Classe VI
[HE LIBRARY
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CAL [FORNIA
LOS ANGELES
THE ART
FRESCO PAINTING.
BRIGHTON:
PRINTED BY ARTHUR WALLIS,
THE ART
FRESCO PAINTING,
AS PRACTISED BY THE
OLD ITALIAN AND SPANISH MASTERS,
A PRELIMINARY INQUIRY
' INTO
THE NATURE
UF
THE COLOURS USED IN FRESCO PAINTING,
WITH OBSERVATIONS AND NOTES.
MRS. MERRI FIELD,
TRANSLATOR OF CENNINO UK* MM.
Of all kinds of painting, Fresco Painting is the finest and most masterly.
VASAEI. I" AC H ECO.
LONDON :
PUBLISHED FOR THE AUTHOR,
BY
CHARLES G1LPIN, 5, BISHOPSGATE STREET;
AND ARTHUR \VALLIS, BRIGHTON.
MDCCCXLVI.
Art
Library
ND
2.4-70
THE RIGHT HONOURABLE
SIR ROBERT PEEL, BART. M.P.
ONE OF JTHE COMMISSIONERS ON THE FINE ARTS,
THIS TREATISE
ON THE ART OF FRESCO PAINTING,
IS,
BY HIS PERMISSION,
MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED
BY
HIS OBLIGED AND OBEDIENT SERVANT,
MARY PHILADELPHIA MERRIFIELD.
1235581
C N T E N T S .
PACK.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Colours used in Fresco Painting . , . . . . . . xi
Red Colours Amatito. . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Sinopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix
Blue Colours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiv
Green Colours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . li
Black Colours . . . . . . . . . . . . . liii
White, Yellow, and Brown Colours . . . . . . . . liii
Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . liv
THE ART OF FRESCO PAINTING.
PART I.
Of Guevara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Directions and Observations of Vitruvius with the commentary
of Guevara . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Directions of the Monk Theophilus . . . . . . . . 17
Of Leon Batista Alberti 19
Directions and Observations of Leon Batista Alberti . . . . 19
Directions of Cennino Cennini . . . . . . . . 24
OfVasari .. .. 27
Directions and Observations of Vasari . . . . . . 27
Of Borghini 33
Directions and Observations of Borghini . . . . . . 23
Of Armenino . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Directions and Observations of Armenino . . . . . . 33
Of Andrea Pozzo . . . . . . . . . . 52
Directions and Observations of Andrea Pozzo . . . . . . 56
OfPacheco 61
Directions and Observations of Pacheco . . . . . . 62
Of Palomino 69
Directions and Observations of Palomino . . . . . . 70
Directions of John Martin . . . . . . . . 87
PART II.
Practice of the Early Italian School . . . . . . . . 91
Of the Painting . . ' 98
Of the Colouring and Colours . . . . . . . . . . 105
Of the use of Gold on Fresco . . . . . . . . ..110
Instances of the durability of external Frescoes . . . . 114
Causes of the destruction of Frescoes .. .. .. ..115
Of Retouching, Repairing, and Cleaning Frescoes . . . . 119
Of the Repairs of the Gallery of the Carracci in the Palazzo
Farnese, and of the Loggia of Raffaello at the Lungara 122
Index 129
INTRODUCTION.
THE revival of the art of Fresco Painting in the nineteenth
century, will be an epoch in the fine arts, and, will probably, be
the means of forming a great school of painting in this country,
and lead to the improvement of the sister arts of sculpture and
architecture. The moment it was determined to decorate the
new Houses of Parliament with fresco paintings, it became
important to ascertain the mode adopted by the great masters
of the Italian and Spanish schools. To accomplish this desirable
object, it became necessary to recur to the old treatises on the
subject, especially those written in the Italian and Spanish
languages. This inquiry was fortunately undertaken by a
gentleman fully competent to the task. The result was pre-
sented to the public in the valuable reports of the commissioners
on the fine arts. The path of inquiry was well traced out in
these reports, and the subject coinciding with my own pursuits
and inclinations, I was induced to pursue the inquiry, from the
persuasion, that the introduction of the art into this country,
would be the means of founding a great English school of
painting.
Independent of other considerations, there appear to me to be
certain analogies between Italy, during the period the fine arts
flourished in that country, and England at the present time,
which strengthens this persuasion. The same wealth and splen-
dour of our nobles and merchants, the same commercial prosperity,
and, above all, the same spirit of inquiry, which characterised
Italy at the period I have mentioned, is applicable to England at
the present moment. The advantage is on the side of England.
IV INTRODUCTION.
Almost all the writers of eminence, mention fresco painting, as
the highest branch of the art. The most competent judges have
expressed opinions, that in comprehensiveness of subject, boldness
of design, facility of execution, and in durability, it exceeds all
other kinds of painting, especially for the decoration of temples,
palaces, and great public buildings. It has been practised by
men of the highest order of genius. It is only necessary to
mention the names of the Carracci, Michael Angelo, Raphael,
and Correggio, to shew how highly this branch of the art was
formerly appreciated, even if the value set on the cartoons, the
rough drafts of paintings in fresco, were not sufficient to establish
its superiority. These considerations, added to the favorable
reception of my translation of Cennino Cennini, on painting,
encouraged me to follow the path of inquiry, traced out in the
Reports of the Commissioners.
By long discontinuance, the art had become almost entirely
lost. The practice of painting on walls, in the manner described
by Vitruvius, that is, partly in fresco, and partly in secco,
appears to have been continued throughout the dark ages, by
the Greeks, who instructed the Italians. According to Zanetti,
the Greek style was taught by a Greek artist of Constantinople,
who, about the year 1200, kept a school for painting, at Venice,
to which many foreigners resorted for instruction, and from the
same author we learn, that the Greek style was practised until
the middle of the fourteenth century.
The earliest modern writer, whose work has been preserved,
is Theophilus, a monk, who is supposed to have lived between
the ninth and thirteenth centuries, but the exact period is
unknown. He professes to teach "all the knowledge of the
Greeks respecting colours." A manuscript, which I examined in
the Bibliotheque Royale, at Paris, dated in 1431, contains a
version in old French, of some parts of the work of Theophilus,
which shews that his treatise had then become known.
INTRODUCTION. V
The following series comprise the principal authors, who have
treated practically on fresco painting :
Theophilus MS. between the years. . . . 1000-1300.
MS. in the Bibliotheque Royale 1431.
Cennino Cennini MS. (published in 1821.) . . 1437.
Leon Batista Alberti 1485.
Vasari 1547.
Guevara 1550-1557.
Borghini 1584.
Armenini 1587.
Cespedes 1608.
Pacheco 1641.
Pozzo 1693-1702.
Palomino 1715-1724.
Mengs 1779.
Commencing therefore with Theophilus, the series of writers
on fresco painting, embrace the periods of its commencement,
progress, and decline. I believe there is no important practical
point, which has not been explained by some one or other of the
above series of authors, most of whom were also artists. The
reader will be able to judge, by the extracts in this work, how
perfectly the practical part of the art had been preserved and
transmitted, by a succession of authors, treating expressly or
incidentally on the subject.
Between the period when Cennino wrote his treatise, and the
publication of the work of Vasari, the art had advanced rapidly.
Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Correggio
had lived and died. The Sistine Chapel, the Vatican, and the
Duomo of Parma, had been painted. The practice of fresco
painting was changed in some important points ; Cartoons were
prepared with the greatest care, the figures being drawn either
from the life, or from models in clay, from which, when placed
on the wall, the picture was traced, and correctness of outline
secured. The old custom of painting much of the drapery in
VJ INTRODUCTION.
secco was discountenanced, and the perfection of fresco painting,
as far as concerned the mechanical part of the art, was considered
by the best writers on the subject, to consist in completing the
picture at once in fresco, without retouching it in secco. The
practice however of retouching in secco, was at no period wholly
discontinued, except by a few very expert artists, formed chiefly
in the school of the Carracci.
In a work which contains translations from so many authors,
repetitions will unavoidably occur ; and, as every author has
his own mode of expressing his ideas, variations will be found.
There is however a concurrence, generally, among all the authors,
which leads to the conclusion, that the practice, by contemporary
artists, was nearly uniform.
We must expect that the introduction of the art, will be
opposed and condemned by many of those who love the arts,
and to whom we are much indebted for their advancement, but
who have grown grey in other practice. It were too much to
expect otherwise. But the young artist may be assured that
fresco painting will succeed, and be most extensively practised
in this country. The commencement has been most auspicious.
The patronage of government has been offered. The assistance
of parliament has been obtained ; and with such encouragement
and patronage, ability and genius will not be wanting. No
opposition can now prevent its success. The die is cast ; the
path will be trodden. The art has been already revived, and
practised with success, on the continent, especially in Germany.
It has commenced in this country, and it may be safely pre-
dicted, that it will hereafter form the principal part of the
decorations of our public edifices. The great, the wise, and the
good, with the actions and works, for which they were most
celebrated, will be appropriately represented in our public
buildings and palaces, if not in our temples. The illustrious
dead will be represented as instructive examples to the living,
and the art, which it is the object of this treatise to promote,
INTRODUCTION. Vll
will, by these means, become subservient to the best interests of
the country. These are my anticipations. I firmly believe
they will be fully realized; and that fresco painting will be
extensively and successfully practised in this country, by our
own native artists, and will ultimately attain to a perfection,
equal to that for which the Italian schools were so justly
celebrated.
With respect to the translations in this volume, I may be
permitted to notice, that the greater part was made by my sons,
Charles and Frederick; those from the Italian by the former,
and those from the Spanish by the latter ; and like most trans-
lations by very young persons, are almost as literal as the genius
of the respective languages will allow. I have carefully col-
lated and corrected them with the original works, without
however altering their literal character, deeming it preferable
that the ideas of each author should be presented, as nearly as
possible in his own words.
Besides the translations already mentioned, I have collected
and added such notices and extracts, from various other authors,
as I considered might be useful, relative to the preparation of
the walls and roofs, proper for the reception of fresco paintings,
the preparation and use of the pigments, and the mode adopted,
for the reparation and amendment of the walls and paintings,
when injured by time or accident.
The importance of ascertaining the pigments or colours, used
by the old masters in fresco painting, induced me to inquire
into the nature of these colours. In pursuing this inquiry, it
became necessary to consult the old lexicons, and old and modern
works on chemistry and mineralogy, in order to ascertain by
what modern names the minerals, earths, and pigments formerly
used, are now known. This inquiry was not unattended with
labour and difficulty. The result is prefixed to the practical
part of the present volume.
Vlll INTRODUCTION.
In my researches, both in this country and on the continent,
I have been greatly assisted by Lord Francis Egerton and Sir
Robert Peel, and it is with feelings of pleasure, and a lively sense
of gratitude, I acknowledge, that without the assistance and
facilities afforded nie by these distinguished patrons of the fine
arts, I should have been unable to pursue my inquiries in those
foreign libraries and public institutions, from whence I have
derived the most useful part of the present publication.
The notes to which the letters Ed. are affixed, and all those
to which no reference is appended, were added by the author of
this treatise.
M. P. M.
Brighton, 20th December, 1845.
CORRIGENDA.
Page xl, Ime 6, for "useful" read "used."
ilt, line 25, for " Civita Vecchia" read "Oroieto."
xliii, paging, for " xlii" read "tliii."
liii, line 4 from the bottom, after the word " imitation"
add " The use of black as a local colour, especially in
draperies, is of course excepted."
6l, line 11. for "os" read "yo"
61, last line, for " Pemtres" read "Peintres"
,, 63, last line of text, for "remainded" read "remained"
6s, last line but one of notes, for"//" read "El"
69, line 1, for "1563" read "1663"
AN INQUIRY
NATURE OF THE COLOURS
FRESCO PAINTING,
ITALIAN AND SPANISH MASTERS.
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.
THE selection of proper colours a for painting in fresco is among the
most important parts of the art. All the best authorities on this
subject are unanimous in the opinion, that natural colours only, are
proper to be used in fresco painting. Armenino observes, " artificial
colours never do well m fresco, nor can any art make them last long
without changing, and particularly in the open air ; the wall will not
take any other than the natural colours which are found in the ground,
and which consist of earths of different colours ; and you may leave
to foolish painters those secrets of theirs which no one envies them
of using vermilion and fine lake, because, although they make grounds
for these colours with various tints of white, it is nevertheless well
known, that in the long run their pictures become ugly daubs."
* The authors quoted, almost uniformly use the term " colour," and therefore both
that and the term " pigment" have been used throughout the work as if con-
vertable terms : otherwise, " pigment" would in most cases have been preferred.
b
Xll OF THE COLOURS USED
Vasari uses nearly the same terms. Pacheco observes, " the colours
must be natural colours," and Palomino says, " they must be all
mineral," by which he means natural and not artificial colours.
These and numerous other extracts to the same effect will be found
in the subsequent part of this work.
The natural colours are neither numerous nor brilliant, but the
frescoes of Raphael, Michael Angelo, and others, irresistibly prove,
that the colours used by them, were amply sufficient for all the pur-
poses of fresco painting. Some of these colours have for a long
time fallen into disuse, and the knowledge of their value, application ,
and use, is in a great measure lost. Artificial colours and pigments
have been improperly substituted, and failed of their object. The
consequence has been, that the highest branch of the art of painting,
and from which the greatest masters have derived most of their
celebrity, has declined and fallen into disuse. The object of the
following treatise is, to restore this knowledge, and with this view
I have endeavoured, by a diligent examination and perusal of old
authors, who have treated on these subjects, to investigate and
ascertain the colours formerly employed in painting in fresco. The
subject has extended to greater length than I had anticipated,
for my object being to re-discover the old and valued colours used
at the period when fresco painting was in its greatest perfection, it
was necessary to adduce satisfactory evidence as to what colours or
pigments were actually used by the great masters of the Italian and
Spanish schools. The importance of employing proper pigments, on
which the beauty and durability of the painting so much depends,
will, I trust, be considered a sufficient reason for having extended
my observations and enquiries to a length, which, otherwise, might
have been considered unnecessary.
The following passage in the truly valuable Report of the
Commissioners on the Fine Arts, namely, that " the problems
yet to be solved are, the speedier preparation of a lime, adapted for
fresco painting, and the preparation of durable colours of the more
florid kind, such as lake and crimson," (III. Rep. 53.) prompted me
to the following investigation, and induced me to consider the sub
ject, with a view to ascertain the nature of the pigments used in the
Italian and Spanish schools, to produce these florid colours. I shall
IN FRESCO PAINTING.
first endeavour to ascertain the colours formerly used, to produce the
lake and crimson colours in the old fresco paintings.
RED COLOURS. AMATITO.
DIFFERENT NAMES GIVEN TO AMATITO BY AUTHORS ON PAINTING.
It appears quite clear, that the old masters used a natural colour,
which, when opposed to the other colours, appeared like lake, and
that this colour is mentioned in terms of praise by many writers on
art, who however call it by different names. It also appears that
this colour was much used by the school of Giotto, but had almost
entirely ceased to be used in Italy previous to 1584, and in France
long before the time of De Piles, who was born in 1635 and died in
1 709 ; but it was preserved in Spain at least until the publication of
Palomino's work on painting in 1715-24.
The earliest Italian writer who mentions this colour is Cennino
Cennini. In his Treatise on Painting, ch. 42, he says, " there is a
red colour called amatito. This is a natural colour, and is prepared
from a very hard and firm stone. It is so hard and firm, that tools are
made of it to burnish gold on pictures. These become of a dark colour,
and are as perfect and good as a diamond. The pure stone is of a pur-
ple or morella colour, and has striae (or fibres) like Cinnabar. Break
this stone first in a bronze mortar, because if you were to break it on
a porphyry slab, you might split it. And when you have broken it,
put what quantity of it you wish to grind on the stone, and grind it
with clear water ; and the more you grind it the better, and more
perfect will be the colour. This colour is good for painting on walls
in fresco, and it makes a colour such as cardinals wear, or a purple
or lake colour. It cannot be used in any other way or distemper."
And in chapter 136, he says, " choose a piece of lapis amatista, firm
and without veins, with its striae or fibres running longitudinally.
Grind it on a grindstone, and make it very smooth and polished, of
about the width of two fingers, if you can, Then take some of the
dust of emeralds, and rub the stone, until no inequalities remain.
Round off all the corners and put it into a handle of wood, with a
ferule of brass or copper, and let the handle be round and polished,
so that the palm of the hand may rest well upon it. Then give it a
OF THE COLOURS USED
lustre in the following manner. Put some charcoal powder on a smooth
porphyry slab, and rub the stone on it exactly as if you were bur-
nishing with it, and your stone will become firm, dark, and shining,
as a diamond. You must be very careful not to break it or to let it
touch iron ; and when you would burnish gold or silver with it,
put it first into your bosom, to get rid of any dampness, which
would soil the gold."
The next author who mentions the pigment is Borghini (Riposo
168-169.) His words are, " Another red colour is made of Lapis
Amatito, (by some called mineral Cinnabar) ; it is a very hard natural
stone, which the sword cutlers, and those who gild leather, use to
burnish gold ; and because it is very difficult to grind, it is thought a
good plan first to calcine it, that is, to make it red hot in the fire, and
then quench it with strong red vinegar, and grind it a little at a time
on a porphyry slab. This, tempered with clear water, makes a
beautiful red for painting in fresco ; but, as this stone is not very
common, and as it is very difficult to reduce to powder, it is not
much used by painters ; but there is none of it but what makes a
beautiful colour like lake, for painting in fresco, and it is very dnrable.
The next author I shall quote is Baldinucci. (Voc. Dis. Tit.
Amatita, Lapis Amatita, Matita) . The following are extracts :
" Amatita, a soft stone like gesso, with which drawings are made;
there is some black and some red. See Lapis Amatita and Matita."
" Lapis Amatita, Matita, otherwise called Mineral Cinnabar, a very
hard natural stone, used by painters to make designs on leaf gold,
where it leaves its colour, which is red. This being ground, although
with great difficulty on account of its hardness, makes a beautiful
colour, like lake, which serves for painting in fresco, and which is
very durable. The sword cutlers use it for burnishing gold." Again,
" Matita, a kind of soft stone used by our artists in drawing. It is
derived from the Greek word htematite, because it has the colour of
blood, which they call hama." Again," Matita Rossa, a kind of soft
stone, brought to us in pieces, which are sawn with an iron saw, and
reduced to a point, which serves to draw upon white and coloured
paper. The best comes from Germany.
" Matita Nera, a sort of black stone, which comes to us in small
pieces, and which are reduced to a point by scraping with a knife; it
IN FRESCO PAINTING. XV
is used to draw on white and coloured paper. It is also dug in the
mountains of France, and other places, but the best comes from
Spain."
De Piles, in his Ele"mens de Peinture, speaking of colours used in
fresco, observes, " Rouge violet is a natural earth, produced in
England, and employed in fresco painting instead of lake : and the
fresher the mortar is, on which this pigment is used, the more
beautiful is the colour. The ancients had another colour, which
was very proper for this kind of work and which very nearly
approached lake, but its composition is unknown to us. Some think
that it was a kind of minium."
The Spanish painter and author, Pacheco (page 366), speaks of the
red pigment used instead of lake in fresco, by the name of " Albin."
This author says, "The Almagre de Levante supplies the place of
vermilion, in flesh. and light red draperies, and Albin the place of
carmine.
The next author I shall quote, is the Spanish author Palomino,
who, in vol. 2, page 148-149, says, "Albin and Pabonazo* are mineral
colours, and are used in fresco painting, only tempered with water.
Albin and Pabonazo do not change, and are colours which supply
the place of carmine so well, that, being used on very fresh stucco,
they have sometimes deceived people, appearing to be carmine; and,
observe, that Pabonazo is a degree lower in tone than Albin, and this
is not sold in shops, but is procured from the mines of copper in the
kingdom of Jaen; and there, and in all Andalusia, painters and gilders
esteem it much, and it is even sold under the name of Almagre."
Again, " The crimson in fresco painting, is to be Albin and Pabonazo."
II. Palom. page 151.
The last, and in point of date, one of the earliest of the modern
writers on the arts, Eraclius, b whom I shall quote, and whose work
a There are artificial pigments called in Italian Pavonazzo, which cannot be
used in fresco.
b De Artibus Romanorum. Eraclius is supposed to have lived between the 7th
and 13th centuries, since the latest author he quotes is Isodorus, who lived in
the 7th century. See Raspe on Oil Painting, p. 45. The copy of this author's
work published by Raspe is very imperfect ; that which is preserved in the Bib-
liotheque Royale at Paris, contains many additional chapters and much valuable
information on early methods of painting, and substances used in the Art.
XVI OF THE COLOURS USED
is still preserved, mentions the substance as affording a red pigment,
although he does not limit its use to fresco painting. In speaking
of purpurinus, he says, " And indeed glebse or flints, that is, stones
emitting fire, seem very necessary in painting, when they are heated
in the fire, and are quenched by having very strong vinegar poured
over them ; and they produce a purple colour."
And in chapter 266, Eraclius again mentions the same stone in the
following extract : " How a stone and the tooth of an animal is
polished. Take the stone which is called emantes, which should not
be too hard, nor veined, but very smooth and bright, and go to a
workman's grindstone, and make it as flat as you like. And when
it seems sufficiently ground, rub it still smoother upon a tile, and
then, in order to make it finer, with a whetstone. Afterwards polish
it upon a leaden table." Extract from a MS. of Eraclius in Bib.
Royale, Paris.
It will be observed that there are two kinds of stone noticed in the
above extracts, the hard and the soft ; I shall endeavour to prove,
firstly that the Amatito of Cennino, and the Albin of Palomino, are
a variety of the Haematite ; secondly that the Lapis Amatita was,
and is the stone commonly used to burnish gold; thirdly that Amatito
is not mineral Cinnabar ; and fourthly that Pabonazo is the Matita
Rossa. But it will be necessary, previously, to ascertain the proper-
ties of these minerals, as described by these authors, and of the Red
Haematite as described by the writers on mineralogy.
FIRSTLY, THAT ALBIN AND AMATITO ARE A VARIETY OF HEMATITE.
It appears from the preceding extracts, that Amatito was a natural
red pigment, prepared from a very hard and firm stone that tools were
made of it to burnish gold that ittook a good polish thatithad striie a
or fibres like Cinnabar that it was so hard as to require to be broken
in a bronze mortar, or calcined before it was ground, lest it should
* Tiglio and Vena, the Italian terms for striae, although apparently synonymous
are not so, since, the Dizionario, of Alberti, does not refer from one to the other and
since Cennino uses both. Tiglio seems to mean veins or streaks of the same
substance, as in wood, ivory, &c., an<l vena has the same meaning, and also signifies
veins of other substances, included in a mineral, as veins of gold in Lapis Lazuli,
&c. The term Tiglio seems to correspond with the term stria rather than
win. The stone was to be without veins of other materials.
IN FRESCO PAINTING. XVII
break the porphyry slab that it made a lake or crimson colour*
that it could only be used in fresco 6 that the colour was so fine as to be
* Purple, The terms Pabonazo, Pavonazo, Purpura, Porpora, were not used
formerly to denote the colour we now call purple, but merely a red inclining to
blue, namely crimson or lake colour. Pliny, (Nat. Hist. Book 31, chap. 33,
Holland's translation,) describing the Syrian purple, says, " It is thought to have
a most commendable and excellent dye, when it is as deep a red as blood that is
cold and settled, blackish at the first sight ; but look between you and the light
it carrieth a bright and shining lustre. And hereupon it is that Homer calleth
blood, purple." Cennino himself proves that he meant by Amatito, a crimson
and lake colour and not a purple, as appears from the preceding quotations
from chap. 42 and 136, and also from a passage in chap. 74, where he says, " If
you would make a purple colour to be used in fresco, take Indigo, and Amatito,
and mix," &c. He uses the word " bisso" when he means to express a mixed
colour of blue and red. See chap. 74, 78, 79, 145, and the note by Sig.
Tambroni, who concludes by observing, " The ancients imitated the porpora (dye
from the fish called porpore), by mixing porporisxo with blue, and the moderns,
to supply the place of porporisso, use lake. See Goethe on Colour, by Eastlake,
p. 244, 279. Borgh. Rip. 189.
Albin also was a lake or crimson colour, because Palomino, (vol. 2. p. 150)
adds smalt to it to make it a morella colour. See also Pach. 366, II. Palotn. 151,
where he says it is used in fresco instead of Carmine.
b It is proper to notice here that Leonardo da Vinci (Trattato della Pittura,
Chap, cccliii, Milan edition, by Amoretti,) in describing the method of painting
on linen cloth (tela), observes, " The flesh colour should be white lead, lake, and
Naples yellow ; the shade should be black, majorica, and a little hike, or if you
please lapis duro." Diego Antonio Rejon de Silva, the Spanish translator of
Leonardo's Treatise, who used the edition of Leonardo's work published in
France by Du Fresne, calls the colours for the shadows, black and majorica, and
lake or lapis roxo. He observes in a note on this passage, " The signifi-
cation of the word majorica is not to be found in any dictionary." I shall have
no difficulty in proving that this majorica is the soft red haematite, and that it
derived its name from the Island of Majorca, whence it was brought into Italy.
I have now transcribed the passage, for the purpose of shewing that the " lapis
duro " or " lapis roxo," which I shall prove to be the hamatite, was used by
Leonardo da Vinci in painting on linen. But this is no proof that it was an
eligible pigment, and durable in this kind of painting, because Leonardo was
fond of making experiments (which there is no doubt the method described in
this and the preceding chapters were) and because many of Leonardo's colours
were known to have faded considerably. See De Piles, Lives of the Painters,
p. 107.
It is somewhat curious to observe the manner in which the passage has been
translated in the English edition, by M. Rigaud of the Royal Academy, re-pub-
lished by Mr. J. W. Brown in 1835, p. 130. " The shades with black, umber,
XV111 OF THE COLOURS USED
distinguished with difficulty from lake and carmine that it was brittle
and should not be suffered to touch iron that its colour was not
injured by fire, since Borghini, and Eraclius, direct it to be calcined,
in order to grind it more easily ; nor by acetic acid, since the same
writers also direct the red hot stone to be quenched in strong red
vinegar that the reasons for discontinuing its use, were, its scarcity
in Italy, and the difficulty in grinding it that this colour is men-
tioned by almost all the above authors as being very durable.
It also appears, from the preceding extracts, that Albin was a
mineral, which supplied the place of lake, and was used principally
in fresco 8 that Matita Rossa was a soft stone, that Pabonazo was
a degree lower in tone than Albin, was procured from copper mines,
and was used by painters and gilders, to whom it was known by the
name of Almagre.
The following extracts are the characteristics of Haematite given
by mineralogists.
Georgius Agricola gives a minute description of the varieties of
the Haematite. He says, that the Haematite produces the Rubrica,
(p. 64. of the Venetian edition in Italian) that it is of the colour of
blood (p. 168), that being ground on the grindstone it yields a
red juice, while the Schist (another variety), gives more frequently
and a little lake, you may if you please, use Hack chalk" Thus getting rid of
the incomprehensible word "'majorica," (the Pons Asinorum of the Spaniard,) and
the lapis duro; changing the majorica, which is red, into brown ; and the lapis
duro, which is red also, into black. Umber is always rendered in Italian by
" Terra d' ombra," and black chalk by Matita Nera.
The original passage is expressed thus by Leonardo, " 1' ombra sara nera,
majorica, e un poco di lacca, o vuoi lapis duro."
There is no doubt that P. Lomazzo, the personal friend of L. da Vinci, alludes
to this practice of da Vinci's in the following extract from the Treatise of the
former (Book in, chap, xiv, p. 292), " Per acquerella e per disegnare in carta,
per il nero ve 1' inchiostro, la pietra tedescha, la terra nera, et il carbone di salce,
o' del roncagino ; per il rosso, la pietra rossa detto apisso la quale era usatissima
da Leonardo da Vinci." I have not been able to find in any dictionary or work
on art a description of a red stone called " Apissa," but the same word also
occurs in the "Idea del Terapio della Pittura," (p. 71,) where Lomazzo calls the
stone used for drawing (which other writers call " matita ") Carbone Apissa.
Pacheco indeed, p. 390, states that some painters used for draperies in oil
Almagre de Levante or Albin, shading them with carmine and black.
IN FRESCO PAINTING. XIX
a yellow juice (p. 175), that it is found also in iron mines, but
more frequently in veins alone that the Haematite and the Schist
differ in appearance, the latter being easily split in a particular
direction, and its fibres being arranged in such a manner as to re-
semble congealed wood that the Haematite and Schist are pro-
duced in many parts of Germany and also in Spain and other places
that where the Haematite is found, there is also found the Terra
Sinopide. He adds, that the^Schist is sometimes dull externally but
sparkles internally, like artificial Minium, and that painters call it also
Cinabrio, and that this kind is found in the Black Forest that the
Schist and the Haematite, being like congealed blood, whenever they
are burnt, or calcined, imitate the colour of Cinnabar that the Schist has
the same colour as the Haematite, that the best Haematite is that
which has the colour of congealed blood, which is diffusible in water,
which is equally coloured throughout, which is pure, (p. 251, 253).
By the term Schist he evidently designates the Lapis Amatita, and by
Haematite, he means the softer kind mentioned in the next chapter.
The French Encyclopaedia describes the Haematite as " une pierre,
ou plut6t une vraie mine de fer dont la figure varie, son tissu est
tantot strie ou par aiguilles, comme 1'antimoine ; tantot il est
compose de filamens ou de fibres, qui a la couleur pres, la font
ressembler ct du bois, (wood iron,) tantot elle est spherique ou he"mi-
spheYique, tantot elle est en mamelons, et formee par un assemblage
de globules qui la font ressembler a une grappe de raisins ; tantot elle
est garnie de pyramides et de pointes ; tantot enfin elle parait
composed de lames ou de feuillets qui laissent quelquefois des inter-
valles vuides entr 'eux, et la font ressembler a un rayon de miel .
L' Haematite varie aussi pour la couleur ; il y en a de rouge, de
pourpre, de jaune, et de noiratre ou couleur de feu, mais lorsqu' on
1'ecrase, elle est toujours d' un rouge ou d'un jaune plus ou moins
vif. L'Haematite, quoique fort charged de fer,"n'est point alterable par
1'aimant, le fer qu'elle donne est aigri et il est difficile de lui procurer
la ductilite convenable ; il y en a dont le quintal contient jusqu 'a 80
livres de ce metal. Voila pourquoi quelques gens 1'appelent Ferret.
Encyc. Franc. Art. Haematite.
Pliny enumerates five kinds. The five sorts differ chiefly in point
of hardness. The best, according to Dioscorides, is that which is
XX OF THK COLOURS USED
friable, hard, black, and smooth, without either gritty parts or
veins.
" That commonly used by the painters is factitious, being made of
Armenian bole, and other drugs. The common native or the fossil
kind comes from Bohemia, &c. This assumes various forms :
spherical, pyramidal or cellular, and is composed of small pyramids ;
the apices of which appear in a tranverse section in the centre. It
contains a large portion of iron, but the iron is obtained with such
difficulty and is of so bad a quality, that this ore is not commonly
smelted. This stone, when exposed to a moderately strong fire, falls
by degrees into scales, and in this state is attracted by the magnet,
and gives out its iron to acids. The gilders use it for burnishers to
polish their metals. Bauschius has an express treatise, on the Lapis
Haematites." See Chambers' Dictionary.
The following is Jameson's description of Red Haematite or Fibrous
Red Ironstone. Its colour is usually intermediate between brownish
red and dark steel grey. Some varieties incline to blood red, others
to dark steel grey, and others to bluish. It occurs most frequently
massive and reniform ; also botryoidal, stalactitiform and globular.
The external surface is generally rough and glimmering, seldom
smooth and shining. Internally it is usually glistening, which some-
times passes into glimmering and the lustre is semi-metallic. The
fracture is always fibrous, and is straight, delicate and stellular or
scopiform. The fragments are commonly cuneiform, seldom as in
the coarse sorts, fibrous or splintery.
It generally occurs in distinct concretions, which are large, small or
fine, angular, granular and traversed by others which are curved,
lamellar more rarely, it occurs in cuneiform prismatic concretions. The
surface of the concretions is either smooth or streaked, and the
colour inclines to iron black, with a shining and metallic lustre.
The streak is always blood red ; it is hard, passing into semi-hard ;
it is brittle ; it is rather easily frangible ; it is heavy, inclining to
uncommonly heavy. Specific gravity, 4.740, Gellert; 5.005,
Kirwan; 4.8983, Brisson ; 4.840, Wiedemann ; 5.025, Ullman.
Its constituent parts consist of Oxide of Iron, 90 ; Trace of
Oxide of Manganese, 0; Silica, 2; Lime, 1; Water, 3;= 96.
Daubuisson, Ann. de Chimie, 1810.
IN FRESCO PAINTING. xxi
It occurs in every situation where the compact subspecies is
found, and like it in veins, beds, and lying masses (liegende stocke),
that approach in magnitude to mountain-masses ; principally in prim-
itive mountains, but also in transition, and floetz mountains. The
different subspecies frequently occur together, both in beds and
and in veins. In veins it is the compact and ochry that pre-
dominate ; the haematite occurs principally in drusy cavities, the
walls of which are encrusted with the scaly subspecies.
It occurs in veins that traverse sand- stone, at Cumberhead,
in Lanarkshire ; in veins in floetz green stone, at Salisbury- Craigs,
near Edinburgh ; at Ulverstone, in Lancashire ; in Cumberland,
and also in Devonshire, and near Bristol, in Gloucestershire. It is
found in considerable quantity in Saxony, from Berggieshubel to
Voightland ; in Bohemia, but not so abundantly as in Saxony ; at
Bareuth, Wolfstein, ^in the Palatinate ; Silesia, Lauterburgh, Walk-
enried, Andreasberg, Wernigerode, in the Hartz ; and Salzburgh ;
in Siberia, and in Mexico. It affords excellent malleable and cast
iron ; and, when ground, it is also used for polishing tin, silver, and
gold vessels, and for colouring iron brown.
The name Haematite which is derived from the Greek cu/m,
sanguis, was given to this ore of iron, from its red colour.
With respect to its geographical situation, it is to be observed
that it occurs in great quantity in the kingdom of Saxony, less abun-
dantly in the east side of the Hartz and Bohemia ; not so abundantly
in the Fichtelgebirge, and in considerable quantity in Norway,
Sweden, Poland, Hungary, and Russia. In England it occurs parti-
cularly abundant in Lancashire. It is found in considerable quantity
in Devonshire and Cornwall, and is one of the most common species
of iron stone. See Jameson's Mineralogy, tit. Red Haematite.
The description by Phillips and Ure, and other writers of the " Fi-
brous Red Iron Ore, Haematite," and " Compact Red Iron Ore,"
so closely resemble those which I have extracted from Jameson,
that it would be useless to repeat them. It will be sufficient merely
to refer to Phillips' Mineralogy, p. 229, 230, third edition, and to
Ure's Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy, Art. " Ores," also
to the Penny Cyclopaedia, Art. " Iron."
On a careful perusal of these descriptions, it will be seen that
the Red Haematite resembles in many particulars the pigment
XX11 OF THE COLOURS USED
described by the various writers on art. Thus it is stated, that
Red Haematite resembles the Lapis Amaptito in the following
particulars : The colour, externally, was bluish, or iron grey,
sometimes red, or black, (Phillips, Jameson, Penny Cyclopaedia,
Cenn. Bald. Agric.). It was hard, smooth, without veins, or gritty
parts, (Dios. Pliny, Jame. Cenn.). Its structure was fibrous. (Enc.
Franc. Phil. Jameson, Penny Cyclopaedia, Agric. Cenn.). When
calcined it fell into scales. (Pliny, Borg. Erac.). It was brittle.
(Ure, Jame. Cenn.) Gilders used it for burnishers to polish their
metals. (Jame. Cenn. Bald.) In this last particular writers on Min-
eralogy differ from the writers on Art ; Phillips and Ure say the
powder is used to burnish metals ; Jameson does not particularize,
but merely observes, of the Red Haematite, that " it is used for
polishing tin silver and gold vessels, and for colouring iron brown,"
while the writers on art assert, that the solid stone, when shaped
into a tool and polished, was used to burnish metals. It was
fibrous like cinnabar, which it resembled in colour, and by which
name it was also known. (Cenn. Agric. Bald. Borg.)
With respect to the Albin of Palomino, the description
is more indefinite than that of Amatito. In the index of
the Terms of Art, added by another writer to the first volume of
Palomino's Museo Pictorico, (third edition, 1795,) the following
explanation is given of Albin ; " a dark crimson colour which is
brought in stones (Piedras) from the mines of copper ; it serves in-
stead of carmine for painting in fresco." In Gattel's Spanish and
French Dictionary, Albin is thus explained, ' Sanguine; pierre de
couleur rouge. Lat. Lapis Sanguinarius. Couleur rouge faite avec la
sanguine. Lat. Color ex lapide sanguinario." In Pineda's Spanish
Dictionary, Albin is translated Bloodstone.
It may be proper to mention, that there is a mineral called Albin,
mentioned in Phillips' Mineralogy, p. iii, of an opaque white colour,
from which indeed it derives its name. It has none of the properties
of the Albin of Palomino.
SECONDLY, THAT LAPIS AMATITA RED HAEMATITE WAS USED TO
BURNISH GOLD. I shall now endeavour to prove that the Lapis Ama-
tita, the Red Haematite, was and still is used to burnish metals. It
IN FRESCO PAINTING. XXlll
is unnecessary to repeat the extracts already given from Cennino,
Borghini, and Baldinucci. These authors have proved that the Lapis
Amatita was used as a burnishing tool ; I shall now prove that the
HfEmatite was formerly, and is at the present time, used for this pur-
pose, and thus establish their identity.
Eraclius calls the stone used in polishing " Emantes." Theophilus,
in his Treatise on various Arts, chap, xxxi, says, " polies illud dente
vel lapide sanguinario diligenter limato et polito super tabulam cor-
neam aequalem ac lucidam," translated, "You must polish it with
a tooth, or with a bloodstone, lapide sanguinario, carefully filed and
polished upon a smooth and shining horn table." The author of the
additional chapters appended by Raspe to the first book of Theophi-
lus, directs that gold should be burnished with " emate," and in cap.
xxxv. says, " Deinde limpidissima petra vel onychino aut emate vel
simili re convenit scripturam detergere, quod sic et soliditatem accipit
et fulgorem vel colorem," i. e " It is then proper to clean the writing
with a very transparent stone, or with an onyx, or with emate, or
with some such thing, and thus it receives both solidity and brilliancy
or colour." M. Le Comte Charles de L' Escalopier adds by way of
note to the first of these passages, " scribendum videtur hie et
c. 35 ematite," " I think it should be written ematite both here and
at cap. 35." He also adds in another note on the word emate
" Nous ne doutons pas qu' il s'agisse de la sanguine, lapis sanguina-
rius, qu' il ne faille lire ematite." Haematite, (Theoph. p. 290).
Benvennto Cellini (Opere, vol. iii. p. 14,) polished gold " pigliando
un amatita nera (dark) che son quello che adoperano gli spadai metter
d' oro." This passage immediately recalls the beforementioned ex-
pressions of Borghini and Baldinucci. M. de Brongniart (Traite"
des Arts CeVamiques, &c. f p. 646,) informs us that in the manufac-
tory of porcelain at Sevres, gold is still burnished with the " htematite
dure," which the workmen call " sanguine." And in the Magazine
of Science, vol. i. p. 206, it is said, " Bloodstone a is a very hard
* There is another mineral called Bloodstone, namely the heliotrope or quartz,
jaspe-sanguin of Haiiy. " It is mostly of a deep green colour, and commonly
yellow or blood-red spots are interspersed through its substance. From the lat-
ter circumstance it has obtained the name of Bloodstone." Phillips' Min., p. 15.
By this colour it is sufficiently distinguished from the Haematite.
XXIV OF THE COLOURS USKD
compact variety of haematite iron ore, which, when reduced to a suit-
able form, fixed into a handle, and well polished, forms the best
description of burnisher for producing a high lustre on gilt coat
buttons, which is performed in the turning-lathe by the Birmingham
manufacturers. The gold on china ware is burnished by its means.
Burnishers are likewise formed of agate and flint, the former sub-
stance is preferred by bookbinders and the latter for gilding on wood,
as picture frames, &c."
Vasari (Intr. chap, xxxn.) likewise mentions the stone by the name
of " Matita dura," which when ground, was to be used with the
Matita rossa, and another colour prepared from " scaglia di ferro,"
for painting the shades of flesh on glass.
This certainly does not agree with the assertion of Cennino, that
Amatita could not be used in any kind of painting but fresco ; but as
he does not treat of painting on glass, this does not invalidate his
testimony, because this art was not practised to any extent in Italy
until the time of Giulio 2. who sent for William of Marseilles to
paint windows for him at Rome, (see Seroux d' Agincourt, Histoire
de 1' Art par ses Monumens, Peinture, vol. 2, p. 143. Le Vieil, De
la peinture sur verre, p. 18. Vasari, vol. 5, p. 187). Cennino there-
fore could not have been acquainted with this description of painting.
THIRDLY, THAT AMATITO is NOT MINERAL CINNABAR. I have
now to prove that Amatito is not mineral cinnabar as asserted by
Borghini, and as De Piles supposed.
We have already observed, that Geo. Agricola says, that the stone
which he calls Schist (after Pliny), resembled in its appearance
minium, and that the painters called it cinnabar ; that when calcined
it imitated the colour of cinnabar.
Baldinucci, who had seen Cennino's Treatise, probably derived
much of his information from that work, and much from common
tradition, since, although he was an excellent draftsman, he did not
paint. (See Lettere sulla Pittura, vol. 2, p. 392. n.) We have also his
distinct assertion, as before quoted, that the true derivation of
lapis amatito was lapis htematitos, meaning stone of a blood-colour.
Raphael Borghini, though descended from painters on the mother's
side, and intimately connected with the painters and sculptors of his
IN FRESCO PAINTING. XXV
time, was not a painter himself ; he was not, therefore, likely to be
acquainted with the practical details of painting. In the second
book of the Riposo, he has borrowed largely from Cennino. In
many cases he has given a literal version of Cennino's text, and in
others quite a paraphrase, although without having the honesty to
acknowledge whence he derived his information; indeed it is remark -
kable, as Sig. Tambroni observes in the preface to Cennino's Trea-
tise, that Borghini does not once mention Cennino's name although
it is evident, he had read great part of his work. Cennino does
not assert that Amatito was mineral cinnabar, his expression is
merely, " ha un tiglio come cinabro."
In the note to chap. 42. of my translation of Cennino's Treatise
on Painting, I have expressed an opinion, that Amatito was mineral
cinnabar, but having since investigated the subject, I am convinced
that I was mistaken.
At first sight, the 'resemblance between the two minerals is suffi-
ciently striking to warrant the conclusion. The colours of both
varied between dark grey and red, both are fibrous, and yield a red
powder when pulverized ; but, there the resemblance ceases ; Mine-
ral Cinnabar is soft,* Amatito is hard : see the descriptions of native
or Mineral Cinnabar in Ure, Phillips, and Jameson. Moreover,
Amatito can only be used in fresco, Cinnabar is incompatible with lime.
The best proofs, independently of the direct assertion of Geo.
Agricola, before noticed, are, however, to be derived from the works
of writers on painting.
Borghini (Riposo p. 167) says, that Cinnabar was first procured
from the quicksilver mines of Spain. He afterwards gives a recipe
for making artificial Cinnabar. He adds that both kinds were used
for painting in oil.
Paolo Lomazzo, in his treatise on painting (Lib. 3, Chap. 4)
mentions two kinds of Cinnabar, namely, the mineral or native, and
the artificial. In the same chapter he enumerates among the arti-
ficial pigments, Cinnabar, except the native Cinnabar (il cinabro
a Pliny indeed speaks of a kind of native Cinnabar brought from Spain, but
he adds, that " it was hard and full of sand," and that also brought from Colchis
was hard " and not better than that of Spain ;" and he evidently disapproved of
both kinds. Book xxxiii, p. 325.
XXVI OF THE COLOURS USED
eccetto quello di miniera). In chapter 6, he informs us, that the
artificial Cinnabar was inimical to lime, (e nemico delta calcej. The
only red named by this author, proper to be used in fresco, is
Majorica. By this we find, that Amatito was no longer in use.
The treatise of Lomazzo was published in 1584, the same year as the
Riposo of Borghini.
Palomino, after naming certain colours to be used in fresco, adds,
" and vermilion, although the native or mineral, is better than the
artificial vermilion." But he says that in uncovered places, and in
such as are exposed to the inclemency of the weather, neither the
native nor artificial should be used, because in a few days they both
lose their beauty and turn to a dull mulberry colour. But in covered
situations, and those defended from the weather, it is a beautiful
colour and very permanent. But in order to make it more perma-
nent, it should not be laid immediately upon the stucco, which should
be previously dead coloured with tierra roxa, and the vermilion
should be laid over this, making it lighter with white, and darkening
it with albin and pabonazo, and in some of the deepest shadows add-
ing sombra del viejo or tierra negra, and it will remain so fresh and
beautiful, that even with oil colours it could not look better."
2 Palomino, p. 149.
This shews that vermilion and albin were different substances, since
the vermilion was to be shaded with albin.
The author of the Vocabulary of Terms of Art, added to the work
of Palomino before mentioned, names both the native and arti-
ficial vermilion. The native or mineral vermilion, he says, is of a
red colour, procured from quicksilver mines. 8 It will perhaps be
recollected that he had informed us that albin was procured from
copper mines. The former, he says, was good for painting, (using
the term generally,) the latter, for painting in fresco. It is quite
evident that he did not consider the terms synonymous.
Alberti (Dizionario Enciclopedico), following Baldinucci, (Tit.
Cinabro Minerale,) says " mineral cinnabar is called by some lapis
amatita." He adds, of the true native or mineral cinnabar, it is a
Palomino, (vol. 2. p. 340.) also informs us, that native Cinnabar was
procured from quicksilver mines.
IN FRESCO PAINTING. XXVU
mineralized ore of mercury, fibrous or smooth, of a red colour and
shining."
Vitruvius also remarks that minium (cinnabar) would not stand
30 days in places exposed to the light and weather, (Vitruvius Liv.
8. Chap. 9.), and was always covered with wax and oil. In this he
has done little more than repeat the words of Pliny (Book 33).
It is unnecessary to quote all the writers on painting who have
said that cinnabar is inimical to lime, or to revert to the method
adopted by Pozzo to render it permanent in fresco, since he does
not mention, whether he used the native or artificial. I cannot dis-
cover that any writer on painting, except Pozzo, recommends using
cinnabar on the wet lime in fresco.
From the foregoing extracts and observations, I trust I have
established the fact, that painters formerly possessed a natural red
pigment for painting in fresco ; and that this pigment was not mine-
ral cinnabar.
FOURTHLY, THAT PABONAZO is THE SAME AS MATITA ROSSA,
and that the names of Sinopia, Majorica, Terra Rossa d'Inghilterra,
Bruno d'Inghilterra, Ferretta di Spagna, and Almagra, hereafter
mentioned, are only different names for the same mineral colour,
which I think will be found fully established in the subsequent part
of this work treating of Sinopia.
I shall now show that Amatito and Albin were not the "vetri-
uolo cotto o abbrucciato" of the Italian writers.
Amatito and Albin were, as I have shown, natural pigments,
which required merely to be pulverized to constitute a fine pigment
for fresco painting. Vetriuolo cotto or abbrucciato is, on the con-
trary, an artificial pigment, prepared by calcining sulphate of iron,
by which process it acquires its red colour. 8
It was unknown to or at least not mentioned by Cennino, but is
mentioned by Lomazzo and Borghini whose works were published in
1584, and by succeeding writers. It is called vitriol calcint by De
Piles, (Ele"mens de Peinture, Jombert's Edition), vitriolo Romano
a The sulphuric acid is expelled by heat, and a per-oxide of iron remains in
the vessels. It has been before observed that the Haematite contains in addition
to the iron, silica, &c., traces of manganese and lime.
c
XXV111 OP THE COLOURS USED
quemado by Palomino ; vitriolo caldnado, in the Spanish vocabulary
of terms of art before mentioned, and burnt Roman vitriol by the
English.
It is said by Pozzo to be a beautiful colour like lake for fresco, but
it is obvious, that if a natural pigment can be procured, the colour of
which is equally fine, it must be preferable for painting in fresco.
The Amatito of Cennino was not the amethyst. The lightness
and want of body of the colour of the latter, and the fact of that
colour being violet and not lake, sufficiently prove that the two
substances are not synonymous.
It is mentioned in the first Report of the Commissioners on the
Fine Arts p. 28, that Prof. Hess uses oxides of iron for red pigments
in fresco. It would be desirable to ascertain the exact species.
In conclusion, I would observe, that the red Haematite contains
nothing in its composition incompatible with lime and with the pig-
ments used in fresco painting ; that lime is a constituent part of it ;
that the ore is found in several parts of England, and in great abun-
dance at Ulverstone, in Lancashire, where it occurs in an enormously
thick vein, traversing limestone (see Phillips). That the difficulty of
grinding can be no objection to its use, since pigments are now ground
in a mill purposely constructed, and that it is most important to the
practice of fresco painting, to acquire a permanent pigment of a lake
colour ; that Amatito is not a new pigment now attempted to be
introduced for the first time, but one which has been tried and
approved. It may also be observed, that the colours produced from
iron are always permanent, the natural more so than the artificial,
and that such pigments are of universal application in painting.
I stated the characteristics of Amatito to Mr. Tremayne, of Heligan
in Cornwall, and to his kindness, I am indebted for a copious supply
of two species of red Haematite, from a mine in the parish of Roche
in Cornwall, the hard and the soft ; and I caused a specimen of the
hard Haematite to be pulverized, and having washed some of the
powder, and poured off the lighter particles, I found a portion of
iron had sunk to the bottom, the removal of which seemed to render
the colour finer. I also calcined another portion of the stone, and
found it separated into scales, in the manner described. The colour
of the stone when calcined, varies from lake to violet, according
IN FRESCO PAINTING. XXIX
to the length of time it is exposed to the fire ; and this agrees
with the statement of Dr. Lewis, inserted in the Encyc. Brit. Art.
colour-making.*
The fibrous red Haematite of Ulverstone, has a finer grain than the
Cornish.
OF SINOPIA.
Besides the Amatito and Albin before mentioned, writers on art
mention other natural red pigments proper to be used in fresco,
namely, Rubrica, Sinopia, Cinabrese, Majorica, Terra Rossa d'lnghil-
terra, Terra Bruna d' Inghilterra, Rouge Violet, Ferretta di Spagna,
Almagre, Pabonazo, Tierra Roxa, and Burnt Ochre, are all spoken of
by different authors as red colours, or used instead of red colours,
and are all ores of iron ; and, excepting the last two, are merely
different names for the same pigment, differing merely in quality,
intensity of colour, or mode of preparation. That this pigment is in
fact the Haematite or red ochre of the mineralogists. See Phillips,
Jameson, Tit. Red iron ore Haematite.
Sinopia is mentioned or referred to as a red colour by most of the
several writers on colours and pigments. It is described by Pliny as
a natural pigment, which derived its name from Sinopia a city of
Pontus, it was also brought from Egypt ; the Balearic Islands,
(Majorca, Minorca, &c.) and Africa ; but the best was brought
from the Isle of Lemnos and Cappadocia, where it was found in cer-
tain caves and holes. That which adhered to the rocks was the best,
and the pieces of which on being broken, shewed the same colour
throughout. There were three sorts differing in colour. The first
deep red, the second paler, and the third browner. The Lemnian
a His words are as follow : " The oxides of iron may be made to appear pur-
plish, or inclining to the scarlet, according to the manner in which the calcina-
tion is performed. If the matter is perfectly deprived of its phlogiston, and
subjected to an intense fire, it always turns out red ; but the mixture of a small
quantity of inflammable matter, gives it a purplish cast."
It is remarkable that the oxides of iron never shew their proper colour till
they are cold.
XXX OF THE COLOURS USED
earth, called also Terra Sigillata, was considered next in value to
Minium (vermilion), and none was allowed to be sold without having
been previously marked with the seal of Diana (a goat, the Turkish
seal was afterwards substituted for this), for which reason it was
also called " Sphragis." The painters ordinarily laid a ground of
this under vermilion, and sophisticated it in many ways. See Pliny,
Book xxxv.
Dioscorides says, this red ochre of Sinopia is very fine : it is heavy,
dense, and of the colour of liver without any mixture of stone ; it is
equally coloured throughout, and if put into water diffuses itself equally.
Geo. Agricola says, that the earth which the Greeks call Milto,
because it is red, is called Rubrica. This is found in mines of gold,
silver, copper, and iron, as Theophrastus writes ; and it is often
found in veins by itself. He adds, that the best kind is brought
from Sinopia, and next to that is the earth of Lemnos, where, among
the three a species of earth which (as it is said) were found in a heap,
(tumuletto) was the rubrica fabrile^ He mentions, that in addition
to the places named by Pliny and Dioscorides, it is also found in
Germany, and according to Strabo, in Spain, and that this last kind
was in no degree inferior to Sinopia. That there were three kinds
of Rubrica, the first soft, which stained the hands ; the second less
soft, which stained less ; the third was hard, and was called stone
(sasso), which did not stain the hands unless they were wet. This
last, I consider to be the Lapis Amatita, the fibrous red Haematite, the
Glebae of Eraclius, the Albin of the Spaniards. He adds, that all
three kinds were used by painters. (Book n. p. 202.) The pale
coloured Rubrica is probably Armenian Bole.
Cennino says, " there is a natural red pigment called Sinopia or
porphyry, that this colour is naturally transparent and drying. It
bears grinding well, and the more it is ground the better it is. It is
good for painting either on pictures or walls in fresco or in secco."
Cenn. Chap. 38.
11 One species of earth appears to have been the Rubrica, another Bole, the
third white, the last two were Argillaceous.
b Rubrica fabrile. This proves the pigment to have been an ore of iron, since
the termfabbrile or fabrile is applied to working in iron which is called L'Arte
fabbrile.
IN FRESCO PAINTING. XXXI
Sinopia is mentioned by Borghini (Riposo p. 166), incidentally,
when speaking of cinabrese. He describes it nearly in the words of
Cennino, who mentions it as a red colour called light cinabrese, and
composed of two parts of Sinopia and one of Bianco Sangiovanni, (a
white made of very white and pure lime.) These two pigments
were therefore prepared from the same mineral.
llequeno, a learned Spaniard resident at Rome, in his work written
in Italian, entitled Saggio Storico sul Ristabilimento dell' Antica Arte
de' Greci e Romani Pittori, (vol. i. p. 258.) commenting on the
colours used by the ancients, observes respecting Rubrica, that " this
was our mineral red earth. Vitruvius cites that of the Island of
Majorca in Spain among the finest sorts, and I have always thought
that the ancient Rubrica might be the fine Spanish Almagre."
The only red pigment mentioned by Paul Lomazzo (Trattato dell a
Pittura, p. 191, 192.) as proper to be used in fresco was terra rossa
delta Majorica.* The descriptions of Pliny, Theophrastus, and Geo.
Agricola, prove that Sinopia was brought fiom Majorca, one of the
Balearic Islands.
The terms Rosso d' Inghilterra, Bruno d' Inghilterra, and Rouge
Violet appear synonymous, or nearly so. Pozzo says that this colour
(always supposing them synonymous), when used on very wet lime,
appears like lake when dry. Malvasia (Felsina Pittrice, vol. i. p. 349)
says, that Bruno d' Inghilterra was much used then, i. e. in the
latter part of the seventeenth century, in fresco, instead of lake.
Pacheco (Tratado de la Pintura, p. 366) directs Almagre de
Levante to be used instead of Vermilion for flesh tints and light
draperies in fresco. In p. 350 he says, that this colour is admirable
in all kinds of painting. It will be observed this author calls the
pigment " Almagre de Levante," an additional reason for supposing
it to be Sinopia.
Palomino (vol 2, p. 149) enumerates among the mineral colours
used in fresco painting, Albin and Pabonazo, which he says do not
change, and supply the place of carmine so well, that when used on
a The beautiful vases of Majolica, of which Cennino speaks, (c. 107.) were
probably so called from their having been formed, or at least, principally coloured
with this mineral. See " Traite des Arts Ccramiques par. M. de Bronguiart."
Vol. n. Page 55-59.
XXX11 OF THE COLOURS USED
very wet stucco, they have often deceived people, appearing to be
carmine. He adds that Pabonazo is one degree lower in tone than
Albin, and that it is not sold in shops, but is brought from the
copper mines in the kingdom of Jaen, and there, and in all
Andalusia, it is much valued by painters and gilders, and is even
sold under the name of Almagre. This passage identifies Pabonazo
with Almagre.
I think it will appear, from the preceding extracts, that the
pigments called Majorica, or Majolica and Almagre, are of the same
nature as Sinopia. But it is probable the latter was the finer colour ;
since Pacheco always distinguished it by the name of Almagre de
Levante, thus shewing the similarity of its nature, and a preference
for the oriental pigment, although, as before mentioned, Strabo
says, that the kind produced in Spain was not inferior to the true
Sinopia. Palomino has distinctly informed us that Pabonazo was
also called by the Arabic name Almagre. It is probable that
Sinopia was superseded by Terra Rossa d' Inghilterra in Italy, since
P. Lomazzo does not mention Sinopia, and by Pabonazo or Almagre
in Spain. Georgius Agricola, speaking of the colour called Arme-
nian blue, observes, that it had been very scarce since the Turks
had been masters of the country. The same influence may also
have prevented the introduction of Sinopia into Europe in sufficient
quantities for the use of painters, and occasioned them to have
recourse to the productions of other countries for their pigments.
The French translator of Pliny mentions that a kind of Bol d'
Espagne, called vermilion, was sold about 1725. Benvenuto
Cellini mentions (Opere. vol. iii. p. 145.) among ingredients used
to give a colour to gold, " Ferretta di Spagna;" now Ferretta di
Spagna, or Ferretta simply, is a kind of Haematite which is a true
ore of iron (see Alberti Diz. Enc.) There is also an artificial kind
described by Neri, (Art. Vit.) made by calcining copper with sul-
phur. I merely mention this fact to shew that the two were not
synonymous. The appellation Ferret was applied by the French to
the Haematite.
The soft species from Cornwall, which appears to be formed from
the decomposition of the harder species, and which I have examined,
is heavy, dense, of the colour of liver, without any strong or gritty
IN FRESCO PAINTING. XXX111
particles, equally coloured throughout, and when put into water,
diffuses itself equally, but afterwards settles at the bottom of the
vessel. It will be observed that the several kinds of Haematite are
found generally together ; on referring to the description of Albin
and Pabonazo, we shall find that both pigments are classed together
by Palomino as well as by Pacheco.
The purple tinge, observable in the colour of the Haematite, is to
be attributed to the presence of a small portion of manganese, which
is wanting in the ochres. The colour of the pigment, when washed
and ground, is scarcely to be distinguished from Indian red.
The soft red Haematite is the mineral from which the Matita
Rossa is prepared. This is proved by the following passage from
Baldinucci's Life of Cennini, (Opere vol. 4, p. 485). " Among
other things that I observed cursorily, Cennini, mentioning that
stone with which we draw, and which we call ' Matita/ gives
it the name of Lapis Amatito, agreeably to its true origin Lapis
H&matitos, meaning stone of a blood colour." The red chalk crayons,
as they are called, now in use in England, are prepared by grinding
Haematite to an impalpable powder in a porphyry mortar, and
making the powder into pastiles with gum or isinglass (Mag. Science,
vol. i. p. 349).
The Tierra Roxa of Palomino must have been different from the
Pabonazo, since that author says its tint is deepened by time (en
fortalecerse), whereas the Pabonazo did not change, (Pabonazo y
Albin no hacen mudanza). It has been observed by many writers
on colours, that ochres, whether raw or burnt, have a tendency to
darken in time.
The red ore of iron, commonly called red chalk, or ruddle, is of a
brick red, or brownish red colour, massive, and with an earthy
fracture, is dull, soft, meagre to the touch, stains the fingers, writes
easily, and adheres to the tongue. It is found in clay slate, in sand-
stone and in lime-stone. Phill. Min. Tit. Red Iron Ore, Sub Tit.
Red Chalk.
Sinopia is often confounded with Armenian Bole ; so it is trans-
lated by Dr. Holland the translator of Pliny. Geo. Agricola, who
appears to have studied mineralogy so deeply, remarks that the
colour of his Armenian Bole is " pallido," whereas he says that of
XXXIV OF THE COLOURS USED
Sinopia is of the colour of liver, and when prepared is a pigment
blood-red.
Cennino also appears to have well understood the difference
between these minerals. He used the Sinopia in painting, but
Armenian Bole in gilding.
Sinopia and Pabonazo, as we have observed, are ores of iron, but
Bole is classed by Phillips (Min. p. 53.) among the clays ; in the
Treatise on Mineralogy, in the Encyc. Britann. it is placed in the
Magnesian Genus. It is described as follows :
Magnesian Genus, 2. Species Bole. Id. Kirw. I. 190. Le Bol,
Broch. I. 459. Argile Ochreuse. Haiiy. 445. Exter. Char. Found
massive and disseminated ; surface dull, sometimes a little glim-
mering ; fracture conchoidal, fragment sharp edged, colour yellowish
brown or reddish, with spots and dentritical figures of black ;
opaque, rarely translucent at the edges ; very soft ; easily frangible ;
adheres to the tongue ; feels greasy ; streak shining ; sp. grav.
1.4 to 2.
Chem. Char. Before the blow-pipe it becomes black or gray,
and melts into a greenish gray slag. Falls to pieces in water with a
crackling noise, and without forming a paste. Its constituent parts
are stated by Bergman to consist of Silica 47, Alumina 19, Mag-
nesia 6.2, Lime 5.4, Oxide of Iron 5.4, Water 17 = 100.
The chief places which yield Bole, are the Islands of Lemnos,
hence called Lemnian earth Sienna in Italy, and Strigan in Silesia,
in which latter place it is deposited on indurated clay ; in Upper
Lusatia, it forms nests in Basalt. Bole and similar earths were
formerly employed in medicine ; they are now only used in the prepa-
ration of colours. Encyc. Brit. Tit. Mineralogy.
I consider that it may be collected from the above extracts, that
Sinopia is that species of Red Iron Ore called red ochre by Phillips
and other mineralogists. This mineral will require the same prepara-
tion as a pigment as other earths ; namely, careful washing and
grinding.
BLUE COLOURS.
Palomino was right when he said that blue pigments were the Scylla
of fresco painting. He had doubtless seen many instances of their
IN FRESCO PAINTING. XXXV
want of durability and of their discordance with the other colours of
the picture.
The remarks of Mr. Wilson and Mr. Hart, in the II. Report of the
Commissioners on the Fine Arts, are a commentary on this passage.
" The blue of the skies has either partially changed or entirely faded,
whilst that of the drapery is comparatively well preserved. In the
School of Athens he (Raphael) has painted the blues in fresco, and they
have perished or nearly so, as they have, in most instances, in every
part of Italy, where blue has been thus used ; both in pictures of this
and previous times. In the great works which Raphael subsequently
painted in the Stanze, he returned to the old practice of painting the
blues above red, probably dissatisfied with the crudeness which was the
result of using them on the wet plaster. The blue that has thus been
generally used seems to have been of a vegetable nature, as in many
instances it has changed to a brilliant green. It may be urged that
the use of ultramarine or cobalt, may obviate all necessity for such
preparations, and secure the pictures against change ; but whilst the
former is by far too expensive a colour, the latter is crude and harsh
in fresco. It seems to have been the blue which was used by the
Carracci, and in their pictures, as in those of Guido, it will be found
to be frequently out of harmony with the other colours ; either these
have in some degree faded, the blue remaining the same, or the blue has
increased in intensity. Domenichino used distemper extensively in his
works ; but in those of Guercino will be found a triumphant solution of
the difficulty ; his blues are put in in fresco, and yet are in fine harmony
with the other tones ; they have generally a warm purple hue, and
may be either smalt, or cobalt tempered with red, such as colcothar
of vitriol. This is strongly exemplified in the Zampieri Palace at
Bologna, where the harmony apparent in a fresco of Guercino is an
agreeable relief, after the crudity which offends in those of his mas-
ters in other rooms of the same palace : a comparison between the
Aurora of Guido in the Rospigliosi at Rome (all the blues of which
are not retouched), and that by Guercino in the Ludovisi, further
corroborates the above observations," Rep. 27. Again, Mr. Wilson
observes, "The blue has come off entirely in some parts, and has
evidently been laid on when the figures were finished, and the lime
too dry, so that not being incorporated, it has come off in powder ; in
XXXVI OP THK COLOURS USED
other parts where the artist has evidently been obliged to use it first,
it is perfectly preserved." Again, " The blues have been scraped off
for the value of the ultramarine." " The skies and water have faded to
the usual blackish or slate colour." "The nitre has almost entirely
eaten up all the greens and blues." "The blue backgrounds, on
which the figures are relieved, are either turned black or purple, or
have disappeared." See II. Rep. pp. 36, 37, 42, 43, 44.
The " vivid blue," in the church of St. Sigismond, at Cremona,
and the blues in the pictures of Guercino, and the school of Carracci
generally are almost the only exceptions to the general decay of the
blue oigments in fresco. The colour is however more durable when
applied in distemper.
It will be proper, in the first place, to enquire what blue pigments
have been used, in painting on walls, by artists, and then to ascertain
whether they can be employed with propriety in fresco.
The blue pigments mentioned by writers on art to have been used
in painting on walls, are as follows :
PIGMENTS. NAMES OF AUTHORS.
Cceruleum or Vestorian Azure. . Pliny, Vitruvius.
Azzurro di Smalto Borghini.
f Pozzo, Orsini trans, of Vitruvius,
Smaltmo < -.,,..
L Oralham, same.
Esmalte Pacheco, Palomino.
Smalto Lomazzo, Armenino.
{Cennino,
Borghini, Benozzo Gozzoli,
Books of the Duomo of Pisa.
f Lomazzo, Borghini, Vasari,
Azzurro Oltramanno . . . . <
I Cenmno, Pozzo, Palomino.
Azzurro di vena naturale . . Malvasio, Borghini, Baldinucci.
Azul fino, I
. } Palomino.
Azul di san Domingo . . . . J
The preparation of the artificial pigment called Coeruleum, Vesto-
rian Azure, and Vestorianum, is described by Vitruvius in the follow-
ing terms :
" The composition of blue (Azzurro) was first discovered at Alex-
andria, and subsequently Vestorius established a factory of it at
IN FRESCO PAINTING. XXXV11
Puteoli. The manner of making it, and the ingredients of which it
is composed, are rather remarkable. Sand is ground up so fine with
flour of nitre, as almost to resemble wheat flour, and being mixed with
copper filings, made with a coarse file like a rasp, the whole is
sprinkled with water, that it may adhere together. It is then made
into balls, by working it with the hands, and these balls are laid
aside to dry. When dry, they are put into an earthen jar and the
jar is put into the fire. And then, when the copper and the sand
have united, boiling together by the vehemence of the fire, giving
and receiving vapours from each other, they lose their own proper-
ties, and being united altogether by the force of the fire, they be-
come of a blue colour.
" Similarly, on account of the scarcity of the colour Indigo, they
make an imitation of that colour by mixing Selinusian or Anularian
chalk, with the glass, which the Greeks call vaXov (hyalonj"
Sir Humphrey .Davy observes, 8 " That this colour can be
easily and cheaply made. I find that fifteen parts by weight of
carbonate of soda, twenty parts of powdered opaque flint, and three
parts of copper filings, strongly heated together for two hours, gave
a substance of exactly the same tint, and nearly the same degree of
fusibility, and which, when powdered, produced a fine deep blue."
The ingredients meant by Sir H. Davy, are nearly the same as
those mentioned by Vitruvius, except that the latter mentions nitre,
instead of carbonate of soda, and sand instead of flint, the difference
in the latter, being merely nominal, since pure sand consists of silica
almost in the state of powder, and flint also consists of silica in a con-
solidated form. Volumes have been written to ascertain what the
nitre of the ancients really was, but the inquiry is unnecessary here.
It is sufficient for our purpose to shew that the Vestorian Azure was
a blue glass. I think I shall be able to prove that the blue pigment
used in Italy and Spain during the latter half of the 16th
century, and the whole of the 17th and 18th centuries, was of the
same nature as this Vestorian Azure.
Bald. Orsini, the Translator of Vitruvius (Ed. of 1802), speak-
ing of the Vestorianum, says, " this glass is synonymous with what
11 On the Colours used by the Ancients. Phil. Trans. 1815. See also Chap-
tal's " La Chimie appliquee aux Arts."
XXXV111 OP THE COLOURS USED
the Italians call Smaltino, which was and still is used in fresco paint-
ing in Italy." Orsini also remarks, (note to p. 96), " It is suffici-
ently clear that the Cceruleum of "Vitruvius, is the same as Smaltino
which is used in fresco painting, distempering it with milk, or with
ox gall ; that being mixed it may spread better because it is com-
posed of a fine coloured glass. It must be spread with a brush over
the intonaco before it hardens, and under it should be a coat of terre
verte? which serves for a ground (Icttoj for it. But Vitruvius says
nothing respecting the manner of using it."
The Marchese Galliani also, (trans, of Vitruv., edition of Naples),
observes, in a note on this blue pigment of Vitruvius, " Blue in this
passage does not mean the fine blue which is also called ultramarine,
and which is made from Lapis Lazuli, ground to powder, but the
other common sort of blue, which we call Smaltino." Again, he
says in another note on the " glass" mentioned by Vitruvius, " The
blue colour made in this manner, is nearly the same as what is now
used in fresco under the name of Smaltino.
Borghini remarks, (page 173), "There are many blue pigments,
such as Azzurro di Smalto, which is made of glass, and is used in
fresco." He afterwards mentions Azzurro della Magna, thus proving
that these pigments were not synonymous.
The only blue pigment mentioned by Armenino is Smalto; Lomazzo
mentions Smalto, which he always distinguishes from the other
azzurri amongst which he classes Ultramarine.
The Spanish painter Pacheco says, " Esmalte is the blue pigment
best adapted for fresco painting, because it is glass," &c. Palomino
expresses himself nearly in the same terms with respect to this pig-
ment ; his words are, " The blue is the rock of this kind of painting ;
but fortune has not given us our choice in this matter, obliging us to
use Esmalte, which is in substance ground glass."
Pozzo mentions Smaltino as the blue pigment to be used in fresco.
The directions for preparing various colours added to the Abecedario
Pittorico (Naples, 1731), shew that Smaltino was prepared by mixing
Mr. Wilson was informed by some Italian artists (See I. Rep. p. 27,) that a
coat of Terra verte was laid at times as a preparation for blue, but I was told by
Mr. Wilson himself that he had never found an instance of terra verte having
been laid under blue.
IN FRESCO PAINTING. XXXIX
Zaffire with a salt instead of copper, and then of calcining the mixture.
It is impossible to decide whether the colouring material of the
blue glass generally used in Italy was copper or Zaffre. The latter
which is a mixture of cobalt with glass, now known by the name of
Smalt, a was in use in Italy, where it was brought from Germany,
before anything was known in the former country of its nature.
Georgius Agricola, who was a German, does not mention it in his
work, De Metallicis, published 1549. Neri (Arte Vitraia, p. 317-369,
Florence, 1612), says its nature was unknown. It is probable that about
this period smaltino made from Zaffre superseded that of which
copper was the base. Lomazzo (Book in, chap. 4) enumerating the
pigments used in painting, says " Gli smalti, come quelle di Fiandra
che e il migliore di gl' altri tutti," " The smalti, such as that of
Flanders, which is better than all the others." From this passage we
may infer that more than one sort of smalto was in use in Italy, and
that one of these wa,s of the same nature as the Vestorian Azure.
This vitrified pigment, then, which is known by the various desig-
nations of Smalto, Azzurro di Smalto, Smaltino and Esmalte was used
on the wet lime, and, according to the before-mentioned writers, the
wetter the lime was when the colour was applied, the better. I shall
now remind the readers of the general state of the blue colours in
the Italian fresco paintings as described by Mr. Wilson and Mr.
Hart, and then state my opinion that this pigment is the one that
was generally employed in Italy and Spain for above two hundred
years, and that it is quite unfit for the purpose, as is proved by the
present state of the frescoes. I have not been able to discover when
this colour was first introduced into modern painting, but I consider
it probable that its introduction took place when the work of Vitru-
vius first began to be studied and translated in Italy . b It is to be
11 The meaning of the word " Smalto" varies according to its use. It may
mean enamel, mortar, cement, basis, ground, pavement, or floor ; no conjecture
therefore respecting its nature can be formed from its name.
b The first edition of Vitruvius, without a date, appears to have been pub-
lished about 1486. Two others were published in 1496 and 1497. (D'Agin-
court, Architecture, p. 90, n.) The first Italian translation of Vitruvius by
Cesariano was published in 1521, the second by Durantino in 1524, the third by
Caporale in 1535, and the fourth by Barbaro in 1556. Perhaps this pigment
was introduced during the life of Raphael, since Mr. Wilson mentions that he
Xl OP THE COLOURS USED
observed that Vitruvius does not distinguish between such colours as
were to be applied on the wet lime, and such as were to be used in secco
(except in the case of lamp black, which he says was to be tempered
with glue for painting on walls) ; but Pliny says decidedly (Book
xxxv). of the Cceruleum. " Usus in creta; calcis impatiens," " It
is useful on chaik, but is incompatible with lime." He also includes
this colour among those which cannot be used on a damp wall. The
marginal note is as follows : " Qui colores udo illini recusant,"
" Which colours cannot be laid on in fresco." The text says, " Ex
omnibus coloribus cretulam amant, udoque inlini recusant, Purpurissum,
Indicum, Cceruleum, $c." " Out of all the colours, Purpurissum, In-
dicum, Cceruleum, &c. prefer chalk, and cannot be laid on in fresco."
It is quite clear, therefore, that the Romans did not use it in fresco
and the nature of the pigment proves it to have been unfit for this
kind of painting. It was an artificial pigment, and it contained
potash or soda, either of which would be a sufficient reason for refus-
ing it a place among pigments to be used on lime.
It has been observed by Mr. Wilson and Mr. Hart, that " the
blues and greens were eaten up with nitre." Palomino also states
that Luca Giordano retouched with the egg tempera those parts in
which the nitre had appeared. Mr. Smith in his able paper on the
Causes of and Means of Prevention of Saltpetre on the Surface of
Walls, (II. Rep. p. 53-55.) observes that " salts will always make
their way to the surface," and that " lime, mortar, or some other sort
of calcareous earth, seems to act as a vivifying principle to set the
molecules of salt and water in action." M. Durosiez also is of
opinion that the presence of all alkalies in the substance of pictures
is injurious, (III. Rep. 49). This then will be sufficient to account
for the presence of nitre on the blue pigments in fresco paintings,
where that pigment has been smaltino, and whether the colouring
ingredient in that vitrified pigment be copper filings, or zaffre.
There is no doubt that it was the practice of the Greek or Byzan-
tine school, and that of Giotto, and of the Italians generally, until
had painted the blues in fresco in the School of Athens, and that they had
turned green, for we know that he, Michael Angelo, and other artists of that
period were in the habit of laying on the blue in distemper. (See Merimee de
la Peinture a 1'huile, p. 173.)
IN FRESCO PAINTING. xli
after the death of Raphael, to add the blue pigments, in distemper,
over a ground of black and red, or black only, or red only, or black
and white.
Theophilus, who professes to teach all the Greeks knew respecting
colours, in Chap. xv. of Book 1st of his Treatise on divers arts
directs, that " on walls a coat of Veneda, that is, black mixed with
lime, is to be laid as a ground ; and upon this colour, when dry,
must be laid, in the proper place, a thin coat of Ultramarine tem-
pered with yolk of egg, mixed with plenty of water ; and after this
a thicker coat, to make it look well." Cennino also directs both
Ultramarine and Azzurro de la magna to be tempered with egg, or
glue. See Chap. 60, 72, 74, 83.
The blue commonly used by the early Florentine painters was
called " Azzurro della Magna," because it was brought from
Germany, and sometimes "Azzurro" only. The colour used by Titian
and the Venetians, was called by the latter name, and was brought
to Venice from the East, as will be hereafter mentioned. I shall
first give some early historical notices respecting these pigments, and
shall then endeavour to ascertain their nature.
The following notice is extracted from the books of expenses in-
curred in the construction of the Duomo of Pisa.
" Anno 1392, de lib. M. Mag. Pierus, Pictor, de urbe veteri,
habuit et recepit a d. operaris, pro una libra Azurri de la Magna, pro
ystoria Ginesis de Campo Sancto, quod azurrum emptum fuit," &c.
" In the year 1392, book M. Messer Piero, artist, of Civita Vecchia,
had and received fron the Master of the Works, for one pound of
Azzurro della magna, for the historical picture from Genesis, in the
Campo Santo, which azure was bought, &c."
The following extracts from letters written by Benozzo Gozzoli to
Pietro de Medici, and preserved in the archives of the family of the
Medici, throw much light on the manner of painting on walls at this
period. He is speaking of the picture of the Three Magi, in the
chapel of the Medici. a
" I should have come to speak to you, but I have begun this
8 In the palace now called the Palazzo Riccardi at Florence. The chapel is
now so built up that it can only be viewed by torch-light.
xlii OF THE COLOURS USED
morning to put on the blue (Azzurro) and I cannot leave it. The heat
is great and the glue spoils directly. I think by next week I shall
have completed this piece (Pontata). I think you would like to see
it before I take down the scaffolding." Dated Florence, 10th July,
1459. Again, " I remind you to send to Venice for the blue
(Azzurro) because by this day week, this side (Facciata) will be com-
pleted and I want the blue for the other." llth Sept. 1459. " I
had from the Jesuits two ounces of blue (Azzurro) of that kind which
is three great florins per ounce." 25th Sept. 1459.
Dr. Gaye, the editor of the " Carteggio iuedito d 'artisti dei secoli
xiv. xv. xvi," (from which these extiacts are taken), Vol I. p. 193,
observes, " the price of three great florins the ounce for Azzurro
dellu Magna is much greater than has hitherto been considered the
average price in the fifteenth century."
From these extracts we learn the important fact, that the blue was
applied in secco when the picture was nearly completed, and that it
was mixed with glue.
Giovanni Liombani in a letter to Francesco Gonzaga, Marchese di
Mantova, dated 22nd February, 1491, requests the Marchese " to
cause a letter to be written to the respectable Zorzo Broguolo at
Venice, ordering him to supply me with as much gold, silver, azurro,
and other colours as shall amount to the sum of 200 ducats." The
artist, as appears from the same letter, was then going to paint in the
palace in Marmirolo, of which no vestiges now remain. See the
same work. Vol. i. p. 306.
It was the custom for the person who ordered the picture to sup-
ply the blue pigments as well as the gold. Even Titian observed
this practice. He writes thus to the Doge of Venice, " Nor do I
wish any other payment in advance than colours to the value of 10
ducats and 3oz. of that Azzurro, if there be any, in the Offitio del
Sal," &c. By a decree dated the 28th January, 1515, the Council
order, among other particulars, " that Titian shall have only colours
to the amount of 10 ducats and 3oz. of Azzurro."
Modern writers have supposed that Azzurro della Magna was
cobalt blue ; but I apprehend without sufficient reason. The princi-
pal reason seems to be, that both pigments were produced in Ger-
many. Georgius Agricola does not appear to have been aware that
IN FRESCO PAINTING. xlii
cobalt could be used as a pigment ; he describes (p. 466) three kinds,
differing principally in colour ; the first was black, the second grey,
and the third the colour of iron. He says that cobalt corrodes and
consumes the hands and feet of those who work it, if they are not
careful to defend themselves from it. Matthioli, (Comm. on Diosc.
p. 1395) observes, that " Kobolt is a corrosive substance, that fre-
quently ulcerates the hands and feet of those who dig it, nor is this
to be wondered at, since it kills like deadly poison." He adds, that
in Bohemia it is used to kill flies, but he says nothing of its being
used as a pigment. The art of purifying and preparing cobalt as a
pigment, is of comparatively modern invention, at least in Europe,
and it is extremely probable, indeed almost certain, that it was used
in the form of Zaffre as a pigment, long before the art of preparing
a pigment of a pure blue colour from it was known ; Zaffre not being
a pure blue, but inclining to red. It appears also, that the process
described by Cennino (chap. 60) for preparing Azzurro della Magna
for use, is not applicable to the mineral cobalt, which requires
chemical preparation before it can be used as a pigment ; for we
have seen that the natural colours of this mineral are black, grey,
and the colour of iron, and not blue. The simple process of grinding
and washing it with water, would not be sufficient to develope the
blue colour of cobalt ; if it were, it is quite clear, the long and trou-
blesome processes, now in use for purifying this mineral, are unne-
cessary; besides, if cobalt required chemical preparation, it could
scarcely be included with propriety in Cennino's list of natural
pigments. (See Cenn. chap. 60, and for the modern method of
purifying cobalt, see Ure's Diet, of Chemistry and Mineralogy,
Chaptal's Chimie appliquee aux Arts, M. de Brongniart's Traite
des Arts Ceramiques, Merime'e, De la peinture a 1'huile, Marcucci
Saggio Analitico dei Colori, &c.)
The ancients possessed some native blue and green pigments, to
which they gave the names of Chrysocola, Lapis Armenus, Cceruleum,
and Cyaneum, (see Pliny, Lib. xxxv. Chap. 6). The first is green,
the second greenish-blue or blue, the third and fourth blue. Geo.
Agricola, Matthioli, and Laguna, mention pigments of the same
name. All agree in the general description, but vary in their account
of the colour. They also agree in stating that they were found in
d
Xliv OF THE COLOURS USED
copper and silver mines, and sometimes in gold mines, frequently
close together, and even adhering to the same piece of ore, and that
they were a certain criterion of the presence of copper. The fact is,
that they were all native carbonates of copper, changing their name
according to the prevalence of the hlue, or green, or greenish-blue
colour. The first (Chrysocola) will again be noticed. The Armenian
Stone is by most writers described to be of a greenish blue colour,
and this corresponds, as I shall prove, with the Azul Verde of Palo-
mino, and the Verde Azzurro of the Italians. The Ccerulea is the
native blue carbonate of copper, of which there are two species, the
earthy and the indurated ; the last was frequently mistaken for the
Lapis Lazuli, from which ultramarine is prepared.
1 shall give, concisely, Agricola's description of the pigment he
calls Coaruleo. He says, (p. 219, 221) there were two kinds known in
his time, the native and the artificial; that the native was often
attached to the same ores as Chrysocola, namely, copper ores ; that
it was found not only in copper mines, but in those of silver and
gold, and that it always shewed the presence of copper ; that it was
brought from Spain, Germany, Noricum, Dacia, Rhaetia, &c., but
was scarce because the factitious was more in use. He adds
(p. 452), "now this is the Coeruleo which the vulgar call azzurro,
which, together with the Chrysocola, is attached to the ore," (or
matrix). He says also, that it resembled a hard sand, and is scraped
off the ore like sand. And see also Matthioli (p. 1412), who agrees
in the general description. The mineral here described is clearly
the earthy blue carbonate of copper, of which the following descrip-
tion is given in the Encyc. Brit. Art. Mineralogy.
SUBSPECIES I. EARTHY AZURE COPPER ORK. Exter. Char.
Rarely found massive, usually disseminated or superficial ; composed
of fine particles, which are dull and somewhat coherent ; fracture
earthy.
Colour, smalt blue, sometimes sky blue ; opaque ; stains a little ;
soft or friable.
The earthy variety is found in superficial layers on a slaty marl in
Hessia, and it is also found superficial on sandstone in Thuringia.
Sometimes the whole of the sandstone is impregnated with this
earthy carbonate of copper, there called copper sand earth or copper
IN FRESCO PAINTING. xlv
sand stone. A similar sand stone, at Gourock near Greenock, in
Scotland, was, a few years ago, dug out for the purpose of extracting
copper. (Enc. Brit. Art. Mineralogy.)
The resemblance between this species, and the mineral described
by Agricola, is obvious. The indurated species is rare. Azure cop-
per ore is found in veins of primitive and secondary mountains,
chiefly with the green carbonate of copper and red oxide of copper,
in Chili, Bohemia, the Hartz, Saxony, the Uralian mountains, and in
Thuringia, at Chessy in France, &c.
In Cornwall, sparingly in Huel Muttrell and Huel Gorland, Huel
Unity, Huel Virgin and Carbarack. In the Buckingham mine, near
Bridgewater, Somersetshire. At Alderley Edge, in Cheshire, in
sandstone with yellow copper and barytes. In Durham, at Wassing-
hope lead mine near Stanhope, in small nodules imbedded in sulphate
of barytes. In Scotland, at Wanlock Head, and the lead hills in
Lanarkshire. (Phillips' Mineralogy, p. 310). Phillips classes this
mineral under the head " Native Metal and Metalliferous Minerals."
Modern writers on the composition of colours, call this pigment
Bleu de Montagne Mountain Blue Blue ochre of copper.
Lomazzo mentions the colour under the name Ongaro. a
With regard to the last appellation, Ongaro, Pacheco (p. 373)
relates a circumstance not generally known. " Philip, Count of
Flanders, ordered Michael Coxis of Malines to make a copy for him,
of the celebrated picture by Van Eyck at Ghent ; he copied it ex-
tremely well, and because they could not procure any azure so fine
as that used in the original, they sent to Titian, who was at Venice,
for some of a natural azure, which is found in Hungary, which was
formerly very easy to procure, before the Turks were masters of that
province, and the blue for the drapery of the figure cost thirty
ducats." Perhaps this was some of the same kind of azure that
Titian desired the Doge to send him (if there were any). This
anecdote shews, that the blue carbonate of copper was used in oil
by Titian, and probably by Van Eyck, since no other blue could
be found in Flanders which matched that in the picture.
8 Because it was brought from Kerhausen in Hungary. Marcucci (p. 70) enu-
merates it among the green pigments, a circumstance which identifies it with the
Lapis Armenus which was sometimes blue and sometimes green.
xlv OP THE COLOURS USED
Much confusion has been occasioned by some authors describing
the Lapis Armenus as a blue stone, while others say it is green.
The fact is, that it consists of one of those ores of copper united with
other substances, and that it is sometimes blue, sometimes green,
and sometimes of a greenish blue. See Pliny, Book xxxv. c. 6.
G. Agricola, De Metallicis, 219, 221, 452. Constant de Massoul's
Treatise on Painting, and the Composition of Colours, 152, and
Bulengerius de Pictura, Sculptura, et Plastice, Lib. n. c. in. Le Vieil
(De la Peinture sur Verre, p. 108, n.) says, it is a stone of a lighter
colour, not so heavy and more friable than ultramarine ; it is found
in France, Germany, and especially in the Tyrol. G. Agricola
(p. 452) mentions, that "he saw some Armenio in one shop only in
Venice, and that the possessor valued it much." The scarcity of
the pigment is sufficiently accounted for, by the provinces which
produced it being in the hands of the Turks. The Venetians, how-
ever, seem to have maintained an intercourse with them, since
Gentile Bellini was sent to practise his art, at the court of Mahomet
the Second, at Constantinople. As merchandize is generally im-
ported in considerable quantities, the Armenio seen by Agricola at
Venice, in one shop, might have been the remains of the old stock
imported while the Turks and Venetians had still commercial rela-
tions. It is not the blue pigments only which became scarce on
account of the wars, the Sinopia also fell into disuse about the same
period, as Agricola declares, and from the same cause. Another
reason also for the scarcity of the carbonates of copper was, as we
have before observed, the use of the artificial pigments prepared in
imitation of the natural pigments ; many recipes for which are to be
found in every work on colours.
Matthioli (p. 1412) observes, "Armenian stone is of a bluish
colour, although not a pure blue, nor is it so hard as the stone called
" Azulo," because the Armenian stone is of a sandy nature, and the
painters sometimes use it instead of Azzurro." He says also that
the same mineral was found in Germany as well as in Armenia, and
he adds that the Armenian stone which the painters use, being taken
in the quantity of the twelfth part of a drachm, was useful in
removing melancholy. It was also given to children for disorders
of the breast, &c. This is sufficient proof that the Armenian Stone
IN FRESCO PAINTING. xlvii
was not Cobalt, the poisonous nature of which was well known to
Matthioli. In another place (p. 1415, line 58) he gives the name of
Verde Azzurro to the Armenian Stone, which sufficiently identifies
these minerals. Laguna, the Spanish commentator on Diosco-
rides, is still more precise, he says, " This kind of stone resembles
much in its colour Chrysocola, and that is considered the best which
is green with a mixture of blue. From whence I am persuaded that
the common stone which is found in so many mines, of which the
perfect colour Verde Azul is made, is a species of the Armenian
Stone." p. 539. See, also, Dr. Holland's Translation of Pliny, p.
531, where he calls this pigment Verd' Azzur.
Matthioli observes (p. 1413) that the Arabs confuse the Pietra
Cerulea, by which he means Lapis Lazuli, with the Armenian Stone;
indeed the resemblance between all these minerals is so great, that
they can scarcely be distinguished by inspection. I have a specimen
of ore which one mineralogist pronounced to be the Blue Carbonate
of Copper, while another to whom it was shewn called it Lapis
Lazuli. The only apparent difference between the indurated Blue
Carbonate of Copper and Lapis Lazuli appears to be the presence or
absence of the spots or veins of gold which are always found in the
finest coloured specimens. The Lapis Lazuli may be distinguished
from the Carbonate of Copper by subjecting it to the action of fire.
The former will be unchanged, but the latter turns black. See
Massoul, pp. 166, 176. Let us hear what Matthioli, speaking of the
stone to be used as a medicine, says of the Pietra Cerulea, "It is
true that that stone which sparkles with gold should be used ; be-
cause the others with which the apothecaries, and those who prepare
Azzurri in Germany are always provided, are not nearly so benefi-
cial." He also says, " he has seen great quantities of Armenio and
Ceruleo in silver mines, in a great many places in Germany, but he
never found any which was veined with gold." Cennino (chap. 60)
mentions Azzurro della Magna in nearly the same terms. Matthioli
continues, " That which is called Ultramarine, and which is made of
the true Lapis Lazuli from gold mines, is in great esteem, because it
surpasses in goodness and in colour all the Azzurri in the world."
The Ceruleo was probably the indurated blue carbonate of copper,
which much resembles the Lapis Lazuli. See Massoul's Art of
Xlviii OF THE COLOURS USED
Painting, p. 176. Laguna adds that Matthioli was satisfied that the
stone called Armenio, was of the same nature as the Cerulea or
Cyano (Lapis Lazuli), but that the former was not perfectly formed
in the mineral veins ; " and in truth we must believe implicitly all he
tells us, for he was a most acute and accurate investigator of the
nature of all minerals." We may add that the true Lapis Lazuli is
not produced in Europe but is brought from Asia, especially from
Persia, where it must have been once in great abundance, since we
learn from the book of Esther, c. i. v. 6, that the pavement of the
palace of Ahasuerus consisted " of red, and blue, and white, and
black marble." For the description of Lapis Lazuli, see Phillips,
Jameson, Ure, Encyc. Brit. Art. Mineralogy, Tit. Lazulite.
I trust I have now proved satisfactorily that the pigments called
Azzurro, Azzurro della Magna, Ongaro, and Verde Azzurro were
native blue carbonates of copper, and that the latter was the Arme-
nian Stone of Pliny, of Agricola, and of Matthioli. I shall now
endeavour to prove that they were also called " Azzurri di Spagna,"
and " Azzurri di Vena Naturale."
Malvasia mentions (Fels. Pitt. vol. n. p. 349) that he discovered
in the studio of Cesare Baglione, many years after his decease, " a
chest full of brushes and colours, that is, earths of all sorts, particu-
larly of verde di miniera, the most precious which the ancients pos-
sessed, the good and genuine sort of which is now lost. Also some
fine Verdetto, and some Azzurri di Spagna, so bright and fine that
even Sirani was deceived by them, and at fir&t mistook them for
ultramarine." The reference to this passage in the index is as fol-
lows : " Azzurri e verdetti di Spagna cosi belli anticamente per i
frescanti oggi perdutisi, ne piu in uso," " Spanish blues and greens,
anciently so fine for fresco painters, noio lost and no longer in use."
Malvasia says " now lost," we must first endeavour to ascertain when
they were lost ; Sirani, he adds, was deceived by them ; now Sirani
died in 1670.
These colours were lost, therefore, previous to 1670, and probably
some time previous, as Sirani did not appear to know them. Cesare
Baglione died in 1590, having the colours in his possession; they
were therefore in use in 1590, and must have been lost at some
period between 1590 and 1670.
IN FRESCO PAINTING. xlix
Guercino painted in Bologna in 1618, in the Zampieri Palace in
1631, in the Ludovisi at Rome in 1621, (See Malv. vol. IT. p. 363,
365, 368). Mr. Wilson observes, that the blues in his pictures, at
these places, are put in in fresco, and are yet in fine harmony with
the other tones. Is it not possible he may have used the Azzurri di
Spagna ?
If, then, this Azzurro di Spagna is so good a colour, it may be
asked, why do not the Spanish writers mention it ? Palomino, it is
true, does not mention the colour, but he does mention a blue
stone called " Ignoto" (unknown), which was sometimes used with
other blues in fresco, and which is very likely to have been the pig-
ment in question. To account for Palomino's being unacquainted
with so valuable a pigment, a production of his native country, we
must remember that the Spaniards received the art of fresco painting
from the Italians, and adopted their method, and that Palomino died
in 1726, fifty-six years at least after we have ascertained the pig-
ment to have been lost. Pacheco's Treatise was published in 1641 ;
he also does not mention the colour ; it was therefore unknown or
disused hi his time in Spain and Rome, for he resided some time at
Rome.
Borghini mentions (Riposo, p. 1 73, published 1585), that " Azzurro
di Vena Naturale was useful in all three kinds of painting." Baldi-
nucci observes of the same pigment, that " it was used in painting in
fresco, in oil, and in distemper." These extracts prove that the
pigment had been used in Italy in fresco painting, although it is not
mentioned by many writers on this subject.
I have proved from Agricola that the mineral which the vulgar
call " Azzurro" was produced in Spain in copper and silver mines,
and I have shewn that the mineral could not be cobalt, because in
its natural state that mineral is not blue. We know the pigment
mentioned by Malvasia was not Ultramarine, because that substance
is not found in Spam, and because he says the Azzurri di Spagna
were lost, whereas Ultramarine was then in use in Italy. We can,
therefore, form no other conclusion but that these pigments are
native blue carbonates of copper, and of the same nature as Azzurro
della Magna, Ceruleo, Mountain Blue, Ongaro, &c.
With regard to the use of Ultramarine in fresco, it appears that
1 OF THE COLOURS USED
this was one of the expensive colours, which were always supplied by
the owner of the picture. Pacheco says that in his time it was not
used in Spain because it was so scarce and dear ; but we find from
Laguna's Commentary on Dioscorides (p. 538) that it had been used
in Spain prior to 1570, and that its colour was thought so fine that
it was used to paint the royal chapels. Palomino, however, gives
another reason why it was not used in fresco, namely, " that the lime
so acts upon it, that it fades, and after a short time the lights cannot
be distinguished from the darks." He directs that for interiors, the
Ultramarine is to be laid on in secco, with goat's milk. I have
found repeated instances mentioned of the use of Ultramarine in
secco on fresco paintings, but not one of its use in fiwow-fresco.
Palomino mentions yet another pigment used in secco on walls,
namely, Azul fino, or Azul de Santo Domingo, which appears to have
been an artificial pigment made from copper, probably synonymous
with the Azurri di Biadetti of Borghini, and the modern " cendres
bleues." But it is unnecessary to describe artificial pigments in this
place.
French Ultramarine has also been tried in fresco, but I understand
from high authority is not approved. Indigo was used occasionally
in fresco by Cennino and Palomino, the latter, however, observes,
' this colour should never be laid on the lime itself, as it always
perishes ." Pozzo says, it could be used in fresco during the summer,
but not in winter, because it is a bad drier.
To conclude, it is well ascertained that the brothers Campi of
Cremona, Bernardino Gatti (II Sogaro), and Guercino (I. Rep. pp.
27, 40) possessed a blue pigment, which has proved permanent in
fresco painting. It appears also that a blue pigment was used in
Italy which was lost sometime between 1590 and 1670, and that from
the date of Guercino's paintings, it is very probable that he used it,
that this pigment was called Azzurro de Vena Naturale, which there
is strong reason for supposing to be native blue carbonate of copper.
With regard to this mineral itself it is a natural production said to
consist of carbonate of copper, alumina, and lime, B and is, I believe,
produced in sufficient quantities for use as a pigment in fresco.
According to Pelletier it is composed of oxide of copper 50 parts, carbonic
acid 30, oxygen 10, lime 7, water 3, = 100.
IN FRESCO PAINTING. U
It would be desirable to ascertain, by analysis of the blue colours
on pictures, what blue pigments have been used in fresco in Italy, in
order to select for future use such as have been found durable, and
to avoid such as have perished.
The method of preparing the carbonates of copper for use as pig-
ments, is by the simple process mentioned by Cennino, (chap. 60),
namely, grinding and washing it, in order to separate the small
stones that are sometimes mixed with it. See Massoul's Treatise on
Painting and the Composition of Colours, p. 176. Marcucci Saggio
Analitico, &c., p. 70.
GREEN COLOURS.
The employment of green colours in fresco is attended with less
difficulty than the blue. This arises from several causes, not alto-
gether depending on the pigment used. I allude in the first place
to the mixture of blue pigments with yellow ochres, and to the ten-
dency of blues to become green.
The green pigments used in fresco are terra verde (the nature of
which is too well known to require any description) Verde Montana,
Mountain Green, Lapis Armenus, the Chw/socolla of the ancients, a
native green pigment supposed to be a mixture of oxide of copper,
or, as some say, carbonate of copper with alumina and lime. This
mineral is of an emerald green or verdigris green colour, and some-
times a sky blue. .See Phillips' Min.p. 309, 313. Encyc. Brit. p.
228, 289. G. Agricola de Metal, p. 219, 221.
Andres de Laguna (Translation of Dioscorides, Salamanca,
1570), observes, the use of the mineral or native chrysocolla was
very common centuries ago, for painting the apartments of the
superb palaces of princes, on account of its beautiful green colour,
which is so agreeable to the eyes. The greenest, and the pleasantest
to the sight is that which is found in the mines of copper.
Another species of copper ore, called Earthy ferruginous green copper
ore, which is of a light olive green colour, seems to have been used
Hi OF THB COLOURS USED
in Spain under the name Verdacho, which Pacheco says agreed better
with the lime than Verde Montana.
A third species of copper ore, the Malachite, is also used in paint-
ing. See Merime'e, De la Peinture a 1'huile p. 187. De Massoul sur
1'art de la Peinture, p. 151, 152.
Verde Granillo is the best sort of Verde Montana, it was brought
from Venice to Spain in pastilles. Italian writers call Verde Mon-
tana, Verdetto and Verde de Miniera. This pigment must not how-
ever be confounded with the verdete of the Spaniards which is
verdegris.
Palomino says that Verde Montana should not be used alone on
the lime, but that it should be mixed with terra verde, when its
colour will be beautiful and durable.
Marcucci directs (p. 71), that the mineral should be ground and
made up into small cones. This was the process adopted in Venice,
where the pigment was called " Verde Granillo."
Pozzo includes a vegetable green pigment in the list of colours for
painting in fresco. The adoption of this colour cannot be re-
commended.
Mr. Hart observes (II. Rep. p. 43), that the greens in certain
frescoes are well preserved ; in the Ducal Palace of Mantua, however,
he says that they are almost entirely eaten up with nitre.
Now imitations of the native green and blue carbonates of copper
have been in use from the earliest times as we learn from Pliny, also
from Theophilus and other writers of the middle ages, as well as
from G. Agricola and Matthioli, and the more recent Italian and
Spanish authors. The use therefore of these pigments in fresco, would
be sufficient to account for the appearance of nitre upon the green and
blue parts of such paintings. We know from Malvasia's Felsina
Pittrice that these native green pigments were lost in Italy previous
to 1670.
Lomazzo observes (Trattato p. 194.) that Perino del Vaga in-
vented a colour formed of Verdetto, and bianco secco, that is, lime-
white in powder, which he (Lomazzo) remarks had a beautiful effect
in fresco, and produced a colour almost resembling Giallorino. Of
course, as Lomazzo spoke of a contemporary, he could give no
opinion as to the durability of the pigment.
IN FRESCO PAINTING. liii
BLACK COLOURS.
Black colours are among those that have been found least durable
in fresco. See II. Rep. p. 42. All writers are unanimous in saying,
that none but natural pigments should be used in fresco ; therefore
carbonaceous blacks, prepared from animal and vegetable substances,
should be excluded from this kind of painting.
Native black colours are fortunately abundant. The Terra Nera
de Venezia, of which Pozzo speaks, is said by Palomino to be a most
beautiful colour in every respect. There is also Terra Nera di Roma,
Terra Nera di Piedemonte, the mineral called black chalk (schiste a
dessiner, ampelite graphique), which is met with in France, Spain,
Italy, Iceland, Wales, Ireland, and the Hebrides, and which is
used both in drawing and painting.
Nero di schiuma di ferro, mentioned by Borghini, is an artificial
pigment, prepared by mixing the scales from red hot iron with terra
verde, and then grinding the mixture to a very fine powder, (Baldi-
nucci, Voc. Dis. Borghini). Neither this nor the next can be
recommended.
Nero di Terra di Campane, mentioned by Armenino, is prepared
from a sort of crust which forms on the moulds in which bells and
cannons are cast. It was used in fresco painting, but Baldinucci
says, that when exposed to the air, in a short time the colour flies,
and spoils the picture.
These black earths are especially useful in making true greys ; the
extreme darks, every one knows, should be formed of browns, and
not of blacks. It is well observed, by the author of an article in the
Quarterly Review for December, 1844, entitled "Painting in the
14th Century," that "pure black should never be admitted on walls
or canvass, for the simple reason that it hardly exists in any depart-
ment of nature which can come within the sphere of imitation."
WHITE, YELLOW, AND BROWN COLOURS.
THE only white pigment that it is necessary to mention here is
Bianco Sangiovanni ; the others are all fully described by the several
Hv OF THE COLOURS USED
authors whose works are translated, and form part of this treatise.
Cennino Cennini has left the following directions for preparing Bianco
Sangiovanni :
" Take very white slaked lime ; pulverise it, and put it into a little
tub for the space of eight days, changing the water every day, and
mixing the lime and water well together in order to extract from it
all unctuous properties. Then make it into small cakes, put them
upon the roof of the house in the sun, and the older these cakes are,
the whiter they become. If you wish to hasten the process, and
have the white very good, when the cakes are dry, grind them on
your slab with water, and then make them again into cakes, and dry
them as before. Do this twice, and you will see how perfectly white
they will become. This white must be ground thoroughly with
water. It is good for working in fresco, that is, on walls, without
tempera ; and without this colour you can do nothing, I mean, you
cannot paint flesh, or make tints of the other colours which are
necessary in painting on walls, namely, in fresco; and it never
requires any tempera." Cennino, p. 31.
The yellow colours, consisting of ochres of various shades, require
no particular notice. Giallorino (Naples yellow) is however some-
times admitted into fresco painting, but it should not be used where
the paintings are much exposed to the air.
The brown colours are also too well known to need a separate notice.
The artist will, of course, remember the tendency of umber to grow
darker with time, and will avoid those pigments which contain
vegetable matter.
CONCLUDING REMARKS.
Having thus inquired into the nature of the various colours used
in fresco painting, I may be allowed to observe in conclusion that all
writers are agreed in certain general principles, namely, that none
but natural earthy colours can be used with safety and propriety in
fresco painting, that these colours are not brilliant, but rather the
contrary, and that they derive their beauty from the harmony of the
IN FRESCO PAINTING. lv
arrangement, and the judicious opposition of the colours. Cennino
and others praise certain colours which they say are equal to lake in
fresco ; they are right, because the colours to which they allude will
appear like lake when skilfully contrasted with the other colours used
in this kind of painting, but if compared with the colours we call
lake and carmine, I have no doubt they would be found very dissimi-
lar. The Amatito and burnt Roman vitriol will harmonize well with
the ochres and other earths, but if lake were used, (supposing it
could be used in fresco), it would, like the bright blue in the frescoes
of Romanelli in the Louvre, and those of the Carracci, be out of
harmony with the rest of the picture. If lakes and cobalt be used
in fresco, it will be necessary to procure yellows of equal brilliancy,
but I apprehend that pictures painted with such colours would
lose in harmony what they gained in brilliancy ; such colours are too
glaring and intrusive for the decorations of buildings. To judge of
their effect it is only necessary to compare the ceilings of the Louvre
painted by the modern French school, which are as brilliant as the
finest lakes, yellows, and blues can make them, with the quiet beauty
and mellowness of the frescoes of Romanelli in the Salles des An-
tiques, (always, however, excepting the blue, which is too powerful
for the other colours). It will be remembered that Titian and Raf-
faello used chiefly earths and common colours even in painting in oil,
instead of the more expensive and brilliant colours. No one capable
of forming an opinion can suppose they would have preferred the
former to the latter, if they had not had the best and most convinc-
ing reasons for so doing. We are all too much inclined to seek the
perfection of colouring in the pigments themselves instead of in the
harmonious combination and opposition of the several colours, and to
attribute to the vehicle and colours the effect which the skill of the
artist alone can produce.
There is one point, however, on which particular care is required,
namely, that the colours used should be the very best of the kind,
the brightest, purest, and finest that can be obtained, and besides
that, it is necessary, as Armenino observes, to be very clean and
careful in using them in order to preserve them pure and distinct,
because, by every slight mixture that falls into them, they become
soiled and lose a great deal of their brightness.
Ivi OP THE COLOURS, &C.
In conclusion, I may observe that considerable difficulty and much
labour has been added to this investigation, arising from the
confusion in the names and technical terms, some authors using
the names derived from the Greek, others from the Latin, others
from the Arabic, and others the names derived from the colloquial
language of commerce. In the same language, different terms are
used, and different names given to the same substances ; and not
unfrequently, the same names are given to different substances. It
will also be considered tht 1p investigation has been pursued
through various languages, written at periods distant from each
other, and by authors, some with an extensive, others with a limited
knowledge of the subject. These circumstances have added to the
difficulties of this inquiry, and with the candid reader will form some
excuse for any mistakes that may have occurred in this investigation.
THE ART
FRESCO PAINTING.
PART I.
THE ART
FRESCO PAINTING
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
THE DIRECTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS OF VITRUVIUS WITH THE
COMMENTARY OF GUEVARA.
OF GUEVARA.
THE very interesting work from which the following commentary on
part of the seventh book of Vitruvius is translated, was written in
Spanish, by Don Felipe de Guevara, who has incorporated in his
work all that is material and practical in Vitruvius, on the subject of
fresco painting. Guevara occupied the post of Gentil-hombre de boca
(that is the prince's taster) to the Emperor Charles the Fifth.
The period of his birth is unknown; but he mentions, in the course
of the work, that he fought in the celebrated victory at Tunis, and
was in the island of Sicily in the year 1535. He travelled over
Italy and Flanders, and appears to have been well versed in all that
relates to the fine arts, which his situation in the court of Charles
the Fifth and Philip the Second gave him ample opportunities of study-
ing. Guevara appears to have been one of the greatest antiquaries of
his time, and he possessed a valuable collection of medals and coins.
He wrote a work, which has never been published, on the medals and
coins of the different cities of Spain, which Ambrosio de Morales
(who was personally acquainted with our author,) mentions in his
2 FRESCO PAINTING.
Spanish antiquities in terms of the highest praise. The manuscript
of this work on coins, to which Guevara alludes in his commentaries,
(p. 244) is lost.
The present work, which is entitled " Commentaries on Painting,"
must have been written after the year 1550, because the author
mentions the work of Vasari which was published in that year, and
before the commencement of the building of the Escurial, which
was undertaken to commemorate the victory of St. Quintin in 1557.
The work was dedicated to Philip the Second, but was never pre-
sented, nor was it ever published by the author, but was found in a
bookseller's shop by Don Josef Alfonso de Roa, a person eminent for
his literary attainments and love for the fine arts, by whom it was
sent to Don Antonio Ponz, author of the Viage de Espana, and a
friend of Mengs, who published it in 1788, and who wrote the notes
appended to the following pages, to which his name is attached.
DIRECTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS FROM THE COMMENTARIES
OF GUEVARA.
OF PREPARING WALLS AND ROOFS. It appears to me, (says
Guevara,) that it will not be unseasonable, but on the contrary,
necessary, since I have treated of the origin and beginning of
painting in fresco," to show on what kind of walls and roofs
the ancients adopted this method of painting, and how they pre-
pared these walls, as well as what whitewashings and preparations they
employed in order to make this kind of painting firm, so that it may last
long, be agreeable and durable. The method is that described by
Vitruvius, Book vn. c. in., but from the style in which it is written I
suspect it has been noticed but by few : at least, we see the use of
what the Italians now call stucco, much changed and corrupted.
This I think must have occasioned new inventions for facilitating works
of this description, that they might resemble those which were more
ancient and perfect, although they were not equal to them in reality ;
and as there are perhaps but few who have a real knowledge of
antiquities, these works are passed off for antiques, by persons of
The following is the passage alluded to in the text ; " Ludius invented and
taught how to paint on uncovered places in maritime cities, with little expense,
and in a most agreeable manner. This is the kind of painting which hi Italy is
termed fresco, and with which are painted what the Italians call fa?ades, and
we the exterior of houses ; it is understood that, in the opinion of Pliny, Ludius
was the inventor of this kind of painting at Rome." Page 49. It is unnecessary
to observe, that the passage in Pliny is considered, by many writers, to refer
to distemper painting, and not to fresco. ED.
VITRUVIUS AND GUEVARA. O
indifferent reputation who authorize such practices. Vitruvius con-
trives the roof (of the apartment) that is to be covered with what is
now called by the new term stucco, in the following manner : he says,
that after having fixed the timbers of the room, they are to be mor-
ticed with cross pieces, made of timber which has the property
of not warping, as that of box, oak, cypress, juniper, and the olive.
The holm oak (encidaj is to be avoided because it is apt to warp, and
occasion cracks which injure the stucco. In our Spain the pine of
Cuenca a and Balsain, b when old and dry is good, because this wood
is solid and durable.
These cross pieces are to be nailed with strong nails, which will
hold them firmly and prevent warping. But it must be observed,
as we learn from Vitruvius, that these are not so durable and safe
on flat roofs, as on those that are somewhat vaulted and curved, that
in such walls this kind of work, which is called stucco, has great
solidity ; and if the vault or ceiling of the apartment be made of
bricks or other similar materials, many inconveniences would be
avoided, and many things would be unnecessary that wooden roofs
require, without covering the roof immediately with the first coating
of mortar, as is usual in walls of stones and bricks.
Vitruvius next directs, that in roofs constructed of timber, the
cross-pieces being first fixed and firmly nailed, reeds are to be
bruised and split, and fastened to the roof (as the curve requires) with
rushes or slips of Spanish broom tied firmly, as is now done when
roofs are to be covered with gesso, and as was anciently the custom
in Spain, and is still in Andalusia and the kingdom of Grenada, on
account of the deficiency of wood in some places for this purpose.
The rushes or broom should be fastened to the reeds with great
care and skill, for in this operation consists a great part of the perfec-
tion of the work, and they should be fastened with nails d between the
rushes. This being done, Vitruvius says, " trusilar the roof." This
word "trusilar," which neither the Italian nor the Latin interpreters of
* A city of New Castile situated between the rivers Xucar and Huescar ED.
b A forest near the city of Segovia, where the Kings of Spain formerly diverted
themselves with hunting. ED.
c In Italian, called cannegreche (large rushes), as contradistinguished from the
smaller reeds found in marshes. They are also called stuoje. See Italian trans-
lation of Vitruvius by B. Orsini,page 69. ED.
d Vitruvius says, the nails should be of wood. ED.
4 FRESCO PAINTING.
Vitruvius have explained throws confusion on this part of the treatise.
It appears to me that trusilar has the same meaning as our Spanish
term xaharrar, which is the first coat of mortar given to the walls
in order to prepare them to receive the whiter coats (blanqueada) .
But although the signification of the word " trusilar" may be
what I have said, and which I dare affirm, there arises a new doubt
as to the nature of the mixture with which the roof has to be
plastered ; for it appears clear from Vitruvius, that the word
" trusilar" does not describe either of the three sand coats, or either
of the three marble coats, but is a distinct and separate process.
Filandro, the interpreter of Vitruvius, suspects that " trusilar"
means a coat of gesso, and Budeo affirms that this is the true signi-
fication of the word " trusilar."
My opinion is, that " trusilar" always signifies the first preparation
which we call " exaharrar" and that it consists sometimes of gesso,
and sometimes of other materials, as this does of which Vitruvius now
treats ; for he expressly directs, that on no consideration should
gesso be mixed with this coat of plaster which the moderns call
stucco, and he condemns such a mixture as bad and injurious. b I
think that this word trusilar or xaharrar, of which we are speaking,
applies to a coat of lime, with which, instead of sand, pulverised
bricks or tiles, c or other similar substances are mixed, for it' is well
known that such a mixture works better and sets more firmly than
one of chalk and sand.
My opinion is confirmed by the authority of Vitruvius himself,
who in Book v. chap. x. speaking of roofs of vaults, says, inferior
" The word used in the Italian translation of Baldassare Orsini, (1802) is
Rinzaffare, the Florentine term for the first coat of mortar. L. B. Alberti like-
wise gives this name to the first coat of mortar. ED.
b It is said, it was this mixture of gesso with the ground of Giotto's pictures in
the Campo Santo of Pisa, that caused their destruction. Vasari gives this reason
for their perishing, hut he does not allude to the work of Vitruvius. In the Art
Union for March 1842, it is stated that Anthony Gegenbauer has painted at
Rome some movable frescoes on canvass, upon a ground composed of lime and
gypsum. It is much to be feared the advantage obtained in painting from
damping the back of the canvass, (by which the artist was enabled to work for
two or three days on the same picture) will be more than counterbalanced by
the want of durability in the picture, occasioned by the incompatibility of the
materials of the ground. ED.
c Vitruvius used this mixture of lime and pounded brick in places exposed to
damp. Book vn. c. in. ED.
VITRUVIUS AND GUEVARA. O
autempars, quee adpavimentum spectat, testa primum cum calce trussiletur,
delude opere tectorio sive albario poliatur. The meaning of these words
is, that the front part of the roof that corresponds with the floor,
should be first plastered with lime and the powder of baked pottery,
such as bricks, tiles, &c., and afterwards the whitewash should be
applied. This coat of lime and powdered brick having been applied,
the roof should receive three other coats of lime and sand. 3 After
having applied the first, time should be given for it to dry, then the
second should be applied and suffered to dry, and then the third coat
should be given, so that after the first coat of plaster there should
be three coats of lime and sand. These having been applied and
suffered to dry, three other coats of lime and marble dust should
be given, the first thick, the second thinner, and the third thinner
still. b After the application of these three coats, the wall should be
smoothed or polished with pieces of smooth wood or other instru-
ment used for burnishing, not liable to injure the surface. All these
coats of plaster should be applied by rule and plummet, that no
difficulties should afterwards arise when the wall has to be painted.
The plastering, says Vitruvius, which has been applied with care,
will be firm and durable, and will never crack, because the burnishing
will have given it great firmness and a polish of wonderful brilliancy,
and the colours which are applied on it will be very bright and beau-
tiful ; for colours which are employed and used upon roofs and walls
that are fresh and just finished will last for ever, and will not fade,
because the moisture which was in the lime when it was burnt in the
kiln, is dried up and consumed in such a manner that it remains porous,
and ready to receive and absorb anything added to it ; and thus
mixed and united with substances possessing other properties, and
the materials and principles of the one being united with those of
the others, when dry, the whole solidifies and hardens in such a man-
ner after the mixture, that the lime seems to have recovered its
peculiar properties and pristine hardness.
For this reason walls that are well finished, neither become soiled
by age, nor, if rubbed or cleaned, do the colours come off or fade,
8 The sand coat, (for one only is applied,) is called in Italian, Arricciato, in
Spanish, Grenada. ED.
b The Intonaco. One coat only is applied in modern fresco painting. Mr. Wilson
(II. Rep. p. 38,) thinks that lime with marble dust does not make a good
intonaco ; and he cites the arabesques, painted by Giovanni da Udina in the
upper Loggia of the Vatican, in support of his opinion. ED.
O FRESCO PAINTING.
unless they have been applied carelessly or in secco ; so that if the
coats of plaster have been applied in the manner described, they will
be firm and bright, and have the property of resisting the ravages of
time, for when only one covering of lime and sand, and another of
lime and marble dust is applied, this weak crust cracks and spoils
easily, nor does it, from its want of solidity, preserve the polish
given to it by friction.
The same thing happens to plastering that is deficient in thickness
as to a mirror which is too thin, and which therefore reflects but
weak and uncertain images : on the contrary, the wall that has
received a thick coat of plaster takes a durable polish, and presents to
the spectators distinct and bright images ; consequently, thin coats
of plaster, which cover the surface but imperfectly, are not only
liable to crack, but soon decay, whereas those that are prepared
solidly with sand coats and marble coats of good thickness and
which are afterwards well polished and burnished, not only cause
the colours to appear lively and brilliant, but they present true
images to the spectators.
This is in part what Vitruvius has written concerning the plaster-
ing of walls ; and from this author's description, we learn that the
true stucco consists of a coat of lime and brick, the proportions of
which should be two parts of lime and one of pounded brick, and of
three coats of lime and sand ; the first of which should consist of
common and coarse sand, the second should be finer and should
generally be sifted, but sometimes this is unnecessary. Upon these
sand coats should be applied three other coats of marble and lime.
The marble is prepared in the following manner; after being
ground it should be passed through sieves of three different sizes ;
that which passes through the coarsest sieve is to be used for the
first coat of lime and marble dust, the second size for the second
coat, and the finest for the third coat ; and I must inform you that
there are two kinds of marble ; in some quarries are found lumps
only of marble, and these will do for the stucco ; the other is more
perfect and in larger masses, the dust of which will answer the
purpose.
It is proper to observe, that where marble cannot be obtained, the
white pebbles found near the rivers in Spain, if burnt, ground, and
sifted, as in the glass furnaces, are well adapted for this purpose ;
and even, if there should be sufficient marble, these white pebbles
VITRUVIUS AND GUEVARA. 7
should be mixed with the stucco, in order to render the work more
brilliant. Pliny praises the stucco, which consisted of three sand
coats and two marble coats, and adds that Panseus the brother of
Phidias, covered the walls of the temple of Minerva, in Elis, with
lime and marble, mixed with milk and saffron.
Milk communicates great solidity and whiteness to the lime, a and
this secret is known in some places, where it is worked up with the
lime instead of water. Pliny says, that in his time these walls were
rubbed with a moistened finger that merely smelled of saffron ;
whence we understand that the addition of the saffron was merely
for the pleasant smell.
We should not omit to say, that the Greeks were accustomed to
plaster the wall in the manner we have described, 6 and moreover, for
the purpose of increasing then- solidity, after having mixed the lime
with the marble, they put it mixed into large mortars, and, by force
of labour and blows, ground the mixture thoroughly, that the
ingredients might incorporate into a tough and viscous substance,
and afterwards, with the same industry and diligence, they plastered
the wall. It is said also, treating of the good properties which the
lime for this kind of plastering should possess, that there was an old
law, forbidding the use of lime that was less than three years
old in plastering buildings, and this, they say, was one of the
reasons why it never cracked : at the present time, however, no
As to mixing the lime with milk instead of water, it is certain that it gives
more consistency to the lime and produces a more mellow white colour. The
Spanish word, eneaiiar, signifies to apply the whitewash with a brush, in the
manner of the whitewashers by profession. In several provinces of Spain, par-
ticularly in Estremadura, Tierra de Campos, Valencia, &c., the female servants,
and wives of the labourers, are accustomed to whitewash with rags put into a
large reed, and this process is called " enjalvegar" (enxalvegar), whitewashing.
It is usually done with white earth. Pom.
b To make the viscous mixture which results from the mixture of lime and
pulverized marble or white pebbles with milk, the lime should be steeped some
years in water, taking care to stir it every day. When there is occasion to use
it, the necessary quantity is taken out with a piece of board with a handle, called
in Spanish a paleta, and thrown into the mortar with the powder of marble or
pebbles, and also the milk ; the whole is to be beaten with the pestle until it is
of the consistence of glue. A coat of the requisite thickness is then to be ap-
plied with the paleta, and afterwards it is washed with a wet cloth, and if it
should crack it must be smoothed and polished with the same paleta, or with
spatulas made on purpose. Ponz. The paleta appears to be a float of wood.
8 FRESCO PAINTING.
attention is paid to this subject, to the great prejudice of the pro-
prietors of the work. 8
To proceed : the ancients, after plastering the roofs, ornamented
them in various ways, making the roofs of winter rooms plain and
smooth, that they might be easily cleaned from the smoke of fire and
candles. In summer apartments they were accustomed to use orna-
ments in relievo, to which they gave the form of wreaths and com-
partments, in the same manner as the plaster mouldings now used in
alcoves, cabinets, and oratories ; and this composition may be moulded
with the honey b of the plasterers ; for Vitruvius says, that the roofs
being finished, the cornices should be added, and these should be
narrow and of light weight, because heavy cornices could not well be
supported, and they would fall down from their own weight.
For this reason, it is evident that the ancients composed first the
cornices, compartments, wreaths of flowers, and similar works, and
then fixed them up to the roof with glue d or with the same stucco,
or any other thing that would hold them firmly, as is now done by
our modellers in plaster. So that from my description may be
understood what kind of stucco used by the ancients, and hi our own
times in many parts of Italy, is best adapted to secure durability.
OF THE COLOURS. Having now described the manner in which
the ancients plastered their walls, and prepared them for painting, it
seems proper also to describe the colours which are used in painting
in fresco. Vitruvius mentions two kinds of colours, namely, natural
and artificial or compound colours. Among the natural colours he
reckons ochre, the sil atticumf which some say should be of a purplish
crimson colour, and almagra. He praises that of Sinope, of Egypt
It cannot be denied that in order for the lime to acquire all the good
qualities described, it should remain in water for two or three years ; it will after
this period be found excellent for the construction of brick vaults, purified, firm,
and of the finest quality. Ponz.
b The honey of the plasterers is apparently that soft mass of gesso which the
plasterers and whitewashers use for the last coating on mouldings. Ponz. This
is probably the same as the gesso da oro of the Italians. ED.
l ' Vitruvius also cautions us against using gesso in these cornices, but desires
us to use the same materials throughout, because, as the gesso sets sooner than
the other mixture, the work would dry unevenly. ED.
d The word " betun" here used signifies any glutinous matter, and seems to be
synonymous with the Italian word tnaslrice. ED.
e It appears quite clear that Vitruvius meant yellow ochre, which he called
" light yellow earth." ED.
VITRUVIUS AND GUEVARA.
and of Spain, and that of the isles of Mallorca (Majorca) 8 and
Lemnos. He also enumerates among the natural colours the Pare-
tonium, thus called from the place whence it is brought. Pliny says,
that Paretonium b is produced from the froth of the sea mixed with
potter's clay, and that it had more body than any other kind of white.
He also mentions Melinum, which is brought from the isle of Melos,
which is of an agreeable colour like that of a quince. c He also names
creta verde, which may readily be supposed to be the Verde Terra now
in use ; and Orpiment ; and natural Sandarac which differs from the
artificial, that is called by some persons burnt arsenic. d He mentions
also Vermilion, which he admits, if used in places exposed to the sun,
air, and moon, in a few days perishes and turns black. 6 He also
names Chrysocola, (which some say is borax) which the same Vitru-
vius, Book vn. chap, xiv, gives us to understand is a natural
green pigment procured from mines of gold and silver/ He also
enumerates among the colours Indico (which the Venetians call
Endigo) the colour of which is a dark blue inclining to black.
These are the natural colours which Vitruvius enumerates among
those used in painting on walls. Among the artificial colours he
includes atramentumf which is a black colour composed of the smoke
of pitch, and resin, and other ingredients ; he also includes sil, lumps
of which being made red hot and quenched in vinegar, become of a
red colour. h The ancients also used white lead burnt, which we call
a From this it will be seen that the Sinopia of the ancients was identical with
the Almayra of the Arabs and Spaniards, and also with Majorica. ED.
b Pliny, book xxxv. chap. 6. Probably the variety of carbonate of magnesia,
called " Meerschaum," or Ecume de Mer. See Phillip's Mineralogy, page 180.
En.
c Pliny says it was white in colour, and that it could not be used in fresco. ED.
d Native Red Orpiment. Baldassare Orsini, the Italian translator of
Vitruvius, observes that all the natural colours mentioned by Vitruvius are not
proper for painting in fresco, neither are the artificial, with the exception of
coeruleo or smaltino and black. ED.
e Baldassare Orsini says, there is no doubt that native Cinnabar may be used
in fresco, but the other kind cannot, unless it be prepared after the manner of
Pozzo. ED.
1 This must be Malachite or native carbonate of copper, page 94. See Treatise
on Colours, prefixed to this work. It is necessary to remark that borax is
colourless, and cannot therefore be used as a green pigment. ED.
y As this colour is to be used with glue, it must be used when painting in
secco, and not in fresco : because in painting in fresco, the colours are tempered
with pure water or lime water. See lialdassare Orsini's notes to his translation
of Vitruvius. ED. h Burnt ochre. ED.
10 FRESCO PAINTING.
Azarcon." He also names ^Eruca (^Erugo), which is called in our
language Verde Cardenillo. b
He also mentions Ostrum, c which he says is the most excellent of
all artificial colours ; in our language it is called carmine or crimson ;
and finally, as he reckons purple among these colours, he observes,
respecting its composition, that if chalk be mixed with the roots of
the rubia d and ysgino, that the produce is a purple (or crimson)
colour. He says that ysgino is the same as vaccinium or hyacinth,
which is a kind of violet or purple gilliflower, and that if this vac-
cinium be mixed with milk, it produces a fine purple or crimson
colour ; and in default of attic ochre, if dried yellow violets be put
into water and afterwards well boiled, strained through a cloth, and
well squeezed between the hands into a mortar, a coloured liquor
will flow, which, being afterwards mixed with Terra Eretria and well
ground, imitates the colour of attic ochre.
Also, those persons who are prevented from purchasing natural
Chrysocola on account of its dearness, take the yellow herb lutea, e
which is of the same colour as the yolk of an egg and mix it with
blue, and the two colours compose a bright green. Also, if Indico
cannot be obtained, an imitation is made by mixing Terra Selemnusia,
which is white, and glass/ and grinding them together. Pliny adds,
that the dung of doves mixed with glass produces the same colour.
With this colour, says Pliny, are painted the bodies of women.s
a Red lead. ED. b Verdigris. ED.
c The Tyrian purple, prepared from a fish found in the Mediterranean. ED.
d Rubia tinctoria, madder. ED.
e The Italian translators render the term lutea hy guado, woad ; but this
plant yields a blue dye. It is probably the Reseda luteola, a native of Europe,
which yields a very fine yellow dye. The pigment, called Dutch pink, is
made from this plant. ED.
* Vitruvius says, " with the glass which the Greeks call vaXov (hyalon,) or
Vestorianum." Galliani and Orsini, the Italian translators say, " this glass is
synonymous with what the Italians call ' smaltino,' which was and is used still
in fresco painting in Italy." ED.
s The author has made a strange mistake. Pliny, book xxxv. chap. 6, in
describing the colour called Annularia, says, it was used for painting the carna-
tions in pictures of women, and is made of a white chalk or earth mixed with
a common kind of glass, of which rings were made for the common people ;
whence its name. ED.
VITRUVIUS AND GUEVARA. 11
These are the colours,* according to Vitruvius, with which, in his
time, perfect and agreeable pictures were painted on walls, and I
have mentioned them, not because we are at the present time in
want of colours, for these are well known to those who take an
interest in antiquities, but because the colours which were anciently
used upon those walls, may also be used at the present day. Finally,
from this description, we learn how to prepare walls for painting on
in a perfect and durable manner. We have proofs of the durability
of this kind of painting, in the pictures which have been found in the
ruins of Rome and other parts of Italy, and which, after having been
exposed to the air, and afterwards covered with earth, are still
bright, sound, and beautiful. b
We also learn the advantage of employing this stucco instead of
gesso on the walls of houses, even where it is not intended to paint
them, and of using relievos of stucco instead of those of gesso, and
how easy it is to do so, since the mountains of Toledo furnish suffi-
cient marble, and the rivers supply white pebbles in abundance,
while the " honey" of the modellers before mentioned, serves to fill
the moulds for moulding friezes and cornices, and similar things in
stucco, in the same manner as until the present time has been done
with gesso.
Vitruvius appears to have omitted two things, which would have
completed his description of the manner in which the ancients
plastered the walls and painted on them. The first is, how they kept
the wall damp, after having burnished it in order to paint on it, and
how they finished the painting before the wall dried, for he says that
the colours should be applied before the wall dried. The second
question is, how they used the colours, and how they tempered the
colours for painting on walls. Since, then, he does not tell us, what
must have been notorious to every one, it appears to me that I am
justified in conjecturing how they should be applied, if not in de-
scribing the process.
* Guevara has omitted to notice the blue pigment coeruleum, mentioned by
Vitruvius. The description by Vitruvius of the composition of this colour is
given in the Treatise on Colours, ante.
b The moderns have superseded the tedious and careful preparations of the
ancients with regard to their fresco paintings, with much saving of time, by
employing only one sand coat or application of lime and sand. The process
has been well explained by Don Ant. Palomino in the second vol. of the Museo
Pictorico, page 98 and following pages. Ponz. c " Gesso da Oro." ED.
12 FRESCO PAINTING.
For this purpose, it is necessary to suppose that the present method
is incorrect and badly conducted, because the artists of these times
plaster a portion of the wall, (assuming that the plaster that is used
is recent) and then paint it : they then add another portion of plas-
tering and paint it in the same manner. In fact, this plastering is
done piece-meal and not in a whole or a mass, which is attended
with great inconvenience ; for plastering, executed in this manner,
can neither be perfect nor durable, and will have cracks and other
defects ; for it is evident the portion of plaster which is added to
the first piece which is quite dry, cannot unite or incorporate with it
as firmly as it would have done if the plastering had all been com-
pleted at once. a Whence it appears that this manner of plastering
has imperfections which time will shew us every day. Besides this,
the wall that has been plastered by portions, will not allow of the
polishing mentioned by Vitruvius, as an essential requisite for perfect-
ing the work, and for ensuring the durability and beauty of the walls ;
for if we wish to work quickly on those walls plastered in portions, we
can neither do it well nor even moderately well, because the painting
in fresco is injured in the parts where it joins the new plastering.
Moreover, such walls cannot be constructed properly, by rule and
plummet, but must of necessity be full of hard lumps and hollows on
account of the joinings of the different masses, at the time of uniting
the fresh plastering with that which is dry. b
* The durability of the fresco paintings of the moderns, since the time
Guevara wrote his work, is proved by their having lasted some centuries. Those
by Luca Cambiaso, in the roof of the choir of the Escurial, and in the Presbytery,
and those of Peregrine Tibaldi in that of the Library, and in the walls of the
choir of the Royal Monastery, which are all in perfect preservation, have lasted more
than two centuries. This durability, I have said, may be continued some cen-
turies, provided, that the roofs and walls of these edifices can be preserved from
the penetration of rain, and other inclemencies of the weather, which destroy
them in the same manner as conflagrations, earthquakes and similar things.
Ponz.
b The works of Giordano in the Escurial in Madrid, and in Toledo, do not ex-
hibit these defects, and the junctions of the tareas (day's work) are scarcely
visible, neither are there prominences nor hollows. These pictures will doubt-
less last like those by Palomino in Valencia, Granada, el Paular, &c., as fresh as
we now see them and equal to those above-mentioned, and also to those of the
ancients, if the same precautions be observed, provided the buildings in which
they are contained be preserved. Mengs, who was a great investigator of the
arts of the ancients, painted his works in fresco, according to the modern practice,
VITRUVIUS AND GUEVARA. 13
Having mentioned the inconveniences, let us now speak of the
remedy. For this purpose we must suppose that the ancient
painters were very diligent and prudent ; I therefore consider it
certain that they did not plaster the wall in portions, but that, whe-
ther it was large or small, they finished plastering the whole at one
time, and then painted it with such expedition and diligence, that
the painting and the wall dried together ; a not taking into consider-
ation that they knew how to keep the wall damp for some days.
in the royal palace and other places. Perhaps if these pictures were buried and
then exposed to the sun, air, and water, they might not last so long as those of
the ancients referred to by Don Felipe de Guevara, and it is certain that the
preservation of the paintings found in the sepulchres, and those covered with the
burning lavas of Vesuvius in the excavations of Caserta and of Herculaneum, is
really wonderful. Ponz.
a Sig. Requeno (Saggio sul Ristabilimento, &c.) is of opinion that the ancients
did not really paint in buon-fresco as the Italians do, but that they coloured the walls
in fresco, with a single colour, and then painted the figures on them in secco.
In the note to vol. 1, page 190, he says, " In the work of Vitruvius there is
no mention made of painting, as is generally believed, but only of the preparation
of the int onaco for painting,in Chap. 3, ' De tectoriisoperibus.' The preparation of
the intonaco was formerly made, as Vitruvius says, firstly with six coats of
intonaco ; secondly staining the intonaco, while still wet, with one colour, some-
times red, sometimes black, sometimes blue, &c. It was not every colour that
was used on this occasion, on the wet lime and marble dust. Pliny expressly tells
us, ' udo illini recusant purpurinum, indacum' &fc. (Purpurinum, indigo, &c.
cannot be used in fresco ;) and of another colour he tells us, that it is ' calcis
impatient,' (that it cannot bear lime). The words of Vitruvius, ' colores udo
tectorio cum diligenter sunt inducti, Sfc.' (when the colours are carefully laid
on the wet plaster,) must undoubtedly be understood of the various colours with
which the intonachi, while still wet, were stained. Then that the preparation
of the intonaco for painting on, of which alone Vitruvius speaks in this chapter,
formerly included the operation of colouring the intonaco. before it was dry, with
red or yellow, or with some other colour, which, besides what Vitruvius tells us
in this third chapter of his ' De tectoriis operibus,' is proved by the ancient
pictures of Herculaneum. When, by any accident, the colours of these scale off,
the uniform colour of the ground beneath the elegant figures with which they
are painted is seen. As authorities, I cite Winckelmann, and the academicians
of Herculaneum, who, observing that when some of the pictures were cleaned
with water, all the colours of the figures washed off, and there remained a ground,
uniform in colour, smooth, fair, and polished, upon the ancient walls, concluded
that the pictures of Herculaneum were painted by the Romans, in secco, upon
an intonaco, stained in fresco. The authority of Vitruvius, chapter in., must
therefore be understood of the preparation of the coloured intonachi, intended to
be painted with figures, landscapes, or ornaments ; and the text, ' Colores udo
14 FRESCO PAINTING.
I have, however, thought of two plans, by which afresh plastered
wall may be kept moist, so that it may be finished with all the expe-
dition which Vitruvius directs. One is, that the plastering being
finished, the whole of it (except such parts as the artist is painting)
tectorio cum diligenter sunt inducti, idea non remittunt, scd sunt perpetuo
permanent es,' (When the colours are carefully laid on the wet plaster, they
do not on that account fade, but are eternally permanent,) and the other text,
'Itaque tectoria, qua recte suntfacta, neque vetustatibus fiunt horrida, neque cum
extergentur remittunt colores, nui si parum diligenter et in aridofuerint inducti,'
(Therefore the plasterings which are properly done, neither become rough
with age, nor, when washed, do their colours fade, unless laid on with little care,
and when the plaster was dry,) must be understood of the colours, sometimes
yellow, sometimes black, sometimes blue, with which the wet intonachi were
anciently covered. Moreover, Vitruvius, as we have already mentioned, orders
the glue to be mixed with the colours for painting on the above mentioned
intonachi ; be also directs white lead, made from lead and vinegar, to be used ;
all which things are incompatible with true fresco painting.
" Hence it follows, that the Marchese Berardo Galliani was mistaken in his
interpretation of this third chapter of Vitruvius, when he wrote (note iv.) ' The
ancients had two methods of painting on walls : one in fresco, udo tectorio ; the
other in secco in arido,' Vitruvius nowhere speaks of painting, udo tectorio,
but of colouring, udo tectorio. The plasterers sometimes colour with white,
sometimes with red, inducunt colores tectoriis ; but they do not paint.
" Hence it follows, that the person who continued the ' Memorie per le belle
arti,' printed at Rome, in July, 1785, had no cause for his astonishment at my
denial that the ancients possessed our method of fresco painting, properly so
called. ' The denial,' says he, ' that the ancients painted in fresco, seems to
us rather extraordinary, and not agreeable to what Vitruvius says about painting
udo tectorio ; and moreover that this painting is seized by the mortar, and is not
destroyed by washing.' This modest and genteel Sig. Diarista will not find the
words pictura or ping ere in the passage of Vitruvius, for Vitruvius never speaks
of painting udo tectorio ; ' Colores,' says Vitruvius, ' udo tectorio cum
diligenter sunt inducti,' (when the colours are carefully laid on the wet
plaster ;) an expression which indicates only the practice of staining the wet
intonaco, sometimes with red, and sometimes with some other colour. So also,
Vitruvius never says that this painting is seized by the lime ; but that the
colours with which the wet intonaco was stained, became incorporated with the
intonaco, the plaster seizing and retaining them, so that when washed with
water, they do not separate from the wall, which is exemplified in the walls of
Herculaneum, on which the red or yellow colour of the intonaco is not affected
by the water with which they are rubbed, but the painting does not stand ; on
the contrary, it yields to the water and washes off.* The paintings at the
* The Arabesques by Giovanni da Udina, in the upper Loggia of the Vatican, were painted
in the manner here described. See II. Report, page 38.
VITRUVIUS AND GUEVAUA. 15
should be covered with linen soaked in very pure water ; a for this
linen cloth, besides preserving the moisture of the plastering, will
moreover prevent the air from drying it ; and as to the parts on
which the artist is painting, he should proceed as follows. Clean
sponges should be steeped in very pure water, and partially squeezed,
and then applied to the parts of the plastering most necessary to be
kept moist, and this process being repeated frequently and with pro-
per care, the wall may be kept moist a sufficient time, and thus we
shall attain the end desired ; namely, to have old walls painted with
great firmness and in the most perfect manner.
It remains to be noticed, that Vitruvius has not informed us with
what the colours employed on such walls were tempered. The
moderns have remedied this by using lime-water ; and as this has
been found successful in painting, we believe that the ancients used
the same, and if they did not, that this is sufficient, even if the an-
cients did not use it. However, I must remark, that the moderns
Thermae, and at the sepulchres of the ancient Romans, must also be considered
as painted in secco; so that the theory of the chemist, (which may be seen in
the ' Effemeridi Letterarie di Roma,') a theory consisting in applying
phlogiston, and by that means restoring to their former splendour the
colouring of the ancient pictures, is liable to some exceptions. This theory
supposes, firstly, that the pictures on intonaco, found in the excavations at
Rome, were painted in true fresco ; secondly, that the colors were all mineral
colours. I consider, that according to the authority of Vitruvius, both these
propositions are equally false. I grant that the colours on the ancient intonachi
may be revived by phlogiston ; but I deny the truth of the arguments which
induced them to try this.
" The reason, however, why the ancients did not paint in fresco, when they
well knew that the plaster of the intonaco seized the colours, and that the
colours so applied, resisted the inclemency of the weather, is a very different
question from the first. Whether the ancient Romans did or did not employ
our method of fresco painting, is a question of fact ; and from facts we know that
the ancient Romans did not paint in true fresco. The above mentioned question
is a speculation.
" Pictures in true fresco require lime, instead of white lead, to mix with the
colours ; and colours mixed with lime produce a very different effect when dry,
to what they do while wet. Painting in true fresco requires such quickness and
readiness in the application of the colours, that at present, there are but very few
painters in Italy, who both sketch and finish their figures in true fresco." ED.
The artists of Munich have a contrivance for arresting the drying of the
work, which is somewhat similar to that described by Guevara. See I. Rep.
page 18." ED.
1C FRESCO PAINTING.
deceive themselves in thinking that the ancients did not use artificial
colours on walls, but natural pigments only, and those chiefly of
earths. Of this mistake Vitruvius is sufficient evidence, since he
not only gives us an account of the artificial colours they used, but
also describes the composition of some of them. 8
Those persons, then, who profess the art should experiment with
the artificial colours, if they would employ them with the same
success as the ancients, it being understood that, at the present time,
colours of this description are not used in the same manner as they
were by the ancients ; they should study the subject and seek a
remedy for it ; for it is not just that noblemen who love such works,
and who cause them to be executed, should be deprived of that
brilliancy which artificial pigments (of which there are so many) give
to the picture by the negligence and insufficiency of the artist ; and
especially they should work with great care, because the colours of
those earthy pigments that they use are extremely harsh and crude,
and bring with them an inexpressible feeling of melancholy . b
The error appears to be on the part of Guevara. Requeno has proved
satisfactorily that the ancients did not use artificial colours on damp walls. See
the note, pages 13 and 14, ante. ED.
b I have spoken of the paintings in fresco of Cincinato and Cambiaso in the
Escurial as familiar examples. If we seek for examples at a distance from home,
I do not know whether Raffaello da Urhino, Michael Angelo, and other artists
of that period in Italy, prepared their walls and roofs in the manner now
practised, and as Palomino describes, or whether they observed any other method
more consonant with the doctrine of Vitruvius ; as some persons think. It is
certain that the " Last Judgment" above the altar in the Sistine Chapel in the
Vatican, and the roof of that building, have been well preserved for about 300
years ; and the same would have happened with the paintings of Raffaello, if it
had not been for the continual copying, (tracing,) and handling of them since
they were painted, by which they have suffered, and suffer still in some parts :
these injuries should be carefully repaired. The pictures of these artists are as
highly finished as is necessary for the distance at which they are to be viewed.
Ponz.
CHAPTER II.
THE DIRECTIONS OF THE MONK THEOPHILUS.
THE earliest writer after Pliny and Vitruvius who mentions painting
on walls (for the appellation of fresco was not then applied to it), is
Theophilus, the monk, the author of a treatise entitled, "Diversarum
Artium Schedula," supposed to have been written in the beginning
of the thirteenth century. Very little is known of the author ; it
however appears from his work, that he was extremely well versed
in those branches of the arts of which he treats. The few directions
he has left on this subject are merely as to the painting on walls
and ceilings ; he does not allude to the preparation of the wall,
further than to direct that it should be made quite wet before the
painting is begun.
He distinguishes between such colours as were proper to be used
on walls, and such as were unfit for this purpose. In chapter
xiv, he observes, " neither orpiment nor any colour with which it is
. mixed can be used on walls ;" in another place, he says, " Let two
lines be made of equal breadth, one of burnt ochre mixed with lime
fcalcej, under vermilion on a wall ; but, on a ceiling, use vermilion
itself mixed with chalk fcretaj."
The following are his directions for painting on a wall. He says,
" You should fill in the drapery with ochre, mixed with lime, to
give it brilliancy, and make the shades in it either with pure burnt
ochre, or with prasinus,* or with posch, b which must be made of
the ochre itself mixed with green. The flesh colour c for walls
must be made of ochre, and vermilion, and lime; and the posch,
and rosa, A and lumina* must be made as before. When figures,
This prasinus is a certain preparation having the appearance of green and
black. It is prepared by being dissolved in water and strained through a cloth .
It is considered useful as a green colour upon a fresh wall. Theophilus, c. 2.
b Posch is the colour for the shades, made by adding prasinus and burnt ochre
(rubrum) to the flesh colour.
c Membrana. d Rose colour for lips and cheeks.
e Luinina flesh colour with white.
c
18 FRESCO PAINTING.
or birds, or representations of other objects, are drawn on a
dry wall, the wall must be immediately sprinkled with water until
it is quite wet. And all the colours which are to be put on,
must be mixed with lime, and laid on at one wetting, in order that
they may dry along with the wall, and may adhere to it. Under
ultramarine and green the colour called veneda, which is composed
of black mixed with lime, must be put as a ground ; and upon this
colour, when it is dry, must be laid, in the proper place, a thin coat of
ultramarine, tempered with the yolk of an egg mixed with plenty of
water : and after this a thicker coat must be laid, to make it look
well. Green also must be mixed with succus a and black." Chap. xv.
From these distinctions it is evident that ceilings were painted in
secco, and that paintings on walls were begun in fresco, and finished
in distemper or secco.
Theophilus concludes the sixteenth chapter in the following
manner :
" All colours which are placed under others on a wall must be
mixed with lime, to give them more firmness ; under ultramarine
and menesch 1 * and green, veneda must be laid; under vermilion, burnt
ochre ; under ochre a.ndfolium, c the same colours mixed with lime."
The following summary of these instructions of Theophilus for
painting on walls may not be uninteresting to the reader. It is
copied from a MS. in the Bibliotheque Royal, at Paris, written
by Jehan le Begue, " licentiatum in legibus, Anno Domini,
MCCCCXXXI."
" Pour peindre murs, mettez un po de chaux avec ocre pour avoir
plus grant clarte, ou vous la mettez avec rouge simple, ou avec prasin,
ou avec une couleur qui est nomme'e posce, qui est faite de ocre vert
et de membrayne, ou vous pouvez prandre dune couleur qui soit faite
de synople et docre, et de chaux, et de posce, &c. ; et doivent estre
murs paint plus moiste que autre chose, pour ceque les couleurs se
tiennent mieulx ensembles, et soient plus formes. Et doivent toutes
couleurs pour murs estre melles avecques chaux vive."
11 A green colour prepared from vegetables.
l> Menesch The nature of this colour is not known.
c A vegetable pigment from which three different colours were prepared.
CHAPTER III.
LEON BATISTA ALBERTI.
LEON Batista Albert! appears, as Mr. Eastlake observes in the First
Report, the connecting link between ancient and revived art ; and
D'Agincourt does not hesitate to attribute the Renaissance of archi-
tecture, in a great measure, to his exertions, and those of his country-
man and contemporary Brunelleschi, the constructor of the Duomo
of Florence. He was eminent in all the arts, but attached himself
principally to architecture, and applied himself with much assiduity
to the study and explanation of the work of Vitruvius, the only one
of the ancients whose" express treatise on this subject has reached us.
His principal work, De Re jEdificatoria, from which the following
pages are extracted, was completed, and a manuscript copy presented
to Pope Nicholas V. in 1452 ; and was printed at Florence, at the
early period of 1485. It contains, observes D'Agincourt, all that
could be known, at that time, relative to the art ; and, if we confess
the truth, almost all that has since been written in the best works
on the same subject.
DIRECTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS.
Alberti treats concerning the coats of plaster which should be
laid on walls, of the various kinds of intonachi, and how the mortar
with which they are made is to be prepared, of statues in basso-
rilievo, and of the pictures with which the walls are adorned.
He observes (Lib. vi. ch. 9.), " that in all plasterings three kinds,
at least, of intonachi are required. The first is called rinzaffato, and
its use is to adhere very closely to the wall, and to hold firmly the
other two intonachi which are laid upon it. The use of the last
intonaco is to receive the polish, and the colors, and lineaments,
which make the work pleasing. The use of the middle intonaco,
which is now called arricciato, is to obviate any defects both in the
first and in the last intonaco. The defects are as follows : if the
two last coats, namely, the arricciato and the intonaco, are caustic,
20 FRESCO PAINTING.
and, so to speak, astringent, as the rinzaffato ought to be, they will,
on account of their crudity, show many cracks as they dry. And
if the rinzaffato is mild, as the intonaco should be, it will not adhere
sufficiently to the wall, but will fall off in pieces. The more coats
of it are given, the better will the surface receive the polish, and be
enabled to withstand the effects of the weather. I have seen some
of the more ancient specimens which had nine coats, one upon the
other. It is necessary for the first of these to be rough, containing
pit sand and pounded brick, the pieces of which should not be too
small, but as big as acorns, or in pieces the size of the finger, and
sometimes the size of a palm. For the arricciato, river sand is best,
being less liable to crack ; this arricciato should also be rough,
because the coats which are to be laid on afterwards will not adhere
to smooth surfaces. The last coat must be very white, like
marble ; in fact, very white pounded stone should be used instead of
sand, and it will be sufficient for this coat to be half a finger's breadth
in thickness ; because, if it is made too thick, it dries with difficulty.
I have seen some persons, who, in order to save expense, do not
make this coat thicker than the sole of a shoe. The arricciato
must be mixed according as it is nearer to the first, or to the second
coat. In the masses of stone, in stone-quarries, there are found
certain veins, very much resembling transparent alabaster, which are
neither marble nor gesso; but of a certain middle nature, between
the one and the other, and which are very apt to crumble. When
these are pounded, and used instead of sand, they sparkle like
shining marble. In many places are seen sharp points projecting
from the wall, in order to hold the intonachi ; and time has shewn
us that these are better made of bronze than of iron. I approve
very much of those who, instead of nails, insert between the stones
certain pieces of stone, or flints, so as to project ; but, for this
purpose, a wooden mallet must be used, and the fresher and rougher
the wall is, the better it will hold the rinzaffato, the arricciato, and
the intonaco ; therefore, if, while building, and while the work is
being done, you apply the rinzaffato, although thinly, you will cause
the arricciato and the intonaco to adhere to it very strongly, so as
never to separate. You may carry on any of these processes during
the prevalence of the south wind ; but if you apply the intonaco
while the north wind blows, or during severe cold, or great heat,
the intonaco will immediately become rough or uneven.
" Finally, the last coats are of two sorts ; they are either plastered
LEON BATISTA ALBERTI. 21
and spread upon the wall; or they are composed of materials
joined and fitted on to it. Gesso and lime are spread upon it ; but
gesso is not good, except in very dry places ; for the damp which
passes down old walls, is very injurious to every kind of coating.
The coatings which are joined on to the walls, are stones, glasses,
and such things. The coatings which are spread upon walls,
are these : pure white, with figures of stucco, or paintings ; but
those which are joined on, are wainscoatings, panellings, and
inlaid works. We shall now speak of the first sort, for which the
mortar must be prepared as follows :
" Slake the lime with clear water in a covered trough, and with so
much water that there may be a great excess above the lime ; then
stir it well with the spade, kneading and working it thoroughly ; and
let it be thoroughly slaked and kneaded, which may be known by the
spade not meeting with any lumps or clods. a The lime is not
considered to be mature in less than three months. That which
is good, must be very soft and viscid ; because, if the trowel put
into it comes out dry, it proves that it has not had enough water
to slake it completely. When you mix it with the sand, or with any
powdered materials, work it again and again with great labor ; and
continue to work it until it almost froths. The ancients were
accustomed to pound in a mortar the materials they required for the
intonachi; and they tempered the mixture so that it might not
adhere to the trowel when they were laying it on the wall. Upon
the coat which has just been put on, and while it is still wet and
soft, another coat must be laid, and care must be taken that all
these coatings may dry together, and at the same instant. They
a To this we must add, that much water must not be added to the lime at once
when slaking it ; but it must be quenched a little at a time, pouring water on it
at intervals, until it is completely saturated ; then put it in a place rather damp
than otherwise, and in the shade, without mixing anything with it ; for it should
be preserved pure, covering it only with a little sand, until, by length of time,
it is become more liquid. And it has been found that, by this long maceration,
the lime has acquired great virtue. I have actually seen some very ancient,
and in considerable quantity, which had been abandoned, as we have good
reason to suppose, for more than 500 years ; and, then being discovered,
it was found to be moist and liquid, and, as it were, so ripe, that in its con-
sistence, it far surpassed honey and marrow. And there certainly is nothing
that can be found more convenient for any purpose whatever than this.
If you use it thus, it requires double the quantity of sand. L. B. Allerti,
Lib. ii. c. xi.
22 FKESCO PAINTING.
must be smoothed and made even with smoothing boards, floats,
and other similar things while they are yet soft. If the last coat
of pure white be well rubbed, it will shine like a looking glass ; and
if, when the same is nearly dry, you anoint it with wax and mastic,
liquified with a very little oil, and then heat the wall, so anointed,
with a chafing dish of lighted charcoal; or with an iron, so that
it may soak up the ointment, it will surpass marble in whiteness.
I have found by experience that such intonachi never cracked, if, in
making them, the moment the little cracks begin to appear, they are
rubbed down with bundles of twigs of the wild mallow, or of wild
broom. But if, on any occasion, you have to apply an intonaco
in the dog days, or in very hot places, pound and cut up, very finely,
some old rope, and mix it with the intonaco. Besides this, it will
be very delicately polished if you throw on it a little white soap,
dissolved in tepid water. If it is too greasy, it will become pale.
" Small figures of stucco may be executed very expeditiously by
casting from hollow moulds ; and the hollow moulds may be
obtained from rilievos, by pouring liquid gesso over them. When
they are dry, if they are anointed with the composition which I have
mentioned, they will have a surface like marble. These figurines
are of two sorts, some in entire relief, and some in bas-relief : those
in high relief do very well on a flat wall ; but, on a vaulted roof,
bas-reliefs are better, because those which are in high relief, on
account of their weight, being fixed obliquely, easily separate and
fall down, and are likely to fall on the heads of those that are
beneath. Care must be taken not to put hollow ornaments, or
ornaments in high relief, where there is much dust ; but let them
be flat and in low relief, in order to clean them easily. The painted
intonachi are sometimes executed in fresco, and sometimes in secco.
For those which are done in fresco, all natural colours, which are
obtained from the earth, or from mines, or from similar places,
are proper ; but artificial colours, and particularly those which
change when exposed to the fire, require very dry things, and dislike
lime, moonshine, and the south wind. It has been recently dis-
covered that all colours can be mixed with linseed oil, and will last
for ever, provided that the wall, upon which they are put, be very dry
and completely free from damp ; although I find that the ancient
painters were accustomed, in painting the sterns of their ships, to
use liquid wax instead of glue. And, if I remember right, I have
LEON BATISTA ALBERTI. 23
seen in the works of the ancients, that factitious gems, a fastened to
the wall, with wax, or perhaps with white stucco, become so hard, in
course of time, that they separated neither with fire nor water.
You would say that it was burnt glass ; and I have seen some who,
with the Vhite flower of lime, have fastened colours, particularly
vitrified colours, to the walls while still fresh."
il The words in the Italian translation of Cosimo Bartoli, which I have used,
are, " colore di gemme," by which I think he means the coloured pastes, of
which artificial gems are made, like those described by Cennino (translation),
p. 74, and by Cicognara. See note to Cennino, p. 149.
CHAPTER IV.
DIRECTIONS OF CENNINO CENNINI.
THE work of Cennino Cennini having been so recently published, 1 *
it is considered necessary only to refer to the leading practical
points detailed in it.
Cennino professes to teach the art of fresco painting, as it was
practised by Giotto, and by Taddeo Gaddi, his godson and favorite
pupil, and by Agnolo, the son of Taddeo, and master of Cennini.
He commences by directing the preparation of the mortar, which is
to consist of two parts of sand, and one of lime, if the lime be rich
and fresh; the lime and sand are to be thoroughly mixed with
water, until the lime is quite slaked, for if any heat be left in the
lime, it will cause the plaster to crack.
The wall on which the painting is to be executed, is to be first
swept, then made very wet, after which the mortar is to be spread
over it, and the surface made quite level, although rough. This
coat of mortar is generally called the arricciato ; Cennino applies the
term intonaco, both to this sand coat and the fine coat of lime on
which the painting is executed.
When the surface of the wall is dry, the design is to be drawn
upon it with charcoal. It does not appear that the artists of this
period used cartoons, but we collect from the text of Cennino, and
from certain expressions of Vasari, in the life of Simone Memmi,
that they made small drawings, which they copied on an enlarged
scale, on the walls, by means of proportional squares, technically
called rete and graticola. The outlines are then to be fixed by
marking them over with a pencil, dipped in ochre. The most
singular part of the process is, that the whole wall, including the
drawing, was then to be covered over with a thin intonaco. The
a A Treatise on Painting, by Cenniuo Cennini, translated by Mrs. Merrifield.
LUMJ.EY, 56, Chancery Lane, London, 1844.
CENNINO CENNINI. 25
descriptions 'by Morrona, of the ancient frescoes in the Campo Santo,
at Pisa, noticed hereafter, as well as the remarks of Vasari and
Lanzi, leave no room to doubt that the outline was actually covered
with the intonaco. Such a portion of the picture as the painter
considered he could paint in one day, (which Cennino gives us to
understand, was a head only,) was then to be covered with the
intonaco, the wall having been previously wetted, and the surface
smoothed with a slip of wood. A colour called Verdaccio, was next
to be made of ochre, white, and cinabrese (sinopia and white), with
which the outlines of the features were to be drawn ; necessary
corrections might then be made, by washing out any part of the
drawing, with a large brush, dipped in water. The shades of the
face were next to be put in with verde terra. Cennino then describes
the manner in which contemporary artists painted flesh, after which
he details the method practised by Giotto. The difference between
these different methods, consisted in the use of many tints of flesh
colour, (of which every shade was at once laid in its place), by the
school of Giotto, while other artists applied a wash of flesh colour
over the face, either before or after the shades were laid in. Cennino
is very particular as to this point ; he says, " If you would have your
work appear very brilliant, be careful to keep each tint of flesh
colour in its place, and do not mix one with the other." He after-
wards makes the same observations with regard to the shades in
draperies.
In painting draperies he used four shades of colour, each of which
contained white. He then heightened the lights with pure white, and
finished the darkest shades with the pure colour, without white.
When the figures were finished, they were to be left for the lime and
colours to dry thoroughly ; and if any drapery remained to be done, it
might be finished, when dry, in secco.
Cennino then gives directions for painting on walls, in secco, and
begins by naming those colours which cannot be used in fresco :
these are orpiment, cinabro, azzurro della magna, minio (red lead),
biacca (white lead), verderame (verdigris), and lake. Those which
may be used in fresco, are giallorino (Naples yellow), bianco
sangiovanni, black, ochre, cinabrese, sinopia, verde terra, and
amatito ; these are to be made lighter by the addition of the white,
(bianco sangiovanni). He then describes two kinds of temperas or
veliicles, with which the colours for finishing the draperies are
mixed: the first consists of the white and yolk of an egg, into
26 FRESCO PAINTING.
which are put some cuttings from the tender branches of a fig tree,
to which a moderate quantity of water is added, and the whole is
well beaten together ; Cennino adds, " if too much of the tempera is
put to the colours, they will crack." The second tempera consists of
the yolk of the egg only ; " this tempera," he says, " is of universal
application, and you cannot use too much of it." Directions for
painting various coloured draperies in fresco and secco, then follow ;
and he concludes by teaching how to colour mountains, trees,
plants, and buildings. We must not omit to mention a remark of
Cennino's, which conveys much information relative to the practice
of painting on walls at that period : " Remember, that everything
you paint in fresco, must be finished and re-touched in secco, with
tempera."
Another point, worthy the attention of the novice in fresco painting,
is, that after having dipped the brush in the liquid colours, it should
be squeezed between the thumb and finger of the left hand, before
beginning to paint. See pages 42 and 43.
It seems that in painting blue draperies, it was the practice of
the school of Giotto, as well as in that of Sienna, to mark out the
large folds with a needle or bodkin of iron, (Cenn. LXXXIII. p. 52,)
and to make the light on the knees and other parts, by scratching
off the colour with the handle of the brush. The darkest parts were
shaded with lake and black, and finished with the iron point.
CHAPTER V.
OF VAS ARI.
GIORGIO Vasari, of Arezzo, was descended from a family friendly
to the arts ; he was the grand nephew of Lazzaro, and nephew of
another Giorgio Vasari, who was skilful in making terra cotta vases,
after the manner of the ancients. Michael Angelo, Andrea del
Sarto, and others, instructed him in design, and II Rosso taught him
painting. But his principal school was Rome, where he accom-
panied the Cardinal Ippolito de Medici, by whose family he was
loaded with riches and honors. After having studied the works of
Michael Angelo and Raffaello, he formed a style of his own, in
which, however, his partiality for the former was perceptible.
Having become a skilful painter of figures, he studied architecture,
and became one of the most distinguished architects of his time.
He was capable of directing alone the architectural works of a large
building, and also of disposing properly the decorative parts, such
as figures, ornaments in relief, grotesques, landscapes, gildings, &c.
He thus attained reputation in Italy, and was employed to paint
in various places in Rome itself, and afterwards in Naples, Ravenna,
Perugia, Venice, Pisa, Florence, &c. He was afterwards invited by
Cosmo I. to his court, where, among the great works that he
conducted, must be mentioned the Uffizi, and the paintings by
Vasari and his pupils, in the apartments of the Palazzo Vecchio.
He died in 1574.
The following directions and observations of Vasari are taken
from his " Introduction to the Three Arts of Design," prefixed to
his great work, " The Lives of the Painters."
DIRECTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS OF VASARI.
OF THE USE OF SKETCHES, DESIGNS, CARTOONS, AND PERSPECTIVE
DRAWINGS. We give the name of sketches, (he observes), to
tl -~se first rough drawings, which we make in order to decide on
28 FRESCO PAINTING.
proper attitudes, and to form the composition of the picture.
These are executed in a very slight manner, and only just marked
here and there to give us an idea of the whole picture, and are
called sketches ; because, owing to the haste of the artist to
embody his thoughts, they are drawn very quickly with the pen,
with charcoal, or any other drawing material, merely to express
the ideas of the painter.
From these are afterwards formed drawings, which must be done
with great neatness of form, and with as much care as possible ;
and the various parts must be drawn from nature, unless the artist
is conscious that he is sufficiently skilful to complete the drawing
without a model. Afterwards, by measuring them with the com-
passes, or with the eye, the lines of the small drawings must be
enlarged, according to the intended size. Drawings are executed
in various ways, that is, either with lapis rosso, which is a stone that
comes from the mountains of Germany, and which, being soft, can
easily be sawn and reduced into fine points for marking paper, just
as you like ; or with the (pietra nera) black stone, which comes from
the mountains of France, which is like the red. Others are made
in Chiaro-scuro on tinted paper, which paper serves for the middle
tints, and the pen marks the lines, that is, the outline or profile ;
and, afterwards, the ink, with a little water, makes a soft tint, which
glazes and shades it. The lights are then put on the drawing with
a fine pencil dipped in white lead tempered with gum. And this
method has an excellent effect, and shews better the arrangement
of the colouring. Many persons draw with the pen alone, leaving
the paper for the lights, which is difficult, but very masterly.
There are many other methods of drawing, which it is not necessary
for us to mention ; because they all represent one and the same
thing, namely, the design.
The designs being thus made, whoever wishes to paint in fresco,
that is, on a wall, must first make the cartoons, and it is customary
with some persons, to make cartoons even for painting pictures.
The cartoons are thus made. Square sheets of paper are pasted
together, with paste, made by boiling flour and water over the fire,
and are fastened to the wall by pasting the edges of them for
about two fingers in breadth on the side next the wall, with the
same paste. They are then wetted by sprinkling fresh water all
over them, and then are stretched, while soft, in order that, in drying,
the wrinkles may be pulled out. Afterwards, when they are dry, a
VASARI. 29
long cane a is taken with a piece of charcoal fixed at the end of it,
and with this, everything that is drawn in the small design is repro-
duced on the cartoon, in the same proportion, in order to judge of
the effect at a distance ; and so by degrees, first one figure is
finished and then another. Here the painter employs all his skill
in the art, in drawing naked figures from the life, and draperies
from nature, and the perspective is drawn by all those rules, which
have been observed in drawing the design on a small scale, observing
to enlarge them in proportion to the size of the cartoon. And if
there are perspective representations or buildings in the drawing,
they are enlarged by means of the rete, which is a grating of small
squares, enlarged upon the cartoon, by which everything may be
copied exactly. Because, the artist having drawn the perspective
as ascertained by the plan, elevation, and section, and made the
lines diminish towards and vanish in a point, in the small design,
must repeat them, in proper proportion, on the cartoon. As for the
manner of drawing* the perspective, which is tedious and difficult to
explain, I will not say anything more about it. It is sufficient to
observe, that the perspective is beautiful in proportion as it appears
true, and vanishes from the eye in the distance, and when it is
composed of a varied and beautiful arrangement of buildings. It
is also necessary for the painter to be careful to diminish the force
of the colours proportionably to the increase of distance, and this
depends on the discretion and good judgment of the artist. The
reason for this is the difficulty caused by the confusion of lines
obtained from the plan, elevation, and section, and which, by colour-
ing them, is rendered very easy, and the due observance of this
art (aerial perspective), causes the artist to be considered as learned
and skilful in his profession. Many masters also are accustomed,
before they draw the picture on the cartoon, to make a clay model
on a flat surface, making all the figures round, in order to see the
play of the light, that is to say, the shadows which a light produces
1 The use of brushes with long handles has the sanction of many of the best
masters. Velasquez was accustomed to use brushes, four or five feet long, and
lie placed his canvass nearly the same distance from him as the person whose
likeness he was painting. Gainsborough also adopted the same plan, and it is
quite apparent, no practice can be better adapted than this for giving freedom of
hand, and avoiding the extreme minuteness of detail, observable in the works of
the early painters, who worked with short handles to their brushes, and finished
their large pictures with hatchings like a miniature.
30 FRESCO PAINTING.
on the pictures. The sunshine is generally used for producing these
shadows, as it marks the shadow of the figure on the ground with
harder outlines than an artificial light would produce, and drawing
the whole of their picture from this, they make the shadows which
one figure throws upon another, and so the cartoons and the picture,
owing to the trouble which is taken in order to give greater per-
fection and force, are better finished, and have such relief as to
appear as if starting from the picture ; and this causes the work to
appear finer, and more highly finished. When these cartoons are
used for painting in fresco or upon walls, a piece must be cut off
every day at the joining, and traced upon the wall, which should be
plastered over with lime, and made very smooth. This piece of the
cartoon is put in the place where the figure is to be painted, and is
countersigned in order that, the next day, when another piece is to
be joined on to it, its place may be known exactly, and no error
may arise. The outlines of this piece are then traced with an iron
stile on to the intonaco of lime, which, being wet, yields to the
paper and thus receives the marks. After this, the cartoon is taken
off, and the colours are laid on according to those lines which are
traced upon the wall, and the painting in fresco or on walls is execu-
ted. For paintings on canvass the same sort of tracing is used,
except, that the cartoon is all in one piece, and that it is necessary
to cover over the back of the cartoon with charcoal or black powder,
in order that afterwards, when it is marked over with the iron stile,
it may be drawn or traced on the canvass or panel. And the rea-
son of dividing the cartoons into compartments is, that the work
may be true and in the proper proportion. There are many painters
who do not use cartoons for oil pictures, but when painting in fresco
they cannot be dispensed with.
The author of this invention had certainly a very happy idea, con-
sidering that, in the cartoons, we can see the effect of the whole
painting, and that they may be corrected and drawn upon until they
are approved of, which cannot be done afterwards to the picture
itself.
OP PAINTING ON WALLS, AND WHY IT IS CALLED FRESCO-PAINT-
ING. Of every kind of painting practised by artists, painting on
walls is the finest and most masterly, because it consists in doing in
one day only, that which in other methods can only be accomplished
in many. Fresco painting was much in use among the ancients, and
VASARI. 31
the older modern painters have also continued to employ it. The
picture must be painted on the lime while it is wet, and the work
must not be left until all that is intended to be done that day is
finished. Because if the painting be long in hand, a certain thin
crust forms on the lime as well from the heat as from the cold, the
wind and the frost, which tarnishes and spots all the picture. And
therefore the wall which is painted on must be continually wetted ;
and the colours employed upon it must be all earths, and not mine-
rals, and the white must be calcined Travertine. This kind of
painting also requires a firm and quick hand, but above all a good and
sound judgment ; because, while the wall is soft, the colours appear
quite different from what they do when the wall is dry. It is there-
fore necessary for the artist, while painting in fresco, to use his
judgment more than his skill, and to be guided by experience, it being
very difficult to paint in fresco well. Many of our artists are very
expert in other branches of the art, namely, in oil and distemper paint
ing, but do not succeed in this, because it is indeed the most manly,
the most certain, and the most durable of all methods, and by age
it continually acquires beauty and harmony in an infinitely greater
degree than any of the others. This kind of painting cleans itself in
the air, is proof against water, and always resists any blow. But it
is necessary to take care not to retouch the painting with parchment
glue, yolk of egg, gum, or gum tragacanth, as many painters do ;
because, while the painting fails to acquire its usual brightness, the
colours become tarnished by this, and, in a short space of tune, turn
black. And therefore let all those who wish to paint upon walls,
paint in fresco, like men, without retouching in secco; which, besides
being a most vile practice, shortens the duration of the pictures, as
has been already observed elsewhere.
OF PAINTING ON WALLS IN CHIARO'SCURO WITH VARIOUS KINDS
OF CLAY ; AND HOW BRONZE IS IMITATED ; AND OF PICTURES IN
CLAY OR IN EARTH (TERRETTA). Painters call Chiaro-scuTO a kind
of painting which depends more on design than on colouring, because
it had its origin in the imitation of statues of marble, and of figures
of bronze and various other stones. This is usually employed in
painting historical pictures on the fronts of palaces or houses, so
as to imitate and appear like marble or stone, sculptured into
these shapes, or really imitating some sorts and kinds of marble and
porphyry, and of green stone, and of red and grey granite, or of
32 FRESCO PAINTING.
bronze or other stones, as they think proper ; they divide the front
of the house into many compartments, in this style of decoration,
which is very much in use for painting the fronts of houses and
palaces, as well in Rome as throughout all Italy. These pictures are
painted in two manners, either in fresco, which is the real method, or
on canvass, for the triumphal arches which are made for the entry of
princes into cities, and in triumphs, or in the decorations for fetes and
comedies, because they produce a beautiful effect. We will first
treat of the different kinds and methods of painting them in fresco.
For painting with this Terretta, the grounds are made of potter's
clay ; the darker shades are made by mixing the clay with pounded
charcoal, or any other black, and with calcined Travertine for the
light tints. The lights must be laid on with pure white, and the
extreme shades must be finished with pure black. Pictures of this
kind should be executed with design, force, vivacity and skill,
and should be expressed with boldness, which shews art and
freedom of hand, because they must be seen and looked at from a
distance. Bronze figures are also imitated in this way ; they are
sketched on a ground of yellow ochre and red, the shades are made
of black, red, and yellow ; the half tints are made with pure yellow,
and the lights of yellow and white. Artists also paint house fronts
and pictures in this way, with certain statues interspersed between
them, which have a veiy graceful effect.
CHAPTER VI.
DIRECTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS OF RAFFAELLO BORGHINI.
OF BORGHINI.
ALTHOUGH the work of Borghini, entitled " II Riposo," published for
the first time in 1584, has gone through three editions, little is known
respecting the history of his life, except that his mother, as he himself
mentions in the Riposo, page 399, was the daughter of Ridolfo
Ghirlandaio, after whom he was also called Ridolfo. In the preface
to the second edition, it is stated, that he understood thoroughly,
not only the principles of the arts of painting and sculpture, but
also all the arts connected with them. He was personally acquainted
with the eminent painters and sculptors of his time, and his work
contains many of their vivd voce precepts. Borghini has borrowed
many of the recipes contained in the second book of the Riposo from
Cennino's treatise, without, however, acknowledging the obligation.
Bossi, in his work on the Cenacolo of Leonardo da Vinci, says, the
Riposo of Borghini is more valuable for the style than the precepts.
DIRECTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS.
Whoever wishes to paint in fresco, must first lay an intonaco over so
much of the wall as is sufficient for one day's work ; because if the
colours are not laid upon the lime, while it is fresh, it makes a land of
crust, owing to the heat, or the cold, and the wind, which dulls and
spots all the work. It is therefore useful to wet the wall very frequently.
Having put on the intonaco, which should have its whiteness lowered
by means of sand, and a little black, so that it may appear of a neutral
tint, the cartoon, or a piece of the cartoon, must then be applied to
it. The piece of the cartoon must be marked in order to know which
piece comes next to it; then, with a stile of iron, or ivory, or of any
hard wood, trace upon it the marks and outlines of the cartoon, and the
34 FRESCO PAINTING.
lime, being damp, will yield to the tracing, and receive all the marks.
Then, taking away the cartoon, we must paint upon these with
earthy, but not mineral colours, mixed with clear water ; and the
white should be calcined Travertine. This kind of painting
requires great judgment; because, while the wall is wet, the colours
produce a different effect from what they do when it is dry. We
must, above all things, abstain from retouching any thing with
colours containing parchment-glue, yolk of egg, gum, or gum Tra-
gacanth (Dragante), because, then the painting loses its brightness,
and the colours become tarnished, and, in a very short space of time,
turn black. Therefore, whoever paints in fresco, should, each
day, completely finish his day's work, without having to retouch it
in secco; because thus his pictures will be of longer duration, and he
will be considered a better master. Painting in tempera can be done
upon a dry wall, upon panel, and upon canvass. To paint upon a
dry wall, the wall must be rasped, and two coats of hot glue laid
over it ; afterwards the tempera must be made in this manner :
The yolk of an egg is taken and beaten up well, and a tender fig
branch is ground up in it, and with this material, colours of all kinds
are tempered, because all are good for this kind of painting, except
the white made from lime, which is too caustic (forte) ; and the
blues, which would turn green with the above mentioned tempera on
account of the yolk of the egg. They must therefore be mixed with
a vehicle of gum or of size from parchment clippings ; this kind of
size may also be used for all the colours, as it is now the custom to
do in Flanders, whence we receive so many beautiful pictures of
landscapes, painted with this vehicle.
CHAPTER VII.
DIRECTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS OF GIOVANNI BATISTA ARMENINO.
OF ARMENINO.
GIOVANNI Batista Armenino was born in Faenza, about 1530. He
was destined for the medical profession. He was sent to a public
school, where he was taught Latin and Greek. While pursuing his
studies, Figurino da Faenza (who had been assisting Giulio Romano
at Mantua), returned to his native country, and the young Armenino,
captivated by seeing him work, and hearing his encomiums on the
art, was immediately siezed with the wish to study painting. Jt is
not known whether" he received lessons from Figurino, but when he
went to Rome, in 1550, he already drew well and rapidly. At Rome
he studied the works of Polidoro da Caravaggio, and the antique, and
being seen by two French students of sculpture, copying a frieze of
Polidoro's, they took him into their house, in order to make drawings
for them. He studied and copied the Last Judgment, of Michael
Angelo, in company with Michael Angelo da Norcia and Barto-
lommeo di Arezzo, a with the latter of whom he studied anatomy.
He remained in Rome seven years, continually copying the antique
and the best pictures. After leaving Rome he went to Milan, where
he assisted Bernardino Campi, with whom he remained some months.
He afterwards visited Mantua, Parma, Piacenza, Florence, Genoa,
Venice, Ferrara, Ravenna, Pesaro, &c. After travelling over Italy,
for nine years, and examining all the best works of art, he changed
his profession and his dress, and became a friar and a priest.
Although he abandoned the practice of the art, he was still useful to
those who exercised it, by collecting, in a single volume, all the most
important precepts of the art, which he had observed in his travels,
or which had been communicated to him by skilful masters. From
the period of his becoming a priest, nothing more is known of him,
except that it is supposed he was living in 1587, when his " Golden
a Probably Bartolommeo Torre, who fell a victim to a contagious disease,
caught in the pursuit of his anatomical studies at the age of 25. Ticozzi.
36 FRESCO PAINTING.
Treatise," (as Sig. Ticozzi styles it), " DC Veri Precetti della Pittura?*
was published. Abridged from Ticozzi s Introduction to the "Veri
Precetti."
DIRECTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS.
Of the great importance of making the Cartoons properly . Of the
use and effects of the Cartoons. In what manner and with what
material they are made. Which are the most expeditious and easy
ways of making them. How they are traced and pounced on to
the work without being damaged; and how they are imitated in the
picture. From Book II. Chap. VI. of the " Veri Precetti della
Pittura."
OF THE USE AND EFFECT OF CARTOONS. We have now to treat
of cartoons, which among 1 us are considered as the most perfect
mode in which, by our skill in design, we are able to express the
whole force of the art, and which, to those who set about them in a
proper manner, and with diligence, and who are careful and
industrious in finishing them, are so useful for the works which they
have to execute, that what afterwards remains to be done, appears
to give but little trouble. For the sketches, designs, natural models,
and in short, all the other labours which the artist had previously
undergone, were for the sole use and purpose of uniting them
properly together on the surface of the cartoon ; and to speak the
truth, in order to reprove those who care little to do this, or who,
if they do set about it, do it carelessly ; for in a well-finished
cartoon, it will be observed, that even the most difficult part of
every object is pourtrayed, so that by following the outlines, we work
without any chance of error, by means of a perfect example and
model of all that we intend to do ; in fact we may call it the work
itself, except for the tints ; and hence we see that Michael Angelo,
Leonardo da Vinci, Raffaello, Perino, 3 Daniello, b and other excellent
a Perino del Vaga, (Pierino Buonacorsi), was considered by Vasari the first
of the Florentine School, after Michael Angelo, in design, and the best of those
who assisted Raffaello. He died in 1547. Lanzi. Vol 1. p. 142. Vol. II. p.
76, 87, 257. Vol. V. p. 243. Vasari. ED.
b Daniele di Volterra (Ricciarelli) imitated Michael Angelo, by whom it
is said he was sometimes assisted in his designs. See Lanzi. Vol. I. p. 124,
286. Vol. II. p. 88. He died in 1566. ED.
ARMENINO. 37
painters, always prepared the cartoon with the greatest care and
industry.
OF MAKING CARTOONS, AND THE MATERIALS USED. The usual
manner of making cartoons is, first, to measure the height and
breadth of the place where the work is to be made, and then to take
paper of the same size, which is made by pasting sheets together
with flour paste, until the cartoon is of the same size as the before
mentioned place ; when it is dry, paste should be spread all round it
to the breadth of about an inch : it must next be fastened to the
smooth wall, and then sprinkling water over it, and pulling and
stretching it all round, care must be taken that, as it dries, it may
remain smooth and well stretched. It must then be measured out,
and divided by faint lines, into the same number of squares, as the
small design which is to be imitated ; and then, all that is contained
in the first design .must be copied with great care and skill, until
every thing is drawn in its proper place. 8
OP DIVIDING THE CARTOON BT SQUARES. There are certain
persons who say, that it is a bad plan to use these squares, b and allege
frivolous reasons in support of their assertion ; for example, that a
great deal of the first design is lost, which it is impossible to enlarge
properly otherwise than by the eye. Now the eye seems to me to
have but little to do with it, for, be a man ever so much accustomed
to drawing on a large scale, he cannot deny, that when a design is
intended to be copied from a piece of paper, which is generally made
about the size of the hand, or a little larger, on to a picture
of the size of ten or twenty feet, that it is much easier to do it with
the squares than without them ; besides which, there is the ground
plan, the perspective, and the buildings, which in the small design
are drawn by measure, and require merely to be copied off and
enlarged in the same proportion, almost without trouble. What is
the use, therefore, of making any difficulty about this, when, by doing
it, we have all the outlines determined ? And I say this, not only
with regard to the things I have already mentioned, but also relative
to the position of the most minute details, being certain at the same
a For the modern method of making the cartoon, see I. Rep. p. 22, 25. ED.
b The technical word for the process of enlarging by squares is graticolare.
See Pozzo's Treatise. ED.
38 FRESCO PAINTING.
time of not falling into any very great mistake, nor even into a
confusion of lines. So that it is quite clear, that by this means, we
avoid making a great number of lines, which are frequently drawn by
way of trial, before we make the right one ; and however expert a
person may be in design, he cannot help committing such errors, for
it is impossible to do otherwise.
But it is necessary, at the same time, to caution persons not to
trust too much to these first lines, nor, while placing them on the
cartoons, by means of these squares, to throw aside their judgment,
which enables them to correct many of these lines in the small
design, and copy them afresh in their proper places, or wherever
they may seem needful. This is rendered evident by the fact, that
great errors may be concealed in small drawings, while in those on
a large scale, every slight error is detected ; so that a thorough
examination is necessary, to change false outlines and to make good
ones, without having any regard to the limits given by the squares.
And these are the methods which I have frequently observed and
considered, in the designs and cartoons of Raffaello, of Perino, of
Giulio, a of Daniele, and of Taddeo Zuccaro, b .and of other good
painters who are still living, and who all affirm the truth of what I
have said.
OF THE DIFFERENT MODES OF PREPARATION. But to return to the
cartoons. These are made in various manners and with various
materials, as I have already shewn with regard to the small designs,
and although there are but few in water colours, there are some very
highly finished in other modes. Those who prepare them upon
white paper, after having made the outlines in the above mentioned
manner, in order to shorten the trouble of shading, should rub lightly
on the parts to be shaded with a rag full either of pounded charcoal
or black lead c in powder, and the darker shades should be pounced
Giulio Romano, the greatest of all the pupils of RafFaello, whose heir he was,
conjointly with Gio. Francesco Penni : Giulio's principal works are in fresco.
He painted the palace at Mantua and the Palazzo del Te. Lanzi says, that the
beautiful paintings of the story of Psyche, have been painted over by a modern
hand. He died in 1546. Vasari and Lanzi, Vol. II. p. 74 , 75, 87. Vol. IV. p. 12. ED.
b Taddeo Zuccaro, was of the Roman school, and an imitator of Raffaello.
He was born in 1529, and died in 1566. See Lanzi, Vol. II. p. 87, 89, 92.
Vasari. ED.
c Lapis nero. ED.
ARMENINO. 39
and beaten again over the first, and this should be continued until
more than half appears shaded. The shades should then be
lightly hatched, either with charcoal, or a black lead crayon cut to a
point, and these hatchings should be continued as far as the extreme
edges, and this part of the drawing should be executed with that
dexterity and care, which is always practised by clever and skilful
artists, so that, by the cartoons, their expertness in drawing will be
proved. But besides the sketch, which during this time has been
held in the hand as a model, further study is required before it is
finished, for all this process must be recommenced from the beginning,
in order to obtain greater correctness, by copying from the life and
from models, with the assistance of mechanical skill in drawing, as
has been before stated ; and, when finished, these drawings appear
so forcible, and, with such relief, that they seem ready to start from
the paper, which proves that these last means are well adapted to
give such perfection in drawing, as every person, according to his
industry and knowledge, desires to attain.
We should proceed in the same manner with cartoons which are
made upon tinted paper, which, with less trouble, are much better than
making many hatchings, and rubbing them with the fingers or with
pieces of wool or tow, as many persons are accustomed to do before
finishing them. The cartoon must now be finished by laying on the
lights, which we must set about with great judgment and caution, in
order that the highest lights may be placed so as best to imitate the
object. There are some who, for the lights, take fine fresh gesso, a
with an equal quantity of Biacca, b and mix them together, and make
crayons of them ; and, with this material, the lights are very bright.
Others again use only tailor's gesso, c and others again mix Biacca
also with this in the higher lights ; and in these ways all great
designs are finished.
Now, to preserve the cartoons uninjured, as the outlines must
next be traced from these on to the works which are in hand, the
best way is to prick them with a needle, putting another paper under
them which is pricked as well as the upper one. This last paper
a Gesso gypsum, plaster of Paris. ED.
h Biacca White lead. ED.
c Gesso da Sarti. A fine sort of gesso in lumps (query white chalk), so called
because it is used by tailors for drawing or marking out their patterns on the
cloth. See Bald. Foe. Dis. ED.
40 FRESCO PAINTING.
serves for pouncing the outlines on what is to be the ground of the
picture, and particularly upon lime, although many persons, caring
little about the preservation of their cartoon, trace directly from it ;
but the first cartoon should always be kept as a model, while paintin g
the coloured picture. The first method is more convenient.
I think I have now treated at sufficient length, and with great
clearness and brevity, of all those modes of drawing, of which I had
promised to speak, as being the most necessary and easy, for the
assistance of those who wish to attain excellence quickly, having
told them every convenient remedy for those things which are either
uncertain or difficult. We have now, therefore, to take the same
course in treating of colours, which is indeed a very laborious and
difficult part, and the most necessary part of the work ; but I hope
in a similar manner to make it clearly and easily understood. We
will treat first of the composition of the colours, then of the manner
of using, mixing, and uniting them together, so that they may re-
main bright and clear ; the whole being the result of practice and
experience, which we have both seen, and been taught by the best
and most skilful artists who have preceded us.
Of the different kinds and sorts of colours, and of their particular
natures ; how they are prepared in different ways to produce a better
effect in the work; with what and how many liquids they are used;
how the colours are made to obtain any tint that may be wished, and
especially flesh colours, with their various tints according to the
complexions of the persons, and how they ought to appear when finished.
From Book II. Chap. VII. of Armenino.
OP THE COLOURS PROPER TO BE USED. I believe it is known, even
to the most indifferent painters, that all the colours which are used
in painting, must be of two sorts, namely, natural, which are also
called mineral, and artificial. These are commonly mixed for working
with three liquids, which are water, glue and oil : the first is called
PAINTING IN FRESCO, the SCCOnd PAINTING IN DISTEMPER (or SCCCO),
and the third PAINTING IN OIL. But it is well known, that artificial
colours never do well in fresco, nor can any art make them last long
ARMENINO. 41
without changing, and particularly in the open air ; and this because
they require a very dry situation, and a very dry ground for the
picture ; but we shall treat of the qualities of each more clearly in their
proper places. Now, be it known, that all colours, unless flat tints of
them are to be laid, are mixed in various modes, because some of
them are made light and some dark, so that from one single colour
are made different colours of the same kind, according as white or
black is mixed with them all. But as this depends entirely upon
the skill of the artist ; so the errors arising from it, are caused either
by the colours being badly mixed and badly united, or by the hand
of the artist not being firm or practised in managing and harmonizing
them, so that they may remain pure, clean, and properly united
together : for which reasons I shall always exhort young men, to
practise these things continually, in order to gain experience, and
know their effects, that they may afterwards carry them out in prac-
tice with confidence. For as one of the principal intentions of the
poet, is to give delight by continually diversifying his poem with
various episodes, so in painting, the same variety should be sought
by different and gay colours. Although the subject and the compo-
sition may be pleasing in themselves, yet, if the colouring, which is
the manner of explaining them, is not agreeable to the eyes of the
spectators, it will be impossible to produce a good effect ; because,
by colours well united and harmonized, is produced that beauty,
which catches the eyes of the ignorant, and enters imperceptibly into
the minds of the wise. It will be seen, that true resemblance arises
from the proper use of the colours, which, the more lively they are,
the more they strike and please persons, and particularly the nobility,
the greater number of whom use them for embellishing their houses .
This shews that they are more affected by the pleasure which they
receive from the variety and gayness of the colours, than by their
admiration for the design of the picture ; thus pursuing rather the
gratification of the eye, than the improvement of the mind, because
a beautiful and harmonious variety of colour, produces the same
effect on the eyes as is produced on the ears by harmonious music,
when the bass notes correspond to the high notes, and the middle
notes also sound in concord ; so that from this variety is made a
sonorous and almost wonderful union of measures, which fills the
mind with admiration.
But the whole science of colouring may be reduced to this, that,
when a picture is composed with regularity, of various sorts of colours,
42 FRESCO PAINTING.
both mixed and pure, there will arise a well devised and harmonious
composition, no part of which, however insignificant it may be,
will be discordant from the rest ; and therefore the composition
will not then be glaring and disagreeable, and appear like coloured
tapestry, nor yet so much sobered down and shaded that the flesh is
scarcely distinguishable from the other objects near it. The best
plan will be to observe a medium between the glaring and the dull ;
and to let the colours and mixtures be neither too bright nor too
languid, but pure and clean, softly and delicately united with each
other, so as to produce a pure and exquisite beauty. We shall not
stop to consider the nature of the colours one by one, nor give an
account of the different sorts and qualities of them, because these are
supposed to be known to every one, but we shall speak of some
of their particular properties, and give other cautions concerning
their effects, on account of some contrarieties among them which are
not to be despised.
OF THE PURITY OF COLOURS AND MODE OF PREPARATION. All
the colours therefore, should, as much as possible, be used bright,
pure, and fine ; and besides this, it is necessary to be very clean and
careful about them, in order to preserve them pure and distinct,
because, by every slight mixture that falls into them, and which
generally consists of the dust of other colours, they become soiled,
and lose a great part of their purity and brightness. There is also
much practice and diligence required in applying them properly, but
in using colours in fresco, we must remember that, as has been before
remarked, the wall will not take any other than the natural colours
which are found in the ground, and which consist of earths of seve-
ral colours, which, I think, must be well known, since they are
common enough in all parts of Italy ; these are, for the most part,
ground with pure water, excepting smalt and other similar blues.
For the white which is used in fresco, they take, as is well known,
the powder of very white lime, such as that of Genoa, Milan, and
Ravenna, which, before it is used, must be well purified, and this
purification is performed in different ways by different painters; there
are some who make it first boil well on the fire, keeping it clear from
scum, which is done to get rid of the saline parts, and which prevents
its settling and drying too fast when applied to the wall ; they then
let it cool in the open air, and pouring off the water from it, they
put it in the sun on baked bricks and suffer it to dry upon them. The
ARMENINO. 43 '
lighter it is, the better it is purified. There are some persons who
bury it when they have thus purified it, and so keep it many years
before they use it ; and others do the same in the open air upon the
roof. There are also some persons who add half the quantity of mar-
ble dust, which they first pound very fine. It has also been observed,
that if the white pigment be put in the open air, in a large vase, and
boiled water be thrown into it, at the same time mixing it with a
stick, the next day putting it in the sun, it will be sufficiently purified,
and may be used the following day for mixtures with other colours,
but not for colouring naked bodies.
OF PRESERVING THE COLOURS. Having now prepared and ar-
ranged the colours in the manner above-mentioned, and put them in
their vases, in order to preserve them uninjured, we must next take
shells or small vases, and begin to mix the tints. First put some
white into three or four of these shells, and then put some black in
just the same number of others, but not in such great quantity ; then
take the vase of pure colour, either yellow, red, blue, green, or
whatever other colour is wanted, pouring it in, and mixing it
with this white, which has been put into these shells or vases, so as
to make at least three tints, one lighter than the other, by putting
less of the pure colour into some than into others. The same colour
must also be poured in a similar manner into the shells where the"
black, or any other dark colour is placed, observing the above direc-
tions as to making them one darker than another ; so that, by these
means, from each pure colour, may be obtained four or six shades,
and as many tints as may be wished, and these must correspond with
the colours in the design or well finished cartoon. But with regard
to the minute differences of the colours which nature presents to us,
we shah 1 not enter into any farther description of them, as their num-
ber is infinite, which is rendered evident at once by considering the
continual variation of colour in fruits and flowers ; and if we would
imitate these colours, we must make a tint resembling the colour of
each.
OF THE MIXTURE AND APPLICATION OF COLOURS. But of all the
usual mixtures for flesh, the lighter ones are always made of red
earth (Terra RossaJ and white, and that they are made more or less
dark in the same manner as other tints ; but these are not always
the same, because, as regard must be had to the variation of the
44 FRESCO PAINTING.
tints, which always change according to the various sexes, ages, and
temperaments of the persons, when you wish to make them match
the complexion, it is, generally speaking, necessary to add to the
colour sometimes green, and sometimes yellow, and sometimes both
together. The complexion of old men is generally different, so that
instead of Terra Rossa they generally require burnt yellow earth
(Terra Gialla Abbrucciata) , and it is better that you should burn it
until you see it become of an uniform dark colour, before you take
it off the coals, because it changes to a bright mulberry colour, and
thus produces the same effect in fresco as the fine lakes do in oil
and distemper painting ; and, therefore, when we compose the dark
colour for the shades in the flesh, we use this earth, which must be
mixed with umber, so that the mixture of these two generally serves
for all the shades. We then put a little of this into some clean shells,
and make two other lighter shades, by pouring into them some
of those light flesh coloured mixtures which were before directed
to be made ; and one is made darker than the other, that we may
harmonize them together, by softening them into the lighter one.
Black also is frequently added to the above - mentioned shade
colour, composed of the two earths ; and this is used when it is
wished to give greater relief to the figure, or naked body, and
to the extremities.
There are some persons, who mix with these shade colours, pure
Terra Verde, and others burn this colour in the same manner as the
yellow earth. There are others who mix with it Terra di Campane,
and particularly when they wish to imitate the delicate shadows in
young women, because in this manner they appear to agree very well
together. But as there are some persons, who, in laying on the
lights upon the more prominent parts of the flesh, foolishly use pure
white in too great abundance, I would advise you to take the lightest
flesh tint, and then mix white with it, and lay on the lights in but
few places, and with judgment. There are moreover other reddish
and bluish tints besides those in the face, which are easily obtained
by mixing red or green with the lighter flesh tints ; other similar
colours are made with the dark flesh tints. Having thus finished
mixing the tints in a proper manner, and having arranged them in
order upon a smooth board or plank, we must then take the brushes,
which must be well made. Old brushes are better than new, and you
must have one brush for each colour.
ARMENINO. 45
OF PREPARING THE WALLS. When these things are all finished,
and the colours are all prepared, in the way I have mentioned, and
every thing else done that may be necessary, we come to the fine
intonaco, which, when it is put on the wall, serves as a ground to
the colours, and generally causes the picture to produce a different
effect from what the artist who painted it expected; this is on
account of the difference occasioned by the drying of the colours,
which is sometimes so great as to deceive even the most expert
artists owing to their not being well acquainted with the changes the
materials undergo. It will therefore be proper to speak a little about
it, and to give some general advice upon the subject, because very
important works, in which an artist runs the risk of losing a great
deal of his reputation and credit, if he unfortunately does not succeed,
are generally painted in this manner. You must know, therefore,
that all kinds of lime which are laid upon walls for painting on, have
the property, if well wetted, of receiving all colours well during the
whole of one day ; and the lime remains for some hours very firm
and in such a state, that during that time, those who are accustomed
to it, and who understand it, work very easily and with great plea-
sure upon it. But afterwards, when it begins to lose its moisture
and to set, it will be observed, that any colours then laid on will be
of a different tint from those which were put on first, and thus the
effect of the picture will be spoiled. For this reason, expert artists,
before this happens, cover all their work with a good body of colour
diligently and quickly, and in a soft, light, and even manner ; because
if they delay, the intonaco acquires a thin crust when it touches the
air, and thus makes the picture spotty and dull. Some information
is necessary respecting the use of certain colours, such as smalto and
pavonazzo, which, being generally coarser and of less body than the
others, the wetter the lime is, when they are applied, the better. In
this kind of work, it is necessary to have the hand very firm, bold,
and free, qualities, which result from a clear and sound judgment,
that knows how much every individual tint can change, or lose of its
brightness ; and not only how much each will change during that
one day, but also until the intonaco is quite dry.
Now the lime must be put upon the damp wall (which should have
been well wetted) in such quantity, as will cover the space to be
painted that day ; and having first drawn the squares, in the proper
proportion, on the dry wall, we must again mark them upon the into-
naco, making the lines agree exactly with those which are upon the
46 FRESCO PAINTING.
wall underneath. Then, taking the small design in our hand, we
copy it carefully on the picture, with a paint brush dipped in
some water colour, which should be of a reddish tint, because the
marks of these tints can easily be removed at pleasure if they are not
right ; for by dipping the same brush in water they can all be washed
out. But if the cartoon be finished, it should either be traced, or
pounced on the wall, in the manner before mentioned, and this plan
you will certainly find more convenient. Having done this, the out-
lines must be marked over with a brush, and, if necessary, corrected.
We must then take the colours, sketching out and covering every-
thing, taking care to put lights, shades, and middle tints in their
proper places according to the sketch ; and this must be done in
such a manner, that there may be an union and harmony of the
colours, which must appear to the eyes, pleasing, bright, and united.
Another coat of colour must then be laid evenly over the work while
the intonaco is still wet. But although this intonaco absorbs, for the
most part, the colours first laid on, it is necessary for the artist to
work and unite them together by putting on another coat in this
manner. There are some persons who think to avoid this, by first
laying on one or two coats of white, and they say, that this method
also makes the colours appear brighter when the intonaco is dry.
This is sometimes true in painting grotesques and other similar
things which are small and of no importance, but it is positively
injurious in great historical pictures, because, although this white
reflects the colours, it is nevertheless very injurious to the darks,
and destroys much of their harmony and force ; a effects which are
very contrary to the intention of a good painter.
As we are now speaking of the tints, I would not have any one
think that because they happen to be well mixed in the gallipots,
they must produce exactly the same effects on the wall, because this
requires a familiarity with the colours found in nature. There are
some artists, who, in order that they may not have to correct their
painting on the wall, first imitate the colours correctly with crayons,
and others with oil colours ; because the colours are thinner in
some kinds of painting than in others ; and there are reddish and
greenish touches scattered over various parts, with which the
It will be observed, that Pacheco and Borghini recommend mixing a little
colour with the intonaco. ED.
ARMENINO. 47
before-mentioned tints may not exactly agree in colour, and there-
fore there must prevail, as it were, a controlling harmony, which
must be conceived in the mind of the artist ; and this is particularly
necessary to be observed in flesh tints where large masses of naked
bodies are introduced in pictures, in which the lights, and the
brightness of the colours, should diminish with such skill and
dexterity, as to appear to die away into the shade, and to lose their
brilliancy by degrees, so that it may be seen that the light does not
produce the colours, but only makes them visible, for where the
least light comes, there the shadows are the deepest and the darkest.
We must also observe, that the colour must not be changed, on
account of the shadow, but that we must retain the same colour,
only making it deeper, because, as has been before observed, dark-
ness is want of light, and not an effect of the colour black ; although
it is true that draperies and many other things can be made to
harmonize with the rest of the picture, and can be finished easily, by
means of well selected tints.
But with regard to naked bodies, we have seen some painters of
the present day, who had such skill in managing the colours, that
with three mixtures alone, they have painted a naked body, having
all the half-tints and gradations of colour, which are visible in the
natural body. The tints are, one light tint and two dark ones.
They lay on a great many shades with the lighter shade colour,
and touch all the half-shades and dark shadows. They then take
the light tint, with which they cover the whole of the lighter parts,
and go over the raw shades, which had previously been put on, even
to the extremities, so that the half-tints appear very soft through
this from underneath ; and those shades, which before, were too
raw, being thus softened down, they pass over them again, with the
above mentioned shade colour, in order to bring the shades, half-
shades, and. half-lights, to their right tone. They next take the
other tint, which is the darkest shade tint, with which they give the
figure relief in all its parts ; so that we may say, that these make
their tints upon the wall, in the same way that others do in their
gallipots. Among those whom I knew, there was a certain
Luchetto, of Genoa, 8 who, in my time, painted at S. Matteo, in the
church which belonged to the Prince Doria, certain stories of this
saint, in competition with a very good painter of Bergamo. I really
a Luca or Luchetto Cambiaso, born 1527, died about 1585. Mariet.
Descript. ED.
48 FRESCO PAINTING.
have seen wonderful things by him, in that city ; he paints with
both hands, holding a brush full of colour in each, and is so expert
and dexterous, that he does his work with great quickness ; and I
have seen more pictures in fresco by him, than by any ten others
together. His figures are painted with wonderful force, besides which,
there is that freedom, that grace and skill, which the greatest
conceptions of men of genius rarely display, and which always
require the greatest skill and labour. Giacomo Tintoretto, 8 the
Venetian, paints in nearly the same manner, and there are some
persons who consider him the most rapid painter, but he is inferior
in design, and is less careful than Luca ; and, as his colouring is
softer, his pictures have less relief and force. He has frequently
painted very important pictures, without any design, leaving the
sketches for finished pictures, and so roughly painted, that one may
see the very marks of the brush, from his too great haste and im-
petuosity. These pictures, therefore, will not bear very close
inspection. But it is enough, that they astonish many of our artists
at first sight; so that those men who used solid colour, by adopting
this manner, and finishing their labours quickly, cause their pictures
to remain very fresh, delicate, and gay ; and it makes no difference
to them, although it does to doubtful or irresolute persons, or bad
painters, whether they put on the light colours before the dark, or
the reds before the flesh tints. But the tints, and all the other
colours, are laid on with the same paint brush which the artist
happens to have in his hand, because, by washing it in water and
squeezing it a little, it answers his purpose very well.
Having now brought your picture into this state, it is nearly
finished, because, when you begin to find that the lime is going to set,
and that it does not absorb the colour with the same force as before,
you must then finish it off with moist and dark shade tints, working
it up in this way quite to the extremities. But the muscles of naked
figures, as being of greater difficulty, are painted by hatching them
in different directions with very liquid shade tints, so that they appear
of a texture like granite ; and there are very brilliant examples of this,
painted by the hand of Michael Angelo, of Daniello, and of Francesco
" Giacomo Robusto, called II Tintoretto, born at Venice in 1512, died in 1594.
LanzL Vol. III. p. 116. &c. ED.
ARMENINO. 49
Salviati, 8 who are very celebrated for their works. The lights must
then be laid on, in the manner which we have already mentioned.
Now this mode of painting soon betrays the ignorance of those
who are but little accustomed to it, because, all that has been badly
done, either through timidity, or by the ground being badly covered,
or the work being badly finished, begins to shew itself the next day ;
and it should be known, that when the wall and the picture are quite
dry, every little defect will clearly appear, and such will be all
retouchings, spots, and colours laid one over another, and badly
covered over, or badly united together ; so that it is always well to
work cautiously, in order not to fall into these great faults. Then,
at the end of the day, when all the part that has been plastered is
finished, the remainder is cut off carefully, on account of the rough
edge, in order that, the next day, fresh intonaco may be joined on to
it, without shewing the least mark of the joining, as piece is joined
on to piece, while the work is going on. The boys will then take
care to wash the brushes with clean water, and to arrange their
points, and to repair them well : and they must do the same thing
with the mixed tints, and the other colours, by pouring water into
them all, and particularly into the white which has been purified, of
which, as being the principal colour among them, greater care must
be taken not to let it dry. Having thus put all the things into their
proper places, the wall must be wetted again in the evening, and
must be soaked several times against the next morning, particularly
when it is very hot weather, in order that the intonaco may be kept
well wetted during the time you are at work, until all that you wish
to paint upon it is finished.
This is the method which is to be observed concerning painting
in fresco, and which, together with the above advice, should be, so
to speak, the foundation of all the pictures you paint. And you may
leave to foolish painters those secrets of theirs, which no one envies
them, of using vermilions and fine lakes ; because, although they
make grounds for them, with various kinds of white, it is, neverthe-
less, well known that, in the long run, their pictures become ugly
daubs, because they employ these colours solely to attract the eyes
a Francesco de Rossi, who assumed the name of his protectors, the Salviati,
was the condisciple of Vasari, under Andrea del Sarto and under Baccio Bandi-
nelli. He was an excellent sculptor, and a teacher of drawing to students in
painting, an art which he cultivated for his amusement. See Lanzi, Vol. I.
p. 167, 168. He was born in 1510, and died in 1563.
K
50 FRESCO PAINTING.
of the vulgar, at first sight, and we cannot consider those persons
who have thus employed them, altogether blameless.
To make pictures in Chiaro-scuro, the same means are used, as
have been just mentioned ; for, having pounded the charcoal, and
washed the white, of these two extremes, at least, three tints must
be made, one lighter than the other ; and then, in order to judge of
their effect, while they are being mixed, they must be tried on a
brick which has been baked, but not wetted. Some persons mix
potter's clay with them ; and there are others, who lay a coat of it
underneath, for a ground, which answers the same purpose.
A similar method is used for painting pictures to imitate bronze,
using mixtures of these colours, namely, yellow earth (terra gialla},
and occheja a for the shadows, for which others mix umber (terra
d'ombraj with it, and some add paonazzo, and others black. In
short, any kind of picture can be painted well in this way. But we
have said enough on this subject.
OF RETOUCHING FRESCO PAINTINGS IN SECCO. But, to follow
out our subject, as regards the manner of painting, this last
harmonizing is considered to be, and really is, very difficult in fresco
paintings, particularly in those which are not under cover. This
arises from the effect of the lime on the colours, for as the lime dries
very quickly, nothing can be done after the first day on which you
paint upon it. For this reason, I approve of those painters who
provide for this, by means of cartoons, which are well finished by
their own hands, because, when the tints and the shades have been
put in their proper places at first, the finishing touches are then
given with the delicate and liquid shades.
But as for those which are in covered places, they can be perfectly
harmonized by retouching them in secco, because, when the first
colours have been painted in solidly, while the lime is very wet,
afterwards, when it is dry, it can be brought to whatever degree of
perfection is thought proper, with the finest colours, it being allow-
able to do so, without any injury to the colours, which, however,
have been seen to fail after a length of time. In retouching the
dark parts in this manner, there are some painters, who make a
water-colour tint of black and fine lake, mixed together, with which
Occheja. The name and nature of this pigment is quite unknown, unless it
be a typical error for ocrea arsa, burnt ochre. See Lomazzo, Trattato. p. 196.
ARMENINO. 51
they retouch the naked figures, and produce a most beautiful effect,
because they make hatchings upon the painting, as it is usual to do,
while drawing upon paper with black lead. And for this purpose
they use a rather large hair pencil of minever, with which they work
carefully and gradually, in the way in which granite is painted.
Some persons temper these dark tints with gum, some with thin glue,
and some with yolk of egg (tempera), with which latter vehicle they
are darker and more permanent than with the others. This I affirm
from what I have both seen and done, and also what I have been
told by the best painters. And, therefore, pictures painted in secco
upon canvass, should be retouched in this same manner. Armenino,
De Veri Precetti. p, 147. Ed, Pisa, 1823.
CHAPTER VIII.
OF ANDREA POZZO.
ANDREA Pozzo was native of Trent, and a Jesuit. He became an
architect and a painter, rather by the force of his own genius than
the instructions of a master. The practice of copying the pictures
of the best Venetian and Lombard masters, had given him a good
style in colouring and design, which he improved in Rome, where he
remained many years. He went also to Genoa and Turin, and in
both these states may be seen many of his pictures, the best of
which are those that most resemble the manner of Rubens, to imitate
whose style he aspired. His pictures in oil are rare, for he finished
but few. He was always a skilful painter, was judicious in his com-
position, select in the choice of his forms, his colouring agreeable
and lively, his handling free and expeditious. His celerity was
surprising ; he finished a portrait in four hours, which he had been
required to paint by a person who was going to leave Italy for Ger-
many the same day.
He occupied an honourable rank among those who decorated
buildings. The roof of the church of St. Ignatius, at Rome, is his
principal work, and that is sufficient to establish his fame, if he had
painted nothing else. This work combines novelty of invention with
harmony of colouring, and picturesque fire, which is admired both by
Maratti and Carlo Ferri ; the latter of whom was astonished, that in
so few years, Andrea had, as he said, with such a masterly hand,
filled the Piazza Navona with figures. He concluded by observing,
that if the horses of other painters walked, those of Pozzo galloped.
In perspective, he ranks among the most eminent ; and, even on
concave surfaces, he was able to make all the parts appear convex ;
as, for instance, the paintings on the Tribune at Frascati, where he
pourtrayed the circumcision, and in the Corridor of Jesus at Rome.
He however obtained most reputation, by deceiving the eye with
imaginary cupolas in many churches belonging to his order : he also
painted theatrical scenes, introducing colonnades and buildings with
ANDREA POZZO. 53
such an imitation of truth, as to render credible what Vitruvius, Book
vu. c. 5. and Pliny, Book LXXXV. c. 4. wrote respecting the skill
of the ancients in this respect. Although well acquainted with the
theory of optics, as is proved by his two volumes on perspective, he
accustomed himself never to draw, without having previously made
models, and distributed the lights and shades. When he had to
paint on canvass, he gave it a thin couch of glue, without gesso,
which he would not use, because it appeared to him, that when the
colours were applied, it prevented the proper blending of the lights
and shades. He was born in 1642 and died 1709. Lanzi. The
following precepts on fresco painting were appended to his great
work, familiarly called the "Jesuit's Perspective."
DIRECTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS OF ANDREA POZZO.
OP THE PREPARATION OF THE WALL. AfiRICCIATO AND INTONACO.
The arricciato is the first coat of mortar which is given to a wall or
place on which it is required to paint ; this should be rather rough.
The painter must take care never to begin his painting on walls on
which the rough-cast has been recently applied, particularly if in
interiors ; because, besides the damp, which is very injurious to the
health, the lime exhales a bad smell, which is equally prejudicial.
When the arricciato is laid upon the wall, and so free from all
dampness, as to appear quite dry, it is necessary to wet it sufficiently
and to give it a thin coat of mortar, which is laid evenly over the
wall, and this is called laying on the intonaco. The lime selected
for this purpose, should have been slaked for a year, or at least six
months, in countries where the lime is strong ; but where the lime
is milder, it can be used sooner. It must be mixed with river sand,
not too coarse, nor yet excessively fine. At Rome, the painters use
Pozzolana, but as the grains of this are of very unequal size, it is
extremely difficult to levigate mortar composed of it, and still more
difficult to work out the cracks and crevices which appear, if it stand
for some hours ; it is therefore necessary to stir it continually with
the trowel. The mortar should be laid on by an expert and active
mason, in order that the intonaco may be spread evenly, and that
the painter may have sufficient time to paint upon it during the
whole of that day, or more, according as the weather is hot or cold,
or the place damp or dry.
54 FRESCO PAINTING.
The intonaco being equally spread, it will be proper to raise up the
small grains of sand with a brush, that the colours may adhere more
easily. This is called granire, and is especially necessary on large
works which are to be seen from a distance. The same preparation
can also be used for those which are to be seen close, but, in that
case, the roughness and inequality of the grain must be removed, by
laying a sheet of strong paper over the intonaco, and pressing it
moderately with the hand or a trowel, in order to press in the most
prominent grains of sand, and to flatten the surface.
OP THE DESIGNS AND CARTOONS. Before beginning to paint, it
is necessary to prepare a small drawing or well-studied coloured
sketch, which the painter should always keep before him, that he
may have nothing to think of but the execution. A cartoon should
also be made as large as the picture intended to be painted, which
should be fixed against the wall in the place the picture is to occupy,
in order to detect the errors (if there be any) from a distance, and to
correct them.
GRATICOLARE, OR ENLARGING BY SQUARES. When the places
lo be painted are large, such as churches or saloons, or curved or
irregular vaulted ceilings, for which either the cartoons cannot be
made sufficiently large, or upon which they cannot be spread without
difficulty, it is necessary to use the grata,* which is very useful for
enlarging designs. The grata is particularly useful in perspective
drawing, especially on vaulted ceilings, and irregular surfaces, to
make an architectural design in perspective appear straight, flat, or
upright. The small design must first be divided into squares, and
then the picture must be divided into the same number of larger
squares. b After this, the painter, having considered what number of
squares he can paint in one day, as was said before, must cause the
wall to be carefully covered with the intonaco, marking the grata
(which had been covered over), c again on the fresh intonaco, that it
may guide him in drawing the outlines of the painting. If, after
a Vasari calls this rele, Malvasia, Graticola.
b The contents of each of the small squares are then copied into the corres-
ponding squares of the large cartoon.
c This was the usual practice of the school of Giotto, which does not appear
to have used large cartoons. See Cennino, Vasari, passim.
ANDREA POZZO. 55
having finished painting for that day, any part of the intonaco should
be still unpainted, which would dry before the next day, it must be
cut away, a taking care not to make the cuttings in the middle of the
carnations, but only in their outlines, or in the draperies. The into-
naco must thus be put on piece by piece ; and the mason must take
care to do this well, so as not to daub the outlines of the picture,
nor to splash it, and therefore, in order to obviate all dangers of this
kind, it will be better to begin painting at the top of the picture.
OF TRACING. When the outlines of the design have been drawn
on large paper, as is mentioned before, the cartoon must be laid upon
the intonaco, the wetness of which will allow it to receive any im-
pression, and then the outlines must be traced over lightly with an
iron stile. For small pictures, it will be sufficient to pounce the
outlines.
ON THE PREPARATION OF THE COLOURS. Before begming to
paint, it is necessary to prepare the colours, and the various tints,
such, at least, as will be required for one figure; indeed, if a mass of
architecture is to be painted, it will be necessary to prepare a general
tint for the whole work ; otherwise, it would be difficult, if obliged
to mix additional quantities, to match the colours. It is not necessary
to speak of the other usual preparations, as thay are common to oil
painting.
THE MANNER OF PAINTING. Painting in fresco is not different
from oil painting, except that it requires greater quickness and cele-
rity, from the difficulty caused by the necessity of the artist
accomodating himself to the situation in which the picture is to be
painted. Therefore, besides arranging the colours in order, in
separate gallipots, it is also proper to be provided with a palette of
copper, tin, or wood, b with a raised edge all round, in order that the
more liquid colours may not be spilled, with a small jar in the middle
for holding pure water, that there may be some near at hand with
which to wet the colours. A sponge soaked in water will do as well.
Care must also be taken not to begin the painting, until the lime
n As to cuttings and joinings see II. Rep. page 23.
b Palomino recommends a palette of canvass.
56 FRESCO PAINTING.
has sufficient consistence not to receive the impression of the fingers,
because if the intonaco be painted on while too wet, the free play of
the brush will be impeded, and the whole work will be weak, and
only serve for a first painting.
IMPASTARE, E CARICARE, OR SOLID PAINTING. Fresco painting
has this peculiarity, that the first colours which touch the lime, soon
become faint, and lose a great deal of their brilliancy. On this
account it is necessary to go over the work again with a greater body
of the same colours, and never to leave, for a moment, the part on
which the painter is engaged, until it is quite finished and perfected ;
otherwise all touches done after a few hours, appear like so many
spots or soils on the picture, and, in that case, it is better to wait till
the painting is quite dry, and then retouch it in secco.
RETOUCHING. Whoever can finish his painting in buono-fresco,
will always have his picture more complete, and the colours more
lasting than if retouched in secco ; but, as the lime almost always
makes some change in the colours, particularly in the shades, it can
and ought to be retouched, by small hatchings, laid on either with
crayons made of egg shells, or with paint brushes half dry, dipped
in the necessary colour. This kind of retouching is quite useless
when employed upon places which are uncovered and exposed to the
air, because the rain will wash them all away. To retouch fresco
painting so as to withstand water, wet the fresco several times with
water, in which gum arabic has been dissolved, and then cover it
with the following varnish :
Acqua di rasa (spirit of turpentine), 2 oz.
Olio di Abezzo (Venice turpentine), 1 oz.
The whole boiled on a slow fire ; when dry, let the painting be
retouched with colours ground with oil,
SFUMARE OR SOFTENING. In softening and uniting the colours,
soft brushes of hog's bristles, not too moist, must be used, and some-
times the finger may be employed with effect on heads, hands, and
other small parts, particularly when the lime begins to harden. But
when it is necessary to soften a large portion, such as a sky, a glory,
&c., it should be done at first while the lime is quite wet, or when it
is only half dry, with convenient tools and in such a manner as the
industry of the painter may suggest.
ANDREA POZZO. 57
ALTERATIONS. It frequently happens, that some figure does not
satisfy the expectations of the artist, so that he wishes to alter it.
For this purpose it is necessary to remove the intonaco from that
part, without touching the rest of the picture, and after having well
cleaned the place where it stood, to wet it well, and lay on it some
fresh intonaco. In a covered place, however, the more distant figures
may be repainted in secco over the first. This we only say incident-
ally, to relieve the minds of young painters from any scruple on this
point.
OF THE COLOURS. It is necessary to know what colours are
good for painting in fresco ; for it would be of little use to paint a
beautiful picture, if, owing to the incompatibility of one colour with
another, or of the colours with the lime, the picture should not last
long. The following are some observations concerning them, begin-
ning with those which are the best for our purpose.
WHITE PIGMENTS. WHITE FROM LIME. The white made from
lime is the best of all, for mixing with the colours, as well for the
carnations as the draperies, provided the lime has been slaked for a
year, or at least for six months as before stated. It must be mixed
with water, and strained through coarse silk, allowing it to settle to
the bottom, and throwing away the superfluous water, so that it may
stand upon the palette.
WHITE FROM CARRARA MARBLE AND EGG SHELLS. The marble
must be reduced to powder, and ground with water, mixing it
with lime to give it more body. It is white and a good pigment ;
but it is useless trouble to prepare this, when well seasoned lime, or
prepared egg shells, can be obtained. The white from egg shells
is also very white, and is good for painting in fresco and secco,
and for making crayons for retouching. A great quantity of egg
shells must be collected, and cleaned from the egg by boiling them
with some quick lime, having first pounded them a little. They
must then be strained and washed with spring water, then pounded
finer and washed again ; and this must be repeated until the water
comes off quite clear. They must next be ground very fine with the
muller, and made into small cakes, which, when dried in the sun,
can be used for the carnations, or for white draperies, or elsewhere
at pleasure. We must observe, however, that if these pounded egg
58 FRKSCO PAINTING.
shells are allowed to remain moist for some time, they will give out
an insupportable odour, which may be prevented by putting them in
an earthen jar, and sending them to the oven to bake.
RED PIGMENTS. VERMILION (CINABUO). This is the most lively
colour of any, but is quite incompatible with lime, particularly when
exposed to the air. If the painting is under shelter, it can be used,
but first it is necessary to prepare it in the following manner. Take
the pure vermilion, in powder, and put it in an earthen vessel, and
pour over it some water in which lime has been slaked, as clear as it
can be obtained. Then pour off the water, and add some fresh lime-
water, and repeat this several times ; and by this means the ver-
milion becomes imbued with the qualities of the lime, which it never
loses. In purchasing the vermilion, it is better to buy it in the
lump, than in powder, because the powdered vermilion is frequently
adulterated with minium, and does not produce its proper effect.
BURNT ROMAN VITRIOL." Roman Vitriol baked in the oven, and
then ground with spirit of wine, succeeds admirably upon fresh lime ;
when alone, it makes a red like lake. It is particularly useful as a
ground for vermilion. When both are used on a drapery, they pro-
duce a lake colour quite equal to that of lake in oil painting. This
colour may be used instead of Bruno d' Inghilterra.
ROSSETTO D'INGHILTERRA. Instead of the vitriol, Rossetto d' In-
ghilterra produces nearly the same effect, as it is, itself, of the nature
of vitriol. If it is used upon the lime, while quite moist, and then
shaded, when dry, it looks like lake.
RED OCHRE, (Terra Rosso), like all the other earths, is most
excellent for painting in fresco. It is used in the carnations, dra-
peries, and wherever it is wanted. Burnt yellow ochre, (Terra
Gialla Abbrucciatd) , is rather of a pale red, and is good for
the dark parts of the carnations, mixed with Venetian Terra Nera.
It is also used to shade yellow draperies.
YELLOW PIGMENTS. YELLOW OCHRE. There are two sorts of
yellow ochre found at Rome, one light, and the other darker, both
beautiful in their kind. If used carefully on draperies, they are
quite equal to Giallolino. Yellow earths are found in other parts of
Sulphate of iron.
ANDREA POZZO. 5&
Italy, but they are not equal to the Roman. Naples Yellow,
(Giallolino di Fornace), is also called Giallolino di Napoli. It is very
durable, but should not be used in exposed situations.
GREEN PIGMENTS. SAP GREEN (Pasta Verde'), is made from the
juice of the Buckthorn (Spincervino) ; mixed with white lime, it
becomes yellow, but the colour is rather fleeting. TERRE VERTE.
That of Verona is the finest, indeed the only green earth proper for
draperies, in fresco, as almost all the others are manufactured, and
incompatible with the lime. Other kinds of Terre Verte are also
found, but are inferior. Next to this, however, the Terre Verte of
Capri, when it is genuine, is the best and finest.
BROWN PIGMENTS. UMBER is good for the shades of draperies,
particularly yellow ones. It must be used with care, and mixed
with white lime, because it always becomes darker and increases in
depth. Burnt Umber is excellent for the shades of the carnations,
when mixed with Venetian Terra Nera, and particularly in the deeper
shades.
BLACK PIGMENTS. VENETIAN BLACK EARTH (Terra Nera), is the
darkest of all for fresco painting, and is good for the shades of the
carnations, and produces the same effect as bistre (Fuligine) in secco,
and bitumen in oil. Roman black earth (Terra Nera di Roma),
produces the same effect as charcoal black, and is in pretty general
use. Charcoal black can be made in various ways, namely, with
vine wood, burnt, with peach stones, with nut shells, with lees or
tartar of wine, or with paper. These must all be burnt, and then
ground to powder, with a little water, and made into cakes. In
fresco painting, in which bone black cannot be used, charcoal black
is good for anything for which black is required.*
BLUE PIGMENTS. SMALTINO (glass blue). This is useful in
fresco, and should be laid on before the other colours, while the
intonaco is still wet, for otherwise it will not incorporate firmly. An
hour after, a second coat must be laid on, to make the colour deeper.
The pure colour will serve for shades, but charcoal black should be
* The distinction seems to be, that the vegetable charcoal may be used in
fresco, but not animal charcoal. Black earths are preferable to either. ED.
60 FRESCO PAINTING.
used in the deeper shades. All the above mentioned colours must
be mixed with lime white, to produce the light, dark, and middle
tints used by painters. Ultramarine is as good in fresco as in
secco, but is not used, as it is of such great value. a Indigo may be
used in summer, as it then dries quickly, but it must not be used in
winter. b
MORELLO DI SALE, mixed with smaltino, makes a purple, as
indeed it does when used alone.
The above are all the colours which can be used for painting in
fresco.
COLOURS INCOMPATIBLE WITH LIME, AND WHICH THEREFORE
CANNOT BE USED FOR FRESCO PAINTING. White lead, Verzino lake,
(i. e. lake from Brazil wood), fine lake, verdegris, blue green
(Verde Azzurro), Verde Poro (leek green), Verde in Canna, Giallo
Santo (yellow lake), French Giallolino, orpiment, bone-black,
biadetto, and indigo, which has been already mentioned.
PAINTING UPON WALLS IN SECCO. Walls are frequently painted
in secco,, having a priming of soft gesso, mixed with size, laid upon
them. In this manner, all colours can be used, without exception.
It must be observed, however, that walls which have been white-
washed several times, must be scraped ; otherwise, in dry weather,
the excessive thickness of the white-wash causes the priming to
scale off, so as to shew the bare wall, which will spoil the picture.
On new walls, a coating of gesso, prepared as above mentioned, should
be laid on while the mortar is wet, and all kinds of colours can be
used upon it.
Palomino says, this pigment cannot be used in fresco because the lime
destroys it. ED.
b This colour also is said to be destroyed by wet lime. ED.
CHAPTER IX.
OF PACHECO.
PACHECO was born at Seville, about 1571. He was the pupil of Luia
Fernandez, and the master of Alonzo Cano and Velasquez. Carducho
and Palomino speak of Pacheco as a scientific painter, and a good
instructor, yet, even during his life, he was the subject of severe
criticism, as we find by the following epigram, written by a sarcastic
Andalusian, at the bottom of a naked figure of Christ, which he had
painted :
" Quien os puso asi, sefior,
Tan desabrido y tan seco ?
Vos mi direis que el amor,
Mas os digo que Pacheco."
" Who made you thus Lord, so doleful and so dry ? you will tell
me it was love, but I tell you it was Pacheco."
However, to do him justice, we find, in his works, great correctness
of design, a pure and noble style, natural attitudes, and a profound
knowledge of chiaro-scuro and perspective. If, to these important
qualities, he had united a more agreeable and harmonious colouring,
and greater freedom of execution, he would, at least, have equalled
the best painters of Andalusia, who have frequently sacrificed correct-
ness of outline to splendour of colouring.
His most important literary work is the book, entitled " Arte de la
Pintura," which he wrote towards the end of his life, and which was
published in 1641. This work, from which the following extracts are
selected, comprises all the information on the subject that could be
furnished by a long life and long experience. The work is elementary
and classical, and is considered, by the Spaniards, as the best written
work on the subject in the language. It contains, besides lessons on
art, many interesting particulars respecting those who have practised
the art, and the works which they have produced. Viardot, Notices
sur les Pemtres de V Espagne. Palomino says that he died in 1 654.
62 FRESCO PAINTING.
DIRECTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS OF PACHECO.
INQUIRY WHETHER THE ANCIENTS PAINTED IN FRESCO. In
treating of fresco painting, and of its antiquity and use, let us
hear what Pablo de Cespedes a has to say. " I found myself in Rome
with very learned and experienced painters, who contended that the
ancients were not only unacquainted with oil painting, but with fresco
painting also, and that they only practised distemper painting; which
was news to me. And it appears to me, that much may be said on
both sides of the question. That they were acquainted with fresco
R Pablo de Cespedes, born at Cordova, in 1538, died 1608. He was a great
and almost universal genius, whose desire for learning extended to the sciences,
belles-lettres, and the fine arts, and who only failed of being the first in
every study, because he turned from one to the other before he had acquired
perfection, and because he divided his genius among several branches of study,
instead of centering it in one absorbing taste, one sole study, and one persevering
struggle for success. He was the friend of Federigo Zucchero, and worked in
his studio. He painted frescoes in the church of Ara-coeli, in the Trinita de
Monte, with Zucchero, Julio Romano, Daniel de Volterra, Pelegrino da
Bologna, and Perino del Vaga.
He understood well the Italian, Latin, and Greek Languages, and was also
acquainted with the Hebrew and Arabic. He was the author of several works
on the arts, the best of which is entitled, " De la comparacion, de la antigua y
moderna pintura y escultura." Pacheco has preserved some valuable fragments
of his poem on painting, which is the best didactic poem in the Spanish lan-
guage. His works, excepting the frescoes executed during his studies in Italy,
are extremely scarce out of Cordova and Seville. Palomino says, he was a great
imitator of the works of Correggio, and one of the best colourists of Spain: Don
Antonio Ponz adds, " that if Cespedes could have enjoyed the friendship of
Raffaello as he did that of Zucchero, he would have been one of the greatest
painters in the world, as he was one of the wisest." Cean Bermudez thus
eulogises him : " We admire the elegance and grandeur of the forms, the vigour
of the figures, the study and knowledge of anatomy, the skilfulness of the fore-
shortenings, the effect of the chiaro-scuro, the brilliancy of the colouring, the
truth of the expression, and, above all, his powers of invention ; for he had no
occasion to borrow from others." The Chapter of Cordova having requested
Zucchero to paint a St. Margeret for them, the Italian artist replied, " Can they
ask paintings from Italy in a town where they have Cespedes ?"
Carducho (Dial. 2. fol. 31.) says, that he studied much the works of Michael
Angelo, and trod in his footsteps, not only in painting and architecture, but in
sculpture also. See also Palomino, Vol. II. p. 406, &c.
Cespedes was accustomed to make cartoons in black and red, as large as he
intended to make the painting ; and there are many portraits by him done in
this manner. Viardot's Notices sur les Princyaux Peintres de I' Espagne.
PACHECO. 63
painting is testified by the pictures found in Rome, in grottoes, and
subterranean vaults, whence it is called grotesque painting. But it is
objected, that these are evidently not fresco, but distemper painting ,
and, although I have seen several, I cannot tell which they are,
though I rather think that they are frescoes, and the state they are
in is not sufficiently perfect to enable me to decide." This opinion is
confirmed by Pliny, who, speaking of black, and how it was used,
says, that when used for writing it was mixed with gum, but
when for painting on walls, it was mixed with glue or paste. They
called this manner of painting on walls opus tectorium. And it
is clear that in fresco painting nothing is used with the colours but
pure water ; and also, that negro de humo (lamp black, which is what
Pliny means) is not proper for fresco painting.
"That the ancients were acquainted with fresco painting can be
collected from what this same Pliny says, in chapter in, speaking of
three pictures in the city of Ardea, which, although uncovered by a
roof, had lasted many years ; and the same in Lanuvium, a city near
Rome, so that, being painted on a wall, some without a roof and the
others in a ruined temple (according to report), being in such a fresh
state of preservation, is an indication that they were not distemper ;
since, although so old, they still retained their first beauty.
" It may also be observed in chapter iv, that Fabius, a most illus-
trious Roman (who was called Pictor), painted the Temple of Public
Safety, in Rome, and his pictures remainded till the reign of the
* From the following description given by Federigo Zucchero (" Idea de Pittore,"
&c. in the Lett. Pitt. vol. II. p. 142, 143.) of the celebrated ancient picture known
by the name of the Aldobrandini Marriage, we may conclude that it is a fresco
painting. " It was discovered on the mount of S. Maria Maggiore, in the Orti
Mecenati, by those excavators, who are continually at work, examining here and
there, under ground, to find statues, marbles and figures, buried in those ruins.
They found a room, of which a piece of the wall was left standing, upon which
was painted an elegant and beautiful picture in fresco, with figures about three
palms high, coloured by the hand of a master. This piece was considered worthy
of being sawn off, and brought to light, and placed in the garden of the Cardinal
Aldobrandini at Monte Manganopoli, and was so well preserved among these ruins,
that it was quite wonderful. And I, who was by chance one of the first to see
it, and wash it, and clean it carefully with my own hand, observed it was as well
preserved, and as fresh as if it had but just been painted ; so that it pleased me
exceedingly, and I caused it to be brought to light." This picture was a favourite
subject of study with Raffaello and Nicholas Poussin ; the latter is said to have
made an accurate copy of it.
64 FRESCO PAINTING.
Emperor Claudius, when they were destroyed by fire ; so that they
lasted at least three hundred years." Thus far Cespedes.
Agreeing in these opinions, I answer to those who wish to make
it appear that the ancients painted in distemper only, that under this
name is comprehended fresco, as all that is not oil painting, must
necessarily be distemper, and in reality, fresco is a particular kind of
distemper ; and it cannot be denied that the ancients painted in
fresco, from the duration of their paintings. Thus Vasari, whose
words leave no doubt as to the fact, asserts, " Era degli antichi
molto usato il fresco, et i vecchi moderni ancora 1' hanno poi segui-
tato," Fresco was much used by the ancients, in which the early
masters have followed them.
We now come to the execution of fresco paintings. Of all kinds
of painting, that of fresco painting is the most masterly, dexterous,
and expeditious, completing in one day, what, in any other style,
would occupy a long time in painting, and which may be retouched.
But fresco painting requires great dexterity and boldness, and the
mistakes and faults are irremediable, unless the work be cut out. It
is the most manly and lasting kind of painting, therefore, those who
practise it ought to be more respected and esteemed than other
painters, being considered great masters.
The wall must be very dry, strong, and free from moisture, and
must have been plastered a long time previous ; and the lime which
is to be used must be very mild, it being necessary to keep it in soft
water above two years, and it must be mixed with fine sand, in equal
proportions, and the mortar must be laid on that part only which can
be painted in one day.
The colours must be natural colours, the white pigment must be
fine lime either from Portugal, or from Marchena ; a very white, and
of great body, which has lost its causticity by being kept for many
days in a large jar with soft water ; this white, if made into balls,
can be kept many years. It is ground with soft water, and is pat
into a pot covered with the same water, and is used instead of white
lead, mixed with the other colours. The light and dark ochre must
be of great body, such as that of Flanders and of Portugal, also
of Castelleja de la Cuesta, which Luis de Vargas used in painting
the tower.
A town of Andalusia.
PACHECO. C5
OF THE COLOURS, CARTOONS, AND PAINTING. The light ochre
mixed with lime, serves instead of genuli for the yellows ; the alma-
gra de Levante sen r es instead of vermilion for the flesh, and for the
light draperies ; and Albin for the crimson of this kind of painting.
Of the last are made the rose colours, and the purples, when mixed
with esmalte, which is the blue pigment best adapted for fresco
painting, because it is glass and incorporates better than other
blue pigments with the lime. It is the most difficult colour to use,
and should be the first finished. It should be used in this man-
ner : to make light blue it should be mixed with the liquor that
is produced by mixing water with the powdered lime, a stirring it
about until it is thick and clouded ; and the middle and dark tints
are made in the same manner ; this is the safest method of using it ;
but some persons who wish to darken the tints with pure esmalte,
retouch it the next day, either with egg and water and the leaf of a
fig tree, or with the yolk of egg as in distemper painting, or with
the milk of goats* alone. The same may be done with the green,
if it is verde terra or verde montana. b But verdacho c agrees better
with the lime in fresco, and may be made lighter with it at pleasure,
or darkened with black. The common brown is the Italian umber,
and the black is the negro de carbon; but my master, d who was much
practised in this kind of painting, used the negro de bano, which
is not to be found everywhere.
And I must tell you, that in tempering the colours you must
consider how much lighter they will appear when mixed with the
lime, after the painting is dry, and this can be taught only by
experience. 6 Therefore, always mix more colour than you require
for the picture, for it will be scarcely possible to match the colour
afterwards.
The preparation which is usually made after the lime is spread on
the wall, is to bathe it with a large brush dipped in soft and clear
water, that the cracks, which are frequently found in the stucco, may
be filled up before drawing what is to be painted, or pouncing the
cartoon, which last is the best way for producing a good effect.
* i. e., Lime water.
b See this word ia the Treatise on Colours Green pigments.
Ibid.
' Pacheco was the pupil of Luis Fernandez.
e I. Rep. 24, 35.
66 FRESCO PAINTING.
And some persons even keep before them not only highly -finished
drawings, but heads painted in oil from nature, that the figures
may appear in better relief ; for if you draw on the wall with pencil
(Lapiz), and paint off hand whatever presents itself, you will not
preserve the good opinion of others, nor will your works do you
honour."
After the cartoon is pounced or drawn, the wall should have
a couch of ground lime with a little almagra, so that it should be
of a light flesh colour, except when azure or green is to be used,
when lime alone should be employed. 15 And then begin to lay
on the various colours, making them very liquid, for upon this
(intonaco) they may be applied well according to their tints as
in painting with water colours.
RETOUCHING IN DISTEMPER. As to retouching in distemper after
the wall is dry, there is much to be said against it, notwithstanding
that many great men practised it, as Mateo Perez de Alecio, in the
San Christoval, and in the door of the Cardinal; Antonio Mohedano, d
and Alonso Varquez e in the cloister of San Francisco ; Peregrin f in
Pacheco was very careful in the preparation of his works. During a prac-
tice of forty years, he never omitted to make, previous to commencing his
painting, two or three studied designs ; he first painted the heads, separately,
and from nature ; he also drew, upon coloured paper, and always from nature,
the arms, hands, legs, ;md all the naked parts of the body which he intended to
represent ; and also the different stuffs and draperies, which he disposed upon a
layman ; and then he made a general composition of all these prepared fragments.
b From this it appears that it was not the practice of the Spanish school to
lay a black or red ground under blue.
c Mateo Perez de Alecio. A native of Rome who painted the celebrated San
Christobal, in the Church of Seville, " a work," says Palomino, " which has no
equal either in execution or size ; since it is thirty feet high. It is executed in
fresco, and with such skill, that the joinings of the tareas are not visible" He
died about 1600, at Rome.
d Antonio Mohedano was the friend of Cespedes, whose school he followed.
Palomino says, that " he painted in fresco with such skill, both in design and
in colouring, that he was inferior to no painter of his own time, and indeed was
never equalled. He learned the art from Caesar Arbasia of Cordova." He died
in 1625.
c Alonzo Varquez, of the school of Luis de Vargas in Seville, was an excel-
lent fresco painter, skilful in anatomy and colouring. He died in 1650.
1 Peregrino di Bologna. One of the most distinguished pupils and followers
of the school of Michael Angelo. He painted, in fresco, the roof of the Royal
PACHECO. 67
that of the Escurial, and many others ; but he spoke well who said
that a fresco, when finished in distemper, was only a sketch. I
myself in no wise approve of retouching ; let fresco be fresco, and
let distemper be distemper. Besides, the colours which are used in
retouching, are sometimes lighter and sometimes darker than the
picture. But the writer who reproves this practice most severely, is
Vasari, who says, " Those who paint on walls labour in a manly way
iu fresco, and do not retouch when dry in secco, which, besides being
a very bad practice, renders the picture less durable."
I finish the chapter by observing, that the pencils must be of hog's
bristles, wide and pointed, large or small, because the lime does not
destroy them, and the brushes a are to be of the same kind, using
sometimes common and small ones.
Among those who have painted in this manner, with great skill
and approbation in our days, are Cesar Albasia, in the Treasury of
Cordova, Mateo Perez de Alecio, Antonio Mohedano, and Alonzo
Varquez, and in Castile, Bartolomeo Carducho and his brother, b and
Monastery of San Lorenzo, with such skill, that the naked figures which appear
to support the roof seem (says Palomino) to be the work of Michael Angelo
himself.
a The distinction between pencils and brushes is, that the pencils are fastened
into quills and the brushes on sticks.
b Bartolommeo and Vincenzo Carducci were Italians who settled in Spain.
The former studied under Zucchero, and was called into Spain in 1585, to assist
in decorating the Escurial. He died in 1608. It is considered that of all the
Italian painters Bartolommeo was the most useful to the progress of the fine arts
in Spain, not on account of the splendour of his works, but rather for his supe-
rior method of instruction, for the wisdom of his maxims, and the good school
which he formed, and which his brother Vincenzo continued and rendered
illustrious.
Vincenzo accompanied his brother to Spain in 1585, and in 1606 assisted in
executing the decorations of the Palace del Pardo, where he painted in fresco the
cupola of the chapel.
In 1629, Vincenzo entered into a contract to paint in fresco the grand cloister
of the Convent del Paular, by which he agreed to paint fifty-six pictures in four
years, fourteen every year, for which he was to receive fifteen hundred ducats
a-year. This singular contract was punctually fulfilled. Cean-Bermudez, who
relates that he had passed a fortnight in this convent to examine at leisure the
work of Vincenzo, affirms, that in this long and uniform series of pictures (repre-
senting the life of St. Bruno) in which monotony seemed inevitable, we admire
on the contrary, great fertility of invention, an ingenious arrangement of the
actions and groups, not less than the anatomical science and the harmony
of the colours.
68 FRESCO PAINTING.
Peregrin, but our Luis de Vargas a of Seville is inferior to none in
the management of his colours, as is evident in the Arch of the
Treasury, the Tower, and Cristo de gradas, and we are all much
indebted to him, he being the first who introduced fresco painting into
Seville, and he painted the first fresco there in the year 1555. It is
a picture of the Rosary, in shape a large oval, and is painted on a
pillar of the Convent of St. Paul, but it was destroyed by attempting
to repair it.
Vincenzo Carducho published in 1633 his " Dialogues on the Theory of
Painting," which is considered the hest Spanish work on the subject. He died
in 1638.
8 Luis de Vargas, the most ancient of the great painters of Andalusia, was
born in 1502 ; he had the great honour of introducing in his own country the
true method of painting in fresco and in oil. It was he who substituted the
style of the Renaissance for the gothic style which then prevailed in Spain.
The great resemblance between his paintings and those of Perino del Vaga
prove that he had chosen this pupil of Raffaello for his master. The fresco which
Pacheco calls the " Cristo de gradas,"* was painted in 1563 ; it is on the steps
of the church of San Pablo. Within the short space of thirty years after it was
painted, that is, in 1594, the Portuguese painter Vasco Pereyra, who was settled
at Seville, was entrusted by the Chapter, to repair this magnificent fresco. Palo-
mino also mentions that this painting had suffered much from the effects of time.
The cause of the rapid decay of these frescoes is not assigned by either Pacheco
or Palomino. Viardot observes generally, " Unfortunately the greater part of his
works were in fresco, and these are so much decayed by time and carelessness
that scarcely a vestige remains of them." The last of these, which is nearly
effaced, was finished in 1568. The pictures mentioned by Viardot and other
writers, seem to have been chiefly external frescoes.
* Those who were condemned to do penance were accustomed to stop and pray before this
picture, whence it acquired the popular name of "II Cristo de los Azotados," the Christ of
the whipped.
CHAPTER X.
OF PALOMINO.
DON Acisclo Antonio Palomino de Castro y Velasco was born in 1563.
The numerous works, both in oil and fresco, left by this artist, may
be placed in the first rank among those produced at this period of
the decline of the art. The design of his pictures is correct, the
colouring in harmony with the subject, the draperies appropriate,
the arrangement of the composition relieves, as much as possible, the
common and ignoble forms of the figures. His pictures shew traces
of acquirements not immediately connected with the art ; his painting
is learned, as is that of all declining schools, while in schools that are
beginning or rising into greatness.it appears more ignorant and artless.
Palomino lived at a period, parallel to that of the commentators on
literature, when much was written on art, although the exercise of it
had ceased ; when the theory was studied, while the practice was
neglected ; when it was known accurately why, and how, great
masters were produced, but the secret of becoming such was lost.
This was the case with Palomino ; under the obscure and assuming
title of " Museo pictorico y escala optica," he published three large
volumes in quarto, the two first of which contain instructions in
painting, that is to say, the history, the practice, and rules, of the
various parts of the art. The third part bearing the title of " Parnaso
Espanole pintoresco laureado," contains the biography of the Spanish
painters, commencing with the life of old Antonio del Rincon, who
died in 1500, to his own friends and contemporaries.
When Luca Giordano, who was but an indifferent theologian, was
ordered to paint the ceilings of the Escurial (soon after 1 692) he found
himself much at a loss to execute the subject which the monks desired,
the king therefore desired Palomino to assist him with the designs.
Palomino executed this delicate mission so well, that the delighted
70 FRESCO PAINTING.
Giordano, kissed the sketches, exclaiming "they are already painted."
Palomino published the last volume of his work in 1724, and died
in 1726. Viardot, Notices, 8<c.
DIRECTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS OF PALOMINO.
THE PRACTICE OF FRESCO PAINTING. The practice of fresco painting
(observes Palomino), is not adapted for copyists, or timid painters,
or irresolute persons, who necessarily avail themselves of the genius
of others ; for there must always be not only sketches or outlines of
the same proportions as the place the painting is to occupy, but also
particular studies, both of single figures, and historical groups, and
the artist must have sufficient skill to prepare these for himself. By
means of these sketches or outlines, the work is carried on with
freedom, skill, and power, which this kind of painting requires,
because much may be done in one day, and the work will have fewer
retouchings and joinings, not to mention other advantages of greater
importance, which increase the beauty of the picture.
Now fresco painting is, as I have observed a in the first volume,
, The following are the observations of Palomino here referred to : " Finally,
the marvellous operation of this kind of painting consists in the attractive virtue
of the stucco, formed of lime and sand, which sucks in and drinks up with such
seemingly insatiable ardor, and with such violence, the moisture put on with the
colours, that it incorporates and unites with itself the said colours, which indeed
are homogeneous, or similar to the natural state, since the mineral colours are of
the nature of the sand ; and the white which is used with them is of the same
lime, although some add to it one-half or one-third of alabaster, or white marble,
from which combination of the colours and the lime, results another species of
stucco, so well united with the other Intonaco which is below it, by virtue of the
moisture, that the two form one thing, as they are both inseparable from each
other.
" This effect may be prevented from taking, place by any one of the three fol-
lowing causes, viz. a very hard frost, an intense heat, or by .the work being too
long in hand. The hard frost closes the pores of the surface, so that its attractive
power ceases, and the whole operation is as useless as if done with ashes ; the
intense heat dries the lime so rapidly, that it loses that vigor which it should
have, and it ceases to possess its former power of combining with the colours ;
and if the work be too long in hand, the pellicle, or thin skin, which is seen on
the top of the water, when the lime is agitated, forms on the surface of the wall,
which, closing the pores of the surface, its attractive power ceases, and conse-
quently its effect."
PALOMINO. 71
(Book I, chap. 6, s. 8) that kind of painting in which water alone is
used, the adhesion of the colours to the wall being occasioned by the
attractive power of the fresh stucco, with which the surface to be
painted is covered. Hence it is evident, that the subject cannot be
sketched on the surface, on which the painting is afterwards to be
executed, because, previously to painting, it must be covered with
the stucco. It is called fresco painting because the painting must be
performed on it while the stucco is still damp ; and for this reason,
the stucco must not be spread over a larger portion of the surface
than can be painted in one day, and this portion is called in Spanish
TAREA, and in Italian GIORNATA, which means a day's work. Now
as in this kind of painting, the first thing to be prepared is the stucco,
I shall begin by describing the method of preparing it.
OP PREPARING THE STUCCO. The stucco should be provided, if
possible, four or six months before it is used, and where this is
impossible, the architectural part of the picture, and the ornaments,
if there be any, should be painted before the historical part and the
figures. Now the stucco is made of lime, passed through a cane or
open hair sieve, and of sand of good quality, and not argillaceous,
which also is to be passed through a hair sieve, in doing which it
must be blown with the mouth, otherwise the sieve will be choked
up, and the sand will not pass through, and the same will happen in
sifting the lime, although, by turning the sieve upside down and
rapping it, the lime will fall out.
The proportions of lime and sand must be equal ; these are the
best proportions, as I have proved by experiments, particularly if the
lime is not old enough to have been made mild by time ; but if it
has been rendered mild by time, the proportions should be three
parts of lime and one of sand. It should be mixed with soft water
in a very large jar or tub, where it can be beaten and stirred about
conveniently; and should be kept well bathed and covered with water.
And if the work be on a large scale, there should be two of these
jars or tubs, so that when the lime in one is consumed, the other
will be ready for use.
The mixture being made in this way, it must be stirred up every
day, first taking off with a piece of tile, the skin or pellicle of nitre
which will be formed round the edge of the water (it is for this
reason that it should be kept covered with water), and when the
72 FRESCO PAINTING.
day's work is finished, the lime should be again just covered with
soft water, and so on every day, without suffering it to become too
dry. By this means the lime will become so mild, and so purified
from all causticity, that it may be used like lard without injuring the
colours.
PREPARATION OP THE WALL. And although the painter may not
be obliged to prepare the lime himself, yet he should know how to
do it, that he may instruct the mason, who will be useful for this
and other purposes, sometimes to the painters, and sometimes to the
master of the work ; because every person does not know the qual-
ities or quantities of these things, and still fewer, the mode of pre-
paring them. Before we treat of this latter operation, we must
suppose the surface of the wall in a proper state to begin upon.
And the first requisite is that it must be quite dry, and free from
moisture, because if not, it will be afterwards liable to be spotted
with the salt-petre which will appear on the wall when it dries.
The second requisite is that the wall be rough (i. e. toothed) but
at the same time level ; it should be rough, that the stucco may
adhere firmly to it, and may not peel or scale off. The reason for
its being even and level is, that the stucco may not crack ; for as
the surface of the plaster must be even in order that the part painted
on may not appear out of drawing, if there be any hollows in it,
and the stucco be laid on unequally thick, it will swell and crack,
and even fall off where it is thickest.
The third requisite is, that the part of the wall which is to be
painted the next day be well bathed with soft water the evening
before, and the same must be done the next morning, before the
stucco is spread, that it may be fresh and moist the whole day,
especially in summer ; for exactly as the moisture in the interior of
the wall is injurious, so that which it receives on the exterior at the
time of preparing is beneficial. And I must inform you, that if the
wall has been long plastered and is smooth (unless it be of fine
white plaster which must be roughened) it will be sufficient to prick
the outline well, proceeding in other respects as above mentioned.
OF LAYING ON THE iNTONACo. The wall being prepared in
this manner, and the part over which the stucco is to be spread, (the
tarea i, e. day's work) being marked out, the mason should take
PALOMINO. 73
some of the stucco on a wooden trowel or float which he will hold in
his left hand and from thence take it with a mason's trowel, such as
is used in Valencia or Andalucia, and spread it very evenly on the
wall, so that the intonaco (tunica) may be about the thickness of a
dollar. When this is done and before it is too dry, it must be
smoothed with the same trowel, and if the tarea be large it should
not be spread over the whole at once, but only a piece at a time,
and this is important in order that the work may be firm and free
from cracks.
This being done, the mason should wash over the intonaco with a
handful of flax tied up in a linen cloth, well moistened and wetted,
for three good reasons ; the first is, that it removes the extreme
smoothness of the wall, which would prevent the colour from ad-
hering ; the second is, that it effaces the marks of the trowel ; and
the third is, that it disturbs the fine sand and opens the pores of the
intonaco, after it has been smoothed, so that the colour takes better,
incorporates with it more perfectly, and is more easy to work on.
This being done, the mason will have done his part of the business.
After this, and without any delay, the tarea should be wiped
gently with a silk handkerchief, so as to remove the particles of
sand from the surface, taking care that they do not fall into the eyes
at the time of painting, which frequently happens, particularly when
painting a roof or vault, to the painter's great inconvenience ; there-
fore, if on this account only, it would be well for him to wear
spectacles.
ON USING THE CARTOONS. After this he should fix the cartoon,
having first placed it properly, according to the directions already
given, on distemper painting, 8 for it will be convenient that the
a The observations referred to are as follow : " And whether the design be
drawn on the cartoon or on the intended picture, it must first be drawn with
crayons of charcoal, made of the wood of the willow, nut, osier, or pine. These
are made by splitting the wood into pieces of the size of an iron tube, or a large
cattle bell, (which should be had for this purpose) or at least of the size of the
finger, and being tightly jammed into the tube by strokes of a hammer, they
should be shut up air tight, then put into the fire, and left there until the tube
is of a bright red colour, then taken out and put into cold ashes, covering it well
with them, and covering the ashes with a large earthen pot ; the whole is then to
be left there till quite cold, because the charcoal will fill with air and break
easily ; then one of the pieces should be put into a piece of cane split into four
parts, at the end which is to receive the piece of charcoal, and then tied round
74 FRESCO PAINTING.
whole cartoon should be fitted on to the wall, in order that the piece
that is cut off, should correspond well with the edges and joinings of
all the rest, for the right arrangement of the whole depends on the
proper placing of this first piece.
This cartoon being fixed, drawn, and pricked in the manner refer-
red to in treating of painting in distemper, and fastened to the wall
with nails, it should be pounced with a bag of pulverized charcoal,
and the edge where it is intended to be cut off, should also be rubbed
with it, that it may serve as a mark where to cut off the tarea, and
where to begin the next day.
This being done, the cartoon should be taken off, and the edge of
the tarea where it has been marked with the bag of charcoal should
be cut off with a knife or a pointed trowel, cutting it obliquely out-
wards, that it may not diminish the size of the tarea, nor occasion
cracks within it, and for this purpose it should always be spread of
the breadth of two fingers beyond where it is marked, and that
which is beyond the marks, should not be cut off until the tarea is
at the part with a thread. It is then to be scraped to a point, and the outline
to be drawn with it. When this is all done, the outlines should be fixed, by
passing over them a pencil, filled with water colour, and if the drawing be made
on the cartoon, the outline may then be pricked through with a large needle or
something similar ; after that, it should be placed in the site of the painting,
and fixed there by means of nails, then it is to be pounced with a bag of ground
charcoal, and, after that, outlined with water colour by means of a pencil.
" It will not be useless to describe here the mode of making the cartoons since
every person does not know it. In the first place, the paper must be large,
(either white or grey), that there may not be too many joinings; the flour paste
should be well boiled, and the nails (or tacks) the size of No. 12, or those of
Valladolid. This being prepared, if the surface is even, the cartoon is easily
made, since the sheets of paper must be pasted together two and two or four
and four, letting the edges overlap each other, about the width of the finger. The
edges are then pasted with the brush, the cartoon is put in its place, and then
the nails should be driven in, so that they will not get in the way afterwards
by raising the edge.
" But if the surface be concave and not cylindrical, (for this is the same as a
flat surface), it is more difficult, because each sheet has to be nailed in by itself,
and even each half sheet, that it may be adjusted to the shape of the surface ;
and care should be taken in pasting the edges, not to paste the cartoon to the
surface, nor should the paste touch the wall, because, besides fixing the cartoon
to the wall so as to tear it in taking it off, it is so prejudicial to paste the wall,
especially if it be damp, that, when it is moistened, stains appear, which are
visible when the painting is finished."
PALOMINO. 75
finished in order to keep it moist to the very edges. Afterwards the
outlines should be marked over with a pointed black crayon, not very
sharp, and the straight lines should be ruled, and if there are any
circular curves, they should be drawn with a compass, with a piece
of black crayon fastened to one foot of it. This outline should be
indented so deeply, that when the black mark is obliterated by the
repetition of the tints, the indented line will serve as a guide in
painting. Anciently, and even in my recollection, the cartoon was
not pricked, but when it was nailed to the wall, the outlines were
marked over with the stick of a paint brush cut to a blunt point,
with sufficient pressure to indent the stucco ; and this alone served
for a mark, as may now be seen in the Palazzo del Pardo and other
places, by a person who has eyes to see and fingers to feel, although
I am far from saying that fresco paintings should be treated with
disrespect ; that is, they should not be handled. In this manner
were done those excellent cartoons in black and white on grey paper,
which were always Used, and which, after having been used, were
held in great estimation by painters, as those of Michael Angelo,
Raffaelle, Annibale Caracci, and others, in Italy. But it was found
that this tried the patience of the artist so much, that when he came
to the execution of the work, he shrunk from such immense labour.
More especially when the labour is considered useless, for we have
merely to pounce the outline, and mark it with the powdered char-
coal, which practice, and that of marking over the outlines with
black crayon, has been found in our time much more convenient,
easy, and expeditious ; advantages not to be despised when they lead
to greater perfection in the end, and do not tire the patience of the
artist. A light and convenient palette has also been invented, com-
posed of primed canvass, as we have mentioned in the chapter on
distemper painting.
The outlines of the design having been completed in the way we
have mentioned, the cartoon should be taken off gently, that the
charcoal dust may not soil the colours which are to be laid on it, and
after that the tarea (day's work) should be sprinkled with clean
water from a large brush, which may be of bruised sedge ; for which
purpose the painter should have a jar full of clean water, and a brush,
which is only fit for sprinkling, and with this the wall is to be
sprinkled, and not rubbed, because rubbing would efface the outline
while it is so fresh ; and this will also be useful for sprinkling it from
time to time during the painting, especially in summer. And there
7G FKKSCO PAINTING.
should be also another jar full of water, with a brush for moistening,
and rubbing from time to time the part which has not been painted,
that it may not dry. For after it has been left some time, a film or
pellicle forms over the surface of the lime or stucco which fills up
the pores, so that it does not absorb the colour which crumbles off
like ashes ; and the tarea should be wetted, although the stucco does
not dry, for if it should dry before it is finished, it would be useless
and must be cut out, and the stucco must be again spread and the
subject drawn on it again ; but the water in this second jar will not
serve for sprinkling the part that is painted, because by rubbing the
plaster with it, it takes up a little of the white, and if this were used
for sprinkling, the picture would be spoiled.
This is the process, supposing it fine weather ; for if it freezes,
(which is the worst weather there can be for this kind of painting),
the two vases of water should be put over the fire, that the water
may be warm, and with that the surface may be sprinkled or bathed,
in the before-mentioned manner ; even the water that the mason
uses should be warm. All this is necessary during a hard frost, for
if the intonaco should freeze, it is the worst thing that can happen,
as no absorption takes place, and the colours do not incorporate with
the intonaco, but crumble off like ashes, as I know by experience ;
and if all these means should not suffice, the work must be left till
the weather is milder.
OP THE COLOURS USED. Before we proceed further, the colours
which are used in fresco painting may be briefly described. They
are all mineral,* and some are calcined by means of fire. The mine-
ral colours are, Light Ochre, Dark Ochre, Tierra Roxa, Albin, Pa-
vonazo, Sombra de Venecia, Sombre del Viego, Tierra Verde, and
Tierra Negra. Those made by means of fire, are Esmalte, Negro de
Carbon, Burnt Ochre, Hornaza, Burnt Roman Vitriol, and Vermilion.
The best kind of Vermilion is the mineral or native Vermilion, but in
uncovered places, neither the mineral nor the artificial is good for
a Palomino means to say, that the colours consist of natural pigments only,
but of these some merely require to be washed and ground, while others require
to be calcined. All the nine pigments of the first class mentioned by the author
contain more or less of iron, the other ingredients being silica, alumina, magnesia
and manganese. These are the pigments, which, in all ages, from the Egyptians
and Greeks, to the present time, have been found most permanent.
PALOMINO. 77
anything, because in a few days both kinds return to the same
colour they had in their natural state, which is a most vile and dirty
purple. Therefore, in such places, and in those which are exposed
to the inclemency of the weather, Vermilion should not be used at
all, either the natural or the artificial. But in covered places, and
those defended from the inclemency of the weather, it is a most
beautiful pigment, and keeps its colour very well, as I myself have
repeatedly experienced. And that it may keep its colour better, it
should not be laid on the stucco itself, but the Tierra Roxa should be
used first, and over that the Vermilion ; making the colour light
with white, and darkening it with Albin and Pavonazo, and in some
very dark places adding Sombre del Viejo, or Tien a Negra, and it will
be as fresh and beautiful as in oil painting.
As to the Ochres, a person need not be afraid of using them ; it is
only necessary to remark, that ochre which is not mixed with white,
darkens much in drying ; although that kind which is called " de
Coleteros,"* is more "permanent and beautiful than that of Valencia;
Tierra Roxa has also the same property of growing darker.
Albin and Pavonazo do not change colour, and they supply the
place of carmine so well, that being used while the stucco is fresh, they
have sometimes deceived people, who thought they were carmine. And
I must tell you that Pavonazo is a degree lower in tone than Albin,
and this is not sold in shops, but is obtained from the copper mines
in the kingdom of Jaen ; and there and in all Andalusia, the painters
and gilders esteem it much, and it is even sold under the name of
Almagre.
The Sombre de Venecia is not to be depended on, because it loses
force, and gets much lighter coloured in drying, appearing, while the
stucco is fresh a fine colour, but the artist must beware of it, as it is
a deceitful pigment. Therefore, whoever likes may use it, but I
consider it as banished from this kind of painting, and in its place,
I use the Sombre del Viejo, which is a most beautiful colour, and
proper for all things, and as we possess this we shall not miss the
other.
The Tierra Verde which is also called Verde de Verona, is of an
excellent colour, and if it did not lose its force so much in drying,
would be invaluable. However, if used while the stucco is very fresh
it keeps its colour better. And it should always be used for green
a Coleteros Those who made buff coats.
78 FRKSCO PAINTING.
drapery, mixed with Verde Montana and a very little ochre, because,
as the latter darkens and the former becomes lighter coloured in
drying, it will be exactly the same colour as before, when dry. The
Verde Montana cannot be used by itself in fresco, therefore I have
not placed it among the colours used in fresco-painting, because,
either it does not adhere to the lime, or if it does adhere it burns ; a
however, the first defect may be remedied by using it with milk ; but
when mixed with Tierra Verde, it keeps its colour well, and is very
beautiful, especially if it is of that kind which is brought from Venice
in pastilles, when it is called by some Verde Granilla, which is much
better than what is sold here in powder. Hornaza mixed with white
may also be used for the lights in the green. And for the shadows
in covered places, the Tierra Verde may be darkened with indigo and
a little ochre or Sombra del Viejo. And if the situation be exposed
to the air, it should be darkened with Negro de Carbon, or Sombra
del Viejo, or Tierra Negra, which last is a most beautiful colour in
every respect, especially if it be that which comes from Venice, and
which we get in pellets.
The blue is the Scylla of this kind of painting ; but fortune has
not given us our choice in this matter, obliging us to use Esmalte,
which is in substance ground glass. This pigment may either be
used by itself, or mixed with white, and if applied on the wet stucco,
it adheres very well when used with lime-water. But if the painting
is to be in an uncovered place, I do not think this a secure method
of applying the colour, therefore it should be used with goat's milk ;
and for the dark parts, for which the Esmalte alone would not be suf-
ficient, Negro de Carbon may be used, and it may be finished with
Tierra Negra. In covered situations, indigo may be used for the
dark parts, but this colour should never be applied on the lime itself,
as it perishes ; and this is the reason why I have not classed it among
the colours used in fresco painting, because it is an intruder. I
know by experience, that either pure Esmalte, or Esmalte mixed with
indigo, with a little Tierra Verde, or of a blue stone which is called
Ignoto, b adheres wonderfully well without milk. And in this man-
ner may be made purple colours, mixing with the Esmalte instead of
carmine, Albin and Pavonazo in proper proportions ; milk should be
" Or destroys ;" the expression is used to denote the effect of the sun or frost
on flowers.
b This word means unknown. See Treatise on Colours Blue pigments.
PALOMINO. 79
added to this also, to make it adhere firmly, especially in an exposed
situation.
OF BLACK PIGMENTS. With respect to a black colour, that made
of burnt oak wood (the bark having been previously taken off) well
ground, is excellent if used while the stucco is wet, that it may hold
firmly, for the Tierra Negra when mixed with the white of the lime
is very grey, but the latter is better than the former for finishing the
dark parts.
OP WHITE PIGMENTS. We have now to speak of the white pig-
ment which is used in fresco painting. This is made of the same
lime as the stucco, but without sand, for which purpose the whitest
quick lime in lumps is chosen ; this is slaked in a jar, (which in Cas-
tile is called bano), pouring water on it from time to time, until it
has lost all its causticity, stirring it well until it is thoroughly soaked
and covered with soft water. And this must be managed in the same
way as the stucco, taking off the pellicle on the surface every day,
and this being done, soft water should again be poured over the lime
in great abundance, and it should be again well beaten up, and so
on every day for four months, if possible ; and as the length of time
occupied in preparing this pigment is a great inconvenience, it will
be proper for those who are accustomed to this kind of work, or even
those who are not, to make it in large quantities ; and after it has
been well purified, it may be kept either in pellets, or in a large jar,
leaving it to dry.
But before removing the water, the whole should be strained
through a close horse hair sieve, resting the sieve on two sticks laid
across the jar into which it is to be strained, and stirring about the
thick liquid which is put into the sieve with a brush, that the fine
parts may pass through, and tapping it on the outside from time to
time, that the thick part which remains in the sieve may subside. And
after it has been all strained in this manner, it will be like milk ; it
should then be left to settle, then the lime water should be poured
off; preserving, however, enough for use, if you require it for any
purpose, arfd pour it off gently, that it may not mix with the lime.
But when it is required for use, the lime settled at the bottom of
the jar should be taken out with a large wooden spoon, aud then the
tints for the buildings, and other general tints, may be made of it in
the same manner as the tints are made for painting in distemper,
80 FRESCO PAINTING.
only with this difference, that the white, instead of being gypsum,
should be of lime. For crimson, Albin or Pabonazo must be em-
ployed, and to use these tints properly, it is not necessary to take
them out with a spoon, but the colour in the vase should be pre-
viously stirred with a brush, and while it is thus liquid, it should be
put into the vase, which is to be held in the hands, for this kind of
painting is all done by means of water.
We have now to speak of the white paint for the palette, which
may be a portion of the same lime, if it be mild, straining it again
through a very close silk sieve, for which purpose it must be diluted
with much water, otherwise it will not pass through, and even then
it will be necessary to stir it with a brush, and then to remove the
refuse from the sieve from time to time. The lime being suffered to
settle, there will be found in the bottom of the jar a white coagulum,
which is to be used for the palette, taking it out with a spoon which
is to be kept for this purpose only.
But if the Blanco de cal (lime white) is of that kind which has
been kept in pellets, or dried in a jar, in the manner we have pre-
viously mentioned, it will be necessary to break it up, and to put
water to it, and after it is well moistened, to grind it again on the
stone with the muller.
And if the Blanco de cal cannot be prepared in this way, on
account of the length of time occupied in its preparation, it will be
necessary to procure some pieces of the purest white marble, and
break and grind them in an iron mortar. The powder is then to be
sifted ; and after this it should, if possible, be ground in a small mill,
which some, and myself among the number, keep for this purpose,
as well as for grinding other colours in large quantities for these
works, which is a very convenient practice. Some of this powder
should be mixed with the lime-white, (bianco de cal) in the propor-
tions of at least one part to three or four of the bianco de cal, and
this is very suitable for flesh colours, draperies, flowers, and the most
delicate things. And indeed, wherever this can be obtained it should
be used, as it is of great importance, even if the lime be purified,
although in this case, only one fourth, or even less, of the powdered
marble should be used.
Luca Giordano used this white pigment in whatever he painted,
and he assured me that it is employed in the same manner throughout
Italy. I must also inform you that, for want of marble, you may
use alabaster, which gives a great firmness to the white, because,
PALOMINO. 81
from the lime and marble is formed a kind of stucco, such as is used
by modellers in plaster, who with this imitate statues of marble, and
other things, which deceive people by their touch, their lustre, their
coldness, and their hardness.
OF USING THE PALETTE, BRUSHES, &c. These things being
prepared, the colours being ground, and each put into its proper vase
or saucer, with a spoon for each, in the manner described in the
chapter on distemper painting, and supposing the palette unnecessary
for general tints, which are prepared in the same way as those used
in distemper painting, we are now going to treat of the use of the
palette, which may consist of a piece of canvass of the length of a
" vara," 3 ' or at least three-fourths of a vara, because there will then
be room to mix the tints with the brush, without their running one
into another, and a sufficient quantity of each colour should be put
on the palette at once, in fact more than is required, that the colour
may not dry too soon, and it should even be sprinkled with water
from time to time. For cleaning the palette when necessary, the
painter should have a sponge as large as his fist, with which, being
moistened, the palette should be thoroughly cleaned, and the dirty
water should be suffered to run into a large glazed jar full of water,
which is held in the hand, and which serves for this purpose, as well
as for washing the pencils when the colour is to be changed. There
should also be another jar of clean water to dip the pencil in, in order
to moisten and dilute the colours and the tints which are made,
although this may be dispensed with, by not dipping the pencil to
the bottom of the other jar, where all the colours washed off the
palette or out of the brushes settle. Thus provided, and with a good
stock of large brushes and pencils of the same hair, b (which are the
only kind of brushes that can be used in fresco painting, because the
lime burns ah 1 others, except those made of the hair of young hogs,
which are useful for some small delicate purposes), the painter may
begin to paint, putting in first the back ground or skies, which are
behind the figures, and he must always observe this order, beginning
with the more distant objects and approaching gradually until at
length he reaches the figure or figures in the foreground. For the
contrary practice would cost him immense labour, from his having to
" A Vara is about three feet English.
b That is, of hogs' hair. See Palomino, vol. II, p. 42.
G
82 FRESCO PAINTING.
observe all the outlines, nor would the aerial perspective be well kept,
nor the outlines properly preserved.
I should also inform the fresco painter, that he should not paint
all the tarea at once, but only what he can complete at one sitting
quickly, for having once began to paint any part it must not be left
until it is quite finished, because, if it dries, the subsequent
paintings will not unite well with, or match the first, except a few
fine dark touches (or hatchings), in some parts. But if the work is
commenced late in the day, and the weather is dry, it should
be sprinkled from time to time with a brush dipped in clean
water, and the surface of the stucco should be moistened by
rubbing with the other brush ; and indeed in dry and hot weather, it
will be well for the painter, who begins his work late, before he
commences, to wash it with the before mentioned handful of flax,
tied up in a linen cloth, (which should be well moistened) and with
some of the same stucco, by which means the sand is disturbed, and
the pores of that which is already spread are opened. If, in doing
this, the outlines of the drawing are very much disturbed, they
must be marked over again ; and the same may be done in winter,
especially if the weather be damp, in order to finish it the next day, if
anything remains to be done.
OF LAYING ON THE FLESH COLOUR. As to the flesh, after it is
outlined with Tierra Roxa or Pabonazo and ochre, the painter should
put over it a general middle tint of flesh colour, which must be after-
wards lowered in the shadowed parts, using for this purpose a tint
made of Esmalte and Tierra Verde, adding ochre and white and red,
according to the colour required. Very good tints for the shadows
can be made also with Tierra Roxa and green, finishing them with
Sombra and Albin, and if the shadows require greater depth with
Tierra Negra and Pabonazo. And I must inform you that if the
painting is not left to repose, the tints may be united as in oil paint-
ing, when the colour is discharged from the brush or pencil. And
even without washing the brush, it may be moistened with water and
shaken, and the tints may be united and softened very well with it.
It will be better to do this with a small and very soft brush. But
the painter will adapt the size of the brushes to the proportions
of the pictures and the size of the figures, and in this manner will
be formed a perfect style with an impasto equal to that in oil paint-
ing, without that excessive labour which prevailed in the ancient
manner, where every part was hatched like a miniature.
PALOMINO. 83
And here I may mention that after having laid on the first colour-
ing of the flesh, which afterwards serves as a sketch, Hornaza may be
used, mixing it with white and red, and even with Tierra Verde and
vermilion for the reflections of some shadows, and it is a most soft
and sweet colour, and is excellent for giving the flesh a good tint ;
but it should not be used on the bare stucco, but over another colour,
to beautify the tints, and should never be exposed to the inclemency
of the weather ; and it is to be used in the same manner in painting
light yellow draperies, which are to be laid on a ground of ochre and
white. The Vetriolo-quemado is also very good for darkening some
of the carnations and red draperies ; but it is not one of the most
essential colours, since we possess burnt ochre and the other reds.
OF RETOUCHING. We have now only to speak of retouching
fresco paintings when necessary ; because, truly it will be all the
better if it be not necessary. This is done, especially if it be in an
exposed situation, with the same colours which are used in fresco
painting, mixed with goat's milk, although in case of necessity,
these may be used diluted with water, and in this manner all that
requires it, may be retouched, especially the joinings of the tareas.
The blues (esmalte) should be painted over entirely in secco, unless
they have been already done in fresco. And in covered situations
even the Azul verde and Azul fino which is called de Santo Domingo
may be used, but never in fresco, which destroys them. Nor can
ultramarine be used in fresco, because the lime causes it to become
pale, so that there is no distinguishing the light parts from the dark,
therefore in a covered situation, after having laid the Esmalte on the
fresco, ultramarine may be laid over it with goat's milk, not using
the Blanco de cal, but a mixture of white lead and talc white" in
equal quantities, ground together ; and the white will be much
better if made of egg shells alone, well ground up ; but I must tell
you that it cannot be used with gum or glue, because the lime
weakens them both. I have heard that Jordan b used a tempera of
a Blanco de Espejuelo A sort of mixture in fine mortar, that glitters on the
walls when the sun shines on it. Pineda's Dictionary.
b Luca Giordano ; born at Naples in 1632. He applied himself to painting
almost from infancy, and from constant practice acquired such rapidity and fa-
cility of execution, that he retained through life the soubriquet of " Luca fa
presto" which had been given him by his companions when a child. Palomino
says he did as much in a day as others do in a week. He painted in fresco at
84 FRESCO PAINTING.
egg to retouch some places where the salt-petre had appeared ; but I
have not tried this, although I should think it good if no milk could
be obtained.
I must not omit informing you that the ancients gave the intonaco
a couch of a general tint of white and Tierra Roxa before beginning
to paint, that the surface might be smooth and polished ; and even
after having finished their painting with that labour which may be
seen in the minute feathered style of their paintings, they placed
upon it a large sheet of paper, and over that they polished the
fresco, until it was smooth and even. Although this appeal's need-
less and useless, and may easily be dispensed with, I do not consider
it a bad plan, to please the vulgar with this appearance of finish,
since the painter should endeavour to adapt his picture to all classes
of spectators. For as the Apostle says, " 1 am a debtor to the wise
and to the ignorant." And all should be paid in their own coin. It
is for this reason that I said fresco paintings were to be treated with
care, and placed, at such a distance that they can only be enjoyed
by the sight without being profaned by the touch.
OP FORESHORTENING, &c. It will not be a digression if I now
point out to the reader the difference between historical paintings on
ceilings, and those which are painted parallel to our sight, or per-
pendicular to the horizon ; although if the first mentioned historical
Rome, with Pietro da Cortona. He went to Spain in 1 692, where he painted a
great number of pictures both in fresco and oil. He began and finished all the
frescoes in the Escurial in two years. Bermudez gives a list of 196 pictures
by him, dispersed among the churches and palaces of Spain. He repaired, and
almost repainted, the frescoes by Rizi and Carrefio in the church of San Antonio
de los Portugeses which had suffered much from damp. His fertility of inven-
tion was so inexhaustible and his facility of execution so prodigious that he would
begin and finish a picture in a day, and counted his paintings by hundreds.
He was the last of that magnificent generation of painters who had followed
the masters of Raifaello in Italy and his disciples in Spain. He had a multitude
of pupils who could not imitate him in his perilous course : all remained behind,
and the most celebrated among them did not rise above mediocrity, and were but
the imitators of the imitator. Luca Giordano had destroyed at the impulse, as
it were, of a fatal facility of invention and of hand, the last entrenchments of art ;
he left but a chaos behind him, and his name will remain as the solemn demon-
stration of this truth, that, besides natural talents, two qualities of the head and
heart are necessary for an artist, reflection and dignity. Viardot, Notices, Ufa.
PALOMINO. 85
paintings are executed in compartments with their frames or mould-
ings either real or counterfeit, they may be conducted in the usual
manner. But if they are to be painted on concave surfaces, in ovals,
in which we will suppose the story or event is actually to be painted,
and not to be merely placed there after having been painted in
another place, it is necessary that the figures should be foreshortened,
as if they were seen from the feet upwards ; although the point of
sight should be in the centre of the picture, that the foreshortening
may not appear too violent. For this purpose it is necessary to
imagine that the scenes represented in these pictures take place in
the air, and sometimes even on the clouds, for as we look at them
from below, if they were represented on a regular pavement, the
pavement would conceal them from our view, unless the figures were
placed on the very edge, as for instance on steps. In doing which,
it will be necessary particularly to attend to the perspective. We
may add, that the model or figure, to be copied, being put on the
table, the painter, standing either in the middle, or on one side of it,
or above or below, as required, should copy it exactly as it appears
to him : then, the drawing being raised in the air, above the eye,
it will appear as if the person who drew it had looked at it while raised
in the air. I should not omit to add that these paintings on vaults
or ceilings should be looked upon with some allowance, for the artist
cannot always produce the effect he wishes, on account of the great
labour and inconvenience with which they are executed ; and some-
times they cannot be seen from a sufficient distance on account of the
smallness of the scaffold ; and if any one asserts the contrary, it
must be because he has not found himself in this predicament ; and
let the painter be very careful not to paint from the top towards the
bottom, that which is to be viewed from the bottom towards the top,
especially in concave places, or he will find himself deceived.
OF SKETCHES FOR A CUPOLA. It is proper to mention another
thing, which perhaps those who are accustomed to these works
will deem important, which is, the mode of making the sketches for
a cupola, if they cannot be made on a concave surface, which they
should be when possible. It is as follows : considering the length
of the circumference as equal to three times the diameter and one
seventh part more, that is, that the proportion of the diameter to the
circumference is as seven to twenty-two. Having ascertained this,
we may draw this line on a piece of flat canvass, or paper, of suffi-
86 KKKSCO PAINTING.
cient size ; and give it a height, in the middle, of one-fourth of the
circumference of the circle whose diameter is equal to the aforesaid
line, and from the extremities of this line to the above mentioned
height, draw a curved line in the form of a portion of a circle ; and
in the space contained by these two curved lines, draw your sketch,
which will prove admirably adapted for the situation, considering the
highest part of the said figure (which is the middle), to be the top
of the cupola.
OF CONSTRUCTING SCAFFOLDS. It is also proper to speak of the
way of constructing scaffolds, so as to admit the light. They should
be made smaller than the cornice of the astragal of the cupola, by
at least half a vara, and the same distance from the projection
of the cornice. In the middle, should be left an aperture or vacancy
of a proper size upon which should be raised another fixed scaffold,
leaving the space of seven feet only between its surface and the
centre of the cupola.
There should also be a ladder of the same height as this scaffold,
which should be movable, and capable of being turned all round it,
and, if desirable, some planks may be laid across, from the scaffold to
the ladder, for which purpose it must be of the same height as the
second scaffolding, and this is used for the concave part of the
cupola. Scaffolds for painting arched roofs are made in the same
way, except that in the middle, there should be a portable scaffold on
trestles.
CHAPTER XI.
DIRECTIONS OF JOHN MARTIN.
THE following extract is taken from a manuscript in Sir John
Soane's Museum, which was purchased at the sale of J. Jackson, Esq.,
R.A., in 1831. It was written by John Martin, and is dated 1699.
The original spelling is retained.
FRESCOE, OR PAINTING ON WALLS. I. In painting on walls,
to make it endure the weather, you must grind your colours with
lime water, milk, or whey, mixed in size colour-pots. II.
Then paste or plaister must be made of well-washed lime, mixt with
powder of old rubbish stones : a the lime must be often washed till fine
all its salt is abstracted ; and all your work must be done in clear
and dry weather. III. To make the work endure strike into the
wall stumps of headed nails, about five or six inches asunder, and
by this means you may preserve the plaister from peeling. IV.
Then, with the paste, plaister the wall a pretty thickness, letting
it dry (but scratch the first coat with the point of your trowell)
longways, and crossways as soon as you have done laying on what
plaister or paste you think fit, that the next plaistering you lay upon
it may take good key and not come off, nor part from the first coat
or plastering, and when the first coate is dry, plaister it over again
with the thickness of half a barley corn, very fine and smooth, then your
colours being already prepared, work this last plaistering over with the
said colours in what draught b or de you please, (History, &c.)
a It will be observed that the author recommends " powder of old rubbish-
stones" and " ox -hairs" to be mixed with the lime for the arricciato. As this was
not the practice of the Italian or Spanish schools, or at least as it is mentioned
by none of the writers on fresco painting whose works are here translated,
it seems probable that the art of fresco painting was still occasionally practised
in England by artists unacquainted with the practice of the foreign schools.
b So in the original manuscript.
88 FRESCO PAINTING.
so will your painting write and joyn fast to the plaister, and dry
together as a perfect compost. Note, your first coate of plaister or
paste must be very hair'd with ox-hair in it, or else your work
will crack quite through the second coate of plaistering ; and will
spoil all your painting that you paint upon the second coate of
plaistering ; but in the second coate that is laid on of paste, or
plaister, there must be no hair in it at all, but made thus, mix or
temper up with well- washed lime, fine powder of old rubbish stones
(called finishing stuff) and sharp grit sand, as much as you shall
have occasion for, to plaister over your first coat, and plaister it all
very smooth and even, that no roughness, hills, nor dales be seen,
nor scratches of your trowell. The best way is to float the second
coat of plaistering thus, after you have laid it all over the first coat
with your trowell as even and smooth as possibly you can. Then
take a float made of wood very smooth, about one foot long and
seven or eight inches wide, with a handle on the upper side of it to
put your hand into, to float your work withall, and this will make
your plaistering to lye very even, and lastly with your trowell you
may make the said plaistering as smooth as may be. V. In
painting be nimble and free, let your work be bold and strong, but be
sure to be exact, for there is no alteration after the first painting, and
therefore heighten your paint enough at first, you may deepen at
pleasure. VI. All earthly colours are best, as the Okers, Spanish-
white, Spanish-brown, Terra- vert, and the like ; mineral colours are
naught. VII. Lastly, let your pencils and brushes be long and
soft> otherwise your work will not be smooth, let your colours be
full, and flow freely from the pencil or brush ; and let your design
be perfect at first, for in this, there is no after alteration to be
made.
THE ART
FRESCO PAINTING.
PART II.
EXTRACTS
FROM VARIOUS AUTHORS
ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE PRACTICE
FRESCO PAINTING.
PART II.
PRACTICE OF THE EARLY ITALIAN SCHOOL.
THE ancient pictures called frescoes, in the Campo Santo at Pisa,
are painted on the wall on an intonaco of lime and very fine sand, in
that manner which is called " fresco." It appears, at least as far as
we can judge, that here (in Pisa) the intonaco was not laid on in such
quantities only, as could be painted in one day, which is called
" true fresco," and which is very durable and firm. Our old artists
in fact were acquainted with no other modes of painting, than the
fresco much used by the ancients, and that of using wax dissolved in
essential oil. The other mode, of mixing the colours with tempera
on canvass, primed with gesso, and stretched upon hard boards, con-
tinued until the time of the celebrated Fleming, John Van Eyck,
called Giovanni di Bruges, about the year 1410. II. Pisa, Illust. by
Morrona,p. 192.
" It will be proper to repeat here the observations on the manner
of painting on walls in fresco, adopted by the artists of these times
(about 1485), suggested by the examination of pieces of the intonaco
which had fallen from the wall. It is astonishing that they should
92 FRESCO PAINTING.
have sketched the the subject with a pencil dipped in red, on the wall
covered with the arricciato, and that they should afterwards have
covered their work over with the intonaco. The reason given for
this by Vasari is not satisfactory ; he says, that this method was the
cartoon used by the old masters for painting in fresco with greater
expedition, &c. We shall see now whether I can more nearly assign
the true cause of this proceeding.
" I observe in the first place, that they drew the subject on a large
scale on the wall, enlarging from the small design on which they had
embodied their ideas, and that they sketched in this manner the
whole composition of the picture, in order to see the effect of the
proportions when enlarged, and to correct the errors. Then it is
probable that they traced the outlines, drawn with red, on to paper,
which formed the cartoon mentioned by Vasari. This then being
applied upon the intonaco composed of lime and fine sand, and on
the levigated and smooth surface, corresponds with the drawing
beneath ; and if this be not the case in every part, it probably arose
from some variation made by the painters, on the cartoons, or on the
wall itself." //. Pisa, Illust. 224, Cennino c. 67, and see II. Rep.
24, 25.
" Simon Memmi had also begun in the middle of the fa?ade of
the great refectory of the convent, many small historical pictures,
and also a crucifixion in the form of a cross, which remained imper-
fect, being merely drawn as may be seen even now, with pencil
dipped in rosaccio upon the arricciato ; this mode of painting served
instead of a cartoon to some of our old masteis, in order to enable
them to paint with more expedition, because, having marked out all
their work upon the arricciato, they drew it with a pencil, copying
from a small design all that they intended to paint, and enlarging it
in the proportion required for the picture. There are also many
pictures in other places drawn in the same manner as this picture,
and many others that have been painted, from which the painting has
scaled off, leaving the design in rosaccio still visible." Vasari, Vol.
II. p. 177. and see Lanzi, Vol. I. p. 31.
The following extract shews a curious contrivance for preserving
painted ceilings from being injured by damp : " Earthen vases are
placed under the roofs of the churches of S. Erculino and S. Martino,
in Milan, in order to preserve the ceiling from being injured by
damp." Morelli, Notizie d'opere di disegno. p. 41. " Tn the
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 93
Archiepiscopal Court (Milan), and in St. Zuan de Conca (Milan),
the ancient pictures in fresco, which to this day shine like looking
glasses, were by the hands of old masters." "The pictures in the
Castle (Pavia), in fresco, were by the hand of Pisano, they are so
smooth and shining, that, as Cesarino writes, you may see your face
in them." a Id.43, 46.
PREPARATION OF CARTOONS. The following extracts show the im-
portance attached by painters to the careful preparation of cartoons.
" It is said, that, on Perino del Vaga's arrival at Genoa, Girolamo
da Trevisi, who was painting one face of it (the D'oria Palace), which
fronted the garden, had arrived there before him in order to paint
certain things ; and while Perino began to make the cartoon for the
historical picture of the shipwreck, and while he was enjoying him-
self very leisurely, and seeing all that was worth seeing at Genoa,
he continued preparing the cartoon more or less industriously, so
that a great part of it was already finished and the naked figures
drawn, some in chiaro-scuro, others with charcoal and lapis nero,
others only hatched and outlined ; while, I say, Perino was going on
in this way, not even beginning his picture, Girolamo da Trevisi
was murmuring against him, saying, " What is all this about the
a The words of Cesariano, (Commentary on Vitruvius, p. 115) when treating
of painting in fresco, are these, " While it is yet fresh we can, as Vitruvius says,
dispose this composition of lime to receive splendor and brilliancy ; like the old
pictures in the Archiepiscopal Curia, in Sancto Joanne in Concha, in Milan,
also in Pavia, and especially in this Castile, where the noble Pisano painted, and
also in Placentia, in paintings by Antonio del Carro."
Morelli supposes this Pisano was Vittore Pisano Veronese, otherwise called
Pisanello, who painted in many cities in Italy, at the end of the fourteenth
century. These pictures in the castle of Pavia are mentioned in the following
terms, in the history of that city by Breventano, written in 1570; " The halls
and chambers, as well above as below, are all vaulted, and almost all painted
with various fine historical and other paintings ; the sky or roof is coloured with
very fine azure, in which seem to move a variety of animals in gold, such as lions,
leopards, tigers, hounds, stags, wild boars, and others, especially in that part
which faces the Parco, (which, as we have said, was ruined by the artillery of
Francis, on the 4th of September, 1527), in which was seen a large saloon sixty
braccia long and twenty wide, covered with beautiful historical paintings which
were perfect in my days, and which represented hunting and fishing, and tilting
parties, with various sports of the dukes and duchesses of this state." Morelli,
Notizie, p. 180. These extracts should be compared with the observations of
Guevara and Alberti relative to the shining surfaces of ancient pictures.
94 FRKSCO PAINTING.
cartoons ; I, for my part, have the whole art at the point of my
paint brush." And as he frequently grumbled in this manner, it
came to the ears of Perino, who, being angry about it, immediately
caused his cartoon to be fixed up in the ceiling, where the picture
was to be painted ; and having, in many places, removed the planks
of the scaffolding, in order that it might be seen from below, he
opened the room to the public ; when this was known every one in
Genoa went to see it, and being astonished at the excellent design
of Perino, he acquired immortal celebrity. Girolamo da Trevisi went
there among others, and when he saw the work of Perino, which so
much exceeded his expectations, being alarmed at the effects its
beauty might have on his own reputation, he left Genoa, without
asking leave of the Prince D'oria, and returned to Bologna, where
he lived. So Perino alone remained with the Prince, and finished
this room, painting in oil upon the wall. It is considered, as it
ought to be, a work quite unique for its beauty, there being, as I
have said, in the middle of the ceiling, and even under the lunettes,
most beautiful stuccoes." Vasari, Life of Perino del Vagu.
" You ask whence it is, that a painter, who has several manners,
in a sketch sometimes observes one manner, and sometimes uses
several ; although afterwards, in finishing the picture he adopts one
only. I answer, that this happens according to the degree of enthu-
siasm with which the painter applies himself to the sketch. When
the conception of the work, which is to be executed in this or that
manner, is already formed in the mind ; if then the painter springs
impatiently to his sketch, to finish it at once, it becomes more
uniform in that one manner, in which he intends to paint his picture, in
perfect concordance with that genius, which at first caused him to
conceive and compose it. For example ; Correggio thought of re-
presenting the nativity of our Lord in that sacred night scene, 3 and
setting about it, with that spirited and effective vigour which cha-
racterised him, composing the embryo all at once, in the first sketch,
he left the whole finished in that one manner and that one tone of
colouring, which he had determined on, for painting the entire
picture. In this manner is made that real and incontestibly original
sketch, in the hands of that good painter and dilettante, Signor
8 Th'is picture is now in the Gallery at Dresden, and is engraved in the seoond
volume of the pictures of that Gallery. It has been varnished, with more harm
than advantage to the Painting.
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 95
Giuseppe Ghezzi; which throws doubts on the authenticity of
another small one, which, at Reggio di Modena, was shown, as a
great favour, by torch light, to Signer Passeri, and to myself ; par-
ticularly as the style of this, is very inferior to that of the
large picture, although the figures are exactly the same ; while in
that belonging to Sig. Ghezzi, the figures are in somewhat different
attitudes, but the style is in exact conformity with that of Correggio
in the large picture. He adopted the same method in the first
sketch on canvass, of the height of four palms, of the Assumption in
the Duomo di Parma. He conceived a splendid apparition of
heavenly glory, by which the Blessed Virgin might ascend to heaven,
and as if too impatient to take the trouble of drawing his design with
the matita, he sketched that Assumption with oil colours, with the
tone and style of colouring which he intended to use in his picture ;
although he afterwards completed the design for this principal group
of the Assumption, as far as related to the design, with separate
studies drawn with pencil (matita). I have three of these originals
with the Madonna herself surrounded with a crowd of angels, and
have caused them to be engraved, as well as other parts of the
same cupola." Lett. Pitt. Vol. 3. p. 327, 330. Sebastiano Resta
to N. N.
" The only difficulty he (Annibale Carracci) ever had was some-
times in kneeling attitudes, which embarrassed him, and which he
designed ungracefully ; this they say was the case with the San
Giacinto in the Church of S. Domenico ; and also with the Angel in
the picture of the Annunciation to the Blessed Virgin in S. Pietro,
who looks very uncomfortable, for Annibale did not bestow proper
care in the arrangement of his cartoon (if indeed he did so at all),
and in giving it exactness by means of the Graticola. 3 ' Not so with
Agostino who they say was even more correct than Annibale ; it
being his practice never to regard trouble, but only to give himself
satisfaction. I find that it was his custom, to overcome all the
difficulties at first by making separate sketches of each part, and
each object that was to enter into the picture, until he had cleared
every doubt, and overcome all impediments, that then putting the
whole together he formed a very complete and perfect design (which
a Namely proportional squares, or rete.
96 FRESCO PAINTING.
was sometimes painted in oil, with white lead for the lights) from
which he did not depart in the slightest degree, in the execution of
his picture ; and he painted in this manner rapidly, without
hesitation, and with great tranquillity, which may be clearly seen in his
picture of the Nativity, in the picture of the Children in St Bartho-
lomew, in that of the Flight at Sampieri, and in many others. And
this is the true method, although idle persons may say that making
so many designs is a tedious operation which fatigues the mind, and
causes weakness in the execution of the picture, and that it is an
unnecessary labour which is quite thrown away, and that it is better
to make the design on the picture itself. I have never seen any
picture of Annibale, or even of Ludovico, without having had it in
my power to see the designs, either before or after having seen the
picture, and they were as elaborate and highly finished, as I said
those of Agostino were. This may be easily observed in the famous
collections of their most serene Highnesses of Tuscany and Modena ;
at Rome, in the collection of the learned Bellori ; at Bologna, in the
collections of the Buonfigliuoli, Pasinelli, Negri, Polazzi, and in my
own collection." Malv. Pels. Pitt, Vol. I. p. 484.
The following anecdote shews that large paintings were sometimes
successfully executed in fresco without cartoons.
" But those who were not acquainted with his (Csesare Baglioni)
witty and facetious character would have been very likely to have
thought him silly, and this actually happened to him the first time
that he was called to Parma, to paint some of the rooms of the ducal
palace there, when he was observed by the other painters to pass
his time as joyfully, and to think no more about the work, than
if it had been play, while they were working so hard at theirs.
They, as they ought to do, made many sketches, and forming from
them a perfect design, prepared from it a cartoon. They then set
the cartoon against the place the picture was to occupy, and
observing whether it suited, they corrected and adjusted it ; while
he, laughing and sneering at these preparations of theirs, which he
called impediments and annoyances, after playing his flute, boasted
that he would begin to scratch the lime at once with a nail without
so many sketches and drawings. And it being therefore believed,
and told to the Duke, that he was no less silly than rash, the Duke
sent for him, and asked him what his intentions were, and whether
he chose to paint his two rooms or not. He replied that he had
come there for no other purpose than to obey his Highness, and as
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 97
his Highness seemed to shew a desire to be served quicker than he
expected, or than there was any need of, he would satisfy him by
shewing him the next day one entire wall painted over ; when the
painters said this was impossible, he replied that if he did not do it,
they might drive him out of the court as a cheat and a scoundrel.
So Baglione having sent quickly for a plasterer, and ordered him
to plaster the wall, painted it in the following manner. He colored
in grey a broad and plain margin all round the wall, and had the
rest white-washed, and then painted a curtain, to cover up the empty
space, with all its folds, shades, and creases, like one of those
curtains which cover up the stage in a theatre until the time for
reciting the play ; then in one of the upper corners, he painted the
head and hands of a labourer, who seemed to be fastening from the
inside the said curtain to a large nail. When therefore the Duke
and the other painters, being impatient to see what he had done
in so short a time, came into the room, they were quite astonished
at finding that they had been laughed at ; but on the other hand
they were surprised at the head and hands which were so well
painted, that they proved him to be an excellent painter, whilst
these persons, full of astonishment, did not know what to think
or say, unless that he was making fun of them, which indeed the
Duke seemed to hint. He told his Highness not to doubt but that
in proper time the curtain would be let down and all that was under
it would be shewn, which, with the whole work, would be com-
pleted to his Highness's satisfaction, and that he had played this
trick to laugh at those other painters, who were so long about their
work, and who completely puzzled themselves with it, which was a
manifest sign that nature had not intended them for that art, and
that therefore the more they labored at it, the less skill they would
have in it ; that painting in fresco demanded quickness and freedom
of hand, without which it was no use attempting it. And he gave
such good reasons for this, that he satisfied his Highness, who could
not help praising Baglione for the jocose, and at the same time wise
manner, which he had adopted for preserving his freedom of hand
and practice, which he knew to be the most valuable part of his art.
Baglione afterwards finished that room in eight days. He soon
after finished the next room, and acquitted himself so well, and gave
so much pleasure not only by his good painting, but also by his good
humour and joviality, that his Highness retained him in his service,
H
98 FUESCO PAIN NG.
with a salary of ten scudi corti of that coinage per month, and hi?
board, and appointed him his painter." Malvasia. Felsina Pittrice,
vol. I. p. 340, 34 1 .
But if such instances are rare, it is still rarer to find painters who
painted the pictures first and drew the cartoons afterwards, yet that
this was the case we find from the following anecdote of Lorenzo
Garbieri.
" He, (Lorenzo Garbieri) was of a rather warm temperament, and
sometimes too much so, and was therefore quick in invention, and
quicker still in execution ; he had not the patience to make sketches
or designs which are extremely rare, by his hand ; but when he was
obliged to make some for any one, whom he could not refuse, he
generally copied them from the picture, which he had previously
painted and finished, and these he shaded and finished highly, laying
gold and silver on the lights, in the same manner as those which he
sent to Rome, as a present to his friend the Cardinal Giustiniani, as
he had already done with those which he had paiuted in the Capella
di S. Carlo, Bologna, in order to gain the Cardinal's friendship. He
therefore desired with great, though reasonable earnestness, however
distant the opportunity might seem, to execute some immense
painting in fresco, in which he could, for once, (as he used to say)
gratify his whims and his caprice, certain, however, that, being ren-
dered more patient by his age, and more cautious by experience, he
should not fall into that immoderate fury, which is seen and ad-
mired, in his Prophets and Sybils, in the first ceiling of the Capella
della Morte, owing to the figures being drawn off hand, (as they call
it), on the picture itself without cartoons, though it is otherwise
very well designed, and with freedom, and wonderful colouring ; his
usual severity being softened down by the wet lime, which he was
obliged to use instead of priming, and the vehicle being water, in-
stead of the colours being mixed with oil." Malv. Pels. Pitt. vol.
II. p. 305.
OF THE PAINTING.
THE following extracts relate to Painting. The first extract,
referring to Giotto's method of painting flesh in fresco, should be
compared with Cennino's account of the process. The passage
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 99
(which is from Vasari) is not clearly expressed in the Italian ; it
will be better understood by comparing it with the extract from
Malvasia's Felsina Pittrice immediately following. It is almost un-
necessary to observe, that neither Vasari nor Malvasia describe
accurately the method of painting flesh practised by Giotto, as
described by Cennino.
" He, (Parri Spinelli) coloured very well in distemper, and perfectly
in fresco ; and he was the first, who left off, in fresco painting, laying
verdacdo under the flesh colours, and glazing them afterwards with
flesh coloured reds, and chiaro scuro as in painting with water colours
in the manner of Giotto and the other old painters. On the con-
trary, Parri used solid colours in making the mixtures and tints, lay-
ing them judiciously in their proper places, namely, the lighter tints
for the most prominent parts, the middle tints for the general colours
of the flesh, and the dark tints on the extremities of the outlines.
With this manner of painting, he showed greater facility in his
pictures, and gave great durability to his fresco paintings, because,
having put the colours in their proper places, he united them together
with a brush that was rather large and soft, and so well did he
execute his pictures that one would never wish to see better, and his
colouring is unequalled." Vasari, Life of Spinelli.
" While painting in oil, it was his (Tiarini's) custom, never to mix
the colours together with the knife, or on the palette, but to mix
them touch by touch and stroke by stroke, with paint brushes for
the most part hard and scanty, always dipping them in the same
colour. He used to pride himself for this, and laugh at the others,
especially Guido, whom he described, as if in derision, as one of those
Painters who did not know how to paint without first making the mix-
tures and compounding them together. He glazed his drapery very
much; not only the reds with lake, but also the yellows with Giallo
Santo, the greens with Giallo Santo and ultramarine, and sometimes
even the blues, with verdigris, or Verde Eterno; so that I have some-
times seen his pictures painted at first entirely with white lead and
bone black, as if sketched, and then covered all over with colour,
being painted and finished, so as to appear as if covered with a veil,
as I observed to be the manner of some of the more ancient painters,
and, as Vasari relates of Giotto, that he adopted this practice even in
painting figures in fresco and in the flesh colour, which he sketched
100 KRESCO PAINTING.
with a certain F~erdaccio, and then covered them over with glazings of
flesh coloured red, and with chiaro scuro, in the same way as in
water colours ; this custom, adds Vasari, was afterwards dropped,
and painters began to paint with body colours, making the mixtures
thick. Except in these glazings, he always abstained from liquid
colours ; and as with Schiavone, it was also his custom to let the
colours sometimes dry on the palette and then to use them hard in
that manner, because the colours then remained fresh, and with a
good body, and for this reason his early pictures which have as it
were been painted twice over, and with a good ground underneath,
withstand so much better the injuries of time, than those of other
painters." Malv. Fels. Pitt. vol. II. p. 206, 207.
The following are instances of good and rapid painting in fresco
buono, shewing the value always attached to such as were painted
without retouching in fresco, and the advantages of rapid execution.
" Michael Angelo at first (in 1508) refused to paint the ceiling of
the Sistine Chapel, wishing to refer the commission to Raffaello ; but
being obliged to accept it, and being unaccustomed to painting in
fresco, he sent to Florence for some of the best fresco painters,
in order to assist, or rather to teach him the art ; then he obliterated
what they had done and commenced the work alone. Having com-
pleted one half, he opened it to public inspection for a short time.
Then he began the other half, and proceeded more slowly than was
agreeable to the impatience of the Pope, (Giulio II.) who threatened
him, if he did not make more haste with the work, he would throw
him off the scaffolding. He finished the remaining part alone in
twenty months. Alone I say, because his taste was so refined that
no one could satisfy it, and as in sculpture, every file and every
chisel that he used, he made with his own hand ; so in painting, he
not only made the tints and other necessary preparations and arrange-
ments, but he ground the colours himself, not trusting to artists or
boys. In this chapel are those grand and varied figures of prophets
and sybils, of which Lomazzo, an impartial judge, because he be-
longed to another school, said he considered to be the best in the whole
world." Lanzi. vol. I. p. 114.
Vasari' s account of the painting of the same chapel is more
circumstantial ; it is as follows :
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 101
" Pope Julius was very desirous of seeing the works that he
(Michael Angelo) was painting ; and his curiosity was the greater
because they were concealed from him. And so one day he deter-
mined to go and see the chapel, but it was not opened to him,
because Michael Angelo would not show it. On this account there
arose a quarrel, so that Michael Angelo was obliged to leave Rome,
riot choosing to show it to the Pope, because, as he told me himself,
when the third part of it was finished, there began to appear on it a
certain mouldiness one winter while the north wind was blowing.
The cause of this was that the Roman lime being white, and made
from travertine, does not dry so quickly, and when mixed with
Pozzolana, which is of a tan colour, makes a dark mixture. If this
mixture be liquid, and watery, and the wall be thoroughly wetted, it
frequently effloresces as it dries. This was the case, in the present
instance, for in many places the salt effloresced, although in lapse of
time the air consumed it. Michael Angelo was very much disturbed
by this circumstance, and would not go on with the work, and when
he excused himself to the Pope saying, that he could not succeed
with it, his Holiness sent to him Giuliano da San Gallo, who,
having explained the cause of it, encouraged him to go on with the
work, and taught him how to get rid of the mouldiness. Having
thus half finished it, the Pope, who with the assistance of Michael
Angelo, and by means of certain ladders, had already seen some
part of the ceiling, insisted on the chapel being thrown open,
because he was naturally hasty and impatient, and could not
wait until it was perfect, and had received, so to speak, the last
touches. The moment it was thrown open, all Rome ran to see it,
and the Pope was the first, not even having the patience to wait till
the dust, caused by the removal of the scaffolding, had settled ;
and Raffaello da Urbino, who was an excellent imitator, having seen
it, suddenly changed his manner, and immediately, to shew his skill,
painted the prophets and the sybils in the chapel of the Chigi in the
church of Sta. Maria della Pace. Bramante then tried to induce the
Pope to give the painting of the other half of the chapel to Raffaello.
When Michael Angelo heard of it, he was angry with Bramante,
and, without any consideration for him, told the Pope many of the
faults both of his life and of his architectural works. But the Pope
appreciating the value of Michael Angelo more and more every day,
desired he would go on with the work, and having seen the picture
uncovered, considered that Michael Angelo could greatly improve
102 FRESCO PAINTING.
the other half; and thus he completed the whole of the painting
entirely by himself, in twenty months, without even the assistance
of any one to grind his colours. Michael Angelo has sometimes
complained, that, on account of the Pope hurrying him, he was not
able to finish it to his own satisfaction, for the Pope was continually
asking him, importunately, when he would have finished it. So
that, on one occasion, he answered, ' It will be finished when I have
satisfied myself in those things that relate to the art.' ' And we
desire/ said the Pope, ' that you satisfy our wish, that it should be
finished quickly.' The Pope ended by telling him, that if he did
not soon finish it, he would have him thrown off the scaffolding.
And therefore Michael Angelo, who feared, and had reason to fear,
the anger of the Pope, immediately, and without delay, finished what
was wanting ; and, having taken down the rest of the scaffold,
opened it on the morning of All Saint's day, when the Pope went
to the chapel there to sing mass, to the satisfaction of the whole city.
Michael Angelo desired to retouch some things in secco, as the
older painters had done in the historical pictures beneath, and to
make certain back-grounds, draperies, and skies, of ultramarine, and
to place gold ornaments in some places, in order to give the work
richness, and a better appearance, because the Pope, having been
told that this was wanting, and hearing it so much praised by
whoever had seen it, wished him to make the addition, but, as it
would have taken up too much of Michael Angelo's time to re-
construct the scaffolding, the painting remained as it was. The
Pope, who frequently went to see Michael Angelo, used to say to
him, ' Let the chapel be enriched with colours and gold, for the
effect is too poor.' And Michael Angelo used to answer him
familiarly, ' Holy Father, men in those times did not wear gold
about them, and those who are there painted, were never very rich,
but on the contrary they were holy men who despised riches.' a
Michael Angelo was paid by the Pope at different times three hun-
dred scudi (650 nearly) of which he had to spend twenty-five in
colours." Vasari, Life of Michael Angelo.
" Gio. Francesco Barbieri (Guercino) painted in fresco a house
of Signer D. Bartolomeo Panini, at Cento, both inside and outside,
Armenino also observes (p. 240) that Michael Angelo painted this chapel
with simple earths, without gold.
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 103
in such a manner that it seems to be painted in oil, and many-
painters have wished to make themselves certain of it by a very close
inspection. He here shewed, besides the strength of his imagi-
nation and the sublimity of his genius, his judgment in the dispo-
sition of historical and fabulous compositions, having painted with
great skill in one room the four seasons, and in the saloon all the
actions of Ulysses, and in other rooms the Armida of Tasso, with
such beauty and brilliancy of colour that this house has always been
the most curious object of visit for princes, and Virtuosi, who have
even gone to Cento on purpose." Malv. Pels. Pitt. vol. I. p. 362.
" .When II Pomarancio desired to have the services of some youth
more intelligent and experienced than those whom he had taken to
Rome with him, he wrote to Bologna about it, to Bernardino Baldi,
with whom he had, when at Rome, contracted a great friendship,
which he continued to preserve by means of letters. Baldi sent
Lorenzo Garbieri', who being arrived, began immediately to paint
some angels, (which can easily be distinguished) without cartoons
or pouncings, looking only at the design, and copying it off on a
large scale upon the wet lime with a sharp nail, he began to colour
them with so much boldness and facility that while it astonished
that great artist, produced much jealousy and envy among the others,
so that they leagued together, and beginning to persecute him
violently, prevented his remaining there very long." Malv. Fels.
Pitt. vol. II. p. 301.
" Amico Aspertino painted with both hands at once, holding in
one hand a brush filled with light colour, and in the other, one filled
with dark ; but what was more remarkable and laughable, was that
he bound round his waist a leather strap, to which hung his gallipots
of tempered colours ; and he looked like the devil of S. Maccario
with all his phials hanging round him, and when painting with his
spectacles on his nose, it was sufficient to make the very stones
laugh, especially when he began to talk, for he talked enough for
twenty persons, and he loved to say the strangest things in the
world." Vasari, Life of Amico Aspertino.
" In the arches and vaults of the Convent of S. Croce, Lorenzo
de Bicci painted in 1418, representations of some of the kings of
France, friars, and devotees of St. Francesco, and drew their portraits
104 FRESCO PAINTING.
as well as those of many learned men, and of men remarkable for
their dignities, such as, bishops, cardinals, and popes ; among which
are portraits, from the life, in two circles in the roof, of the popes
Nicholas IV and Alexander V. Although Lorenzo gave all these
figures grey dresses, yet by the great skill he had acquired by his
long experience in painting, he so varied them, that they are all
different from each other. Some incline to red, others to blue ; some
are dark, and others are light, and, in short, they are all different
and deserving of approbation. Moreover, he is said to have executed
this work with so much quickness and facility, that once when he
was sent for by the frate guardiano of the convent (who use.d to
procure his dinner) just as he had laid on the intonaco for a figure,
and begun to paint, he said, ' Put on the saucepans, for I will just
finish this figure, and then I will come.' So that it was said with
truth, that Lorenzo had greater quickness of hand, greater practice
in colours, and greater boldness, than any other person ever pos-
sessed." Vasari, Life of Lorenzo di Bicci,
" Domenico Ghirlandaio understood well the method of painting
on walls, and worked on them with facility, although his style of
composition was somewhat affected. He repainted the Capella
Maggiore in Sta. Maria Novella which had been painted by Andrea
Orgagna, but which, owing to the bad state of the roof, had been
injured by the rain. This chapel was considered most beautiful, being
large, and pleasing for the vivacity of its colours, the skill and neat-
ness of the handling upon the wall, and the few retouchings in secco,
besides the composition and arrangement of the figures. And certain-
ly Domenico deserves great praise, on all accounts, and particularly
for the liveliness of the heads, which, being portraits from the life,
give excellent likenesses of many distinguished personages. He
painted also for Giovanni Tornabuoni, at his villa called Casa
Maccherelli, at a short distance from the city, and close to the
rivulet Terzolle, a chapel, now half ruined, on account of its being
situated so near the torrent. Although this chapel has been for
many years uncovered, and continually wetted by the rain, and
scorched by the sun, the painting has stood so well, that it would
seem to have been always under shelter, such is the durability of
fresco paintings, when judiciously painted, and not retouched in
secco." Vasari, Life of Domenico Ghirlandaio.
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 105
" But the most beautiful part of this painting (by Stefano
Veronese) is two Prophets, in the middle of the upper part, as large
as life, because the heads are the most beautiful and lively that
Stefano ever painted ; and the colouring of the whole work,
having been carefully executed, has remained beautiful even to our
times, notwithstanding that it has been much exposed to rain, wind,
and frost ; and if this painting had been in a covered place, as
Stefano did not retouch it in secco, but was careful to complete it
well in fresco, it would still be as beautiful and lively as when it
came out of his hands, whereas, as it now stands, it is a little
damaged." F'asari, Life of Vittore Scarpaccio.
" In 1618, Matteo Rosselli painted in fresco another lunette in the
Cloister of the Nunziata. This picture proved so beautiful (not
so much on account of the invention and colouring, as for the
wonderful harmony which it possesses), that Pietro da Cortona was
obliged to say that it was the most beautiful picture in the place ;
and Passignano praised it very highly. Indeed, to tell the truth,
Matteo Rosselli had the talent, which none but himself possessed, of
uniting and harmonizing his colours perfectly, in fresco-painting,
while the lime was fresh. In order to attain this object, he never
spared trouble, but was accustomed to begin to work at sunrise,
and, taking but very little refreshment while on the scaffold, he used
to persevere at his work in the summer until dusk, and in winter
until five o'clock in the evening ; because he wished to leave the
intonaco. and not the intonaco to leave him. And therefore he never
had any occasion to retouch in secco, and his pictures look more like
oil than fresco paintings." Baldinucci, vol. II. p. 60.
COLOURING AND COLOURS.
" Among all those who have assisted Primaticcio, none have done
him more honour than Nicolo da Modena, of whom we have already
spoken. For he has excelled all the others by the excellence of his
skill, having painted with his own hand, after the designs of the
Abbot, a room, called the Sala del Ballo, with such a great number
of figures, that it seems hardly possible to count them ; and they
are all as large as life, and coloured in a transparent manner, so that,
by the union of the colours of the fresco it appears painted in oil.
106 FRESCO PAINTING.
" After this picture, he painted in the great gallery, also from the
designs of the Ahbot, sixty historical pictures, taken from the life
and actions of Ulysses ; but the colouring of them is much darker
than that of the Sala del Ballo. This is owing to his having used
no other colours hut earths, just in the state in which they are pro-
duced by nature, without, we may almost say, mixing any white with
them, but the darkness of the shadows is so intense, that they have
excessive force and relief. Besides this, he has united the joinings
so well, in every part of it, that it appears as if it had been all
painted in one and the same day, and he therefore deserves the
highest praise, particularly as he has painted the pictures entirely in
fresco, without having at all retouched them in secco, as many are
accustomed to do at the present day." Malv. Fels. Pitt. vol. I, p.
153, 154.
" Giacomo Cavidone's beautiful manner of painting in fresco with so
few colours, pleased Guido so much, that he wished him to teach him
his manner of working ; and, expecting to have to paint the Cupola
at Loretto, he placed all his reliance upon Giacomo, and sent for him
to Rome while he was painting the chapel of Monte Cavallo, paying
him 30 scudi (7 nearly) a month, as appears from his pocket book."
Malv. Felsina Pittrice, vol. I I, p. 219.
Of the works of Gio. Carlone and Gio. Batista Carlone, Lanzi
says, "It is not easy to find works equally extensive, executed
with equal diligence, compositions so fertile in invention and heads
so varied and animated ; figures with the contours so well defined,
and so well detached from the ground, colours so beautiful, so bril-
liant, so fresh, after the lapse of so many years. There is a red
colour (perhaps used too frequently) that appears crimson (porpora)
a blue which resembles the sapphire ; a green in particular which
artists consider quite miraculous, and which looks like an emerald.
The brightness of these colours recals to the mind pictures on glass
or enamel ; and I never remember having seen in the works of any
other Italian painter a style of colouring so new, so pleasing, and so
flattering. To certain persons who compare these colours with those
of Raffaello, Correggio, and Andrea del Sarto, they seem to have
a certain rawness; but on subjects of taste, where there are so many
ways of pleasing, and so many degrees of merit in artists, who ever
succeeded in pleasing every one ? The similarity of the style, induced
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 107
the best informed persons, to consider them the work of one master ;
but the best judges consider the pictures of Gio. Batista to possess
a certain exquisite taste in colour and chiaro scuro, and a greater
grandeur of design. It has been endeavoured by a close examination
to ascertain the manner in which these pictures were coloured ; and
it has been found that when painting ceilings and walls of rooms the
artist had applied the colours upon the dry wall, after ^having laid
under them a coloured intonaco, which defended them from the
action of the lime. a They were applied with most delicate gradations
and with wonderful uniformity ; whence these frescoes appeared as
if painted with oil ; these are the encomiums of Sig. Ratti and nearly
those of Mengs his master." Lanzi, vol. F~, p. 269.
" Perhaps the finest works that we have in Venice by this 'master
(Tiepolo) are his pictures in fresco. In this kind of painting which
requires both quickness and facility of execution, Tiepolo excelled
every other painter ; and he introduced with wonderful skill into his
pictures, a beauty and sunny brilliancy which are perhaps unparalleled.
In order to attain this perfection, other artists have endeavoured to
make use of the finest colours in fresco ; and have made every effort
to discover new ones. Tiepolo, on the contrary, made use of dirty
tints and impure colours, and of the most common pigments, and by
opposing these tints to others that were pure and bright, with his
ready pencil, he produced an effect which is rarely seen in other
pictures. In this kind of painting he shewed his great knowledge of
the effect of contrasts in colours, and the importance of knowing
how to employ them with praiseworthy sagacity." See Lanzi, vol.
Ill, p. 223.
" That the Carracci were not good colourists, although they stu-
died in the Lombard and Venetian schools, is asserted by Mengs and
proved by many of their pictures in oil, those of Ludovico especially
being discoloured and decayed. This was either occasioned by the
a It seems difficult to imagine how colours laid on a dry wall can be said to
be painted in fresco. Probably these paintings were executed in the manner
described by Mr. Wilson in the II. Rep. p. 40.
The process, whatever it was, must have been good, since the pictures con-
tinued to preserved their freshness and brilliancy in the degree mentioned by
Lanzi, alter a lapse of 150 years ; for Gio. Batista Carlone died in 1680, and Gio.
Andrea his son in 1697.
108 FRESCO PAINTING.
defective priming, or the immoderate use of oil, or by not having
suffered a proper time to elapse between the priming and the paint-
ing of the picture. This cannot be said of their frescoes. These
seen close, exhibit a freedom of handling quite Paolesque, nor did
the skill of the Carracci, said Bellori, or that of any other painter of
the period, produce specimens of better colouring than the works of
the Carracci in the Casa Magnani. They display a truth, a force, a
combination, a harmony of colours, which entitled them to be called
the reformers of this branch of painting. They abandoned those yel-
lowish and other feeble tints introduced by avarice instead of azures
and other more expensive colours ; Bellori attributes the greatest
merit to Annibale, asserting that through him Ludovico himself
renounced his first mode of colouring which was after the manner of
Procaccino." Lanzi, vol. F~. p. 70.
" Tintoretto used to say that beautiful colours were sold in the
shops of the Rialto ; but that design was produced from the recesses
of the brain with much study and long watchings, and this was the
reason why there were so few who understood and practised it."
Ridolfi, vol. II. p. 253.
" While Rinaldi was painting the beautiful picture of Bacchus and
Ariadne, and Cesarino begged of him to use good and fine colours,
he began to laugh heartily, and turned to him and said, ' good
design and common colours ;' alluding to what, according to Ridolfi,
Titian was accustomed to say, that it was not the colours, but the
design, that made figures beautiful ; and also, that good colours
could be bought at the Rialto, but that design was contained in the
portfolio of the mind." Malv. Fels. Pitt. vol. I. p. 481.
"The colour (of a Crucifixion by Pietro Cavallini at Assisi) is
preserved in a great degree, and especially the azzurro, which here
and in other parts of the church forms a sky which is really the
colour of the oriental sapphire as our poets say." Lanzi, vol. II. p. 12.
" Pisano, or Pisanello, a Veronese painter, having been many years
in Florence with Andrea dal Castagno, and having finished Andrea's
pictures after his death, acquired so much credit under the name of
Andrea, that the pope Martin V. when he came to Florence, took
him away with him to Rome, where he made him paint, in St. John
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 109
Lateran, some historical paintings in fresco, which are very pleasing,
and as beautiful as possible, because he laid upon them, in great
abundance, a sort of ultramarine, given to him by this pope, so beau-
tiful and of such a fine colour, that it has never yet been equalled."
Vasari, Life of Vittore Pisanello.
" Because it was the custom of Buffalmacco, in order to make the
flesh colours easier to paint, to form for the whole of the picture, a
ground of pavonazzo di sale* which in course of time, produces a
saltness that corrodes and consumes the white, and the other colours ;
therefore it is not surprising that such paintings spoil and corrode,
while others, painted much longer, keep in good preservation. I,
who thought it was the damp which injured these pictures, have
since found, by experience, that it was not owing to the damp, but
to this particular custom of Buffalmacco, that they are so much
damaged, that we can distinguish neither the design nor anything
else ; and that where the flesh tints had been formerly, nothing
now remained but the pavonazzo. This method of painting ought
not to be used by any one who wishes his paintings to be durable."
Vasari, Life of Buonamico Buffalmacco.
" Among other particulars, I must not omit, that this lady (daugh-
ter-in-law of Caesar Baglione) gave me the keys of a certain small
room in the larger house, which had never been opened since the
before mentioned Joseph (son of Caesar Baglione) had left Bologna,
and which contained every thing belonging to the studio of his de-
ceased father. T found four chests in it ; one of which contained a
great number of sketches, and cartoons of many pictures, painted by
him on various occasions, and all the most famous engravings which
had been published up to that time, by Buonmartino, Albert Durer,
Altogravius, Marcantonio, Agostino, and many others who had used
the graver, bound up in several volumes. The other chest was full
of brushes and colours, that is to say, earths of all sorts, particularly
of verde di miniera, b the most precious which the ancients possessed,
the good and genuine sort of which is now lost. There were leather
8 Many authors mention this " Pavonazzo di Sale," but I cannot find any
account of its composition. Its name shows it to have heen compounded with
some salt or alkali, which has always been found injurious to fresco paintings.
b Verde Montana Native green carbonate of copper.
110 FRESCO PAINTING.
bags full of English browns (Bruno d'Inghilterra), which were then
so much in use, being employed in fresco instead of lake ; also some
very fine verdetto and some Azzurro di Spagna, b so bright and fine
that even Sirani was deceived by them, and at first mistook them
for Ultramarine." Malv. Pels. Pitt. vol. I, 348.
" Dario Varatori painted in fresco some sybils and prophets in the
Carmine, at Padua, being obliged to complete the work on account
of certain festivities, and being at the same time under a course of
medicine, he carried his draught with him to the work ; he took the
bottle in his hand, looked at it, smelled to it several times, then
taking a disgust to it from having taken so much, he dipped his pen-
cil into it, and finished with it the drapery of one of the figures,
making use of it for the shadows which were of that colour." Ridolft,
vol. II. p. 269.
It will perhaps be recollected that Leon, da Vinci recommended
" Aloes Cavallini" as a pigment.
OF THE USE OF GOLD ON FRESCOKS.
"The fresco by Domenico Ghirlandaio in the Duomo of Pisa is on
a gold ground." /. Pisa, Illust. p. 236.
" Girolamo Curti wished to try two inventions of his, which were
new at that time, and have certainly not been practised since. The
first was to hatch (tratteggiare) his frescoes with gold leaf, by a
secret process of mixing together boiled oil, turpentine, and yellow
wax, and spreading the composition while hot, with a small brush,
wherever the lights occur ; because this mordant renders the gold
leaf, which is put upon it, somewhat raised and very shining.
This mordant pleased him, and it cannot be denied that the rich
appearance of it succeeded well, particularly on certain occasions,
times and places, as in theatrical scenes, funerals, large buildings and
similar things, which are to be seen by torch light, although after-
* Sinopia.
b Native blue carbonate of copper, Azul Fino, or of St. Domingo.
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. Ill
wards it began to be employed far too frequently, in great excess, and
with intolerable affectation in fresco paintings." Malv. Pels. Pitt,
vol. I. p. 160, 161.
" I therefore conclude that it cannot be denied that modern deco-
rations are more sumptuous than the ancient ; as well as more
pleasing and more varied, perhaps in too great a degree ; that they
have greater beauty and vivacity, but perhaps less depth and nature ;
that they please, but I do not know that they instruct ; that they
attract, but I do not know that they deceive. The profusion of
gold hatchings, which is now used so immoderately, makes the work
richer, but not more admirable; brighter, but not of better relief; and
if the only light adapted to it be wanting, it remains dull, and without
the proper brightness ; and therefore Giralomo (Curti), although
he was the inventor of it, a did not care to use it frequently. He
employed it at proper times and in proper places, and not always and
everywhere ; rather for trial than for use ; rather as a whim, than a
custom ; desiring to shew himself a true painter, and not a mere
gilder. In his colours also he imitated nature and did not follow fancy.
He obtained his colours from macigno, travertine, bricks, and marble ;
not from agates, jaspers, chrysolites, or amethysts. b He represented
objects that exist or that can exist, not such as never have been nor
ever can be. His design also was natural, not ideal; real, not imag-
inary; according to his own experience, and to reason, not according
to caprice or fancy. He painted with body colours, he did not wash
with water colours ; he painted with a solid impasto, and not with
his colours too liquid. He studied the durability of his pictures, not
their appearance. He was accustomed to make sketches, that he
might have an opportunity of correcting his designs, and because he
did not trust in the goodness of the white lime, he sometimes in-
creased its density with white marble finely powdered, ground and
mixed with it, and which, as may be seen, in the facade of the
Grimaldi palace has resisted so well the injuries of time." Malv.
Pels. Pitt. vol. II. p. 173.
Jacopo di Pontormo, was commissioned by the Duke Alessandro de
Medicis (who was assassinated in 1536), to paint the whole of the
a That is hatching the frescoes with gold.
b Meaning, that he used common, and not fine, colours.
112 FRESCO PAINTING.
Capella Maggiore of S. Lorenzo (built by Cosimo Vecchio di Medi-
cis) since called the Capella de Principi.
" Of these frescoes, begun by Jacopo de Pontormo in S. Lorenzo
and finished by Bronzino, no traces remain but the diary of Pontormo
preserved in the Biblioteca Palatina, (segnata, No. 351) which has
preserved some curious notices respecting these pictures." They
are useful to artists, inasmuch as they shew what portions of the
pictures were painted in each day. The diary begins thus, " On
Sunday morning the llth of March, 1554, I dined with Bronzino,
Wednesday evening, the 29th, I ate almonds and painted that figure
which is over the bald head. a
" On the 9th June, 1554, Marco Moro began to build the wall of
the choir and fill up the holes in S. Lorenzo.
" The 30th January 1555, I began the loins of that figure which
is lamenting over the child.
" The 31st, I painted the slip of linen which encircles them.
" The 1st February, I painted the drapery above, on the 5th I
finished it, and on the 1 6th I painted those legs of that child which
are here represented. The 4th, I painted the head of the figure
above which stands thus.
" March the 4th, Sunday, I painted the torso of the figure under
this head, and on Monday the arm belonging to the same figure
which is raised, as shewn in this sketch.
" On Tuesday and Wednesday I painted the arm of the old man
which is like this.
" On Wednesday the 20th, I finished the arm, begun on Friday,
the bust of which I painted on Monday. On Tuesday, I painted the
head belonging to the arm I have mentioned. On Thursday morning
I rose very early, but the weather was so bad, so windy, and cold
that I did not work, but remained in the house. On Friday I
painted the other arm, which is placed across, and on Saturday the
23rd, a little of the blue ground ; in the evening of Sunday I supped
on eleven ounces of bread, two eggs and spinach.
" Tuesday, 26th, I painted that head of the boy which is looking
down.
" On Wednesday, I painted the rest of the boy ; I was so inconve-
nienced by remaining in a stooping posture all day, that on Thursday
a Sketches with the pen are always added; the MS. appears to be a copy
of the seventeenth century.
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 113
I had a pain in the back, and on Friday I was worse, and was
otherwise indisposed, and ate no supper ; and on the morning of the
29th, which was Friday, 1555, 1 painted the hand and half the arm of
that large figure, the knee, with a part of the leg where the hand is
placed.
" The 3rd April, I painted the leg belonging to the knee with
great fatigue on account of the darkness.
" On Friday I began the back of the figure under this.
" On Tuesday I painted the leg with the thigh under, and the
back which is below the first mentioned back, thus.
" On Saturday, I painted the rock, and the Duke came to S.
Lorenzo, that is to say to the Ufizio. On Thursday I painted those
two arms. On Friday I painted the head with the rock below it.
On Saturday I did the trunk of the tree, the rock, and the hand.
On the 27th I finished only the leg placed thus. Tasso died. On
Wednesday and Thursday I finished it. On Tuesday, I begun the
torso the head of which is looking thus. On Thursday I did an arm.
On Friday, the other arm. On Saturday, the thigh of the figuie
placed thus. On Monday, the 20th May, I began the arm of this
figure. On Tuesday, the other arm. On Friday, I finished the
figure. On Wednesday, I did the head below this figure, thus.
On Thursday, 30th May, the thigh. On Friday, the back. On
Saturday, I finished the figure. On Wednesday, I did the shoulders
of the figure. On Thursday, I did the arm. On Friday, I finished
it. On Wednesday, I did the head of the dead man with the beard
above this figure. On Thursday, I did the head and arm of the
figure placed thus. On Friday, the torso. On Saturday, the legs
and finished the figure. On Tuesday, unfastened the planks of the
scaffolding; on Wednesday, filled up the holes in the wall. On
Thursday, 4th July, I began the figure like this. Friday and Satur-
day, I did as far as the legs. Friday, the 5th, I did one thigh. On
Thursday, I did the other thigh.
" On Friday, the 1 2th, I worked on the long pipe, close to the boarded
partition. On Tuesday, 16th, I began this figure. On Thursday I
worked in S. Lorenzo a little, and finished the figure. On Friday,
I did the head looking this way. On Tuesday, I began the figure.
On Wednesday, I did as far as the legs. On Thursday, 1st August,
I did the legs. On Friday, I did the arm on which the figure leans.
On Saturday, the head of the figure below it, which is thus." Car-
teggio Inedito d' Artisti, vol. Til, p. 166, fyc.
114 FRESCO PAINTING.
INSTANCES OP THE DURABILITY OF EXTERNAL FRESCOES.
" Close to this picture he (Lorenzo di Ricci) painted also in fresco
a San Cristofano of the height of twelve and a half braccia (=25
feet), which was a very extraordinary thing in those times, because
up to that time, with the exception of the San Cristofano of Buffal-
macco, there had never been seen a larger figure, nor, considering
its size, although it is not painted in a good style, a more accurate
and well-proportioned figure, in all its parts, than this. Besides
which, both of these pictures were painted with such skill, that,
although they have been many years in the open air, beaten by the
wind and storm, being exposed to the north (Tramontana), they
have never lost the brilliancy of their colours, nor have they been
ever damaged in any part." Vasari, Life of Lorenzo di Ricci.
" Pietro Perugino was desired to paint a dead Christ with St.
John and the Virgin, on the steps of the side door of S. Maria
Maggiore, and he painted it in such a manner, that although exposed
to the rain and the wind, it has nevertheless retained such freshness,
as to appear as if Pietro had just painted it. It is certain that Pietro
was well acquainted with the colours, as well in fresco as in oil ; so
that all skilful artists are under this obligation to him, that through
his means, and the study of his works they have obtained much
practical information." Vasarl, Life of Pietro Perugino.
" The commonalty at Florence, the year that Gabriel Maria (the
Master of Pisa) sold that city to the Florentines for 200,000 scudi
(=44,444. 9s.) after Giovanni Gambacorta had sustained a siege
for thirteen months, and he also had at last agreed to the sale,
caused Stamina to paint, in memory of this circumstance, on the
Guelfish facade of the palace, a Saint Dennis as bishop, with two
angels, and, underneath this, a view of the city of Pisa, in doing
which, he took so much care about every thing, and particularly
about colouring it in fresco, that, in spite of wind and rain, and
notwithstanding its being turned to the north, it has always been and
still is considered as being worthy of praise, for having always
retained its freshness and beauty so as to appear as if but just
painted." Vasari, Life of Gherardo Stamina.
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 115
CAUSES OF THE DESTRUCTION OF FRESCOES.
The causes to which writers on Painting commonly attribute the
destruction of frescoes, are, damp, and the presence of salts in the
substance of the wall, or the plastering or intonaco, or saline par-
ticles deposited on the pictures by the sirocco and other winds
which blow over the sea ; the injuries arising to the paintings from
injudicious attempts to repair them, entire neglect, and wilful in-
juries. Instances of the injuries to frescoes arising from damp are
so numerous, that it is useless to enumerate them, particularly as
the writers on painting do not mention any particulars relative to the
construction of the walls on which they are painted, or the situation
of the buildings.
The following extracts shew the opinions entertained by different
writers as to the cause of the destruction of certain frescoes.
" In the Church of the Annunciation at Parma, on the left hand
as you enter, Correggio painted in fresco the Mystery of the Incar-
nation ; but this picture has been much injured, because it was
painted in another place, and the wall being pulled down, the picture
was placed in its present situation, and it always happens in similar
cases that the humidity of the new wall and salts, arising from the
lime, form, on fresco paintings, a kind of tartar which covers and
obscures them." Mengs. obras, p. 289.
" A Fresco, by Andrea Comodi in the vestry of S. Carlo a Catin-
ari, at Rome, is become dark and covered with a mist, an unusual
thing for so good a colourist." Lanzi, vol. I. p. 193.
" The Cupola of the Duomo of Pisa is not double, and conse-
quently is not proof against the humidity that occasions the injuries
which are slowly increasing, but which by great good luck, have
as yet spared the most essential and beautiful parts." Pisa Illust.
vol. I. p. 310.
Lanzi says, that " the master-piece of Cigoli (Peter healing the
lame man), for which he received the honor of knighthood, is quite
destroyed either from the dampness of the church, or the ignorance
of those who undertook to clean it." Vol. I. p. 192.
116 FRESCO PAINTING.
" The damp of the walls (of the Campo Santo of Pisa) causes the
pictures to scale off; and the surrounding air impregnated with damp
and saline vapours is equally injurious to them. No great damage
will probably ensue for a few years ; but we shall see one day,
as in the case of S. Girolamo di Lomi that the sirocco, prevailing in
the plains of Pisa, and confined within these extensive loggie,
(besides the injury done by them, and by the violence of men to the
intonaco, and the materials of the walls) will commit fresh havoc."
II. Pisa Illust.p. 16.
" So Giotto going to Pisa, executed at the end of one of the
faades of the Campo Santo, six large historical pictures in fresco,
taken from the history of the patient Job. And as he very judici-
ously considered that the marble of that part of the building where
he had to paint, was turned towards the sea and must therefore be
impregnated with salt, from the effects of the sirocco, that the wall
would damp, and give out a certain efflorescence, as the bricks
of Pisa generally do, and that therefore the colours and the pictures
would be tarnished and corroded ; in order to preserve his pictures
as much as possible, he caused to be made, wherever he intended to
paint in fresco, an arricciato or intonaco, or plastering made of lime,
gesso, and pounded brick, mixed so nicely that the pictures which he
painted have been preserved up to this day ; and they would have
stood better, had it not been for the carelessness of the persons who
ought to have taken care of them, in allowing them to be much injur-
ed by the damp, because the neglect of any provision against damp,
which might easily have been made, was the cause that these pictures,
having suffered from the damp, have perished in several places ; the
carnations have become black, and the intonaco has scaled off; be-
sides which it is the nature of gesso, when mixed with lime, to be-
come wet and corrupted ; whence it appears, it must necessarily
spoil the colours, although it appears at first to give them a good
and firm hold." a Vasari, Life of Giotto, vol. II, p. 75.
" With regard to the destruction of the paintings of Giotto in the
Campo Santo of Pisa, the Canon Tosti, (MS. Dialogue Sopra I'istoria
a It is rather singular that Vasari should assign the same cause both for the
preservation and the decay of the pictures; namely, by the mixture of lime,
gesso, and pounded brick. Vitruvius remarks that gesso must never be mixed
with lime.
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 117
del Campo Santo de Pisa. L. L. p. 11), states that while the ar-
chitect was preparing the roof, the Campo Santo remained for a long
time uncovered on account of tedious law-suits, and the damp occa-
sioned by exposure to the rains did great damage to the works and
to the memory of Giotto. This is a proof we do not complain with-
out reason against insufficient superintendents of public works." 8
//. Pisalllust.p. 205.
" The Campo Santo of Pisa is faced with white marble procured
chiefly from the neighbouring mountains //. Pisa Illustrata, p. 175.
except on the north side where it joins the city walls." P. 176.
" In the early part of his life, Andrea Schiavone employed himself
in painting all subjects for the shops ; he also contracted a friendship
with masons in order to procure employment, accustoming himself to
paint the fronts of houses, the painting of which was frequently in-
trusted to these workmen ; so that his friendship with the masons
was the cause of his fortune. And to such a state was the art
reduced in Venice that painters were often obliged to carry away
the rubbish, as if there were no difference between painting and
whitewashing. This practice of fresco painting is disused in Venice,
because the frescoes are destroyed by the salt water, which incorpo-
rates with the lime, and instead of it, architects introduce the custom
of encrusting the walls with marble like a fortress, as if men had to
make war with death, not remembering the words of Horace,
4 Pallida mors <equo pulsat pede pauperum taberruu,
Regumque turres'
4 Pale death, with equal step will soon or late,
Knock at the cottage and the palace gate.' "
/ Ridolfi, p. 320.
" Giorgione, took great pleasure in fresco painting, and, among
other things, which he painted, was one whole facade of the Ca
Soranzo in the Piazza di S. Paolo, in which, besides many other
pictures and stories, and other fantastical ideas of his, there is seen
a These pictures were painted previous to the year 1400. The Campo Santo
was begun in 1278, and it was finished in 1283, except the Capello Maggiore,
which was finished in 1454. II. Pisa Illust.,p. 203. ED.
118 FRESCO PAINTING.
a picture painted in oil upon the lime which has withstood rain, sun,
and wind, and is preserved even to this day. There is also a figure
of Spring, which seems to me, to be one of the most beautiful things
that he painted in fresco, and it is a great pity, that the weather
should have so much damaged it. And I, for my part, do not
know of any thing, that does more injury to fresco paintings,
than the sirocco, and particularly in the neighbourhood of the sea,
where it always brings with it so many saline particles." Vasari,
Life of Giorgione. Borgh. Rip. p. 303.
Lanzi, (Vol. HI. p. 133) remarks that the climate of Verona is
friendly to the preservation of pictures and that "whilst at Venice, the
sea air has spoiled the best fresco paintings, the greater part of those
painted in Verona have been preserved'."
" Francesco Pagani painted two faades of the palace of Giuliano
de Ricasole in fresco in chiaro scuro historical subjects from ancient
Roman history; among these he painted in yellow, figures of Jupiter
and Juno, which were esteemed so fine, that Jacopo da Pon-
tormo, one of the best painters that ever lived in our city of Florence,
passing one day that way, said in the presence of many persons,
that if he had not known that these figures were by the hand of
Francesco, he should have thought them the work of Michael Angelo.
But this fine picture, in the course of a few years, perhaps from
being exposed to the tempests and winds, especially in that part
which faced the sea, became so effaced, that little of it remained in
our days." Bald. vol. VII, p. 605.
" Which paintings (an Annunciation and a St. Jacob and St.
Philip in the chapel of the Bishop of Arezzo), owing to the back of
the wall being turned to the north, were almost entirely spoilt by
the damp, when Agnolo di Lorenzo d' Arezzo repainted the Annun-
ciation ; and shortly afterwards, Giorgio Vasari, while still young,
repainted the St. James and St. Philip which was of great benefit
to him, as he learnt a great deal then, not being able to get instruc-
tion from other masters, by considering the manner of painting of
Giovanni (Tossicani,) and the shading and colouring of this painting
decayed as it was." Vasari, Life of Tommaso (Giottino').
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 119
" The pictures by Pordenoue on the exterior of the house of
Martino d'Anna a merchant of Venice, have been destroyed by the
' Tramontana' and are scarcely visible; but one representing the rape
of Proserpine under the vine arbour is still preserved." /. Ridolfi,
p. 153.
We find by the following letter from Nicholas Poussin that the
frescoes of Primaticcio at Fontainebleau, painted about 1540, were so
much decayed as to require repairing in 1642.
" I was not able to answer your last letter of the 27th June, until
I returned from Fontainebleau, where I was gone, as I wrote
by my last letter, because M. de Noyer had given me orders to go
there, to see if the pictures of Primatticcio, which had been damaged
by the injuries of time, could be restored ; or at least to discover
some means of preserving those which had remained most entire."
Lettere Pittoriche,- vol. I. p. 299.
OF RETOUCHING, REPAIRING, AND CLEANING FRESCOES.
With respect to cleaning, retouching, and repairing frescoes,
different opinions have been entertained by the best writers on the
subject. The weight of authority appears to be in favour of cleaning
but against retouching and repairing frescoes. In a very learned
and argumentative letter from Luigi Canon Crespi to Francesco
Count Algorotti, inserted in the third volume of Lettere su la Pittura
by Bottarip. 264, ed. Roma, 1759, he strongly condemns the practice
of retouching and repairing frescoes, and controverts the opinions
and observations of Bellori, by whom the repairs of the gallery of
the Caracci in the Palazzo Farnese, and of the Loggia of Raffaello
at the Lungara, are much praised. I merely refer to the very long
letter of Crespi, not considering his observations of much practical
use, but I insert a translation of the observations of Bellori, on
account of their practical value, preceding them however, by some
extracts from other writers on the subject.
120 FRESCO PAINTING.
" All those paintings which Antonio Veneziano executed in the
Campo Santo, at Pisa, are universally, and with great reason, con-
sidered the best of all those which have been painted by many
excellent masters, at various times, in that place ; because he always
painted everything in fresco, never retouching anything in secco ;
and this caused his colours to remain brilliant even to this day. This
should be a lesson to artists, to shew them how much the retouching
of fresco paintings with other colours, after they are dry, injures the
pictures ; it being an ascertained fact, that they appear old, and are
prevented from being cleaned by the weather, when they are covered
over with gum, gum-tragacanth, egg, size, or any similar thing which
varnishes (appanna) the pictures underneath it, and does not allow
time and air, to clean that which is really painted in fresco beneath,
upon the wet lime, as would be the case, if other colours, in secco,
were not put over them." Vasari, Life of Antonio Veneziano. See
I. Lanzi, p. 42.
" Luca Signorelli painted in fresco, at Volterra, in the church of
San Francesco, over the altar of a fraternity, the circumcision of our
Lord, which is considered wonderful ; although the infant, having
suffered from the damp, was repainted by II Sodoma, not nearly so
well as it was before ; indeed, it would be sometimes better, to
suffer the pictures, painted by good artists, to remain half spoiled,
rather than to have them retouched by inferior painters." Vasari,
Life of Luca Signorelli.
" The Madonna in the Campo Santo, said by Vasari and Baldi-
nucci to have been painted by Benozzo Gozzoli, is thought to have
been in fact painted by Stefano, and, being damaged, to have been
afterwards repainted by Benozzo, as his pictures were by another
hand.*" Pisa, Illust. 11,214.
The following account of the alteration of a picture in fresco, by
painting over part of it in distemper, a proceeding which had escaped
the detection of Vasari, will be read with interest.
Fra. Angelico da Fiesole painted under his great work (the
crucifixion), in the convent of San Marco, seventeen heads and
busts, representing various saints ; among which is seen the portrait
These retouchings prove that the pictures soon decayed.
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 121
of Saint Antonino, Archbishop of Florence. St. Antonino died in
1459, exactly four years after the death of Fra. Angelico, and the
picture was painted while Antonino, neither dead nor canonized, still
presided over the Florentine church. The knowledge of this fact
induced Baldinucci to make a closer examination of the picture, and
he ascertained, that the figure had not been originally painted as a
representation of St. Antonino, but that the Fathers, desiring to pos-
sess his portrait, caused the name of the figure, which had been
painted in fresco, to be coloured over with colours in distemper,
and the drapery of the figure to be converted into the robes of the
archbishop, to which were added the mitre, and other letters, by
which the figure was converted into a portrait of St. Antonino.
It is not known by whom this transformation was effected, but,
from the antiquity of the painting, it must have been painted shortly
after the canonization of the Saint, that is, about A. D. 1510, for
the canonization of a saint is not permitted to take place until fifty
years after his death, and this we know to be true, because, in
addition to its being easily perceived by any one who attentively
examines the difference between the two kinds of painting, ancient
as they both are, the more ancient may still be seen in parts where
the more modern, which is painted in distemper, (a kind of painting
not so durable as fresco), has peeled off; the difference also of the
style of the new work, although it has been painted in imitation of
the ancient, is apparent ; and finally, the comparison of the ancient
with the modern letters, has cleared up every doubt. "And I,"
observes Baldinucci, " was desirous of communicating this fact, in
order that no confusion may arise in the minds of posterity concern-
ing historical facts, and particularly such as are connected with the
arts." He adds, that Vasari was not acquainted with the circum-
stances, and that he merely observed the portrait in question was
not that of St. Antonino, but that of some other saint. See Baldi-
nucci, vol. V, p. 163, 164.
" Alesso Baldovinetti also painted the principal altar, and the
chapel of S. Trinita in fresco, for M. Gherardo and M. Bongianni
Gianfigliazzi, rich and honourable Florentine gentlemen. The sub-
jects were taken from the Old Testament, which he sketched in fresco
and then finished in secco, tempering the colours with yolk of egg,
mixed with liquid varnish, made over the fire, which vehicle, he
122 FRESCO PAINTING.
thought, would have preserved his pictures from damp ; but it was
so strong, that, in many places, where it was laid on too thick, it
scaled off; and so, while he thought to have found a rare and excel-
lent secret, he was deceived in his expectations." Vasari, Life of
Alesso Baldovinetti.
Mr. Wilson, in his report to the commissioners on the fine arts
states, that " In the palace at Modena, there is a large hall, the
ceiling of which is painted by Franceschini. The wood work in the
lower part of the hall was entirely burnt some time ago, and the
fresco ceiling was completely blackened by smoke, but was afterwards
cleaned with perfect success." // Rep. p. 34.
OF THE REPAIRS OF THE GALLERY OF CARRACCI IN THE PALAZZO
FARNESE, AND OF THE LOGGIA OF RAFFAELLO AT THE LUNGARA.
From " Descrizioni della Immagini Dipinti da Raffaello D'Urbino,
Di Gio. Pietro Bellori." Ed. Roma, 1751.
" The gallery had two notorious defects. The first was a great
crack from top to bottom of the vaulted roof, which, cutting it in two
transversely, had extended down both walls to the pavement, and
had produced a great many smaller cracks, so that almost all the
priming of the roof had bulged, and particularly that on the wall
facing the south, on which the Andromeda was painted, which had
already begun to fall off in pieces, and indeed some small pieces had
actually fallen from the roof itself.
" The second defect was an efflorescence of nitre, at that part on
which the Cephalus and Aurora was painted, which also spread to
the medallions, and naked figures contiguous.
" The cause of the first defect was attributed to the weight above,
which pushed the wall outward, towards the street ; and therefore
four chains were fastened down below, upon the pavement, and four
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 123
more upon the roof, all of which, being extended from the outer wall
to the wall of the loggia in the courtyard, pulled the wall together,
and prevented any similar mischief for the future.
" In the second place, a new and wonderful invention was thought
of, for fastening the priming, and re-attaching it to the mortar, so
that it might not fall any more. It consisted in nailing the priming
to the wall, in the same manner as one would fasten to it a silken or
woollen cloth. This being executed, with all necessary patience, by
Sig. Francesco Rossi, who was in part the inventor of the plan, I
think proper to record it here, for public instruction.
" He used a nail similar in shape, to the capital letter T, such as
is used by printers, with a number of tacks all along the branches ;
and sometimes, in order that the upper part of the nail might not
extend over the light parts, or the carnations, he had the branches
shortened, or used a nail of the shape ^ with only one branch.
Before putting in the nail, he used to ascertain the place where it
was most required by striking the wall with his hand, and listening
to the sound and echo of the hollow part, and where the colours
were the darkest, he made a hole, with great care, with an auger,
penetrating as far as was necessary to make the fastening strong,
and then filled it up with gesso. Then, choosing a nail, of the length
required by the depth of the hole, he drove it in until the head of it
reached the surface of the priming, in which he made a groove, to
conceal the head, or the lateral branches of the nail. Having done
this, he suffered the priming, which the use of the gesso had wetted
round the nail, to dry, and then painted it over with certain water
colours, in tint exactly resembling what it was before, and corres-
ponding to the parts of the picture which remained ; and these tints,
when dry, agreed so well, that it was not possible to find the slightest
difference in them. This is so true, that Sig. Carlo Maratti has told
me, that several times, when he has been upon the scaffolding, and
examined the work with great attention, he could not find out where
the nail had been placed, and that, in fact, when the artist himself
wished to point it out, he was sometimes mistaken, and did not
know where it was.
" It is really wonderful, and almost incredible, that there should
have been fixed in that gallery, for the above mentioned purpose,
1 300 nails, and 300 more in the cabinets painted by Annibale, and
that no professor whatever, however skilled in these pictures, should
be able to discover the slightest injury, or to point out any mark, or
124 FRESCO PAINTING.
to indicate the place, in which one of these nails had been fixed ; so
great was the skill with which the operation had been effected : the
greatest care had also been taken not to touch even the edges, so to
speak, of the priming, by which the nail was surrounded.
" The second defect, arising from the efflorescence, was caused by
the starting from the wall of the travertine, which forms the cornice
above the four exterior columns, because the wind drove the rain on
to this cornice, and the wet insinuating itself into the space behind
the cornice, where it had started from the wall, began to wet the
wall, and to communicate the moisture to the inner side, and thus to
soak the priming and the colouring of the picture. This was provi-
ded against for the future, by putting plates of marble upon the
travertine of the cornice, reaching half a palm into the wall, care
being taken to make them slope outwards, and to lap over one
another at the edges. As to the past mischief, the same Sig. Gio.
Francesco de Rossi had the merit, by virtue of a private secret of his
own, of removing the efflorescence, and of restoring the pictures on
that side to their former state, as they are now seen, with every
hope, after a trial of two years, of their durability.
" The Loggia ofRaffaello, although more ancient, has been respected
more by time, than by the inclemency of the weather ; because,
although the roof has opened and cracked, and the priming has
started in several places, yet, as these cracks have already settled
properly, it has not been necessary to compress or restore the walls,
but only to re-fasten, and to nail up the priming in the same manner
as in the gallery of Annibale, by means of 850 nails.
" The mischief done by the air to this Loggia, has been much more
considerable, because, having been open for about 140 years, without
the protection of the planking and glass, which are now seen in the
spaces under the arches, between the pillars, the result has been
that it has always been exposed both to the night air, and to the air
of foggy or cloudy days, and also to the winds, particularly to the
north wind, which even drove the rain into it.
" From this notice it is easy to understand the mischief done to the
colours, which have lost all their vivacity, and above all to the half
tints, which have, for the most part, disappeared, and universally to
all the grounds which had become so black, that one could hardly
tell that they had been painted with good azure, which, however,
still shewed itself in some parts, that were either less exposed, or
better painted. But, as this is an evil too difficult to repair, without
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 125
offending the superstition of some persons, who would rather consent
to the entire destruction of an excellent painting, than allow it to be
touched by the hand of another person, however skilful and excellent
he may be ; it is certainly a popular error, to believe that nothing
can be done, but to try to preserve, as well as possible, the relics of
antiquity, and the venerable remains of such wonderful labours.
" It is also true that posterity will not be of the same opinion as
our scrupulous moderns ; for if the mere embrions of those pro-
ductions, which they know were so perfect in our time, or a little
previous are preserved with difficulty to their times, they will
reproach us with want of love for the art, and perhaps even with
injustice, for having denied to painting that assistance, which is
extended to sculpture, in which art we frequently see statues re-
stored by the renewal of the legs, or the arms, and sometimes of
the head, to set off the trunk and the rest of the figure.
" Upon this consideration, Sig. Carlo Maratti, with the appro-
bation of Sig. Felini, and of prudent persons, has repainted all the
backgrounds, restoring them to that tone of colour which was still
visible in those few parts of the ancient picture which has remained
uninjured, as has been before mentioned ; and moreover, as many
figures had lost all their former force and spirit, either by the
destruction of the middle tints, or by the greater darkening of the
shaded parts, or by the entire fading away of the light parts of the
eyes, we think proper to record here separately, all the repairs made
by Sig. Maratti, in order that our contemporaries as well as pos-
terity may know the obligation which they are under, to the
preserving genius of this great man. The figures repaired by him
are the following, namely ; the Bacchus and the Hercules in the
Cena de' Dei. In the Concilia de' Dei, the Mercury handing the
cup to Psyche, and Cupid embracing Psyche, and the head of
Psyche herself. Almost all the northern side, where the imposts
and the spaces between the arches are situated, and particularly
the Psyche, carried by the little Loves to Heaven, and the
children holding the exploits of the Gods. Within the opposite
imposts, he restored from a most deplorable state to its present
perfection, the Jove and the suppliant Venus. This has been
executed with such judgment, and with such skill, that certainly
none of our professors would be able to point out which were the
additions of modern art, unless he had learned it, either from this
historical narration, or from others who had known it by ocular
126 FRESCO PAINTING.
inspection, such has been the union of the modern with ancient art !
and such the industry of this great man, in endeavouring to discover
the exact positions in which the primitive tints were placed !
And I know that where he was not sufficiently certain of the accuracy
of his knowledge, owing to the total absence of any vestiges, he
used to make drawings from ancient statues, as he did in particular,
from the Antinous, and from the Torso of the Ercole di Belvedere,
from which Raffaelle took the two above-mentioned figures.
" And really, whoever examines the effects of these beautiful
restorations will confess, that Sig. Felini had good reason for saying
that the age would not always have the good fortune to possess
a Carlo Maratti, and in that case we might only be able to desire
to accomplish that which has now been in our power to execute.
" We must not conceal from the knowledge of posterity another
which on that occasion was conferred on this Loggia ; and we must
first consider that Raffaelle, and the excellent disciples of his school,
did not finish the above-mentioned painting ; because the festoons
of flowers and fruits, painted by Gio. da Udine did not reach to the
cornice, as the design of the painting required, but there remained
a breadth of two or three palms to be painted, in order to make the
festoon rest upon the cornice. The Lunettes also of the interior
wall, opposite to the arches of the Loggia, were not painted, and
were covered with the white priming only, and this white, added to
that of the whole of the wall, below the cornice, produced a very
great discordance with the roof, which was so beautifully painted,
and made those beautiful figures appear crude and almost unpleasant
to the eye. Now, however, these festoons are complete, and are
continued to the top of the cornice ; the before mentioned lunettes
are also painted, imitating the spaces between the arches on the
other side, (so beautifully painted by Gio. da Udine,) and the per-
spective appearance of the windows, and the cornices which close
the above-mentioned arches. Besides, all that part, which extends
from the cornice to the ground, has been painted over to imitate
simple architectural designs, without figures, in order to preserve
the effect of the roof above it. This work, which was always
superintended by the great genius of Sig. Carlo Maratti has been
wonderfully executed by Sig. Domenico Paradisi, and Sig. Giuseppe
Belletti. And in order that this Loggia might become a perfect
gallery, the two other doors of the four, which are seen at the top
and bottom, have been opened; the door-posts are made of Africano,
EXTRACTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 127
and the doors themselves made anew with veined nut wood, so that the
whole agrees wonderfully together, and pleases the eye exceedingly.
" Lastly, we must not omit to speak of the restorations which were
also made, on this occasion, to the contiguous Loggia, which faces
the garden, and which was painted by Baldassar da Siena, and
Sebastiano del Piombo ; because as the priming of that roof had
begun to drop off in small pieces, so as to leave a large blank space
in the middle of it, where the figure of night had been painted,
it was strengthened by driving in seven hundred and thirty nails,
and the proper restorations were made in this blank space ; fifty
nails were also driven into the same wall, on the part where the
splendid Galathea of Raffaelie is painted, to keep the priming better
attached to the wall, and to give greater duration also to this
splendid offspring of his divine pencil."
INDEX.
N.B. The Roman numerals refer to the preliminary inquiry on Colours.
ABEZZO, Olio di, or Venice Turpen-
tine, 5G
.'Kruca or .-Erugo, or Verdigris, 10
and n.b.
Agricola Georgius, his account of the
Haematite and Schist, xviii, xix,
and of the Cceruleo, xliv
Alberti, Leon Batista, account of, 19
directions and observations of,
19
Albin, xv, xvi, xvii, n.a. xxii, xxvii,
xxx, xxxiii, 65, 76, &c.
Aldobrandini Marriage, account of
the picture so called, 63, n.a.
Alkalies, xl
Almagra, xv, xvi, xvii, n.a. xviii, &
n.a. 65, 66
Aloes Cavallini, 110
Alterations in fresoes, 57
Amatito, xiii, xiv, xvi, xvii, xviii,
xxii, xxiv, xxv, xxvii, xxviii
Ampelite graphique, or Black Chalk,
liii
Annularia, 10, n.g.
Arezzo, (city) paintings at, destroyed
by the north wind, 118
Armenian stone, xliv, xlvi, xlvii,
xlviii
Armenino, (Painter,)
account of, 35, 36.
directions and observations of,
36
Arricciato, 19, 20, 24, 53, 92, &c.
Ars Vitraria,
A work by Neri, xxxii
Aspertino, Amico,
his curious and expeditious
manner of painting, 103
Atramentum, 9, & n.g.
Azarcon or Red Lead, 9, 10 & n.a.
Azul de Santo Domingo, 83
Azul fino, xxxvi, 1, 83
Azul verde, xlvii, 83
Azulo, xlvi
Azzurri di Biadetti, 1.
Azzurro della Magna, xxxvi, xli, xlii,
xliii, xlviii, 25
Azzurro di Smalto, xxxvi, xxxviii,
xxxix
Azzurro di Spagna, xlviii, xlix
Azzurro di Vena Naturale, xxxvi,
xlviii, xlix, 1
Azzurro Oltramarino, xxxvi
BAGLIONE, Cesare, 96, 97, 109
Baldinucci, xxiv, 121
Baldovinetti, Alesso, 121
Begue, Jehan le, 18
Bellori, Giovanni, Pietro,
extract from, 122, &c.
Betun, 8, n.d.
Biacca or White Lead, 25, 39, & n.b.
Biadetto, 60
Bianco Sangiovanni, liv, 25
Bianco secco, lii
Bicci, Lorenzo de, 104, 114
Bisso, xvii, n.a.
Bistre or Fuligine, 59
Bi'cumen, 59
Black, xl, liii, 25, 32, 33, 44, 50, 59,
63 & n.a. 79
Black Chalk, or Matita Nera, xvii,
n.b. liii.
Black Lead, or Lapis Nero, 39, 51
Blanco de cal, 79-81
Bleu de Montagne, or Earthy Azure
Copper Ore, xlv.
Bloodstone, xxii, xxiii, & n.a.
Blue, Armenian, xxxii.
Blue green, or Verde Azzurro, 60,
vide also Verde Azzurro
130
Blue Ochre of Copper, or Earthy
Azure Copper Ore, xlv
Bol d 'Espagne, xxxii
Bole, Armenian, xx, xxxiii, xxxiv
Borax, 9 and n.f
Borghini, xxiv,
account of, 33
directions of, 33
Brazil Wood,
lake from, 60
Brick, pounded, 4, & n.c. 1 16, & n.a.
Bricks of Pisa, 116
Bronze,
manner of imitating, 31, 50
Broom, Spanish,
used in preparing roofs, 3
Brunelleschi, 19
Bruno d'lnghilterra, xxvi, xxxii. 58
Brushes, 25, 29, n.a. 44, 67, & n.a.
88
Buonarotti, Michael Angelo, 100, 101
102
CAMBIASO, Luca, 47, & n.a.
Canipi.
possessed a blue which has
proved permanent in fresco, 1
Cane, (long,) used for drawing, 29,
& n.a.
Carbone Apissa, xvii, n.b.
Carducci, the painters, 67 & n.b.
Caricare,
explanation of term, 56
Carlone, Giovanni, & Giovanni Ba-
tista, 106, 107, & n.a.
Carracci, xxxv, 95, 96, 107,
Carracci, gallery of the, 122, 123, &c.
Cartoons, 24, 27, 28, 30, 36, 37, 38,
54, 62, n.a. 73, & n.a. 93, 96
Cavallini, Pietro, 108
Cavallini, Aloes, 110
Cavidone, Giacomo, 106
Ceilings, 18, 'J2
Cellini, Benvenuto, xxiii, xxxii
Cendres Bleues, 1
Cennino Cennini, xxiv, 24 & a a.
directions of, 24
Cento,
description of a fresco at, 102,
103
Cespedes, 62, and n.a.
Chalk Black, or Matata nera xvii, n.b.
Chapel Sistine,
how, when, and by whom pain-
ted, 100-102
Charcoal, used for drawing, 24, 28,
29, 32, 38, 73, n.a. 74
Chiaro-scuro painting, 31, 32, 50
Chrysocola, xliii, xliv, li, 9, & n.f.
Cinabrese or Sinopia, 25
Cinabro or Vermilion, vide Vermilion
Cinnabar, Mineral, xiv, xxv, & n.a.
xxvi. xxvii
Cinnabar, Artificial, xxv
Clay, models of, 29
used for the grounds of paint-
ings in fresco, 32, 50, various
kinds of, used as colours, 32
Cobalt, xxxv, xliii
Coeruleum, xxxvi, xxxvii, xxxviii, xl,
xliv, xlvii
Colours,
directions for using, &c. xi, liv,
Iv, 17, 18, 22, 25, 31, 34, 40,
42, 43, 57, 76, 88
Blue, xxxiv, li, 34, 42, 59, 60,
100, 106, 108
Red, xiii, xxxiv
Green, li
Black, liii
White, liii, liv
Yellow, liv
Brown, liv
Natural, xi, xiii, 8, 9, 22, 76
Artificial, 8, 9, 10, 11, 22
Mineral, 22, 31, 34, &c.
Vitrified, 23
Calcined, 76
Earthy, 88
Copper, Carbonate of, 9, n.f.
Blue Ochre of, xlv
Native Blue, Carbonate of, xliv,
xlv, xlvii, xlviii, 1, and n.a.
li, lii,
Copper ore, Earthy Azure, xlv
Crayons, xxxiii, 56, 57
Greta Verde, 9
Cupola, how to be painted, 85
Cyaneum, xliii, xliv, xlviii
DAMP, how ceilings are preserved
from, 92
Davy, Sir Humphrey, his recipe for
repairing the Cceruleum, xxxvii
De Re yEdificatoria,
a work by Vitruvius, 19
Designs, 27, 88
Diary of Jacopo da Pontormo, 111.
Distemper, known to Theophilus, 18,
see also retouching
Diversarum Artium Schedula, a work
by Theophilus, 17
Doves, dung of, 10
Dragante, 34
Drapery, 17, 25, 26
Drawings, perspective, the use of, 27
manner of making, 28, 29
131
Dutch Pink, 10 n.e.
EARTHS, liii, 31, 34, 88, &c.
used in painting, 31, 34, 88, &c.
Burnt Yellow, or Terra Gialla
Abbrucciata, 44, 58
Ecume de mer, 9 n.b.
Egg, used as a Tempera, 18, 25, 26,
31, 51, 83, &c.
Emantes or purpurinus, xvi, xxiii
Emate, xxiii
Endigo, vide Indigo
Eraclius, xv and n.b.
Esmalte, xxxvi, 65, 78
FABIUS, Pictor,
paintings by, 63, 64
Ferret, xix, xxxii
Ferretta di Spagna, xxvii, xxxii
Fig juice,
used as a tempera, 25, 26, 34,
&c.
Finger, used in softening the colours
in fresco, 56
Flesh colour, 25, 44, 82
Floats of wood, 22
Folium, 18 and n.c.
Foreshortening, 84
Fresco, 18, 30, 31, 44, 62, 63, 64,
68, 70, 91, 117, 121, 122
colours used in, xi, &c.
practice of, 24, 26, 30, 31, 87,
91, &c.
extracts relative to, 91, &c.
Frescoes, 95, 96, 97, 104, 105, 120
ancient, 91, &c.
instances of the durability of,
114
causes of the destruction of,
115, &c.
cleaning, Retouching, and Re-
pairing, 119, &c.
Fuligine, 59
GADDI, the,
their manner of painting, 21
Garbieri
his manner of making Cartoons,
98, 102, 103
Gems, factitious, 23, u.a.
Genuli, 65
Gesso, 20, 21, 22, 39, 53, 116, & n.a.
Gesso da Oro, 11, n.c.
Gesso da Sarti, 39, and n.c.
Giallolino di Fornace, 59
di Napoli, 59
French, 60
Giallorino, 25
Giallo Santo, 60, 99
Giotto
his manner of painting, 24, 98, 99
Glass called vaXov or hyalou, 10. n.f.
Glass Blues, 59, 60
Glue, xlii, 9, n.g, 34, 51, 63
Gold, xlii, 98, 110
Granire, 54
Grata, 54, n.a.
Graticola, 24, 37, &c.
Graticolare, 24, 37, n.b. 54, n.a.b.c.
Greens, 17, 18
Grotesque painting, 63
Guado, 10 n.e.
Guevara,
account of, 1
directions and observations of, 2
Gum Arabic, 56
Gums, 28, 31, 51, 120
Gum tragacanth, 34, 120
Gypsum, or Gesso, 39 n.a.
Hess, Professor,
used oxides of Iron for red pig-
ments in fresco, xxviii
Hoematiti, xix, xx, xxviii, xxxiii
different names of, xiv, xxii
descriptions of, xviii, xxii
localities of, xix, xx, xxi, xxxiv
uses of, xxii, xxiii, xxiv
Honey of the plasterers, 8 and n.b.
11 and n.c.
Hornaza, 78, 83
Hyalon, xxxvii, 10, n.f.
IGNOTO, xlix, 78 and n.b.
Impastare, 56
Indicum, xl
Indigo, xxxvii, 4, 60 and n.b.
Ink, mixed with water, used for
glazing paper, 28
Intonaco, preparation and use of, 19,
20, 22, 24, 33, 53, 91, 92, &c.
Iron, Sulphate of, xxvii, xxviii, 58
and n.a.
different names of, xxvii, xxviii
Iron, Oxides of, xxviii
Iron Stone, fibrous red, xx
Isodorus, quoted, xv and n.b.
LAKE, xi, xv, 25, 49, 50, 60, &c.
Lapis Amatista, xiii
Amatito, xiv, xxii
Armenus, xliii
duro, xvii n.b.
Haematites, xx
Lazuli, xlvii, xlviii
Nero, 38 and n.c.
132
INDKX.
Lapis Rosso, 28
Roxo, xvii and n.b.
Sanguinaiius, xxii, xxiii
Leek Green, 60
Lime, 17, 18, 21, n.a. &c.
White, Flower of, 23
Lime Roman, 101
Lime Water,
colours mixed with, 15, &c.
Loggia of Sebastian del Piombo, 127
Loggia of Raft'aello, 122, &c.
Luuiina, 17 and u.c.
Lutea, 10 and n.e.
MADDER, 10 and n.d.
Magnesia, Carbonate of, 9, n.b.
Majolica, xxxi and n.a.
Majorica, xvii and n.b. xxvii.
Malachite, lii, 9, n.f.
Manganese, xxxiii
Marble Dust, 5 and n.b, 67, 80
Martin John, directions of, 87
Mastic, 22
Mastrice, 8 n.d.
Matita, xiv, xvii n.b.
Dura, xxiv
Nera, xiv, xv, xvii, n.b.
Rossa, xiv, xxiv, xxvii
Meerschaum, 9 n.b.
Melinum, 9 and n.c.
Membrana, 1 7 and n.c.
Menesch, 18 and n.c.
Michael Angelo,
his manner of painting, 100,
101, 102
Milk, 7 and n.a, 78
Milk of Goats, 78
Milto, xxx
Minever hair, 51
Minio, 25
Minium, xv
Models of clay, 29
Morello di Sale, 60
Mouldiness, how cured, 101
Mountain Blue, xiv
NAILS, for Cartoons, &c. 3 n.d, 74,
87, 122, &c.
Naples Yellow, liv, 25, 59
Negro de bafio, 65
de Carbon, 65
de humo, 63 and n.a.
Nero di Schiuma di ferro, liii
di Terra di Campane, liii
Nitre, has eaten up the blues in
fresco, xxxvi, xi
where it had appeared, Giordano
used a tempera of egg, xl,
83, 84
OCC1IEJA, 50 n.a.
Ochre, xxxiii, 8, 9 and n.h, 17, 32,
58, 59, 64, 77
Oil, used with wax and mastic for
anointing the motar on walls, 22
Linseed, all colours can be mixed
with, 22
Ointment, for anointing walls, 22
Ongaro, xiv and n.a.
Orpiment, 9, 17, 25, 60, &c.
native, 9 and n.d.
Ostrum, 10 and n.c.
Outlines, 25, 28, 30, 33, 55
Ox-hairs, 87 n.a, 88
PABONAZO, vide Pavonazo
Pacheco, account of, 61
directions 1 observations of, 62
quotes from Cespedes, 62
Painters, ancient, used wax for paint-
ing ships, 22
enquiry whether they painted in
fresco 13 n.a, 62
were acquainted with wax paint-
ing, 91
of about the 15th century, their
cnrious manner of painting,
91, 92
Paleta, 7 n.b.
Palettes, different kinds of, 55 and
n.b, 81
Palomino, Don Acisclo Antonio, de
Castro y Velasco,
account of, 69
directions of, 70
Paper, Tinted, drawings executed on,
28, 39
Pardo, Palazzo del, frescoes, in, 75
Paretonium, 9 n.b.
Pasta verde, 59
Paste, uses of, 28, 63
Pavia, pictures in the Castle of, 93 n.a,
Pavouazo, xv, xvi, xxvii, xxxi, xxxiii,
50, 76, 77
Pavonazzo di Sale, 109 and n.a.
Pebbles, White, 11
used in preparing walls, 6
Pen, uses of, 28
Pencils, 67 and n.a.
Perspective, Aerial, 29
Pietra Ccerulea, xlvii
Pietra nera, 28
Pisano, discussion concerning, 93 n.a.
Plaster, vide lutonaco, RinzaflFalo,
Arricciato, Stucco, &c.
Pliny, quotations from, 53, &c.
Point of Iron,
used by Giotto for the finishing
the darks in blue drapery, 26
133
Pontorno, Jacopo di, diary of, 1 1 l,&c.
Pouz, Antonio, wrote the notes to
Guevara, I, 2, &c.
Posch, 17 and n.b.
Pouncing, 55, 74
Pozzo, Andrea,
account of, 52
directions and observations of,
53, &c.
Pozzolana, 53
Prasinus, 17 and n.a.
Purple, the Tyrian, 10 n.c.
Purpurinus, xvi
Purpurissum, xl
QUARTERLY Review,
extract from, liii
RASA Acquadi, 56
Red chalk, xxxiii
crayons of, xxxiii
Red Earth, vide Terra Rosa
Red Lead, 10 and n. a
Reseda Luteola, 10 n. e, 42
Rete, 24, ?.9
Retouching, 26, 31, 34, 50, 51, 56,
66, 67, 119, &c.
Riposo, II, of Borghini, 33
Rinzaffalo, directions for preparing,
19, 20, &c.
Roofs, preparation of, 2, 3, &c.
Rope, old,
mixed with the Intonaco, 22
Rosa, 1 7 and n. d
Rossetta d'Inghilterra, 58
Rouge Violet, xxix, xv
Rubia, 10 and n.d
Ruddle, xxxiii
Rubrica, xviii, xxix
Rubrum, 17, n.b.
Rushes used in preparing roofs, 38,
and n.c.
SAND used in preparing the stucco,
21, &c.
Sandarac, natural, 9 and n.d.
Sanguine, xxiii and n.a.
Sap Green, 59
Scaffolds, 86
Scaglia di Ferro, xxiv
Schist
description of, xviii, xix, xx
localities of, xix
different names of, xix
Schiste a dessiner, liii
School, early Italian
practice of the, 91
School, Spanish
practice of the, 66, n.b.
Sedge, bruised
brushes made of, 75
Selinusian or Annularian Chalk,
xxxvii
Sfumare, 56
Sil, 9
Sil Atticum, 9 and n.e.
Silver used in cartoons, 88
Sinopia, xxvii, xxix, xxx, and n.b.
xxxi, xxxiii, xxxiv, 8,9, and n.a.
Sirocco, 116, 117, 118, &c.
Sketches, 27
Smaltino, xxxvi, xxxviii, xxxix, 10
n.f.
Smalt, 42, 45
Smalto, xxxvi, xxxviii, xxxix, and
n.a.
Soap, white, 22
Softening, 56
Sombra del Viejo, 76, 77, 78
de Venecia, 76, 77
Sphragis, xxx
Stucco or Mortar, 71, 87, &c.
TALC, white, 83 and n.a.
Tarea, a day's work, 71
Terra di Campane, 44
Eretria, 10
Gialla Abbrucciata, 44, 58
Nera di Venezia. liii, 58, 59
Nera di Roma, liii, 59
Nera di Piedmonte, liii
Rosa, xxxiii, 43
Rossa d'Inghilterra, xxvii
Selemnusia, xxxvii
Sigillata, xxx
Sinopide, xix
Verde, 44, 59, 65, 76, 77
Terretta, 31
Tempera, 25, 26, 34
Theophilus, the Monk, account of, 1 7
directions of, 17, 18
Tierra Negra, 76, 77, 78
Tierra Roxa, 76
Tierra Verde, 76, 77, 78
Tiglio, xvi, n.a.
Tracing with the stile, 30, 33, 55
Tramontana, 114, 115, 116, &c.
Travertine, calcined, 31, 32, 34
Lime from, 101
Trusilar, 4
Turpentine, Venice, used for re-
rouching frescoes, 56
ULTRAMARINE, xxxv, xlvii, 1, 18,
60, n.a. 83, 109
134
INDEX.
Ultramarine, French, 1
Umber, xvii, n.b. liv, 44, 59
VARGAS, Luis de, 68, n.a.
Vara, a Spanish measure, 81, n.a.
Varnishes, 56, 121
Vasari, account of, 27
directions of, 27
Vehicle, 25, 26
Vena, xvi, n.a.
Veneda, xli, 18
Venice, frescoes at, destroyed by the
salt water. 117
Verdaccio, 25, 99, 100
Verdacho, li, lii, 65
Verde Azzurro, xlvii, xlviii, 60
Cardenillo, 10 and n.b.
di Miniera, xlviii, lii
di Verona, vide Terra verde
Eterno, 99
Granilla, 78
Granillo, lii
in Canna, 60
Montana, li, lii, 65 & n.b. 77, 78
Poro, 60, vide also Leek Green
Verderame, 25
Verdete, lii
Verde Terra, 25, 59, vide also Terra
Verde
Verdetto di Spagna, xlviii
Verdetto, lii
Verdigris, 10, n.b. 60, 99
Vermilion, xl, xxvi, 9 and n.e. 17,
25,49, 58, 65, 76
Verona, climate of, favorable to the
preservation of frescoes, 118
Vestorian Azure, xxxvi
Vestorianum, xxxvi, xxxvii, xxxviii,
10, n.f.
Violets, dried yellow, a colour made
from, 10
Vitriol, burnt Roman, xxvii, xxviii
Vitruvius, directions and observations
of, 2, &c.
dates of the different editions of
his works, xxxix. n.b.
work by, 19
WALLS, preparation of, 2, 3, 4, 15,
17, 18, &c.
Colours proper to be used on,
17, &c.
Colours unfit to be used on, 17,
&c.
Wax, 22, 91
Whey, colours to be ground with, 87
White, 25, 32,43, 49,64
from Lime, 57, 64, 79
from Carrara Marble, 57
from Egg Shells, 57, 83
Talc, 83
White Lead, 13, n.a. 28, 60
Woad, 10, n.e.
YSGINO, 10
ZAFFRE, xxxix, xliii
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