^ ■'■'W' ^''■■' -t «=' ^. I.1J3K.\K\' University of California. frlKX OK ■ckjJi/.-^^/^\J V r'^yyyj^y^^^^ Class UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS EDUCATION Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 47-150 December 22, 1903 STATE AID TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS BY DAVID RHYS JONES /::, BERKELEY THE UNIVERSITY PRESS PRICE, 75 CENTS UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS BOTAJNY.— W. A. Setchell, Editor. Price per volume $3.50. Volume I (pp. 418) completed: No. 1. A Botanical Survey of San Jacinto Mountain, by Han'ey Monroe Hall Price, $1.00 No. 2. Two New Ascomycetous Fungi Parasitic on Marine Algae, by Minnie Reed Price, .25 No. 3. Algse of Northwestern America, by W. A. Setchell and N. L. Gardner. Price, 2.25 GEOLOGY.— Bulletin of the Department of Geology. Andrew C. Lawson, Editor. Price per volume $3.50. Volumes I (pp. 428) and II (pp. 450) completed. Volume III (in progress): No. 1. The Quaternary of Southern California, by Oscar H. Hershey Price, .20 No. 2. Colemanite from Southern California, by Arthur S. 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State Aid to Secondary Schools, by David Rhys Jones Price, .75 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS STATE AID TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS A THESIS IN PARTIAL FULPM I.LMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED IN 190:i BY DAVID KHY8 JONES BERKELEY THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1903 ^4 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS EDUCATION Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 47-150 December 22, 1903 STATE AID TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS BY DAVID KHVS JONES CONTENTS Chapter I pagk THE COLONIAL PERIOD * 47 Virginia ^ -'O -Massachusetts ■ 52 Connecticut -. 59 New York 63 Maryland 65 South Carolina 69 Other Colonies ''1 Chapter II THE academy period ^1 -^lassachusetts ^^ Maine '^ New York ' ' Pennsylvania - 84 Maryland 88 Louisiana 91 Tennessee ■ ^5 Kentucky - 96 -Michigan 99 Wisconsin 102 Chapter III -THE RECENT PERIOD - 105 Maine 106 ^Massachusetts 112 New York 117 Maryland 120 Wisconsin 122 Minnesota l-^O Other States 14!2 Bibliography ^49 Educ'n.— 1 PREFATORY NOTE An attempt is iiukIc in this paper to set fortli tlic attitnde of the several states as regards tlie eneonragenifiit of S(M'on(lary edneation tlirongh the granting of special subsidies to the middle schools. As this inquiry covers the period from the esta})lishment of the earliest secondary schools in this conntiy down to thf iti-cscnt time, it is made to deal more jtarticularly with systems_oi. state^aid rather than with a consideration of aid granted to individ- ual institutions. No account has been taken of the aid granted to state iioi-iiial schools, which ai'c, in theory, professional schools, but very often are, in reality, schools devoting a large pai't of their time to secouilary instruc- tion. I *)•(') lai-atory departments such as state universities maintained dnring the earlier years of their existence, are likewise omitted fi-oni this <'onsi(lerati<»n. For a detinition of the term "secondary education," the readier is referred to two discussions which appeared in ]n-int at about the same time. The tirst of these is t'onnd in the introductoiy eha]>ter of "The Making of Our Middle Schools," l)y Professor Khn.-r Kllsworth Brown of the Univei-sity of Talifoi-nia; the other, by President Artlnii- T. liadley of Vale Tniversity, is an aitiele entitlecl "Tile Meaning and I'm-jtose of Secondary Edueatioii," piiblislied in the ScIkioI 1,'t r'n/r for 1 )eceinl)ei-, liKlJKKI.KY, ('ALn-oK'NIA. .^hly, l'.»(»:). STATE AID TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS CHAPTER I THE COLONIAL PERIOD It lias been said that the early schools of New Eiio-land are studied best in Old Eugland, so closely related were they to the schools of the mother country. Particularly was this true of the early secondary schools. The Latin grammar schools of the colonial period were patterned after those of a corresponding- grade in England, in which many of the men ])rominent in our early colonial history had been educated. Before the close of the sixteenth century the influence of the new learning was strongly felt in England, and with it came the desire for a more general and li])eral education. Private endow- ment by individuals of wealth and ])ul)lic spirit sought to make amends for the loss which the country had sustained in the de- struction of schools in the time of Henry VHI and Edward VI. Not infrequently, in response to a petition of the people, lands which had been confiscated during the reformation were restored for the su])port of grammar schools in various parts of the country. This united effort, public and private, was going on at the time of the settlement of the American colonies. The English secondary schools were supported from land endowments, productive funds, and tuition fees; and their courses of study were designed to i)rei)are for the advanced woi-k of the univer- sities. While the colonists continued to be Englishmen upon American soil we should expect to find English customs and institutions dominant; but as the gradual effect of a new environment and the enlarged scope of unrestrained action l)egan to nuike of them a distinct people, a new class of institutions might be looked for. '){) Universitii nf CdJifornia Puhlinifious. [ei>l«ation Like flicir Eufjlisli protcttx pes, the early colonial sccoiulary schools were known as tree' j^ramniar schools, or for short, as frc«' scliools or <,''rainniar schools. In some i)laees they were known as Latin schools oi- juiMic schools, and t<» add t(t the difliculty of detenniniuf? in all cases what grade of school is i-efei-red to. the term "sclicxd" or "town school" is used, leaving the rciidcr to determine the character of the school in (|uestion. The name Latin grammai- school is of a somewhat later date, and has i»rol)al)ly come into use to distinguish Itetween the classical gi-ammar schools of the colonial ])ei'iod and that ])art of the elementai"y school system now commonly known as the grammar school. The scojjc of work covered in the colonial secondary schools \aiied in the various schools, fiom an elementary course in some to a rigid classical conrse in others."' Their work extended o\-er a i)eriod of .several years according t(» the i)i-evions |)rei)aration of the students, and the standai'ds of admission to the highei- schools: for like man\' of the Hnglisli schools, the <'oloiiial sec- ondai-y schools were generally estahlished with reference to the actual oi' projxtsed higher institutions. Heligicnis and civic interests lieing closely related in nian\ of the colonies, the sch(»ols were designed to lit tlie young men of that da\ foi- the sei'\ice of (iod ill church and commonwealth. VIH(ilXlA The fii-st colonial school of this tvpe of whicli tliere is anv h record was planned for \'ir*j;inia,' in iJvJl. The method of support for this i)roposed school illustrates the \arious sources of revenue coninionl_\ drawn upon for the maintenance of tlie ' Fur a iliscus.sioii of tlit' orifLfin and nieuniii^ of llii- term •"frt'c" scliool. sim> LkailH!l of A<<»i'/ii)i. pp. '_'."il-2.")7. 'Jti'.l, .'fd'.t. \'i ri/i iii(J)liroston had l)een granted to the city l)y the (ieiiei'al Court of Massachusetts, and one of these. Deer Island, was set ai)ai't for the use of tlie school. The following is the i-ecord nuide of this order: Tliis KItli of the 11th mojictli, Kill. At ;i ^'tiici';ill 'ro\viisiiic('tiii;r, iipeinj; no " titt " island left to be g;ranted, the Court, in Ui.")}), granted one thousand acres of laud, which was sold in 17."{4 for foui- hundred pounds: In aiiis"^ to y peticoii of tlie inliaViitaiits of Dorclu-stfr, the Court .iudgeth it meete to graunt the toune of Dorchester a thousand acres of hind in le.jw of Thompson's Island, formerly sett a pt for a free schoole in Dorchester, but by .judgment of y* Court fjiven to M'^.John Tompson, & y'" sa.id land to be la.jd out where they cann find it. & inn>ronnin'j it for y*" benneftit of sa.jd schoole." On the same day, Xoveml)er \'l. 1(>.")!), the Coui-t in three yeers, at farthest, lay out the same, & put it on improovement ; & in case that they faile of ma.jne- ta.ining a grammar schoole during the sa.jd t.jme they shall so doe, the Tiext gramar schoole of w' tounesoeuer shall haue the sole bennefitt thcvcdf.'-' This seems to have l)een a da.v of good things for some of tht^ masters as well as foi- the schools, tor uixm the same day the following grants were made: III ans"^ to the peticon of Daniell Weld & Kl.j.jah Corlett, schooh-m'^', the Cuiirt, considering the Usefulness of the jieticoners in an imi>loy- nuMit of so comon funfcrnment for the good of the whole count iv. iV "M«i. ,/oiii». h'll., XXVII. p. l-'T. " liirofiU of .)f>liixiiclilisrtls. IV. pi. 1. l>p. IIHT, :t!»8. '■- /'/.. p. lOII. Vol. 3.] Jones. — Sfdfp Aid to Secondary Schools. 55 the little ineouragement that they haue had from theire respective tounes for theire service & vnwearled pajnes in that imployment, doe - judge meet to graunt to each of them two hundred acres of land, to be taken vp adjoyning to such lands as' haue binn already graunted & lajd out by order of this Court.''' Ill the following year, IGGO, five hiiiulred acres of land were granted to the town of Roxbnry "towards the inainetenanee of a free school,"" and the one thousand acres already mentioned to the town of Boston for a similar purpose. The grant made the previous year to the town of Charlestown was located on the same day ''in the wildernesse, on the westerue side of Mer- remacke Riuer."^' The early masters of the grammar schools of Massachusetts were for the most part men of considerable learning, and were usuallj' accorded the same privileges as the men who occupied high civil and religious offices. In 1693 they were relieved from military training ;^*^ and in 1699 from "watch and ward" duties,'' and from further pajTnent of poll tax and from tax upon their estates and incomes.'" While it is very probable that the public treasury suffered but little as a result of this last concession, still the recognition thus publicly accorded these masters testified an appreciation of the work in which they were engaged. Plymoufh Colony. — For the first half-century after the found- ing of Plymouth Colony no steps were taken to provide for schools of a secondary grade. The Court in 1670 voted to grant all the profits accruing from the Cape Cod fisheries "to be imployed and improued for and towards a free schoole in some towne of this jurisdiction," provided a beginning was made within one year after the making of the grant. At a meeting of the Court. March 4, 1672-3, it was ordered that inasmuch as within the time limit "there hath l)iii a beginning made att Plymouth, and hither to continued, by Gods blessing, with good successe, as vpou examination may appeer;" and since the town of Plymouth 13 /f?., p. 397. H/f7., p. 438. 15 /d., p. 444. ^^Acts and resolves of the province of Massachii.setts-B(i!/. I, p. 130 {Luivs, 169.3-94, eh. 3, sec. 12.) I'/rf., p. 382 {Laws, 1G99-1700. eh. 10, see. 2). 18 /d., p. 41G (Latvs, 1(;99-1700, oh. 27. see. 4). Educ'n.— 5 56 Universiti/ of Cdliforniu PuhlicationH. [education had appropriated "a considerable tract of vpland and nieddow belonging to the said towne of Plyniontli," and since several of the townspeople "out of theire good affections, haue freely giuen out of theire owne estates for the erecting or procuring a convenient scoole house, not onely for the better accommodating of the scollers, but alsoe for the scoolmaster to line and reside in ... in hope that (iod may please soe to smile vpon this our day of smale thinges as to make it a blessing to the riseing genera- tion;" it was declared that the receipts from tlie (.'ape fisheries should be given to Plymouth.^' In June, 1673, the Court again ordered that "the charge of a free Scoole, which is three and thirty pounds a yeare shalbe defrayed by the Treasurer out of the proflfitts ariseiug l)y the ffishing att the Cape''" vntill such Time as that the minds of the ffreemen be knowne concern in j;- it wliidi will)c returned to the next court of Election."^' The verdict of the inhabitants of the several towns having been received," the Court continued the gi-ant of the profits of the Cape fisheries for the maintenance of the school witli the provision, "that there be noe further demaunds, beside the said ]»roffitts of the Cape demaunded of the Counti-y for the Maintainance of the said Scoole." But as new towns were fornH'd, and other free schools were establislied. (lie Court sought to distribute the annual receipts among the several schools."^ In March, lG82-;5, it was ordered that the Cape money, as it was commonly called, be distributed as follows:^^ "to Bastable scoole, twelve i»ound; to I)ox))urrow scoole, eight i)Ound; to Keliolxtth scoole, tine i)onnd; to Taunton scoole, three pound; and two pound to M"" Daniel Smith.""' ^^ Plymouth colotiij records, \', ji. 108. -••' For Cape flsherie.s remilntioii.s, Id., j)).. 104. L'4:i. 244. 2.'>9; XI, jip. '_'L'8. L'L'O. 2:n.2:{:{. •-' Id., XI, p. 2:{.T {Ldwa). ■^■^ Id., p. 2:57. -•' The tt.sheries of C»pc Cod were granted to a corporation in 1G77, at an annual rate of thirty pounds, silver money of New England. It was ordered in the same year that at least twelve pounds "currant Marchantahle pay" be raised by rate on all inhatiitants of the town, which, with the voluntary contrilmtions and the tuition fees of those in attendance, and an amount ranging from tlve pounds to ten pounds from the Cape moneys, should he used for the support of the grammar schools. ( PI;/ til oil til roloni/ records, XI, p. 247. Lmvit). '-* Pli/nioiith colony records, VI, pp. 102-103. -'•ruder date (if March 7, l(iHl-2, is recorded the following entry: "Receiued Vol. 3.] Joues. — State Ai(J to Secondary Schools. 57 The Province of Massachusetts. — The colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay were united in 1691, and from that time forward the same educational provisous applied to the entire province of Massachusetts. It was ordered in June, 1701, that one-half of the tines and forfeitures for the violation of the excise laws of the colony should be devoted to "the encourage- ment and support of a free grammar- or writing-school or schools in the toun where the offence is committed," and in case no such school existed in the town, then the fine was to be paid to the use of such schools in the town next adjacent within the same county/" A further provision was made in March, 1702-3, when one-half of the fine imposed upon each assessor, selectman, or commissioner failing to perform faithfully his duties was appropriated "for and towards the support of the schoolmaster in said toun; and for want of such school- master, according to law in said toun, then to the use of the next grammer-schoolmaster in the county."^' Among the early settlers of the colony were many men of intelligence and public spirit. They believed in education and were ready to promote it at a sacrifice of their own possessions. Such men generally comprised the General Court, and among the "thinges of comon Concernement and publike benefitt," the school had first place. They were mindful of all schools, from that "Schoole of the Prophets" to the huml)lest dame school among them. But from the repeated legislation concerning the maintenance of the grammar schools, it is evident that this class of schools was then, as since, the one having the least hold upon many of the less enterprising towns. The position of the colonial government enabled it to impose upon all towns the obligation of maintaining such schools as the better sentiment of the colony at large dictated. The difficulties incident to new territory, the frequent hostilities, and the shifting character of the settlers as by M'' Daniell Smith of the Treasurer twelue pounds in sihier mony of New Eng- land, of the Cape mony, to be imployed for and towards the maintainance and keeping of a gramer scoole att Rehoboth." The earliest record of the distribution of the fund is in 1678, when a part of the proceeds of the Cape fisheries was granted to the same school. (Plymouth colony records, VI, p. 81, also V, p. 259.) -^ Acts and resolves of Massachusetts Bay, 1, pp. 435, 477, 529. 27/(?., p. 516. 58 Universit;/ of Oilifomht PubNffifions. [edccation they took up new homes in other sections, made it necessary from time to time to increase the penalty for neglect to comply with the law reqnirinn: towns to support {jrannnar schools.'"* Many of the towns had been able to niaiutain such schools ])y reason of private endowments or throuj^;]! having extensive tracts of town lands which had been devoted to the use of the school. Town lands which might be employed for public uses were soon found to l)e valual)le agencies for the promotion of religion and the suppoi-t of i»ublic schools as well as for otlicr and more varied purposes. As earlv as HiT-'J. and possiltlx iiiucli earlier, the eojoiiy of Massachu.setts l)egaii to reserve "for the puldick use" a i)ortion of each considei-able tract of land sold. In (»ne of the charters for New Hampshire lands granted in that year, "a farme of five hundred acres of upland & nu^adow" was reserved from the tract disposed of, to be devoted to i)ublie benefits.''"* In a gi-ant made in 1704, which became the town of Sutton, the chai'ter ])rovided that the following reservations l)e made: "three hundred acres of the s;iid lands foi- the first settled minister, four hundred acres for the ministry, and two hundred acres for the use of a school, all to be laid out conveniently.'""' Similar ])rovisions occur in the charter of Lunenburg, granted in Novenibci-, 171*). cxceijt that a fourth reservation is made foi- Harvard College." The wild lands of the province were geni'rally disposed of in large ti-acts oi- townshii)s. These were usually divided into "sliai-es," generally sixty-three to a township, one of which was reserved for the fir.st settled minister, one for the ministry, and one for a school. Occasionally the reservation is exi)ressly made for "the gi-anunar school," ;is in the chartei- of the town (if W'aliMtle, New 1 Iniiijishire. 177-'!. " It is (juite •-■'* h-.ronis nf AfiisKdrliiisiii.s. II. p. 2(i:i: IV. ].t. 2. p. 4K(i: \'. i.|.. n 1. ii:.. /•/.(/• niiiulh Colninj rininls. W. \>. 'JIT ( Lairs). .\ils iniil nsolrrs of Miis.siirhusitis limj, I>. 470, II, !>. 10(1. -".Vri/' Jliim/ishirr xiatf iin/iri-.i, loicii rhii lii rx, I. |). 84. |('linrti'r of Old Uiiii Htiihif, S('pt. 10. '■^^ h'lirh/ rrroril.'i of thr Inini of /jinivnhiirti. ( Fiicsiniilf nf cliartt-r jiriiitfil us frtMitisjiirci-. ) •'-' .Vcic IIiimi>Hhiri slntv piipirs, toirn rliit rlirs. 1. pp. 78-7!'. 84, .■t.")!l. Vol. 3.] Jo)te.s. — State Aid to Secondary Schools. 59 probable that the reservations were made out of solicitude for the f^rammar school, rather than the common school, owing to the greater cost of maintaining grammar schools and the difficulty experienced in the attempt to require the towns to maintain such schools. This policy had become fixed in the early i)art of the eighteenth century, and was retained until the separation of the ])rovinee of Maine in 1820. One of the most extensive of these reservations was made in 1786, Avhen fifty townships of land, each six miles square, in the district of Maine were sold, with the following reservations: Provided nevertheless. That there be reserved out of each township, four lots of three hundred and twenty acres each, for public uses, to wit, One for the use of a public Grammar-School forever; one for the use of the Ministry; one for the first settled Minister, and one for the benefit of public education in general, as the General Court shall here- after direct."" The trustees of the free school in Williamstown represented to the legislature of Massachusetts in 1789 that they were unable to provide a suitable building for the use of their free school, aud they were granted a lottery of twelve hundred pounds for that purpose.^* The spirit of self-government and local control characteristic of the early New England people is seen in the entire absence of any conditions imposed upon the schools thus aided out of the public funds. CONNECTICUT In 1664 the settlement of New Haven was brought under the jurisdiction of Connecticut Colony, and the enlarged domain was divided into four counties in 1666. At a court of election held at Hartford, May 9, 1672, the following grants of public lands were made for the encouragement of grammar schools in the several counties of the colony: This Court granted to the County Townes of Fayrefield and New London the sume of six hundred acres of land apeice to each of those County Townes, to be taken up where it may not prejudice any former grant ; which sayd land shall be and belong to the said County Townes for euer, to be improued in the best manner that may be for the benefitt •':' Acf.s (1)1(1 l(nrs of the commonwealth of 3Iassachitseffs, 178.3-89, p. 514. L(ttcs of MassdchKSett.s, 1780-91. pp. 319-.351. '■^* Acts (1)1(1 hues of the co))i))io>iive(t1th of Massachusetts, 1783-89, p. 732. GO University of Californin Puhlicafions. [education- of a grammar schoole in the sayd County Townes, and to no other use or end whatsoeuer. There is also granted to the County Townes of New Hewen an Hartford, to each of them, six luindred acres of land, upon the same tciirnies and to the same use with the other County Townes.' It was flirt licr providt-d in tlif saiiit- year, "tliat in every county town there sliall be set u)* and kept a {ri-ainmar school, for the use of the county, tlie master tliereof ])eing able to instruct youths so far as they may be fitted for colle<^e."^ As a further encour- agement the masters were exempted from the payment of |)oll tax,' and from highway* and military summons/ As the lauds were not surveyed until thirty years after the grants were made, these early schools were in need of more immediate aid. In 1684 all houses and lands givm or jiurchased by charitable persons "for the encouragement of learning and providing of public con- cernments" were exempt from taxation.'' Three years later, the Court ordered a contingent surplus in the colonial treasury to be distributed among the county towns for the improvement of their grammar schools.' The Court, in 1690, ordered that an annual salary of sixty pounds current money should l)e paid to the masters of the schools of Hartford and New Haven, "thiity pounds of it to be ])aid out of the county treasury."'* This provision was amj)!!- fied in 1693 so as to aid in the support of the other schools of the colony, by the following act: This Court for the incouragement of learning in this Colony, there being fower gramar schooles in the county townes of each county, this Court haueing granted to Hartford and New Hauen for the end afoarsayd tliirty jjownds apeice to the sayd townes no[w] gaue to New Loiulon and Fayrfeild county schooles twenty j>ownds to each of those county townes." For the better assurance that the town schools would be nuiintained as required by law, the legislature in 1700 ordered that an annual appi-o]»riat ion fi'oni the colonial treasury of ' Connecticut colonial records, II, p. 17t>. ^Liiws of 1G72, J). (i.'{. (Notes 2-5 from Clews.) ;lick treasury, is of great importance to the publick weal, and the neglect thereof will be occasion of much ignorance, disorder and prophaneness. Be it therefore (rrdered and etiacted by the Governor, Council and Repre- sentatires, in General Court assembled, and by the authority of the same, That the civil authority, together with the select men in everj' town, or major part of them, shall inspect, and they are hereby directed and impowred, as visitors, to inspect the state of all such schools as are ai)i)ointed in the said town from time to time, and particularly once in each quarter of the year, at such time as they shall think proper to visit such schools, and inquire into the qualifications of the masters of such schools, and their diligence in attending to the ser- vice of the said school, together with the proficiency of the children under their care. And they are hereby further required to give such directions as they shall find needful, to render such schools most ser- viceable to tlie increase of that knowledge, civility, and religion, which is designed in the erecting of tliem. A)id it is further enacted, That if, in this inspection of the said sc^iools, the said inspectors observe any such disorders, or misapplica- tion of the pulilick money allowed to the support of such schools, as render the said schools not so likely to attain the good ends proposed, they shall lay the same before this Assembly, that the i)roper orders in such cases necessary may be given." " To secni-f its wild lands from the enpidity of the n)\al t^overnor. tlic colony of Connecticut in 1687 granted the greater part of them to the towns of Hartford and Windsor. In the final distribution of this land in 1726, one-half of it was retained l)y the colony. In 1738 it was ])roposed that the colo- ny's sliai'c of this land, embracing in all seven towns, should be disposed of by sale. Each of the seven towns was tinally divideil into tifty-threc "rights" oi- "shai-es," three of which were reserved, "one for the tii-st minister that shall be there settled, to Itc conveyed to him in fee; one to be sequestered for the use of the pi-esent established ministry forever, and one for the use of the school or schools in such towns forever.""^ The proceeds of the sale of the fifty "rights" was apportioned among rhe several ""/(/.. V. p. 4ii_'. '"A/.. VM. \>p. l.-.7-4.-i8. Vol. 3.] Jones. — iSfafe Aid to Secondary Schools. 63 settled towns of the colony, "in proportion according to the list of their polls and rateable estate in the year last past, and to be secured and forever improved for the nse of the schools kept in said towns according to law." ^^ As the grammar schools of Connecticut were supported in the same manner as the elementary schools, both sharing in the annual subsidy from the colonial treasury and both dependent upon the towns for their maintenance, it is quite likely that the revenues from the sale of these lands were partially devoted to the support of the grammar schools. NEW YORK The first Latin school in New Amsterdam was established iu 1659. In a letter from Stuyvesant and the Council to the Directors of the colony, dated July 23, 1659, announcing the arrival of the schoolmaster from Holland, the following senti- ment is expressed regarding the school: "We hope aud confide that the community shall reap great benefits from it for theii* children, for which we pray that a bountiful God may vouchsafe his blessing."^ In addition to his income from tuition fees the master received an annual allowance of two hundred florins from the city.' In 1663 the annual salary of the master amounted to one thousand guilders ($400) . One-half of this was paid by the city and the other half b}- the Company. In reply to a letter from the burgomasters of New Amsterdam to the Director General and Council with respect to the salary to be paid to the Reverend ^i!]gidius Luyck for his services as master of the school, the fol- lowing answer was received: The Director General and Council are, with the supplicants, of opinion that the continuation and encouragement of the Latin school is necessary — and, as it is customary in our Fatherland, that such persons by the cities which make use of them are engaged, so are the supplicants authorized by this, to allow such a salary to the aforesaid Rev. Luyck as they shall deem reasonable — of which salary Director General and Council — provisionally upon the approbation of the Noble Directors shall pay the half. 16 Aug., 1663. •' 1" f'L, p. 457-458; VIII, pp. 122, 1.34, 334, 387, .392. 1 Pratt, Annals of public education in the State of N'ew York, p. 23. 2/(Z., p. 23. »/(/., p. 35. 64 University of California Puhlications. [EnrcATios- The earliest legislative act providing for secondary education within the colony of New York is entitled, "An Act for Encourage- ment of a Grammar Free-School in the City of New York," ))ear- ing date of November 27, 1702. Provision was made for the maintenance of a school for a period of seven years, the city to raise an annual "Sum of ffifty ])ouuds Current monej- of New York" for the support of the master. This act expired by its own limitation, the school having been kept but a part of the time.* In 1732 a petition was presented to the House asking leave to introduce a "Bill for encouraging a public School, to teach Latin, Greek, Arithmetick, and the Mathematicks, in the City of Xeic- YorJi." It was i)ro])osed to appropriate the moneys remaining in the treasury from the licensing of hawkers and peddlers to the support of this school. The following extracts from the pream- ble to the act as finally passed indicate the sentiment of the House with regard to educational matters: Whereas, good Learning is not only a very great Accomplishment but the properest Means to attain knowledge, Improve the Mind, Morality and good Manners, and to make Men better, wiser and more useful to their Country as well as to themselves. And Whereas, the City and Colony of New York, abounds with Youths of a Genius not Inferior to other Countries, it must undoubtedly be a Loss to the Public and a Misfortune to such Youths if they are destitute of the Opportunity to improve their Capacities by a Liberal Education.^ By tlu' i»rovisions of this act the city of New York was required to raise an annual sum of tort\ pounds for the support of the master of the school, and a like sum was annually a])in'oi)riated for this ])uri)()se from the colonial treasury, out of funds accruing fi-oiii tin- liccusin^' of hawkers ;\\n\ peddlers: Aliraijs Prorided and Be it further Enacted by the same Authority that whenever the Fund of Hawkers and Pedlars shall during the Term aforesaid happen to exceed the Sum of Forty Pounds per Annum such Over|)lus shall remain in the Treasury, so Nevertheless as that the said Sallary for the whole Five Years out of the said Fund does not fall short of the Sum of Two Hundred I'ounds any Thing lierein to the con- trary thereof notwitlistaiuiing.'' * !<}., i>p. 77, 78. Colt'iiiiil hiirx of Xi it- i'ork, 1. i>i>. :>\i\, 'A7. ^ I<1.. II, i>|>. 81:J-817. Puatt. op. ril., pp. r_'r)-lL'7. y>. 8(>, 87. I'uatt, op. cit.. p. i:iO. Vol. 3.] Jones. — state Ant to /Secondary SrJwols. 65 The provisions of the above measure expired in 1737, and further k^gislation was therefore made necessary. When a measure eontaining provisions simihir to those of the previous act were proposed, it met with violent opposition. The motion to continue the appropriation from the " Fund of Hawkers and Ped- lars" was carried bj' a majority of but one vote, while the provision authorizing the city of New York to assume its share of the burden of the Latin school was carried b}^ a majority of seven. Pro- vision was made in both of these acts for the instruction of twentj- pupils free of charges for tuition, a specified number from each of the counties in the colony. A portion of the annual amount appropriated from the colonial treasury remained unpaid. The Assembly declared in 1740, "That the part of the Two hundred pounds that remains Yet Unpaid to the Said Alexander Malcolm, is a just debt due from this Colony; and it appearing bj' the Treasurer's accounts that there is Still Unpaid, The Sum of One hundred Eleven pounds Seven Shillings and Six pence," the same was ordered paid.' The provisions of the law of 1737 were made for one year and expired by limitation in 1738. No further action was taken for the maintenance of such a school during the remainder of the colonial period. MARYLAND The earliest provision for secondary schools in the province of Maryland was made in 169-t. In the fall of that year Gov- ernor Nicholson proposed to the Assembly, "that a way be found out for the building of a free school, and the maintenance for a schoolmaster and usher and writing master that can cast accounts."^ The Governor proposed to contribute fifty pounds towards the erection of such a school, and to make an annual donation of twenty-five pounds sterling during his continuance in office towards the support of the master. Liberal donations of monej" and tobacco were subscribed by the members of the Assembly and by various civil officers.^ Several laws relating to " Pkatt, op. cif., p. 140. 1 Quoted in Bernard C. Steiner, History of education in Maryland, p. 19. United States bureau of education, Circular of information no. 2, 189-4. 2 ScHARF, History of Maryland, 1, pp. 350, 351. 66 University of California Publications. [education education were passed, three of wliich liad reference to the estab- lishment or support of free schools. One of these was an act entitled, "An Act for the Imposition of Four Pence per Gallon on liiquors imported into this Province." In this way funds were to ])(' raised "for building; and repairintj Court-Houses, Free- Sehools, Bridewells, or such pul)lic Services." Another was an "Act for laying an Imi)osition on several Commodities exported out of this Province." The "imposition" was laid upon furs, beef, bacon, etc., "for the Maintenance of Free- Schools." The other was "A Supplicatory Act to their Sacred Majesties, for erecting of Free-Schools "^ The Supplicatory Act for free schools wliicli was passed in 1694 was revised and amended in accordance with the instruc- tions of the King, and re-enacted in 1696 as "A Petitionary ACT for Free-Schools." This act prayed for the establishment of a " Free School or Schools, or Place of Study of Latin, Greek, Writing and tlie like, consisting of one Master, one Usher, and one Writing- piaster or Sci-ibe, to a School, and One Hundred Scholars, more ()r less, according to the A)tilit\- of the said Free-School."* Aboard of twenty trustees was api)ointed and directed to establish such a free school "in a certain Place of this Province, called A)ut- Arundel Town," and to reserve the sum of £120 sterling jter aniiuin for the support of this school. As soon as a like sum was available for a similar puri)ose, a second fn-e school was to l)e established at the town of Oxford, in Talbot county. In the same iiianiicr, as additional funds were })i'ovi(le(l. the trustees were directed to "proceed to Erecting other and more Free Schools in this Province, that is to sai/, in every County of this Province at pi'csciit, one Free-School." I>ut one scIkkiI. King William's at Annapolis, was established iindei' the provisions of the act of !()!)(>. This school was so poorly endowed that it was obliged in 17(>4 to petition the legis- lature foi- assistance. To pro\ ide an additional revenue, an e.xport duty was i)laced upon various skins and furs for the maintenance of fi-ee schools, as follows: "foi- every Bear- Skin. Nine jN'nce Sterling: l"'or l'.ca\fr. Foui' Pence i)cr Skin: ••Macon's L.iirs. Iti'.U. rlis. XIX. XXll. XXXI. ' /./.. iciiii. .-li. XVII. Vol.. :!.! Jones. — Siate Aid to Secoiulary Schools. 67 For -Otter, Three Pence per Skin: For Wild-Cats, Foxes, Minks, Fishers and Wolves Skins, One Penn.y Halfpenny per Skin: P'or Musk-Rat, Four Pence per Dozen: For Raccoons, Three Fartli- ings per Skin: for Elk-Skins, Twelve Pence per Skin: For Deer- Skins dressed or undressed, Four Pence per Skin: For younf>- Bear and Cu])l>-Skins, Two Pence per Skin." This amount was doubled for all non-resident shippers not trading directly with En- gland. To guard against fraudulent shipment a fine of five thou- sand pounds of tobacco was imposed upon any shipmaster detected in an attempt to evade the payment of this duty, and the property was to be confiscated. One-half of this fine and half of the property thus seized was to be appropriated to the support of the free schools of the province. Non-resident exporters were also required to pay an export tax of twelve pence per hundredweight for dried beef and bacon and twelve pence per barrel for pork and undried beef, which went to the free school fund." The prospect of a free school for each county was very poor. There was much agitation and frequent legislation, but very little real good resulting from it. Additional revenue was provided in 1717 by an increase of twenty shillings upon the duty imposed upon alllrish servants and negroes imported into the province,^ and in 1719 l)y appropriating for the use of county schools the estates of all persons dying intestate.' In 1720, one-half of a duty of three pence per hogshead on all tobacco exported from the province was added to the free school fund. This act was repeated in 1721, in 1723, and in 1726.* In 1723 a strange modification of the law of 1704 was made by repealing that part of the law relating to the duty on exported furs and skins, and substituting a duty on pork, pitch or tar imported from any other colony. * These duties were to be appro- priated "tow^ards the maintaining a Free-School or Schools, within this Province," and one- half of the property confiscated for fraudulent importation was devoted "towards the Use of Public Schools in the several Counties." In the same vear an act was 5 Bacon's i/aH-s, 1704, ch. XXVII. 6/d., 1717, ch. X. ''Id., 1719, ch. XIV. «Id., 1720, ch. XV. 9/fZ., 172.'!, ch. XI. 68 Utth'enifij of California PitJtlicatious. [education passed, entitled, "An ACT for the Encouragement of Learning, and erecting Schools in the several Counties within tliis Province." A board of seven "visitors" was appointed for each of the twelve counties, and all matters relating to the erection of buildings, the employment of masters, etc., was put into their hands. It was ordered that the funds already raised for the support of county schools be divided equally among tlie several counties. The vis- itors were authorized to proceed to tlic cn'ctioii of "one school in each county within this province, at the most convenient place, as near the center of the county as may be, and as may be most con- venient for the boarding of children, at the discretion of the visitors."'" The masters of these schools were required in 1728 to instruct gratis as many poor children as the visitors should ordci-." But little success attended this effort to establish a sys- tem of schools. It was fe taught free for a i)eriod of tive years, or as numy persons as the number of such amounts granted, provided, the whole number of scholars so to be instructed without fees did not exceed twenty. It was provided "as a further and more general encour- agement for the instructing of the youth of this province in useful and necessary learning" that each master settled in any other ])ai'isli and ai)])rove(l liy the vestry of such ]>arisli. should receive an annual sum of ten pounds from the i)ublic treasury. Each parish erecting a school building was permitted to draw upon the i)ul)lic ti'casury to the extent of twelve pounds for the building of the same.' The master of the free school of the town of Dorchester was authorized in IT.IG to receive* out of the ])ul)lic treasury fifty ]K)un(ls proclainal ion money, or tlie \alue tlici'cot' in current money of the jjrovince, out of the church fund in the colonial treasury, in addition to the use of the school lands and Itnild- ings. For this lie was required to instruct gratis ten poor cliildi'cn, and as nian\ more as the commissioners might deter- mine from time to tinu' accoi'ding to the salaries received b\ the instiMictors in the school.' I Staliitex, II. II. :!r_'. - III.. II, 1>I). .'l7(>-.'t78. Oiic-liiilt' I'f a leaf of the ori^'inal act is torn ofl". :< /(/.. i>p. :t8!»-:!!M;. * III.. IV, l.|.. 'Jll-LM. Vol. 3.] Jones. — Sidie Aid io Serondnrfi Srhooh. 71 OTHER COLONIES In tlie colonies where matters of church and state were entirely divorced, i»ulilic education was much neglected. At tliis time the school was largely dependent upon the eliurcli for its existence, and where the clergy were in civil power provisions for education were made matters of })ublic concern. This was espeeiall.v true of INIassachusetts, of Connecticut, and of Maryland. Various influences, such as the spirit of adventure, the constant shifting of the settlers, the difficulties incident to new territory, the almost constant warfare and civil discord, and in some l)laces, the nature of the settlements on the plantations, made public free schools almost impossil)le. In Rhode Island, the town of Newport in 1649, and the proprietors of Providence in 1663, sought to encourage public education liy appropriating small tracts of laud for the use of schools.' In Pennsi/Jraiiia, among the grants of land made by William Penn was one of five thousand acres to Christopher Taylor, "a man of great learning, well versed in the ancient languages, and a minister among Friends," who was at that time engaged in teaching in England.^ He soon afterwards came to Penns.ylvania, and subsequently set up a school on "Tinicum, (dias College Island." This is said to have been "without doubt the first school of high grade in Pennsylvania."'* CHAPTER II THE ACADEMY PERIOD American schools are an expression of social and industi-ial conditions in American life. Society during the colonial period was composed of two nearly distinct classes, nameh', the higher or professional class, to whom was entrusted the management of civic and religious affairs, and the lower class, who were 1 ToLMAN, History of higher education in Bhode Island, p. 25. United States bureau of education, Cir. of Inf. no. 1, 1894. 2 WiCKERSHAJi, A history of education in Pennsylvania, p. 81. ■■'/(?., p. 463. Edcc'n.— 6 72 Unii'prsitif of Cnlifoniid Puhlicdfions. [Education <,n'n<'rally represented 1)\ a j^reat body of common peo])le. Such social conditions would require two main classes of schools. The elementary schools with their limited allowance of the "three R's" were sufficient to meet the needs of the common peo])!*', while the colleges were indispensable to the preparatitui of a1»lc leaders who should fill the i)laces occui)ied by the men trained in the En(l in this country. There was no atteiiiiit made at unifoi'inity in the grade of instruction ofVere(| in the se\ci-al ai*adeinies. In the alisence of an\ adeijuate .system of comnion si-liools in se\fral of the Vol. 3.] Jones. — Hiale Aid fo Secondanj Schools. 73 states, some of tlie aeadeniies became mere elementary scliools, while others eoiitiimed as preparatory schools for the colleges and universities. In many states they became the reco<>-nized agencies for the preparation of teachers for the connnon schools. Their service in this respect was ])articularly recognized in New York, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Not only were they thus the forerunners of the normal schools, but they were also con- nected with the movement for the establishment of female seminaries and the provision for higher education of women. The period of the academies may be regarded as extending from the Revolutionary war to the close of the Civil war. These institutions were founded by private initiative or were eccle- siastical undertakings, prompted by religious enthusiasm. They relieved the impoverished communities of the necessity of maintaining at public expense schools of an intermediate char- acter. Recognizing their service in the promotion of learning, the newly-formed states with but little else to give, at first gave liberally of their lands for the support of these schools, and when better able, some of them made liberal appropriations of money also. MASSACHUSETTS By frequent modifications of the school law of Massachusetts, the high standard of education under public control provided by the law of 1647 was gradually lowered. The lawrecpiiring towns of one hundred families to support a grammar school was changed in 1683 by an additional requirement of two such schools in every town of more than five hundred families.' This was changed in 1789 to a requirement of such a school in towns of two hundred families,'' and in 1824, in towns of five thousand inhabitants,'' and in 1827 in towns of five hundred families.* These later modifications were due in a large measure to the upgrowth of academies, which aimed to furnish such secondarj* instruction as would meet the popular demand of the day. 1 li'cconla of Mussachusi/ftii. V, pp. 41-4-11."). -Laws of Mdssuchiiscffs, 1789, cli. XIX. 3/rf., 1824, ch. CXI. ^ Id., 1827. ch. CXLIII. 74 Universifij of California Pahlifalionfi. [education 111 17!)7, a general policy with reference to the granting of state aid to the academies in the form of pu])lic lands was adoi)ted. At this time, a committee of both houses, to wliom the petitions of several academies for grants of puljlic lands and the subject of academies at large was referred, reported that fifteen academies had been incorporated by the General Court, and that seven of these had been endowed with liberal grants of public lands.* The policy of the state with regard to the encourage- ment of academies l)y sudi grants is declared in the following passage from the report of the committee: On a general view of this subject, the committee are of opinion that the system hitherto pursued, of endowing academies with state lands, ought to be continued, but with several material alterations; first, that no academy (at least not already erected) ought to be encouraged by government unless it have a neighborliood to support it of at least thirty or forty thousand inhabitants, not accommodated in any manner by any other academies, by any college or school answer- ing the purpose of an academy; secondly, that every such portion of the Commonwealth ought to be considered as equally entitled to grants of state lands to these institutions, in aid of private donations ; and thirdly, that no state lands ought to be granted to any academy but in aid of permanent funds, secured by towns and individual doners; and therefore, previous to any such grant of state lands, evi- dence ought to be produced that such funds are legally secured, at least adequate to erect and repair the necessary^buildings, to support the corporation, to procure and preserve such apparatus and books as may be necessary, and to pay a part of the salaries'of the preceptors.'' The report showed that with the addition of four or five aciult'iiiirs, "ill tliosc j»arts of the ('omiiioiiwealth wlu'i't' they may be most wanted," tliere would l>e one such school to every twenty- five thousand inhabitants, which was considered sufficient to meet the dciiiand for that grade of instruction. The distribution of these schools, as nearly as might be, so as to accommodate the various districts of the state, shows that they were regarded, to a considerable extent, as part of an organized system of i)iil)lic instruction. Of the seven endowed academies, six had received one town- ■' Fryi'lturK' (17!»2). l.-),t)0() iutl-s; Berwick (IT'.H). Hiillowell (17i)l), Wnshinptdn Academy iit Kast Miicliifts |17!»2), Miirlilflu'iid (IT'.fJ), Bristol Acmh'iiiy lit Taunton (17D2), and Lt-iccstiT (1784), one townsliip of iiind ciicli. Tin- Hrst four wen- in Miiine. "Walton, Heport on aradtiinix, in Fm-fulh ituuutil rt/nirt <>/ tlif hoard of cihtratioti, Miisxtirlinsftts, p)). 2(17-208. Am. Jmirti. h'd.. XXX, pp. ,")8-r)'.l. Vol. 3.] Jones. — Siate Aid to Secondary Schools. 75 shij) of land each. With reference to the endowment of other academies, the committee reported as follows: To extend this plan of a township to each academy of those academies already allowed, and to those which from local circum- stances may be justly claimed, would require the jjrants of twelve or thirteen townships more. The committee thinks this number too large, and therefore proposes half a township of six miles square, of the unap- proi>riated hinds in the district of Maine, to be granted to each academy having secured to it the private funds of towns and individual donors before described, to l)e laid out or assigned (with the usual reserva- tions) by the committee for the sale of eastern lands. Of the eight academies that had been incorporated and had not been endowed by the state, fonr had received a snfficieut endowment from towns and individnals to be entitled to a grant of one-half township of land, and the fonr remaining academies were given three years in which to procnre an endowment of three thonsand dollars each, which would entitle them to a grant of public lands. That the policy thus outlined was carried out may be seen from the grants made to some of the academies established in accordance with the conditions of the above report.^ So rapid was the increase in the number of these schools that by 1840 one hundred and twelve acts of incorporation had been passed for the establishment of academies in eighty-eight towns. ^ Several of the proposed schools were never established and many others did not long continue in operation.^ About twenty of the academies located within the state received grants of public lands. MAINE The educational system of Massachusetts extended to the province of Maine prior to its organization as a separate state, in ■< One-half township was granted to Milton Academy in J 798. (Laws and resolves, 1798, eh. XLVI. ) 8 Martin, Evolntion of the ptthlic school system of Massachusetts, p. 121. 9 Eighty-four "academies and public schools" are enumerated by Edwards in the report on Education and literary institutions, in American quarterly register, V, pp. 288-291, (183.3). Twenty-two schools are referred to as having received a township of public land each. The size of the grant is evidently incorrect, as is also the case in the report of Walton, op. cit., where some of the schools are men- tioned as having received one-half township each, which are reported by the committee in 1797 as having received a township. The number of incorporated academies in operation at that time is given as seventy-three in the Abstract of Massachusetts school returns for 1838-39, p. 341. 76 Unirersiill of Califoniitt PllJ)Jinifi(»is. [Education 1820. By the articles of separation, tlie i)oliey adopted by the parent state of reserving for educational and religions i)urposes a portion of each township of land transferred from pul)lic control, was made applicable to all grants and sales of land made by Massachusetts and Maine/ At the time of the admission of Maine into the union, twenty-five academies had lieen incor- porated within her ])orders,^ and had received as an endowment 253,980 acres of wild lands.' The constitution of LS20 made it the duty of the legislature to promote the further establishment of such schools and to encour- age them by such endowments as the circumstances of the people of the state Avould admit. The following article is worthy of note as containing the i)rinci])les that have guided in su])se(|uciit legislation in matters relating to secondary schools: A f,'eneral diffusion of the advantages of education being essential to the promotion of the rights and lilierties of the people ; to promote this important object, the Legislature are authorized, and it shall be their duty to require, the several towns to make suitable provision, at their own expense, for the support and maintenance of public schools; and it shall further be their duty to encourage and suitably endow, from time to time, as the circumstances of the people may authorize, all academies, colleges and seminaries of learning within the State: Pro- vided, That no donation, grant or endowment sliall at any time be made. by the Legislature, to any Literary Institution now established, or which may hereafter be established, unless, at the time of making such endowment, the Legislature of the State shall have the right to grant any further powers to, alter, limit or restrain any of the powers vested in, any such literjiry institution, as shall be judged necessary to i)roniote the best interests thereof. ^ That the ])olicy thus ])roposed was carried out is very evident from the fact that between 1820 and 18,11 fortv-four academies ' See pajre 58. This policy was continucil in Maiuf ilown to 1828, when tlie state licgan to reserve 1,000 acres in each township, "to be appropriated to sudi liul)lic uses, for tlie exchisivc benefit of such town, as tlie Legislature nuiy lii-re- iiftcr ilircct." (Lair.i of Maine, 1828, eh. CC'CXCIIl, sec. 4.) - EdwakijS, KdttcaUon and literary instiiittintiK, in American (jitarterly ret/is- ter, V, pp, 275-277. .Stktson, yl shulij of the hixtoi-ji of education in Maine and the evolution of our prexent school .si/xleni, p. Ki. Tills sludii is published in the Maine school report, 1901. ■'Id., p. 8.1. * Maiuf Constitution, Art. VIII. Tlie lejrishitures of recent years have fre- i|u<-iitly iuii>()seil various coinlitiotis upon the state-aided schools. See discussion of aid til tin- \i\fih schools of ."\Iiiinc, chapter III nf tliis publication. Vol. 3.] Joufs. — Staff Ai(l to S('cn)i(](ir!/ Schools. 77 were chartered, receiving from the state 332,980 acres of land and $20,000 in money for their sn])i)ort. The state grants liad reached $230,000 in 187G, and the nnndier of academies had increased to nearly one huudi'ed/ Of the many states that made so favorable a beginning in the matter of promoting secondary instrnction in private academies by extending state aid for their support, only three states, Maine, New York, and Maryland, have coiitiiiiK'd this i)()liey down to the present time, 1903. NEW YORK After the withdrawal of the colonial subsidy to the Latin school in the city of New Y(n-k in 1738,' such secondary schools as existed in the colony dow^n to the close of the Revolutionary war, except the grammar school of King's College (1763), must have been conducted as private enterprises, without support from public funds. But after the turbulent wars of the second half of the eighteenth century had passed, and private academies had begun to be established in the state, immediate steps were taken for their encouragement, and lil)eral grants of puldic lands and appropriations of public funds were made for their sui)port. The University' of the State of New York was established in 1784, and in its organization was made to include all secondary schools in the state, whether public or private.^ Numerous academies were founded al)out this time, and in the absence of any adequate system of public schools, these institutions furnished much of the elementary as well as secondary instruc- tion in the state. In a committee report to the regents, in 1787, it was urged that the disadvantages under which these schools were placed by reason of their dependence upon private benev- olence ought to be removed.'^ Steps were accordingly taken for providing a subsidy from the state, but not withont proper precaution against the unwise expenditure of public funds. ■'Stetson, op. cit., pp. 83-86. Am. Journ. Ed.. XXIV, p. 259 foot-note. Four academies were granted half a township of land each between 1820 and 1828. • 1 See page 65. -Laws of tenth session (folio), LXXXII. Laws of seventh session, cb. LI. The .several acts relating to the establishment of the University of the State of New York are given in Hough's Historical and sftitisficul record, pp. 42-62. •'Quoted 1)y Butler, in Hough's ffistoriral and statistical record, p. 27. 78 University of California Pahlicdiinns. [Education Each academy chartered by the regents was obliged to furnish satisfactory evidence of a sufficient endowment to i)rovide a suitable building and to meet a part of the current expenses of the school, and to have a sufficiently large community dependent upon it for educational advantages without encroaching upon the territorj' of a previously incorporated institution/ To provide a revenue for the support of schools and for the jiropMj^-ation of the gosjx'l, a system of land reservations was instituted. In May, 1784, a Board of Commissioners of the Land (Jtliee was created and directed to la^" out all unappropri- ated lands into townships six miles square, in each of which a lot of three hundred acres was to be reserved for the use of a minister of the gospel, and another of six hundred and ninety acres "for a school or schools." A second act was passed in M.i\, 17S(), ''for the speedy Sale of the unai)proi)riated Lands" within this State. This in-ovided for the laying out of all unaj)- propriated lands into townships ten miles square, in each of which one lot of six hundred and forty acres was to be marked " Gospel and Schools,^' and another of the same size "/or proitiofinr/ Litera- ture."" Ten towns in the northern ])art of the state were set ai)art, without reservations, for educational purposes. The sections reserved for the gospel and schools l)ecame the l)asis of the common school fund of the state, while those set apart for the promotion of literature were reserved, to be applied as the legislature might direct, for the encouragement of learning tlu-oughont the state. Fi-oin this reservation, grants of land were made to the early academies, and fi'om the sales of a i)ortion of the land thus resei-ved,'' the Literature Fund for the encour- agement of secondary schools was founded in 1818. As early as 1790, the legislature authorized the regents to lease out certain state lands and to ai)i)ly the revenues to the aid of the colleges and academies.' In April, 1792, the legisla- ture api)roi)riated the sum of fifteen hnndred pounds annnally for a i)eriod of live years, for the jiurixtse of encouraging the ■• IIol-OH. <•/,. ril.. ],\>. KHf-lll. •'Laws of ninth xexxion, cli. LX\'1I, ]>. li.'fO. "Hough, op. eit., p. 84. " Lfiw.i of 1700, cJi. :!8. Gftenlidf, II. .ilC. Vol. 3.1 Jones. — state Ai(J to SecotuJarn Schools. 79 academies/ This sum was to l)e distributed by the regeuts "in such pv()])ortioiis, and to l)e ai)proi)riated in such manner as they shall judge most beneficial,, for the several academies, and most adventageous to literature."" It was apportioned to ten academies in the following year, in amounts ranging from $215 to $515, according to the needs of the several schools, and to twelve academies in 1794/" Beginning with Johns- town Academy in 179G, literature lots were granted from year to year to various academies/^ In 1801, an act was passed, entitled, "An A(;t for the promotion of literature," in which provision was made for four successive lotteries of $25,000 each. Of this sum, $12,500 was to be paid to the regents to be distributed among the academies.'" To provide a permanent fund for the support of the academies, the Commissioners of the Land Office were directed in 1813 to sell military and other lands, and to invest the proceeds as a fund, whose income the regents were authorized to apportion to the academies in such manner "as in their judgment shall be just and equitable."''^ A general regulation was made in 1817 that the distribution of the income of this fund should be made upon the basis of the number of students pursuing the branches of study preparatory to admission to "well-regulated colleges."" This fund was increased in 1819 by an addition of $26,690 out of arrears of quit-rents.''' In 1827, an act was passed, entitled, "AX ACT to provide permanent funds for the annual appropria- tion of Common Schools, to increase the Literature Fund, and to Promote the Education of Teachers." By this act securities to the amount of $150,000 then belonging to the Canal Fund were conveyed to the state, in payment of so much canal stock 8 Thi.s annual appropriation amounted to $;!,750. 9 Laws of New York, fifteenth session, ch. LXIX, sec. 2. 10 Hough, op. cit., ch. XX. A summary of the appropriations made to the academies by the regents upon' the basis of attendance from 1793 to 1813 is given in this chapter. ^i-Laivs, 1800, ch. 112; 1813, ch. 119; 1814, ch. 71, 200; 1822, eh. 10; 1825, ch. 266; 6826, ch. 308, etc. i2iaws, 1801, ch. 53, (Hough). i3irtws, 1813, ch. 187. 1* Butler, in Hough's Historical and statistical record, p. 31. ^^Laws, 1819, ch. 222, sec. 31. 80 University of Cdlifoniia Piihlirafious. [editation owned ]>y the state. This amount was added to tlic Litrrature Fund, to be used as follows: . . .and the income thereof shall be subject to the control of the regents of the university, upon condition or in addition to any other condition the regents may prescribe, that the said regents shall annu- ally distril)ute the whole income arising from the fund now under their control, as well as that hereby added, among the incorporated academies and seminaries of this state, other than colleges, which are subject to the visitation of the said regents, or which shall, within one year, by a valid corporate act, place themselves under the visitation and control of the said regents, to the same extent as the academies incor- porated by them, which distribution shall be made in proportion to the number of pupils instructed in each academy or seminary, for six months during the preceding year, who shall have pursued classical studies, or the higher branches of English education, or both; and that no pupil shall be deemed to have pursued classical studies, unless he shall have advanced as far at least as to have read the first book of the Eneid of Virgil in latin ; and no student shall be deemed to have pursued the higher branches of an English education, unless he shall have advanced beyond such knowledge of common, Anilgar and decimal arithmetic, and such proficiency in English grammar and geograjthy, as are usually obtained in common schools."' To enalde the ref»;ents to make siieh distrilmtion. they were em])owei-e(l to re(|uire annual i-eturns. to l)e nuide on oath of the l)rinei])al iustruetoi- in any aeademy or seminary or of one of the trustees thereof, in such form as the reijents might preseril)e, eontaining the names and ages of all i)ui)ils instructed, and the time each ])U])il was in attendance and the ))rogi*ess made in the various studies.'' Meanwliile the nnmhei- of academies had ])een rai)idly increasing. Nineteen such institutions liad been ineor- liiii-ated by bsOO, and t'orty-eiglit addit ional ehartei-s were granted in the next twenty years; but not all of the schools were able to I'omply with the re(|uii-(Mnents, so that only thirty academies repoited tor and reeeixcd a share of the Literature Fund in 1S2(). In the next ten yeai's, t'ort\' additi<»nal eharters were granted to a<'ademies by the legislature, in most of which no conditinns wei-e imi)osed ui)on the institutions.'"' The Ixevised Statutes which went into etVect in ISiJO ])i-(i\i(lcd that tlie distrilmtion of the incume ot the literature Fund should '«/,(nr.-(, 1827, cli. L'l'^. sec. :t. '" fil., SCO. 4. "* Hi'll.KK, ill HoliiU's l/i.stiiriifil nnil stiilistirp. 27-28. Vol. 3.1 Jones. — Si((te Aid 1o Scroiuhiri/ Schools. 81 bo made in eriual aiiionnts to the eij^'lit senatorial districts,'" and to the schools within the districts upon the basis provided in the act of 1827. This method of distribution by which each sen- atorial district received the same amount regardless of the number of schools, although iilainly unjust, was continued until the adoption of the Constitution of 1847, when a return was made to the former method of distributing- the annual subsidy to the schools of the state upon the basis of the number of students in each who were i)ursuing classical or advanced English studies."'^ Special grants for the purchase of books, ma])s and globes, and philosophical apparatus, had been made from the very origin of the academy system, but it was not until 1834 that the legal provision was made for a regular apportionment to the schools for this purpose. In that year it was provided that $12,000 of the revenue of the Literature Fund should be annually distributed by the regents to the academies and schools, "which moneys shall be exclusively appropriated and expended by the trustees of such academies and schools respectively, towards paying the salaries of tutors."'^ Out of the income in excess of that amount, a sum not to exceed $250 was to be apportioned to each academy for the purchase of supplies, as follows: Any portion of the excess of the literature fund over the sum of twelve thousand dollars, may, in the discretion of the regents, be assigned to any academy or school subject to their visitation, and sub- ject to such rules and regulations as they may prescribe, for the pur- chase of text books, maps and globes, or philosophical or chemical apparatus ; such sum shall not exceed two hundred and fifty dollars in anyone year. But no part of the said excess shall be actually paid over, unless the trustees of the academy or school to which it is to be appropriated shall raise and apply an equal sum of money to the same object.-'- The academies had for many years been regarded as the nat- ural agency for the preparation of teachers for the common schools of the state." Mention was made in the act of 1827 of a purpose "to i)romote the education of Teachers," and the provision that ^'•> Jievised statutes, ch. 1,5, art. I, title 1, sec. 23, 2« £««•«, 1847, ch. 258. 2i2/«ifs, 1834, ch. 140, sec, 1, -~ Id., sec. 2. -'•^ Segeiits' report, IS'.l'l. 82 Universifi/ of Cnlifornin PnhHcaiions. [educatios l)upils pursuinoses of education and the diffusion of knowledge," passed A])ril 17, ISoS. flic sum of $28,000 of the iiiconif of this fund was annually paid over to the the Litcraturt' Fund, which together with the annual sum of $12,000 from the income of that fund, was distributed to the academies in the several senatorial districts." Each academy receiving a share of ]mblic money efjual to $700 i)er annum was required to establish and nuiintain in such academy a dei)artment for the insti-uction of coiiinioii scliool teachers, as a condition of receiving its share of Ihe state subsidv."' ■^* Litwx, 18:14. c-h. 241. ■-'■'' Hoi'dH, o;>. cit., pp. .■).'t8-r):{9. ■-« Id., p. .')4«. '-" Aliibiinia, Di'liiwari', Kcnturky, .Missouri, New York, <)lii<>, Hliodf Ishiml. ami V'trnioiit H]>plicL(iws, 18.52, ch. 235. '■i' Laws, 18.53, ch. 402. 38 Hough, op. cit., ch. XXVI. 84 Uiiicersif!/ of CaJiforniti Piihlicufions. [edccation jipiti-oiiriatioii for sni)plies was fixed at $.'].00() in LS.")!.'''* The annual exi)en(litures of the state for this purpose have ranged from a littk* k'ss than twelve hundred dollars to nearly six thousand dollars, with no uniformity in the amounts granted, as these have depended entirely upon the amount raised liy the several schools/" I>ut the amount ai>i)ortioned was freipiently in exeess of the $-').()()0. As this amount was not sunicicnt to allow each school to share annually in its (lis1ril»utiou, no school was jtermitted to receive more than $ir)0 in any one year for supplies, and sueh grants were restrieted to alternate years. In 18G0, the Literature Fund ain(mnted to $269. i).")!). At the time of the establishment of academical dcpjii-t incuts in the union schools in 1S()-1-. there was annuali\ ajiportioned to the academies $12,000 of the income of the Literature Fund, $28,000 of the income of the United States deposit of 1836, together with $3,000 out of the same fund for the purchase of sup])lies, and $18,000 for the support of teachers' classes, or a total of $61,000. A further summary of ai^portionments Avill be given under the discussion of the present system of aid to tlie secondary schools of New Yoi-k/ rEXNSYT.VAXIA The provisional constitution of Pennsylvania, framed in 1776. required the legislature of the state to establish in each county a school or schools "for the convenient instruction of youtli. with such salaries to tlu' masters. \r,\'u\ by the public, as may enable tlx-ni to instruct youtli at low prices," and to encourage and i)ro- niote all useful learning "in one or more universities."' After much (lela\' and iiiaii\' jjroposed clianges, the educational pro- visions of the constitution of 17!)0 wei-e agreed to as foll<>ws: Section 1. The legisliiture sliall, lis soon as eonvcniently may he, jnovide hy law for the estahlishment of schools tliroufjliout the State, is snt'li manner that the poor may be tauglit (/nitis. Section 'J. The arts and sciences sliall l>e promoted in one or more seminaries of leaniiiii^.- ■'» Liiivx. 1851. cii. :.;!(;. '" H()i(jn. «//>. (•//.. i>. ."iiM. ^1 See chiiiitrr ill. ' ('onslitiitinii of 177(>. Jill. \l,l\'. iliniai, ('niil />nirisli>)i.i. ••! Cinislihitinii of IT'.Mi, ui-l. \!l. Vol. 3.] Jonex. — Sitaie Aid fo Scroitddrt/ Schools. 85 These i)i-(>visi()iis were retained in tlie eonstitution as amended in 18-38, and eontinued as the only constitutional provisions relating to education up to the amendment of the eonstitution in 1873. The type of school provided for in the constitutions of 177G and 1790 had as its model the Friends' Public School in Phila- deli)hia,' and an effort was made to encourage the establishment of advanced schools of this character in each county in the state. Between 1783 and the adoption of the constitution of 1790, seven secondary schools of this type had been chartered, six of which received grants of public lands ranging from five thousand to ten thousand acres each. Eleven colleges and sixty- one academies or "public schools" of a secondary grade were incorporated between the close of the Revolutionary war and the establishment of a system of free public schools in 1834. Nine of the eleven colleges and all but four of the academies received grant of public lands or money, or both, and w^ere required in return to furnish free instruction to a specified number of indigent children, generally from three to ten in each school.^ The first grant of money was made in 1797, when a grant of $3,000 was made to Washington Academy. This was followed the next year by a grant to $5,000 to Pittsburgh Academy and $4,000 to the Academy and Free School of Bucks County. Later grants varied from a few hundred dollars to seveial thousand dollars each, but the usual grant was $2,000 to each institution of secondary grade. The attempt to maintain a prosperous sj'stem of secondary schools and colleges without the necessary foundation of an ade- quate system of elementary schools soon proved a failure. More than a hundred thousand dollars, besides about forty thousand acres of land, had been granted to the academies l)efore 1821. At that time. Governor Findlay called the attention of the state to the \ery meagre returns from this investment. During the agitation accompanying the effort to establish a state system of •' WiCKERSHAM, A hLsfori/ of ('(hicalion in Pennsijlvunia , p. 381-.'i82. ■* Id., pp. 377-380. A table of the schools, the date of incorporation, the amount received by each from the state, and the-number of poor children each was required to instruct free is given on pp. 397-3'.)8 of Wickkrshaxi'.s Ilistonj. 86 University of CaUfornid Pi(blir(ifions. [EnucAxioN comiiioii sr(ti)riati()n was niade, the colleges received an aggregate of $40, (il. ")..")(), the academies received $114,001.70, and the female seminaries $.18,0S0.0f)." Commenting ui)on the effect t)f withdrawing the state suhsidy at this tinu'. \\'i<-kci-sluim says: " Jhis Avas a sad lilow to the new institutions. Many of them, ])rematurely established and never strong, soon l)egan to decline, and within a few years a large number of them had ceased to exist. Kuins only in most cases are left to tell the stoi-y. Tlie exi)erimcut of building up a sys- tem of highei- education again failed, not this time so much on account of the want of a suHicicnt number of pupils ))ro])erly prepared, as on account of tlic injudicious ai)i)lication of the State's bounty, and its withdrawal just at the time it was most needed. A general api»ropriation in behalf of liigher education lias never in more recent years met with legislative favor."'* MAKVLAXI) The estal)lishment of Washington College in 17S2 was the beginning of a lu-ovision for higher education in Maryland.' Two years later, an annual donation of £1,250 was granted to the suppoit of this institution.' In 1784, St. John's College on the western shoi-e was incori)orated, and together with Wash- ington College was made to constitute the Cniversity of .Mai-y- land." An annual gi-aut of t!l,7.")0 was made for the suii|)oi-t of St. Jolin's College.' Although botii of these grants were pledged to be forever continued, an opj^osite i)olicy soon became dominant. In 17!)S, an act was passed entitled, "An ACT for the l»roniotion of lileiatui-c in this State." which was tlie Ix-ginning of a nKtvenient to fostci* the establishment of secomlary schools and to aid in their suppoi't. The motive of such action may be gathered from tin- brief preface to tlic act: WiM'.KKAs the cstalilisliniciit luul proniotion of literary institutions for the lilii'riii ediu-atioii of youtli, iiiulcr proper re<;iil:itioiis, in dif '- Wli'KKKSIIAM, <•/). ril.. J>. :iK7. ':> /»/.. ]>. :ths. ' Lines of Miniiliiiid |.Maxlir(ifions. IEduoation Anne connty, to Ixockvillc Academy,'' Moiitj^oinery county, ami to Washington College,'" $800 each. P,y this distribntion the colleges were made to serve as secondary schools for their resjiec- tive sections of the state. The annual ajiportionment to West Nottingham Academy was inci'cascd to $.")()() in the same year;'' and an additional donation of $l,"i()() was made to Charlotte Hall in 1S17." Although an annual donation of $800 had been made f<»r an academy for Harford or Baltimore eount.v in 1798, no pro- vision was made for the establishment of such a school. In 1820, the $S()() originally designed for Baltimoi-*' county was granted in equal shares to (lai'rison Poorest and FiJinklin Academies. In 1823, St. -Tames Academy was made to share in this sum,'' and in 1881, the donation of $800 was e(|uall\' ai>|)ortioned to four schools within the county. From 182.') to IS.'JI tlie sub.)ect of primai'N schools was agitated, and an elT'ort was made to ai)propriate foi- primaiy education the annual donations to the secondary schools. This agitation served only to fix moiv firmly the ])olicy of sul)sidizing the academies. The committee on imblic iiisti-uction reported to the House in Febi-uai-y. 1S27, as follows: The foruniittee on public instruction, wlio were instructed to inquire into tlie expediency of withdrawinj; the donation from colleges, academies, and schools, have had the same under consideration and are decidedly of opinion that it would be inexpedient to withdraw the munificence of the State from those institutions. Experience has ])roved that they can not exist without the aid of public patronage, and the withdrawing of that aid would operate to their destruction and in effect give to the rich a monopoly of the higher branches of education, as men of wealth can afford to support their sons at distant colleges or universities, whilst the middling and even lower orders of society would be deprived of the means of acquiring a classical educa- tion, whicli is iKiw presented by the seminaries endowed in their neighborhnod, ;nid in the deficiency of the necessary qiuilifications consequent upon that deprivation tliey would be shut out from the fair prosjiect of romjjetition and the equal pretensions which they would otherwise en.ioy for j)ublic employment or jirofessional elevation.-'" '■"' Id., rcK. no. ,")2. '"' III., CCS. no. ."il. '" /. IhJl). Loirs, l.sj.!. di. p.t<) (]>a.ssc. iV2. Vol. 3.] Jones. — Sfdfc Ahl io Serotiddr)/ Schools. 91 After several years of discussion, tlie f(»llo\viiij>- resolution was ])asse(l in Fel)ruary, 1882: liesolred by the General AnHembUj of Maryland, Tliat the treasurer of the western shore equalize the donations j^ranted to the academies and scliools, in the several counties of this state, so as to give eif>;ht hundred dollars for each county, to be paid by him to the said acade- mies and schools, ratably for each of those counties, which do not now receive that sum.-^ There was uo further legislative action of inii)ortance con- nected with the secondary schools until the i)rovisi()n for a state system of high schools, in ISO."). A table of the actual amount of the annual donation received by the several academies and secondary schools at the time of the agitation for primary schools has been prepared by Mr. Basil Sellers. Nineteen schools in sixteen counties received amounts ranging from $266| to $2,000 each, making a total annual a])portionment of $12,660."" Recourse was had, from time to time, to lotteries as a means of providing revenues for educational purposes in the state. In 1803, Frederick County School was thus aided;"* in 1815, a lottery of $1,000 was authorized for the building of a schoolhouse in the vicinity of Taney Town, in Frederick county, and anf)ther of $20,000 in the same year for the benefit of West Nottingham Academy.'^* The greatest was one authorizing a number of men to raise by lottery a sum not to exceed $40,000 for the benefit of Charlotte Hall.'' LOUISIANA But meagre provision had been made for education in Louisiana under the French and Spanish regime. Soon after the purchase of the territory by the United States, active steps were taken to establish a system of schools under the comprehensive name of " The University of Orleans." An act was passed in 1805, entitled, "AN ACT to institute an University in the territory of Orleans," which provided for the establishment of a college within the city of New Orleans to be known as "The College of New-Orleans," ^^Latvs, 1831, res. no. 34. 22 SOLLERS, Op. cif., p. 62. ^^Laws, 1802, ch. LVI (passed .Jaimary 3. 1803). 24 /(Z., 181.5. chs. VI, CXXXII. 25 /fZ., 1817, ch. Lll. 92 Vnivcrsitij of Culifornht Piihli'(itio)is. ieducation and for "one or more academies for the instruction of youtli in the French and p]nriatioii of pul)lic tuuds for the supi>ort of the university was made in ISl 1 . w hen the sum of $15,000 was granted to the College of New Orleans and $2,000 to each of the twelve counties, with which to ])urchase or erect suitable buildings for the ])roi)osed schools. An annual sum of $.').(i()(l was set ai)art for the sui»port of the college and $.")()() for each of the several county schools. It was i)rovi(le(l that fifty " indigent " childi-en should be taught gratis in the college, ]>ut no mention was made at this time of fi-ee tuition foi- such children in the county schools.' In LSI!), the annual grant to the college was inci-eased to $4,000 and ' OrhiiHs L(iir.i, lhlll-(i."., til. .\.\X. -(lAVAKKK, Ilistnrji of Jjoiiisidnii ( A>i>irivitn /)i>»iiniition ), 1>. l.'t.'i. '■^Artx of Lotiisiiind , IKOfi, fh. IV. ^(tAYARKK, op. vil., J). "JO"). ■>Arls of LoiiixiiiiKi. IHll. fh. XVIII. Vol. 3.] Jours. — Sfdfr Aid f<> Sfcoiidary Srliools. 93 the academies were granted $600 each; "this was increased in 1821 to $5,000 annually to the college and $S00 annually to each of the county academics.' At this time, each academy sharing in the state subsidy was reiiuired to instruct free of charge and to supply with books and other necessaries eight "beneficiary" students. Each parish not provided with a school ])uilding was granted $800 toward its erection. Meanwhile frequent recoui-se was had to other means of pro- viding a revenue for the support of the university. In 181-3, the regents were authorized to raise $50,000 annually by lotteries;'' in 1823, an annual income of $30,000 was secured through the licensing of six gam1)ling houses in New Orleans, one-fourth of the income to be devoted to the use of the college and three-fourths to the support of Charity Hospital;" in 1826, two theaters were licensed at an annual rate of $3,000, and the revenue appropriated for the use of the college.'" The College of New Orleans was discontinued in March, 1826, and a "central school" and two primary schools were substituted for it. In the central school, French, English, Latin, and mathe- mathics were taught, and the school seems to have been conducted as an advanced secondary school. Of the sums formerly granted to the college, $7,000 was annually apportioned to these schools." The annual subsidy to the parish academies was apportioned in 1827 upon the basis of the number of voters in each parish, the several schools receiving two and five-eighths dollars monthly for each such votei", provided that the annual sum thus received by any school did not exceed $1,350 nor fall below $800.'" In 1833, the apportionment was made upon the actual attendance, four dollars per month being allowed for each pupil, provided the number of pupils in attendance did not exceed ten; three dollars per month when the number of pupils in attendance was between ten and twenty; and two and one-half dollars a month per pupil «/(?., 1810, pp. .52-54. ~ Id., 1821, pp. 62-G8. 8 Fay, Hiatory of ediicaiinii in Loidtiiaiia, p. lil, ^ Acts of Louisiana. 182:!. pp. 78-82. 10 Fay, op. cit., p. 4:5. ^^ Acts of Louisiana, 1820, pp. 14()-ir)4. '2 Td., 1827, pp. 80-88 (no. 52). 94 rnivtrsitii of Oillfortiid pKhlirnfinuft. [Eihtation wlicii tliis iniinlx'i' was above twenty."' After 1827. all iiidi.tjent imjiils were instructed without i)ayinent for tuition. This last system of distribution i-eiuained in tV)ree until the adoption of a system of free jiublii- schools in 1S47. The total amount of iiul)lic aid extended to these county schools l)etween IHll and 1S45 amounted to $978,.'5r)2.14.'* The schools thus aided and coni- monl.\ known as ])iii'isli oi- county academies were for the most pai't mere clenientai-\' schools. Tlii-ce colleges, the C'ollejje of Louisiana, tlie Collej^e of Jeffer- son, and Franklin Collcj^e, were estaltlished ])etween 1S2.") and 1831 , and arc coiiimonl.\ <'lassed as institutions of liij^lier learning:. Six other institutions which are described as of a mixed type, "just on the boi-dcr line between the collej^es j)ro]»cr and the academies," were iiicorjiorated l)etween 1819 and 1830, some of which were designated as acach-niics and others as collc.u'cs. In 18.'{1, a scln'me was itroj)()sed by which the ])cne(iciary system was extended to the colle<>:es and academies. Annual subsidies were {••ranted to tliese schools on the condition that a ceitain number of indigent children should be insti-ucti'd without i-har^ic for maintenance, books, or tuition. Within the next decade, a larye number of secondary schools under pri\"atc conli'ol were founded, all ot which were recipients of state lioiiut.N . I'lie lii-st of these was ^lontpellier Academy, incoi-]K)i-atr(l in bs.'i;;. To enable tlie trustees to i?et the academy into operation, an annual a|)pi(ipriation of $2,500 was made for four years, with the jirovision "that the trustees cause to be boarded and instructed in said .\cademy, at least twenty-tive indij^-ent childi-eu; oi-. on default of such number, then to r''ceive sucli amount as may l)c in pi-oportiou to the numltei- so actually l)oarded and insti'ueted — the real numbei- in any case to Ix- cei'ti- (ied by the i)arish .judjic; au\ the police jury."' ' At the same time, the sum of $1,000 annually was ^ranted to the a<'a(leniy in Mie town of .Mexandi'ia, with the provision that ten jtoor childiin should l)e tau<;ht j^:ratis. j'x-lween 18.').') and 184l2 i:'/f/., iK:t:t, pp. Mi-iii. " Fav, lip. rit.. p. (il. ^••Act.iiifLoiiisiiniii. 1X1.!. pii. UKs-li:!. Vol. 3.1 Joufs. — Sfdfp Aid to Sccouddri/ Schools. 95 twenty of these academies received from tlie state amounts aggregating' $127, 285 .61."' lu the nine years from 1819 to 1828, lotteiy ai)])roi)riutions to the amount of $120,000 were made to the various schools of the state. Of this amount, $86,000 was for schools of a secondary grade.'' The liberality of the state in the nuitter of encouraging educational institutions at this time has scarcely a parallel any- where in the early history of American education. The entire apju-opriation of money to the schools between 1811 and 1842 amounted to $1,767,087.61. The following totals represent the actual amount expended u])on the various schools: TOTALS College of Orleans, 1811-1826 $10.3,500.00 Beneficiary parish schools, 1811-1845 973,352.14 College of Louisiana. 1832-1844 211,687.40 College of Jefferson, 1831-1846 , 248,447.75 College of Franklin, 1831-1843 66,851.76 Rapides College, 1834-1842 7,312.95 College of Baton Rouge, 1838-1844 23,000.00 Subsidized academies .. 127,285.61 Miscellaneous 6,200.00 $1,767,637.61 '« TENNESSEE Tennessee was settled from North Carolina in 1756, and through many of its earlier years was closely linked with the parent state. Titles of extensive tracts of land b'ing between the two states had for a long time been in dispute, when North Carolina, in 1789, ceded to the United States all of her w^estern lands. In 1806, Congress authorized the state of Tennessee to issue grants and perfect titles to lands in the region in dispute. At that time four colleges and a few private schools were the only educational institutions within the state. In reply to a petition from the University of North Carolina in 1801, the state Senate of Tennessee was obliged to answer that the "infant "'Fay, op. cit., p. GO. I'/fZ., p. ()7. ^8 Fay, O}). cit., p. (;7. A tal)le showing the amounts received b)^ the several "subsidized academies" is given in the History of education in Louisiana, p. 60. The second item in the above table is for the county "academies" that were organized as a part on the University of Orleans. 96 r)iir( ysiftf of C. :!Sl-:tH.'l. - Laifs of VV/nic.s-.vcr (Scott's ('(Utiiiii), 1, |i]). !i:U-!t.'lCi; /.mcs. Imm".. eh. s. ■'III.. 2, p. .•t:!i. ^ Diividson .VciKlfiiiy ut Niislivillc liail Iktii iiiciiriiarsUfil in ITs.'i ami liail rrcfivcil n urnut of LMO acres of land. '• I'llKI.AN. Ilistiinj <een estal)lished in the various counties of the state, and endowed with grants of public lands ranging from 6,000 to 12,000 acres each. But the failure of the system had become evident several years earlier, and from time to time the legislature was called ui)on to grant relief to the various academies, either thi'ough an extension of time in which to locate and survey the lands or through i)rovision of additional revenues for the supjmrt of the schools. In ISb"), the trustees were empowered to dis])ose of the academy lands, i)rovided the funds for the same were invested in the stock of the Bank of Kentucky." The security of the bank, rather than the welfare of the schools, seems to have been of most concern in the jtassage of this act. To ari-est the decline of these schools, an act was i)assed in 181G nujking genei-al the exeinjjtion from taxation of all jjrojx'rty of the seminaries of learning; ■ and in 1820, all icvenues ac<-ruing from lines and forfeitures in the several counties was given to the eouidy academies.'' This ]n-ovision was re])eated from time to time.' The(ii"een l\iver Female Academy was gi-anted !i<.")00 in 18.'J."); the Ivussellxille Male Aeadenix a like aiiiount in 1S;U!."' In 18.")7. tlie ti'ustees of Brownville Seminary were obliged to jjctition the (ieneral Assembly for additional supi)ort for that ■'Id., m. ell. CCXC. (180.").) " III., V. ell. CXCIII (appruvtil .liinuMry -^k 1M.")). ■ // Ki iitiirln/. 1, cli. lAXX. »Acl.s of tlir CommouwfiiUli of Kitituckij. IM'-'. fli- I»1A(,'I, \k !»7C.. Id., IS.T). ch.s. .")7«, (;r)4; IKiii. oh. :tw». '" /(/.. IKt."). ell. 8:..'.; IKtC, v\\. L'.V.I. Vol. 3.] Jones. — state Aid to Seromhtrti Schools. 99 institution, claiiiiini;' that tliroii<^-li tlic inisinana^'cnient of tlie funds by former trustees they had beeu al)le to realize only $1.'5() from the lands appropriated by law for the seminary." The follo\vin«>' legislature authorized a lottery not to exceed $100,000, one-fourth of which was to be used for the construction of a wharf at Padueah, one-fourth for a female seminary, and the remainder for a seminary at that plaee/^ Several additional academies and seminaries were estal)lished from time to time, l)ut the decline that had set in could not be checked. Many of the schools were abandoned, some where continued as elementary schools, a few whose funds had been wisely managed were able to continue, as schools of an advanced grade, and in time formed the nucleus of a later college. The failure of the system was due to manj^ causes, but the following were the most evident:^' The absence of any adequate system of elementary schools; irresponsible management of the funds of the academies; insufficient endowment to meet the demands of such a system; and the difficulties incident to new and sparsely settled territory-. To these must be added the fact that the pro- visions were in advance of public spirit. Such a system, estab- lished at the promptings of the state and mainly supported out of public donations, necessarily fails to create local interest and to foster the spirit of local initiative. However, these schools played a verj' imi)ortant part in the early education of the state, for in them were educated most of the men prominent in the professional and civic life of the state during the first half of the nineteenth century. MICHIGAN Provision for a system of secondary schools in Michigan dates from the third organization of the state university. By an act of Congress, in 1804, a township of land was reserved for a semi- nary of learning in the territory uoav embraced by the state of Michigan.^ This was increased to two townships in 1826, with 11 Id., 1837-:i8, eh. GC8. i^/fZ., ]838-:59, ch. 1182. 13 Lewis, Higher education in Kentucky, p. '27. ' United State.i .statutes at large, 2, p. 277. 100 rnivPrsiilj of Otlifoniitl PilhIlrtlfio)iS. [Education the pi'ovisioii tlijit tilt' land thus set ai)port of its professors and teachers, and also such other sums for the jnirchase of books and apparatus, as the state of the university fund shall warrant and allow.-' This provision was modilied by an act, ai)proved .lune l'1. 18;{7. whieh o-ave to the ref»:ents ])ower to establish "1 tranches" without further legislative a<-tion.' On the same day, the regents resolved to put into ojx'i-ition eight of these schools, aiul ajijiro- priated $S.()0() for this purpose. Hacli school was granted $.")()() ;ind till' i-cniaiu(ler was distiibuted to the sevei'al schools accord- ing to the iiuinber of pupils in avei*age daily attendance. The counties in which these ln-anches were located were re(|uired to fui-nish suital»le buildings and to pro\ide foi- one-half the run- ning expenses of the schools, while the other half, together with an allowance for libraries and philosophical appai'atns. was paid ■-' Id., 4. p. IhO. •' Ijiiwx of Afirhiiimi, Ih.'tT, ii". \A'. pp. ll)2-10(i (aniuuil ses.siiiu). ' /-/., IK.. IV, pp. :t()H-:i(>;t (spfclal srsslonl. Vol. 3.] Jo)ies. — Stdtc Aid to Scrontldri/ Schools. 101 by the state out <>t the university fund. ' To secure current funds sufficient to maintain the university and tlie ''])ratH'hes" a i)art of the university hinds was sohl. and the ])roceeds i)ut at interest. It was thought possible at this time "to lay the foundation of a university on the broadest scale, and place it on high and elevated ground at the very connnencement of its career of light, usefulness, and glory,'"' with an annual income of less than thirty thousand dollars. After a trial of a few years, it was decided, in 1840, to discontinue the i)lan of aiding the branches, as it was deemed unwise to cripple the university by appropriations from the funds designed originally for its support. The plan of a "branch" for each county was found to be impossible with the limited funds, and local jealousies were occasioned by the partiality shown to cei-tain sections in the establishment of these schools. The unequal advantages thus afforded the different counties of the state, and the growing conviction tliat the money thus expended out of the university fund was illegally used, caused the plan to be discontinued. Five "branches" were founded during the first year, and their number afterwards increased to "about a dozen." During the nine years in which they were aided, the "l)ranches" received from the state $35,935.' While in themselves comparatively un- important, these schools are deserving of recognition because of the influence exerted by them upon the earlj^ secondary education of ISIichigan. The desire for schools of an advanced grade had been kindled, a model had been furnished, and the beginning had been made in public provision for schools of a secondary grade. With the al)olition of the "branches," advanced jjublic schools were established in the more populous centers, com- monly known as union schools, which in a measure took the place of the earlier institutions. Many of these union schools were established about the time of the adoption of the constitution of 1850, which provided for the establishment of free schools in every school district, and for the university. In reviewing the educational provisions of the state, and of the constitution of •'Ten Bkook. Amvvu-U)i xtntc iDilvct-xUivx . . . imd the luiirrrsitj/ of Mich if/a ii . p. 145. ''Report of the state superintendent, 1887, cited by Ten Bkook, p. 110. "Ten Bkook, op. cit., p. 152. 102 Universifi/ of Cnlifornid Pnhlicdtinus. [Education isr)() ill particular, tlic suprciut' court in its decision in tlic famous "Kalamazoo hi«:h school case," in 1874, commented upon this provision as follows: "The inference seems irresistil)lc that tlie l)eoi)le ex]icct('d the tendency towards the estal)lishnicnt of lii<4:ii schools in ]triniar\' school districts would continue until cvci-y locality capable of sui)i)ortin}4: one was sniijdied." And in their oi)inion as to the legality of expending district fnnds for second- ary instruction, the court declared as follows: "We content ourselves with the statement that neither in our state policy, in our constitution, or in our laws, do we find the primary school disti'icts restricted in the Itranches of knowled.ue which their oflficers may cause to be taught, or grade of instruction that may be given, if their voters consent in regular form to bear the expense and raise the taxes for the ])urpose."'* AVISCONSIX Several academies' had been incorporated in Wisconsin prior to the admission of that state into the union, in 1S4S; and although the movement to estalilish normal schools was yet in its infancy, provision was made in the constitution of the state for support of both academies and normal schools out of the school funds of tlie state. The income from the sales of lands granted to the state b> the national go\ (■rnnieiit, and the clear proceeds of all other revenues applicable to educational pui'])oses were by the constitu- tion to ))(' ai)plied as follows: "1. To the su])i)ort and main- tenance of <'omnion schools in each school district, and tin- l)urchase of suitable libraries and apjiaratus therefor. '1. The residue shall be ai)i)roi)i-iated to the sni>port and maintenance of academies and normal schools, and suitaiile libraries and appa- i-atus therefor."' Tlie (ii-st enaclmeiit undei- this jirovision of the state consti- tution was made in 1S.")7, when an act for the encouragement of **.■{() M irhiiiii II (I'.t. A review of till; provisicni'^ fur sccoinlury filiK'atiun in Midii- Unii is (•iiilKiciicd ill tills (Iccisidi). ' Tlif tijdcst (if the Wisconsin nciuloniies wjis iociitcd at Pliittevillc. ami was incorporntcd iindrr tlic tcrritoriiil laws in IH.'t'.l. -' Cotistihitiini of W'isriitislii. art. X, sec. 'J. Vol. 3.1 Joiifs. — Sfdfe Aid 1o Seroinhiry Schools. 103 academies and noniial schools was passed. This act provided for the creation of a ''Board of Regents of Normal Schools," to be appointed by the governor with the approval of the Senate, the governor and state superintendent of public instru(;tion being €x officio nienibors of this board. The income of twenty-five per cent of the proceeds arising from the sale of swamj) and over- flowed lauds granted to the state, by act of Congress iu September, 1850, was distributed by this act "to the Colleges, Universities and Academies severally, except the State University," having established and maintained a normal institute in connection therewith, ''according to the number of pupils so instructed in such studies and for such a period of time as the Board of Regents may designate as a qualification or condition for receiving the benefits of this act," but no school could receive more than $3,000 annually. Every chartered college or university (except the state university) having corporate property to the amount of $50,000 above iucumln-ances, and every incorporated academy having corporate jiroperty to the amount of $5,000, which established and maintained a normal institute in connection there- with, for the education of teachers, was permitted to share in this fund, and upon furnishing proper security, to borrow a sum not exceeding $5,000 from the state for the erection of a building. It was also provided that of the remaining income, "every incorpo- rated college in this State with a clear capital of $50,000 (except the State University) shall be entitled to receive $20 for every female graduate who shall have pursued the regular course of studj- in such college, or such course as the Board of Regents in this act shall prescribe in lieu thereof."'* In the following year, 1858, every female college or seminary having corporate property to the amount of $20,000 was made to share in the distribution of the net income from the lands specified in the act of the previous year, and whenever the income subject to distribution in any one year amounted to $10,000, every public union or high school maintaining a normal institute in connection therewith was permitted to share in the income of this fund, in such ratio as the board of regents should designate.* •^ Laws of Wisconsin, 185 (, cb. 82. ■*/f7., 1858. ch. 139. Educ'n.— 8 104 Uuiversifif of Citlifoniia Pi(hIir(ifions. [EDrcATioN In is.')!), tlic law was modified to ivad as follows: Every eliai-tered college or university in this state, in which the usual college course of studies has been established and prosecuted, having corporate property to the amount of fifty thousand dollars above all encumbrances, every female college or seminary having corporate property to the amount of twenty thousand dollars, and every incoi-poiated academy having corporate property to the amount of five thousand dollars, and every union or high school under the control of any city, village, town or district board of commissioners, trustees, or directors having control of the schools in such city, village, town, or district, according to the laws of this state, which shall establish and maintain a normal department in connection there- with, for the education of teachers, shall receive from the income of said fund, in su^^'h ratio as the board of regents shall designate.^ All scliools ill which a iioi-iiial dei)ai'tinent was established and maintained aceordinj;' to the provisions of this aet were entitled to sliare in the distrilnition of this fund "aeeordiufj: to the number of pui)ils instructed in such studies, and for such a ])eriod of time as tlie board of rej^ents may designate as a quali- fication or condition for receivinfj the l)enefitsof thisact, until the aiiiount awarded to anyone of such institutions shall rea<-h the sum of three thousand dollars annually." Each school sharinj^ in this subsidy was required to make an annual certified report of the noinial department, giving: the age, residence, studies, and the nnniber of days' attendance of each pupil retui-ned by tluMn as entitled to the distril)iit ive share of state funds, together with a report of the condition of the institution. The Civil war greatly (liniinislied the attendance in these schools, so that l)ut seven departments were maintained in 18G4. Tliis number was doubled in the following year, l)ut was diminished to nine in ISdH.'' The decline of these de])artments led to the eslal>lislinicnl of normal schools devoted entirel.\ to the i)reparation of teachers. ^>Id., I8.^!t. eh. !)4, sec. !t. u Hauvev, Biennial report of the state .la/)! rintendeiit , \W2, ]>. C.K. A cdpy nf the course of study prescribed liy the rfK'<'nts in I808, is giv«'ii un tliis iniLjf. Vol. 3.] Jones. — Sfdfc Aid to S('C'))nJ(tri/ Schools. 10.") CHAPTER III THE RECENT PERIOD The academies in many states were not accessible to the large majority of qnalifiecl pnpils. Only in exceptional cases were these schools free to tliose in attendance, and many miles of travel and long- absences from home were necessary to enjoy the advantages offered by them. The rise of the ])nl)lic high school is part of a widesi)read movement toward organizing nnder public control a complete system of educational institutions. By the close of the Civil war the public high school had become an established factor in education, although it was not until many years later that it overtook the academies in the enrollment of students. In the most of the states the high schools wei'e organized as part of the common school system of the state, and were made to share in the distribution of the current school funds of the state in the same manner as the elementary schools, while in a few states the high schools were made to de])end entirely upon local support. In states where the high schools are made to share in the annual apportionment of the school fund of the state, the entire amount received from the public treasury is usually much less than the cost of maintaining the elementary schools, and the cost of supporting a high school becomes an additional burden upon the local communities supporting such schools. With a few possible exceptions, the high schools have been established by voluntary action of the communities in which they are found. No better proof of this can l)e had than the experience of a state having laws requiring certain communities to establish such schools. In Massachusetts, sixty-seven towns not required by law to maintain a high school were supporting such schools in 1900. Wherever they are found, they have appeared in response to a public demand, and are a worthy testimony to the spirit of the American people in educational matters. Every city points with just pride to its public high school, while many villages and rural communities have equal if not greater cause 106 Universiiy of California Piihlicaiious. [EorrAxioN to 1k' pi'oud of the excellent schools wliicli a progressive spirit lias inovidcd. Possibl.x no other single feature of our smaller cities and villages is more freriuently used as a criterion for judging the character of the community. Changes in the social, eoniniercial. and iudusti-ial world have l)rought with them a demand for a better i)i-eparation for the duties of life. Tlic public high schools have grown up in resi)onse to this demand. In the ten years between 1890 and 1900, their number increased from 2..")2() to (5, 00."), and the number of students attending Iiigh sciiools increased from 202, 9().'} to r)19,2.")l in the same period. The maintenance of these schools is often a heavy drain ujion the resources of the smaller cities and villages, and many com- munities are unable to i)rovide such means of educating their children. As a result of this condition, many of the most deserv- ing i)upils are often obliged to discontinue tlieir studies at the end of the elementary cour.se, while others are obliged to accept the work of a very inferior l)ut somewhat advanced school in lieu of a good high school education. The modei-n movement in legis- lation att'ecting high schools aims to extend to all (|ualitied puitiis the oi)i)ortunity of obtaining a free secondary education in well- equi])ped and i)roperly classified public high schools. To this end all taxal)lc jiroj^erty within the state is nuide to contrilmte to t he snjiport (»f high schools, as well as to the support of element a r.\ schools and universities. Thci-e is an unmistakable etfoi-t to extend to pujtils in rural .sections the advantages that have hitherto been availal)le oidy to tho.se residing in the more pojjulous centers. This is effected in several of the states through the gi-anting of a sul)sidy from the state treasury for the su])port of the high schools of tlic state, and in other states by requiring cojumunities that are unable to maintain high sehools of theii- own to pa\ foi- tlie tuition of (pialilied pupils attending high schools elsewhei-e. .M.MXK The free high school system of Maine was established in 1S7.'5. In February of that \v;\v, an act was jiassed. entitled, "An act in aid of free high schools."' which aimed to encourage the estab- ' Tlif fri-e liiKli .school luw <>f Wi.sciiii>in, passt-d in 1S7.1, wa.s closely nuHleled iifliT this act. VOL. 3.] Jones. — Sf (lie Aid to St^roiulari/ Schools. 107 lislmu'iit of lii<4li schools throuoh the gTantiiio; of a state subsidy to such schools, as follows: Sect 1 When any town shall' have established and maintained a free high school as provided by this act, for at least ten weeks in any one vear, snch town on complying with the conditions herein set forth, shall be entitled to receive from the state one-half the amount actually expended for instruction in said school, not however exceeding five hundred dollars from the state to any one town; provided, that no town shall be entitled to such state aid unless the appropriation and expen- diture for such school on the part of said town, has been exclusive of the amounts required by law to be expended for common school pur- poses Such state aid shall be paid from the state treasury on and after the first day of December of each year, upon certification by the governor and council as provided by section eight. Sect '^ Any town may establish and maintain not exceeding two free hi-h schools; and when two such schools are maintained, shall be entitled to receive the same state aid as if the expenditures for both schools had been made for one school. Two or more adjoining towns may unite in establishing and maintaining a free high school, and both receive the same state aid as if such school had been maintained by one town. So long as any town shall decline to avail itself of the provisions of this act, any school district, or union of districts m such town may establish and maintain a free high school, and receive state aid the same as the town might have done ; provided, that no more than two such free high schools shall be established in any town, and that the amount of state aid extended to the districts in any town shall not exceed the sum that the town might have received. Two adjoining school districts in different towns may establish and maintain a union free high school, and, with the consent of both towns, may receive a proportional part of such state aid, to be determined as provided by L t'on eight! but in no case to exceed the amount t^^t either ^wn might have received. Towns shall receive m trust and faithtully expend donations and bequests made to aid in the mamtainence of fi-ee high schools, and shall receive state aid in such cases to the same extent, and on the same conditions as if such schools had been es ab- lished and maintained by taxation; provided, that no town shall be entitled to receive such state aid on any expenditure for a free high school or schools made from the funds or proceeds of the real esta e of an academy or incorporated institution of learning, surrendered or transferred to such town for educational purposes. Sect 3 Anv town, or union of towns or districts, voting to establish a free high school as herein provided, may locate the same perma- nently or vote that the terms of said school be held alternately in such school districts within the town or towns as may be selected, and as may accept said school. It shall be the duty of the district in whic^ said free high school is thus held, to supply appropriate equipments for the same, and also to furnish and warm a suitable building; pro- 108 Univfrsitij of CdJifornid ]'nhJirfifions. [edccation rifhd, tliat such district may use its district school-liouse for such free high school, when not required for ordinary school purposes. Sect. 4. The course of study in the free high school contemplated by this act, shall embrace the ordinary academic studies, especially the natural sciences in their application to mechanics, manufactures and agriculture. Sucli school or schools, when estalilished by any town or union of towns, shall be free to all the youth in such town or towns, on such attainments of scholarship as shall be fixed by the superin- tending school committee or committees having the supervision of said school or schools. When such school is established by any school district or union of school districts, it shall be free in the same manner to the scholars within such district or districts ; and also open to scholais passing the required examination from without said district or districts, hut within the town or towns in which said district or districts are situated, on the i)aynient to the agent of the district in which such school is located, of such tuition, to be fixed by the superintending school committee or committees having the supervision of the same, as shall be equivalent to the cost per scholar of maintaining such school, after de- ducting the aid extended by the state. Whenever in the judgment of the superintending school committee or committees liaving the supervision of any free high school or schools, the nunilier of i>upils in the same may be increased without detriment, scholars from without the town or towns directly interested in such school or schools, may be admitted to the same on passing the required examination, and paying such tuition as may be fixed by said committee, to tlie treasurer of the town in which the school is kept, when such school is nniintained by a town or a union of towns, or to the agent of the district in which the school is kept, when such school is maintained by a district or union of districts. Sect. 7. Any town may from year to year authorize its superin- tending school committee to contract with and ]iay tlie trustees of any academy in said town, for the tuition of scholars within such town, in the studies contemplated by this act, under a standard of scholarship to he established liy such committee; and the expenditure of any town for tuition in such academy shall be suliject to the same conditions, and shall entitle such town to the same aid from the state as if said town hail made such exjienditure for a free higii school. - To l'ui-1 lici' tlic iiiovciiiciil to i»i-o\i(l(' sccoiidafy ('(luc:it ion in pul»lic liij^li schools, the same Ic^^'islatnrc liad passt-d an act, cnlitlcd. "An ai't lo rnahk' academies to snifeiider their i>roi»crty to cities, towns, and phuitations, for tlic licnetit of free hi^li schools."' Foi- more than eiy'hty yeai-s the academies of Maine liad liccn reco^iii/.cd as tlic natnral agencies for the advani-cij in- struction of pupils aftei- tl omi)letion of the elementary studies. aiul in ree(>y:nition of such services liberal t^^rants had been made - /jtiirn of Afiiiur. IhT.'t, ell. V2\. :«y./.. ■•li". 11.-.. Vol. :{.] Joncs. — State Aid to Secondary Schools. 109 to these schools from the pul)li(' treasury. Artiek^s of incorpora- tion liad l)een issued to nincty-ei<''lit academies prior to the passage of the hiw providing- for the establishment of fi-ee high schools, iu 1873. The rate of incorporation for the twenty-five years previous to the provision for a sj'stem of public secondary schools averaged one academy a ^-ear.' A few of the schools incorporated by the legislature were not organized, and many were obliged to discontinue their work about the middle of the century, owing to a decrease in attendance and the consequent reduction in the income for their support. The movement toward providing secondary schools under public control had made itself felt prior to the passage of the law granting state aid to free high schools. Twenty-one public high schools had been established in fourteen of the cities and seven of the larger towns, and had begun to supplant the academies in the work of providing instruction iu the more advanced studies. Seventy-nine towns and twenty-four districts had each made provision for a free high school before the close of the first year of the operation of the law, making in all one hundred and twenty-four high schools at the end of that year. So ra])id was the increase in the number of these schools that in 1875 the the state had 210 free high schools, but owing to the hard times that followed in the next few years, the number of these schools was reduced to 150 in 1878.^ In the following year, in the pre- tended interest of economy," the legislature discontinued the pay- ment of state money to the support of high schools for the period of one 3'ear,' and, as a result, nearly every high school that had been established in the rural communities was discontinued. The provisions of the high school law of 1873 were to become opera- tive again in 1880, but the annual amount of state aid payable to any town for the support of free high schools was reduced from $500 to $250, with the following provision as to the course of study in any school receiving this aid: ^ Stetson, in Maine school report, 1901. •"'Hon. Nelson Dingley, Jk., Free h'ujli schools, in Maine school report, 1880, pp. 88-91 (appendix). "One hundred and three academies are enumerated by Stetson, op. cit. Of these four failed to be organized, forty-five have been discontinued, leaving fifty- four schools in existence as academies or other educational institutions in 1901. 'Acts and resolves of Maine, 1879, eh. 131. 110 Univprsify of California Puhlirations. [educatios The course of stiuly in the free high school contemplated by this act, shall embrace the ordinary enjilish academic studies, especially the natural sciences in their apjilication to mechanics, manufactures and afjriculture; but the ancient or modern languages shall not be taught in said schools except wholly at the expense of the city, town, district or union of districts maintaining such school or schools. But any town having one or more graded schools, with a prescribed course of study, including the branches latin, greek and french established at the time of the passage of this act, shall be allowed to avail itself of this act without causing any change in the prescribed course or courses of study/ Many of the better endowed aeadeinies had been able to contiuiie their work of furnishing instruction in secondary studies. In 1889, towns were authorized to contract for the tuition of their pupils in any of the academies or high schools, and to receive from the state the same aid to which they would have been entitled had they snpiiorted free hi{?h schools. By this arranfjement, towns not sn]ii)(>rfiii^- liigli schools received from the state an amount equal to one-half the expenditure by the town for the tuition of pupils in secondary schools. In l. s;i-8;). Vol. 3.] Jones. — IStiite Aid to Sicondanj ^Srliools. Ill 1899, receivin*? sums raiigiug from $250 to $2,000 each from the state.'" Special legishition with reference to grants to the various academies was done away witli in 1901, by the passage of an act ])roviding for a systematic i)lau of ai^iiortionment of state subsidies to academies, seminaries, and institutes. The first section of this act, setting forth the amounts the schools are entitled to receive, and some of the conditions upon which such grants are made, is as follows: Whenever it shall be made to appear to the governor and council, from returns made as herein provided, that any incorporated academy, seminary or institute in the state is prepared to give instruction equivalent to that required by law to be given in free high schools, that the pupils attending the said academy, seminary or institute are qualified to receive such instruction, and that the teachers in the said academy, seminary or institute have the qualifications fitting them to give instruction in secondary school studies, such academy, seminary or institute shall be entitled to receive annually from the State a sum not exceeding five hundred dollars in case it maintains an English secondary school course of study as prescribed by the educational department of the state, and has an average attendance from towns and cities other than the municipality or jurisdiction in which said academy, seminary or institute is located of at least ten students, or a sum not exceeding seven hundred and fifty dollars in case it maintains in addition to an English course, a college preparatory course, and has an average attendance from towns and cities other than the municipality or jurisdiction in which said academy, seminary or institute is located of at least twenty students, or a sum not exceeding one thousand dollars in case it maintains an English course, a college preparatory course and a training course for teachers, and has an average attendance from towns and cities other than the municipality or jurisdiction in which said academy, seminary or institute is located of at least forty students; provided, the courses of study herein named shall be subject to the approval of the educational department of the state; and provided, that the amount paid by the state to any academy, seminary or institute under this act shall be expended by the said academy, seminary or institute for instruction during the year for which payment is made, and shall not exceed the total income of the said academy, seminary or institute from all other sources; and provided further, that in addition to the amount received from the state, a sum equal thereto shall be expended for instruction and maintenance of the academy, seminary or institute during said year; and provided further, that every academy, seminary or institute receiving money from the state under this act shall provide instruc- tion as contemplated by this act for not less than thirty weeks in each year; and provided further, that no academy, seminary or institute i"/(7., p. 89. 112 Uiin'cysiiy nf ('(d'lforiiin Pnhlirtitions. [EDcciTiox shall be erediteil with niaintaiiiing a course of study under this act unless the said academy, seminary or institute shall have an average of not less than twelve students in said course." Various other provisions respecting;- the state-aided academies and other private seeondary schools are made in otlier sections of this act. No school having an endowment sufficient to yield an annual inconu^ of $l,GOO, and no school with an average attendance that does not "exceed thirty students" for the preceding year is entitled to receive state aid; and no such school is entitled to more than ^.jOO in any one year if it has an annual income whicli exceeds $1,000, or if the average attendance for tlie ]ire('eding year does not exceed sixty students; and no academy is entitled to this subsidy unless it was incori)orated \n-\or to the passage of this act. It is also ])rovided that towns or precincts not maintaining free high schools, but l)i-o\ idiug free tuition for their high school students in any of tlicse scho(»ls, are entitled to i-eceive state aid to the amount of one-half tlie sum thus expended, i)rovided that no town shall receive more than $2.")0 foi- this jjurjiose in any given year. Under the operation of this law, in 1901-02, thirty-two acad- emies received from the state amounts ranging from $'■>()() to $1,000, and aggregating $20,58"). In achlition to this amount, seventeen <»f the academies received an aggregate of $4,0!).") from the state free high school fund, making a total of $24,()SO to the academies in that year.'" Meanwhile the nundicr of free high sclioois liad increased to '_*"J4 in 1!)()2. These received amounts ranging fiom $.")() to $2r>0 each, and aggregating $44,;i7S)..']'). making a total exj)enditure of $(>{),().")!). 3o by the state for sjjccial aid to secondary schools dui-ing that year."' This sum amounted to a little ovei' one-sixth of the cost of maintaining these schools for the same \cai-. MASSACHUSETTS In IS'JT, e\-ery city, town, or district in ^lassachusetts con- taining li\'e hundred families or holders was recpiired to suj>i)ort a uuister competent to give instruction in the history of the " Lilim of Miiiin . I'.MIl. ell. 14S. '■-Stetson, Maim srli<><,l report, IIIOL". ]>. 72. ^■' Id., u|>pcn\ the ])rovisi<)ns of a law passed in that year, towns of more tlian tive Inuidred families are required to supi)ort high schools witlumt receiving aid from the state, while towns of less tlian that niimlier are grouped into five classes, as follows: 1. Towns whose valuation averages a larger sum for each l)ui)il in the average meml)ershii) of tlu-ir ])ul)lie schools than the eorresi)oiuling avei-age for the coTumonwealth. These are not entitlt^l to state aid if maintaining a liigh sdiool. nor to reim- bursements for anu^unts expended for the tuition of i)ui)ils attending high schools elsewhere. 2. Towns without high schools of their own and having a valuation of less than $7.")( ).()()() each. These aiv entitled to the full amount expended for the tuition of (|ualitied jtujiils attemling any of the api)roved high schools in the state. 3. Towns without a high school of their own and having a valuation of more than $750,000 each. These are iciniliursed foi- one-half the amount expended for such tuition. 4. Towns that maintain high schools of their own with two ()!• more teachei-s eaeh. Sucli towns are entitled to I'cceive annually from the treasury of the commonwealth towai-d the support of such high school the sum of thi-ee hundred dollars. 5. Towns that nuiiutain high scht)ols of their own with only one teacher each. These receive no aid t'lom tjie state." There were in 1902 twenty-four tow/is of the first class, eighty-nine of the second class, eighteen of the thii-d class, thii-ty-three of the fourth class, and t went\-enditure was increased fi-om fourteen thousand dollars in 1!)02'' to thirty thou.sand dollars in IDO.'].'" »/(/.. l'.»(IL», ell. J.t;!. • IIlI.I,, i)fili^Art.i tint! ri'solri's «/ .)f. Vol. 3.] Jones. — St<(fe Ai(J to Scronddry Schools. 11") It is the evident intent of this hnv to seenre to eacli cliild tlie oi)i)ortunity of ol)tainin<;' a secondary education, and at tlie same time to i)rote('t the ehikl against the injustice of liaving to accept uiuler the name of high school education that which does not come uj) to the high school standard. In this respect the schools are following the lead of the business world, which demands laws to protect it against adulterated goods bearing lal)els that would lead the consumer to su])pose them genuine. It is provided that if the towns now attempting to carry on high school work in schools of but one teacher will give up the attemi)t and send their pupils to other high schools, or if they will build up an approved school of two or more teachers, they will be entitled to state aid in the same manner as other towns. The following section aims to define what the state requires of the high school, leaving the state board of education to pass upon the qualifications of the instructors, and the equipment of the school: Every city and everj' town containing aeeordiug to the latest census, state or national, five hundred families or householders, shall, and any other town may, maintain a high school, adequately equipped, which shall be kept by a principal and such assistants as may be needed, of competent ability and good morals, who shall give instruction in such subjects designated in the preceding section" as the school committee consider expedient to be taught in the high school, and in such additional subjects as may be required for the general purpose of training and culture, as well as for the purpose of preparing pupils for admission to state normal schools, technical schools and colleges. One or more courses of study, at least four years in length, shall be maintained in each such high school and it shall be kept open for the benefit of all of the inhabitants of the city or town for at least forty weeks, exclusive of vacations, in each year. A town may cause instruction to be given in a portion only of the fore- going requirements if it makes adequate provision for instruction in the others in the high school of another city or town.'-' The method of distributing the proceeds of the general school fund of the state is deserving of careful study. The permanent 1' The following list of studies for public schools is enumerated, in addition to studies of a more elementary character: Bookkeeping, algebra, geometry, one or more foreign languages, the elements of the natural sciences, kindergarten train- ing, manual training, agriculture, sewing, cooking, vocal music, physical training, civil government, ethics and such other sulijects as the school committee consider expedient maj' be taught in the public schools. ^-Revised Laws, ch. 42, sec. 2. 116 Universiiy of Califoniia riihliciiiUnis. [education school fund is now considcraldy in oxoess of four millions of dollars, and an annual addition of one liuudi-cd thousand dollars is nuidc to it until tin* fund shall amount to five nullions. at which liji'urc it is to remain. One-half of the annual income of said scliool fund shall, without specific appropriation, be apportioned and distributed for the support of public schools, in the followincj manner: Every town which complies with all laws relative to the distribution of said income and whose valuation of real and personal property, as shown V>y the last preceding: assessors' valuation thereof, does not exceed one-half million dollars shall annually receive three hundred dollars; but if its rate of taxation for any year shall l)e eifjhteen dollars or more on a thousand dollars, it shall receive fifty dollars additional; every such town whose valuation is more than one-half million dollars and does not exceed one million dollars shall receive two hundred dollars; and every such town whose valuation is more than one million dollars and does not exceed two million dollars shall receive one hundred dollars; and every such town whose valuation is more than two million dollars and does not exceed three million dollars shall receive fifty dollars. The remainder of said lialf shall be distributed to towns whose valua- tion does not exceed three million dollars and whose annual tax for the support of the public schools is not less than one-sixth of their whole tax for the year, as follows: Every town whose school tax is not less than one-third of its whole tax shall receive a proportion of said remainder expressed by one-third; every town whose school tax is not less than one -fourth of its whole tax shall receive a proportion expressed by one-fourth; every such town whose school tax is nf)t less than one-fifth of its whole tax shall receive a proportion expressed by one-fifth; and every such town whose school tax is not less than one-sixth of its whole tax shall receive a proportion expressed by one- sixth. All money appropriated for other educational purposes, unless otherwise ]>rovided, shall lie paid from the other half of said income. If the income in any year exceeds such appropriations, the surjiliis shall be added to the principal of such fund." '•'iA'ri.s-cf? //flics, ell. 41, sec. 4. By a nioditication of this law in l!Hi;{. tlio weaker towns were ffrimtcd a larger share of the income of the state seliool fund, as follows: Tlie three liundred dollars f^raiited to towns of less than one-half million dollars valuation was increased to five hundred dollars, and the tifty dollars additional to seventy-five dollars: the two hundred dollars f;rai\ted to towns with valuation niniir- in;r from one-half million dollars to one million dollars was increased to three hundred dollars; towns with valuation ran^jiiiK from one million i)r()priations were made up(»n this basis. In 1898, the secretary of the high school ilepartint'iit of the university recommended tliat further distribu- tion upon the basis of examination returns ])e discontinued.'' The method of paynienf l)y results was diseont inui'd in acc(n-- '•' IIiiHdlioiik, no. '.i, L' hi re IS ill/ of the Sttitc of Aeiv I'ork, 1!)02, p. .">. ^ Hi TI.KH, in Hoi'oii's Jlixlorirdl record, op. cit., i)p. ;t2-;?.'t. '' JJiindhook, op. cif., pp. :"), :!8. A special tax of .f 12.">,000 was levied in 187.'1 for tlie hciiclit of tin- secondary schools. Tlie annual appropriation for books and apparatus was doubled for that year, and the annual ajipropriation for teachers' classes was raised from $18,000 to !i*:iO, 00(1; the amount ea<"h school was entitled to receive for instruction of students in the normal classes was raised to fifteen dollars jter .student, ami every academy was made elifiible to share in this ]>rivilef;«'. *'xcei)t denominational schoids, which were excluded from the benefits of state aid durin;; that year. This measurt- had as one of its jmrposes a reduction in the amount of tuition fees <'hurf;ed by the state-iiided sc1uk)1s. ( Liiirs, 187.'{, ch. M'2.) '• Hkown, The making of our middle schools, p. IWJ. Vol. 3.] Jones. — Staff Aid io Seconihirn Schools. 119 (lance with this rccoiiiiiieiulation, and in August, 1!)()(), the follow- ini;' ai)i)()rti<)unient was fixed u])<)n: 1. Each registered undenominational school of academic grade receives annuallj- from the academic fund a quota of $100. The university also pays one-half the cost of approved books and apparatus purchased by such schools, but does not allow more than $250 a year under this head to any one school. 2. Each registered school of academic grade that submits to examination and insi)ection receives also a grant for each day's attendance of each academic student.' Denominational as well as undenominational schools are made to share in the benefits of the apportionment upon the basis of attendance. In 1902, the amount apportioned as a flat sum of $100 to each school amounted to $61,000; the amount apportioned for books and apparatus amounted to $15,949; and the apportion- ment on the basis of attendance amounted to $226,721. The amount apportioned to the one hundred denominational schools in this catagory amounted to $11,317, an average of about $113 to each school.* At the close of the fiscal year of 1901, the Literature Fund amounted to $284,201.30. The income of this fund furnishes $12,000 of the annual amount apportioned to the secondary schools; $34,000 was added from the income of the United States deposit, in 1902; and the balance of the $344,457.90 apportioned in that ^ear was derived from general taxation. Of the schools sharing in this subsidy, 610 were undenominational schools, and 100 were denominational institutions.' The regular regents' examinations are held in Januarj- and -June in seventy-six subjects, covering all the courses in the secondary schools. A March examination is given in twenty-six subjects only; schools may, if they desire, take this examination also, although no school is required to take any examination. A special examination for professional and technical students only is held in New York, Albany, Syracuse, and Buffalo in Se])tember. Twenty-five suljjects of secondary grade are offered '' HancUiooli, op. cif., pp. 19, 20. ^Letter from Henry L. Taylor, Director's Assistant in College and High School Department, Albany, X. Y. '■' Id. Educ'n.— 9 120 Univfrsiiii of Cdlifoniin PuJiIicufions. [editatios at this t'xaiMiiiatioii.'" T<» oarry on t'lliciciitly tlir work of insj^'C- tioii and <'xaiiiiiiatioii. a corjis of ten insi)e('tors and an ajipai-atns clcik and a staff of eleven examiners and thirty-two clerks and jnnior clerks is required. The thirty secondary schools sharinj^- in the state suhsidy in 1820" had inci-cased to 710 in IDO'J. The annual appropria- tion had increased from $:},:)()() in 17!)2 to ii?10.()(1() in 1S:1(). and to $100. 000 in 1887, and to $:r)0,000 in l!»o:!. The annual amount distributed for Ixtoks and other su]»i)lies increased from the $;5, ()()() of is:}.") to $0, ()()() in 188.1. '■' This sum varied eonsid- era])ly from time to time, the amount api)ortioned to the schools beiuf? frequently in excess of the regular amount ai)i)ropriated. The apportionment in 1!)02 anu)unted to $1."),9-19. The total apportionment to the academies for books and ap]»aratus from 179:5 to 1882. inclusive, amounted to $1.17, 009.29,'' while the total amount for all pui-poses up to 1884 M'as $1,996,738.18, besides more than sixty si)eeial j^-i-ants of land and money, the latter alone amounting to more than $.10, 000." The average amount received by the undenomimitional schools of secondary grade from this special subsidy in 1902 amounted to more than foui- hundred and fifty dollars per school.'' MARYLAND From the earliest attenijjts to establish a system of secondary schools in Mai-yland, the ideal of one such school for eacdi county has been retained. In 1S().1. an attempt was made to establish a state system of ])ublie high scIkioIs and to apju-opriate for their support tlie annual donations i)re\iously made to the academies. The following are the main pro\isions of an act passed in that year : There shall t)e for each county at least one hiph school in which instruction shall be given to males and females in the higher branches of English and Hcientific Education, and in the Latin and Greek ^" /III ml h< ><>!,■ . 0/1. (it.. ]>]). 4. :{.'>-:!!l. " Ilociill, ojt. fit., (). .">■_',"). .\ini tji-si vi nth ni/ints' n/Hirt. pp. ."):i.V.')4."i. '- Liiirn, 18H."i, eh. '2W. Kor tlic nifthixl of .■ipportionniciit of funds to tcacliiTs' chiHscs, see Laws, 1K77, cli. 4'jri. " ' /./., p. r):{.".-.-.4.'.. ']>. 141-1 1:.. I''TaYI,i-ook- ville Academy, and l\nck\ille Aeademx', in Montgomery County. West Nottingham Academy, in Cecil County, and Charlotte Hall. The nuiiiher of secondary schools annually aided froiii tin- state treasury has remained about tifteen, while the total amount apportioned to the schools of this class has vai-ied Imt little in sixty years. The amounts annually a])i)ortioned to the several s<'liools I'ange from $100 to $L'.. ')()() each, wliile the total amount is iisiialh' close to ten thousand dollars.' WISCONSIN' The ])ei'io(l Ix'tweeii tlu' admission of Wisconsin into the union and the estaltlisliiiieiit of a state system of free high schools in 1S7.') was marked l)y a rapid inci-ease in the numher of advanced oi- "graded" ])ul»lie schools. The nunil>er of such schools increased from about lifly in ISfiO to 4'Jl in 187"). In t wciity-seveii of the largest towns and cities these s(diools had ad\aiiced to the gi-ade of high S(dio(tls, while "JIO of the .'{!)-l graded schools outside of the cities had three oi- iikhc de))art- nients. Tlic fnniiatioii of county high schools had Ix-cii recommended by the slate siipci-inteiideiit in 1S.")"J, and legislative ■' Hy scimrafc ic^cislalivc iiclr<, I lie iiiiiiiiiil ii|>|>r(i|>riiiti(>ns were rrston-d to sfvi-riii ani(lciiiics. (Ltiwx, ISIJH, clis. \K\. VX.\, 'JOH. 2:f:(, 4:i4: lUC'.t. cli. 22;{. ) ^ For II stiitciiifiif (if the iiinuiints fjraiitcd to those scliools in luiy jriven yi'ur, set- Aiiiniiil nporl of ttte stillf hoiird of fduviltiitii. Vol. 3.1 Jones. — Si((tf Aid to Scroiuldri/ Schools. 123 l)r()visioii foi- union hiu'li sdiools was made in IS.IS, l)ut very few lii^'li seliools wei'e oi'u'anized under tliis in-ovision, as the districts were averse to giviuo- up their district organization.' A state system of free high schools was established in 1875 l)y the passage of an act, entitled, "AN ACT to authorize the establishment and aid in the maintenance of tree high schools." Under the provisions of this act, any town, incorporated village, or city in the state was authorized to establish and maintain a free high school whenever the majority of the legal voters voting upon that ([uestion at any regular annual meeting, or at any special meeting legally called for that purpose, should determine so to do. Towns were permitted to unite in the formation of .joint free high schools, and in case any town failed to avail itself of the benefits of this act, any school district or a union of two or more districts might establish such a school, provided that not more than two free high schools should be established in any one town, and that no district maintaining a free high school should be taxed toward the maintenance of more than one such school." The following provision was made for the granting of a state subsidy to these schools: When any free high school shall have been established and main- tained as provided by this act, for at least thirteen weeks in any one year, such high school district on complying with the conditions herein set forth, shall be entitled to receive from the state one-half the amount actually expended for instruction in said school, not, however, exceeding five hundred dollars in any. one year, to any one school, or to the two schools of one town, incorporated village or city; provided, however, that a high school district of a larger population than three thousand, shall be entitled to receive at the rate of one hundred dollars additional for each additional three thousand of such population; (Did provided further, that no high school district, town, incorporated village or city, shall be entitled to such aid unless the appropriation and expenditure for the high school or schools, on the part of such district, town, village or city, has been exclusive of the amounts required by law to be expended for common school purposes. Such state aid shall be paid from the state treasury on and after the first day of December of such year. Any town may from year to year authorize its high school board to contract with, and pay the trustees of any academy or college having a preparatory department, in said town, for the tuition of scholars 1 Harvey, in BienninJ report of the state .sttperiiitemleiil, 1002, ]!. (>9. -Laws of WiscoHnin, 187.5. eh. 323. 124 UnivPt'sifi/ of C(difor)iiii Pnldicalions. [edi-cation within such town, in the studies eontemphited in this act, under the standiud of scholarship hereinbefore jirovided to be established: and the expenditure of any town for tuition in such academy or college, shall be subject to the same conditions, and shall entitle said town to the same aid from the state as if said town had made such expenditure for a free high school."' A sum surticicnt to inct-t tlic oxpeiulitiii-c autliorizcd l>y tliis act was apjji'opriatcd out of the i)iil)li(' ti-easiirv, provided that not more tlian $2."), ()()() slioukl Ix* drawn from the state treasury for this jiurposc in an\ one year. In the same year, 1875, three courses of study for free high schools were jjrejjared l)y State »Sui)erintendent Edward Seerino;, two of uiiich were adapted to the four-year high schools of the larger cities, and the other, a three-year coui-se, was designed to cover the needs of smaller i)laces. During the year, eighteen new high schools Avere estahlished and in all twenty schools shared in the lii-st Mppoi-tionmcnt (»f the special aid to the high schools. Of these, thirteen were newl\ -formed high schools that had been created after the i)assage of the measure providing for state aid. As no school was ])ermitted to receive more than one- half the sum aetuall.N' expended for insfruetioii nor moi'e than $.")()() in any <»ne yeai-, less than one-third of the api)i-oi)riation was ai)i)ortioned at the close of the first year; the total cost of insti-uetioii in the high si-liools i-eeei\ing state aid was less than $1S, ()()() during that year. I^ut during the following year, 1S77, thirty-two new high schools were added, and by the clo.se of tlu' scho(»l ><'ar of bS7!)-S(), ninety-one free higli schools were entitled to receive aid fi-om the state, and the total api»i'opriat ion of ii^'J .").()()() was api)orlioned to the high schools. As might nat- ui'ally be exjtected. this aid went to the schools of the cities and lai'ger \illages. and together with the tuition fees received from non-resident students, was of considerable assistance in the maintenance of these sclnxtls. To encourage the establishment of high schools in cduimu- nitii's not supiMH-ting a graded system of schonls. the legislature of ISS,") appi'o|triale(l an additional sum of .^'J.'j.OOO expressly for fi'ce high schools in towns having no graded schools, "^riie i)lan seems to ha\i' aimed to encourage the eslablishnient of t(twn>liip ■^ Id., sees. 11. IJ. Vol. 3.] Jonis. — t>i(ttc Aid to S(c'ed with the other high school fund/ The ])rovisions of this act are in force at the ])i'esent time, 1903. The oi-dinary three-year aud four-year high schools^ share ])ro rata, and none may receive more than $500 per anuum, while the township high scihools receive one-half the amount actually expended for instruction. Yet after fifteen years of such induce- ment, but nine townshi]) high schools have been organized. Under the provisions of this act, six schools received at the last distribution of revenues, November, 1902, amounts ranging from $562.50 to $1,085 each, while the other high schools not affected by this provision received $458.05 each. The attempt to organize rural high schools has been repeatedly pronounced a failure, so far as the experience of Wisconsin in this matter goes. The total annual appropriation for high schools was increased to $100,000 in 1901. The provisions of the law apply to the three-year schools in the same manner as to the four-year schools. Forty- six three-year schools and 176 four-year schools shared in this distribution in 1902. Of the four-year schools, 170 received $1:58.05, and six received amounts somewhat less. Of the forty-six three-year high schools, four received the maximum amount of $158.05. Some received as low as $247.32, which represents one-half the actual amount expended for instruction in these schools during the year or part of the year.*" To be eligible to share in the l)enefits of this distril)ution, a high school must comply with the following requirements: * Id., 1885, eh. .352. ■''Thirteen high schools in nine of the cities of "Wisconsin are classed as "Inde- pendent High Schools," and are not subject to the conditions imposed upon the "township" high schools and the "free" high schools. Thej^ do not share in any of the special su1)sidies from the state treasury. This list includes the high schools of Kilbourn, LaCrosse, Madison, Manitowoc, Menomonie, Milwaukee, Oshkosh, Kacine, and West Superior. '■Haryev, Report, op. cif. Also letters from the state department. 126 UnircrsHtj of Cdlifornid PuJdirttfiotm. [education' 1. The (lualitications <»f all teachers eraploj-ed in the school must l)e approved by the state suix'i-iiiteiulent of schools. 2. The coui'se of study offered by the seliool must have the apj)roval of the state superintendent of schools; as must also the number of teachers needed to carry on the work as outlined in the courst' of study. '6. Each state-aided school must submit to inspection hy the state sui)crintendcnt, or V)y an insjjcctor api)ointcd by him. 4. The school is obliged to make such rei)orts to the othce of the state superintendent of schools as may be rccpiircd by that office. The standard set for admission to the \\\\x\\ school teachinir force of the state requires that all candidates ])ass an e.xamination o'iven hy the state board of examinei-s, or hold a countei-si<,nied dii)loma from an api)roved university. colley:e, or normal school. l)iploiiias issued by state noi-mal schools, and 1)\' the state university to {graduates having com]ilet<'d the jn-escribed amount of work in pedagogy, are accepted as high school credentials for a period of one year, upon the approval of the state superin- tendent of schools. Upon certified testimony of good nioi-al character ami of successful teaching for a period of eight months, the dii)loma may be countei-signcd by the supei-intendcnt of public instruction, and thus it Ix'conu's a jx-i'iiianeiit state certificate. In accordance with legal requirements, the state su])erintendciit of schools ju-ej^ares "a course or courses of study suital)le to be piir.-iied in fr(M' high schools," and these are made the courses of all siieji schools. These courses are iirejiared with much cai'c. and it is seldom that a school is permitted to deviate fai- from the woi-k as outlined in them. In this way uniformity of work is maintained throughout the state. The state inspcctoi- of high schools aims to visit every school once in each year. ])ui-ing these visits he jdans to inspect not oid.\ the charactei- and (pudity of the actual work of both tcachei- and pui)il, but also the general condition of all school i)i'oi)ert\ ; the woi'k of the grammai- grades; the standards si't for admission into the high school; the general e((nipment of the scliool, im-lnding reading libraries, i-efereiice lil)raries, ajiparalns foi- t he scient ilic labora- tories, etc. lie aims to meet and <'onfei' with members of the Vol. 3.] Jojifs. — iSf<(fc Aid 1o Sicovdari/ Schools. 127 school board, and feels pert'eetly free in calliiio' tiieii- attcntioii to needed improvements, as well as in eonnncndin";' tlieni for improvements made. During intermission or after the close of school, he meets with the teachers and is ready to offer suggestions or be of assistance to them in their work. His visit is usually of inncli ix'iielit to the school; but in this particular much depends u])on the person selected for this imi)ortant office. The ajipropria- tions are made in accordance with his report of the result of this inspection. The university acicrediting system is entirely independent of the system of state inspection. Any high school wishing to be ])laced upon the "accredited list" of the university is reciuired to make a])plicatiou to a university connnittee on accredited schools, in order that its work may be inspected with such ends in view. The university inspector visits the school, which is accredited or rejected upon his report of its work and general equipment. This report in no way affects the apportionment of the annual appropriation for high schools.' The university emi)loys as high school insi)ector an experienced high school principal who is a member of the university faculty and bears the title Assisfoiif Professor of Pedagogij and Inspector of High Schools. Under this title he offers two courses of two hours each in pedagogy in the last semester of the year; the remainder of his time is devoted to the inspection of high schools and to the duties of secretary of the committee on accredited schools, which has in charge the recommendation of university graduates for positions in the high schools of the state. In the work of inspection he is assisted by professors in all departments of the university. A large part of the inspection is done in this way, both on account of the time which it requires and because of the special preparation necessary for this important work.** Experience has proved that the two systems of inspection can be carried on in perfect harmony, and with benefit to the schools. ^ Of forty three-j'ear high schools enumerated in the bulletin of school officers issued in October, 1902, thirty-one were one-teacher schools. Before a graded school can be organized into a high school, twentj'-five resident pupils of school age nnist pass an examination given by the state superintendent, "in the branches required to be taught in the common schools," as evidence that they "are prepared to begin a high school course." [Laws, sec. 490.) ^Letter from M. V. O'Shea, School of Education, University of Wisconsin. 128 [fniversifj/ of CtiVifornid Pidiliiafioiis. [edicatios The h^<2:is];itiir<' of l!)Ol ])i'()vi(lt'(l tor tlu' atlinissioii of all (jualified i)iiitils into aii\ of the lii<;:li schools of the state whose ueeoniiModations are such as will permit of increased attendance, and reqnired the town oi- city of which the i)ui)il is a resident, aud which is not included w ithin a lii-^h sclutol district, to pay the cost of instruction of theii- residents attendinjj; hi^h school clscwlicre. The maximum amount that any school may charge foi- such instruction is jjhu'cd at two dollars a month jx-r pupil. A notice- able increase in f he innnlie?' of non-resident pupils •■nrolli-d in the l)ul)lic hij^h schools has followed the passa«:e of this act. The clei'k of the town or city in which the i)upil resides receives from the secretary of the higli school a certified statement of the amount duefoi- the instruetion of the pui)ils residing in such town or city; if no i)art of the town or city is included within a hi<:h school disti-ict, the amount is added to the port of j^-raded schools in villa^vs not maintaining: a hiyh school. These schools are desi<;nated as schools of the "first class" and schools of the "second class." The foi-mei- arc schools of thi-ce or more teachers and the latter are two-teacher schools.'" In 1!)()2, at the first distribution of this fund, 118 schools of the first elass received .t-5()() each, Avhile l.')4 schools of the second class were <»:ranted ^100 each." These schools coi-rcspond (piite closel\ ■' Linrx, \W)\. eh. 1H8. Since l!S77 tlic lii^'h scliiiols liave lifcii oJilitred to fiirnisli to tlic .stiitc sxiiicriiiteiulent .sucli reports as may he reciuired by that otlieer uiuier IMiialty of fortVitiiifr the sjiecial aid from the state. Siiiee 1K!I7, u district is reciuired to liave twenty-live (lualitied impils l)efon' a liigh school can he estahlislied in that district. Tlie test of (jualitication consists of an examination driven hy ttie state department. The current state fund for schools is distrih\ited to tlu- several districts on the basis of tlu- number of resident children ]»et\veen the af^es of fnuriiiid twenty years. [Linr.s, 1H77, ch. LU'.t. /»/., 1WI7. ch. :!r)4.) '"/rlioned as follows: i:{0 scho(ds of the tirst class received !i!2'.»4.42 each, makini; a total of $."tH,'274., makiiifr a total of $.">(!.•_'.•((;.()."> for both classes of schools. The re- mainder of the annual up]>ropriation of .>{;(il),()0(l was exjtended for the salaries and travelinj; e.\|ienses of two iuspi'ctors, who receive an annual salary of .*l,(i(M) ea<'h. (.Milwaukee /■'»•..■ Pnxs, (October (!, I'JICI. ) Vol. ;i.] Jones. — St((fe Aid to SrcotKho-y Schools. Vl\) to the state j^radod .schools ami the state seiiii-f^Taded schools of ^Mnmesota, which are mentioned uiidei- the discussion of the liigh school system of that state."' To euconrage the establishment of manual training depart- ments in connection with the high schools of the state, the legis- lature iu 189.") made a special appropriatioPi of $2,.')()0 for this purpose. Not more than ten schools were to be aided out of this fund in any one year, and the annual amount each school was entitled to receive was placed at $250. Every school establishing and maintaining a department of manual training and receiving this annual subsidy from the state w^as to continue upon the list of schools aided from this special fund "so long as the scoi)e of the work and its character is maintained from year to year in such a manner as to meet the a])proval of the state superinten- dent,"'"' The annual appropriation for this purpose w^as increased to $5,000 iu 1901, and the number of schools permitted to sliai-e in the benefits of this distribution was increased to twenty.'^ But owing to the difficulty of securing w^ell-trained teachers for these departments, not more than ten schools have received aid under the provisions of this act in any one year, and but seven schools were aided in 1902. The same legislature, that of 1901, made provision for the establishment of county schools of agriculture and domestic economy and ai)propriated the sum of $5,000 to be distributed equally to two such schools.'' These schools are tw'o- year schools of secondary grade in which special prominence is given to studies in agi-iculture and domestic economy. It also made provision for the payment by the state of one-half the cost of maintaining six countv training schools for teachers."' Six such 12 See pp. 184, 1.3.5. ^■^ Laics, 1895, ch. 3.58. i-«/(7., 1901, ch. 273. ^^ Id., 1901, ch. 288. This number was increased to four schools in 1903, and each school was gi-anted a special subsidy from the state treasury amounting to "two-thirds the amount actually expended for maintaining such schools during the year; provided, that the total amount so apportioned shall not exceed four tliousand dollars to any one school any one year." {Id., 1903, ch. 143). In 1901, State Superintendent L. D. Harvey was appointed commissioner by the legislature to prepare eoiirses of study suitable for these schools. A Report embodying such courses was issued in 1902. ^^ Id., ch. 373. IW Unil'Prsify of Cdlifoniia Pllhliciliions. [Education- scliools wtTO or<»;ani/A'(l within a year and a half of the i)assa^t* of the act,'' and tlie nuinhor of scliools of this kind sct'iiis likely to increase very rapidly.'' MINNESOTA To Minnesota belongs the distinction of being the first state in the union to provide free secondary instruction in pitblic high schools for all qualified ])ui)ils of the state. The early secondary schools of Minnesota were little more than advanced elementary schools, and the few students coni])leting the work ottered by them found theii- i)reparation so deficient that they could not be admitted to the state university. The instruction olfered in the academies was so much superior to that of the public high schools that nearly all students desiring to continue their studies beyond the secondary schools were obliged to attend these i)rivate institutions. In 18G9 William \V. Folwell was appointed ])resideiit of the Uni- versity of Minnesota, and in his first rejjort he urged the necessity of a better organization of the public school system of the state. Referring to the secondary schools, he said: "Our system of l>u])lic instruction will not be an organized whole until the 'sec- ondary' schools arc graded not merely with reference to the l)rimary schools below l)ut to the university al)ove. This can lie done not onl\ without deti-inieut , but with advantage to that gi-eat class of students who will choose to content themselves with academic education only." This was the l)eginningof the move- ment that has finally resulted in the establishment of "a comjilete, continuous, and eflicifnt system of schools which should offer every child in Minnesota a lil)eral education." This suggestion, hcn(k'il for maintaining such school (luring the year, provided that the total amount so ai)i)ortion('y pupils while in attendance may he accejtted l)y county superintentlents in lieu of examinations in such branches, while a certiHcate of graduation is m.-ide to have the force of a teachers' tliird-jrrade ceriiHejile in county issued, for a period of three years after date of irraduation. ( Lnirx. l".l(>:i, ch. XW.) Vol,. 3.] Jones. — titdtc Aid to Srcondari/ Schools. 131 clear. In ISTl', tlie state siii)ei'iiiteiulent of schools ajjpointed a coiumittce consisting of the city sni)erintentlents of Winona, Minneai)olis, and Ked Winj;- to sng'^vst some plan for seciirin<;' a course of study in the high schools that would be preparatory to the state university. In the fall of the same year, President Folwell ap])eared before the convention of city and connty super- intendents and invited them to join in an endeavor "to bring about a vital, organic connection between the university and the high schools." At that time no state had organized or provided for an adequate system of schools between the elementary schools and the state university; nor was there at that time any well- detined relation between the then existing high schools and the universities, with the possible exception of the newl.v-established accrediting system of Michigan. President Folwell then advo- cated the organization of a comprehensive system embracing all grades, in which the state university "maj' form the 'roof and crown' of a noble structure of high schools based firmly on tlie broad foundation of the common schools of the State." Two years later, 1875, State Superintendent Burt referred to the conditions that then existed in these words: It is a fact that the best material for colleges and universities is scattered through the agricultural parts of our State. It is not urban, but rustic, while the high schools are not in the country, but in the city. This fact suggests the strongest form in which the question of State patronage for some of our high schools can be put. Should not the principal school of a county be open, free of charge for tuition, to the aspiring and worthy youth in the rural part of the county? Should not such persons, partly at the expense of the State, be induced to enter upon a higher course of learning? Would it not conduce to the public welfare for the State to say to boards of education in our leading high schools, Open your doors to all scholars in the rural districts prepared to enter your regular classes and willing to graduate and pass on to the courses of study in higher institutions, and you shall be compen- sated for the cost of furnishing instruction?' In August, 1877, the State Teachers' Association recommended that boards of education in the cities and larger villages make all possible effort to provide a course of instructiou that would pre- pare for admission to the university, and that whenever possible, thev admit outside students to these courses on liberal terms. Rankin, in Greer's Histori/ of education in Minnesota. ]!t()2. 1.32 Univtvsifij of Cdliforin'tt Pi(hIirreparatory instruction according to the terms and pro- visions of this act, and admitting thereto students of both se.\es from any part of the State, without charge for tuition in the same, shall be entitled to receive pecuniary aid as hereinafter specified, rroridtd, however, that no such school shall be required to admit non-resident applicants to receive the said preparatory instruction for tuition, unless the said applicant shall pass a good e.xamination in all the branches at the date of this act, prescribed by law as requisite to receiving a first grade certificate except algebra, plane geometry and the theory and practice of teaching.' •-■/J., |.|.. T.vyc. ' Lair.i of Miiint'.solii, 187X, rli. '.12. ' /i)ropriation for state high .schools in ^linnesota was increased from $9,000 in 1878 to $20,000 in 1881, and this sum was raised to $8.'), 000 in 1899, and to $11.'). 000 in 1901. A uu)re extended iK)licy of state aid was inaugurated in 1899 by including all classes of imblie schools in the annual distribu- tion of special api)ropriations. as follows: 1. Stale high schools wci-e gianted $800 ea<-li. The scliools of this class are all four- year high schools with courses of study such as to prepare students for admission to the collegiate (lei)artment of the University of Minnesota. 2. Slate gl-aded schools wel-e entitled to recei\c $200 each. These schools have at least foui" depart ments in charge of a princijial and tea<'hers having such (pialifications as may be i-e<|niri'd undci' the i-ules of the state high school board. Schools of this class .-ire I'dpiired to lia\'e snitalile buildings, a substantial lihi'ary, and such ot her ;ipi)aratus as is nccessai'\' for doing erticient " A(Mc.s i,f .Uimiisnlii. l,sM, ell. 111. ■ hi.. Ih'.t.!. ell. nil. Vol. 3.] Jones. — staff Aid to ScroinJari/ Schools. 1.'}.") work. .'). State sciui-^Tadcd schools, or scliool.s of two or three departments, were entitled to receive $100 each. 4. State rural sehoois of a sing-le teacher wei-e •••ranted $7.") eacli. To i)rovide these sums, an appropriation of $sr),00() was made for high schools, $26,000 for graded schools, $11,000 for semi-graded schools, and $40,000 for rural schools.'^ These appropriations were found to be insufficient to meet the demands, and a si)ecial act was passed adding $11,500 to the high school fund, $15,200 to the fund for graded schools, $8,100 for semi-graded schools, and $9,500 for rural schools.' In 1901, the annual appr()i)riation for state high schools was increased to $115,000, and the amount granted to each school was raised to $1,000; the appropiation for state graded schools was increased to $52,000, and the amount granted to each school was raised to $400; the appropriation for state semi-graded schools was increased to $25,000, and each school received $200: while the appropriation for state rural schools was raised to $60,000, and the amount each school was granted to $100.'" The current school funds of the state are distributed to the districts upon the basis of the number of ])upils between the ages of five and twenty-one years who have l>een enrolled in the public schools and hiwe been in attendance forty days in the school year. In 1902, one hundred and twenty graded schools and one hundred and forty-one state high schools were entitled to share in this subsidy." The annual appropriation for state high schools was increased to $217,000 in 1903, and the amount each school was entitled to receive was raised to $1,500, ^^ prodded, that the amount of state aid granted under the provisions of this act shall in no case exceed the amount expended for the maintenance of high school work, exclusive of the cost of buildings and repairs thereon:" and i)rovided that the schools should receive a pro rata appor- tionment should the annual appropriation amount to less than fifteen hundred dollars for each school. This same legislature, IDO.'J. increased the annual appi-opriation for state graded schools ■" IId., 1901, ch. 111. i'>/(Z., ch. 189. ^^Aumtal reports of the inspectors of graded schools and high schools, 1902. Edx'C'n.-IO 136 I^nivPt'sify of Ctilifoniin I'lihlicafifnis. [Education to .t!7n.(K)(), tluit for state semi-tiTadcd scliools to -tfiT.OOd. and tliat foi- state nii-al s.-liools to $100,()()(».'' Tlie suiii of ^\).r>{H) is drawn fi-oni tlie annnal ai»])ro])riations made for hiy:h and i)roi)riated to each." foi- the necessary ex])enses of the state hij^h school board and the saUiries and traveling expenses of the higli school and j^raded school inspectors. Under the provisions of this act, at the ai)i)ortionment of the state subsidy in in().'3, the state hiyfh scliools received ^1,.'5S() eadi. the state graded schools $."),")() each, the state semi-graded schools .^240 each, and the state rui-al schools $1(J8 each."' An additional sum of seven hundred and fifty dollars is given to each state high school giving instruction in the common scliool bi-anchcs. "in a niannci' wliii'h shall be most helpful to i)ersons intending to teach said branches."" Tntler the i)rovisions of an act of 1901, the state supei-in- tendent of i)nblic insti'uction. the pi'csident of the University of Minnesota, and a superintendent or i)rincii)al of any high school in the state of ^linnesota, to be ai)pointed by the governor, subject to ct)nfirmation l»y the Senate, constitute a "state high school l)oard." The niemln'i's of this lioard sci've without conipcnsa- tiou, but are entitled to their actual and necessary expenses. They apjtoint a high school ins])ectoi' and a graded school ius])ector. and mak<' all rules and regulations i-elating to examinations, reports, aceeiitances of schools, courses of study, and other i)ro- ceediiigs in coiinectiou with high and graded schools claiming state aid. i!iit an optional Hnglish or business course of study must be ottered and inaintaiuecj in the high schools, in addition to the course or eonrses of study piepai'ing for admission to the state university. Since iSS.'i ;i system of state examinations lias lieen in opera- tion. While the taking of this examination is ordinarily optional witii the school, the state l)oard may reipiire a school to take the examination as a part of the annual inspection. Xo grants of money are based on result of such examinations. Their main purjjose "is not to test the students, but to jironiote the general ^- LtiWH oj Mititusotii, l<.l(i:t, ell. IM. ^^Ijittfr, from J. \V. Oi.skn, Sfati' SiiiM-riiiiciKlciit «>f I'liMic Instruction. " Liiir.i iilMiiini'sotii. l;Mi:f. rli. .f.Vl: /./.. l.S'.l."). clis. 1«2. ISli: 18!»7, cli. l!f_'. Vol. :i.] Jotivs. — Sidfc Aid In S(cini(l(i ri/ Sdiools. MM efficiency of the schools." W\ st;itc lii^'h schools are "acci-edited" t,) the uiiiversit.N' on becoming' cstaltlished as ai)i)i'ove(l schools. The follo\vinerience of the Vtoard and are made with a view to secure conditions which i'- III., ih'.t'.i. <-h. :i.vj. I f/oins. — Sfdfc Aid i<> S(((>n(l(iri/ Scliools. I-'!!) render efficient work practicable and fjive promise of permanence. The increase of state aid to $1,000 justifies ^vtnt eare in admitting schools to the list. 1. A comfortable buildiiiij providing not less than four grade rooms below the high school, and high school quarters consisting of at least a main room, a large recitation room, a laborator}', and an office. 2. A well organized graded school, having not less than four distinct departments below the high school, and includiTig not less than eight years of elementary and grammar school instruction. 3. A well chosen geographical library for the si.xth and seventh giades. 4. An adequate library of American history for eighth grade woik. 5. Suitable wall maps, a globe and an imabridged dictionary for each of the upper grades. 6. A liberal supply of reading matter in sets for each grade. 7. A well qualified superintendent having general charge of grad- ing, instruction, discipline and of the care of the building. S. A liberal schedule of salaries. It is not the policy of the high school board to prescribe salaries, but in the light of experience the board expresses a want of confidence in the ability of a school to earn the state grant of $1,000 without salaries liberal enough to secure the services of a competent superintendent and instructors of approved experience. Experience also demonstrates that towns having a popu- lation of less than 1,000 people, and an assessed valuation of less than $200,000 are seldom justified in undertaking the expense of supporting a state high school. 9. Scholarly classes, well started in at least the first two years of high school work, with a good prospect of classes to follow in regular succession, to maintain a full four years' course. CONDUCT OF THE SCHOOL. 1. students admitted to the h^h school shall have satisfactorily completed the common school branches. 2. Permanent records shall be kept to show where each grade ]mpil belongs, and what subjects each high school student has completed. 3. The school shall hold sessions of not less than nine months each year. 4. The high school shall be open, free of tuition, to all non- resident pupils, upon passing the examination required by law. o. The high school department (including grammar school students, if necessary) shall be placed in charge of a well qualified assistant. (5. The superintend[ent] of the school shall be provided with an ample recitation room and office, and shall have reasonable time in school hours for general supervision. 7. Boards of education shall adopt a liberal policy in making provision to supply the following library facilities and scientific 140 (niiursifif of (\ilij'(ir>ii(i Piih/iciifiotis. (Ew-cation eqiii|)raeiit as rapidly as classes come forward to need them. The amounts named represent the cost of respectable beginnings for small classes. a. Material in sets for a four years' course in high school reading, ■ton. b. A botanical or zoological outfit of tables, inexpensive dissecting microscopes, one compound microscope, dissecting instruments, glass jars and alcohol or formalin for preserving material, etc., $80. c. Apparatus and equijiinents adequate to carry on a year's work in piiysics as outlined in maTiual, $200. d. Suitable desks, chemicals and glassware for a year's work in chemistry, $00. e. A working school library foi' the use of students in the prepa- ration of their daily work. The amounts named below are sufficient, if e.xpendcd with judgment, to equip the various classes fairly well. It is Tinderstood that none of these V)Ooks are required until classes are formed that need them. It is better to equip the classes one or more at a time, and equip each thoroughly, than to scatter a small appropriation. The i>riiicii)al subjects which require assistance from a working library are: English literature, .$100; general history, $100; civics, $40; political economy, $60; senior American history, $7.'); senior geography, $75; physiography, $50; chemistry, $30; physics, $40; zoology, $50; botany, $75; foreign languages, $L'5 each. 8. The board of education of each school shall issue diplomas to those students who shall be certified by the superintendent to liave satisfactorily completed the preliminary subjects and the work covered by twelve high school credits and a four years' course in reading. A j'ear's work in a suV)ject is called a credit."' Tlic pliiii (if rxtciidiiiu' aid to sd Is (liat ai-t' not yet stitti- ciciitly advanced lo assnnic the wofk of a \V('ll-oi-y;;iiiiz('d liiy:li s(diool, aims to id-oniolc the cllicicncy of tlicsc sidiools, ami t<» • •m-onraofc tlicni in the cfToiM to fcacli siidi a standafd of cxctl- It'iicc tliiit tlii'V may licccdiR' liiuli scliools, oi- if otdy t'lcint'iitaiy s(diools, tliat tlicif j^-fadnatcs may be entitled to admission to tlif nci;^'ld>oi'iiin' liiuli scdiools. The act of ISSl. pi'ox idiiij; for aid to state hi<;h stdiools, was entitled, ".\N .\('T l'()|{ TIIK F,N("( tl'K.\<;r,.Mr.\T OF lIKilIKH KIUCA- TloN." in its inlei-pfetat ion of this I itlc, the hi ^h school hoafd has fc(|iiii-cd tli«' schools fei-eixin.u' this aid to expend it in inipi'o\ in^' llie(pialit\ of inst iMict ion and in pi-o\idin.Lr addit ional e(|nipment . 'i'lie ainonnls annnallx expended ii\ the scdiools fof LTenei-al e(|nipnieiit max lie ;;atliereil from the tollowiiiL;' lalile. The I" AlTON, .\hiHi iiniiiKil niiorl <>/ th, i,i.s/>,<-liir »f hiijh srlionls. l'.l(C_'. 1>I>. .•(I-:!.!. Vol. :i.] Jones. — State Aid to Secondary Schools. 141 aniouiits expended by the sehools ^iveu below are faii'ly rejjre- sentative of the amounts generally expended by schools of like enrollment : SCHOOLS Redwing 218 Wabasha 7G Wadena 55 Warren 42 Waseca 96 Hopkins 55 Pipestone 124 Plainview 50 Preston 76 Princetown 43 Red Lake Falls.. 65 Duluth 623 *Added in 1902. & t> l|?n & 1 •^ >, So C .IS «? o 5 Pk oN K 160 120 20 90 25 15 25 25 20 20 86 27 15 10 150 100 50 60 300 600 100 80 12 150 60 20 107 5 95 35 20 30 75 75 25 75 10 25 239 279 269 .... 1 10 10 8 40 50 10 32 25 & ce o«2 «M o „ 1 *2 w ^^ s Eh"^ 36 100 436 40 205 75 15 165 54 58 258 150 75 625 450 275 1855 70 38 360 6 20 170 75 60 315 40 240 55 165 550 1337 g S » 475 251 159 242 465 * 218 120 196 170 121 2088' SUMMARY OF EXPENDITURES FOR HIGH SCHOOLS DURING THE YEAR 1901-02 Chemistry $ 9,181.00 Physics 9,912.00 Biological Science 3,272.00 Special Historical Libraries 4,091.00 Special Literature Libraries 3,430.00 General Libraries 11,026.00 *Grade Reading in Sets 6,826.00 Total $47,738.00'^ •Excluding the large cities. SUMMARY OF EXPENDITURES DURING THE PREVIOUS EIGHT YEARS 1893-4 1894-5 1895-6 1896-7 1897-8 1898-9 1899-00 1900-01 Library..$2,383 $ 8,675 $ 9,336 $10,795 $ 9,917 $8,651 $ 9,800 $13,570 Science.. 5,436 12,602 10,453 9,647 11,202 9,009 14,961 16.997 Grade Reading in sets.. 1,500 2,167 3,078 3,077 5,017 4,9:50 5,721 7,836 Total..$9,319 $23,444 $22,867 $24,219 $26,136 $22,590 $30,482 $38,503'" '"Compiled from Aiton, yi)ifli (tinntaJ report, op. cit., pp. 5-1.^. 1^/(7.. p. 1.-). 1 »/(/., p. 1.-). 142 Unii'fr.sitif of Califoniiti Pnblicntioits. [edicatiox OTHER STATES Till' iiiowmcnt to ])r()vido five secondary education for all l)iil)ils (|ualitied to enter the liipfh schools and academies has taken different forms in the various states which have thus far made such ])rovision. In Xi ir llniiipsJtiyi . towns not maintain- in*? hif^h schools are re((uired hy law to i)ay for the tuition of their residents who may attend a hij^di school or an acadcnix in the same oi- anothci- town or city in the state, .to. 000 is annually raised liy the st;itc to reimburse the weaker towns for this expenditure.' Towns whose rate of ta.xation for school purjjoses in any year is $.')..')() or more on $1,000. and whose average rate of taxation foi- all pui-poses for five years next ))recedinj; is $16.00 or more on $1,000. are allowed to share in this api)ropi-ia- tion. Such towns ai-e classified into ten classes according- to the rate of taxation uixtu the $1,000. and the towns of each class slnire accordinjj; to the tax rate, receivinj*' from the state amounts ranj^inj; fi-oin one-tenth of the amount i)aid for tuition uj) to tin' whole of such cxpcndit ui-c. Towns whose rate of taxation is ovci* $2'). 4!) on $1 .000 receive tVoiii t lie state t lie full anion lit i);iid for the tuition of i-csidcnt i»ui)ils in the academies or hie-h schools of the state. The term "high school" or "academy" as used in the Met pi-ovidine- foi- such I'cimhui-sciuent is defined as "a school liavine- at least one four yeai's" coni-se i)roperly e- school. It is provided that no school shall receive more than $5,000 for this i)uri)()S(' in ;uiy one year.' In O/iio, the provision for advanced instruction is similar to that in New Jersey, with the exception that in Ohio the boards of two adjoining districts may enter into an agreement whereby all prii>ils of a district not maintaining a high school are instructed in a neighboring high school, for an amount agreed upon l)etween the two boards, lender such circumstances, the ]nipil is expected to attend the school thus selected.' Xehmska, in her second attempt to extend to all qualified l)upils a free secondary education, requires the careful estimate of the actual cost pei' pupil in such high schools as have been declared by the l)oards to be open to non-resident pupils, and the county, or part of the county not included within a high school district, in which any given child is a resident, is obliged to pay the actual cost of the instruction of such child, when he shall have attended such public high school, provided such cost does not exceed seventy-five cents per pupil per week. When this amount exceeds seventy-five cents per week for each pupil, the excess is paid by the parent or guardian. All such high schools must be a])i)roved ))y the state superintendent of public instruction and by him declared "to be properly equipped as to teachei's, appli- ances and course of study." An earlier law fixing the amount of tuition fees at three dollars per month was declared unconsti- tutional, as that amount was not in all cases the actual cost of services rendered.'' The first high school law of XorfJi J>akot(i was enacted in 1895, under the title "AX ACT for the Encouragement of Secondary Education." By the provisions of this act, the gov- ernor, the superintendent of public instruction, and the president of the state university, cr officio, were made to constitute "a l)oard of commissioners on pre])aratory schools fV)r the encour- agement of higher education in the »State." This board was called the "High School Board," and it was directed to inspect all schools of advanced grade, and to designate as "state high * Id., art. XXIV. s Revised .itatiifts- of Ohio. sec. 4()2i)-:i (as aiiiciided Maicli LM. H»02). ''Lau-.'s of Xcbviixkii. KIOI. cli. (i.'i. Id.. 1899, ch. (Jl', si-c. (i.'i. 144 Unirtrsifl/ of Califoruxt I'lllilicatintis. [Education schools" ;ill sucli schools ;is offci-cd two y<'ars of hi^h school instnii-tioii. provided that tlic " iiistnictioii and discii)linc" of sue]] schools had hccii apjirovcd l>y the hoai'd. It was made the diit.v of the Itoard to cause each such school to be visited "at least oul. Not inoi-c than oiic-joiirth of I he state and couiit\ monc\s l.inrs nl .\<,,H, Ihil.nhi. Is;).-), ell. .-.:i. /'/.. l,s;i;i. ill. si. hi.. l'.tii:t. .'li. h. Vol. 3.] rfoites. — State Aid to SeanuJarti Schools. 14") received by tlie disti-ict, and not more than one-fourth of the whole amount raised l»y hx-al taxation for schools, miylit be expended for schools of this artnicnts of the rnivcisity of California, and no school is eligible to shair in the benetits of this act after a period of one year unless it eini)loys at least two full-time teachers and lias an a\fragc dail\ attendance of at least twenty students; and all schools aided nndci- this pi-ovision are required to be in session ISO days in each school year/'' Certain institutions of a si'ini-iinlilic character have ])een favored l)y the state in so far as they have lieen exempt from taxation. COXCLrSION At the outbreak of the Kevolntionary war. but four of the l)resent states had well-detined systems of public schools, mimely, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Maryland. In these, the early grannnar schools were supi)orted in i)art by sub- sidies gi-antcd ])y the colonial govei-nments. Several of the towns of Massachusetts received one thousand acres of land each, for t lie sii|)port of t heir uramniar schools. Later, a polic\ was adopted of re.sei'ving a ])ortion of each considerable tract of land s(d(l, for the sujijioi't of a gi-amniar scluxd within su])reciate(l it, and that it was he\(»nd the reach of nian> who would l)e benefited the most by such advantages. The e.\i)erienee of states in wlii(di provision has been made foi- the free instruction of all pni)ils in the high schools ('(tntiniis the belief that a \('i-> large numl)er of (pialitied pupils ill I lie nil a! districts are deteri-ed fi'om further ad\ance- ment partly l)y reason of tuition fees. Hecent tendencies ai"e ])roi»hefic of more general movements in the futui-e to extend the means of ol»taining a free secondary education to all (pialilicd jiujjils, regardless <»f their place of resi- dence: such insti'iiction to be in w(dl-e(pii])]»ed and pi-operly graded high schools. In i!iaii\ states, this will lie the eoniple- tioii of a s.xstem of jiulilie schools such as Huxley had in iiiiud when he said. "No system of public education is worth the name of national unless it ci-eates a git-at edu<'ational ladder, with om* end ill the guttei' and the otliei' in the rnixcrsity." Jones. — Stdtr Aid to tScronddrn Schools. 149 BIBLIOGRAPHY In the inaiu, use has been made of original souvees, particu- larly of the records of the various colonies and of the session laws of the several states; these are referred to in foot-notes and are not included in this bibliography. The reports of the Com- missioner of Education and the state reports, with the exception of a very few which contain matter of historical interest relating to secondary schools, are likewise omitted. Only such works are given below as have been found especially helpful in the preparation of this paper. Blackmar, Frank W. The history of federal aud state aid to higher edu- cation in the United States. Circular of Information of the Bureau of Education, no. 1, 1890. Brown, Elmer Ellsworth. Secondary education. In Butler. Educa- tion in the United States, monograph no. 4, v. 1, pp. 143-205. Albany: The J. B. Lyon Company, 1900. Brown, Elmer Ellsworth. The making of our middle schools. New York: Longmans, Green, and Company, 1903. The extensive bibliography of secondary education eontaiiiiMl in this work was found extremely valual)le in the preparation of this thesis. Clews, Elsie W. Educational legislation and administration of the colonial governments. Columbia University Contributions to Philosophy, Psychology and Education, v. 6, nos. 1-4. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1899. This collection of colonial documents was found extremely valuable in the preparation of that part of the thesis pertaining to the colonial period. Edwards, B. B. Education and literary institutions. Tlie American Quarterly Register, v. 5, pp. 273-331. Boston, May, 1833. Fay, Edwin Whitfield. The history of education in Louisiana. Circular of Information of the Bureau of Education, no. 1, 1898. Contribu- tions to American Educational History, no. 20. 150 Univn'siiy of Califoniin Piililinifions. IEdicatios Hough, Frankmn B. Historical and statistical record of the University of the State of New York. Albany, 18.S5. J^KWis, Ai.viN Fayette. History of higher education in Kentucky. Circular of Information of the Bureau of Education, no. 3, 1899. Contributions to American Educational History, no. 31. Elaine school report. 1901. Kankin, a. \V. High schools. In History of education in .Minnesota. Circular of Information of the Bureau of Education, no. 2, 11mil>. Contributions to .\merican Educational History, no. 31. JScHAFER, Joseph. The origin of the system of land grants for education. Bulletin no. 63, Univeisity of Wisconsin, 19()"J. Stkinkr, Beknard C. History of education in Maryland. Circular of Information of the Bureau of Education, no. 2, 1894. Contributions to American Educational History, no. 19. Ten Brook, Andrew. American state universities . . . and the Uni- versity of Michigan. Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Company, 1875. Wickersham, James Pvle. A history of education in Pennsylvania. Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Inquirer Publishing Company, 1880. Wisconsin, Hiennal report of the state superintendent, 19(i'J. J STATE AID TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS INDEX Aciulemies, in general, 71-73. Alleghany County School (Md.), 89, 122. Ann Arundel Town (Md.), provision for a free .school in, 06. Boston Latin School, foundation and early support, 52, 53; Deer Island for support of .52, 53; Long Island and Spectacle Island for support of, 53 ; grant of one thousand acres for 53. Brookville Academy (Md.), 122. Brown, Elmer Ellsworth, 48, 118, 149. Brown ville Seminary (Ky.), 98. Burrows, (Dr.) Sec. of the Commonwealth of Pa., quoted, 86. Burt, State Superintendent (Minn.), quoted, 131. California, state aid to high schools in, 144, 145, 147. Cambridge (Mass.), granted one thovisand acres for support of a grammar school, 54. Canal Fund (N. Y.), securieties conveyed to the state, and appropriated for academies, 79, 80. Cape Cod fisheries, profits from granted to Plymouth, 55; distributed to several schools, .56. Centerville Academy, Queen Anne Co., Md., 89. Charleston (S. C), provisions for a free school in, 70. Charlestown (Mass.), support of grammar school from rental of Lovell's Island, 53; granted one thousand acres for support of grammar school, 54; grant located, 55. Charlotte Hall (Md.), foundation, 68; donations to, 89, 90; lottery for, 91; survival of, 122. Claiborne, (Gov.) William C. C, 91. College of Jefferson (La.), 94. College of Louisiana (La.), 94. College of William and Mary, public support of secondary school in connection with, 51. Connecticut, grants of land for grammar schools, 59, 60; appropriations tor grammar schools, 61; school system in, 146. Copeland, Patrick, promoter of the East Indy School in v a., 51. Corlett, Elijah, received grant of land from General Court, Mass., 54. Davis, Cushman K., 132. Deer Island, for support of Boston Latin School, 52, 53. Dorchester (Mass.), grammar school in, 54; granted one thousand acres for support of, 54. Dorchester (S. C), appropriation for master of free school in, 70. Eden School, Md., 68. Euglish grammar schools, support of, 49; colonial grammar schools patterned after, 49. English studies, distribution of state subsidy in N. Y. made in part upon basis of number of students pursuing, 80. Fairfield (Conn.), received grant of land from General Court, .")9; received grant of money from General Court, 60. Folwell, William W., 130, 131. 132. Franklin Academy (Ky.), 97. Franklin Academy (Md.), 90. Franklin College (La.), 94. Free grammar school, definition of, .50. Frederick College (Md.), foundation of, 69. Frederick County School (Md.), 91, 122. Friends' Public School (Philadelphia), model after which the advanced schools of Pa. were erected, 85. Index — ( Condniied) Garrison Forost Academy (Mil.), 90. Grammar srliool, scope of work in the colonial, .'0; their ohjeet, M; the first prop<).sed school, 50; the first founded, 52; nse of the term. M. Green River Female Academy (Ky.), 98. Hadley (Pres.) Arthur T., 48. Hagerstown Academy, Washington Co., Md., 89. Hartford (Conn.), received grant of land from General Court, GO; received grant of mr)ney from General Court, (SO; granted wild lands, C'J. Harvard College, entrance reejuirements, 104:), 50; reservation of town land for, 58 High schools, in general, 105-148. Hillsborough School, Caroline Co., Md., 89. Huxley, definition of national system of education. 148. Jefferson Seminary (Ky.), 97. Johnstown Academy (N. Y.), fir.st to receive "literature lots" from the state, 79. Kalamazoo (Mich.), H. S. Case, 102. Kentucky, academy system of, 96-5)9. Kentucky Academy (Ky.), 97. Kent County School (Md.), erected into Washington College, C8. King Willianrs School, Annapolis, Md., foundation, 6G; merged in St. John's College, 09. Latin grammar school, use of the term, .50. Leach, Arthur F., 50. Lexington Seminary (Ky.), 97. Literature Fund (N. Y.), source of, 78; increased by addition of Canal securities, 79, 89; from income of U. S. deposit, 82; amount of, 84, 119. Long Island, for support of Boston Latin School, .'>:t. Louisiana, academy system, 91-95. Lovcll's Island, leased for support of grammar scbo"! in ('llarlesto«^l, Mass., .'>:{. Lunenburg, reservations for school in, .58. Luyck, /Kgidius, master New York City Grammar Scliool, o:!. Maine, resei"vations for grammar schools in, :")9; policy with reference to encouragement of academies, 76; grants to academies, 74; the free high school system of, 100; number of academies in, 109; appropriations for academies. 111, 112. Malcolm, Alexander, master New York City Grammar School, 65. Maryland, establishment of public high schools in, 120-122; donations to high schools and aca5. Michigan, system of "branches" in, 99-102; 147. Michigan, University of, fni (icneral Court, .59; received grant of money from General Court, 00. New Orleans (La.), College of, 91, 92. l^UKX— {Continued) New York, formation of union free schools • in, 117: distribution of funds to secondary scliools, 118, Hi), 120; 147. New York State, University of, foundation, 78. Newport (R. I.), grant of land for school in, 71. Nicholson, (Sir) Francis, Governor of Maryland, iirycs support of free schools :md makes donations for that purpose, 6.5. Normal schools, not included, 48. ''' North Dakota, state aid to high schools in, 14:i, 144, 147. Ohio, provision for advanced instruction in, 14:i, 147. Pennsylvania, constitutional provision for education, 84; academy system of, 84-88, 147. Penn, William, grant of land made by, 71. Pillsbury, John S., 132. Pittsburgh Academy (Pa.), 85. Platteville Academy (Wis.), 102. Plymouth Colony, grammar schools in, .55, 56; profits from the fisheries of Cape Cod granted for free school in, 56. Poll tax, grammar school masters exempt from payment of, in Mass., 55; in Conn., 60. Rockville Academy (Md.), 90, 122. Roxbury (Mass.), received grant of land from General Court, 55. Russellville Male Academy (Ky.), 98. Salem Academy (Ky.), 97. Secondary education, meaning of the term, 48. Schoolmasters, privileges accorded to by (General ('ourt of Mass., 55; of Conu., 60. Smith, Daniel, received grant of Cape money for use of grammar school at Rehoboth, 57. Sollers, Basil, 91. Spectacle Island, for support of Boston Latin School, .53. St. James Academy (Md.), 90. St. John's College, Annapolis, Md., 88, 89. Sutton, reservations for school in town of, 58. Taylor, Christopher, master of grammar school at Tinicnm Island, 71. Tennessee, academy system of, 95, 96, 147. Thomson's Island, for grammar school in Dorchester, Mass., .54. Transylvania University (Ky.), foundation, 98. V *' United States, deposit of 183G, applied to educational purposes in N. Y., 82; in other states, 82. Virginia Company of London, 51. Walpole (N. Y.), reservation for grammar school in, 58. Washington Academy (Md.), 89. Washington Academy (Pa.), 85. Washington College (Md.), 88, 89, 90. Weld, Daniel, received grant of land from General Court of Mass., .54. West Nottingham Academy, Cecil Co., Md., 89, 90, 91, 122. Wickersham, Jas. P., quoted, 88. ■^ Wisconsin system of academies of 102-104 ;'^free high schools aided, 122-130; township high schools aided, 124, 125; manual training departments encouraged, 129; schools of agricul- ture and domestic economy encouraged, 129; county training schools for teachers encouraged, 129, 130; special aid to graded schools, 128, 129, 147. Williamstown (Mass.), lottery granted for a free school in, 59. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS-(CONTINUED) ZOOLOGY.— W. E. Ritter, Editor. Price per volume $3.50. Volume I (in progress): No. 1. The Hydroida of the Pacific Coast of North America, by Harry B. Torrey Price, 1.00 No. 2. A Case of Physiological Polarization in the Ascidian Heart, by Frank W. Bancroft and C. O. Esterly .... Price, .10 No. 3. Embryology and Embryonic Fission in the Genus Crisia, by Alice Robertson Price, .50 No. 4. 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