathens, and waft kind to the beggar upon the highway ; and took the children of the thief, of th 524 LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. what a mother's heart, almost without means or help, can do for her children. It is equally false to say that mothers have no time to attend to the first formation, of the minds and feelings of their children. Most of them, particularly those who live at home, have their children with them a great part of the day ; and why can not they, whilst they are at work, as well behave to them, and talk to them, in a way which will instruct and improve them, as in one which will do neither? A mother's instruction requires no art. It is nothing but to excite the child to an active observation of the things which surround it. It is nothing but a regular exercise of the senses, of the warm feelings of the heart, of the powers of speech, and of the natural activity of the body. All that is necessary is to second the feelings of mothers, and their already prepared, and, as I may say, in- stinctively simple and upright understandings, and to place in their power the necessary means, so prepared as they may best use them. Good mothers ! let it not be unjustly said, any longer, that you have not under- standing and strength for what, in your circumstances, is your highest and holiest duty. If you once go so far as to weep in the stillness of your chambers, because the good Gertrude did more for her children than you have hitherto done for yours, I am sure you will then try whether it be not possible to do what she did - r and it is when you are arrived at this point, that I wish to offer you my element- ary books. My heart here bids me be silent; but one word more ! Whoever wishes to do his duty to God, to posterity, to public right, and public order, and to the security of family happiness, must, in one way or other, accord with the spirit of my book, and seek the same object. This is my comfort. When these truths are ripened, as ripen they must, they will bear fruit; when they are become fitted for the poor and desolate, they will be enjoyed by them. Many good men and women, who have hitherto been unable, notwithstanding the best inclinations, to give a good piece of advice to a neighbor, will become the fathers and mothers of the poor and desolate. It is to this strength and greatness that I seek to elevate the minds and hearts of the nobles, and of the people, of my native country. After my death, may men of matured powers proceed in this great object of my life ; and, before I close my eyes, may I enjoy the happiness of seeing both my object and the means which I employ to attain it, no longer misunderstood. Alas ! this misunderstanding prevents the happiness of thousands, who, but for it, would every where find wise and powerful assistance. PBSTALOZZJ. BURODOBF, November, 1808. LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. CHAPTER r. A KIND-HEARTED MAN, WHO YET MAKES HIS WIFE AND CHILDREN VERY UNHAPPY. THERE lived in Bonual, a mason. He was called Leonard, and his wife, Ger- trude. He had seven children and some property, but he had this fault ; that he often let himself be tempted to the tavern. When he was once seated there, he behaved like a madman ; and there are in our village, cunning, good-for- nothing rogues, whose sole employment and business it is, to take in honest and simple people, and seize every opportunity of getting hold of their money. These were acquainted with poor Leonard, and often led him on from drinking to gaming, and thus cheated him of the produce of his labor. Whenever this had. happened over-night, Leonard repented in the morning, and it went to his heart when he saw Gertrude and his children wanting bread, so that he trembled, wept, and cast down his eyes to conceal his tears. Gertrude was the best wife in the village ; but she and her blooming children were in danger of being robbed of their father, and driven from their home, and of sinking into the greatest misery, because Leonard could not let wine alone. Gertrude saw the approaching danger, and felt it most keenly. When she .fetched grass from the meadow, when she took hay from the loft, when she set away the milk in her clean pans, whatever she was doing, she was tormented by the thought that her meadow, her haystack, and her little hut, might soon be taken away from her ; and when her children were standing around her, or sit- ting in her lap, her anguish was still greater, and the tears streamed down her cheeks. Hitherto, however, she had been able to conceal this silent weeping from her children ; but on Wednesday, before last Easter, when she had waited long and her husband did not come home, her grief overcame her, and the children ob- -served her tears. "Oh mother," exclaimed they all with one voice, "you are weeping," and pressed themselves closer to her. Sorrow and anxiety were on every countenance anxious sobs, heavy, downcast looks, and silent tears, sur- rounded the mother, and even the baby in her arms, betrayed a feeling of pain hitherto unknown his first expression of care and sorrow, his staring eyes which, for the first time, were fixed upon her without a smile all this quite broke her heart. Her anguish burst out in a loud cry, and all the children and the baby wept with their mother, and there was a dreadful sound of lamentation just as Leonard opened the door. Gertrude lay with her face on the bed; heard not the opening of the door, and saw not the entrance of the father ; neither did the children perceive him. They saw only their weeping mother, and hung on her arm and round her neck, *nd by her clothes. Thus did Leonard find them. God in heaven sees the tears of the wretched, and puts a limit to their grief G-ertrude found in her tears the mercy of God. The mercy of God brought 526 LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. Leonard to witness this scene, which pierced through his soul, so that his limbs trembled. The paleness of death was upon his countenance, and he could scarcely articulate, with a hasty and broken voice: "Lord Jesus! what is this?" Then the mother saw him for the first time, the children looked up, and their loud exclamations of grief were hushed. "0 mother! here is our father," said the children all at once, and even the baby sobbed no longer. As a torrent, or a raging flame, did their wild anguish subside into quiet, thoughtful anxiety. Gertrude loved Leonard, and in her deepest distress his presence was always a comfort. Leonard's horror also was now less overwhelm- ing than at first. " Tell me, Gertrude," said he, "what is this dreadful trouble in which I find thee?" "0 my dear," answered Gertrude, "heavy cares press upon my heart, and when thou art away sorrow preys more keenly upon me." " Gertrude," said Leonard, "I know why thou weepest, wretch that I ami' 1 Then Gertrude sent away the children, and Leonard hid his face on her neck, juia could not speak. Gertrude too was silent for a few moments, and leaned sorrowfully against her husband, who wept and sobbed on her neck. At last she collected all her strength, and took courage to urge him not to bring any further trouble and misery upon his children. Gertrude was pious, and trusted in God ; and before she spoke, she prayed silently for her husband and for her children ; and her heart was evidently com- forted as she said, "Leonard ! trust hi the mercy of God, and take courage to do nothing but what is right." "0 Gertrude, Gertrude!" exclaimed Leonard, and wept, and his tears fell in torrents. "0 my love! take courage and trust in thy Father in heaven, and all will be better with thee. It goes to my heart to make thee weep. My love, I would gladly keep every trouble from thee. Thou knowest that, by thy side, I could be content with bread and water, and the still midnight is often to me an hour of cheerful labor, for thee and my children. But, if I concealed my anxiety from thee, lest I be separated from thee and these dear little ones, I should be no mother to my children, nor true to thee. Our children are yet full of gratitude and love toward us, but, my Leonard, if we do not continue to act as parents, their love and tenderness, to which I trust so much, must needs decrease, and think too what thou wilt feel, when thy Nicholas has no longer a home of his own, and must go out to service. He who now talks with so much delight of freedom and his own little flock. Leonard I if he, and all these dear children, should become poor through our fault, should cease to thank us in their hearts, and begin to weep for us their parents Leonard! couldst thou bear to see thy Nicholas, thy Jonas, thy Liseli, and thy little Anneli, driven out of doors to seek their bread at another's table ? Oh ! it would kill me to see it." So spoke Ger- trude, and the tears fell down her cheeks. And Leonard was not less affected. " What shall I do, miserable creature that I am ? What can I do ? I am yet more wretched than thou knowest of Gertrude ! Gertrude!" Then he was again silent, wrung his hands and wept in extreme misery. " Oh, my dear husband, do not mistrust God's mercy ! Whatever it be, speak that we may consult together, and comfort each other." , LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. 52Y OjAPTER II. A WOMAN WHO FORMS A RESOLUTION, ACTS UP TO IT, AND FINDS- A LORD OF THE MANOR, WHO HAS THE HEART OF A FATHER TOWARD HIS DEPENDENTS. u OH Gertrude, Gertrude I it breaks my heart to tell thee my distress and add to thy anxieties ; and yet I must do it. I owe Hummel, the bailiff, thirty florins ; and he is a hound to those who are in debt to him, and not a man. I wish I uad never seen his face 1 If I do not go to his house, he threatens me with law ; and if I do go, the wages of my labor are in his claws. This, Gertrude, this is the source of our misfortunes." " My dear husband," replied Gertrude, " canst thou not go to Arner, the father of the country ? Thou knowest how all the widows and orphans praise him. I think he would give thee counsel and protection against this man." " Gertrude," said Leonard, " I can not, I dare not. What could I say against the bailiff? He would bring up a thousand different things against me 1 He ia bold and cunning, and has a hundred ways and means of crying down a poor man before a magistrate, so that he may not be heard." Gertrude. Dear husband, I never yet spoke to a magistrate, but if necessity and want carried me to him, I am sure I could speak the truth to any man. do not be afraid ; think of me, and of thy children, and go. "Gertrude," said Leonard, "I can not, I dare not. I am not free from fault. The bailiff will coolly take the whole village to witness that I am a drunkard. Gertrude, I am not blameless. "What can I say? Nobody will stand up against him and say that he enticed me to it all. Gertrude, if I could, if I durst, how gladly would I go ; but if ventured, and did not succeed, think how he would revenge himself." Gertrude. But even if thou art silent he will nevertheless bring thee to ruin, without a chance of escape. Leonard, think of thy children, and go. This anxiety of heart must have an end. Go, or I will go myself Leonard. Gertrude, I dare not. If thou darest, for God's sake, go directly ta Arner, and tell him all. "I will go," said Gertrude; and she did not sleep one hour that night; but she prayed during that sleepless night, and was more and more resolved to go ta Arner, the lord of the manor. Early in the morning she took her baby, which bloomed like a rose, and went six miles, to the hall. Arner was sitting under his lime-trees, before the door of his house, as Ger- trude approached ; he saw her, he saw the baby in her arms, and upon her countenance sorrow and suffering, and the traces of tears. " What do you want my good woman ? Who are you ?" said he, so kindly that she took courage to speak, "I am Gertrude," said she, "the wife of Leonard, the mason of Bonnal." "You are an excellent woman," said Arner. " I have observed your children more than all the rest in the village ; they are more modest and better behaved than any of the others ; and they appear better fed. And yet I hear you are very poor. Tell me what you wish for." " gracious sir, my husband has, for some time past, owed Urias Hummel, the bailiff, thirty florins ; and he is a hard man. He entices him to gaming, and all kinds of waste ; and because he is afraid of him, he dare not keep away from hia tavern, though it costs him, almost every day, his wages and his children's 528 LEONARD AND GERTRUDE. bread. Honored sir ! he has seven young children, and without help and coun- sel against the bailiff it is impossible that we should escape beggary. I know that you have compassion upon the widow and the orphan, and therefore I have made bold to come to you, and tell you our misfortunes. I have brought with me all my children's savings, to leave them with you, if I might venture to beg you to make some agreement for us, so that the bailiff, till he is paid, may not oppress and injure us any more." Arner had long had suspicions of the bailiff. He perceived, therefore, imme- diately, the truth of this complaint, and the wisdom of what she asked. He took a cup of tea which stood before him, and said " You are tired, Gertrude ; drink this tea, and give your pretty child some of this milk." Gertrude stood blushing ; and this paternal kindness went to her heart, so that she could not restrain her tears. And Arner encouraged her to tell him what the bailiff and his companions had done, and the wants and cares of many years. He listened attentively, and than asked her, " How have you been able, Ger- trude, through all this distress to keep your children's money?" Then Gertrude answered: "It was difficult indeed, gracious sir, to do so; but I always looked upon the money as not my own, as if some dying man had given it me on his death-bed to keep for his children. I considered it almost in this light ; and if ever, in the time of our greatest need, I was obliged to buy the children bread with it, I never rested till I had made it up again for them by night labor." "Was that always possible, Gertrude?" said Arner. " gracious sir, if we have once set our hearts upon any thing, we can do more than we could imagine possible, and God always helps us in our greatest need, if we are really doing our best to get what is absolutely necessary. gracious sir, he helps us more than you in your magnificence can know or imagine." Arner was deeply affected by the innocence and goodness of this poor woman ; he made still further inquiries; and said^ "Gertrude, where is this money?" Then Gertrude laid down seven neat parcels upon Arner's table ; and to every parcel was fastened a ticket, saying whose it was, and when Gertrude had taken any thing away from it, and how she had replaced it. Arner read the tickets over attentively. Gertrude saw it, and blushed: "I ought to have taken away these tickets, gracious sir." Arner smiled, and read on; but Gertrude stood there abashed, and her heart throbbed on account of these tickets ; for she was modest, and troubled at the least appearance of vanity. Arner saw her uneasiness because she had not taken off the tickets, and felt the simple dignity of innocence, as she stood ashamed that her goodness and prudence were noticed ; and he resolved to befriend her more than she asked or hoped for; for he felt her worth, and that no woman was like her among a thou- sand. He added something to each of the parcels, and said "Take back your children's money, Gertrude, and I will lay down thirty florins for the bailiff, till he is paid. Go home, now, Gertrude ; to-morrow I shall be in the village, and I will settle matters between you and Hummel." Gertrude could not speak for joy; scarcely could she stammer out a broken, sobbing " Heaven reward you, gracious sir!" and then she went with her baby