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 THE ETRUSCANS: 
 
 WERE THEY CELTS? 
 
 OR, 
 
 THE LIGHT OF AN INDUCTIVE PHILOLOGY 
 
 THROWN ON 
 
 FORTY ETRUSCAN FOSSIL-WORDS 
 
 PRESERVED TO US BY ANCIENT AUTHORS ; 
 
 WITH INCIDENTAL NOTICES OF THE ETYMOLOGY OF 3000 WORDS IN THE 
 
 CLASSICAL AND MODERN LANGUAGES, AND DISCUSSIONS ON GREEK 
 
 AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES AND MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN ERASER, B.A. Edin. 
 
 I 1 • • • . . . • • ! • * / • • • • . ••ill" 
 
 *. • • • •■ •> •• • •» • ! •• • 
 
 • •••4...*. ,«. 
 
 • .•/ ... .. . • , :•: 
 
 EDINBURGH : 
 MACLACHLAN & STEWART, G4 SOUTH BRIDGE. 
 
 LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO. 
 
 All RighU Reserved. 
 
 8 (\ h '
 
 I'ltlNTEI) rv I.ORlMEll AN'Il (ill.MKS, 
 .'U ST. ANDRKW SQirAHK. 
 
 t * 
 t c t 
 
 C C I » 
 
 I < * t 4. *
 
 I I \ 
 
 
 r 
 
 c2 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Preface, . 
 
 Introduction, 
 
 History of the Etruscans, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 20 
 
 I. The Fossils Classified. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 ^ I. The Monkeys. 
 
 Arimi, Apes, .... 
 
 : II. Trees and Plants. 
 
 ! Ataison, the Climbing Vine, . 
 
 Fopulus, the Poplar, . 
 
 III. Domestic Animals and Implements. 
 
 Buris, the Nose of the Plovigh, 
 Burra, a Heifer, 
 Burrus, a Drinking-Cup, 
 
 Note. — The Basque Language, 
 Copra, a She-Goat, . 
 Damnus, a Horse, 
 Gapus, a Chaiiot, 
 
 Excursus on Labro, Hercules, 
 Excursus on Lupercus, an Italian L)eiLy, 
 
 29 
 
 34 
 46 
 
 59 
 59 
 59 
 72 
 75 
 75 
 127 
 
 86 
 100
 
 IV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 IV. The Sky, the Air, Light, Time. 
 
 Antai, the "Winds, 
 
 AndaSy the North- Wind, 
 
 Atrium, the Open Court of a House, 
 
 Ausel, the Dawn, 
 
 Falandum, the Sky, . 
 
 Idus, the Ides of the Month, . 
 
 Idiilis, a Sheep sacrificed on the Ides, 
 
 Excursus on the Latin Mane, "The Morning, 
 
 AND Other Words, 
 Excursus on Avil Ril, " vixit annos " 1 
 
 &> 
 
 PAGE 
 
 134 
 
 134 
 175 
 146 
 175 
 172 
 172 
 
 150 
 178 
 
 V. The Physical Features of a Country. 
 Mi/ce, Mountains, 
 
 195 
 
 VI. Personal Terms. 
 
 Agalletor, a Boy, a Child, 
 
 (137) 221 
 
 Burriis, a Iled('?)-Nosed Man, 
 
 (59) 221 
 
 Cainilius, a Messenger, 
 
 (142) 221 
 
 Histei; a Stage-Player, 
 
 215 
 
 Lanista, a Gladiator, . 
 
 213 
 
 Ltidio, a Player, 
 
 220 
 
 Ludiis, a Play, 
 
 220 
 
 Nepos, a Profligate, . 
 
 205 
 
 Siibido, a Flute-Player, 
 
 209 
 
 Excursus on the Latin Words Hoi 
 
 no, Vir, 
 
 Mulier, . . . . 
 
 222 
 
 Excursus on the Roman Name Cains, 
 
 227 
 
 VII. Military Terms. 
 
 Cassis, a Helmet, 
 Balteus, a Sword-Belt, 
 
 232 
 238
 
 CONTENTS. V 
 
 CHAP. P-VGE 
 
 VIII. Abstract Terms. 
 
 Druna, Sovereignty, . . . .241 
 
 Excursus on the Names Tarquiii, TyrrJiaii, 
 
 Rasena, and Names ending in -tumnits, 
 
 -uniHus, -icnus, . . ■ • • 24/ 
 
 IX. Terms used in Religion. 
 
 ^.rar, aGocl, . . . (128) 285 
 
 Fanum, a Temple, . . . .270 
 
 Favissa, a Crypt, . . . (232) 282 
 
 Lit HI/ s, an Angur's Wand, . . . 282 
 
 X. Birds. 
 
 Antar, the Eagle, . . • (134) 287 
 
 Capys, a Falcon, . . . . 287 
 
 Gnzs, a Crane, .... 287 
 
 Haracos, a Hawk, .... 287 
 
 XI. Weights and Measures. 
 
 Mantissa, a Make- Weight, . . . 333 
 
 Vorsiis, a Small Piece of Land, . . 331 
 
 XII. Dress. 
 
 Lccna, a Woollen Cloak, , . . 337 
 
 Toga, the Roman Gown, . . . 335 
 
 XL The Fossils Alphabetically Arranged. 
 
 1. yEsar, a God, 128, 285 
 
 2. ^^W/t'/^r, a Boy, a Child, . . . 137,221 
 
 3. Andas, the North -Wind, . . . .134
 
 VI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 i 
 
 . Antai, tlie Winds, 
 
 5 
 
 Antar, the Eagle, 
 
 G 
 
 Arimi, Apes, 
 
 7 
 
 Ataiso/i, the Climbing Vine, . 
 
 8. 
 
 Atrium, the Open Court of a House 
 
 9. 
 
 Ausel, the Dawn, 
 
 10. 
 
 Balteiis, a Sword-Belt, 
 
 11. 
 
 Buris, the Nose of the Plough, 
 
 12. 
 
 Biirra, a Heifer, 
 
 13. 
 
 Biirrns, a Drinkiug-Cup, 
 
 U. 
 
 Bun-US, a Eed(?)-Nosed Man, 
 
 15. 
 
 Camillus, a Messenger, 
 
 16. 
 
 Capra, a She-Goat, . 
 
 17. 
 
 Capys, a Falcon, 
 
 18. 
 
 Cassis, a Helmet, 
 
 19. 
 
 Dauinus, a Horse, 
 
 20. 
 
 Druiia, Sovereignty, . 
 
 21. 
 
 Falcc, Mountains, 
 
 22. 
 
 Falaiiduiu, the Sky, . 
 
 23. 
 
 Fa/iuin, a Temple, 
 
 21. 
 
 Fiwissa, a Crypt, 
 
 25. 
 
 Gapus, a Chariot, 
 
 26. 
 
 Gnis, a Crane, 
 
 27. 
 
 Haracos, a Hawk, 
 
 28. 
 
 Hister, a Stage-Player, 
 
 29. 
 
 Idulis, a Sheep sacrificed at tlie Ides, 
 
 30. 
 
 /^//jT, the Ides of the Month, . 
 
 31. 
 
 L(£iia, a Woollen Cloak, 
 
 32. 
 
 Lanista, a Gladiator, 
 
 33. 
 
 Lituus, an Augur's Wand, 
 
 U. 
 
 Ludio, a Player, 
 
 35. 
 
 Ludus, a Play, 
 
 36. 
 
 Mantissa, a Make- Weight, . 
 
 37. 
 
 Ncpos, a Pi-ofligate, . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 134 
 
 287, 134 
 29 
 34 
 175 
 146 
 238 
 59 
 59 
 59 
 221, 59 
 221, 142 
 75 
 287 
 232 
 75 
 241 
 195 
 175 
 276 
 282, 232 
 127 
 287 
 287 
 215 
 172 
 172 
 337 
 213 
 282 
 220 
 220 
 333 
 205
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Vll 
 
 38. Populus, the Poplar-Tree, 
 
 39. Siibnlo, a Flute-Player, 
 
 40. Toga, the Roman Gown, 
 
 41. Vorsus, a Small Piece of Land, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 46 
 209 
 335 
 331 
 
 In Appendix I. 
 
 1. Augur, a Soothsayer, 
 
 2. Averru??cns, the Averter of Evil, 
 
 3. Cliens, a Dependent, 
 
 4. Cloaca, a Common Sewer, 
 
 5. Curia, the Senate-House, 
 
 6. Curuh's (Sella), a Magistrate's Chaii*, 
 
 7. Fasces, Bi;ndles of Rods, 
 
 8. Fetidles, Public Heralds. 
 
 9. Hariolus, a Diviner, . 
 
 10. Haruspex, a Diviner, 
 
 11. Lictor, a Magistrate's Attendant, 
 
 12. Porrectus, Dedicated, 
 
 13. Seatris, an Axe, 
 
 350 
 348 
 347 
 349 
 347 
 347 
 345 
 347 
 351 
 349 
 345 
 351 
 345 
 
 In Appendix II. 
 
 The Etymology of Latin Root- Words beginning with 
 letter A, . 
 
 352
 
 PEE FACE. 
 
 Scattered throughout the writings of the Greek and Latin 
 lexicographers, antiquaries, and historians, there are certain 
 Etruscan words, about forty in number, which have led me 
 to ask, " Were the Etruscans Celts ? " These words are 
 more valuable than the words of the Etruscan inscriptions, 
 for not only do the writers declare them to be Etruscan, but 
 they add to each its equivalent in Latin or Greek. In the 
 present inquiry, therefore, two facts in evidence are thus 
 assured — the form of the Etruscan word, and its significa- 
 tion; and from these we wish to find a third — its origin and 
 parentage. Now, if we take these forty words and apply to 
 them individually the touchstone of philology, we may ex- 
 pect them to reveal their nationality and lineage ; for the 
 instrument of our investigation is an Ithuriel's spear ; it has 
 on other occasions shown its power to detect the disguises 
 which words assume, and to unfold the secrets of the world of 
 language. If our touchstone, when applied to the Etruscan 
 materials, has hitherto failed to show their true character, or 
 to determine their language affinities, yet the test is truthful, 
 although the method of its application has been faulty. In 
 scientific experiment, a negative result flows not from some 
 defect in the operation of the laws of matter, but from a 
 careless or unphilosophic application of them on the part of 
 
 the inquirer. Now, in the Etruscan field, inquiry has too 
 
 B
 
 2 PREFACE. 
 
 often been conducted in a wrong direction, and in an un- 
 scientific manner. Instead of following the legitimate path 
 of inductive discovery, to which modern science owes so 
 much, students of Etruscanology have, for the most part, 
 given their chief attention to the inscriptions on the tombs, 
 and, assigning to them a conjectural meaning, have endeav- 
 oured to establish a kinship between them and some ancient 
 or modern language, each author advocating his own partic- 
 ular theory. These forty words, of undoubted authenticity, 
 have either been overlooked or left in a subordinate position 
 in such discussions ; and no one has hitherto applied to them, 
 in detail, the principles of inductive analysis. And yet, in 
 my opinion, these words are the materials from which we 
 ought, in the first place, to seek evidence as to the nation- 
 ality of the Etruscans and their language ; all other efforts 
 apart from these will be merely tentative, and must there- 
 fore be uncertain in their results. 
 
 I purpose to examine each of these words in detail, and, 
 by a comparative survey of words synonymous with them in 
 other languages, to ascertain what ideas were present to the 
 mind of the ancient makers when words similar in meaning 
 were framed, and then to show that these same ideas exist 
 in the Etruscan words if we trace them to a Celtic source. 
 In this discussion I shall frequently refer to corresponding 
 terms in Hebrew, not because it had a share in the making 
 of the Etruscan, but it is a very ancient language, has its 
 earliest word-forms carefully preserved in the pages of a 
 sacred literature, and its etymology has been well ascertained 
 by the studious care of Gesenius and other Semitic scholars. 
 
 When an author ventures to allege the superior antiquity 
 of the Celtic language, and the obligations under which it 
 has laid the ancient and modern languages of Europe in 
 their formation, he is usually regarded as an infatuated
 
 PREFACE. 3 
 
 Celt ; but, for my part, I am not conscious of any such bias, 
 for I know the Celtic merely as a student of language, and 
 neither have I an acquaintance with any Celtic dialect as a 
 spoken language, nor had my immediate ancestors for several 
 generations back. This, however, can affect only the inflec- 
 tions of the words I handle, for I have here nothing to do 
 with the comparative grammar of the Celtic tongues, and 
 the principles of philology do not demand an intimate know- 
 ledge of the languages from which I may draw my illustra- 
 tions. I do not pretend to say infallibly that the Etruscan 
 language was Gadhelic, or even Celtic; but I offer the 
 investigations contained in this volume as presumptive 
 evidence that the Etruscans were Celts. And this argument 
 has more probability in its favour than some others. For 
 instance, it were vain to attempt to prove that the Etruscan 
 vocabulary was Sanscrit, or Armenian, or even Gothic, for 
 the language to which this honour is assigned must be old 
 enough to be the parent of the Etruscan, and be able to 
 show that it once had such a local establishment in Italy, 
 or, at least, in Europe, as will render the parentage probable. 
 If my labours as a whole, or if any portion of them tends to 
 prove the Celtic origin of the Etruscans, this view of the 
 question deserves some consideration in the world of letters 
 until it be shown that some other ancient language can, 
 with equal probability and legitimacy, claim the parentage of 
 these forty words. Hence my thesis — An Etrtisci Celtae? 
 
 My view of the matter is briefly this : — 
 
 (1.) The Celts were the earliest of the Japhetian tribes 
 to enter Europe. 
 
 (2.) They gradually spread towards the north-west, the 
 west, and the south-west of Europe. 
 
 (3.) Long before the era of Rome, Celtic tribes occupied 
 parts of Central and Northern Italy.
 
 4 PREFACE. 
 
 (4.) The Etruscans were one of these tribes, and were 
 probably of the Gadhelic stock, 
 
 (5.) The Celts, on their first irruption into Europe, dwelt 
 for a time in Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece ; in Thessaly 
 and Greece they were called Pelasgi. 
 
 (6.) The concurrent testimony of ancient authors, who 
 state that the Etruscan cities were Pelasgian, is to be taken 
 to mean that the Etruscans were of the same Celtic stock 
 as the Pelasgians of Greece, probably Pelasgians thrown 
 forward upon Italy by those waves of population which 
 rapidly followed each other from Western Asia. 
 
 (7.) After the Etruscans had been settled for some time 
 in Italy, principally in the country between the Po and 
 the Tiber, their pure Druidical worship was affected by 
 the arrival of a Chaldsean ritual and the art of the sooth- 
 sayer ; these had been dislodged from their native seats — 
 by one of those social and political convulsions which from 
 time to time shook the Babylonian Empire — and had 
 passed into Lydia or Mseonia,^ the land of " enchanters and 
 soothsayers," and thence into Italy, where they found a 
 home among a kindred race, the Etruscans ; thus some 
 authors assert that the Etruscans were of Lydian origin. 
 
 Some of these seven postulates are undisputed facts, but 
 others of them require a longer examination than can be 
 given here. I therefore offer them as suggestions which may 
 help to remove some of the difficulties that arise from the 
 conflicting statements of the ancients regarding the Etruscan 
 people. 
 
 The best known of the writers on Etruscan philology are 
 —Donaldson (1844 2), Lindsay (1872), Taylor (1874), and 
 
 1 (?) Heb. Meonen-im, " enchanters " (from a(i)nan, to " cover") ; Horn. 
 Gr. Me(i)6nes. 
 
 2 First Edition.
 
 PREFACE. 5 
 
 Corssen (1874-75). To each of my chapters I have ap- 
 pended what these authors have said about the words dis- 
 cussed therein ; but in almost every instance I had formed 
 my own independent estimate of the derivation of these 
 Etruscan words before I referred to the opinions of others. 
 In examining the words themselves, I have often been enticed 
 into inquiries about questions in mythology, archseology, and 
 the like, and I have used the words under review as pegs on 
 which to hang my speculations on these subjects. I have also, 
 through them, found opportunities of introducing my views 
 as to the meaning and origin of other Etruscan words — 
 such as Iwpu, zilach — well known to Tuscanologists. 
 
 As the plan of this work requires that each chapter should 
 be complete in itself, the reader will find the same principles 
 of language explained, and the same facts referred to, under, 
 it may be, two or three different heads. This is, to a large 
 extent, unavoidable. 
 
 To Chapter IV. I have attached an Excursus on the 
 Etruscan words ril avil ; and in order to show what I con- 
 ceive to be the intimate connection between the Latin lan- 
 guage and the Celtic, I have printed, at the end of the 
 book, a specimen of some investigations which, on a larger 
 scale, and with more detail, might become an Etymological 
 Dictionary of the Latin Language. 
 
 Etruscanologists acknowledge that three of our fossil 
 words — kapra, gapus, and Imna — are Celtic. Then why 
 should it not be considered probable that the rest also are 
 Celtic ? In endeavouring to trace the genealogy of these 
 others, I have gone back to the original sources from which 
 they came, and have thus had an opportunity to refer to the 
 etymology of a large number of words in the ancient and 
 modern languages. 
 
 I have not attempted to describe the " cities " or the
 
 6 PREFACE. 
 
 " cemeteries " of Etruria. The recent republication of Mr. 
 Dennis's admirable work renders such labour superfluous. 
 
 Quotations from the Christian fathers are taken from the 
 translations of them published by Messrs. Clark of Edin- 
 burgh ; the Gaelic Dictionary which I have used chiefly is 
 Armstrong's ; German common nouns are given with a small 
 initial letter. The Index to this work contains only those 
 words whose derivation is noticed, more or less fully, in the 
 text, and a List of Abbreviations precedes the Index. 
 
 I have traced such words as Mars, Ouranos, and others 
 to Celtic sources. I do not deny that they may be connected 
 with the Sanscrit Language and Mythology, but it is quite 
 possible, nevertheless, that they have a direct Celtic origin. 
 
 I have specially to thank Mr. John Murray, the publisher 
 of Philip Smith's Ancient History, for his courtesy in per- 
 mitting me to quote from that valuable work the passage on 
 the history of the Etruscans. 
 
 It has been impossible for me to revise the press, but 
 the reputation of my Publishers for carefulness and accuracy 
 relieves me from anxiety in this respect. 
 
 In order that this volume may be intelligible to those 
 readers who have not hitherto turned their minds to observe 
 the mutations which words undergo, I have avoided the use 
 of technical terms, and have explained the nature of each 
 change wherever it occurs. 
 
 Finally, as my location does not give me the privilege of 
 consulting all of the original authorities bearing on my 
 theme, I may be permitted to say, with the poet — 
 
 " Si qua meis fuerint, ut erunt, vitiosa libellis, 
 Excusata sue tempore, lector, habe." 
 
 JOHN ERASER. 
 
 Maitlaxd, New South Wales, 
 July, 1879.
 
 TNTKODUCTION. 
 
 If we now proceed to use the touchstone of philology in 
 order to determine the ethnography of the Etruscans, we 
 find the materials available for the purpose exceedingly 
 scanty in proportion to the importance of the inquiry. They 
 are chiefly these : — 
 
 I. Etruscan common names of which the meanings 
 
 are known. 
 II. Bilingual inscriptions on Etruscan tombs. 
 
 III. Etruscan proper names, personal and geographical. 
 
 IV. Etruscan titles of office and of vocation. 
 
 V. Mythological names inscribed on Etruscan mirrors 
 
 and other works of art. 
 VI. Names of Etruscan deities. 
 VII. Etruscan mortuary inscriptions. 
 VIII. Latin names of Etruscan things. 
 
 My theme embraces the first and the last only of these 
 divisions, but examples from the other divisions will be 
 occasionally introduced. 
 
 I. — Etruscan Common Names. 
 
 The writings of Hesychius, Festus, Varro, Isidore, Livy, 
 and others contain about forty Etruscan names of common
 
 8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 things. In each instance the author expressly states that 
 the name is Etruscan, and gives the meaning of it. Besides 
 these, there are several names used in Latin to designate 
 things which the Romans are known to have received from 
 the Etruscans, or which were certainly of Etruscan growth ; 
 these may, without challenge, be regarded as Etruscan words. 
 The verdict, however, in this present cause will depend 
 chiejSy upon the nature of the evidence supplied by the 
 forty words ; for if an ancient language can be found which 
 yields both the meaning of these words and their form, in 
 accordance with the acknowledged principles of philological 
 investigation, we may unhesitatingly declare that the Etrus- 
 can and that language are akin ; and if, further, it can be 
 shown that that language is old enough to have produced 
 the Etruscan, and was once located in Italy, near the spot 
 where the language of Etruria grew and flourished, we may 
 hold the kinship to be that of an antecedent cause, at least 
 until some other language comes forward to prove a better 
 claim. 
 
 Then, after the forty words, the common names which 
 are Etrusco-Latin may be examined as collateral evidence. 
 
 Our amplest materials are drawn from the Greek dictionary 
 of Hesychius, a grammarian and lexicographer of Alexandria, 
 who lived there probably in the latter half of the fourth 
 century of our era. It contains about a score of Etruscan 
 words. A few of these are also mentioned by Strabo. Among 
 Latin authors, Festus gives nine or ten more ; and Varro, 
 Livy, Suetonius, Isidore, one or two words each. The lexicon 
 of Hesychius is of great value, for it is a storehouse of anti- 
 quarian information, and professes to be founded on several 
 earlier works of the same kind. Festus (Sext. Pomp.), who 
 may have been coeval with Hesychius, did a similar service 
 for Roman antiquities, and published a glossary, which was
 
 INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 mainly an abridgment of a book on the " Meaning of 
 Words," written by Marcus Flaccus, a grammarian of the 
 reign of Augustus. Varro (M. Teren.), the most learned and 
 most voluminous of Roman authors, lived and wrote about 
 5 B.C. Livy was only a boy while Yarro was busy with his 
 pen ; but the aged antiquary and the author of the " Roman 
 History " may have met at the hospitable board of Msecenas. 
 Suetonius (C), circa 100 A.D., is known principally by his 
 " Lives of the Twelve Roman Emperors." Strabo, the great 
 geographer of the ancient world, travelled extensively in the 
 reigns of Augustus and Tiberius (circa 20 A.D.) ; while 
 Isidore flourished as late as the seventh century. 
 Here are the words : — 
 
 From HesycJiius. 
 
 AGALLETOR, a child. 
 
 ANTAI, the winds. 
 
 AN DAS, the north wind. 
 
 ANTAR, an eagle. 
 
 ARACOS, \ . . 
 
 .. M r. M ^^^ f a hawk. 
 
 H ARACOS, } 
 
 ARIMI, apes. 
 
 A TAISON, a climbing vine. 
 AUSEL, the dawn. 
 BURRUS, a drinking-cup. 
 
 CAMILLUS, a messenger. 
 CAPRA, a she-goat. 
 CAPYS, a falcon. 
 DAMNUS, a horse. 
 DRUNA, sovereignty. 
 FAL/E, mountains. 
 
 FALANDUM, the sky. 
 
 GAPUS, a chariot. 
 GNIS, a crane. 
 
 From Festus. 
 
 BURRUS, ared(?)-nosed man. 
 
 BURRA, a heifer. 
 
 BURIS, the nose of the 
 
 plough, the plough tail. 
 IDUL/S, a sheep sacrificed 
 
 on the Ides of each month. 
 
 L^NA, a cloak of wool. 
 MANTISSA, a make- 
 
 weight. 
 NEPOS, a profligate. 
 SUBULO, a flute-player.
 
 10 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 From Varro. 
 
 ATRIUM, the open court of a house. 
 BALTEUS, a sword-belt. 
 
 From Isidore. 
 
 CASSIS, a helmet. 
 LANISTA, a sword-player. 
 
 From Livy. 
 HISTER, a stage-player. 
 
 From Suetonius. 
 /£5y4/?/ a god. 
 
 From Various Sources 
 
 FANUM, a temple. 
 FAVISSA, a cellar under a 
 
 temple. 
 LUDUS, a play. 
 LUDIO, a player. 
 
 LI Til US, an augur's rod. 
 POPULUS, the poplar-tree. 
 TOGA, the Roman dress. 
 VORSUS, a small piece of 
 land. 
 
 Among the common names which we may reasonably 
 believe to be Etruscan are the followino; : — 
 
 AUGUR. 
 
 AVERRUNCUS. 
 
 CLIENS. 
 
 CLOACA. 
 
 CURIA. 
 
 CURULIS. 
 
 FASCIS. 
 
 FETIALES. 
 
 HARIOLUS. 
 
 HARUSPEX. 
 
 LIOTOR. 
 
 PORRECTUS. 
 
 SECURIS.
 
 INTEODUCTION. 11 
 
 II. — The Etruscan Problem. 
 
 But before examining their language, let us look for a 
 little at the people. 
 
 The Etruscans are the unsolved problem of ancient ethno- 
 graphy. Who were tliey ? What language did they speak ? 
 From what country did they come ? How and when did 
 they enter Italy ? Were they the first inhabitants, 6r only 
 emigrant conquerors ? Was their civilisation, their art, their 
 domestic economy, indigenous and self-developed, or was it 
 brought in and established among them by foreigners? 
 What share had the Etruscans in the formation of the 
 Roman state ; and why did the Romans, while growing into 
 power, treat them so long with pertinacious severity, and 
 then afterwards show to them such tender care and indulgence 
 as we expect a son to pay to an aged and venerable parent ? 
 How is it that the Romans delighted to throw around their 
 early wars with the Etruscan states all the glories of a ballad 
 minstrelsy, and yet leave their career of conquest over the 
 other neighbouring nations all but unsung ? How is it that 
 Etruria, which apparently had no connection with the Alban 
 founders of Rome, yet gave to the infant city some of its early 
 kings, and impressed on it her own architecture, her religion, 
 her emblems of power and authority — in short, all the arts 
 of war and peace ? 
 
 These and similar questions have added to the Etruscan 
 problem an unusual degree of interest. The great Niebuhr 
 declared that he would envy the achievement of the man 
 who should discover and demonstrate the secret of Etruscan 
 nationality. Nor need we wonder at this, for with all his 
 stores of knowledge, with his unrivalled power of sifting the 
 facts of early Roman history, he had failed to clear up the 
 Etruscan mystery, and, after examining all the inscriptions
 
 12 INTEODUCTION, 
 
 then known, he confessed that he had made out only a few 
 things by conjecture ; as, for example, that the words ril avil 
 on the tombs meant " vixit annos," but which was the verb 
 and which was the noun he could not tell. 
 
 Even ancient historians, who lived 1800 years nearer to 
 the Etruscans than we do, entertain different opinions on 
 the origin of this nation. Herodotus (circa B.C. 450) gives 
 a tradition that the Etruscans came from Lydia ; that, some- 
 time before the Trojan war, one Tyrrhenus or Tyrsenus, a 
 Lydian, son of King Atys, led a band of his Pelasgian 
 countrymen into Italy, and settled with them on the banks 
 of the Tiber, giving to his followers and their descendants 
 the name of Tyrrhenians. Most of the ancient authors 
 following Herodotus have repeated this tradition. But 
 Dionysius of Halicarnassus (circa B.C. 50), in his "Roman 
 Archaeology," compiled at Rome, and from Roman sources 
 will not allow this story of a Lydian migration to be true, 
 and asserts that the Etruscans were the indigenous inhabit- 
 ants of their country, and that they were unlike any other 
 race in speech and manners. He supposes that they came 
 from the north. 
 
 The origin of the oldest races in Greek and Roman story 
 is, for the most part, founded on mythical elements furnished 
 by national pride of descent, of*, by the invented fancies of 
 the poets. Thus, the Roman annalists and poets carry back 
 the ancestry of their race to the heroes of Troy and the fame 
 of the " Pious ^neas." Even in British history, Geoffrey 
 of Monmouth and other chroniclers thought that they 
 advanced the glory of their country by tracing its name to 
 Brutus, the great-grandson of jEneas. And so Drayton 
 
 smgs- 
 
 *' The Britain-founding Brute, when, with his puissant fleet, 
 At Totness first he touched."
 
 INTRODUCTION. 1 3 
 
 The Lydians themselves are the authors (Athen^us, lib. xii.) 
 of the statement that the Etruscans were of Lydian extrac- 
 tion ; and this tradition of theirs, probably originating in 
 national vanity, is taken up by Herodotus, and from him 
 copied by subsequent historians. The Lydian Tyrrhenus 
 may be a myth, invented to account for the name Tyrrhenoi, 
 by which the Etruscans were known to the Greeks. 
 
 Modern investigation, attaching less importance to tradi- 
 tion, and following the safer guide of philology, has examined 
 the scanty remains which we have of the language of this 
 interesting people, and the incidental notices of their customs 
 which are found here and there in the pages of the Latin 
 and Greek authors, but the results obtained have been so 
 various and conflicting as to leave the inquiry almost as far 
 from an unchallenged settlement as ever. The Etruscan 
 language has in this way been declared by recent writers to 
 be Sanscrit,^ Celtic,^ Celto-Irish,^ Scandinavian,^ Old Ger- 
 man,^ Slavonic,'' Rhseto-Koman,''' Armenian,^ Ugric or 
 Turanian.^ 
 
 Of these authors, Betham and Taylor both start with a dis- 
 covery which leads the one to assign to the Etruscans an affinity 
 with the Celtic people and language of Ireland, while the other 
 writer finds a kindred race and tongue in China, Siberia, Fin- 
 land, and wherever else a Turanian dialect exists. Betham 
 (2 vols., 1842) had his attention first arrested by a passage 
 in Suetonius's Life of Augustus, to the following effect : — 
 During a storm, a flash of lightning struck the Emperor's 
 statue, and dashed out from the inscription on it the letter 
 C of the name Csesar Augustus. Those who were wise in 
 omens assured him that he would now live only a " hundred " 
 
 1 A. Bertani. s g. v. Schmitz. ^ Dr. Steub. 
 
 2 Sir W. Betham. W. Corssen. « E. Ellis. 
 
 ^ K. V. Maack. Lord Lindsay. ^ Eev. I. Taylor. 
 
 * Dr. Donaldson. " J. KoUar.
 
 14 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 {C=:centum) days, but that after his death he would be 
 reckoned cesar, a " god" — for that word meant a "god" in 
 the Etruscan language. From this narrative Betham was 
 led to believe that the Etruscans were of the Celtic stock, 
 for he knew that cesar in Irish means a " god " — literally, 
 " of ages the ruler." This little spark kindled a flame of 
 investigation, which bred in him the conviction that the Etrus- 
 can language is essentially Celtic, and capable of interpreta- 
 tion by comparing it with the Erse. Nearly the whole of 
 his first volume is occupied with an attempt to translate the 
 inscriptions on the Eugubian tablets ; but the arbitrary and 
 unphilosophic manner in which the words of the tablets are 
 taken to pieces, and then patched together again, so as to 
 make them give some meaning in Irish, appears to be 
 an instance of labour and ingenuity fruitlessly expended, 
 although in a good cause. 
 
 These tables are plates of bronze, seven in number, with 
 inscriptions on them in what is probably an Umbro- 
 Etruscan dialect — five of them covered with words in 
 Etruscan letters, which are read from right to left ; and 
 the other two in the later Latin character, read in the 
 usual way from left to right. They are not older than 
 the fourth century B.C., and were found about four hundred 
 years ago (a.d. 1444) in the ruins of a temple near Gubbio, 
 the ancient Iguvium, a city in Umbria. The learned Lanzi, 
 who attempted to explain the inscriptions, thinks that these 
 bronzes were used as mural tablets, and contain rules for 
 the proper forms of worship, Betham's translation makes 
 them to be sailing directions to mariners, to enable them 
 to pass safely into the Atlantic, and, touching at Cape 
 Ortegal, to reach the Carne — i.e., Carnsore Point, in Wex- 
 ford ! It is scarcely necessary to add that the meaning of 
 the inscriptions is still enveloped in darkness. Sir W.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 1 5 
 
 Betham's second volume endeavours to explain names found 
 in the geography, the religion, the antiquities of Etruria, 
 by comparing them with words in the Irish language ; but 
 while he has collected many facts which help us to under- 
 stand the Etruscans and their manners, yet his method of 
 analysing names is fantastical, and often inconsistent with 
 the principles of philology. Thus, the name Apollo is 
 traced to the Irish ab, " lord," ol, " mighty," lu, " of the 
 waters ; " Tuscania, to tus, " first," cean, " head," ia, 
 " country." 
 
 Taylor's " Etruscan Researches " owe their birth to the 
 tomb-building propensities of the Etruscans. He says that 
 the Aryan and the Semitic races have been great builders — 
 of temples, palaces, roads, and the like — but not of tombs ; 
 while the Turanians, whom he calls the ethnological sub- 
 stratum of the whole world, have everywhere shown them- 
 selves a great tomb-building race. Fortified by this analogy, 
 he proceeds to examine some of the distinguishing features 
 of the Etruscans — their priesthood and sorcery, their law of 
 inheritance, their type of body and of mind, their art — 
 and then, in the remainder of his book, he discusses their 
 mythology and their language ; in all these points he 
 finds resemblances among the Turanian tribes, either in 
 the Caucasus, or in Central Asia, or in China, or among 
 the Samoiedes, or in Siberia, or Finland, or among the 
 Magyars and the Turks. Now, where an author has the 
 privilege of roaming at will among so many nations and 
 languages as are included in the great Turanian family, 
 it would be strange indeed if he does not find in some one 
 of them habits and words similar to those which are the 
 subject of his inquiries. Taylor has also overlooked the 
 fact that all languages, tribes, and nations are sprung from 
 one common stock, and that consequently there may exist,
 
 16 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and do exist, among them certain features — beliefs, cus- 
 toms, and names — that are common to all, although from 
 lapse of time these are now much obscured, and many of 
 them, it may be, altogether obliterated. The tomb-building 
 discovery has also led him to search for analogies nowhere 
 but among the Ugric and other similar tribes, and, even 
 when an Aryan etymology is evident, to set it aside in 
 favour of another drawn from the far east or the icy north. 
 
 Corssen, on the other hand, does not profess to be allured 
 by a phantom discovery ; he has no theory, no dogma, to 
 establish. He first has a chapter on the Etruscan alphabet ; 
 then, from an attentive comparison of the bilingual inscrip- 
 tions, in which the lines of Etruscan have under them 
 an equivalent in Latin, probably a translation, and from 
 inscriptions on statuary and mirrors, he gives his views of 
 the forms and inflections of Etruscan nouns, pronouns, and 
 verbs ; further on, he examines the names of Etruscan 
 deities and mythological persons ; then the devices and 
 names stamped on the Etruscan coins; he then concludes 
 his first volume with an account of the specimens of Etrus- 
 can speech which have been found only a few years ago 
 in Umbria, Northern Italy, and Rhsetia. His second 
 volume treats chiefly of the grammar of the language. 
 Throughout, he seems to connect the Etruscan language 
 with the Gothic and the Sanscrit, certainly with the Aryan 
 family of languages. 
 
 Of Lord Lindsay's volume it may be enough to say, that 
 he regards the language as Teutonic. He gives two hundred 
 pages to the consideration of a few of the inscriptions, which 
 he finds to be chiefly votive or sepulchral, or relating to land 
 tenure. In an appendix of about seventy pages, the com- 
 mon names of the Etruscan language are also traced, con- 
 jecturally, to Teutonic sources.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 17 
 
 There is one noticeable defect in these last three works 
 on Tuscanology. Lindsay appeals to Old High German ; 
 Corssen wanders from the banks of the Rhine to the 
 Ganges, and Taylor even to the shores of the Pacific and 
 the Arctic Ocean, in search of analogies ; but they scarcely 
 ever look at a people who are known to have lived in 
 Italy in the earliest times, whose language, probably as 
 old as the Sanscrit and the Zend, contributed a consider- 
 able portion of itself to the Latin, and was spoken in 
 Europe from the Black Sea to the Atlantic long before 
 Gothic or Latin had any existence — I mean the Celtic. It 
 has long been the lot of this old member of the Aryan 
 family to be neglected, because of her seemingly uncouth 
 habits and dress ; but now her importance is recognised. 
 Bunsen, in his " Philosophy of Universal History," regards 
 the Celtic as representing the most ancient formation of the 
 whole stock of the Iranian — that is, the Indo-Germanic or 
 Aryan family — and speaks of the Celtic as once spreading 
 over Asia Minor, Spain, France, Belgium, Helvetia, a great 
 part of Germany, and through the British Isles. Even Mr. 
 Taylor himself, in his " Words and Places," reckons the 
 Celts to be the first of the five great waves of immigration 
 that have peopled Europe, and, of the two branches of this 
 wave, he regards the Gadhelic as earlier than the Kymric. 
 In the geographical names of most of the countries of 
 Central and Western Europe, this Celtic substratum under- 
 lies the more recent deposits of the Teutonic and the 
 Romance periods, and is specially traceable in river names, 
 which, like the granite rocks, remain immovable, whatever 
 may be the floods of convulsion and change which sweep 
 nations to and fro on the face of the earth. Less faithful 
 to their first friends, who gave them a local habitation, are 
 
 the names of mountains and hills, strongholds, hill-forts, 
 
 c
 
 18 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and towns. If, on examining the topography of any region, 
 the concurrent testimony of all these aged witnesses can be 
 interpreted by any one language, that language is justly 
 declared to be the one spoken by the earliest inhabitants of 
 the country. 
 
 Some of my readers, whose attention has not hitherto 
 been turned to this subject, may wonder that a language 
 now spoken only in two corners of the wide world — the 
 Highlands of Scotland and the west and south of Ireland — 
 should aspire to the honour of being the mother-tongue of 
 so ancient and distinguished a nation as the Etruscans, A 
 few simple considerations will dispel this feeling of wonder. 
 
 There is a manifest brotherhood of languages, a family 
 likeness ; apart altogether from the testimony of Scripture 
 on this point, there are observed facts in the phenomena of 
 language, which prove that the Confusion of Tongues did 
 not destroy the original unity of human speech, but caused 
 only such consonantal and dialect differences as rendered the 
 speech of one band of men unintelligible to another. The 
 important structural differences that exist among languages 
 compel philologists to arrange them in three great classes — 
 the Japhetic, the Semitic, and the Turanian ; and yet, 
 although the science of comparative philology is still in its 
 infancy, its researches show that there is an essential unity 
 in languages, for underlying them all there is a ground- 
 work of root- words which must have proceeded from one 
 common source. We may therefore believe, even if we 
 had not the record in Genesis, that all the languages now 
 scattered throughout the world are merely disrupted frag- 
 ments of one undivided language, spoken by all many 
 thousand years ago, ere yet the human family had left 
 that officina gentium, the table-land of Armenia and the 
 Caucasus. If, as some critics suppose, the Japhetians were
 
 INTRODUCTION. 19 
 
 not actively engaged in the building of the tower on Shinar's 
 plain, if the sons of Gomer, the Celts, were the first to swarm 
 off, as seems most likely, they must have carried with them 
 this primitive language comparatively unbroken and un- 
 diluted ; and if we can find anywhere one of these Celtic 
 tribes that has, from favourable circumstances — such as 
 separation in a mountainous country, far from contact with 
 foreigners, or undisturbed seclusion in an island — kept itself 
 unadulterated, we should expect their language to exhibit 
 many affinities with the most ancient forms of those languages 
 which have proceeded from the same fountain-head, but 
 have, in their course down the stream of time, failed to keep 
 themselves as pure, in consequence of their want of isolation. 
 Thus, Icelandic is the purest form of the Norse; of the 
 Celtic, the Gaelic and the Erse are the purest, for both of 
 them at a very early period were sole occupants of the 
 British Isles, but were ultimately driven into the north and 
 the west by invading and usurping Teutons. As the Celts, 
 then, were the first inhabitants of Middle and Western 
 Europe (the Finnic hypothesis notwithstanding), and as 
 they did not thus settle down among an aboriginal people 
 of a strange tongue, their own language must have remained 
 uncorrupted ; and when, after a while, they were pressed 
 more and more into the west, and at last into Britain, by 
 successive hordes of Teutons and Slaves, in gradually retir- 
 ing before the foe they must have carried with them their 
 language still unmixed. Doubtless, many Celts in these 
 countries, like many Jewish families at the Return from 
 the Babylonish Captivity, preferred to remain on their lands, 
 either as subjects or as slaves, and wherever this residuary 
 element was considerable, the ordinary speech of the descend- 
 ants of the conquerors shows an unmistakable strand of 
 Celtic in its texture ; the bolder spirits who refused to sub-
 
 20 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 mit to the foreigner, and retired before him, escaped this 
 degradation, and fondly styled themselves the " invincibles." 
 Thus it is that Gadhelic is reckoned one of the oldest of 
 spoken languages, and in its structure and vocabulary bears 
 a strong resemblance to Sanscrit, and, in some degree, to the 
 Semitic Hebrew, 
 
 III. — The Etruscans — Their History. 
 
 {From Philip Smitli's Ancient History. London : John Murray, 
 
 Albemarle, Street.) 
 
 The very interesting, but difficult question, concerning 
 the primitive inhabitants of Italy, was first discussed in a 
 scientific spirit by Niebuhr. The population of Italy has 
 always been one of the most mixed in the whole world. 
 Neither the names of the tribes scattered over the peninsula, 
 nor the ancient traditions respecting them, afford ua any 
 certain information. Our only trustworthy guide is the 
 science of comparative grammar, but the aid it furnishes is 
 limited by our very slight knowledge of the languages of 
 ancient Italy. No trace is found in the peninsula of that 
 primitive population (probably Turanian) which was spread 
 over the north of Europe at a period when civilisation was 
 in such a backward state that iron implements were unknown, 
 and which has therefore been called the Age of Stone. Such 
 relics as remain of the earliest Italian tribes attest their 
 knowledge of the arts of agriculture and metal working. 
 It is clearly ascertained that all the populations of which 
 we have any distinct trace were of the Indo-European family; 
 and they may be divided into three principal stocks — the 
 Iapygian, the Etruscan, and the Italian, the last being 
 subdivided into the Latin and Umbrian, and the second of 
 these subdivisions including several tribes of Central Italy, 
 as the Umbri, Marsi, Volsci, and Samnites.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 Peninsulas, such as Greece, Italy, and Spain, backed up 
 on the one side by mountains, and offering on all sides an 
 extensive line of coast, have been, of course, peopled either 
 from the land or from the sea. There are certain natural 
 conditions which help to show in which direction the stream 
 of immigration is most likely to have flowed ; and a guide 
 is also furnished by the successive waves of population which 
 have passed over the same land in the period of recorded 
 history. In the cases of Greece and Spain, the islands of 
 the Archipelago and the narrow Straits of Gibraltar afford 
 facilities for access from Asia and Africa respectively, which 
 do not exist in the case of Italy, unless ib be across the 
 mouth of the Adriatic. But decisive arguments are pre- 
 sented against the last hypothesis by the width of the strait 
 between the coasts of Epirus and Apulia, by the dangers of 
 the passage — proverbial among the ancients down to a late 
 period — by the absence of any evidence that the earliest 
 inhabitants of either coast were a seafaring people, and by 
 the fact that the historical settlements in Magna Grsecia 
 were made in almost every direction rather than in this. 
 On the other hand, the glorious climate of Italy, and the 
 rich fertility of the great sub-Alpine plain, have in all ages 
 attracted the tribes of the less favoured north through the 
 passes of the Alps. 
 
 If, then, we assume the probability of successive immigra- 
 tions by the same route in the prehistoric times, we shall 
 expect to find the earliest inhabitants pressed down to the 
 south of the peninsula. It is here, in fact, that we find 
 traces of the Iapygian race, in the peninsula called by 
 the Greeks Messapia, and in modern times Calabria, the 
 " toe " of Italy, as well as on the " heel," or Apulia, Their 
 numerous inscriptions, in a dialect more nearly akin to the 
 Greek than to the other languages of the Italian peninsula,
 
 22 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and often exhibiting the very names of the Greek deities, 
 suggest the probability that they belonged to the great 
 Pelasgic family which peopled both peninsulas in the earliest 
 ages, and "which, if not the actual parent of the Hellenic 
 race, was very near to it in kindred. This race was char- 
 acterised by an unwarlike simplicity, which gave ground 
 before its own hardier and more warlike scions, as, in its own 
 mythology, Saturn was expelled by Jove. In Greece, it 
 remained comparatively undisturbed in Epirus, and in other 
 parts it was driven back into the mountain fastnesses ; while 
 on the less intricate surface of Italy it seems to have been 
 forced back in mass towards the south. The close connec- 
 tion of this lapygian race with the earliest Greeks may help 
 to account for the ease with which the Hellenic settlements 
 were made in Magna Grsecia. The relations of the lapygians 
 with the Siculi is a question not yet determined. 
 
 The two branches of the great Italian race, which occupied 
 the central part of the peninsula, have left us much more 
 distinct traces, of their nationality in the peculiar forms of 
 their languages, which exhibit a clearly-marked difference 
 from the Greeks and lapygians on the one hand, and from 
 the Etruscans on the other ; while the points of resemblance 
 are sufficient to establish an affinity with the Greek nearer 
 than with any other of the Indo-Germanic languages. The 
 fact, so important to be clearly apprehended in the study of 
 language as well as history, that Greek and Latin are but 
 dialects of one common tongue, was vaguely recognised in 
 the guessiug attempts to derive certain words in the one 
 language from the other, before comparative grammar became 
 a science. 
 
 The Greeks themselves recognised the unity of the Italian 
 races, to the exclusion of the lapygian and Etruscan, by 
 applying to them collectively the name of Opici, which is
 
 INTRODUCTION. 23 
 
 only another form of Osci, just as the Latins included all 
 the branches of the Hellenic race under the common name 
 of Grseci. The parallel has been carried so far as to suggest 
 a comparison between the division of the Hellenes into the 
 Ionian and Dorian races with that of the Italians into two 
 great branches, the eastern and the western ; and of these 
 the western is represented in historic times by the Latin 
 nation ; the eastern by the XJmbrians, Sabines, Marsi, Volsci 
 or Ausones, and other tribes, which extended from the north- 
 eastern coast down into southern Latium and Campania. 
 The last-named district seems to have been of old the chief 
 seat of the Oscans; and here their language was preserved, 
 both as a popular dialect and in the farces known at Rome 
 as the Fabulse Atellanae. These eastern Italians are again 
 subdivided into two chief branches, a northern and a southern, 
 the former embracing the peoples of Umbria, the latter those 
 included under the name of Oscans in its widest sense, and, 
 after they had ceased to be a people, represented chiefly by 
 the Samnites. Hence the two branches of the Italian race 
 are distinguished by the names of Latin and Umbro-Sanmite 
 or SabelUan. The former branch gave rise to the Roman 
 State, which now becomes the central point of our history ; 
 but, before describing its rise, a few words must be added 
 concerning the other chief people of the Italian peninsula. 
 
 At their junction with the Maritime Alps, the Apennines 
 enclose the beautiful Riviera, or coast-terrace, round the 
 head of the Gulf of Genoa, the Liguria of the ancients ; and 
 then, from the line of the River Macra, their bold sweep 
 surrounds the magnificent country which has always borne 
 one of the names of the race we have now to sj)eak of. 
 Physically, indeed, the region is bounded by that branch of 
 the chain which runs southward towards Cape Circelli (the 
 ancient promontoiy of Circe), along the eastern margin of
 
 24 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the valley of the Tiber ; but, from the foundation of Rome, 
 this river divided Etruria from Latium. The Apennines 
 shelter this country on the north and east, and their lateral 
 chains diversify its surface v^ith wooded heights and sweep- 
 ing valleys, watered by the Arno, the confluents of the 
 Tiber, and the intervening rivers. Of such valleys we may 
 find types, celebrated by the poets, in the Sabine retreat of 
 Horace, 
 
 " In Yallombrosa, where the Eti"urian shades, 
 High overarch'd, embower," 
 
 This fair region was once, in all probability, divided between 
 the Ligurians and the old Siculian or lapygian inhabitants 
 of Italy ; but in the historic times, it was the home of the 
 people who called themselves E,AS, Rasena, or JRasenna, but 
 were named by the Greeks Tyrseni or Tyrrheni, by the 
 Latins Tusci or Etrusci, and their land Etruria. Their 
 origin and early growth forms one of the most interesting 
 and difficult problems of antiquity. A supposed Oriental 
 element, of which, however, even some ancient writers 
 denied the existence, in their customs and institutions, gave 
 rise to the fable that the ancient Lydian king, T3rrsenus, had 
 led a colony into Etruria ; and the theory that they came 
 by sea from the East has found advocates in modem times. 
 But it is far more probable that their origin is to be sought 
 beyond the Alps. It seems certain that, as early as the 
 foundation of Rome, the Etruscans were a very powerful 
 people, extending from the Alps over the plain of Lombardy 
 and the western part of Italy as far to the south as 
 Vesuvius. At the northern limit of this wide region, the 
 central chain of the Alps (in the Orisons and Tyrol) was 
 occupied by the Rhsetians, a name very similar to Rasenna; 
 and ancient traditions represent the Rhtetians as a branch
 
 INTRODUCTION. 25 
 
 of the Etruscans, driven back into the Alps when the mass 
 of the nation were expelled from the plain of Northern 
 Italy by the Gauls. It seems very probable that the tradi- 
 tion, as often happens, has only inverted the true order of 
 the movement, and that the Ehastians were (and, to some 
 extent, still are) the representatives of the old Rasenna in 
 or near their ancient seats. We have the testimony of 
 Livy, whose native city, Patavium (Padua), was not far 
 from the Rheetic Alps, that the Rhsetian language closely 
 resembled the Etruscan ; and singular likenesses have been 
 traced between local names in Rhtetia and those of ancient 
 Etruria. But the Rasenna alone did not form the Etruscan 
 nation. It appears that a branch of the great Pelasgic race, 
 who were the earliest known inhabitants of the whole 
 region to the south of the Alps and the Balkan — a branch 
 which had made greater progress than the rest in civilisation 
 and power — crossed the Alps and Apennines, and drove out 
 the Umbrians from the region along the western coast, as the 
 latter had previously driven out the lapygians; and that these 
 Tyrrhenian Pelasgians were in turn subdued by the power- 
 ful Rasenna, who descended from the Alps. The Rasenna 
 did not expel the Tyrrhenians, but formed a dominant 
 aristocracy, like the Normans in England. From the amal- 
 gamation of the conquerors with the conquered seems to 
 have sprung the great nation of the Etruscans, whose high 
 civilisation and maritime power is one of the earliest known 
 facts of European history. 
 
 Unfortunately, the problem of their origin derives little 
 aid from the powerful instrument of comparative philology, 
 not for want of considerable remains of their language, but 
 because the efforts to decipher their sepulchral inscriptions 
 have been attended with scarcely any success. The great 
 obstacle seems to be the want of close affinity to any known
 
 26 ' INTRODUCTION. 
 
 language. "The Etruscans," says Dionysius, "are like no 
 other nation in language and manners." There seem, how- 
 ever, to be isolated elements in the Etruscan language 
 closely akin to the Gi'eek, and others like the Umbrian, 
 thus representing the Pelasgian Tyrrhenians and the 
 Umbrians, whom they are said to have displaced ; while the 
 bulk of the language, quite distinct from both these and 
 from the whole Grseco-Latin family, is supposed to represent 
 the dialect of the conquering Rasenna. If the opinion 
 recently advanced should be confirmed by further researches 
 — that this E-asennic element is akin to the Scandinavian 
 dialects — we should be brought to the deeply-interesting 
 result that an infusion of Gothic blood gave its wonted 
 stimulus to the greatness of the Etruscans, and that the 
 Lombard plain was peopled to a great extent, in the most 
 ancient as in modern times, by the fair-haired Teutons. 
 
 For let their origin have been what it may, their ancient 
 power and civilisation are unquestionable facts. In the 
 earliest ages of European history they overspread the whole 
 plain of Northern Italy, where remnants of the Etruscan 
 population were left, after the nation had been expelled by 
 the Gauls, as, for example, at Mantua ; and other important 
 cities were of Etruscan origin. Among these was the port 
 of Adria, which, by giving its name to the Adriatic, has 
 borne witness down to the present day of the maritime 
 power of the Etruscans in the eastern sea ; while, on the 
 opposite side of the peninsula, they gave their own name to 
 the Tyrrhenian or Tuscan sea. Their naval enterprise is 
 constantly referred to in Greek poetry and history. The 
 colonies in Magna Grsecia and Sicily were harassed by 
 Tyrrhenian pirates; and, in B.C. 538, they joined the Car- 
 thaginians, with sixty ships, in the great sea fight with the 
 Phocaeans off Alalia in Corsica, They were leagued with the
 
 INTRODUCTION. 27 
 
 Carthaginians by treaties of commerce and navigation, with 
 the view of preserving their empire in the western Mediter- 
 ranean against the maritime enterprises of the Greeks. 
 Meanwhile they had extended their power by land south- 
 wards as far as Campania, where, as well as in Central 
 Etruria, they founded a confederacy of twelve cities, among 
 which were Capua (which they called Vulturnum), and joro- 
 bably Pompeii, Herculaneum, and other cities on the coast. 
 Here they came into conflict with the Greek cities, about 
 B.C. 500, the epoch of their greatest ascendancy ; but they 
 did not succeed in reducing them. They made a great 
 attack on Cumse in B.C. 525, and again in B.C. 474, when 
 Hiero of Syracuse, called in to the aid of the Cumseans, 
 totally defeated the combined fleets of the Carthaginians 
 and Etruscans. This was a great blow to the maritime 
 power of the latter people, and before long we find the 
 Syracusan navy ravaging the coasts of Etruria, and seizing 
 the island of iEthalia {Elba) in B.C. 458. The Tyrrhenians 
 sent a force to the aid of the Athenians in Sicily in B.C. 414 ; 
 and, on the other hand, Dionysius I. led an expedition 
 against Caere in Etruria (B.C. 387). Some time before this, 
 the Samnites had conquered the Etruscan settlements in 
 Campania, and the Gauls had overrun the plain of 
 Northern Italy, so that the Etruscans were almost confined 
 to the limits of Etruria Proper. Their expulsion from 
 Melpum, the last of their possessions beyond the Apennines, 
 coinciding exactly with the taking of Veil by the Romans, 
 marks the epoch of the decline of the Etruscan state 
 (B.C. 396). But it took more than another century to com- 
 plete their conquest by the Eomans ; and as late as B.C. 307 
 we find their navy taking part in the war of Agathocles 
 with Carthage. A fatal blow was given to their power in 
 Etruria itself by the victory of Q. Fabius Maximus over the
 
 28 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 united confederacy, at the Yadimonian lake (B.C. 310). A 
 few years afterwards, their last great stand against Rome, in 
 league with the Umbrians, Samnites, and the Gallic Senones, 
 failed in the two great battles of Sentinum, in Umbria (b.c. 
 295) and the Yadimonian lake (b.c. 283), and the final 
 triumph over the Etruscans as a nation was celebrated by 
 Q. Marcius Philippus in the same year in which P3rrrhus 
 arrived in Italy (b.c. 281), The few later wars were isolated 
 efforts of single cities, the last being the revolt of the Falis- 
 cans in B.C. 241. But it seems clear that the Etruscans 
 were the last people of Italy who submitted to the Romans.
 
 THE MONKEYS. 29 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE MONKEYS. 
 
 Arimi, Apes. 
 
 Of our forty Etruscan fossils, I pick up the word arimi, 
 which means " apes," and I take it first, for the analysis of 
 this word will illustrate the principles and methods which I 
 wish to follow in the whole of these investigations, 
 
 Hesychius translates arimos by the Gr. j)ithekos, 
 which commonly means " an ape," but may also mean " a 
 monkey." I shall therefore take the Etr. arimi to mean 
 either " apes" or "monkeys." The common name "ape" 
 is the same in all the Celtic and Teutonic tongues, G. apa, 
 apag, I. apa, K. ab, eppa, D. aajD, Da. abe, Ic. ape, 
 Ger. affe, E. ape, o. h. Ger. affin, SI. opica. These 
 are all abraded forms of the native Indian word kapi, which 
 in Sanscrit means "active, nimble"; the name and the 
 thing which it signifies both come from Hindostan. The 
 ships of King Solomon brought apes from India, and the 
 H. word koph is only an adaptation of the S. kapi. The 
 Greeks also have preserved the initial guttural, for Aristotle 
 applies the name kebos, kepos, keibosto a species of long- 
 tailed monkeys. On a mosaic pavement at Prseneste, a town 
 in the Latin territory of ancient Italy, there is the figure of 
 an ape or monkey with the inscription keipen. The 
 restricted use of the word kebos by Aristotle, and the
 
 30 
 
 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 disuse of it in classic Greek, seem to indicate that it is an 
 old Pelasgic word. 
 
 It is strange that while other European languages have 
 retained the Sanscrit name " ape," the Greeks have for it 
 substituted pithekos. Does this imply that the Celts 
 and Teutons have a more intimate connection with, or 
 an earlier separation from, the primitive families of man- 
 kind, and that the Hellenic immigration introduced the 
 word pithekos and displaced keibos ? The Latins have 
 simius to mean "an ape"; I can see how keibos may 
 become simius, but I cannot see how the root kapi can 
 give the Gr. pithekos : this must, then, be a different word. 
 I believe that pithek is the G. adj. beathach, beothach, 
 the same as beosach, "brisk, lively," equivalent to the 
 F. spirituel, which is also an epithet appKed to a monkey. 
 The G. root is beo, "alive, sprightly, lively," from which 
 come G. beath, I. beatha, "life, food," L. vita, Gr. 
 biote, with which compare the E. verb be, and the S. 
 asu, "life," with L. esse. In modern G. beothach is a 
 noun, and means "a beast, an animal," but an adj. form, 
 beothail, means "lively, brisk," and the verb beothaich, 
 " to animate, to enliven." Pithekos, then, is the 
 "lively" animal, "I'animal tres spirituel, des animaux le 
 plus spirituel." 
 
 The L. simius, "an ape," is said to come from the L. 
 adj. simus "flat-nosed," but this derivation is more 
 fanciful than true, and is not, moreover, supported by 
 any other evidence than the similarity of the two words. 
 I derive L. sim-ius from the Gr. keib-os, for h and m 
 being by Eastern tongues pronounced very much alike, 
 keib gives keim, then heim, and by changing h into s 
 as in Gr. hex, L. sex, the form seim would give L. 
 sim-ius ; the diphthong in seim also accounts for the
 
 THE MONKEYS. 31 
 
 long i in simius. The affinity of b to m is shown by 
 the connection between the L. tub-er and tum-eo, 
 hiems and hibernus. Simius, thus, may come from the 
 S. kapi through the Gr. keibos, but by a longer and less 
 direct route than the Celto-Teutonic a pa. 
 
 Kapi, then, is a descriptive name meaning " nimble." 
 In passing into G., the k becomes t ; hence the G.-L 
 tap-aid h, " clever, active," and tap-adh, " cleverness, 
 agility," and also the 1. tap-amh-uil, a double adj. form 
 equivalent to such a word as "act-ive-like." The K. shows 
 no trace of tap-aidh, but it has the non-Gadhelic adj. 
 siongc, " active," from which I take the F. singe, " an 
 ape," while the F. guenon, guenuche, "an ape" or 
 " monkey," is also a Celtic word, being the G.-I. adj. 
 guanach, "light" in movements, "active." The K. has 
 an adj. gwneuth-urol, but the lineaments of this Kymric 
 gentleman's face show him at once to be a very distant and 
 late descendant of the G. guanach. In Celto-French, then, 
 there are two different words which mean " an ape," the one 
 guenon, guenuche, being taken from a Gadhelic word 
 which is found only in a very diluted form in Kymric, while 
 the other French name is purely Kymric. Does this indicate 
 that France was once occupied by two great branches of the 
 Celtic family, the Gadhelic first and then the Kymric, or by 
 both of them simultaneously ? I take the Kymric to be the 
 later and intrusive element, and, like the Belgse, to be a 
 Teutonised Celtic race and languae^e. 
 
 In fine, since the name for " ape " in so many languages 
 means the " active, nimble " animal, we may expect the 
 Etr. arimi to have a corresponding meaning. And so it 
 has, for in G. the adj. ealamh means "quick, active, 
 nimble," and this, by the simple change of one liquid for 
 another, gives the Etr. ar-im-i. The -amh in the word
 
 32 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 ealamli is a very common adj. termination in Gadhelic. 
 The root eal is one of the early root-forms of human speech, 
 for the H. has kal-al, "to be light" (of which the primary 
 signification is "to be swift, fleet") and chal-az, " to be 
 active"; the Cb. has chSr-az, and the H. chSl-az-ayim, 
 " the loin," to which the girdle was bound when a man was 
 about to engage in " active " exertion. Observe that here 
 the Ch. puts r for I, the same change as in arimi from 
 ealamh. As the H. chal readily softens into yal, G. eal, 
 the antiquity of the Gr. word ealamh and the Etr. arimi 
 is unquestionable. The form of the G. word being that of 
 an adjective, and the identity of its root with the H. chal, 
 justify the belief that ealam- is earlier than arim-, and 
 therefore its parent. 
 
 From the G. eal-, " active," I take the L. verb, sal-io, 
 "I leap," for cognate with the root chal the H. has sal-ad, 
 "to leap," as a horse; and the H. word amoz, "active," 
 is used by the Arabs as a descriptive name for a frisky, 
 " nimble " horse. 
 
 At one period of my investigations I was disposed to 
 regard arimi as an archaic form for a-simi — that is, " the 
 sim-ii" — and to refer both words to the G. afheam, "the 
 rump," which might become aseam, asim, for in G. //i — 
 that is, / aspirated — is pronounced li (as in the Scotch ex- 
 clamation " haith " for " faith "), and the interchange of 
 li and s is common in the Celtic dialects — as K. halen, G. 
 salann, L. sal, E. salt; K. hen, G. scan, L. senex, 
 " old " ; but it is not likely that the Etruscans changed 
 asimi into arimi; and the meaning "tail-less" does not 
 suit "the monkeys." At another time I thought I had 
 found the root of arimi in G. earr, "a tail," Gr. oura, 
 orros; from earr I formed the adj. earr-amh, "tailed," 
 whence arimi ; but earramh, although a legitimate forma-
 
 THE MONKEYS. 33 
 
 tion, does not exist in Gadhelic, nor does this derivation 
 suit " the apes." 
 
 In English we transfer the name of the animal to a man, 
 when he indulges in silly imitation like the ape ; but 
 the Italians, whose language furnishes us with the word 
 "monkey" (monicchio), take the monkey from the man, 
 for from madonna, "mistress," they take monna, "an 
 old woman," and then monnino, monicchio, "an ape, a 
 monkey." 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson says : " There is no certainty about this word. 
 The commentators would connect it with the Hebrew chdrum, 
 which signifies 'snub-nosed' ' simus' ; but this is merely 
 fanciful," 
 
 Lindsay. — " Probably a Phoenician word, and derivable 
 from the Hebrew chdrilm, ' simus,' ' snub-nosed,' as shown 
 by Donaldson." 
 
 Taylor. — " Possibly aHmi meant ' little men.' In the 
 Turkic and Mongolic languages, ar or er is ' a man,' and 
 ' little ' is hene in Yenissei." 
 
 CORSSEN. Nil. 
 
 D
 
 34 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 TREES AND PLANTS. 
 
 1. Ataison, a Climbing Vine. 
 
 2. Populus, the Poplar-Tree. 
 
 1. Ataison, a Climbing Vine. 
 
 As this word further illustrates my method, I take it next. 
 I analyse it into three component words, an-tais-fhion, 
 " the soft, moist plant," or an-cais-fhion, " the twisting, 
 climbing plant," Either meaning suits the nature of the 
 vine. When it is grown as a standard, it is so weak that 
 its young branches must every year be tied up to a stake, 
 and thus secured from the ravages of high winds ; in spring, 
 the remarkable flow of sap which it shows, and the ease 
 with which its tender shoots may then be broken off, fully 
 justify the name of " the soft, moist plant " ; but if it is 
 trained on a trellis, or, as in Northern Italy in the classic 
 period, and, doubtless, in ancient Etruria also, if it is wedded 
 to the lofty elms and poplars, the name " climbing plant " is 
 equally appropriate. 
 
 But what is a vine ? It is not a tree ; it is not a shrub ; 
 it is not a flower, for its blossom is so minute as to be 
 scarcely noticeable. It is a slender twig, producing fruit 
 in such rich clusters and with such prolific abundance, that 
 Mother Earth seems to have reserved her nectar and am- 
 brosia for this the choicest favourite of her bosom. Wherever
 
 TREES AND PLANTS. 85 
 
 a life-giving, fertilising sun smiles warmly and benignly on 
 the face and lap of our all-bearing mother, a brittle vine- 
 stick, thrust even rudely into her bosom, receives at once 
 her fostering care, and, ere long, saturated with fatness, it 
 bursts forth into bud, twig, and branch, and while still, as 
 it were, an infant in years, it is covered with bunches of 
 juicy berries, and to an extreme old age it continues to bear 
 abundantly fruit after its kind. Well did the ancients make 
 it the symbol of Dionysus, Bacchus, the Etruscan Phu- 
 phlun-th, the youthful god who presides over the " fulness 
 of Nature's growth." 
 
 Let us now look at the etymology of the G. words 
 an-cais-fhion, an-tais-fhion. 
 
 The Gr. oinos and the L. vinum are the same word, 
 and are of common origin; for, as is well known, oinos in 
 old Greek was written -^dth the digamma prefixed, and 
 therefore pronounced v oinos. In Greek, oinos also meant 
 "the vine," as is proved by the noun oinanthe, "vine- 
 blossom." Now, oinos and vinum are the same word as 
 the G.-I. fion, "wine," which also means "a vine," as 
 in fion-lios, "a vineyard," fion-duille, "a vine-leaf," 
 where G. duille is the Gr, phullon, and the L. folium, 
 " a leaf." Fion in the construct state is fhion (pronounced 
 hion), and hion, as usual, changes its initial letter into s 
 (see feam and halem) ; from sion comes the Etr. son in 
 ataison. 
 
 Instead of the double application of G. fion, the Kymric 
 dialect uses two words ; for in K., " wine " is gwin, but " a 
 vine" is gwinwydden — that is, " a vine-tree." The H. 
 yayin, "wine," is also cognate to G, fion, Gr. oinos, L. 
 vinum ; for it is probably an Aryan word (see K^nan, 
 "Lang. Semi.'"), and formed from a root gin or gion, which 
 in G. is written fion. In Armenia, Noah's country, the
 
 36 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 root-form gini is at this Lour the common name for 
 " wine." Yayin, then, may be equivalent to ha ghin. " the 
 wine, the vine-juice." According to G. principles of pro- 
 nunciation, at least, the construct form ghin would be 
 sounded yin, and the H. article ha may be softened into 
 ya, hence ya-yin. The syllable ya of the H. yayin is 
 dropped in passing into the Aryan languages, as also in H. 
 jakar, L. earns. Pott refers oinos and vinum to an 
 Aryan root we, " to weave," from which he takes also L. 
 Tiere, vimen, vitis, vitta ; while Kuhn refers vinum to 
 a root wan, "to love." 
 
 For evidence as to the etymology of L. vinum, G. fion, 
 I prefer to summon one of their kindred, the H. gephen, 
 " a vine." Let us hear what he says. 
 
 The word gephen means merely "a twig," or any gourd- 
 like plant which trails or climbs, and sends out shoots 
 producing fruit. The primary idea in it is that of " bend- 
 ing, bowing, weakness, and softness " ; and so Gesenius 
 derives it from an unused root, gaphan, "to be bent, 
 TDOwed," which appears in the Ax. djaphen, "the eye- 
 lashes," also a short " twig." This idea of " bowing, 
 tenderness" appears also in other words of similar mean- 
 ing, as in G. gallan, " a branch, a stripling " ; G. f iuran, 
 " a twig, a sprout, a stripling," L. puer ; G. faill, 
 " a twig," whence faillinn, " a falling off in health and 
 strength," faillinneach, "weak, faint." Similarly from 
 G. maoth, " soft, tender," is formed G. maothan, " a 
 twig, a tender young person," like the H. taleh, "a 
 young animal, a boy, a girl " (talitha in the New Testa- 
 ment), from H. talal, " to moisten as with showers." 
 From G. maoth I form L. vitis, " a vine," for the con- 
 struct form mhaoth would be pronounced vuit, whence 
 vitis, "the moist, tender" plant; the L. mitis, "mild,
 
 TREES AND PLANTS. 37 
 
 gentle," is also the G. maoth, but with the m unaspirated. 
 Besides maoth, there is in Gadhelic another adjective 
 meaning " soft, moist, tender " — it is tais ; and if we take 
 G. fion in the primitive sense of "a twig," tais-fhion — 
 that is, tais-hion, tais-sion — with the G. article an pre- 
 fixed, would become an-tais-sion, Etr. ataiso7i^ "the soft, 
 moist twig." Again, if G. tais, "tender," be written cais, 
 h for t, and if the h be changed into p (as in Gr. hippos, 
 (h)ikkos, "a horse," and L. pinna, "a feather, a wing," 
 G. cinn), the G. gives the Gr. pais, " a boy," so named 
 from his " tenderness " ; the primitive word, H. na ar, " a 
 boy," has the same idea in it, for it is applied to a child 
 newly born, and to a child just weaned. 
 
 The etymology of L. vitis from G. maoth, " soft, 
 tender," appears to be correct, and, if so, analogy would 
 lead me to believe that Etr. ataison means " the soft, 
 tender plant " ; but as Hesychius calls it " the climbing 
 vine," I have another derivation which suits that mean- 
 ing. Gas is a G. verb which means " to twist, bend, curl, 
 climb"; as an adj. cas means "twisted, curled," and from 
 it comes the G. noun cais, caise. Now, putting t for h 
 (g hard), we have, as before, an-tais-sion, Etr. ataisoii, 
 "the twisted, climbing vine." I think that L. pam-pinus, 
 " the climbing tendril of a vine," has the same meaning, for 
 G. cam means "to twist, to curl," and the pin-us seems 
 to be G. fion, as above; thus cam-fion may give pam- 
 phin. 
 
 Is the L. vinum formed from the G. oinos? Most 
 etymologists say. Yes, I say. No. Because if vinum be 
 from the Greek, then vitis must be Greek too, for it seems 
 absurd to suppose that the Eomans took their " wine " from 
 Greece, and their " vine " from Celt-land. Therefore I say 
 that both oinos and vinum are from the Celtic fion, from 
 
 S 6 5 V ^
 
 38 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 which language also conies the L. vitis. The name for so 
 familiar an article as wine must belong to the very earliest 
 stage of the Greek language, the Pelasgic ; and if the Pel- 
 asgi were Celtic, as will appear probable from other evidence 
 which I shall presently produce, it is not too much to say 
 that both oinos and vinum are only forms of the G. fion. 
 Connected with the G. words faill and faillinn which I 
 have quoted, and probably cognate with H. verb gaphan 
 (see next page), the Gr. has the adj. fann, "weak, faint, 
 languid, infirm in health," from which I take the Etruscan 
 Vanth {Fami-th), the guardian angel of the " weak, faint, 
 languid, departing " spirit, which must go with him to be 
 " locked up " in kulniu (G. cuil-idh, "a lockfast place"), the 
 prison-abode of Hades ; he is pictured on the marble sarco- 
 phagus of the Aphuna tomb at Clusium, waiting at the gate 
 of Hades {kulmii), key in hand, ready to receive the noble 
 lady who is in the act of bidding the last farewell to her 
 friends. The root of G. cuilidh is the same as the L. 
 celo; and in the same sense the H. chashek, "darkness," 
 is used to mean " Hades," or an underground prison, or even 
 death. Another Etruscan mythological name, hinthial, is 
 found along with Vanth on a tomb at Vulci. This word 
 hinthial has occasioned much discussion, although it is 
 agreed that the meaning of it is " ghost." On a bronze 
 mirror discovered at Vulci, there is carved a representation 
 of the necromancy of Odysseus, as related in the eleventh 
 Odyssey, line 50. Under the guidance of Hermes, the 
 prophet Tiresias has risen from the shades in bodily form ; 
 but that form is lifeless, for the head droops low upon the 
 shoulder of the god who is supporting him with his arm, 
 the face is wan, the eyes are closed, and the body leans 
 helplessly on a long staff, the broad upper end of which is 
 placed under the arm-pit. Over this drooping figure are
 
 TREES AND PLANTS. 39 
 
 inscribed the words hhithial Tiresias, which must mean 
 " the shade or spirit of Tiresias." That the spirit was re- 
 garded by the Greeks as an existence, separate and distinct 
 from the body, is evident from the same book of the 
 Odyssey, line 601, where the spectre of Heracles speaks and 
 moves about ; but it is 
 
 " A shadowy form, for, high in heaven's abodes, 
 Himself resides, a god among the gods." 
 
 And again (Iliad, 23 : 103) — 
 
 "'Tis true, 'tis certain; man, though dead, retains 
 Part of himself ; th' immortal mind remains : 
 The form subsists without the body's aid, 
 Aerial semblance and an empty shade. 
 
 * * * * 
 
 Alas ! how different ! yet how like the same ! " 
 
 In the first of these lines from the Iliad, Achilles expresses 
 his surprise to find in the abodes of Hades both spirit and 
 bodily form, for he says — 
 
 "O TTOTTOi, tj pa Ti? e'cTTi Kai eiv ^A.i'Sao S6/J.oi(7iv 
 Y^X^ 'fct' eioooAov, 
 
 Thus the scene on the Etruscan mirror is quite in keeping 
 with the notions that prevailed in the Homeric age as to 
 the dead ; for although Tiresias has a corporeal presence, 
 yet he appears as a wan, bloodless soul, from the " domus 
 exilis Plutonia," Hence the meaning of the word hhithial 
 in the inscription is clear, but the derivation of it is still 
 undetermined. I offer this : — Cognate with fann, perhaps 
 a modified form of it (as Gr. phullon = G, d(h)uille), is 
 the G.-I. tinn, "sick, faint with disease" (cf. E. thin, Gr. 
 teino, H. katan), having the further meaning of " weary, 
 exhausted " with the ills of life ; from this word, if written 
 tann, I form Gr. than-atos, "a wasting, fatal disease,
 
 40 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 death" (cf. Gr. thelo, "I wish"; G. toile). In G. there 
 is an adj. tana, " thin, emaciated," which, used in the same 
 sense as H. ballahoth (ut infra), would give Gr. 
 thanatos, " death," and thnesko, "I die"; thnesko — 
 that is, than-esko — would thus mean "I begin to waste 
 away." Now, the G. tinn, in its construct state, is thinn, 
 pronounced hin ; and if to this we add the Etruscan personal 
 formative th, as in Van^/i, Larth, and in such words in 
 English as wrigh-t, from work, we have hin-th, " the per- 
 son who is weary, weighed dowTi to the grave " ; then the 
 adj. termination -ial, " belonging to, like to," which exists 
 in L. also, as in mart-ial-is, di-al-is, &c., added to 
 hinth, gives hinthialy the spirit of him who has gone 
 down to the grave " weary," worn out with years or pain. 
 That this was the light in which " shades " were regarded 
 in the early Etruscan age is manifest from the terms used 
 in the Homeric poems, where constantly the " dii manes," 
 the shades of the dead, are called " hoi kamontes," " hoi 
 kekmekotes" (participles of the Gr. verb kamno), "those 
 who have been sick, ill, and now are worn out and 
 (defuncti) done with the affairs of life." 
 
 The Gr. verb kamno itself may be traced to a connection 
 with the G. fann, which I have supposed to be the same as 
 the H. gaphan, " to be bent, bowed," from which H. 
 gephen, "a vine," comes. For if gaphan be written 
 gabhan, gaban, gaman (m for 6, see tuber), the next step 
 is kam-n-, the Gr. verb kamno; again, if the syllable ga 
 be dropped, the H. gaphan becomes phan, the G. fann, 
 as above. 
 
 The same idea of " weakness, weariness " is associated 
 with the shades of the dead in the Old Testament Scrip- 
 tures, as in Isa. ch. xiv.; Ps. Ixxxviii.; Pro v. ch. ii.; Isa. 
 eh. xxvi. In these passages the dead are called rephaim.
 
 TREES AND PLANTS. 41 
 
 a name which Gesenius takes from rapha " feeble, weak, 
 flaccid " ; they are bloodless, weak, and languid, like a sick 
 person, but retain their powers of memory. In another 
 passage (Job ch. xviii., v. 14) death is the "king of terrors" 
 — H. ballahoth — which name is formed from ballah, "to 
 waste away" through sickness, affliction, or other causes. 
 Homer, also, speaks of this ''king of wastings" as basileus 
 nekuessi kataphthimenoisin, "king of the wasted dead"; 
 and let us observe that this verb phthino, " I decay, I 
 waste away," preserves both the/ of fann and the t of tinn. 
 All this is in harmony with the meaning which I find in 
 Etr. hinthial if it be derived from G. tinn, " sick, faint 
 witli disease." Further, in the twenty- third Psalm, 
 tzalmaveth is " the shadow of death," a state of sickness 
 and declining strength ; and frequently in the book of Job 
 tzalmaveth has "gates" (Homer's Aidao pulai), forbidding 
 return. This supports my view of the derivation of Etr. 
 Vanth and kulmtt. 
 
 Elsewhere in the Old Testament, the rephaim are a 
 race of giants dwelling in Canaan, and probably descended 
 from the aboriginal inhabitants. Gesenius makes rephaim 
 to be a Gentile name formed from Kapha, the ancestor of 
 the race. Considerable difference of opinion, however, exists 
 among the learned whether rephaim, "the giants," and 
 rephaim, " the shades of the dead," are the same word. Some 
 say that " the dead " are called rephaim from an old notion 
 that Sheol or Hades was the cave-dwellings or prison-house 
 of the spirits of rebellious " giants." But the connection 
 of L. manes, "the shades of the dead," with immanis, 
 "huge," and the fact that the word rapha exists in Arabic, 
 in the sense of " tall," point to a common derivation of 
 rephaim in both senses. And this, I think, is not 
 impossible ; for, as the H. verb raphah, which means
 
 42 
 
 THE ETRUSCANS, 
 
 originally " to throw, to cast," may be used to describe the 
 action of a person who " throws " himself down " supine " on 
 the ground through exhaustion, thus giving to rephaim the 
 meaning of "the exhausted ones," so, like the H. raphad, 
 it may mean "to stretch out, to spread out," and thus 
 acquire the meaning of the Ar. rapha, "tall," whence 
 rephaim, "the giants." Another form of the H. verb 
 raphah is ramah, "to throw, to cast, to shoot with a 
 bow," which is probably cognate with H. ramam, rum, " to 
 be high, lofty," whence H. ram, " high." 
 
 Synonymous with the H. verb raphah is the G. verb 
 sinn, "to stretch out, to extend, to lie at full length, 
 to grow in stature," participle sinnte, " stretched out, 
 grown in stature, tall," in which the double meaning of 
 rephaim appears. And just as in Greek the Ionian s 
 becomes the Doric t (cf. semeron, Attic temeron), so the 
 G. sinn, "to stretch, to grow tall, slender, attenuated," 
 and consequently " weak," is the same word as the G. tinn, 
 "sick, faint, weak," from which, as before, I form Etr. 
 (Jiiftth) hinthial. The G. sinn, tinn, gives L. tend-o 
 {d for n), Gr. tein-o, "I stretch," and L. tener, "tender," 
 in a delicate, " growing, stretching " condition. To G. tinn, 
 the Kymric, as is frequently the case, prefixes ys, that is s, 
 making ystyn, estyn, "to stretch out, to extend." 
 
 The same idea of " weakness, prostration," as applied to 
 the dying or the dead, exists in the H. verb chalash, " to 
 prostrate," which is the word used in "Man dieth and 
 wasteth away" (Job xiv. 10); and in "Let the weak say I 
 am strong" (Joel iii. 10). Death is the twin-brother of 
 sleep; and when Job (xiv. 12) says, "So man lieth down 
 (H. shacab) and riseth not," he expresses a fact of universal 
 experience. The " lying down," the prostrate condition of 
 the dead, was in Etruscan indicated by the word lupu (he
 
 TREES AND PLANTS. 48 
 
 died ?), so common in Etruscan mortuary inscriptions. This 
 word I take from the G.-I. leaba, "a couch," liib, "to lie 
 down," with which compare S. sastara, " a couch, a 
 sacrifice," and S. sas9yita, " dead." With the G. lub 
 corresponds the H. verb shacab, " to lie down " (as above), 
 often used of those who are dying, or of the dead. Con- 
 nected with Etr. hipu is the name of an ancient Italian 
 deity, Libitina, the goddess of funerals. If further evidence 
 in support of the meaning I assign to lup2i be required, I 
 quote the Ar.-Pers. word muzja', "a bed, a tomb." The 
 Etruscan modes of burial much resembled those of the 
 ancient Persians. 
 
 I think, therefore, that on Etruscan tombs lupu is 
 equivalent to " laid to rest," and this aptly describes the 
 regal state in which the Etruscan noble dead were laid 
 down in their chamber-tombs. 
 
 The S. sastara, " a sacrifice " for the dead, brings up the 
 Etr. zilack, zilachnu, which some Tuscan ologists suppose 
 to mean " a sarcophagus." I take it to be of the same origin 
 as L. silicernium, " a funeral entertainment," and both to 
 be derived from G. feille, "a feast, a holiday, a festival." 
 The word feillach, feillachan, a diminutive from feille, 
 would, by placing s for /aspirated — that is, li (see halen) — 
 give Etr. zilack and zilacJinu ; while feillach, with the 
 G. formative -earna added, would give L. silicernium. 
 It is rather remarkable that the G. cuilm, which seems to 
 be the same word as Etr. kidnm, also means " a feast, an 
 entertainment." But it is not my purpose at present to 
 discuss such words as lupu and zilack, the meaning of 
 which is conjectural. I offer these suggestions without 
 further proof to support them, merely to show that the 
 Celtic can, with some degree of probability, be used to explain 
 other Etruscan words than the forty which are my theme.
 
 44 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 A TAISON. 
 
 Donaldson. — Nil. 
 
 Lindsay. — " From at, equivalent, I conceive, to viiis, ' the 
 vine,' and as, as-on, ' to creep.' " 
 
 Taylor. — The two Turkish words, ot, " plant," and uzum, 
 " grape," sufficiently explain this word as " the grape-plant." 
 
 CORSSEN. — Nil. 
 
 VANTH. 
 
 Donaldson. — Nil. 
 
 Lindsay.- — •" Probably identical with iveinot, ' ululatus, 
 fletus, planctus,' and a personification of grief or tears." 
 
 Taylor. — " The Angel of Death." In Turkish, vani 
 means " ready to perish " ; and the substantive fena (vana) 
 means " destruction, annihilation, death." The Finnish 
 ivana, and the Hungarian ven, mean old, a sense closely 
 allied to the Turkish vani, "ready to perish." 
 
 CoRSSEN. — " The goddess of Fate and Death. The name 
 is connected with S. van-ajd-mi, ' I slay,' vanus, ' a warrior'; 
 Goth, vinn-an, ' to suffer, to take pains,' vunn-i-s, ' pain, 
 suffering,' vun-da-s, ' wounded,' all from the root van, ' to 
 slay.' " 
 
 HINTHIAL. 
 
 Donaldson. — Nil. 
 
 Lindsay. — Nil. 
 
 Taylor. — " The same as Finnish haldia, ' the gaardian 
 spirit' of the object. The first syllable is the Tungusic 
 han, and the Mongolic ftsen, words which denote the little 
 images of wood or metal which are fabricated to represent 
 the spirits of men and animals. The syllable thi is a root
 
 TREES AND PLANTS. 45 
 
 denoting either death or the grave. The Etruscan affix -al 
 is equivalent to the Latin word natus. Therefore hinthi-al, 
 ' a ghost/ would be an agglutinated word, meaning literally 
 ' the image of the child of the grave.' " 
 
 CORSSEN. — Signifies " the departing soul, the shadow 
 of death." The root-form, hinth-, must mean " slayer," or 
 " death." Connected with the XJmbric Jion-du, " killing," 
 S. han-ti, "he slays," han-as, "slaying," &c. 
 
 KULMU. 
 
 Donaldson. — Nil. 
 
 Lindsay. — " Evidently a personification of qvalm, cvahn, 
 'death.' Root, qual (S. jval), 'flagrare,' jvar, 'segrotare.' 
 Kulmu is thus equivalent to ' the angel or demon of death.' " 
 
 Taylor. — In the Finn mythology, Kalma is the name 
 of the deity who pre-eminently rules over the grave and its 
 inhabitants. The root hul, meaning " death," may be traced 
 through the whole region of Ugric speech. 
 
 CoRSSEN. — The goddess Culsu, with torch in the right 
 hand and shears in the left. The root is the same as in 
 Lat. oc-cul-ere, " to hide," cu-cull-us, " a cowl," domi-cil- 
 ium, " a dwelling," cal-igo, " darkness " ; Goth, hul-j-an, 
 "to conceal." From the root kal, "to cover, to hide." 
 
 LUPU. 
 
 Donaldson. — Nil. 
 
 Lindsay. — "Compare either with lib, lif (A.-S.), Wita,' 
 ' life,' or with leiben, ' to leave,' geleihet, 'relictus.' " 
 
 Taylor. — " The verb luj)u, ' he died,' is derived from 
 the Ugric substantive verb. In the Turkic and Tataric 
 languages olup or ulup is the gerund, . . . and means ' in 
 being, in existence.' Lupu, ' he was in existence,' which 
 would be a euphemism equivalent to ' he died.' "
 
 4G THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 CoRSSEN. — Liipu means " sculptor," connected with the 
 Lat. sculp-ere, scalp-ere, " to cut, to carve, to engrave," 
 gluh-ere, "to peel off"; Gr. gluphein, "to engrave," gla- 
 phein, " to hew, to carve." From the root sculp-, scalp-, 
 originally sharp, " to cut." 
 
 ZILACH. 
 
 Donaldson. — Nil. 
 
 Lindsay. — " Zilachnhe would appear to signify, generally, 
 ' tomb or coffin ' ; and on dissection it resolves itself into 
 teil, ' portio,' or ' what is separate,' and aschen, the geni- 
 tive plural of esch, ' favilla,' ' ashes.' Zilaschenke would thus 
 mean ' repository for separation of ashes ' of the dead. It 
 is thus analogous to 'sarcophagus.'" 
 
 Taylor. — " I take zilach to mean ' sarcophagus.' The 
 first syllable seems to be the widespread Turanian root sit, 
 which means ' to pierce,' and the second the equally wide- 
 spread root ach, which means ' a stone.' " 
 
 CoRSSEN. — Zilc equivalent to Lat. " silicem," zilachnce, 
 " ex silice fahricavit." Thus, Etr. Zilachnu signifies " the 
 stonemason, the worker in stone." 
 
 2. P5PULUS, the Poplar-Tree. 
 
 This word naturally comes next, as the discussion of it is 
 connected with Etr. ataison, " the vine," and will introduce 
 the etymology of the name P/uipkhmtk, the Etruscan 
 Bacchus, the god of wine. 
 
 The vine was the gift of Bacchus, the Dionysus of the 
 Greeks. He delighted also in the ivy, which, like the vine, 
 is a weak climbing plant, and derives its stability from that 
 to which it clings. The thyrsus-staff of Bacchus is entwined 
 with ivy, and is crowned with pine-cones, an emblem of 
 fertility. His Etruscan name was Phuphhmth, from which
 
 TREES AND PLANTS. 47 
 
 comes the^ti\tov7n-n8imeP/mJ>/il2i7ia,m Latin Populonia ; 
 his name seems also to be connected with L. p5pulus, " the 
 poplar-tree," one of the trees on which the Romans trained 
 their vines, and under whose grateful shade idolatrous wor- 
 ship was offered in ancient Israel. The tree that was thus 
 honoured was the luhite variety — an indication that the 
 worship was, in some respects at least, solar. The pine- 
 cones, the drums, the ivy, the phallus, the baskets and gar- 
 lands of figs, the sacrifice of a goat in his solemnities — all 
 conspire to sanction the assertion that Dionysus, son of the 
 solar Zeus and Demeter, was an ideal personification of the 
 visible effects of the Sun-god's fructifying influences on 
 Mother Earth. The emblems used in his mysteries are solar 
 — the cone, the spinning-top, round cakes, ball, hoop, tuft 
 of wool. Some of the ancients identified him with the sun ; 
 hence Arnobius exclaims, " What ! you maintain that 
 Bacchus and Apollo, the sun, are one !" In the Egyptian 
 processions in honour of Osiris, the pontiff walked along clad 
 in a leopard's skin, a tambourine was beaten, and a flower- 
 stalk bound with ivy was carried about ; these emblems led 
 the Greeks to identify Osiris with their Dionysus, The fiery 
 strength of the sun was ascribed to Bacchus ; hence Arnobius 
 says again : " Among the representations of your gods we 
 see that there is the very stern face of a lion, smeared with 
 pure vermilion, and that it is named Frugifer" — that is, 
 the Fertile. The same symbol was used for the Persian 
 Mithras (the sun) and the Egyptian Osiris. 
 
 His position in the Pantheon is subordinate and only 
 semi-divine, for he ranks with Heracles and Pan among the 
 Dii Minores. In the Homeric poems he has little honour ; 
 he is only " a joy to mortals." His worship originated in 
 Thrace, a Celto-Pelasgian region, as I think ; and it seems 
 likely that it was introduced by wealthy immigrants who
 
 48 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 came thither from the East a few generations before the 
 war of Troy (see " Juventus Mundi "). A Dionysiac hymn 
 asserts that Tursenians brought him over the sea — that is, 
 from some Eastern land. This is also implied in a tradition 
 mentioned by Clement of Alexandria, to the effect that 
 Athene and Apollo (both of them pure idealistic divinities) 
 stole the manhood of Bacchus, put it in a box, and carried 
 it to Etruria, where they taught the Tyrrhenians to worship 
 it. If these statements have reference to any historic fact, 
 they point to a fresh wave of immigration, bringing with it 
 into Thrace, and thence into Greece and Italy, a more sen- 
 suous worship than that of the first settlers — a Nature- 
 worship, corrupting the purer astral worship of earlier times; 
 a worship inculcating the drunkenness even of women, 
 and encouraging social immoralities unknown before. The 
 Roman story about Fauna being scourged to death by 
 her husband with rods of myrtle, for drinking wine to 
 intoxication, may belong to such a period as this. Now, 
 we know that, somewhere about fifteen centuries before 
 our era, a great dynastic change affected the Chaldsean 
 empire — the country was conquered by a race of a purer 
 Semitic faith, the Arabs, whose sway lasted for 245 years 
 (B.C. 1518-1273). It is not likely that during this period 
 the Babylonian ritual, which contained so debased a worship 
 as that of Beltis (Mulita), the queen of fecundity, was allowed 
 to remain unchecked in its native seat. The baser parts of 
 the Babylonian cult had probably sprung from the early 
 Hamite population, while its purer Sabseism was Aryan; 
 for there is some reason to believe that the true Chaldseans 
 were a race of warriors and priests of Japhetian origin, who 
 invaded Babylonia from the north, subdued the mixed 
 Shemo-Hamite tribes that were there, and ruled over them 
 for some time as masters. In Phoenicia, also, the ruling race
 
 TREES AND PLANTS. 49 
 
 seems to have been Japhetian, in the midst of a Hamite 
 people. The name Chaldsei is not unlike Gal(a)t8e, Keltse, 
 Celts, from the root gal, geal, "white, fair" (see ^Eneid, 
 viii. 660, and Lactantius, — Fragments). Japhetians from 
 Armenia or the Caucasus would certainly be a " fairer " race 
 than the swarthy Cushites of the plains or of Libya. The 
 names Gal-at-, Chal(-a)d-, Kel-t-, all contain the same 
 essential consonants — G-l-d-, the d being formative as in 
 other words ; even Gadhel-ic has the same consonants, the 
 d being transposed. 
 
 Whatever may have been the previous history of the 
 Chaldgean religion, and the causes of its corruption, at all 
 events we can scarcely doubt that, on the Arab invasion, 
 many of the priests and people went out and wandered 
 westwards beyond the limits of the states tributary to the 
 Babylonian monarchy — and these extended nearly to the 
 iEcfean Sea — in search of a new home for themselves and 
 their religion. It may be that then one great surge of 
 voluptuous Nature- worship swept into Europe, disturbed the 
 moral atmosphere of Pelasgian Dodona, degraded some of 
 its gods, and banished others to the underworld realms of 
 darkness. Other smaller waves may have followed from 
 time to time, causing the usual amount of displacement 
 among the tribal nations, and hurling Hellenes, Heracleids, 
 and others upon Pelasgians and upon one another. It is, 
 therefore, not at all improbable that the worship of Dionysus 
 was comparatively recent in the Homeric age. Certain it 
 is, however, that he represents the exuberant fertility of 
 nature and the exhilarating effects which the enjoyment of 
 the good things of this life produces in man. In Etruria, 
 PImphlunth was not one of the great gods nor one of the 
 earliest, for his city Populonia was not one of the twelve 
 cities of the league, and it was founded, at a much later 
 
 E
 
 oO THE ETnUSCANS. 
 
 date than the others, by a colony from Volaterrse. In 
 Etruria, as well as in Greece, the Dionysiac worship was 
 a later importation. 
 
 His Etr. name Phuphlunth appears to me to consist of 
 three parts, the last of which is the formative t}i, as in Vantky 
 which see. The rest I divide into phu and phlun, phu 
 in the sense of "Nature" (Gr. phu-sis), and phlun the 
 same word as L. plen-us, "full"; thus, Phu-phlun-th is 
 to me " the deity who presides over the full exuberance of 
 Nature." 
 
 There can be no question that the Gr. phu-o, both in 
 itself and in its derivatives phu-sis, phu-ton, &c., has for 
 its root-idea the generative, productive power of nature; and 
 there can be as little doubt that this was the essential char- 
 acter of Bacchus, for even his possession of the phallus alone 
 would prove this. In G. bod, bu-id means the phallus, 
 from this very root bu, phu-. The root phu- is common in 
 the Aryan stock of languages ; for in Sanscrit there is the 
 form bhu, whence bhavami, "I am," bhava, "origin, 
 existence," bhava, "mundane existence," bhuvana, "the 
 world," bhu, "the earth"; the Persian has budan, "to 
 be," old Persian bumish (cf. L. humus), "the earth"; 
 of the European branches, the L. has fu-ere, fo-re, " to be," 
 and fui, futurus; the SI. buit, "to be"; T. beon, "to be"; 
 Ger. bin, bist; in A.-S. the root bau means "to live, to 
 grow," and bau an " to cause to grow, to cultivate, to dwell, 
 to build." From this root comes the Danish geographical 
 term by, as in Newby (equivalent to the Sax. Newtown), 
 the N. bod, " a house, a cottage," and the A.-S. Scotch, 
 bothy, "the hut or cottage," in which the younger men of 
 the labourers on a farm live in common. The K. has bod, 
 "to be," and also bod, "a dwelling, an abode"; also 
 byd, "the world, the universe," bydio, "to dwell," and
 
 TREES AND PLANTS. 51 
 
 y byd, "nature." The G., besides bod, as above, has bu, 
 "was, were," biodh, "be," biodh, "the world" (whence 
 perhaps L. mund-us, "the world," as if biod-d, mio-n-d, 
 see tuber), bith (I. beatha), "life, living," (Gr. biot-e), " the 
 world," bithe, "the female" (as the producer), biod-ailt, 
 "food, victuals," (Gr. bios), beo (K. byw. Arm. and Cor. 
 bew), "lively, a living person," bean (cf. Bceotic bena, "a 
 woman," banetes, "wives"), " a woman," originally "a living 
 person," whence I. fe-mean, " the producer of life," L. 
 femina; also it has beothail, "lively, brisk, vital, per- 
 taining to life," beoth, beath, "food, life," I. beatha (L. 
 vita), beathach, "an animal," beathach-adh, "a feeding, 
 a nourishment" ; to all these I may add, as from the same 
 root, the L. (feo), fetus, "offspring, fruit," and fecundus, 
 "bringing forth in abundance." 
 
 In G. beathach, beothach, the th being quiescent is 
 dropped, as in E. rein, from L. retin-eo ; the word is then 
 pronounced beach, from which I take L. Bacchus and 
 the Gr. Bacchanalian cry lake he, or, with the digamma, 
 Bh-iakche, equal to " Thou life-giving, feeding, nourishing 
 god." The p/m-, then, of Phu-phlun-th may be regarded 
 as Gadhelic, for the G. has bu, " was," beo, " a living 
 person," and other similar words. 
 
 Another G. word, talamh, will assist us in understanding 
 the representative character of Phuphhmth. While bhu 
 means " the earth " in Sanscrit, the common name for " the 
 earth" in Gadhelic is talamh. There is no etymon for it 
 in Gadhelic, and yet it is clearly a derivative word, for -amh 
 is only a termination; the root is tal. This is, I believe, 
 the root which gives Gr. thall-ein, "to bloom, flourish, 
 swell with abundance," whence thalos, " a young shoot, 
 a twig, a youth"; thalea, "the joys of life," and the 
 adjective thaleia, "rich, luxuriant." The L. tellus, tellur-.
 
 52 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 seems to come from the same root, for it is equivalent to G. 
 tal-uir, the " fresh " blooming " earth," just as the Norse 
 Sagas call the earth "green decked." Akin to G. talamh 
 in meaning is the H. noun tabiil, " the fertile or inhabited 
 earth," from the verb yabal, " to flow copiously, to bear, to 
 bring forth as the earth." With the Gr. thallo Gesenius com- 
 pares the unused H. root talah, " to be fresh," which gives 
 taleh, " a young lamb," and talitha, which see. Our 
 English word " teem," as in the " teeming earth," exactly 
 expresses the same idea as is contained in H. tabal, " the 
 earth," and probably also in the G. talamh, " earth," and 
 this " teeming " is expressed in G. by Ian, lion, the very 
 word which, as I shall presently show, is a part of the name 
 Phuphlunth. Thus the idea of " teeming abundance" quite 
 suits Dionysus, if we regard him as a personification and 
 deification of the rich, blooming exuberance of the earth or 
 of nature. Connected with the root tal, in the sense of 
 fertility, is the Roman marriage cry lo, Hymen£ee ! 
 Talassio ! and the Etruscan deity Tkalna, who is often 
 carved on the specchj or metal mirrors. On one mirror 
 found at Vulci, Thalna is represented as a male form with 
 a diadem of stars on his forehead and the upper part of his 
 body bare ; he is leaning on a staff near the Etruscan Zeus 
 and Hermes. Out of the ground on which Tkalna and the 
 others are standing spring a twig of myrtle and two bloom- 
 ing flowers. Again, in the nineteenth Iliad, the Greek 
 Invocation (line 258) places the Earth next to Zeus, and 
 the Homeric Here (Juno) seems to be a later and spiritualised 
 apotheosis of the earth as a divine Nature-power. The 
 coins of Pelasgian Dodona show, impressed on them, a head 
 of Zeus with a diadem of oak leaves, and along with it a 
 crowned female head, probably the Pelasgian Earth-power ; 
 in Athens the statue of Demeter (= Mother Earth) stood
 
 TREES AND PLANTS. 53 
 
 next to that of Zeus, The Scythians regarded her as the 
 wife of Zeus, but in Troas the Earth-goddess was associated 
 with the worship of the Sun, of whom one aspect is Dionysus, 
 Phuphlunth. Therefore, from the company in which he is 
 found, both in Etruria and elsewhere, Thalna cannot be a 
 deity of very inferior rank, as has been suggested, such as 
 Thaleia, one of the Muses, or Thallo, one of the Hours. It 
 is likely that he is some aspect of Dionysus, who is the 
 son of Zeus, and wbose myths in many ways associate him 
 both with Zeus and with Hermes, as on the Etruscan 
 mirrors. Even the myrtle-twig pictured there tells that 
 Thalna is a rich, blooming, ever-fresh power of Nature, like 
 the ever-youthful Bacchus, for the myrtle is remarkable for 
 its fragrance and its rich, ever-green foliage ; and it was a 
 sacred tree ; Jove's lightning would never touch it. 
 
 But Bacchus, like his own ataisofi, is soft, tender, effemi- 
 nate, " with tender limbs, and with a woman's perfectly free 
 and easy-flowing lines of body " (Arnobius) ; and so Thalana, 
 on other mirrors, is a beautiful female form, adorned with 
 cloak, browband of stars, and earrings ; she is always in 
 excellent company, and usually stands under green bushes, 
 which lovingly entwine themselves over her head; some- 
 times she has a twig of mjnrtle near her, but on two of them 
 she is placed in immediate proximity to the Etruscan Zeus, 
 and is assisting at the birth of Dionysus out of the thigh, 
 and of Pallas out of the head of Zeus. Now, if Zeus 
 (Dyaus) be the sky-god, his head must be his first appear- 
 ance in the morning on the verge of the eastern horizon, 
 and his thigh must be something near his mid-day ascen- 
 sion ; and if Pallas be the early dawn, the daughter of Jove, 
 who springs from his head every morning, armed with spear 
 and shield, to do battle with the clouds of darkness, that for 
 awhile have usurped her father's realms, and Avho helps to
 
 54! THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 chase them all away, so that Dyaus may again shine forth 
 benignly on Thalana, Mother Earth, his spouse; and if 
 Dionysus, from his thigh, be the product of the father's 
 warming, noon -tide, fostering smiles, I understand why 
 Thala7ia assists at the birth of both, and holds a place 
 of honour by the side of highest Jove. I would therefore 
 regard Thalana as the Etruscan Demeter ; Thalna as a 
 deity similar to Bacchus, but specially presiding over the 
 fresh green foliage of earth ; while Phuphlunth is the god 
 of its richest, warmest, most refreshing fruits. Although 
 this may have been the distinction between Thalna and 
 Phuphlunth in the later mythology of the Etruscans, yet, 
 as I have argued that the wine-god is an innovation upon 
 the purer worship of an earlier period, for in the Homeric 
 poems his features are but faintly defined, it is probable 
 that Thalna^ without any of the grosser attributes of 
 Phuphhmth, was long among them the only deity to 
 represent the green blooming freshness and fertility of the 
 earth. If so, I would take Thalna {Thalana) to be 
 both a male and a female divinity, like Deus Lunus and 
 Dea Luna, Faunus and Fauna. In Rome, there was a gens 
 Juventia, with the surname Thalna, probably an Etruscan 
 family naturalised, with the name Thalna translated into 
 Juventius, to denote the " ever-blooming youth " of 
 Thalna or Thalana. 
 
 This double representation of a deity was common to 
 other religions, for those which deified cosmic phenomena 
 looked on each Nature-power as twofold, male and female, 
 active and passive, generating and producing. Thalana, 
 the Earth, is a female; Thalna, the embodiment of the 
 solar earth-filling influence, is male. Sometimes the two 
 were combined into one figure, like the Janus head, to 
 signify their essential identity. On this subject Wilkinson
 
 TREES AND PLANTS. 55 
 
 says : " In the Egyptian mythology, abstract ideas were made 
 into separate gods. Of these, two are particularly worthy of 
 notice — the Nature-gods, sometimes represented as the Sun 
 and the Earth by people who were inclined to a physical 
 rather than an ideal treatment of the subject." Also, in 
 the Assyrian mythology, every male deity has along with 
 him a female, who is usually his wife. In the Chaldsean 
 Pantheon, the atmosphere-god (cf. Dyaus) is Vul, and his 
 wife is Tala or Salamb-o, a name which closely resembles 
 the Gr. talamh, Etr. Tkalna, Gr. thallo, L. tellumo. 
 Yul's wife is Sarrat (see s.v. Sar), "queen," equivalent to 
 L. Rhea, from G. righ, " a king," for she is called " Regina." 
 In the classic mythology, Rhea is an earth-goddess, like 
 Demeter, and has also some connection with Dionysus. 
 So far as to the character of the Etruscan Bacchus; now 
 his name. 
 
 The syllable -flun in Phuphlunth I shall best explain 
 by saying that it is the same as the L. plenus, "full." 
 In G. it is Ian, lion, in K. llawn, in Armoric Ian or 
 leun. In G. lion means also "to teem," lionta, "preg- 
 nant," lion-mhor, "abundance." In K. llonaid means 
 "to fill," and cyflawn means "abundant." This last 
 word shows that in the G. Ian an initial / is suppressed ; 
 it is represented in the K. llawn by the initial I, which is 
 sounded like h, which again is / aspirated. The H. mala, 
 " to fill," also shows that m (&, hU, /) is an essential letter 
 in the root, and this is amply proved by the cognates of 
 mala, which are widely spread in the Aryan languages — 
 S. pie, Gr. pleres, pim-ple-mi, bluo, bruo, L. plenus, 
 T.-E. full, fill, Polish pilmy. The original idea is that 
 of overflowing abundance, as in the cognates — Gr. pleo, 
 pleio, "I sail"; phleo, phluo, "I overflow"; L. fluo, 
 fleo, pluo (see Gcsenius s.v.). This essential idea remains
 
 56 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 in the G. lion, from which I take -flun in Phuphlunth. 
 He is, therefore, the deity who is the protector and symbol 
 of the " teeming abundance of Nature or of the Earth." 
 
 As a tree-name, populus is the same as the S. pippala, 
 pipal, the Indian fig (ficus religioscC) ; this tree figures 
 largely, sometimes grossly, in the myths and worship of 
 Dionysus. On the altars of the Egyptian Pan (Khem), 
 the fig-tree — an emblem of fertility — is always placed. I 
 imagine that a more ancient form of the S. pippala must 
 have been bhuppala or bhupala, for this, with the initial 
 digamma-sound suppressed, would give Gr, ubhal, Ger. 
 apfel, E. apple — a tree which, in climates and localities 
 unsuitable for the fig-tree, might well take its place as the 
 tree of "fertility "; bhupala would also bring us nearer to 
 L. p5pulus. This hypothesis would also explain the use 
 of " apple," in a general sense, to mean any tree bringing 
 forth " fruit in abundance," for in Persian this same word 
 is applied to the fruit of the juniper-tree. The Gr. melon 
 (Doric malon) and the L. malum, "an apple," are used in 
 the same general way, and include peaches, pomegranates, 
 and oranges ; of these, the pomegranate at least was a well- 
 known emblem of fertility. The same root melo- forms 
 names in Greek for a goat and for a kind of beetle — both 
 of them connected with solar worship. I further conjecture 
 that Gr.-L. mal- is connected with H. mala, as above, 
 which, again, may be the same as S. bala, a noun which 
 denotes any fertilising power, producing abundance, and this 
 bala may be the second part of the S. pippala. All this 
 agrees with the epithet "Frugifer " which is given to Bacchus. 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 POPULUS. 
 
 Donaldson. — " The poplar was sacred to Hercules, who
 
 TREES AND PLANTS. 57 
 
 has so many points of contact with Bacchus, Have we not, 
 then, in the word pliwpluns, the root of 'populus, a word 
 quite inexplicable from the Latin language alone ? " 
 
 Lindsay. — Nil. 
 
 Taylor. — "No tenable Aiyan etymology of populus, 
 'the poplar-tree,' has as yet been suggested." 
 
 CORSSEN. — Nil. 
 
 PHUPHLUNTH. 
 
 Donaldson. — "Equivalent to Poplu-nus, the god alpoplu 
 (the poplar)." 
 
 Lindsay. — " Compounded of Pliupl-, a name — the same 
 as Apollo — denoting 'son' in a divine sense, and ans, 
 ' deity,' the title signifying ' the sun-god.' But proximately 
 it takes its character, through symbolical association, from 
 ampel-, or, as it must have been pronounced in Pelasgian 
 times, Fampelos, the Latin ' pampinus,' and ans, ' deity ' 
 (ut supra), being thus equivalent to ' God of the Vine.' 
 The same connection exists with Hercules also through his 
 symbolical tree, the pdpulus, and the primitive afi, Fafl-, 
 popl-, denoting strength." 
 
 Taylor. — " The suffix -luns is evidently the same de- 
 signation of divine beings which is found in SetJilans 
 and Nethuns [Etruscan god-names]. I am inclined to 
 explain the first syllable of the name by means of the 
 Paiva and Pohjola of the Kalevala. Phuphluns would 
 thus be a solar deity — in fact, the sun himself; and the 
 analogy with the Aryan Dionysus would be perfectly main- 
 tained." 
 
 CoRSSEN. — Fufiuns, Fu-fl-un-u-s. The stem Fn-fio is 
 formed from the root fu-, with the Etruscan suffix -flo, as 
 in Lat. pati-bulu-m, tri-bulu-m, fa-bula, fle-bili-s. The root 
 fu is the Gr. phu, Sansc. hhu, " to cause to be, to originate."
 
 58 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 Fuflo thus signifies "bringing into being, generating." 
 Whence Fuflunus, Fufluns. 
 
 THALNA. 
 
 Donaldson. — " Tal(a)na, the name of Juno, the goddess 
 of marriage, which at once suggests the root of Talassus, the 
 Roman Hymen ; the Greek talis, ' the bride,' dalis, ' one 
 betrothed.' " 
 
 Lindsay. — " Applied to Juno as an epithet in the same 
 manner as that of Lucina, in regard to her presidency over 
 marriage. From teil, implying separation, division — a root 
 found in special connection with marriage and parturition in 
 the classical languages ; and anna, ' nurse or mother,' hev- 
 anna, ' midwife.' . . . Thalna may, perhaps, be Lucina or 
 Eileithuia." 
 
 Taylor. — "Thalna is, doubtless, equivalent to Juno, and 
 means ' the day.' The root is seen in the Ostiak tschel, 
 chatl, the Samojed jale, tola, and the Andi tljal, tsTizal, 
 words which all mean ' the day.' The suffix -na would be 
 a common Finnic desinence, which signifies 'belonging to.'" 
 
 CoRSSEN. — " A ' flower-goddess ' similar to the Greek 
 Thallo, and the Roman Flora. There can be no doubt that 
 the name is connected with the Gr. thallein, ' to flourish, 
 to bloom.'"
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 59 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 Paet I. 
 
 1. Buris, tlie plouglitail, or nose of tlie plough. 
 
 2. Burrus, a drinking-cup ; the Greek Eantharos, a beaker, a 
 
 drinkiiig-cup furnished with handles. 
 
 3. Burrus, a red(?)-nosed man. 
 
 4. Burra, a red(1)-nosed heifer. 
 
 My next examples are taken from the farm and the house. 
 Of these, btcris, "the ploughtail," and burra, " a red(?)-nosed 
 heifer," are so unmistakably marked as words belonging to 
 the everyday language of the common people, that if I can 
 prove these to be Celtic, there follows a strong presumption 
 that the workincj classes in Etruria were Celts. And 
 although both belong to a very early stage of Etruscan 
 society, yet btirra is probably an older word than buris, 
 for the pastoral state of a nation precedes the agricultural . 
 It will not be denied that these words nfiay be Celtic, for that 
 the Celts were assiduous cultivators of the soil our OAvn 
 language testifies ; in English many of our agricultural 
 terms are Celtic, as basket, crook, kiln, fleam, harrow, 
 ashlar, mattock, rasher. 
 
 The idea which is common to our four Etruscan words is 
 that of a " nosej" or similar projection, with a broad base 
 and a strong rounded point ; the idea of " redness " in
 
 60 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 burrus^-a is not essential to the word, for in English a 
 person with such a nasal development would be playfully- 
 called " Nosy," without any allusion to its colour ; so also 
 in other languages; for instance, in S. mallika is "a 
 goose," as usual white, but its legs and bill are black; 
 mallikaksha, however, is " a horse," with white spots about 
 its eyes. It is evident that here it is not the colour that 
 determines the word, but only the bizarre aspect of the 
 animal. Burrus, then, having established itself as " a 
 nosy man," it would not be long till the mirthful 
 peasantry of Etruria transferred the name to "a nosy 
 cow," one with some marked peculiarity of the nasal 
 feature ; and similarly, if bur7^a was first used, burr us 
 must have soon followed. In cattle, this feature is almost 
 universally white, occasionally black, and seldom reddish- 
 brown. I think, therefore, that the Etruscan burra meant, 
 not a recZ-nosed heifer, but one with any uncommon marks 
 on the nose ; with which compare the S. mallika. The 
 biiris was that part of the plough which was held by the 
 hand of the ploughman ; it was made of a piece of oak that 
 had a suitable curve ; the upper part of it was rounded off 
 for comfort's sake. As to the kantharos, the rounded 
 handles which are seen attached to it on vase-paintings 
 distinguish it from other drink ing-goblets ; and as these 
 ansae or handles are not unlike a nose, the name burrus 
 is not inappropriate to the drinkiug-cup. The Celts had 
 such a cup, and they have it still, for in a household in the 
 Highlands of Scotland to this day the G. cuach (Lowland 
 Scotch quaich) is in common use ; it is a shallow, saucer- 
 like cup, of wood or of silver, and furnished with two 
 handles. Nor is quaich the only vessel of that kind which 
 the Celts use ; a larger dish for holding milk is called 
 meadar, and in the Highlands this is always round and
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 61 
 
 ansated. The Lowland Scotch call a similar dish luggie, 
 from its having "lugs" or ears, and also bicker, Ger. 
 becher, which is probably derived, like the E. beaker, 
 from the root beak. The name meadar means the dish 
 that is "larger and bulkier" than the cuach, from mead, 
 " bulk, size." 
 
 The idea of rounded stoutness also lies in cuach, for, 
 besides " a cup," it means " a nest, a ringlet " ; and, used 
 as a verb, cuach means " to curl " as a ringlet. The 
 handles or ears of the ancient quaichs must thus have been 
 of curled or twisted work, and in this kind of work the 
 ancient Celtic goldsmiths delighted, for we know that the 
 Gallic chieftains who invaded Italy in the fourth century 
 B.C. were adorned with massive twisted chains (torques, 
 from torqueo, "I twist"). Virgil, who was no mean anti- 
 quary, says of the Gallic tribes, " Lactea colla auro innect- 
 untur " ; Diodorus says they had chains of massive gold 
 around their necks ; and Herodian tells us that it was an 
 old fashion among the Caledonians to wear twisted chains 
 of iron, " of which they are as vain as other barbarians are 
 of golden ones." These chains seem to have been a badge 
 of rank or of command. They were made of bars of metal, 
 gold, silver, or bronze, twisted into the form of a rope or 
 wreath, and worn on the neck or on the arm. Many 
 specimens of these have been dug up in various parts of 
 Scotland, and are much admired for the beauty of their 
 ornamentation and workmanship. 
 
 From cuach there are two derivatives, cuachag and 
 cuachach, which have the meaning of " curled hair." 
 Now, in G. there is another word, barra-chas, which 
 also means " curled hair." The latter part of this word 
 is the verb cas, " to twist, to turn," and the barra intro- 
 duces us to a root-word which is the key to our present
 
 62 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 inquiry ; a root found widely scattered throughout both 
 the Aryan and the Semitic languages — barr, "a point, a 
 summit" — in short, a word which has come down to us from 
 the primeval language of mankind. 
 
 From the princij)les which I have elsewhere explained, 
 we may expect such a word to have many different applica- 
 tions and meanings, but yet we shall find that one primary 
 idea underlies them all. Accordingly, this word, barr, exists 
 in all the Celtic dialects (including the Cornish and the 
 Armoric), but variously applied. In G. its meanings may 
 be classified as — (1) "the point of a weapon," "the top or 
 highest point of anything," " any eminence," as " a heap, 
 a hill, a head, a helmet " ; (2) anything that branches or 
 shoots up from a larger body, and is, as it were, the issue 
 of it, " a branch, a crop, a son " ; (3) " superiority " in 
 general. In Celtic topography, barr means "a point or 
 extremity," and in this sense it is found in the names of 
 many places both in Scotland and Ireland. There is, in the 
 word, the idea of roundness also, as will be shown presently, 
 and thus barr means " a rounded extremity." This mean- 
 ing suits the four Etruscan words under consideration ; for 
 burrus is a drinking "quaich" with rounded or spiral 
 handles, ansated ; burriis is a man with a peculiar develop- 
 ment of the tip of the nose ; bur is (bur is for burris) is the 
 curved part of the plough-handle, rounded off at the end ; 
 and bzcrra, a heifer, with the nasal prominence peculiarly 
 marked — cf. Scotch, a hroukit cow or sheep, A nearer 
 approach to the root is the word varus, used by Celsus to 
 mean a spot on the face ; the modern medical term variole, 
 as applied to the smallpox, is by some taken from the adj. 
 varius, "party-coloured," but it seems to me to come more 
 appropriately from varus (root barr, "a rounded promi- 
 nence "), to express the nature of the eruption, the " pocks."
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 63 
 
 The Scotch word "pock-pitted " is a happy combination of 
 the two characteristics of the disease, the " pock " or rounded 
 pimple of the eruption, and the " pit " or hollow which it 
 leaves behind it. With btirrus, "a nosy man," corre- 
 sponds the G. busag, "a lippy woman," a young girl 
 with thick lips, from bus, "a mouth, a lip, a kiss," L. 
 basium, E. buss. The form burrus, instead of barrus, 
 seems to have been written by Festus, because he fancied 
 that the words were derived from the Gr. purrhos, "red- 
 dish " ; this would, to some extent, suit the meaning of two 
 of our words, but would be inapplicable to the others. 
 In his twelfth epistle, Horace uses the word barrus, "an 
 elephant," and our lexicons set it down as an Indian word. 
 K so, it did not come to Rome direct from India, nor even 
 through Greece, for the Greek language has no such word ; 
 but the Celtic barr is of Indian extraction, or, to speak 
 more correctly, it is one of those primeval words which the 
 Sanscrit and the Celtic have preserved in their greatest 
 purity. Then, from the Celtic barr, the L. barrus would 
 mean "the animal with the peculiar rounded nose -like 
 extremity," which just suits the flexible character of the 
 elephant's trunk; moreover, the G. dialect still retains a 
 native word for elephant, boir, which is the same as barrus. 
 This name has the flavour of antiquity about it, for it is at 
 once significant and descriptive. From G. boir I would 
 take the L. ebur, ebor-is, E. ivory; the initial vowel is 
 there probably through some connection with the S. ibha, 
 " an elephant," which may also be a component part of Gr. 
 el-ephas, as if el-ibhas. From G. barr I would also take 
 the L. pavo (as if barr-vo), " the peacock " — that is, the 
 "peak-cock" the barr-avis, the bird with the peculiar top- 
 crest, with which compare S. kalapine, "a peacock," from 
 kalapa, "a peacock's tail."
 
 64 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 The word Barrus is also used as a descriptive surname 
 of an orator who was a native of the hill-country east of 
 Etruria, towards the Adriatic, and whom Cicero eulogises 
 as the most eloquent of all the provincials. Now, Barrus, 
 in his case, cannot mean " the elephant," but either he or 
 one of his ancestors may have obtained this surname in the 
 sense of Naso or Nosy. 
 
 There is also some collateral proof that Etr. dtirrus is 
 Celtic, for if a word or words of similar orthography in Latin 
 are Celtic, that makes it possible, or, it may be, probable, 
 that Etr. burrus also is Celtic. Now, Ausonius uses the 
 word burrae to mean "nonsense, absurdities"; and in 
 one passage Cicero calls " a stupid fellow " baro, written 
 varo by Festus; the glosses say that barosus means the 
 same as stultus, mulierosus, mollis. Observe here that 
 varo, baro, and burrae are different spellings of the same 
 root-word. Now, the G. baothair means " a foolish fel- 
 low, a simpleton " ; this word, the tli being silent as usual, 
 is pronounced much like the Ger. bauer, "a peasant," and 
 would thus give burrae, baro, varo. The G. baothair 
 is derived from the adj. baoth, " soft, simple, stupid, 
 deaf," and this, again, is the same word as maoth (m for h), 
 " soft," from which I have derived L. vitis and mitis. In 
 G., also, bur and its derivative buraidh mean "a boor, 
 a clown, a blockhead " — evidently the same word as burrae 
 and baro. 
 
 There is a connection between deafness and stupidity, for 
 those who, in the " bookless " ages, were deprived of hearing, 
 soon became dull, stupid, inert, gloomy; being shut out 
 from contact with mind around them, their mental machinery 
 must begin to rust, and their vocal powers become dormant. 
 This fact is stamped on the languages of mankind. For 
 examples, I cite the L. surdus, " deaf," which gives
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 65 
 
 absurdus, "foolish"; the G. bodhar, "deaf," is only 
 another spelling of baothair, " a foolish fellow," from baoth, 
 as above; the E. deaf is the Ger. taub, "deaf, unfeeling, 
 barren, empty"; N. dof, D. doof, A.-S. deaf; but in Scotch 
 dowf means " gloomy, dull, silly, unproductive " ; doof is " a 
 stupid fellow," dovie is " stupid," and daft (as if deaf-ed) 
 means " stupid, foolish." 
 
 I conclude, therefore, that the G. barr gives the Etr. 
 words burrus, " a nosy man " ; bztrra, " a nosy heifer " ; 
 btcrrus, " an ansated drinking-cup " ; and buris, " the 
 rounded nose of the plough," 
 
 But before leaving our two Etruscan burri, it may be in- 
 teresting to trace the various forms and meanings which this 
 widely-spread root, h-r, p-r, has assumed in various languages. 
 
 The root is a simple biliteral, consisting of a mute and a 
 liquid, with a vowel-sound between them or added to them. 
 The simplest forms of this root are — S. bhri, "to bear," 
 and bhar-adi, " to bear"; H. bara, " to create, to produce," 
 and parah, " to bear" ; G. beir, " to bear, to carry" ; I. " to 
 beget "; Gr. phero, L. fero, " I bear, I carry." The general 
 meaning contained in the root is that of the fruitfulness of 
 animals, fields, or orchards; but the primary idea is that of 
 (1) swelling, and assuming the rounded appearance of preg- 
 nancy ; then (2) to be or to continue in this state of bearing 
 or carrying, to be fruitful ; (3) transitively, to cause to swell or 
 be pregnant, to generate; (4) to bring forth, transitively, said 
 of the mother, " the bearer," or, to burst forth, intransitively, 
 said of the child, " the born " ; and (5) the thing producedc 
 
 (1.) The idea of swelling as contained in the root has not 
 
 been noticed by our etymologists, but I believe it lies at the 
 
 very foundation, for the swelling of the womb or of the bud, 
 
 or even of the soil, where the growing seed is about to 
 
 emerge, is the first indication of fertility. This essential and 
 
 F
 
 66 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 fundamental idea appears very plainly in the cognate Semitic 
 verb, harar, " to swell, to become tumid or pregnant, to 
 conceive," physically or mentally, " to think," in which 
 last sense the G. has bar-ail, "an opinion"; from harar, 
 the H. forms har, hor, "a mountain," G. barr, "a mountain," 
 properly a protuberance; with this compare G. torr, "a 
 belly," torraich, " to impregnate," and torr, " a hill, an 
 eminence," as Eipon Tor, For the S. bhri, the G. dialect 
 has bru, broinn, or bronn, " a belly, a womb," from 
 which comes the Gr. em-bru-on, "the child (breph-os) 
 in the womb," and bruo, "I swell, I teem with"; the 
 G. noun broin means " a height, a rounded eminence," 
 and bronnag is "a little bulky female," and the adj. 
 bronnach means "pot-bellied." From G. bru, "the 
 womb," comes the G. brathair, "a brother" (as if bruathair), 
 L. f rater, Ger. bruder. Here we have a good illustration 
 of the greater antiquity and purity of the Celtic language, 
 for while bruder has no etymon in German, nor f rater in 
 Latin, the G. brathair bears its lineage on its face, for it 
 is compounded of bru, " the womb," and ath, " again, a 
 second time," the -air being the common personal termina- 
 tion. With this derivation coincides the Gr. adelphos, "a 
 brother," from a copulative (the G. ath is sounded a), and 
 delphus, "the womb"; the S. sagbha, "a brother," is the 
 exact equivalent of brathair and Gr. adelphos, for the S. 
 syllable sag has the same meaning as the G. bolg, "a bag, 
 the womb." In G. brathair the u of bru is dropped, as 
 it is also in the G. expression b'i, "it was she," for bu'i. 
 This word brathair, brother exists, with very little varia- 
 tion of form, in all the Aryan languages ; but while in ^olic 
 Greek phrater, i^hratSr means " a brother," yet in Attic 
 Greek the word has a restricted meaning, being applied only to 
 members of the same city, ward, or clan ; the Athenians say
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 67 
 
 adelphos when they mean a brother in the family sense. 
 Are these two words a piece of fossil history ? Do they 
 imply that the Ionian immigration, flooding the Pelasgian 
 country, and sweeping away its word-landmarks, brought in 
 and deposited in Attica a second word, adelphos, which 
 is apparently a translation of the Pelasgian phrater, G. 
 brathair, and that after a time adelphos and phrater were 
 desynonymised, phrater, the older word, receiving a special 
 technical meaning? 
 
 The idea of swelling into rotundity is found in other 
 derived words also; thus, in G., from bru, "the belly," 
 comes broin, "a height," as already shown; in the same 
 way in K., while croth means "the womb," crug means 
 " any swelling, a boil, a hillock " (I. croagh) ; further, 
 by changing the r of the root bar into I, we have the 
 European word ball, "a round body," with all the words 
 derived from it ; in several of these languages the noun bal 
 has a meaning which connects it closely with the root bar 
 in the sense of fecundity. The form bal also gives the 
 G. balg or bolg, "a womb, a bag, a wallet, a blister, 
 a pimple, the boss of a shield " — in short, any rounded 
 protuberance. In G., bolg-saighead (" arrow-bag") means 
 "a quiver"; and it appears to me that Gr. pharetra, "a 
 quiver," is compounded of bar in the same sense as bolg, 
 and a root-word tar, " to go rapidly." This view is supported 
 by the derivation of Gr. ios, " an arrow," from ienai, " to 
 go." This root exists in G., for the verb tar means " to go, 
 to send," the adj. tar means " active, quick " (whence Etr. 
 antar, q.v.), tarr-uing (A.-S. taeran), "to draw, pull, 
 aim," tarragh, "a drawing, a leading" (whence L. traho, 
 "I draw"), Fr. tirer, "to draw, to shoot," and trait, "an 
 arrow"; with the Fr. trait compare the H. massa, "an 
 arrow," from a root that means to "draw" an arrow. Again,
 
 G8 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 from bar, in the sense of "swelling," come the G. borr and bolg, 
 "to swell," adj. borr or burr, "great, noble, haughty" (E. 
 proud), borsa, also s-por-an, "a purse," borran, "the 
 haunch," with which compare the G. mas, " the hip or 
 buttock," from mas, " round." 
 
 Other instances of roundness are the E. barrow (tumulus), 
 and the A.-S. beorg, "a circular enclosure, a town," or 
 borough ; from this comes the E. bourgeon, " to flourish," of 
 which the primary idea is "to swell " into roundness (beorg), 
 and then " burst forth " into bud. In Lowland Scotch, which 
 is largely Anglo-Saxon, there are several words from this root, 
 and all of them have the meaning of roundness — bur is " the 
 cone of the pine," also " a millstone," so called from their 
 form ; brogh, brugh, or burg, " an encampment of a circular 
 form " (called in some places " ring fort "), " a round Pictish 
 house, a circular halo round the moon," a name for the 
 "circle dra^vn round the tee in the game of curling," bruk, 
 " a boil or tumour " that suppurates ; while in E. the word 
 burr means "the round knob on a deer's horn," next his 
 head, and is also a name for " a round iron ring " attached 
 to a cannon or lance. In E., also, the roundness of the fore- 
 head has given to it the name of brow; and the L. frons, 
 " the forehead," I take to be the Gc. broin (q.v.), " some- 
 thing high and round," which word has a similar application 
 in the G. bogh-braoin, " the rainbovj." The idea of swell- 
 ing into roundness appears also in K. bar, "anger, wrath"; 
 cf. "tumidus ira." The G. for "rage" is buath, and "to 
 provoke into rage or madness" is buair. May not buair 
 be the original form of the L. ira ? 
 
 This idea of swelling, as connected with birth, may be 
 also shown by a comparison of the Greek verbs phuo and 
 phusao ; for phuo means, transitively, " to make to grow, to 
 beget, to bring forth," but phuma, a noun derived from it,
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 69 
 
 means "a tumour, a boil," phusis means "nature," but 
 phusao means "to blow, to puff up," phuton is "a plant, 
 a tree, a child," but it also means "a tumour." With 
 these compare the H. verb parach, " to sprout," and the 
 E. bourgeon, as above. The same idea seems to lie under 
 the old L. verb feo, for besides fecund us and felix, both 
 meaning " fruitful," there are from it the participial adjective 
 fetus, "teeming" with young (properly, "made fruitful"), 
 fenus, " capital lent on interest " (that which swells and pro- 
 duces profit), or "the interest itself," and the noun fetus, 
 which means " the offspring of animals," and also " the fruit 
 of trees," swelling and swollen to maturity. Fenus, " inter- 
 est," from feo, has analogies in the Gr. tokos, "offspring, 
 interest," and the H. marbith, "progeny, interest," from 
 rabah, " to become great, to multiply." Festus says that 
 L. fenum, "hay," is derived from feo; this derivation is 
 unintelligible if feo means only " to bring forth " young, " to 
 be fruitful," but if "swelling into roundness" be the under- 
 lying idea, then fenum, like the Gr. phuma, K. crug, G. 
 broin, implies " roundness," and points to the form of the 
 " hay-cocks," the little round hillocks into which the withered 
 grass is gathered. 
 
 (2.) If, then, the root b-r, S. bhri or bhar, G. beir, 
 primarily describes the external symptoms of incipient 
 gestation, the next step in the development of the meaning 
 of the root will bring us to the continuance of the condition 
 till it reaches its issue; bhri, bhar, beir will thus mean 
 "to bear, to carry" about for a time, just as H. sabal 
 means " to bear, to carry," hence " to be pregnant." In 
 this general sense of carrying there are many words — S. 
 bhri, H. parah, G. beir, I. beir, L. fero, Gr. phero, 
 phore5, A.-S. bearan, beoran, byran, E. bear, L. 
 por-to, and probably the Ger. pfer-d (q.v.), "a horse,"
 
 70 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 because it is used to carry a man, just as the H. has 
 pered, "a mule," from the root par, bar. 
 
 (3.) In fact, this third signification ought to come first, 
 for, in the order of time, the cause must precede the effect. 
 This transitive meaning belongs to the H. bara, " to 
 beget, create, produce," the I. beir, "to beget," and the 
 L. par ere and par are in the sense of "causing, pro- 
 curing" a thing to be. To this head also belongs the E. 
 brawn, boar (Sc. breem), " a male sow." 
 
 (4.) When the bud on the tree has swollen to its full 
 size, it " bursts forth " into leaf and bloom and branch. 
 Hence the H. parach, " to break forth, to sprout, to 
 fly"; the K. nouns brig, "the tops of trees," and brigaw, 
 "hair"; Gr.-I.-K. bar, "the top of anything, a top or 
 summit, a branch"; E. a bar, a spar; H. beriach, "a 
 cross-beam, a bolt, a bar, a prince." In the case of 
 animals, the " burst forth " becomes also " bring forth " ; 
 thus the H. parah means " to bear young, to be fruitful "; 
 Gr.-L beir, "to bring forth"; L. pario, "bring forth"; A.-S. 
 baeran, "to bring forth"; E. bear, with its derivatives. 
 To this head belongs the E. "farrow" sow, but to the 
 previous head a "barrow" sow. Other roots besides this 
 one have the double meaning of " burst forth " and " bring 
 forth," as the H. giach, goach, from which comes gihon, 
 " a river," because it " bursts forth " from its source, 
 
 (5.) The results of this succession of causes and effects 
 are exhibited in numerous words, some of which denote 
 inanimate things, as E. burden, birth ; but of the animate 
 results I take as examples: (1) H. bar, "a son" (sometimes 
 used in that sense in Gadhelic also), with which compare the 
 G. mac, "a son," from the old G. verb mac, "to bear, 
 to carry"; (2) the H. par, "a bull, a bullock,*' fern, 
 parah, Ger. farre, fem. farse, A.-S. fear, Gr. fem. por-tis;
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 71 
 
 (3) the A.-S. barn, beam, "a son," Sc. bairn, P. bara, 
 "a lamb, a kid," barna, "a youth," barnasa, "men"; 
 and lastly, in the same sense as H. par, the G. has 
 bioraidh, "a bullock," biorach, "a calf," bioraiche, "a 
 colt, a foal, a filly." Other results not animate are : (1) 
 Gr. bar, "a crop of corn, bread"; Sc. bear, bere = 
 E. "Parley"; K. bara, "bread"; Gr. bora, "pasture, 
 food"; from this G. root -noun bar I take an unused 
 form, harad or borad, whence, by metathesis, the A.-S. 
 breod, Ger. brod, E. bread; this seems to me a more 
 likely derivation than to take bread from bray, " to pound"; 
 from this bar also come the L. far and farina (as iifarenna), 
 "meal," and the G. braich, bracha, "malt." It is worthy 
 of remark that in H. bar means either the corn as growing 
 in the fields or as stored clean in the bar-n. (2) Borde 
 in Ger. means "a fertile region." (3) Purah in H. means 
 "a branch," and poroth, "branches." (4) The G. por 
 means "seed." (5) Because the first growth of grain in a 
 sown field is spear-like the root bar gives Corn, bar, K. 
 barf, L. barba, E. beard, Ger, bart, and possibly the E. 
 halbert, and the It. sbirri, from their "spears." (6) The 
 beard-like appearance of such a field, when the growth is 
 young, is called, in Scotch, breard or breer. (7) The L. 
 fruges, fruor, fructus, come from this root. (8) And from 
 its resemblance to the sprouting grain, " a goad, a pin, a 
 bodkin," anything sharp and pointed is called in G. bior. 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Lindsay. — Burrus is like einBar, the Teutonic equiva- 
 lent of the Latin amphora, from heran, " to bear or carry." 
 
 Taylor. — All these words may be explained by means 
 of Turkic hurun, " nose." The Avar baaran, " red," would 
 explain hurra and burrus, but not buris.
 
 72 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 The Basque Language. 
 
 The Basque language has caused almost as much per- 
 plexity to philologists as the Etruscan. Its affinities are as 
 yet undetermined. Latham says, " With the Latin, beyond 
 words like spirit, angel, paradise, there is no Bask word 
 in common. Nor yet with the Greek. Nor yet with the 
 German. Nor yet with the Keltic. Nor yet with the 
 Skipitar. There is nothing, in short, like anything in 
 Southern, Central, or Western Europe." 
 
 But the name Celtiberia, applied by the Romans to that 
 part of Spain, warrants the presumption that the inhabitants 
 of it may have been Spanish Celts. The present location 
 of the language also may mean that the people who speak 
 it are the sole survivors of those Celts whom the Roman 
 power, and at a later period the force of Gothic and Moorish 
 conquest, drove into the mountain fastnesses of Biscay, as 
 the British Celts into Wales. If so, we need not wonder 
 to find, after the lapse of more than a thousand years, that 
 its native ruggedness has been considerably softened and 
 toned down by contact with the Romance languages around. 
 Let us examine some of the Basque words : — 
 
 (1.) Basque, Burua, "head." This resembles the Etr. 
 burrus, from the G. barr, " the top of anything, a head," 
 as already shown. A G. form, barr-amh, would be sounded 
 harruv, or harrav, which might become harrva, and then 
 barrua. (2.) B. bizarra, " beard." The G. word for 
 "beard" is feasag. Now, -ag and -arra are both of them 
 G. formatives; the roots, then, are B. biz, and G. feas, 
 which seem to be the same. (3 and 4.) In B. arrecha is 
 " a tree," and arria is " a stone." These words resemble
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 73 
 
 each other, the root-form in each being arr; and although 
 it is difficult to see what connection there can be between 
 a tree and a stone, yet the G. word darag means both 
 "an oak-tree" (S. dru, "a tree") and "a small stone." 
 The d of darag may be dropped as in E. ma'am for 
 madam, by aspirating it into the sound of h, which easily 
 vanishes; darag would thus give harag, arach-a (cf. Etr. 
 haracos^ aracos), and also harga softened into aria. (5.) 
 B. ur, "water." If the Basque drops the initial d of the 
 Gadhelic, then there is no difficulty in recognising the G. 
 dur, "water," in the B. ur, and (6.) in the B. uri, "rain," 
 as formed from ur, like L. imber, "rain," from the G. root 
 amh, "water, the ocean." And (7.) if the Basque drops 
 initial d, then B. egun, "day," is for degun, E. dawn, 
 A.-S. daeg, Ger. tag, K. dydd, G.-I. dia, "day." (8.) 
 The root-idea in "day" is "to shine" (S. dyu) ; hence, I 
 suppose the B. eguzqui, " sun " (as if a G. form, eg-us-ach, 
 like G. solus-ach), is taken from egun. (9.) The B. gau, 
 " night " (for gua ?), may be the G. gamh (formed like No. 1, 
 burua), "winter" (q.v.), in the sense of "covering, dark- 
 ness" (cf H. ab, "darkness"). And (10.) B. sua, "fire," 
 may be the G. samh, "the sun," samh-radh, "summer," 
 in the sense of " fiery heat." (11.) The B. ezurra, " bone," 
 when the termination -urra — that is, -arra — is struck off, 
 gives the root ez, L. os, "a bone," Gr. osteon, K. as-gwrn. 
 (12.) The B. izar, "a star," resembles K. ser, seren, "a 
 star." (13.) The B. ceru, "sky," seems to be for celu 
 (one liquid for another), from the root eel, cut (q.v.), " to 
 cover, to hide." (14.) Similarly the B. lei, " ice," is 
 probably the Gcr. reif, "hoar frost," E. rime, K. rhcw, 
 "frost," G.-I. reo, "frost," G. reo-leac ("frost-stone"), 
 "ice." (15.) The B. illea, "hair" (curly hair?), is prob- 
 ably the same word as G. fal-t, "hair" (q.v.), from fill,
 
 74 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 fal, " to go round " (cf. L. cap-illus, " hair "). (16.) The B. 
 beguia, "eye" (for hegulaV), is like the G. feigh, "sharp" 
 (cf. L. acies and oculus). (17.) The B. oina, "foot," may 
 be an abraded derivative from G. cos, cois, " a foot," as if 
 cois-ainn, cois-na, coi-na, oina. (18.) The B. jainco, 
 " god " (E. Jingo ?), seems to me to be a similar formation, 
 di-ainn (with co added, as in the Teutonic Tuisco), from 
 the G. dia, "god." (19.) The B. turmoi, "thunder," has 
 evidently the same root as Taranes, the Celtic god of 
 " thunder." (20.) The B. lur, " earth," seems to me to be 
 Romance for t'lur, L. tellure, "earth"; or perhaps it is 
 the G. uir, "earth." (21.) The B. numerals hio'U, "three," 
 and (22.) sei, "six," are identical with the Gadhelic (and 
 Aryan) thri and se. (23.) B. escua, "hand." I believe 
 the ua here to be as in burn a (No. 1), a softer form of the 
 G. -amh, or -abh. As to the rest, the English " hand " is 
 connected with the A.-S. Scotch hadd or baud, " to hold," 
 the hand being " that by which we lay hold of anything" ; 
 the G. lamh, " the hand," is similarly connected with the 
 Gr. lamb-ano, "I take, I lay hold of." So the B. 
 escua seems to me to be another form of the G. sgabh 
 (which, in Kymric, might be written esgahh or ysgabh), " to 
 lay hold of, to seize." 
 
 These twenty-three analogies are the result of a mere 
 cursory glance of the Basque words given in Latham's 
 " Comparative Philology." It is probable that a careful 
 examination of the whole list might supply some more 
 points of resemblance between the Basque and the Celtic.
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 75 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 domestic animals and implements. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 1. Capra, a Goat. 2. Damnus, a Horse. 
 3. Gapus, a Chariot ; with which take 
 
 4. -fflsar, a God. 
 1. Capra, a Goat. 2. Damnus, a Horse. 
 
 Having in the preceding chapters given a few examples of 
 the method on which I purpose to conduct this inquiry, I 
 now proceed to undertake a wider survey, which will open 
 up to us a new and, it may be, an interesting field of specu- 
 lation in Roman mythology and antiquities. I take up the 
 Etr. capra, "a she-goat," and with it I join Etr. damnus, 
 " a horse," for they are the only quadruped-names on our 
 list, and I expect to be able to show that both words come 
 from the same original root. 
 
 At first sight one would say that it is impossible that 
 " goat " and " horse " should be named from any features or 
 qualities common to both, but I would at the outset note 
 the facts — (1) that in Irish the word gabhar, which now 
 means " a goat," was formerly, perhaps a thousand years 
 ago, used to signify " a horse," for, in the ancient manuscript 
 " Lives of the Saints," the Irish geographical name Loch- 
 gabhra, now Lagore, is translated by the L. "stagnum equi"
 
 76 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 " the horse's lake " ; and (2) our examination of the Etruscan 
 bird-names, in a subsequent section, may induce the belief 
 that the old name-makers were scientific enough to give 
 names to animals rather from their physical features or their 
 habits than from such accidents as voice or colour. And 
 just as most of the bird-names are expressive of habits, so 
 the names capra and danmus both have reference to a 
 habit common to the " horse," the " goat," and the wild 
 boar, for the wild boar, too, has a similar name, Gr. 
 kapros, L. 'aper, N. hafra. Any who are disposed to 
 doubt that the same name can denote animals so diverse, 
 have only to remember that the S. dru, "a tree," means in 
 Celtic "an oak" (G. darag, I. dair, K. deru), that the 
 Gr. phegos, "an oak," means in L. "a beech" (fagus), 
 that the G. damh means both "an ox" and "a deer" (L. 
 dama, "a doe"), and that "a hare" or "rabbit" is in G. 
 called coinean, "a little dog" (E. coney, L. cuniculus), 
 from G. cu, coin, "a dog." If more instances be required, 
 I may cite G. fiadh, " a deer," properly any " wild " 
 animal ; the Gr. melon and the L. malum, which mean 
 "an apple," but the Persic mul means "a pear"; the L. 
 quercus, according to Max MuUer, is derived from A.-S. 
 furh, E. fir;'" and in the Semitic languages, H. taleh 
 (q.v.) means " a young lamb/' but in Syriac '' a boy," in 
 Samaritan "a boy," in ^thiopic "a kid," in Arabic "a 
 fawn, a young gazelle " — the underlying idea common to 
 them being " the young of an animal." 
 
 There can be little doubt that the Etr. capra (L. caper, 
 capra) is the G. gabhar, "a she-goat" — a word which is 
 found in all the Celtic dialects. The transition from gabar 
 
 * I derive quercus from G. darag, "an oak," thus: G. darag, 
 garag {^g for d, see gallau), karach, quarach (G. fcoig, L. gwinque), L. 
 quer-c-us.
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 77 
 
 (b not aspirated) to caper and capra is so obvious, that the 
 identity of the words can scarcely be questioned, and it is 
 futile to object that G. gabar is a loan-word, for an inde- 
 pendent language must be miserably poor if it has to borrow 
 so common an animal-name as " goat " from the Etruscan or 
 the Latin. The form gabhar, too, must be older than capra, 
 for it is identical with the H. tsaphar, "to go or dance in 
 a circle, to leap," which, in the primitive language, pro- 
 bably had the form gabhar, for the H. and S. dsh, tsh 
 often represent the gutturals g and Jc. From tsaphar, the 
 H. forms the noun tsaphir, "a goat," which is of either 
 gender, and, like the G. gabhar, must have a masculine or 
 a feminine attributive joined to it in order to distinguish the 
 gender. The goat, then, is "the leaper," and any one who 
 has seen the sudden skips and bounds which a kid takes, 
 first to one side and then to another, will not deny that the 
 goat is indeed " the leaper." The same idea shows itself in 
 the Gr. aix, "a goat," from aisso, "I move with a quick 
 motion, I dart or glance"; the H., also, has ditsa, "a 
 wild goat," from the verb duts, "to leap, to dance" — a 
 softened form of dants, whence Ger. tanzen, E. dance. 
 
 Verbs, of which the root-idea is " to go in a circle, to 
 leap," are also used in a tropical sense to denote (1) " swift- 
 ness," (2) "joy." Thus, in P. yama means "a horse," but 
 yamin means " happy, fortunate " ; in G. agh is "a heifer, 
 a fawn," sometimes " an ox, a bull, a cow," but agh is also 
 "joy, happiness," whence Gr. ag-(h)allomai, "I leap" for 
 "joy," "I exult." Further, from H. darar, "to fly in a 
 circle, to wheel in flight," come the H. word derur, "a 
 swallow" (from its gyrations), and the Ar. darar, "a swift 
 horse," with which compare the H. dahar, dur, "to go in 
 a circle, to be borne on swiftly," as a horse and rider. 
 
 Then as to damnus. The horse is also a " leaper/' and
 
 78 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 therefore the H, has the verb salad, " to leap as a horse, 
 to exult," and the noun sus, "a horse," from the verb sus, 
 " to leap for joy." And just as the horse and the goat are 
 different animals, and yet have some habits in common, so 
 the H. verbs tsaphar and sus, although both meaning "to 
 leap," are differently applied. Sus rather describes the 
 regulated onward leaps of the horse in a trot or a canter, 
 resulting in a swift progressive motion, while tsaphar, like 
 Gr. aisso, denotes the sudden jerking leaps of a goat on 
 the same spot. This difference is clearly marked in the E. 
 word capriole, which, although it is derived from caper, " a 
 goat," yet applies only to a peculiar leap of the horse. This 
 difference also appears in H. sas, "a moth," which, like its 
 brother sus, implies that the animal takes a short leap 
 or flight, and then comes down again ; similarly, another 
 Semitic verb, chagal, "to advance by short leaps," in the 
 manner of a crow or of a man with his feet tied, gives 
 chargal, " to gallop as a horse, to leap as a locust," and 
 the modern P. hakla, "a stutterer." Nor is the word sus 
 confined to the H. language, for in ancient Assyrian, susu 
 is the name for " a horse." Now, as sus is a very old word, 
 for it occurs in Genesis, I am led to expect that in old 
 languages like the Celtic and Etruscan, the name for " horse" 
 may mean " the leaper." I therefore proceed to prove that 
 Etr. daninus, " a horse," is, in very fact, only a word that, 
 like H. sus, means "the leaper." And here I may say 
 that, however unique damnus may seem to be as the name 
 for a horse, yet it is not without a peer, for our English 
 teamster, who is urging his dobbin to fresh activity, has 
 in his mouth probably the same word which the Etruscans 
 used more than two thousand years ago; dobbin, by the 
 change of 6 into m (see tuber), is dommin, and that, again, 
 is damnus.
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 79 
 
 In tracing the derivation of damnus, I would remind the 
 reader that in the primitive unbroken language of mankind, 
 the root-words were doubtless few in number, and that 
 different and yet cognate applications of the same root-idea 
 were expressed by slight phonetic changes on the root. 
 Many examples of this could be adduced ; some have been 
 given under the head Etr. burrus^ from the root bar. In 
 English we have many instances of the same kind ; from 
 clap, we form clash, clutch, clatter, cluster, and Sc. 
 skelp ; from tread, we take stride, straddle. Let me, 
 therefore, go to the Noachian language and select the root 
 gaph or, unaspirated, gab or gap, "to leap"; this is the 
 Aryan form of the H. root tsaph, in tsaph-ar, "to leap." 
 From gap I take the Etruscan word gapus, " a chariot," as 
 will be shown in its own place. But 6 is m (see tuber); 
 therefore the root gab may be written gam. Again, d may 
 take the place of g, for both letters are soft checks, the one 
 produced by a guttural, and the other by a dental con- 
 tact ; indeed, so closely allied are d and g, that Webster, 
 in his English Dictionary, insists that such a word as 
 " (/loom " ought to be pronounced " dloora " ; in Ireland, the 
 "gallan" stones are frequently called " dallan " stones; 
 and Max Mliller, in his " Science of Language," states that 
 it takes months of labour to teach a young Hawaian to 
 know the difference between d and g. The change of ts 
 into d, without the intervention of g, occurs in the H. verb 
 tsabab, " to go slowly," which is also written dabab. 
 The root gam may thus be written dam. Again, dam 
 becomes lam, for d and I interchange, as in Gr. OcZusseus, 
 L. Ulysses ; Gr. fZakruma, L. Zacryma ; L. deZicare for 
 decZicare, oZor for odoi ; S. kola, koda, " a hog." Indeed, 
 where a Hindu pronounces a cZ at the beginning of a root- 
 word, the Roman pronounces a liquid I, and in Hebrew,
 
 80 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 d is frequently changed into r, another liquid closely 
 allied to I. 
 
 The root-forms, then, are, unaspirated, tsap, gap, gab, 
 gam, dam, lam, yielding tsaphar, gabhar, dabar, labar. 
 Of course, it is not necessary to add that any of these words 
 may have its vowel-sound changed without in the least 
 affecting its identity, for the vowels are only the flesh and 
 blood, the colour and complexion of the word, all of which 
 may vary ; while the consonants are the bones of the 
 skeleton which determines the figure of the animal. The 
 G. dialect seems to have shunned the use of the root gap, 
 gab, in the sense of " leaping," probably because it had 
 already two verbs of the same sound, gabh, " to take," and 
 gabh, "to go swiftly." I find in G. only these two 
 examples of gab, " to leap " — cap, " a cart or tumbril," Etr. 
 gapuSy and cap-ull, "a mare," formerly "a horse," L. 
 caballus. The form gam, however, is common in G., for 
 it gives G. gamh-uinn (genitive gamhna), written also 
 gabh-uinn, "a young cow, bullock, or deer," from six 
 to twelve months old, and its derivative gambn-ach, "a 
 young cow." The Ger. has gemse, "a mountain-goat, 
 the leaper " ; to which corresponds in meaning and deriva- 
 tion the F. cham-ois. From the G. gamh-, "a cow," I 
 take the L. vacca, " a cow," for the root of the L. word is 
 vac-, or, by metathesis, cav-, which, as Columella tells us, 
 was the earlier form. Now, cav- is identical with G. gamh-, 
 which is pronounced gav-. Here it is worthy of notice that 
 names for the commonest notions, such as that of cow, are 
 expressed in Latin by words of Gadhelic origin, for L. vacca 
 is certainly not a Greek word, nor is G. gav- borrowed from 
 the Latin, for the metathesis in vacca, and the identity of 
 G. gamh with H. tsaph, prove that the G. form is earlier 
 than the L. vacca. The E. word cow is of different origin ;
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 81 
 
 it is the S. gaii, Ger. kub, H. gaah, Gr. goa-ein, "to 
 low " ; " low " and " cow " are the same word (I for g or k). 
 The K. has no word for "cow" from the root gamh, but 
 from it the F., besides chamois, has chevre, "a she-goat," 
 which may either be the Celtic gabhar, "a goat," or a 
 Romance corruption of the L. capra. The E. verb gam- 
 bol, "to dance, skip about, frisk, leap," is usually derived 
 from the F. jambe (as if gambe), "a leg," It. gamba, "a 
 leg," late L. gamba, " a hoof" ; but the root of all these is 
 gam, "to leap." The Gr: kapros, "the wild boar, the 
 leaper," L. aper, has its counterpart in the Ger. frisch- 
 ling, " a young wild boar," from the same root as the E. 
 frisk, " to leap." 
 
 The next form of our original root is dam. From this 
 the G. has damh, "an ox, a hart, a buck," L. dama (masc. 
 or fem.), "a doe or deer," F. daim, daine; the Ger. has 
 dam-hirsch, "a buck," and dam-hirsch-kuh, " a doe." 
 From dam the G. also forms the verb damhs, " to skip, to 
 hop," the adj. damh-air, "eager, keen," as if to denote 
 "leaping eagerness," the noun damh, "learning," literally 
 "eagerness" (cf. L. studeo, studium), and from it the 
 noun damhail, "a student" (c£ L. studiosus). The K. 
 has dam-uno, "to beseech earnestly." The idea of "eager- 
 ness" does not appear in the H. verb tsaphar, " to leap," 
 but it shows itself plainly in other root-words of the same 
 meaning; for instance, in H. hadas, "to leap, to hasten," 
 and H. agal, "to roll," Ar. "to hasten, to hurry." From 
 agal comes H. e'glah, " a calf of the first year, a bvdlock, 
 a heifer" (cf. H. parah, q.v.); in this sense eglah exactly 
 corresponds with the G. gamh-uinn, for the application of 
 both is restricted to yearling animals, which are distinguished 
 by their friskiness and the joyous use of their limbs; and 
 
 this idea comes out strongly in the ^thiopic form of 
 
 G
 
 82 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 H. eglah, which signifies " a calf, a whelp," and even " an 
 infant," The young of other animals are also named from 
 their "leaping and frisking," for the H. word car means 
 "a lamb," from the verb carar, "to move in a circle" (cf. 
 tsphar), "to dance." Hesychius says that the lonians used 
 the word kar to signify "a sheep"; that is the same word 
 as the G. caor, "a sheep." The G. has also carr-fiadh, 
 "a hart" (literally "the wild dancer"). The Gr. krios, 
 "a ram," is for karios ; and the L. aries, ariet- is the 
 G. reithe, "a ram," from G. reith, "to leap"; aries 
 seems to be G. participle areith, "leaping," like the L. 
 participial nouns animans, sapiens; or aries may be for 
 caries. From the same H. root car, in the sense of "jolt- 
 ing," or of wheels going " round and .round," the H. has 
 car, "a camel's saddle," and circaroth, " dromedaries, swift 
 camels" ; the G. has carr, "a dray, a waggon," L. carrus, 
 currus, E. cart, A.-S. craet (by metathesis for car-et), 
 N. kaerre, E. car; the K. has carr, "a sledge without 
 wheels, a cart, a waggon." And, in the sense of " leaping," 
 the K. has garr, "the leg," It. gamba, F. jambe, as above. 
 From the use of K. carr to mean " a wheel-less sledge," it 
 would seem that the idea of "jolting" prevails in these 
 names for vehicles, and in point of time the jolting sledge 
 must have preceded the dray and the chariot. 
 
 From all these considerations and examples, but especially 
 from the use of gabhar, " the goat, the leaper," in old Irish 
 to mean "a horse," I believe that the Etruscan dainnus is 
 only another form of the G. gam ha inn, for gamhainn 
 gives damainn [d, for (J), from which comes dam-n-us, 
 " the leaper." The form damainn does not now exist in 
 G., but, preferring the initial sound of I, the G. has 
 leum-n-ach, " any creature that leaps, hops, or bounds"; 
 and leumn-ach, damn-ach, would give daimius. The
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 8 
 
 o 
 
 nearest approach to a horse is " a mare," which the G. 
 expresses by the word lair; this is another spelling for 
 lamh-air, the mh {^=v) being quiescent. The lam is the 
 root dam, and -air corresponds with the termination -ainn 
 in gamhainn, and denotes the agent or doer ; lair is there- 
 fore "the leaper," like gabhar, and is closely allied to 
 dai7iniis. And if the damims was " a young horse," as 
 distingiiished from caballus, "the 'pack horse," then the 
 name of "leaper," supported as it is by the H. sus, is not 
 inappropriate. 
 
 I am inclined to think that our E. common name horse 
 is also of Eastern origin. The common derivation from 
 S. hresh, "to neigh," is very suitable, but the occurrence 
 in H. of verbs meaning " to leap as a horse," and the fact 
 that in that very ancient language, which of all others brings 
 us nearest to the primitive man's ideas of things as ex- 
 pressed in words, nearly all the names for horse, ass, mule 
 are taken either from " swift running," or from " leaping," 
 throws some suspicion on the S. hresh as the root of horse. 
 I know of only one other name which may mean " the 
 neigher," and that is the Sc. naig, colloquial E. nag, which 
 is probably taken from A.-S. hnaegan, "to neigh." I 
 therefore offer another derivation of horse. 
 
 In Ezekiel xxvii. 14, three kinds of horses are mentioned, 
 common horses (susim), riding-horses (parashim), and 
 mules (peradim). The second of these names (parash) 
 primarily signifies "a horseman," for it is formed from the 
 verb parash, parats, parak, parad, "to break, to spread 
 out, to separate," as the legs in riding (cf. E. breeches). 
 Gesenius says that the force of these verbs lies in the 
 syllable rats, as well as in the par. For rats the Greeks 
 write hresso, which, if it be also a Teutonic root, would give 
 Ger. (h)ross, N. oers, A.-S. hors, E. horse, for riding.
 
 84 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 In modern German there is nothing nearer to the H. root 
 than brechen (H. parak), and s-preits-en (H. parats), 
 and perhaps pferd, "a horse" (H. parad); but in G. bris 
 (H. parash) means "to break," and if this is written hris, 
 there is thence an easy transition to hross, "a horse." 
 From bris the G. has rosg, "day-break," also "the eye- 
 lids," separating like the legs of a man in riding. From 
 H. parak, the G., by changing p, that is h, into m (see 
 tuber), forms marc, "a riding-horse," marc-ach, "a rider, 
 a horseman, a dragoon," and other words. Thus the G. 
 again shows a close approximation to the H., for it has 
 bris and mar-c for parash and parak. 
 
 The G. name for a common horse is each, L. equus. 
 The idea of " swiftness, rapidity " lies hid in each also, for 
 its derivative each an, already quoted, means "a blast, a 
 wheel." The S. for each is a9-va (of which the root is 
 a9), P. a9pa, old Fr. hacque, E. hack. In S., another 
 word for "horse" is vaha, with its derivative vahana, 
 "a vehicle, a carriage"; cf. the L. verb veh-ere, vehi, 
 equivalent to cito ferri. In connection with each and 
 vehi, in this sense, I cite "the wild ass," H. pere, and H. 
 a'ir, both names given to it from its hot, ardent running, 
 " which snuffeth up the wind at its pleasure," and the H. 
 pared, "a mule." The meaning of "eagerness" which we 
 found to reside in the syllable dam, the root of Etr. dainnus, 
 exists also in the G. syllable as, for G. as-cath means 
 "a soldier" (cath, "a battle"), as-call, "an onset," and 
 as-laich, " to beseech, to entreat earnestly." This may 
 also be the root-syllable of G. as-al, "an ass," K. as-yn, 
 L. as-inus, the wild ass of Asia being noted of old for its 
 eager running. Perhaps the E. ask, A.-S. ascian, is from 
 the same root, for it originally meant " to urge, to press." 
 
 We have thus examined the root-forms gap, gab, gam.
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 85 
 
 dam, and now there remains only tlie form lam ; but this 
 last is important, for it introduces some difficult problems 
 in Roman and Grecian mythology and antiquities, and it 
 may therefore detain us for some time. From this root 
 lam come the G. leum, I. leim, K. llammu, "to skip 
 or hop," Arm. 11am, "a leap," Ger. lamm, "a lamb," E. 
 lamb, where the h represents the second m of the Ger. ; 
 with lamb, "the leaper," compare the Ionian car, or kar, 
 " a sheep, a lamb," already referred to, the H. car, " a lamb," 
 and the Sc. car, provincial for " calves." In German, lamm, 
 like the G. damh, must have also at one time signified 
 "a deer," for the Ger. word lammer means "a haunch of 
 venison," From leum the G. forms lubhan (as if luman), 
 "a lamb," and this, with hh quiescent, becomes luan, uan, 
 K. oen, plu. wyn. Observe here that the K. oen is the 
 latest and the most corrupt form of the original root, and 
 the G, is the earliest. From the root lumh, or lubh (pro- 
 nounced luv), by dropping the Z, as in luan, uan, I form 
 the L. ov-is, Gr. oFis, ois, "the leaper"; and this deriva- 
 tion is confirmed by the Ionian kar, G. caor, "a sheep," 
 and the K. dafad, "a sheep," from dam, damh, "to leap." 
 Here comes an inquiry. Has the Gr. daphne, " the laurel," 
 sacred to Apollo, any connection with the root dam, damh, 
 daph, "to leap," like L. salix, "a willow," from salio, "I 
 leap," and like H. hadas, "myrtle," from hadas, "to leap, 
 to hasten " ? 
 
 The G. root leum is probably the source of the K. llwf, 
 " a leap," and the Teutonic verbs, Goth, hlaupan, Ger. 
 laufen, A.-S. hleapan, E. leap. From leum — that is, 
 leub — I form Lupercus (as if leup-air-ach), " the leaper- 
 god, the goat-god"; and from lam, lab I form L. Labro, 
 " the leaper, the goat-hero," Hercules, in Etruscan topo- 
 graphy, a sea-port near the mouth of the River Arno, men-
 
 86 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 tioned in the Antonine Itinerary as Ad Herculem, and 
 entered in modern geograjjbies as Portus Herculis Labronis, 
 or Liburnura, now Livorno, Leghorn. 
 
 By way of digression, which may relieve the monotony 
 of our di«f";iu2C amono: roots, I wish to examine at length 
 these two names, Lupercus and Labro, for they open up a 
 wide and, it may be, interesting field of speculation. Let 
 us, therefore, first take Labro, which, in my view, means 
 "the goat, the goat-hero," from the G. gabhar, "a goat." 
 
 Excursus on Labro, Hercules. 
 The founders of nations, of families, of religions have 
 always been held in grateful remembrance by their followers; 
 hence the Romans deified Romulus ; the Plantagenets and 
 the Stewarts bore the surname of their first ancestor ; and 
 Buddhism takes its name from Buddha. And if the founder 
 of the race was known by a name drawn from some visible 
 object which he resembled, or to which he was likened, or 
 if he or his demesne had any prominent and distinguishing 
 features, that thing has become the standard, the badge of 
 his posterity. Thus, As-shur, the founder of the Assyrian 
 monarchy, was commemorated in the huge " man-bulls " of 
 the palaces of Nineveh ; and thus, in common language, we 
 speak of the Russian bear, the Roman eagles, the land of 
 Edom, the Crescent and the Cross. Again, if a kingdom 
 happened to be a composite realm, made up of two or more 
 portions joined together under one sovereign, their separate 
 symbols or badges were combined into one ; thus, Britain — 
 England and Scotland combined — is represented by the lion 
 and the unicorn in friendly co-operation, just as in ancient 
 prophecy a kingly power is symbolised by "a lion with
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND lilPLEMENTS. 87 
 
 eagles' wings." lu the vision of Daniel (chap, viii.), the 
 " ram with two horns " means the combined kingdoms of 
 Media and Persia, and the " rough he-goat " is Macedonia, 
 the conqueror of Greece, and then of Persia. The name 
 Persia, in the Aryan languages, according to some, may- 
 have the same etymon as its H. form Paras — that is, from 
 the verb parash (q.v.) — but others suppose that the name 
 means "a tiger." Its modern forms are Fars, a province 
 of Persia, and Parsees, the fire-worshippers in India. Be 
 that as it may, it is certain that the King of Persia, when 
 leading his army, wore, for a diadem, a ram's head made of 
 gold, and set mth' precious stones. It is also known that 
 a he-goat was the symbol of Macedonia, for bronzes have 
 been dug up there having on them the figure of a goat with 
 one horn ; and among the sculptors of Persepolis, the ancient 
 capital of Persia, there is one, probably executed about 
 550 B.C., in which a Persian is pictured as leading captive 
 a goat with one horn, to mean that at that time Macedonia 
 was subject to the Persian kings. Further, on a gem in 
 the Florentine collection both symbols are found, the 
 ram's head with two horns, and the goat's head with one 
 horn. 
 
 The myth regarding the he-goat of Macedonia runs thus : 
 " Caranus, the first king, was an Argive, and descended from 
 Hercules. Leaving Argos with a band of his fellow-country- 
 men, and not knowing whither to proceed, he consulted an 
 oracle, and was told that he would found an empire, and 
 would be guided thereto by some goats. Doubting what 
 this meant, he wandered northwards, until he reached the 
 city Edessa, near to the spot where Saloniki (Thessalonica) 
 now stands. Here he was overtaken by a heavy storm sent 
 by Zeus, and observing a herd of goats running from it into 
 the city, he remembered the words of the oracle, bade his
 
 88 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 men follow, and, entering, took the city by surprise. In 
 memory of this incident he called the city Aigse, ' goat- 
 city,' and adopted the goat as his standard." Now, Hesy- 
 chius tells us that the Cretans called " the goat " Garanus, 
 and Xenophon says that Caranus meant " lord," which is the 
 signification of koiranos in Homeric Greek, although, in 
 the Iliad, it has more the appearance of an epithet (like 
 Caranus), gradually becoming an equivalent for a king. 
 " Lord " is the tropical meaning, just as H. alluph (q.v.) 
 means both "an ox" and "a leader." Some medals of 
 Macedonia have Jupiter on the one side, and on the reverse 
 the club of Hercules. The residue of truth, therefore, which 
 is contained in the myth probably amounts to this, that the 
 kingdom of Macedonia in some way owed its origin to the 
 race of Hercules, and that he who first established order 
 among them, their first leader and chief, was called Caranus, 
 " the goat." Hercules is also said to have been the founder 
 of the Celtic race, and to have built some towns in Gaul. 
 In Italy, under the name of Garanus or Recaranus, he 
 abolished human sacrifices, set up the worship of fire, and 
 slew Cacus, on the Palatine Mount, whose cave there was 
 long one of the sights of Rome. Hercules was much 
 honoured in Assyria under the name of Nin ; in inscrip- 
 tions he is called Pal-kura or Pal-zira, " son of the (?) lord." 
 This agrees with the meaning of Caranus, " the goat-lord," 
 a denominative applied to a hero, from the root car (q.v.), 
 " to leap, to dance." The H. has various words connected 
 with this root car, as, aran, " a wild goat " (cf caranus), 
 a'rod, Ch. arad, "a wild ass," charad, "to tremble, to 
 hasten " (which idea of trembling is allied to that of leap- 
 ing), char-gal, "to leap, to gallop," as a horse, and car, 
 "a fat ram, a wether, a battering ram," L. aries. The 
 Gr. tragos, "a goat," I take to be formed by metathesis
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 89 
 
 from targos — that is, car-ag-os, ag being a common G. 
 formative (see cor rag, camag, &c.) — so that, while the 
 Ionian car means "a sheep," carag and caran may mean 
 " a goat." That the same word may mean both goat and 
 sheep is proved by the H. seh, which, in the English 
 version of the Pentateuch, is rendered indifferently by 
 "lamb" and "kid." The H. root ayl, which I shall 
 presently quote, furnishes other proofs, for ayil is " a ram," 
 ayal means "a stag, a hart," and the Ar. ayil, "a wild 
 goat," and ayalah, "a hind, a wild goat." In G. the 
 root car retains its meaning of " leaping," for carr-fiadh 
 (q.v.) is "a hart," and gearr-fiadh, "a hare," while caor, 
 caora is " a sheep " or " a ram." 
 
 Besides those already named, there was also a Cretan 
 Hercules, one of the Id^an Dactyli, and I suppose that 
 there, too, in the famous birth- and nurture-land of his 
 father Zeus, he bore the Cretan name of Caranus, " the 
 goat." The Lydians of Asia Minor, whom ancient tradition 
 makes to be the progenitors of the Etruscans, held Hercules 
 in special honour, for he is said to have married Omphale, 
 their queen. At Rome, Hercules was represented with a 
 lyre in his hand, and, under the name Musagetes, was 
 associated with the Muses. But in Athens and in Sparta 
 it was Apollo that was called Cameios, and at the Carneia, 
 the great national festivals held there in his honour, the 
 chief feature was martial and musical contests. This name 
 Cameios must refer to Caranus, Carnus, " the goat," as an 
 emblem of the sun (cf. the Mendesian worship of the goat), 
 for a coin of Delphi, where was the famous oracle of Apollo, 
 has stamped on it the figure of a wild goat's head. Cranaoi 
 is another form of Caranus, and is an epithet applied to the 
 Athenians, who are called Pelasgoi Cranaoi ; and the belief 
 prevalent in Greece that the Athenians were autochthonous
 
 90 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 points to a very early occupation of Attica by Pelasgians. 
 The language spoken at Delphi was the Doric dialect, and 
 as the Heraclidse in their " Return " or conquest of Greece 
 were assisted by the Dorians, there must have been between 
 them a community or perhaps identity of race and faith. 
 From this consideration alone I might argue that Heracles, 
 too, as well as Carneios, was " a goat-hero," both of them 
 spns of Zeus, and that the Etruscans reverenced him under 
 the name of Labro (G. gabhar, "a goat") — an argument 
 which might be further strengthened by the fact that one 
 of the oldest of Etruscan towns (Caere) kept a treasure at 
 Delphi. I suppose that the Dorian " Tragedy," " the goat- 
 song," originated at the annual festivals in May, held as 
 rejoicings for the return of the Sun (Apollo) to power and 
 vigour after his winter's torpidity (see Dionys-us, -ia). These 
 rejoicings were common among Celtic nations also, under the 
 name of " Bel's fire " (Beltane), and were marked by such 
 mirth and dances and mimes as prevailed in the Dionysian 
 and Dorian festivals. It is well known, also, that among 
 the Celts the goat was held in special honour ; and the goat 
 seems to have been in the Koman period a symbol of Cale- 
 donia, for among the tablets dug from the ruins of the 
 Roman wall that stretched across the country from the 
 Forth to the Clyde, there is one which shows a Roman 
 eagle clutching a prostrate goat, in allusion to the recent 
 conquest of Celtic Scotland by the Romans. In their 
 solemn imprecations the Gaels slew a goat, for — 
 
 " 'Twas all prepared ! and from the rock 
 A goat, the patriarch of the flock, 
 Before the kindling pile was laid, 
 And pierced by Roderick's ready blade. 
 
 * * * * 
 
 The life-blood ebbed in crimson tide.
 
 DOMESTIC ANIJIALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 91 
 
 Tlie grisly priest, with murmuring prayer, 
 A slender crosslet formed -with cai-e. 
 * * * * 
 
 The crosslet's points of sparkling wood 
 He quenched among the bubbling blood. 
 And, as again the sign he reared, 
 Hollow and hoarse his voice was heard, 
 ' When flits this cross from man to man, 
 Vich- Alpine's summons to his clan. 
 Burst be the ear that fails to heed, 
 Palsied the foot that shuns to speed. 
 
 As sinks that blood-stream in the earth, 
 
 So may his heart's-blood drench his hearth.' " 
 
 The Etruscans also seem to have used the goat in their 
 necromancies, for, speaking of them, one of the Christian 
 fathers says, " Goats, too, have been confederates in this 
 art of soothsaying, trained to divination." And not only did 
 the Gaels reverence the goat, but the Welsh take it as their 
 national emblem, for St. David, their patron-saint, is seen in 
 pictures riding on a shaggy, patriarchal goat. Even the 
 name Gomer, the reputed founder of the Kymric race, is not 
 unlike gobhar, gomar, " the goat." Again, among the 
 Cretans, the goat was associated with the holiest of traditions, 
 for there, on Mount Dicte, their Zeus grew up in divine 
 strength, fed by honey and milk — the honey furnished by 
 the wild bees, and the goat Amaltheia providing him with 
 milk. Thus " Jove maintained the life given to him by 
 nourishment (drawn from) a foreign breast," And in the 
 Norse mythology there is still a goat, like Amaltheia, sup- 
 plying nourishment to gods and heroes, for in Valhalla, 
 where Odin's heroes dwell, " there is a goat called Hejdrun, 
 which standeth up and biteth the branches from that right 
 famous tree called Lerathr. Now, from out her teats there 
 runneth so much mead that she filleth each day a drinking-
 
 92 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 vessel so huge that all the Einheriar (heroes) are made 
 drunken thereby." 
 
 Now, all these facts and legends tend to prove that the 
 goat holds an important place in the earliest mythologies, 
 and that, as kings and heroes often had appellatives applied 
 to them from the names of other animals — such as the ox, 
 the stag, the dog, the lion — so also from the goat. If Car- 
 anus, then, the ancestor of Philip of Macedonia, and of his 
 greater son, Alexander, is " the goat," " the he-goat," " the 
 rough he-goat " of Daniel's vision ; and since Hercules, the 
 founder of the Celtic nation, and the benefactor of the early 
 Italian tribes, the author of fire-worship in Italy (peculiarly 
 an Etruscan rite), is called Caranus, " the goat," or Recar- 
 anus (G. righ, " a king," pronounced re, whence L. pr. n. 
 Rhea, " queen "), I cannot doubt that Labron, Labru was 
 his Etruscan name or epithet ; and if so, the Etruscans were 
 Gadhelic Celts, for the Gadhelic knows only gabhar, not 
 car, as a name for " the goat, the leaper." 
 
 Semo Sancus, the Sabine name for Hercules, has, I believe, 
 a similar meaning ; for in Daniel's vision (Dan. viii. 21) the 
 King of Greece is symbolised by a " rough he-goat" (H. sair), 
 and this H. word, when used as an adjective, means " hairy, 
 rough," From this word I wish to derive the name Sancus. 
 To clear the way, let me first examine the L. hircus, "a 
 he-goat," the equivalent of H. sair. The H. root of sair 
 is the verb saar, " to stand on end, to bristle " (L. horrere), 
 " to shudder," from which come H. saar, " horror, a storm" ; 
 saar, " hair" ; and saorah (fem.), " barley, awny or bearded 
 barley," like L. hordeum, "barley," from horrere. Simil- 
 arly the L. hircus is "the rough, hairy animal," for the 
 word is of the same stock as L. hirtus, hirsutus, "rough, 
 shaggy, bristly," and both are taken from the G. adj. friogh, 
 "bristly." The original form of hircus was fircus, whence
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 93 
 
 fhircus (/h=h), hircus, and friogh by metathesis gives 
 firgh, firc-us. The G. friogh has a cognate in the Gr. 
 phrisso, "to be rough, to bristle" (L. horrere), said of 
 corn-fields, also "to shudder " (H. saar). If the G. friogh 
 is pronounced frehh, with the hard aspirate, it readily gives 
 the Gr. verb phrisso and the Gr. noun phrix. In the 
 sense of "rough bristliness," the G. has frith, " a forest, 
 wrath, a surly look." Further, as sair, " the hairy one," in 
 H., means also " a wood-demon, a satyr," so from Gr. dasus, 
 " hairy, rough," I form a Gr. adj. -noun dasuros, " the hairy 
 one," and from it, by metathesis, saduros, saturos, "a 
 satyr, a lewd, goatish fellow." Now, by analogy, I take 
 Sancus to mean " the hairy, strong one," an epithet of 
 Hercules like the Etruscan Labro ; for the biliteral root 
 of H. sair is sa (letters shin and aiii). As usual where 
 cdn occurs, this letter may be represented in G. by a 
 guttural; thus the root sa may become sag (whence, pro- 
 bably, the Roman coarse, nappy military cloak, sagum), 
 and sag, with the nasal sound inserted, would give sank, 
 Sancus, " the hairy one." And if Semo is a contraction for 
 Semi-homo,^ then the Sabine name Semo Sancus must 
 mean " the deified goat-hero," raised to the sky, much in 
 the same way as the goat figures in the Babylonian, the 
 Norse, and the modern Zodiac. Had the Sabine lan- 
 guage any direct relation to the Hebrew, we might at once 
 accept this derivation of Sancus ; but as it has not, we must 
 seek a link of connection and a derivation elsewhere. Now, 
 I have already said that the first idea contained in the root 
 saar is that of "shuddering, quivering" (Ger. schauern), 
 and of " hair standing on end " (L. horrere) ; then it 
 denotes the " fierceness " of a storm or tempest ; in this sense 
 the Gr. has thuella, "a storm," from thuo, "I rage, I rush 
 1 This is the common opinion, but see another under /Esar.
 
 94 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 on." So in Gr. the adj. fiannach means " bairy, rough, 
 oficrantic, heroic"; while fiann is "a hero," and fine (as if 
 fiann e) is ''a tribe, a family" ; and with an s instead of the 
 initial/ (see halen and sex), sian means "a storm" (cf. 
 H. saar). Thus G. fiannach, " the hairy, heroic man," 
 may become siannach, shan-ch, Sanc-us, the epithet of 
 Hercules. I have no proof that this is the derivation and 
 meaning of Sancus ; I offer this view of the word as a con- 
 jecture. There are, however, two or three considerations in 
 favour of it ; for in modern languages also personal names 
 are often taken from the names of animals, as in English 
 the names Fox, Bull, Hare ; and in German, such names as 
 Hirsch, " stag " ; then in G. the proper name Catanach, a 
 member of the clan Cattan, means the " hairy " one ; and 
 in G. siannach, Sancus would appropriately describe the 
 rough, hirsute coating of the goat, for the word fianna is 
 always applied to the hair of animals such as the goat, 
 whereas human hair is either folt (of the aged) or cuailean 
 (of the young and beautiful). 
 
 In another aspect, the names Sancus, Labro very well 
 suit Hercules in the sense which I have assigned to them, 
 for, in the passage already referred to, the rough goat which 
 Daniel saw is the national emblem of Macedonia, and Car- 
 anus is that goat. Sair, then, like Caranus, may mean " the 
 hero-founder " of the family, the strong, prolific author of 
 a numerous progeny ; for other animal-names are used in 
 the same way; for instance, in H., a'ttud, " a he-goat," is 
 used metaphorically to mean " the leader " of a nation or 
 tribe, " a principal man, a chief," the leading goat, as it 
 were, or bell-wether of the flock ; the H. eglah, "a bullock," 
 is a name given to " a leader " of the people ; so also H. 
 alloph, "gentle, tame," taken as a noun, means "an ox," or 
 " the chief" of a family or tribe. In the Third Iliad, Homer
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 95 
 
 likens Odusseus to "a ram" (ktilos) leading on his tribe, 
 and in H. the same triliteral root ayl, which yields ayal 
 and ayil (q.v.), "a stag, a ram," gives also ayil, "the 
 mighty ones, leaders, nobles," " the rams," as it were, of the 
 State. In H., ayil is the long-haired " he-goat " (of. hircus, 
 sair, Caranus), used as a sin-ofFering by the tribe-" princes," 
 or by the high priest on national feast-days ; while attud 
 is the young, vigorous " he-goat," delighting in battle, 
 
 " Cui frons turgida cornibus 
 Primis et venerem et prcelia destinat." 
 
 Cognate with attud, the Arabic has atal, " the horse," as 
 ready to " rush on " in the race. Gesenius hesitates to give 
 a decided opinion as to the derivation of attud. I take it 
 to be an Aryan word ; and. as its initial letter is ain, it may 
 be of the same origin as G. cath, " a battle," and Gr. aisso, 
 "I rush on." If so, attud is descriptive of the goat as a 
 pugnacious animal. Such a name, transferred to a tribe- 
 chieftain, would well describe him as their leader in battle. 
 Thus, also, the Norse herse (from her, "war") was a cap- 
 tain-general, inferior in rank to a Jarl. 
 
 I have thus at some length discussed the position of the 
 goat in ancient history and mythology, and have examined 
 various words, in Hebrew and other languages, bearing on 
 the subject — all for the purpose of showing that leading men 
 in a community, the founders of a nation, the leaders of a 
 tribe, the ancestral hero whom a country regards reverentially 
 as its first chieftain and the author of its being, may be 
 designated " the bull," " the ox," " the goat," "the ram." In 
 this sense I understand the Etruscan name Larth, Lars, 
 and the Latin lares, "the household gods"; for I trace 
 them to the G. gabhar, " the goat," from the primal root 
 tsaph, gaph, gabh, "to leap"; and just as H. 'tti\d, "a
 
 96 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 he-goat," is used to signify " a chief, a leading man " in a 
 nation or tribe, so may also tsaphir, "a goat," and sair, 
 " a he-goat." Under the word capra we have seen that 
 the root gam may become lam ; thus, gabhar gives labhar 
 and the Etr.-Lat. lar. There is in G. one conclusive proof 
 of the transition from gabhar to lar; gabar, gabhar, as 
 we have seen, meant " a horse " in old Irish ; and, as the 
 Wi in such a position is quiescent, ga-ar gives la-ar, whence 
 in modern G. lar-ach, " a filly," and lair (q.v.), " a mare," 
 which are the same in orthography as the Etruscan word. 
 Nor is this dropping of 6 in the middle of a word peculiar to 
 the G. ; the L. drops it in the dat. and abl. plural of nouns 
 in a (fem.) ; Terence frequently drops it in the rhythm of 
 his lines ; and the Romance adverbs oil and y drop it from 
 the L. ubi and ibi. 
 
 If Lar, then, is the " hei'o-founder " of a race, like Caranus 
 in Macedonia, one descended from him will be designated 
 by the derived form Lar-tJi^ where the personal formative 
 til is added, as in Etr. Van-t/i, hin-th-ial, the G. dru-idh 
 from deru, " an oak," in E. wrigh-t, from work, and with 
 a different application, in the E. heal-th, til-th, &c. Thus 
 Larth is an appropriate term to denote the hereditary chief 
 of the tribe or gens, for his place and authority are trans- 
 mitted to him by the Lar, the original founder of the family; 
 hence Lars Porsena is the chief of the Porsenna or Porsena 
 sept or clan, and Lars Tolumnius, the chief of the Tolumna. 
 The founders of the family themselves are the lares, whose 
 images in the form of protecting tutelary dogs (see Sara- 
 meya) were carefully preserved ; and to them sacrifices were 
 offered by the household. By them the family swore just 
 as a Highland gille will swear by the Mac Galium Mhor, or 
 other chieftain. A clan-Irishman will swear " by the hand 
 of O'SuUivan," — an oath that must not be broken by any one
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 97 
 
 of that name, for no hand was ever so nobly used as the 
 band of O'SulHvan, tbe founder of the race ; 
 
 " Owing no tie but to his clan, 
 No oath but by the chieftain's hand." 
 
 And thus, if Hercules is the Labro, the goat-hero, the Be- 
 caranus, the first chief of the aborginal tribes of Italy, I 
 easily understand how he became to them and to the Romans 
 the " Dius Fidius," the witness of their solemn oaths, and 
 the avenger of perjury ; " Me Hercule " was an appeal made 
 terribly obligatory by the feeling of ancestral descent and of 
 reverential awe. And if Hercules, as is likely from his 
 functions (see alexikakos), and from his symbol the goat, 
 be, like the Pharaohs, a terrestrial representative of His 
 Majesty the Sun, who sees all things, is a witness to all 
 human transactions, the position of Hercules as Dius Fidius 
 is corroborated by the Sbechemite worship of Baal-berith, 
 the Sun-power, as the " lord of covenants." The reverence 
 shown to the Lares, both by the family (lares domestic i) 
 and by the State (lares publici), all resolves itself into 
 hero-worship, the worship of the deified first author (lar 
 familiaris), and the great men of the family, and of the 
 first founders, protectors, benefactors of the State, the wor- 
 ship of such men as the Dukes of Edom and the five lords 
 of the Philistines, and generally of the sairim attiidim 
 allophim of the Semitic races. At Rome the public lares, 
 as protectors of the city (lares praestites), had a temple 
 on the Via Sacra, and in it two statues (of Romulus and 
 Remus, the founders of the city), and in front of them a 
 stone figure of a dog, to indicate the watchful protection of 
 these two lares. The private lares — sometimes images 
 of gold — were specially honoured, for the pious members of 
 
 the family presented offerings to them every morning in the 
 
 H
 
 98 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 lararium — an inner part of the Louse where these images 
 were kept ; at family meals a portion of the food was offered 
 to the lares, and on festive household rejoicings the images 
 were crowned with wreaths. 
 
 I have just mentioned the Dukes of Edom ; in H. they 
 are called allophim ; but the Lords of the Philistines are 
 called sarnai, or saranim, while the princes of Darius the 
 Mede are called sarkin (sing, sarak) in the book of Daniel. 
 Some etymologists take these names from Z. 9ara, " a head"; 
 Gesenius does not attempt to determine the etymology of 
 them with certainty, but suggests the Persic Sar, "a prince," 
 with a servile termination added. Sar is an Aramaic, and 
 a very old word, for Abraham's wife was Sarai, " my 
 princess," Sarah, " the princess." Now, although it would 
 be hazardous to say that this word Sar is connected with 
 the H. sair, " a goat," yet the usage of the word, both in 
 Media and Philistia, is best explained by taking it to mean 
 the same as attudim, " leading men," the foundation of the 
 State. And yet there may be some connection between 
 them, for the H. word pera, which means " hair," means 
 also " a leader, a commander," and in Ar. " a prince," or 
 "head of a family"; and in L. the Hirt-ian clan was 
 named from hirt-us, " shaggy, hairy," and hircus, "a he- 
 goat," just as in H. sair, the "hairy, rough" he-goat in 
 Daniel's vision is " the prince of Grecia." In Gr., aizeos, 
 " strong, vigorous," which " hairy " men often are, is, in the 
 Homeric poems, joined with Diotrephes, as an epithet of 
 " princes" as a class. In Assyrian, Sar was a title superior 
 to that of melek, " king," and on the Babylonian tablets, 
 deciphered by the late Mr. Smith, the word Sar occurs as 
 the name of one of the gods, and Kisar of another. In the 
 tenth chapter of Daniel, verse 18, this word Sar, "prince," 
 occurs again, and is supposed by the Rabbis to mean the
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND II\rPLEMENTS. 99 
 
 protecting genius, the daimonion of the Persian kingdom, 
 or, according to Jerome, its guardian angel. This is the 
 very sense which I have ascribed to the Roman lar. 
 
 In G., sar, sair, as a noun, means " a hero, an excellent 
 man"; as an adj., "matchless, noble, brave"; as an adv. 
 it is a prepositive particle, Ger. sehr, meaning "very," 
 and is used interchangeably with lar, so that Highlanders, 
 using sar and lar as convertible terms, will say, Tha e sar 
 chlaightire, " He is an accomplished villain," and Tlta e lar 
 bhurraidh, " He is a complete blockhead "; a Gael will also 
 say, Tha e mor shar, " He is a mighty hero," the idea 
 being that of complete excellence, for the Sar is the very 
 highest style and rank of man, and has something divine in 
 his nature. This quite agrees with my view of the position 
 of the Etruscan Lar-th. The idea of supreme rule also 
 belongs to the word Sar, for it occurs in Persian royal names, 
 as in Sharezer, "prince of fire " ; and gor, the K. form of 
 G. sar, Ger. sehr, gives the noun goruch, "sovereignty." 
 In the book of Nehemiah (iii. 14), circa B.C. 450, a Sar is 
 mentioned as the chief ruler of a town near Jerusalem. 
 
 Before leaving the Lares, I quote the words of Arnobius : 
 "In different parts of his writings, Nigidius (speaks of the 
 Lares) now as the guardians of houses and dwellings, now as 
 the Curetes, who are said to have once concealed, by the 
 clashing of cymbals, the infantile cries of Jupiter. . . . 
 Varro, with like hesitation, says, at one time, that they are 
 the Manes ; ... at another time, again, he maintains that 
 they are gods of the air, and are termed heroes [cf. G. sar] ; 
 at another, following the opinion of the ancients, he says 
 that the Lares are ghosts, as it were, a kind of tutelary 
 demon-spirits of dead men." 
 
 From this extract, it is evident that the Lares were 
 regarded as the airy, ghost-like spirits of dead heroes, which
 
 100 THE ETEUSCANS. 
 
 protected the dwellings of their friends, and that the Cretan 
 Curetes were similar protector-heroes. Now, it is rather a 
 singular coincidence that, in G., curaidh (=zCuretes) means 
 "a hero," and that cuid, which may easily become cuir, 
 means " help, assistance," and, it may be, " protection." A 
 Greek tradition given by Pausanias makes Heracles to be one 
 of the Curetes. He certainly was a Curaidh, if he was the 
 hero-founder of nations, and his whole life and labours were 
 employed in giving "help and protection" (cuid, cuir) to 
 mankind ; for this office he was, from his birth, endowed 
 with strength more than human, hence his name Hercules,, 
 as I shall show. He was also a lar (labhar, gabhar), if, 
 under the epithet of Labar, or Labro, he was the first 
 leader of the Etruscan race ; and the deification of departed 
 heroes, such as Hercules, and their worship, whether earlier 
 or later than that of the nature-powers, were founded on 
 some prominent feature in their lives, such as that of " help, 
 protection," by which these heroes had made themselves 
 distinguished and worthy of grateful homage and remem- 
 brance. 
 
 Note. — The L. lar ("apto cum lare fundus") is quite a 
 distinct word ; it comes from G. lar, " floor, ground, earth." 
 
 Excursus on Luperats, an Italian Deity. 
 
 Our next digression concerns the Lupercalia, a festival 
 in honour of Lupercus, one of the gods indigenous to Italy, 
 reckoned, also, one of the most ancient idols of antiquity, 
 just as the Mendesians of Egypt considered their god Pan 
 one of the oldest gods of the country. Lupercus is either 
 the same as, or akin to. Pan, Inuus, Faunus, Sylvanus — all 
 of them gods of pastoral life. 
 
 I introduce Lupercus here under the head capra^ because 
 I intend to show that the word is formed from G. gabhar.
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 101 
 
 " a goat " ^ — the name of the god from the name of the 
 animal which he represents — and in this I have the counte- 
 nance of Herodotus, who says that, " in the language of 
 Egypt, both a goat and Pan are called Mendes," which was 
 also the name of the town and district in which the Egyptian 
 Pan was specially worshipped. With this compare the use 
 of the name Labro in the geography of Etruria. 
 
 Like so many of the earliest idolatries of the world, 
 Lupercus is represented as at once human and bestial — 
 he has the feet, legs, and thighs of a goat, but, above, he is 
 man-like, with a red face, and a horn on his head ; in his 
 hand he bears a syrinx or Pandean pipe, on which he 
 delights to play. The dog, the shepherd's friend, is very 
 dear to him. That he may be duly worshipped, a goat and 
 a dog must be killed and offered. If thus honoured by 
 faithful worshippers, he gives fecundity to their flocks and 
 herds, and blesses their homes with progeny. 
 
 The classic nations were eminently religious, full of fear 
 and reverence for their gods, and careful to worship them 
 with appropriate rites. Beginning with a purer worship, 
 Greece and Rome had, ere long, become pantheistic and 
 polytheistic, for in each of the ordinary, and especially in 
 the uncommon operations of nature, they saw a present 
 deity, the work of an unseen hand, laying upon them a 
 blessing or a curse. In the early ages, in the pastoral and 
 the agricultural states of society, this religiousness was vivid 
 and energetic in its influence ; it led tribes and nations to 
 look on the occurrences of their daily life as proceeding from 
 the interposition of a god who presided over each domain of 
 their experience or activity. The god might send favours 
 and prosperity, if propitiated, but if his worship were 
 neglected, wrath would certainly come — on their beasts, a 
 
 ^ The derivation from Ivpus and arceo is absurd.
 
 102 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 murrain, a ravaged fold, or sterility ; and on themselves, 
 disaster, disease, or death. Hence the anxious desire of 
 the Athenians to overlook none, to worship even an " Un- 
 known God " ; hence also the multitude of the lesser gods 
 in the classic Pantheon ; hence the woods, the streams, the 
 corn-fields, even the blight that destroyed the crops ; hence 
 the flower-gardens, the orchards, the flocks and herds, the 
 sea, the land, had their gods ; nay, even thieves and robbers, 
 to obtain success, must worship too — every class of men had 
 its own divinities. Thus, Lupercus was the god of shep- 
 herds, the god of pastoral life, the one who cared for the 
 shepherds, the sheep, and the goats: "Pan curat oves 
 oviumque ministros." In Grecian Arcadia, with its mount- 
 ains, springs, and grassy valleys, the home of a pure Pelas- 
 gian shepherd-race, shut up in their native simplicity by 
 intrusive races all around — there he was born, there men 
 called him Pan, Arcadian Pan, Lycsean Pan, Tegesean, 
 Maenalian Pan ; so numerous were his favourite haunts. 
 There, too, as if to show his sympathy with his loved ones, 
 he sits on a rock discoursing the music of his pastoral reeds ; 
 again, he is seen chasing the rural nymphs who incautiously 
 
 approach ; 
 
 "Pan 
 
 Pinea seraiferi capitis velamina qnassans, 
 Unco ssepe labro calamos percutit hiantes, 
 Fistula sylvestrem ne cesset fundere musam." 
 
 But in Italy, among the pastoral tribes, who were the first 
 to occupy the lowland plains and rugged uplands, he has a 
 native name ; he is Lupercus, " the leaper," " the goat-god." 
 Here, too, he is held in high honour ; he has priests devoted 
 to his service, the Luperci, and a festival, the 15th of 
 February, called Lupercalia, and Lupercal is his cave in 
 the Palatine Mount. On that day, soon after dawn, so
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS, 103 
 
 soon as the sun has gained power enough to clear away the 
 morning frosts and fogs, the rustic population of Rome is 
 all astir — men, women, and children — and the priests of 
 the god come forth from the Lupercal, naked all but the 
 waist, which is wrapped with a girdle of goat-skin. To 
 begin the feasts aright, they sacrifice a she-goat to their 
 god, and, cutting its skin into strips, they rush through the 
 city, wildly leaping about, and striking with these thongs 
 all they meet, and especially the women — who voluntarily 
 oflfer themselves — for these blows bring good luck and fruit- 
 fulness. Diiring the day, kids and lambs, milk and honey 
 are offered, and in the evening a dog is slain in his honour. 
 On such a day, and in such a garb, and amid such revellings, 
 Antony, as a priest of Lupercus, just one month before the 
 fated Ides of March, approached Caesar as he was seated in 
 state in the Forum, and " thrice presented him a kingly 
 crown, which he did thrice refuse." 
 
 The noblest and oldest families of Rome, the Fabii and 
 the Quinctilii, were originally the priests of Lupercus, but 
 to them Julius Caesar added a third college. The festival 
 traces its source, in the Roman annals, to Romulus and 
 Remus, and was carried down to the latest ages of the 
 Roman empire. 
 
 This historical sketch will enable us to understand the 
 name Lupercus, and other names connected with the feast 
 Lupercalia. 
 
 Cicero, in his speech in defence of Ccelius, testifies that 
 the feast was of extreme antiquity, for he says, in a hazy 
 sort of way, that it existed among the rustic tribes of Italy 
 long before civilisation and laws were established there. 
 The mythical history of these tribes carries us back to a 
 period antecedent to the Trojan war, when the chief tribes 
 of Northern Italy are the Etruscans, the Latins, and the
 
 104 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 Rutulians. These have some kmd of government estab- 
 lished among them, for Turuus is king of the Rutuli at the 
 arrival of j^Eneas in Italy. Some time before this, Euander, 
 " Goodman," has left his native Arcadia with a band of 
 Pelasgians, and, landing at the mouth of the Tiber, they 
 pass inland, are hospitably received by Turnus, and settle 
 on the Palatine hill. The arrival of this " Goodman " is a 
 benefit to his neighbours, for he introduces among them the 
 arts of social life, teaches them how to write and sins' and 
 play, and establishes the worship of Pan and of Cybele and 
 of Neptune. But he has one neighbour, Cacus, a son of 
 Vulcan, who disturbs the country by his robberies. Cacus 
 had occupied a natural cave in the Palatine, and in the cave 
 was a well. This cave was, long after, one of the sights of 
 imperial Rome, for the curious might see on the side of the 
 hill a footpath and the " ladder of Cacus," not far from the 
 hut of Faustulus, the foster-father of Romulus and Remus. 
 Dionysius says : " Near it stands a temple, in which is a 
 statue, a wolf suckling two children ; they are in bronze, 
 and of ancient workmanshi23. This place is said to have 
 been consecrated by the Arcadians, who, with Euander, 
 formerly built their habitations there." The cave was re- 
 paired by Augustus, for the priests of Pan always bathed in 
 the water there before sallying forth among the people on 
 the great day of the Lupercalia. Although it is, in our day, 
 buried under a great heap of rubbish, the cave is still there, 
 and in it a fine spring of water. The statements of Diony- 
 sius were confirmed in our fifth century by the discovery 
 there of a bronze statute of a wolf, of ancient Etruscan 
 workmanship, although, strange to say, the two infants 
 attached to it are the work of more recent hands. This, 
 then, was the abode of the robber Cacus at the time when 
 Recaranus, the Italian Hercules, came into those parts and
 
 DOMESTIC AXIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 105 
 
 slew him. Euander, in gratitude, dedicated a sanctuary to 
 the victorious hero, and aj^pointed him priests, the Potitii 
 and the Pinarii, who were also called in the Sabine language 
 Cupenci. Before leaving, Hercules ordered that the robber's 
 sister, Caca, should receive divine honours, and a perpetual 
 oblation of fire. The Fabiaai gens, one of the most ancient 
 and aristocratic in Rome, traced its origin to this time of 
 friendship between Hercules and Euander. Another account, 
 however — Ovid's — says that when Romulus and Remus were 
 establishing their infant realm, and strengthening it by the 
 bonds of religion, they instituted the Lupercalia, and chose 
 from among their followers two bands of priests for it, the 
 Quinctilii and the Fabii.^ Now, these, with the third band 
 added by Julius Ctesar, bore the general name of Luperci, 
 but were also called Crepi, from an old word Crepa, equiva- 
 lent to Capra, "a, she-goat." Among a shepherd-community, 
 like earliest Rome, it was natural that the festival should be 
 regarded with great interest, as it was held at a period of 
 the year when the blessing of their god upon their flocks 
 might bring an abundant and safe lambing ; and coming, as 
 it did, at the close of their year, it served as a general puri- 
 fication, like the later lustratio, for the Luperci not only 
 ran about with the goat-thongs in their hands, but applied 
 the blood of the goat to the people. The goat's skin was 
 called Februum, and the god Februus, — from whom the 
 month Februarius. In this month of February, on the 
 19th, solemnities were held in honour of the Lares, or Dii 
 Manes, the blessed spirits; while the Larvae and Lemures 
 were propitiated in May. These Larvae were the malevolent 
 spirits of the dead, and were sujDposed to wander about at 
 certain times and do injury to the living. To protect his 
 
 ^ The Fabii and the Pinarii are the same, for L. faba is "a bean," and 
 G. ponair is "a bean" (qq.v.).
 
 106 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 household from their influence, the father of the family must 
 rise at midnight, and, washing his hands three times in pure 
 spring water, take black beans into his mouth, and then 
 throw them behind him ; thereupon he nine times adjured 
 the spirits to be gone ; this done, the spirits must depart. 
 
 Now, as to the etymologies of the names which occur in 
 this narrative. First, let us take Hercules and Cacus. I 
 do not know of any reliable derivation of the name Hercules. 
 It is probable that his name, as in many other instances, 
 expresses his character and functions. His features are easily 
 distinguishable, for, among all the human-divine heroes of 
 classic legend, there is none who is so largely a benefactor 
 to mankind as Hercules. Wherever he goes — to Greece or 
 Italy, to Celtland, Spain, Phoenicia, India — he struggles 
 against dangers and difficulties innumerable ; but he is always 
 the Alexikakos, the protector from evil, the " S5ter," the 
 one who " saves " ; and in some of these lands civilisation 
 and refinement are said to have sprung up under his foot- 
 steps. Hercules, I have no doubt, was a sun-power, or at 
 least a sky-power, a son and auxiliary of the great Dyaus, 
 Zeus, the sky-god. As such he labours incessantly, and 
 with prodigious might, against the powers of darkness, and 
 often drags to light and to destruction the hidden things 
 which are the brood of darkness in the earth and under the 
 earth. Thus he aids in extending the kingdom and crush- 
 ing the enemies of his great father. In harmony with this 
 view of his character, I have already suggested that Hercules 
 is a sair of strength, a sar, prince or hero, and a lar, or 
 protector of the family or State. In Rome, the earliest 
 legends cluster around the name of Hercules as a public 
 benefactor ; for he abolished human sacrifices, taught the 
 worship of fire, and appointed its first priestess ; he was 
 regarded as the giver of health and a leader (Musagetes), in
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 107 
 
 spreading among the rude tribes of Italy the softening in- 
 fluences of the lyre-music. In Rome his reputation was such 
 that he had two temples ; in the one he was associated with 
 the Muses, in the other he was honoured as the god of 
 victory (Hercules Victor, Hercules Triumphalis), and before 
 his statue the general, in a triumph, laid down one-tenth of 
 the spoil. And among the Etruscans none of the lesser gods 
 was so popular as Hercules ; no one appears so frequently 
 on their bronze mirrors and terra cotta vases ; after him 
 they named one of their towns Nortia (? G. neart, 
 " strength "), which, some say, was also called Erkle, Orcle. 
 From this view of his character, I regard the name Hercules 
 as equivalent to Sar-cuid, " the hero who helps," the help- 
 ing, protecting prince, the patronus — a name changed by 
 the Etruscans into Arcuil, Arcul, Arcle, Erkle, for I is Si 
 favourite Etruscan final letter, and is often substituted for 
 d (see root dam, lam) ; nor is it uncommon in language to 
 find s changed into h, and then dropped. 
 
 Now, if Hercules be " the beneficent, helping hero," who 
 is Cacus ? One would say the " Bad man," just as Euander 
 is the " Goodman " ; but this etymology is excluded by its 
 vagueness and by the long a in Cacus. Various etymologies 
 of his name have been offered. Hartung traces it to the Gr. 
 kai5, L. caleo and coquo, and connects it with the story 
 of Cajculus, an ancient hero of Prasneste ; others refer it to 
 L, csecus, as if "the eyeless one." It is not likely that 
 Cacus was the " burning " one, or a child of light at all, for 
 he dwelt in the darkness of a cave, and he was slain by a 
 hero-emissary of light ; nor was he the "blind " one, for this 
 condition of blindness is scarcely compatible with his rob- 
 beries. But Ari.stotle quotes a proverb, in which a Cacus or 
 Kaikias drags the clouds to himself. Now, in Aryan myth- 
 ology, the clouds are the oxen of the sun, or of the dawn,
 
 108 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 and the Cacus who steals them is the night-enemy of light, 
 for he drags the oxen into his dark cave ; and in the Hercules 
 legend he drags them backwards in order to escape detection. 
 He too is strong, for see his " shaggy breast " {" villosa pec- 
 tora ") and brawny arms — a strength which makes him the 
 terror of the whole country around. 
 
 I take Cacus, then, to mean '' the robber," for in Gadhelic 
 " a robber" is gadhaiche, and as the dh is silent, as in E. 
 rein, from L. retineo, Fr. Noel, from L. natalis, the word 
 may be written ga-aike orka-aike, Gr. Kaikias, Kakios, 
 L. Cacus, with the a long. Nor is the G. gadhaiche a 
 loan-word, for it is a regular formation from the G. biliteral 
 root gad, gaid, goid, " to steal." This root exists also in 
 the Erse dialect, but not in the Kymric, for there the word 
 for " robber" is lleidr, L. latro; but lleidr (verb llad-r- 
 atta) is a derived and later form of the G. gaid ; for gaid 
 gives laid, whence I may form the personal noun laid-air, 
 "robber," K. lleidr. Even the L. fur, "a thief," may, 
 with some probability, be formed from G. gaid ; for as the 
 L. / (as I shall presently show) in some cases represents the 
 sound of g, a G. noun gaidhair, gai-air may become fai-ar, 
 L. fur. It is more natural, however, to take L. fur as a 
 contraction ofG. faobhair, " a plunderer" (q. v.) If, accord- 
 ing to this analysis, the proper name Cacus, and the common 
 nouns latro and fur, are derived from the same G. root 
 gad, we have here a curious instance of the unseen brother- 
 hood of words, and of the importance of philology. 
 
 The words that now remain to be examined in connection 
 with this digression are Lupercus, Pan, Fabii, Quinctilii, Crepi, 
 Cupenci, Februum, Larvte, Lemures. It will facilitate my 
 explanation of the other names to take Crepi first. 
 
 Festus says that the priests of the Roman Pan were also 
 called Crepi, and that crepa was an old w^ord for "goat."
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS, 109 
 
 Now, crepa maybe a metathesis for capra; but if not, 
 crap-arra in G. means " stout, lusty, strong," and is formed 
 from the noun cnap or crap, " a lump, a little hill, a stout 
 boy." It corresponds in meaning with the H. az, " strong, 
 mighty," from which the H. has az, "a she-goat," S. adsha, 
 " a he-goat," Goth, gaitsa, Ger. geiss, "a goat." So also, 
 in the Semitic languages the Ar. ayil means " a wild goat," 
 from the root aul, ail, " strength, power," whence also the 
 noun alon, " an oak," in the same sense as L. robur. 
 With az I would also associate the Homeric epithet aizeos 
 (^aiz- eios),alreadyquoted,whichdescribes a man as "lively, 
 vigorous, in the full power of manhood," and this word, 
 joined with " Zeus-born," is applied to any prince of royal 
 line. Now, az is " the strong, vigorous goat," the leader 
 and progenitor of the flock ; in Phoenician, az becomes aza, 
 and in 0. Goth., gaitsa, which, if it had the form of aitza, 
 aiza in Pelasgian speech, would readily give the adj. aizeos. 
 The G. crap may therefore be taken to mean "a goat," and 
 Crepi to mean "goats, the goat-priests." In the same way 
 I understand the name Lupercus ; for, as has been already 
 shown, the H. root tsaph, " to leap," would be in G. gabh, 
 gab, whence gabh-ar, gabar, " the leaper, the horse, the 
 goat"; but gab is the same as gam, and that gives lam, 
 which in modern G. is written leum, and is the common 
 verb " to leap." From leum (leub, leup) I form the word 
 leup-air, "the leaper, the goat" (=gabar), and from 
 leup-air an adj., leuparach, which gives Luperc-, " the 
 leaper-god," or his priests; and the prominent use of the goat 
 in the feast of the Lupercalia is a strong point in favour of 
 this etymology. The G. verb leum (leup), "to leap," is 
 the same as the Gotb. hlaupan, E. leap. 
 
 There is, however, an anomaly in the use of the word 
 Lupercus ; it is the name of the god, but it is also applied
 
 110 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 to his priests. From the presumed G. form leuparach, 
 " of or belonging to the leaper," the name Lupercus is 
 appropriate only to the priests, and I should take Luper to 
 have been the name of the god, and this again brings us to 
 the Etr. Labro, an epithet of Hercules. If the festival goes 
 far beyond the days of Romulus and Remus, as Cicero's 
 words seem to imply, it may be that it was an annual 
 celebration or anniversary in honour of Hercules, the Labro, 
 the Recaranus, the goat-king, who first led the Celtic tribes 
 into Italy. 
 
 The Greek Pan is a deity having the same tutelary func- 
 tions as Lupercus. The H, tson or tsan is a collective 
 noun meaning " small cattle," sheep, goats, rams ; in Ar. 
 it is ddan, and in G. tan, and if this G. word be written 
 kan(fcfor t, as in G. teine, "fire," Gr. kain-5, "I burn"), 
 and the h changed into js*, as in Gr. (h)ikkos, (h)ippos, 
 we have the Gr. Pan, the protector of the sheep and the 
 goats. 
 
 It is clear, then, that the earliest form of the G. verb 
 " to leap" was gab. From this root I take Cupenci, the 
 Sabine name for the priests of Hercules, and Gabinus 
 (cinctus), which, among the Romans, was the name for a 
 peculiar way of wearing the toga. Cupencus, if written 
 gabanta, would be a pure G. adj. formed from the root 
 gab, for -anta (L, -entus, as in viol-entus, lucul-entus) 
 is a common adj. -termination in Gadhelic. Cupencus may 
 also be regarded as a liquid form of the G. termination -ach 
 in gabach, written also gobach, from the same root gab, 
 and of this liquid form we have other instances, as the old 
 geographical name Bodencus, applied to the valley of the 
 Po, which, in my opinion, is the G. boidheach, "beautiful," 
 In either case, Cupencus would mean the same as Luper- 
 cus, a priest of the " leaper "-god. On the other hand.
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. Ill 
 
 Gabinus is a L. adj. -form from the root gab ; and both 
 the thing and the name are Etruscan, as Servius testifies. 
 When the Gabinus style was used, then the edges of the 
 toga were drawn round to the front of the body, and 
 fastened in a knot over the breast, while another part of it 
 was used to cover the head. This style was ancient and 
 venerable, for it was used chiefly on solemn occasions, as 
 when the consul declared war, or when a man was offering 
 sacrifice. I connect this name also with the " goat"-hero, 
 for the root gab-, the same as in gab-ar, " goat," points to 
 him, and on an Etruscan mirror, given in Micali's collection, 
 Hercules appears as usual with his club and the lion's skin, 
 but this skin is arranged on his shoulders and head exactly 
 in the Gabine fashion. Festus says that an army when 
 about to engage in battle arranged their dress in the Gabine 
 style, and it is possible that this style was first used by the 
 hero in the many labours and conflicts he had to undergo. 
 The Lares also are usually shown dressed in the cinctus 
 Gabinus. Does this indicate some connection between 
 lar and labar, gabar, " a goat," — between the hero-head 
 of a family and the hero-founder of the nation ? The 
 famous Juno Sospita, too, must have some relation to Her- 
 cules Soter, for she is represented as wearing a goat's skin 
 drawn over her head Gahino ritu, and, instead of a Her- 
 culean club, she bears in her hand a spear, certainly a more 
 ladylike weapon. 
 
 The Greek name for the top'a was tebennos, I con- 
 
 o 
 
 sider this to be a Grecised form of Gabinus. For, as the 
 Etruscan language had no g, and the L. termination -in us 
 represents the Etr. -em-, enn-, inn- (as in Perperna, Per- 
 penna, Spurinna, Ctecina), I suppose the Etr. form of 
 Gabinus to have been Kabern, which, by substituting t 
 for Jc (see teinc) and assimilating the r, may give the Gr.
 
 112 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 tebenn-os. In G., kabern — that is, gabern — may be 
 formed from gabar, " a goat," by adding tbe formative na, 
 or from tbe root gab by adding the formative -erna or 
 -earna. In either case, Gabinus is connected with the 
 " leaper." 
 
 Again, the Fabii and the Quinctilii were the priest- 
 families of the Lupercalia. To this office they are said to 
 have been devoted by Romulus and Remus, but this is a 
 mistake, for the Fabia gens traced its origin to Hercules, 
 and probably had all along a priestly character, for the 
 name comes from faba, ''a bean," not in the same sense in 
 which the first Cicero is said to have got his name as a 
 successful cultivator of " vetches," but because, in the ancient 
 rituals, the bean was, like the goat, a symbol of manly 
 power and fertility. The reasons for this symbolism cannot 
 be given here, but those who are curious on the subject may 
 refer to the ceremonies of the Roman floralia and the 
 present jeux floraux of the south of France. Now, faba 
 is a Celtic word; in the Armoric dialect it is favon, "a 
 bean"; in K. ffaen, "beans"; in G. fabh is "a thick 
 (bean) cake," and panair, ponair, "a bean." 
 
 The Quinctilii, again, take their name, I suppose, from G. 
 cu, coin, "a dog," for the feast of the Lupercalia ended 
 with the sacrifice of a dog, an animal which, like the goat, 
 is known for its sensual thirst. The chaoge of coin (con- 
 struct form) into Quinct-, is similar to that in L. quinque, 
 from G. koig, "five." 
 
 Now, if Hercules was not of human race, but a mere repre- 
 sentation on earth of the strong, all-vivifying, and fertilising 
 sun, then the names Caranus, Labro, (Luper), Lupercus, 
 Fabii, Quinctilii, applied to him and his priests, in the 
 sense in which I have explained them, just suit the char- 
 acter which we might expect him to exhibit. In this con-
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 113 
 
 nection it is interesting to observe that while the hero had 
 many sons, and a whole race of them, the Heracleids, in 
 Greece, he had no daughters, or at most only one. This, 
 also, is in keeping with his representative functions. Some 
 obscure allusion to these thoroughly masculine functions is 
 contained in the words of Tertullian, " Why was not 
 Hercules a dainty dish to the good ladies of Lanuvium, 
 if it was not for the primeval offence which women gave 
 to him ? " 
 
 The Gr. words fabh, " a thick (bean) cake," and panair, 
 " a bean," mentioned above, suggest an inquiry of some 
 importance. Is panair of the same root as L. panis, 
 " bread " ? Does fabh mean the same kind of cake as the 
 H. cauan (Jer. vii. 18, and xliv. 19), offered to "the queen 
 of heaven " ? Was the bean the earliest cereal of the Italian 
 tribes? Certain it is that Gr. panair, by removing the -air, 
 which is a common termination, may give the L. panis, but 
 panis may also be taken from the G. biadh, "bread," 
 which is a participial form, meaning " eating," and has its 
 analogue in the H. lechem, "bread," from lacham, "to 
 eat." The liquid form of dh in G. is oi, and thus biadh 
 may become bian, pan-is. But that the fruit of the 
 leguminous tribe of plants was used as food in early times 
 is evident from Genesis xxv. 34, and 2 Sam. xvii, 28, and 
 that, in combination with other cereals, both beans and 
 lentils were baked into bread, appears from Ezekiel iv. 9. 
 The Arabs at this day make lentils into a very palatable 
 pottage, as did Jacob of old ; the common food of the poor 
 in Upper Egypt fifty years ago was, and perhaps still is, 
 lentil-bread ; and one of the chief products of the country 
 around Cairo is still beans. Certainly the fellahs in Lower 
 Egypt now use bean-bread as food, and even horse-beans 
 steeped in oil. In some parts of Scotland, also, bread called
 
 11 4 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 mashlich is made of a mixture of peas and oats. The H. 
 ashishim means " cakes made of lentils," and cakes of this 
 kind, but more commonly of pressed grapes, were offered in 
 sacrifice to idols (Hosea iii. 1). The cauan cake was pro- 
 bably made of beans or bean-meal, for the name resembles 
 the Gr. puanos, "a bean"; and in the Athenian festival 
 Puanepsia, instituted by Theseus (the Ionian solar hero, as 
 Hercules was the Pelasgian one), cooked beans were carried 
 about in a procession of worshippers, who went to the 
 temple of Apollo and there made offerings. The " queen 
 of heaven " of the Jewish idolatry, and the Apollo of the 
 Athenian worship, are Astarte and Baal, the Moon and the 
 Sun, the male and the female principles of fructification. 
 The bean is significantly used in worship of this kind, for, 
 by the ancients, it was regarded as an emblem of the Gr. 
 phallos. The cake ca-uan (thus I divide the word) is 
 Grecised into cha-bon, the latter part of which word is 
 very like the Ger. bohne, E. bean, G. pon. Although 
 Gesenius traces the name cauan to the Ch. root cauan, 
 "to prepare," or the H. cavan, "to cook, to bake," yet, as 
 the word was doubtless introduced with the new cultus, and 
 the etymology is acknowledged to be uncertain, I may be 
 allowed to venture the suggestion that cauan is equivalent 
 to ha-van, "the bean," or ca-van, "like a bean"; the 
 van or phan would give the K. ffaen, and the G. pan-air, 
 as well as the H. pul, " a bean," as if phanal, like duts 
 from danats. Be that as it may, pul has a cognate in 
 the Dutch bol, "a bean," Ger. peul, " chick-pea," bo lie, 
 "onion." The E. word pul-se, like pea-se, from pea, 
 as applied to leguminous vegetables, comes from the same 
 root. If pul is not a contraction for phanal, or panal, 
 then it has its root in the H. pal, which occurs in various 
 words in the sense of " roundness," which idea, I think, also
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 115 
 
 underlies tlie Gr. pli alios, and its equivalent, both in 
 meaning and form, the Lowland Scotch bools — that is, 
 "round marbles." The same root also gives the E. ball, 
 and a whole host of Avords in all lansfuao-es. 
 
 Another reference to the leguminous fruits as the com- 
 mon food of men lies in the Gr. phakos, "a lentil," eaten 
 at funerals, from the verb phagein, "to eat." The Phry- 
 gian bekos, "bread" (a word on which hangs the old story 
 about the Egyptian king who wished to discover the earliest 
 language of mankind), and the Persic bag, "food," seem to 
 be also from the same root as phagein, or from a root bag, 
 back (Ger. back-en), "to bake." 
 
 From this digression let us return to our goats. Feb- 
 ruum, as we have seen, is the goat's skin cut up into 
 thongs to be used by the priests. This name, also, I take 
 from gabar, although there is some difficulty in showing 
 how the Gadhelic g becomes the Latin /. Yet we know that 
 fircus is hircus, and if gabar can only become habar, then 
 we have a near approach to the forms fabar, fabr, februum. 
 Now, there is reason to believe that / in Latin contained 
 the sound of a guttural aspirate, and it is certain that if 
 the [J in the G. gabar be aspirated, the noun would be 
 pronounced something like habar, the h having the soft 
 sound of the Gr. ch (cf. G. gamh, L. hiems). Thus 
 gabar, "a goat," may give februum; from it comes the 
 name February, the month of purification. 
 
 There remain now only the names Larvae and Lemures. 
 In. order to explain these, I must return to the H. iiz, "a 
 goat," for it probably gives the name Azazel, " the scape- 
 goat," a short account of which may prepare the way for an 
 understanding of the Roman Larvse and Lemures. The 
 origin of this name has caused much perplexity. Gesenius 
 makes it to mean the same as L. averruncus, Gr. alexi-
 
 116 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 kakos, "the averter." It is possible, however, that a'zaz 
 is merely a reduplicated form of az, " a goat," to mean 
 " the two goats " of the sacrifice ; if so, the word should 
 be azaz, but to avoid the double nasal-guttural, the second 
 ain is softened into cdeph ; the whole name Azazel would 
 then mean "the goat-god." At all events, the name is 
 applied to the goats used as an expiatory sacrifice by the 
 Israelites on the great day of Atonement. On this day, the 
 Mosaic ritual required the high priest to bring two young 
 goats to the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, and 
 to cast lots upon them. On the one lot were incribed the 
 words " for Jehovah," on the other, " for Azazel." The 
 goat on wliich the lot for Jehovah fell was slain, and its 
 blood sprinkled before the mercy-seat ; then the priest, lay- 
 ing his hand on the goat " for Azazel," confessed over it the 
 sins of the people ; he then committed the goat to the 
 hands of an assistant, who led it away into the wilderness, 
 and there let it loose. Although much discussion has arisen 
 as to the meaning of the expression " the lot for Azazel," 
 yet it seems most likely that Azazel is an evil demon, a 
 goatish, satyr-like spirit, whose abode is in the wilderness, 
 and for whose society alone the sin-laden goat is now fitted. 
 The one goat is devoted to Jehovah, and its blood tells of 
 mercy and forgiveness, and the acceptance of the offerers 
 by Him, and their return to His favour through expiation ; 
 the other goat, as an emblem of evil, as the accumulated 
 evil of all the people in a visible form, is removed to a 
 " place not inhabited," there to herd with the spirits of 
 evil. 
 
 The duplication of the goat in this Atonement is peculiar, 
 for, while the high priest offered 07ie bullock and one ram 
 for himself at his own cost, he chose a ram for a burnt- 
 offering, and two young goats for a sin-offering, at the
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 117 
 
 public expense. The two goats, also, were in every sense 
 a pair, in appearance and in value. They were brought to 
 the door of the tabernacle together, and then by the direct 
 intervention of God's will, as shown by the lots, their 
 destinies were changed — the one was reserved for Jehovah, 
 the other, with a heavy weight of guilt upon its head, was 
 carried far away. The symbol is one, but it has two faces, 
 two aspects ; and the suggestion of Ewald, that the scape- 
 goat aspect of it refers to the goat-religions of the early 
 heathen world, appears to be well founded. I believe, how- 
 ever, that, as a Avhole, the symbol refers to the nation of 
 Israel, first as in a state of nature, then brought into a 
 state of grace and acceptance with God. What was after- 
 wards the race of Israel was once a part of the heathen 
 world, sunk in the grossest form of nature-worship ; but 
 when it pleased God, as if by lot, to call Abraham, their 
 first father, to be His chosen servant, and to make a cove- 
 nant with him by sacrifice, the race of Abraham assumed 
 a double aspect, as in the world and yet not of the world. 
 In the two goats, the pious worshijjper would see the con- 
 dition in which his nation once was, and that which it 
 acquired through faithful Abraham ; to him the scapegoat, 
 dwelling in the wilderness, laden with sins, typified both 
 the condition of the Gentile nations, as being far from God's 
 favour, and the condition to which the Israelites, too, must 
 return, if no goat of expiation were provided to bear their 
 sins away ; while the goat of acceptance, whose blood was 
 sprinkled before the mercy-seat, signified the state of favour 
 into which they were brought by the removal of sin. To the 
 mind of the ordinary beholder, however, the goat for Azazel 
 must have suggested the state of the wicked, who are rejected 
 by God, and banished from His presence, while the other 
 goat, by its death, foreshadow'ed the return of the good to
 
 118 . THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 the mercy and fellowship of Jehovah in the good land which 
 He provides for them. This is the idea which pervades all 
 heathen systems of religion under various disguises, and yet, 
 however debased, these systems all point to a piimitive 
 revelation of which they are corruptions. In India, iu 
 Persia, on the Nile, in Etruria, among the Greeks and the 
 Romans, in the land of the Norse Saga, the brave and the 
 good return at death to the hall of the All-father, but the 
 wicked are shut out. The Gael still talks of heaven as 
 flaithinnis, "the heroes' isle '' ; the chosen sons of Odin 
 are all those who have fallen bravely in battle ; these he 
 receives into Valhalla ; the life they lead there is only a con- 
 tinuation of their life on earth, for every morning, accoutred 
 for battle, they march forth into the courtyard of Valhalla, 
 and, in combat, fell each other to the earth. This is their 
 sport and morning exercise ; then they ride home to break- 
 fast, and after it, sit down to drink the rich and copious 
 streams of milk that flow from the teats of the goat Hejdrun ; 
 thus the vigour of the Einheriar is renewed. 
 
 It is also a universal belief that the spirit-world is partly 
 malevolent to man, partly benignant. Hence among the 
 Romans at a birth in a house, and even in the common 
 doings of daily life, the evil spirits must be propitiated or 
 driven aw^ay ; to avert calamity, Averruncus (G. a faire olc, 
 " the watch against evil " ?) was invoked ; and to keep them 
 from houses, a feast was celebrated called Lemuria. Now, 
 the great Averruncus, the great Alexikakos, the great Averter 
 of Evil, was Zeus, oi-, in Italy, his viceroy, his knight-errant 
 son, Hercules. And justly so, for if Hercules be sar-cuil, 
 " the hero who aids," his mission and his labours fully 
 entitle him to the name of Averruncus. In like manner, 
 the Fairies or Elves of the Northern mythology are descended 
 from a son of Odin, just as Hercules, the favourite son of
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 119 
 
 Zeus, is, as I suppose, the original " Labar," and the pro- 
 genitor of all the " Lares," the hero-spirits of Etruscan and 
 Roman worship. The Fairies, too, like Hercules-Labro, are 
 " leapers," for their constant delight is to " dance " on some 
 grassy hillock or within some enchanted "ring" — the 
 common emblem of the sun-power. In this view I take 
 Lemures to be the general name for all spirits, good and 
 bad ; then the Lares are the ancestral hero-spirits. Larvae 
 are wicked spirits, and the Manes are the spirits of the good 
 (see Manes). Lemur I form from the G. verb leum (as if 
 lam), " to leap," whence leum-air, " the leaper " (leumur), 
 lemur like L. fur, from Gr. faobhar, " stealer, robber." Lar, 
 according to our analysis, is la-bh-ar (bh silent, as also in 
 faobhar), la-ar, "the goat-leader" ; lar-va is equivalent to 
 lar-amh, a G. adj. which I form from lar, or (which is 
 better) lar-va is a compound of lar and the G. adj. amh, 
 " raw, unboiled, crude," hence " naughty, wicked," just as 
 L. crudelis is taken from adj. crudus, " raw, undigested." 
 Manes, " the good ones," will be examined under Etr. 
 auseL 
 
 The names Lemures, Lares, Larvae are therefore taken 
 from the primitive G. root gab, H. tsaph, "to leap," and 
 are connected with the names for " goat," just as the H. 
 name for the Evil Spirit, Azazel, is taken from H. az, 
 " a goat." 
 
 The relation of all these words to one another and to their 
 original root may be exhibited as follows : — 
 
 Root. 
 
 Essential 
 Consonants. 
 
 tsaph, gaph, gabh, gap, gab, . . -j , ' 
 
 Derivatives. 
 
 gab-Tnus, as if gab-innus, . . g-b. 
 
 teb-eiinos, t for g or A-, . . . g-b.
 
 120 
 
 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 Derivatives. 
 
 Essential 
 Consonants 
 
 gab-ar or gabh-ar, . 
 
 g-b-r. 
 
 cap-ra, kiov g, . 
 
 g-p-r. 
 
 Lab-ro, Lab-ru, I, d for g, 
 
 l-b-r. 
 
 Lup-er-cus, .... 
 
 1-p-r-c. 
 
 Lem-ur, m for 6, 
 
 l-b-r. 
 
 Lar, for la-bh-ar, bh quiescent, . 
 
 1-r. 
 
 Lar-th, th formative, . 
 
 1-r. 
 
 Lar-v£e, as if Lar-amh, Lar-av, 
 
 1-r-v. 
 
 Before I close this inquiry, ttere is one other fact regard- 
 ing the Lares which I must mention. The family Lar was 
 inseparably attached to the family — was, indeed, one of 
 themselves — and so, when the family dined, they always 
 offered a portion to their Lares ; and if the family removed 
 to another abode, the Lar went with them. This reminds 
 one of the Brownies and Banshees of the Scottish Celts and 
 of the Irish Shefro and Lupracaun, about which so many 
 amusing stories are told. Take an example from Croker's 
 " Fairy Legends " : — 
 
 " Mr. Harris, a quaker, had a Cluricaune in his family ; 
 it was very diminutive in form. If any of the servants — as 
 they sometimes did, through negligence — left the beer-barrel 
 running, little Wildbeam (for that was his name) would wedge 
 himself into the cock and stop it, at the risk of being 
 smothered, until some one came to turn the key. In return 
 for such services, the cook was in the habit, by her master's 
 orders, of leaving a good dinner in the cellar for little Wild- 
 beam. One Friday it so happened that she had nothing to 
 leave but part of a herring and some cold potatoes, when, 
 just at midnight, something pulled her out of bed, and, having 
 brought her with irresistible force to the top of the cellar 
 stairs, she was seized by the heels and dragged down them ; 
 at every knock her head received against the stairs, the
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 121 
 
 Cluricaune, who was standing at the door, would shout 
 
 out — 
 
 " ' Molly Jones, Molly Jones, 
 
 Potato-skins and herring-bones ! 
 
 I'll knock your head against the stones, 
 
 Molly Jones, Molly Jones.' 
 
 The poor cook was so much bruised by that night's adven- 
 ture that she was confined to bed for three weeks after. In 
 consequence of this piece of violent conduct, Mr. Harris 
 wished much to get rid of his fairy attendant ; and being 
 told if he removed to any house beyond a running stream, 
 that the Cluricaune could not follow him, he took a house, 
 and had all his furniture packed on carts for the purpose of 
 removing ; the last articles brought out were the cellar 
 furniture ; and when the cart was completely loaded with 
 casks and barrels, the Cluricaune was seen to jump into 
 it, and, fixing himself in the bung-hole of an empty cask, 
 cried out to Mr. Harris : ' Here, master ! here we go, all 
 together.' 
 
 " ' What ! ' said Mr. Harris, ' dost thou go also ? ' 
 
 "'Yes, to be sure, master,' replied little Wildbeam; 'here 
 we go, all together.' 
 
 " ' In that case, friend,' said Mr. Harris, ' let the carts be 
 unpacked ; we are just as well where we are.' 
 
 "Mr. Harris died soon after; but it is said the Cluricaune 
 still attends the Harris family." 
 
 In this story, the Cluricaune is the Lar of the family, and 
 his name Lupracaun (written also Luppercadane, Lurriga- 
 dane, Luricane, Loughriman, and, old form, Luchorpan) 
 seems to connect itself with Lupercus, although Irish authors 
 make it a compound word, meaning " a very little body." 
 These spirits, like the Latin Manes, are usually regarded as 
 diminutive in size, yet, notwithstanding their insignificant
 
 122 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 stature, they can be either very beneficent, or, if not duly 
 honoured, very mischievous and spiteful. They have, all of 
 them, but more especially the Shefro, a strange passion for 
 dancing, as if to show that they are really descended from 
 " leaper" ancestors. There are many spots in Ireland which, 
 if cautiously approached, will show the fairies at their moon- 
 light gambols, " lightly tripping o'er the green," for " the 
 fairies are dancing by brake and by bower." There is one 
 place called " Luj)racaun's mill," where, in former times, the 
 people left their caskeens of corn at nightfall, and found 
 them full of meal in the morning. But, like the Einheriar 
 of the Norse mythology, the " good people " occasionally 
 refresh themselves by indulging in less peaceful sport, for 
 the occupants of two neighbouring " forts " quarrel, and at 
 night the still air is disturbed by the shrieks of the com- 
 batants, and in the morning the wondering peasant sees his 
 field strewed with broken bones, tiny weapons of warfare, 
 and other indications of the fierce strife. If you are near 
 one of these lonely forts at night, and see a light shining 
 within, pass on, for the fairies are at work, and will not be 
 disturbed with impunity. 
 
 The "good people" are the Latin Manes, q.v. (so named 
 from the Gr. adj. madh, man, "good"), and in Ireland are 
 known under the general name of Shefro (Siabhra). 
 
 In Scotland, the Banshee is a female fairy, and, like the 
 Lar, sar, of the Etruscans, is associated only with the 
 ancient and honourable families of the land. The name is 
 thus explained: — Bean-sighe, plu. mna-sighe, "she-fairies" 
 or " woman-fairies," credulously supposed by the common 
 people to be so affected to certain families that they are 
 heard to sing mournful lamentations about their houses at 
 night whenever any of the family labours under a sickness 
 which is to end in death —
 
 DOMESTIC ani:mals and implements. 123 
 
 " 'Twas the Banshee's lonely wailing, 
 Well I knew the voice of death ; 
 In the night wind slowly sailing, 
 O'er the bleak and gloomy heath." 
 
 A romantic Banshee story is given by Sir W. Scott among 
 his notes on the " Lady of the Lake." 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson. — Lar. — " The name Lar, Las, when it sig- 
 nifies ' lord ' or ' noble,' has the addition of a pronominal 
 affix -t ; when it signifies ' god,' it is the simple root ; the 
 former is Lars (Larth), gen. Lartis; the latter Lar, gen. 
 Laris. Precisely the same difference is observable in a 
 comparison between Anakes, Anakoi, ' the Dioscuri,' and 
 anak-tes, ' kings' or ' nobles.' Some suppose that the Eng- 
 lish Lor-d is connected with the same root; and as the 
 Lares were connected with the Cabiriac and Curetic worship 
 of the more Eastern Pelasgians, I would rather seek the 
 etymology in the root la-, las, lais, so frequently occurring 
 in the names of j)laces and persons connected with that 
 worship, and expressing the devouring nature of fire. It 
 appears from the word Larva that the Lar was represented 
 as a wide-mouthed figure. There are two feminine forms 
 of the name, Larunda and Larentia. 
 
 " Februum. — If we compare fehris, we shall perhaps 
 connect the root with foveo=torreo, whence favilla, &c., 
 and understand the torrida cum rnica farra, which, accord- 
 ing to Ovid, was called by this name." 
 
 Lindsay. — Damims. — " ' This,' observes Dr. Donaldson, 
 ' seems to be an Etruscan, not a Pelasgian word, and suggests 
 at once the O.N, ta')n=domitus, assuetus, cicur, N.H.G. 
 zahm.' It is one of Donaldson's happiest approximations. 
 The specific character of the Damnus is to be gathered from
 
 124 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 the root zahm, ' frenum,' zahmen, ' frenare,' giving the 
 sense of ' bridled,' and zaumen, according to Wachter, 
 ' dicitur proprie de jumentis.' Damnus is itself, I think, 
 the identical word jumentum, in an Etruscan form ; the 
 initial d representing j, as Dianus represents Janus, while 
 the final n is omitted, according to Etruscan usage. ... If 
 so, Daranus must be reckoned as a word common alike to 
 the Pelasgians and the Teutons proper. 
 
 " Capra. — I should rather think this word of Celtic 
 origin, and connected with the (jafr, gauvr of the Breton, 
 the gavyr of the Welsh, and the gabhar of the Gaelic dia- 
 lects, all implying ' goat.' 
 
 '' Februa, Litpei'calia. — Festivals of lustration and 
 purification. Februa is evidently derived from furb-, as in 
 furbj-an, furb-ish, ' to cleanse, purify, and renovate,' the 
 root being Jiur, ' the fire,' which refines and purifies all 
 things. The Teutonic hlauf-an, hlaup-an, ' to leap or run,' 
 accounts for many characteristics of the god Lupercus and 
 the Lupercalia. 
 
 " LemtLves. — A generic term (in its original and proper 
 sense) for the spirits of the dead, whether Lares, Larvae, or 
 Manes. From lam, lamer, lamr, a root implying 'deficiency 
 and weakness,' arising from deprivation of vital or physical 
 force, equivalent to ' the weak,' ' the maimed,' ' the lame,' 
 or, in the dialect of Lancashire, ' the clemmed ones.' In 
 later times (only) the idea of malignancy was attributed to 
 them. The noun sela, ' souls ' or ' spirits,' is to be under- 
 stood. Under the Lemures are to be ranked — 
 
 " 1. The Lares, the spirits of virtuous ancestors, who pre- 
 sided over the hearth and home of their descendants. From 
 Idri, ' inanis,' ' empty or void,' as characteristic of disem- 
 bodied spirits, the idea being the same as that at the root 
 of the preceding ej^ithet Lemures. The Lares were associ-
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 125 
 
 ated with the family dwelling-place through the resemblance 
 of Iclri to lari, giLari, the house or domicile. The lar 
 faTiiiliaris more particularly was looked upon as a Lars, 
 ' lord ' or yaterfar)%ilias — a distinct character and name. 
 
 •' 2. The Larvae, the spirits of evil men, having no longer 
 a happy home, but wanderers abroad, in exile from the 
 domestic hearth. From (1) Idri, ' inanis,' ' empty or void,' 
 as before, with a strong influence collaterally from Idri, 
 'domus'; and (2) awiggi, ' avius, devius,' ' wandering and 
 errant' — a compound of a, privative, and lueg, the Latin 
 via, ' way ' — that is, errant from the way and home of 
 virtue and peace. Equivalent (to use a word of kindred 
 origin and exactly corresponding sense) to ' the souls of the 
 wicked.' 
 
 " 3. The Manes or Dii Manes, the souls of the departed, 
 generally, although frequently used as synonymous with 
 Lares ; connected likewise in tradition with the lower world 
 and with the moon, the souls of men being supposed to have 
 emanated from that planet. From mein, man (Ital. man- 
 care), implying defect, deficiency, clef alliance, as from priva- 
 tion of the body, of animal life and strength, as in the case 
 of the Lares and Lemures. The connection with the moon 
 has been suggested (partly) by the resemblance of man to 
 mani, ' the moon.' The Manes, ancestors of the Etruscans 
 and Romans, correspond ultimately with Mannus, ancestor 
 of the Teutonic tribes, the son of Tuisco; as also with 
 Menu, Minos, Menes, and other patriarchs — the primary 
 signification of all being mann, ' homo.' Tuisco, again, the 
 father of Mannus, is the same personage as the Etruscan 
 Tages — each stands, as it were, as a towering shadow behind 
 the dead ancestors of his nation ; and the parallelism affords 
 a strong argument in favour of the original identity of the 
 two races."
 
 126 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 Taylor. — Lares, Lai'VCE. — " The root of the two words 
 is probably the same. It means ' the Lords ' or ' the Great 
 Ones.' The Albanian word Ijarte, which means ' high, 
 macfnificent,' is identical with the Etruscan Larthi. If the 
 word be transliterated into an Ugric form, we should 
 expect to find the I becoming a ^* or a dj. This phonetic 
 law enables us to recognise the Etruscan word lar in the 
 Samojedic jerii, which means ' lord, master, or prince.' In 
 the Taigi, ... we find the form djar with the same mean- 
 ing. This brings us to the title of the Russian Emperor, the 
 Tzar, an appellation which is doubtless of Tataric origin. 
 In the Finnic languages, we find the same root, sjer, mean- 
 ing ' high,' and suur, ' great,' while in Hungarian we have 
 the abraded form ur, 'a lord.' In the word Lemur we 
 recognise the Etruscan plural termination ar or ur, and it 
 would therefore appear that the root is Zem. The Lemures 
 were the spirits of ancestors, and, remembering that the 
 Etruscans traced descent through the mother and not 
 through the father, we might expect to find that the word 
 means ' maternal ancestors.' This is actually the case. 
 The Turkish word liumni means ' on the mother's side, 
 maternal.' The liummar, lemur, or lemures would there- 
 fore be ' those of the mother's side,' the spirits of the 
 maternal ancestors. 
 
 " Damnus. — As to the Ugric afiinities of this word, there 
 can be no shade of doubt. In Finn, tamma is ' a mare ' ; 
 ' a horse ' is tam2J in Lapp, and tund in Samojed ; and 
 adun is ' a troop of horses ' in Burjat. The word seems 
 to be allied to the Basque zam-aria, ' a pack-horse,' the 
 Albanian samaros, ' a beast of burden,' and the Mandschu 
 temen, 'a camel.' " 
 
 CoRSSEN. — Lares {Lat. Lara, Larunda), " benevolent, 
 gracious " deities, connected with Lat. las-civus, " wanton.
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 127 
 
 licentious"; Slav, las-kati, "to flatter, caress"; Boh. las-ka, 
 " love, grace " ; Sans, lash-ami, " I desire, wish " ; Goth, 
 lustus ; Ahd, lusti, lust, " desire, joy." 
 
 8, Gapus, a Chariot. 
 
 Gapiis, from the same root as copra, comes next. 
 This Etruscan word will not detain us long, for it is clearly 
 the G. word cap, "a cart, a tumbril." In the H. of 
 Nahum (iii. 2), " the jumj)ing chariots " are chariots driven 
 swiftly, where "jumping" is the verb rakab, "to leap, to 
 skip," and "chariot" is mercab, from racab, "to be 
 carried, to ride, to yoke." The G. verb gabh, from which 
 G. cap and Etr. gaptis are taken, has, in itself and its 
 derivatives, the meanings of both the H. verbs ; for ex- 
 amples and affinities see gabh, gam, gabhail, cabail. 
 The Fr, cabriolet (E, cab) comes from the same root 
 gabh. Another H. word for " chariot," agalah, is formed 
 from agal, " to wheel, to roll, to hurry," like L. currus, 
 " a chariot," from the root car, " to go round," which has 
 already been examined (see root dam), Gapus is not the 
 war-chariot, for Hesychius explains it by the Gr. ochema, 
 which means (1) "that which supports, a prop"; (2), "a 
 conveyance of any kind," from the verb ocheo, " I bear, I 
 support, hold, ride," which is another form of echo, "I 
 have," With ochema corresponds the G. gabhal, " a 
 prop, a cart, yoking" (H. racab), "a day's labour," from 
 the verb gabh. In the old G. glossaries gabh, gap loses 
 its initial aspirate, and the word is then abh, sounded 
 nearly like all, and written a. From abh — that is, ab, 
 ap — I take the Gr. apene, "any carriage, a cart, a 
 chariot," which, like tebenna, is evidently a derived 
 word, and only the Greek way of writing apenna, an 
 Etrusco-Pclasgian word formed from ap, gap.
 
 128 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 Besides cap, the G. has carb, carbad, "a chariot, a 
 waggon, any kmd of vehicle." This seems to be by meta- 
 thesis for H. racab, or perhaps cab, hardened by the 
 insertion of i*; cf. E. cab, "a vehicle," 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson. — A short Pelasgian form for apene, " a 
 chariot," 
 
 Lindsay. — Its root must be sought farther off. The 
 apene was a car made of wicker-work, and is described by 
 Homer as four-wheeled and drawn by mules. It was essen- 
 tially a vehicle of peace, and distinct from the diphros or 
 harma, the chariot of war. . . . From lueban, " to weave." 
 . . . Equivalent to a basket-carriage. 
 
 Taylor. — It may possibly be from the same root as the 
 Etruscan capita and capys, but is more probably to be re- 
 ferred to the Gaelic cap, " a cart." 
 
 4. ^SAR, a God (Chap. IX.) 
 
 This word, in my opinion, is a compound of aes and sar, 
 lar, whence L,art/l, as already shown. 
 
 Suetonius, in his life of Augustus, mentions a prodigy. 
 A heavy thunderstorm broke over Rome one day shortly 
 before the death of that emperor, and the lightning struck 
 his statue, and dashed out the letter C from the name 
 Caesar in the inscription on it. The augurs were summoned 
 to interpret the omen, and declared that Augustus would 
 die in one hundred (C, i.e., centum) days, but that he would 
 then become sesar, " a god," for that was the Etruscan name 
 for a god. Now, Hesychius says that the Etruscan name 
 for "gods" was ais-oi. Of this the root-form is ais-, ses-, 
 and so, taking the -ar to be not a formative termination 
 but a significant word, I would translate ass-sar as "a
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 129 
 
 prince of fire" (cf, Sharezer). As the Etruscan gods were 
 fire-gods, and the death of a great man was regarded as a 
 return to, and an absorption into, the deity, tliis explana- 
 tion of the meaning of Etr. yEsar is illustrated by the old 
 legends about the birth of King Servius Tullius, and by 
 another legend which says that Romulus, while reviewing 
 his troops, was carried off by a flash of lightning, and thus 
 returned to heaven. I suppose that y^sar must be a god 
 of inferior rank, for the religiousness of the Romans would 
 not permit them to raise even a deceased emperor to a seat 
 in the Council of the Twelve, the select and august familiars 
 of supremest Jove, The Semones, or deified heroes, were 
 content to have a seat at a lower table, and to consort with 
 Hercules and ^neas and Romulus, and the like. The 
 name Semo, which, with the epithet Sancus added to it, is, 
 as we have seen, specially applied to Hercules, indicates the 
 position of these inferior deities in the pantheon. The 
 name Semo, plu. Semones, is written Semuneis in the 
 very ancient Latinity of the song of the Fratres Arvales. 
 As to the etymology of this word, I have elsewhere shown 
 that the L. homo is the G. smuain (hmuen), "to think," 
 just as E. man, Ger. mensch, comes from S. manas, "to 
 think," L. mens. It can also be shown that the sound d^e 
 or zhe becomes se in the Sabine dialect, and in Latin also. 
 So also in Gr,, seos is the Doric for theos, "a god," and 
 in G. the E. names J-ames and J-anet are written Se-umas, 
 Se-onaid. Now, G. dia, L. deus is an Aryan word, and 
 means "a god, a divinity"; in G. the compound dia- 
 hmuain, " a god-man," sounded something like jeemuen, 
 would easily become the Semun, plu. Semuneis of the 
 hymn ; hence the name Semo as applied to a deified 
 hero. yEsar, then, I take to be much the same in mean- 
 ing as Semo; its second syllable sar, lar, applied to men of 
 
 K
 
 130 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 exalted birtli and rank, we have found reasons for regarding 
 as a word wliich conveys, like diotreplies, the notion that 
 the bearer of it is kingly, and at once human and divine ; 
 and so I have analysed the name Hercules into Sar-cuil, 
 " the godlike hero who helps, delivers, or saves." It is not 
 so easy to determine the meaning of CE — that is, ai — the 
 first syllable of the Etr. ^Esar, but when we consider that 
 the Etruscans were sun- or fire-worshippers, and that their 
 nine great gods were all wielders of the thunderbolt, the 
 probability is that cs has some connection with " fire." And 
 so it has, for this vowel-sound with s or i joined to it 
 pervades the Aryan and the Semitic languages in that 
 sense; for example, H. ash, "fire, splendour, brightness," 
 Ch. esha, esheta, "fire, fever," S. ush, "to burn," Gr. 
 aitho, " I burn," L. sestus, "heat," 0. H. Ger. eit, "fire," 
 eiten, "to kindle," Ger. heiss, "hot," esse, "a forge, a 
 chimney," Sc. eiz-el, aiz-le, "a hot ember," A.-S. ys-le, 
 " embers," Ic. eysa, " coals " burning under the ashes, E. 
 ash, ashes; in the Celtic dialects the G. has aith-inne, 
 "a fire-brand," aith, "a kiln," aith, "keen," agh-ann, 
 aigh-ne, "a fire-pan," and this last is the same word as 
 the S. agni, " fire," both as a god and as an element, L. 
 ignis; the I., also, has aodh, "fire," G. aodhair, "a con- 
 flagration." The idea of divinity is also contained in this 
 root, for S. aditya is "the sun," or "a deity" in general, 
 and aidha is "flame"; the Celtic deity Hesus or Hestus 
 is probably named from the same root, and the G. word 
 dis (as if ais) means " fond of fire," but was once the name 
 of another Celtic deity; the L. Vesta is "a fire-goddess," 
 akin to Hestus, and the Gr. Hephaistos may be "the 
 under fire-god," like L. Vulcanus, Volcanus, from G. 
 fodh, "under," and teine (cf. Gr. kaino), "fire." In the 
 Norse mythology as (Goth, anz) is "a god, demi-god," or
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 131 
 
 "hero," while the Asar are the hero body-guard of Odin, 
 and Asgard (that is, =as-gorod, as- "city") is the 
 celestial abode of Odin and his followers, and the Edda 
 speaks of Har (which may be the word Sar) as the " Lofty 
 One." I would, therefore, venture to regard the Etr. 
 Aisar, ^sar, as equivalent to aith-sar, or aigh-sar, 
 " a prince of fire," " a bright hero," " His Illustrious High- 
 ness." A similar compound title of rank was used by the 
 Assyrians and the Medes — tiphsar, "a governor of pro- 
 vinces." Gesenius makes it to mean a military leader, or 
 " a prince of height." But a Targum on Deuteronomy 
 chap, xxviii. v. 12, says that it is the name of a certain 
 superior angel, and, as the word is Persian, I would take 
 the first syllable to be the P. tab, "heat, light," tav, 
 "heat, strength," There is analogy, therefore, for regarding 
 yEs-sar as " a prince of fire." Further, Aser in Persian, 
 and Adar in Assyrian, are fire-gods, the same as the Vedic 
 Agni ; Adrammelech, " the fire-king," was worshipped by 
 the Chaldaeans, and one of their chief gods was San, " the 
 sun," probably meaning " bright," the same word as " sun, 
 sheen, shine." Some of the titles of San are — " the lord of 
 fire," " the ruler of the day," " the light of the gods." The 
 Chaldaeans regarded San as specially favourable to kings, 
 for he influenced their minds, smiled on their undertakings, 
 helped them to maintain their authority, and stimulated 
 them to noble deeds. This " helping, protecting, minister- 
 ing" office is expressed by the Semitic name Shemesh, 
 "the sun," from the Ch.-Syriac shemash, "to minister," 
 a meaning which is quite in harmony with my view of 
 yEsar (Sar), Lar, and (Sarcuil) Hercules ; and still more, 
 the Chalda^an god San was worshipped chiefly at a city 
 called Lar-sa, or Ella- sar. Suidas tells a story about the 
 Fire-god of the Chalda3ans. They were so proud of his
 
 132 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 power that they tliouglit him irresistible, and carried him 
 into other countries, where he easily overcame and destroyed 
 all the gods with whom he came into contact ; but the priests 
 of Canopus, in Egypt, determined to humble him ; they had 
 an earthen water-pot made full of holes ; they stopped the 
 holes with wax, painted the jar all over, and, filling it with 
 water, they set an old head of Canopus upon it, and fashioned 
 the whole into an image of their god ; thus prepared, they 
 challenged the Fire-god, but when he, in the conflict, began to 
 grapple with Canopus, the wax was melted, the water rushed 
 out and extinguished the fire ; then the priests celebrated the 
 victory of their god ! And not only have the Persians a fire- 
 god, Aser, but the Arabs have Azar, " fire," the fire-demon, 
 and Aziz, a common name for deity among the Shemites, 
 as in the name Abd-ul-Aziz, " servant of god " ; the Norse 
 Sagas also say that Night married a husband, Delling (cf. 
 G. deal an, " brightness"), who was of the Asar race ; their 
 son was Day. Another proof that sar, which means "a man 
 of exalted rank and origin," hence " a prince, a lord," may, 
 without violence, be used as a name for " a god," is found 
 in the H. name Shadim, " lords, rulers," which, like 
 Baalim, "lords," is commonly used to mean the idol-gods 
 of the heathen. 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson. — Ritter compares the Cabiric names ^s-mun, 
 j:Es-clef, the proper name -^s-yetes, asa, the old form of ara, 
 and a great many other words implying "holiness or sanctity." 
 
 LiNDSAY.^It may be noted (1) that the Goths, according 
 to Jornandes, styled their proceres or heroes semideos — i.e., 
 Anses ; and (2) that the O.N. as, A.-S. os, "numen" or 
 " deity," the singular oi jEsir (Scandinavian), takes the form 
 cms likewise in O.H.G. These forms, as and ans, but more
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 133 
 
 especially the latter, and the feminine form ana, anna, in 
 the sense of " numen," occur continually in the composition 
 of the names of Etruscan and Latin deities. Perhaps these 
 words are all connected with the Assyrian and Babylonian — 
 that is, the Semitic and Hamitic — ana. implying originally 
 " deit}^" 
 
 Tayloe. — Castren asserts that all the Altaic nations 
 reverence as the highest deity Es, who is evidently the sky, 
 the visible heaven. Among the Turkic races of Siberia the 
 word asa or yzyt is "god." Among the Yenisseians the 
 word ais, eis, or es means both "heaven" and "god"; and 
 asa denotes " the devil." The Mongols call their tutelary 
 idols esan, and ser is " heaven " in Lesghi. This root es 
 may be taken as the source of the Etruscan word ^sar. 
 The suffix -a.v is the Etruscan plural termination, which 
 we find in such words as Menar, " children," and tiilar, 
 " tombs." 
 
 CoKSSEN. — The Etruscan word-forms aisar, cesar, aisaru, 
 esari, " god," are of the same origin as Sabell. aisos, " a 
 prayer, a supplication-offering " ; Volsc. esarisrom, " a sacri- 
 fice " ; Umbr. esiinu, " a sacrifice," from the root is, " to 
 wish," with the i of the root changed into ai, and then into 
 ce and e.
 
 134 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME, 
 
 Part I. 
 
 1. Antai, the Winds, 2. Andas, the Nortli-Wind ; 
 
 with, which take 
 
 3. Antar, an Eagle ; 4. Agalletor, a Boy ; and 
 
 5, Camillus, a Messenger, 
 
 1, Antai. 2. Andas, 3. Antar (Chap, X.) 
 
 In the Etr, word ataison (q.v,), I regard the first syllable, 
 a, as a softened form of the G. article an, "the." In our 
 forty words there are four others which, in my view, contain 
 this same article — antai, " the winds," andas, " the north- 
 wind," antar, " an eagle," and agalletor, " a child." Of 
 these, the first, second, and third we shall take together, as 
 they resemble each other in form, and of them antai and 
 antar are the two that must be compared, for they are both 
 class-names, while andas, " the north-wind," is specific. If 
 the two come from the same root, as seems likely, "the eagle" 
 and " the wind " must have some quality in common which 
 led to this similarity of name. That such a quality was 
 observed by the minds of the ancient word-makers is evident, 
 for the Gr. has aemi, "I breathe, I blow," as the wind, and 
 aetos, "an eagle"; the L. has aquila, "an eagle," and 
 aquilo, "the north-wind." The only quality common to
 
 THE SKY, THE AIK, LIGHT, TIME. 135 
 
 the eagle and the wind, so far as I can see, is siuiftness of 
 'motion. Thus, the S. has vaya, "speed," and vayine, "a 
 horse, a bird"; gaghavi, "a horse," gaghavaha, "the 
 wind"; the Persian has badpa, "a horse," a name which 
 literally means "swift as the wind"; the H. has air, "a 
 wild ass, a young ass," from (a)ir, "to be hot, ardent, swift 
 in running"; and the G. has each, "a horse," and eachan, 
 " a blast." Some ancient nations even believed that all 
 eagles were females, and that they conceived by the wind. 
 These facts render it probable that antai and antar are 
 the same word. 
 
 Now, in G., the verb tar means " to go, to go quickly, 
 to descend," and the adj. tar means " quick, active." These 
 are very old words, for they have almost disa.ppeared from 
 the spoken language of the Highlands. The K. has tarddu, 
 " to descend," dos, " go (thou) " ; the I. form of the verb is 
 te, " to go," while tarr anuas means " to go down." The 
 Etr. antar ^ " the eagle," I therefore take to be a descriptive 
 name, like P. badpa, and to mean "the swift, the swift in 
 descent," and antai, " the swift ones, the winds " that " go 
 and come." The plural form in -ai is now nearly obsolete 
 in G., but it still exists in a few words, as calm-ai, 
 beathr-ai; in classic Greek and in old Latin it was com- 
 mon. The " swift " as a bird-name is in English applied 
 to the swallow, and it is not at all unlikely that a name 
 with this meaning was used by the Etruscans as an appro- 
 priate synonym or as a descriptive designation for the eagle, 
 for, in the chapter which I intend to devote to a consider- 
 ation of their bird-names, I shall advance arguments to 
 show that these names were all significant ; nor should we 
 wonder at this, for the earliest names for objects were 
 descriptive, and the Oriental mind delights in forming names 
 from some prominent feature or quality of the thing signi-
 
 13G THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 fied, such, as S. kiijara, "an elephant," from kuja, " a jaw, 
 a tusk." 
 
 The Etr. an das I take to mean the " fierce " wind, for 
 an, as before, is the G. "the," and das must be an old 
 Celtic adj. meaning "fierce," for, although I cannot find 
 any trace of it in K. or in L, yet in G. there is the noun 
 das-achd, "fierceness"; this is evidently formed from an 
 adj. das, for in G. -achd is a common termination of 
 abstract nouns, as -ness is in English. To the Etruscans, 
 living under the shade of the cloud-capped Apennines, and 
 not far removed from the eternal snow of the Alpine range, 
 the north-wind, like the modern hise in the same regions, 
 must have been literally the " fierce " one. In many parts 
 of Britain the north-wind is felt and known as a " biting " 
 wind. Our British seamen, many of whom have got their 
 first experience in what is called the Northern Trade, delight 
 to beguile their hours of leisure by singing of " blustering 
 Boreas." 
 
 That word " blustering " suggests to me the inquiry 
 whether Boreas (L.-Gr.) may not be connected with 
 the obsolete G. verb borr, "to grow proud, to bully, to 
 swagger," whence the adj. bor, "high, proud, noble," borb, 
 as an adj., " fierce, raging, haughty," and as a noun, " a 
 tyrant, an oppressor." The K. has por, " a lord, a great 
 or haughty man," and the G. has borrach in the same 
 sense. From bor, por I would form the Etr. name 
 Porsenna, as if Bor-k-en7ia, "the haughty, the proud." 
 Can we account for the friendship between " Lars Porsena 
 of Clusium " and the "gi^eat house of Tarquin " by suppos- 
 ing that, as the Tarquius were of Etruscan origin, they had 
 such a gentilician connection with the house of Porsenna as 
 led the Lars to bring help to his exiled kinsman, for Tar- 
 quinius Superbus was also " the haughty, the proud " ?
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 137 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson. — Nil. 
 
 Lindsay. — Antar is a compound of iveat, ant, and, tvint, 
 " wind," and ar, " to go or travel." Antoi is also a variety 
 of wint, " wind," and Andas is a compound of this same 
 ant, ivint, or possibly of andi, " regio," and eis, " ice." 
 
 Taylor. — " I can find no trace of them in any Turanian 
 language. They seem to be Aryan words, related to the 
 Latin ventus, the Greek anemos, and the Teutonic wind." 
 
 CORSSEN. — Nil. 
 
 4. Agalletor, a Boy (Chap. VI.) 
 This word also illustrates ataison, for I consider the a 
 in both to be the same word as in aji-tar, an-tai, an- 
 das. Hesychius translates agalletor by the Gr. pais, 
 " a boy, a child, a servant." Now, it is scarcely possible 
 that this word of four syllables — even though reduced by 
 Etruscan pronunciation to three — should have been the 
 only word which the Etruscans had to express so elementary 
 a relation as that of " child, boy," for such simple ideas are 
 usually expressed by monosyllables, or at most by dissyl- 
 lables, as H. ben, "a sou," dlah, "a child," naar, "a boy, 
 a girl"; Gr. pais, koros, "a boy, a child"; L. puer, infans, 
 "a boy, a child"; Ger. knabe, "a boy," kind, "a child"; 
 Fr. gar9on, "a boy," enfant, "a child." The Etruscan 
 agalletor must therefore be, like L. infans, a descriptive 
 term. 
 
 I divide it thus : a-ghille-t-ur, which are G. words, 
 meaning " the young lad," or " the young boy." Here, 
 again, as in ataison, the first syllable is a softened form of 
 the G. article an, " the." The termination ur (pronounced 
 oor) is an independent word in G.; as an adj. it means
 
 138 THE ETKUSCANS. 
 
 "new, fresh," and as a noun, "a child"; the G. has ur, 
 urag, urra, "a child," from this root, and also fiuran, "a 
 twig, a stripling." The t in agalletor is euphonic and in- 
 trusive, as in the Celto-French a-t-il faim? "is he hungry?" 
 and in the L. re-d-amo, pro-d-esse; it is also common 
 in G., as, an-t-eun, "the bird." As to the second part of 
 our Etruscan word, any one who has travelled in the High- 
 lands of Scotland will recognise it at once — gille — the 
 young man whose services are so useful to the stranger, 
 either as guide of the way, or as an auxiliary on the moors. 
 The word means " a boy, a lad, a man-servant " ; its older 
 forms are giolla, giulla, and G. cognates are gioUadh, "a 
 leaping nimbly," giullach, "fostering, cherishing," gallan, 
 " a branch, a stripling," galad, " a girl, a lass," and with 
 initialed instead of (/, dal-ta, "a foster-child," d ail tean, 
 "a stripling," deil, "a twig, a rod," deil, "to turn with a 
 lathe," dual, "to twist, plait," dualach, "twisted, having 
 curled hair, beautiful"; for in chapter iii., under Etr. word 
 dammis^ " a horse," I have advanced reasons for accepting 
 the interchange of d and g. I have quoted these cognates 
 because they may help us to prove that gille is a very 
 ancient word, and to determine its derivation, which is as 
 obscure as that of its corresponding H. term aolal, " a boy, 
 a child," It is an Eastern word, for the Persian has 
 ghulam, "a boy, a page," ghaltan, "rolling, twisting," 
 ghal-ula, "a ball," and ghalat, "an error" (cf. E. wrong, 
 from wring); and the L. puella, " a girl," may be formed 
 from G. galad, "a girl," giulla, "a boy," by merely 
 changing g — that is, ]i — into j), as in S. papa, "bad," Gr. 
 kakos, "bad," and Gr. (h)ikkos, hippos, "a horse," The 
 H. aolal, "a boy, a child," would give the G. giolla, for 
 in the H. word the initial letter is am, and this letter in 
 passing into G., as well as into Ar., often takes the hard
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 
 
 139 
 
 sound of g or gh. Gesenius hesitatingly gives it as his 
 opinion that H. a'olal, "a (petulant) boy," comes from the 
 verb alal, " to be petulant," but I think that a more appo- 
 site derivation may be obtained by an inductive examination 
 of cognates in several languages, thus : — 
 
 " twist." 
 
 " leap, move nimbly.' 
 
 "turn." 
 
 G. dual. 
 
 G. gioll-ach. 
 
 G. deil. 
 
 H. chul. 
 
 H. gul, gil. 
 
 H. chul. 
 
 H. gad-al, for 
 
 Sc. call. 
 
 P. ghal-tan. 
 
 gal-ad. 
 
 H. dal-ag. 
 
 
 " handsome." 
 
 1 
 
 ■' twig, branch." 
 
 G. dual-ach. 
 
 G. 
 
 deih 
 
 F. gal-ammen 
 
 t (adv.) H. 
 
 dal-ith (plu.) 
 
 F. gal-ant ("a 
 
 beau "). G. 
 
 gall-an. 
 
 
 G. 
 
 ga(r)s, ga(r)san. 
 
 "foster, cherish." 
 
 "growing up." 
 
 " strong." 
 
 G. dalta. 
 
 G. ga(r)s. 
 
 G. ga(r)s. 
 
 G. giull-ach. 
 
 H. gad-al, for 
 
 H. chul 
 
 H. gad-al, for 
 
 gal-ad. 
 
 H. auh 
 
 gal-ad. 
 
 
 H. gad-al, for 
 gal-ad. 
 
 "bear, carry." 
 
 "a stripling." 
 
 " boy, lad." 
 
 G. giulain. 
 
 G. gall-an. 
 
 G. giolla. 
 
 H. chul. 
 
 Da. gal-an. 
 
 I. garsun. 
 
 
 Sc. call-an. 
 
 F. gargon. 
 
 
 G. dail-te-an. 
 
 P. ghul-am. 
 
 H. a61-al. 
 
 G. gal-ad ("lass"). 
 
 From this synoptical view it is evident that g (and in its 
 modified forms gh, ch, k, c hard) is interchangeable with d, 
 and that the H. aoliil — that is, golal or gulal — is the same 
 word as G. giolla, which does not contain the idea of 
 " petulance." The root of all these words is found in the
 
 140 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 syllable gal — which is very widely spread in the Semitic 
 and Aryan languages in the sense of " roll, be round." The 
 successive stages of the child's existence are exhibited in the 
 derived words, thus : — 
 
 Root. — gal, " to roll, to be round." 
 
 H. gul, dal-ag, "to leap, to spring," 
 H. cliul, "to twist, to turn." 
 H. chul (passive), "to bring forth, to bear." 
 H. gadal, "to foster, to bring up or nui'se as a child, to 
 nourish as a plant." 
 
 Then, of the child : — 
 
 H. gadal, "to grow." 
 H. gadal, "to become strong." 
 H. gul, "to become active." 
 F. gal-ant, "handsome." 
 
 Taking now the same gradation of G. words, I would 
 regard the G. gille as one "born" (giul-an) and "fos- 
 tered" (giullach) by his mother, "growing up" [gas for 
 ga(l)s or ga(r)s], like " a twig or branch" (gallan), to be 
 "a strong" (gas), "active" (giollach), "handsome" (dualach) 
 "stripling" (gallan), or "young man" (giolla). The G. 
 gille, then, is the L. ad-ol-escens (root gal, " grow "), the 
 I. garsun (" gossoon or boy"), and the F. gargon — terms 
 all of which, like gille, are applied to the growing youth 
 and the full-grown man ; he is "strong" (L. val-idus, root 
 val, gal); he is "handsome" (L. pulch-er, G. dual-ach, 
 giollach, p for k or g). 
 
 From all these considerations I conclude that gille is 
 properly a lad over twelve or fourteen years of age, and that 
 the Etruscans, to denote an earlier age, added to it the word 
 ur, "fresh, new, young," making gille-t-ur. But the first 
 syllable a of agalletor deserves special notice, for, although 
 it may, like the a in ataison, spring merely from an elision
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 141 
 
 of n, yet it may be an example of a peculiarity of the G. 
 language ; for the G. article is usually an, but it always 
 takes the form of a before an aspirate. Now, the genius 
 of the G. language requires the g of gille to be asj)irated in 
 a-ghille-t-or, " the young lad," and therefore the Etruscan 
 a is grammatically correct. 
 
 In another section of our great theme, and under another 
 head, I have endeavoured to show that in L. the letter / 
 contains somewhat of the sound of g, and that / may thus take 
 the place of g ; but I may here observe that, in G., / aspir- 
 ated — that is, fli — is sounded h, and that g aspirated — that 
 is, gh — is sounded y, and any Semitic scholar will tell us 
 that the guttural h in Hebrew may be softened into y or E. j. 
 From G. gille, therefore, I take L. filius, " a son," and the 
 proper names lulus and Julius ; the L. filum, " a thread," 
 also comes from the same root gal, in the sense of " twist- 
 ing," like H. chebel, " a cord, a rojae," E. cable, from the 
 H. root chabal, " to twist as a cord, to bind." This deriva- 
 tion of L. filius and filum accounts for the long i in them, 
 and shows that they might more properly be written with 
 11, like gille; for in G., gile with one Z is a different word, 
 meaning " whiteness." 
 
 I cannot dismiss this root gal without alluding to the 
 derivation of the English words girl and lad — words which 
 have caused much perplexity to our lexicographers. Girl 
 originally meant " a young person," either male or female, 
 and is, I have no doubt, the G. word giolla, with the simple 
 change of I into r. As G. giul-ain means "to bear," and 
 gall-an, "a twig, a stripling," it is obvious that giolla, 
 giorla, E. girl, may, so far as its derivation is concerned, 
 be of either gender. So, also, may galad from the same 
 root, but galad in G. means "a lass"; and yet galad 
 becomes g-lad, and by softening and ultimately dropping
 
 142 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 the first letter it again becomes the E. word lad (masc), 
 " a young, growing stripling." The intermediate steps 
 are — from galad (g-lad), K. llawd (pronounced Maud), 
 "a lad," Da. loot, " a shoot," G. latte, "a young shoot," 
 E, lath, lad. For galad the Arabic writes walad, "a son, 
 offspring," plu. wuldan, "children," and for gallan the 
 G. has (klann), clann, clainne, "children, a clan," 
 L. cliens. 
 
 The G. giolla (giorla), A.-S. ceorl, Ger. kerl, Ic. karl, 
 Sc. carl, E. churl, are all the same word, but G. giolla is 
 the earliest of all, being nearest the root-form. Does this 
 imply that the Teutonic dialects are founded on the Celtic ? 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson. — Nil. 
 
 Lindsay. — " The same word as agaleizi or agalleizir, 
 ' one that is careful and attentive,' the roots being aga, aki, 
 ' discipline,' and leitjan, ledian, lecla, ' to lead,' equivalent to 
 ' one led along by discipline ' — i.e., a youth, or, to use the 
 exact etymological equivalent, ' a lad,' in the state of 
 pupilage." 
 
 Taylor. — The elements are to be found in the Turkoman 
 ogul, " son," and the Yakut edder, " young." 
 
 CORSSEN. — Nil. 
 
 5. Camillus, a Messenger (Chap. VI.) 
 The camillus, or priest's assistant, was " a boy, a youth," 
 and as the name, in my opinion, contains the element gille, 
 I take camilhis along with agalletor. It is best known 
 to us as the name of a noble Roman family of great antiquity. 
 The dictator Camillus, who, according to Roman story, drove 
 back the Gauls from the gates of Rome three and a-half 
 centuries before the Christian era, was a member of this
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 143 
 
 family ; but, like the royal name of Stewart and many others, 
 it was originally a class-name, and designated an official 
 position. The camilli and camillcB were free-born boys 
 and girls who assisted the priests in the performance of 
 their sacred rites. In themselves, or in their office, there 
 was nothing sacred, for the name camillus was also given 
 to a youth who, in a Roman marriage procession, followed 
 the bride, carrying a basket with sundry infantile wares in it. 
 This basket or box was, according to Varro, called cwmeroj 
 or cunierurti; the same basket is called by Festus camillum. 
 Although they were not themselves sacred, yet a certain 
 fitness was required of the camilli who assisted at the sacri- 
 fices, for they must be sound in health, without blemish, and 
 not orphans. The Etruscans appear also to have the word 
 camillus as an epithet of Mercurius, regarding him as the 
 assisting messenger of the gods, the Necropompos who con- 
 ducted the shades to their abodes in Hades. The name 
 Camillus, for which the Greeks write Cadrailus or Casmilus 
 (according to their usual practice, instead of a double con- 
 sonant, they write a long vowel followed by a single consonant, 
 as -enos for Etr, -enna), is also associated with the 
 Samothracian and Lemnian Cabiri, who were Pelasgian 
 deities, for Camillus is represented as the father of the 
 Cabiri, or as one of their number. The form Cadmllus 
 must be a spurious adaptation of Casmilus to the well-known 
 Grecian name Cadmus, 
 
 The meaning which will suit all these names is that of 
 an " assisting youth," for the Cabiri themselves were only 
 subsidiary deities, sons or assistants of the Lemnian Hephces- 
 tus. Now, what is the derivation ? The name cumerum, 
 as a synonym for camillum, "the basket," proves that the 
 root is cum or cam. This root is found in Hebrew, in 
 Greek, in Latin, in Celtic, but it is only in Gadhelic and
 
 144 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 Irish that it means " to assist." The H. root-form is the 
 prefix-preposition (a)im, "together with," the initial letter 
 being the guttural ain ; in this sense the G. has the in- 
 separable prep, comh, " with," L. cum. As usual, the H. 
 letter ain becomes g or Jc in G., and (a)im, by the change of 
 m into h (see tuber) gives, besides prep, comh, the G.-L 
 verb, cabh-air, cobh-air, " to assist," caomh-ain, " to 
 help, to save, to deliver," and the adj. caomh, "gentle, mild, 
 helping," whence the L. c5mis, "gentle, mild." To sup- 
 port the connection of G. cabhair, " to help," with the H. 
 preposition (a)im, we have in Gr. the analogy of the prep, 
 meta, used with the genitive to mean " by the help of," 
 and in L. ad-esse, " to be with, to help." Again, this G. 
 root cab, cob, caom-, comh gives the L. preposition cum, 
 as above, which also at first may have been inseparable, as 
 in vobiscum, tecum. From the form cam comes cainil- 
 hts, and from the form cab comes the name Cabiri, "the 
 assistants" of Vulcan; and the form Casmilus comes from 
 cabh by turning the h into s (see halen), as cabs, cams-, 
 casm-. 
 
 The next part of the name camillus I take to be the 
 G. g'ille, I. giolla, "a young man, a servant," as shown 
 under the last Avord agalletor. The attendants of a High- 
 land chieftain are all called gille; as, gille cois, "a foot- 
 man," gille each, "a groom," gille ruithe, "the running 
 messenger," gille graidh, " the secretary," and so on. In 
 the same way the French use gar9on, the Latins puer, and 
 the Greeks pais. Again, in the Homeric and ante-Homeric 
 times, when the king was not merely the ruler and leader, 
 but also the father and priest of the tribe or nation, he was 
 assisted at the offering of public sacrifices by others whom 
 Homer calls neoi, "young men," holding the pempobala, 
 " the sacrificial forks," in their hands. Further, the Gr.
 
 THE SKY, THE AIK, LIGHT, TIME. 145 
 
 adj. epikourios, " assisting," used by Homer and otLer 
 early Greek writers, is formed from kouros, koros, "a boy, 
 a youth," and may have originally been restricted to describe 
 the youths (neoi) who assisted at (epi) the sacrifices. In 
 the Jewish sacrificial polity, also, the priest's servant was 
 called H. naar, "boy, youth." The testimony of antiquity, 
 then, is in favour of the derivation of Etr. camilliLS from 
 G. cab and gille, " the youth who assists." And these 
 elements readil}'' combine to form cainilliis, for cab is cam, 
 and gille, in the construct state used in composition, is 
 ghille, pronounced something like yille; and so the two 
 make cam yille, camillus. 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson, Lindsay, Coessex.- — Nil. 
 
 Taylor. — The word is wddely spread throughout the 
 Turanian languages, and signifies " a bearer." In the 
 Albanian language, which preserves so many Etruscan words, 
 Ave have the precise word chaonal, " a carrier, a porter." 
 This leads us to the Turkish hammed, " a porter, a carrier," 
 and to the Tungusic ugam, '' to load on the back, to carry," 
 and the Finnish kanda, " to bear." We have also in 
 Albanian chani " a riding-horse."
 
 14G THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 CnAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 1. Ausel, the Dawn. 
 
 2. Usil, the Sxm-god. 
 
 Hesychius says that aiiscl was an Etruscan word, meaning 
 " the dawn." Festus says that the Aurelii, a family of 
 Sabine origin, alleged that they got their name from " the 
 sun," because they were authorised by the Roman people to 
 offer sacrifice to the sun in the name of the State ; for this 
 reason they were called Auseli — that is, Aurelii. Ansel, 
 then, was a Sabine word for " the sun." 
 
 On a bronze mirror of Toscanella there is carved the 
 name iisil above a partially naked figure, wearing a cloak, 
 which is falling off his shoulders ; he has, besides, laced 
 sandals on his feet, and a circle of light round his head, and 
 a bow in his hand ; the same name usil appears on another 
 mirror over a goddess of imposing form, with the short hair of 
 a man, dressed in a long robe, holding a crown in each hand, 
 and having a circle of rays round her head; again, a mirror 
 of Perugia shows in the back-ground, and over the principal 
 figures, a portion of the chariot of the sun, mounting up- 
 wards, with only the heads of the deities and of the horses 
 visible ; underneath is written aur.; near one another appear 
 also both a male tisil and a matronly usil on other mirrors.
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 147 
 
 From this I infer that the a2ir- of the Perugian mirror, and 
 the ausel of Hesychius are the same, " the dawn," and that 
 7isil is the Etruscan Sun-deity in some one of his aspects, 
 and that, probably, they are both phonetic varieties of the 
 same word, like Gr. beds, e5s, ^ol. au5s, "the dawn." 
 
 I think there is little difficulty in tracing usil to the G. 
 ur-soil, " the new light " of the sun. Ur is a G. adjective 
 meaning " fresh, new, young " — the same which we found 
 in the Etr. agalletor ; and soil (pronounced soell) is a 
 root- word in G. indicating " the brightness of light " ; it 
 does not occur in its bare root-form in G., unless, per- 
 chance, G. suil, " the eye," be the same — a word-picture 
 to show us the eye as the " bright light " of the face ; 
 suil also means "a glance, hope," for "a glance" is the 
 sudden, bright, flashing light of the eye, and " hope " is the 
 bright light of the heart that cheers the darkest hours of 
 human life; if suil is the same word as soil, he who first 
 used suil to mean " hope " had the elements of true poetry 
 in him. Although soil in its simple form is not used in 
 G. (and I believe that the root soil, in the general sense of 
 " brightness," ceased to be used as soon as the other form of 
 it, suil — if it be another form — began to be used to mean 
 " the eye "), yet the numerous derivatives which it gives are 
 evidence that it is a radical word in the language ; a few of 
 these are sol-us, "light, knowledge," "any heavenly lum- 
 inary"; soill-se, "brightness"; soillsich, " to brighten, 
 to gleam"; soilleir, "clear, bright, evident"; for soillse 
 there are also the forms boillsge, boisge, "a gleam of 
 light." Connected with this G. root soil are L. sol, " the 
 sun "; and as soil, by metathesis, becomes the G. leus, las, 
 "aflame, light," soil may give L. lux, "light," and luc-eo, 
 " I give light, I shine " ; and in Gr. (without metathesis) 
 solas, " light, a flame," helios, " the sun," and selene, " the
 
 148 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 moon," as if sel-enna, " sprung from, belonging to the sun." 
 This analysis shows that the he in helios and the se in 
 selene are not prefixes ; the root in every case is the con- 
 sonants s-l. With G. soil compare the Goth, sauil, 
 Litlm. saule, S. surja, "the sun," and with aurora 
 {ausel) compare the Litlm. auszra, " the dawn." I take 
 the L. sol from the G. soil rather than from the Gr. 
 helios, for not only has sol a strong family likeness to soil, 
 but I regard soil as an older word than either sol or helios, 
 for the meaning of soil is general, while that of sol and 
 helios is specific. The Etr. usil is therefore " the new, 
 fresh, brightening " of the sky on the return of the orb 
 of day. 
 
 But, if we reflect that in sun-worshipping lands, as Etruria,. 
 the rising of the great luminary of day was received with 
 minute attention and special reverence, and the successive 
 stages of his daily course distinguished by different marks ; 
 and if we again consider how many myths cluster around 
 the Indian Sarama, " the dawn," it is likely that ausel is 
 the earliest brightening of the eastern sky, and that usil is 
 a later development of the same light. I would, therefore, 
 compare ausel — that is, aur-sel — with aurora, " the 
 dawn," the calm " golden" light of the morning, as contrasted 
 with the clearer light that prevails a few hours later, and 
 with the fierce glare of the midday sun. In the classic 
 languages, the L. root aur-, " gold," is similarly used in 
 aurora borealis, and in aureolus, the golden halo of light 
 round the heads of saints. In Gr., chrusos, "gold," with 
 its derived adjectives, such as chrusauges, is a frequent 
 epithet of the mild sun-light. In the same sense, the H. 
 zahab, "gold," is used in the book of Job to mean the 
 golden splendour of the heavens, their " golden sheen." If 
 this is the proper application of the word ausel^ the syllable
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 149 
 
 sel is the G. soil ; but is aur also a G. word ? Yes ; it is 
 the G. or, oir, K. oyr, Manx aer, Arm. aur. The Greek 
 language did not supply the L. with the word aurum, for 
 one cannot give to another what he himself has not ; whence, 
 then, did the Latins get the word ? The only other language 
 in early Italy was the Celtic. 
 
 Derived from G. or, "gold," is the G. noun orag, "a 
 sheaf of corn " — an example of the tendency of a primitive 
 language to apply the fundamental idea contained in a root- 
 word to various objects, however diverse, if only this idea is 
 prominently seen in them. Other instances we had in con- 
 nection with H. eglah and the Etr, damniLS ; many more 
 appear under the root bar, and in our discussion of the 
 Etruscan bird-names. 
 
 I have no hesitation in declaring my conviction that this 
 analysis establishes the real derivation of aiisel^ for, in addi- 
 tion to the reasons given above, it is attested by the Syriac 
 name for " the dawn," shepara, and the Ch. shephar-para, 
 in both of which the shephar means, like G. soil, " bright- 
 ness," from the H. root shaphar, " to be bright," Ar. "to 
 shine as the dawn" ; the para in the Ch. word means "to 
 bear, to run swiftly." I believe, also, that G. suil, "the eye," 
 and soil, "brightness," are of common origin (see p. 147), 
 fortheA.-S. Scotch speak of "the sheen" (that is, "the 
 brightness ") of the eye when they mean the pupil of the 
 eye; and if soil, suil, and the L. sol be all the same word, 
 I can see a beauty in the name sol, for it pictures to me the 
 great orb of day as the " eye " of Dyaus, the eye with which 
 he sees all things, the eye that witnesses every transaction 
 of my daily life. In the Egyptian hieroglyphics, the god 
 Osiris is represented pictorially by an " eye " over a throne, 
 to denote his all-seeing character ; and an eye with an un- 
 dulated line over it means a ceremony of adoration, a rite.
 
 150 THE ETKUSCANS. 
 
 In the Egyptian mythology, also, the god Arueris was the 
 Apollo of the Greeks and Romans. His name Arueris " may 
 be interpreted The Evening Sun, as emblematic of the repose 
 of victory, er-ruhi-re " ; this seems to imply that the suc- 
 cessive steps of the sun's royal progress from dawn to night- 
 fall were separately deified as distinct manifestations of the 
 Sun-power; which harmonises with my view of ausel and 
 usil. Arueris on the inscriptions is called the son of the 
 sun. May not the name Ap-oll-o have the same meaning 
 through some connection with sol ? And may not Orpheus, 
 who is also solar, =: Or phaos, "the new light"? 
 
 Excursus on Mane, the Morning, and other Words. 
 
 In connection with ausel, " the mild light of the morn- 
 ing," I may be pardoned a digression on a Latin word, mane, 
 " the early morning," and this will introduce the old Italian 
 deity Matuta, " the goddess of the dawn," Mantus and 
 Mania, the Etruscan god and goddess who presided over the 
 Underworld, and cerus manus, an expression used in the 
 old Salian hymn, and translated by Festus as " the good 
 creator." If manus means " good," then the manes are 
 the "good ones," and their mother Mania is the "good 
 lady." 
 
 Now, is there any connection between the morning, mane, 
 Matuta, and the spirits of the dead, manes. Mania, 
 Mantus? We are at first inclined to say that there is 
 none, but let us look into the matter. At the outset, I 
 shall take four things as granted : — (1.) That the word 
 manus found in the old priestly hymns of the Salii means 
 "good"; for this we have the authority of Festus, who 
 quotes to that effect the testimony of an earlier writer, 
 iElius Stilo, a learned grammarian, the preceptor of Varro ; 
 this carmen Saliare is probably as old as the foundation
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 151 
 
 of Rome, (2.) That this word manus is the root of Manes, 
 and, through it, of Mania and Mantus ; for this also we 
 have the authority of Festus. (3.) That Mantus and 
 mane, "morning," are different forms of the same root- 
 word; so says Varro. (4.) That the Etruscans were sun- 
 worshippers or, at least, fire-worshippers. 
 
 First, then, (1.) there is no difficulty in tracing the word 
 man-us to the Celtic language, for the G. math is the 
 word now in common use to mean " good, virtuous, excel- 
 lent." Now, if we write this word as madh, the transition 
 from this to man- is easy, for n is, in Celtic, the liquid 
 sound of dh ; and if, after the Oriental manner, we sound 
 the w, of madh like h, we have ban- us, L. bon-us, " good." 
 Thus, one word, at least, in the earliest language of Rome — 
 viz., manus in the Salian hymn — is Celtic, and although 
 the root mad is found in the Semitic dialects, yet it does 
 not mean " good," and no one has yet asserted that any of 
 the early tribes of Italy were Semitic. Nor is manus the 
 only Celtic word in the hymn, for cerus, "the Creator," I 
 take to be the G. verb cuir (L, creo), which has a great 
 number of meanings, all of them, however, traceable to the 
 primary idea of "originating"; thus it means " to cause a 
 thing to be where or what it is," hence the words, dear 
 to the memory of boyhood, " Ccesar curavit pontem facien- 
 dum " ; it also means " to put, to place, to lay, to sow " ; it 
 is the S. cri, " to make, to create," whence the G, gre, 
 " nature," gri-an, " the sun," and greadh-air, " a stallion." 
 From G. cuir I derive G. cuis, "a cause," L, causa, and 
 {t for c or k) tus, tuis, a G. word meaning "a beginning, 
 an origin." The whole expression cerus manus, then, is 
 G. ; and if this were the place or the time for the inquiry, 
 it might bo shown that other words also in this Salian 
 hymn of Mars are Celtic. The name Salii itself is Celtic,
 
 152 THE ETRUSCANS, 
 
 for it is taken from salio, "I leap/' as Ovdd tells us, and 
 we have elsewhere found the root sal- to be G. The 
 ancient name of the hymns themselves, Asamenta, appears 
 to me to be Celtic, for the L. termination -entus -a -um, 
 as in viol-entns, laxam-entum, jum-entum, is the G. 
 adjective termination -anta, as in G. aile-anta, "atmo- 
 spheric," anam-auta, " full of life." The body of the name, 
 then, is Asam-, in which I take the s to be the older spell- 
 ing for r (cf. Valesius for Valerius); and Varro himself quotes 
 this fragment of the hymn for the purpose of proving that 
 in ancient Latinity s was used for r. Asam, then, is the 
 same as aram; and aoram in G. means " I shall worship," 
 G. aoradh, S. aradhana, means '''service, worship," G. 
 urnuigh means "a prayer"; the root is aor, "to wor- 
 ship," from which I could form an adj. aoramh, "belong- 
 ing to worship," which would give the Salian aramenta, 
 asamenta, "hymns of worship." The name Mars itself 
 may, with much probability, be traced to the Celtic, for the 
 G. marbh — that is, maramh (sounded maruv) — means 
 " dead," and the function of Mars is " to kill," to strew the 
 field with the " dead." The older form of the name is 
 Mavors, which v\^ould just mean " the slaying god," I form 
 the name thus — to the G, marbh, marv add the Etr. 
 personal suffix th, as in Lar-th, L. Lar-s, and we have a 
 name Marv-th, "he who kills," L, marv-s; but metathesis 
 frequently occurs in Avords Avhere there is a liquid, especially 
 r, thus marv-s becomes mavr-s, L, mavors, contracted 
 into Mars. Now, if the name of the god himself is Celtic ; 
 if Salii, the name of his priests, is also Celtic; if Asamenta, 
 the distinctive name for their hymns, is Celtic ; if some 
 words, cerus manus, in these hymns are Celtic; and if, as 
 is well known, the Salian worship of Mars was introduced 
 into Rome by Numa, its second king (whose very name may
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. . 153 
 
 be the G. naomh, naom, "holy, pious") — the natural 
 inference from all these con.siderations is, that a part, at 
 least, of the early worship of Rome was Celtic ; and this 
 part, too, was intensely national, for Mars was the father- 
 god of the Roman state-founder, Quirinus, and of his people 
 the Quirites. 
 
 (2.) From the antiquarian dissertations of Macrobius, and 
 also from the annotations of Servius on the yEneid, we learn 
 that the Manes, the shades of the departed, are the " good 
 ones," and that the names Mana or Mania and Mantus are 
 from the same root as Manes. Mana is thus the " good " 
 goddess. Bona Dea — a name which is also applied to Fatua 
 Fauna — and Mantus must be the " good " god. Mania was 
 regarded as the mother of the Lares, and since, as I have 
 shown, the Lares were the deceased heroes of the family, the 
 spirits inseparably attached to the household as its tutelary 
 genii, it was only fitting that their mother should be Mania, 
 " the good lady." There is considerable similarity between 
 the names Mana, Mania, Mantus, and Fauna, Fatua, Faunus, 
 and they may be akin, for among the pastoral founders of 
 Rome, Faunus was held in high esteem, and was a propitious 
 god, " good " to all, and it is not impossible that Mana and 
 Fauna, Mantus and Faunus, are the same deity. As to the 
 etymology of these names, I have already shown that Manes, 
 Mana, or Mania may easily come from the G. math, madh, 
 " good " ; as to the others, I suppose the Etr. form of Mantus 
 to have been Maii-th^ with th, a personal formative, as in 
 Lar-th, Van-th ; Manth, then, would mean "the deity 
 who pi'esides over the manes," which, indeed, is true, for 
 he was the Etruscan Pluto ; and it is rather singular that 
 RhadamaTi^/ats and Minos are two of the Cretan judges of 
 the Underworld. Mantus, on Etruscan monuments, is repre- 
 sented as a Avide-mouthed monster, just as we speak of
 
 154 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 " death's insatiable maw " and " the jaws of death," and 
 Virgil places grief and avenging remorse "in primis faucibus 
 Orci." The forms Fauna, Fatua, Faunus do not so readily 
 connect themselves with G. math, and therefore I offer an 
 opinion with some hesitation ; this much, however, may be 
 said, that probably the S. badh-ra, "auspicious, good, 
 excellent," the Gr. a-gatli-os, "good," the L. bon-us, the 
 Ger. gut, the A.-S. bet (whence E. better, best), the 
 G.-I. math, the K. mad, "good," and budd, "profit, 
 gain," are all the same word, differing only in their initial 
 consonants, which are h, g, m; of these consonants, g alone 
 presents any difficulty, for we have seen that h and m are 
 interchangeable, but that difficulty disapj)ears when we con- 
 sider that h or m aspirated is sounded v or /, and / becomes 
 g, as G. fear, "a man," K. gwr, E. refuse, L. recus-o, 
 therefore Gr. a-gath-os and Ger. gut may be the same 
 as the G. math. In this way Mantus may become (Fantus), 
 Faunus and (Fanta), Fauna. This hypothesis of the identity 
 of the names Mantus and Faunus, although not of their 
 functions, receives some support from a passage in Arnobius 
 adv. Gentes, Book I., c. 36, where the MS. reading Fenta 
 Fatua or Fanda Fatua has been changed by editors into 
 Fauna Fatua. An old scholiast here says that Fanda means 
 "mother." This would refer us to G. madh, man, "good," 
 for even among us an elderly matron, in some parts of Eng- 
 land, is, much in the same way, addressed as Goody Wills, 
 or, as in the nursery rhyme. Goody Two Shoes. Fauna 
 Fatua would thus be equivalent to " Mother Fatua " or 
 Mana Genetrix, and similar to Mater Matuta. 
 
 (3.) The name Fauna is also written Faula, and under 
 that name she is identified with the Grecian Venus. This 
 mention of Venus leads me by an easy transition to the L. 
 word mane, " the early morning," for just as Mana and
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 155 
 
 Fauna are the "good," the " j)ropitious " goddess, so, in the 
 early mythology of the East, is Venus under the name of 
 Meni. The Babylonians worshipjDed Jupiter and Venus 
 under the names of Gad and Meni, " fortune " ; the one is 
 still called by the Arabs the "greater good fortune," and the 
 other the " lesser good fortune." Hence in Isaiah, chap. 
 Ixvi., ver, 11, the idolatrous Israelites are reproved for "pre- 
 paring a table for Gad and furnishing a drink-offering unto 
 Meni " ; and it is probably the same Meni whom Arnobius is 
 thinking of when he says, " Is it Fauna Fatua who is called 
 the ' Great Goddess ' ? " Among the Uomans, Venus was a 
 goddess of good fortune, for the best throw of the dice was, 
 from her name, called jactus Veneris ; and " Caesar and his 
 fortunes " were under the tutelage of Venus, for his watch- 
 word was " Venus Genetrix " (cf Mana Genetrix), in allusion 
 to his ancestral descent from ^neas, whose mother was Venus. 
 Even the name Meni, if written Mheni, and therefore pro- 
 nounced Veni, would easily give (Vener-), Venus. This 
 Gad is regarded by some authors as the planet Jupiter, and 
 by others said to be the same as Baal, whose religious wor- 
 ship, in different forms, prevailed Tiot merely in Babylon, 
 but throughout the ancient world. The name Gad, when 
 it means the divinity " Fortune," is usually written with the 
 article prefixed, Ha-gad, " the Fortune," and it is rather 
 remarkable that hagad or agad is so like the Gr. agathos, 
 "good," while meni is like the G. math, madh, man, 
 "good," and, further, that badh-, the S. form of G. math, 
 has "auspicious, prosperous" as its first meaning. It is 
 also worthy of notice that the Greeks had, besides agathos, 
 another word, kalos, to denote moral goodness, and that 
 the Romans, unlike the Greeks, were ardent worshippers of 
 " Fortuna." But as a full discussion of tliis matter belongs 
 to the domain rather of the antiquary than of the philologist,
 
 15G THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 I pass on to inquire how these planets came to be regarded 
 as " fortunate, prosperous, benign." And this is not hard 
 to find, for the sun-worshippers of Persia, the Baal-wor- 
 shippers of Babylonia and other lands, reverenced the 
 planets, especially Jupiter, " the majestic," and Yenus, 
 " the light-bringer," as the ministering attendants of the 
 great day-god. The Persians also represented their angels 
 of light as clothed in white, and called them ahuro, "the 
 good ones," the servants of Ormuzd, as opposed to the ser- 
 vants of Ahriman, the evil principle. Venus, the morning, 
 was, on this principle, worthy of special honour, both because 
 of the pure brilliancy of its light, and from its intimate 
 personal relation to the sun as ushering in the dawn. 
 
 Some such considerations as these must have led the early 
 Celts to call the " dawn" mad-ainn from math or madh, 
 " good." This word, (1) when the d is aspirated, is pro- 
 nounced ma-enn, which gives the L. mane, " the early 
 morning-light" before sunrise; but (2) if the sharp sound of 
 ihed is retained, madainn becomes the Celto-French matin; 
 and, as if some lingering recollection of the original parent- 
 age of the word still dwelt in their minds, the French say, 
 " de bon matin " when they mean " early in the morning." 
 From the same root math, "good," the dog, too, who, under 
 the name of Tinskuil — that is, " Tina's dog " (G. cu, coin, 
 " a dog ") — figures frequently among the mythological bronzes 
 of the Etruscans as the faithful watcher, is in G. called 
 madadh, which again becomes in Celto-French matin, "a 
 mastiff," the final dh having assumed the liquid form of n, 
 as in G. madh, L. Manes. The office of watchful com- 
 panion and auxiliary here assigned to the dog was an 
 honourable one, for the H, name Ir [(a)ir from aur, "to 
 watch"], Gr. egregoros, " the watcher," was given even to 
 the angels and archangels of heaven, as in Daniel iv. 13.
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 157 
 
 (3) The G. madainn is also written maduinn or maduidh 
 (for the terminations -ainn, -uinn, -uidh are convertible 
 in G.); and in maduidh, if the final aspirate be rejected, 
 and the d of both syllables sounded sharp, we have the L. 
 matuta, Mater Matuta, the goddess of the " dawn," the 
 Greek Leucothea, the " white-light " goddess of the morning. 
 Language is here, as not unfrequently in other instances, 
 the handmaid to mythology, and, when interrogated, dis- 
 closes to us a pictorial representation of ideas which have 
 long since perished, although the signs of these ideas, the 
 words, still remain wdth us; the "dog" and the "dawn" 
 are associated in the literature of the Hindu myths, but in 
 G. the words madainn and madadh alone remain to tell 
 lis that the Celtic mind too saw a connection between them. 
 Here I may refer to a part of Max Milller's analysis of the 
 Sanscrit legends of the " Dawn," in many of which the dog 
 is at least the companion, the helper of Sarama, the " Dawn," 
 assisting her to drive away the dark night-clouds from the 
 face of Dyaus ; but the analyst denies that in the ancient 
 hymns Sarama is ever regarded as a dog. Mommsen, how- 
 ever (Hist. Rome, vol. i., p. 19), is of a different opinion, 
 for he says, " The divine greyhound Sarama, who guards 
 for the lord of heaven the golden herd of stars and sun- 
 beams, and collects for him the nourishing rain-clouds' as the 
 cows of heaven to the milking, and who, moreover, faithfully 
 conducts the pious dead into the world of the blessed, 
 becomes in the hands of the Greeks the son of Sarama, 
 Sarameyas, Hermeias. . . . Those old tillers of the ground, 
 when the clouds were driving along the sky, probably ex- 
 pressed to themselves the phenomenon by saying that the 
 hound of the gods was driving together the startled cows of 
 the herd. The Greek forgot the cows were really the clouds, 
 and converted the son of the hound of the gods — a form
 
 158 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 devised merely for the particular purpose of the conception 
 — into the adroit messenger of the gods, ready for every 
 service." 
 
 Of course, it is impossible for us now to say whether the 
 birth of the Celtic words madainn, " dawn," and madadh, 
 " dog," is later or earlier than the date of the hymns of the 
 Rigveda, but certain it is that these words indicate a con- 
 nection, if not an identity, between " dog " and " dawn " in 
 the minds of the Celts, when they left their Aryan co- 
 religionists in the far east, and wandered towards the far 
 west. At all events, the L. mane, " morning," must be 
 older than the Rigveda, and there can be little doubt that 
 mane is the same word as the G. madainn, madadh. 
 
 Max Muller also speculates (Science of Language, vol. ii., 
 p. 552) on the derivation of mane andMatuta. He says, 
 " From this it would appear that in Latin the root man, 
 which, in the other Aryan languages, is best known in the 
 sense of thinking, was, at a very early time, put aside, like 
 the Sanscrit hudh, to express the revived consciousness of 
 the whole of nature at the approach of the light of the 
 morning; unless there was another totally distinct root, 
 peculiar to Latin, expressive of that idea. The two ideas 
 certainly seem to hang closely together ; the only difficulty 
 being to find out whether ' wide awake ' led on to ' know- 
 ing,' or vice versa." 
 
 This paragraph only shows how little " wide awake " or 
 " knowing " a distinguished philologist may be, when he 
 overlooks the true sources of the Latin tongue ; when he 
 looks too much to the Sanscrit east and neglects the Celtic 
 west. Verily, a language has no honour in its own country; 
 Celts may live and die among us, but their language is 
 "naught." 
 
 To prove the parentage of L. mane, let us now bring in
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 159 
 
 some other witnesses, and see what evidence they can give. 
 Let us call the G. fair, " the dawn, sunrise, sunset," with 
 his family, the verb fair, "to watch, keep guard, keep awake," 
 the noun fair, " a sentinel, a watch-hill," and his twin- 
 brother foir, " help, deliverance," " a crowd of people " (cf. 
 E. a fair, L. forum), the verb fairich, " to awake," and 
 the noun fairg, "the sea, the ocean." To understand their 
 testimony we should recall to mind the tale which the Italian 
 goddess, Minerva, can tell. Her name is, to my eye, the 
 G. mian-ar-fa (q.v.), " the keen desire of warfare," and 
 this agrees with her equipment as she springs from the head 
 of Jupiter. It is also quite in keeping with her position as 
 a Dawn-goddess, for to the minds of the ancient myth- 
 makers, especially those of the solar school, there was ever 
 present the idea of a personal conflict between day and 
 night, light and darkness. As in the Norse legends Balder, 
 the tvJiite god, the type of all that is fair and beautiful, is 
 overcome by the arrows of the blind Hoder, so every night 
 the ancient " makers " saw the black enemy usurp the 
 domain of light, but only to be driven away at the morning 
 dawn ; every winter the power of the enemy waxed stronger 
 and stronger, till the glad May-days returned, when the sun 
 and light and day j)ut forth their might again, and com- 
 pelled the hateful darkness to retire before their victorious 
 arms ; so also the Vedic Indra's perpetual enemy is Vritra, 
 the shrouding darkness. In his daily returning warfare, 
 the noblest auxiliary that Jove (Dyaus), the sky-god, has, 
 is his daughter Minerva, the warrior goddess, Pallas Athene. 
 Dyaus regrets to see his fair blue realms overspread by the 
 dark cloud of night ; he longs to shake off the usurper ; 
 and his "longing desire" (G. mian) for deliverance gives 
 birth to her who, in full panoply, at once routs the hated 
 foe, and wakes the Avorld and men to the calm enjoyment
 
 ICO THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 of life and liberty, and the peaceful pursuits of toil or 
 trade. 
 
 The Celtic words just quoted will illustrate this mythology, 
 for G. fair, " the dawn," is the sentinel (fair) on his watch- 
 hill (fair) who keeps guard (fair), ready to waken (fairich) 
 men to the activities of life, and bring them deliverance 
 (foir) from the oppression and slavery of night ; and fairg 
 is the eastern ocean from which their deliverer comes to set 
 them free. In this sense, from the G. fair, " the dawn," I 
 take the Etr. Faliscan divinity, Ferun, Fer-on, Feronia, 
 just as the Teutonic Venus, the goddess Frigga, or, more 
 properly, Freja, is said to have her name from A.-S. frigan, 
 " to free." Feronia is the goddess of emancipated slaves, 
 the goddess of trade and commerce, much respected at fairs, 
 where crowds (G. foir) of people meet. 
 
 But the G. noun foir, " help, deliverance," and its verb 
 foir, "to deliver, to save," by the change of /into s (com- 
 mon enough in the Celtic dialects) becomes saoi', saoir, 
 " free, at liberty, ransomed, saved," from which I take the 
 name of the Sabine deity Sor-anus, as if Sor-enna, who 
 is identified with Fer-onia and with the Gr. Apollo, for 
 Feronia and Soranus were both worshipped on Mount 
 Sor-acte, "the sacred hill where Phoebus is adored," near 
 Falerii, with similar rites, and Yirgil calls the tutelary god 
 of Soracte by the name Apollo, and describes his worship as 
 a fire-worship. This rugged, craggy mountain Soracte (G. 
 saor, " free," or foir, "a watch," and G. acha, "a high 
 rock," akin to G. uachd-, " lofty," and Gr. ak-ros, " high," 
 akte, "any raised place") resembles many of the peaks in 
 Britain which were once the chosen resort of the Druidical 
 fire- worshippers, and was well fitted to be a watch-hill, from 
 whose temple-summit the priests might hail the approach 
 of dawn.
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 1 G 1 
 
 Notwithstanding the high rank (" summus deum ") which 
 Aruns in the 11th ^neid ascribes to Soranus, we find him 
 and Feronia afterwards degraded to the position of guardians 
 of the Underworld, where they sit in authority with Mantus 
 and Mania. Does this mean that in Italy, as in Greece (see 
 " Juventus Mundi " passiTYi), a revolt arose against the 
 rule of the solar- and nature-powers, or an immigrant race 
 dethroned them, and so they were cast down to the Under- 
 world ? In Etruria, at least, Feronia held an honourable 
 position, for not only was she the goddess of Falerii, but she 
 had a sanctuary also at the Etruscan town Losna (L. Luna). 
 The name of this town, Losna, is another proof that Feronia 
 is the goddess of the dawn (G. fair), for it comes from the 
 Gr. los, las, "light " (q.v.), the same as lath, la, " the light 
 of day." The modern Gaels say, La math dhuit, " Good 
 day to you " ; the hearty Celts of Ireland say, " The top of 
 the morning to you." Are these expressions to be regarded 
 as remnants of dawn-worship ? It may be so, for many 
 similar traces of the worship of the sun and the moon as 
 givers of good fortune are still to be found. In the south 
 of Ireland, the wayside beggar, whose appeals for charity 
 have met with a liberal response, can think of no benediction 
 so comprehensive as " May the blessing of Bel rest upon 
 you " ; in England and in Scotland he who chances to have 
 money in his pocket when he sees the new moon for the 
 first time must bow to the moon and turn the money, if he 
 wishes to have good luck that month. Even among 
 barbarous tribes the worship of the sun and the dawn is the 
 spontaneous outcome of the devotional feeling in the human 
 breast ; of this an artless example is recorded by Castren : 
 " An old Samoyede woman was asked whether she ever said 
 her prayers ; she replied, ' Every morning I step out of my 
 
 tent and bow before the sun, and say. When thou risest, I 
 
 M
 
 162 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 too rise from my bed ; and every evening I say, When thou 
 sinkest, I too sink down to rest.' That was her prayer, 
 perhaps the whole of her religious service. . . . She herself 
 was evidently proud of it, for she added, with a touch of self- 
 righteousness, ' There are wild people who never say their 
 morning and evening prayers.' " 
 
 Professor Miiller shows that, in the Sanscrit myths, the 
 Day and the Night, Yama and Yami, are twin-sisters, 
 daughters of the Dawn, just as, in the Grecian mythology, 
 Castor and Pollux are called the Dioskouroi, twin-sons of 
 Zeus, the sky-god. The sisterhood of Yama and Yami is 
 also seen in the Scotch word gloamin, A.-S. glomung, 
 which is applied to the morning as well as the evening twi- 
 light. This same Yama, however, in the Sanscrit stories, 
 is also the god of death ; he is the king of the departed, and 
 in the Underworld he has two dogs as his messengers. There 
 is a difficulty here ; how is it to be explained ? Probably 
 because Yama, the Day, although born of the brightness of 
 Dawn, yet every evening sinks into darkness, and for a time 
 dwells there, ruler of the Shades below. 
 
 I have already spoken of the greyhounds of Sarama, the 
 Dawn. Many facts could be quoted from the religions of 
 antiquity to show that this Vedic myth is not unique, that 
 dogs, not in India alone, but elsewhere, have a place in the 
 worship of the sun, and that the dog, if not the representative 
 of the dawn, is at least the faithful watcher who announces 
 the coming of his master, waits on his harbinger, the dawn, 
 and when Sol, " the brilliant," Balder, " the powerful and 
 the good," has sunk into his deathlike sleep, overpowered 
 by the wiles and the might of his deadly enemies, " the 
 Dark Ones," this trusty attendant still watches over his 
 grave and longs for his return. 
 
 Of these facts let us take a few.
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 1 6 
 
 o 
 
 (A.) Facts from Egypt. 
 "Whatever be the age of the Vedic hymns in which Sara- 
 meya, the son of the Dawn, the Greek Hermes, is regarded 
 as a tutelary deity, and represented as a dog- watcher, 
 waiting faithfully in charge of the house during the absence 
 of his master, yet, before the Vedic age, before Homeric 
 times, the dog was already intimately associated with the 
 worship of the sun. For the Egyptians reckoned their 
 " Sothic year" from the beginning of the Dog-days, the end 
 of July, when Sirius, the Dog-star, the brightest son of the 
 morning, rises heliacally, emerging from the sun's rays in the 
 morning, and at nightfall is still seen beside the sun at his 
 setting. One of their cities, Cynopolis, they specially devoted 
 to the worship of the dog, which, equally with the sun, was 
 to them a giver of fertility, for the heliacal rising of Cani- 
 cula, the Dog-star, coincided in their country with the highest 
 rise of their fertilising river-god, Nilus, whose hieroglyphic 
 on the monuments is read as equivalent to "the hot season," 
 the dog-days, Mr. Bruce, in his " Travels," says that in the 
 language of the Thebaid, seir means "a dog"; if so, 
 Seirios, Sirius, and Canicula are homologues. Egypt 
 had also its Anubis, " the barker," and its Hepuher or 
 Hep-heru, "guardians of the paths" of the sun, and these 
 are pictured with the heads of dogs or jackals ; for the dog 
 excels all the companions of man in attachment to his 
 master, in the vigilance with which he guards his person 
 and his property, and in strength, courage, and intelligence 
 in executing his commands. In the symbolic and pictorial 
 language of Egypt, a dog represents a faithful scribe, and is 
 also a symbol for the constant, watchful care of the gods. 
 A similar belief in guardianship led each Koman family (and 
 in this they probably only followed the Etruscans) to place
 
 164 THE ETEUSCANS. 
 
 the Lares, figures of their departed ancestry, in the shape 
 of dogs, around the domestic hearth, and to address family 
 prayers to them, as guardians of the house. In Scotland, 
 the wraith (from A.-S. weardan, "to guard") is a guardian 
 spirit, which is seen about the time of the death of a mem- 
 ber of a household, and clothes itself in his dress and form. 
 So also, Sarameya, in the seventh Rigveda, is invoked as 
 ^' a dog," and is called " the lord or guardian of the house." 
 Now, the Greeks identified their Hermes, the Vedic Sara- 
 me3^a, with the Egyptian Anubis, " the barker," the dog- 
 headed god, and Anubis is one of the children of Osiris and 
 Isis, who are the Sun and the Moon, according to the most 
 ■common interpretation of their characters. Arnobius says 
 that the epithet Frugifer, which is used to distinguish the 
 Persian Mithras as the fertilising sun, was also applied to 
 the Egyptian Osiris. Another son of his is Har, or Haroer, 
 L.-G. Horus, Arueris (q.v.); like his father, he is represented 
 as hawk-headed. These two deities, Anubis and Horus, are 
 the attendant ministers of Osiris ; they take a prominent 
 share in the dooming of the departed souls which are brought 
 before the judgment-seat of Osiris; for Horus leads the 
 souls into his presence, and Anubis stands by the balance 
 in which the actions of the deceased are weighed, to see if, 
 when weighed, they are found wanting. If they are found 
 to come uj) to the standard of "justice and truth," the 
 happy souls receive the name and form of Osiris ; they be- 
 come the " bright " ones, the angels of light (cf. yEs-sar). 
 Sometimes Anubis also leads the souls into the judgment- 
 hall, and is then the Egyptian Hermes Necropompos, Hermes, 
 " the Conductor of the Dead." As the function of conducting 
 the dead is thus assigned to Anubis and Horus indiscrimin- 
 ately, I suppose them to be deifications of the morning and 
 the evening twilight, the two gloamins, Castor and Pollux,
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME, 165 
 
 the twin-sons of Dyaus. The Komans thought the Dioscuri 
 so much alike that they called them both the Castores. 
 Like Minerva, Pollux "gaudet pugnis." 
 
 Plutarch, however, gives us a somewhat dififerent account 
 of the Egyptian myth. Isis, he says, is the horizon, " the 
 divider," between the visible earth-world above and the 
 invisible shr de-realms below. This view gives a new aspect 
 to the story of Osiris. He is the sun, the source of light, 
 the giver of gladness to the eyes of men, himself good, and 
 the fountain of all that is good and true, often called Un- 
 nufre, as the " revealer of good things " to man. Every 
 morning he quits the society of his consort, Isis, the eastern 
 horizon, and with his elder son, the morning dawn, ascends 
 into the sky to bless mankind ; but he is hated by his 
 brother, who is yet his cruel enemy, Typhon, the Darkness, 
 who longs for an opj)ortunity to harm him, but cannot, for 
 Osiris, the light of day, is yet too strong; ere long the 
 " good " one sinks into the arms of his waiting spouse, Isis, 
 the western horizon, who now gives birth to their second 
 son, the evening gloamin ; presently Typhon overpowers 
 Osiris, and destroys him, leaving Isis to mourn disconsolate 
 all night long for her husband, and all night long, with 
 Anubis as her guardian, to search for his mangled remains, 
 until, to her joy, the barking of many dogs tells of his ap- 
 proaching return, and in the morning she sees him live and 
 rise again with the vigour of renewed youth. All nature, 
 in his absence, mourned his death, but now the birds, the 
 trees, the brooks, the very rocks hail his return Avith soDgs 
 and a universal shout of joy. 
 
 {B) Facts from the East. 
 The Babylonians also, wlio were an eminently religious 
 nation, held the dog in high honour. One of the zodiacal
 
 166 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 constellations, the " Houses of the Sun," the houses which 
 he visits as a friend, and in which he stays for a time while 
 on his annual journeys, was called by them " the Dog," and 
 in Babylon small figures of this dog were cast in bronze, and 
 apparently were used as amulets to guard the house or the 
 wearer from evil (cf. Tinskuil). Among other antiquities 
 found at Hillah was a black stone of the time of Merodach, 
 on which are the figures of a dog and a cock, both of which 
 animals had a place in the Babylonian sun-worship. 
 
 The Persians, who were also sun-worshippers, regarded the 
 dog with veneration as an attendant of the sun, and the Celts, 
 who are also of Eastern origin, have this same relation stamped 
 on their very language, for in G., lath, which means "day- 
 light," means also "a dog," and while samh means "the 
 sun" (cf. H. shemesh, "the sun," and E. sum-mer), 
 samh-an means "a little dog." 
 
 (C) Facts fronYi Greece. 
 The Greeks had very little astral worship in their rubric 
 or their calendar, and yet they reverenced Canicula, " the 
 Dog-star," under the name of Kuon, " the Dog." With the 
 exception of the sun and the moon, none other of the host 
 of heaven obtained recognition in their worship. Indeed, 
 the constellations known to Homer and Hesiod are few in 
 number ; Arctos and Arctophulax, " the Bear " and his 
 " Keeper," are well known, but the others are chiefly those 
 which may be called summer constellations, those with 
 whom the sun associates in the months of May, June, 
 and July, the Pleiades, and Orion, and this Dog ; these 
 are his special friends, whom he loves to honour, for they are 
 near him in the most glorious part of his career — the time 
 when he is showering down upon the Earth his warmest and 
 most affectionate regards, and conferring his choicest blessings.
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 167 
 
 The Dog of the previous astral worships had a " station " 
 of independence in the sky, but when the Greek myth 
 decreed the assumption of Orion, and placed him among 
 the shining ones, with his face turned towards his much- 
 loved Pleiades, the Dog was stripped of part of his glory, 
 and to the Greek mind, which delighted in the exaltation 
 of heroes, the Dog, once much honoured, became only the 
 dog of Orion, the companion of the mighty hunter who 
 cleared their islands of wild beasts. As to the Pleiades 
 and Orion, it may be interesting to some of my readers to 
 know that among the aboriginal tribes of Australia there is 
 a mythus regarding Orion. Some of these tribes worship 
 the Pleiades, the miai-miai, " the young women," and they 
 say that one of the sisters keeps herself out of sight ; she is 
 gurri-gurri, " ashamed of her personal appearance," for 
 Orion, herai-berai, " the young man," feeding his admira- 
 tion, while on earth, by always gazing at them, was raised 
 to the sky by Baiamai, " the Builder," the great Creator, 
 so as to be near them ; and now gurri-gurri, knowing that 
 she is not so lovely as her sisters, hides herself behind their 
 backs ; she peeps out occasionally, but seldom shows herself. 
 The " young man" has a boomerang in his hand, and a black 
 fellow's belt round his waist. 
 
 The Greeks, as well as the Romans, seem to have had 
 their Lares, their guardian dog-forms placed near the door, 
 as the immortal keepers of the house. In the lofty palace 
 of Alcinous, according to Homer, 
 
 " Rich plates of gold the folding doors incase. 
 Two rows of stately dogs on either hand. 
 In sculptured gold and laboured silver stand, 
 These Vulcan formed with art divine, to wait, 
 Immortal guardians at Alcinous' gate ; 
 Alive each animated frame appears, 
 And still to live beyond the power of years."
 
 168 • THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 All this bears a strong resemblance to the Roman atrium, 
 with its worship of the Lares, the spirits of the departed 
 ancestors of the house, now with the gods, but represented 
 here by images in the likeness of dogs ; nor was this ancestor- 
 worship found among kings alone, for if the King of Phseacia 
 had his " watcher-spirits" around him, done up in royal silver 
 and gold, his subjects would certainly have theirs too, although 
 in humbler guise, to guard the house from evil, and to confer 
 benefits on each succeeding race. Princes have not an ex- 
 clusive use of the feelings of our common nature, and if those 
 of noble birth delight to place portraits of the departed great 
 ones of their line in their galleries, and often see a mother's 
 beaming eye of love, and a father's anxious brow, bent on 
 them from within that gilded frame-work on the wall, yet 
 the poor are not denied a share in the same emotions, but 
 have their own rude memorials of those that are gone. 
 
 The Greeks, then, of Homer's time had their ancestor- 
 worship, and in this way I understand the statement that 
 Socrates swore by a dog or dogs. Tertullian says, " Take 
 for example Socrates ; in contempt of your gods, he swears 
 by an oak, and a dog, and a goat." To an earnest religious 
 mind like his, no obligation could be more solemn than one 
 founded on the honour of his house and the smiles or frowns 
 of a dairtion ancestor. 
 
 Furthermore, if we examine the Greek mythus of Hermes, 
 we shall find that many things said of him are true also of 
 the " dawn." (1.) Hermes is said to have invented divine 
 worship ; the earliest kind of nature-worship was the wor- 
 ship of the sun at early dawn, whether as practised long ages 
 ago by priests of Baal with solemn ceremonial, or now 
 in rude simplicity by some Samoyede woman among the 
 snows of Siberia. (2.) Hermes invented the lyre and the 
 syrinx ; and so the statue of Jupiter Ammon, the Sun, in
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 169 
 
 the Libyan desert, is said to have emitted melodious sounds 
 at sunrise, the " dawn " of day. (3.) Hermes was the giver 
 of wealth and fortune, the god of commerce, and in this 
 capacity he had an especial cultus, among the Celts at least ; 
 now, the business of the day was done by the ancients at 
 " dawn," or during the earliest hours of the morning ; thus, 
 the Faliscan Feronia (q.v.), the " dawn," is also the goddess 
 of trade. (4.) Hermes was the messenger of the gods, 
 especially of Zeus (Dyaus) ; and so does the dawn, in 
 gorgeous robes, march forth before the gi'eat sun-god, to tell 
 the world that King Sol is approaching in all the glory of 
 his might. This herald, when he has ushered in his master, 
 and seen him take his chariot of state, retires from view, but 
 still remains in attendance, and comes forth again, the same, 
 but in another dress, when the sun is sinking down under 
 the west into the dungeon of Darkness castle. (5.) Hermes 
 and Apollo, in the myths, became fast friends ; and we do 
 not wonder at this, for, if Apollo is taken as a personifica- 
 tion of the darting, piercing, fiery rays of the sun (" hekate- 
 bolos Apolldn "), the twilight and he could scarcely miss 
 knowing each other well, for twice a- day they are in close 
 union. (G.) And just as the Celts regarded their Mercury 
 as " viarum atque itinerum ducem," so the Grecian Hermes 
 presided over journeys and roads, because travellers who 
 wish to get on are up betimes, and start on their way 
 at " dawn." 
 
 That the mind of the beholder readily identifies the faint 
 light of the morning dawn with the similar light of the 
 evening, and ascribes them to the same celestial cause, or 
 personifies them as the same being under two different 
 aspects, is evident from the fact that the same word is used 
 in several languages to mean both; thus, the Gr. has 
 amolgos, the E. twilight, and the A.-S. glomung, and
 
 170 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 the S. sandhya, " twilight," from sandhi, " union." The 
 Latins have two words, diluculum, "the morning dawn," 
 and crepusculum, '' the evening twilight " ; of these I take 
 diluculum to be quite a stripling in age when compared 
 with the other, for crepusculum is formed from a Sabine 
 word meaning "doubtful, dim, obscure"; Varro says, 
 " Dubise suntcreperee res." Now, as twilight in E. means 
 "the doubtful light," from A.-S. tweon, tweogan, "to 
 doubt," and as A.-S. glomung is connected with the word 
 gloom, and must, therefore, mean the " obscure " light at 
 sunrise and sunset, I think it probable that, in the early 
 stages of their language, the Latins had only the word 
 crepusculum, "the dim, doubtful light." I claim this 
 word as G., for the root of it is crep-, " dim, obscure, 
 doubtful," which is equal to creb, crem (see tuber). Now, 
 crem is the G. word gruaim, which denotes any gloomy, 
 frowning aspect which the face of man may assume, " a 
 frown, a surly look, darkness." In this connection, crepus- 
 culum means the gloomy obscurity which precedes the day, 
 or the ever-deepening gloom of evening after the sun has set. 
 The G. gruaim has several derivatives, all of which have 
 the sense of " frown, gloom, cloudiness." 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson. — Manus or Manis, " good." Apparently a 
 Tuscan word ; at any rate, the Manes were Tuscan divinities. 
 We may, perhaps, recognise the same root in a-mo&n-us, 
 Lithu. aimesnis, Gr. ameinon. 
 
 Lindsay. — Aukelos, the dawn. From (1) augjan, "to 
 manifest," and (2) lios, " light " ; or, possibly, hel-, " the 
 sun." Equivalent to " the revelation of the light of day." 
 Usil, a name given to the sun. Perhaps the same as the 
 Greek helios, eelios, the Cymric haul, the Moeso-Goth. uil,
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. iVl 
 
 sauil, and the L, sol. U may represent the Oriental prefix 
 Va, but I suspect that Usil is simply suil by metathesis. 
 
 Taylor. — From root sil, "to pierce." It may here 
 suflSce to say that in Samojed tschel is " the sun," and in 
 Permian asal is " the morning." 
 
 CORSSEN. — The name Usil is from the root us-, " to 
 shine, to burn," from which come L. us-tum, UT-ere, aus-ter, 
 aur-ora, Aus-eli, S. ush-as, " morning dawn."
 
 172 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 1. Idulis, the Sheep of the Ides. 
 
 2. Idus, the Ides of the Month. 
 
 In our list the only other word, besides atcsel, having any 
 reference to time, is idulis, a sheep sacrificed on the Ides 
 of the month. Here the formative termination is -ulis, 
 which, like -anta, is G., as in samhuil, "like, as, such" 
 (L. similis) — a word which illustrates the extent to which 
 the L. language is indebted to the Celtic for the expression 
 of its simplest ideas, for similis is certainly G. ; if anyone 
 doubts it, the proof is at hand. The H. for " even, also," is 
 aph, evidently a primitive word having originally the mean- 
 ing of " addition" (cf. L. et, E. and with add) ; in G. the 
 H. aph is written amh, " even, so, as, like," but both words 
 are pronounced alike ; amh, with the termination -uil added 
 (the same as -ail,-eil), becomes G. amhuil, " like, in like 
 manner, as, so"; to this prefix the G. demonstrative so, 
 "this" (L. sic, hie, Gr. ho, hoge), and we have the G. 
 adjective s-amhuil, "like, such," which might be written 
 sameil, whence L. similis — a word for which there is no 
 derivation in L. The G. compound s-amhuil has an exact 
 counterpart in the A.-S. swylch (sva-leik), E. such, and 
 the Ger. so -gar.
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME, 173 
 
 The id US, Etr. itus, we learn, on the authority of Varro, 
 were so called because they " divide " the month. Of course, 
 the connection of idus with the L. root-forms id-, fid-, 
 vid-, in the sense of "separating, dividing," is obvious, but 
 this does not explain the etymology of idus, for the Etr. 
 itus cannot have been taken from a language which is 
 younger than itself. Itzis is the Gr. ead-ar, "between," 
 the S. adh, "half, a part," adhi, "half." To show the 
 relation of the Gr. eadar to the Etr. itus, and several 
 L. words connected therewith, let me refer to the H., where 
 I find the verb hatsah, "to halve, to divide," from which 
 comes the adj. hatsi, " half, middle," and the noun hatsoth, 
 "the middle." If the initial li in hatsi be softened into 
 yod, and the Uade be represented by d hard, the word 
 becomes yaddi, or, with a G. termination, eadd-ar, prep,, 
 "between," originally, "middle," from which comes eidus, 
 as it is on inscriptions, or in later L. iddus, wiitten idus, 
 with long i. Now, take the Gr. eaddar, "between," and 
 for the d in ead substitute n, as is not uncommon in 
 Eastern languages, and we readily get eantar, L. inter, 
 "between." Again, take H. hatsi, "half, middle," and to 
 it add m or rwah prepositive, and it becomes H. machatsith, 
 "middle, half," with which compare the H. unused root 
 masar, mazar, meaning, according to Gesenius, " to separate, 
 to divide." From masar I would take the Gr. mesos, 
 "middle"; and from G. ead-ar, with m prefixed, as in 
 the H., I would form the L. med-ius, "middle," E. mid, 
 amid, G. meadh, "a balance," and meadh-on, "middle," 
 But there is also in H, a monosyllabic root, bad, " to disjoin, 
 to separate," probably the Aryan root adh with m prefixed; 
 bad is variously modified as baz, bats, phats. From bad, 
 with m for h (sec tuber), we may take the G. meadh 
 direct; and, similarly, from baz the Gr. mesos. And bats
 
 174 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 may, in the same way, give the G. mats-adh, "a doubt," 
 a halting " between " two opinions ; and, with the m aspir- 
 ated and the tsade hardened, the L. root (vidd-) vid-uo, 
 " I bereave," and (fidd-) L. find-o, " I cleave." Again, bad 
 may become bhad, vad, yad, ead, whence the G. eadar, 
 E. either, L. uter. These Gr. words being Aryan, have a 
 direct connection with the S. adh, but the Semitic forms 
 show us how the root adh may have been modified. 
 
 Thus, then, the " Ides " falling in the " middle " of the 
 Roman month, on the 13th, and sometimes on the 15th, 
 " divide " the month into " halves," and idulis is an adjec- 
 tive, formed like the L. edulis, "eatable," from edo, "I 
 eat," and means the animal that belongs to the Ides. 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 Donaldson. — As itus was the dichomenia of the Tuscan 
 lunar month, its connection with the root id- or fid- is 
 obvious; comp. di-vid-o, vid-uus; so Hor. IV. Carm. xi. 14 — 
 
 *' Idus tibi sunt agendse 
 Qui dies mensem Veneris marinse 
 Findit Aprilem." 
 
 Lindsay. — The word Idus proceeds from eid, aiths, " an 
 oath " or " promise " (the L. fides), and signifies " the day 
 of faith, trust, or credit," the root being wet-an, vith-an, 
 " to join or bind." 
 
 Taylor. — The word may be explained from Aryan 
 sources, but a sufficient Ugric etymology may be extracted 
 from idar, "a sheep," taken in conjunction with the Etrus- 
 can itus.
 
 THE SKY, THE AIll, LIGHT, TIME. 175 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 
 
 Part IV. 
 
 1. Atriura, the Court of a House, 
 
 2. Falandum, the Sky. 
 
 In treating of the Lares, I mentioned that these images 
 were placed around the atrium, the open court of the 
 house — a well-known word, which Varro says was Etruscan. 
 One kind of atrium, to which Vitruvius gives the epithet 
 " Tuscanicum," or Etruscan, seems, from the simplicity of 
 its construction, to have been the most ancient. The same 
 author uses the name " Cavum sedium," the " hollow " part 
 of the " house," apparently as synonymous with atritim. The 
 name atrittm was also applied to an open space attached to a 
 temple. But in all cases, whether the atritim was public or 
 private, it was surrounded, at least on three sides, by a portico, 
 as a shelter from the rain or the sun, the rest of the space 
 thus enclosed forming a quadrangle, which was open to the sky. 
 The Greeks also, as well as the Romans, built their mansions 
 with the apartments all round a hwpaithron, or space open to 
 the " sky " ; this space was surrounded by covered verandahs 
 attached to the walls of the house. The windows and doors of 
 the rooms opened on to this atrium or peristyle, " a round of 
 pillars," and as there were no chimneys within, the smoke of 
 the fires in winter escaped, as best it could, into the peristyle, 
 and thence through the hwpoAtliron into the open air.
 
 176 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 The name hupaithron (from Gr. aither, " the sky") is 
 the key to the etymology of the Etr. atriuTn, the root 
 being aid or at. In H. the root-form aid is found in (a)ud, 
 (a) id, "to gird, to surround," whence ad, "an exhalation" 
 or vapour from which clouds are formed, and clouds are so 
 called from their covering or surrounding the earth like a 
 veil; with H. ad, and Chd. (a) id, "vapour," compare Gr. 
 at-mos, "vapour," the atmosphere, "The sky" is called 
 in G. athar, in I. aieur, and in K. awyr ; the Gr.-L.-E. 
 aer, air is the same word with the th silent (see rein). 
 Of these the G. form is the oldest and the least corrupt, 
 for it is regularly formed from the root at by adding the 
 common G. termination ar, or air, and it most closely re- 
 sembles the S. atri-ksha, " the sky, the atmosphere," where 
 the ri is a S. formative like the G. air, ar, and the ksha 
 is a common termination, as in S. mallika-ksha, from 
 mallika. The S. noun atriksha seems to be directly 
 connected with S. at-ara, " the middle," " any intervening 
 space," and to have for its root the adh or ad, at, which 
 appears in the G. eadar. This root may or may not be 
 related to the H. (a)ud, (a)id quoted above, but the deriva- 
 tive meaning of the S. atriksha points to that tripartite 
 division of the gods and their adjuncts which was so pre- 
 valent a belief in the most ancient mythology. Thus the 
 "sky" had its purest emp3rrean above all, its cloud-land 
 next the earth (cf. G. neamh), and its athar, aither, 
 atriksha between the two. Similarly, the Mosaic account 
 of creation makes the firmament or heaven to divide the 
 waters above it from those below it. 
 
 The Etr. atrium, then, is that part of the house which is 
 open to the " sky " (G. athar). 
 
 This same root atr- in such words as the L. quinqu-atrus 
 is used to signify " a day," or rather " a dawn." And
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 177 
 
 justly, for, during the usurped reign of night, the neamh, 
 the garment of clouds, covers the earth ; but when the sun 
 dawns the athar becomes visible, the dawn ushers in the 
 day. From a similar view we have L. dies, "a day," Gr. 
 de for dia, and this, again, the same as the S. dyaus, "the 
 sky." A striking confirmation of these views presents 
 itself in the G, word de-adh-ail, which means the line of 
 separation " between " day and night, " the dawn," " the 
 twilight " ; also " a releasing " (cf. Soranus). In this word 
 we have G. de, L. dies, "a day," and G. ead-ar (root 
 adh), S. atara, " between." 
 
 Oinnions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson. — There does not seem to be any objection 
 to the etymology suggested by Servius (ad ^n. III., 353) 
 " ah atro, 'propter fwmum qui esse solebat in atriis," and 
 we may compare the corresponding Greek term melathron. 
 If atrium, then, was a Tuscan word, the Latin ater also 
 was of Pelasgian origin. The connection of atrium with 
 Gr. aithrion, aithousa, &c., suggested by Scaliger and others, 
 may be adopted, if we derive the word from Tuscan atrus, 
 which signifies " a day." 
 
 Lindsay. — Atrmm. — From wato, 'waitr, udr, wasser, 
 " water," and heim, implying " a dwelling." Equivalent, 
 therefore, to " the water-tank," or " place for water." 
 
 Quinqzmtrus. — From quinque, " five," and (perhaps) 
 aftar, " after." 
 
 Taylor. — Air, " a day," in Quinquatrus. — The Ugric 
 analogies are sufficiently plain. In Blirjat, a Mongolic 
 language, oder and odur mean " day." The Atrium was 
 partly open to the day, atr. 
 
 2. For Etr. Falandum, " the sky," see Chap. V. 
 
 N
 
 178 
 
 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 Excursus on Etr. Avil Ril, "Vixit Annos"(?) 
 (Sub voce Idulis). 
 
 As idulis is the only one of our forty words that is con- 
 nected with time, I will introduce here the famous mortuary 
 expression avil ril. On epitaphs these two words are 
 variously combined. The name of the deceased always 
 comes first, and is followed by the words, e.g., ril xxxv., or 
 ril liii., Iei7ie, or avil ril Ixv., or avils xv.^ or (seldom) 
 aivil xxiii. The word ril is constant, but the other word 
 has the three forms avil, avils, aivil. Niebuhr supposed 
 avil ril to be equivalent to " vixit annos," but from 
 an attentive examination of the five mortuary formulae 
 given above, it seems more likely that they mean " aetatis 
 anno," ril meaning " a year," and avil being the 
 Etruscan word for " age." 
 
 (1.) Ril, A Year. 
 
 To understand this word, we must follow our usual 
 method, and take a survey of words that mean " a year " 
 in various languages. These are : — Eg. renp or remp, 
 H. shanah, Ch. idan, Gr. etos, enos, henos, eniautos, 
 hora, L. annus, Ger. jahr, 0. Sax. gear, E. year, G.-I. 
 bliadhna, K. blwydd, blynedd. These I tabulate thus : — 
 
 Essential 
 Letters. 
 1. Egyptian. 
 
 3. 
 
 Essential 
 Letters. 
 Chaldee. 
 
 " The sun," ra, . . 
 
 r- 
 
 
 " A year," idan, . . i-d 
 
 "A year," rempi. 
 
 
 4. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 rampi, rompi (in 
 
 
 
 "The sun,"helios . h-1 
 
 Sahidic " a ring ") . 
 
 r-m 
 
 
 " A year,"henos, enos, 
 
 2. Hebrew. 
 
 
 
 eniautos, . . h-n 
 
 "The sun," shemesh 
 
 s-m 
 
 
 etos, e-t 
 
 " A year," shanah, . 
 
 s-n 
 
 
 hora, h-r
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 
 
 179 
 
 5. 
 
 Essential 
 Letters. 
 Latin. 
 
 Essential 
 Letters. 
 (2) Erse. 
 
 
 "The sun," sol, . . 
 
 s-1 
 
 "The sun," grian, . g-r 
 
 
 "A year," annus, 
 
 a-n 
 
 samh, . s-m 
 
 6. 
 
 German. 
 
 
 "Ayear,"bl-iadhain i-d 
 
 
 "The sun," sonne, . 
 
 s-n 
 
 (3) Kymric. 
 
 
 " A year," jahr, . . 
 
 i-r 
 
 "The sun,"hual, . . h-1 
 
 7. 
 
 Celtic. 
 
 
 huan, . h-n 
 
 
 (1) Gadhelic. 
 
 
 "A year," bl-wydd, 
 
 
 " The sun," grian, . 
 
 g-i' 
 
 bl-ynedd, ... i-d 
 
 
 " Ayear,"bl-iadhna, 
 
 i-d 
 
 
 The reader will have observed that in all these words the 
 essential consonants may be reduced to the forms s-l, s-m, 
 s-n, s-r, for in those that begin with h, the h is convertible 
 with s; the hard g of grian, gear represents i, h, or s of 
 the softer langiiages, and even i-d, e-t may, through the 
 Celtic iadh, be the same asian — that is, s-n. 
 
 Let me now examine the words in detail. 
 
 1. The Egyptian remp, "a year." This word is derived 
 from re or ra, " the sun," found on the Egyptian monuments 
 in the names Amn-Re = " Ammon the Sun," and ta-ra=: 
 " house of the Sun"=Heliopolis. In G., re means "a circle," 
 "the moon," and ta is found in the word taigh, "a house." 
 With the Coptic article prefixed. Re becomes Ph-re, as in 
 Pete-phre (the form used by the LXX. for Potipherah), 
 " consecrated to the sun." The sun-god is Ra or, with the 
 article, Phra, from which comes the name Pharaoh, the 
 common name for the kings of Egypt. The king is thus 
 considered the representative on earth of the greatest orb in 
 the sky, the sun, the luminary that rules the heavenly host. 
 A similar feeling has led the " Celestials " in China to adore 
 their Emperor as the Brother of the Sun and the Moon. To 
 the Egyptian rempi, the Aryan languages have analogues — 
 in Gr. rhembo, " I spin or whirl round," and rhombos.
 
 180 THE ETRUSCANS, 
 
 "any spinning or whirling motion," E. rhumb; in G. 
 riomb, "a circle," and riomba, "a curved piece of coast, 
 a bight." A very ancient symbol for the sun is a circle ; it 
 represents the disc of the sun as distinguished from the phases 
 of the moon. This symbol has always a dot in the centre of 
 it on the Egyptian monuments, and from thence, doubtless, 
 it has come into our modern books on astronomy through 
 the Koman astrologers as the common symbol for the sun. 
 
 2. The Hebrew shanah, "a year." The radical idea 
 here is " a repetition," " an iteration," of the course of the 
 sun, and the changes of the seasons. It may be paraphrased 
 as "a circling period of seasons and similar phenomena." 
 This idea is clearly seen in the H. cognate shena (dual 
 form shenayim), which means the numeral "two," and in 
 the verb shanah, "to repeat, to do a thing the second 
 time." The H. verb chul means " to turn round," and in 
 its Arabic dress, hul, hal, it means "a circle, a year." In 
 the same way, the Grecian Stoics discoursed of the " great 
 year " of the universe, for, said they, the cycles went round 
 and round through the ages, ever bringing back in succes- 
 sion the same experiences. 
 
 3. The Chaldee idan (Ar. adan) means (1) "time," 
 but, specially (2), " a year." The root is ad, which, accord- 
 ing to Gesenius, denotes "progress" (in space) or "duration" 
 (in time). 
 
 4. The Gr. etos contains the same idea as the H. 
 shanah ; this appears from the cognate words Gr. eti, 
 "yet, again," L. iterum, "a second time," and E. yet, 
 all implying " addition, iteration." The word etos, when 
 used in the plural, means " time " in general, therein 
 resembling idan. Another simple Gr. word for a year 
 is en OS. I shall presently show that etos and enos are 
 identical, and both mean " a going round, a repetition." A
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 181 
 
 compound of enos is eniautos, which I take to be enos, 
 "a going round," and Gr. aute, authis, "over again," 
 and in no way connected with the pronoun autos, as some 
 suggest. The words etos and eniautos are both used by 
 Homer in one line — 
 
 AAX oTe ot] €T0? }j\6e, TrepnrXofxivMu eviavTCOv, 
 
 where the idea is still the same, that of the revolving repe- 
 tition of the same sidereal phenomena. 
 
 The Gr. hora marks indefinitely any period of time what- 
 ever, as fixed by natural laws ; hence it means " an hour," 
 " a day," " a year," " a season," " a period of life." It is the 
 same word as the G. uair, which, besides " hour, time," has 
 also the meaning of " rotation," and this shows that the Gr. 
 hora originally contained the same idea as H. shanah. In 
 G., the phrase an uiridh means "last year," uair, like 
 hora, being used to mean " a year." 
 
 5. The L. annus, "a year," originally meant "a circle," 
 as is evident from its diminutive, annulus, "a ring." I 
 derive L. annus, Gr. etos and enos, from the G. iadh, 
 "to go round," and iadh is closely connected with the 
 Semitic id an, a dan, in which id or ad is the root, an 
 being merely the formative termination. The first letter 
 of this root being the H. ain, the id or ad gives the G. 
 fad, which, like ad, is applied both to continuance of time 
 and to extension in space, for the H. ain is often represented 
 in G. by an initial aspirate letter, as g or /. Then fad is 
 softened into had, iad, and this last form gives Gr. etos ; 
 but as the liquid sound of n is used in G. for d or dh, the 
 G. iadh, "to go round," also gives L. annus, Gr. enos, 
 henos, "a year" ; in the same manner, fad in G. becomes 
 fan, "to continue" (cf. root ad), and fainne, "a ring" (cf. 
 L. annulus), whence I. uain, G. nine, "time, season."
 
 182 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 No one will venture to affirm that the Greek and the Latin 
 words for " year " come direct from the Chaldee, but we may 
 safely say that they come from the Celtic, which is known to 
 be one of the earliest elements in the population and the 
 languages of both Greece and Italy. It is worthy of remark 
 that the G. iadh is used chiefly with reference to the sun's 
 visible course round the earth, as in G. an saoghal nia'n 
 iadh grian, " the sun which goes round the world." The 
 commonly-used verb to surround is cuartaich. 
 
 6. The German word for a year is jahr, which gives 
 the E. year. Jahr does not seem to convey the usual idea 
 of " going round " or " iteration," until we refer to the Old 
 High-German form gahr or gear, which I trace to the G. 
 gearr, " to describe a circle," As the early population of 
 Northern Germany was Celtic, it is not surprising that 
 Celtic words, designating common things, should remain in 
 the dialects spoken there. 
 
 Connected in meaning with jahr is a word which has 
 much exercised the ingenuity of antiquaries, Jul or Yule, 
 the name given of old by the Goths and the Saxons to the 
 feast of the winter solstice ; hence the English Yule log, 
 and the Lowland Scotch Pasch and Yule, "Easter and 
 Christmas." In the old clog almanacs Yuletide was indicated 
 by the figure of a " wheel," for it is the time when the sun 
 "turns" again and starts on his northern "circuit "; in short, 
 it is the beginning of a new " iteration." The word is the 
 Goth, giul (H. galal, "to roll"), Sw. huil. Sax. hweol, 
 G. cuidheall, all = E. wheel. The oldest form is the 
 Goth, giul, which in meaning is the same as the Old High- 
 German gear, and in form like the K. chwyl, which, 
 although it is not used as a noun to mean "a wheel," yet 
 as a verb means " to turn, to wheel," a meaning that suits 
 Yuletide very well.
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 183 
 
 (7.) The Celtic names for a year are — Q. bliadhna, 
 I. bliadhain, and K. blwydd. These words mean "the 
 circle of Bel," i.e. the sun ; the bl is a corruption of Bel, 
 and iadhna (in modern Gr. aithne) is "a circle," from 
 iadh, "to so round," The name Bel also occurs in the 
 well-known Beltane-fires of the first of May, and in the 
 G. word gabadhbheil, the Druidical ordeal of fire, literally 
 "the jeopardy of Bel." The K. blwydd is the same word 
 as bliadhna, for the initial bl is Bel, and wydd is the 
 G. iadh. 
 
 If we now sum up the results of all this analysis, we 
 shall find that in Egyptian, Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, Latin, 
 German, and the three Celtic dialects the name for " a year" 
 has in it the fundamental idea of " a circling revolution," a 
 ceaseless " turning round and round " of the same cosmical 
 phenomena, the sun being at the root of the whole matter. 
 
 Let us now apply this induction to our Etruscan friend ril. 
 
 The H. root-word gil (galal) means " to move in a 
 circle"; it has several forms, as gil, chil, chul, ail, aul. 
 These are reducible to one simple form — that is, the letter 
 I preceded by a vowel, and that, again, having before it a 
 guttural increasing in intensity, thus (from root i-l) a-il, 
 
 , ch-il, g-il. There is a blank in this series of aspirates, 
 
 for the proper gradation would lead us to expect h-il in the 
 second place ; it is wanting in Hebrew, but we shall find it 
 elsewhere. For the G.-L verb "to turn, to roll," is fill, 
 and its aspirated form is fhill, which is pronounced hill; 
 this just supplies the form we want to go between a-il and 
 ch-il. 
 
 It is now obvious that the Etr. ril^ if it means a year, 
 should have some connection with a verb that means "to 
 turn, to go round," and as the H. gil (galal) gives the H. 
 noun gil, "a circle," so the G. verb fill gives the G.-I.-K.
 
 184 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 noun fal, "a circle," and its aspirated form fhill, hill, "to 
 turn," might give a noun hi I, "a circle"; from this I would 
 form an Etr. word sil, "a circle," equivalent to the L. 
 annus, but as sil already existed in the language (see ausely 
 usil), I would change sil into ril, r for s, as in Lases for 
 Lares (q.v.) 
 
 But as this is only conjecture, two objections may be 
 offered. Does the very word rz/ exist in Gadhelic ? Can 
 a verb "to turn" mean also "a year"? I answer both 
 questions in the affirmative. 
 
 First, as to the word rzl in Gadhelic. As might be ex- 
 pected, the Gadhelic language, now falling into the sere and 
 yellow leaf, after a vigorous youth and manhood of, it may 
 be, well-nigh 4000 years, does not retain all the wealth 
 of words, all the faculties and powers which it had of yore, 
 for 
 
 " There's not a year but pilfers as it goes 
 Some youthful grace, that age would gladly keep, 
 A tooth or auburn lock, and by degrees, 
 Their length and colour from the locks they spare." 
 
 If, in English, such words as lewd, silly, %vit, cliarity, conver- 
 sation, and many others, have lost their original meanings, 
 and acquired secondary ones within the last 250 years, while 
 others have become quite obsolete and are forgotten, we may 
 reasonably suppose Gadhelic words to have had a similar ex- 
 perience. But there still remain the Gr. re, "a circle," 
 whence, with the G. common adjective termination -eil, I 
 would form a noun reil (like L. mon-ile, "a necklace," 
 from the G. muin, "the neck "), whence I would take Etr. 
 ril, " a circle, a year," We have also the G. ri (preposi- 
 tion), " during," denoting continuance, corresponding with 
 the H. ad, Ch. id (whence idan, "a year"), ris (adverb), 
 "again," denoting an iteration, like H. shanah, "a year,"
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 185 
 
 and the nouns ri(gh)il — gh silent — "a reel," and roil, rol, 
 "a roll." Either of these nouns will give the Etr. ril, for 
 both of them have the idea of " circling round," and righil, 
 having the gli quiescent, might be written, ri-il, ril. 
 Doubtless the Etruscan inscription-writers followed the sound 
 of the word in their spelling. The same " circling " idea 
 also exists in the G. verb rui(dh)il, roill, "to trundle, to 
 wheel, to reel, to roll," A.-S. reol. 
 
 Again, what is a Scotch righil, " reel," but a party of 
 dancers moving, " going," " dancing round in a circle." 
 The reel thulichan, or hualachan, which none but High- 
 landers can dance aright, and in which none but men must 
 take part, is probably the " sun dance," for in Celtic hual 
 (L. sol) means " the sun." Did the reel-dance originate in 
 the worship of the ancient Celts ? It is possible, nay, even 
 probable. By a stretch of imagination (which, doubtless, is 
 quite lawful to an antiquary, if not to a philologist) we may 
 regard the Highland reel as emblematical of the four seasons, 
 each pair — the gentleman with his partner — representing 
 one of the four ; they go whirling round and round, change 
 places, and succeed one another until the circuit is complete ! 
 Every movement in the "reel," except the "steps," is a 
 whirling round in a circle. 
 
 That a dance may be a part of religious worship no one 
 will deny who knows anything of the ancient idolatries ; and 
 even the holy festivals among the Hebrews bear a name 
 which originally means " a dance." The most degraded and 
 ignorant tribes have their religious dances. For instance, 
 the Austral-Negro has his corrohoree, and although it is 
 usually called a war-dance, yet I believe it has more of wor- 
 ship in it than of war. But what is a corrohoree ? I will 
 explain. Of all the tribes of the Hamite race, the Australian 
 aborif{ines are about the lowest in the social scale. Yet some
 
 186 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 of their customs carry us back to the remotest antiquity ; 
 for among them the principles of moral purity are maintained 
 with the utmost care ; a man must marry only in accordance 
 with their laws of caste ; the children in every case bear only 
 the mother's name ; they have fixed rules to regulate degrees 
 of kindred ; they carefully tend and lead about the aged 
 blind ; they believe in a Supreme god, Baia-me, the Creator, 
 " the builder," who made and preserves all things — in his 
 eternity, omnipotence, and goodness ; they believe in a future 
 state, and that the good men of their race go to Baia-me when 
 they die ; they believe in wuncla, good and evil spirits. They 
 have one curious social law — a woman must not speak to the 
 husband of her daughter ; if they chance to approach each 
 other, they instantly stop and turn back to back ! all com- 
 munication must be effected through a third party. One of 
 their institutions is the bora, at which, with many observ- 
 ances, the young men of the tribe are initiated and admitted 
 to the rights of manhood. Another is the corroboree. At 
 a given time and place the men assemble, dressed in their 
 gayest attire — their own swarthy skins, with their face, body, 
 and limbs fantastically decorated by streaks of white and red ; 
 they set up a pole about ten feet long, tipped with a bunch 
 of heath, or the like ; the men arrange themselves in a circle 
 round the pole at some distance from it, leaving an interval 
 of a few feet between one another ; the gins, or women, mean- 
 while place themselves outside the circle, and prepare to give 
 an accompaniment of music with their voices and some sticks, 
 which they hold in their hands, and strike together to the 
 rhythm of the music. All being ready, the dance begins; the 
 music strikes up ; the black fellows turn their bodies first to 
 the right, then to the left, stretching out their hands in unison, 
 talking and shouting all the while; continually repeating 
 these regulated and uniform movements, they slowly advance
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 187 
 
 towards the pole, closing the circle as they advance ; at last 
 they cluster thickly round it, and simultaneously throw up 
 their arms several times towards its top, with loud cries. 
 This finishes the corrohoree. Now, the circle, the slow and 
 subdued movements, the gradual approach, the uplifted hands 
 and voices, convince me that it is all an act of worship. The 
 pole, with the tuft on the end of it, represents a deity, for a 
 black woman has been kno^^^l to borrow a household broom, 
 and set it up before her, that she might pray for the safety 
 of her son who was at the wars. 
 
 So far as to the existence of the word rzl in Gadhelic. 
 The second objection — may the verb " to turn " mean " a 
 year" — I answer thus. One of the forms of the H. verb 
 gil is chul, " to turn round, to dance in a circle," whence 
 K. chwyl. In H., chul used as a substantive means "a 
 circle," but in Arabic the same word means " a year," and 
 when used as a preposition or an adverb it means " round 
 about." 
 
 In conclusion, I think it is not too much to say that, from 
 
 the evidence of philology, we may now believe that ril does 
 
 mean " a year." But as some writers regard it as a plural 
 
 form, meaning " years," I would still claim it as a Gadhelic 
 
 plural, for in G. such singular forms as meall, "a lump" 
 
 (L. moles), and siol, "seed," take mill, sil in the plural; 
 
 therefore if the Etr. singular form was roill or rial, the 
 
 plural would be ri/. Many of the oldest nouns in the G. 
 
 language form their plurals by changing the vowel-sound of 
 
 the singular, as G. bo, "a cow" (L. bos), plu. ba ; G. dia, 
 
 "a god" (L. plu. dii), plu. d^e; G. deur, "a tear" (Gr. 
 
 dakru, L. lacrima), plu. deoir; G. geadh, '' a goose," plu. 
 
 geoidh. 
 
 (2.) Am/. 
 
 Our next inquiry concerns the meaning of the word avil.
 
 188 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 To determine this, we must examine the formula as a whole ; 
 for ril liii. , for example, may be equivalent to — (aged) annos 
 quinquaginta tres — or, anno quinquagesimo tertio ; avil 
 ril liii. may be equivalent to — natus annos quinquaginta 
 tres — or, cetatis anno quinquagesimo tertio. Thus ril 
 may be singular or plural, and az>il may be a verb, equiva- 
 lent to obiit or to natus, or a noun having the same mean- 
 ing as cetatis. It appears to me that the numeral which 
 follows ril must settle the alternative, for if it is an ordinal 
 number the ril must be singular and the avil must be equal 
 to cetatis. Fortunately the numerals on the inscriptions are 
 sometimes written in full. Let us take one example. On a 
 sarcophagus, with the sculptured figure of an aged man, there 
 are the words avils kiemzathrrns. I take this to be an 
 ordinal adjective, and divide it thus, kiems-sa-thnns. Let 
 us suppose that it means " sixty-seventh " ; how would the 
 Romans express this ? Either by sexagesimo sei^tinio or by 
 sejptimo et sexagesimo — that is, either with or without the 
 et ; similarly, in English we say sixty-seventh or seven and 
 sixtieth ; but in Latin both the numbers are ordinal. Now, 
 in G.-L, the ordinals above " third " all end in -amh, which 
 is sounded -av, but might be written am — that is, without 
 the aspirate. To this many L. ordinals bear a strong resem- 
 blance — as oct-av-us, sept-im-us (root sept, Gr. hepta), 
 dec-im-us (root dek, Gr. deka), vices-im-us, triges- 
 im-us, &c. ; this resemblance is not found in the Gr. 
 ordinals except in hebd-om-os, and perhaps in ogdo(v)os, 
 so that the Romans do not appear to have taken their 
 ordinals from the Greeks. The h of -amh may become s, 
 as in G. gamh, " winter," L. hiems ; thus I take the ms 
 in kiems-sa-tJirms to be the -amh of the Gael and the 
 -imus of the Roman. If a Gael wishes to say "forty-one 
 men," he says da fhichead fear 's a h-aon — that is, " two-
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 189 
 
 twenty-men and-tlie one " ; if he wishes to say " forty-first," 
 he says an t-aon 'ar da fkichead — that is, " the-one-upon- 
 two-twenty." Although this mode of enumeration in mixed 
 numbers is not the same as in Latin, yet, as numbers in 
 language are very volatile, and as the G. -amh is certainly 
 the L. -im(u)s, and as the Koman mode is, in point of 
 time and place, very near to the Etruscan, I consider myself 
 justified in believing that the Etr. kiemzathrms is the G. 
 kia(dh)amh-'s a thriamh, the L. centesimo tertio, 
 "one hundred and third " ; for in modem G. ciad is 100, 's 
 is a contraction for is, "and," while tri, aspirated form thri, 
 means " three." For closer comparison let us place them 
 thus — 
 
 G. ci-adh-amh 's a thri-amh, 
 
 Etr. ki- -em- z - a thr ms. 
 
 L. ce- nts-im-s (et) t-r -tins. 
 
 E. hundred and third. 
 
 I therefore take the Etr. avils {ril) kiemzathrms to mean 
 " in the hundred and third year of his age," and this suits 
 the agedness of the figure on the sarcophagus. The G. for 
 " third " is now treas, but this is a contraction for triams, 
 triamh, and " hundredth" is now ceudamh, but G. ciad, 
 ceud, L. cent-um, and Gr. hekat-on, are all the same 
 word, for ciad by metathesis gives icad, Gr. hekat-, and, 
 again, ciad, by hardening the d becomes ciadd, ciant-, 
 L. cent-um. 
 
 Nor is kiemzathrms the only numeral which yields 
 similar results ; the Etr. sesphs on the tombs is evidently 
 the G. seis-amh, " sixth," and sas. seems to be an abbrevi- 
 ation for I. seasgad, " sixty." 
 
 * The Ah, in G. is silent here.
 
 190 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 From these examples I conclude that the numeral which 
 accompanies avil must be an ordinal, and that avil or avils 
 must be equivalent to cetatis. I have elsewhere shown my 
 reasons for believing that hipu in the inscriptions means " he 
 died," the final u representing the Oriental hua, " he " ; and 
 now I may add that leine, which also occurs in the mortuary 
 inscriptions, is the G, leinne, " with us" — apud nos, but 
 now he is apud deos — a thoroughly classical idea and manner 
 of expressing it. Thus hfpu avils xxx. will mean " he 
 died in the thirtieth (year) of his age," and ril xxx. 
 leine will mean " thirty years with us." 
 
 Let me now examine avil, aivil, avils. Of these the 
 root-form is avil^ and according to our analysis it means 
 CBtatis. As to the derivation of the word, I have three 
 solutions to offer. (1.) In G., bi is the substantive verb, 
 and denotes "existence," pret. bu, whence L. fui; from bi 
 comes the noun bidh, "life, existence," the same as beath 
 (q.v.) This word, by shifting the aspirate, becomes bhid,=: 
 fid or vid (L. vita), and as d becomes I (see olor), this 
 would give vil; to this prefix the G. possessive pronoun a, 
 and we have avil, equivalent to suce vitcB. The ai-vil would 
 be a genitive form like the old genitives aur-ai, terr-ai, and 
 avils belongs to a late and corrupt stage of the Etruscan 
 language when Latin genitive forms were coming into use. 
 (2.) The English word " age " is expressed in G. by uin, 
 aois, in L by aois, aos, and in K. by oed or oes; "aged"' 
 in K. is hen, and in G.-L sean or aosda. Of these, uin is 
 the one that approaches nearest to the Etr. avil, for in uin 
 the u represents v, and the word is therefore vin. Now, 
 in common with the Sanscrit, the Celtic dialects also have a 
 principle by which the termination of one word is affected 
 by the initial consonant of the word immediately following 
 it in the sentence. This principle is common enough in
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 191 
 
 European languages in the formation of compound words, as 
 in the L. inteHigo, accumbo, but in Sanscrit and Celtic it 
 goes much farther, for even the letter i, a dental, would, for 
 the sake of euphony, be changed into n, a liquid, before a 
 word beginning with a liquid. And thus I account for the 
 change of the n of iiin into I, for vil ril is certainly more 
 euphonious than vin ril. In the Celto-French we find even 
 the law of gender violated, for the sake of euphony, in 
 such expressions as mon histoire, mon dune. (3.) But I 
 think the G. uin, uine, " age," itself is a derived word, for 
 the I. form of it is uain, where the -ain is a common 
 derivative termination. I believe that the original form of 
 the word is av-ain, from a root a v. To determine the 
 existence and the force of this root, let us apply our touch- 
 stone, the inductive process. In H., yom is- " a day," plu. 
 yam-im, as if from a singular yam. In its plural form it 
 signifies (1) "days," (2) "time" in general, (3) "time of 
 life," " lifetime." Gesenius is doubtful of the derivation, but 
 it is evidently the same root as we have in the Gr. hemera, 
 " a day," and the G. am, " time, season, age." Another 
 similar H. noun is yam, " the sea," "a great river." Gesenius 
 says, " A derivation is scarcely to be sought " for this, but 
 as it is an antediluvian word, I think we shall find its cog- 
 nates in G. The simple idea contained both in yom and 
 y^m is that of " flowing, going onwards with a steady yet 
 powerful motion," for that suits both words, and their cog- 
 nate the H. yubal, " a river " {h for m, see tuber), is taken 
 from the verb yabal, " to flow, to go, to walk." Cognates 
 in Gr. are hemera, eim-i, "I go," pret. eia for eva, "I 
 went," ai5n for ai Fon, "an age"; in L. iv-i, " I have 
 gone," and, with the b hardened, amb-ulo, " I walk." In 
 G. the cognates are numerous, as in im-ich, " to go, to 
 walk," where im is the root, and this, aspirated into imh, Iv-,
 
 192 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 gives the L. iv-i ; others are ab, " water," abar, " a marsh," 
 abh-ainn, "a river, a stream," uair for av-air, " an hovir, 
 time, season" (L.-Gr. hora), nine for av-ain, "time, season," 
 si-ubliail, " to go away, to go, to travel, to walk." But the 
 cognate with which we are most concerned at present is the 
 G. am, " time, season," which is the same word as the H. 
 yom, and may therefore mean "a lifetime," =:the L. retas ; 
 from am the G. forms an adj. a mail, " seasonable, tem- 
 poral," where -ail is the same as eil, both of them being 
 common adj. terminations in G., just as in L. we have 
 hiemalis and virilis; indeed, from the derivative noun 
 aim-sir, " time, season, weather," the G. does form an adj. 
 in eil, aimsireil, " temporal, lasting for a season." From 
 am ail — that is, am eil — I would form the noun amil (a 
 legitimate formation in G., although the word does not now 
 exist), like L. sedile from sedes,ovile from ovis, and would 
 give to it the meaning of " that which lasts but for a season, 
 our temporal existence," nostra cetas, a silent " stream " (G. 
 amhainn), that flows swiftly and irresistibly into the great 
 "ocean " (G. amh) of eternity. If this is the derivation of 
 the Etr. am/, the " maker " was a poet. I need scarcely 
 add that amil with the m aspirated, as in amhainn, 
 abhainn, would be sounded am/. As to the form aim/, 
 I have only to say that in G. the genitive case of abhainn 
 is aibhne, of aghann, aighne, of cial, ceil, of meal or 
 mial, mil, of fear, fir, so that if the Etr. nominative was 
 avz/, we have aim/ for the genitive ; or if the nominative 
 was avai/ (G. am ail), we still have aivei/ or aivii for the 
 genitive. 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson. — J^i/. — " It is true that this word does not 
 resemble any synonym in the Indo-Germanic languages;
 
 THE SKY, THE AIR, LIGHT, TIME. 193 
 
 but then, as has been justly observed by Lepsius, there is 
 no connection between annus, etos, and iar, and yet the 
 connection between Greek, Latin, and German is universally 
 admitted. The word ril appears to me to contain the root 
 ra or re, implying ' flux ' and ' motion,' which occurs in 
 every language of the family, and which, in the Pelasgian 
 dialects, sometimes furnished a name for great rivers. . . . 
 The Gr. rei-t-on, rei-th-ron may be compared with ril. , , . 
 The Latin name for the year — annus, of which annulus is 
 a diminutive — denotes ' a circle or cycle, a period, a curve 
 returning to itself.'" 
 
 Aifil. — "It is obvious that this word contains the same 
 root as cevum, cetas, aiFon, aifei, &c. The Pelasgo- 
 Tyrrhenian language always inserts the digamma in these 
 cases." 
 
 Lindsay. — Ril Avil. — "These words are, I think, purely 
 Teutonic, ril being formed from a common root with our 
 English roll, ' to revolve ' . . . our year or jahr itself, 
 the ' revolving year ' of Thomson, being of kindred origin ; 
 while avil, avils (in the genitive) correspond with hivila 
 (O.H.G.), hveila (Goth.), Jnvila, hvile (0. Sax. and A.-Sax.), 
 our English ivhile, a word signifying an allotted portion 
 of time, varying, as a minute, an hour, a year, or a life- 
 time." 
 
 Taylor. — Rzl. — " In three Lesghic languages we find 
 the word ricZa^ meaning 'summer.' The word for 'summer' 
 would naturally be taken to mean ' year,' as we see from 
 our own usage in speaking of a person having seen so many 
 summers, when we mean he has lived so many years. . . . 
 We should expect to find that the Etruscan ril would take 
 the form il, sll, or djil in Turkic languages, and til in Finnic. 
 This is exactly what we do find. In the various Turkic 
 dialects, the words which denote ' a year ' are — djel, tschil, 
 
 O
 
 194 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 djil, jil, il. In Mongolic languages ' a year ' is cljil, djill, 
 and dil and zil in Burjat, &c. &c." 
 
 Am/, aim/, avi/s, "age," — "In the frontispiece the name 
 Ajax is spelt Aivas. This shows that the Etruscan letters 
 aiv were equivalent to cy. The word Aivil would there- 
 fore be equivalent to ajil. Now, in Turkish, ajil means 
 ' future, to come,' and the differentiated form ejel means 
 ' the appointed time of death.' The word has been sup- 
 posed to be of Arabic origin, but I should be inclined to 
 connect it with the Turkic and Mongolic words, jil, djil, and 
 zil, which mean ' a year.' . . . The form Avils, which is of 
 much more frequent occurrence than Avil, remains to be 
 explained. We have seen that the suffix s is the sign of 
 the Etruscan definite article, &c. &c." 
 
 CoRSSEN. — His analysis of the words Avil JRil amounts 
 to this : — (1.) As to Ril, it is either a plural form or a 
 singular ; if plural, the numerals, attached to it on the 
 inscriptions are cardinal numbers ; if singular, they are 
 ordinal ; he prefers to regard Ril as plural, and adds that 
 there is not one inscription in which Ril may not be trans- 
 lated "years old." (2.) As to Avil, he quotes Bourguet, a 
 French author, who translates it cetatis, and Lanzi, the 
 Italian, who regards it as an Etruscan adjective, and usually 
 translates it oetatem agens. Corssen says that Avil can- 
 not be the L. cetas, cevum, Gr. aion, for the ob, ai never 
 changes into the Etruscan a. As to derivation, he makes 
 Avil, Avils to be an adjective meaning " old," having the 
 same suffix as juven-il-is or sen-il-is, and Ril to be the 
 Etruscan rite, L. ritus, Sans, ri-t-is, " going, flowing," 
 ri-ja-ti, " he goes." Ril, therefore, means " course of time," 
 " a year," is an accusative plural, and must be translated 
 annos.
 
 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF A COUNTRY, 195 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF A COUNTRY. 
 
 1. False, Mountains ; with which take 
 
 2. Falandum, the Sky. 
 
 1. Falandum, the Sky (Chap. IV.) 
 
 Our next Etruscan words are falcs^ " mountain," and 
 falandum, " the sky." The common root is fal, the ter- 
 minations are -ae — that is, -ai — and and-, which in Etruscan 
 was ant-, for the language had no d. On a cursory glance, 
 these terminations at once furnish presumptive evidence that 
 these Etruscan words may be Gadhelic, for -ai (cf. Etr. 
 antai) is a G. plural termination, as in calmai, "heroes, 
 champions," and in other words ; and -ant a is a common G. 
 adj. termination, as in fire-anta, " true, faithful," from 
 fior, "true," L. verus; in L. the -anta becomes -entus, 
 as in pulverulentus, " dusty," vinolentus, "drunken." 
 The remainder, then, is the root fal, which must have a 
 meaning that will apply either to a mountain or to the sky. 
 Evidently there was in the minds of the ancient word-makers 
 a connection between these two ideas, for we see it in the 
 Gr. ouranos, "heaven," as compared with ouros, Ionic for 
 ores, "a mountain," and the poetic ouros for horos, "a 
 boundary." And not only does philology establish a con- 
 nection between mountains and heaven, but mythology also 
 adds its testimony, for the Hindus have their mountain of
 
 196 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 Meru, the fabled seat of their gods and the abode of all the 
 blessed, the centre of the world ; in the Greek land the cloud- 
 compelling Zeus holds his court on Mount Olympus, and the 
 Babylonian gods had their Mount Albordsh ; in H., also, one 
 of the names for heaven, marom, properly means "mountain." 
 
 To determine the ancestry and the proper application of 
 the root-syllable fal, we must, as formerly, follow the in- 
 ductive method, and examine the names for " sky," " heaven" 
 in other languages. 
 
 In English we have " sky," and " heaven," and " firma- 
 ment." Of these (1) sky properly means " a cloud," from 
 S. sku, "to cover," akin to which are the Gr. skia, "a 
 shadow," L. scutum, "a shield," Gr. skutos, "a hide," 
 and in the Celtic dialects G.-I. sgiath {th silent), "a 
 shield, a protection," Corn, sgeth, " a shadow " (cf. G. 
 targaid, q.v.) ; (2) Heaven is that which is " heaved up" ; 
 and (3) Firmament refers to the firm, fixed immobility of 
 the upper region of the sky, as compared with the shifting 
 clouds below (cf. Gr. stere5ma). 
 
 In German, himmel, " heaven, sky," comes from 
 heim-eln, " to cover," and this root-meaning shows itself 
 in heim, " home," equivalent to the L. tectum, the " cover- 
 ing " abode of man; also in heimlich, "secret," as if 
 ^'covered," and in the other meaning of himmel, "a 
 canopy, a roof," as in himmelbett, "a canopy-bed." 
 
 The L. coelum, "heaven," is always written with ce, from 
 •a belief that it comes from the Gr. koilos, "hollow," as if 
 the " hollow " vault above us ; if so, the word coelum is 
 unique as a name for " heaven," for there is no other name 
 of the same kind, and the idea seems to have been foreign 
 to the minds of the ancients in this connection ; and as my 
 investigations have led me to regard the Greek element in 
 the Latin language as intrusive, I would spell the word
 
 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF A COUNTRY. 197 
 
 celum, and take it from the G. ceil, " to cover, to hide," L. 
 celo, and thus bring it into harmony with himmel and sky. 
 
 In Greek, ouranos, equivalent to our "heaven," is from 
 the Gr. root air-o, G. eir-ich, "to heave, to lift up," like 
 the E. heaven, from A.-S. haefen, "to raise"; the Gr. 
 " sky" is aither, a(th)er, "the air," to which corresponds G. 
 athar, "sky, air," and A.-S. lyft, " the firmament," from 
 Teutonic luft, " air, atmosphere." 
 
 The Hebrew has several words for " firmament " and 
 "sky" — (1) shechakim means "expanses"; (2) shama- 
 yim, like marom, expresses the " height" of heaven; (3) 
 rakia, "the firmament," from a root raka, "to beat out," 
 as it were, a metal ; the Mosaic conception of the rakia being 
 that of a solid " expanse," covering the earth (for the heavens 
 are " spread out as a curtain "), and separating the waters 
 above from the waters below. The Homeric idea is quite 
 consistent with this ; for, to the Greeks of that age, the 
 ouranos is like an expanse of metal, iron or copper, with 
 the stars as golden lamps fixed in it ; the Romans, also, 
 spoke of the stars as " afftxa ccdo" and hence the notion 
 that the stars might lose their hold and drop from heaven. 
 
 This analysis shows that names for " heaven," " sky " in 
 English, German, Greek, and Hebrew are formed from roots 
 that mean (1) to cover, (2) an expanse, (3) the air, (4) height, 
 heaved up, raised. Let us now apply this knowledge to the 
 investigation of the Etruscan root fal. 
 
 We have already seen that the Ger. himmel is connected 
 with heim, " a covering, a house." Heim is the same as 
 the E. ham, as in hamlet, and in the geographical names 
 Chippen-ham, Walt-ham, and others. In Celtic districts 
 this Teutonic -ham is not found, but instead of it, baile, 
 " a village, a hamlet," as in I. Ballyshannon, Ballybeg, 
 and G. Balgreen, Balfron. The G. bal, then, is the same
 
 198 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 in meaning as the Teutonic ham, and balis not unlike the 
 Etr, root fal '\vl falce, falandum. The root fal, then, pro- 
 bably means " to cover." 
 
 Laying fal aside for a little, let us trace the root ham, 
 and for this purpose I go to the Hebrew, for the antiquity 
 of that language cannot be doubted ; and if there are in it 
 any simple roots which exist also in the Aryan languages, 
 these roots belong to the integral language of mankind. 
 
 Of the many verbs in H. which mean " to cover," one is 
 ab-ab, " to cover, to hide, to lie hid," whence the noun ab, 
 " darkness, a cloud." This verb begins with H. guttural 
 letter ain, which in Ger. is represented by In, and in G. by 
 g Otxlc; and as the 6 on Oriental lips sounds like m, the H. 
 root ab gives the Ger. heim (ham), "a house, a covering," 
 the G.-I. cabh, " a house," with its diminutive caban, " a 
 cottage, a tent, a l^ooth," E. cabin, and this derivation is 
 supported by the H. caphar, " a hamlet," from the verb 
 caphar, "to cover." If the G. cabh (cab) is written 
 with m instead of h (see tuber), and the c hard changed 
 into t (see teine), we have the L. dom-us, and, with the 6 
 retained, theL. tab-erna, " a hut." The G. for "a house" 
 is taigh, tigh, where the gh seems to be a soft representa- 
 tive of hli or mh. In old G., taim meant "a hamlet, a 
 town," still, however, in the sense of covering, for taimh-leac 
 means the stone that " covers" a grave. Tam, taim, then, 
 is a legitimate G. word, and from it, I have no doubt, comes 
 the L. domus, "a house." I shall have more to say regard- 
 ing the word taigh when I come to the Etr.-L. word toga, 
 but at present it is interesting to observe that taimh is the 
 older form, and gives taigh, "a house," L. tego, K. toi, ty, 
 " to cover." To the change of the v or / in taimh into gli 
 in taigh, there is something of a parallel in the Sicilian 
 ciore {i.e., chiore) for the Italian fiore, '' a flower."
 
 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF A COUNTRY. 199 
 
 Further, some of the H. verbs " to cover " mean also " to 
 cover with boards or beams," such as the verbs ahaz and 
 saphan; in this sense the H, verb caphar, again, may 
 give the G. cabar, Arm. ceibr, Corn, keber, " a rafter, 
 a big stick," also " a deer," from its branchy horns ; cf. It. 
 palco, " the head, horns of a stag." Tossing the cabav, the 
 branch of a tree, is a thoroughly Highland pastime, a trial of 
 strength and dexterity, while to bring home the " cabar fae" 
 the "deer's horns," is a proof of successful prowess as a hunter. 
 But in K., the H. caphar, by softening the initial consonant, 
 gives the noun wybr, wybren, " the sky, the clouds," that 
 which " covers" the earth; with this compare L. nubes, " a 
 cloud," L. nubo, " I veil," and the Ger. himmel. When 
 we come to the Etruscan bird-names, we shall have occasion 
 to examine the H. verb anaph, " to cover," in its contracted 
 form (a)uph, but of that verb other forms in H. are canaph, 
 "to cover," and anan, ganan, canan, "to cover" with clouds, 
 whence H. anan, "a cloud." This root gan, can exists in 
 G., which has gangaid, "falsehood, deceit," ganaid, "a 
 fence, a fold," canach, "deceit," and gun, "a woman's 
 gown." With gun compare L. toga, "a gown," from 
 tego, "I cover"; with gangaid compare H. bagad, "to 
 cover," "to defraud," and with ganaid, "a fence," compare 
 H. sacak, " to cover, to protect, to hedge in." From anaph, 
 by abrasion or by metathesis, I form the G. neamh, K. nef, 
 " heaven," that which " covers," Gr. nephos, nephele, G. 
 neul, "a cloud," L. nubes, nubo. From these examples, 
 and from others which are still to follow, I reject the common 
 derivation of L. coelum, and ascribe it to G. ceil, " to cover," 
 as explained above ; from tliis root I would take also the E. 
 cloud, which has puzzled lexicographers so much that one 
 of them declares, " I have not found this word in any other 
 language"; and another is so hard pushed for an etymology
 
 200 THE ETEUSCANS. 
 
 that he derives it from clod! I believe that cloud is a 
 metathesis for culod or ceold, from the root ceol, ceil, 
 cul (cf. L. occulo), "to cover," with the common formative 
 d, as in bran-d from brenn, "to burn," and flood from 
 flow. 
 
 Now, as to our Etruscan word falcB, the Celtic dialects 
 are rich in words to mean " heaven, sky, the firmament," 
 as G.-I. neamh flaitheanas, speur, athar, iormailt, 
 failbhe, K. nef, wybr. Of these, failbhe and flaith- 
 eanas concern us now, for they both contain the root fal, 
 which we have in the Etr. falcB and falandwn. I cannot 
 find a trace of this root in the Hebrew ; although it shows 
 itself in the Ar. falak, " sky, heaven," and falgu, " a sooth- 
 sayer." The root is found in its purest form in G., where 
 it gives fal, " to enclose, hedge in " (cf. ganaid and sacak, 
 as above), fal, fail, " a penfold, a fence, a wall," fal-aich, 
 " to cover, veil, conceal, hide," falach, " a veil, a covering, 
 a hiding-place." The Scotch have a proverb, " Every man 
 bows to the bush he gets hidd frae," in allusion to the 
 obsequiousness which patronage begets. The word bield 
 here means " shelter, protection, a guardian, a house," the 
 " lee side " — all in the sense of " covering." It comes from 
 our root bal, fal. Another spelling of this root gives the 
 G. folaich, " to cover, hide," foladh, " a covering, a screen," 
 folaid, "a veil," and an old word foladh, which has the 
 meaning of " power, strength, ability, manly vigour"; similar 
 in its application to the H. verb koa, which see. From 
 this word foladh — that is, faladh — and taking with it the 
 G. noun ball, which see, and bal locks, a word used in 
 Lancashire, I think the Gr. p hallos contains not only the 
 ideas of roundness and of covering, but also of " protecting," 
 for the L. fascinum, which is equivalent to the Gr. phallos, 
 if fastened to the chariot of the Roman general when he
 
 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF A COUNTRY. 201 
 
 entered the city in triumph, was supposed to " protect " liim 
 from envy and the evil eye. In the same way, the Etruscan 
 bulla (root ball) was an amulet, somewhat in the shape of 
 the phallos, worn on the breast of the young to " protect " 
 them from harm. In a similar manner, an Egyptian child 
 also sometimes wore the symbol of truth and justice as a 
 bulla. Fascinum itself seems to be a G. word, for it looks 
 like the G. faisgeadh (liquid n for dli) ; in modern G. this 
 means " a j)en or sheep-fold," the same as G. fal, " a fold," 
 but the other meaning must have belonged to it, for it is 
 derived from the G. verb faisg, " to press," used in the 
 same sense as the H. koa. 
 
 From the G. fal, "to cover over, conceal fraudulently" 
 (cf H. bagad), I take the L. verb fallo, " I deceive," and 
 from the same root in the sense of " protection " I take the 
 G. flath, flaith — that is, fal-th — " a champion, a hero, 
 a lord, a prince " (cf root tar). Here I observe, in passing, 
 that the G. tli is a personal sufl&x, as it is in the Etr. 
 Lar-th, Van-tk, hin-th-ial, and other words. From 
 flaith the G. forms flaitheas, "the heavens," literally the 
 sky that " covers." But flaitheas, passing into the idea of 
 " protection," also means " sovereignty, dominion, princeli- 
 ness," another independent testimony to my analysis of Etr. 
 drtma (q.v.), and of the meaning of the name Turrhenoi 
 from the root tar, dar, tri, " to protect." From the root 
 fal, " to cover," I take the G. ailt, as if failt, " a house," 
 and through the G. substantive folach, " a covering, a 
 screen, a mask," I get the Ger. wolke, " a cloud," E. 
 welkin, " the sky," that which " covers," and from the 
 same root the G, failbhe, "the firmament," an ortho- 
 graphical mistake for fail-eamh, faileabh. 
 
 The K. form of the root fal is pil, "a rind," pill, "a 
 castle, a fortress, a secure place"] also from it pilyn, "a
 
 202 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 garment," G. falluinn, "a mantle, a garment," L. palla, 
 " a mantle," worn by Roman ladies over the stola ; also the 
 Belg. faille, a garment still worn by Belgian women. The 
 G., also, has pill, "a sheet, a covering," and peall, "to 
 cover." 
 
 After all these examples, I think there can be little 
 doubt that the Etr. falaiidtmi, " the sky," is taken from 
 the G. root fal, " to cover," for of all the European languages 
 that I have examined, the G. adj. -form fal -ant a is the 
 nearest approach to the Etr. word. 
 
 2. Fal^, Mountains. 
 
 Now that the derivation of falandum^ " the sky," has 
 been determined, it might be sufficient to say that the Etr. 
 falcs, " mountains," is connected with falanduni in the 
 same way as Gr. ouros, oros, "a mountain," is allied to 
 ouranos, " the heaven," for mountains " cover " or " protect " 
 a country, and the tutelary gods look down benignly upon 
 the land from the cloud-cai^ped tops above. Indeed, I am 
 not quite sure that Pott is correct when he makes ouranos 
 to signify "height," for the Gr. noun ouros means "a 
 guard, a warder," one who " covers " or " protects," and 
 therefore ouranos may mean that which " covers." Another 
 Gr. noun ouros (Ionic form) means both " a mountain " 
 (oros) and "a boundary" (horos), and as mountains are 
 often the boundary-line between countries and provinces 
 (cf. G. beinne, bean, "a hill," L. fines, "boundaries"), I 
 would suggest a derivation oi falcB in the sense of " covering, 
 protecting." 
 
 But it is more likely that the idea in falcB is that of 
 "separating," just as H. gebal, "a mountain," is taken 
 from the verb gabal, " to bound, to limit," originally " to 
 twist as a rope," like L. finis, " an end," funis, " a rope."
 
 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF A COUNTRY. 203 
 
 I therefore go to the primal root — S. phal, H. pal or 
 par, which means " to cleave, to separate." In G. it is 
 commonly the root-form par that is used, as pairt, "a 
 share," pairtich, "to share" (L. pars and partior), but 
 sometimes with an initial /, as foir, "a border" (L. ora), 
 fair, "a ridge, a hill." From the root-form pal the H. has 
 peleg, " a river, a stream," Gr. pelagos, " the sea," because 
 it " divides, separates," with which compare L. mare, " the 
 sea" (from par), that which " separates," and E. bourne, 
 "a boundary, a limit," taken with A.-S. Scotch, burn, 
 "a rivulet"; from the form pal, bal the Gr. has bale, "a 
 ridge, a boundary," and (with iom, "roundabout," prefixed) 
 iomall — that is, iomball, " a border, a boundary, frontiers." 
 From this G. root, in this sense, may come the Etr. falcE, 
 "mountains," like Gr. oros, "a mountain," and horizo, "I 
 bound," but in G. the only cognate that has that meaning 
 is fair, " a hill." And this G. word fair, besides meaning 
 " a rising ground or hill," from which an extensive view 
 may be obtained, also means " a watch-hill, a watching " 
 (see Feronia), and as Hesychius in his dictionary explains 
 ^tv. falcs by Gr. ore, skopiai (which latter word, coming 
 from the Gr. skopeo, "I watch, I look, I survey," exactly 
 corresponds with G. fair, " a watch-hill "), I believe that the 
 Etr. /ales comes from the G. fair, and that is only another 
 form of G. fail, fal. 
 
 But the discriminating reader has now the choice of two 
 G. etymologies of the Etr. falcs, either from fal, "to 
 separate," or from fal, " to cover." 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 Donaldson. — '' Falandum, 'the sky.' 'Falas dictoe 
 ab altitudine, a falando, quod apud Etruscos significat 
 coelum ' (Festus). This is generally connected with Gr.
 
 204 THE ETEUSCANS. 
 
 phalantJion, ' bald.' Or we might go a step farther, and 
 refer it to Gr. ijlmllo, phalos, &c., which are obviously 
 derived from Gr. phaos" 
 
 Lindsay. — Falandtt7n. — " From u/, ' up,' and land, 
 ' region.' Equivalent to ' the upper region,' like O.N. 
 upplieinir, the name by which heaven was known to the 
 Jotuns or giants, who, I apprehend, were, in an historical 
 sense, the ancestors of the Tyrrheni and Tyrki. Falandum 
 may be the same word as Olympus, the nd taking the form 
 of m or mp, as is often the case — e.g., in lirae, linde, 
 Flamand, Flandrensis, &c., the nd usually prevailing in 
 the northern dialects of the common language." 
 
 Taylor. — "Falandum, according to Festus, was an 
 Etruscan word which meant ' the sky.' From Hesychius 
 and Festus we also learn that Falce meant mountains, and 
 that they were so called from their ' height,' ' ah altitudine.' " 
 This author adds a list of Ugric words in which the root- 
 form Jil, pit, pel, hoi, wyl enters into the composition of 
 words meaning " high," " mountain," " cloud," " sky." 
 
 CORSSEN. — " These words are related to Old Norse hdlhr, 
 'an enclosure,' Ahd. halco, 'a beam, a rafter,' Ital. halco, 
 palco, ' a scaffold,' Span. Fr. halcon, ' a balcony.' "
 
 PERSONAL NAMES. 205 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PERSONAL NAMES. 
 
 1. NepOS, a Profligate. 
 
 2. Subulo, a Flute-player. 
 
 3. Lanista, a Gladiator. 
 
 4. Hister, a Stage-player. 
 
 5. Ludio, a Player. 
 
 6. Agalletor, a Boy. 
 
 7. Burrus, a Red('?)-nosed Man. 
 
 8. Camillus, a Messenger. 
 
 1. Nepos, a Profligate, a Debauchee. 
 
 Other writers have observed that there can be no connec- 
 tion between the Etr. word nepos, " a debauchee," and the 
 L. nepos, "a grandson," and truly; for there is probably 
 no language in which these two ideas are so associated as to 
 be expressed by the same word. 
 
 The Etr. nepos has been referred to the Albanian nepes, 
 "a glutton," but this does not throw much light on the 
 matter, for we still inquire where the Albanian language got 
 this word, and what is its derivation, for, to be Etruscan, it 
 must belong to one of the oldest of languages. The G. has 
 neomhas and neomhasarra in the sense of "intemperate, 
 excessive, beyond measure," and if, in this word, the rail be 
 written without the aspirate, and the m pronounced as 6 in 
 the Oriental fashion, we have a word neobess, which would
 
 206 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 easily change into Etr. {nepes) nepos, "intemperate, profli- 
 gate." Here, again, I maintain that the word which can 
 give a satisfactory account of itself, can exhibit its component 
 parts, and show Avhat meaning they have, and whence they 
 come, belongs to a language older and less corrupt than 
 another which contains the word in a less intelligible form. 
 If, therefore, we examine the G. word neomheas, we find 
 neo to be the common negative prefix in G., with the same 
 meaning as the Gr. prefix an, and the L. in, "not," E. un. 
 The other part of the word is the G. measarra, "abstemi- 
 ous, temperate, sober," from the G. meas, "a measure," 
 meas, "to reckon, to calculate, to weigh," L. met-ior, E. 
 meas-ure; this word meas gives also the G. mios, "a 
 month," K. mis, L. men sis. It is connected with some of 
 the oldest root-families in the world, for it is the S. root 
 ma, mad, "to measure," mana, "measure," Z. meete, 
 mat^, Gr. met-ron, Ger. messen; the Semitic has 
 madad, "to measure," and bath for math, "a measure." 
 This root, then, meas, meet, mad, is a part of the original 
 language of mankind, and the prefix neo is the same as the 
 Gr.-L. inseparable negative ne, as in Gr. nepenthes and 
 L. nefastus, and this ne is older than the other forms an 
 and in. I conclude, therefore, that the G. neomhas, in 
 both its parts, is old enough to give the Etruscan nepos y 
 " an intemperate man." 
 
 It might be interesting here to inquire, if we had any 
 materials for the inquiry, whether the Etruscan word was 
 nepos or nepes, neps or nepot, nept. If its final con- 
 sonant was s, then it is nearer the G, for the other cognates 
 have the consonant d or t. From the analogy of the Etrus- 
 can numeral form sesphs, I should say that nepos is the 
 Latinised form of the Etruscan nephes or nephs, and, if 
 so, then the G. neomhas is very near to the Etruscan,
 
 PERSONAL NAMES. 207 
 
 for in G., m, h, and p aspirated are all pronounced very 
 much alike. 
 
 The L. nepos, "a grandson," cannot contain the same 
 component parts, for the vowel e in Etr. nepos, according 
 to our analysis, is long, but in L, nepos it is short. The 
 L. nepos, "a, grandson," is also a primitive word, but its 
 parentage is different; it is connected with 0. P. napat, 
 Z. napo, modern P. napa, and Gr. a-neps-ios. In S., 
 pit-ri is "a father," put-ra, "a son," put-ri, "a daughter," 
 paut-ra, "a. grandson," napt-ri, "a grandson," with which 
 compare P. pura, "a son," nabir, "a grandson," and 
 nabasa, "a daughter's child." The S. na-pt-ri is evidently 
 formed from pitri, "a father," where pat is the root and ri 
 is the formative; the same prefix na occurs in P. na-bir 
 and na-basa, and probably has the meaning of " derived 
 from," "sprung from"; we have it in L. ne-pos. In a 
 similar manner, but by a suffix, the Gr. forms hu-id-eos, 
 " a grandson," from huios, "a son," and thugatr-id-eos, 
 "a grandson," from thugater, "a daughter." 
 
 The syllable p5t- in the L. nepos is the paid of the 
 Greeks, but I do not think that L. nepos has any direct 
 connection with the Gr. language ; I take it to be the same 
 as in S. put-ra, "a son." But who brought this p5t- into 
 Rome? Not the Greeks, but the Celts, whose piuthair 
 (a corruption of puith-air) is the same word as S. put-ra. 
 The ra of the S. and the air of the G. are the same forma- 
 tive syllable ; the root is put- or puit, and the G. puit, 
 with the prefix ne (S. na), gives L. (nepuit, nepoit) 
 nepot. 
 
 Further, in the G. puithair, the th is, as usual, silent, 
 and the word is pronounced pcuir, with which compare P. 
 pur, and Spartan poir, for pais, "a son"; indeed, in the 
 Cornish dialect piuthair is written piur, and thus I get
 
 208 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 the L. puer, "a boy." And even the Gr. hui-os may be 
 formed from puith, through such words as phui-th-os, 
 fui-th-os changing into hui-os. Again, in the Etruscan 
 mortuary inscriptions, the word puia frequently occurs, 
 and sometimes the forms puius, fuius, puil. These 
 all bear a strong resemblance to the G. puith-; the 
 second of them shows the G. word on its way to the Gr. 
 huios. 
 
 And yet, strange to say, piuthair in G. means "a sister," 
 not " a son." Words, however, with that termination are 
 in G. usually masculine, sometimes feminine, so that origin- 
 ally piuthair was in all likelihood of both genders, like 
 Gr. pais, and meant "a son or daughter"; then, when 
 G. mac (K. map, ap) was fixed to mean "son," and G. 
 inghean (which seems to be the S. angana, "a woman") 
 to mean " daughter," piuthair seems to have been restricted 
 to the meaning of " sister." The loose way in which words 
 denoting relationship floated about in the mouths of the 
 earliest nations is illustrated by the use of the H. ah, "a 
 brother," to mean "a nephew," and H. achoth, "a sister," 
 to mean " a daughter," and even " a wife." Our lexicogra- 
 phers also connect E. nephew, Ger. neffe, with L. nepos, 
 but it is more directly connected with S. nava, "a grand- 
 son," and indeed in E. is sometimes used in that sense. In 
 the same way the G. ogha means either " a grandson " or 
 " a nephew." 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson. — Nepos, " a profligate." Festus — " Nepos 
 luxuriosus a Tuscis dicitur." Probably, as MuUer suggests, 
 the word which bears this meaning is not from the same root 
 as the Siculian nejyos, "a grandson" (Gr. neiwus, anepsios, 
 Ger. neffe). Many etymologies have been proposed, but I
 
 PERSONAL NAMES. 209 
 
 am not satisfied with any of them. Might we connect the 
 word with ne-potis, Gr. ahrates, akolastos ? 
 
 Lindsay. — Nepos, "a spendthrift " — Festus. The same 
 word, I conceive, as the Latin nepos, " a nephew or grand- 
 son," but with a further moral signification, as collaterally 
 develoj)ed in the Teutonic dialects proper, and identical in 
 both respects with our familiar knaho, hnapi, " boy," or 
 " knave." 
 
 Taylor. — This is one of the Etruscan words which have 
 been retained in the Albanian language, which gives us 
 nepes, " a glutton." 
 
 2. SuBULO, a Flute-player. 
 
 There is no other word on which I have found it so 
 difficult to form a clear and decided opinion as subulo, for, 
 stripping it of its termination -on, in Etr. -un, I find it hard 
 to say whether subul- is compounded of sub and ul, or is 
 merely a derived form of the root sub. 
 
 The Etruscan subulo was the Roman tibicen, and gave 
 the music at feasts, whether sacrificial, funereal, or convivial. 
 He held in his hands two pipes or reeds pierced with holes ; 
 the ends of these reeds he inserted together in his mouth, 
 and blew through them ; then covering or opening the holes 
 with his fingers, he produced a clear whistling sound, with 
 lively modulations, suitable as an accompaniment to lyric 
 poetry, and to the praises of gods and heroes. The pipe 
 itself was, in its earliest form, merely a stout straw, then a 
 reed or a cane. The fistula or syrinx of the Grecian Pan 
 was only an arrangement of several pieces of reed (arundo, 
 calamus) of different lengths, bound together, and applied 
 to the mouth in such a manner that the player could readily 
 blow into any one of them. Surigx in Gr. means any 
 " pipe " or " tube," and surigma means "a whistling sound,"
 
 210 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 similar to a boatswain's call. The L. equivalent for surigx 
 is fistula, which also means " a pipe, a reed, a cane," and 
 is the same word as our E. whistle. Now, the G. fead, 
 fead-an, means "a reed, a pipe"; from fead there is the 
 G.-I. derived form feadail, " a whistling," which, by the 
 insertion of s, would give L. fistula, and E. whistle. 
 Therefore, from the words fead-ail and fistula, I infer that 
 the -ul in Etr. subulo is merely a termination. The E. 
 to whisper, Ger. fliistern, has the same initial syllable as 
 whistle, and is of the same root as fistula, the I being 
 intrusive, as in fliegen and other words. TheL. su-surr-us, 
 " a whisper," is formed from the root sur, as in surigx, 
 and since the n in surigx is long, and is represented by 
 surr in L., it may be that the Gr. sur is a corruption of 
 suphr or subr, and thus an identity of origin may exist 
 between Gr. surigx and Etr. subulo. The L. sibilus, 
 " a hiss, a whistle," has the same consonants as Etr. subulo, 
 the vowels only being different. The Fr. has both siffler, 
 " to hiss," and souffler, " to blow, to breathe," and as these 
 are both Romance words, the L. probably had the two 
 forms sub and sib, or suph and siph. 
 
 Again, "fistula sutoria " is an expression used by Pliny 
 to mean a shoemaker's tool of some kind, and this, judging 
 from its name, must have resembled a reed or pipe ; and 
 we know that L. subula means " a shoemaker's awl," which 
 is in shape like a Phrygian pipe (tibia). Now, although 
 L. subula is usually said to come from L. suo, "I sew," 
 yet, as it is almost the same word as subulo, I doubt this 
 derivation. 
 
 From all these examples I feel assured that Etr. subulo 
 is not a compound word, but consists of the root sub, and 
 the formative terminations ul and on, and this view of the 
 word is supported by the G. word buabh-ul, "a bugle, a
 
 PERSONAL NAMES. 211 
 
 trumpet, a cornet," as if buabh (L. bub us, bob us, G. 
 baibb,) " oxen, cows," and the termination ul, ail, as in 
 fead-ail. 
 
 Now, it is not enough to say that the sub in subtilo is 
 the same root as the L. tub in tuba, and that Etr. s and 
 L. t are convertible, for there is no proof that it is so ; be- 
 sides, tuba in L. does not mean "a flute," but "a trumpet," 
 and the root sub is still left unexplained. But in the Celtic 
 dialects, s and t are interchanged as in the proper name,, 
 Sarran for Tharain, or Taran, and sinn for tinn (q.v.) 
 Thus the G. has tubh (for subh), "thatch, straw," or any 
 reeds with which a house is covered (and the early Phoenician 
 pipe was a short ''straw"); the G. has also siob-ag, "a 
 straw," and piob, "a pipe, a tube," the national "bagpipe "; 
 the K. form of piob is chwib, "a pipe, a whistle," and this 
 is the same as the root suib or sub, sib. From chwib 
 the K. forms chwiban, "a whistling," and chwibol, " a 
 tube," and this is the same word as the Etr. subulo. 
 
 In G., as mentioned above, the common word for " a pipe,. 
 a reed" is fead-an, which also means "a flute or flageolet," 
 also " the chaunter of the bagpipe " (the chaunter is per- 
 forated with holes like the Etr. subul), and, as a secondary 
 sense, it has the meaning of " a spout, a canal " ; is L. 
 canalis similarly formed from L. canna, " a reed, a bul- 
 rush " ? The G. piob is the root of Ger. pfeifen, "to 
 whistle, to pipe," E. pipe and fife, a wind instrument, in 
 which the mouthpiece is called " the reed." The G. fead,. 
 " a reed," by the insertion of I, as in fliegen, becomes Ger. 
 flote, E. flute, and, by the insertion of s, the L. fistula, 
 as above. Again, the word subh in G. is also written sugh, 
 just as L. tibia gives the Fr. tige; the A.-S. Scotch word 
 sugh means any " whistling sound," " a deep breathing or 
 sigh"; the A.-S. has sweg, "a sound," "a musical instrument,"
 
 212 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 and from the same root the Scotch has swesch, " a trumpet," 
 the same as the L. tuba. Of these root-forms, those which 
 cast light on our present inquiry are G. siob-, " a straw," 
 K. chwib, " a whistle," Sc. sugh, "a whistling sound." 
 
 This subh pipe was one of the earliest instruments of 
 man's invention, for the " organ " of which Jubal was the 
 " father " was nothing more than the syrinx or Pandean 
 pipe, and the word used in Genesis, chap, iv., ver. 21, to 
 designate this " organ " is ligab (initial ain), from the bi- 
 literal H. root agab, " to breathe, to blow." This root also 
 may give the Sc. sugh, "a breathing, a wind-sound." Another 
 H. word for " a reed " is suph, which also, like G. fead, 
 means " a bulrush." Gesenius says that the etymology of 
 this word is not known, but compares with it Da. sif, Ger. 
 schilf (I inserted), L. scirpus, to which add L. scipio. 
 From the root suph there is no difficulty in forming G. 
 siob-ag, "a straw," Gr. siphon, " a pipe," K. chwib ol, 
 '' a tube," and Etr. sub-ul-o, " a flute-player." 
 
 Horace, when he is speaking of female flute-players, calls 
 them ambubajse, which is an Eastern word compounded of 
 amb (L. ambo, Gr. amphi), in the sense of "double," and 
 sub, hub, "a pipe," the Etr. sub-. The Gr. sumphonia 
 (Daniel iii. 5) is also the " double pipe " (from Gr. sun, 
 "with," in the sense of "double," and phone, "sound, 
 voice "), but it is furnished with a bag ; hence sumphonia 
 is the Bagpipes — evidently an instrument of great antiquity. 
 
 From all these examples I conclude that the Etr. subul-^ 
 " the whistle-pipe," is a genuine Celtic word. 
 
 Opmions of Others. 
 Donaldson. — Compare sihilo, siphon, Silenus, siphloo, 
 aswphelos, and Fr. siffler, persifter, &c. 
 
 Lindsay. — From suh, soef, sif, " a reed " (a word of
 
 PERSONAL NAMES. 213 
 
 Egyptian and Semitic as well as Aryan antiquity), and 
 blahan, " to blow " — equivalent to " reed-blower." 
 
 Taylor. — The word subulo contains two roots. The 
 second is obviously the Turkic oidou, " a boy," a word which 
 has been identified with the Coptic alou, " boy." The other 
 root is the Coptic sub, " a reed," and the old Egyptian sb 
 or sba, "a, flute." We have also the Turkic chib-uk, "a 
 pipe," the Rhseto-Eomansch schiblot, " a flute," and the 
 Dacian seba. 
 
 CoRSSEN. — Connected with the L. sifilus, sibilus, sibilare, 
 Gr. siphlos, " hollow," and siphon, " a hollow thing, a pipe." 
 
 3. Lanista, a Gladiator. 
 
 Whatever objections may be urged against the Celtic 
 derivation of the other Etruscan words, there is little room 
 for cavil as to the paternity of lanista, for it is G. in its 
 every feature. In classic Latin, lanista means " a trainer of 
 gladiators, a fencing-master," but among the Etruscans it 
 seems to have been a name for " an executioner, a heads- 
 man," for Isidore says, " Lanista carnifex Tusca lingua 
 appellatus." 
 
 In G., lann is a common word for " a knife, a sword, a 
 blade," and the termination -iste is also G., as in such words 
 as mara-iste, sgaba-iste, like the Gr. soph-istes. The 
 G. mara-iste is the L. mar-itus, "a husband," one 
 mar-ried. This root-word lann does not exist in K., but we 
 have it in the Germanic lan-ce, lan-cet; in his eighth 
 book of the Gallic war, Hirtius uses lancea as a L. word 
 to mean " a spear, a lance," but he must have borrowed the 
 word from the Celts in Gaul. The original idea expressed 
 by lann is that of " brightness " (see Icena), and this is seen 
 intheG. lannar, "bright, gleaming," lannair, "splendour, 
 radiance, light," as reflected from the blade of a sword or
 
 214 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 any other bright metal, lannrach, "gleaming, burnished." 
 That this idea of " brightness " was associated of old with 
 the sword and the spear, is proved by a reference to the H. 
 nouns lahat, " a flame," hence the " flaming steel" of a sword, 
 and lahab, "a naked sword," "the glittering steel of a 
 sword or spear," and also from the nounbarak, " lightning," 
 which, in the book of Job, is used to mean " a glittering 
 sword." Our E. word brand, " a sword," from Ger. 
 brennen, "to burn," also illustrates the G. lann. In E. 
 we also speak of a thing as "brand new," when we mean 
 that it is " bright " in its newness. The H. root-verbs are 
 lahat, " to burn, to flame," and lahab in the same sense, 
 but with the primary idea of " licking," as in " lambent " 
 flame ; the former of these roots gives probably the G. las, 
 " to flame, to burn," with all its derivatives. 
 
 Cognate with lann is the G. adj. glan, "clear, bright, 
 pure," E. clean, and from it the Ger. glan-z, "bright- 
 ness, splendour," glan-z-en, "to shine, to glitter," E. 
 glance. This word glan is thoroughly Celtic, for it exists 
 in the same form in five Celtic dialects. The construct 
 form of glan is glaine, and as n is in G. the liquid sound 
 of dh, I take from glan the G. noun claide-amh, "a 
 sword," L. gladi-us. Thus the L. gladius and the Etr. 
 lanista are from the same root. 
 
 I here throw in a speculation of mine ; let it go for what 
 it is worth; it concerns the names — Etr. Seth-lan-s^the 
 L. Vul-can-us=Gr. Heph-aist-os — all three the same 
 deified manifestation of the subterranean fire. I view them 
 thus : — 
 
 Seth-laii-s = G. sios-lan = t]ie " under-fire." 
 Vul-can-us=G. fuidh-kain^the "under-fire." 
 Heph-aist-os = Gr. liupo-aith = the "under-fire." 
 
 The modern G. form of fuidh is fodha or fo, " under,"
 
 PERSONAL NAMES. 215 
 
 but fuidh would be a legitimate construct form in G. ; and 
 for the Gr. form kaino, " I burn," the G. has teine, " fire." 
 The final s in Seth-lan-s represents the Etr. personal 
 formative th, as in Van-th. 
 
 I do not know that lann exists in any other ancient 
 language to mean " a sword." I therefore claim Etr. 
 lanista as exclusively G., and with it I take the L. 
 lanius, "a butcher," from the same root. 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 Donaldson. — Compare lanius, &c.. from the root lac, 
 Lindsay. — From Ion, " hire," and hazus (that is, hatsus 
 
 or hastus), in the sense of " an athlete." Equivalent to " a 
 
 keeper of athletes for hire," or " one who professionally 
 
 trains athletes." 
 
 Taylor. — The first element seems to be Erse lann, " a 
 
 sword," and the second may be the word hister (Etr.), " a 
 
 player or actor." 
 
 4. Hister, a Stage-]player. 
 In classic Latin histrio means any "stage-player," "an 
 actor," but the Etr. hister, from which it is derived, had 
 a less general signification, for the action of the hister 
 was religious, as appears both from the statements of Livy 
 and from a fragment of Melito, who says : — " The gods 
 demand stage-players in their o^vn honour; the Romans 
 exclude the players from all civic honours." Livy says that 
 in Etruria the hister danced to the strains of a reed-pipe, 
 exhibiting graceful movements of the body without the 
 accompaniment of rhythmical verses. The religious aspect 
 of the hister s vocation may be gathered also from the 
 origin both of the Greek and the Roman drama. In Greece, 
 the chorus was originally a troop of dancers, the leading
 
 216 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 men of a tribe or of a commune, moving "round" (chorus 
 from root car, " to go round ") the altar of their god, and 
 thus engaged in silent religious worship. Then, at the 
 Dionysiac festivals, one of these dancers was wont to separate 
 himself from his companions, and, assuming the position of 
 profagonistes, or jfirst actor, to express the emotions of his 
 heart by mimic gestures, as the hister did in Etruria, 
 When this rude germ had blossomed into the classic drama, 
 the actors on the stage were three or four in number, but 
 the protagonistes was still the hero of the play, and told the 
 story either by soliloquy or in conversation with the chorus. 
 The Roman drama sprang from a similar religious feeling ; 
 for when a plague raged at Eome and could not be stopped 
 by any ordinary means, histriones were brought from 
 Etruria to appease the anger of the gods. The Roman 
 youths, pleased with the new mode, adopted the move- 
 ments and the music, but added jocularities which they 
 cast at one another in rude verse ; thus the histrio was no 
 longer a religious character. At a somewhat later period of 
 the drama's development, a slave was brought on the stage 
 to chant the story of the play, while the chief actor did the 
 dancing and the gesticulation. Thus arose the drama of 
 the Romans. 
 
 The hister, then, was merely a dancer or gesticulator 
 engaged in a religious solemnity, just as King David, in 
 solemn joy, danced before the Ark of God. The Roman 
 ludio, equivalent to the Etr. histrio, had also a religious 
 aspect, for there were in Rome Indi in honour of the gods, 
 as the ludi Apollinares for Apollo, and the Megalesia for 
 Cybele. 
 
 In the sculptures on the walls of the Etruscan tombs we 
 see the hister dancing to the music of the subiUo ; the 
 manner of his dancing is not cyclic, but solo ; and the action
 
 PERSONAL NAMES. 217 
 
 consists of vigorous and varied movements of the legs and 
 arms. This solemn dancing, jumping, leaping, skipping, the 
 Romans called tripudium, on inscriptions tripodo, which 
 Cicero explains to be " terrce pavium," " a striking of the 
 ground " ; but Cicero was no etymologist. I think that it 
 contains the element ped, pod, "a foot," which I find also 
 in trepido (as if tripedo), " I move about in alarm." With 
 this I compare H. raka, rakad, primarily, " to beat the 
 ground with the feet, to skip through fear, or indignation, 
 or exultation, to dance, to tremble." The Gr., also, has 
 podo-ktupe, "a dancing-girl," the constituent parts of 
 which also mean " a striking with the feet." From H. 
 raka', the Ar. has raks, "a dance," raki', " the performing 
 of inclinations of the body at prayers," and rukn, "the 
 rhythmical movement of verses." It is probable that this 
 word rak is a hardened form of the primitive root-word rag, 
 "to move," specially the foot, whence H. regel, "a foot, 
 step, pace, gait," and ragal, "to move the feet, to tread, to 
 tread garments" in washing them, and ragzah, "trepidation, 
 trembling"; with these compare H. cha-rag, " to shake, 
 to tremble, to leap." All these words show that " trepidation, 
 dancing, rhythmical movements of the feet," and even 
 " bodily worship," are cognate ideas. Now, the G. verb " to 
 move, to go " is rach (H. rag), but the word for " a foot " 
 is cas, cos, cois, which, in its use, exactly corresponds with 
 H. rSgel, for as regel means "step, pace," so does G. cois 
 cheum; and as reggl is used to mean " behind, after " any 
 one, so G. cois means "near, close by"; and as Ch. regaz, 
 H. ragaz, means " to be angry," and the H. rogez, " anger," 
 so G. cas means " to move hastily or in anger, to be angry," 
 and, as an adj., " eager, quick." In the classic languages 
 the c of cois becomes p (see kakos), whence Gr. pons (pod), 
 L. pes (ped), " a foot," and this p also exists in G. in the
 
 218 THE ETKUSCANS. 
 
 noun postadh, "a trampling with the feet," as in scouring 
 clothes (cf. H. ragal), from the verb post, "to tread, to 
 tramp." And any one who has seen this primitive process 
 of washing will at once recognise its antique simplicity, and 
 its resemblance to the active, vigorous movements in dancing. 
 Hence I say that casadair, coisadair, or postair, poistair 
 (legitimate G. forms which, if they existed now, would mean 
 " the treader, the dancer ") give the Etr. /lister ; poistair, 
 for instance, becomes phoi stair, then fistair, fister, which 
 gives hister, like hircus for fircus; and -adair is a 
 common G. termination to mean the agent or doer of an 
 action. 
 
 The derivation oftripudium which I have to offer sup- 
 ports this view of the Etr. hister^ and is in harmony with 
 the Gr. podoktupe and the H. rakad. The pud I take 
 to be pod, ped, G. cos, cas, " a foot," but what is the tri? 
 "We have seen that the hister was an offshoot of the chorus, 
 and that the chorus originated in the festivals of Dionysus ; 
 in these the worshippers rehearsed the honours of their god 
 in frenzied dithyrambs of song, and with vehement move- 
 ments of the body — the legs, the arms, the head — and with 
 the noisiest mirth, they skipped, they leaped, they bounded. 
 'We have no evidence that the talents of the Etr. hister were 
 employed only in the worship of Phuphbmth, the Etruscan 
 Dionysus or Bacchus, but it is clear that his movements were 
 not wanting in liveliness. If we find, then, that the tri in 
 tripudium denotes a lively movement, we shall not be 
 violating the probabilities of the case. Now, the G. verb 
 "to skip, to hop, to leap, to bound," is frith-leum; the 
 leum (q.v.) means " to leap," and the frith at once calls up 
 the Ger. frisch, " brisk, vigorous." The G. has three 
 forms of the word — frith, crith, and clith or clis. The 
 noun frith means " wrath, an angry look" (cf H. rag-az),
 
 PERSONAL NAMES. 219 
 
 and friogh, another form, means "sharp, keen, piercing," 
 andfriot is " fretfulness, impatience." Again, the G. crith, 
 crioth, creath means " to shake, to tremble," a word which 
 would aptly describe the frenzied movements of the Bac- 
 chanals; and cli, clith means " vigom*, power of motion" 
 (cf. S. rag, "to move") ; clis means " active, nimble," and 
 cleas means any " bounding, leaping movement," a warlike 
 exercise similar to those of the Gr. purrhike, or "war- 
 dance." To this hour the Gaels use the name fir-chlis 
 (the " active men ") to describe the darting, skipping lights 
 of the Aurora Borealis, while the Scotch call them the 
 "Merry Dancers." 
 
 From all this I conclude that the tri in tripudium is 
 the G. cli, clith, crith (th silent). Tripudium then will 
 mean the nimble, active movements of the feet of the hister 
 — such movements as surprised and delighted the Roman 
 youth, and led to the imitations which gave birth to the 
 Roman drama. This derivation is also fully applicable to 
 the use of tripudium in the augural phrase "tripudium 
 solistimum," for the omen was favourable when the chickens 
 in the coop rushed forward with eager movements (clis, 
 cleas) to eat the grain that was thrown down before them. 
 The Egyptians had a similar method of obtaining omens ; 
 the priest, with his hand, offered some food to the sacred 
 bull Apis ; if he readily and eagerly took it, the omen was 
 good. 
 
 Although I regard this derivation of tripudium and of 
 hister as well-founded, yet it may be that my estimate of 
 the function of the hister is too narrow, and that the word 
 was used by the Etruscans to mean any " stage-player " in 
 general. If so, I should regard hister as another form of 
 fear-sgear, or of fios-adair. The G. noun sgearadh 
 means "a stage-play"; sgearach, sgearail mean "happy,"
 
 220 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 as if " skipping for joy " ; these must be very ancient words, 
 for they are formed from sgear, the same as Gr. skairo, 
 " I leap, bound, dance." The prefixed word fear is the L. 
 vir, "a man," and fearsgear is therefore "the man who 
 leaps or skips in the play"; the derivation of this word 
 proves its antiquity and illustrates the original meaning of 
 the Etr. luster; by contraction, fearsgear becomes fisger, 
 fister, /lister, as before. 
 
 The Gr. fiosadair similarly may become fisder, hister; 
 here -adair is the formative termination already mentioned, 
 and fios means "notice, a message, word, knowledge, art" ; 
 fiosadair would thus mean " the one who has knowledge," 
 or " who brings intelligence " to his fellows, and this was 
 the function of the protagonistes at least. 
 
 5. LuDio, a Player. LuDUS, a Play. 
 
 The Eomans translated hister by ludio, from ludus, 
 " play, sport, a game," and this is an Etrusco-Latin word. 
 As the derivation of ludus illustrates my present topic, it 
 may be profitable to introduce it here. 
 
 The Gr. word for " play, sport, pastime, a theatrical per- 
 formance," is cluiche or cluithe, which comes from cleas, 
 clis, as above; and cluithe, by dropping its initial con- 
 sonant, easily becomes L. ludus, ludio. The ch, however, 
 of the form cluiche remains in the Etr.-L. word lucar, 
 " money paid to actors." The G. form with initial c — that 
 is, h — is the L. ludus, and resembles the S. keli, "play, 
 sport, pastime," whence kelikila, "a jester, a buffoon." 
 From this S. form keli it is evident that the G. is older 
 than the L., for the G. retains the h of keli, but theL. 
 has lost it; the uithe of the G. word is merely the forma- 
 tive termination -uidh; the L., therefore, retains only one 
 letter of the original root. The K. word for " play, sport.
 
 PERSONAL NAMES. 221 
 
 pastime," is chwarau, and I believe that the idea of " skip- 
 ping " underlies this word also, for it is only another form 
 of the G. sgear ; and the K. chwai, " swift, speedy, quick," 
 corresponds with the Gr. clis. By comparison with Gr. 
 sgear-ach, " happy," I am led to say that the K. chwarau, 
 the G. sgear, and the Gr. skairo, are all the same word as 
 Gr. chairo, " I am glad," for the Gr. derived adj. charieis 
 means "graceful" (sc, in movements), "elegant, lovely." 
 
 It is evident from passages in the historical books of the 
 Old Testament, and from the numerous testimonies of heathen 
 writers, that feasting and sport were the necessary con- 
 comitants of the earliest forms of all idolatrous worship ; for 
 " the people," after the sacrifice, " sat down to eat and drink, 
 and rose up to play"; there was always a feast on a sacrifice. 
 Such were the Eoman ludi, especially the Apollinares and 
 the funehres, and in the scenic sports which followed these 
 celebrations the Izidio and the hister had an important 
 place. 
 
 Connected with the Ivbdi funehres are the Etr. words 
 zilach, zilachnu, which see. 
 
 6. For Etr. agalletor, " a boy," see Chap. lY. 
 
 7. For Etr. bttrriis, " a red(?)-nosed man," see Chap. III. 
 
 8. For Etr, camillus, " a messenger," see Chap. IV. 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson. — Hister. — The root is the pronoun i-, or 
 hi-, which also enters into the cognate words i-mit-or, Gr. 
 i-sos, eik-on, and appears in the termination of oleaster. 
 Ludus is connected with the roots l(Edo (comp. cndo, coedo), 
 Gr. loidoros, lizo, lastho, " to play." Consequently it ex- 
 presses on the one hand the amusement afforded by the 
 gesticulations of the ludio, and on the other hand indicates
 
 222 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 the innocent brandishing of weapons by the armed ludio, as 
 compared with the use of arms in actual warfare. This 
 latter sense was preserved by Indus to the last, as it signi- 
 fied the school in which the gladiators played or fenced with 
 wooden foils, preparatory to the bloody encounters of the 
 arena. 
 
 Lindsay. — Hister. — A pantomimic actor. From gasa, 
 jasa, " to jest " — a word corresponding to the character of 
 the hister. Equivalent to our English "jester." 
 
 Ludus. — Ludii,ludiones, "play, players." From leitjan, 
 led-ian, " to lead," their character being originally that of 
 leaders in the public processions, religious and civil. 
 
 Taylor. — Hister. — It seems to belong to the Aryan 
 root, from which "jester" is derived. 
 
 Ltidiis. — Among the Wotiaks, a pagan tribe of Finnic 
 blood, who dwell on the western slope of the Ural, the word 
 hid is still used as the designation of the holy places set 
 apart for sacrifices. 
 
 Excursus on the L. Homo, Vir, Mulier. 
 
 As a tail-piece to the personal names in this chapter, I 
 ofier a speculation on the etymology of the Latin word 
 homo. 
 
 My readers will be surprised when I say that I derive 
 homo, not from L. humus, " the ground," but from a G. 
 verb meaning " to think." The common derivation has 
 never appeared to me satisfactory. If homo had been 
 taken from some word signifying " red " or " earth " or 
 "clay," I could have accepted the derivation on the strength 
 of its analogy with the name Adam, or the story about 
 Prometheus; but humus, which properly means only the 
 surface of the earth (cf. L. humi, Gr. chamai, "on the 
 ground "), does not seem an appropriate source from which
 
 PERSONAL NAMES. 223 
 
 to draw a word that denotes " a member of the human 
 family"; and, besides, the derivation from humus does not 
 account for the n in homo (homin). The word man is 
 found in many languages — S. manu, Goth. manna, Ger. 
 mann, mensch. Da. man, D. man, N. man, Ic. mann, 
 Sax. man, mon, K. mynw, G. duine (in composition 
 muinn). 
 
 The word man comes from the S. verb man, "to think," 
 so that " man " is " the thinker, the creature that thinks " 
 — a term very appropriate to describe man as distinguished 
 from the rest of creation. I observe, first, that S. narah, 
 P. nar, C. ner ("a lord"), H. anesh, Gr. aner, anthr5pos 
 seem to have all the same root, but that the other words 
 given above — Teutonic and Celtic — evidently come from 
 the S. man, "to think." Homo seems to stand alone; it 
 belongs neither to the one band nor to the other. I observe, 
 next, that while homin has in it one feature that looks like 
 the S. man, yet the initial syllable is foreign to that root. 
 Where does this syllable come from ? Certainly not from 
 the Greek, for anthropos has not in any way helped to 
 shape the L. homo. The only other known factor of the 
 Latin language is the Celtic spoken by the tribes which 
 surrounded the nascent fortunes of Rome. Now, just as the 
 S. has the verb man, " to think," so the G. has the noun 
 smaoin (pronounced smuen), "a thought," which is merely 
 the S. word with 8 prefixed — a very common change on 
 words, as in E. melt, smelt; mar, smear; ward, sword. 
 There is not in modern G. any verb " to think " from which 
 smaoin, or smuain, as it is sometimes written, can be 
 formed, nor, so far as I can find, is there any trace of the 
 word at all in K., but the Irish, whoso language sometimes 
 retains words which the Gaels have lost, still use the verb 
 smuain, " to think." The G. word duine, " a man," plu.
 
 224 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 daoine, appears in composition under the form muinn (as 
 in muinntir, " inhabitants," literally " people of the land "), 
 which I take to be the original form of duine, for it is 
 closely allied to the S. man. I form homo from the 
 G.-I. verb smuain, "to think"; for smuain becomes 
 hmuin, then, by metathesis of the u, humin, which is 
 homin, homo. Moreover, Festus says that the old form 
 of hominem was hemonem; if so, the derivation from 
 the Gr. is still easier, for smaoin=sm5n=:hmon=hemon, 
 initial s in Celtic being convertible into h. If Festus is 
 right, the derivation from humus is wrong. 
 
 I am confirmed in this view of the derivation of homo 
 when I consider the meaning of the L. adjective humanus. 
 It means "what is proper to man as a member of the human 
 family," e.g., humanum est errare; but especially, " humane, 
 kind, courteous, polite," e.g., homo doctissimus et humanus. 
 The former meaning alone is appropriate, if homo comes 
 from humus, for the genus homo in his natural state is not 
 so remarkable for courtesy and kindness as that humanus 
 should develop itself into the higher and nobler meaning. 
 Then the word humanitas, although it is used to designate 
 our common " human nature and feelings and sentiments," 
 yet specially it denotes " philanthropy, kindness," &c., all the 
 qualities that distinguish man from the lower creation. 
 Hear what Trench says : " Meditate on the use of humani- 
 tas and (in Scotland, at least) of the ' humanities ' to desig- 
 nate those studies which are esteemed the fittest for traininsf 
 the true humanity in every man. ... By humanitas the 
 Roman intended the fullest and most harmonious culture of 
 all the human faculties and powers. Then, and then only, 
 man was truly man when he received this ; in so far as he 
 did not receive this, his humanity was maimed and imperfect, 
 he fell short of his ideal, of that which he was created to be."
 
 PERSONAL NAMES. 225 
 
 Now, in the words of language, and in our manner of 
 using them, whether we know their etymology or not, there 
 lurks a silent acknowledgment of the root-meaning from 
 which they spring. No writer of good English, for instance, 
 would ever use the word " tribulation " to mean an accident, 
 or even a single disaster. So I regard the adjective h umanus 
 and the noun humanitas as confessing their origin, when 
 they indicate the possession of those qualities and powers 
 which belong to man as a " thinking," civilised creature ; 
 the "humanities," the " literce humaniores" oi our Uni- 
 versities, do not strive to give our young men the external 
 skin-polish of moving statues — that may be obtained in 
 another school — they train them to be doctissimi et humani, 
 full of knowledge, and having all the culture of " thinking " 
 gentlemen. 
 
 Again, the adjective humanus is not formed from homo. 
 On the analogy of montanus, lateranus, and the like, an 
 adjective formed from homo ought to be hominanus, but 
 the old form hem onus (Festus) is quite regular, if homo 
 be derived from Gr. smaoin ; for the G. adjective from 
 smaoin, " thought," would be smaoinach, " having the 
 power of thought," which would give hemonach=:hemonus 
 =:humanus. 
 
 I offer this derivation of homo for consideration. If it is 
 well-founded, it furnishes a curious instance of the pertinacity 
 with which two nations, the Hindus and the Gaels, or the 
 Romans through them, have now, after many vicissitudes of 
 fortune, retained in their vocables, 3000 years from their 
 separation, a record of the discrimination which led them to 
 single out man as " the thinker." 
 
 In connection with homo, I may allude to the derivation 
 
 of L. vir, the distinguishing name for " a man, a husband, 
 
 a hero." The H. word corresponding with vir is geber, 
 
 Q
 
 226 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 which comes from gabar, "to be strong," The S. has 
 virah, "a hero, a warrior," the G.-I. has fear, "a man, a 
 husband," the K. gwr, wr. The G. fear in its construct 
 state is fir, which is the L, vir. It may be said, and has 
 been said, that G. fear, and similar words which bear a 
 strong resemblance to the Latin, are loan-words, borrowed by 
 the Gaels from the Latin; but (1) an ancient language like 
 the Celtic cannot have been so miserably poor in words as to 
 require to borrow from the Latin a name for so common an idea 
 as "a man"; and (2) if my facts, and examples, and argu- 
 ments in illustration of the etymology of these forty Etruscan 
 words be in any measure correct, then the Celtic is the older 
 language, and the Latin has borrowed from the Celtic. Now, 
 from gwr, wr, the Welsh form gwraig, wraig, "a woman"; 
 from this comes L. virgo (not virago), restricted in mean- 
 ing to " a young woman." In G. the equivalent to the K. 
 gwraig would be fearaig, but this exists now only in the 
 shortened form G.-I. fearg, which means "passion," "a 
 passionate person"; thus fearaig would give L. virago, "a 
 bold masculine woman." The obsolete fearaig is also con- 
 tracted in G. into frag, " a kind wife," and from this I take 
 the Ger. frau, while fear gives the Ger. herr. Does this 
 indicate the early occupation of Northern Europe by Celtic 
 tribes ? We know that the names of rivers in that quarter 
 are nearly all Celtic, and rivers are named by the earliest 
 inhabitants. 
 
 The L. mulier is the feminine equivalent for the L. vir. 
 We should have expected to see vir a, as filia from filius. 
 But the Latins did not use vira, probably from a conscious- 
 ness that the original meaning hidden in vir was that of 
 "a hero, a warrior " (S. virah), and also from a feeling that 
 a woman's vocation is to shine, not in warfare, but in the 
 practice of domestic accomplishments. In this sense I derive
 
 PERSONAL NAMES. 227 
 
 mulier from the G. muillear, "a miller" — one who turns 
 the " quern " stone, and grinds corn for her husband's meal. 
 Up to a very recent period the "quern" stone was in use 
 in the Highlands of Scotland, and the women might be seen 
 and heard sitting and singing before the door of the shieling, 
 just in the same manner as "two women" of old might be 
 seen " grinding at the mill," and just as Mungo Park found 
 the women engaged on the banks of the Niger. 
 
 It may be interesting to some British philologists to know 
 that the dialects spoken by some of the Austral-Negro 
 aborigines of New South Wales and Queensland exhibit, in 
 some points, a considerable resemblance to Sanscrit, Hebrew, 
 Gaelic, Greek, and Latin. Take a few examples : — 
 
 A boriginal. 
 
 MAN=giwir, gibbir (cf S. virah, H. geber, L. vir, G. 
 
 fear); kore (cf Gr. koros, "a lad"); tdhulla, 
 
 dullai (cf. G. duil, "a creature," Dul, "the 
 
 god of nature "). 
 WoMANminar (cf. P. nar, "a man"); kidn, jundal, gin- 
 
 aia (cf Gr. gune, gunaik-). 
 FATHER=babbin, buba (cf. Aramaean abba). 
 HEAD=ga, kaoga, kabui (cf. L. caput). 
 SUN=yarai, wirri (cf G. gearr, and Ger. jahr). 
 MoON=gille, julluk (cf. G. gealach). 
 
 Excursus on the Roman Name Caius. 
 
 The frequency with which the person-name Velus (Vels, 
 Vol, VI, V.) is found on Etruscan tombs proves that it was 
 both popular and honourable. I take it to be formed from 
 the god-name Bel, and I have elsewhere advanced arguments 
 for believing that Bel was known and worshipped in Etruria. 
 The Chaldee Bel is the H. Baal, " a lord, master, possessor,
 
 228 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 owner, a husband " ; as a verb, baal in H. means " to have 
 dominion over, to possess," " to take a wife," with the idea 
 of subduing and possessing. In such bilingual inscriptions 
 as — 
 
 EtT. Vel. Venzile Alfnalisle 
 Lat. C. Vensius C. F. Caius 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 Etf. V. Lecne V, Hapirnal 
 Lat C. Licini C. F. Nigri 
 
 Etr. VI. Alphni Nuvi Cainal 
 
 Lat. C. Alfius A. F. Cainnia Natus 
 
 EtT. V. Kaz. K. Klan 
 
 Lat. C. Cassius C. F. Saturninus 
 
 the Roman pr^nomen Caius is so placed in relation to the 
 Etr. v., VI, Vel, as to leave us little room for doubting that 
 Caius is the L. equivalent for the Etr. Vel, Velus, If so, 
 it probably means the same as the H. Baal, " a lord, master, 
 possessor, husband." Now, let us look at the name Caius. 
 It was an old name in Rome, and had some degree of sanctity 
 about it, for Cicero and Quintilian inform us that in those 
 marriage-ceremonies, which were performed with religious 
 rites, the newly-made husband and wife were called Caius 
 and Caia. Such rites required the presence of a priest of 
 high rank, and several witnesses, a set form of words and 
 procedure was used, the marriage was sealed by sacrificing 
 a sheep to the gods, and could be dissolved only by sacrifice. 
 By this form of marriage the woman came into the "posses- 
 sion" of her " husband," was placed under his sole control 
 as her "lord and master" (^n. IV., 103), and was incor- 
 porated with his tribe. Among other observances on such
 
 PERSONAL NAMES. 229 
 
 occasions, the bridegroom in the marriage-ceremony, asked 
 the bride if she wished to become " materfamilias," and she, 
 on the other hand, asked him if he wished to be " pater- 
 familias"; it was also customaiy for him to seem to tear the 
 bride from the arms of her friends ; and then, on her arrival 
 at the door of her future home, she was asked, who she was? 
 She answered " Caia," or she was required, addressing her 
 husband, to say, " Ubi tu Caius, ego Caia." 
 
 From all this it is evident that Caius may mean " lord, 
 master, possessor," and Caia " the one possessed." Let us 
 look for an etymology in that sense. The H. verb charaph 
 means (1) " to pluck," (2) " to pass the winter," (3) " to be 
 betrothed to a husband." So in G., gabh means "to seize, 
 to take possession of," gamh means " winter," and gamh 
 also means " a woman." So also in H. the verb achaz 
 (which, like Etr. Velus, is used as a proper name, Ahaz) 
 means (1) "to take hold of, to seize, to take possession of"; 
 (2) " to join, to be joined " ; and (3) " to shut, to cover." 
 So also H. shacab (from the primary root cab, caph, " to 
 bend ") means " to lie down, to be lain with," and the primary 
 root in the form kav means " strength, might," and as koa' 
 it means "to cover," as does the male camel; hence as a 
 noun koa' is " a stallion, a prince." Also H. geber, Ch. 
 g-bar (whence G. fear, " a man, a husband," L, vir), means 
 " a man, a male, a husband," and gebereth means " lady, 
 mistress," apparently from the verb gab-ar in the sense of 
 " overpowering, binding " ; cf. the Roman deity Subigus. 
 Also this H. root cab takes the form ab-ab, " to cover, 
 to hide," whence ab, " darkness," especially of a cloud. Also 
 H. caph -ah means "to bend, to bow, dejJress," hence "to 
 tame, to subdue." Also chaph-ach means " to cover, to 
 veil." This root cab, then, in its various forms gives the 
 following as meanings : — (1) to bend, (2) to lie down upon.
 
 230 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 (3) to overpower, (4) to seize, (5) to subdue, (6) to cover, 
 (7) to hide, (8) to veil, (9) strength, (10) a man, (11) a 
 male, (12) a husband, (13) a prince, (14) darkness. To 
 these the G. has equivalents from the same root, but with 
 the hh — that is, the sound of the Gr. digamma — often sup- 
 pressed; for example, G. (1) cam, "to bend"; (2) gamh, 
 "a woman," ca-ile, "a strumpet"; (3) cuibh-rich, "to 
 bind with ropes"; (4) gabh, "to seize, to take possession 
 of"; (5) umh-al, "subject"; (6) cuibh-rich, "to cover"; 
 (7) ce-il, "to hide"; (8) s-ga-il, "to veil"; (9) camh, 
 "power, might," ca-il, "strength," ca-ill, "a testicle"; 
 (10) cia for ca-i, "a man, a husband"; (11) te, "a 
 female"; (12) cia and ceile, "a spouse, a husband"; 
 (13) fe-arg, "a champion"; (14) gamh, "winter" (L. 
 hi ems), as if " the darkness" of the year. From this root, 
 then, and specially from G. cia for cai, " a husband," origin- 
 ally "a possessor," I form the L. Caius, and in this sense, 
 and with this derivation, it fully corresponds with the H. 
 Baal, Ch. Bel, Etr. Vel. And as the L. name Caius is 
 written in Greek as a tri-syllable. Gains, it may be that the 
 name was at first Gavus or Gavins, and this brings it closer 
 to G. gamh — i.e., gav — "a woman," in the sense of a 
 " femme couverte." I should even venture to believe that 
 Gr. Gaia (aia, ge), " the earth," is, in this sense, the spouse 
 of Dyaus, Zeus. And just as L. tego, " I cover," gives toga, 
 "a gown," so the H. verb lab-ash gives leb-iish, (1) "a 
 garment," but also (2) " a wife." Thus the same root which 
 gives G. gamh, "a woman," gives also G. ca, cai, "a 
 house" (cf. L. tectum from tego), and taim, "a house"; 
 taim becomes L. dom-us, " a house," whence dominus, 
 "a lord, a master, an owner, a possessor"; and dominus, 
 domina are, in my opinion, synonyms of L. Caius, Caia, 
 Etr. Velus, Velusa.
 
 PERSONAL NAMES. 231 
 
 The K. name for "bride" is priod-ferch, and for "bride- 
 groom" priod-fab, where priod means "one's own/' with 
 the notion of "taking possession of," while mab means 
 "male," and merch "female." The K. priod is not found 
 in G., but it seems to be formed from the G. verb beir, 
 "to take hold of, to bear" (cf. the E. "conceive") from the 
 root bar (q.v.) The E. word bridegroom is made up of 
 the T. guma, " a man, a male," from the root gam, " to 
 cover," gabh, " to take possession of," and bride, which is 
 from the same root beir, bar. The K. verb priodi, "to 
 marry," is used both of the man and the woman, L. ducere or 
 nubere. All this tends to illustrate the meaning of the L. 
 Caius, Caia.
 
 232 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MILITARY TERMS, 
 
 1. Cassis, a Helmet. 
 
 2. BalteuS, a Sword-belt, witli which take 
 
 3. Favissa, a Cell under a Temple. 
 
 Cassis and balteus may be taken together, for they are the 
 only military terms among our forty Etruscan words, and 
 for comparison cassis should go with capra (q.v.), for I ex- 
 pect to show that it comes from a root gab, gam, but not 
 the same as that which gives capra. 
 
 The names for " helmet" in various languages arrange 
 themselves chiefly in three divisions — (1) those that denote 
 the purpose for which the helmet is worn — to protect the 
 head, as E. helm, helmet, from A.-S. helan, "to cover"; 
 
 (2) its shape — round, as Gr. kranos, korus, from Gr. kara, 
 "head," and that from the primal root car, " to go round"; 
 
 (3) the material of which it is made, as Gr. kunee, "of 
 dog's skin." In G. the names for "helmet" are — clogaid, 
 " a helmet, a cone, a pjrramid," from clog, " a bell," 
 bioraide, "a helmet, a hat," from bior (root bar, q.v.), 
 "any sharp-pointed thing," and sgaball, "a helmet, a hood, 
 a caldron," from the root gab, as shown below. The K. 
 names are helm, and several compounds of pen, "a head." 
 The H. name for "a helmet" is coba', koba', which comes 
 from a widely-spread root, kab, gab, cab, "to be high and 
 round at the top," " to be curved, hollow, gibbous," like an
 
 MILITARY TERMS. 233 
 
 arch or a vault, whence the L. gibber, "hunch-backed," 
 L. gibbus, E. gibbous, and in H. various words to mean 
 " a back, a cap, a turban, a hehnet, a tent, a hump," also, 
 " a body," or " corpse " (from the idea of being hollow). 
 From this root gab I would form a noun gabal, gabad, 
 "anything with a round top," L. caput, Gr. kephale, 
 Ger, kopf (haupt), "the head," and with s prefixed, G. 
 sgabal, "that which is high and round on the head," "a 
 helmet, a hood "; the s is also prefixed in Sc. skapzzrE. 
 scalp, E. scoop, &c. ; cf. Gr. grapho, L. scribo, &c. 
 
 Now, the Etr.-L. cassis does not bear much resemblance 
 to G. sgabal, and yet I take it to be the same word, for, 
 if we are to trust what Festus and Isidore say, the word 
 cassis was originally capsil, and the G. sgabal has the 
 same consonants as capsil. No doubt the transference of 
 s from the beginning to the middle of a word is uncommon, 
 but similar changes do occur, as in G. sgealb, spealg, 
 " to splinter." Moreover, I am inclined to think that the s 
 in capsil is there as a matter of right, for as the H. gab a' 
 ends with ain, it is probable that this guttural belongs to 
 the Aryan root also ; in G. it would be represented by h, 
 and in L. by s, as in G. gamh, "winter," L. hiems. This 
 view receives some countenance from the L. caps a, which we 
 must trace to H. caph, " the hollow of the hand," whence L. 
 capio, and the H. root gaba', " to be round," whence gabh, 
 gabs, caps ; for capsa is " a coffer " for holding books — that 
 is, volumes or rolls — and was always cylindrical in shape. The 
 original form in G. may have been gab-h-al, which would 
 account for the cognate forms Ger. gip-f-el, "a summit," 
 kop-f, "a head," and Gr. kephale as if kep-f-al-e. 
 
 This root gaph, gab is extremely fertile in derivatives, 
 which are to be found in all languages ; for the g may be 
 changed into c, k, or t, and the b into m, p, f, or v. Thus
 
 234 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 the Gr., from this root, has kampto, gnampto, " I bend," 
 kupto, "I stoop, I bow down," gupe, kupe, "a hollow," 
 kumbe, "a hollow, a cup, a boat," kupellon, "a, goblet"; 
 the L. has cubo, cumbo, " I lie down," cavus, " hollow," 
 camera, "a vaulted chamber"; the E. has a boy's top, a 
 cock's comb, a drinking cup, &c.; the A.-S. Scotch has 
 kaim, " the round crest of a hill," " a low ridge," also " a 
 camp or fortress," from its roundness; and perhaps skep, 
 the round " straw-built citadel " of the bees ; but see G. 
 sgeap. The G. has the adj. cam, " crooked, bent, curved," 
 which, I think, gives the L. castra, as if cam-stra, the 
 str- being the same as the root-syllable of the Gr. stratos, 
 " a camp, an army." From cam, kam I take also the G. 
 taip, in the same sense as the Sc. kaim (t for k, send p, b 
 for m), that is, " a round hill, a rock, a lump," K. talp, 
 telpyn. From taip, " a rock," I take the Sabine word 
 tepse, " hills," in G. taipai, for -ai, as we have seen else- 
 where, is an old G. plural form. Varro makes this word to 
 be Pelasgian as well as Sabine, for he says that while in the 
 Sabine territory there is a hill called Thebse, yet the word 
 belongs to the ancient Greek language, and the Boeotians 
 write it Tebse, without the aspirate. Were the Pelasgians 
 Celts ? Certainly tepse is Celtic, for it cannot be regarded 
 as a loan-word in Gadhelic. That taip comes from the root 
 gab is proved by the analogy of the H. gaba', "a hill, 
 a head," and the G. cab, " a head," E. cap. The H. 
 gulgoleth (N.T. golgotha) means " a skull," which is so 
 called on account of its " roundness," from the verb H. 
 galal, " to roll"; the Persians call the " skull" kasa-i-sar, 
 "the cup of the head"; the Gaels call "the mouth" also 
 cab, evidently from the "roundness" of the lips. The K. 
 talp, construct form tailp, "a round mass, a lump," brings 
 up L. talpa, " a mole," probably from the " round " heap,
 
 MILITARY TERMS. 235 
 
 the mole- "hill," which it casts up ; if the t of tailp is 
 aspirated, it will be sounded hailp, and then ailp, which 
 is a G. word meaning " a protuberance, a large lump, a 
 mountain," from which I take Alpes, a plural form meaning 
 " the lofty, round, massive mountains," and from them 
 Alp-enna, with an Etruscan termination, meaning those 
 "sprung from the Alps," the Apennines, which name in 
 Latin has the a long, for it represents an elision. This 
 derivation of Alps seems to me as likely as that from L. 
 albus, "white," although the latter is supported by the 
 names Himalaya and Nevada, which, however, mean "snowy," 
 not " white." 
 
 Now, let us return to L. talpa, "a mole." The Gaels 
 call "the mole " famh or uir-famh (uir=" earth"). The 
 Hebrews call it haphar-parah, "the digging animal," 
 Cowper's "miner of the soil." Connected with the root 
 gab, which we have been discussing, is the H. verb gabab, 
 meaning (1) " to be curved or hollow," like an arch or vault, 
 and (2) " to dig." This word gives the H. gab, " any- 
 thing gibbous, a back, the boss of a shield, a fortress" (Sc. 
 a kaim), "a vaulted house, a vault, the rim of a wheel, an 
 eyebrow " (see root bar), also gab, " a well," gob, " a den," 
 and gebe, " a cistern " (L. fovea), "a marsh, a pool." For 
 " eyebrow " (H. gab) the G. has fabh-ra, " the eyelid," 
 which is perhaps the Gr. ophrus, " the eyebrow," as if 
 fobrus, and thenhobrus, obhrus); for "the boss of a shield" 
 (H. gab) the G. is cop; for "a well," tob-ar; for "a 
 den " the G. is uamh, as if gamh, ghamh, yamh, whence 
 uamh. Fabhra, from gab, is another proof that /on the 
 lips of the ancients contained something of the sound of g, 
 and that the L. filius and the G. gille are the same 
 word. Thus, also, it is not difficult to suppose that the G. 
 famh, " the mole," is the "digger," from the verb gab in
 
 236 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 its second sense, and as famh is pronounced fav, I take 
 from it the L. favus, "a honey-comb" (that is, "a hollow cell," 
 as it were " dug out"), L. fovea, as if favea, "a pitfall," 
 and the Etr. favissa, " a cell, a vaulted chamber under a 
 temple," like H. gab, "a vault." 
 
 If this analysis is correct, we have here again another 
 argument that the root- words in the original speech of man- 
 kind were few in number, and expressed primary ideas, and 
 that derived words rapidly increased by the application of 
 this primary notion to a great variety of objects, changes 
 being made on the consonants of the root and also on the 
 vowels to some extent, in order to designate each individual 
 object. I add some curious illustrations of this principle. 
 The H. word guphah means " a body, a corpse," from the 
 verb guph, a contraction for gabab, "to be hollow"; but this 
 same word in Ar. means " a cavity," " the belly," and in 
 Rabbinical H. " a body, a person." In Gr., uamh, uaimh 
 means " a cave, a den," " the grave"; but in A.-S. Scotch, 
 waim, wambe means " the belly " (L. venter, as if 
 uaimhair ?), E. the womb. Again, boss is an A.-S. Scotch 
 adjective meaning " hollow," and, as a noun, " the ab- 
 dominal rounded part of the body"; but in provincial E. the 
 boss of the workshop is, in the eyes of the apprentices, " the 
 body, the person," " the parson," the only " prominence " 
 there. In E. we speak of the boss of a shield, but the 
 Latins say umbo, the same word as G. uaimh, Sc. 
 waim. 
 
 As gab gives taip, "a hill," and kaim, so gob gives 
 tom, "a hill," a prefix which exists in several hundred 
 names of places scattered throughout the Central Highlands 
 of Scotland, as Tom more, Tomintoul, Tom beg; in these 
 names tom means " a round eminence, a knoll, a hillock, a 
 cairn-grave " ; from it comes tolm, ''a mound, a hillock,"
 
 MILITARY TERMS. 237 
 
 corresponding with L. tumulus, from tumeo, "I swell" 
 into roundness. In Gr., torn also, as a common noun, means 
 "the plague," from the idea of swelling (of. L. tumeo) ; 
 another spelling of torn is tiom, tim as in G. timchioll, 
 "roundabout," tiomchuairt, ''a circuit, a cycle"; tiom is 
 the first syllable of the Etr.-L. tem-plum, as will be shown 
 in its own place. 
 
 Another topographical prefix used in Scotland is Toll, 
 Tully, as in Tulliebelton, "the hill of Bel's fire," from G. 
 tul, tulach, " a hill," the same in meaning as torn, but 
 connected with the Semitic tel, "a hill, a mound," from H. 
 talal, "to heap up, to make high"; toll gives the L. 
 collis, " a hill," and Capitolium, " the hill with the rounded 
 top" (gab and toll). "The Capitoline has a saddle-like 
 depression dividing its top into two summits " ; the A.-S. 
 Scotch call such as these the " kipps," which is exactly the 
 syllable Cap in Capitol. 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson. — Cassis. — The proper form was capsis, but 
 the assimilation hardly disguises the obvious connection of 
 the word with cap-id, haup-t. 
 
 Favissa. — The word is probably connected with fovea, 
 hauen. 
 
 Lindsay. — Cassis. — The same fundamentally as our 
 " hat." From huotj-an, " custodire," to guard in the sense 
 of covering ; from huotil, " a protector," in the martial sense, 
 and huotila, " a mitre, a tiara." 
 
 Favissa. — Connectible with puteus and fossa, and 
 thus belonging to one of the most widespread roots exist- 
 
 ing. 
 
 Taylor. — Cassis, Cassilda. — We have the Turkic sas.
 
 238 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 tzaz, tschatsch, " hair," and the Tungus olda, " a covering, 
 a roof," whence comes the Tungus gula, " a tent." 
 
 Favissa. — A sufficient etymology may be obtained from 
 the Yenissei-Samojed /u6^*, which means " an excavated 
 grave." 
 
 2. Balteus, a Belt. 
 
 This word is so thoroughly Celtic, that, so far as I can 
 ascertain, it does not exist in any Aryan language excej)t 
 the Celtic, and that portion of the Teutonic languages which 
 is derived from the Celtic. The Etr.-L. is balteus, the 
 G.-I. bait, the Sw. bait, the Da. baelte, the Ic. belti, 
 the A.-S. belt, the E. belt. 
 
 The original idea contained in bait is the same as that 
 in Gr. zoitm, "a girdle," that of "girding, going round, 
 encircling." This is seen in the A.-S. English and Scotch 
 verb to belt, "to gird, to environ," as in the expressions a 
 "belted knight," the "belted plaid." It is even used like 
 the L. accingere, with the moral sense of "girding up" 
 the mind, and thus preparing for active exertion. Scotch 
 writers of the sixteenth century also use belt as a past 
 participle, as if it were bal-te (cf. Da. bael-te), and this 
 would be a pure G. participle from a verb bal. This sug- 
 gests a comparison with the Ger. gurt, " a girth, a belt," 
 which looks like a similar participle from the root car, "to 
 go round." The G. noun bile, " a border," is a proof that 
 the t in bal-t is not an essential part of the root; for the 
 G. bait, "a belt," means also "a border, a welt," and the 
 form bile, "a border, that which goes round," shows the 
 root with only the vowel-sound changed. The word now in 
 common use in G. to mean "a belt" is crios, the same 
 word as the Ger. kreis, "a circle, a ring," and crios also 
 comes from the root car. The K. name for "a girdle" is
 
 MILITARY TERMS. 239 
 
 gwregys, which also may be traced to the root car. All 
 these examples prove that the root-word from which the 
 Etr. balteus comes must be a verb with the meaning of 
 "going round, encircling." This we have in the H. palak, 
 "roundness," from the verb pal-al, "to judge" (primary 
 idea, "to roll, to make level"), pal-as, "to make level, to 
 weigh" in a balance, pal-ash, "to revolve, to roll oneself, 
 to wallow," G. fill (that is, phill), "to roll," Ger. wal-zen, 
 " to roll." The changes which the initial consonant in pal 
 undergoes are worthy of notice; for the H. pal becomes 
 G. ball, "a round body," bal-t, "a girdle," fait, "hair in 
 ringlets"; fait or bait is the K. gwald, "a welt, a hem, 
 a skirt," and the K. gwald is the Ger. wal-zen, "to roll." 
 In a similar manner from the root pal comes H. pul, "a 
 bean," from its "roundness," L. bullire, "to boil," G. goil, 
 "to boil," Ger. wallen, "to boil, to bubble." 
 
 Cognate with bailt, the construct form of bait, and 
 derived from it, is failt-ean, " a head-band, a fillet," which 
 may also have meant " a belt," for a corresponding Gr. word, 
 mitra, "ahead-band, a snood, a turban," means also " a belt 
 or girdle," worn round the body." The G. iall, "a thong, 
 a latchet, a ribbon," is formed from bail, fail, for the / 
 aspirated becomes h, and this again is softened into initial i, 
 whence Gr. iallag, "a thread." With this corresponds the 
 derivation of the Gr. mitra, from mitos, " a thread." 
 
 From all these considerations, I have no doubt that the 
 Etr.-L. balteus is a purely Celtic word. 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson. — Balteus, " the military girdle," . . . occurs, 
 with the same meaning, in all the languages of the Germanic 
 family, and we have it still in our word " belt."
 
 240 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 Lindsay. — Balteus, " tlie military girdle or belt." From 
 fald-an, " to fold or bind." 
 
 Taylor. — In Yenissei and Samojed haltu means " an 
 axe." " A girdle " is bel in Koibal and Karagass Tatar, and 
 hehe in Burjat. Both roots run through all the Turkic 
 languages. The resemblance to the Teutonic belt is very 
 remarkable, but I will not attempt to account for it. 
 
 3. Favissa discussed under Cassis (Chap. VII.)
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 241 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 
 
 1. Druna, Sovereignty. 
 
 This is the only abstract term in our whole list, and as 
 such it deserves attentive consideration. It will also afford 
 us an opportunity to examine the names by which the 
 Etruscan nation was known among the ancients, and also 
 some of the designations which they applied to their great 
 men, their heroes, and their gods. 
 
 The word druna cannot mean the sovereignty of a king, 
 or hereditary monarch of the whole country, for the Etruscan 
 state was not a kingdom, but a combination of cities or prin- 
 cipalities, each having a chief ruler and magistrates of its 
 own, and an independent jurisdiction, whether for peace or 
 war, Druna may therefore denote the position and power 
 of the head man in each municipality ; but as the Etruscan 
 cities and tribes, like the British Celts, united for mutual 
 defence, and for other common objects, and then chose one 
 of their chiefs to be their supreme leader and commander, 
 their dictator, the word druna may describe also the autho- 
 rity which he possessed. Which of these two is the true 
 application of the word it will now be our business to inquire. 
 
 The etymology of druna and such analogies in govern- 
 ment as we may find in other states which had similar 
 arrangements can alone determine its use, for the lexicon 
 
 of Hesychius merely says that the word means " sovereignty," 
 
 R
 
 242 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 At the outset, I may observe (1) that, as the letter d did 
 not exist in the Etruscan alphabet, the root of druna is the 
 biliteral t-r, either with a vowel between the consonants or 
 a vowel after them, as in the root b-r (bar or bhri), and 
 (2) that metathesis is quite common in monosyllabic roots 
 where a liquid, especially r, occurs, as in Adar, Arad. 
 Druna may therefore be only another form of turna, and 
 this suggests some connection with the Gr. turannos, " a 
 sovereign," and with Turnus (K. teyrn, " a king"), king or 
 chief of the aboriginal Italian tribe, the E,utuli, and also with 
 an old G. word dronadh (pronounced drona) meaning 
 "direction, rule." The genius of the Etruscan language led 
 the people to pronounce such a word as turannos as if it 
 were turnos, just as they said Aplu instead of Apollo, and 
 Kasna for Rasenna. 
 
 I trace the Etr. drunci to the S. root dri, " to preserve, 
 to protect," which in the Medo-Persian dialects is dere, darh, 
 darg, and from this comes the kingly name Darius, " the 
 protector." The modern Persian has dara, " a sovereign," 
 darai, "sovereignty," darugha, "a superintendent, an over- 
 seer," and dar, " a house," that which " protects," like L. 
 tectum, G. taigh, "a house," from "covering." The H. 
 form of the name Darius is Daryavesh ; on the cuneiform 
 inscriptions at Persepolis it is Darh-eusch, Darg-eusch, or, 
 according to Lassen, Darv-awus, accus. Daryawum. Hero- 
 dotus says that the name Darius is equivalent in Greek to the 
 epithet Herxeies, " the restrainer, the preserver"; it is there- 
 fore connected with the P. darvesh, "restraint," and the 
 S. dhari, " firmly holding." The root-consonants, therefore, 
 are cl-r, in the sense of " holding, restraining, preserving, 
 protecting." That the Persian mind regarded the king and 
 the deity whose vicegerent he was as a " protector " is evi- 
 dent also from other of their royal names. For the name of
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 243 
 
 the famous Cyrus, in Persian kohr (S. sura), means " the 
 sun " ; and in the Median names Artaphernes, Megaphernes, 
 Pharnabazus, &c., the one part, according to RawHnson, is 
 pharna or frana, an active participial form from pri, "to 
 protect"; Artaphernes, then, means "fire (i.e., the sun) 
 protecting." So also the Babylonian names Nabonassar, 
 Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar, where, according to the same 
 authority, the -nassar is a verb " to protect," the same as 
 the H. natsar, "to watch, to keep, to defend, to preserve," 
 which, again, is the same as H. natar, " to guard." I think 
 that the primary root of this word natar is the last syllable, 
 tar, and that the na is merely prepositive, as in other H. 
 words; if so, then tar, S. dri, is one of the monosyllabic 
 roots of the primeval language. This root sometimes occurs 
 in the form dari, as in the names Dariekes and Dariseus. 
 Now, dari by metathesis becomes diar, and this gives the 
 G. tear-uinn or tear-ainn, "to preserve, to protect"; 
 this, contracted, becomes team, from which the G. has 
 tiarna, "a lord" (wrongly written tighearna), tearnadh, 
 "protection," tearuinnear, "a protector," and this last 
 word, which might be pronounced troon-yer, if compared 
 with dronadh (q.v.), brings us near to the Etr. druna, 
 " sovereignty, government." In G., " a commander-in-chief" 
 is called tearuinteach catha, "a protector in battle." 
 Besides team there are in G. other contracted forms of 
 tearuinn — the noun treun, I. trean, " a warrior, a 
 champion," the adj. treun, " brave, strong, magnanimous " 
 (Homeric megaletor), and the nouns treunear, " a strong 
 man, a hero, a champion," treunadh, treunadas, treunas, 
 "strength, bravery, mightiness," treuntas, "magnanimity." 
 Taking treun as a contraction for the verb tearuinn, I 
 would form from it the G. participial noun treunadh {dh 
 silent) to mean " protection," the office and duty of a treun,
 
 244 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 " a warrior, a commander-in-chief," which, in my opinion, is 
 the way in which the Etruscans formed their noun druna, 
 " sovereignty, government." And as the abstract term 
 existed in Etruscan, there must have been also a drunair, 
 a term equivalent to our well-known English title " Lord 
 Protector." The Celtic tribes in South Britain, before the 
 advent of the Anglo-Saxon, had a similar title ; they called 
 their leading chief the " Pendragon," the " head dragon." 
 But what was the dragon ? The word dragon appears 
 in K. dictionaries meaning " a lord," and Pendragon 
 meaning " a chief governor," but I see no hint of its deri- 
 vation. I take it from the P. darh, darg ; the dragon 
 — i.e., dargon — is therefore "the protector." The Scottish 
 and Irish Celts also have a similar title, uachdaran, " a 
 supreme governor, a prince," from which the abstract term 
 is uachdaranachd, "government, supremacy." The stem 
 of these words is daran, "a ruler" (cf. dragon), from dar, 
 " to protect"; the former part, uach, is not found in G. as 
 a simple adjective, although there is the noun uchdan, " a 
 hillock, a steep road," but it exists in K., where uch, uwch 
 means " upper, higher," with its compound goruch, " high, 
 lofty," from which comes the K. noun goruch, " rule, 
 sovereignty," and the name Goronwy, in the Welsh Triads, 
 the "great lord of the water." The K. uch, "upper, above," 
 whence uch-af, "supreme, chiefest," uchel, "high, lofty, 
 stately," seems to be an ancient word, for it resembles the 
 H. yah-ir, " lofty, proud," and the Ch. yuhara, "pride" 
 (cf. the Ochil hills in Perthshire). 
 
 The root-form darg exists also in G. ; for there is the 
 participial noun drugh-adh, "superiority," in the sense of 
 "protecting," targ-adh, "governing, rule," and targaid, 
 "a target," "that which protects the body" — a Celto-E. 
 word the etymology of which has rather puzzled our lexico-
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 245 
 
 graphers, for some derive it from L. tergus, "a hide," on the 
 principle, doubtless, that when the Celts had a simple idea 
 to express, a familiar object to be named, they borrowed a 
 Latin word, for their own language was so poor in elementary- 
 words that they had to call in the aid of loan-words from 
 the Latin ! The targe is the primitive weapon for "pro- 
 tecting " the body, just as the sivord was originally intended 
 to " ^vard off blows." 
 
 The other root-forms, tar and tri, also exist in G., for it 
 has the nouns tearraid, "a police-officer," one who "pro- 
 tects," and triadh, "a lord, a prince, a chieftain, a leader," 
 and the adj. triathach, "lordly, triumphant," which, used 
 as a noun, means "a trophy." Is the L. tri-umphus con- 
 nected with this root? The tri certainly is the same root- 
 word, and the syllable -amh is a common adj. termination 
 in G. ; a noun-form triamh, if it existed in G., would mean 
 " something belonging to a great commander — protector — 
 hero," which was the character of the Roman triumphus. 
 Still another v.'ord from tar is G. tor, "a sovereign, a lord," 
 which in Irish is written tore. From tri I derive also the 
 Greek names Tri-ton, he who "protects, rules the waves" 
 (G. tonn, "a wave," as in Posei-don), Tri-ptolemus, he 
 who "protects or rules in battle," and perhaps Tl-ptolemus 
 (a son of Hercules), the " hero who rules in battle." The 
 Persian name Tiribazus, and the Parthian Tiridates have the 
 same root in the sense of "protector, lord." Tiribazus is 
 thus the same in meaning as Pharnabazus. 
 
 The derivation of target from the root targ, " to pro- 
 tect," is supported by the derivation of four H. words for 
 "shield" — (1) magan and (2) tsinnah, which come from 
 ganan, "to protect"; (3) sochiirah, from a verb "to sur- 
 round," hence " to protect, defend " ; while the derivation of 
 the fourth, shelet, "a shield," is treated by Gesenius with
 
 •246 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 some hesitation, for he says it is so named apparently from 
 its hardness. A more consistent derivation would take it 
 from Ch. verb shelat, "to rule, to have dominion," a root 
 which, in the Aryan languages, like dar, dri, may mean 
 primarily "to protect." Our English words shield, shelter 
 have the same idea of " protection," and are from the same 
 root, for the N. skyla means "to cover," D. skiul, "a 
 shed, a cover." 
 
 In the Norse mythology, drottnar was a name given to 
 all the descendants of the divine races ; the drottnar were 
 both priests and kings ; the " divine right " of kings is a very 
 old idea ; this idea pervades the Homeric poems passim. 
 
 Some authors derive Etr. druna from the old Norse 
 drott, "a lord," drottin, " a king," drottna, "to rule," 
 but drott is only a corruption of the Celtic triadh, " a 
 ruler, a champion," which proves itself to be the older word, 
 both by its participial form (cf, Gr. arch on) and by its close 
 resemblance to the S. dri, " to protect," A still later cor- 
 ruption of drott is the Lowland Scotch word drotes, which 
 means "nobles." 
 
 To sum up. The gist of this analysis establishes (1) that 
 the Orientals regarded their king or chief commander as their 
 protector ; (2) that the G. verb treun, " to protect," has 
 antiquity enough to enable it to be the parent of the Etr. 
 druna ; and (3) that druna is the G. abstract noun 
 treuna(dh) formed from treun. 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Lindsay. — From drott, "lord," and at drottna, "to 
 govern," according to Dr. Donaldson. 
 
 Taylor. — It may probably be derived from the Erse 
 dron, "right."
 
 abstract terms. 247 
 
 Excursus 
 
 (I.) On the names Tarqztin, Tyrrkeni, Rasena. 
 (II.) On the name-endings -tumnus^ -ummis^ -turns. 
 
 There are two topics of Etruscan inquiry which may be 
 brought in under this section — (1) the origin of the Etruscan 
 name Tarquin^ and others ; and (2) the tutelary aspect of 
 some of the Etruscan gods. 
 
 I. The origin of the name Tarqtim, Tarqzimu, 
 Tyrrkeni, Rasena. 
 
 Here we have no friendly Hesychius to tell us what the 
 name means when translated into Greek. We are therefore 
 left very much to speculation ; but still a careful examina- 
 tion of the names and their surrounding facts may produce 
 some substantial results. 
 
 The town Tarquinii was one of the most ancient in 
 Etruria ; it was the source and the centre of the govern- 
 ment and the religious discipline of the Etruscans ; from it 
 radiated the social civilisation and the civic regulations 
 which illuminated the other cities of the League, and which, 
 many of them, became a permanent light even in Rome 
 itself. The rich sumptuousness of the tombs discovered 
 near the site of Tarquinii attests the ancient gTandeur of 
 the place, and indicates that it was the seat of a royal race. 
 The Etruscan name of the city was probably Tarckenna, 
 for the hero — who, in Cicero's Grecian myth, figures under 
 the name of Demaratus — Tarqtlifzitts, was, in the native 
 language, called Tarckon, and he was regarded as the 
 eponymous founder of Tarquinii. If, among the Etruscans, 
 there was one tribe that was looked up to as of princely race, 
 like the Ursoo class in India, or the royal families among the 
 Persians, then the names Tarckon, Tarckenna are pecul- 
 iarly apposite, for they must come from the S. dri, "to
 
 248 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 protect," p. darg, darh, Pe. tar, " a prince," Gr. turannos, 
 koiranos, "a ruler," K. dragon, "a governor," G. tor, 
 torr, "a sovereign, a noble," I. tore, "a lord, a sovereign" 
 — in short, from the same root-words as druna. 
 
 The K. drag- for darg- (cf. E. dragoman for P. tard- 
 jama), or the L. tore compared with the P. darg, is a 
 proof that the Celtic language contains a near approxima- 
 tion to the Etruscan name Tarchon, both in its form and 
 what is likely to be its meaning. The syllable Tar or 
 Targ occurs also in other proper names in the sense of 
 " chief ruler," or " chief leader." In the Biblical names 
 Tartan and Tartak, the terminations -an and -ak seem 
 to me to be servile, and the root to be tart for targ or 
 darg. Tartak was an idol-god of some Eastern nations, 
 and Tartan is only an official title like the Parthian Surena 
 (as if S. Sur-enna, P. kohr-enna, from sura, kohr, "the 
 sun "), " a general-in-chief." The greatest of the Assyrian 
 hero-kings was Sargon, whose name means "prince," and 
 may be the same as targ-on. The G. tsairg, which, in 
 our lexicons, is wrongly written teasairg, means "to pro- 
 tect, to defend," and seems to be from the same root as 
 Sargon, the is having taken the place of s as in the 
 Bokharan word tser, "a head," for the Kurd ser and the 
 Persian sar. The name of the Ethiopian king Tirhakah 
 is on the Egyptian monuments written T-h-r-k which is 
 targ; Strabo writes it as Tearkon, and Manetho as 
 Tarakos, The H. name Teraphim, "domestic gods, as 
 if Penates," may imply "protection," from the root dri, 
 dere. Tarsus in Cilicia was an Assyrian city, and as the 
 root-form tarh readily becomes tars, the name may mean 
 the " princely " (cf. Al-cairo), the " chief " city, the metro- 
 polis. The founder of the Scythian nation was called by 
 the Greeks Targitaus, and he is said to have been "Zeus-
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 249 
 
 born," which is the common Homeric epithet for those who 
 were of the highest kingly race. Tarcon-dimotus was a king 
 of Cilicia in the days of Caesar and Pompey. Tarchetius 
 is a mythical king of Alba, whose name is given in some of 
 the stories about the birth of Romulus and Remus. There 
 is Dardanus of Troy, the founder of the city, and there is, 
 in these shadowy times, an Etruscan prince Dardanus, 
 both of them " Zeus-born," of divine and kingly descent ; 
 this name is the same as Tartan, from the root darg. 
 Even the Athenian Dracon, the author of the thesmic code 
 of laws, may be only " the kingly ruler and protector." 
 From all these considerations and examples, it is possible, 
 perhaps probable, that Etr. Tarchon means merely "the 
 supreme ruler or protector." 
 
 Further, in the Pehlevi or old Persian, tar, " a prince," 
 is also used, like the Gr. sar and lar, to denote " supreme 
 excellence" in anything; hence Gesenius translates Tartak 
 as "profound darkness " ; in S., sara means " best," and in 
 P., sardar is " a leader," and saran is " heads, chiefs." 
 Now, the G. toir and the K. gor are used in the same 
 way as the Pe. tar; for example, G. leum is "to leap," 
 toirleum is to make a "prodigious leap," heart means "a 
 deed," toir-bheart means " a great, bountiful action " ; and 
 Toir is the G. name for the Teutonic god Thor, the Jupiter 
 " Maximus " of the north. Similarly in K., uchel is " high," 
 goruchel is "exceedingly high"; trwm is "heavy," 
 gorthrwm is " very heavy." In G., toir is also written 
 tuir, hence toirleum is also tuirleum, tor, "a lord," is 
 tuir, and tore in its construct state is tuir c; tuir again 
 becomes tur as in G. tur-lom, "quite bare," from the 
 adj. lom, "bare." The r of tor, toir, tuir has in G., as 
 in Latin-Etruscan, a tendency to change into s ; hence the 
 G. has tuiseach, "a leader," and toisiche, "a leader, a
 
 250 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 prince, a primate, a nobleman." Although this is so, yet 
 I incline to think that tuiseach is a softened form of 
 tuirseach, for, after striking off the adj. termination -ach, 
 there remains tiiirse, and this is formed from tuir by add- 
 ing the syllable se as in other G. words, or, indeed, tuirse 
 may be called the oblique case of tuir. 
 
 From this investioration I infer that the biliteral roots 
 sar, dar, tar, tor, tur, toir, tuir, all imply excellence and 
 elevation, position and authority, as a leader, ruler, governor, 
 or commander, and that the triliteral forms tsar, tiar, tart, 
 dard — dari, darh, darg, targ, tarch, drag, drac — dri, 
 dere, tre, tri, tiri, turs — of which examples have been given 
 — all contain the same idea. The numerous forms in which 
 this root-syllable is found in Gadhelic, and the common idea 
 which pervades them all, seem to be proofs that both the 
 word and the thing were national to the Celts. And it is 
 so ; for any one who knows the clan-feeling of the Scottish 
 Gaels, the unreasoning submission rendered to the authority 
 of the chieftain, and the deep reverence entertained for his 
 person and office, will understand the influence of the 
 Etruscan Larths and the homage paid to them as the repre- 
 sentatives of the ancient founders of the twelve Etruscan 
 clans. And there was in them a divinity which hedged 
 them round, for just as Toir is the Teutonic god Thor, so 
 the Homeric kings are all anaktes — a name which they 
 have in common with all the gods. 
 
 TURRHENOI. 
 
 It is in this way that I come to regard the name 
 Turrhenoi, Tursenoi, by which the Greeks knew the 
 Etruscans, as indicating the " lordly " character of the race. 
 The Turs-enna are to me nothing more than the "leader- 
 people," the lordly, governing, ruling, protecting race, just
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 251 
 
 as the Kshatras in India are the lofty warrior caste,^and the 
 XJrsoos are the royal race. The same hereditary distinctions 
 of caste existed anions^ the Celts, and a man's rank was 
 known bv the number of colours inwoven in his tartan dress; 
 the kingly or supreme class had the perfect number seven, 
 the Druids six, and the nobles four. The poet Hesiod, who 
 lived in an age when the earlier world-notions had not yet 
 been supplanted by innovations, divides mankind into five 
 races, four named after the chief metals, and one the race 
 of heroes. The toir, tur, tai\ lar race is, in my opinion, 
 the race of heroes. The Caledonian Celts, too, seem to 
 have had among them a lordly race, from which the king 
 was always taken ; it is true we do not know much of the 
 social institutions of these Celts, but a careful examination 
 of what we do know leads to this conclusion. The Spanish 
 Celts had also the name Tur among them, for one of the 
 most powerful of their chiefs was called Turrus or Thurrus. 
 Thucydides declares that the race which, in the earliest 
 times, inhabited Athens was the Tursenoi, and that they 
 were of the same family as the Pelasgians — a race exten- 
 sively diffused in ancient Greece. He mentions a spot in 
 Athens called Pelasgicon, and says that the Pelasgians of 
 his day were "barbaroi" — that is, a people whose language 
 was strange to the Ionian Greeks. 
 
 Another argument for the " princely" dignity of the Tur- 
 rhenoi comes up in the Gr. word turannos, which means 
 "a prince or ruler," unlimited in his power by law or consti- 
 tution; it is a designation which, like Gr. anax, belongs to 
 all his household, and even to his kinsmen and his descend- 
 ants — to everything Larthian ; it fitly describes the sort of 
 power which lay in the hands of a Celtic chieftain, and 
 probably of the Etruscan Lars. This word turannos bears 
 on its very face traces of a foreign extraction, for the forma-
 
 252 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 tive termination -annos is strange to the Greek language, 
 although not strange to the Gadhelic. The Doric form is 
 koir-anos, which is very like the G. toir {k for t). Now, 
 the Dorians were akin to the Pelasgians ; the Etruscans, 
 according to general belief, were Pelasgians, and the Pelas- 
 gian language was probably Celtic, therefore koiranos may 
 be a Celtic word. The Lydians, or rather the earlier occu- 
 pants of the country, the Mseonians, were Pelasgians : their 
 royal dynasty was Heracleidan (cf. Recaranus, q.v.), and one 
 of their princes was named Turrhenus. Thus, if the Lydians 
 of Asia Minor and the Pelasgians of Greece were sprung 
 from the same Celtic stock, and if the Etruscans were also 
 Celts, there is a consistency in the ancient traditions which 
 bring the Etruscans from Lydia and some of their notable 
 men from Grecian Arcadia. I therefore believe that the 
 Gr. koiranos, "a ruler or commander," kuros, "supreme 
 power," and kurios, "a lord," are the same as the G. toir, 
 tuir, and that the Gr. turannos and the G. tuirseach 
 are the same root- word, only with two different termina- 
 tions. Tuirseach, shortened into tuirs-k, gives the L. 
 Turs-cus, Turs-ci, the older form of Tusci, "the noble, 
 lordly, commanding people," and the initial e in the form 
 Etrusci seems to me to be the article the, H. he, ha, Gr. 
 ho, he. He-tursci, "the lordly chieftain race," becomes 
 by metathesis He-trusci, Etrusci. From Etrus-ci, by 
 striking off the servile h or ach, the country is called 
 (Etrusia), Etruria. 
 
 Turannos, the Gr. equivalent for G. tuirseach, is 
 the same word as the name Turrhenoi, and is formed 
 after the Etruscan style from the root tuir, tur, for the 
 Etr. names Porsenna, Vibenna, Ravenna, Msecenna, Fes- 
 cenna, attest its Etruscan character, while the names Brit- 
 anni, Ard-uenna, Ceb-enna, Rut-eni are Celtic, and Ism-enus,
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 253 
 
 Evenus are rivers in ancient Greece. That the Gr. enos 
 (long vowel followed by a single n) represents the Etr. 
 enna (short vowel followed by a double n) will not be denied 
 by any who are familiar with the Septuagint, and have 
 observed the manner in which its translators write in Greek 
 the names of the Hebrew text that have in them a dageshed 
 letter. Turrhenoi or Tursenoi, then, is equivalent to 
 Turrhenna or Tursenna, The root is tur, as above, but 
 is the termination -henna, -senna, or is it merely -enna? 
 From the forms Por-senna and Ard-uenna, I would say 
 that the original form was -henna, which may readily change 
 into -senna (see halen), and as readily may the initial h 
 be dropped and leave -enna. I regard -henna as originally 
 a tribal suffix similar to the Greek termination in Heracl- 
 eidge, perhaps the same root, for fead, the word from which 
 I derive them, is, in one of its forms, feinne, which would 
 give -henna. The G. root fead exists only in its deriva- 
 tive feadh-ainn, construct form feadh-na, "people, folk," 
 where the -ainn is the usual formative. The root fead 
 with the / aspirated would sound head or hiad, and this 
 is not unlike the Homeric Pele-iad-es and the vidian 
 Telamon-iad-es. The Heracleidse, then, are the " Heracles' 
 folk," just as in English we say Nor(th)folk, Sou(th)folk. 
 Again, the construct form feadhna, softened, becomes 
 feanna, and with the/ aspirated henna or senna. The 
 Turrhenna are thus the " princely, governing, protecting 
 folk " — a name which very well suits all we know of them. 
 The opened tombs of Etruria prove that the Rasna-Turrhenna 
 were a princely race, for even in their last long sleep they 
 lie, like the heroes of Mycense recently disinterred, in royal 
 state, bedecked with gems and gold ; their tomb-house is 
 as sumptuously furnished as a palace. The G. writes 
 feadhna also with one n, as in feine, fine, " a tribe, a
 
 254 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 clan, kindred " ; this seems to explain the controverted 
 quantity of the e in Porsena, for this name may be either 
 Por-henna or Por-heine, Por-hine, Porsenna, or Porsena, 
 And feadhna cannot be a loan-word, for it is the Irish 
 national tribe -name Fianna, " Fenians," and the G. 
 Feinne, the followers of the Ossianic hero, Fingal ; it 
 appears also in the G.-I. common noun fionn-ghal, " the 
 murder of a relative, or one of kin," for the E. kin itself 
 (G.-I. cinne, A.-S. cynn) is not improbably the same 
 word as fiadhna, Feinne, fine, inasmuch as / contains 
 the sound of g (see fabhra), and g is h. 
 
 Rasena. 
 I have thus disposed of the names Etrusci and Turrhenoi ; 
 now comes the other ethnic name — Rasena — by which the 
 Etruscans called themselves. As this name occurs only 
 once — in the Archseology of Dionysius — an effort has been 
 made to discredit the testimony of Dionysius, by supposing 
 that his text is in that passage corrupt, and that he wrote 
 Tarasena or Trasena, not Rasena. It may be so, for they 
 had a Lake Tras-imenna (Thrasimenus) within their borders ; 
 and if Tarasena be the correct reading, it entirely makes 
 for my argument, for tar, as I have shown, is the root of 
 Tar-chon, and indicates supreme authority and command. 
 But Dionysius was a remarkably well-informed writer, and 
 in Kome, where he spent so many years compiling his 
 histories, he had access to the most reliable sources of 
 Koman antiquities, and may have been acquainted even 
 with some Etruscan families, of which there were several 
 in Rome in his time ; he is not likely, therefore, to be 
 mistaken when he says, " But they (the Etruscans) call 
 themselves from the name of one of their leaders, Rasena." 
 This statement seems to be confirmed by, and also to
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 255 
 
 explain, the words " Rasnas marunuch " — in an Etruscan 
 inscription on a sarcophagus — which are interpreted by 
 Corssen to mean " Etruscus procurator." This interpreta- 
 tion, no doubt, is conjectural, but still I incline to the state- 
 of Dionysius, for the efforts to set it aside are prompted by 
 the difficulty of accounting for the name. Here, again, we 
 have no Hesychius to give us foothold in our investigation ; 
 so, by conjecture, I might say that Rasena is a transposition 
 for Sar-ena, the Sar (c£ tar, lar, larth) implying, as before, 
 the princely character of the race ; but this also is a mere 
 guess, and has no evidence, but only possibility, to recom- 
 mend it. I will therefore take the name Rasena as it 
 is, and compare it with Ch. rash, " a head," H. rosh, " a 
 head, anything that is highest or supreme, a prince of the 
 people, a chief of a family." In Persian, sar means " a 
 head"; ras and sar are therefore the same primitive word. 
 And so I take Rasena to mean " the prince-folk," " the 
 head-men," " the leaders of the race " — a name which is 
 very similar in meaning to Turrhenoi. A corresponding 
 tribal name is found in Homer, Kephalenes, which is 
 obviously formed from Gr. kephale, " a head," as Rasena 
 is, in my estimation, from ras, " a head." In the " Juventus 
 Mundi," the name Kephalenes is said to be made up of 
 keph, "head," and Hellenes, "Greeks." But I take the 
 word to be Kephal-en(n)a, like Rasen{it)a, both meaning 
 " the head-men, the princes." In the same manner I under- 
 stand Athene to be a singular form Ath-enna, the goddess 
 " born of father " Zeus, and I take the root-syllable to be 
 an old Celtic, Phrygian, Thessalian word, at, atta, ath-air, 
 "a father"; Sabine, attus, "a father"; Tatar, Attila, 
 " father-like." 
 
 The G., also, has names analogous to Rasena and Tur- 
 rhenoi in the sense of " princely supreme." The proper name
 
 256 THE ETEUSCANS. 
 
 Tossack or Hossack is a corruption of G. tuiseach, 
 toisiche (q.v.), "a leader, a prince," and from the same 
 root a numerous sept in the Highlands of Scotland is 
 called the Mac-in-tosh-es, "the sons of the chief or prince." 
 It was also a name of dignity in old Ireland, for the Annals 
 of the Four Masters tell us that King OUamh Fodla appointed 
 a Taoisech over every barony. The name Kinnaird also 
 means " the chieftain," from the Gr. ceann, "a head "; from 
 ceann are formed several words analogous to Rasena, as 
 ceannard, " a chieftain, a commander-in-chief," ceann- 
 cinnidh, " a chieftain, the head of a clan," ceann-feadhna, 
 literally " head of the folk," " a chieftain, a leader, a com- 
 mander." Now, if we take this word ceann-feadhna, 
 and for ceann, "a head," substitute ras, "a head," we have 
 the Etr. (ras-feadhna, ras-henna) Rasena. It is true 
 that modern Gadhelic has not the word ras, " a head," but 
 it has ros, which, however, is restricted to mean "a pro- 
 montory, a Aeac?-land," with a lofty rock upon it. It is, 
 notwithstanding, the same word as ras, for while the H. 
 has rosh, "the head, highest, supreme, a prince," its Arabic 
 form ras is also used to mean " a promontory." 
 
 And not only were there " head "men in Etruria of old, 
 but the Kussians are " head " men, for in H. their name is 
 rosh, " a head." 
 
 And, further, the H. rosh means also what is " first and 
 foremost," " a beginning " of anything ; in this same sense 
 the G. uses the word tus, whence K. tywysog, " a chief- 
 tain, a leader," tywysog, " to lead," L. duco. 
 
 The " princely " elevation of the Rasena gave occasion 
 and point to the Horatian compliment, "Mascenas atavis edite 
 regibus," for Msecenas was of Etruscan extraction, and his 
 tribal name Maikenna may be equivalent to " the hero- 
 folk," from G. maith (mait, maik), " a hero."
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 257 
 
 Several writers who have tried to explain the meaning of 
 the name Turrhenoi, make it an offshoot of L. turris, " a 
 tower," as if "tower-builders." But the Etruscans were not 
 the only tower-builders in the world, for there are such 
 towers in Hindostan, many in Ireland, and two in Scotland. 
 The Horatian " regumque turres " implies that towers were 
 the common mansions of kings ; the Etruscans built towers 
 because they were kings ; they were not kings because they 
 built towers. 
 
 From all these considerations, therefore, I conclude that 
 the Rasena were " the high, princely race," a race of chief- 
 tains much in the same way as the Highlanders of Scotland 
 were a race of clans, each ruled by a chieftain who was 
 veritably a turannos, and had the power of the fasces et 
 secures (q.v.) 
 
 Lucumo. 
 
 Finally, before leaving this first head of this Excursus, let 
 me refer to another Etruscan title, Ltictimo^ plu. Lucu- 
 mones. This is the Latin form of an Etruscan designation 
 which belonged to the chiefs of the tribal states of Etruria, 
 and from among these Lucumones, one man was annually 
 chosen to be nominal head, Pendragon, as it were, of the 
 whole country. This arrangement, as we have seen, existed 
 among the British tribes, and the kingship of the old Norse 
 tribes, also, was originally an elective monarchy ; so was it 
 also in the Germanic confederation. 
 
 The Etruscan form of the name is LatichmL Here the 
 
 md is a suffix, for the stem of the word is Lauch, Luc, as 
 
 in Luc-ius, Luc-er-es. In Lauch I recognise the G. 
 
 laoch, "a hero," which word will engage our attention, in 
 
 another section, as the root of lachar, "a vulture," "the 
 
 hero-bird," the sacred bird of the Etruscans. As among 
 
 s
 
 258 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 the ancient Etruscans, so among the modem Gaels, their 
 great men are all heroes, and the variety of words used to 
 mean " hero " in G. shows that the Celtic mind is apt to 
 hanker after distinction and glory. " La gloire " is still a 
 phantom which charms the eye and draws forth the longings 
 of the Celtic nature. 
 
 But while I do not doubt that the Etr. lauch is the G. 
 laoch, I hesitate to decide on the meaning of the m^ in 
 Lauchme,. If I follow the Latin form and write it mo, I 
 take it to be the G. mor, "great," old E. moe, whence E. 
 more, most (as if mo-er, mo-est). It was a common 
 idiom of the Etruscan language to drop the final consonant 
 in such a word as Luciimon ; instances of this kind in 
 other languages are A.-S. fian, "to hate," E. foe and H. 
 Nabo for Nabor. The adj. mor, "great," is frequently 
 used in G. compound words, as mor-shar, " a mighty hero," 
 mor-flaithean, "great chiefs," and from laoch itself the 
 G. has the adj. laochmhor, meaning "heroic, chivalrous." 
 It may be objected that, although this derivation may suit 
 the L. lucumo, yet the termination m^ in the Etruscan 
 form of the word, cannot well be formed from mor. But 
 when I remember that in other ancient languages the e 
 sound exists, as in Zend meh, mse, S. maha, P. mih, Gr. 
 meg-as, all meaning "great," the P. mih also meaning 
 "powerful," I think it probable that m^ may have existed 
 in G. as an older form of mor. The P., from mih, forms 
 Mogh, " a Magian," " a great man," and the Ch. has Mag 
 in the same sense. Lauchme is therefore to me " the great 
 hero," " the powerful warrior." 
 
 The G. laoch seems to be connected with the H. lacham, 
 " to fight, to war," from which comes Lachmi, " the warrior,'* 
 the name of a brother of Goliath of Gath. This proper 
 name Lachmi is very like the Etr. Lauchme. The use
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 259 
 
 of laoch, "a hero, a champion," in this Etruscan title has 
 a parallel in the G. galgagh, " a champion," which is given 
 as the name of the Celtic chief, Galgacus, who was leader 
 of the united Caledonians in battle against Agricola. It 
 has also a parallel in the Persian name Artaxerxes, which, 
 according to Herodotus, means " the great warrior," from 
 arta, "great, strong", powerful" (cf. G. ard, "high, noble"), 
 and P. kshatra, "a king," S. k'satra, "one of the military 
 order or caste." It is possible that laoch, root lach-, is 
 the same as the old Norse Isegga, " to beat," whence the 
 Ger. schlagen, "to beat, to kill," E. slay, G. slachd, "to 
 beat, to thrash," A.-S. Scotch, "to lick." 
 
 In Job xxxvi. 22, the Septuagint translates the H. 
 moreh by Gr. dunastes, "a lord"; in the same sense the 
 Syriac has mor, the Ch. mara, the Talmud mar, and the 
 At. marun; the Syrians, also, according to Philo, called 
 "a lord" marin. May not these words be more appro- 
 priately referred to the root mse, moe, mor, "great," than 
 to H. moreh, "a teacher," or mara, "to be fat, to be 
 strong," as suggested by Gesenius ? 
 
 II. The Name-ending -tumnus, -tunus, -unus. 
 
 The second topic of inquiry in this Excursus is the 
 signification of the name-ending -tumnus, which occurs so 
 frequently in Etruscan and Roman mythology. 
 
 If we compare the names Voltumna, Vertumnus, and 
 Tolumnius, which are certainly Etruscan, with Portumnus, 
 Vitumnus, Pilumnus, Picumnus, which are found in the 
 Roman mythology, we conclude that the constant part of 
 these names is either -tumnus or -umnus. A similar 
 termination Ave have in the names Portunus, Fortunus, 
 Fortuna, Mutunus, Tutunus. If we now proceed to inquire 
 what is the force of this ending, I first observe that, as the
 
 260 THE ETRUSCANS* 
 
 names Portumnus and Portunus are used indifferently for 
 the same deity, -unus must be only a softened foim of 
 -umnus; then, as Portumnus, Vitumnus, Fortunus are 
 known to be presiding g^^ardian deities, it is probable that 
 the termination -tumnus and therefore -tunus denotes 
 tutelary protection; and lastly, as -tumnus cannot be traced 
 to any root-form in Latin, it is possible that it comes from 
 the Celtic through the Etruscan. 
 
 The spirit of the religious system of the Romans was 
 polytheistic ; it was also tutelary, for even the most secret 
 operations of nature had their presiding deities, each its own. 
 Any one who has read the early Christian fathers, especially 
 Arnobius and Tertullian, and has marked their denunciations 
 of the heathen gods, will remember how they ridicule the 
 minuteness with which the Romans ransacked the realm of 
 nature for gods with which to replenish their Pantheon. 
 Nor were they alone in this respect. The Persian religion, 
 too, had its beneficent and its malign powers ; he who would 
 fare well in life must invoke the protection of the Supreme 
 Ormazd to save him from evil ; and not only Ormazd, but 
 special and lesser deities who presided over the house, the 
 field, and the other departments of daily activity, would also 
 grant protection to their votaries. " The mythology of the 
 Finns is flooded with deities. Every object in nature has 
 a genius, which is supposed to be its creator and protector. 
 These spirits are not tied to these outward objects, but are 
 free to roam about, having a body and soul, and their own 
 marked individuality. Nor does their existence depend on 
 the existence of a single object. This mountain-ash, this 
 stone, this house, has its own genius, but the same genius 
 cares for all other mountain-ashes, stones, and houses " (Max 
 Muller). 
 
 The Babylonian and Assyrian nations, which, like the
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 261 
 
 Etruscans, were eminently religious, always named their 
 royal children from some god under whose protection the 
 child was placed. Thus, according to Eawlinson, Ass-hur 
 -izzir-pal means "Asshur protects (my) son," Sharezer, "the 
 king protects," Nabo-nassar, " Nebo protects," Nabopolassar, 
 " Nebo protects (my) son," Neriglissar, " Nergal protects the 
 king." The Greeks, also, knew the name — the regulating 
 protection — but not in its religious aspect ; in their public 
 games and dances they had an ais-umn-etes, "a president," 
 " a master of the ceremonies," whose duty it was to " watch 
 over" the company, and to see that everything was done 
 rightly, one who took care that the aisa of the thing was 
 duly observed. 
 
 (1.) Having thus established the existence of the idea, 
 we now turn to the name for it, and ask where it has come 
 from. The Ar. has am an, amani, " protection, security," 
 and the H. has shamar, "to keep, watch, guard " (as, a 
 flock, a house, cattle), " to reserve, to observe, attend to, 
 honour, worship." The G. has coimhead, "to keep, pre- 
 serve, reserve, observe, watch," which in its meanings is 
 identical with H. shamar. The G. coimhead, if we sub- 
 stitute t for k (see teine) would give toimean, tum-n, 
 whence -tumnus, in the sense of a presiding genius or 
 divinity. This derivation is sufficiently satisfactory, but I 
 am rather disposed to take -tumnus from the verb tearuinn 
 (q.v.), "to save, to protect," which, by the insertion of the 
 letter m, as in for-m-er from fore, out-m-ost from out, 
 becomes G. tearmunn, "protection, defence"; this also 
 would give turmun, tum-n, whence -tumnus. The name 
 Portumnus, then, is made up of Port- and -tumnus, and 
 means the protecting genius of harbours ; Vitumnus (Vit- 
 and -tumnus) is the deity that presides over life and its 
 functions; Vertumnus (" Deus Etrurian princeps," says
 
 262 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 Varro) " is the god of change " (G. ur, uir, " new, fresh," 
 uair, " time, season"), specially the changes of the seasons 
 and of vegetable life. Vertumnus, Vortumnus is usually 
 derived from L. verto, " I turn." But considering the 
 functions of Vertumnus, for he was the deity of mercantile 
 exchange, as well as of the changes in nature, his name 
 ought consistently to be formed from muto, " I change," 
 not from verto. I therefore dismiss the common etymology, 
 and find that the G. root ur, from which comes uair, "time, 
 season" (L. hora), uraich, " to refresh, renew," and urail, 
 " fresh, flourishing," is a fitter root by which to express all 
 the attributes of Vertumnus (uair-tumnus). This god 
 was held in high honour in Rome ; he had a temple in the 
 vicus Tuscus, — an evidence of his Etruscan origin, — and 
 for him the whole city kept holiday on the 23rd of 
 August. 
 
 (2.) Again, if we aspirate the initial t of tumn, the th 
 in G. is sounded h; it is then dropped, or in composition 
 becomes quiescent. Or we may drop the t as in E. rein, 
 from L. retineo, and Gr. ker-5s for ker-a-t-os. Thus 
 I account for the names in -umnus, with the t suppressed; 
 hence we have not only Vol-tumna, the Etruscan Minerva, 
 as I suppose, but also Vol-umnus, as if Vol(th)umnus, the 
 controlling deity of the " will." In the Homeric poems 
 Athene has always an intuitive sympathy with the " will " 
 of Zeus, and operates directly on the " wills " of mortals, 
 specially of kings. In Etruria, Minerva was, as in Greece, 
 one of the most exalted of the country's deities, for at her 
 fanum or holy mound all the tribes of Etruria assembled 
 for their national sacred rites and for the transaction of such 
 business as affected the common weal. With this I compare 
 the Irish conical hill or mound of Tara (? root tar, " to 
 protect") and the assemblies or parliaments of the Irish
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 263 
 
 tribes held there. Voltumna, then, is the goddess of the 
 "will," from the root vol, vel, in G. aill, "desire, will," 
 L. volo, velle. The similarity of L. velle and G. aill is 
 so unmistakable that objectors will say that aill is borrowed 
 from the Latin, but it cannot be that so simple an idea 
 should have been expressed in an old language like the 
 Gadhelic by a loan-word. Another G. word for " desire, 
 will," is mian; so mian and aill (vol) are identical in 
 meaning, and, if my view is correct, Minerva and Voltumna 
 are two names for the same divinity, but, like Ansel ^ Usil, 
 in different aspects. Voltumna represents her direct influ- 
 ence on the " will" of men, determining their purposes, and 
 their pleasures even, as in the Iliad and Odyssey every- 
 where ; but Minerva is the dawn, the offspring of Jove's 
 " desire " to struggle with the powers of darkness and of 
 night, and to recover his wonted supremacy in the sky; 
 this I have endeavoured to show under the word Phu- 
 phlunth. I would therefore regard the name as Mian-air- 
 amh, Minair-av, Minair-va, the goddess who is "sprung 
 from the desire of warfare," for amh is the common adj. 
 termination in G., and ar, air means " warfare," whence L. 
 arma, "arms," as if ar-am(h), "all that belongs to war- 
 fare." This derivation suits the myths which represent 
 Minerva as springing in full armour from the head of Zeus. 
 It also coincides with the ancient traditions which connect 
 Minerva with Mens, for G. mian is the L. mens. Arnobius 
 says : " Do you falsely say that you (Minerva) were born a 
 goddess from the head of Jupiter, and persuade very silly 
 men that you are reason?" And, in discussing the theology 
 of the ancient Egyptians, a modern author says : " In one 
 form the deity was Amun, probably the divine mind in 
 operation, the bringer to light of the secrets of his hidden 
 will ; and he had a complete human form, because man was
 
 264 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 the intellectual animal,^ and the principal design of the 
 divine will in the creation " (Wilkinson). 
 
 Besides Volumnus, there are other guardian spirits with 
 similar names; Picumnus and Pilumnus are the twin- 
 brothers who are beneficent to infancy ; here pic- may be 
 the G. cioch, "the pap, the breast" (p for k), and pil- 
 may be the same root as fil-ius, but it is more likely to be 
 G. peill, now written s-peill, "to swaddle," from pill, fill, 
 " to fold, to wrap up." As these two gods were supposed 
 to be, when invoked, propitious to a newly-horn child, I 
 think that the breast and the swaddling-band are the most 
 fitting objects from which to take their names. Again, 
 there must have been an Etruscan divinity called Tolumnus, 
 for Tolumnius, in the designation Lars Tolumnius king of 
 the Yejentes, is a kingly name, formed after the Persian 
 and Median fashion from the name of a divinity. Tolumnus, 
 as I take it, is the tutelary scarabceus or " beetle " much 
 used by the Etruscans as an amulet or charm ; heaps of 
 these, made of costly jewels and in rich settings, have been 
 found near some of the chief cities of Etruria. The beetle 
 was in Egypt and Etruria an emblem of the fertilising 
 influence of the sun. The G. daol means "a beetle," duil 
 is "a creature," and duile-amh is an old word, which 
 means " the god of creation." 
 
 (3.) Now comes the termination -tunus, as we have it 
 in Mutunus, Tutunus, Fortunus, Fortuna, for that 
 there was a Fortunus as well as a Fortuna, like a Deus 
 Lunus and a Dea Luna, appears from the worship of Fortuna 
 virilis among the Romans, and from coins which bear the 
 image of a bearded Fortune. The -tunus I take from the 
 G. verb dion, "to shelter, protect, cover," which is a word 
 now in common use, and may be a corruption oftearuinn, 
 
 ^ Cf. my derivation of L. homo from G. smuain, " to think."
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 265 
 
 from the root tar, as before. In this light, Mutunus and 
 Tutunus might be written Mut-tunus and Tut-tunus. 
 
 The position of Mutunus in the Pantheon may be gathered 
 from what the patristic fathers say about him. Augustine 
 says : " Let him be Mutunus or Tuternus, who among the 
 Greeks is called Priapus." Lactantius says : " Tutunus 
 before whom brides sit as an introduction to the marriage- 
 rites." Arnobius calls him Tutunus, and is much more 
 explicit in identifying him with Priapus and the phallos. 
 He says : " Is there also Tutunus, on whose huge members 
 and horrent fascinum you think it auspicious, and desire 
 thgit your matrons should be borne." From these passages 
 it is evident that Mutunus, Tutunus, Tuternus are only 
 different name-forms for the same divinity, and that he was 
 the giver of fecundity. The form Tut-ernus proves the 
 root to be Tut; and -erna, -earna is a common adj. ter- 
 •mination in G. The roots, then, are — Mut and Tut. 
 Now, in G. bod, buid (cf. E. bodkin) — that is (m for h, 
 see tuber), mod, muid, and cod, cuid (A.-S. codde), — are 
 unsavoury words, in meaning not unlike phallos. Mutunus, 
 Tutunus is, therefore, the deity who presides over the 
 "bod," or, which is almost the same thing, the "cod," and 
 thereby bestows sexual fertility. 
 
 Portunus or Portumnus is the god of harbours ; he " gives 
 to the sailor perfect safety in traversing the seas," and secures 
 a happy return. These two names afford evidence that 
 tunus and tumnus are the same word. But the Greeks 
 called him Palsemon, the latter part of which name is, I 
 think, the verb am an, "to protect" (q.v.), and the first 
 syllable is G. cala, " a harbour " (p for k). 
 
 Another word-name is Fortuna, a deity much worshipped 
 by the Romans. To determine whether this name is 
 Fort-tuna or For -tun a, we must ascertain whether the
 
 266 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 root is for or fort. But first let us consider the character 
 of Fortuna. 
 
 The extensive popularity of the worship of the goddess 
 Fortuna, " chance, luck," throughout the Roman State is one 
 distinguishing feature of the indigenous Italian religion, for 
 Gr. Tuchd, " chance," although worshipped in various parts 
 of Greece, never had such homage and reverence paid to her 
 as were given to Fortuna in Rome, where, according to 
 Plutarch's story, she was permanently domiciled. The wor- 
 ship of this divinity was Etruscan, for, under the name of 
 Nortia or Nursia, she had a famous temple at Volsinii, which 
 Cicero says was older than the days of Romulus. Across 
 the Tiber, in the Latin territory, her worship established 
 itself at Prseneste and on the coast, among the Volsci, at 
 Antium, where also she had a famous temple. " The goddess 
 who ruled her grateful Antium " amassed much wealth there 
 through the offerings of her pious worshippers, but, like 
 similar hoards of more modern date, this wealth suffered 
 serious diminution when the exigencies of the State called 
 for a " benevolence." Both Prseneste and Antium had their 
 "sortes" associated with the worship of Fortune. At a 
 later period of Roman history these two towns had so high 
 a repute in this mode of divining that emperors of Rome, 
 men of rank, and foreign potentates were eager to consult 
 the " sortes Proinestince " and the " sortes Antiatince." The 
 name Nortia, Nurtia may be the G. an uair dia, "the 
 goddess of time and change," — of time, for a nail was pub- 
 licly driven into the wall of her temple at Volsinii every 
 year to mark the lapse of time (G. uair, '' time, season") ; 
 and of change (G. ur, " fresh, new"), for Fortune is a fickle 
 goddess, " Iseta sa3vo negotio," — " nunc mihi nunc alii 
 benigna." 
 
 As " the Romans ascribed their greatest successes to
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 267 
 
 Fortune, and regarded her as a very great deity," we naturally 
 ask what was the impelling cause which led them so to glorify 
 Fortuna, a female divinity. The desire to obtain plenty, 
 and riches, and honour, prosperity in peace and war, scarcely 
 accounts for this excess of devotion ; I see in it an ancestral 
 worship transmitted to them by the Etruscans, who them- 
 selves brought it with them from the East. At the very 
 hour when Romulus, yoking together an ox and a cow, and 
 attaching them to a bronze plough, was marking out, by a 
 deep furrow, the limits of that city which, under the smiles 
 of Fortune, was in due time to be the mistress of the world ; 
 ay, and for many generations, too, before the age of Romulus, 
 the people of Babylon and of all the East were " spreading 
 a table for Gad, and filling mixed drinks for Meni." These 
 lectisternia and libations were in honour of Gad and Meni, 
 who were regarded among the Eastern nations as the greater 
 and the lesser " good fortune," the givers of luck and pro- 
 sperity. The names Gad and Meni both mean " that which 
 is apportioned, cut off, assigned to one as his fortune." The 
 Arabs call them es Sddani, " the two fortunes." At a later 
 time the name Gad came to signify any protecting divinity ; 
 hence in Pehlevi the royal title Gadman is nearly equivalent 
 to "His Majesty." In Phoenicia and elsewhere Gad was 
 called Baal, Bel, as in the name Baal-Gad, which is as old 
 as the fifteenth century B.C. The Tyrians called him Mal- 
 kereth (in H. melek, " a king," and kir, " a city " ; in G. 
 mal, " a king," and ceer, " a city "), " the king of the city," 
 and the Greeks took him to be Heracles. Some writers have 
 endeavoured to show that Gad and Meni are the Sun and 
 the Moon, that Gad or Baal is the sun-god, and that Men is 
 Deus Lunus, while Meni is Dea Luna, Geneitl^ Man^ (Plut- 
 arch), Genita Mana (Pliny), Dea Mena (Augustine), all of 
 which were much worshipped in Syria, Phoenicia, and Egypt
 
 268 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 as fate-deities. It is possible, however, that the Semitic 
 races looked on Jupiter and Venus as the givers of fortune, 
 while the Hamites and the Aryans regarded the Sun and 
 Moon in the same light. Now, since Baal, Bel was widely- 
 worshipped in the East as the god of Fortune, and that as 
 early as the days of Joshua, the Pelasgians, who came from 
 the East, it may be, about that time, may reasonably be 
 supposed to have brought this worship with them into Greece 
 and also into Etruria, if the traditions which represent the 
 Etruscans as Pelasgians are correct. The name Pelasgi itself 
 — about which so many conjectures have been offered — may 
 mean "Bel's worshippers" (Bel and Gr. ask-ein, "to wor- 
 ship," "colore numen") or "Bel's people" (Bel and Gr. 
 laos, G. aos, "a community, a tribe") — which has the 
 merit of being another conjecture. But, passing to facts, 
 the name Bel was a popular one in Etruria, for many of its 
 chief towns bear the name, as Fel-sina, afterwards Bononia, 
 now Bol-ogna, the capital of the Etruscan confederation 
 beyond the Apennines ; and in Etruria proper the towns 
 Yel-athri (Yolaterrse), Vel-su (Vulci), Vel-zna (Vol- 
 sinii) — all of them of great antiquity and importance. The 
 Norse Balder has the same initial syllable, as have also such 
 English topographical names as Pol-stead, Pole-brook; and 
 there is the well-known fact that the Scottish and Irish Celts 
 were worshippers of Bel as a sun-god, and had their Beltane 
 (" Bel-fire ") rites on the 1st of May. In an old Welsh litur- 
 gical hymn Bel is described as a " bestower of gifts " — that is, 
 fortune, — a,nd Britain is called his island, " ynys Eel." 
 
 The British Druids adored Bel as their supreme god, and 
 and the G. form of his name, when inflected, is Bheil, 
 sounded Vel, as in the word gabadh-bheil, " the jeopardy 
 of Bel," the fire-ordeal of the Druids, practised also by our 
 Anglo-Saxon forefathers. This insensibly carries the mind
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 269 
 
 back to that noble scene on Mount Carmel — noble in the 
 impressive grandeur of all that the eye could command, 
 both of earth and sea and sky — noble by the presence of 
 royal rank and priestly pomp — noble in the anxious expect- 
 ancy of the thousands who clustered there round the chosen 
 ordeal-ground, where the priests of Baal wearied themselves 
 in vain, calling on their sun-god to show his power, by send- 
 ing fire, a manifestation of himself, to consume their sacrifice 
 — and noble, too, in the calm majesty of the one man who 
 knew that his prayer would be heard, and that no physical 
 obstacles, not even floods of water, could prevent the descent 
 of that sacred flame which had once enveloped a bush without 
 consuming a leaf or a single twig, but would now lick up in 
 an instant the water and the wood and the sacrifice, and 
 prove before the eyes of an apostate nation that " Jehovah, 
 He is God." 
 
 The gabhadh-bheil was a direct appeal to the deity to 
 prove the innocence of the accused by asserting his power 
 over the element, fire, which was peculiarly his symbol. The 
 Etruscans also were worshippers of fire, and of the various 
 forms in which the fire-gods showed themselves, such as 
 Tina^ Setklans, Usil, Summaniis. Now, the G. inflected 
 form of Bel is exactly the same as the essential part of the 
 town-names already mentioned; and the -sin a, -sinii in 
 Felsina and Volsinii I take to be the same as in Rasena 
 — that is, the Gr. construct form fenna, senna, "people." 
 Volsinii would thus mean the town of " Bel's people," the 
 town of the Pelasgi. This possible connection of the Pelas- 
 gians and the Etruscans with the worship of the god Bel 
 deserves a fuller examination, but the discussion of it would 
 draw me away from my Etruscan words. I would only add 
 that, as the Greeks observed an identity between their god 
 Heracles and the Tyrian Bel, and as Hercules was a national
 
 270 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 god in Etruria and Kome, it is not unreasonable to suppose 
 that the name Bel was Etruscan also. 
 
 In connection with Bel, I may be permitted to say here 
 that I strongly believe the name Velathri, the " lordly 
 Volaterrse," one of the oldest and noblest of the Etruscan 
 cities, to be equivalent to G. Bheil-cathair, "the capital 
 city of Bel " — a name which well suits all we know of its 
 history and importance. Of the many forms which the H. 
 kir or kiriath, "a city," assumes in the Aryan group of 
 languages, the G. is the only one which has the th of -athri ; 
 the termination -ri is the S. equivalent of G. -air, and if 
 the c of cathair be softened into li, the city-name becomes 
 Vel-hath-ri, Vel-athri. 
 
 Now, what is the root-form of For tuna ? Is it for or 
 fort ? The Latin Fors, the goddess of " Chance," suggests 
 a comparison with the Etruscan Lar-s, and the probability 
 that the s in Fors represents the Etruscan formative -ih, as 
 in Lar-th, and that the root is For. We have already 
 observed that the name Gad, " Fortune," is formed from an 
 original root meaning " to cut into, to cut "; in the Semitic 
 languages this root has many forms, as gad, gaz, kats, kas, 
 chats, chaz; its Aryan cognates are L. csedo, scindo, Gr. 
 schizo. The "Fortune" goddess-name, Meni, has also a 
 similar derivation, for it comes from man ah, " to divide, to 
 allot, to assign," with which compare the Gr. verb meiromai, 
 " I receive my portion," and moira, " one's portion, lot, fate"; 
 thus both words for the " Fortune " deity. Gad, Meni, mean 
 " that which is allotted or assigned as one's portion." The 
 H. has another root- verb, karats, "to cut off, destroy," of 
 which other forms are karach, kara, "to meet, to happen," 
 whence kareh, " chance, accident " ; still another form from 
 the same root is karob, "near, short." From the root kar, 
 in the sense of " cutting," come the Gr. keiro, " I shear, cut
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 271 
 
 short, cut off," and Ker, " fate, destiny, the goddess of death 
 and fate." The root kar in passing into G. becomes gearr, 
 " to cut," whence gearrag, " fortune, fate, destiny," and the 
 adj. gearr, " short," which in its derived forms takes the 
 spelling goir, gior, as in the participial form goirrte, 
 " shortened," L. curtus. With the H. karob, " near," 
 corresponds the G. gar, "nigh, near at hand," and with 
 the H. kareh, " chance, accident," corresponds the G. 
 B-giorradh, " accident." From all this it appears that 
 the Oriental root kar becomes in G. gearr, goir, gior, 
 and even s-giorr. Now, goir, transferred to Italy, may 
 be foir, for, as we have shown already (see fabhra), there 
 lurks in the Latin initial / an unobserved sound of g. 
 Therefore, taking Foir as an Etruscan word, and adding 
 to it the personal formative th, we have Foir-th, L. Fors, 
 "the goddess of Chance "; and from that comes For-tuna, 
 the deity who "presides over fate, lot, destiny, fortune," 
 Fors, again, by changing / into s (see halen), gives L. sors, 
 " one's lot or condition." If this view is correct, Fortuna 
 is not a mongrel word, Latin with a Gadhelic termination, 
 but it is wholly Celtic. 
 
 (4.) The next and last form of the termination -tumnus 
 is -unus, which is formed from -tunus, like -umnus 
 from -tumnus, by aspirating the initial t. Of this I give as 
 examples the names Faunus, Inuus, Epona, Pomona, Vacuna. 
 
 Faunus is a mythical king of Latium, earlier than the time 
 of Evander and Hercules. He presides over flocks and 
 herds, and is also endowed with the spirit of prophecy. 
 The pastoral occupants of the country hamlets poured forth 
 in crowds on the 5th of December ; for then his festival, the 
 Faunalia, was celebrated with dancing and much noisy 
 mirth. Livy says, " Nudi juvenes — per lusum et lasciviam 
 currebant," and Horace,
 
 272 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 " Faune, Nympharuin fugientum amator, 
 * * * * 
 
 Ludit herboso pecus omne campo, 
 Cum tibi Nonse redeunt Decembres, 
 Festus in pratis vacat otioso 
 
 Cum bove pagus." 
 
 Like the Greek Pan, of whom he is the Italian representa- 
 tive, he frequents the woods and groves, from which he 
 sallies out on maidens passing by, and is thus the author of 
 sudden fears. Hence, there were many Fauns, many forms 
 in which these fears assailed the mind ; and Fauns and 
 Satyrs are associated as beings of the same kind, monsters 
 at once goat and man. The goat seems to have been the 
 favourite emblem of Faunus, for on ancient gems he is seen 
 affectionately conversing, nose to nose, with a huge shaggy 
 goat. As a prophetic deity, his devotees must seek him in 
 a grove and near a fountain, at the dead hour of night; 
 after slaying the victims, the priest must lay himself down 
 to sleep, stretched upon their skins ; he will then hear 
 strange sounds, and see fleeting images of things ; thus the 
 god communicates his will. The Gaels had among them a 
 similar mode of obtaining a knowledge of the immediate 
 
 future. 
 
 "Brian an augury hath tried, 
 Of tliat dread kind which must not be, 
 Unless in dread extremity, 
 The Taghairm called; by which, afar, 
 Our sires foresaw the events of war. 
 Duncraggan's milk-white bull they slew, 
 
 * * * * 
 
 That bull was slain ; his reeking hide 
 They stretched the cataract beside, 
 Whose waters their wild tumult toss 
 Adown the black and craggy boss 
 Of that huge cliff whose ample verge 
 Tradition calls the Hero's Targe.
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 273 
 
 Couclied on a shelve beneath its brink, 
 Close where the thundering tori-ents sink, 
 Rocking beneath their headlong sway, 
 And drizzled by the ceaseless spray. 
 Midst groan of rock and roar of stream. 
 The wizard waits prophetic dream." 
 
 As to the etymology of the name Faun us, I have else- 
 where suggested a possible connection between Faunus and 
 the Gr. adj. math, " good." But I think there must have 
 been two deities with names somewhat similar, which names 
 ultimately coalesced into one, Faunus — the one deity pro- 
 phetic, the other merely tutelary. In this latter aspect, I 
 would take Faunus to be Fa-unus where the Fa is the 
 G. ba, " cows," A.-S. Scotch fe, " cattle," especially sheep 
 and goats," Ic. fe, N. fee, A.-S. feo. Faunus, then, is the 
 deity who protects the " cattle," the small cattle, the sheep 
 and the goats. The singular form of ba is bo (L. bos), 
 and cognate is G. hoc, buic, " a buck, a he-goat," from 
 which, used in the same sense as A.-S. feo, I take the L. 
 pec-us, pec-unia, "wealth, property," which originally lay 
 in flocks and herds. Not only so, but in the heroic ages 
 the ox was the unit of value in commercial exchange ; and so 
 in the Homeric poems, a skilled woman-slave is valued at four 
 oxen, and the prizes in the athletic contests are so many 
 oxen or their price, -^schykis also asserts that the figure 
 of an ox was stamped on the earliest coined money. In G. 
 the oblique form of bo, " an ox," is boin; and from this I 
 take the L. mon-eta, " money" {ni for b, see tuber); and 
 so L. Juno Moneta and Gr. bo5pis Here have the "ox" 
 idea in common. 
 
 Livy tells us that when Evander had established the wor- 
 ship of Lycean Pan on the Palatine, the Romans called the 
 god Inuus. This seems to imply that Inuus is a name
 
 274 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 taken from the earliest elements of the language of Rome, 
 and that in meaning it is the equivalent of the Greek Pan. 
 Now, the Arcadian Pan is properly the protector of sheep, 
 and goats, and rams, and lambs, for " Pan curat oves," and 
 he is described as " semicaper," with goats' feet, and tail, and 
 horns. In the Roman mythology, the larger cattle were 
 under the protection of Pales, at whose festival, on the 21st 
 of April, the shepherds had ceremonies of purification by 
 fire, remarkably like those of the Celtic Beltane. If we con- 
 sider the tendency of the Romans to multiply their gods by 
 assigning peculiar subordinate functions to each, so that no 
 operation of nature, no human affection, no craft or trade 
 might be without its presiding deity, we may regard Pales, 
 Faunus, and Inuus as a threefold division of the labours of 
 the Arcadian god. Pales has charge of the large, horned 
 cattle, Faunus protects the cows, the sheep, and the goats, 
 while Inuus cares for the lambs, and generally the young of 
 Faunus's flocks and herds. I would therefore derive the name 
 Inuus from the G. uan, "a lamb," Arm. oan, Corn, on, 
 K. oen, plu. wyn, and although the termination -uus is not 
 uncommon in Latin, and has apparently no special signi- 
 ficance, as in ingenuus, arduus, &c., yet in Inuus I sup- 
 pose it to have the same force as it has in sedi-tuus, the 
 " custodian " of a temple, and in Pala-tua, the " tutelary " 
 goddess of the Palatine hill, where Pales dwelt. Here the stems 
 are sed- and Pal-, and the -tuus is the same as -tumnus, 
 " the protector," for an older form of sedituus is aeditumus, 
 which again must be a softening of a still older form, 
 seditumnus. A Roman peasant, frequently pronouncing 
 the word uan-umnus, " the protector of the lambs," would 
 soon drop into yintimus, and then Inuus. 
 
 Arnobius says, " Pales and Inuus are set as guardians over 
 the flocks and herds." Here Inuus takes the place of Faunus,
 
 ABSTRACT TERMS. 275 
 
 and if Faunus and Inuus are only two names for the same 
 deity, as seems likely, I would derive the name Inuus from 
 old Gr. aodh, "a sheep." The dli, changed into its liquid 
 n, would make the word a on, which is much the same as 
 uan above, and this, with -uus added, as before, would give 
 Unuus, Inuus. In either view, I therefore claim Inuus 
 as a Gadhelic name. 
 
 There is one other name which I would introduce here, 
 but I do not attach much importance to it in this discussion, 
 for I am not sure of its antiquity or of its nationality. It 
 is the name Epona, the " tutelary " deity of " horses " and 
 asses. It may be the Gr. hipp5n, but this means " a place 
 for horses," and does not contain the notion of tutelary pro- 
 tection. And as Pom-ona, " the goddess of gardens and 
 their fruits," is not Greek, the stem being unmistakably 
 Latin, so Ep-5na I consider a Grecised form of Ep-una, 
 with which compare Vac-una, "the goddess of leisure." The 
 root Ep- is the G. each, " a horse " (^9 for h), and is another 
 proof that L. equus, " a horse," is more directly connected 
 with the G. than with the Gr, hippos.
 
 276 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 TERMS USED IN RELIGION, 
 
 1. Fanum, a Temple. 
 
 2. Favissa, a Crypt. 
 
 3. LitUUS, an Augur's Wand. 
 
 4. jEsar, a God. 
 
 1. Fanum, a Temple. 
 
 Fanum, templum, and deluhrwni in Latin are all used to 
 signify "a temple," but with some difference in meaning, 
 for we have such expressions as "pro patriis fanis atque 
 delubris" "fana ac templa." The derivation of delubruTn, 
 from the root luo, " I wash," seems to point to a place of 
 expiation, lustration, purification ; hence it comes to mean 
 " a holy place, a temple." But as fanum and teTnplum 
 are primary root-words in Latin, we have no help from 
 etymology to enable us to distinguish their meaning. It 
 is evident, however, that teonplum is a word of wider signi- 
 fication than fanum, for it is applied to the space in the 
 heavens marked out by the augur's wand, when he wished 
 to take omens, and also to the augur's tent ; in many 
 passages in Roman authors it is used, without any reference 
 to religious observances (as, " lucida templa coeli," " templa 
 Neptuni," "templum mundi"), to mean a circular expanse, 
 an open spot, from which an extensive circle-view could be 
 obtained ; but fanum is always a sacred enclosure dedicated
 
 TERMS USED IN RELIGION. 277 
 
 to some deity, and is equivalent to Greek temenos. It is 
 not very clear whether the augur's templum in the sky was 
 always a circular space or sometimes of another shape, for it 
 is described merely as a locus Jinitus, circumscriptus, but 
 the augur's tent, which was also called teviplum, must have 
 been round, and the pomoerium, enclosing a space regarded 
 as a templum, within which the auspices could be taken, 
 was also round. The Assyrian and Babylonian temples 
 were round, built in stages, and at their top was a round 
 tower containing' the shrine. The earliest of human abodes 
 were circular in form, the earliest temples were circular, 
 and the circle is the all-potent spell within which the 
 powers of evil must not appear. This mysterious virtue in 
 the circle springs from its being an emblem of the Sun, who 
 at his coming forth from his night-chamber, drives away all 
 the powers of darkness. Hence, also, " the circus is con- 
 secrated to the Sun, whose templuin stands in the middle 
 of it, and whose image shines forth from its temple-summit, 
 for they have not thought it proper to pay sacred honours 
 underneath a roof [the circus was open to the sky] to an 
 object which they have, itself, in open space " (Tertullian). 
 Before any sanctuary could be built, the augur made his 
 observations in the usual way, and if the signs were favour- 
 able, the temple was built on the spot, I imagine, where 
 the augur's tent, called templum minus, had stood ; hence, 
 when a temple was to be desecrated, it was the foundation 
 only that was ploughed up. I would thus restrict the 
 name templum to the building itself and the necessary 
 appurtenances, while fanum would then mean the whole 
 space, itself circular, which lay around the temple, and was 
 dedicated to the deity. In this view I have no difficulty 
 in tracing L. templum to the G. tiomchioll, timchioll, 
 " to surround," or, as a preposition, " round about," for, by
 
 278 
 
 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 the usual change of h into p (see pinna), tiomchi oil be- 
 comes tyempeul, whence L. tempi -um. This G. word 
 is composed of G. tiom, "time," implying "revolution" 
 (cf. G. iom), and chioll, which is the H. chul, "to wheel," 
 root gil (q.v.) The G. tiom may become ciom, h for t 
 (see teine), and this, with the root car (q.v.) prefixed to it, 
 makes carciora, "round about in a circle," which is the L. 
 preposition circum. The tiom is connected with the H. 
 kaph, nakaph, "to surround," often used with respect to 
 time as "going round." Thus the G. tiom, tim, "time, a 
 season," N. timme, "an hour," come from kaph by sub- 
 stituting t for k, and m for p or h (see teine and tuber) ; 
 besides kaph, the root-verb car also means " to go round," 
 and from it I form a noun cuair, chuair to mean "time," 
 L. hora, but cuair, huair is now softened in G. into uair, 
 "an hour, time, season, weather" (cf. L. tempestas and 
 tempus). A compound of uair is G. tiomchuairt, and 
 from this I form L. tempus — that is, temper — by sub- 
 stituting p for h {ch, c), and dropping the final t, which, 
 indeed, should not be there, for the root is uair. Although 
 the G. tiomchuairt now means "a periodical return, a 
 cycle, a circle," yet its component parts show that it must 
 refer to "time." The plural of tempus is used to mean 
 the " temples " of the head, and in this sense the Gaels use 
 camag, from cam, "round, curved," which also is from the 
 H. root kaph. From the root car the S. applies the name 
 karata to the "round" lumps or "temples" on the fore- 
 head of the elephant ; and from the same root the S. has 
 char-ka (equivalent to the G. cuairt) to mean "a wheel, 
 a circle." 
 
 If templum, then, be the name which belongs to the spot 
 on which the sacred edifice stood, I take fanum to be the 
 circular enclosure surrounding it, and I derive the word from
 
 TERMS USED IN RELIGION, 279 
 
 G. fainne, "a ring." And if the Etruscan worship was 
 solar and astral, which doubtless it was, the sacred precincts 
 of the temples were defined, as in the Druidical Stonehenge 
 and Stennis, by circles, it may be, of mighty stones, or merely 
 by a circular entrenchment marked by the plough. Connected 
 with fainne are the Gr. fanas, "an empty space," probably 
 at first a sacred enclosure which must not be tilled or infringed, 
 and fan-leac, an altar of rude stones, literally "a ring-stone," 
 with which compare the G. crom-leac, "a Druidical altar," 
 from G. crom, " crooked," or, as a substantive, " a bend, a 
 curve, a circle." Cromlechs are numerous in various parts 
 of Britain, and the name contains the same idea as we have 
 found in G. cam and G. fainne. The G. leac is " a flat 
 stone." 
 
 I may illustrate my view of the distinction between the 
 fanum and the templum by referring to the Celto-Irish 
 terms rath and lios. They both mean a circular enclosure, 
 but the rath includes and encloses the lios, for an ancient 
 Irish MS., when describing a hero's visit to the king, says, 
 " He leaped over the rath until he stood on the floor of the 
 lios, and thence into the king-house." In modern G. and 
 I., rath is used to mean an " artificial mound, a prince's 
 palace, a fortress, a village," but the primary idea in it is 
 that of a circular trench and mound (fossa et agger) sur- 
 rounding any enclosure, from the G. ra, re, " a circle," L. 
 rad-ius, " a ray," rota, "awheel." Hence rath in the old 
 Irish MSS.is translated sometimes hy fossa and sometimes 
 by murus. With rath, " a prince's palace," from ra, " some- 
 thing round," I compare L. turris (" regumque turres"), "a 
 tower," a princely mansion, from the root tur, dur, "to go 
 round " (q.v.) 
 
 Another word of similar import, also common in the Celtic 
 topography of Ireland — in meaning an exact equivalent of
 
 280 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 rath — is brugh, "a fortress, a palace, a village, a tower, a 
 fairy-ring," for fairy-rings, too, are numerous in Ireland, — 
 sacred enclosures within which these airy beings hold their 
 revels. I have elsewhere shown that this word, too, contains 
 the idea of roundness, as is evident from its meaning " a 
 tower, a fairy-ring." Another form of brugh is brughas 
 (bruas), as in the village name Bruis, Bruce. From bruas 
 I form the L, term pomcerium. For, just as in H. the 
 noun charuts, " the ditch which surrounded a fortified city" 
 (from charats, " to cut into "), is used also to mean " a wall," 
 so the G. word amar, am air, "a trench, a trough, a furrow," 
 Gr. amara, "a trench," gives the L. murus, "a wall." Now 
 let us take bruas and amair, and form the compound noun 
 bruasamair, "the furrow that surrounds the village or town." 
 This gives prosimurium, the very name under which Festus 
 describes the pom cerium, the sacred enclosure within which 
 the Etruscans and the Latins built their cities. This I con- 
 sider to be the true derivation of pomcerium, for the usual 
 explanation of the name, as if pone, post muros, " behind 
 the walls," does not meet the conditions of the case. Livy 
 himself speaks doubtfully of the derivation of pomcerium 
 from post moerium, for he says, "Est autem magis circa 
 murum locus." He tells us that the rites observed in trac- 
 ing a pomcerium were Etruscan; the name, therefore, is 
 Etruscan, and I claim it to be Gadhelic. The Etruscans 
 traced a pomcerium in this manner : Having first sacrificed 
 to the gods to secure their favour, and having leaped through 
 flaming fires to purify themselves for the work on hand, the 
 people yoked together a bull and a cow, both snow-white in 
 colour, 
 
 " Alba jugum niveo cum bove vacca tulit," 
 
 and made them draw a plough along, so as to mark with a
 
 TERMS USED IN RELIGION. 281 
 
 deep furrow the whole circuit of the city which they intended 
 to build. The crowd carefully followed the plough as it 
 proceeded, and if any clods that were turned up by the plough- 
 share fell outwards they threw them over to the other side. 
 The white team was then slain and offered on the altar. 
 With these observances, then, was infant Rome first laid out, 
 and with these rites did Romulus implore the favour of the 
 gods to abide on that city which was destined to be the 
 mistress of the world. 
 
 The circular form of the trench and the colour of the oxen 
 clearly point to a solar worship. This furrow or trench was 
 sacred and inviolable; its course, like the Druidical circles, was 
 marked by stone pillars, and an open ring-space on each side 
 of it must be kept clear of houses. The city wall or mums 
 was usually built inside the furrow on the line of the clods, 
 but it might be built outside the furrow, so as to enclose the 
 whole of the sacred space. When Rome grew to be a large 
 city the pomceriuin was extended, but only " iinore prisco" 
 with the ancient rites. 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Lindsay. — Teniphtm. — Proximately from tiini, the root 
 of iumon and of tumilon, " to encircle or go round," the p 
 being introduced in tumil- for euphony. Equivalent to " a 
 place encircled or circumscribed." 
 
 Ponicerium. — Compounded of preposition hi, governing 
 the dative, and implying " by, at, beside, close to," and 
 TauTunn, the dative plural of niura, muri, inur, " a wall," 
 2:>omcerium thus resolving into the hi-murom, the space 
 " at, by, near the walls." 
 
 Taylor. — Fanum. — "A sacred place." The Etruscan 
 word Vanth meant " death," phanu, " the temple-tomb," 
 and the Yenisseian fenam means " ashes."
 
 282 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 CoRSSEN. — Fanum. — From the root fa in fa-ri, " to 
 speak," originally hlia-, with the same termination as in 
 do-num, tig-num, sig-num, &c. Fanum, therefore, signifies 
 locus effatus, a place inaugurated and consecrated by word- 
 ceremonies. 
 
 2. For Etr. Favissa, " a crypt," see Chap. VII. 
 
 3. LiTUUS, an Augur's Rod. 
 
 Of our forty words this is the only other which is con- 
 nected with the Etruscan religion, and therefore I take it 
 with fanu7n. 
 
 The S. dada means "a stick, a staff, a rod." There 
 must be something sacred about it, for it gives a name to 
 Yama, the regent of the south, and the S. dada-tinika is 
 a religious impostor, who, for fraudulent purposes, wears the 
 badges of sanctity, a "staff" and a deer's skin. In EgyjDt, 
 too, there was a sacred rod, for in the coronation ceremonies 
 of the king, the " crook " and the flagellura were put in his 
 hands as emblems of dominion and majesty. The highest 
 officials also of the realm, such as a chief-general or a chief- 
 priest, were entitled to wear the " crook," and thus held the 
 rank of princely fan-bearers. The Australian aborigines, 
 too, have their sacred wand, for Ridley says : " This old 
 man, Billy, told me as a great favour, what other blacks had 
 withheld as a mystery too sacred to be disclosed to a white 
 man, that dhurumbulum, ' a stick or wand,' is exhibited at 
 the hora (a sacred convocation for initiating the young of 
 the tribe), and that the sight of it inspires the initiated with 
 manhood. This sacred wand was the gift of Baime (the 
 Creator)." 
 
 The Magians wore white robes, and strange tall caps ; 
 they bore mystic wands in their hands ; so also do the good
 
 TERMS USED IN RELIGION. 283 
 
 spirits in in the Etruscan sculptures. The Zendic harsom 
 — these mystic wands of tamarisk — were essential to the 
 due performance of every sacrifice by the Magian priests ; 
 these they held in their hands while officiating, and by these 
 they divined and interpreted omens and dreams. 
 
 Such also must have been the "rods" which the Egyptian 
 priests held in their hands when they stood in the presence 
 of Pharaoh, and by their counterfeited miracles helped to 
 harden his heart so that " he refused to let the people go." 
 The H. name for this "rod" means merely "a branch, a 
 twig" (which is exactly the meaning of Gr. slat, as below), 
 and is formed from the H. verb natah, "to stretch out." 
 Now, H. natah is the S. dada. In passing into some of 
 the Western languages, the initial d of the S. dada becomes 
 ^, just as the Gr. dakruma becomes L. lacrima; hence 
 the Ger. latte, and the E. lath, lattice. But it is not 
 imcommon to prefix an s to a root- word ; so S. pada-ka 
 gives L. s-pado, "a eunuch," and S. nihara, "frost," gives 
 G. s-neachd, "snow"; hence from S. dada the G. has 
 slat, "a rod," and the K. Hath, "a rod," also, in a technical 
 sense, "a geometer's rod," with its compound hudlath, "a 
 juggler's, or augur's wand" (see K. hud). In the same 
 way in E. we speak of " a yard " (that is, " a rod "), and 
 an " ell-wand." 
 
 I form Etr. lihtus from G. slat, "a rod," for, while 
 slat is used in a general way to mean a rod of any kind, 
 yet from it I would take a derivative slatamh (pronounced 
 slatav) to mean a rod used for some particular purpose, 
 and slatavus would easily give the Etr.-L. litiitiS. Or, 
 it may be that Etr. litims is the G. slat-thomhas (pro- 
 nounced slatovus) "the wand of measurement or divina- 
 tion," for the G. verb torahais means "to measure, to 
 guess, to unriddle." The K. hudlath is the lituus.
 
 284 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 The lituus, then, is the " rod " — the staff which the 
 augur held in his hand as a symbol of his office ; with it he 
 marked out in the sky the "regions" within which he wished 
 to take omens — the templum of our last article. It was 
 a rod without knots, and slightly bent at the uppet end, 
 and somewhat in the shape of a crook; as represented on 
 the Etruscan sculptures, it much resembles a modern bishop's 
 crosier. The curve on the end of the rod seems to have 
 a refei'ence to divine things, for in the Egyptian pictures, 
 the beard of the gods is long and narrow, and turned up at 
 the end like the litutts. Besides the rod, a trumpet 
 similarly bent at the end was also called litims; it seems 
 to have been devoted at first to priestly uses, but it was 
 afterwards peculiar to the Roman cavalry. There can be no 
 doubt that the lituus was Etruscan, for Clement of Alex- 
 andria says that they invented it. 
 
 The earliest of all trumpets must have been the concha 
 or shell, such as that with which the Tritons made the seas 
 resound. The earliest of artificial trumpets Avas probably 
 the straight one, called by the Romans tuba ; this was used 
 in Egypt and in Greece long before the Trojan war, and 
 also in Rome at a very early period. The Roman huccina, 
 which was used in war to call the hours of the night and 
 the day, was like a spiral shell, and the cornu, as the name 
 indicates, resembled a ram's horn. The name httms, how- 
 over, 1 claim to be Celtic, for, so far as I know, there is no 
 other ancient language in Europe that gives the word 
 lihms, and, from a comparison with the Sanscrit, it is clear 
 that the G. root s-lat, lat is old enough to be the parent 
 of the Etruscan word-name. 
 
 A curious corroboration of the derivation of lihms from 
 the G. slat and tomhas is found in the H. word shophar, 
 "a trumpet, a cornet." The shophar, like the litims, was
 
 TERMS USED IN RELIGION. 285 
 
 a horn slightly bent at the end ; the name, according to 
 Gesenius, is formed from the verb shaphar, "to have a 
 bright clear sound " ; this suits the lititus as a clear-sound- 
 ing trumpet; but shaphar also means "to measure" (cf. 
 G. tomhais), and this agrees with the meaning of slat- 
 thomhas as an astrologer's measuring, divining rod; indeed 
 it would not be unreasonable to say that G. tomh-as 
 (that is, toph-) and the H. shophar are the same root- 
 word. The H. shaphar, again, is cognate to saphar, in 
 the sense of " numbering," and this brings us near to the 
 " Babylonian numbers " of the Chaldsean priests. 
 
 On the whole, I prefer the derivation of Etr. lihms from 
 slat-thomhas, "the rod of divination." 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson. — It contains the root li-, found in liquis, 
 ohliquus, lira, litus, &c. 
 
 Lindsay. — From leit, the root of leitjan, ledian, " to 
 lead," ga Leitjan, " to lead or draw," in Latin regere — this 
 Latin equivalent being the very word by' which, as " regere 
 fines," the operation was expressed. 
 
 Taylor. — The laws of letter-change enable us to identify 
 it with Samojedic nidea, "a crook." 
 
 4. For Etr. y^sar, " a god," see Chap. Ill, Part IL
 
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 BIRDS. 287 
 
 CIIAPTEE, X. 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 1. Aracos, Haracos, a Hawk. 
 
 2. Oapys, a Falcon. 
 
 3. Gnis, a Crane. 
 
 4. Antar, the Eagle. 
 
 1. General Names for " Bird." 
 
 These words introduce an interesting field of inquiry re- 
 garding the origin of bird-names, and since the discussion of 
 this branch of my subject may throw some light on these 
 names as they exist in several languages, I may be pardoned 
 if I proceed to consider them at some length. 
 
 Trench, in his " Study of Words," has shown how words 
 often contain *' fossil poetry" and " fossil history" ; to this 
 I would add that names are often " fossil painting," for the 
 name-maker sees, in the object to be named, certain dis- 
 tinguishing features, certain prominent lineaments, which 
 are peculiar to it ; these, by one stroke of his mint-die, the 
 faculty of language, he imprints indelibly on the word, and 
 issues the new coin as his contribution to the word-wealth 
 of all ages. But, just as our standard coinage by frequent 
 use becomes worn and defaced, so that, after a time, the 
 original stamp and legend on the gold can scarcely be traced, 
 so likewise primitive words often become so rubbed and 
 crushed and clipped and disfigured in passing through
 
 288 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 many languages and many lips, that it is difficult to re- 
 cognise the mint-stamp, but, when recognised, its authority 
 is decisive. The numismatologist sets greater value on a 
 coin or medal of ancient date, whose birth and lineage he 
 has had some difficulty in discovering ; so a philologist finds 
 a pleasure in tracing the career of an ancient word from its 
 birth, it may be four thousand years ago, through all its 
 changes down to the present hour. The portrait-painter, 
 by laborious and oft-repeated touches, at length transfers to 
 the canvas a faithful copy of the features of his friend, but 
 the word-maker, by the immediate exercise of that divine 
 faculty which has been given to man alone, calls into being, 
 by one descriptive stroke, the whole image of the object, 
 and leaves it there, an evidence of his creative power. Words, 
 then, are fossil painting. 
 
 The names of animals are, in their original state, eminently 
 descriptive ; for (I.) either they imitate the voice of the 
 animal, as "cuckoo,'' or (II.) they express some distinguishing 
 feature, (1) in its appearance, or (2) in its habits, as the 
 " glutton" the L. " noctua" and the S. " niga-dana " 
 " the night-bird," the Gr. " aix," " the leaper," the goat. 
 
 Now, the Etruscan birds aracos^ or haracos, and capys, 
 " the hawk " and " the falcon," in natural history, both 
 belong to the order Raptores, or " birds of prey," which 
 includes the eagles, the hawks, the kites, the owls. (1.) 
 Their features are shortly these : — They have a strong 
 pointed bill, more or less curved, bright piercing eyes, strong 
 wings and rapid flight ; sharp, prehensile claws with which 
 they seize their prey and hold it fast. The larger birds of 
 this order are noble in their aspect, and one of them, the 
 eagle, is not unworthily designated " the bird of Jove." 
 (2.) As to their habits, they rise into the air by rapid 
 circling flights ; they mount to a great height ; they catch
 
 BIRDS. 289 
 
 their prey by force, not by guile ; they build ou lofty iu- 
 accessible rocks ; they have a harsh voice. 
 
 Another order, the Tnsessores, or " Perchers," contains a 
 few birds which may illustrate this inquiry, the raven, the 
 crow, the rook, and to them may be added the magpies and 
 the jays. They are all remarkable for their sagacity and 
 their cunning watchfulness, and, in a domestic state, for 
 their habit of pilfering ; they build in high places, usually 
 the tops of lofty trees ; their note is harsh ; they have this 
 in common with the Raptores, that they fly in circles ; the 
 rooks, when disturbed by the approach of a stranger, leave 
 their nests on the tops of the tall elms, and fly about in 
 airy gyrations overhead, deafening the ear with their hoarse 
 cry ; and the raven flies in circles in the higher regions of 
 the clear blue sky. 
 
 The Etr. orjiis brings in another order of birds, the 
 Grallatores, or "Wading Birds," the cranes, the herons, the 
 storks. To fit them for their mode of subsistence, they have 
 long and slender legs, for they wade in marshes. Lakes, rivers, 
 warily watching for fish, frogs, slugs, or worms ; they move 
 about, as it Avere, on " stilts " ; hence they are called in Fr. 
 echassiers ; like the raven and the crow, they have their 
 homes on lofty trees, and, although heavy in rising from the 
 ground, they fly swiftly when they have obtained the full 
 power of their wings ; they are migratory. 
 
 Several of the birds which I have named, especially of 
 the rapacious and the wading orders, are famous for their 
 attachment to their young. Foremost among these is the 
 stork, the " pious bird " of the Hebrews, the " household 
 bird " of the Dutch ; its home is on the house-tops in 
 Hollaud, and it is never disturbed there by man or boy. 
 As an instance of its affection, it is said that on one occa- 
 sion, when the town of Delft was on fire, a stork was seen 
 
 u
 
 290 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 endeavouring to carry off her young from a nest among the 
 chimney-pots, but failing in her efforts, she remained and 
 perished with them ! 
 
 The vulture, also, is known for its family affection. One 
 species, reverenced by the Egyptians of old, was believed to 
 watch over its young for 120 days in every year, and even, 
 in lack of other food, to feed them with blood from its 
 thiohs ! 
 
 "O* 
 
 I. General Terms, 
 
 Our English name bird is used to signify " any animal 
 that can fly," in which sense it has usurped the place of the 
 correct term fowl, from A.-S, fug-el, Ger. vog-el, L. 
 fug-io, E. the flyer. The word bird properly means the 
 *' young" of fowls, from A.-S. bird, brid, root breed. The 
 Celtic terms for "fowl" or "bird" — viz., Gr.-L eun, ian, 
 K. edn, Corn, edhen, Arm. ezn — are identical. But are 
 these words autochthons, or are they immigrants ? Let us 
 see. 
 
 The roughest of these forms is the K, edn, in which 
 dialect ad-ain means "a wing," and ad-ar means "birds, 
 fowls." The root, then, is ad, ed. Now, in G.-L, ite 
 means "a feather, a wing," from which are formed the noun 
 iteal, "a flying on wings," and the verb itealaich, "to 
 fly " as a bird. The original idea, however, conveyed by 
 this root is that of "motion" merely, for the S. has nat, 
 "to move," and the H. has nad-ad, "to move," as the 
 Avings of a bird, " to flee, or fly away." The letter n, when 
 it is the first radical in a word, frequently changes into the 
 sound of the semi-vowel y, as H. naah, yaah, "beautiful"; 
 thus the H. nad, or the S. nat may assume such forms as 
 yad, head or ead, hed or ed, which last form, hed or ehed, 
 means in K. " to fly." To this root add the formative
 
 BIRDS. 291 
 
 letter n, which in Celtic is variously vocalised as -an, -ean, 
 -ainn, -uinn, or 3^1, and we have the K. ad-ain, "a 
 wing," and ehed-yn, "a bird," and with a double forma- 
 tive ad-er-yn, "a bird," and edan, contracted into edn, 
 "a bird." The G. eun, "a bird," comes from the same 
 H. root, differently vocalised ; for H. nad-ad is softened 
 into nud, which similarly may become yud, hud, eud, 
 whence eudan, Gr. eun, "a bird," plu. eoin. That these 
 were the successive stages of transformation is shown by the 
 K. words hud and hodi, of which hud means "to practise 
 augury," " to take omens from birds " (cf. L. augurari), 
 while hodi means "to sprout." 
 
 This word hodi presents to our view an interesting 
 phenomenon in language. In the unbroken language which 
 existed before the dispersion of mankind — a time when words 
 were few, but ideas multiiDlied rapidly — the same w^ord was 
 "used in a great variety of acceptations ; these to us now 
 appear utterly diverse, and yet if we examine the matter 
 closely, we shall find that the ditfereut meanings all spring 
 from a process of generalisation which impelled the word- 
 maker to look on many different things as possessing one 
 property in common. To our eye there is little resemblance 
 between the "flying" of a bird aud the "sprouting" of a 
 cabbage, but not so to the ancient " maker." For example, 
 the H. verb nats-ats, natsa, natseh, means (1) "to shine," 
 (2) "to flower," (3) "to fly" — three very different ideas, 
 but they have a connection. For, comparing nats- with 
 the S. nat, "to move," we observe that nats means (1) "to 
 move" forward from darkness into light, as the sun at his 
 rising, hence " to shine " ; tlien (2) — said of a plant — " to 
 move" forward from a state of deadness or quiescence in 
 winter into the vigorous "sprouting" life of spring, hence 
 ''to flower," in which sense the H. has nizzah, "a flower";
 
 292 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 and (3) by transferring the idea of " sprouting " to the con- 
 dition of birds while they are gaining their feathers, it means 
 " to fly " — that is, " to move " forward from the condition 
 of fledgelings to the full privileges of a " fowl," a creature 
 that can "fly," hence H. nutsah, the " pinion of birds." 
 A similar instance of one idea common to several different 
 objects is found in the S. vaha, "a horse," vahana, 
 "vehicle," vi, vikina, "a bird," vikatna, "the sun." 
 
 The K. hodi, " to sprout," is thus akin to eun, "a bird." 
 Nor is nats the only root- word in which this phenomenon 
 is observable ; for the H. parach means " to sprout," and 
 in Syriac, " to fly"; the Gr. root gabh means "to be in 
 motion," and from it comes the verb gabh-laich, '•' to throw 
 out branches"; the G. root cinn means "to sprout," and 
 from it, by changing h into p (cf. S. papa, " bad," and Gr. 
 kakos; E, peep and Sc. keek; G. crann, "a tree," and 
 K. pren), comes the. L. pinna, which, like G. ite, means 
 " a feather, a wing." 
 
 The Celtic root, then, " to move," is the consonant -d or -t 
 preceded by a vowel, and that vowel sometimes aspirated, 
 as -ad, -ed, id, -ud, also hed, hud. From the form id 
 I take the L. supine itum, " to move," and the infinitive 
 ire, as if ithere or ithair, where the th, according to the 
 usual principles of G. pronunciation, would be silent. The 
 same root, under another spelling, appears in the G. eat-al, 
 "flight," eath-ar, "a skiff," and eath-lamh, "ready- 
 handed." The K. form hud, if transferred into G., would 
 become sud or seud (see halen), and this, with the forma- 
 tive n added, gives G. seun, " a charm," whence seunadh, 
 " augury," and seunmhor, " practising augury" — all taken 
 from the use of the bird — G. eun — in augury. 
 
 I have not found the S. root-form nat in G., unless 
 nath-air — a general term for " a serpent, a snake, an
 
 BIRDS. 29 
 
 o 
 
 adder, a viper" — be derived from it ; if so, natliair describes 
 the peculiar motion of these animals, like E. snake, from 
 A.-S. snaca, S. naga, " to creep." The termination -air 
 is a common one in G,, and usually designates the person 
 who performs the action implied in the verb, like the 
 E. -er in reader. The G. nathair, then, is "the 
 creeper, the serpent." From the root nat 1 take L. nato, 
 " I swim, I move " forward in the water, and this, if written 
 natho {th silent), gives L. no, Gr. ne5, "I swim," for as 
 L. nato has the a short, it cannot be formed from the 
 supine of no. The original idea of forward motion seems 
 to remain in no, for Virgil says of bees, "nant," they "float," 
 they " fly " ; so also of drowned seamen. The L. noun 
 anas, "a duck," also appears to have in it the root nat, as 
 if it were an-nat-s, " the bird that moves forward " in the 
 Avater (cf. an^ai^), which pretty well describes the duck's 
 partiality for water. With L. anas compare the G. name 
 for "a duck," tonnag, from tonn, " a wave," and the Gr. 
 nessa, "a duck," from neo, "I swim." The river-names 
 Annas in India, and Anas in SjDain — Latin forms — pro- 
 bably come from the same root. The river Nith, in the 
 south of Scotland, is certainly named from the G. root nat. 
 The old spelling of the name is Neith, and this is the same 
 as Neithe, the water-god of the old Gaels, and the same 
 as the Etr. god-name Neth-zin-th, Nethuns, Neptune. 
 
 In connection with the root nat, as applied to birds, I 
 may here refer to the Etr. word netsuis^ which appears in 
 an inscription at Chiusi, and is suj)posed to mean " augur." 
 I divide it into net or nat, " a bird," and the G. fios, 
 " knowledge, art," from which the G. has fiosachd, "divina- 
 tion, sorcery," and fiosaiche, "a soothsayer, a fortune- 
 teller." The two root-words, if combined in G., would be 
 written nat-fhios, where the aspirated / being sounded U
 
 294 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 readily changes into s (see halen). Netsuis, then, is " one 
 skilled in divination by birds." And this, in my opinion, 
 is the meaning of L. augur also. The common derivation 
 of this word from avis, "a bird," and garrio, " I chatter," 
 is not apposite either to the augur or to his omens, but I 
 take the second part of the word to be the Gr. geur, " sharp, 
 sagacious, keenly attentive " (whence L. a-cer), so that 
 au-gur is one who is "keenly attentive" to the signs 
 drawn from "birds." 
 
 Another form of the H. verb nud is nus, " to flee, to 
 hasten, to be borne swiftly, to take anything away by flight," 
 and its participle nas, nis, " fleeing, fugitive." This parti- 
 ciple, if used as a noun, like L. anim-ans, sap-iens, might 
 give Gr. or-nis, but as the word is equivalent to or-nith-s, 
 I prefer to take it from H. natsa, " to fly," through G. 
 neith. The syllable or in or-nis seems to be the G. eir, 
 as in eirich, " I rise," L. or-ior, G. aire, or-numi, so 
 that the or-nis is the "flyer" that " rises" in the air — as 
 opposed to the hen and others which fly but not on high. 
 
 The G. root-form it, ed, ad has cognates in H., for 
 (a)it, (a)ush, (a)uth mean "to rush violently upon," the 
 initial a (H. ain) conveying the idea of " impetuous harsh- 
 ness." In passing into G., this initial letter has usually 
 its harsh palatal sound, and is represented in G. by c or g. 
 Thus H. (a)it may give G. gad, goid, "to rob, to steal" 
 (" rapere atque abire "), and perhaps the A.-S. Scotch gled, 
 "a kite," by inserting an I, as in L. fug-io, Ger. flug, 
 "flight." Other derivatives are G. cath, "an onset, a 
 battle," gath, "a spear," L. cat-eia and gaes-um. From 
 the same root-form the H. has (a) it, "a rapacious bird," 
 the same word as the Gr, aetos, "an eagle." This Gr. 
 bird-name is usually taken from the Gr. verb aemi, "I 
 blow," but this derivation is not descriptive enough, and
 
 BIRDS. 295 
 
 the Gr. form ai-etos, "an eagle," seems to connect the 
 word with the H. (a)it, through the Gr. verb ai'sso, "I 
 rush on eagerly." The Gr. generic term oidnos is used to 
 designate the larger birds, especially of the raptorial kind. 
 It is said to be derived from the Gr. adj. oios, "alone," as 
 if to mean " a solitary bird," but as this inquiry advances, we 
 shall find reason for writing it ai-5nos — that is, ai(th)5nos 
 — for aith, oith is an old G. adj. meaning "keen, eager," 
 and oit-eag means "a blast, a squall" (cf. Gr. aisso), while 
 the -5nos, as also in the L. cic-onia, is the G. eun, "a 
 bird," of which the oblique case is eoin; oi5nos will thus 
 describe the kind of " bird that rushes violently " on its 
 prey. The common derivation from oios leaves the termina- 
 tion -5nos unexplained. Again, from root (a) it, by drop- 
 ping the idea of violence, and reverting to the forms hit, 
 hed, in the sense of " moving," we have the G. cith, ceath, 
 ceoth, "a shower, dew, mist," that which moves gently on 
 the earth ; " it droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven " ; 
 but as c — that is, k — and p interchange, as in Gr. hippos 
 and ^ol. (h)ikkos, S. papa, "bad," and Gr. kakos, the 
 G. cith is cognate with Gr. pet-omai, "I fly," and the 
 Homeric pet-eenon, "a bird," S. pat-ana, "a bird, a 
 moth," "the sun," and pat-atra, "a wing." With the 
 same word cith, ceath are connected the Gr. kiatho, con- 
 tracted kio (tli silent), " I go, I sail," kiko, "' I make to go," 
 kichano, "I arrive at," and, by metathesis, hike, hikano, 
 hikneomai, " I come, I go, 1 arrive," 
 
 The H. (a)uth, the last of the three H. forms given 
 above, yields the A.-S. cyta, E. kite, a word which I have 
 not seen traced beyond the A.-S. ; in this view it means, 
 like gled, the bird that "rushes impetuously" on its prey. 
 
 Of L. avis, " a bird," there is no derivation in the classic 
 languages, but a satisfactory one may be found in Celtic.
 
 296 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 The H. verb (a)upli means (1) "to cover with feathers," 
 (2) " to fly, to fly away," said of birds, or an army, or ships; 
 in this word the initial ain is sometimes strong enough to 
 overpower the vav and to make it quiescent, as in its Ar. 
 form tsaf, whence Ar. tstef, "an augur." As the H. 
 letter ts has a strong affinity for the palatals, H. (a)uph 
 gives Ch. gaph, "a wing," and the old G. verb gabh, 
 which, like the root nat implies motion, for it has still in 
 use the future tense gabhar, "I shall proceed," and the 
 derived nouns cabhar, "any aged bird," cabail, "a fleet, 
 a navy," cablach, "a fleet," cabhag, "haste," gabhla, "a 
 spear, a javelin." Now, gabh is pronounced gav, and, in 
 passing into Latin, the g is first softened into h, and then 
 dropped; thus gav becomes L. av-is, "a bird." But, 
 retaining the g of gav, and changing it into p, as above, I 
 get L. paveo, "I fear," for the H. verb (a)uph also means 
 "to flee as an army," "to vanish as a dream," and the G. 
 gabh means in composition " to vanish away." I suspect, 
 then, that the panici terrores of an army are to be ascribed 
 not to Pan, but to the Celtic root gav, cav, L. pav. 
 
 In G., there is another verb gabh, " to take, to receive, 
 to contain," whence L. cap-io; it is connected with H. 
 kaph, " the hollow of the hand " (q.v.) 
 
 The sum of the preceding inquiry amounts to this, that 
 in L. and Gr. the generic terms meaning " bird " may be 
 traced to Celtic roots, which again have a close affinity with 
 corresponding words in H. From this I infer that the 
 Celtic language (and at present I examine it only in its 
 Gadhelic form) is a very ancient language, for it has in it 
 simple biliteral and triliteral roots which evidently belong 
 to the one primitive language ; I infer, also, that the ground- 
 work of the Latin language is Celtic, for such simple ideas 
 as "wing," "go," "take," "fear," are expressed in Latin
 
 BIRDS. 297 
 
 by words whicli come from the Celtic and not from the 
 Greek. 
 
 II. Particular Terms. 
 The terms used to denote particular birds. 
 
 (A.) Of the Raptorial Kind. 
 
 Having disposed of the general terms meaning " bird," I 
 come to individuals ; and first let me examine the names of 
 birds of the raptorial kind to which our Etr. aracos, " a 
 hawk," and capys^ "a falcon," belong. And our inquiry 
 will show that the names of these birds describe — 
 
 (1.) Some noble or ethical quality, 
 
 (2.) Some physical peculiarity. 
 
 (3.) Some accidental quality, such as voice, or flight. 
 
 (4.) Their habits as raptorials. 
 
 Now, (1.) as to the moral qualities, the early name-maker 
 sees them only in the vulture and the eagle. And justly, 
 for the vultures, notwithstanding their insatiable appetites 
 and unsavoury food, yet win our admiration by their strong 
 affection for, and devotion to, their young ; one species — 
 the 'percnopterus — was held in high reverence by the 
 Egyptians; and was often figured on their monuments. 
 This kind of vulture must have been well known to the 
 Etruscans, for it is common in Italy and in the island of 
 Elba ; it is about the size of a raven, but has a noble eye, 
 and a long slender beak, terminating in a curved, strongly- 
 hooked point. The male is white — a colour specially sacred 
 among sun-worshippers, such as were the Etruscans ; for this 
 cause and for others, all connected with the worshiji of the 
 sun, the Egyptians regarded the " Cathartes pevcnop)tervLS " 
 as a sacred bird.
 
 298 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 The eagle was also to the ancients a " noble bird " ; it 
 could look on the sun with open eye without flinching ; 
 it loved the loftiest regions of the sky ; in strength, courage, 
 sagacity, unrivalled majesty, and swiftly-destroying power, 
 it was a fitting emblem of highest Jove, and its plumes a 
 worthy ornament for the head-dress of the highest of earthly 
 lords. So the Egyptians pictured their greatest god, Osiris, 
 with the head of a raptorial bird, and gave a similar dignity 
 to their Pharaoh as the " son of the sun," the visible repre- 
 sentative on earth of all the grandeur, power, glory of the 
 sun in the heavens above. 
 
 The ethical names, then, are G. fiolair, fiolar, fireun, 
 I. badhbh, K. eryr, Ger. adler, H. racham, Gr. hierax. 
 
 Of these fir-eun may be at once recognised as made up 
 of G. fear, fir, "a man, a hero" (L. vir), and eun, "a 
 bird." The eagle is the " hero "-bird, and of the symbols 
 by which the poets of ancient times describe their great 
 heroes, none are more common than the strength of a lion, 
 or the swiftness and force of the eagle. The same is the 
 meaning of G. fiolar and K. eryr. For fiolar, which 
 should be written fialar, is a derivative from the G. adj. 
 fial, " generous," whence fialach, " a hero, a champion " ; 
 and K. eryr is a corruption of K. arwr, "a hero," from ar, 
 an intensive prefix (Gr. eri), and gwr, "a man." The Ger. 
 adler is the "noble" bird, from adel, edel, "noble," while 
 the H. racham and the I. badhbh have their origin in the 
 remarkable affection which the vulture shows for its young. 
 Racham — the white percnopterivs vulture — is a H. verb, 
 meaning " to love," with the primary idea of " cherishing," 
 and the I. badhbh (which should be badhamh) is taken 
 from I. baidh, "love," and thus means the "affectionate, 
 loving " bird. 
 
 The Gr. hierax is the "sacred" bird, like the L. accipitev
 
 BIRDS. 299 
 
 sacer, the hawk, sacred among the Greeks, the Romans, and 
 doubtless, also among the Etruscans, whose cctpys^ translated 
 " falcon," cannot have been much other than the hawk. 
 There can be no question of the derivation of hierax from 
 hieros, "consecrated to the gods." It may be that the 
 original idea contained in hieros is that of "laying down" 
 an offering before the gods, or of "raising up" (cf. 'porrectus, 
 q.v.) the libation or the object offered. If so, then hieros 
 is connected with G. cuir, "to lay down," or eir-ich, "to 
 raise." At all events, the -ax is the Celtic termination -ag, 
 which is very usual in the Celtic names of birds, as we shall 
 presently see. If the root hier- be derived from G. cuir, 
 or from eir-, then hierax is a pure Celtic word, and as the 
 names of common objects, such as a " hawk," come into a 
 country with its first settlers, hierax is a Pelasgian word, 
 and, in my opinion, the Pelasgians were Celts. 
 
 Before I pass from the " noble" birds, let me offer a sug- 
 gestion as to the parentage of the L. name aquila, of which 
 no satisfactory derivation has appeared. The G. fiolar, 
 " eagle," is formed, as above, from fial, " generous " ; now, 
 the G. a fhiolar (pronounced ahd-ular) would mean "the 
 noble " one, and by substituting the hard palatal h for li, T 
 have akd-ular, whence aquila, like the change of G. koig, 
 "five," into L. quinque. If so, aquila, like fiolar, means 
 "the noble, heroic bird." Of course, the Fr. aigle is only 
 a Romance corruption of L. aquila. 
 
 The derivation of the H. name for the "eagle," azniyah 
 is uncertain. The first syllable az means " strong, power- 
 ful," an epithet applied to "nobles, princes" (cf. H. addirim, 
 " princes," literally " powerful ones"), and the last syllable 
 yah suggests the idea of dignity. Azniyah may therefore 
 mean the " majestic king" of birds, 
 
 (2.) Those raptorial birds that are named from some
 
 300 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 peculiarity in their features are not numerous. I rather 
 wonder at this, for such names are common enough among 
 men — a fact which Naso, Strabo, Egbert, Duncan, Great- 
 head, and a Avhole army of colour-men, White, Black, Green, 
 Gray, abundantly testify. In our list the only names of 
 this kind are L. falco, Ger. falke, Fr. fan con, G. parr a, 
 and I. croman, all describing the shape of the beak. 
 
 The derivation of L. falco, Fr. faucon, is obvious — 
 from L. falx, falcis, " a pruning or reaping knife, a sickle." 
 But is the Ger, falke taken from the L. falco? Few Ger- 
 man etymologists will acknowledge that so primitive a name 
 as " hawk " is in their language a loan-word. Neither the 
 L. falco, nor the Ger. falke, has the appearance of an 
 original root, for the root is monosyllabic. To my eye, the 
 c or h of the termination is the common G. ending -ag, and 
 the root is fal, which in G. means " anything round," as 
 " a ring, a circle, a sheepfold, a scythe," L. falx. The E, 
 word fold (A.-S. Scotch fauld), as in " sheepfold," also 
 comes from fal, which, as a verb, means " to surround, 
 hedge in, protect," whence probably the G. adj. fial, and 
 the noun fialar, as above. The E. fold in this sense is, 
 in our etymological dictionaries, erroneously attributed to 1 
 L. jdHco, " I fold." Now, if the G. fal be the root of these \ 
 L. and Ger. and E. words, the Celtic must be a very old 
 language, for that is the oldest and least adulterated lan- 
 guage which has preserved the root in its simple form, and 
 in a general non-specific sense. 
 
 In the name parra which we have in the G. parra- 
 riabhac, " a kite," and the K, bar-cud, " a kite," the 
 parra and the bar are the same word, and may be the G. 
 bar, K. par, " a spear, a lance, a dart," but this scarcely 
 suits the curved shape of the kite's beak. I would, there- 
 fore, derive the word from the G-I. root car, " any curve,
 
 BIRDS. 301 
 
 twist, 01' bend," whence I. carran, "a sickle," with which 
 compare L. falx, falco. The c of car may change into lo, 
 as in G. ceann, "a head," K. pen, and this gives parra. 
 
 The L. bird-name parra, which is supposed to mean " a 
 jay" or "a woodpecker," will come more ajjpropriately among 
 the bird-names beginning with Gr. corra. 
 
 The G.-I. name cromau, " a kite," illustrates L. falco, 
 for it comes from the adj. crom, "crooked, bent," w^hence G. 
 cromag, " a hook," and K. cryman, " a sickle." 
 
 (3.) There are only two or three bird-names that are 
 taken from the harsh scream which the bird utters when 
 flying, and especially when pouncing on its prey. The G. 
 name for " the vulture " is sgreachan with the adj. 
 criosach or iongnach added, {a.) Sgreach-an is " one 
 who shrieks, screeches, or screams"; criosach means 
 " striped," and iongnach is formed from ionga, " a nail, a 
 claw, a talon," whence L. unguis. (6.) The Gr. kerchne, 
 kerchnei's, " the kestrel," the " hoarse "-voiced bird comes 
 from the Gr. root kerch-ein, " to dry, to make hoarse," 
 and the suffix -ne, -neis, looks like nis = G. eun, "a bird," 
 or perhaps it is ezn, ein transposed. Kercho itself is akin 
 to the G. word searg, E. sear, which means "to wither, 
 to dry"; its H. form is charak, charar, "to burn," 
 originally " to scorch and shrivel up," whence H. cheres, 
 "the sun," "the scorcher"; from the same root come L. 
 areo, uro, Ger. bar, hyr, "fire." In this instance, the Gr. 
 has preserved the harsh sound of the H. initial consonant, 
 while the G. has softened it into se, of which another 
 example will be found presently in the G. seabhag. 
 
 With kercho compare the K. cryg, " hoarse," fern, 
 cr^g. 
 
 The H. ayah means the "clamorous" bird, from the 
 verb avah, " to howl."
 
 S02 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 (4.) Most of the birds in our list are named from their 
 peculiar habits as rapacious birds, the manner in which they 
 pursue and lay hold of their prey ; for {a.) they rush violently 
 on their prey, as K. cud, Gr. iktinos and aisalon ; Qj.) 
 while rushing on their quarry they utter a harsh scream, 
 as G. sgreachan, Gr. kerchneis, H. ayah; (c.) they 
 catch, seize with violence, hold, carry away captive, as G.-I. 
 fang, preachan, seabhag, eunfionn, K. hebog, L. 
 'accipiter, Gr. harpe, gups, Ger. habicht, A.-S. hafac ; 
 (tZ.) they have nails or talons wherewith to seize and hold 
 their prey, as G. clamhau, speireag, Fr. dpervier; 
 (e.) they tear their prey to pieces as L. milvus, Fr. 
 milan. 
 
 (a.) Of these one of the most striking and expressive is 
 G. fang, " vulture " — a name which is the same as L. 
 pango (as if phango), "I drive in "a nail. Fang ex- 
 presses the vehemence with which the vulture drives its 
 talons into its prey. The K. root-form cud, which occurs 
 in the Welsh names for the falcon, the kite, and the kestrel, 
 I have already traced to the H. (a)uth, " to rush violently 
 upon." Although in modern Welsh cud means " the kite," 
 yet at an earlier stage of the language, it probably was 
 applied to a larger rapacious bird, the vulture, for cud-yll 
 and ys-gut-yll, "the falcon," are diminutives from cud, 
 and bar-cud, bar-cut-an, the usual name for "the kite," 
 is a descriptive term, meaning the cud that has the bar 
 beak, while cudyll coch is the diminutive with the epithet 
 " red " attached to it. The K. cudyll is sometimes written 
 cidyll, just as the H. root oscillates between (a) it and 
 (a)uth. From cud comes A.-S. cyta (q.v.), whence E. 
 kite, audits diminutive kestrel (as if kest-er-el), as from 
 E. pike comes pick-er-el, and from the root mac, "a spot," 
 comes mack-er-el, the " spotted" fish; with the root mac
 
 BIRDS. 303 
 
 compare L. macula, " a spot," and G. smal (as if smacl), 
 K. ysmot, E. spot. 
 
 The Gr. aisaldn, " the hawk," and iktinos, " the kite," 
 I take from the H. root (a)it through the Gr. aisso, " I rush 
 on." The former is made up of ais-, " rush," and hal-, 
 "take, catch," as in hal-isko-mai, 2nd aor. heal5n ; the 
 latter, iktinos, as if aiktinos, seems to come from ais-, 
 "rush," and the G. root-word eun. Arm. ezn, ein, "a 
 bird." 
 
 (6.) The names G. sgreachan, Gr. kerchneis, and H. 
 ayah have been explained already. 
 
 (c.) Under this head nearly all our languages send con- 
 tributions, and among these Ave shall find our Etruscan 
 friends aracos, " the hawk," and capys, " the falcon," for 
 these names indicate that these birds violently seize and 
 tear their prey. In this sense, the Celtic languages give 
 the names preachan, seabhag, eunfionn, hebog. Of 
 these, the G.-I. preachan comes from the verb j)reach, 
 " to grasp, to lay hold of," whence the adjectives preachach, 
 preachanach, "grasping, ravenous." The name preachan 
 is therefore general in its signification, and is accordingly 
 applied in G. to " a crow, a raven, a kite," or to any " pre- 
 daceous bird." The epithets criosach and iongnach, 
 which are in G. attached to this general term so as to 
 limit its signification to " the vulture," have already been 
 explained. 
 
 From preachan I take the L. verb prehendo, prendo, 
 " I lay hold of." 
 
 This word j)reachan can show a very ancient descent, for 
 it claims kindred with the antediluvians. The root is par 
 or pra, which wc find in the S. prah, the H. par-ad, 
 par-ach, &c., li. frango, 0. H.-Ger. prechan, Goth, 
 brikan, Gcr. brechen, E. break, G. bris. The primary
 
 304 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 idea in all of these is that of " breaking," Lut some of thetn 
 take the secondary meaning of " breaking in upon," " crush- 
 ing," "acting violently, oppressively, or tyrannically," in 
 which sense the Gr. preach an is used. The Gr. verb bris, 
 "to break," is identical with H. par-as, "to break," for, 
 besides the two given above, the H. attaches several other 
 servile terminations to the root par. 
 
 The English name Ossi-frage, Os-prey, also comes from 
 the same root par, frag, break. 
 
 The next Celtic bird-names are eunfionn, seabhag, and 
 hebog, which apply to " the falcon," or " the hawk," or " the 
 kite " ; these names are interesting as proving the antiquity 
 of the Celtic dialects, and establishing the connection of Celtic 
 with the earliest forms of human speech. The I. name for 
 "the kite," eunfionn, speaks for itself; for the former part 
 of the name is eun, "a bird," and the fact that eun occurs 
 here so unmistakably as a component part of a bird-name 
 renders it the more probable that the word " bird" also forms 
 part of other bird-names, as oi-5nos, kor-one, cic-5nia, 
 ikt-inos, or-nis, cor-vus, mil-vus, cor-nix, pa-vo, as 
 will be shown presently. The other part of the name eun- 
 fionn is more difficult to trace. In G., there are two words 
 fionn — the one means " white, fair," and the other " to skin, 
 to flay," but at first sight neither of these suits the kite, for 
 the bird is not white nor does it skin its prey. But although 
 the verb fionn has in G. the sense of " flaying" and no other, 
 yet if we examine another ancient language, we shall find 
 that with " flay " there is associated a secondary and tropical 
 meaning. For instance, the H. verb gazal means (1) "to 
 flay," but also (2) " to pluck away by force," for a strong man 
 may " flay " his weaker brother by seizing and appropriating 
 his goods and " stripping" him of his property. Again, the 
 H. verb pashath means " to rush upon and attack for the
 
 BIRDS. 305 
 
 purpose of obtaining booty" (cf. L. prse-da from the root 
 par), " to strip any one of a thing, to flay." This secondary 
 meaning of fionn makes the name eun-fionn, as applied 
 to the kite and the hen-harrier, very apposite ; it exactly 
 describes the habits of these birds, for they prey upon the 
 weaker fliers, and, possessing superior power of wing, they 
 rush upon and kill them, or compel them to drop their 
 booty. The name eun-fionn thus preserves a meaning 
 which the verb fionn has lost, and being so descriptive and 
 so simple in its formation, it may be regarded as a very 
 ancient word. In Greek, phene is a kind of "eagle" — 
 doubtless the same word as G. fionn. 
 
 It is quite possible that G. fionn and E. skin are the 
 same word. Thus : fionn with the / aspirated is hionn, 
 and this, with the aspirate hardened into the palatal k or c, 
 gives cionn, which, with the s prefixed, becomes A.-S. scin, 
 E. skin, N. skinn, skind, Ger. schinden, " to flay." 
 The form cionn is not conjectural, for it exists in the K. 
 cenn, " a skin or hide," and the G. croi-cionn, " the skin 
 of the human body." This word croi-cionn shows us 
 another point of contact between the Celtic and the classic 
 languages, for croi-cionn is formed from G. croic, "a skin, 
 a hide," which is the same word as Gr. chroia, chr5s, " the 
 skin," whence chr5ma, " the colour of the skin," " colour in 
 general," with many other derivatives. In our Greek lexi- 
 cons chr5s is said to be derived from chroia, but chr5s — 
 that is, chroit-s — is the nearer approach to G. croic, and 
 probably the earlier word. The K. crcen, " a skin, a hide," 
 L. cori-um, is a corruption of the fuller form G. croicionn, 
 from which I infer that G. is an older and purer form of 
 Celtic than K. is. Again, the G.-I. word creach, " spoil, 
 booty, plunder," is a modified form of croic, for it means so 
 many skins, hides, or head of cattle carried off in a foray.
 
 306 THE ETEUSCANS. 
 
 As to the etymology of croic, it seems to be connected with 
 H. (a) or, "a skin, a hide," of which the first letter is ain, 
 and this is, as usual, represented in G. by k or c. Thus 
 kaior or kior by metathesis gives croi, and this, by adding 
 the G. termination ag, becomes croic. If this is so, then 
 G. is a very ancient language, for the H. word (a) or, to 
 which the G. croic is so closely allied, is used frequently 
 in the very earliest of the sacred writings. 
 
 The next bird-name seabhag also brings up some inter- 
 esting analogies. Unlike eunfionn, it has no obvious 
 derivation in G., for seabhag means "a hawk," and 
 nothing more, and even when the termination ag is removed, 
 the root seabh means in G. "to creep softly, to sneak," 
 and this does not suit the habit of the bird. But let us 
 refer to the H, language for an explanation. In it the 
 verb shabhah means "to lead away captive flocks, herds, 
 or men," and shebhi, shebuth means "captivity, captives." 
 The H. letter shin, in passing into the Western languages, 
 may become sk, sg, sch as H, shalah becomes Gr. schole, 
 and H. shalal becomes the Gr. skulad. Thus the H, 
 shabhah appears in G, in the forms sgabag, "beeves" 
 (cf, creach and sgaba-iste, "robbery, rapine"). If we 
 soften the initial sg into se, sgabag becomes seabhag, "a 
 hawk," the bird that "robs," that "carries away captive"; 
 the name is thus analogous in meaning to eunfionn. And 
 as hh in seabhag is quiescent, like the H. vav in similar 
 circumstances, we have sea-ag, which, with I inserted, gives 
 the G. derivatives sea-l-g, " to hunt as in falconry," sealbh, 
 "a possession," sealbhachadh, "seizin," Fr. saisine, a 
 legal term denoting "possession." Indeed, I am inclined 
 to assert that our E, word seize has its origin in the G, 
 seabh- through the Celto-French saisir, for seav may 
 become seas, seize.
 
 BIRDS. 307 
 
 The K. hebog, "a falcon, a hawk," is only a later 
 corruption of G. seabhag. 
 
 Again, while H. shabhah gives the G. sgaba, or, 
 shortened, sgabh, sgabh again, by dropping the initial s 
 (as in the L. cutis, "a skin," from Gr. skutos) becomes 
 gabh, a much used G. verb meaning (1) " to seize, lay hold 
 of, make prisoner, take possession of," and is thus identified 
 with the H. shabhah. From this G. verb gabh I derive 
 the Etr. capys, "the falcon," which, like eun-fionn, means 
 the bird that " seizes and makes captive " ; also the Ger. 
 habicht, A.-S. hafac, E. hawk, L. ac-cip-iter, and the 
 Gr. gups, gupos, " the vulture," Avith its compound 
 aigupios (cf. ai-etos), which, from aisso and gups, means 
 the bird " that rushes upon and seizes " and carries off its 
 prey. Homer, both in the Iliad and the Odyssey, applies 
 this name aigupios to a warrior who is rushing on in his 
 headlong career of carnage. The common explanation of 
 aigupios as " goat- vulture " (from ai for aix, "a goat") is 
 inadequate and ignoble ; the Gaels have a nobler conception 
 of the dignity of the vulture, for they still call it lachar 
 from laoch, " a hero." 
 
 From the G. form sgabh, which is pronounced sga, I 
 derive the Gr. verb echo, "I take possession of, I hold 
 fast, I hold, I have," for this was originally scho, as is 
 proved by the forms ischo and schetho, and the 2nd 
 aor. form eschon and its mood schoien. And so, from 
 the form gabh I take L. habeo, "I have," Ger. haben, 
 " to have," and perhaps Ger. geben, " to give." I have 
 already quoted L. capio as from the G. root gabh, and 
 connected with H. kaph, but it appears to me that in G., 
 and in L. too, there must have been three different verbs 
 each having the form gab, cap; for there is (1) gabh for 
 sgab, "to seize, make prisoner," L. cap-t-ivus, (2) gabh,
 
 308 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 "to hold, to contain," L. cap-ax, H. kaph, and (3) gabh 
 in the sense of motion (see cabail) and the L. cap-essere, 
 " to hasten, arrive at." 
 
 This derivation of the Etruscan capys is strictly in keep- 
 ing with the meaning of the names of all these rapacious 
 birds so far as I have examined them, and also with the 
 Gr. bird-name harpe, "a falcon" (whence the E. harpies), 
 as is proved by the Gr. verb harp-azo, " I seize and over- 
 power, I grasp, I carry off by force." 
 
 I therefore regard the Greek gups, "a vulture," and the 
 Etruscan capys, " a falcon," as derived, both of them, from 
 G. gabh, "to seize," and as meaning each the "raptorial" 
 bird. So, if the Etruscans and the earliest Greeks were 
 Pelasgians, then their common language was Celtic, for it 
 is not likely that the Ionian immigration supplanted such 
 primary names as gups, " a vulture," and other bird-names 
 yet to be considered. 
 
 If any one is disposed to cavil at this derivation, and to 
 think it strange that the Greek "vulture" and the Etruscan 
 " falcon" should have names which are radically the same, I 
 would merely refer to a fact already well known to Celtic 
 scholars; the Celtic word gabhar (q.v.) in G. and I. means 
 "a goat," but in old I. it was also used to signify "a horse"; 
 how? because the word originally means "the leaper," being 
 closely connected with the H. tsaphar, "to leap, to dance," 
 as fully explained under Etr. copra and danimis. Now, 
 if animals so diverse in form, size, and classification as the 
 goat and the horse can be designated in Celtic by the same 
 name, surely the Greeks and the Etruscans, both Pelasgians, 
 were justified in using the same Pelasgo-Celtic name gups 
 and capys, "the seizer, the grasper," to mean birds so closely 
 allied as the vulture and the falcon. 
 
 (d) Among the bird-names there are four which refer to
 
 BIRDS. 809 
 
 the nails or talons with which these birds are armed, G. 
 preachan iongnach, "the vulture," and clamhan gabh- 
 lach, "the kite." Preachan, as we have seen, is "the 
 grasper," and iongnach means "having talons," from G. 
 ionga, "a nail, a talon, a claw," whence L. unguis, Gr. 
 onux. The other name, gabhlach, means "swift" (which 
 certainly is true of the kite), from the adj. gabhail, "mov- 
 ing," from the root gabh (q.v.), in the sense of motion. The 
 other word, clamhan, means, in G., "a kite," but its root 
 clamh (pronounced clav), means " mange, itchiness," from 
 which comes the verb clamhar, "to scratch"; hence 
 clamhan appears to be a misnomer, until by comparing 
 the G. root clamh with the L. clav-us, we learn that the 
 original meaning of clamh is " a nail, a nail of the finger," 
 and hence the idea of " scratching." In the same sense the 
 G. speireag, " a hawk, a spari'ow-hawk," is formed from 
 G. speir, "a claw," E. spur, as the "spur" of the cock, 
 and G. speireag, with the s softened into e, gives the Celto- 
 French ^pervier, "a hawk." 
 
 We must not leave this root-word clamh yet awhile, for 
 we shall probably find it to be Etruscan. The G. Tnh final 
 is sounded v, and the letter m in G., as in many Oriental 
 languages, is pronounced like h ; clamh is therefore the same 
 as clabh or claph. This brings us to the H. tsaphar, "to 
 wound with claws," Ch. tsippar, "a bird," and H. tsip- 
 poren, "the nail of the finger," Gr. perone, Ger. sporn, 
 G. speir, E. spur. Other H. forms of tsaphar are 
 shaphar and saphar, "to scratch, to scrape." Let us now 
 trace the form shaphar; the initial letter is shin, which, 
 as shown under seabhag, readily becomes sg ; thus the root 
 shaph, hardened into shab, gives G. spag, smag, mag (by 
 metathesis for sgap, sgab, sgam), " a claw," L. scabo, 
 "I scratch," Ger. schaben, "to scrape," E. scab. Other
 
 310 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 European languages, however, insert the letter r in the root, 
 just as I is inserted in the root shabh to form the G. 
 sealbh, "a possession" (q.v.) The earliest form of this 
 insertion is seen in I. gearb (for sgearb), "scab," and Ger. 
 schorf, "scab," whence E. scurf. Sgearb (pronounced 
 sgerb), by metathesis, gives the G.-I. sgriob, scriob (pro- 
 nounced sgreb), "to scrape, to scratch," sgriobh, "to 
 engrave, to write," L. scribere, Fr. ^crire (e for s), Ger. 
 schreiben, E. write ; and sgriob, sgrob, by dropping 
 the s, gives Ger. graben, "to dig," E. grave and engrave. 
 The Gr. verb graphein, "to scratch, to write," also comes 
 from the same root, for the K. form of sgrob is ysgrafu or 
 crafu (s dropped), " to scrape, to scratch," and ysgrifenu, 
 "to write." The K. crafu shows us how sgearb sgriob, 
 sgrab became Gr. grapho, "I write," and glupho, "I 
 engrave," while the Gr. compound middle form dia-scariph- 
 aomai, " I scratch as a fowl," not only preserves the s of 
 the Celtic, but it also shows the derivation of the E. verb 
 scarify. 
 
 From these reflections on the H. shaphar it would appear 
 that the early framers of the Celtic language found it neces- 
 sary to insert an r in the root, to distinguish between two 
 root-streams both flowing into their language at the same 
 time, the derivatives of the H. root shabah, "to lead cap- 
 tive," and of the H. root shaphar, "to scratch," either of 
 which would give the forms sgab, sgap, sgabh, sgaph. 
 
 Again, let us take the H. form tsaphar, " to wound 
 with claws," to which Ch. tephar (i.q. H. tsipporen), "the 
 nail of a man," " the claw or hoof of a beast," is cognate. 
 In tsaphar and similar H. words, the tsade has a strong 
 affinity for the palatals ; the root tsaph, therefore, becomes 
 gaph or caph, and this with I inserted, as in sealbh, gives 
 claph, G. clamh, L. clav-us, " a nail." But the L.
 
 BIRDS. 311 
 
 clavus besides meaning " a nail, a peg," is also the name 
 for that peculiar dress-badge of rank which King Tullus 
 Hostilius introduced into Rome from Etruria. These stripes 
 of purple, the latus clavus and the angustus clavus, were 
 woven into the tunica, and were distinsuishins marks of 
 high rank and of noble descent, being worn only by the 
 senatorian and the equestrian orders in Rome, for purple 
 is the colour that belongs to a kingly, princely station in 
 life. For a similar reason the middle classes of society in 
 Assyria wore a tunic which was fringed. Now, this clavus 
 must have some connection with a " nail," but where does 
 the connection lie ? Probably an answer may be found in 
 the H. yathad, " a pin, a nail"; whence, tropically, " a 
 prince " or " man of rank," on whom, as on a nail, the whole 
 State hangs or depends ; and by a similar trope H. beriach, 
 " a bolt " or " bar," means " a prince," because he defends 
 the State, as the bolt secures the door. In this way the 
 tunica laticlavia and the tunica angusticlavia were worn 
 by those whose ancestors had been founders of the State. 
 And as the fashion and the thing came from Etruria, so 
 also, doubtless, did the name clavus ; but clavus is the 
 G. clamh, therefore the Etruscan language was Celtic. And 
 I shall regard this argument as valid until some other 
 language can be shown to have an equal claim to the 
 parentage of the word ; and even then the question of 
 priority will decide, for the G. clamh is evidently in point 
 of time anterior to the Ger. klaue, E. claw. 
 
 A further reason for the use of the name clavus, to 
 designate social rank, may perhaps be drawn from the 
 Etruscan mirrors. On them Hercules (and he is said to 
 have been the founder of the Western Celtic nation) is re- 
 presented as wearing a leopard's skin over his shoulders, 
 with the paws and claws hanging down in front over either
 
 312 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 breast, the very position which the purple stripe had on the 
 Roman dress. With this badge of dignity compare the 
 leopard's skin as the dress of the highest officiating priest in 
 Egypt, who was usually the king's brother, or some one of 
 royal descent. 
 
 One of our birds — the kite — has a name which must 
 have been given to it because of its destructive habits ; it 
 is the L. milvus, Fr, milan. The latter name is com- 
 posed of mil (cf. K, mil-fran, "a cormorant"), and an, 
 that is, G. eun, I. en, "a bird," and by analogy L. milvus 
 should be equivalent to mil and avis (cf. cor-vus). But 
 what is mil ? It is a G. verb meaning " to ruin, to destroy, 
 to spoil." The kite, then, the L. milvus, is the bird that 
 rushes violently on his prey and " destroys " it, tearing it 
 to pieces. This name suits the kite, for he is indeed a 
 sanguinary spoiler and robber, and his brother the falcon, 
 even in the Homeric age, had an equally bad reputation, for 
 he is the " destructive " messenger of Apollo. 
 
 The transition from L, milvus, " a kite," to L. miles, 
 " a soldier," is not very obvious, but I have never been 
 satisfied with the current derivation of L. miles, from L. 
 mille, " a thousand," as if one of the thousand men whom 
 Romulus embodied for the defence of his infant state ; as I 
 believe miles to have the same root as milvus, I introduce 
 it here. In those early times the hero was the man who, 
 with surj)assing strength of body and great daring, could 
 " destroy " in battle the greatest number of the enemy. 
 Hence, names of honour applied to a warrior are often 
 mere epithets to mark what we should now call his ferocity 
 or perhaps atrocity. Homer praises his heroes when they 
 dismiss to the shades below whole troops of slain. In this 
 sense I find, in G., milidh to mean "a hero," one famous 
 for his "destructive" blows, and miltineachd to mean
 
 BIRDS. 313 
 
 " bravery," and mileanta to mean " soldierly, brave." I 
 therefore consider this derivation from G. mil, " to destroy," 
 a more likely one than that from L. adj. mi He. Cf. my 
 derivation of Mavors, Mars. 
 
 Now we come to the Etruscan haracos. 
 
 Among the habits of the raptorial birds, none perhaps is 
 more conspicuous than the manner of their flight. With 
 stately grandeur, and in all the composure of conscious 
 strength and power, the eagle and the vulture rise to a 
 great height by successive wheeling circles, and, even when 
 poising themselves on high with outspread wings, they still 
 continue to circle round and round. Nor is it the larger 
 birds alone that wheel their airy flight, but all the smaller 
 birds of this class can at once be recognised by this habit of 
 theirs. Hence several of them were sacred in the eyes of. a 
 sun-worshipper ; hence, also, in the Homeric poems, Athene 
 and Apollo assume the form of vultures, and Athene once 
 that of an osprey. 
 
 The bird-names of this kind are Gr. kirkos and trior- 
 chos; torgos; L. vultur, Etr. haracos, Ger. geier. 
 All these names are taken from two primitive roots, both of 
 which exist in G. These roots in their H. dress are car-ar 
 and dur, both meaning "to go round, to go in a circle." In 
 G., there is the noun car, meaning " a bending, a winding," 
 as of a stream; the adj. carach, "whirling, circling"; and 
 car-tual, "a moving round in a circle" contrary to the 
 course of the sun, and therefore unlucky ; and still another 
 word, gearr, which means "to describe a circle." The H. 
 name kir, "a city," which is found in so many forms, both in 
 the Eastern and the Western languages — in K. ca3r, in G. 
 cathair {tU silent), — although Gesenius says that its deriva- 
 tion is doubtful, seems to me to come from the root car; 
 for we know that the early Romans, following an Etruscan
 
 314 
 
 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 rite, cut a "circular" trench to mark the extent of the city 
 which they were founding, and there is also good reason to 
 believe that the earliest dwellings of men were round, whence 
 the name turris (from root dur or car), a "round" tower, 
 used by Horace to signify a princely mansion. Even our 
 English name borough (from brugh, q.v.) supports the 
 derivation of H. kir, "a city," from the root car, "to go 
 round." Other forms of kir are kiriah, kiriath, as in 
 Kirjath-Arba, Kiriathaim ; in Phoenician the word is 
 kereth, and in Parthian certa ; in Russian it is gorod, 
 with which compare the P, gardan, "going round," as 
 asya-gardan, "the revolving millstone"; old Persian 
 has gherd, "a castle," Hindustani has pore. All these 
 examples point to car as the root of kir. Be this as it 
 may, it is certain that carach in G. means "wheeling, 
 flying in a circle"; this word, transferred into Greek, is 
 caracos, kirkos, and, with the c softened into a simple 
 aspirate, the Etr. /laracos, " a hawk." With this compare 
 the P. chargh, "a hawk," and from the same root, charkha, 
 " a wheel, a reel." Here, again, a previous remark applies, 
 to the effect that the language in which the bird-name is 
 significant is the older and mother-tongue ; the Gr. kirkos 
 in itself has no descriptive power in Greek, but when viewed 
 as another and reduced form of the G. carach, it is signifi- 
 cant. That a bird may be named from the manner of its 
 flight is proved by the H. adj. agur (cognate to car), 
 " flying in circles, gyrating," which, as a noun, is used to 
 mean " the crane," another " wheeler," though of a different 
 class. This derivation of haracos alone would satisfy me 
 that the Etruscan language was Celtic, unless, perchance, 
 some other language with which I am not acquainted should 
 produce an equally satisfactory explanation of the name. 
 The Gr. name triorchos, " a kite," contains the prefix
 
 BIRDS. 315 
 
 tri and orchos, "a row of trees." This prefix tri I take 
 to be a metathesis for tir or kir {k for t, see teine). 
 Triorchos is thus equivalent to kirorchos, the bird that 
 " wheels round the tops of the trees " ; in this sense the 
 name would as well apply to the crane, the crow, and other 
 birds, but the Greeks seem to have restricted it to the 
 kite. 
 
 Another form of the root car is the G. gearr, " to describe 
 a circle," whence L. gyrus. From this word I derive Ger. 
 geier, "a vulture," the bird that "flies round and round in 
 circles." This view is corroborated by the G. descriptive 
 names for the geier-vulture, (1) iolair-fhionn, and (2) 
 iolair-thiomchiollach, which mean (1) the " eagle that 
 tears " its prey, and (2) the " eagle that flies round in 
 circles." The word tiomchioll is elsewhere explained ; 
 from tiom I take the L. preposition circum, for tiom may 
 become ciom (c — that is, k — for t), and ciom with the root 
 car prefixed makes carciom or kirkiom, "round about 
 in a circle," the L. circum, all which has been shown 
 elsewhere. 
 
 There now remain only the Gr. torgos, used by Calli- 
 machus to mean "a vulture," and the L., I should rather 
 say the Etr. vultur, " the vulture." These are both 
 derived from the root dur, tiir, tor, "to go round," 
 which has the general idea of "roundness" when it is 
 applied to things. This root is found in G. in the words 
 tur, "a tower," tur-ghabhail, "the going round" of the 
 sun in his daily course, turachan, "a big-bellied person," 
 tor, "a tower," toradh, "an auger, a wimble," torr, "a 
 mound over a grave," "a grave," torail, "fertile, prolific." 
 If, to the root dur, tur, tor, we add the G. suffix ag, as in 
 seabhag, we have the word torag, Gr. torgos, "the bird 
 that flics round and round." The bird-name torgos, or
 
 316 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 turgos, by metathesis, becomes trug-5n, "a turtle-dove," 
 named from the root tur because of its peculiar habits. 
 Our lexicons invert the natural order of things by deriv- 
 ing trugSn from truzo, "I coo, I murmur." I rather 
 think that the bird-name came first in point of time, and 
 that from the stem trug- the verb truzo, as if trugizo, 
 was formed to signify the note of the bird. This derivation 
 of trugdn, " a turtle-dove," from dur, tur, "to go round," 
 has some support from the Gr. name peristera, " a dove," 
 which seems to be compounded of peri, "round about," and 
 a root ster, which possibly may be the root of stergo, " I 
 love" — a name which, like H. racham (q.v.), refers to the 
 affection of the bird. 
 
 The name vultur is native to the L. language, for the 
 Fr. vautour is Romance corruption, and the K. fwltur is 
 a loan-word. As a bird-name it is unique; I believe it to 
 be Etruscan. Its termination -tur is the same syllable as 
 in Gr. torgos, trugon; and the vul I take to be the same 
 as in the Etr. town-names Fel-sina, Vul-sinii, Yol-aterrse, 
 Vul-ci — that is, the G. Bel, or Beil (inflected form Vel), 
 " the sun-god," worshipped, as is well known, by the ancient 
 Britons. The name would thus mean the " wheeling bird 
 of Bel." If Apollo, who, in one of his many aspects, is the 
 Hellenic god of light, is said to use the falcon as his " swift 
 messenger" (Odyss. xv. 52G) at the Homeric era, surely a 
 nation, the first founding of which dates before the Trojan 
 war, may be allowed to select the vulture, the largest of the 
 raptorials, as an emblem of their great god, the sun, the 
 largest luminary in the sky. But a discussion of this matter 
 would detain us too long here, and besides it belongs rather 
 to the religion and the mythology of the Etruscans; yet I 
 may be permitted to state briefly some of the reasons which 
 lead me to associate the vulture with the worship of Bel —
 
 BIRDS. 817 
 
 (1.) The Etruscans were sun- or fire-worshippers. (2.) They 
 regulated many of then' institutions by the number "twelve," 
 the " Twelve Lodging-houses " of the sun, the signs of the 
 Zodiac ; one of these signs in the ancient astronomy was the 
 " vulture." (3.) The cone was an emblem of fire in the old 
 rituals, and M. Vultur in Italy was conical and volcanic. 
 (4.) The Egyptian solar god Apis is represented with a 
 vulture on his back, for the vulture was a symbol for Maut, 
 "the mother," the productive principle in nature. (5.) The 
 highest of the Egyptian gods are represented on the monu- 
 ments with the head of an eagle or vulture. (6.) White 
 was the sacred colour in the solar worship, and white animals 
 of the nobler kinds were dedicated and sacrificed to the 
 sun ; now, the white vulture — the percnopterus — was com- 
 mon on the Tuscan Apennines and in the adjacent island of 
 Elba ; and as the eagle was the bird of the Eoman sky-god, 
 so the vulture may have been the "holy bird" of the earlier 
 nature-worship of the Etruscans. (7.) There is probably a 
 a hidden significance in the legendary account of the founda- 
 tion of Rome, where Romulus and Remus agree to refer 
 their strife to the decision of the " vulture " omens ; if these 
 heroes were Etrusco-Pelasgian Celts, we can understand their 
 reverence for the white vulture. 
 
 But we must leave this question thus in outline. 
 
 {B.) Of the " Waders " and " Perchers." 
 
 As capys and haracos are now disposed of, the only 
 Etruscan bird-name that remains '\'s> gnis, "the crane." 
 
 This bird is one of the " waders," and, along with the 
 heron and the stork, belongs to the tribe called Cidtrirostres, 
 those with " cutting beaks." Quite different from these in 
 habits, but still resembling them in one point of their
 
 818 TFTE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 physical structure, are the Conirostres, those with " round 
 conical beaks." 
 
 I will take tlie " insessorial " raven and crow, along with 
 the grallatores, " the waders," because some of the ancient 
 names for raven and crow illustrate the derivation of the 
 Etr. g7its, and of other names for the wading-birds. These 
 illustrative names are G. bran, I. corrag, K. bran, with its 
 compound cig-fran, L. corvus and cornix, Gr. korax and 
 korone, S. karava, 0. H. Ger. hraben, E. raven, H. orab. 
 
 But before examining the etymology of these, I will 
 briefly refer to some other names for raven and crow, as 
 G. cnaimheach, fitheach, rocas, Ger. rabe, E. grebe. 
 First, then, let us observe that the raven, the crow, and the 
 vulture bear the same general names in G., preachan 
 and fionnag; these names, as we have seen, describe the 
 habits of the raven and the carrion-crow, as well as of the 
 vulture. The G. name cnaimh-each, "the crow," evi- 
 dently the carrion-crow, is formed from G. cnaimh, "a 
 bone," and may equally apply to the vulture as the " bone- 
 breaker." Now, Pliny tells us that " ossifrage," " the bone- 
 breaker," was an Etruscan descriptive name for the vulture, 
 the " aquila barbata" doubtless the lammergeier of the 
 Apennines. He must refer to the meaning of the name 
 ossifrage, for it is not likely that the Avord is of Etr. origin. 
 Now, ii happens that in G. cnaimh-bristeach, "the bone- 
 breaker," is still a name for "a vulture," bristeach being 
 formed from the G. verb bris, " to break." This coincidence 
 may not have much force in itself, but, in however small a 
 degree, it adds to the weight of my argument. 
 
 The L. personal name Nsevius, as if Cnsevius, seems 
 to be taken from G. cnaimh, "a bone," and the augur 
 Attus Navius or Ntevius, of the whetstone story, was 
 probably an Etruscan.
 
 BIRDS. 319 
 
 The G. rocas, "a crow," comes from G. roc, "a hoarse 
 or rough voice," whence Teutonic hruk, E. rook, L. raucus, 
 " hoarse," as in the expression " rauca palumbes." The G. 
 name fitheach (th silent), contracted fiach, " the raven," 
 comes from G. fiadh, " meat, food, victuals," and thus 
 corresponds in meaning with cig-fran, which I shall pre- 
 sently examine. 
 
 The Ger. rabe, 0. H. Ger. hraben is connected with 
 the Ger. verb rauben, "to rob," The A.-S. hreefn, from 
 which comes E. raven, is an older form, and is equivalent 
 to hraef-en. But what is hrsef ? We have seen that ffab 
 or gabh is an old Celtic verb meaning " to seize." By 
 inserting the letter r this word becomes grab, an expres- 
 sive colloquial word in English, meaning " to seize forcibly 
 and suddenly." The verb grabh, "to seize," does not now 
 exist in G. in that form, but there is the verb grabh, " to 
 carve, to engrave," and to distinguish the one verb from the 
 other, grabh, "to seize," has been devocalised, and is 
 written greim (m for h, see tuber), "a grasp, a hold," 
 whence the verb greimich, "to grasp, to catch." The 
 Ger. greifen, "to seize," and griff, "a grasp, a talon, a 
 claw," appear to come from greim, rather than from the 
 older form grabh. From the form greim — that is, greib 
 — I take the E. name grebe, a kind of diver-bird, remark- 
 able for the agility and rapidity with which it can j^ursue 
 and catch its prey under water. Our English etymologists 
 are either silent or astray in fixing the paternity of this 
 word, for, as grebe is a Celto-French word, there is no 
 doubt that it comes from the Celtic greim. Further, 
 grabh, by softening the initial g, gives A.-S. hrcefian 
 (bh=^v or /), rajfian, "to seize, to plunder, to rob," from 
 which comes A.-S. rajfen, E. raven, Ger. rabe. Da. 
 raafn, " the robber-bird," the bird of pilfering habits.
 
 320 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 Again, the root grab (b hard), by softening and then 
 dropping the g, becomes L. rap-ere, "to seize, snatch," 
 and its Romance corruption ravir. In the same manner 
 are formed Ger. rauben, E. to rob, K. rhaib, "rapacity," 
 G. reub, " to tear, to lacerate," and from it reubainn, 
 "robbery, freebooting." 
 
 The Fr. corbeau is a corruption of L. corvus, and Fr. 
 corneille of L. cornicula. 
 
 So far the miscellaneous names for " raven " and " crow " ; 
 now, let us classify and examine the names for the conirostres 
 and the cidtirostres, taking them together. 
 
 The Etruscan gnis, " the crane," is, as I have said, of the 
 tribe of birds called by ornithologists the cultrirvstres, be- 
 cause they have long, straight " cutting " beaks. With 
 them I associate another tribe, the conirostres, those with 
 " conical " beaks, because it happens that in some of the 
 languages under consideration the same root-name is applied 
 to birds of both tribes. And with reason, for although 
 close observation justifies the separation of these birds into 
 two tribes as above, yet the early bird-namer, looking on 
 these birds as he found them either perched on trees tearing 
 carrion, picking up grubs, or wading in the pools and shallows 
 for a meal, observed that they had one feature in common, 
 — a long, straight, sharp-pointed conical or cylindrical bill, 
 — and named them accordingly. Thus it is that many of 
 these bird-names describe the shape of the bill, A familiar 
 instance of a name taken from a peculiarity in the shape of 
 the beak is the E. pike, which is a fish with a sharp- 
 pointed nose. 
 
 But in considerins; the names of our conirostres and 
 cultnrostres, it will be convenient to follow the same 
 arrangement of names which we made for the rapacious 
 birds, viz.: —
 
 BIRDS. 321 
 
 1. Some noble or ethical quality. 
 
 2. Some physical peculiarity. 
 
 3. Some accidental quality. 
 
 4. Their habits. 
 
 1. Fii'st, then, the names which denote some noble or 
 ethical quality. 
 
 The origin of the H. name chasidah, " the stork," has 
 been much debated, but most etymologists now agree with 
 Gesenius in deriving it from the adj. chasid, " kind, merci- 
 ful, pious," and the root chasad, " to love," which implies 
 eager desire. This very well suits the character of the 
 stork, which has, in all ages, been distingaished by the 
 affection of the parents to one another and to their young, 
 so much so that it was an ancient belief that the young 
 after leaving the nest continued to know their parents, and 
 tended them in old age with all the care and attention of 
 dutiful children. The name chasidah, the " pious," is, 
 therefore, very fitly applied to the stork, just as the Arabs 
 call the ostrich the " impious bird," because she seems to 
 neglect her eggs and her young. Ambrose tells us that the 
 Romans spoke of the stork as avis pia and a late Latin 
 poet describes it as pietatis cultrix. Until the flood of 
 luxurious eating set in, the Romans never killed and dressed 
 the stork for the table ; the praetor Sempronius Rufus was 
 the first to do so, and to this fact Horace alludes in Satire 
 II. 2, 49. In ancient Thessaly the life of a stork was as 
 much regarded as the life of a man. The black stork — the 
 Ibis — was a sacred bird among the Egyptians. Unlike the 
 white stork, it was not a bird of passage. The regularity of 
 the migrations of the white stork is referred to in Sacred 
 Writ, and by Virgil in his Georgics. In Syria, Palestine, 
 and Northern Africa, the storks are at this day specially 
 protected by the Mohammedans, and at Fez, in Morocco,
 
 S22 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 tliere is said to be a hospital for sick and aged storks and 
 cranes. 
 
 The SejDtuagint and some of the Christian fathers con- 
 sider the chasidah to be "the heron," which was also 
 known " to cherish " its parents ; some translators also 
 render the word by "vulture," "hawk," "kite." The 
 LXX. translators quite overlook the "stork," and render 
 chasidah into Greek bywords meaning "hoopoe," "heron," 
 " pelican," 
 
 The E. name stork is the Ger. storch, which some 
 German etymologists consider a loan-word ; it may, however, 
 be connected with a root which gives the Gr. storge, "love," 
 stergo, " I love," denoting the affection between the parents 
 and the children. A parallel instance of a bird-name with 
 this meaning is S. varada, " a goose," from vara, " a lover, 
 a husband." And on the Egyptian monuments the goose 
 is the symbol which means " a son," because of its courage 
 in defending its young. 
 
 2. As in the raptorial names falco and croman, so here 
 the shape of the beak is a prominent physical feature, and 
 gives names to the stork, the heron, the crane, the raven, 
 and the crow, and all these names have in them the element 
 cor. Thus corr, without any attributive word, is the name 
 by which " the crane" is familiarly known to the Irish of the 
 present day, and in the Irish Bible it is used in this sense. 
 But corr, with a qualifying adjective attached to it, is also 
 used in G. and in I. to signify "the stork," " the heron," "the 
 crane," "the bittern." These descriptive names mean — 
 "the moor corr" (the crane), "the white corr" (the stork), 
 "the grey corr," "the fish corr," "the corr that frequents 
 the shallows of rivers " (the heron). The same syllable is 
 seen in the Gr, kor-ax, kor-5ne, and the L. cor-vus and 
 cor-nix. These coincidences of nomenclature cannot have
 
 BIRDS. 323 
 
 happened by chance ; they must be founded on some general 
 application of corr which will suit all these birds; this 
 meaning I find in the G, word corr. I know that these 
 names are usually regarded as onomatopoetic — imitations of 
 the peculiar note of the bird, as cuckoo. I do not deny that 
 this is probably true, but there are some considerations which, 
 in my mind, militate against this view, and I find a very 
 good derivation in the Gr, corr, which means "a snout, a 
 bill." Through the Q. adj. corrach, which is applied to 
 birds that have a rolling eye, we see that corr is derived 
 from the root car, which contains the idea of " roundness," 
 or of "going round." The same principle appears in S. 
 tunda, "the beak of birds," so called from its "roundness" 
 (cf L. rotundus). Corr, then, is a round, conical, or 
 cylindrical bill, and this is exactly the kind of beak which 
 the " Perchers " and " Waders " have. This shows that the 
 ancient Celtic name-makers were not unskilful in observins: 
 the essential differences of animals, and, to some extent, 
 anticipated, by such words as corr and barr, the modern 
 division of birds into rostral tribes. The Greek korax I 
 take to be corr with the suffix -ag, Gr. korone to be 
 corr with G. eun, "a, bird," L. corvus to be corr with 
 avis, "a bird," L. cornix to be corr with nis, as in Gr. 
 or-nis, -nithos, all of which terminations have already been 
 explained. The Gr. korax has its equivalent in Celtic, for 
 one name for "a crow" in Irish is corrag. 
 
 In G. there was a distinction between the conirostral beak, 
 which was properly called corr, and the cultrirostral, called 
 barr, for corrag is "a crow," with its short conical beak, 
 but barr gives L. parra, "the magjjie," or "jay," with its 
 long and strong beak like a spear. This distinction, how- 
 ever, is not rigidly observed, for in G., " a crane " is called 
 either corr-riabhac ("grey"), or parr-riabhac, and "a
 
 824 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 kite or hen-harrier" is called parr-riabhac nan cearc. 
 In G. the word parr, or rather barr (see burrtis), means 
 " the sharp point or top of anything," a word which is found 
 in almost all lansfuasres in the sense of elevation or height. 
 Its K. forms bar, par, yspar, bring us to the E. spear, 
 "a lance," which is the meaning of bar both in G. and K., 
 and this is a very suitable meaning, for these birds " spear" 
 their prey. The full idea, then, contained in the words 
 corr and barr is that of a straight, round, spear-like beak, 
 and any one who looks at the beak of the stork or crane 
 will at once see how appropriate is the G. name corr. 
 Indeed, the American crane has a bill like a dagger, and it 
 has been known to drive it through a man's hand with one 
 blow. From corr in this sense I take the Sabine word 
 curis, quiris, "a spear," whence Quirites and Quirinus; 
 the former of these is the Roman citizen name, " the spear- 
 men " ; it resembles the G. curaidh, "a spearman, a 
 warrior," and has its counterpart in the Belgse, "the bow- 
 men"; the other, Quirinus, is the name of the deified 
 Homulus, as the son of Mars, the " spear "-god, to whom 
 picus, "the magpie," "the pike- or spear-bird" (c£ parra), 
 was sacred, and under whose auspices spoil taken in war 
 was sold 8vh hasta. Indeed, it would not be hard to show 
 that the names Romulus and Ramnes, so closely connected 
 with the earliest history of Rome, are both of them taken 
 from a G. word meaning " a spear." 
 
 But some one may ask. Can a bird be named from its 
 beak merely ? Certainly ; for we have already had L. 
 falco, from falx, and also the I. croman, "a sickle," 
 hence " a kite." Besides this, tbe K. name for " a crow " 
 is bran, as if barr-en, the bird with the "spear "-like 
 beak, and the K. cigfran is this same word bran with 
 the noun cig, "flesh," prefixed. This word cig enters also
 
 BIRDS. 325 
 
 into the composition of L. cic-ouia, as if cig-euu, 
 " the flesh-bird." With this compare fitheach as ah-eady 
 quoted. 
 
 Let me now revert to the name corr, "a long rounded 
 beak." I infer that since the modern Celts use that word, 
 pure and simple, to mean "a crane," the ancient Etruscans 
 may have used a similar word in the same sense. Now, the 
 Etruscan ^;2Z,S", " a crane," is very like the Gr. gnos, "a bill, 
 a snout, a mouth," and gnos, by changing one liquid for 
 another, is the L. grus, "a crane," and, further still, gnos, 
 by dropping the g, becomes L. nas-us, " the nose." As 
 with gnavus, and gnatus, and gnosco, so nasus was 
 originally gnasus, and as the spelling with g is an old 
 form, I regard gnos as an old Celtic word. From gnos 
 the Gr. has gnuis, " the face, the visage." 
 
 A strong corroboration of this derivation of gms is 
 afforded by the name for an Italian species of " heron," 
 now extinct, but formerly numerous in the Bolognese terri- 
 tory, which was occupied by Etruscans, their town Felsina 
 being the modern Bologna, L. Bononia. This name is 
 corrira, a native name, and evidently formed from corr. 
 These cranes or herons must have been numerous also 
 among the Etruscans, for the beautiful Balearic crane fre- 
 quents the islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, and even visits 
 the coast of Africa. 
 
 Additional evidence of the identity of the ^tv.gnis and the 
 G. gnos comes from the G, gnusadh, a derivative of gnos, 
 meaning "a dent or a notched compression." Now, the bill 
 of the crane has just such a furrow running along its whole 
 length. Therefore the name gnis, gnus, or gnos is, in the 
 case of the crane, even more descriptive than corr, for it not 
 only conveys the notion of a " spear-like bill," but it also 
 marks a peculiarity of this bill as compared with others.
 
 826 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 The G. gnos is therefore, in all respects, a suitable name 
 for the Etruscan crane. 
 
 If L. nasus is derived from G. gnos, then Ger. nase, 
 Ic. nos, A.-S. noese, E. nose, are all in like manner more 
 or less directly connected with gnos, which, possessing the 
 g, must be the oldest and parent form. The presence of the 
 a in L. and Ger, is explained by the G. craos, "a wide 
 mouth," which, like L. grus, is only another form of gnos, 
 and the connection of craos in meaning with corr and barr 
 is shown by its derivative G. craosnach, " a spear, a dart." 
 The S. nasa bears a strong resemblance to L. nasus, but 
 it cannot be supposed that the L. nasus came direct from 
 the banks of the Ganges. That nose is one of the essential 
 words of the primitive, unbroken language will not be 
 doubted ; the Sanscrit branch of the Aryan family carried 
 this name into India, but who brought it into Italy ? Not 
 the Greeks, but the Celts, for the most Hellenising of Latin 
 etymologists will scarcely urge that the nose, nasus came 
 through Greece. The Greeks themselves got their name for 
 "the nose" from the Pelasgian Celts, for in G., sron, 
 sroin is the common name for the human nose, and from 
 this comes the Gr. rin, hrin, which, so far as the sound is 
 concerned, may be written hroin, the initial aspirate taking 
 the place of the G. s in sron. It is clear that this Gr. 
 word cannot give the L. nasus. 
 
 If any one here objects that it is not likely that so many 
 different objects should be named from the one word, " nose," 
 I must again reply that in the earliest stages of language 
 words were few, and that each root-word, like the patriarch 
 founder of a family or a nation, was the author of a numerous 
 progeny, each individual having his own separate features 
 and attire, but all, when attentively examined, exhibiting 
 traces of their common origin. Nowadays, around the same
 
 BIRDS. 327 
 
 domestic hearth, there will sometimes be found one or two 
 members of a family unlike the others, whom a cursory 
 observer would regard as strangers ; and yet, on inquiry, we 
 learn that their form and face, their hair, their voice or 
 habits, if not exactly those of their parents, are yet parental, 
 being derived from their grandparents. The students of 
 language can find among words many illustrations and 
 examples of such changes and varieties of feature. 
 
 I have only one other remark before I leave the bird- 
 names which have the syllable cor ; it respects the H. 
 brab, "a raven, a crow," S. karava. Gesenius confesses 
 that no root for o'rab can be found in the Semitic languages, 
 but cites the L. corvus as cognate; he observes, also, that 
 the b and the v are no part of the root. This root, as we 
 know, exists in G., for the H. brab begins with the palatal 
 letter ain, which, as usual, represents or is represented by 
 the G. g, k, or c hard. 
 
 The names L. ardea, Gr. erodios, Fr. h^ron, E. heron, 
 Sc. erne, are all the same word, and are derived from G. 
 ard, " high " ; the heron is thus the " lofty " bird. This 
 sense suits the stork, the heron, and the crane, for they are 
 each about four feet high, and have the same stately aspect. 
 The G. ard, in its inflected state, is airde, which, by meta- 
 thesis, may become Gr. er5dios, and the d aspirated slips 
 into the liquid n, whence heron, erne. There is no diSi- 
 culty in recognising the L. ardea. 
 
 The Persians call " the heron " bu timar because of its 
 affection, timar being a word that means "care, attendance 
 on the sick." For some such reason Athene, in one passage 
 in the Iliad, employs the heron as her messenger. 
 
 3. The accidental qualities of the " Perchcrs " and 
 " Waders." These are (a) a hoarse note, and (h) colour. 
 
 (a.) Tlio voice of the bird appears in — for " crow " — G.
 
 328 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 rocas, and, it may be, in Ger. krahe, A.-S. crawe, E. 
 crow, 0. H.-Ger. bruch and kraa, Goth, hruk, E. 
 rook, 0. SL kruku; for "crane" — K. cregyr and garan, 
 Gr. geranos, Ger. kranich, A.-S. cran, E. crane; for 
 "heron" — K. cregyr, Ger. reiher, A.-S. bragra. Of 
 these, roc-as and creg-yr both indicate a " harsh voice," 
 roc being the root of the L. raucus, " hoarse," and creg 
 being allied to Gr. kercho, as in kerchneis, "the kestrel" 
 (q.v.) Reiher is " the screamer." Of the other names, 
 some may be connected with the syllable corr, which I have 
 already explained, but the rest, especially those beginning 
 with the syllable cr or car, are onomatopoetic imitations of 
 the note peculiar to the bird. It is ratlier remarkable, as 
 showing the accuracy of our early name-makers, that not 
 one of the names for the stork has this syllable kr or cr, for 
 the stork has no note ; the snapping of its mandibles — the 
 only sound it makes — resembles a crotalism, a rattling of 
 castanets. Pliny, alluding to the voicelessness of the stork, 
 tells us that there were some people who asserted that the 
 bird had no tongue. 
 
 (6.) The colours are "grey" (glas and riabhac) and 
 " white " (ban). 
 
 (4.) The habits of these two tribes of birds furnish us 
 with the names G.-I. fitheach, contracted fiach, I, corr- 
 iasg, K. cigfran and chrych-ydd, L. ciconia. These 
 names have all been explained, excepting G. iasg " a fish," 
 L. piscis, and K. crych, which means "shallow water." 
 
 In fine, to sum up this bird-hunting raid, I think it has 
 been proved that the Etruscan /laracos, capys^ and gnis 
 are Celtic names, that the roots of most of the bird-names 
 in our list are found in Celtic, and that many of the most 
 elementary ideas in human speech are expressed, in Latin 
 and Greek, by words of Celtic etymology.
 
 BIRDS. 329 
 
 I have gone thus at length and minutely into a discus- 
 sion of the origin of these bird-names, because I believe 
 that, like the first names of mountains, rivers, and other 
 physical features of a country, they too are taken from the 
 language of the earliest inhabitants. If, then, these names 
 can be proved to be Celtic, this establishes a strong pre- 
 sumption that the basis of the population in the countries 
 where these names were used was Celtic. 
 
 For Etr. Anta7', "the eagle," see Chap. IV. 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Lindsay. — Ai^'acos. — The same word as the Greek 
 hierax, L. accipiter, and the Icelandic JiauJcr ; and either 
 from arc, arac, "greedy," or (which is more probable) from 
 a common root with capys and habuh. 
 
 Capys. — The Greek gups and Teutonic liahuh, " acci- 
 piter." From haban, liaja, hahen, "habere," " capere," "to 
 have " — that is, to possess oneself of, by taking or seizing. 
 
 Gnis. — Evidently, I think, the Teutonic gaNoz, gNos, 
 genoss, implying a " sodalis, collega, commilito," or " com- 
 panion " — in allusion to the gregarious habits of the bird, 
 its peculiar characteristic as noticed by Pliny and the 
 ancients. 
 
 Taylor. — Aracos. — In Koibal and other Turkic lan- 
 guages karahas means " an eagle," the last syllable kus 
 meaning " bird " in Kirghiz and other Turkic languages. 
 In Ostiak, kurak is "an eagle." The first part of the word 
 is either the Turkic kara, " black," the Ostiak sarag, 
 " swift," or perhaps the Tschazischi karak, Tschjulim ura, 
 Finn, waras, "a robber or thief." 
 
 Capys. — The second syllable may be the Turkic kuis, 
 " bird," which we have found in the word aracos, and the
 
 330 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 first syllable may be the root of capra. We have also the 
 Ude kajppesun and the Turkic hap, jap, ja2')ysch, " to snatch, 
 seize by force," as well as the Hungarian hap, " to get pos- 
 session of" Capys would therefore be " a bird of prey." 
 Oinis seems to be an Aryan word from the same root as 
 the Greek chen. 
 
 Donaldson. — Capys. — ''\icapy8=zfalco, it should seem 
 that capys contains the root of cap-eve, for this would be 
 the natural derivation of the name."
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 331 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 1. Versus, a Piece of Land. 
 
 2. Mantissa, a Make-weight. 
 
 1. VoRSUS, a Piece of Land. 
 
 Vorszis is a word of very uncertain etymology, for land- 
 measures vary so much in different countries that perhaps 
 it is now impossible to identify the word. It seems to 
 have been the Etruscan unit of measurement for land, about 
 100 feet square, and nearly the same as the Gr. plethron. 
 
 1. It may mean a hereditary patrimony, like the Gr. 
 kleronoinia, from kleros, "a lot." If so, it is connected 
 with the L. pars, "a part, a share," and the P. pur, "a 
 lot," from the P. pareh, "a part, a lot." The P. pur is 
 explained by the H. gural, a little pebble used in casting 
 lots, hence " an inheritance," that which falls to any one by 
 lot. The G. for "share, portion," is ear-ann, which also 
 means " a district, a province," — the same idea as in vorsus^ 
 but of larger extent. Now, earann must be (like G. 
 uranach for furanach) a softened form of fearann, from 
 the root par, "to break" (q.v.), whence L. frango and L. 
 pars; and fearann in G. happens to mean " a farm, land" 
 (the root-syllable being fear-), and that is pretty near the 
 meaning of vorsus. 
 
 2. If vorsus is not patrimonial, but a piece of land such
 
 332 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 as any one might acquire by purchase, then the name may 
 be taken from G. ur, foir, " a border," — used by metonymy 
 to signify the piece of land itself, much in the same way as 
 the L. fines, "ends," and the Teutonic mark, in the name 
 Denmark, to signify " territory." The L. finis itself seems 
 to be the G. beinn, ben, "a. mountain," for mountains 
 serve as natural boundaries between countries. In proof of 
 this I cite Gr. oros, "a mountain," and horos, "a bound- 
 ary" (q.v.); H. gabal, " to twist " as a rope, whence gebul, 
 "a line by which boundaries are measured" (cf. L. finis, 
 funis), "a boundary," " a chain of mountains." From foir 
 the G. has foirichean, "borders," foiriomall, "territory," 
 foirumha, "fringes, borders," and forrach, "a measuring- 
 rod, a pole, a perch." There is also an old word forb mean- 
 ing "land, glebe-land"; this is a corruption of foiramh, 
 from foir. The idea of "glebe-land" very well suits the 
 Etr. TJorsus, which was in all likelihood a small piece of 
 cultivated land, attached, like a glebe, to the dwelling. Any 
 of these words, if pronounced /or/i, would give vors-us. 
 
 The author, who quotes vorsiLS as an Etr. word, says that 
 it was " clausus quatuor limitibus." Perhaps the force of 
 this description lies in the word "limitibus," "boundaries," 
 the G. foir. Now, foir, with / aspirated, is hoir, the Gr. 
 horos, " a boundary, a landmark," and hoir gives G. oir, 
 " a fi'inge or border, a boundary, a limit " (which is the L. 
 ora, "a border, a coast, a country"), and the Homeric 
 ouron, "a boundary, a measure of distance," and the Ionic 
 euros, "a boundary," from which apparently comes Gr. 
 ar-oura, "jj^ou^/i-land," "corn-land." Vorsus may thus, 
 without violence, be taken from G. foir. The vorsus 
 would thus be the agev limitatus of the Roman law. 
 Columella says that the Roman actus, which, like the 
 vorsus, was the unit of land-measure, was called by the
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 333 
 
 Gauls aripennis, and this word looks like the G. forbh-adh 
 (forb-ann), "land, glebe-land." Therefore I consider foir 
 to be the root of vorsus ; and of the derivatives of foir, I 
 am inclined to give the preference to forrach — that is, 
 forrh, fors, vors — because forrach still exists as a topo- 
 graphical name in Ireland, and means " a piece of ground " 
 used chiefly for holding public meetings. 
 
 Still another possibility would derive vorsus from G. 
 feur, "grass," feurach (feoirach), "pasture." Thus voi"- 
 sus would be the " grass-land " attached to each cottage. 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson. — From verto. 
 
 Lindsay. — From^ior, " ^our," Jiorisc, "fourish, square." 
 
 Taylor, — I can throw no light on it. 
 
 2. Mantissa, a Make-ivelght. 
 
 I have not much to say about the Etr. ma7itissa, " a 
 make- weight," " what is given into the bargain," except that 
 I take it to be the G. maoin, "a small quantity," from 
 meanbh — that is, mean-amh — "little, small," and the 
 G. tomhas, "a measure, a weight, a balance." If so, 
 mantissa means a "little quantity" to turn the "balance." 
 The G. tomhas is pronounced tovas, and as medial v has 
 a tendency to become quiescent, tovas subsides into toas, 
 so that mean tomhas, "a little quantity," pronounced 
 man-toas, approaches very near to man-tissa. The G. 
 mean is a very old word, for its cognate is the H. meat, 
 "a little," from maat, " to bo polished," marat, "to scrape"; 
 the H. meat is, therefore, equivalent to "a shaving, a shred"; 
 other cognates may be H. miin, min, "a part," and manan, 
 "to divide, to allot." In G., mion, "small," is another
 
 834 
 
 THE ETRUSCANS, 
 
 spelling of mean, and gives the L. minor, minus, " less," 
 minuo, "I lessen," Gr. meidn, "less." 
 
 The L. par-vus, "little," in my opinion, is G., for G. 
 bearra, like H. meat, means "a shred," whence an adj. 
 bearr-amh, pronounced bearrav, L. par-vus {p for 6); 
 and bearra is the H. marat (6 for m). 
 
 The root, then, of mantissa is man, and to this hour the 
 Lowland Scotch speak of giving a thing " to the mains," 
 when they mean to say that it is " a small thing given in 
 addition to the bargain." 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson. — Scaliger and Voss derive it from manu- 
 tensa, " eo quod manu porrigitur." It is more probably 
 connected, like men-da, with the root Gr. maten ; compare 
 frustum with friistra. 
 
 Lindsay. — From (1) mem-icZa, that which is "proposi- 
 tum," proposed or offered, and, perhaps, (2) wahsan, " to 
 increase"; or, possibly, simply the Gothic mein-aiths, "per- 
 jury," in the sense of a fraudulent proffer. 
 
 Taylor. — The Yenissei which has preserved so many 
 Etruscan words has retained this. In the Kot- Yenissei 
 language we find the exact word, mintus, signifying " a 
 little, a bit."
 
 DRESS. 335 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 DRESS. 
 
 1. Laena, a Woollen Cloak. 
 
 2. Toga, the Eoman Dress. 
 
 1. Toga, the Roman Dress. 
 
 The ^og'O' was the distinctive Eoman dress of peace; for 
 "cedant arma togse." The "gens togata" regarded it as 
 peculiarly theirs, for even after the influence of Greece had 
 introduced other garments, they still wore it on all ceremonial 
 and state occasions, and they forbade foreigners to use it. 
 We are expressly told by Varro that the ^0£-a came from 
 Etruria, and Tertullian exclaims : " Well ! what a circuit 
 has the ^0£'a taken ; from Pelasgians to Lydians (i.e., Etrus- 
 cans) ; from Lydians to Romans." And under the words 
 clavus and Gahinus I have endeavoured to show how the 
 toga prcBtexta, with its broad stripe of purple, came to be 
 worn by the Etruscans as a badge of rank and high office. 
 This style was brought to Rome by King Tullus Hostilius, 
 and his toga was " picta " — that is, woven in various 
 colours ; while that of King Servius Tullius was " regia " 
 and " undulata " — that is, arranged in wavy lines of colour, 
 and worn only by the king. Now, I need not say that the 
 Gaels of Scotland still wear a similar dress ; like the toga, 
 it is made of wool, and is wrapped round the body much in 
 the same way ; like the royal toga^ its fabric is woven in
 
 336 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 stripes of various colours ; the Celtic king of old was entitled 
 to wear seven colours, the priests six, and the nobles four. 
 The lower part of this distinctive dress of the Highlanders 
 is called by us the "kilt," from an old G. word cealt, 
 meaning "apparel, clothes, dress" (from ceal-aich, "to 
 hide," L. celo), so that the "kilt" is the "dress." Now, 
 we have seen elsewhere that verbs " to hide " mean origin- 
 ally "to cover," and thus the original meaning of G. ceal 
 corresponds with the L. tego, "I cover," whence toga. 
 Even the word clothes means only a covering, and comes 
 from the same root as cloud (q.v.), although one lexico- 
 grapher takes it from L. claudo, "I close"! The same idea 
 of "covering" is seen in mantle, on comparing it with 
 dismantle. The H. me'il, "an upper garment," worn by 
 women, men of birth, kings, and priests, comes probably 
 from the root maal in the primary sense of "covering." 
 The S. ach-ch'hadana, which means "clothes," also means 
 " the wooden frame of a roof" ; the idea common to both is 
 that of covering. The S. vastra, "dress, clothes," is the 
 same root-word as L. vestis, originally "a covering." The 
 G. faluinn, " a cloak," L. palla, pallium (q.v.), is derived 
 from fal-aich, "to cover"; and the women's cloak in 
 Belgium is faille. The Ch. sarbal, which may mean 
 either " mantle " or " cloak," is the long, wide trousers still 
 worn in the East, from the root sarbal, "to cover." 
 
 But is tego, toga a G. word? Yes. For the G. verbs 
 "to cover" are comh-daich, and cuigh-rich, each of 
 which is formed from the monosyllable daich, taich, tuigh, 
 L. teg-. If we take tuigh and aspirate the initial t, we 
 get huigh or huighe, and, with the initial h dropped, 
 uighe, from which comes G. uighe-am, "dress, full equip- 
 ment"; this word is also written uidheam, which is cognate 
 with eididh (from eid, "to cover, to clothe"), — the word
 
 DRESS. 387 
 
 used by the Gaels when they speak of their own distinctive 
 dress, and eid again, if written eidh, is the Gr. verb hen- 
 numi, " I clothe," for n is in G. the liquid sound of dh. 
 
 I do not know any Greek word from which to take ^0£'a, 
 the Roman dress, for the Gr. s-tego, "I cover," is not 
 applied to garments ; I go back, therefore, to an older 
 language, the G. tuigh, cuigh, taich, daich, in the 
 sense of "covering," and (th)uige-am, a name applied 
 to a peculiar dress like the fo^a. I infer, therefore, 
 that ^ofa is a G. word. 
 
 Opinions of Others. 
 
 Donaldson. — If toga was the name by which the Tus- 
 cans called their outer garment, the verb tego must have 
 existed in the Tuscan language, for this is obviously the 
 derivation. 
 
 Lindsay. — Toga, a Latin form of the Teutonic deki, 
 thecki, decha, implying anything worn as a covering. Dok 
 is the existing name for the black "peplus" worn by women 
 at funerals in Sweden. From theckja, "tegere," " to cover." 
 
 Taylor. — The Hungarian tw, " a needle," gives the root 
 of many Ugric words which mean "to sew" or "to stitch." 
 In Kasan Tatar, from tik-mak, "to stitch," is derived tiku, 
 " garment," literally " that which is stitched." This word 
 may be identified with the Samojedic toko, tohe, "a shirt," 
 and the Mongolic goje, " a garment." 
 
 2. L.ENA, a Cloak. 
 
 Our next Etruscan word is Icena, " a cloak," a word 
 
 which Varro derives from lana, "wool"; Fcstus is not 
 
 sure whether it is a Tuscan or a Greek word ; the Greek 
 
 is chlaina, chlanis, "an upper garment of wool/' akin to 
 
 which is chlamus, "a horseman's cloak." 
 
 Z
 
 o o 
 
 38 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 As to derivation, the G. word Idin, l^ine, is very like 
 the Etr. IcBna, and means "a shirt, a smock, a shroud." 
 The Gr. l^in is an abraded form of G. olann, olainn, 
 "wool," the being dropped as in G. kuan, "the ocean," 
 for Gr. okeanos, which in meaning and sound exactly 
 answers to the Etr. Icena. Again, olainn itself is a 
 derived form, for it is the root ol with the common G. 
 suffix -ainn, and ol is E. wool, A.-S. wul, Ger. wolle. 
 But what is the parent source from which the word ol, 
 wool has come? What is its derivation? Our dictionaries 
 give us no information, for they are content to know that 
 E. wool is the A.-S. wul. The language which can show 
 us the first form of this name must be a very ancient one, 
 for " wool " is one of the primitive words of human speech. 
 
 Now, in G., while olainn is "wool," oladh is "oil," 
 eire is " snow," " ice," and in K., od is " snow." If I were 
 to say at once that these words have all the same root, most 
 of my readers would be incredulous. But let us have the 
 proof. 
 
 I first cite the P. barf, "snow," and baras, "leprosy," 
 where the common idea is that of lustrous whiteness. I 
 next refer to the H. verb tsachar, " to be intensely white," 
 whence tsachar is " the whiteness of wool," and Tsochar, 
 as a proper name, is " whiteness." This triliteral ts-ch-r 
 assumes various guises by modifying its constituent letters — 
 the final r, for instance, is changed into I, and the medial 
 ch is softened into h and then into y; hence the H. 
 tsahal, "to shine, be pure," H. tsayah, "sunny, arid," 
 tsayon, " arid land," and in Ar. S9wa means " to dry up." 
 I have already noticed the fact that the H. letter tsade has 
 a strong affinity for the guttural g, and that this is the letter 
 which often represents it in G. Thus H. tsahal, " to be 
 bright, to shine," becomes, first, gayal, and then ga-e-al,
 
 DRESS. 339 
 
 which gives the G. geal, " white," and probably the name 
 Gaul, for Virgil speaks of the "white" necks of the early- 
 Gallic tribes, as if he knew that to have been a distinguish- 
 ing national feature. Take tsahal again, and change the 
 first vowel into o, as in H. Tsochar, and we have tsohal, 
 then go-e-al, then go el, and, by dropping the g, we have 
 the Ger. oel, E. oil, K. ul, olew, L. ol-eum, Gr. elaion, 
 for ol-ainn. Take tsahal again, and make it tsohal, 
 then soften the h after the Ar. fashion, and we have 
 tsowal, gowal, gowl, gwl, A.-S. wul, E. wool, K. 
 gwl-an. Thus the notions wool, oil, brightness are identi- 
 cal in their origin, as in H. tsahar, " to be intensely 
 bright," tsahar, "the whiteness of wool," tsochar, "splen- 
 dour," and a derived noun, itshar, " oil," fresh and new, so 
 called from its " brightness," and from its making the human 
 body " shine." 
 
 Now, in K., gwl-an means "wool," ul means "oil," and 
 od, eire mean " snow." 
 
 Let us take the root gwl. Where the K. has initial g, 
 the G. has /, as K, gwr, " a man," G. fear ; K. gwin, 
 "wine," G. fion (Gr. Foinos, L. vinum); K. gwydh, 
 G. fios, " knowledge." Thus K. gwl becomes G. foil, 
 ful, "bright"; from foil comes G. foilsc, soilse, "light," 
 foilsich, " to reveal, disclose," and from ful comes E. 
 fuller, whose business in Old Testament times (as is evident 
 from many passages) was to cleanse and brighten or whiten 
 garments. But initial / in G. often becomes the slight 
 aspirate h, and is then dropped, as in uranach for furanach ; 
 thus I get the G. monosyllabic root uil, ol, in the sense of 
 "whiteness, brightness." From uil I take G. uille, "oil," 
 and from ol, with a participial termination added, G. oladh, 
 "oil," and, with the common substantive termination, olainn, 
 " wool." The K. od, " snow," is merely the root ol with d
 
 340 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 t 
 
 for I (see lacrima). The G. oladh is sounded ola, and 
 may give L. oleum and Gr. elaion direct. 
 
 Let us now look at our H. roots again. For tsahar we 
 now find zahar, " to shine, to be pure," the ts assuming the 
 softer sound of z. And as there is the change of tsachar 
 into tsachal, so we may assume the existence of a form 
 zahal, although it does not occur in the H. of the Old 
 Testament. The zahal may become zohal, zoyal, soial, 
 G. soil as it appears in the G. adj. soilleir, "bright," 
 and the G. verb soill-s-ich, " to shine." From the 
 G. root soil comes G. solus, " light," and a large 
 number of other derivatives, among which is L. sol, " the 
 sun," " the bright one," and Gr. sel-ene, " moon," as if 
 soil-enna, and, perhaps, a-foill-on, " the bright one," 
 "Apollo." Soillsich and similar words may be formed 
 from foil direct, by the change of / aspirated into s (see 
 halen). 
 
 Further, the root tahar is found in H. as another form 
 of tsachar, and, since tahar exists, then tahal may be 
 assumed. This tahal would give tayal, dayal, daial, 
 or dseal, whence G. deal-r-ach, "bright," and the verb 
 deal-r-aich, "to shine." 
 
 Again, let us take our root zahar; this time we shall 
 retain the first consonant of the triliteral, but modify the 
 medial h, and thus form saiar, Gr. seir-ios, "the Dog- 
 Star," Sirius, "the bright one," K. eira, "snow," G. eire, 
 "snow, ice," Gr. eir-os, "wool," K. aires, "scarlet," — all 
 named from their "brightness." 
 
 I refer once more to the root tsahal, for by syncope it 
 gives the K. gala-eth, "the milky way" (so called from 
 its "brightness"), and the obsolete G. noun galachd, 
 " milk," from its whiteness. It does not seem likely that 
 the names for " milk " and " snow " should be derived from
 
 DRESS. 341 
 
 the same root, and yet the Ch. telag, " snow " (H, sheleg), 
 is talega in Aramaic, and then means " milk." I there- 
 fore take the G. gal-aehd to mean originally " whiteness," 
 for the termination -achd is just as common in G. as -ness 
 is in English, and it is used in the same way. Now, this 
 obsolete G. word is exactly the Gr. galakt-, "milk," where 
 the akt has no significance whatever until we refer it to the 
 G. noun-termination -achd. But instead of galachd the 
 modern Celts use the shortened form lachd, " milk," and 
 this gives the L. lact-, "milk," where, again, few would 
 suspect that the I is the solitary survivor of the three letters 
 of the original root. And if lachd be written with the d 
 aspirated, which in its liquid form is n in G., I think we 
 have the Gr. lach-n-e, "soft wool." Similarly the L. nix 
 seems to come from the G. sne-achd, E. snow; by drop- 
 ping the initial s, which, moreover, does not exist in the 
 cognate S. nihara, "frost," the G. word becomes neacht, 
 neachs, L. nix, genitive niv-is, where the v — that is, / — • 
 still contains the aspirate ch (cf fire us, hircus). The 
 Gothic snaiws has w for ch, as the Ar. s^wa for tsacha(l). 
 Besides the word lachd, the Gaels and the Irish use the 
 word bainne to mean " milk," from baine, " whiteness, 
 fairness," adj. ban, bain, "white, fair." I refer to this 
 word as a proof that the idea contained in Gr. gala, L. lac, 
 " milk," is that of " whiteness." Another obsolete word in 
 G. for "milk" is laith, " whiteness, brightness," but this 
 word has been pushed out of use in this sense by the 
 superior " brightness " of day, so that now lath, laith 
 means only " daylight," " day," and is the common word for 
 " day " in the G. and L dialects, although not in the K. 
 I think that lath, laith must have been at one time glaith, 
 from the root gal, denoting " brightness," for there is the 
 A.-S. gelihtan, alihtan, lihtan, "to light, to kindle," E.
 
 342 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 light. This initial g still exists in the G. glan, " pure, 
 clean, bright " (q.v.) 
 
 Now, as before, this initial g is in G. represented by /; 
 hence the G. words fal-aid, any "polished brightness," 
 falc, as if fal-ach, " frost " (still the idea of " brightness, 
 whiteness "), also " barrenness from drought " ; then the li 
 (that is, fh) is dropped, and the same root gives G. aille, 
 " handsome, fair," aill-idh, " bright," al-ain, " white, 
 bright, clear," alb (as if al-amh), "white," L. albus, Gr. 
 alphos. According to this investigation, the river-names, 
 Gr. Alpheios, and the L. Albula, later Tiberis, describe 
 the clearness of their waters as mountain streams. One 
 name more under this head is G. eal-adh, "a swan," the 
 "white "bird, K. alar-ch, L. olor, which has the same 
 initial syllable as G. ol-ainn, "wool." The name "swan" 
 itself, Ger. schwan, resembles the Ar. sgwa, as above 
 derived from root tsahah, "to be white, shining," "to be 
 sunny." Again, the G. ealadh {dh silent), compared with 
 G. aille, aillidh, " fair, bright, lustrous," may give the 
 Gr. eelios, helios, "the sun," "the bright one"; and the 
 name Apollo, as already suggested, may be the Celtic an, 
 "the," or perhaps ap, "son," and the root foill, soill in 
 the double sense of " enlightening and revealing," — both of 
 them functions of light ; this agrees with the Homeric 
 epithet applied to Apollo — namely, lukegenes — which I 
 take to mean "born of light," and also with the double 
 function of Apollo as the orb of day, the Phoebus or "shining" 
 one, who soillsich, " brightens or enlightens," and as the 
 god of prophecy, who foillsich, "reveals" the future. The 
 " swan " claims kindred to the sun, for the poets represent 
 Cygnus (L. olor), who was changed into a swan (G. ealadh), 
 as a near kinsman of Phaeton, the " shining " one, the son 
 of old Sol.
 
 DRESS. 343 
 
 This discussion suggests a few thoughts which I subjoin 
 without amplification. 
 
 1 . Comparative philology establishes the existence of root- 
 words, common to the earliest languages of the Aryans, the 
 Shemites, and the Turanians. This well-known fact has re- 
 ceived numerous illustrations in our analysis of Etruscan words. 
 
 2. These monosyllabic roots, consisting of one, two, or 
 three consonants, were originally few in number, but were 
 the prolific parents of numerous families of words, merely 
 by the modifications of one or other of their consonants. 
 Thus, in G., soillsich, means " to brighten, to enlighten," 
 while foillsich means " to reveal, disclose, declare." 
 
 3. Celtic is earlier in time than Greek or Latin, and 
 often supplies the clue by which words in these languages 
 can be traced to their primeval roots. For example, the G. 
 ol-ainn, " wool," is clearly earlier than either Gr. lenos or 
 L. lana, as surely as the town Oporto is earlier than "port" 
 wine. The ol of the G. and the gwl of the K. preserve the 
 original root of the name for " wool," while the -sena of the 
 Etruscan and the -anos, -ana, of the classic languages are 
 merely the Celtic formative termination -ainn, the I, here, 
 as in Indus, being the sole survivor of the three letters of 
 the H. root. The Celtic words are like the angular stones 
 from the newly-rifted rock, thrown in the rushing stream of 
 human speech, while the classic names are the same pebbles 
 long after cast up among the shingle, rounded and water- 
 worn, but still bearing some of the colour-veins and linea- 
 ments of the parent rock. 
 
 4. The same root-name, with scarcely any change on it, is 
 used by different tribes of the same race, to express different 
 applications of the idea which belongs to the root. Thus, from 
 the root zahar, used to denote "brightness" or "intense white- 
 ness," comes the root-syllable eir; in K. it means "snow,"
 
 344 THE ETRUSCANS. 
 
 and one form of it, airos, " purple " (with which compare L. 
 "pu7'purei olores," "purpurea lux "); in G. it means " ice"; 
 in Gr. it means "wool." Again, L. ol-eum means "oil," 
 ol-or, "a swan," but G. ol-ainn means "wool"; the G. 
 eal-adh is " a swan," but Gr. hel-ios is " the sun." 
 
 5. Words may also be " fossil history," the history of a 
 nation's wanderings. For instance, if the root- word eir 
 was first formed among the upland mountain-peaks of 
 Armenia, the cradle of the human race, there eiros, eire 
 must have meant " snow," " ice," the dazzling lustre that 
 shone upon the mountain tops around; but when the Japhet- 
 ians removed to the plains of lower Chaldsea, with its 
 uniform monotony of landscape, or to any other region 
 where snow-capped summits ceased to impress their brilliancy 
 upon the eye, or to a warmer clime where snow never falls, 
 then the whiteness of snow was forgotten, and the race, now 
 become pastoral, applied the name eiros to the brightest of 
 familiar objects, the " wool " of their sheep. Thus eire, 
 " snow," belongs to the hunter-state of a tribe or nation, 
 and becomes eiros, " wool," when the tribe has settled 
 down on the plain as a pastoral people. 
 
 Opinions of Others, 
 
 Donaldson. — Lcena, a double cloak. — If it be a Tuscan 
 word, it is very like the Greek ; compare luridus, lac, liaros, 
 &c., with cJiloros, gala, chliaros. 
 
 Lindsay. — Lcena, "a woollen cloak." — Like the Greek 
 chlanis and the Latin lana, from liuhan, lyccan, " vellere," 
 " to tear," as the fleece " vellus " was (formerly it would 
 seem) torn from the sheep. 
 
 Taylor. — Lcsna, "a woollen garment." — Festus is 
 doubtful whether the word is really Etruscan. It seems 
 to be the Gaelic leine, " a shirt," or the Gr. chlaina.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 WORDS PRESUMABLY ETRUSCAN. 
 
 Besides the forty words whicli we have now examined, there 
 is, in Latin, a considerable number of other words which we 
 may reasonably set down as Etruscan, but as there is no direct 
 evidence that they are Etruscan, I do not intend to discuss 
 them in detail ; I shall take only a few, and give their pro- 
 bable derivations. 
 
 1. LiCTOR. 2. Fascis. 3. Securis. 
 
 The Lictors were the body-servants who attended the 
 consuls on public and official occasions. Each carried a 
 fascis or " bundle " of rods, with a securis, " an axe," stuck 
 in it — symbols to show the power of scourging and death 
 which these magistrates possessed. It is well known that 
 the Gaelic chieftains had the same power, and that even the 
 Scottish barons and lairds, up to the time of the abolition of 
 heritable jurisdictions in Scotland, had a like irresponsible 
 authority. 
 
 The G. name still in common use to mean the attendants 
 of a Highland chief is luchd-airdc, from luchd, "people, 
 company." And luchd or luchdairde easily gives L. lictor. 
 
 The L. fascis is the G. word pasg, " a bundle."
 
 346 APPENDIX. 
 
 The "axe," securis, presents more difficulty. Some say 
 that there is no Aryan derivation for it. But the Persian 
 sagaris is "a battle-axe"; also the Gr. xuron, "a razor," 
 S. kshaura, by the simple transposition of the sound of s, 
 would give securis, and the Etruscan razor was lunated 
 something like a modern Hindu hatchet. The root is 
 therefore Aryan. Nor was the thing unknown. For in 
 the earliest monarchical government among the Jews, the 
 king's body-guard were the " Cherethites and the Pele- 
 thites," the " executioners " and the " runners." The for- 
 mer name, Crethi, is formed from carath, "to cut down, 
 to exterminate, to kill," for the royal halberdiers, as in the 
 East to this day, had to execute immediate sentence of death 
 at the king's order. Thus, also, the body-guard of the Shah 
 of Persia carries the tahar-zin, a small hatchet. This verb 
 car-ath, S. krit, means also " to castrate." In Gr. it 
 becomes gearr, " to castrate," and sgar, " to tear or cut 
 asunder, to separate," and most of the names for an " axe " 
 in H. are derived from this idea of " cutting, separating." 
 Now, in G., sgor is "a sharp, razor-like rock," spor {p for 
 k) is " a flint," and sgor, as a verb, means " to scrape, to 
 cut in pieces, to lance," Gr. xurein. And sgor, sguir can 
 easily give the L. securis. Decapitation was certainly 
 practised in very ancient times, for on the Assyrian tablets 
 the expression " I cut off heads " is common. 
 
 Besides carath, another H. verb is gazar, and, by 
 transposition, gar-az, " to cut, to divide," " to decree," and 
 that is cognate with G. gearr, " to cut, to divide, to cas- 
 trate," and with sgar, "to cut asunder," The circumcision 
 of the book of Exodus was performed with a tsor, which 
 the LXX. take to mean " a knife made of flint " (cf. H. 
 tsur, "a rock"). This brings us very near to the G. 
 spor, sgor, whence seciiris and L. secar-e, "to cut."
 
 APPENDIX. 347 
 
 4, CuRULis (sella). 5. Curia. 
 
 The chair of state used by the higher public magistrates 
 in Rome was said to be curulis. This I derive from G. 
 coir, Arm. guir, "justice"; the sella curulis is therefore 
 the seat of justice; uil is a common adj. formation in G. 
 The G. coir also means "business," in which sense I take 
 from it the L. curia, "the senate-house." 
 
 6. Cliens. 
 
 The clientes were those who clustered around any 
 patronus in the Roman State, any great man who, like a 
 "father," gave them protection and assistance, and in return 
 received homage and dutiful service. It is agreed that 
 cliens comes from the G. clann, clainne, " children, a clan, 
 a tribe." The clientes were therefore "clansmen," those 
 whom a French patron would now address as " mes enfants." 
 
 7. Fetiales. 
 
 The fetiales were public messengers who, when an act 
 of aggression had been committed by a neighbouring State, 
 were sent by the Romans to demand redress, or, according 
 to the formula, " repetere res" to seek back the things that 
 had been taken away ; if their demand was refused, and no 
 satisfaction offered, they denounced the wrong-doers, and 
 declared war. Arnobius says : " When you are preparing 
 for war, do you hang out a flag from the citadel, or practise 
 the forms of the fetiales, solemnly demanding the return of 
 that which has been carried off?" Now, the only covetable 
 res or property which could thus be carried away in the 
 infancy of States like Rome was cattle — flocks and herds — 
 for these constituted the only wealth.
 
 348 APPENDIX. 
 
 In modern G., fiadh, feidh means "a deer," but it 
 originally meant any "wild" animal (fiadh, adj., "wild") as 
 fiadh- cu, "a wild dog, a wolf," fiadh -asal, "a wild ass." 
 Fiadh would thus apply to the cattle that were allowed to 
 roam free on the upland pastures and valleys adjoining the 
 Roman territory such as it was in the days of Numa, when 
 the college of the Fetiales was instituted. The experience 
 of the borderland between the Highlands of Scotland and 
 the plains below, so vividly depicted by Sir Walter Scott, 
 proves that nothing is more likely than that King Numa's 
 people frequently suffered from the depredations of the 
 Catteran tribes around. Thus arose the need of fetiales, 
 those who, in the name of the State, should go and demand 
 the restitution of the "beasts" that were missinsr. The 
 story of Cacus, which is as old as the days of Hercules, and 
 all the Sanscrit legends about Sarama, " the dawn," show 
 that "cattle-lifting" was a familiar experience of the Aryan 
 tribes. 
 
 8. AVERRUNCUS. 
 
 An old Italian deity supposed to have the power to avert 
 evil. The G. a-fogair-olc means "to drive away evil." 
 The verb fogair is the L. fugare, and, if written foghair, 
 would be pronounced fo-err, so that a-fo-err-olc is not 
 unlike Averr uncus. Or, if we reject the infinitive of the 
 verb, and use its participle as the descriptive of the person, 
 like L. sapiens, Gr. archon, then the G. a fogairadh, "the 
 one who drives away," "the expeller," would, as before, give 
 a-foerr-ang, averrang, by changing the dh into its liquid 
 n, and then pronouncing the n with the nasal sound. This 
 derivation is the more likely one, as the initial of Aver- 
 runcus is long, and the prefixed a in the G. is a contraction 
 for ag.
 
 APPENDIX. 349 
 
 I offer the above merely as conjectures. Or Averruncus 
 may be a corruption of the G. a faire olc, " the watch 
 against evil," as already suggested. 
 
 9. Cloaca. 
 
 Cloaca is " a common sewer." The Etruscans were 
 famous builders of drainage-works of this kind, and the 
 name is probably Etruscan. The modern G. for "a sewer " 
 is clais uisge, which it would not be difficult to contract 
 into clo-asca, cloaca. The G. uisge is the L. aqua, 
 "water," and the G. clais is "a furrow, a trench, a ditch." 
 
 10. Haruspex. 
 
 Haruspex, "a soothsayer." The Haruspex took omens 
 not from the flight of birds like the augur or auspex, but 
 from the appearance of the entrails of a victim slain — hence 
 they were called also " extispices " — or from prodigies, un- 
 usual operations in nature. In Rome they were reckoned 
 inferior to the augurs, and were mostly Etruscans. The 
 name therefore is probably Etruscan. Clement of Alex- 
 andria says : " The Phrygians were the first who attended 
 to the flight of birds ; and the Tuscans, neighbours of Italy, 
 were adepts at the art of Haruspex." 
 
 The root of the word, according to Varro and Festus, is 
 haruga, aruga, harviga, ariga, arvix, "a victim," a ram 
 to be sacrificed. Now, haruga, aruga looks like a com- 
 pound word, and I take it to be G, ar, " slaughter," Basque 
 hara. Da. ar, "a wound," and G. ubag, "an incantation," 
 any superstitious ceremony, which, again, is connected with 
 iob, eub, "death," and iobair, "to sacrifice." When com- 
 pounded, these words Avould be written harubhag, which, 
 with the hh quiescent as usual, is har-uag, harug, the
 
 o 
 
 50 APPENDIX. 
 
 " omen " drawn from the " wounding " or " slaughter " of a 
 victim. The haruspex, then, would be the officer who 
 " looked " after the " omens " taken from the " slain " 
 animal. 
 
 But if haruspex is named from the "ram" sacrificed, 
 then I take the first syllable to be car (q.v.), softened into 
 bar, "a ram," L. ar-ies. 
 
 11. Augur. 
 
 The augurs, on the other hand, drew their omens from 
 "birds," and were held in high honour by the Romans. 
 The name may not be Etruscan, but the derivation of it is 
 obscure, and requires elucidation. Some take it from avis, 
 "a bird," and garrio, "I chatter," which does not suit; 
 another says that augur is equivalent to auger, "bearing 
 a bird," "dealing with birds," which is less likely. Nor 
 was this kind of divination by birds peculiar to the Romans, 
 for the Greeks were so familiar with it that the word oionos 
 in their language is used to signify " an omen," either good 
 or bad, and oionizesthai, ornithoskopeisthai, are verbs 
 that mean " to divine," literally " to look at the birds." I 
 have elsewhere given my opinion of the derivation of augur. 
 I have shown L. avis, "a bird," to be from a G. root, and 
 the -gur I take to be the Gr. geur, "sharp of intellect, 
 penetrating, sagacious"; the augur, then, is the one "skilled" 
 in " bird "-signs. The K. form of geur is egyr, whence 
 L. acer (that is, akeur), "sharp." Ancient religions en- 
 couraged " wisdom " and " sagacity " in their priests ; the 
 Magi of Persia were " the Wise Men " ; in Media, the '" one " 
 god was Ahuro-Mazdao, " the Living- Wise " (according to 
 Rawlinson), and one class of priests was called Ri9ikhs, " the 
 Wise Men."
 
 appendix. 351 
 
 12. Hariolus. 
 
 The Hariolus was another kind of diviner, and is men- 
 tioned by Cicero, along with the haruspex and the augur. 
 As all discipline of this kind came from Etruria, the name 
 may be Etruscan. I believe that his function was the 
 interpretation of atmospheric phenomena. 
 
 The G. athar (pronounced something like aliur, the tli 
 being quiescent) means "the sky, the air, the atmosphere" 
 (Gr. aer, E. air), and eol, or eolas, means "knowledge, 
 art, science," which derivation corresponds with the mean- 
 ing of augur, and suits the character of the hariolus. 
 There is still, in G. dictionaries, the compound word athar- 
 eolas, or athar-uil, "aeromancy," "the art of divining by 
 the air," L. hariolus. 
 
 13. PORRECTUS. 
 
 Our dictionaries say that the proverb, " Inter cassa et 
 porrecta," means " between the slaying of the victim and 
 the laying it on the altar," and that the verb porricere 
 means " to throw at," hence to " consecrate." I think that 
 porricere, like the H. nuph, properly means "to wave to 
 and fro " the parts of the sacrifice before placing them on 
 the altar, and thus "to consecrate." At all events, porrectus 
 bears a close resemblance to the G. coisrigte, " consecrated, 
 sanctified," and as it is a word used in the old sacrificial 
 ritual, it may be Etruscan. Porrectum is, by Festus, placed 
 as the opposite of j^rofanum. The Levites and the living 
 victims were dedicated by " leading " them up and down 
 before the altar, and some derived forms of the G. cois 
 (q.v.) mean " to walk," whence coisrigte, " dedicated, 
 consecrated " in this way.
 
 352 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 II. 
 
 LATIN ETYMOLOGY FROM A CELTIC STANDPOINT. 
 
 The following approximations are merely tentative, for they have 
 not been subjected to a detailed examination. Such a discussion 
 does not fall within the scope of this work. 
 
 The order of the root-words is taken from the Etymological 
 Index at the end of Riddle's Latin Dictionary. I have omitted 
 those words which are purely Greek. 
 
 L. A, AB, ABS. Gr. APO. 
 
 G. a, as, ua, bho, "from." 
 Observe — bho for (a)bo, Gr. 
 apo; u a for b ha, by metathesis 
 for ab; as for abs. 
 
 L. Abdomen as if am-domin. 
 G. gam, root denoting 
 "roundness" [cf bolg (see 
 Index) and Gr. gaster as if 
 gam-ster], and G. domh- 
 ainn, " deep, hollow " (cf Gr. 
 koilon,koilia). Obs. — Initial 
 g is frequently dropped. 
 
 L. Abies as if abiet-. 
 
 G. giubhas, "a fir ti-ee." 
 Thus: — giubhas is for giu- 
 bathas (as G. fuas for fua- 
 thas, G. searbhas for sear- 
 bhadas) -=^ iubathas= ubiath 
 = abiet. Obs. — ?t and a are 
 interchangeable in G., as u mar 
 for amar ; initial g is often 
 dropped. 
 
 L. Ac, ET. 
 
 G. ag-us, "and." 
 
 L. ACCIPITER. 
 
 See Index. 
 L. AcEO. 
 
 See ACiES, as below. 
 L. Acer, -eris. 
 
 Perhaps from root mac, "a 
 spot," the spotted wood, L. 
 macula, G. smal; see Index. 
 Thus : — root mac would give 
 mac-air, mhacair, Facair = 
 
 ACER. 
 
 L. Acer, acris. 
 
 See ACIES, as below. 
 
 L. ACERBUS. 
 
 See ACIES, as below. 
 
 L. ACERRA. 
 
 G. Tuisear, "a censer," from 
 tuis, "incense," L. tus, like E. 
 "censer" for "incenser." Obs. 
 — t aspu-ated becomes h, and is 
 then dropped ; u and a are in-
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 353 
 
 terchangeable, as G. umar for 
 amar. 
 
 L. ACERVUS. 
 
 Possibly, car-am h = car-av, 
 from root car (see Index), like 
 G. car-n — that is, car-ainn, 
 "a heap of stones, "from root car. 
 
 L. ACIES, ACRIS, ACERBUS, ACEO, 
 
 ACUO, ACUS, ACTUTUM. 
 
 Gr. AKE, AKIS, AKME, 
 AKONE, AKROS, AKOUO, 
 AICHME, ACHOS, AKON. 
 
 The root is AC. Cognates in 
 H. are azan, atsen, sacah, 
 chazah, chad. 
 
 The various meanings which 
 the root AC assumes may be 
 thus classified — (1) "to be 
 sharp " ; (2) " to sharpen, to 
 prick"; (3) " any sharp weapon, 
 a goad, a knife, a sickle, a 
 thorn, a prickle, a spear " ; (4) 
 "to be sharp of mind, to un- 
 derstand " — " intellect, xmder- 
 standing " ; (5) " to look at, to 
 view, to see, to behold, to con- 
 template" ; (6) "to expect, to 
 hope for, to wait for, to long 
 for, to desire " ; (7) "to cut 
 into, to determine, to decide"; 
 (8) "to be eager"; (9) "to 
 prick up the ears, to listen " ; 
 (10) "to be swift"; (11) "to 
 be sour"; and (12) — in Gad- 
 helic— " to be shrill." 
 
 Examples : — K. awch, 
 "edge," egr, "sour," K. aw- 
 chus, "keen," K. agarw, 
 garw, "rough, rugged," G. 
 geur, " sliai-p, keen, bitter," 
 G. nicear, " angry, severe. 
 
 cruel," G. acrach, "hungry," 
 G. feigh, '"sharp," G. eighe, 
 "ice," "a file," G. eisg- earra, 
 "bitter, satirical," G. searb 
 (L. acerbus), "bitter, sour," 
 G. fagha, "a spear," G. fao- 
 chag (L. oculus), "the eye," 
 S. akshi, "the eye," G. faic, 
 faicse, "see, behold" (L. faxo 
 and ecce, "fac" ut venias, 
 s-pecio, as if s-faicio), G. 
 faicill, "watchful" (L. vigil), 
 G. eigh, "a shout, a shriek," 
 G. agh-aidh, "face, counte- 
 nance" (L. facies), G. eigin, 
 "force" (L. acies), G. ogh, 
 "the sharp end of anything," 
 G. ocras, "hunger," G. eisd, 
 "hear" (L. audio). Ohs.— 
 This root deserves a chapter to 
 itself 
 
 L. Acus, " husk of corn, chafi"." 
 G. fasan (as if fach-an), 
 "refuse of grain," G. fuigheal, 
 "refuse," K. u s, " chaff " Thus : 
 — root fuigh = faigh, whence 
 faigh-air = aicher = L. acer. 
 Obs. — -f is aspirated = h, and 
 then dropped. 
 
 L. Ad. 
 
 G. do (by metathesis od), 
 "to"; G. aig, "at," and G. 
 fag- us, "near." Obs.^d imA 
 g interchange, as G. uidhe = 
 uighe. 
 
 L. Adagium. 
 
 Obs. — Non liquet. 
 
 L. Adeps. 
 
 Obs. — ISTon liquet. 
 
 L. Adminiculum. 
 
 Obs. — Non liquet. 
 
 2a
 
 Mo 4 
 
 oo 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 L. Adulor. 
 
 G. adh, ''prosperity, luck, 
 joy, tappiness"; G. adh-mhol 
 (L. volo), lit. "to wish joy," 
 " to praise, to extol." 
 L. Adulter. 
 
 Obs. — Non liquet. 
 
 L. ^DES. 
 
 G. teagh, "a house," "an 
 apartment," as if taigh (L. 
 tego). Obs. — t aspirated be- 
 comes h, and is then dropped ; 
 gh — dh, as G. uidhe = uighe. 
 
 L. J^GER, ^GRE. 
 
 G. eig-in, "with difficulty," 
 G. aog, eag, "death," aog- 
 naich, "to grow pale or 
 ghastly." See root AC. 
 
 L, ^MULUS. 
 
 G. comheud, " mutual jeal- 
 ousy, rivalry." Obs. (!) — The 
 c is softened and then dropped ; 
 the final d becomes I, as in L. 
 odor, olor ; comh is the L. 
 cum ; and G. end is "jealousy, 
 zeal." Obs. (2)— TheG. comh, 
 coimh is the S. sam, Gr. 
 hama, &c., and the H. im 
 (aim) which show the a of L. 
 pemulus. Indeed, G. coimh 
 might be written caimh. 
 
 L. ^QUUS, iEQUOR. 
 
 G. meadh (as if meagh), "a 
 balance," G. magh, "a plain," 
 G. faich, "a plain." Obs. — M 
 aspirated becomes F and is then 
 dropped ; gh = dh, as above. 
 L. ^R. 
 
 See Index. 
 
 L. ^RUMNA. 
 
 Akin to iEGER, for "Trunin a 
 
 est segritudo laboriosa" (Cic.) 
 G. eig, aog (see ^eger) and 
 G. reub, raoim, " to tear, to 
 lacerate, to plunder." E. rob. 
 Obs. — h for m. 
 
 L. iEs. 
 
 G. umha, "brass, copper." 
 Thus: — umha for umhair = 
 aimhair = ai(mh)air=L. ser-. 
 Obs. (1) — m/i is quiescent in such 
 a position. Obs. (2) — A form, 
 (g)umhair, would give Gr. 
 Kupros, E. copper; a form, 
 (u)mhair, would give L. fer- 
 rum ; and a compound, geal- 
 umhair, " white metal," would 
 give siluber, A.-S. seolfer, 
 E. silver. 
 
 L. tEstimo. 
 
 G. meas, "to value," and 
 
 ? Obs. — m becomes silent. 
 
 See tEquus. 
 
 L. -i^STUS. 
 
 G. As, " to kindle," used as 
 an intensive prefix ; G. eas, 
 " a cataract," uisge (as if 
 eas-ge), " water," G. easgall, 
 " a storm, a wave, a noise." 
 See also Index. 
 
 L. ^vuM. See aivil (Index). 
 
 L. Agaso. 
 
 Perhaps G. each, "ahorse," 
 and greas, "to drive," as if ach- 
 grass-o, then ag-gar so, agaso. 
 
 L. Ager. 
 
 G. machair, " a field," 
 magh a, " plain," like H. 
 shadah, "to level," whence 
 shadeh, "a field." Also G. 
 faich, "a plain," ach-adh, "a 
 field, aplain," whence Sc.h a ugh.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 355 
 
 L. Agnus. 
 
 See Index, 
 
 L. Ago, actum. 
 
 G. fog-air, "to drive away 
 forcibly," as if fagair or faog- 
 air ; also G. (I) aclid, " a 
 deed, a statute." Ohs.—f be- 
 comes silent. See acus. 
 
 L. Aid. 
 
 For avo. G. ab-air, "to 
 speak," which, also gives L. 
 fabula and L. (for) ffir-i, 
 "to speak." Ohs. (1)— L, for 
 = fa(bh)or (hh silent), and fab 
 = gab, whence E. gabble; G. 
 fa(bh)air gives L. fari, and 
 i-oot ab, abh = av = ai-o. Ohs. 
 (2) — Initial yis dropped. See 
 
 ACUS. 
 
 L. Ala, axilla. 
 
 G, achlais, "arm, armpit"; 
 G, gual-ainn, "shoulder." 
 
 L. Alacer. 
 
 G, alacb, " activity, alac- 
 rity," from root al ( = sal), 
 sal-io. See Index, 
 
 L, Alapa, 
 
 G. gailleag, "a blow or 
 slap on the cheek," from gaill, 
 goill, "a cheek." Hence Gr. 
 kolaphos. Ohs. (1)— The G. 
 word, being significant, is ear- 
 lier. Ohs. (2) — The rj is dropped. 
 See anser. 
 
 L, Alauda. 
 
 G. root al, "to praise,' 
 whence G. alladh, " fame, 
 report," and luaidh, " praise," 
 L. laudo, laus. Cf Sc. laver- 
 ock, "the lark." Ohs.— In G., 
 luath-aranmeans"asea-lark." 
 
 L, Albus. Gr, Alphos, 
 
 Both from a root al, " white," 
 perhaps the same as ge a 1, The 
 G, has al-ain, " white, bright," 
 but a form, al-amh, would 
 give albus. But alain may 
 be another spelling for olain, 
 from the same root as L, lana, 
 Etr. lcF7ia, q.v. 
 L. Alea, 
 
 Ohs.—^on liquet. Cf S. 
 ak-sha, "a die." 
 L. Alga. 
 
 G, salachar, "refuse, weed," 
 etc. A form, salag, would give 
 alga. Ohs. (1) — Initial s = h 
 is dropped, Ohs. (2) — Gr, 
 phukos comes from G. fuigh. 
 See acus, acer, 
 L. Algeo. 
 
 Ohs. — ISTon liquet. 
 L. Alius, 
 
 G, eile, " another, 
 L, Allium. 
 
 Ohs. — Non liquet. 
 L. Alnus. 
 
 Ohs. — Non liquet. Perhaps 
 G. fe-arn, "an alder tree." 
 L. Alo. 
 
 G. root al, " to nurse," " to 
 raise." 
 L. Alter. Gr. Allotrios, " an- 
 other's, foreign." 
 G. eile-thir, " foreign, of 
 another land." 
 L. Altus. 
 
 G. root al, " to raise " ; par- 
 ticiple alto, "raised" — or G. 
 ard, " high." 
 L. Alvus. 
 
 G. falamh, "empty." Cf.
 
 356 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 G. koilia, from koilos. Obs. 
 — Falamh = alav = alv-. 
 L. Amarus. 
 
 G. falma, " ahim," or G. 
 saill, "salt, brine, the sea." 
 L. Ambo. 
 
 G. an do, " the two." 
 L. Ambulo. 
 
 Probably from same root as 
 Gr. eimi, " I go," G. im-ich ; 
 or from G. falbh, "to go," 
 f alb ham, " easy motion," 
 falbhanach, "ambulatory." 
 Obs. — Falb = famb = amb-. 
 L. Amentum. 
 
 G. lomhainn, "a leading 
 string, athong for leadingadog," 
 iomain, "to lead or drive ani- 
 mals." Obs. — Amentum =r G. 
 iomanta^^ lomanta. 
 L. Amita. 
 
 G. ab, "a father," L. avns. 
 Obs. — b = on. 
 L. Amnis. 
 
 G. abhainn, "a river." 
 Obs. — Abhainn - abainn = 
 amainn. 
 L. Amo. See I., aveo. 
 L. Amcenus. 
 
 G. samh, "rest, pleasure"; 
 and G. samhain, " pleasure " ; 
 also G. aimhean, "pleasant." 
 L. Amplus. 
 
 G. ain (privative) and caol, 
 " small, narrow." 
 T.. Ampulla, a lai-ge-" bellied " 
 vessel. 
 G. ain (intensive) and bolg, 
 " a belly," from root ball (q.v.) 
 L. An. 
 
 G. an, interrogative pai-ticle. 
 
 L. Anas. 
 
 See Index. 
 L. Ancilla. 
 
 G. ban-gille, "a female 
 servant." 
 
 See gille, in Index. 
 L. Ancora. 
 
 G. acair, "an anchor." 
 L. Ango. 
 
 G. ong, "sorrow, a sigli, a 
 
 groan. 
 
 L. Anguis. 
 
 Perhaps G. ionga, " a fang," 
 whence L. unguis. 
 L. Angulus. 
 
 G. cuil, "a corner," pei'haps 
 acuil originallv. 
 L. Anima. 
 
 G. an am, " the soul, life, 
 spirit." 
 L. Annulus, annus. 
 
 G. iadh, " to go round." See 
 r//, Index. 
 L. Ansa. 
 
 Perhaps for asna, eisna, 
 from G. eisd, "to hear " ; as if 
 ansa= "'an eax\" 
 L. Anser. 
 
 Some say from <Gr. chaino, 
 " I gape," as if chen, " the 
 goose," were tlie only "gaper." 
 From G. root gannr-, "noise, 
 tumult, din" — descriptive of its 
 discordant voice. Obs. — E. has 
 gander, Ger. has gans, gan- 
 serich, but the L. drops the 
 initial g. 
 L. Ante. 
 
 G. an aghaidh, "against, 
 opposite to." Cf E. " against " 
 you come, for " before." Obs. —
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 357 
 
 An-t-aghaiclh would be pro- 
 nounced anta-ye. 
 L. Antenna. 
 
 Ohs. — Non liquet. 
 L. Antrum. Gr. Antron. 
 
 G. uagh, uadh, "a cave." 
 L. Anus. 
 
 G. sean, "old"; L. senex. 
 L. Aper. 
 
 See kapros, in Index. 
 L. Apex. 
 
 Perhaps from the same root 
 as L. cap-ut (q.v.) 
 L. Apio, apiscor. 
 
 G. faigh, "to get, obtain, 
 reach," of which verb the fut. 
 affirm, act. is gheibh ( = yaip 
 = ap), and imperf pass, is 
 faightear( = faikte- = faipte 
 = aipt-). 
 L. Apis. 
 
 G. ap, " any small creature," 
 whence G. sge-ap = " cover- 
 bee," " a hive." 
 L. Apricus, from aperio. 
 L. A pud. 
 
 G. am fog-us, "near," aig, 
 '' at." 
 L. Aqua. 
 
 G. eas, uisge, " water." 
 L. Aquila. 
 
 See Index. 
 L. Aquilo. 
 
 See Index. 
 L. Ara. 
 
 G. aor, "to worship"; S. 
 aradhana, "worship." 
 L. A-RANEA. 
 
 Ohs.—lw G., " the spider " is 
 called damhan-allaidh. Now, 
 allaidh, which means "fierce, 
 
 give 
 
 aram. 
 
 ferocious," may 
 Obs. — In this sense, aranea is 
 descripti^^e of the bloodthirsty 
 habits of the creatxire. 
 
 L. Arbiter. 
 
 G. breith, "judgment." Per- 
 haps the ar is G. eadar, "be- 
 tween"; thus, eadar-breith- 
 air (formed on the analogy of G. 
 eadar-theangair), "a judge 
 between," would give arbiter, 
 
 L. Arbor. 
 
 8. tarva, "atree,"G. craobh, 
 " a tree." A G. form craobh- 
 a i r, by metathesis f or c a r o b a i r, 
 would give (c)arobr, arbor. 
 
 L. Arca. 
 
 G. airc(?) 
 
 L. Arcanus. 
 
 Said to come from arca. But 
 G. crann, " a bar, a bolt," for 
 car an n (from the same root as 
 G. craobh, " a tree "), would 
 give, by metathesis, arcann. 
 
 L. Arced. 
 
 G. ruaig, "to chase, put to 
 flight, drive away." Obs. — 
 Puaig, by metathesis = u air g 
 
 : airg. 
 
 L. Arctus. Gr. Eirgo. 
 
 rag, " tight 
 
 G. aire, 
 
 G 
 
 " trouble." 
 L. Arx, 
 
 G. ard, " high." 
 L. Arcus. 
 
 G. rac, "a pouch 
 roc, " a curl, a wrinkle." From 
 root rac = arc, as in H. rac-ab, 
 "to be round." 
 L. Ardea. 
 
 See Index. 
 
 G.
 
 358 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 L. Ardelio from Ardeo. 
 L. Ardeo. 
 
 G. dearg, " red, red-hot, 
 kindling into flame " ; G. darg, 
 "fire"; G. verb, dearg, "to 
 burn." Obs. (1) — d aspirated 
 becomes h, and is then dropped. 
 Obs. (2) — The Sc. uses darg in 
 the sense of " zeal " ; as a "love- 
 darg." 
 L. Arduus. 
 
 G. ard, "high." 
 L. Areo. 
 
 G. searg, "dry"; E. sear. 
 Obs. — Initial s being = to h, is 
 dropped. 
 L. Argentum. 
 
 G. arg, " white." 
 L. Argilla. 
 
 G. arg, "white," and lath- 
 (ach) (L. lut-um), "clay." 
 Obs. — th final is not sounded. 
 L. Arguo. 
 
 G. dearbh (as if deargh), 
 " to prove." Obs. — d aspirated 
 becomes h, and is then dropped. 
 L. Aries. 
 
 See Index. 
 L. Arista. 
 
 As if gearrista, "cut off," 
 from G. gearr, "to cut ofi"." 
 Cf. H. melilah, "an ear of 
 corn," from H. mfilril, "to cut 
 ofi'." Obs. — Initial g is drof)ped. 
 See ANSER. 
 L. Arc. 
 
 G. ar, "to plough." 
 
 L. Arrha, arrhabo. 
 
 Sc. arles, G. earlas, "a 
 pledge" or "earnest," from 
 earb, "trust." Ofe.— The G. 
 word is significant, but not 
 the L. 
 L. Arundo (thin and tall). 
 
 Perhaps G. feur, feoii', 
 " grass," feoirainn, " long, 
 coarse grass," and gaine, "an 
 arrow, a reed." Thus, arundo 
 = " reed-grass." 
 L. As, from ^s. 
 L. AsciA. 
 
 G. asgath, "cutting off"," or 
 from the same root as E. ask. 
 See Index. 
 L. AsiNus. 
 
 See Index. 
 
 L. ASPER. 
 
 G. as (intensive) and geur, 
 " sharp, rugged." 
 
 L. ASTRUM. 
 
 K. seren, "a star," for 
 steren. 
 L. AsTus. 
 
 Obs. — Non liquet. 
 L. Asylum. 
 
 G. uiseil, "a hospitable re- 
 ception." 
 
 L. At, AST, ATQUE, AC, ATQUI. 
 
 G. ach, " but," agus, " and." 
 L. Ater. 
 
 G. ain (intensive) and ciar,^ 
 "dark." 
 L. Atrium. 
 
 See Index. 
 
 1 One of the bilingual inscriptions has the Etr. word kiarthialisa, and under 
 it, apparently as its equivalent, the L. fuscus. Now, it so happens that the 
 G. ciar, "dark, dusky," exactly corresponds in meaning with the L. fuscus. 
 I therefore form the Etr. kiar-tli-ial-isa from the G. ciar, by adding the personal 
 formative th, and then the adj. form -ial. See hinthial.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 359 
 
 L. Atrox. 
 
 G. eutrocaireacli, "merci- 
 less," from eu (priv'ative) and 
 troc-air, "mercy." Obs. — 
 The G. word is significant, but 
 not the L. 
 
 L. AUDEO. 
 
 G. faod, "may, must." Ohs. 
 — See AUGEO (obi?.) 
 L. Audio. 
 
 G. eisd, "to hear." 
 
 L. AUGEO. 
 
 G. meud-aich (as if meug- 
 aich), "to enlarge, increase," 
 from meud, "size, greatness." 
 Cf Gr. megas. Ohs. — m as- 
 pirated becomes f, v, and is 
 then di'opped, as L. vescor, 
 esca. 
 L. Augur. 
 
 See Index. 
 L. Aula. 
 
 G. alia, " a hall." 
 L. Aura. 
 
 Probably from aer, q.v.; but, 
 perhaps akin toG. soirbh-eas, 
 " prosperity," " a fair wind." 
 L. Auriga. 
 
 G. car (q.v.), and ruaig, 
 " to chase, to hunt." 
 L. AuRis. 
 
 From L. audio, G. eisd. 
 L. Aurora. 
 See Index. 
 
 L. AURUM. 
 
 G. or, " gold." 
 
 L. AUSTER. 
 
 Perhaps G. deas, "south," 
 and tar in the sense of " wind." 
 See ari^ar. Obs. — Tn G. d 
 
 aspirated — h, and is then 
 dropped. 
 
 L. AUSTERUS. 
 
 G. ain (intensive) ands-geur, 
 " keen, sharp, severe, rugged." 
 
 L. AUT, AUTEM. 
 
 G. ciod, "what." Cf L. 
 atqui with Gr. ti de ? 
 
 L, AUTUMO. 
 
 G. seadh, " yes," and abair, 
 " to say," preterite thubairt. 
 Cf. L. immo,H. "Thousayest" 
 = yes. Obs. — s being = h, is 
 dropped, and thub = hum. 
 
 L. AVENA. 
 
 G. ar, " to plough, to till," 
 and feadan, " a reed, an oaten 
 stalk." 
 
 L. AVEO, AMO. 
 
 H. avah means (1) "to 
 bend," (2) " to desire, to long 
 for." Such verbs originally 
 denote " inclination," e.g., E. 
 love, from G. lub, " to bend, 
 to incline," Ger. lieben ; S. 
 lubh, " to desii-e." Hence 
 aveo, amo from G. aom, "to 
 bend, incline, lean to." In E., 
 to like a pei'son seems to be to 
 " lie " or " incline " towards 
 him in feeling. Obs. — The G. 
 has the earlier meaning ; the 
 Ger., A.-S., E., the later. 
 
 L. Avis. 
 
 See Index. 
 
 L. Avus. 
 
 G. ab, " a father." 
 
 L. Axis. 
 
 S. aksha; G. cioch (for 
 ciach), "the nave of a wheel."
 
 1 N D E X 
 
 OF WORDS WHICH ARE REFERRED TO, OR HAVE THEIR 
 ETYMOLOGY EXAMINED IN THIS VOLUxME. 
 
 ABBEEVIATIONS. 
 
 A. = Australian. 
 
 f. pers. = formative per- 
 
 N. 
 
 = Norse. 
 
 Ar. = Arabic. 
 
 sonal. 
 
 O.H.Ger.= 
 
 = 01d High 
 
 Arm. = Armorican C. 
 
 G. =Gadhelic. 
 
 
 German. 
 
 A.-S. = Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Ger. = German. 
 
 P- 
 
 = prefix. 
 
 B. = Belgian. 
 
 G.-I. =Gadhelic and 
 
 P. 
 
 = Persian . 
 
 C. = Celtic. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Pe. 
 
 = Pehlevi. 
 
 C.-F.=Celto-Frencb. 
 
 Goth. = Gothic. 
 
 pr. n. 
 
 = proper name 
 
 Ch. =Chaldee. 
 
 Gr. = Greek. 
 
 r. 
 
 = root-word. 
 
 Cor. = Cornish C. 
 
 H. = Hebrew. 
 
 S. 
 
 = Sanscrit. 
 
 D. = Dutch. 
 
 I. = Irish. 
 
 Sc. 
 
 = Scotch. 
 
 Da. = Danish. 
 
 Ic. = Icelandic. 
 
 T. 
 
 = Teutonic. 
 
 E. = English. 
 
 It. = Italian. 
 
 SI. 
 
 : Slavonic. 
 
 Eg. = Egyptian. 
 
 K. = Kymric. 
 
 z. 
 
 = Zend. 
 
 Etr. = Etruscan. 
 
 L. =T(atin. 
 
 L. -Etr. = Latin & Etrus- 
 
 
 
 F. = French. 
 
 
 
 f. = formative ter- 
 
 can. 
 
 Other abbr 
 
 eviations arc : 
 
 mination. 
 
 L.-Gr. = Latin and 
 
 cf. 
 
 -- compare. 
 
 f.pre. — formative prefix. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 q.v. 
 
 : which see. 
 
 A 
 
 accipiter (L.), 286, 302. 
 
 ad (H.), 17 
 
 6, 184. 
 
 Aap (Da.), 29. 
 
 acer (L.), 294, 350. 
 
 adain (K.), 
 
 290. 
 
 ab (K.), 29. 
 
 ach (H.), 208. 
 
 adar (K.), 
 
 290. 
 
 abab (H.), 198, 229. 
 
 -achd (f.), 136, 341. 
 
 adclphos (Gr.), 66. 
 
 abe (Da.), 20. 
 
 achoth (H.), 208. 
 
 aderyn(K.), 286, 291. 
 
 abh (G.), 74. 
 
 agva (S.), 84. 
 
 adesse (L.) 
 
 . 144. 
 
 accingere (L.), 238. 
 
 ad (r.), 180, 290. 
 
 aditya (S.) 
 
 , 130.
 
 362 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 adler (Ger.), 286, 298. 
 adsha (S.), 109. 
 aeiui (Gr.), 134. 
 sestus (L.), 130. 
 a3ther (see aither). 
 aetos(Gr.), 134, 286,294. 
 affe (Ger.), 29. 
 affin (O.H.Ger.), 29. 
 agab (H.), 212. 
 agal (H.), 81, 127. 
 agalletor (Etr.), 134, 
 
 205. 
 agallotnai (Gr.), 77. 
 agh (G.), 77. 
 agbann (G.), 192. 
 agni (S.), 130. 
 agur (H.), 314. 
 Ahaz (H.), 229. 
 Ahriman (pr. n.), 156. 
 Ahuro (pr. ii.), 156, 350. 
 aidha (S.), 130. 
 aieur (I.), 176. 
 aighne,aghann (G.), 1 30. 
 aigle (R), 286, 299. 
 aigupios (Gr.), 286, 307. 
 aille (G.), 263, 342. 
 aillidh (G.), 342. 
 ailt (G.), 201. 
 (a)im (H.), 144. 
 -air(f.),83,113,l76,207. 
 (a)ir (H.), 135, 156. 
 air (H.), 84, 135. 
 airo (Gr.) 197, 294. 
 airos (K.), 340. 
 aisalon (Gr.), 286, 302. 
 aisso (Gr.), 77, 95, 265, 
 
 303. 
 (i)it (H.), 294. 
 aith (G), 130, 295. 
 aither (Gr.), 176, 197. 
 aithinne (G.), 130. 
 aitho (Gr.), 130. 
 aivil (Etr.), 190. 
 aix (Gr.), 77, 288, 307. 
 aizle (Sc), 130. 
 alain (G.), 342. 
 alarch (K.), 342. 
 
 alb (G.), 342. 
 Albordsh, Mt. (pr. n.), 
 
 196. 
 Albula (pr. n.), 342. 
 albus (L.), 235. 
 alexikakos (Gr.), 115. 
 alloph (H.), 94. 
 alon (H.), 109. 
 Alpheus (pr. n.), 342. 
 alphos (Gr.), 342. 
 Alps (pr. n.), 235. 
 Amaltheia (pr. n.), 91. 
 aman (Ar.), 261. 
 ambubaja (L.), 212. 
 arnoz (Ar.), 32. 
 an (p.), 206. 
 anan (H.), 198. 
 auaph (H.), 199. 
 anas (L.), 293. 
 Anas (pr. n.), 293. 
 andas (Etr.), 134. 
 aneraos (Gr.), 137. 
 angana (S.), 208. 
 anima (L.), 356. 
 Annas (pr. n.), 293. 
 -auta (f.), 110, 152, 195. 
 antai (Etr.), 134. 
 antar (Etr.), 134, 287. 
 Antiuni (pr. n.), 266. 
 Auubis (pr. n.), 163. 
 anz (Goth.), 130. 
 aodh (I.), 130, 275. 
 aodhair (G.), 130. 
 aolal (H.), 138. 
 (a)or (H.), 306. 
 ap (K.), 208. 
 apa, apag (G.), 29. 
 ape (Ic), 29. 
 ape (E.), 29. 
 apene (Gr.), 127. 
 Apennines (pr. n.), 235. 
 Apollo (pr.n.), 48, 150, 
 
 316, 340. 
 aquila (L.), 134, 286, 
 
 299. 
 aquilo (L.), 134. 
 ar (G.), 263, 349. 
 
 aracos (Etr.), 287, 297. 
 arad (CL), 88. 
 aran (H.), 88. 
 Arcadians (pr. n.), 102. 
 Arctophylax (L.-Gr.), 
 
 166. 
 Ai-ctos (pr. n.), 166. 
 ardea (L.), 286, 327. 
 Arduenna (pr. n.), 252. 
 areo (L.), 301. 
 aries (L.), 82, 350. 
 ariga (L.), 349. 
 arimi (Etr.), 29. 
 Arnobius (pr.n.), 99,154, 
 
 164,260,263,274,347. 
 arod (H.), 88. 
 aroura (Gr.), 332. 
 Artaxerxes (pr.n.), 259. 
 Arueris(pr.n.), 150,164. 
 arvix (L.), 349. 
 arwyr (K.), 298. 
 as (N.), 130. 
 asal (G.), 84. 
 asamenta (L.), 152. 
 Asar (N. pr. n.), 131. 
 ascall (G.), 84. 
 ascath (G.), 84. 
 ascian (A.-S.), 84. 
 Asgard (N. pr. n.), 131. 
 ashishim (H.), 114. 
 asinus (L.), 84. 
 ask (E.), 84. 
 aslaich (G.), 84. 
 ass (E.), 84. 
 atal (Ar.), 95. 
 ataison (Etr.), 34, 134, 
 
 140. 
 atara (S.), 176. 
 athar(G.), 176,197,351. 
 Athene (pr. n.), 48, 159, 
 
 255, 262, 313. 
 atmos (Gr.), 176. 
 atrhim (L.-Etr.), 175. 
 attud (H.), 94. 
 alid, aid (H.), 176. 
 aul, ail (H.), 109, 139, 
 
 183.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 363 
 
 atigur (L.-Etr.), 294, 
 
 350. 
 aupli(H.),199,286,296. 
 aureolus (L.), 148. 
 aurora (L.), 148. 
 ausel (Etr.), 146, 263. 
 aush, auth (H.), 294. 
 averruncus (L.-Etr.), 
 
 115, 348. 
 avU (Etr.), 178, 188. 
 avis (L.), 286, 294, 350. 
 awyr (K.), 176. 
 ayah (H.), 286, 301. 
 ayalah (H.), 89. 
 ayil, ayal (H.), 89, 95. 
 ayl (r.), 89, 95. 
 az (H.), 109, 115, 299. 
 azar (Ar.), 132. 
 Azazel (H. pr. n.), 115. 
 azniyah (H.), 286, 299. 
 
 B 
 Ba (G.), 273. 
 Baal(pr.n.),114,227,267. 
 Baal-berith (pr. n.), 97. 
 Baal-Gad (pr. n.), 267. 
 Babylonian Gad, 267. 
 Babylonian Meni, 267. 
 Babylonian black stone, 
 
 166. 
 Babylonian Zodiac, 166. 
 Bacchus (pr.n.), 46, 218. 
 badhbh (1.), 286, 298. 
 badpa (P.), 135. 
 biflte (D.), 238. 
 baeran (A.-S.), 70. 
 bagad (H.), 199. 
 Baiame (A. pr. n.), 167, 
 
 186, 282. 
 baile (G.), 197. 
 bainne (G.-I), 341. 
 bairn (Sc), 71. 
 bale (G.), 203. 
 Balder (N. pr.n.), 159, 
 
 268. 
 ball (r.), 67. 
 bait (N.), 238. 
 
 bait (G.-I.), 238. 
 balteiis{l^iv.\^Z2, 238. 
 banetes (Boeotic), 51. 
 Banshee (I. pr. n.), 120. 
 baothair (G.), 64. 
 bar (r.), 67, 231. 
 bar (G.), 71, 300. 
 bar (K), 68, 302, 324. 
 bar (Cor.), 71. 
 bar (H.), 70. 
 bara (H.), 65, 70. 
 bara (K.), 71. 
 barail (G.), 66. 
 barak (H.), 214.. 
 barba (L.), 71. 
 barcud (K.) 286, 300. 
 barf (K.), 71. 
 barn, beam (A.-S.), 71. 
 baro (L.), 64. 
 barosus (L.), 64. 
 barr (G.), 62, 323. 
 barrow (E.), 68. 
 barrus (L.), 63. 
 bart (Ger.), 71. 
 basiuui (L.), 63. 
 bau (A.-S.), 50. 
 bauan (A.-S.), 50. 
 bean (G.), 51, 202. 
 bearan (A.-S.), 69. 
 beard (E.), 71. 
 beam (A.-S.), 71. 
 beatha (G.-I.), 30, 51. 
 beath-ach, -aich (G.),30, 
 
 51. 
 beathail (G.), 30. 
 beild (Sc), 200. 
 beinn (G.), 332. 
 beir (G.-I.), 65, 70,231. 
 Bel (pr.n.), 183, 227, 
 
 267, 316. 
 belt (E.), 238. 
 belt, belted (Sc), 238. 
 Beltis (pr. n.), 48. 
 belti (Ic), 238. 
 Beltane (pr.n.), 183,268. 
 ben (H.), 137. 
 bena (Boeotic), 51. 
 
 beo (G.), 51. 
 beon (T.), 50. 
 beorg (A.-S.), 68. 
 beosach (G.), 30. 
 beoth- (G.), see beath. 
 beriach (H.), 70, 311. 
 bharadi (S.), 65. 
 bhava (S.), 50. 
 bhavami (S.), 50. 
 bhri (S.), 65. 
 bhu (S.), 50. 
 bhumish (P.), 50. 
 biadh (G.), 113. 
 bidh (G.), 190. 
 bile (G.), 238. 
 bin, bist (T.), 50. 
 biodailt (G.), 51. 
 biodh (G.), 51. 
 bior (G.), 71, 232. 
 bior-ach, -aiche (G.), 
 
 71. 
 bioraidh (G.), 71. 
 bioraide (G.), 232. 
 bios (Gr.), 51. 
 biote (Gr.), 30, 51. 
 bird (E.), 290. 
 birth (E.), 70. 
 bith, bithe (G.), 51. 
 bluo (Gr.), 55. 
 boar (E.), 70. 
 boc (G.), 273. 
 bod (N.), 50. 
 bod (K), 50. 
 boillsge (G.), 147. 
 boir (G.), 63. 
 boisge (G.), 147. 
 bolg, balg (G.), 66. 
 bolg saighead (G.), 67. 
 bolle (Ger.), 114. 
 bonus (L.), 151. 
 bora (Gr.), 71. 
 borb (G.), 136. 
 biJrde (Ger.), 71. 
 Boreas (L.-Gr.) 136. 
 borr (G.), 68, 136. 
 borran (G.), 68. 
 borsa (G.), 68.
 
 364 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 boss (E.), 236. 
 bothy (Sc), 50. 
 bourgeon (E.), 68. 
 bourne (E.), 203. 
 bracha, braich (G.), 
 
 71. 
 bran (G.), 286, 318. 
 brand (E.), 214. 
 brathair (G.), 66. 
 brawn (E.), 70. 
 bread (E.), 71. 
 breard (Sc), 71. 
 breem (Sc), 70. 
 brenn (A.-S.), 200. 
 breed (A.-S.), 71. 
 brephos (Gr.), 66. 
 brig (K.), 70. 
 brigaw (K.), 70. 
 bris (G.), 84, 303, 318. 
 Britanui (pr. n.), 252. 
 brod (Ger.), 71. 
 brogh (Sc), 68. 
 bronn-ag, -ach (G.), 66. 
 bru, broinn (G.), 66. 
 bruder (Ger.), 66. 
 brugh (Sc), 68. 
 brugh (I.), 280. 
 brughas (G.), 280. 
 bruk (Sc), 68. 
 bruo (Gr.), 55, 66. 
 bu (G.), 50. 
 buabhuU (G.), 210. 
 buccina (L), 284. 
 budan (P.), 50. 
 buit (SI.), 50. 
 bulla (L.), 201. 
 bullire (L.), 239. 
 bur (Sc), 68. 
 buraidh (G.), 64. 
 burden (E.), 70. 
 burn (Sc), 203. 
 bitris (L.-Etr.), 59. 
 biirra (Etr.), 59. 
 burms (Etr.), 59, 205. 
 burra? (L.), 64. 
 buss (E.), 63. 
 byd (K.), 50. 
 
 bydio (K.), 50. 
 byw(K.), 51, 
 
 
 Cab (r.), 144, 229. 
 cab (G.), 198, 234. 
 caballus (L.), 80. 
 caban (G.-I.), 198. 
 cabar (G.), 199. 
 cabh (G.-I.), 198. 
 cabhag (G.), 296. 
 cabhair (G.), 144. 
 cabhar (G.), 296. 
 cabhlach (G.), 296. 
 Cabiri (pr.n.), 143. 
 Caca (pr. n.), 105. 
 Cacus (pr. n.), 88, 104, 
 
 348. 
 Cadmilus (pr. n.), 143. 
 Cteculus (pr. n.), 107. 
 cfer (K.), 313. 
 cais (G.), 37, 61, 217. 
 cam (G.), 143, 230, 278. 
 camag (G.), 278. 
 camilltis (Etr.), 142, 
 
 205. 
 caiuill-i, -ffi (L.), 143. 
 canach (G.), 199. 
 canalis (L.), 211. 
 Canicula (L. pr.n.), 163. 
 canna (L.), 211. 
 caomh (G.), 144. 
 caor (G.), 82. 
 cap (G.), 127. 
 cap (E.), 234. 
 caper (L.), 76. 
 caphar(H.), 198. 
 capio(L.),233,296,307. 
 Capitolium (L. pr. n.), 
 
 237. 
 capra (L.), 76. 
 capra (Etr.), 75. 
 capsa (L.), 233. 
 capull (G.), 80. 
 caput (L.), 233. 
 capys (Etr.), 287, 297, 
 
 307. 
 
 car (G. r.), 89, 238, 300, 
 
 313. 
 car (H. r.), 82, 216, 278. 
 Qara (Z.), 98. 
 carach (G.), 313. 
 Caracas (Etr.), 314. 
 Caranus (Celtic pr. n.), 
 
 92. 
 Caranus (Macedonian 
 
 (pr. n.), 87. 
 carar (H.), 82, 313. 
 carb, carbad (G), 128. 
 carr (G.), 82. 
 carr (K.), 82. 
 carran (G.), 301. 
 carrus (L.), 82. 
 cart (E.), 82. 
 oartual (G.), 313. 
 cas, cais (G.), 37, 61, 
 
 217. 
 Casmilus (G.pr. n.),143. 
 cassis (Etr.), 232. 
 Catanach (G. pr. n.), 94. 
 cateia (L.), 294. 
 oath (G.), 84, 95, 294. 
 cathair (G.), 313. 
 cauan (H.), 113. 
 causa (L.), 151. 
 cavus (L.), 234. 
 cavum ajdium (L.), 175. 
 ceal, ceol (G.), 336. 
 cealt (G.), 336. 
 ceann, ceannard (G.), 
 
 256, 301. 
 ceath, ceoth (G.), 295. 
 Cebenna (pr. n.), 252. 
 ceil (G.), 192, 230. 
 celo (L.), 38, ] 97, 336. 
 cenn (K.), 305. 
 Certa (pr. n.), 314. 
 Cerus Manus (Sabine), 
 
 150. 
 charieis (Gr.), 221. 
 chairo (Gr.), 221. 
 chalash (H.), 42. 
 chal-az,-azayim (H.),32. 
 chamois (F.), 80.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 365 
 
 charad (H.), 88. 
 charag (H.), 217. 
 charak (H.), 301. 
 cliaraz (Ch.), 32. 
 chargal (H.), 78, 88. 
 chasad (H.), 321. 
 chasidah (H.), 286, 321. 
 cheres (H.), 301. 
 chevre (F.), 81. 
 chlaina (Gr.), 337. 
 chlamus (Gi'.), 337. 
 chlanis (Gr.), 337. 
 chorus (Gr.), 216 
 chroia (Gr.), 305. 
 chroma (Gr.), 305. 
 chros (Gr.), 305. 
 chrusauge.s (Gr.), 148. 
 chul(H.),139, 180,187, 
 
 278. 
 chwai (K.), 221. 
 
 chwarau (K.), 221. 
 
 chwiban (K.), 211. 
 
 chwibol (K.), 211. 
 
 ciconia (L.), 286, 295, 
 304, 325. 
 
 cigfran (K.), 286, 318, 
 328. 
 
 cinn (K.), 292. 
 
 circaroth (H.), 82. 
 
 circum (L.), 278, 315. 
 
 cith (G.), 295. 
 
 clais-uisgc (G.), 349. 
 
 clamh (G.), 309. 
 
 clamhan (G.), 286, 302, 
 309. 
 
 clamhar (G.), 309. 
 
 clavus (L.), 309. 
 
 clean (K), 214. 
 
 cleas (G.), 219. 
 
 cliens (L.-Etr.), 347. 
 
 cloaca (L.-Etr.), 349. 
 
 clis, clith (G.), 218. 
 
 clog, clogaid (G.), 232. 
 
 clothes (E.), 336. 
 
 cloud (R), 199, 336. 
 
 cluithe,cluiche(G.),220. 
 
 Cluricaun (I. pr. n.), 120, 
 
 coba (H.), 232. 
 coeluiu (L.), 196, 
 coin, cu (G.), 156. 
 coinean (G.), 76. 
 coir (G.), 347, 
 coischeum (G.), 217. 
 comb (E.), 234. 
 comhdaich (G.), 336. 
 comis (L.), 144. 
 concha (L.), 284. 
 coney (E.), 76, 
 cop (G.), 235. 
 cornix (L.), 286, 318. 
 cornu (L.), 284. 
 corr (G.), 286, 322. 
 corra-bhan (K.), 286. 
 corrag (I.), 286, 318. 
 corrira (It.), 325. 
 corvus (L.), 286, 304, 
 
 318. 
 cos, cois (G.), 217. 
 crtet (A.-S.), 82. 
 crafu (K.), 310. 
 crane (E.), 328. 
 crawe (A.-S.), 286, 328. 
 creach (G.), 305. 
 creath (G.), 219. 
 cregyr (K.), 286, 328. 
 crepa, Crepi (L.), 105. 
 crepusculum (L.), 170. 
 crios (G.), 238. 
 crioth (G.), 219. 
 crith (G.), 218. 
 croen (K.), 305, 
 croic (G.), 305. 
 croicionn (G.), 305. 
 croman (I.), 286, 301, 
 
 322. 
 cromleac (G.), 279. 
 croth (K.), 67, 
 crow (E.), 328. 
 crug (K.), 67. 
 crych (K.), 328. 
 cryg, creg (K.), 301. 
 cryman (K.), 301. 
 cu, coin (G.), 76, 112. 
 cuach (G.), 60. 
 
 cuachag (G.), 61. 
 cuailean (G.), 94. 
 cubo (L.), 234, 
 cud (K.), 286, 302. 
 cudyll (K.), 302. 
 cuid, cuir (G.), 100,299. 
 cuis (G.), 151, 
 cul (G.), 200, 
 cumbo (L.), 234, 
 cumera (L.), 143. 
 cuniculus (L.), 76. 
 cup (E.), 234. 
 Cupenci (L. pr. n.), 105. 
 curis, quiiis (Sabine), 
 
 324. 
 curaidh (G.), 100, 324. 
 Caretes (pr. n.), 99. 
 curia (L.-Etr.), 347. 
 ctirulis (L.-Etr.), 347. 
 cutis (L.), 307. 
 cyHawn (K.), 55. 
 Cynopolis (Gr. pr. n.), 
 
 163. 
 Cyrus (pr. n.), 243. 
 cyta (A.-S.), 286, 295. 
 
 D 
 
 dada (S.), 282. 
 datatinika (S.), 282. 
 dafad (K.), 86. 
 daira, daine (F.), 81. 
 dair (L), 76. 
 dakruma (Gr.), 79, 283. 
 dam (r.), 79. 
 dama (L.), 76, 81. 
 damh (G.), 76, 81. 
 damhail (G.), 81. 
 damhair (G.), 81. 
 damhirsch (Gor.), 81. 
 danihs (G.), 81. 
 dammis (Etr.), 75. 
 damuno (K.), 81. 
 dance (E.), 77. 
 dants (H.), 77. 
 daol (G.), 264. 
 daphne (G.), 85. 
 darag (G.), 73.
 
 366 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Dardanus (pr. n.), 249. 
 
 Dargeuscli ") ,r, \ 
 
 ? ((P.pr. n), 
 
 Daryavesli ; 
 
 das (G.), 136. 
 
 dasachd (G.), 136. 
 
 dasns (Gr.), 93. 
 
 ddan (Syriac), 110. 
 
 de (G.), 177. 
 
 deadhail (G.), 177. 
 
 dealrach (G.), 340. 
 
 dedicare ) ,^ . „^ 
 , ,. > (L.), 79. 
 
 delicare ) ^ " 
 
 delubrum (L.), 276. 
 
 Demeter (Gr. pr. n.), 47, 
 
 55. 
 deru (K.), 76. 
 deus (L.), 129. 
 dia (G.), 129, 177, 187. 
 dies (L.), 177. 
 Dii Manes (L. pr.n.),105. 
 diluculum (L.), 170. 
 dion (G.), 264. 
 Dioniisos (Gr. pr. n.),47, 
 
 55, 218. 
 Dioskouroi (Gr. pr. n.), 
 
 162. 
 dis (G.), 130. 
 ditsa (H.), 77. 
 Dius Fidius (L. pr.n.),97. 
 dobbin (E.), 78. 
 domus (L.), 198, 230. 
 dos (K.), 135. 
 dracon (Gr. pr. n.), 249. 
 dragon (K.), 244. 
 dri (r.), 242. 
 drott (N.), 246. 
 dru (S.), 76. 
 drughadh (G.), 244. 
 drima (Etr.), 201, 241. 
 dur (H.), 77, 313. 
 duts (H.), 77, 114. 
 dyaus (S.), 106, 159, 
 
 177. 
 
 E 
 Each (G.), 84, 135, 275. 
 
 eadar (G.), 173. 
 eal (G. r.), 32. 
 ealadh (G.), 342. 
 ealamh (G.), 31. 
 earr (G.), 32. 
 eatal (G.), 292. 
 eathar (G.), 292. 
 echassiers (F.), 289. 
 echo (Gr.), 307. 
 ecrire (F.), 310, 
 ed (r.), 290. 
 edhen (Cor.), 290. 
 edn (K), 286, 291. 
 eelios (Gr.), 342. 
 egyr (K.), 350. 
 eglah (H.), 81, 94, 149. 
 egregoros (Gr.), 156. 
 ehed (r.), 290. 
 ehedyn (K.), 286, 290. 
 eid (G.), 336. 
 eididh (G.), 336. 
 Eiuheriar (N. pr. n.), 92, 
 
 118. 
 eir- (G. r.), or- (L. r.), 
 
 294. 
 eira (K.), 340. 
 eire (G.), 338. 
 eirich (G.), 197, 294. 
 eiros (Gr.), 340. 
 eisgear (G.), 353. 
 eit (0. H.-Ger.), 130. 
 eizle (Sc), 130. 
 elaion (Gr.), 339. 
 embruon (Gr.), 66. 
 -entus (L. f.), 110, 152. 
 epervier (F.), 286, 302, 
 
 309. 
 
 epikourios (Gr.), 145. 
 
 Epona (L. pr. n.), 271. 
 
 eppa (K.), 29. 
 
 equus (L.), 84, 275. 
 
 Brkle (Etr. pr. n.), 107. 
 
 erne (Sc), 327. 
 
 erodios (Gr.), 327. 
 
 eryr (K.), 286, 298. 
 
 Etruscus ) , V ^.^ 
 
 Etruria J (Pi"- ^0, 2o2. 
 
 Euander (Gr. pr. n.), 
 
 104, 271. 
 eun (G.), 286, 291, 303. 
 eunfionn (I.), 286, 302. 
 ezn (Arm.), 290, 303. 
 
 F 
 
 Paba (L.), 112. 
 Fabii (L. pr. n.), 105. 
 fabhra (G.), 235. 
 fagus (L.), 76. 
 failbhe (G.), 200. 
 faille (B.), 202, 336. 
 faillineach (G.), 36. 
 failtean (G.), 239. 
 fainne (G.), 181, 279. 
 fair (G.), 159, 203. 
 fairs (G.), 159. 
 faisgeadh (G.), 201. 
 fal (r.), 195, 300. 
 fal, fail (G.), 184. 
 falach (G.), 200, 342. 
 /?/« (Etr.), 195. 
 falaid (G.), 200. 
 falaich (G.), 200, 3.36. 
 falandum (Etr.), 175, 
 
 195. 
 falc (G.), 342. 
 falco (L.), 286, 300, 322. 
 falke (Ger.), 286, 300. 
 fallo (L.), 201. 
 falluinn (G.), 202, 336. 
 fait (G.), 239. 
 famh (G.), 235. 
 fanas (G.), 279. 
 Fanda (L. pr. n.), 154. 
 fanleac (G.), 279. 
 fann (G.), 40. 
 fanitm (Etr.-L.), 276. 
 far, farina (L.), 71. 
 farrow (E.), 70. 
 Ears (P. pr. n.), 87. 
 fiirse (Ger.), 70. 
 fascinum (L.), 200. 
 fasces (L.-Etr.), 345. 
 faucon (F.), 286, 300. 
 Faula (L. pr. n.), 154.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 367 
 
 Faun-US, -a (L. pr. n.), 
 
 54, 271. 
 Fauna, Fatua (L. pr. n.), 
 
 153. 
 Faunalia (L. pr. n.), 271. 
 favissa (Etr.), 232, 276. 
 favus (L.), 236. 
 fe (Sc), 273. 
 fead (G.), 210, 253. 
 feadail (G.), 210. 
 feadan (G.), 210. 
 feadhainn (G.), 253. 
 fear (A.-S.), 70, 192, 
 
 226, 298, 339. 
 fearsgear (G.), 219. 
 februum (L.), 105, 115. 
 Februus ) (L. pr. n.), 
 FebruariusJ 105. 
 fecundus (L.), 51, 69. 
 felix (L.), 69. 
 Felsina(Etr.pr.n.),268, 
 
 316, 325. 
 femina (L.), 51. 
 Fenians (pr. n.), 254. 
 fenus (L.), 69. 
 fenum (L.), 69. 
 feo (L.), 69. 
 feo (A.-S.), 273, 
 fero (L.), 65. 
 Feronia (L. pr. n.), 160. 
 Fescennia (pr. n.), 252. 
 Fetiales (L.-Etr. pr. n.), 
 
 347. 
 fetus (L.), 51, 69. 
 flach (G.), 286, 319. 
 fiadh (G.), 76, 319, 348. 
 fial (G.), 298. 
 fian (A.-S.), 258. 
 fiann (G.), 94. 
 fiannach (G.), 94. 
 filius (L.), 141, 226, 264. 
 fill (G.), 183, 239, 264. 
 fdl (E.), 55. 
 findo (L.), 174. 
 fine (G.), 94. 
 finis (L.), 202, 332. 
 fiolar (G.), 286, 298. 
 
 fionnag (G.), 286. 
 fios (G.), 220, 293, 339. 
 fiosadair (G.), 219. 
 fir (E.), furh (A.-S.), 76. 
 firchlis (G.), 219. 
 fircus (L.), 92. 
 fireun (G.), 286, 298. 
 firmament (E.), 196. 
 fistula (L.), 209. 
 flath (G.), 201. 
 flaitheanas (G.), 200. 
 flood (E.), 200. 
 flcite (Ger.), 211. 
 fluo (L.), 55. 
 flute (E.), 211. 
 fliistern (Ger.), 210. 
 foe (E.), 258. 
 fogair (G.), 348. 
 foillse (G.), 339. 
 foir (G.), 159, 203, 332. 
 foiriomall (G.), 332. 
 folach (G.), 200. 
 foladh (G.), 200. 
 folaidh (G.), 200. 
 folium (L.), 35. 
 folt (G.), 94. 
 forb (G.), 332. 
 fore (L.), 50. 
 forrach (G.), 332. 
 foirumha (G.), 332. 
 Fors (L. pr. n.), 270. 
 fortune (E.), 155, 266. 
 Fortun-us, -a (L. pr. n.), 
 
 259. 
 fovea (L.), 235. 
 frango (L.), 303, 331. 
 Fratres Arvales (L. 
 
 pr. n.), 129. 
 friogh (G.), 92, 219. 
 friot (G.), 219. 
 frisch (Ger.), 218. 
 frisk (E.), 81. 
 frith (G.), 93, 218. 
 frithleum (G.), 218. 
 fructus (L.), 71. 
 fruges (L.), 71. 
 fruor (L.),71. 
 
 fugel (A.-S.), 286. 
 fuere (L.), 50. 
 fuius (Etr.), 208. 
 funis (L.), 202. 
 fur (L.), 108, 119. 
 furh (A.-S.), 76. 
 futurus (L.), 50. 
 
 G 
 
 gaah (H.), 81. 
 
 gab (r.), 79, 110, 119, 
 
 232. 
 gab (H.), 235. 
 gab (H.), 235. 
 gaba (H.), 233. 
 gabab (H.), 235. 
 gabal(H.),202,233,332. 
 gabh(G.), 109,229,292, 
 
 307. 
 gabadhbheil (G.), 183, 
 
 268. 
 gabhail (G.), 309. 
 gabhal (G.), 127, 233. 
 gabhar (G.), 76, 83, 109, 
 
 296, 308. 
 gabhla (G.), 296. 
 gabhlach (G.), 309. 
 gabhlaich (G.), 292. 
 Gabinus (pr. n.), 1 10. 
 Gad (pr. n.), 155, 267. 
 gad, gold (G.), 108, 294. 
 gadaiche (G.), 108. 
 gadman (Pe.), 267. 
 Gael, Gaul (pr. n.), 339. 
 gsesum (L.), 294. 
 gaghavi (3.), 135, 
 gaitsa (Goth.), 109. 
 galachd (G.), 340. 
 galEcth (K.), 340. 
 galakt- (Gr.), 341. 
 gallan (G.), 36, 79, 138. 
 gam (r.), 79, 231. 
 gamba (It.), 81. 
 gambol (E.), 81. 
 gamh (G.), 80, 188, 229. 
 gamhuinn (G.), 80. 
 gamhnach (G.), 80.
 
 36 8 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ganaid (G.), 199. 
 
 gangaid (G.), 199. 
 
 gap (r.), 79. 
 
 gapiis (Etr.), 79, 127. 
 
 gaph (Aryan r.), 79. 
 
 gaph (Ch.), 296. 
 
 garaz (H.), 346. 
 
 Garanus (pr. n.), 88. 
 
 gath (G.), 294. 
 
 gazal (H.), 304. 
 
 geal (G.), 49, 339. 
 
 gearb (I.), 310. 
 
 gearr(G.), 182, 271,315, 
 346. 
 
 gearrfiadh (G.), 89. 
 
 gebal (H.), 202. 
 
 gebe (H.), 235. 
 
 gebul (H.), 332. 
 
 geier (Ger.), 286, 313 
 geiss (Ger.), 109. 
 gelihtan (A.-S.), 341. 
 gemse (Ger.), 80. 
 gepheu (H.), 36, 40. 
 geranos (Gr.), 286, 328. 
 geur (G.), 294, 350. 
 giach (H.), 70. 
 gibber (L.), 233. 
 gibbons (K), 233. 
 gil, gol, gul (H.), 183. 
 giUe (G.), 96, 138. 
 gin (A.), 186. 
 ginya (A.), 227. 
 gioUa (I.), 138. 
 gior, goir (G.), 271. 
 gipfel (Ger.), 233. 
 giwir (A.), 227. 
 glan (G.), 214, 342. 
 glance (E.), 214. 
 glanz, glanzen (Ger.), 
 
 214. 
 glupho (Gr.), 310. 
 glutton (E.), 288. 
 gnis (Etr.), 287, 317. 
 gnos (G.), 325. 
 gnuis (G.), 325. 
 gimsadh (G.), 325. 
 goach (H.), 70. 
 
 gob (H.), 235. 
 goil (G.), 239. 
 Gomer (pr. n.), 91. 
 gor (K.), 99, 249. 
 gorod (SI.), 314. 
 goruch (K.), 99, 244. 
 grab (E.), 319. 
 graben (Ger.), 310. 
 grabh (G.), 319. 
 grapho (Gr.), 233, 310. 
 grave (E.), 310. 
 grebe (E.), 318. 
 greim (G.), 319. 
 greimich (G.), 319. 
 grian, greiss (G.), 151, 
 
 179. 
 griff (Ger.), 319. 
 grus (L.), 286, 325. 
 guanach (G.), 31. 
 guenon j^p^^gj^ 
 guenuche ) 
 
 gun (G.), 199. 
 gune (Gr.), 227. 
 gupe (Gr.), 234. 
 guph, guphah (H.), 236. 
 gups (Gr.), 286, 302. 
 gurt (Ger.), 238. 
 gwald (K.), 239. 
 gwin (K), 35, 339. 
 gwlan (K.), 338. 
 gwneutberol (K.), 31. 
 gwr (K.), 154, 226, 298, 
 
 339. 
 gwregys (K.), 239. 
 gwydh (K.), 339. 
 
 H 
 
 haben (Ger.), 307. 
 habeo (L.), 307. 
 habicht (Ger.), 286, 302. 
 hadas (H.), 81. 
 hafac (A.-S.), 286, 302. 
 hagad (H.), 155. 
 halen (K.), 32. 
 ham, heim (Ger.), 197. 
 
 haphar (H.), 235. 
 bar (H.), 66. 
 Har (N. pr. n.), 131. 
 bar, hyr (Ger.), 301. 
 haracosi^Xx)^ 287, 313. 
 harar (H.), 66. 
 barpazo (Gr.), 308. 
 harpe (Gr.), 286, 302, 
 
 308. 
 Harpies (E.), 308. 
 haruga (L.), 349. 
 hariispex{L.-YXx), 349. 
 hatzah (H.), 173. 
 hawk (E.), 307. 
 heaven (E.), 197. 
 hebog (K.), 286, 302, 
 
 307. 
 hed (r.), 290. 
 heim (Ger.), 196. 
 Hejdrun (N. pr. n.), 91. 
 helan (A.-S.), 232. 
 helios (Gr.), 147, 178, 
 
 342. 
 helm (E.), 232. 
 Hephaistos (Gr. pr. n.), 
 
 130, 214. 
 Heraclidse (Gr. pr. n.), 
 
 113, 253. 
 Hercules (L. pr. n.), 85, 
 
 348. 
 Hercules Victor (L. pr. 
 
 n.), 107, 130. 
 Hermes (Gr. pr. n.), 38, 
 
 163. 
 heron (F.), 327. 
 heron (R), 327. 
 Hesus (G. pr. n.), 130. 
 hex (Gr.), 30. 
 hibernus (L.), 31. 
 hiems (L.), 31, 188. 
 hieros (Gr.), 299. 
 hierax (Gr.), 286, 298. 
 hike \ 
 
 hikano > (Gr.), 295. 
 hiketes ) 
 
 (h)ikkos, hippos (Gr.), 
 37,110,138,275,295.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 369 
 
 hikneomai (Gr.), 295. 
 himmel (Ger.), 196. 
 hinthial (Etr.), 38, 96, 
 
 201. 
 hircus (L.), 92, 
 Mrsch (Ger.), 81. 
 hister (Etr.), 205, 215. 
 histrio (L.), 215. 
 hlaupan, hleapan (T.), 
 
 85. 
 hocli (K.), 291. 
 homo (L.), 129, 222. 
 hor (H.), 66. 
 hora (L.), 178, 278. 
 hordeum (L.), 92. 
 horizo (Gr.), 203. 
 horos (Gr.), 195, 202, 
 
 332. 
 horrere (L.), 92. 
 horse (E.), 83. 
 Horus (pr. n.), 164. 
 hr«fen(A.-S.),286,319. 
 hragra (A.-S.), 286, 328. 
 hresso (Gr.), 83. 
 hruk (Goth.), 286, 319, 
 
 328. 
 hud (K.), 291. 
 huidous (Gr.), 207. 
 huios (Gr.), 207. 
 humus (L.), 222. 
 hupaithron (Gr.), 175. 
 
 iall, iallag (G.), 239. 
 ian (I.), 286. 
 iasg (G.), 328. 
 -id (f.), 291. 
 idulis (Etr.), 172. 
 idiis (L.-Etr.), 172. 
 ignis (L.), 130. 
 iktinos (Gr.), 286, 302. 
 in (f. pre.), 206. 
 infans (L.), 137. 
 inghean (G.), 208. 
 inter (L.), 173. 
 Inuus (L. pr. n.), 100, 
 271. 
 
 iomaU (G.), 203. 
 
 ionga (G.), 301, 309. 
 
 iormailt (G.), 200. 
 
 ios (Gr.), 67. 
 
 ir (H.), see (a)ir. 
 
 ire (L.), 292. 
 
 ischo (Gr.), 307. 
 
 Ismenus(Gr. pr.n.), 253. 
 
 it (r.), 294. 
 
 ite, iteal, itealaich (G.), 
 
 290. 
 itshar (H.), 339. 
 
 jambe (F.), 81. 
 Juno Sospita (L. pr. n.), 
 111. 
 
 K 
 
 kab (r.), 232. 
 kaerre (N.), 82. 
 Kaikias (pr. n.), 107. 
 kaim (Sc), 234. 
 Kakios (pr. n.), 108. 
 kakos (Gr.), 138, 292. 
 kalal (H.), 32. 
 kamno (Gr.), 40. 
 kampto (Gr.), 234. 
 kantharos (Gr.), 59. 
 kaph(H.),278,296,307. 
 kapi (S.), 29. 
 kapros (Gr.), 76, 81. 
 kar (Gr.), 82. 
 kara (Gr.), 232. 
 karava (S.), 318, 327. 
 karats (H.), 270. 
 kareh (H), 270. 
 karneios (Gr.), 89. 
 karnos (Gr.), 89. 
 kebos (Gr.), 29. 
 keiro (Gr.), 270. 
 kcli, kelikila (S.), 220. 
 kcphalc; (Gr.) 233, 255. 
 Kephalenes (Gr. pr. n.), 
 
 255. 
 ker (Gr.), 271. 
 kercho (Gr.), 301, 328. 
 
 kerchneis(Gr.), 286,301, 
 
 328. 
 Kereth (pr. n.), 314. 
 kestrel (E.), 302. 
 kilt (E.), 336. 
 kio, kiatho, kiko (Gr.), 
 
 295. 
 kir (H.), 267, 270, 313. 
 Kiriath (pr.n.), 270, 314. 
 kirkos (Gr.), 286, 313. 
 kite (E.), 295. 
 knabe (Ger.), 137. 
 koa (H.), 200, 229. 
 koba (H.), 232. 
 kohr (P.), 242. 
 koiranos (Gr.), 88, 248. 
 kopf (Ger.), 233. 
 koph (H.), 29. 
 korax (Gr.), 286, 318. 
 koros, (Gr.), 137, 145. 
 korone (Gr.), 286, 304, 
 
 318. 
 korus (Gr,), 232. 
 krahe (Ger.), 286, 328. 
 kranich (Ger.), 286, 328. 
 kranos (Gr.), 232. 
 kreis (Ger.), 238. 
 krios (Gr.), 82. 
 -ksha (f.), 176. 
 kshatras (S.), 251. 
 kshaura (S.), 346. 
 ktilos (Gr.), 95. 
 kuh (Ger.), 81. 
 kidmu (Etr.), 38, 43. 
 kumbe (Gr.), 234. 
 kunee (Gr.), 232. 
 kupellon (Gr.), 234. 
 kupto (Gr.), 234. 
 
 L 
 
 la (G.), 161. 
 labro (L.-Etr.), 85. 
 lachar (G.), 257, 307. 
 lachd (G.), 341. 
 lachne (Gr.), 341. 
 lacriraa (L.), 79, 283. 
 iac(t) (L.), 341. 
 2b
 
 370 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 I 
 
 lama (Etr.), 335. 
 lahab (H.), 214. 
 lahat (H.), 214. 
 lair (G.), 83, 96. 
 lam (r.), 79. 
 lamb (E.), 85. 
 lamm (Ger.), 85. 
 lammer (Ger.), 85. 
 Ian, lion (G.), 55, 214. 
 lance, lancet (E.), 
 
 213. 
 lancea (L.), 213. 
 lanista (Etr.), 205, 
 
 213. 
 lann (G. r.), 213. 
 lannar (G.), 213. 
 lannair (G.), 213. 
 lannrach (G.), 214. 
 laoch (G.), 257, 307. 
 laochmhor (G.), 258. 
 lar (G.), 99. 
 lar (L.), 100. 
 lar familiaris (L.), 97. 
 lararium (L.), 98. 
 lares (L.), 95. 
 lares domestic! (L.), 
 
 97. 
 lares prtestites (L.), 97. 
 lares publici (L.), 97. 
 lares (L.-Gr.), 105, 167. 
 Lars Porsenna (Etr. pr. 
 
 n.), 96, 136. 
 Lars Tolumnius (Etr. pr. 
 
 n.), 96, 264. 
 larth (Etr.), 40, 95, 152, 
 
 201. 
 Larvffi (L. pr. n.), 105, 
 
 115. 
 las (G.), 147, 161, 214. 
 lath (G.), 161, 166,341. 
 lath (E.), 142, 283. 
 latte (Ger.), 142, 283. 
 lattice (B.), 283. 
 latus clavus (L.), 311. 
 leaba (G.), 42. 
 leac (G.), 279. 
 leap (E.), 85, 109. 
 
 leim (G.), 85. 
 leine (G.), 190, 338. 
 Lemures (L. pr.n.), 105, 
 
 115. 
 Leucothea (Gr. pr. n.), 
 
 157. 
 leum (G.), 85, 109, 218, 
 
 249. 
 leumnach (G.), 82. 
 lictor (L.-Etr.), 345. 
 lion (G.), 55. 
 lionta (G.), 55. 
 lionmhor (G.), 55. 
 lios (L), 279. 
 lituus (Etr.), 276, 282. 
 llamu (K.), 85. 
 Ihuvn (K.), 55. 
 Hath (K.), 283. 
 lleidr (K.), 108. 
 llonaid (K.), 55. 
 llwf(K.), 85. 
 losna (Etr.), 161. 
 luan (G.), 85. 
 lubhan (G.), 85. 
 lucar (L.), 220. 
 luceo (L.), 147. 
 Luceres (L. pr. u.), 
 
 257. 
 Lucius (L. pr. n.), 257. 
 liicumo (Etr.), 257. 
 Indus ) (L.-Etr.), 205, 
 liidio \ 216. 
 luft (Ger.), 197. 
 luggie (Sc), 61. 
 lumli, lubh (G. r.), 85. 
 Luna Dea (L. pr.n.), 54, 
 
 264. 
 Lunus Deus (L. pr. n.), 
 
 54, 264. 
 Lupercalia (L. pr. n.), 
 
 100. 
 Lupercus (L. pr. n.), 85, 
 
 100. 
 Lupracaun (I. pr.n), 120. 
 lupu (Etr.), 42, 190. 
 lupus (L.), 101. 
 lyft (A.-S.), 197. 
 
 M 
 
 ma, mad (S.), 206. 
 mac (G.), 70, 208. 
 machatsith (H.), 173. 
 mackerel (E.), 302. 
 Mackintosh (G. pr. n.), 
 
 256. 
 macula (L.), 303. 
 madad (H.), 206. 
 madainn (G.), 156. 
 mce (Z.), 258. 
 McEcenas{\A.-YAx. pr.n.), 
 
 256. 
 magan (H.), 245. 
 Magi (P. pr. n.), 350. 
 mala (H.), 55. 
 Malkereth (pr. n.), 267. 
 malum (L.), 56, 76. 
 man (E.), 129. 
 mana (S.), 206. 
 manah (H.), 270. 
 manan (Ar.), 333. 
 manan, man, min (H.), 
 
 333. 
 manas (S.), 129. 
 mane (L.), 150. 
 Manes (L. pr. n.), 41, 
 
 119. 
 Mania (L. pr. n.), 150, 
 mantissa (Etr.), 331. 
 mantle (E.), 386. 
 manu (S.), 223. 
 maoin (G.), 333. 
 maothan (G.), 36. 
 map (Iv.), 208. 
 mara (Ch.), 259. 
 mara (H.), 259. 
 marbith (H.), 69, 
 marom (H.), 196, 
 mas (G.), 68. 
 masar, mazar (H.), 173. 
 mashlich (Sc), 114. 
 mate, meete (Z.), 206. 
 Mater Matuta (L.pr. n.), 
 
 154. 
 math (G.), 151, 273. 
 matin (F.), 156.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 371 
 
 mats-adh (G.), 174. 
 raatuta (L.), 150. 
 meadar (G.), 60. 
 meadh, meadhon (G.), 
 
 173. 
 meal (Sc), 227. 
 meanbh (G.), 333. 
 meas (G.), 206. 
 measarra (G.), 206. 
 meat, maat (H.), 333. 
 medius (L.), 173. 
 megas (Gr.), 258. 
 Megalesia (Gr. pr. n.), 
 
 216. 
 mehercule (L.), 97. 
 meion (Gr.), 334. 
 meii'omai (Gr.), 270. 
 melon (Gr.), 56, 76. 
 Meui (pr. n.), 155, 267. 
 mensch (Ger.), 129, 223. 
 mensis (L.), 206. 
 Mercury (L. pr. n.), 143, 
 
 16.9. 
 MeruMt. (S.pr.n.),196. 
 mesos (Gr.), 173. 
 messen (Ger.), 206. 
 meta (Gr.), 144. 
 metior (L.), 206. 
 metron (Gr.), 206. 
 mil (G. r.), 312. 
 mUan(F.), 286,302,312. 
 mileanta (G.), 313. 
 milfran (K.), 312. 
 milidh (G.), 312. 
 miltineadh (G.), 312, 
 milvus (L.), 286, 302, 
 
 312. 
 Minerva (L. pr. n.), 159, 
 
 262. 
 minor, minus (L.), 334. 
 mios (G.), 206. 
 mis (K.), 206. 
 mitis (L.), 64. 
 mitos (Gr.), 239. 
 mitra (Gr.), 239. 
 moe (E.), 258. 
 mogh (P.), 258. 
 
 mohr (G.), 258. 
 moira (Gr.), 270. 
 moneta (L.), 273. 
 monkey (E.), 33. 
 monicchio (It.), 33. 
 morshar (G.), 258. 
 niorflaithean (G.), 258. 
 mul (P.), 76. 
 murus (L.), 279. 
 musagetes (Gr.), 89. 
 Mutunus (L. pr.n.), 259. 
 muzja (Ar.), 43. 
 
 N 
 -na (f.), 112, 207. 
 naar (H.), 137, 145. 
 nabasa (P.), 207. 
 uabir (P.), 207. 
 Nabo (pr. n.), 258. 
 nadad (H.), 290. 
 nsese (A.-S.), 326. 
 N-Tvius (L. pr. n.), 318. 
 naptri (S.), 207. 
 nas, nis (H.), 294. 
 nase (Ger.), 326. 
 nasus (L.), 325. 
 nat (S.), 290. 
 nathair (G.), 292. 
 nato (L.), 293. 
 nats (H.), 286. 
 natsa (H.), 291. 
 natsar (H.), 243. 
 ne, neo (G. f. pre.), 206. 
 neamh (G.), 176, 199. 
 Necropompos (Gr.pr.n.), 
 
 143, 164. 
 neffe (Ger.), 208. 
 neoi (Gr.), 144. 
 
 "'^°"t'' ! (G.),205. 
 neomhasarra ) ^ 
 
 nepes (Albanian), 205. 
 
 nephelc (Gr.), 199. 
 
 nephos (Gr.), 199. 
 
 nephew (E.), 208. 
 
 nepos (Etr.), 205. 
 
 nepos (L.), 205. 
 
 uessa (Gr.), 293. 
 
 7ietsuis (Etr.), 293. 
 n- (f.), 291. 
 nihara (S.), 283, 341. 
 nix (L.), 341. 
 nizzah (H.), 291. 
 no (L.), 293. 
 noctua (L.), 288. 
 nose (E.), 326. 
 nubo (L.), 199. 
 uubes (L.), 199. 
 nud, nils (H.), 291. 
 nuph (H.), 351. 
 Nurtia, Nortia (pr. u.), 
 
 107, 266. 
 nutsah (H.), 292. 
 
 
 
 OCculo (L.), 200. 
 ocheo, ochema (Gr.), 127. 
 Odusseus (Gr. pr. n.), 
 
 38, 79. 
 oel (Ger.), oil (E.), 339. 
 oen (K.), 85, 274. 
 oers (N.), 83. 
 ogha (G.), 208. 
 oinos (Gr.), 35, 339. 
 oionos"(Gr.), 286, 295, 
 
 304, 350. 
 oionizesthai (Gr.), 350. 
 oir (G.), 332. 
 CIS (Gr.), 85. 
 oiseau (F.), 286. 
 oladh (G.), 338. 
 olainn (G.), 338. 
 olc (G.), 348. 
 oleum (L.), 339. 
 olor, odor (L.), 79. 
 olor (L.), 342. 
 Olympus, M. (pr.n.), 196. 
 opica (SI.), 29. 
 or, oir (G.), 149. 
 ora (L.), 332. 
 oriib (H.), 286, 318, 327. 
 orag (G.), 149. 
 Orion (pr. n.), 166. 
 Ormuzd (pr.n.), 156,260. 
 ornis(G.),286,294,304.
 
 372 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ornithoskopeisthai(Gr.), 
 
 350. 
 oro3(Gr.), 195,202,332. 
 orros (Gr.), 32. 
 OS (L.), 73. 
 ossifrage (L.-E.), 304. 
 oura, orros (Gr.), 32. 
 ouranos (Gr.), 195, 202. 
 ourou (Gr.), 332. 
 euros (Gr.), 195,202,332. 
 ovis (L.), 85, 192. 
 
 Padaka (S.), 283. 
 pairt, -ich (G.), 203. 
 pais (Gr.), 37, 137, 207. 
 pal (H.), 114, 203. 
 Pales (L. pr. n.), 274. 
 palla (L.), 202, 336. 
 Pallas (Gr. pr. n.), 159. 
 pallium (L.), 336. 
 Pan(pr.n.),47,100,272. 
 Pan's pipes, 212. 
 panair (G.), 112. 
 panis (L.), 113. 
 par(r.),70,203,303,331. 
 par (H.), 70. 
 par (K.), 300, 324. 
 parach (H.), 69, 292, 
 
 303. 
 parah (H.), 65, 70. 
 Paras (H. pr. n.), 87. 
 parash (H.), 83. 
 pario (L.), 70. 
 parr (G.), 324. 
 parra(L.), 286, 300,323. 
 parr-riabhac (G.), 300. 
 pars, partior (L.), 203, 
 
 331. 
 Parsee (pr. n.), 87. 
 pasg (G.), 345. 
 pasbath (H.), 304. 
 pat (r.), 207. 
 pautra (S.), 207. 
 paveo (L.), 296. 
 pecus (L.), 273. 
 pecunia (L.), 273. 
 
 pelages (Gr.), 203. 
 Pelasgi(pr.n.),251,268. 
 peleg (H.), 203. 
 Peleiades (Gr. pr. n.), 
 
 253. 
 pempobolon (Gr.), 144. 
 pen (K.), 232, 301. 
 Pendragen (K. pr. n.), 
 
 244, 257. 
 pered (H.), 70, 84. 
 pereli (H.), 84. 
 peristera (Gr.), 316. 
 perone (Gr.), 309. 
 pes (L.), 217. 
 peteenon (Gr.), 295. 
 petomai (Gr.), 295. 
 peul (Ger.), 114. 
 pfeifen (Ger.), 211. 
 
 pferd (Ger.), 69, 84. 
 
 phakes (Gr.), 115. 
 
 phal (S.), 203. 
 
 phallos (Gr.), 114, 200. 
 
 pharetra (Gr.), 67. 
 
 -pharna (f.), 243. 
 
 phegos (Gr.), 76. 
 
 phero (Gr.), 65. 
 
 phleo (Gr.), 55. 
 
 phluo (Gr.), 55. 
 
 phoreo (Gr.), 69. 
 
 phrater (Gr.), 66. 
 
 phrisso (Gr.), 93. 
 
 phrix (Gr.), 93. 
 
 phullon (Gr.), 35. 
 
 phuo (Gr.), 50, 68. 
 
 phuphluns (Etr.), 35, 
 54, 218, 263. 
 
 phusao (Gr.), 68. 
 
 phusis (Gr.), 50, 69. 
 
 phuton (Gr.), 60, 69. 
 
 pickerel (E.), 302. 
 
 Picumnus (L. pr. n.), 
 259. 
 
 pil (K.), 201. 
 
 pilmy (SI.), 55. 
 
 Piluninus (L. pr. n.), 259. 
 
 pilyn (K.), 201. 
 
 pimplemi (Gr.), 55. 
 
 Pinarii (L. pr. n.), 105. 
 pinna (L.), 37, 292. 
 piob (G.), 211. 
 pippala (S.), 56. 
 piscis (L.), 328. 
 pithekos (Gr.), 29. 
 pitri (S.), 207. 
 piuthair (G.), 207. 
 pie (S.), 55. 
 plenus (L.), 55. 
 plee (Gr.), 55. 
 pleie (Gr.), 55. 
 pleres (Gr.), 55. 
 plethron (Gr.), 331. 
 plue (L.), 55. 
 podoktupos (Gr.), 217. 
 peir (Spartan), 207. 
 pomcerium (L.), 277. 
 ponair (G.), 112. 
 Populojiia (Etr. pr. n.), 
 
 47. 
 popidus (Etr.-L.), 34, 
 
 46, 56. 
 per (G.), 71. 
 poroth (H.), 71. 
 
 porricere hL.)^299,351 
 
 perrectus ) 
 
 Porsenna (Etr. pr. u.), 
 
 136, 252. 
 porto (L.), 69. 
 Port-uninus, -unus (L. 
 
 pr. n.), 259. 
 post (G.), 218. 
 pestadh (G.), 218. 
 Potipherah (Eg. pr. u.), 
 
 179. 
 Potitii (L. pr. n.), 105. 
 pous (Gr.), 217. 
 pra (r.), 303. 
 prah (S.), 303. 
 Prseneste (L. pr. n.), 29, 
 
 266. 
 preach (G.), 303. 
 preachach (G.), 303. 
 preachau (G.), 286, 302. 
 preachanach (G.), 303. 
 pri (r.), 243.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 373 
 
 Priapus (L. pr. n.), 265. 
 prosimurium (L.), 280. 
 protagonistes (Gr.), 216. 
 Puanepsia (Gr. pr. n.), 
 
 114. 
 puer (L.), 36, 137, 208. 
 pnia, pinus, ptdl (Etr.), 
 
 208. 
 pul (H.), 114, 239. 
 pur (P.), 207, 331. 
 pura (P.), 207. 
 purah (H.), 71. 
 purrhike (Gr.), 219. 
 putra, putri (S.), 207. 
 
 Q 
 
 Quaich (Sc), 60. 
 quercus (L.), 76. 
 Quiuctilii (L. pr. n.), 
 
 105. 
 quinquatrus (L.), 176. 
 Quirinus (L.), 153, 324. 
 Quirites (L.), 153, 324. 
 
 R 
 
 ra (f.), 207. 
 
 ra (G.), 279. 
 
 rabah (H.), 69. 
 
 rabe (Ger.), 286, 318. 
 
 rach (G.), 217. 
 
 racham (H.), 286, 298, 
 
 316. 
 r£efn (A.-S.), 319. 
 rag (H. r.), 217. 
 rag (S. r.), 219. 
 ragal (H.), 217. 
 ragaz (H.), 217. 
 ragzah (H.), 217. 
 raka, rakacl (H.) 197, 
 
 217. 
 raki (Ar.), 217. 
 rakia (H.), 197. 
 raks (Ar.), 217. 
 ram (H.), 42. 
 raniah (H.), 42. 
 raniam (H.), 42. 
 raphah (H.), 41. 
 
 rapio (L.), 320. 
 
 ras (H.), rais (Ar.), 256. 
 
 Rasena (Etr. pr. n.), 
 
 247, 254. 
 rath (I.), 279. 
 rauben (Ger.), 319. 
 raucus (L.), 319, 328. 
 raven (E.), 318. 
 Ravenna (pr. n.), 252. 
 ravir (F.), 320. 
 re (G.), 179, 279. 
 Recaranus (pr. n.), 88. 
 regaz (Ch.), 217. 
 regel (H.), 217. 
 reiher (Ger.), 286, 328. 
 reith (G.), 82. 
 reub (G.), 320. 
 reubainn (G.), 320. 
 rhaib (K.), 320. 
 Rhea (pr. n.), 55, 92. 
 rhin (Gr.), 326. 
 -ri (S. f.), 176, 207. 
 ricikhs (P.), 350. 
 righil (G.), 185. 
 ril (Etr.), 178. 
 ris (G.), 184. 
 roc (G.), 319. 
 rocas (G.), 318, 328. 
 rogez (H.), 217. 
 roiU (G.), 185. 
 ross (Ger.), 83. 
 rota (L.), 279. 
 rukn (Ar.), 217. 
 rum (H.), 42. 
 Ruteni (pr. n.), 252. 
 
 S 
 sa (r.), 93. 
 saar (H.), 92. 
 sabal (H.), 69. 
 sair (H.), 92. 
 saisir (F.), 306. 
 .sal (L.), 32. 
 salann (G.), 32. 
 salad (H.), 32, 78. 
 Salambo (pr. n.), 55. 
 Salii (L. pr. n.), 150. 
 
 salio (L.), 32, 85, 152. 
 salLx (L.), 85. 
 salt (E.), 32. 
 samhan (G.), 166. 
 Sancus (L. pr. n.), 93. 
 saor (G.), 160. 
 saphan (H.), 199. 
 saphar (H.), 285, 309. 
 sar (title), 98, 255. 
 sar (G.), 99. 
 sara (P.), 98. 
 Sarah (H. pr. n.), 98. 
 Sarai (H. pr. n.), 98. 
 Sarameya (S. pr. n.), 164. 
 saran (P.), 249. 
 sarbal (Ch.), 336. 
 sarcin (title), 98. 
 Sargon (pr. n.), 248. 
 sarnai (title), 98. 
 sas (H.), 78. 
 sas^yita (S.), 43. 
 sastara (S.), 43. 
 Satyr (Gr. pr. n.), 272. 
 scab (E.), 309. 
 scabo (L.), 309. 
 scalp (E.), 233. 
 scarify (E.), 310. 
 scariph- (Gr.), 310. 
 schaben (Ger.), 309. 
 schauern (Ger.), 93. 
 schetho (Gr.), 307. 
 schilf (Ger.), 212. 
 schinden (Ger.), 305. 
 schole (Gr.), 306. 
 schorf (Ger.), 310. 
 schreiben (Ger.), 310. 
 schwan (Ger.), 342. 
 scirpus (L.), 212. 
 scrape (E.), 310. 
 scribo (L.), 233, 310. 
 scurf (E.), 310. 
 SQwa (Ar.), 338. 
 seabhag (G.), 286, 302. 
 sealbh (G.), 306. 
 sealbhachadh (G.), 306. 
 .sealg (G.), 306. 
 sean (G.), 32, 190.
 
 374 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 searg (G.), 301. 
 seairis (L.-Etr.), 345. 
 seh (H.), 89. 
 Seirios(pr.n.), 103,340. 
 seize (E.), 306. 
 selas, selene (Gr.), 147, 
 
 340. 
 Semo (pr. n.), 93. 
 seraones (L.), 129. 
 Semo Sancus (L. pr. ii.), 
 
 92, 129. 
 semuneis (L.), 129. 
 senex (L.), 32. 
 seranim (title), 98. 
 scsphs (Etr.), 189, 206. 
 Sethlans (Etr. pr. n.), 
 
 214, 269. 
 seun, seunadh \ (G.), 
 seunmhor S 292. 
 
 sex (L.), 30. 
 Sgabag (G.), 306. 
 sgabaiste (G.), 213, 306. 
 sgaball (G.), 232. 
 sgealb, spealg (G.), 233. 
 sgeap (G.), 234. 
 sgear, -ail (G.), 219. 
 sgearach (G.), 219. 
 sgiath (G.), 196. 
 sgiorradh (G.), 271. 
 sgor (G.), 346. 
 sgreachan(G.),286,301. 
 sgriob (G.), 310. 
 shabhah (H.), 306, 310. 
 .shacab (H.), 43, 229. 
 shalah (H.), 306. 
 shaphar (H.), 149, 285, 
 
 309. 
 shamayim (H.), 197. 
 Sharezer(pr.n.),99,261. 
 shebi, shebuth (H.), 306. 
 shelet (H.), 245. 
 shield (E.), 245. 
 shophar (H.), 284. 
 sibilus (L.), 210. 
 sif (N.), 212. 
 siffler (F.), 210. 
 sigh (E.), 211. 
 
 silicerniuiu (L.), 43. 
 simus, simius (L.), 30. 
 singe (F.), 31. 
 sinn (G.), 42, 211. 
 sinnte (G.), 42. 
 siob, siobag (G.), 211. 
 siongc (K.), 31. 
 siphon (Gr.), 212. 
 Sirius (L. pr. n.), 163, 
 
 340. 
 skairo (Gr.), 220. 
 skap (Sc), 233. 
 skep (Sc), 234. 
 skia (Gr.), 196. 
 skin (E.), 305. 
 sku (S.), 196. 
 skulao (Gr.), 306. 
 skutos (Gr.), 196, 307. 
 sky (E.), 196. 
 slat (G.), 283. 
 smal (G.), 303. 
 smaoin (G.), 223. 
 snake (E.), 293. 
 sneachd (G.), 283, 341. 
 soilleir (G.), 147, 340. 
 soillse,soillsich (G.),147, 
 
 339. 
 sol (L.), 147, 179, 340. 
 solus (G.), 147, 340. 
 Soracte (pr. n.), 160. 
 Soranus (pr. n.), 160. 
 Sortes Prasnestinse (L.), 
 
 266. 
 Sothic year (pr. n.), 163. 
 souffler (F.), 210. 
 sough, sugh (Sc), 211. 
 spado (L.), 283. 
 spag (G.), 309. 
 spar (E.), 70. 
 speir (G.), 309. 
 speireag (G.), 286, 302, 
 
 309. 
 speur (G.), 200. 
 spiritual (F.), 30. 
 sporn (Ger.), 309. 
 spur (E.), 309. 
 spot (E.), 303. 
 
 Stego (Gr.), 337. 
 stork (E.), 286, 322. 
 studium (L.), 81. 
 subula (L.), 210. 
 siibulo (Etr.), 205, 209. 
 Summanus (L. pr. n.), 
 
 269. 
 sumphonia (Gr.), 212. 
 suph (H.), 212. 
 sur (G. r.), 210. 
 sura (S.), 243. 
 sus (H.), 78. 
 susurrus (L.), 210. 
 sweg (A.-S.), 211. 
 swesch (Sc), 211. 
 Sylvanus (L.pr.n.),100. 
 surigma (Gr.), 209. 
 syrinx (G.-E.), 209. 
 
 T 
 
 Tabal (H.), 52. 
 Tabarzin(P. pr.n.),346. 
 taberna (L.), 198. 
 taigh (G.), 179, 198, 242. 
 taim (G.), 198. 
 taimh-leac (G.), 198. 
 taip (G.), 234. 
 tais (G.), 37. 
 Tala (pr. n.), 55. 
 talah (H.), 36, 237. 
 talal (H.), 51. 
 talamh (G.), 51. 
 Talassio (pr. n.), 52. 
 talega (Ch.), 341. 
 taleh, talitha (H.), 36, 
 
 52, 76. 
 talp, talpyn (K.), 234. 
 talpa (L.), 234. 
 tarn, taim (G.), 198,230. 
 tan(G.), 110. 
 tanzen (Ger.), 77. 
 tap-adh, -aidh (G.), 31. 
 tapamhuil (I.), 31. 
 tar (G.), 135. 
 tar, targ (P.), 248. 
 Tara (pr. n.), 262. 
 Tarchon (pr. n.), 247.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 375 
 
 Tarchetius (pr. n.), 249. 
 Tarcondimotus (pr. n.), 
 
 249. 
 targaid (G.), 196, 244. 
 Targitaus (pr. n.), 248. 
 Tar-quin, -qumii(pr.n.), 
 
 247. 
 Tarsus (pr. n.), 248. 
 Tartak (pr. n.), 248. 
 Tartan (pr. n.), 248. 
 tarr (I.), 135. 
 tarrddu (K), 135. 
 tarruing (G.), 67. 
 tearm-unn, -air(G.),261 . 
 tearraid (G.). 245. 
 tearuinn (G.), 243, 261. 
 tego (L.), 198, 230, 336. 
 teine (G.), 130, 215. 
 teino (Gr.), 39, 42. 
 tel (H.), 237. 
 telag (Ch.), 341. 
 Telamoniades(Gr.pr.n. ) 
 
 253. 
 tellus, tellumo (L.), 51. 
 teinenos (Gr.), 277. 
 templum (L.), 237, 276. 
 tempus (L.), 278. 
 tendo (L.), 42. 
 tener (L.), 42. 
 tepee (Etr.-Sabine), 234. 
 tephar (Cb.), 310. 
 teraphim (H.), 248. 
 Thalia (Gr. pr. n.), 53. 
 thaleia (Gr.), 51. 
 thall-o, -ein (Gr.), 51. 
 Thabia (Etr. pr. n.), 
 
 53. 
 thalos (Gr.), 51. 
 thueUa (Gr.), 93. 
 tiarna (G.), 243. 
 tibia (L.), 211. 
 tibicen (L.), 209. 
 tige(F.),211. 
 tim (G.), 237. 
 titnchioU (G.), 237, 277, 
 
 31,5. 
 timme (N.), 278. 
 
 tinn(G.), 39, 211. 
 Tma (Etr. pr. n.), 156, 
 
 269. 
 Tinskuil (Etr.), 156. 
 tiomcliioU (G.), 237, 277, 
 
 315. 
 tiomchuair (G.), 237. 
 Tiphsar (P. pr. n.), 131. 
 Tirhakah (pr. n.), 248. 
 Tiribazus (pr. n.), 245. 
 Tiridates (pr. n.), 245. 
 tobhar (G.), 235. 
 toga (Etr.), Ill, 198. 
 
 230, 335. 
 toi (K), 198. 
 toir (G.), 249. 
 toisicbe (G.), 249. 
 tokos (Gr.), 69. 
 toll (G.), 237. 
 tolm (G.), 236. 
 Tolumnius (Etr. pr. n.), 
 torn (G.), 236. [259. 
 tomhas (G.), 283, 333. 
 tonnag (G.), 293. 
 top (E.), 234. 
 tor (G.), 245, 315. 
 tore (I.), 245. 
 torgos (Gr.), 286, 313. 
 Tossack (G. pr. n.), 256. 
 tragedy (E.), 90. 
 tragos (Gr.), 88. 
 trepido (L.), 217. 
 treum (G.), 243. 
 triadh (G.), 245. 
 triathach (G.), 245. 
 triorchos (Gr.), 286, 313. 
 Triptolemus (Gr. pr. n.), 
 
 245. 
 tripudium (L.), 217. 
 Triton (Gr. pr. n.), 245. 
 trugon (Gr.), 316. 
 ts-, see tz. 
 tuba (L.), 211, 284. 
 tuber (L.), 31. 
 tubh(G.), 211. 
 Tuche (Gr. pr. r.), 266. 
 tuir (G.), 249. 
 
 (pr.n.), 251. 
 
 tuiseach (G.), 249. 
 tul, tulachan (G.), 237. 
 tumeo (L.), 31, 237. 
 -tumnus (f.), 247, 259. 
 tumulus (L.), 237. 
 tunica (L.), 311. 
 -tunus (f.), 260. 
 tuT (r.), 249, 279, 315. 
 turannos (Gr.), 242. 
 Turnus (L. pr. n.), 104, 
 242. 
 
 . /-(Gr. pr.n.), 
 Turrhenoil 201,247, 
 Tursenoi )^ 250. 
 turris(L.),257,279, 314. 
 Turrus 
 Thurrus 
 tus, tuis (G.), 151, 256. 
 Tuseus (L. pr. n.), 252. 
 Tutunus (L. pr. n.), 259. 
 twilight (E.), 169. 
 ty (K.), 198. 
 Typlion (pr. n.), 165. 
 tzabab (H.), 79. 
 tzachak (H.), 338. 
 tzachar (H.), 338. 
 tzaf (Ar.), 296. 
 tzahal (H.), 338. 
 tzan, tzon (H.), 110. 
 tzaph (r.), 79, 119, 310. 
 tzaphir (H.), 77. 
 Tzar (title), 126. 
 tzayah (H.), 338. 
 tzayon (H.), 338. 
 tzinnah (H.), 245. 
 tzippar (Ch.), 309. 
 tzipporen (H.), 309. 
 tzochar (H.), 338. 
 
 U 
 
 uaghan, uan (G.), 274. 
 uair (G.), 181, 192, 262, 
 
 266, 278. 
 uamh (G.), 235. 
 ubag (G.), 349. 
 Ug (H. r.), 212. 
 I ugab (H.), 212.
 
 276 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 uigheani (G.), 336. 
 llisge (G.), 349. 
 ul (f.), 209. 
 Ulysses (L. pr. ii.), 79. 
 umbo (L.), 236. 
 -umnus, -unus (f.), 247. 
 unguis (L.), 301, 309. 
 ur (G.), 137, 262, 332. 
 urag (G.), 138. 
 uraich (G.), 262. 
 uro (L.), 301. 
 Ursoo (pr. n.), 247, 251. 
 z/j//(Etr.),146,263,269. 
 
 V 
 
 vacca (L.), 80. 
 
 vanth (Etr.), 38, 96, 
 
 201, 215. 
 vastra (S.), 336. 
 Velathri (Etr. pr. n.), 
 
 268. 
 velle (L.), 263. 
 venter (L.), 236. 
 Vertumnus (L. pr. n.), 
 
 259. 
 vestis (L.), 336. 
 viduo (L.), 174. 
 vinum (L.), 35, 339. 
 vita (L.), 30. 
 
 vitis (L.), 36, 64. 
 Vituiimus (L. pr. n.), 
 
 259. 
 VOgel (Ger.), 286. 
 Volaterrse (L.-Etr. pr. 
 
 n.), 50, 268, 316. 
 volo, velle (L.), 263. 
 Voltumn-us, -a (Etr. pr. 
 
 n.), 259. 
 Volumuus (L. pr. n.), 
 
 262. 
 vorsus (Etr.), 331. 
 Vul (pr. n.), 55. 
 Vulci (Etr. pr. n.), 38, 
 
 268, 316. 
 Vulsinii (Etr. pr. n.), 
 
 266, 316. 
 vultur (L.), 286, 313. 
 
 W 
 
 waim (Sc), 236. 
 wallen (Ger.), 239. 
 walzen (Ger.), 239. 
 wambe (Sc), 236. 
 welkin (K), 201. 
 whisper (E.), 210. 
 whistle (E.), 210. 
 WOlke (Ger.), 201. 
 wolle (Ger.), 338. 
 
 womb (E.), 236. 
 wool (E.), 338. 
 Wright (E.), 40. 
 write (E.), 310. 
 WUl (A.-S.), 338. 
 wybr (K.), 199. 
 
 X 
 
 xuron (Gr.), 346. 
 
 yahir (H.), 244. 
 Yarua (S. pr, n.), 162, 
 
 282. 
 yathad (H.), 311. 
 yayin (H.), 35. 
 ysgrafu (K.), 310, 
 ysgrifenu (K.), 310. 
 ysgutyll (K.), 302. 
 ysle (A.-S.), 130. 
 ysniot (K.), 303. 
 yspar (K.), 324. 
 
 zahab (H.), 148. 
 zar (title), 98. 
 zilach (Etr.), 43, 221. 
 zone (Gr.), 238. 
 
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 LOKIMER AND GILLIES, I'KINTEKS, 3I bT. ANDREW SQL.VKE, EDINBURGH.
 
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