ELSii . . 'ARSING. BY SAMUEL J. EVANS, M,A. (Lond.) NEWPORT, MON. : JOHN E. SOUTHALI., FBINTKB AND PUBLIBHBB, 149 DOCK STRBHT, 1907. WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS BY SAMUEL J. EVANS, M.A. (LoND.), HEADMASTER OP THE COUNTY SCHOOL, LLANGEFNI, AUTHOR OF Elements of Welsh Grammar, Welsh and English Exercises, &c. NEWPORT : JOHN E. SOUTHALL, PRINTER AND PUBLISHER, DOCK ST. 1907. PREFACE. Ever since the appearance of the Elements of Welsh Grammar, with its attempt at evolving a system of Welsh parsing and analysis, the author has been urged from various quarters to amplify what is given there, and to issue a separate book devoted entirely to this branch of grammar. Hence the present essay. No difficulty has been knowingly passed over, and it is hoped that students will find the book useful in their preparation for the Welsh Matriculation, King's Scholarship, and the Examinations of the Central Welsh Board. The author has not trusted to his own rather wide experience as teacher of Welsh. He has consulted several Welsh scholars who regularly prepare candidates for the above examinations, and desires to thank them for indicating the difficulties usually experienced by young students. To David Samuel, Esq., M.A., Head- master of the County School, Aberystwyth, he is further indebted for reading through the proof-sheets and suggesting improvements. Any criticism likely to increase the usefulness of the book will be thankfully received. Llangefni, Sept. 21st, 1907. PARSING. Formerly English Grammar, and therefore English Parsing, were approached from a classical and especially Latin standpoint. In the time of the Tudors and later, English Grammar was so neglected, that when schools devoted to the study of Latin Grammar were founded, it was deemed sufficient to call them " Grammar Schools," without more closely defining their function. Latin Grammar, with to a less extent Greek Grammar, was deemed the only language-analysis worthy of serious study. In course of time the claims of English became more insistent, and a study of the ancient classics ceased to be the only content of education. But the men that taught the new Grammar approached it from a Latin standpoint and forced upon English a terminology and system of Grammar little adapted to the genius or at least the present day condition of the language. English is as essentially analytic as Latin is synthetic : the latter expresses by means of inflections Avhat the former has long come to convey by means of prepositions, auxiliaries, and a somewhat rigid word order. English Grammar is not rid of this incongruity to-day. In Latin it is a rule that the adjective must agree with its noun in gender, number and case, but in modern English to insist upon 2 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. this rule is merely to mystify the child, who is irresist- ibly driven to believe that what he learns in school is unreal, bearing no sort of relation to facts and his daily experience. The'intelligent child will have noticed that in English, adjectives with the exception of the two demonstratives 'this' and 'that,' which are inflected for number are indeclinable, possessing neither gender, number nor case. Welsh Grammar and especially Parsing seem to have suffered much through their having been treated from a similarly inappropriate standpoint. Students accustomed to a careful analysis of Latin and of English Grammars not unnaturally import into Welsh parsing a nomen- clature or mixture of nomenclatures often quite inapplicable to the case. The following observations and specimens of Welsh Parsing are intended to help the student over the difficulties usually experienced. PARSING BASED ON FUNCTION. Words are classified into Parts of Speech according to their function. Care must be taken not to confuse function with meaning : thus the meanings of llyfr, dyn, gardd, aderyn, are various, but their function is all one, namely, to denote an object, and so they are all Nouns. Similarly du, gwyn, coch, da, have not the same meaning, but the function of all these is to qualify or limit the application of a noun or pronoun, and hence WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 3 they are all of one part of speech to which the name Adjective is applied. Further, the function of a word may vary in the history of the language, or even in different sentences. 'Gilydd' was originally a noun meaning 'companion,' like its cognate Irish 'cele,' but its function to-day is essentially that of a reciprocal pronoun, and it should be parsed as such. ' Eiddo ' was originally, and often is still, the third person, singular, masculine, of the Possessive Pronoun, but in modern Welsh it is sometimes a pure noun as in ' Eiddo yr Arglwydd y ddaear.' ' Hun ' (self) was originally the numeral ' un.' Examples might be multiplied of words passing from one part of speech to another, and the fewer inflections in a language the easier this transition. In English where inflections are so few, the same word is often used with three or four separate functions. Hence in parsing the student must concen- trate his attention upon the use made of the word in the sentence before him. Not that a knowledge of the history of a word is valueless ; on the contrary it is frequently difficult to analyse a sentence in sufficient detail to discover the particular function of a word with- out our knowing how the sentence came to be so constructed. This is especially the case with the relative pronoun. Before Welsh was studied historically and in 4 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. its relation to other Celtic languages it was customary to regard ' a ' in such a sentence as ' Os yr Arglwydd a'm ceidw ' as a ' verbal affirmative particle,' and colour was lent to this conception by the dropping of ' a ' in a negative sentence thus : ' Os yr Arglwydd ni'm ceidw.' But a study of historical Welsh has disclosed the true function of this 'a' that of a Relative Pronoun. The above sentence is in origin complex and might be rendered somewhat literally into English thus : ' If (it is) the Lord who will keep me.' Experience proves, however, that much confusion is caused to young students if one insists upon supplying the understood verb, and parsing (e.g.) ' Arglwydd ' as subject to it. It would seem fairly clear that functionally and this is what counts in parsing 'Arglwydd ' is the .subject of 'ceidw,' and that, though 'a' is a Relative Pronoun in agreement with its antecedent 'Arglwydd.' it does not enter into the syntax of the sentence ; that is, ' a ' should be parsed as Relative Pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person, agreeing with its ante- cedent ' Arglwydd,' nominative case. This view removes the serious difficulty that would otherwise be experienced in parsing the negative : " Yr Arglwydd ni'm ceidw." WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 5 The peculiarities and chief difficulties of Welsh Parsing will now be dealt with in detail : DEFINITE ARTICLE. It seems hest to keep the Definite Article as a separate part of speech, and not to merge it in the adjective as is now generally done in English. The student of French will know that the Definite Article is kept apart in that language. In much of its function the Welsh y, yr, bears a closer resemblance to le, la, les, than to the English the. (See syntax in Elements of Welsh Grammar,- and Introduction to Welsh and English Exercises}. NOUNS. Gender : As in French, and different from Latin and English, there is no neuter gender in Welsh. Abstract nouns and names of inanimate objects are either masculine, as haearn, gwynt, llyfr, daioni, or feminine as Haw, allt, gardd, Cymraeg. Furthei', the gender of the names of certain lower animals does not always correspond to the sex of the object, thus eryr is always masculine, and is to be parsed as such even in the phrase eryr beny w, for if it were feminine it would govern the soft mutation in the adjective eryr fenyw. Similarly colomen is always feminine, hence the soft mutation of ' g ' in gwryw colomen wryw (not gwryw). WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. The gender of two classes of words in many instances may be gathered from their form : () Most monosyllables containing the vowel 'w' or 'y' are masculine; eg., bwlch, pwn, bryn. Most monosyllables containing the vowel 'o' or 'e' are feminine, e.g., ffon, gwe"n. The student must beware of thinking there are no exceptions to these rules. Still the influence of the vowel in determining gender is considerable : thus the North Wales word for * table' is 'bwrdd,' inasc., while in South Wales it is ' bord,' fern., as ' Arthur a'r Ford Gron.' This tendency to harmonise vowel and gender in mono- syllables has led to a change of gender in several Welsh nouns : the Latin masculine pont(em) has become the Welsh feminine 'pont,' and mediaeval Welsh ' chwedl ' masculine is now feminine. So ' llys ' once feminine has become masculine on account of its 'y.' (b) Derivatives are another class of nouns the gender of which may be inferred from their form : thus derivatives in ' -ni ' are masculine, as egni, bryntni, while those in '-eg,' are feminine, as Eidaleg, Llydaweg. (See chapter on Derivatives in Elements of Welsh Gramma/r). NOTE. The gender cannot be ascertained of names of inanimate objects, if used in the plural only, as ymysgaroedd, ysgyfaint, for, having no singular form, they afford none of the usual tests. (See Grammar par. 1.32, 141 , ii). Parse these words as common gender. WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 7 Case : Welsh is singularly deficient in case-inflections, but it has three distinct case relations : Nominative, Genitive, and Accusative. The function of the Nominative is the same as it is in English. The Genitive has a much wider range of use than the English Possessive : it covers not only the latter, but also the function of English 'of with the objective. There is nothing to show that a word is in the Genitive case except its position and function. RULE. The latter of two nouns is said to be in the Genitive case : Ty Dduw, the Jtouse of God ; pen y bryn, the top of the hill ; tonnau'r mor, the waves. of the sea. N.B. The rule applies to verb-nouns as well, e.g., myned is genitive in oedi myned, delaying to go ; gwerthu chwant gwerthu, a desire to sell ; gweithio esgus gweithio, a pretence of working. Similarly the pronoun is in the Genitive case when added after a noun to explain or emphasize a possessive adjective as 'i' in 'fy mhlanti'; 'ef in 'ei law ef; ' hun ' in ' dy ddwylaw dy hun.' The Accusative covers all other case relations in Welsh : (a) Direct object to a transitive verb, personal and im- personal, e.g., 'ffordd' in 'Dengys hwn y ffordd i'r WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. dref ' ; 'gwlad' in ' Gwelir y wlad i gyd o ben y inynydd.' NOTE i. Avoid the word 'after' when explaining the accusative case, for the latter often precedes the governing verb. The phrase should always he accusative case governed by ' the verb.' ii. The verb-noun never governs the accusative case. (See above under Genitive). (h) Direct object of a preposition, as ' droed ' in ' Wrth droed y inynydd.' (c) Adverbial accusative, as ' meddwl ' in ' Dyn treiddgar ei feddw!.' ' nos ' in ' Ctynhelir cyfarfod pregethu yina nos Fercher ' droion ' in ' Gwelais ef droion.' 'Hath' in 'Y mae'r ty gan Hath o'r 16n.' NOTE. It would be quite correct to parse the examples in (c) as Accusatives of Respect, Time, and Distance, but on the whole the term " Adverb- ial Accusative" would seetn simpler, and it adequately defines the function. (d) Cognate Accusative : 'Rhedvvn yr yrfa a osodwyd o'n blaen.' RHEDWN : verb intransitive, regular, active voice, imperative mood 1st person, plural number, agreeing with its subject ' ni ' understood. YRFA : common noun, feminine gender, singular number, 3rd person, cognate accusative used with ' rhedwn.' WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 9 ADJECTIVES. Many adjectives in the positive are inflected for Gender and for Number. Hence these should be mentioned in parsing, for the sake of uniformity, even where the adjective is indeclinable. Note that Welsh adjectives have a Comparative of Equality, and in this respect differ from English adjectives. NUMERALS. As in Old English, Welsh numerals are very often used as nouns ; e.g., while ' bum ' in ' Yr oedd yno bum dyn ' is an adjective, 'bump' in 'Yr oedd yno bump o ddynion' is a numeral noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person nominative case, subject to ' oedd.' 'Pump,' 'chwech,' and 'cant' are usually nouns, while the shortened forms ' pum,' ' chwe,' and ' can ' are always adjectives. The higher the numeral the more frequently it is used as a noun. ' Mil/ ' myrdd,' and ' myrddiwn ' are always nouns. For the sake of simplicity compound numerals like ' un-ar-ddeg,' should be parsed together even in such expressions as ' un dyn ar ddeg.' 10 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. PRONOUNS AND POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. As explained above, the Personal Pronoun, often added in Welsh to explain a preceding Possessive Adjective, is in the Genitive Case, e.g., ' i ' in ' fy Haw i. 'ef in 4 ei ewyllys ef.' Beginners often confuse the Post Vocalic Possessive Adjective with the Post Vocalic Personal Pronoun : if the word precedes a noun, including a verb-noun, or a pronoun, it is an adjective, e.g., "rn ' in ' Ysgrifennais y llythyr a'm Haw fy hun.' ' 'i ' in ' Bu trailed mawr o'i golli.' "u ' in ' Ymgomient a'u gilydd.' It is a pronoun if a finite verb follows as ' 'm ' in " Efe a'm gwelodd." N.B. The Post Vocalic Personal Pronoun is always in the accusative case governed by the verb. Carant y naill y Hall. Y : definite article qualifying ' naill.' Y NAILL : indefinite pronoun, common gender, singu- lar number, 3rd person nominative case in apposition to ' hwy ' understood. Y : definite article qualifying ' Hall.' Y LLALL : indefinite pronoun, common gender, singu- lar number, 3rd person accusative case governed by 'carant.' BB WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 1J Gyda'n gilydd. t . 'N : post-vocalic possessive adjective qualifying 'gilydd.' 'N GILYDD : reciprocal pronoun, common gender, plural number, 1st person, accusative case governed by ' gyda-' Ymwaded ag ef ei hun. Ei : possessive adjective qualifying 'him.' El HUN : empliatic pronoun, masculine gender, singu- lar number, 3rd person, accusative case in apposition to 'ef.' RELATIVE PRONOUN. ' a ' : subject or direct object of a verb. Y neb a'm gwelodd i a welodd y Tad (subject). Derbyniais bob peth a nodasoch (object). ' y,' 'yr ' are used for all other case relations : Yn y ty hwn y'm ganesid adverbial accusative. Pa fodd y'th arbedaf ? adverbial accusative. Dyma'r gwaith y carwn ei wneud. Y : relative pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person, agreeing with its antecedent ' gwaith,' genitive case dependent on ' vvneud.' 12 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. In such sentences as ' Hwy a'i gwatwarasant ef.' ' Fe a'm cipiodd i ymhell bell.' the Relative does not enter into the syntax of the sentence. It is noteworthy that the Relative is never used in this kind of sentence in colloquial Welsh. Thus, we say : ' Mi ddysgaf ' not ' Mi a ddysgaf.' ' Fe ddysg ' not ' Fe a ddysg.' Even in sentences like ' Myfi a wnaeth hyn,' though historically ' myfi ' is the subject of ' ys ' under- stood, it seems more correct to treat it now as subject of ' wnaeth ' leaving the Relative ' a ' without syntactical function. Like the Relative Pronoun 'that' in English, 'a' cannot be preceded by the verb that governs it, but unlike ' that,' the Relative ' a ' cannot be governed by a preposition. 'Y,' 'yr' cannot be governed by either transitive verb or preposition. ' Bynnag ' should not be parsed separately from ' pwy ' or ' pa,' e.g. in " Pwy bynnag a ddel, iris bwriaf ef allan ddim," 'pwy bynnag ' is an Indefinite Relative Pronoun. THE VERB. There is no Infinitive Mood in Welsh. The Verb noun, which most nearly resembles the English Infinitive, though essential to the complete conjugation of a verb, is WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 13 to be parsed as a verb-noun and the ' yn,' ' wedi,' 'ar,' &c., which usually precede the verb-noun, govern it in the accusative case. The verbal element in the verb-noun is often completely subordinated to the substantival factor (see Elements of Welsh Grammar, 180), but in certain constructions the verbal function is sufficiently promi- nent to allow of the word being modified by an adverb, e.g., in ' Siarad yn ynfyd ' ' ynfyd ' is an adverb of manner, positive degree, modi- fying ' siarad ' ; in ' Rhedeg yn gyflym ' gyflym ' is an adverb of manner, positive degree, modi- fying 'rhedeg.' NOTE. The verb-noun is always masculine gender and singular number. PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION. The student should parse the words in a periphrastic tense separately, thus Yr wyf yn dysgu. YR : introductory adverb modifying ' wyf.' WYF : verb, irregular, intransitive, active voice, indicative mood, present tense 1st person, singular number agreeing with its subject ' i ' understood. YN : preposition governing ' dysgu ' in the accusative case. DYSGU : verb-noun, masculine gender, singular num- ber, 3rd person accusative case governed by 14 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. ' Regular ' and ' Irregular ' are used instead of the ' weak ' and ' strong ' of English parsing. A verb is regular if the principal parts, i.e., the present and the aorist, are formed on the model of dysgaf clysgais, rhedaf rhedais, gwelaf gwelais. The mutation of 'a' into 'e' as in 'cerais' from 'caraf/ ' cenais ' from 'canaf,' 'bernais' from 'barnaf.' is not an irregularity. IMPERSONAL FORMS. EXAMPLES : dysgir, dysgid, dysgwyd, dysgasid or dysgesid, dysger. Although 'dysgir fi ' (e.g.) is equivalent to the English Passive, ' I am taught,' it is simpler and more correct to parse the verb as active voice, impersonal form ; thus Fe'm dysgir i should be parsed : FE : introductory adverb modifying 'dysgir.' [Compare 'yr' in 'yr wyf yn dysgu," above, and the English introductory adverb ' there ' which is pronominal in origin in such sentences as ' There is no place like home.'] 'M : personal pronoun, post-vocalic form, common gender, singular number, 1st person accusative case governed by ' dysgir.' WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 15 DYSQin : verb transitive, regular, active voice, indica- tive mood, present tense, impersonal. I : simple personal pronoun, common gender, singular number, 1 st person accusative case in apposition to "in.' Yr ydys yn ei ddisgwyl. YDYS : verb, , intransitive, irregular, active voice, indicative mood, present tense, impersonal. DDISGWYL : verb-noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person accusative case governed by 'yn.' CONCORD OF VERB AND SUBJECT. In English the verb is said to agree with its subject in number and person Avithout exception, and so it does in Latin and in French. In Welsh the verb does not agree with its subject unless the latter be either (a) a personal pronoun coming after the verb, e.g., gwelaf fi, gwel efe, gwel yntau, gwelant hwythau ; or (b) a simple personal pronoun, in any position (i.e., before or after the verb), e.g., mi welaf, fe wel, gweli di, hwy a welsant. 16 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. It does not agree in i. Myfi sy'n magu'r babari. ii. Llwyddodd yr ymgeiswyr. iii. Rhed yr afon i'r mor. iv. Gwelais y bechgyn a fu yii eich dosbarth. In all these the verb is in the 3rd person singular and though the subject may chance to be 3rd person singular too, care must be exercised not to state that the verb is in the 3rd singular in order to agree with the subject. Yw, oes, mae, sydd or sy. Some difficulty is experienced by many students in knowing the Subject. In the Elements of Welsh Grammar 197, the use of the above forms is explained. The identification of the subject and of the comple- ment of the predicate is easy if the underlying principle is understood : the subject is present in the mind, it is that about which we give, seek, or receive the information contained in the predicate; e.g., in 'pwy yw efeT and its English equivalent ' who is he ? ' the subject is clearly ' efe ' ' he,' while in ' pwy yw,' ' who is,' we are seeking further information about him. 'Pwy,' like 'who,' is nominative case complement to the verb. In the follow- ing sentences the Subject is printed in bolder type ; the nouns and pronouns in italics are parsed " nominative case complement to the verb " : WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 17 "Y mae'n sicr gennyf nad oes dim aflan ohono ei him." MAE : verb intransitive, irregular, active voice, indicative mood, present tense, 3rd person, singular number, subject, ' nad . . . hun.' NOTE. Every word in the subject should be parsed separately. The relation of the sentence to ' mae ' has been sufficiently indicated in the parsing of the verb. Mae ei dad yn Llydaw. Pwy sydd yno 1 Ei dad sydd yno. Pwy yw fy mrawd. Hwn yw dy frawd. A oes arnoch awydd myned 1 Oes. Cariad nid yw yn cenfigennu. Dichon : " Dichon y daw efe." DICHON : defective verb, intransitive, active voice, indicative mood, present tense, 3rd person, singular number, subject ' y daw efe.' " A ddichon ffydd ei gadw ef ? " DDICHON : defective verb, transitive, active voice, indicative mood, present tense, 3rd person, singular number, subject 'ffydd.' Rhaid : ' Pthaid ' may be a noun or a verb. (1) " Y mae yn rliaid iti fyned." RHAID : abstract noun, masculine gender, singular number nominative case complement to 'mae.' N.B. Avoid |the term ' after ' as ' nominative ease after mae,' for the complement often precedes the verb, as in the following sentence : 18 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. " Rhaid yw iti fyned." RHAID : abstract noun nominative case com- plement to ' yw.' FYNED : verb-noun, masculine gender, singular num- ber, 3rd person nominative case, subject to ' y\v. (2) When the subject precedes, ' rhaid' is a verb : "Pwy raid fyned." RAID : defective verb, transitive, active voice, indica- tive mood, present tense, 3rd person, singular number subject 'pwy.' FYNED : verb-noun, masculine gender, singular num- ber, 3rd person accusative case, governed by ' raid.' Atolwg : " Dywed, atolwg, mai fy chwaer wyt ti." Gen. &ii, 13. "Atolwg, Ian gyn'lleidfa, a gymerech chwi fardd i'ch plith." [Here ' atolwg ' is short for ' Yr wyf yn atolwg ' or 'Gan atolwg.'] ATOLWG : verb-noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person accusative case, governed by ' gaii ' understood. PRONOMINAL PREPOSITIONS. Many prepositions in Welsh when governing simple personal pronouns, take the latter in the form of suffixes as 'gennyf from 'gan + fi,' ' wrtho' from Svrth+fo ' ('fo r WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 19 being another form of 'fe,' ' ef ') The number, gender, and person should always be given in the parsing of these pronominal prepositions ; e.g. : GBNNYF : pronominal preposition, common gender, singular number, 1st person. WHTHO : pronominal preposition, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person. It is clear that if the pronoun, instead of being a suffix, was a separate word, as { gyda mi,' it would be in the accusative case. Similarly a pronoun in apposition to the pronominal suffix is in the accusative case, e.g., " Geimyf innau." INNAU : conjunctive personal pronoun, common gender, singular number, 1st person accusative case in apposition to the pronoun in ' gennyf.' PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES as 'er mwyn,' 'ar hyd,' -ynghylch.' Each word should be parsed separately ; even 'ynghylch' should be analysed, for to borrow a term from natural science it is an unstable compound, and the two words have to be kept apart when governing a personal pronoun, as ' Yn ei gylch ef," which should be parsed thus: YN : preposition governing ' gylch ' in the accusative case. EI : possessive adjective, masculina gender, singular number, 3rd person qualifying 'gylch.' 20 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. GYLCH : common noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person accusative case governed by ' yn.' EF : personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person genitive case dependent on 'gylch.' "0 herwydd paham nid cywilydd ganddo eu galw hwynt yn frodyr.' : preposition governing ' herwydd ' in the accusa- tive case. HERWYDD : common noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person accusative case governed by 'o.' PAHAM : adverb of cause modifying ' nid.' NID : adverb of negation modifying ' yw ' understood. CYWILYDD : abstract noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person nominative case comple- ment to ' yw.' GANDDO : pronominal preposition, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person, EU : possessive adjective, masculine gender, plural number, 3rd person, qualifying ' galw.' GALW : verb-noun, masculine gender, singular num- ber, 3rd person nominative case subject to ' yw.' YN : predicative 'yn ' introducing 'frodyr.' FRODYR : common noun, masculine gender, plural number, 3rd person genitive case in apposition to 'hwynt.' WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 21 "Y neb a'm gwelodd i a welodd y Tad." Y : definite article qualifying ' neb.' Y NEB : indefinite pronoun, common gender, singular number, 3rd person nominative case subject to 'welodd.' A : relative pronoun common gender, singular num- ber, 3rd person, agreeing with its antecedent ' y neb' nominative case subject to 'gwelodd.' 'M : simple personal pronoun, post-vocalic form, masculine gender, singular number, 1st person accusative case governed by 'gwelodd.' GWELODD : verb, regular, transitive, active voice, indicative mood, aorist tense, 3rd person, singu- lar number subject ' a.' i : simple personal pronoun, masculine gender, singu- lar number, 3rd person accusative case in apposition to ' ; m.' A : relative pronoun common gender, singular number, 3rd person, agreeing with its antecedent ' y neb' nominative case. (This 'a' does not enter further into the syntax of the sentence, see para- graph on Relative Pronoun above). WELODD : verb, regular, transitive, active voice, indicative mood, aorist tense, 3rd person, singu- lar number subject ' y neb.' Y : definite article qualifying 'Tad.' TAD : singular noun, masculine gender, 3rd person accusative case governed by ' welodd.' 2 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. " Glan y gwel yr afr ei myn, Boed ef ddu, boed ef wyn." This is short for " Yn fyn glan y gwel, &c." GLAN : qualitative adjective, positive degree, mas- culine gender, singular number, qualifying ' fyn ' understood. Y : relative pronoun masculine gender, singular num- ber, 3rd person, agreeing with its antecedent ' fyn ' adverbial accusative. GAVEL : verb, regular, transitive, active voice, indica- tive mood, present tense, 3rd person, singular number subject 'afr.' YR,: definite article qualifying 'afr.' AFR : common noun, feminine gender, singular num- ber, 3rd person nominative case subject to 'gwel.' El: possessive adjective, feminine gender, singular number, 3rd person, qualifying 'myn.' MYN : common noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person accusative case governed by 'gwel.' BOED : verb irregular, intransitive, active voice, imperative mood, present tense, 3rd person, singular, agreeing with its subject ' ef.' EF : simple personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person nominative case, subject to ' boed.' UDU : qualitative adjective, positive degree, singular number, masculine gender, qualifying ' ef.' WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 23 1< A laddo a leddir.'' .V : relative pronoun common gender, singular number, 3rd person, agreeing with its antecedent 'yneb' understood, nominative case subject to ' laddo.' LADDO : verb, regular, transitive, active voice, sub- junctive mood, present tense, 3rd person, singular number subject ' a.' A : relative pronoun, common gender, singular num- ber, 3rd person, agreeing with its antecedent ' y neb ' accusative case. (Compare above ' Y neb a'm gwelodd i a welodd y Tad '). LEDDIR : verb, regular, transitive, active voice, indicative mood, present tense, impersonal. "A wado hyn, aed a hi, A g waded i'r haul godi." A : relative pronoun common gender, singular number, 3rd person, agreeing with its antecedent ' y neb ' understood nominative case subject to 'wado.' WADO : verb, regular, transitive, active voice, sub- junctive mood, present tense, 3rd person, singular number subject 'a.' HYN : demonstrative pronoun, common gender, singular number, 3rd person accusative case governed by ' wado.' AED : verb, irregular, intransitive, active voice, imperative mood, present tense, 3rd i person, singular number subject 'y neb.' 24 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. A : preposition governing ' hi ' in the accusative case. HI : personal pronoun, feminine gender, singular number, 3rd person accusative case governed by 'a.' A : conjunction joining 'aed a hi' and 'gwaded . . . godi.' GWADED : verb, regular, transitive, active voice, imperative mood, present tense, 3rd person, singular number, agreeing with 'ef or 'hi' understood. i : preposition governing ' haul ' in the accusative case. 'R : definite article, post-vocalic form, qualifying ' haul.' HAUL : common noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person accusative case governed by 'i.' GODI : verb-noun, masculine gender, singular num- ber, 3rd person accusative case governed by ' gwaded.' " Pam na ddywedi di dy feddwl yn hyf, a minnau yn rhoi cennad i ti ? " PAM : adverb of cause modifying ' na.' NA : adverb of negation modifying ' ddywedi.' DDYWEDI : verb, regular, transitive, active voice, indicative mood, present tense, 2nd person, singular number, agreeing with its subject 'di.' WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 25 DI : simple personal pronoun, common gender, singu- lar number, 2nd person nominative case subject to ' ddywedi.' DY : possessive adjective, common gender, singular number, 2nd person, qualifying ' feddwl.' FEDDWL : common noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person accusative case governed by ' ddywedi.' YN : predicative ' yn ' introducing ' hyf.' HYF : adverb of manner, positive degree, qualifying ' ddywedi.' A: conjunction joining 'pan . . . hyf and 'ninnau . . . iti.' MINNAU : conjunctive personal pronoun, common gender, singular number, 1st person nominative absolute. YN : preposition governing ' rhoi ' in the accusative case. KHOI : verb-noun, masculine gender, singular num- ber, 3rd person accusative case governed by 'yn.' CENNAD : common noun, feminine gender, singular number, 3rd person genitive case dependent on ' rhoi.' i : preposition governing ' ti ' in the accusative case. TI : simple personal pronoun, common gender, singu- lar number, 2nd person - - accusative case governed by ' i.' 26 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. "Nis gwyddys fod dim wedi ei ysgrifennu ar y pwnc." Nis : adverb of negation modifying ' gwyddys.' GWYDDYS : verb, irregular, transitive, active voice, indicative mood, present tense, impersonal. FOD : verb-noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person -- accusative case governed by 1 gwyddys.' DIM : common noun, masculine gender, singular num- ber, 3rd person genitive case, dependent on 'fod.' WEDI : preposition governing ' ysgrifennu ' in the accusative case. EI : possessive adjective masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person qualifying ' ysgrifennu." YSGiiiFENNU : verb-noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person - accusative case governed by ' wedi.' AR: preposition governing 'pwnc' in the accusative case. Y: definite article,(qualifying '.pwnc.' PWNC : common noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person accusative case governed by'ar.' "Son oeddid laned, gryfed gwr oedd efe." SON : verb-noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person accusative case governed by ' yn ' understood. WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 27 OEDDID : verb, intransitive, irregular, active voice, indicative mood, past-imperfect tense imper- sonal form. LANED : qualitative adjective, comparative of equality, qualifying ' gwr.' GRYFED : qualitative adjective, comparative of equality, qualifying ' gwr.' G\VR : common noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person genitive case dependent on ' son.' OEDD : verb, intransitive, irregular, indicative mood, past-imperfect tense, 3rd person, singular num- ber, agreeing with its subject ' efe.' EFE : reduplicated personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person nominative case subject to ' oedd.' "Dowch i hedd, a da'ch haddef Ddily slant anwylblant nef." A: conjunction joining 'Dowch i hedd ddilysiant anwylblant nef and ' da'ch haddef.' DA : qualitative adjective, positive degree, masculine gender, singular number, qualifying 'haddef.' 'CH : possessive adjective, post-vocalic form mascu- line gender, plural number, 2nd person qualify- ing 'haddef.' HADDEF : verb-noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person nominative case subject to ' yw ' understood. 28 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. DDILYSIANT : qualitative adjective, positive degree, masculine gender, plural number, qualifying 'anwylblant.' ANWYLBLANT : common noun, masculine gender, plural number, 2nd person nominative case in apposition to ' chwi ' understood. NEF : common noun, feminine gender, singular num- ber, 3rd person genitive case dependent on 'anwylblaut.' " Ynfyd y'th glywaf, Ddafydd, Yn 1 awr yn 2 siarad, dan wydd." YNFYD : adverb of manner modifying ' siarad.' Y : relative pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person, agreeing with its antecedent ' siarad (yn) ynfyd ' adverbial accusative. 'TH : post-vocalic personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 2nd person accusative case governed by 'glywaf.' DDAFYDD : proper noun, masculine gender, singular number, 2nd person, accusative case in apposition to "tb.' YN 1 : preposition governing 'awr' in the accusative case. SIARAD : verb-noun, masculine gender, singular num- ber, 3rd person accusative case governed by 'yn 2 .' WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 29 "A chofia, ddyn* iach, ofer Nad oesf i ddyn ond oes fer." *DDYN : common noun, masculine gender, singular number, 2nd person nominative case in apposi- tion to ' di ' understood. f OES : verb, irregular, intransitive, active voice, indicative mood, present tense, 3rd person, singular number subject 'oes.' OND : adverb of degree, modifying ' fer.' FER : quantitative adjective, positive degree, femi- nine gender, singular number, qualifying ' oes.' "Gwell i chwi ddyfod, a gore po gyntaf." GWELL : adjective of quality, comparative degree, qualifying 'ddyfod.' DDYFOD : verb-noun, masculine gender, singular num- ber, 3rd person nominative case subject to ' y w r understood. GORE : adjective of quality, superlative degree, qualifying ' dyfod ! understood. PO: adverb of degree modifying 'gyntaf.' GYNTAF : adjective, superlative degree, qualifying 'dyfod' understood. N.B. The construction is virtually this : ' A'r dyfod cyntaf yw'r dyfod gore.' 30 WELSH PAUSING AND ANALYSIS. " Ys truan o ddyn wyf fi." Ys : verb, intransitive, irregular, active voice, indicative mood, present tense, impersonal form ; verb-noun 'bod.' TRUAN : attributive noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person nominative case complement to 'ys.' [NOTK. Adjectives are much more freely used as nouns in Welsh than they are in English. Compare note on Numerals above.] " Ymadawodd yr ymwelwyr bob yn un ac un." BOB : indefinite pronoun, masculine gender, plural number, 3rd person nominative case in apposition to ' ymwelwyr.' YN : predicative ' yn ' introducing ' un.' UN : cardinal numeral, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person -- nominative case in apposition to ' bob.' yn; yr, y. The words occur so frequently and their functions and government are so various that it seems best to explain and illustrate them here. Government : Initial ' 11-' and ' rh-' in words follow- ing the above are never mutated, notwithstanding the rules given below. AVELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 31 yn. A Preposition (i) With a verb-noun. No mutation, e.g., ' Yr oeddynt yno yn prynu ac yn gwerthu.' YN : preposition governing ' prynu ' in the 'accusative case. PRYNU : verb-noun, masculine gender, singular num- ber, 3rd person, accusative case governed by 'yn.' YN : preposition governing ' gwerthu ' in the accusa- tive case. GWERTHU : verb-noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person accusative case governed by ' yn.' NOTE. (a) Though the verb-noun governed by ' yn ' is equivalent to the present participle in English, the two words should always be parsed separately in Welsh as above. (ft) The verb-noun is always masculine and singular. (ii) With any other noun. Governs the nasal mutation : e.g., yi\g Nghaer, y'Nghaer (from yn + Caer) ; yng ngardd (yn+gardd); ym Mhenfro (yn + Penfro) ; ym mywyd (yn+bywyd); yn nherfyn (yn + terfyn); yn niwedd (yn + diwedd). Parse thus : YN : preposition governing 'niwedd' in the accusative case. NIWEDD : common noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person accusative case governed by ' yn.' 32 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYH-. B Predicative 'yn,' merely serving to introduce the predicate. Governs the soft mutation : ' Y mae hi yn chwaer i mi ' {' ch ' i.s not a mutable consonant, see Grammar). YN : predicative ' yn ' introducing ' chwaer.' CHWAER : common noun, feminine gender, singular number, 3rd person nominative case comple- ment to ' inae.' Adwaen ef yn dda. YN : predicativ| ' yn ' introducing ' dda.' DDA : adverb of manner, positive degree, modifying ' adwaen.' Yr oedd y ffordd yn faith. YN : predicative 'yn' introducing 'faith.' FAITH : adjective, positive degree, feminine gender, singular number, qualifying ' fTordd.' Mi a'i cefais yn ddyn o'r mwynaf, 'i : post-vocalic personal pronoun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person accusative case governed by ' cefais.' YN : predicative ' yn ' introducing 'ddyn ' DDYN : common noun, masculine gender, singular number, 3rd person accusative case in apposition to ' 'i.' WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 3$ The difference of mutations in a verb-noun and in a word used predicatively is well illustrated in the words ' byw ' and ' marw : ' in Y mae efe yn byw, Y mae efe yn marw, ' byw ' and ' marw ' are verb-nouns in the accusative case governed by ' yn,' while in Y mae efe yn fyw Y mae efe yn farw 'fyw' and 'farw' are predicative adjectives qualifying 'efe.' y. yr. i. Yr Arglwydd yw fy mugail. YR : definite article qualifying 'Arglwydd.' ii. Yr oeddwn i yno. YR : introductory adverb modifying ' oeddwn.' iii. Gwn y bydd efe yno. Y : conjunction joining ' gwn ' and 'bydd efe yno.' iv. Dyma'r fan y 'i gwelais gyntaf. Y : relative pronoun, feminine gender, singular num- ber, 3rd person, agreeing with its antecedent ' fan ' adverbial accusative. NOTE. Just as the English adverbs 'when,' 'where/ &c., are in origin oblique cases of the pronoun ' who,' so the Welsh relative pronoun ' y ' tends in certain contexts to pass imperceptibly into a pronominal adverb merely 34 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS summing up and repeating the preceding word or phrase ; thus in ' Prin y gwelwn y llwybr ' the ' y,' though pronominal in origin, may justly be regarded as an adverb. In origin the ' y ' of (u). (iii), and (iv) is one and the same, and it is interesting to note that similarly the English neuter demonstrative ' that ' has now acquired other functions such as that of a relative pronoun and conjunction. Compare also the Latin conjunction 'quod ' which was originally the neuter relative pronoun 4 quod.' NOTE. The dash, if used intelligently, may be of great .service in parsing. It is a common experience to find pupils who will glibly parse a Relative Pronoun as agreeing with its antecedent without realising what this means or in what parts it does agree. Similarly "agreeing with" a subject, and "governed by" are phrases continually used, but the scope of the agreement and government is not always known. The dash, as may be seen in the above scheme, may be used to detach the parts to which the terms apply. ANALYSIS. The difficulties are not numerous, but they .require careful attention. Perhaps the first difficulty for the beginner is that, as in Latin, the Welsh verb often contains its own subject : thus 'gwelwch ' ( = ' you see') is both subject and predi- cate in one. The subject, however, may always be separately expressed thus : ' gwelwch chwi,' and that without any violation to the idiom of the language. Hence it would seem simpler on the whole to supply the subject thus i Predicate gwelwch Subject (chwi) inserting in brackets the word or words understood. : Analysis is essentially a question of syntax, just as on the other hand, parsing is in the main a matter of accidence. Hence interjections like ' ffei ! ' ' aha ! ' have no place in analysis. Even the Relative Pronoun in Welsh does not always enter into the syntax of the sentence and then it is to be left out in the analysis. (See scheme below). WELSH PAUSING AND ANALYSIS. An English noun clause is in Welsh (a) Sometimes a clause, and (6) Sometimes a phrase x J Dywed i mi - - f pa bryd yr ymedy'r nos. \ Princ. sentence.! Noun clause object to ' dywed.' (6) Gwelais ei fod ar ymadael. Simple sentence, though the English equivalent would be complex: J 1 saw f that he was about to leave. \ Princ. sent. 1 Noun clause object to 'saw.' The Welsh sentence should be analysed . Predicate : gwelais Subject : (i) Object : ei fod ar ymadael. The substitution of the verb-noun for finite tenses constitutes a difficulty not met with in English. Thus ' Aeth y gwr adref yn llawn digofaint || a gosod ei synnwyr ar waith ' contains only one finite verb, but there are two inde- pendent statements. It is clear that it must not be analysed as a simple sentence unless we do it violence. and regard ' a gosod ei synnwyr ar waith ' as a part of the predicate with ' aeth.' On the other hand there seems to be no valid argument against supplying a finite verb thus : ' Aeth y gwr . . . ei synnwyr ar waith ' (a wnaeth). N.B. The student is warned against recasting a sentence in order to eliminate his difficulties. Examiners are justly severe on such evasion of problems sub- mitted to the candidate. WELSH PAKSING AND ANALYSIS. 37 Sentences fully analysed : (1) Rhedwn yr yrfa a osodwyd o'n blaen. (2) Carant y naill y Hall. (3) Dyma'r gwaith y carwn ei wneud. (4) Yr ydys yn ei ddisgwyl. (5) Y mae'n sicr gennyf nad oes dim aflan ohono ei hun. (6) A oes arnoch awydd myned ? Oes. (7) Dichon y daw efe. (8) Atolwg, Ian gyn'lleidfa, a gymerech chwi fardd i'ch plith ? (9) Own y bydd efe yno. (10) herwydd paham nid cywilydd ganddo en galw hwynt yn frodyr. (11) Y neb a'm gwelodd i a welodd y Tad. (12) Glan y gwel yr afr ei myn, Boed ef ddu, boed ef wyn. (13) A laddo a leddir. (14) A wado hyn aed a hi, A gwaded i'r haul godi. (15) Pam na ddywedi di dy feddwl yn hyf a minnau yn rhoi cennad i ti? (16) Nis gwyddys fod dim wedi ei ysgrifemm ar y pwnc. (17) Son oeddid laned gryfed gvvr oedd efe. (18) Do wch i hedd, a da'ch haddef, Ddilysiant anwylblant nef. (19) Ynfyd y'th glywaf, Ddafydd, Yn awr yn siarad, dan wydd. (20) A chofia, ddyn iach, ofer Nad oes i fab ond oes fer. ;!S WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. I. ANALYSIS INTO CLAUSES. (1) a Rhedwn yr yrfa Principal sentence. b A osodwyd o'n blaen Adj. clause qualifying ' yrfa ' in a. (2) Carant y naill y Hall Simple sentence. (3) <( Dyma'r gwaith Principal sentence. b Y carwn ei wneud Adj. clause, qualifying ' gwaith ' in a. (4) Yr ydys yn ei ddisgwyl Simple sentence. (5) a Y mae'n sicr gennyf h Nad oes dim aflan ohono ei hun Noun clause, subject to ' mae ' in a. (6) a A oes arnoch awydd myned ? Simple sentence. b Oes Simple sentence, co-ordinate with a. (7 ! a Dichon (y daw efe) Principal sentence. b Y daw efe Noun clause subject to ' dichon ' in a. (8) Atolwg, Ian gyn'lleidfa, .... i'ch plith ? Simple sentence. (9) a Gwn Principal sentence. b Y bydd efe yno Noun clause, object to ' gwn' in a. (10) herwydd pahain . . . yu frodyr Simple sentence. (11) a Y neb a welodd y Tad 'Principal sentence b A'm gwelodd i Adj. clause, qualifying 'y neb in a. (12) a Glan y gwel yr afr ei myn Principal sentence b Boed ef ddu Adverbial clause of concession modifying ' glan ' in a. c Boed ef wyn Adverbial clause of concession, co-ordinate with b, modifying 'glan' in a. WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 39 (13) a A leddir Principal sentence. b A laddo Adjective clause, qualifying ' y neb ' understood in a. {14) ft Aed a hi Principal sentence. b A gwaded i'r haul godi Principal sentence, co-ordinate with a. c A wado hyn Adjective clause qualifying ' y neb ' understood in a. (15) Pam na ddywedi .... cennad i ti Simple sentence. (16) Nis gwyddys .... pwnc Simple sentence. (11) a Son oeddid laned gry fed gvr Principal sentence. b Oedd efe Adjective clause, qualifying ' gwr ' in a. (18) a Dowch i hedd ddilysiant anwylblant nef Simple sentence. b A da'ch haddef Simple sentence, co-ordinate with (i. (19) Ynfyd y th glywaf, Ddafydd, Yn awr yn siarad dan wydd Simple sentence. (20) a A chofia ddyn iach ofer Principal sentence. b Nad oes i fab ond oes fer Noun clause, object to ' chofia ' in a. (0 111 0) 3 U. O Ex P ory od _, e S C c o S o "o 3 z < III ! Q J5 01 -s s S3 0) it ff i~4 >-, SsC "^ *e B ' '' 3 "^ ~ "'" v^" 1 ^ -^- N ' ^ '51 ?< ^s 2 ^ ^^'1 j p "^ ^ Co S 'e v -Q'F 5 >. O^ **^ * ^ s^5< ^S- ^ S & "2 T^ i- -^ >} oj S ^ i> r- 1 ! 5 O *S 2 * ^ ^ .^ (U O (j O -SO i-rj o s rS'g -p 'S'g 3^ ^ CS ^ >, P & ss oo 151; 05^ 3 n5 ^^ 03 b/D T2 8 ~s ax^X Q^ *-, > S o . -.2 ^^ '^ v / v.^^ l 5 V ?^ SXj *"t3 ^ "**^ f ^~5 Si v g S ^^ 1 3* * ^ ^ ~ ^ *p* ^ .- ^ -1>E| ^ 2. .% S3 S3 S 23 . r-> f^i *"S I ""O 1 ^* t>^ O '^ ^ M bD ^^^ ^S H3 ^ 05 d 5 o ^ c ^^ '^i " ^ ^ ^ 111 -5 ^ d S3 gll 1 I I 11 'o . _^^ -rj u ?3 ^ - $ ' *"^ ^^ --J ^- f O S" ^^ ^ 3j ^ 05 :f O) v2x ^ S- if 1 V rs $ O5 "T3 -p o^., ^' O p ^ O 03 ^ a.! -W o3 c3 0| 52 **^ 53 "^^ e^> ff\ t* Q^ ^i E WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 43 EXERCISES IN PARSING AND ANALYSIS. Parse : (1) Gwypo, cymerth, rhoes, tyred, moeswch. (2) Dysgir, cymerodd, clywaist, gwnaf, daethum. (3) Gwyddom, elych, gwneled, adwaen, byddwch. (4) G^yr. bwyty, edrydd, clybu, pery, dyry, ys. Parse and Analyse : (1) Ni bydd arnynt eisiau dim (adj.) daioni. (2) Ni ddiangant Irwy ddim (adv.) (3) Nid oes dim 1 yn ei logell. 1 Noun, subject to ' oes.' (4) Nid oes ganddo ddim bwyd. (5) Y mae llawer (noun) o bobl yn y dref. {6) Gwelwyd llawer (adj.) dyn yn gwneud hyn. (7) O'i blegid 1 ef 2 y daethum. 1 Noun, accusative case governed Ijy 'o.' 2 Genitive. (8) Nid adwaen ai mo Joseph. NOTB. Analyse ' mo ' into (eldi)in adv. and ' o ' preposition governing ' Joseph ' in the accusative case. (9) Y mae wedi marw ers talm. (10) Hwn yn an ad (adj.) dim, sydd fwyaf ei rym i wneuthar hynny. (11) Mor llygredig oedd ei wedd yn anad neb, a'i bryd yn anad meibion dynion. (12) Rhuthrwch. arno fel y byddo'r wlad yn eiddo (noun) ein hunain (genitive case). (13) Nid oedd hon ddim ond gwal bridd o f6r i for ac ambell (adj.) d#r neu gastell yma ac acw. 44 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. (14) Ond yn y cyfaraser efe a drodd yn benlleidr ei hun ac yn fradwr idd 1 ei feistr. 1 Preposition doublet of ' i.' (15) Dylai pob un 1 wybod- ei feddwl ei hun (genitive case) 1 Nom. case, subject to ' dylai. 2 Accus. case, governed by ' dylai.' (16) Llawer dydd (adverbial accus.) y bum beb fwyd. (17) Cyfrifir y bobl bob deng mlynedd. (18) Y plant 1 ufuddhewch i'ch rbieni. 1 Nom. case, in apposition to ' chwi ' understood, (19) Allan o olwg, allan o feddwl. (20) Cyflog pechod yw marwolaeth. (21) Bob yn dipyn fe aeth i ben y daith. (22) Brysiwch yn ol (accus. case, governed by ' yn '). (23) Beth yw hi o'r gloch ? (24) Dywedodd wrthyf y rheswm pahain. (25) Nid oedd ond deug mlwydd oed 1 pan fu fanv 'i dad. 1 Genitive case, dependent on ' mlwydd.' (26) Mae'r Gymraeg yn ddigon goludog i dalu pob echwyn adref (adverb). (27) Tyrd i'm cartref ' a chroesaw 2 iti. 1 Noun. 2 Nom. case, subject to ' bydd ' understood. (28) Gartref (adv.) y mae adnabod pob dyn. (29) A wnel 1 mad, mad a ddyly. 2 1 Subjunctive. 2 3rd, sing., pres., indie, of ' dylwn.' (30) Nid wyf wedi darllen y llyf'r a gefais gennyt. (31) Nis gAvyddys fod dim wedi ei ysgrifennu ar y pwnc. (32) Ni chlywodd neb erioed ddim tebyg i hyn. (33) Ni chredaf i neb glywed gair oddiwrtho er y dydd yr aeth o'r wlad. (34) Bum yn eistedd ar ben y bryn a \veli draw. (35) Tybiais dy fod yn deall y peth a ddywedais wrthyt. (36) Gwelais dy dy frawd pan fum yn y gogledd. WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 45 (37) Nos da i'r ynys dywell, Ni wn oes un ynys well. (38) Mae llofruddio liyd yn oed lofrudd yn ysgelerder y dylid ei gosbi gan farmvyr. <-'>9) Cenfigen at ei hvyddiant oedd gwraidd y fradwriaeth lion. (40) Rhuthrodd y milwyr Hog hyu ar y parthau cyfagos o F6n. (41) Disgwyliai'r Deheuwyr lawer o les oddiwrth deyrna- siad Rhys fel un o hiliogaeth ddiyrmvad Hywel Dda. (42) Ofnwn na ddylid ei dderbyn 1 fel hanes. 2 1 Accusative, governed by ' ddylid.' 2 Genitive, dependent on ' dderbyn.' (43) Gyda'ch cennad, pwy sydd yn byw yn y ty hwn ? (44) A hwy a grogasant eu telynau ar yr helyg. (45) Dylid cofio bod 1 y Gymraeg 2 yn llawer" mwy 3 ffigyrol na'r Saesneg, ac y 4 gellir felly arfer geiriau ffigyrol yn fwy rhwydd lie y bo termau gwydd- onol yn brinion. 1 Genitive, dependent on ' cotio.' 2 Genitive, dependent on 'bod.' 3 Adverb. 4 Conjunction. (46) Disgwyl yr ydys y bydd y Gymraeg yn union deg yn iaith gwyddor a chelf, fel y mae yn iaith barddas. (47) A'u cymeryd 1 at eu gilydd chwi fedrech gael eu gwaeth. 2 1 Nominative absolute. 2 Noun. (48) Clywai ei gyfeillion am ry w gyfeddach a rhy fynych dramwy i Lerpwl. (49) Nac edrych ar y gvvin pan fyddo coch yn y cwpan. (50) Efe a welai ^n ar gefn march coch ac arfau cochion am dano. 46 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. (51) Yr offeiriad yn unig a fwytai o'r bara gosod. (52) Ynghyd a bara croyw a dail chwerwon y bwytant 1 61. imperative. (53) A Saul a gauodd mewn udgorn tnvy 'r holl dir, gan ddywedyd, Clywed 1 yr Hebreaid. 1 Imperative, 3rd, singular. (54) Ond llawenycher 1 y rhai cyfiawn, a gorfoleddant 2 ger bron Duw, a byddant 2 hyfryd o lawenydd. 1 Imperative, impersonal, 2 Imperative, 3rd, plural. (55) Trymhaer y gwaith ar y gwyr, a gweithiant ynddo. (56) Myfyriai ar ei oreu 1 bob amser. 2 1 Noun. 2 Adverbial accusative. (57) Poed gwir a fo'r gair. (57a) ! na bae 1 'n haf o hyd. 1 Subjunctive. (576) Henffych 1 well, ymerodres Rhufain. 1 Subjunctive. (58J Duw a'm dyco o'u mysg i nef neu Gymru, yr un a welo yn oreu. (59) Casglaf y bobl atat fel y gwnelont gyfamod a thi ac y teyrnasech di ar yr hyn oil a chwennych dy galon. (60) " Menna eto fydd dy fun Gad y pruddglwyf iddo'i hun ; Cwyd dy galon, bydd yn ddyn,' Meddai Clychau Aberdyfi. (61) Dynion sy'n gwneud dau wyneb, Duw ni wnaeth ond un i neb WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 41 (62) Bum yn claddu hen gydymaith 1 A 2 gododd yn fy mhen i ganwaith ; Ac 'r 3 wy'n ameu, er 4 ei briddo 5 Y cyfyd yn fy mhen i eto. 1 Genitive case. 2 Relative Pronoun, subject to ' gododd.' 3 Introductory Adverb. 4 Preposition. 5 \'erb-noun._ (^Conjunct (63) Dod dy law, ond wyd yn coelio Dan fy mron, a gwilia 'mrifo Ti gei glywed, 1 os gwrandewi Swn 2 y galon 2 fach yn torri. 1 Accusative Case. 2 Genitive Case. (64) Mae'r ffrydlif fach ar ben y bryn Yn rhedeg megy,s crwydryn. (65) Un noson aeth ein lesu Ar daith dros y garw-for du. (66) Awyr a hvnc mor a'i li, Yf yr haul o f6r heli. (67) Canu, dwsmel a thelyn, Yn hardd a wnai'r gwiwfardd gwyn (68) Nid oes, f Arglwydd, a wyddiad 1 Ei dymp, onid Ef a'i Dad. 1 3rd, singular, past imperfect, indicative. (69) Dyn a garo gnvth a thelyn, Sain cynghanedd, can ac englyu, A gar y pethau mwyaf tirion Sy'n y nef ymhlith angylion. (70) " Hen \frr, hen ^r ! mae'th wallt yn wyn,. Ac oer yw'r awel hon ; Paham y crwydri wlad mor bell Oddiwrth d' aneddle Ion' ? " 48 WELSH PARSING AND ANALYSIS (71) Is yr ywen ddu, gaughennog, Twmpath gwyrddlas gwyd ei ben Pel i dderbyn o goronog Addurniadau gvvlith y nen ; Llavver troed yn anystyriol Yn ei fathru'n fynnych gawd, Gan ysigo'i laswellt siriol : Dyna fedd y dyn tylawd. (72) Gwnewch i mi feddrod wrth ffrydlif y mynydd Na cherfiwch un llinell i adrodd fy hynt ; Ac yno telored glas donnau'r afonydd Eu cerddi yn gymhlith a chwiban y gwynt. (78) Uchel-gaer uwch y weilgi, gyr y byd Ei gerbydau drosti ; Chwithau holl longau y Hi, Ewch o dan ei chadwyni. (74) Troir ei gain lydain aelwydau 'n erddi A gvvyrddion weirgloddiau ; A mynych, yr ych o'r iau A bawr lavvr ei barlyrau. (75) Mon gynnes, man i ganu, Mon weddaidd Mae'n addurn i Gymru ; Ym mhob lien ac awen gu, Sir F6n sy ar i fyny. (7(>) Y nos dywell yn distewi caddug Yn cuddio Eryn, Yr haul yng ngwely'r heli A'r lloer yn ariannu'r Hi. WELSH READERS. DRINGO'R ANDES. Hanes anturiaeth yn y Paith, Amerig Deheuol. Gan ELUNED. Gyda Rhagdraeth gan IFANO. PHs - - 1/- " Y mae'n un o'r llyfrau rnwyaf dyddorol yn yr iaith." Cymru. " By one of the most picturesque of Welsh writers, and we most cordially recommend it for use as a Welsh reader." The Nationalist. HANES A CHAN STORY AND SONG. By J. M. EDWARDS, M.A., County Sehool, Holywell. Price - - 1/6 nett. This book is recommended for the Junior Course in Welsh by the Central Welsh Board. DANTE. Translated into Welsh .verse by DANIEL EEES ; late of the Herald Office, Carnarvon. With separate introductions to ANNWN, PURDAN, and PARADWYS. Students Edition - - 3/- Art Paper Covers. HISTORY OF WALES to 1283. Suitable for Elementary Schools and Junior Forms in County Schools. By THOMAS JONES, Tonypandy Council School. Price - - 1/6 nett. " It seems exceedingly well done, and is sure to become popular." L. J. Roberts, M.A. WELSH GRAMMAR. By S. J. EVANS, M.A., County School, Llangefni. Price - - 1/6 nett. This is par excellence the Grammar for Students in County Schools, Pupil Teachers' Centres, &c. WELSH EXERCISES. By S. J. EVANS, M.A. To accompany the Grammar. Price - - 1/6 EIN GWLAD, neu CYMRU. Rhan L Ei DAEAR. II. Ei HANES. Gyda darluniau. III. Ei LLEN. Price ..... 2/3 Rhan III, yn unig - 1 - DARLUNIAU LLIWIEDIG. Being a set of nine Coloured Pictures, 30-in. x 40-in., for a conversational course in Welsh. Price - . 16/- 000062319