UNIVERSITY OFCALDFORNiA AT LOS ANGELES Gift of H.L, Colestock COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC THOMAS AND HOWE COMPOSITION AND RIIETOIIIC BY CHARLES SWAIN THOMAS, A.M. HEAD OF THE ENGLISH DEPARTMENT IN THE NEWTON (MASS,) HIGH SCHOOL, FORMERLY OF SHORTRIDGE HIGH SCHOOL, INDIANAPOLIS AND WILL DAVID HOWE, Ph.D. HEAD OF THE ENGLISH DEPARTMENT IN INDIANA UNIVERSITY NEW EDITION LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 91 AND 93 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK LONDON, BOIVIBAY, AND CALCUTTA > > > ) ) Copyright, 1S)08, By LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. All riyhts reserved. First edition, August, 1908. Reprinted, October, 1908; February, June, 1909. 1 It C t t t 1 * • i « • & & ft * * --^ / PREFACE The purpose of this book is to help the young student to write more clearly and more forcefully. Our aim is not to train writers in the finer graces of language. That accomplishment depends upon the individual student and lies beyond our power. We shall be content if those who come to our book may receive a fresh desire to use with greater precision the simple English speech which is our priceless heritage. We have tried to keep this book free from the technical i word and jjhrase, because we are persuaded that good writing depends upon the simple essentials. Therefore, I the main stress has been placed upon the word, sentence, C and paragraph. Remembering, then, that the plastic mind of the young student is before us, with experiences ^ and likings peculiar to him, we have tried to furnish that U mind with clear and simple directions, with examples '^ chosen from good writers, and exercises which will test r^ the student's understanding of the principles of writing. A word to the teacher. It must be kept in mind that the mere learning of rules never helped anybody to write. Therefore, we bespeak constant practice in the exercises which we have included and in others which will suggest themselves to the teacher. In many cases, it may be advisable not to follow the order of the chapters of the book. Individual teachers and conditions in individual schools will determine the order selected. V vi PREFACE We wish to acknowledge our indebtedness to the fol- lowing publishers for j)ermission to print extracts from their respective publications : The j\Iacmillan Company ; Dodd, ]\Iead and Co. ; The Century Co. ; Houghton, Mifllin Company ; Charles Scribner's Sons ; The American Book Company ; Ginn & Company ; J. F. Taylor & Co. ; The Outing Publishing Co. ; Funk and Wagnalls Co. ; A. C. McClurg &, Co.; Scott, Foresman and Co.; and Thomas Y. Crowell & Company. Finally, we desire sincerely to acknowledge our debt to those whose books have helped us in our teaching, who have made such a book as this possible, and we only trust that this task may add something, howsoever little, to that valuable subject, the teaching of English Composition. CHARLES SWAIN THOMAS, WILL DAVID HOWE. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGES I. The Composition as a Whole 1-33 Unity . 11 Coherence . 17 Emphasis . 20 11. The Paragkaph and its Structure 34-84 Unity in the Paragraph . . 42 Coherence in the Paragraph . 51 Emphasis in the Paragraph . 56 Methods of Paragraph Development . 58 III. The Sentence • 85-125 Development of Phrase, Clause, and Sentence . 85 Simple, Complex, and Compound Sentences . . 89 Arrangement of Elements in the Sentence . 114 Loose and Periodic Sentences .... . 117 IV. Rhetorical Essentials of the Sentence . 126-160 Unity in the Sentence ..... . 126 Coherence in the Sentence . 138 Emphasis in the Sentence . 149 V. Words Words judged by Correctness . Words judged by Effectiveness How to secure a Large Vocabulary 161-201 . 161 . 176 . 187 VI. Letter Writing The Parts of a Letter Friendly Letters Invitations and Other Social Notes Business Letters vii t . 202-238 . 203 . 214 . 232 . 235 vui CONTENTS rilAPTF.R PAOBS VII. Forms of Discourse 239-347 Narration 248 Descii^ition 272 Exjiosition 3Qg Argumentation 332 \'IiI. Okal Composition 348-396 Story-telling 37O Descrijation 39Q IX. TiiKME Correcting . . . , • . . 397-423 X. Punctuation 40 1 154 XI. Common Errors in Grammar .... 455-504 Errors in Case 45g Errors in Agreement 453 Errors in the Uses of the "Verb 469 Other Common Errors 493 Figures of Speech 505 I^^i>Ex ^513 CHAPTER I THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE This book deals witli subjects in which the pupils who use it are already interested, and about which they already have some ideas. The first chapter will contain a few simple, and possibly familiar, yet very important sugges- tions in answer to the questions : What shall I write about? How can I learn to write freely, clearly, and interestingly ? CHOOSING THE SUBJECT Oftentimes the pupil has subjects assigned him. At other times, however, he is given permission to write on any topic he may select. What, he may ask himself, should govern this choice? The best answer to our ques- tion is this : He should write of interesting tJmigs with ivhich he is familiar. The pupil who accepts this answer can learn to write clearly and entertainingly, but he must write of things which he comprehends. Sometimes he is tempted to write on subjects that sound big. Most of these are so far beyond him that he cannot express any clear or inter- esting notions about them. " Optimism," " Musings on Life," "The American Ideal," "Liberty," "Carried by the Tide " — any of these topics might be handled by a master, but just now the young writer's impressions B 1 2 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC of each are too shadowy to be worthy of record. A particuhir pupil is interested in collecting old coins or arrowlieads, or stamps, or souvenir post cards. Why should he not write of these? Another pupil is interested in birds. Last Saturday as he sat in the shade of the apple tree in his backyard, he noticed a sparrow building her nest ; for two hours he sat there watching the work ; surely he can reflect some of this interest in a written theme. Interesting places he has visited, interesting things he has done, interesting traits he has noticed of animals or' of persons — any of these topics he can write about in a way that Avill entertain his readers. To be more exact in our suggestions, we have set down some specific titles that will embrace many of the inter- ests of puj^ils. From this list the pupil may from time to time select subjects for his themes. SUGGESTIVE LIST OF THEME TITLES 1. My First Public Speech. 2. Christmas at Grandfather's. 3. MyBigWaxDolL 4. Choir Practice Last Saturday. 5. Buying a Canoe. 6. Selecting a Book for Cousin Mabel. 7. My First Experience in Gardening. 8. AVhen My Bay Colt Won the Premium. 9. How ]Vry Little Joke Succeeded. 10. Wliy I Pity Shylock. 11. ^ly Hero in Fiction. 12. My Mother's Strongest Trait. 13. The P>est Fudge I Ever :\Iade. 14. Sleighing Last Wednesday. 15. My First Day at School. THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 3 16. A Punishment I Did Not Deserve. 17. My Reasons for Liking Evangeline Better than Priscilla. 18. One Thing I Learned from the Book of Ruth. 19. Cousin Jack's Cabin on the Plains. 20. How to Select a Necktie. 21. An Experience in the Dark, 22. Two Christmas Days. 23. Uncle Tom's Hobby. 24. How I Once Got Enjoyment out of a Disagreeable Task. 25. Breaking a Colt. 26. My Worst Mistake in English. ' 27. Trying to Correct a Bad Habit. 28. The Last Time I Lost My Temper. 29. My Pet Economy. 30. "Why I Prefer Baseball to Football. 31. Why Our School Should Award but One Kind of Initial in Athletics. 32. The Dangers in High School Fraternities. 33. My Little Brother's Boat Ride. 34. My First Business Venture. 35. Why I have Selected College. 36. How I Became Interested in Art. 37. My First Attempt to Run an Automobile. 38. How to Play (any kind of game). 39. When My Bicycle Broke Down. 40. My First Punishment in School. 41. How My Bravery was Tested. 42. Why One of My Air Castles Collapsed. 43. Uncle George's Crotchet. 44. How to Hemstitch a Tablecloth. 45. How to Make Baking Powder Biscuits. 46. A Laboratory Experiment. 47. How a Cream Separator Works. 48. How to Run a Lathe. 49. What I Can Do with a Dry Battery. COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 50. How to Select Seed C-orn. 51. My One P^xtravagant Habit. 52. Sunday Morning on the Farm. 53. Twenty Minutes on My Bicycle. LIMITING THE SUBJECT Let us assume that one of our schoolmates has now made up his mind to write on the subject of Christmas. He realizes naturally that this is a big subject. It sug- gests to him almost countless ideas, — the shepherd's watch on the hills of Bethlehem, the coming of the wise men from the East, the little child born in the manger, and, in addition, all the varied thoughts and pictures that connect themselves with modern celebrations, at home and else- where. Any one of these he might choose, but the ideas he finds recurring oftenest in his rapid thinking, center, let us say, about his two most recent Christmas days, — one spent in his home in New England, the other with his grandparents in Florida. When he has finally decided to write about these two days, he is ready for the next step. His composition must have unity ; and to secure this he must from the outset know clearly just what he is writing about. So he proceeds to frame a sentence, either declarative or interrogative, that will summarize his main idea. In the particular case we are discussing, he formu- lates this general guiding sentence in interrogative form: What were the characteristics of the northern day which contrasted with the characteristics of the southern day? He then proceeds to make an outline, selecting some ideas, discarding others, and deciding which shall come at the beginning, which in the middle, and which at the end THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 5 of the composition. When completed, the outline may be in some such form as this : Two Christmas Days Suggestive Outline 1. Usually cold and snowy in the North at Christmas. 2. A northern boy finds many strange things in the South at Christmas. a. No frost on windows. h. Eoses and flowers. c. No fire necessary. d. Gifts on orange trees. e. No snowballing ; no bobsled rides. /. Can romp as in summer time. 3. Christmas in the South may be as joyous as it is in the North. The ^Aa•iter has now limited not only the whole theme but the separate ideas as well. Moreover, he has, in a general way, put into form his notions of an introduc- tion, a body, and a conclusion. His arrangement may be crude, but it will serve the purpose of a definite guide. WRITING THE THEME When the outline has been completed, the pupil should immediately commence his writing. With the details fresh in his mind, he can go to work and at a single sit- ting complete his short theme. He will follow his outline as long as he sees that it is a practical guide, but he will not allow this guide to be his master. If he finds it faulty, he may either correct it or discard it, but he will under no circumstance forget that he must follow the 6 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC direction which his general guiding sentence has fixed. B}' thus refusing the allurements of the bypaths, he will be sure to reach his goal. In order that he may be safely forewarned, however, it is well enough that he may know in some detail what these bypaths are. One is the idea which seems related, but which really leads far afield. Another is gaudy diction, which draws attention to itself rather than to the thought. The pupil should be simple and straight- forward. When he cannot decide at once between two expressions, he should put one of them in parentheses and trust the final choice to revision. Still another bypath is dishonesty. We sometimes find it easier to phrase the old thought which is false than to phrase the new thought which is true. Good writing means honest writing, and frankness contributes to force. Bat of all allurements, perhaps the greatest is the temptation to stop before the theme is finished. The pupil should complete his theme. It will be easier to do it now than when delay has destroyed both the interest and the connection. The result may not satisfy, but here again the revision may settle the question. The pupil, then, must refuse to be led astray. He must go ahead. With the completed outline before him, the pupil who has wisely chosen his subject and who has care- fully limited his theme may be able to write the following as his first draft. Two Christmas Days To one who has always thought of Christmas as a time of snowstorms and biting cold weather, spending the liolidays in a southern state is a novel experience. Though he expects, when he wakens, to find delicate fairy flowers traced upon the glass by the frost, he is greeted by real roses, nodding in a THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 7 friendly manner through the open windows. After breakfast, instead of assembling with the others around a candle-lighted fir tree in a room heated by a roaring fire, he races down the path in the sunshine to an orange tree decked not merely with artificial ornaments, but with its own luscious fruit. From it he receives the gifts which were too large for Santa Claus to put into the stockings. He hears no jingle of sleigh bells as people muffled in furs go riding by; for here it is so warm that shoes and stockings, at any time needless articles of clothing, are now unbearable. To romp in the snow, pelting poor passers- by with balls, and to attach his sled to the rear of a sleigh and go whizzing over crunching snow are pleasures not to be en- joyed in the South. Here, joined by the children from the neighboring ranches, he runs and races all day without hat or wrap, playing " tag," " hide-and-go-seek," " beef-steak," " stand- still," " go-sheepie-go," and every other out-of-door game imag- inable, resting only long enough to snatch a guava from the bush, or to gather around Grandma as she obligingly peels orange after orange for the children, " hungry as bears." And when the day, which seems so short, is over, he thinks that a Christmas without ice and snow is not so bad after all. The observant student has learned that, immediately after writing his theme, it is a good plan to put it away for a time. When he takes it up for revision, he can view it more impartially. This later criticism will reveal faults which in the midst of the actual work of composition he has not seen. It will not be surprising, then, if in "Two Christmas Days" a later careful re-reading by the writer convinces him that he has not given in his theme the sharp contrasts which his title promised. Instead of two distinct days in two distinct years, he has given us the general notion of a southern Christinas day contrasted with the general notion of a northern Christmas day. Evidently this is not what the title promised. He himself sees this, and he sets 8 COMPOSITION AND RHETORJC about to revise his theme. As he writes, he sees other faults. His previous work, good in the main, is too impersonal ; he has not made his readers feel his own part and interest in the two contrasted days. These two main faults and other minor ones he tries to correct. AVhen he has finished the revision, he has secured a more graphic effect and a more definite contrast of the northern and southern Christmas. Two Christmas Days Pensacola, Florida, Christmas, 1907. My dear Cousix Jack, It is eight o'clock at night and Christmas is over. A score of times to-day I have thought of you. Jack, as I remembered the hilarious times we had last Christmas when you visited us in our Milwaukee home. I know you have not forgotten those frosty window panes in the spare bedroom, even though tlije atmosphere that morning was a little too chilly for us to enjoy all the beauties of the silvery flowers and trees and castles. One of the palaces, I recall, you picked out for yours, and you threatened to pound me black and blue if I didn't quit blowing my warm, smoky breath upon it. After breakfast, what fun we had! We gathered in the library, all aglow with the old-fashioned wood fire which Papa had built in the big fireplace, and there we unwrapped all the various bundles which Santa Claus had left for us. Then we boys got our sleds, hurried out into the street, and stole what rides we could from passing sleighs as they went whizzing over the crunching snow. We staid out of doors until we were nearly frozen, and then went back to the library to warm our toes and eat our candy and read our books and tease our little sisters, while they dressed their new dolls. What a different day I have spent down here in Florida! Wlien T awoke this morning, real roses were nodding to me at THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 9 the east window, and the air outside was warm and inviting. After breakfast we children all hurried out into the sunshine and raced down the path to an orange tree which Papa and Mamma had decked with artificial ornaments and which nature had adorned with its own luscious yellow fruit. And here we received the gifts which were too large for Santa to put into our stockings. Later we were joined by other children from the neighboring ranches, and we ran and raced all day, without hats or wraps, playing " tag," " hide-and-go-seek," " beef-steak," " standstill," '' go-sheepie-go," and every other out-of-door game imaginable. We stopped only long enough to snatch now and then a guava from the bush or to gather round Grandma as she obligingly peeled orange after orange, which we greedily ate. And now that the day is over, I think that Christmas with- out ice and snow is not so bad after all. Only, I wish, Jack, that you could have shared in all this sport. Your affectionate cousin, Leslie. This revision shows a sharper contrast between the two distinct Cliristmas mornings. It suggests further that the writer has himself felt a keener interest and has more thoroughly reflected himself in what he has written. General ideas have become more specitic, so that we picture more easily the boy moving about in the scenes he de- scribes. These vital qualities of writing do not belong alone to Shakspere, Lowell, Hawthorne, Van Dyke, and others who have won their way. They do belong to them, and they may likewise belong to us. And when we have begun to master these qualities, our task will grow easier ; for the definite details will of themselves constantly urge interest and direct us. We see, for instance, that when Leslie wrote that personal letter, he was really interested in telling Jack about each various incident of the Florida 10 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC Christmas. Of course it was not necessary for him to put his composition into letter form ; he chanced upon that plan, and his work was successful. Perhaps sometimes, when our writing seems stiff and cold, we can enliven it by using the same device. EXERCISES I. Try reivriting the theme without using the letter form. Remember to bring out the contrast ivhich the title, '' Two Christinas Dags,'' suggests. II. Select one of the titles given on pages 2—4, and write a composition in which your aim will be to make your reader see, as plainly as you see, the jnctures that pass before your mind as you write. Carefully observe the directions p)rinted beloiv. BRIEF GENERAL DIRECTIONS Mechanical Points. 1. Use paper 10| x 8| (approximately). 2. Write with black ink on one side of the paper only. 3. Write the title on the first line. Capitalize impor- tant words of the title. Draw two parallel lines, or one waved line, under each word. Leave one line blank be- tween the title and the beginning of the composition. 4. Begin each paragraph one inch from the left-hand margin. All other lines should start at margin. Try to keep the right-hand margin straight. 5. Do not crowd your words. Use the hyphen cau- tiously, at the end of lines, with careful attention to the division of words into their proper syllables. The Whole Composition. — Frame in your mind a plan of your theme, — its beginning, its main points, its end. Write the first draft with speed. To correct errors rely THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 11 mainly upon revision. In revising, consider your words, your sentences, and your paragraphs. Words. — Choose simple words which suggest motion, feeling, form, color, odor, sound --- words that will make the reader's feelings or impressions correspond to your own. Be especially careful in the choice of adjectives and verbs. Beware of slang, provincialisms, colloquialisms. Study the use of words for particular effects in some one author, e.g. Stevenson, Kipling, Thackeray, Ruskin, Haw- thorne, Tennyson. Sentences. — See that every sentence is necessary. Try to keep each sentence interesting to the end. Seek for variety in sentence structure. In revising, question whether those words which are closely connected in thought stand close together. Paragraph. — See to it that each paragraph follows log- ically the one which precedes, and leads naturally to the one which follows. As suggestive models in mechanical structure, study the paragraphs in Irving, Hawthorne, Curtis, Stevenson, and Macaulay. UNITY It has been said that the whole composition should say a single thing. Many different ideas may be introduced, but each idea must be so selected, so arranged, and so phrased that the effect of the entire theme emphasizes one master idea. The title and the topic sentence should so limit the theme that all unrelated ideas will be excluded. When two boys prepare a tennis court, they fix lines. In play- ing the game, balls served wholly outside of these lines must be ignored; balls served wholly inside of these lines must be reckoned with. Similarly, the writer establishes 12 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC limits for his theme. Ideas that have no place in the plan, he discards; related ideas that develop or clarify the gen- eral thought, he accepts. Only by applying constantly this test of relationship, and thus assuring himself that all of his explanations, illustrations, and anecdotes bear upon the subject, will he secure this singleness of thought. This single idea, which the whole composition is intended to develop, may be designated the master idea; the other ideas, which aid in the development of the master idea, may be appropriately called the serving ideas. To deter- mine whether every detail contributes to the main thought or master idea, ever}'^ writer will find it helpful frequently to ask himself: Am I developing one topic? Am I saying a single thing? The rhetorical principle that is thus tested we call unity. Accordingly we may say that Unity of the whole composition is that principle which demands that every detail employed should aid directly in the development of the main idea. To the young writer, especially, the testing of his writ- ing by this principle will prove helpful. In planning a composition on " Wliy I Expect to be a Farmer," for ex- amjjle, he may set down somewhat aimlessly the following items : Why I Expect to be a Farmer 1. Farming allows one to be out of doors. 2. My grandfather was a farmer. 3. My grandfather was also a strong Democrat. 4. Farming is profitable. 5. Banking is likewise profitable. ' 6. Farm lands are increasing in value. 7. Farmers can live cheaply. 8. Living is now more expensive than it was ten years ago, 9. Farmers are independent. THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 13 By applying the test of unity to these ideas, the writer finds that items 3, 5, and 8 may be at once discarded be- cause their relationship to the main idea is too remote. Item 2 appears but slightly related and may be retained or discarded according to the actual influence the grand- father has exerted in the writer's choice of a vocation. In this particular case he assumes that it is important and will retain it in the outline. Items 6 and 7 may be treated as subdivisions under 4. After the test is applied, items 1, 2, 4, and 9 are retained as main points in the treatment of the theme. Tlie revised outline he may now arrange, changing the order slightly. Why I Expect to be a Farmer OutUyie 1. My grandfather, who was a farmer, showed me how in- teresting farming was. 2. Farming allows one to be out of doors. 3. Farming is profitable. a. Farmers can live cheaply. h. Farm lands constantly increase in value. 4. Farming allows one to be independent. EXERCISE Write a composition from tlie foregoing outline. Even the pupil who applies this test of unity to the items of his outline may be careless enough to allow unre- lated ideas to intrude while he is writing. In the first sentence, he is, unless he guards himself, likely to make a slip. Let us apply the test to the opening of the follow- ing theme : 14 COMPOSITIOxN AND RHETORIC The Description of a Hunter's Cabin Not every one has had the opportunity of seeing a typical hunter's cabin. On entering the cabin of a hunter who lives in the Maine forests, I found myself in a room about twenty feet square, dimly lighted by two or three small windows and by a glowing fire in the large fireplace. I could dimly see a kettle suspended from a large crane hung over the fire, and as my eyes became accustomed to the light, I saw that on the sides of the fireplace hung the pots and other cooking utensils. A stately pair of elk horns which branched out from above the fireplace held the guns, powder-horn, bullet-pouch, and the spare clothing of my host. Near the fireplace, two roomy bunks, filled with heavy blankets and skins of various kinds, stood against the mud-daubed walls. Dangling from the heavy rafters of the ceiling were bear haunches and large pieces of jerked venison. The corner on one side of the door was occu- pied by a large box for storing provisions, and around this box were scattered old boots and moccasins and sections of logs for the fireplace. A rough table of pine boards surrounded by three or four three-legged stools stood in the middle of the room, while the remaining corner was occupied by a hand- some dog entertaining a litter of wriggling pups on a bed of pine needles. Every pupil will see that the first sentence violates unity. This sentence suggests how rare is the oppor- tunity of seeing a typical hunter's cabin. What we want, is merely the incidental mention of the writer's opportu- nity. The sentence might be revised to read, Last summer, wliile tramping thi'ough Maine, I came one day upon a typical liunter's cabin. If such a change be made, the word Maine, sliould of course be omitted in the second sentence. the composition as a whole 15 exercisp:s I. Examine the rest of the foregoing composition and apply the test of unity. II. Examine the folloiving composition and decide wliether it possesses unity. Write out the reasons for your answer. An Ancient Room The most interesting room in the world to me is the guest chamber of my grandfather's house in New Hampshire. The furnishings are most antique, being over a hundred years old. The lirst object that attracts one's attention is the tall four- post bed of walnut. It was first brought into the room when Great-grandmother came to preside as mistress over the house- hold. It was she who made the broad ruffled canopy over it. The cross-stitch tidies on the chair backs were also wrought by her skillful fingers. Even the old rag carpet on the floor she wove. The tall cedar chest remains where it has been for years, — in the corner. Upon opening its doors, one sees shelves laden with homespun towels and sheets. From frames of gilt, on the walls, ladies in stiff brocades and lace look down, and gentlemen with stern faces, powdered queues, and ruffled waistcoats glance at every one who enters the room. These are the ancestral portraits. In the center of the eastern wall a tall mahogany clock has been ticking away for three genera- tions. Hanging over the old clock is a relic that is highly prized by my Grandfather. It is an old musket carried in the Revolutionary War by some great-great-uncle of Grandfather's, who lost his life in the battle of Bunker Hill, — the great strife for our country. The musket is old and rusty, and the leather strap by which it is suspended is nearly worn in two. An air of antiquity, which I love, prevails in the room, and causes me to spend a great deal of my time in it when I visit New Hampshire every summer. 16 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC EXERCISE Write a theme on '■'• My Favorite Book.'" Give special attention to the princijjle of unity. Even when the pupil gets the right start, he often offends against this principle of unity by digressing. The line of digression may be at first so near the main idea that he sees no danger in following it. He soon finds, however, that he is far from the main idea. Instead of following the main road, he has turned into a byway that leads far from his destination. For instance, in writing an essay on the Juvenile Court of Chicago, the pupil may properly contrast it or com- pare it with the Juvenile Court of Denver; but if he then allows himself to get so interested in writing about the court of Denver as to forget that his subject is the court of Chicago, he has been guilty of a serious offense against unity. The remedy lies in excision. The writer must go back to the point at which the serving idea usurped the place of the master idea, and must resolutely cut out the offending sentences. Unity, then, results from a writer's following out a firm resolve to include essential items, and to exclude irrel- evant items. When the writer constructs his outline, he will rigorously apply this test. When he writes his opening sentence, he will go directly, but not abruptly, toward his subject. This opening sentence will be fol- lowed by those which explain or enforce closely related ideas. Throughout his composition the writer will see that each serving idea does its proper work, not usurping the place of the master idea, but aiding directly in its development. THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 17 COHERENCE A composition may have unity, and yet fail because the parts are not closely or properly joined. The serving ideas do not work in harmony with one another or with the master idea. We say of such compositions that they lack coherence. Let us look at the following composition and see whether or not there is sufficiently close connection between the parts. The Falls of Niagara from the AMERicAisr Side The falls of Niagara, as one stands gazing at them from the American shore, form a magnificent picture. The water rolls gracefully over the rocks into the depths beneath and goes tumbling and roaring downward toward the Whirlpool Rapids a mile below. Here, as we stand on the Canadian side, we can see the Rapids churning the waters into a white and raging foam. Under the falls there is a great deal of mist, and we have difficulty in breathing when we first enter. In this passage we expect the writer to keep his posi- tion as an observer near the Falls on the American side, and to write of nothing except what he sees from that point. Suddenly, however, without warning his readers, the writer is describing the Rapids, a mile below, as he sees them from the Canadian shore. Then, just as sud- denly, his thoughts take another turn, and he shifts us under the Falls. He would have avoided confusion if he had used connectives to inform the reader of each change in the point of view. In such a short composition it is still better to have but one point of view. Having seen how coherence is violated, we are better prepared to define it. 18 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC Coherence is that principle which demands that all the parts of the composition shall be firmly held together. i:XERCISES I. Expand the theme printed on page 17. As you write, remember that you must make the theme coherent. You should keep one point of view. II. Write a theme that makes use of all of the following tvords: woods, dog, stone fence, country, tavemy oah-tree» Shift the point of view once; but in doing this be sure to warn your reader. As in description it is well to keep one point of view, so in telling a story, the writer will be on safer ground if he narrates the important events in the order in which they occur. By giving careful attention to the time se- quence, he will be able to make his narrative coherent. In explaining anything, he should begin with the things which the reader knows, and proceed, stej) by step, to the things which the reader does not know. These general directions cannot be followed without the frequent use of connectives. Too much reliance should not be placed upon such common connectives as and, then^ but, and so. These are good in themselves, but, aside from the monotony which their rei)etition produces, they do not always effectively point the way. Such expressions as the following will help to connect the ideas and to keep clear the sequence: moreover, fur- thermore, in addition to this, likewise, similarly, in like manner, depending upon this, growing out of this, as a result, the f