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ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 ADAPTED TO THE 
 
 DIFPERENT CLASSES OF LEARNERS: 
 
 WITH 
 
 AN APPENDIX; 
 
 COSTTAININS 
 
 RULES AND OBSERVATIONS 
 ^OR ASSISTING THE MORE ADVANCED STUDENTS 
 
 TO 
 
 WRITE WITH PERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY*^ 
 
 **Thcy who are leamingto compose and arrange their sentences Wui 
 accuracy and order, are,leaming, at the same time, to think with 
 accuracy and order." BlaJ ji. 
 
 BY LINDLEY MURRAY. 
 
 PHZZi ADSXiPHIA ° 
 
 PUBLISHED BY MAROT Sc WALTER, 
 
 NO, 87 MARKET-STREET. 
 
 1826. 
 
t- 
 
 EDUC. 
 PSYCH. 
 LIBRARY 
 
 GIFT 
 
EDUCl- 
 
 INTRODUCTION. psych. 
 
 \V'hen the number and variety of English Grammars 
 already published, and the ability •with^hich some of them 
 are written, are considered, little can be exjjected from a new 
 compilation, besides a careful selection of the most useful mat- 
 ter, and some degree of improvement in the mode of adapting 
 it to the understanding, and the gradual progress of leamei-s. 
 In these respects something, perhaps, may yet be done, for the 
 ease and advantage of youn^ persons. 
 
 In books designed for the mstiniction of youth , there is a me- 
 dium to be observed, between treating the subject in so exten- 
 sive and minute a manner, as to embarrass and confuse their 
 minds, by offei-mg too much at once for their comprehension; 
 and, on the other hand, conducting it by such short and gene- 
 ral precepts and obserA aticns, as con^^ey to them no clear and 
 precise information. A distribution of the parts, which is 
 either defective or irregular, has also a tendency to perplex 
 the young imderstanding, and to retard its knowledge ojf the 
 principles of literature. A distinct general \'iew, or outline, of 
 all the essential parts of the study in whicli they are engaged ; 
 a gradual and judicious supply o'f this outline;' and a due ar- 
 i-angement of the divisions, according to their natural order 
 and connexion, ?cppear to be among the best means of enlight- 
 enmg the minds of youth, and of facilitating their acquisition 
 of knowledge. The author of this work, at the same time 
 that he has endeavoured to avoid a plan, which may be too 
 concise or too extensive, defective in its parts or irregular in 
 their disposition, has studied to render his subject sufficiently 
 easv, intelligible, and comprehensive. He does not presume 
 to nave completely attained these objects. How far he has 
 succeeded in the attempt, and wherein he has failed, must be 
 referred to the determination of the judicious and candid 
 reader. 
 ] The method which he has adopted, of exhibiting the per- 
 formance in characters of different sizes, will, he trusts, be con- 
 ducive to that gradual and regular procedure, which is so fa- 
 ' vourable to the business of instruction. The more important 
 i-ules, definitions, and observations, and which are therefore 
 I the jftost proper to be committed to memory, are printed with 
 , a larger type ; whilst iniles and remarks that are of less conse- 
 quence, that extend or diversify the general idea, or that serv^e 
 as explanations, are contained in the smaller letter: these, or 
 
 0K7 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the chief of them, will be perused by the student to the greatest 
 advantage, if postponed till the general system be completed. 
 The use of notes and observations, in the common and detached 
 TiianntT, at tlie bottom of the page, would not, it is imagined, 
 be so likely to attract the perusal of youth, or admit of so am- 
 ple and regular an illustration, as a continued and uniforni. 
 order of the several subjects. In adopting this mode, care has 
 been taken to adjust it so that the whole may be peinised in a 
 connected progress, or the part contained in the larger charac- 
 tei'. read in order by itself. Many of the notes and observa- 
 tions are intended, not only to explain the subjects, and to illus- 
 trate them, by comparative views of the grammar of other 
 languages, and of the various sentiments of English gramma- 
 rians; but also to invite the ingenious student to inquiry and 
 reflection, and to prompt to a more enlarged, critical, and phi- 
 losophical reseai'ch. 
 
 With respect to the definitions and rules, it may not be im- 
 |i roper more particularly to observe, that in selecting and 
 terming them, it has been the autlior's aim to render them as 
 exact and comprehensive, and, at the same time, as intelligi- 
 ble to young mmds, as the nature of the subject, and the dim- 
 I'.ulties attending it, would admit. He presumes that they arc 
 also calculated to be readily committed to memory, and easily 
 retained. For this purpose, he has been solicitous to select 
 terais that are smooth and voluble ; to proportion the mem- 
 bers of the sentences to one another ; to avoid protracted pe- 
 riods ; and to give the whole definition or rule, as much har- 
 mony of expression as he could devise. 
 
 From the sentiment generally admitted, that a proper selec- 
 tion of faulty composition is more instructive to the young 
 grammarian, than any rules and examples of propriety that 
 can be given, the Compiler has been induced to pay peculiar 
 attention to this part of the subject ; and though the instances 
 of false gi-ammar, under the rules of Syntax, are numerous, it is 
 hoped they will not be found too many, when their variety and 
 usefulness are considered. 
 
 Jn a work which professes itself to be a compilation, and 
 which, from the nature and desigii of it, must consist chiefly 
 of materials selected from the writings of others, it is scarcely 
 necessary to apologize for the use which the Compiler has 
 made of his predecessors' labours ; or for omitting to insert 
 their names. From the alterations which have been frequently*] 
 made in the sentiments and the language, to suit the connexion, ' 
 and to adapt them to the particular purposes for which they^ 
 are introduced, and, in many instances, from the uncertainty 
 to whom the passages originally belonged, the insertion of 
 names could seldom be made with propriety. But if this could 
 have been generally done, a work of this nature would derive ' 
 no advantage from it, equal to the inconvenience of crowding 
 the pages with a repetition of names and references. It isj 
 
■ I 
 
 iNTRODUGTieN. ,.^ 
 
 -however, proper to acknowledge, in general terms, that the 
 authors to whom the grammatical part of this compilation is 
 Brincipally indebted for its materials, are Harris, Johnson, 
 Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, and Coote. 
 
 The Rules and Observations respecting Perspicuity, &c. 
 contained in the Appendix, and which are, chiefly, extracted 
 from the writings oi Blair and Campbell, will, it is presumed, 
 form a proper addition to the Grammar. <* The subjects are 
 very nearly related ; and the study of perspicuity and accuracy 
 in writing, appears naturally to follow that of Grammar. A 
 competent accjuaintance with the principles of both, will pre- 
 pare and qualify the students, for prosecuting those additional 
 improvements in language, to which they may be properly 
 directed. 
 
 On the utility and importance of the study of Grammar, and 
 the principles of Composition, much might be advanced, for 
 the encouragement of persons in early life^to apply themselves 
 to this branch of learning ; but as the limits of this Introduc-r 
 tion will not lallow of many observations on the subject, a few 
 leading sentiments are all that can be admitted here with pro- 
 riety. As words are the signs of our ideas, and the medium 
 y which we perceive the sentiments of others, and commu- 
 nicate our own ; and as signs exhibit the things which they are 
 intended to represent, more or less accurately, according as 
 their real or established conformity to those things is more or 
 less exact ; it is evident, that in proportion to our knowledge 
 of the nature and properties of words, of their relation to each 
 other, and of their established connexion with the ideas to 
 which they are applied, will be the certainty and ease, with 
 which we transfuse our sentiments into the minds of one ano- 
 ther ; and that, without a competent knowledge of this kind, 
 we shall frequently be in hazard of misunderstanding others, 
 and of being misunderstood ourselves. It may indeed be 
 justly asserted, that many of the differences in opinion amongst 
 men, with the disputes, contentions, and alienations of heart, 
 which have too otten proceeded from such differences, have 
 been occasioned by a want of proper skill in the connexion and 
 meaning of word.s, and by a tenacious misapplication of lan- 
 guage. 
 
 One of the best supports, which the recommendation of this 
 study can receive, in small compass, may be derived from the 
 following sentiments of an eminent and candid writer* on lan- 
 guage and composition. " All that regards the study of com- 
 '* position, merits the higher attention upon tWs account, that 
 "it is intimately connected with the improvement of our intel- 
 ''lectual powers. For T must be allowed to say, that when we 
 "^are employed, after a proper manner, in the study of compo- 
 " sition, we are cultivatxiie,- tne understanding itself. The study 
 
 * Blair . 
 A « . 
 
6 iJitk^nucTioN, 
 
 '*of ai*ranging and expressing our thoughts with propnety. 
 '* teaches to think, as well as to speak, accurately." 
 
 Befoi-e the close of this Introduction, it maj not be super» 
 iluous to observe, that the author of the following work has no 
 interest in it, but that which arises from the hope, that it will 
 prove of some advantage to young persons, and relieve the 
 labours of those who are employed in their education. He 
 wishes to promote, in some degree, the cause of virtue, as well 
 as of learning; and, with this view, he has been studious, through 
 the whole of the work, not only to avoid every example and 
 illustration, which mi^ht have an improper effect on the minds 
 of youth ; but also to introduce, on many occasions, such as have 
 a moral and religious tendency. His attention to objects of so 
 much importance will, he trusts, meet the approbation of every 
 well-disposed reader. If they were faithfully regarded in ail 
 books of education, they would doubtless contribute very mate- 
 rially to the order and happiness of society, by guarding the in- 
 nocence and cherishing the virtue of the rising generation. 
 
 HolgatCy near York, 1795. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT 
 
 TO THE NINTH EDITION. 
 
 The eighth edition of this Grammar received considerable 
 alterations and additions: but works of this nature admit of 
 repeated improvements; and are, perhaps, never complete. 
 
 The author, solicitous to render his b^k more worthy of the 
 encouraging approbation bestowed on it by the public, has again 
 revised the work with care and attention . Tlie new edition, he 
 hopes, wiU be found much improved. The additions, which 
 are very considerable, are, chiefly, such as are calculated to ' 
 expand the learner's views of the subject ; to obviate oWec- 
 tions ; and to render the study of grammar both easy and in- 
 teresting. This edition contains also a new and enlarged sys- 
 tem of parsing; copious lists of nouns aiTanged according to 
 their gender and number; and many notes and observations, 
 which serve to extend, or to explain, particular rules and posi- 
 tions.* 
 
 The writer is sensible that, after all his endeavours to eluci- 
 date the principles of the work, there are few of the divisions, 
 ari'angements, definitions, or rules, a^inst which critical inge- 
 nuity cannot devise plausible objections. The subject is at- 
 tended with so much intricacy, and admits of views so vari- 
 ous, that it was not possible to render every part of it unex- 
 ceptionable ; or to accommodate the work, in all resp>ects, to 
 the opinions and prepossessions of every grammarian and 
 teacher. If the author has adopted that system which, on the 
 whole, is best suited to the nature of the subject, and conforma- 
 ble to the sentiments of the most judicious grammarians; if his 
 reasonings and illustrations, respecting particular points, are 
 founded on just principles, and the peculiarities of the English 
 language ; he has, perhaps, done all that could reasonably be 
 expected in a work of this nature ; and he may waiTantably 
 indidge a hope, that the book will be still more extensively 
 approved and circulated. 
 
 * The author conceives that the occasional strictures, dispersed through the 
 book, and intended to illustrate and support a number of important grammatical 
 points, will not, to young persons of ingenuity, appear to be dry and useless dis- 
 cussions. He is persuaded that, by such persons, they will be read with atten- 
 tion. And he presumes ihat these strictures will gratify their cnriosilv, stimujatfr 
 application, and give solidity and permanence to their grammatical knowledge. 
 In the Octavo edition of the Grammar, the reader will find many addHi(»iai dis- 
 cussions of this nature. 
 
 UolsaU, near York, 1804 
 
CONTENTS* 
 
 PART I. ORTHOaRAPBr. 
 
 CHAP. 1. Of letters.^ Pag<r 
 Sect. 1. Of the nature ot the letters, and of at per- 
 fect alphabet 15 
 
 2. General observations on the sounds of the 
 
 letters. 20 
 
 3. The nature of articulation explalined. . . 30 
 
 CHAP. 2. Of syllables^ and the rules for ar- 
 ranging them 33 
 
 CHAP. 3. Of words in general, and the rules 
 
 for spelling them 34 
 
 PART II. Etymology. 
 
 CHAP. 1 . A general view of the parts of speech. 3S 
 
 CHAP. 2. Of the articles .41 
 
 CHAP. 3. Of substantives. 
 
 Sect. 1. Of substantives in general 43 
 
 2. Of gender 44 
 
 3. Of number 46 
 
 4. Of case ^ . . . . 48 
 
 CHAP< 4. . Of adjectives. 
 
 Sect. 1. Of the' nature of adjectives, and the degrees 
 
 of comparison 52 
 
 2. Remarks on the subject of comparison. . . 54 
 
 c^AP. 5. Of pronouns 55 
 
 Sect.'l. Of the personal pronouns ib. 
 
 2. Of the relative pronouns. ...... 57" 
 
 3. Of the adjective pronouns 5S, 
 
 CHAP. 6. Of verbs. 
 
 Sect. 1. Ot the nature of verbs in general. ... 6S 
 
 2. Of number and person 66 
 
 3. Of moods and participles • &T 
 
W CONTE^fTS. 
 
 Sect. 4. Remarks on the potential mood 70 
 
 5. Of the tenses .- . , . 72 
 
 6. The conjugation of the auxiliary verbs to have 
 
 and to be 7& 
 
 7. The auxiliary verbs conjugated in their simple 
 
 form ; with observations on their^ peculiar 
 
 nature and force ' . . . 87 
 
 8. The conjugation of regular verbs. ... 91 
 
 9. Observations on passive verbs. .... 99 
 
 10. Of irregular verbs 102 
 
 11. Of defective verbs ; and of the diflferent ways * 
 
 in which verbs are conjugated 108 
 
 CHAP. 7. Of adverbs f . . 109 
 
 CHAP. 8. Of prepositions 113 
 
 CHAP. 9. Of conjunctions. 115 
 
 CHAP. 10. Of interjections 119 
 
 CHAP. 11. Of derivation. 
 
 Sect. 1. Of the vatious ways in wliich words are deriv- 
 ed from one another 119 
 
 2. A sketch of the steps, by which the English 
 language has risen to its present state of 
 refinement 123 
 
 PART III. Syntax. 125 
 
 Of the syntax of the article 151 
 
 Of the syntax of the noun. 
 
 Of several nouns joined by copulatives 130 
 
 Of nouns connected by disjunctives 133 
 
 Of nouns of multitudef. 134 
 
 Of one noun governing another in the possessive case. . 153 
 Oi.the syntax of the pronoun. 
 
 .. Of pronouns agreeing with their antecedents 135 
 
 Of the relative being nominative to the verb. . . . 139 
 Of the relative preceded by nominatives of different per- 
 sons 141 
 
 Of the syntax of the adjective 142 
 
 Of the syntax of the verb. 
 
 Of the verb's agreement with the nominative case. . 126 
 
 Of verbs active requiring the objective case 159 
 
 Of one verb governing another in the infinitive mood. . 161 
 
 Of verbs related in point of time 163 
 
 Of the syntax of the participle. 167 
 
 Of the rules respecting adverbs. 
 
 Of the position of adverbs 169 
 
 Of two negatives 112 
 
CONTENTS, 11 
 
 Page 
 
 Qf the S3nitax of prepositions 173 
 
 Of the syntax of conjunctions. 
 
 Of conjunctions connecting the same moods, tenses, and 
 cases i 176 
 
 Of conjunctions requiring the subjunctive mood, Sic. . 178 
 
 Of the syntax of interjections 138 
 
 Of comparisons by the conjunction than or as. 187 
 
 Directions respecting the ellipsis 188 
 
 (jreneral rule of syntax. 192 
 
 Directions for parsing 195 
 
 PART IV. -iPROSODY. 
 
 CHAP. 1. Of pronunciation 504 
 
 Sect 1. Of accent 204 
 
 2. Of quantity 209 
 
 3. Of emphasis 211 
 
 4. Of pauses 21$ 
 
 5. Of tones 218 
 
 CHAP. 2. Of versification. ..... 229 
 
 Op Punctuation. 
 
 CHAP. 1. Of the comma 235 
 
 GHAP. 2. Of the semicolon 240 
 
 CHAP. 3. Of the colon 241 
 
 CHAP. 4. Of the period. ...... 24? 
 
 CHAP. 5. Of the clash, notes of interrogation, 
 
 exclamation, capitals, &c. . 243 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 RULES AND OBSERVATIONS FOR PROMOTING PERSPI- 
 CUITY AND ACCURACY IN WRITING. 
 
 PARTI. 
 
 Of perspicuity mid accuracy of expression, with respect to 
 single words andphrcLses, 
 
 t^BAP. 1. Of puritjr 249 
 
 > CHAP. 2. Of propriety ^q 
 
 PHAP. 3. Of precision , . 256 
 
1<8 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART n. 
 
 J)f pmjficaHty and accuracy of expression^ with resfttl U 
 the construction of sentenees, 
 
 Pa*e 
 
 CHAP. I . X>i the clearness of a sentence. » 26 1 
 
 ciHAP. 2. Of the unity of a sentence. . . 26-6 
 
 CHAP. 3. Of the strength of a sentence. . 270 
 
 CHAP. 4. Of figures of speech. . . » . QS6 
 
 ADDBESSTp irOUNGSTUDi:NTS» . * . . . 304 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and 
 writing the English language with propriety. 
 It is divided into four parts, viz. orthographv. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, and PROSODY. 
 
 This division may be rendered more intelligible to the 
 student, by observing, in other words, that Grammar 
 treats, first, of the form and sound of the letters, the cojii 
 bination of letters into syllables, and syllables into woids : 
 secondly, of the diflferent sorts of words, their yariou» 
 modifications, and their derivation ; thirdly, of the union 
 and right order of words in the forraation,of a sentence : 
 and lastly, of the just pronunciation, and poetical con- 
 struction of sentences. 
 
 PART I. 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OP THE LETTERS. 
 
 Section 1 . Of the nature of the Letters, and of a perfect 
 Alphabet. 
 
 Orthography teaches the nature and powers of let- 
 ters, and the just method,«of spelling words. 
 
 A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a 
 word. ■ %^ 
 
 The letters of theJGnglish language, called the 
 English Alphabet, are twenty-six in number, 
 i These letters are the representatives of certain ar- 
 ticulate sounds, the elements of the language. An 
 articulate sound, is the sound of the human' voice, 
 formed by the organs of speech. 
 
14 ENGLISH GRAMMAk- 
 
 The following is a list of the Anglo -Saxon,^RomaK^ 
 Italic, and Old English Characters. 
 
 Saxon. Roman. Italic. Old English. Namje. 
 
 Cap. SmaU. Cap. Small. Cap. Small. Cap. SmaU. 
 
 ^. 
 
 a 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 au 
 
 B ' 
 
 b 
 
 B 
 
 b 
 
 B 
 
 b 
 
 M 
 
 i} 
 
 bee. 
 
 # ■ 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 e 
 
 t 
 
 see. 
 
 D 
 
 b 
 
 D 
 
 d 
 
 D 
 
 d 
 
 B 
 
 tr 
 
 dee. 
 
 e 
 
 e 
 
 E 
 
 e 
 
 E 
 
 e 
 
 m 
 
 e 
 
 ee. 
 
 F 
 
 P 
 
 F 
 
 f 
 
 F 
 
 f 
 
 JF 
 
 f 
 
 €' 
 
 Ix 
 
 S 
 
 G 
 
 g 
 
 G 
 
 S 
 
 ^ 
 
 Q 
 
 jee. 
 
 b 
 
 h • 
 
 H; 
 
 h 
 
 H 
 
 h 
 
 m 
 
 !) 
 
 aitc/t. 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 I] 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 K; 
 
 i 
 
 i or eye. 
 
 
 • ■..>■ 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 j^y- 
 
 K 
 
 k 
 
 K 
 
 k 
 
 K 
 
 k 
 
 m 
 
 ife 
 
 hay. 
 
 L/ 
 
 I 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 L 
 
 I 
 
 % 
 
 I 
 
 el 
 
 CO 
 
 m 
 
 M 
 
 m 
 
 M 
 
 m 
 
 j» 
 
 in 
 
 em. 
 
 N 
 
 n 
 
 N 
 
 n. 
 
 ■ N 
 
 n 
 
 K 
 
 n 
 
 en. 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (B 
 
 
 
 Q' 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 m 
 
 » 
 
 pee. 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 q 
 
 ^^ 
 
 9 
 
 (©. 
 
 a 
 
 cue. 
 
 R i 
 
 B 
 
 R 
 
 r 
 
 R 
 
 r 
 
 M 
 
 r 
 
 ar. 
 
 S 
 
 r i, 
 
 S 
 
 fs 
 
 S 
 
 fs 
 
 ^ 
 
 n 
 
 ess. 
 
 T 
 
 
 T 
 
 t 
 
 T 
 
 t 
 
 r 
 
 t 
 
 tee. 
 
 D 
 
 b/A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 V 
 
 U 
 V 
 
 u 
 
 V 
 
 U 
 V 
 
 u 
 
 V 
 
 m 
 
 15 
 
 u or y$u. 
 vee. 
 
 10 
 
 l- 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 W 
 
 w 
 
 S13 
 
 in 
 
 double u. 
 
 T 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X ' 
 
 X 
 
 V 
 
 eks. 
 
 7 
 
 y 
 
 Y 
 
 y 
 
 Y 
 
 y 
 
 ¥ 
 
 s 
 
 wy. 
 
 Z 
 
 2. 
 
 Z 
 
 z 
 
 z 
 
 z 
 
 Z 
 
 1 
 
 zed. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 15 
 
 A perfect alphabet of the English language, and, in- 
 deed, of every other language, would contain a number 
 <jf letters, precisely equal to the number of simple arti- 
 culate sounds belonging to the language. Every simple 
 sound would have its distinct character ; and that charac- 
 ter be the representative of no other sound. But this 
 is far from being the state of the English alphabet. It has 
 more original sounds than distinct significant letters; and,^*^ 
 consequently, some of these letters are made to- repre- 
 sent, not one sound alone, but several sounds. This will 
 appear by reflecting, that the sounds signified by the 
 united letters //i, sh^ ng, are elementary, and have no sin- 
 gle appropriate characters, in our alphabet : and that the 
 letters a and u represent the different sounds heard in 
 hat, hate, hall; and in but, bull, rtwle. 
 
 To explain this subject more fully to the learners, we 
 slmll set down the characters made use of to represent all 
 the elementary articulate sounds of our language, as 
 nearly in the manner and order of the present English 
 alphabet, as the design of the subject will admit ; and shall 
 annex to each character the syllable or word, which con- 
 tains its4)roper and dip.tinct sound. And here it will be 
 proper to begin with tfie vowels. 
 J setters denoting the 
 simple sounds. 
 
 a as heard in 
 
 ^ 
 
 as 
 as 
 as 
 as 
 as 
 as 
 as 
 as 
 as 
 as 
 as 
 as 
 as 
 
 Words containino 
 simple sound 
 fate M 
 fall 
 fat 
 far 
 me 
 met 
 pine 
 pin ,^ 
 no 
 not 
 move 
 mule 
 
 '^ tub 
 
 bull 
 
 the 
 
 By this list it appears, that there are in the English 
 language fourteen smiple vowel sounds: but as i and ?/, 
 \^ lien pronounced long, may be considered as diphthong*, 
 
1 b ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 or diphthongal vowels, our language, strictly speaking* 
 contains but twelve simple vowel sounds j to represent 
 which, we have only five distinct characters or letters. 
 If a \i\far, is the same specific sound as a in fat; and u 
 ill (mlL the same as o in 7nove, which is tlie opinion of 
 sorue grammarians; then there are but ten original vowel 
 -ounds in the English language. 
 
 The following nst denotes the sounds of the consonants, 
 being in number twenty-two. 
 1,( 
 
 •I (ers denoting the 
 
 
 
 Words containing the 
 
 s)mple sounds. 
 
 
 
 simple sounds. 
 
 b 
 
 as heard in 
 
 bay, tub 
 
 d 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 d^, sad 
 
 f 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 ofl^for 
 
 V 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 van, love 
 
 h* 
 
 as 
 as 
 
 in 
 in 
 
 egg, go 
 hopj ho 
 kill, oak 
 
 k 
 
 as^ 
 
 in 
 
 1 
 
 as ' 
 
 in 
 
 lap, all* 
 
 m 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 my, mum 
 
 n 
 
 as 
 
 in ^ 
 
 no, on 
 
 P 
 
 as 
 
 ir^- 
 
 pin, map 
 
 r 
 
 as 
 
 ill 
 
 rap, cry 
 
 s 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 so, lass 
 
 7 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 zed, buzz 
 
 ■ t 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 top, mat 
 
 W 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 wo, will 
 
 V 
 
 aft, 
 
 in 
 
 ye, yes 
 
 «g 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 ing, sing 
 
 sh 
 
 as • 
 
 in , 
 
 shy, ash 
 thin, thick 
 
 th . 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 th 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 then, them 
 
 * zh 
 
 as 
 
 in 
 
 pleasure 
 
 Several letters marked in the English alphabet, as con- 
 Sonants, are either superfluous, or represent, not simple, 
 but complex sounds. C, for instance, is superfluous in 
 both its sounds;*^ the one being expressed by k, and the 
 jofher by s. G, in the soft pronunciation, is not a simple, 
 but a complex sound ; as age is pronounced aidge, J i^ 
 
 * Some grammarians suppose k to mark only an aspiration, or breathing; b-i 
 ti. appears to be a distinct sound, and formed in a particular manner, by the tn 
 gans of speech. Encydopoedia Brilamiica. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 
 
 ^innecessary, because its sound, and that of the soft g^ are 
 i n our language tlie same. Q, with its attendant if, is either 
 complex, and resolvable into kw, as in quality; or unneces- 
 sary, because its sound is the same with A-, as in opaque. 
 X is compounded of ^s, as in exainple; or of A:s, as in expect. 
 
 From the preceding representation, it appears to be a 
 point of considerable ixnportance, that every learner of 
 the English language should be taught to pronounce per- 
 fectly, and with facility, every original simple sound ttiat 
 belongs to it. By a timely and judicious care in this re- 
 spect, the voice will be prepared to utter, with ease and 
 accuracy, every combination of sounds; and taught to 
 avoid that contused and imperfect manner of pronoun- 
 cing words, which accompanies, through life, many per- 
 sons who have not, in this respect, been properly in- 
 structed at an early period. 
 
 Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 
 
 A Vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly 
 uttered by itself: as, a, e, o: which are formed with- 
 out the help of any^other sound. 
 
 A Consonant is an?%rticulate sound, which cannot 
 be perfectly uttered without the help of a vowel: as, 
 b, d^f, /; which require vowels to express them fully. 
 
 The vow^els are, a, e, i, o, ?/, and^sometimes w and y. 
 
 ?Fand y are consonants when they begin a word or 
 syllable; but in every other situation they are vowels. 
 
 It is generally acknowledged by the best grammarian?, 
 that w and y are consonants when they begin a syllable or 
 word, and vowels when they end one. That they are 
 consonants, when used as initials, seems to be evident 
 from their not admitting the article an before them, as it 
 would be improper to say, an walnut, an yard, &c.; and 
 from their following a vowel without any hiatus or diffi- 
 culty of utterance ; as, frosty winter, rosy youth. That they 
 are vowels in other situations, appears from their regularly 
 taking the sound of other vowels ; as, w has the exact sound 
 of <« in saw, few, now, &c.; and y that of i, in hymn, fly, 
 rrystal, &c. See the letters W and Y, pages 30 and 31.^ 
 
 * The letters w and y, are of an ambij^ous nature ; being cotwonanta at tlie 
 •jcginnine of wordp, and vowels at the end. Encyclopoedia, Britantiica. 
 
 WALKER'S Critical Pronouncing Dictionary, page 24, third edition. 
 FERRY'S English Dictionary, Preface, page 7. 
 
 B2 
 
i8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Wc*pr^ent the following as more exact and philoso- 
 phical definitionfi of a vowel and consonant. 
 
 A vowel is a simple, articulate sound, perfect in itself, 
 and formed by a continued effusion of the breath, and a 
 certain conformation of the mouth, without any alteration 
 in the position, or any motion of the organs of speech, 
 from the moment the vocal sound commences, till it ends. 
 , A consonant is a simple, articulate sound, imperfect by 
 4|felf, but which, joined with a ¥Owel, forms a complete 
 '^und, by a particular motion or contact of the organs of 
 speech. 
 
 Some .gi'ammarians subdivide vowels into the simple 
 and the compound. But there does not appear to be any 
 foundation for the distinction. Simplicity is essential to 
 the nature of a vowel, which excludes every degree of 
 mixed or compound sounds. It requires, according to 
 the definition, but one conformation of the organs of 
 speech, to form it, and no motion in the organs, whilst 
 it is forming. 
 
 Consonants are divided int^|^les and semi-vowels. 
 
 The mutes cannot be soiiflHed at all, without the 
 aid of a vowel. They are b, p, t, d, k, and c and g 
 hard. 
 
 The semi-vow^s have an imperfect sound of them- 
 selves. They are /, /, m, n, r, v, s, z, x, and c and g 
 soft. 
 
 Four of the semi-vowels, namely, /, w, ??, r, are also 
 distinguished by the name oi liquids^ from their readily 
 uniting vvith cither consonants, and flowing as it wera 
 into their sounds. 
 
 We have shown above, that it is essential to the nature 
 of a, consonant, that it cannot be fully uttered without 
 the aid of a vowel. We may further observe, that even 
 the names of the consonants, as they are pronounced in 
 reciting the alphabet, require the help of vowels to ex- 
 press tjiem. In pronouncing the names of the mutes, 
 the assistant yowQhfolloiv the consonants; as,.6e, pe, te^ 
 de^ ka. In pronouncing the names of the semi -vowels, 
 the vowels generally precede the consonants: as, ef, elf 
 eviiy en, «r, es, ex\ The exceptions are, ce, ge^ ve, zed. 
 This distinction between the nature and the name of a 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. IP 
 
 consonant, is of great importance, and should be well ex - 
 plained to the pupil. Tney are frequently confounded 
 by writers on gi'ammar. Observations and reasonings on 
 the name, are often applied to explain tlie nature, of a 
 consonant: and, by this means, the student is led into 
 error and pei-plexity, respecting these elements of lan- 
 guage. -It should be impressed on his mind, that the 
 name of every consonant is a complex sound; but that 
 the consonant itself, is always a simple sound. 
 
 Some writers have descnbed the mutes and semi- 
 vowels, with their subdivisions, nearly in the following 
 manner. -■■ , 
 
 The mutes are those consonants whose sounds caraiot 
 be protracte^fe The semi-vowels, such whose sounds can 
 be continued at pleasure, partaking of the nature of vow- 
 els, from which they derive their name. 
 
 The mutes may be subdivided into pure and impure. 
 The pure are those whose sounds cannot be at all pro- 
 longed : they are A:, jo, t. The impure, are those whose 
 sounds may be continued, though for a very short space : 
 thev are 6, d, g. 4|^ 
 
 The semi -vowel sM&y be subdivided into votal and 
 aspirated. The vocal are those which are formed by the 
 voice ; the aspirated, those formed by the breath. There 
 are eleven vocal, and five aspirated. The vocal are/, m, 
 w, r, V, w, y, z, th flat, zh, ng: the aspirated, /, A, s, th 
 sharp, sh. 
 
 Tne vocal semi -vowels may be subdivided into pure and 
 
 impure. The pure are those which are fonned entirely 
 
 by the voice : the impure, such as hav^i a mixture of 
 
 breath with the voice. There are seven pur^^ — I, m, n, 
 
 r, w, y, ng; four impure — v, z, th flat, zh, 
 
 A diphthong is the union of tvvo vowels.proaounced by 
 
 a simple impulse of the voice; asea in beat, 01/ in souna. 
 
 A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pro 
 
 nounced in like manner; as, ea\i in beau, iew in viev^r.. 
 
 A proper diphthone is that in which both the vow 
 
 els are sounded; as, 01 in voice, o^i in ounce. 
 
 An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels 
 sounded; as, ea in eagle, oa in boat. 
 Each of the diphtliongal letters was, doubtless, ongi^- 
 
30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 nally heard in pronouncing the words which contain them. 
 Though this is not the case at present, with respect to 
 many of them, these combinations still retain the name 
 of diphthongs ; but, to distinguish them, the^r are marked 
 by the term improper. As the diphthong derives its nam& 
 and nature from its sound, and not from its letters, and 
 properly denotes a double vowel sound, no union of two 
 vowels, where one is silent, can, in strictness, be entitled 
 to that appellation; and the single letters i and w, when 
 pronounced long, must, in this view, be considered as 
 diphthongs. The triphthongs, having at most but two 
 sounds, are merely ocular, and are, therefore, by some 
 grammarians, classed with the diphthongs 
 
 Section 2, General observations on the sounds of the 
 
 letters, 
 
 A 
 
 .^ has four sounds ; the long or slender, the broad, the 
 short or open, and the middle. 
 
 The long; as in name, basin, cije^tion. 
 
 The broad ; as in call, wall, iU.^ 
 
 Tlie short; as in barrel, fancy, glass. 
 
 The middle ; as in far, farm, father. 
 
 The diphthong «« generally sounds like a short in pro- 
 per names ; as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac ; but not in Baal. 
 Gaal. 
 
 ^e has the sound of long e. It is sometimes found in 
 Latin words. Some authors retain this form ; as, aenigma, 
 jequator, &c.; but others ha^ve laid it aside, and write 
 enigma, Cesar, Eneas, &c. 
 
 The diphthong ai has exactly the long slender sound of 
 ff, as in pail, tail, &c. ; pronounced pale, tale, &c. : except 
 plaid, again, raillery, fountain, Britain, and a few others. 
 
 ^M is generally sounded like the broad a: as in taught, 
 caught, &c. Sometimes like the short or open a; as in^ 
 aunt, flaunt, gauntlet, &c. It has the sound of long a in 
 hautboy; and that of o short in laurel, laudanum, &c. 
 
 t/iw has always the sound of broad a; as in bawl, scrawl, 
 rrawl. 
 
 »^y, like its near relation ai, is pronounced like the 
 long slender sound of a; as in pay, day, delay. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 31 
 
 B 
 
 B keeps one unvaried sound, at tlie beginning, middle, 
 and end of woi-ds ; as in bakei> number, rhubarb, &c. 
 
 In some words it is silent; as in thumb, debtor, subtle, 
 &c. In others, besiiies being silent, it lengthens thesyl- 
 viable, as in climb, comb, tomb. 
 
 C \\2ii tvvo "different sounds. 
 
 A hard sound like A:, before a, o, u, r, /, t ; as in cart, 
 cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth, &c. ; and when it ends 
 a syllable; as in victim, flaccid. 
 
 A soft sound like s before e, i, and y, generally; as in 
 centre, face, civil, cymbal, mercy, &c. It has sometimes 
 the sound of shj as inidcean, sccial. 
 C is mute ffi^czar, czarina, victuals, &c. 
 C, says Dr. Johnson, according to English orthography, 
 never ends a word ; and tlierefore we find in our best 
 dictionaries, stick, block, publick, politick, &c. But 
 many writers of latter years omit the kin words of two 
 or more syllables ; and tliis practice is gaining ground, 
 though it is productivjB of irregularities ; such as writing 
 mimic and mimickrj; #affic and trafficking. 
 
 Ch is commonly sounded like tch; as in church, chin, 
 chaff, charter: but in words derived from the Greek, 
 has the sound oi k; as in chymist, scheme, chorus, cl^yiie, 
 distich; and in foreign names; as, Achish, Banich, 
 Enoch, &c. 
 
 Ch, in some words derived from the French, takes the 
 -sound of sh; as in chaise, chagrin, chevalier, machine. 
 
 Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds like k; as in arch- 
 iiigel, archives; Archipelago ; except in arched, archery, 
 archer, and arch-enemy: but before a consonant it always 
 sounds like tch; as in archbishop, archduke, archpresby- 
 ter, &c. Ch is silent in schedule, scliism, and yacht. 
 D 
 D keeps one uniform sound, at the beginning, middle, 
 and end of words ; as in death, bandage, kindred ; unless 
 it may be said to take the sound of f, in stuffed, tripped, 
 &c. stuftj^lript, &c. 
 
 E has three different sounds. 
 
 A long sound ; as in scheme, glebe, severe, pulley. 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR- 
 
 \ short sound ; as in men, bed, clemency. 
 
 An obscure and scarcely perceptible sound ; as, open. 
 lucre, participle. 
 
 It has sometimes the sound of middle a; as in clerk, 
 sergeant; and sometimes that of short ii as in England, 
 yes, pretty. ^' - 
 
 .^ is always mute at the end of a word, eieept in mo 
 nosylla,bles that have no other vowel ; as, me, he, she : or 
 in substantives derived from the Greek; as, catastrophe, 
 epitome, Penelope. It is used to soften and modify the 
 foregoing consonants ; as, force, rage, since, oblige : or to 
 lengthen the preceding vowel; as, can, cane; pm, pine: 
 rob, robe. 
 
 The diphthong ea is generally sounded like e long; as 
 in appear, beaver, creature, &c. It has also the sound of 
 short e; as in breath, meadow, treasure. And it is some- 
 times pronounced like the long and slender a; as in bear, 
 break, great. 
 
 Eaii has the sound of long o; as in beau, flambeau, 
 portmanteau. In beauty and its compounds, it has the 
 sound of longer. 
 
 Ei<f'\n general, sounds the sara^ as long and slender «;, as 
 in deign, vein, neighbour, &c. It has the sound of lon» e in 
 seize, deceit, receive, either, neither, &c. It is sometimes 
 pronounced like short i; as in foreign, forfeit, sovereign, &c. 
 
 JEo is pronounced like e long; as in people; and some- 
 times like e short ; as in leopard, jeopardy. It has also the 
 sound of short u; as in dungeon, sturgeon, puncheon, &0s 
 
 Ell is always sounded like long u or ew; as in feud, 
 deuce. . ' ^ 
 
 Ew is almost always pronounced like long u; as in 
 few, new, dew. 
 
 Ey, when the accent is on it, is always pronounced 
 like a long; as in bey, grey, convey; except m key, ley. 
 where it is sounded like long e. 
 
 When this diphthong is unaccented, it takes the sound 
 of e long; as, alley, valley, barley. 
 F 
 
 F keeps one pure unvaried sound at th#beginning, 
 middle, aiid end of words; as, fancy, muffin, mischief, 
 &c.; except in of^ in which it has the flat sound of Of; 
 but not in composition; as, whereof, thereof, &c. We 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 2S 
 
 should not pronounce, a wive's jointure, a calve's liead ; 
 but a wife's jointure, a calf's head. 
 G 
 G has two sounds: one hard; as in gay, go, gun: ther 
 other soft ; as in gem, giant. 
 
 At the end of a word it is always hard ; as in bag, 
 snug, frog. It is hard before «, o, u, /, and r; as, game, 
 gone, gull, glory, grandeur. 
 
 G before e, i, and y, is soft; as in genius, gesture, gin- 
 get, Egypt; except in get, gewgaw, finger, craggy, and 
 some others. 
 
 G is mute before n ,* as in gnash, si^, foreign, &c. 
 Gn, at the end of a word, or syllable accented, gives 
 the preceding vowel a long sound ; as in resign, impugn, 
 oppugn, impregn, impugned ; pronounced impuned, im- 
 prene, &:c. 
 
 Gh, at the beginning of a word* has the sound of tire 
 hard o"; as, ^host, ghastly : in the middle, and sometimes 
 at the end, it is quite sdent; as in right, high, plough, 
 mighty. 
 
 At the end it has often the sound of/; as in laugh, 
 cough, tough. Sometimes only the g is sounded; as in 
 burgh, burgher. 
 
 H 
 The sound signified by this letter, is, as before ob- 
 served, an articulate sound, and not merely an aspira- 
 tion. It is heard in the words, hat, horse, Hull. It is 
 seldom mute at the beginning; of a word. It is always 
 silent after r; as, rhetoric, rheum, rhubarb, 
 
 if final, preceded by a vowel, is always silent; as,ahi 
 *hah! oh! loh! Sarah, Messiah. 
 
 From the faintness of the sound of this letter, in manj 
 words, and its total silence in others, added to the negli- 
 gence of tutors, and the inattention of pupils, it has hap- 
 pened, that many persons have become almost incapable 
 of acc[uiring its just and full pronunciation. It is, tnere- 
 foTf , incumbent on teachers, to be particularly careful t# 
 inculcate a clear and distinct utterance of this sound. 
 I 
 / has a long sound ; as in fine : and a short one ; as in fin. 
 The long sound is always marked by the e final in mo- 
 nosyllables ; as thin, thine; except give, live. Before r 
 
^4 P.1CGUSH O'RAVtMJktt, 
 
 it is often sounded like a short w; a» flirt, first. In some 
 words it has the sound of e longj as in machine, bomba- 
 zine, magazine. 
 
 The diphthong ia is frequently sounded like ya; as 
 Iq christian, filial, poniard; pronounced christ-yan, &c. 
 It has sometimes the sound of short t; as in carriage, 
 marriage, parliament. 
 
 Je sounds in general like e long; as in grief, thief, gre- 
 nadier. It has also the sound of lon^ i; as in. die, pi^ 
 lie: and sometimes that of short i; as in sieve. 
 
 leu has the sound of long tt^ as in lieu, adieu, purlieu. 
 
 /o, when the accent is upon the first vowel, forms two 
 distinct syllables; as, priory, violet, violent. The ter- 
 minations Hon and sioti, are sounded exactly like the 
 word shun; except when the t is pi^eceded by s or a?; as 
 in question*, digestion, combustion, mixtion, &c. 
 
 The triphthong iau is sometimes pronounced distinctly 
 in two syllables ; as in bilious , various, abstemious. But 
 these vowels often coalesce into one syllable; as in pre- 
 cious, factious, noxious. 
 
 J 
 
 »/ is pronounced exactly like soft g; except in halle- 
 lujah, where it is pronounced like y. 
 
 Kh&» the sound of c hard, aftd is used before e and i, 
 where, according to English analogy, c would be soft; 
 asj^kept, king, skirts. It is not sounded before n; as in 
 knife, knell, knocker. It is never doubled, except in 
 Habakkuk; but c is used before it, to shorten the vowel 
 by a. double consonant; as, cockle, picMe, sucker. 
 L 
 
 iv has always a soft liquid sound; as in love, billow, 
 quarrel. It is^^ sometimes mute; as in half, talk, psalm. 
 The cusrtom ig to double the /at the end of monosyllables ; 
 as, mill^ will, fall; except where a diphthong precedes it; 
 a»^ hail, toil, soil. 
 
 Ze, at the ^d of words, is pro^it>unced like a weak eh 
 in which tiie e is almost mute; a§, table, shuttle. 
 M 
 
 MhifS^ always the same sound; as, murmur, monu- 
 mental; except in comptroller, which is pronounced 
 controller. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. S3 
 
 N ^ ' . 
 
 iV has two sounds: the one pure; as in man, net, 
 noble; the other a ringing sound like ng; as in thank, 
 banquet, &c. 
 
 N is mute when it ends a syllable, and is preceded by 
 m ; as, hymn, solemn, autumn. 
 
 The participial ing must always have ils ringmg sound ; 
 as, writing, reading, speaking. Some writers have sup- 
 posed, that when ing is preceded by ing, it should be 
 pronounced in; as, singing, bringing, should be sounded 
 singin, bringin : but as it is a good rule, with respect 
 to pronunciation, to adhere to the written words, unless 
 custom has clearly decided otherwise, it does not seem 
 proper to adopt this innovation. 
 
 O has a long sound ; as in note, bone, obedient, over : 
 and a short one ; as in not, got^ lot, trot. 
 
 It has sometimes the short sound ofu; as, son, come, 
 attorney. And in some words it is sounded like oo; as 
 in prove, move; and often like cm; as in nor, for, lord. 
 The diphthong oa is regularly pronounced as the long 
 sound of ; as in boat, oat, coal ; except in broad, abroad, 
 groat, where it takes the sound of broad cr; as, brawd, &c. 
 Oe has the sound of single e. It is sometimes long; as 
 in foetus, Antoeci: and sometimes short; as in oecono- 
 niics, oecumenical. In doe, foe, sloe, toe, throe, hoe, and 
 bilboes, it is sounded exactly like long o. 
 
 Oi has almost universally the double sOund of a broad 
 and e lon^ united, as in boy; as boil, toil, spoil, joint, 
 point, anonit: which should never be pronounced as if 
 written bile, spile, tile, &c. 
 
 Oo almost always preserves its regular sound; as in 
 
 moon, soon, food. It has a shorter sound in wool, good, 
 
 foot, and a few others. In blood and flood it sounds like 
 
 , short u. Door and floor should ahvays be pronounced a? 
 
 if written dore and flore. 
 
 The diphthong oic h?s six different sounds. The first 
 and proper sound is equivalent to ow m down; as in 
 bound, found, surround. 
 
 The second is that of short t<; as in enough, trouble, 
 journey. 
 
 The third is that of oo; as in soup, youth, tournament 
 C 
 
^26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 The "fourth is that of long o; as in though, mourij. 
 ]>oultice. * 
 
 The fifth is that of short o; as in cough, trough. 
 
 The sixth is that of awe; as in ought, brought, thought. 
 
 Ow is generally sounded like on in thou; as in brown, 
 dowry, shower. It has also the sound of long 0/ as in 
 snow, grown, bestow. 
 
 The diphthong oi/ is but another form for oi, and is 
 pronounced exactly like it. 
 
 P has always the same sound, except, perhaps, in cup- 
 iioard, where it sounds like /;. It is sometimes mute; as 
 in psalm, psalter, Ptolemy: and between in and ^/ as, 
 rempt, empty, presumptuous. 
 
 Fh is generally pronounced like/; as in philosophy, 
 philanthropy, Philip. 
 
 In nephew and Stephen, it has the sound of v. In 
 apophthegm, phthisis, phthisic, and phthisical, both let- 
 ters are entirely dropped. 
 
 Q is always followed by w; as, quadrant, queen, ({uire. 
 
 Qu is sometimes sounded like A; as, conquer, liquor, 
 risque. 
 
 R 
 
 it has a rough sound ; as in Rome, river, rage : and a 
 smooth one; as in bard, card, regard. 
 
 Be at the end of many words, is pronounced like a 
 weak r; as in theatre, sepulchre, massacre. 
 S 
 
 S has two different sounds. 
 
 A soft and flat sound like z ; as, besom, nasal, dismal. 
 
 A sharp hissing sound; as, saint, sister, Cyprus. 
 
 It is always sharp at the beginning of words. 
 
 At the end of words it takes the soft sound; as, his, 
 was, trees, eyes; except in the words this, thus, us, yes, 
 rebus, surplus, &c.; and in words terminating with oits. 
 
 It sounds like z before ion, if a vowel goes before; a?, 
 intrusion; but like s sharp, if it follows a consonant; as, 
 conversion. It also sounds like z before e mute; as, 
 amuse; and before y final; as, rosy; and in the words, 
 bosom, desire, wisdom, &c. 
 
 S is mute in isle, island, demesne, viscount. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 
 
 T' generally sounds, as in take, tempter. 7* before ?/, 
 when the accent precedes, sounds like tch; as, nature, 
 virtue, arc pronounced, natchure, virtcliue. Ti before a 
 vowel has the sound of sh; as in salvation: except in 
 sucli words as tierce, tiara, &c. and unless an s goes be- 
 fore; as, question; and excepting also derivatives from 
 words ending in ly; as, mighty, mightier. 
 
 7% has two sounds : the one soft and flat; as, thus, 
 ^viiether, heathen: the other liard and sharp; as, thing, 
 think, breath. 
 
 Th, at the beginning of words, is sharp; as in thank, 
 t5\ick, thunder: except in that, then, thus, thither, and 
 some others. T/i, at' the end of words, is also sharp; as, 
 death, breath, mouth: except in with, booth, beneath, &c. 
 
 Th, in the middle of words, is sliarp; as, panther, or- 
 thodox, misanthrope: except worthy, farthing, brethren, 
 and a few others. 
 
 Th, between two vowels, is generally flat in words pure- 
 ly English; as, father, heathen, together, neither, mother. 
 
 Th, between two vowels, in words from the learned 
 languages, is generally sharp; as, apathy, sympathy, 
 A-thens, apothecary. 
 
 Th is sometimes pronounced like simple t; as, Tho- 
 mas, thyme, Thames, asthma. 
 
 '• ' • u 
 
 C^has three sounds, viz. 
 
 A long sound; as in mule, tube, cubic. 
 
 A short sound ; as in dull, gull, custard. 
 
 An obtuse sound, like oo; as in bull, full, bushel. 
 
 The strangest deviation of this letter from its natu -^ 
 round, is in the words busy, business, bury, and buri": ■ 
 which are pronounced bizzy, bizness, berry, and berrirJ. 
 
 »4 is now often used before words beginning with i. 
 long, and an always before those that begin with ii short; 
 as, a union, a university, a useful book; an uproar, an 
 usher, an umbrella. 
 
 The diphthong wi, has sometimes the sound of wa; as 
 'm assuage, persuade, antiquary. It has also the sound 
 if middle a; as in guard, guardian, guarantee. 
 
 Ue is often sounded like we; as in quench, querist, 
 
 onquest. It has also the sound of long w; as in cue, 
 
S8 ENGLISH G-RAMMAR. 
 
 hue, ague. In a few words, it is pronounced like e short j 
 as in ffuest, guess. In some words it is entirely sunk; as 
 in antique, oblique, prorogue, catalogue, dialo^e, &c. 
 
 Ui is frequently pronounced loi; as in languid, anguish, 
 extinguish. It lus sometimes the sound of i long; as in 
 _j>*uide, guile, disguise : and sometimes that of i short ; as 
 m guilt, guinea, Guildhall. In some words it is sounded 
 like long w; as in juice, suit, pursuit: and after r, like 
 oo: as in bniise, fruit, recruit. 
 
 Uo is pronounced like wo; as in quote, quorum, quon- 
 dam. 
 
 Uy has the sound of long e; as in obloquy, soliloquy: 
 pronounced obloquee, &c. ; except buy, and its derivatives. 
 
 Fhas the sound of flat/; and bears the same relation 
 to it, as b does to p, d to f, hard g to k, and z to s. It 
 has also one uniform sound; as, vain, vanitj^, love. 
 W 
 
 W, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of oo ; a? 
 water resembles the sound of ooater; but that it has a 
 stronger and quicker sound than oo, and has a formation 
 essentially different, will appear to any person who pro- 
 nounces, with attention, the words wo, woo, beware; and 
 who reflects that it wilt not admit the article an before 
 it; which oo would admit. In some words it is not 
 sounded ; as in answer, sword, wholesome : it is always 
 silent before r; as in wrap, wreck, wrinkle, wrist, wrong, 
 wry, bewray, &c. 
 
 ^before h is pronounced as if it were after the h; as, 
 why, hwy ; when, hwen ; what, hwat. 
 
 jPFis often joined to o at the end of a syllable, without 
 affecting the sound of that vowel; as m crow, blow> 
 grow, know, row, flow, &c. 
 
 When w is a vowel, and is distinguished in the pro- 
 nunciation, it has exactly the same sound as u would 
 have in the same situation ; as, draw, crew, view, now, 
 sawyer, vowel, outlaw. 
 
 X has three sounds, viz. 
 
 It is sounded like z at the beginning of proper names 
 of Greek original ; as in Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes. 
 It has a sharp sound like ks, when it ends a syllable 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. ||^ 29 
 
 \vith the accent upon it ; as, exit, exercise, excellence ; 
 or when the accent is on the next syllable, if it begins 
 with a consonant ; as, excuse, extent, expense. 
 
 It has, generally, a flat sound like gz, when the ac 
 cent is not on it, and the following syllable begins with 
 a vowel ; as, exert, exist, example ; pronounced, egzert. 
 egzist, egzample. 
 
 F, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of ee ; as, 
 youth, York, resemble the sounds of eeouth, eeork : but 
 that this is not its exact sound, will be clearly perceived 
 by pronouncing the words ye, yes, new-year, m which its - 
 just and proper sound is ascertained. It not only requires 
 a stronger exertion of the organs of speech to pronounce it. 
 than is required to pronounce ee; but its formation is es- 
 sentially different. It will not admit of cm before it, as ee 
 will in the following example ; an eel. The opinion that y 
 and IV, when they begin a word or syllable, take exactly 
 the sUfind of ee and oo, has induced some grammarians t(* 
 assert, that these letters are always vowels or diphthongs. 
 When y is a vowel, it has exactly the same sound as .'• 
 would have in the same situation ; as, rhyme, system, 
 justify, pyramid, party, fancy, hungry. 
 
 JUt 
 
 7i has the sound of an s uttered with a closer com- 
 pression of the palate by the tongue : it is the flat s; as, 
 freeze, frozen, brazen. 
 
 It may be proper to remark, that the sounds of the let- 
 ters vary, as they are differently associated, and that the- 
 pronunciation of these associations depends upon the po- 
 sition of the accent. It may also be observed, that, in 
 order to pronounce accurately, great attention must be. 
 (>aid to tne vowels which are not accented. There \y 
 scarcely any thing which more distinguishes a person of 
 a poor education, from a person of a good One, than the 
 pronunciation of the unaccented vowels. When vowels 
 are under the accent, the best speakers and the lowest of 
 ihe people, with very few exceptions, pronounce them 
 in the same manner; but the unaccented vowels in the 
 mouths of the former, have a distinct, open, and specific 
 sound, while the latter often totally sink them, or change 
 them into some other sound. 
 C 2 
 
30 ^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 
 
 Section 3. The nature of articulation explained. 
 
 A CONCISE account of the origin and formation of the 
 sounds emitted by the human voice, may, perhaps, not 
 improperly, be here introduced. It may gratify the in- 
 genious student, and serve to explain more fully the na- 
 ture of articulation, and the radical distinction between 
 vowels and consonants. 
 
 Human voice is air sent out from the lungs, and so agi- 
 tated or modified in its passage through the windpipe and 
 larynx, as to become distinctly audible. The windpipe i^ 
 that tube, which, on touching the forepart of our throat 
 externally, we feel hard and uneven. It conveys air into 
 the lungs for the purpo-^e of breathing and speech. The 
 top or upper part of tlie windpipe is called the larynx, 
 consisting of four or five cartilages, that may be expand- 
 ed or brought together, by the action of certain muscles 
 which operate all at the same time. In the middle of tiie 
 larynx there is a small opening, called the glottis, througl) 
 which the breath and voice are conveyed. This opening 
 is not wider than one tenth of an inch ; and, therefore, 
 the breath transmitted through it from the lungs, must 
 pass with considerable velocity. The voice thus foimed, 
 IS strengthened and softened by a reverberation from the 
 palate and other hollow places in the inside of the mouth 
 and nostrils ; and as these are better or worse shaped for 
 this reverberation, the voice is said to be more or less 
 agreeable. 
 
 If we consider the many varieties of sound, which one 
 and tl»e same human voice is capable of uttering, together 
 with the smallness of the diameter of the glottis; and 
 reflect, that the same diameter must always produce the 
 same tone, and, consequently, that to every change of ■ 
 tone a correspondent change of diameter is necessary ; we 
 must be filled with admiration at the mechanism of these 
 parts, and the fineness of the fibres that operate in pro- 
 ducing effects so minute, so various, and in their propor- 
 tions so exactly uniform. For it admits of proof, that the 
 diameter of the human glottis is capable of more than 
 sixty distinct degrees of contraction or enlargement, by 
 each of which a different note is produced; and yet the 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY* % 51 
 
 greatest diameter of that aperture, as before observed, 
 does not exceed one tenth of an inch. 
 
 Speech is made up of articulate voices ; and what we 
 call articulation, is performed, not by the lungs, windpipe, 
 or larjnx, but by trie action of the throat, palate, teeth, 
 tongue, lips, and nostrils. Articulation begins not, till 
 the breath, or voice, has passed through the larynx. 
 
 The simplest articulate voices are those which proceed 
 from an open mouth, and are by giammarians called 
 vowel sounds. In transmitting these, the aperture of the 
 mouth may be pretty large, or somewhat smaller, or very 
 small; which is one cause of the variety of vowels; a 
 particular sound being produced by each particular aper 
 tare. Moreover, in passing through an open mouth, the 
 voice may be gently acted tipon^ by the lips, or by the 
 tongue and palate, or by the tongue and throat ; whence 
 another source of variety in vowel sounds. 
 
 Thus ten or twelve simple vowel sounds may be form- 
 ed, agreeably to the plan in page 15; and the learners, 
 by observing the position of their mouth, lips, tongue, &c. 
 when they are uttering the sounds, will perceive that 
 various operations of these organs of speech, are neces- 
 sary to the production of the different vowel sounds ; and 
 that by minute variations they may all be distinctly pro- 
 nounced. 
 
 When the voice, in its passage through the mouth, is 
 totally intercepted, or strongly compressed, there is formed 
 a certain modification of articulate sound, which, as ex- 
 pressed by a character in writing, is called a consonant. 
 Silence is the effect of a total interception ; and indistinct 
 sound, of a strong compression ; and therefore a conso- 
 nant is not of itself a distinct articulate voice ; and its 
 influence in varying the tones of language is not clearly 
 perceived, unless it be accompanied by an opening of 
 the mouth, that is, by a vowel. 
 
 By making the experiment with attention, the student 
 will perceive that each of the mutes is formed by the voi^^e 
 being intercepted, by the lips, by the tongue and palate, 
 or by the tongue and throat ; and that ,wie semi-voweh 
 are formed by the same organs strongly compressing the 
 voice in its passage, but not totally intercepting it. 
 
 The elements of language, according to the different 
 
32 ^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 seats where they are formed, or tlie several organs oi 
 speech chiefly concerned in their pronunciation, are di 
 vided into several classes, and denominated as follows, 
 those are called labials, which are formed by the lips , 
 those dentals, that are formed with the teeth ; palatals. 
 that are formed with the palate; and nasals, that are 
 formed by the nose. 
 
 The importance of obtaining, in early life, a clear. 
 <Ustinct, and accurate knowledge of the sounds of the 
 first principles of language, and a wish to lead young 
 minds to a further consideration of a subject so curious 
 and useful, have induced the compiler to bestow particu- 
 lar attention on the preceding part of this work. Some 
 writers tliink that these subjects do not properly consti- 
 tute any parf of grammar; and consider them as the ex- 
 clusive province of the spelling-book ; but if we reflect, 
 tliat letters and their sounds are the constituent principles 
 of that art, which teaches us to speak and write witli 
 propriety, and that, in general, very little knowledge of 
 their nature is acquired by the spelling-book, we must 
 admit, that they properly belong to gi-ammar; and that 
 a rational consideration of these elementary principles of 
 language is an object that demands the attention of the 
 young grammarian. The sentiments of a very judicious 
 and eminent writer (Quinctilian) respecting this part of 
 grammar, may, perhaps, be properly introduced on the 
 present occasion. 
 
 <^'Let no person despise, as inconsiderable, the elements 
 f>f grammar, because it may seem to ihem a matter of 
 small consequence, to show the distinction between vowels 
 and consonants, and to divide the latter into liquids and 
 mutes. But they -vvho penetrate into the innermost parts 
 of this temple of science, will there discover such refine 
 ment a:nd subtil ity of matter, as are not only proper it 
 sharpen the uikIei s,tandings of young persons, but suffi- 
 cient to ^ive e .zeroise for the most profound knowledge 
 and eruditiun.' 
 
 The elemei; '.vy sounds, under their smallest combi- 
 nation, produce a syllable ; syllables properly combined 
 produce a i-'^Ki; x.ords duly combined produce a se7i- 
 tence; and s^^atences properly combined produce an 'd/«- 
 tion or discourse. Thus it is, says Harris, in his Hermes, 
 
 :;;^^ 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. S3 
 
 that to principles apparently so trivial as a few plain ele- 
 mentary sounds, we owe that variety of articulate voices, 
 which has been sufficient to explain the sentiments of so 
 innumerable a multitude, as all the present and past ge- 
 nerations of men. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Of Syllables^ and the rules for arranging them. 
 
 A SYLLABLE is a sound, either simple or compound- 
 ed, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and 
 constituting a word, or part of a word: as, a, an, ant- 
 Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into 
 their syllables, or of expressing a word by its proper 
 letters. 
 
 The following are the general mles for the division of 
 words into syllables. 
 
 1. A single consonant between two vowels, must be 
 joined to the latter syllable : as, de -light, bri-dal, re- 
 source: except the letter x; as, ex-ist, ex-amine: antl 
 except likewise words compounded ; as, up-on, un-evei>. 
 dis-ease* 
 
 2. Two consonants proper to begin a word, must not 
 be separated; as, fa-ble, sti-fle. But when they come 
 between two vowels, and are such as cannot begin a 
 word, they must be divided ; as, ut-most, un-der, in-sect, 
 er-i-or, cof-fin. 
 
 3. When tliree consonants meet in the middle of a 
 ^vord, if they can begin a word, and the preceding vowel 
 be pronounced long, they are not to be separated; as, 
 de -throne, de-stroy. But when the vowel of the pre- 
 ceding syllable is pronounced short, one of the consonants 
 always belongs to that syllable; as, dis-tract, dis-prove, 
 dis -train. 
 
 4. When three or four consonants, which are not proper 
 to begin a syllable, meet between two vowels, such of them 
 as can begin a syllable belong to the latter, the rest to 
 tlie former syllable: as, ab-stain, com-plete, em-broil, 
 dan-dler, dap-ple, con-strain, hand-some, parch-ment. 
 
 5. Two vowels, not being a diphthong, must be divided 
 into separate syllables j as, cru-el, de-ni-al, so-ci-e-ty, 
 
>^4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 6. Compountlcd words must be traced into the sim| 
 words of which they are composed ; as, ice-house, glow- 
 worm, o\'cr-powor, never-the-less. ♦ < 
 
 7. Grammatical, and other particular terminations, are 
 generally separated : as, teach-est, teach-eth, teach-in»> 
 teach-cr, contend-est, great-er, wretch-ed'j good-ness, 
 free-dom, false-hood. 
 
 The rules for dividing words into syllables, with the 
 reasons in support of them, are expressed at large in th*^ 
 riuthor'sFinglish Spelling-book, ThirteenlK or any sub"-* 
 epient, edition, page 210 — 215. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Of WORDS in general, and the rules /or spelling them. 
 
 Words are articulate sounds, used by common con- 
 sent, as signs of our ideas. 
 
 A word of one syllable is termed a Monosyllable; 
 a word of two syllables, a Dyssyllable ; a word of 
 ihree syllables, a Trisyllable ; and a word of four or 
 ?n()re syllable;*, a Polysyllable. 
 
 All words are either primitive or derivative. 
 
 A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced 
 to any simpler word in the language: as, man, good, 
 content. 
 
 A derivative word is that which may be reduced 
 to another word in English of greater simplicity : as^ 
 inanful, goodness, contentment, Yorkshire.* 
 
 There are many English words which, though com 
 pounds in other languages, are to us primitives : thus, ci 
 cumsnect, circttmvent, circumstance, delude, concav* 
 complicate, &c. primitive words in English; will be found 
 derivatives, when traced in the Latin tongue. 
 
 The orthography of the English Language is attended 
 with much uncertainty and perplexity. But a consider;* 
 ble part of this inconvenience may be remedied, by u ; 
 tendmg to the general laws of formation; and, for tin 
 
 ' A compound word is included under the head of derivative words?': 
 penknife, teacup, looking-glass; may be reduced to other words of greai- ' 
 plicity. 
 
 # 
 
ORTHOGKAPHY. 
 
 end, the learner is presented %ith a view of such gene- 
 niaxims in spelling primitive tnd derivative Avords, as 
 e been ahnost universally received. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 Monosyllables ending with /, /, or s, preceded by a 
 single vowel, double the final consonant: as, staff", mill., 
 pass, &c. The only exceptions are, of, if, as, is, has, was, 
 . his, this, us, and thus. 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 Monosyllables ending with any consonant but/, /,or y, 
 and preceded b)' a single vowel, never double the final 
 consonant ; exc«|)ting add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, 
 -bunn, purr, and bizz. 
 
 RULE ill. 
 
 Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, form 
 tlie plurals of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns^ 
 past participles, comparatives, and suji>erlatives, by chang- 
 ing y into i.* as, spy, spies; I carry, thou earnest; he 
 carrieth, or carries; carrier, carried; happy, happier^ 
 happiest. '^ 
 
 1 he present participle ti ing, retains the y, that i may 
 not be doubled; as, carry, carrying; burj, burying, &c. 
 
 But y, preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the 
 above, is not changed ; as, lx>y, boys : I cloy, he cloys, 
 cloyed, &c. ; except in lay, pay, and say; from which 
 are formed, laid, paid, and said; and their compounds, 
 unlaid, unpaid, unsaid, &c. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon 
 assuming an additional syllable be^nning with a conso- 
 nant, commonly change y into i ; as, happy, happily, hap- 
 piness. But when y is preceded by a vowel, it is very 
 rarely changed in the additional syllable; as, coy, coyly; 
 boy, boyish, boyhood ; annoy, annoyer, annoyance ; joy, 
 joyless, joyful. 
 
 RULE v. ' -\ 
 
 Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable^J^^^ 
 ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, 
 double that consonant, when they take another sellable 
 beginning with a vowel : as, wit, witty ; thin, thmiush; 
 to abet, an abbettor ; to begin, a beginner. 
 
iU ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the 
 preceding syllable, the consonant remains single: as, to 
 toil, toiling ; to offer, an offering ; maid, maiden, &c. * 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 Words ending with any double letter but /, and taking 
 ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, preserve the letter double ; 
 as, harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, success- 
 ful, distressful, &c. But those words which end with 
 double /, and take ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, gene- 
 rally omit one /; as, fulness, skill ess, fully, skilful, ^&c. 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 Ness, less, ly, and ful, added to words ending with si- 
 lent e, do not cut it off: as, paleness, ^ileless, closely, 
 peaceful; except in a few words; as, 'July, truly, awful. 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 Mcnt, added to words ending wit)i silent e, generally 
 preserves the e from elision ; as, abatement, chastisement 
 incitement, &c. The words judgment, abridgment, a( 
 kuowledgment, are deviations from the rule. 
 „ Like other terminations, 7nent changes y into i, when 
 preceded by a consonant ; as, accompany, accompani- 
 ment; merry, merriment. 
 
 RULE /X. 
 
 ^ble and ible, when incorporated into words ending 
 with silfent e, almost always cut it off: as, blame, blam - 
 able; cure, curable; sens^ sensible, &c.: but if c or 
 g soft comes before e in the original word, the e is then 
 preserved in words compounded with able; as, change, 
 changeable; peace, peiceable, &c. 
 
 RULE X. 
 
 When ing or ish is added to words ending with silent 
 e, the e is almt^t unH^ersally omitted: as, place, placing ; 
 lodge, lodging; slave, slavish; prude, prudish. 
 
 RULE XI* 
 
 Words taken into composition, often drop those letters 
 which were superfluous in the simple words: as, handfiil, 
 dunehil, wdthal, also, chilblain, foretel. 
 
 The orthography of a great number of English wordt^ 
 is far from being uniform, even amongst writers of dis- 
 tinction. Thus, honour and honor, inquire and enquire^ 
 negotiate and negociate, control and controul, es^ense and 
 expence, allege 3ind alledge, surprise and surprize, comji^c 
 
OIlTftaGRAl>HY, Sf 
 
 ^m\ compiecU, connexion Sind connection, abridgment and 
 abridgement, and many other orthographical. variations, 
 are to be n;et with in the best modern publications. 
 Some authority for deciding differences of this nature, 
 appears to be necessary : and where can we find one of 
 •equal pretensions with Dr. Johnson's Dictionary? though 
 a few of his decisions do not appear to be warranted by 
 the principles of etymology and analogy, the stable foun- 
 dations ot his improvements.-:— "As the weight of trutii 
 and reason (says Nares in his "Elements of Orthoepy") 
 is irresistible, Dr. Johnson's Dictionary has nearly nxed 
 the external form of our language. Indeed, so conve- 
 nient is it to have one acknowledj^ed standard to recur to; 
 so much preferable, in matters ot (his nature, is a trifling 
 degree of irregularity, to a continual chano-e, and fruit- 
 less pursuit of unattainable perfection ; that it is earnestly 
 to be hoped, that no author will henceforth, on light 
 grounds, be tempted to innovate." 
 
 This Dictionary, however, contains some orthographi- 
 cal inconsistencies, which ought to be rectified : such as, 
 immovable moveable^ chastely chastncss. fertileness fcrtily, 
 sliness slyly, fearlessly ^earlesness, needlessness needlesly. 
 If these, and similar irregularities, were corrected by 
 spelling the words analogically, according to the first 
 word in each part of the series, and agreeably to the ge- 
 neral rules of spelling, the Dictionary would dou])(less, in 
 these respects, be improved. 
 
 D 
 
 
PART 11. 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 »^2 General View of the Parts of Speech, 
 
 The second part of grammar is etymology, which 
 treats of the different sorts of words, their various 
 modifications, and their derivation. 
 
 There. are, in English, nine sorts of words, or, as 
 they are commonly called, parts of speech; namely, 
 the ARTICLE, the substantive or noun, the adjec- 
 tive, the pronoun, the verb, the adverb, the pre- 
 position, the conjunction, and the interjection. 
 
 1. An article is a word prefixed to substantives, to 
 point them out, and to show how far their signification 
 extends : as, a garden, an eagle, the woman. 
 
 2. A Substantive or noun is the name of any thing 
 that exists, or of which we have any notion: as, Lon- 
 don, man, virtue. 
 
 A Substantive may, in general, be distinguished by its 
 taking an article before it, or by its making sense of 
 itself: as, a book, the sun, an apple; temperance, indus- 
 try^ chastity. 
 
 3. An Adjective is a word added to a substanti\^, 
 to express its quality : as, '>An industrious man; a 
 virtuous woman. " 
 
 An Adjectiv^ may be known by its making sense with 
 the addition of the word thing: as, a good tiling; a bad 
 thing: or of any particular substantive ; as, a sweet apple, 
 a pleasant prospect, a lively boy. 
 
 4. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to 
 avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word: 
 as;^ ^ -The man is nappy ; he is benevolent ; ke is use- 
 ful.'^ 
 
ETYMOLOGY- 39 
 
 5. A Verb is a word which signified to be, to do, 
 or- to suffer: as, "lam; I rule; I dm ruled. ^' 
 
 A Verb may generally be distinguished, by its making 
 sense with any of the personal pronouns, or the word to 
 before it: as, I toalk, hep/ays, they write; or, to ivalk, 
 to ptay, to write. 
 
 6. An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, 
 an adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to 
 express some quality or circumstance respecting it: 
 as, *'He reads ivell; a tndy good man; he writes ver*/ 
 correctly. " 
 
 An Adverb may be generally known, by its answering 
 to the question. How? how much? when? or where? as, 
 in the phrase "He reads correctly, ^^ the answer to the 
 question, How does h% read ? is, correctly. 
 
 7. Prepositions serve to connect words with one 
 another, and to show the relation between them: as, 
 "He went from London to York;" "she is above dis- 
 guise;" "they are supported by industry." 
 
 A preposition may be known by its admitting after it a 
 personal pronoun, in the objective case; ?is, with, for, to, 
 &c. will allow the objective case after them ; with him, 
 for her, to them, &c. 
 
 8. A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly 
 used to connect sentences; so as, out of two or more 
 sentences, to make but one: it sometimes connects 
 only words: as, "Thou and he are happy, because 
 you are good." 'fTwo and three are five. " 
 
 9. Interjections are words thrown in between the 
 parts of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions 
 of the speaker: as, "O virtue! how amiable thou art"> 
 
 The observations which have been made, to aid learn 
 IS in distinguishing the parts of speech from one another, 
 may afford them some small assistance ; but it will cer- 
 tainly be much more instructive, to distinguish them by 
 the definitions, and an accurate knowledge of their na- 
 ture. 
 
 In the following passage, all the parts of speech are 
 f.emplified: 
 
40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 1 2 7 Q 5 I Q 3 7 2' 
 
 The power of speech is a feculty peculiar to man^ 
 
 85 5 7474 3 2 7 
 
 and vf&s bestowed on him by his beneficent Creator, for 
 
 1. 3 86 32 8966 
 
 file greatest and most excellent uses; but alas ! how often 
 
 5 4 5 4 7 1 3 7 2- 
 do we pervert it to tlie worst of purposes ! 
 
 In the foregoing sentence, the words the, o, are articles; 
 j)07.vei\ speech, faadty, man, Creator, uses, purposes, arc 
 auhsiantives; pecidiar,benefice7it, greatest, excellent, worst, 
 are adjectives; him, his, we, it, are pronouns; is, ivas, 
 bestowed, do, pervert, are verbs; most^ how, often, are ad- 
 verbs; of, to, on, by, for, are prepositions; and, but, are 
 co^unctions; and ala^ is an interjection. 
 
 The number of the different sorts of words, or of the 
 parts of speech, has been variously reckoned by different 
 grammarians. Some have enumerated ten, making the 
 participle a distinct part; some eight, excluding the par- 
 ticiple, and ranking the adjective under the noun; some 
 four, and others only two, (the noun and the verb,) sup- 
 ])osing the i*est to be contained in the parts of their divi- 
 sion. We have followed those authors, who appear to 
 have given tiiem the most natural and intelligible distri- 
 bution. Some remarks on the division made by the 
 learned Home Tooke, are contained In the first section 
 of the eleventh chapter of etymology. 
 
 The interjection, indeed, seems scarcely worthy of be- 
 in^ considered as a part of artificial language or speech, 
 being rather a branch of that natural^language, which we 
 possess in common with the brute creation,^ and by which 
 we express the sudden emotions and passions that actuate 
 ou-r frame. But, as it is used in written as well as oral 
 language, it may, in some measure, be deemed a part of 
 speech. It is with us a virtual sentence, in which the 
 noun and verb are concealed under an imperfect or indi- 
 gested word. — See this Chapter, in ^Ae Octavo Gram.mar* 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 Cf The Articles. 
 Ah Article is a word prefixed to substantives* tc 
 
ETYMOLOGY. il 
 
 point thetti out, and to show how far their significa- 
 tion extencfs; as, « garden, an eagle, the woman. 
 
 In English, th^re are but two articles, a and the: a 
 becomes cm before a vowel,* and before a silent A,* as, 
 «n acorn, nn hour. But if the h be sounded, the a 
 only is to be used; as, a hand, a heart, a highway. ..^ 
 
 •^ 
 
 The inattention of writers and printers to this neceSsai'V 
 
 distinction, has occasioned tlie frequent use of «w before //. 
 when it is to be pronounced ; and this circumstance, more 
 than any other, has probably contributed to that indistinct 
 utterance, or total omission, of the sound signified by thi? 
 letter, which very often occurs amongst readers and 
 speakers. Jin horse, an husband, an herald, an heathen, 
 and many similar aSvSociations, are frequently to be found 
 in works of taste and merit. To remedy this evil, read- 
 ers should be taught to omit, in all similar cases, the sound 
 of the n, and give the h its full pronunciation. 
 
 Jl or an is styled the indefinite article: it is used in 
 a vague sense, to point out one single thing of the 
 kind, in other respects indeterminate: as, "Give me 
 «book;" "Bring me ^rn apple." ^ 
 
 The is called the definite article; because it ascer- 
 tains what particular thing or things are meant: as, 
 "Give me the book;*' "Bring me //?e apples;'' mean 
 ing some book, or apples, referred to. 
 
 A substantive without any article to limit it, Is 
 generally taken in its widest sense: as, "A, candid 
 temper is proper for man;" that is, for all mankind.." 
 
 The peculiar use and importance of the articles will 
 be seen in the following examples ; "The son of a king — 
 the son of the king — a son of the king." Each of these 
 three phrases has an entirely diiferent meaning, through 
 the different application of the articles a and the. 
 
 ^'Thou art a man," is a very general and harmless po- 
 sition J l3ut, "Thou art YAe man," ^as Nathan said to 
 David,) is an assertion capable of striking terror and re- 
 morse mto tlie heart. 
 
 * A instead of an is now used before words bcgjnniog'.witb.« Icflg. BRpi^se- 
 |«net<{7. It is also u»ed before *»w; osi-Kawiyaene. » ^ 
 
 Da. 
 
42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 
 
 The article is omitted before nouns that imply fhe dif* 
 ferent virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, 
 metals, herbs, &c.; as, "prudence is commendable; false- 
 hood is odious; anger ought to be avoided;" &c. It is 
 not prefixed to a proper name; as, "Alexander," (because 
 that of itself denotes a determinate individual or particu- 
 fer thing, ) except fiir tlie sake of distinguishing a particu- 
 lar family: as, "He is a Howard, or of the family of the 
 Howards ;" or by way of eminence : as, "Every man is 
 not a Newton ;" "He has tlie courage of an Achilles :" 
 or when some noun is understood; ''He sailed down the 
 (river) Thames, in the (ship) Britannia." 
 *^ When an adjective is used with the noun to which the 
 article relates, it is placed between the article and the 
 noun; as, "a good man," "an agreeable woman," "the 
 best friend." On some occasions, however, the adjective 
 precedes a or an; as, ''such a shame," "as great a man 
 as Alexander," "too careless an author." 
 
 The indefinite article can be joined to substantives in 
 the singular number only; the definite article may be 
 joined also to plurals. 
 
 But there appears to be a remarkable exception to this 
 rule, in the .use of tlie adjectives few and many, (the lat- 
 ter chiefly with the word great before it,) whi^h, though 
 joined with plural substantives, yet admit of the singular 
 articles; as, «/ez^7 men; a great many ^n^w. . 
 
 The reason or it is manifest, from the effect which the 
 article has in these phrases ; it means a small or great 
 /lumber collectively taken, and therefore gives the idea, 
 ^f a whole, that is, of unity. Thus likewise, a dozen, a 
 score, a hundred, or a thousand, is one whole number, 
 an aggregate of many collectively taken ; and therefore* 
 still retains the article «, though joined as an adjective 
 to a plural substantive; as, a hundred years, &c. 
 
 The indefinite article is sometimes placed between the 
 adjective many, and a singular noun: as, 
 
 "Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 
 "The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear 
 
 "Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
 "And waste its sweetness on the desert air." 
 
 la these lines-, the phrases, rnmy a gem .and many 9r 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 4S 
 
 flower refer to many gems and manyflowerSy separately* 
 not collectively considered. 
 
 The definite article the is frequently applied to adverlJs 
 in the comparative and superlative degree ; and its effect 
 is, to mark the degree the more strongly, and to define 
 it the more precisely: as, ^'The more I examine it, the 
 better I like it. I like this the least of any." See ti^ 
 Chapter, in the Octavo Grammar. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 Section- 1. Of Substantives in GeneraL 
 
 • A Substantive or Noun is the name of any thing 
 that exists, or of which we have any notion: as, Lon- 
 don, man, virtue. 
 
 Substantives are either proper or common. 
 
 Proper names or substantives, are the names appro- 
 priated to individuals: as, George, Lor.don, Thames. 
 
 Common names or substantives, stand for kinds 
 containing many sorts, or for sorts containing many 
 individuals under them; as, animal, man, tree, &c. 
 
 When proper names have an article annexed to 
 them, they are used as common names: as, '*He i>? 
 the Cicero of his age; he is reading the lives of the 
 Twelve Caesars. 
 
 Common names may also be used to signify indivi- 
 duals, by the addition of articles or pronouns: as, 
 '^The boy is studious; that girl is discreet."* 
 
 To substantives belong gender, number, and case: 
 and they are all of the third person when spoken of, 
 and of the second when spoken to: as, **Blessings 
 attend us on every side; be grateful, children of men P' 
 that is, ye children of men. 
 
 ♦Nouns may also be divided into the following classes : Collective noons, or 
 nouns of multitude ; as. the people, the parliament, the army : Abstratt nouns* 
 or the names of qualities abstracted from their^^ubstances ; as, knowledge* 
 goodness, whiteaess; veriai or pariicipial nouns; ast beginiUiig, readfn^. 
 
44 ENGLISH ©HAMMAR. 
 
 Section 2. Of Gender. 
 
 CrENDER is the distinction of nouns, with regard to 
 sex. There are three genders, the masculine, the 
 FEMININE, and the neuter. 
 
 ^*i^he Masculine Gender denotes animals of the male 
 kiTid: as, a man, a horse, a bull. 
 
 The Feminine Gender signifies animals of the fe- 
 male kind: as, a woman, a duck, a hen.. 
 
 The Neuter Gender denotes objects which are nei- 
 ther males nor females: as, a field, a house, a garden. 
 
 Some substantives, naturally neuter, are, by a figure 
 of speech, converted into the ipasculine or feminine 
 gender: as, when we say of the sun, he is setting; 
 and of a ship, she sails welL/ 
 
 Figuratively, in the English tongue, we commonl}^ give 
 ihe maculine gender to nouns which are conspicuous for 
 the attributes of imparting or communicating, and which 
 are by nature strong and efficacious. Those, again, are 
 made feminine, which are conspicuous for the attributes 
 of containing or bringing forth, or which are peculiarly 
 beautiful or amiable. Upon these principles, the sun is 
 said to be masculine; and the moon, being the receptacle 
 of the sun's light, to be feminine. The earth is generally 
 feminine. A ship, a country, a city, &c. are likewise 
 made feminine, being receivers or containers. Time is 
 always masculine, on account of its mighty efficacy. Vir- 
 tue is feminine from its beauty, and its being the object 
 of love. Fortune and the church are generally put in 
 the feminine gender./ 
 
 The English language has three methods of distinguish- 
 ing the sex, viz. 
 
 1. By different words: as, 
 
 Female. 
 
 Wife. 
 
 Queen. 
 
 Lady. 
 Wowanv 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Bachelor. 
 
 Maid. 
 
 Htisband, 
 
 Boar. 
 
 Sow. . 
 
 S- 
 
 Boy. 
 
 Girl. 
 
 Brotlier. 
 
 Sister. 
 
 Lord. 
 
 Buck. 
 
 Doe. 
 
 Man. 
 

 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 4t 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Bull. 
 
 Cow. 
 
 Master. 
 
 Mistress. 
 
 Bullock 0) 
 Steer. ' 
 
 i* Heifer. 
 
 Milter. 
 Nephew. 
 
 Spawner 
 
 Niece. 
 
 Cock. 
 
 Hen. 
 
 Ram. 
 
 Ewe. 
 
 Dog. 
 Drake. 
 
 Bitch. 
 Duck. 
 
 Singer. 
 
 C Songstress or 
 I Singer. 
 
 Earl. 
 
 Countess. 
 
 Sloven. 
 
 Slut. 
 
 Father. 
 
 Mother. 
 
 Son. 
 
 Daughter. 
 Hind. 
 
 Friar. 
 
 Nun. 
 
 Stag. 
 
 Gander. 
 
 Goose. 
 
 Uncle. 
 
 Aunt. 
 
 Hart. 
 
 Roe. 
 
 Wizai'd. 
 
 Witch. 
 
 Horse. 
 
 Mare. ' 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 2. By a difference of termination : as, 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Abbot. 
 
 Abbess. 
 
 Landgrave. 
 
 Actor. 
 
 Actress. 
 
 Lion. 
 
 Administrator 
 
 . Administratrix.Marquis. 
 
 Adulterer. 
 
 Adultress. 
 
 Master. 
 
 Ambassador. 
 
 Ambassadress 
 
 . Mayor. 
 
 Arbiter. 
 
 Arbitress. 
 
 Patron. 
 
 Baron. 
 
 Baroness. 
 
 Peer. 
 
 Bridegroom. 
 
 Bride. 
 
 Poet. 
 
 Benefactor. 
 
 Benefactress. 
 
 Priest. 
 
 Caterer. 
 
 Cateress. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 Chanter. 
 
 Chan tress. 
 
 Prior. 
 
 Conductor. 
 
 Conductress. 
 
 Prophet. 
 
 Count. 
 
 Countess. 
 
 Protector. , 
 
 Deacon. 
 
 Deaconess. 
 
 Shepherd. 
 
 Duke. 
 
 Ducliess. 
 
 Songster. 
 
 Elector. 
 
 Electress. 
 
 Sorcerer. 
 
 Emperor. 
 Enchanter. 
 
 Empress. 
 Enchantress. 
 
 Sultan. '; 
 
 Executor. 
 
 Executrix. 
 
 Tiger. 
 
 Governor. 
 
 Governess. 
 
 Traitor. 
 
 Heir. 
 
 Heiress. 
 
 Tutor. 
 
 Hero. 
 
 Heroine. 
 
 Viscount 
 
 Hunter. 
 
 Huntress. 
 
 Votary. 
 
 Host. 
 
 Hostess. 
 
 Widower.v 
 
 Jew. 
 
 Jewess. 
 
 "•' 
 
 Female. 
 Landgravine. 
 Liimess. 
 Marchioness. 
 Mistress. 
 Mayoress. 
 Patroness. 
 Peeress. 
 Poetess. 
 Priestess. ' 
 Princess. 
 Prioress. 
 Prophetess, 
 Protectress. 
 Shepherdess. 
 Songstress. 
 Sorceress. 
 Sultaness. 
 Sultana. 
 Tigress. 
 Traitress. ' 
 Tutoress. 
 Viscountess. 
 Votaress. 
 Widow 
 
46 eNGttSI^ OBAMMAR. 
 
 5. Bj,ajiotm, pronoun, or adjective, being prefixed iii 
 the subiatantive : as, 
 
 A cock-sparrow. A hen-sparrow, 
 
 A man-servant. A maid-servant. 
 
 A he -goat. A she -goat 
 
 A he-bear. A she-bear. 
 
 A male child. A female child. 
 
 Male descendants. Female descendants. 
 
 It sometimes happens, that the same noun is either mas- 
 culine or feminine. The words, parent, child, cousin, 
 friend, neighbour, servant, and several others, are used 
 indifferently for males or females. ^ ' 
 
 Nouns with variable terminations contribute to conciscr 
 ness and perspicuity of expression. We have only a suffi- 
 cient number of them to make us feel our want; for when 
 we say of a woman, she is a philosopher, an astronomer, a 
 builder, a weaver, we perceive an impropriety in the ter- 
 mination, which we cannot avoid ; but we can say, th^t 
 she is a botanist, a student, a witness, a scholar, an or- 
 phan, a companion, because these terminations have not 
 annexed to tliem the notion of sex. 
 
 Section 3. Of Number. 
 
 * 
 
 * Number is the consideration of an object, as one 
 or more. 
 
 Substantives are of two numbers, the singular and 
 the plural. 
 
 The singular number expresses but one object; as, 
 a chair, a table. : 
 
 The plural number signifies more objects than one; 
 as, chairs, tables. 
 
 Some nouns, from the nature of the things which 
 they express, are used only in the singular form; as, 
 wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, &c.; others, only in the 
 plural form; as, bellows, scissors, lungs, riches, &c. 
 
 Some words are the same in both numbers; as, 
 deer, sheep, swine, &c. 
 
 The plural number of nouns is generally formed by 
 adding s to thie singular: as, dove, dores; face, faees; 
 
EXYMOLOOY. 47 
 
 thought, thoughts. But when the substantive singu- 
 lar ends in x, en soft, sh, ss, or s, we acid es in the plural: 
 as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes; kiss, 
 kisses; rebus, rebusses. If the singular ends in ch 
 hard, the plural is formed by adding s; as, monarchy 
 monarchs; distich, distich s^^ 
 
 Nouns which end in o, have sometimes es, added to the 
 plural ; as, cargo, /echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, 
 volcano, wo: and sometimes only s,* as, folio, nuncio, 
 punctiUo, seraglio. 
 
 Nouns ending in /, or /e, are rendered plural by the 
 change of those terminations into ves: as, loaf, loaves; 
 half, halves; wife, wives: except grief, relief, reproof, 
 and several others, which form the plural by the addition 
 of 5. Those which end in ^ have the regular plural : 
 as, ruff, ruffs; except, staff, staves. 
 
 Nouns which have y in the singular, with no other vowel 
 in the same syllable, change it into ies in the plural : as, 
 beauty, beauties ; fly, flies. But the y is not changed, 
 when there is another vowel in the sjllabTe : as, key, keys; 
 delay, delays ; attorney, attorneys. 
 
 Some nouns become plural by changing the a of the 
 singular into e: as, man, men; woman, women ; alder- 
 man, aldermen. The words, ox and cliild, form oxen and 
 children; brother, makes either brothers, or brethren. 
 Sometimes the diphthong oo is changed into ee in the 
 plural: as, foot, feet ; goose, geese; tootli, teeth. Louse 
 and mouse make lice and mice. Penny makes peftce, or 
 pennies, wh^n the coin is m^ant: die, dice (for pla^;) 
 tiie, dies (for coining.) 
 
 It is agreeable to analogy, and the practice of the gene- 
 rality of correct writers, to construe the following words 
 as plural nouns; pains, riches, alms: and also, mathe- 
 matics, metaphysics, politics, ethics, optics, pneumatics^ 
 with other similar names of sciences. 
 
 Dr. Johnson says that the adjective much is sometimes 
 a term of number, as well as of quantity. This may ac- 
 count for the instances we meet' with of its associating 
 ^ith pains as a plural noun: as, "much pains." The 
 connexion, however, is not to be recommended. 
 
48 
 
 EKOUSH GRAMMAR. 
 
 The word news is now almost universally considered 
 as belonging to the singular number. 
 
 The noun means is used both in the singular and the 
 plural number. 
 
 The following words, which have been adopted from 
 the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages, are thus dis- 
 tinguised, with respect to number. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural, 
 
 Singulai-. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Cherub. 
 
 Cherubim. 
 
 Datum. 
 
 Data. 
 
 Seraph. 
 
 Seraphim. 
 
 Effluvium. 
 
 Effluvia. 
 
 Antithesis. 
 
 Antitheses. 
 
 Encomium. 
 
 C Encomia or 
 I Encomiums. 
 
 Automaton. 
 
 Automata. 
 
 Basis. 
 
 Bases. 
 
 Erratum. 
 
 Errata. 
 
 Crisis. 
 
 Crises. 
 
 Genius. 
 
 Genii,* 
 
 Criterion. 
 
 Criteria. 
 
 Genus. 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Diaeresis. 
 
 Diaereses. 
 
 Index. 
 
 5 indices or 
 
 Ellipsis. 
 
 Ellipses. 
 
 I Indexes.t 
 
 Emphasis. 
 
 Emphases. 
 
 Lamina. 
 
 Laminae. 
 
 Hypothesis. 
 
 Hypotheses. 
 
 Medium. 
 
 Media 
 
 Metamor- 
 
 5 Metamor- 
 Y phoses. 
 
 Magus. 
 
 Magi. 
 
 phosis. 
 
 Memoran- 
 .1 
 
 f Memoranda 
 
 Phaenomenc 
 
 ►n. Phaenomena. 
 
 -< Memoran- 
 
 Appendix. 
 
 C Appendices or "'^'"* 
 /Appendixes. Radius. 
 
 (_ dums. 
 Radii. 
 
 Arcanum. 
 
 Arcana. 
 
 Stamen. 
 
 Stamina. 
 
 Axis. 
 
 Axes. 
 
 Stratum. 
 
 Strata. 
 
 Calx. 
 
 Calces. 
 
 Vortex. 
 
 Vortices. 
 
 Some words, derived from the learned languages, are 
 confined to the plural number: as, antipodes, credenda, 
 literati, minutiae. 
 
 The follov/ing nouns being, in Latin, both singular and 
 plural, are used in the same manner when adored into 
 our tongue: hiatus, apparatus, series, species. 
 
 SECTION 4. (y Case. 
 
 In English, substantives have three cases, tlie nomi- 
 native, the possessive, and th-e objective. § 
 
 * Getm, wlien denoting aerial spirits: Oeniuses, when signifying persons " 
 geniup. 
 
 t Indexes, \rh(^a it signifies pointfire, pr tgibles of contents: Indices, viheji i<i 
 ffeiTlng to Algebraic quanlidcs. 
 
 ^ The possesHve is soractiirtes called tke genitive case; ar.U ftic o>j^cfivf^ 'iw 
 accusative. 
 
ETYBIOLOGY. 
 
 49 
 
 The nominative case simply expresses the name oi 
 ^ thing, or the subject of the verb: as, "The boy 
 plays;" '*The girls learn." 
 
 The poses&ive case expresses the relation of pro- 
 perty or possession; and has an apostrophe with the 
 letter s coming after it: as, *'The scholar's duty;" 
 ^*My father's house." 
 
 When the plural ends in s, the other s is omitted, 
 ])ut the apostrophe is retained: as, "on eagles' wings;'- 
 ^•The drapers' company." 
 
 Sometimes, also, when the singular terminates in ss^ 
 the apostrophic s is not added: as, *^For goodness' 
 sake; ' **For righteousness' sake." 
 
 The objective case expresses the object of an action, 
 jr of a relation; and generally follows a verb active, 
 or a preposition: as, * 'John assists Charles;" **They 
 live in London." 
 
 English substantives are declined in the followina; 
 ■uanner: 
 
 Nomiiiative Case, 
 Possessive Case, 
 Objective Case. 
 
 Nominative Case. 
 Possessive Case. 
 ^Objective Case. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 A mother. Mothers. 
 
 A mother's. Mothers'. 
 
 A mother. Mothers. 
 
 The man. 
 The man's. 
 The man. 
 
 The men. 
 The men's. 
 Tlie men. 
 
 The English language, to express difterent connexiuii^ 
 and relations of one thing to another, uses, for the mosi 
 part, prepositions. The Greek and Latin among the an- 
 cient, aha some too among the modern languages, ;as the 
 German, vary the termination or ending of the substantive^ 
 to answer tlie same purpose ; an example of which, in the 
 Latin, is inserted, as explanatory of the nature and use, 
 • »f cases, viz. " 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Vominative. 
 
 DOMINUS, 
 
 A Lord. 
 
 Genitive. 
 
 Domini, 
 
 Lord's, of J 
 
 Dative, 
 
 Domino-, 
 
 To a Lord, 
 
 a Lord 
 
50 
 
 Jiaausative, 
 
 Vocative. 
 
 ^9blative. 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 DOMINUM, 
 DOMINE, 
 
 Domino, 
 
 A Lord. 
 O Lord. 
 By a Lord. 
 
 Lords. 
 
 Lords', of Lords. 
 
 To Lords. 
 
 Lords. 
 
 Lords. 
 
 By Lords. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nominative. Domini, 
 
 Genitive. Domino rum, 
 
 Dative. Dominis, 
 
 Accusative. Domino s, 
 
 Vocative. Domini, 
 
 Ablative. Dominis, 
 
 Some writers think, that the relations signified by the 
 addition of articles and prepositions to the noun, may pro- 
 perly be denominated cases, in English; and that, on this 
 principle, there are, in our language, as many cases as 
 m the Latin tongue. But to this mode of forming cases 
 for our substantives, there are strong objections. It would, 
 indeed, be a formal and useless arrangement of nouns, 
 articles, and prepositions. If an arrangement of this 
 nature were to be considered as constituting cases, the 
 Englisli languaf!;e would have a much greater number o^ 
 them than the Greek and Latin tongues : for, as %very 
 preposition has its distinct meanin^and effect, every com- 
 bination of a preposition and article with the noun, would 
 form a different relation, and would constitute a distinct 
 case. — This would encumber our language with many 
 new terms, and a heavy and useless load of distinctions.* 
 
 On the principle of imitating other languages in name«^ 
 
 and forms, without a correspondence in nature and idiom. 
 
 we might adopt a number of declensions, as well as a va 
 
 riety of cases, for English substantives. Thus, five or 
 
 six declensions, distinguished , according to the various 
 
 modes cff forming the plural of substantives, with at least 
 
 half a dozen cases to each declension, would furnish a 
 
 complete arrangement of English nouns^in all their trap 
 
 pings. See on this subject, the fifth and ninth sections 
 
 of the sixth chapter of etymology. 
 
 ■ \ 
 
 * " If cases are to be distinguished by the different significations of Uie noun, or 
 by the dificrent relations it may bear to the governing word, then we l)ave in our 
 language as many cases almost, as there are prepositions : and above a man, be- 
 Beaih a man, beyond a man, round about a man, witliin a man, withouta, man, 
 (fee. shall be cases, as well as, of a man, to a man, and with a man." *; 
 
 Dr. Betttie. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 51 
 
 But though this variety of cases does not at all corres- 
 pond \Vith the idiom of our language, there seems to be 
 great propriety in admitting a case in English substan- 
 tives, which shall serve to denote the objects of active 
 verbs and of prepositions ; and which is, therefore, pro- 
 perly termed the objective case. The general idea of case 
 doubtless has a reference to the termination of the noun : 
 but there are many instances, both in Greek and Latin, in 
 which the nominative and accusative cases have precise- 
 ly the same form, and are distinguished only by tne rela- 
 tion they bear to other words in the sentence. We are 
 therefore warranted, by analogy, in applying this prin- 
 ciple to our own language, as tar as utility, and the idiom 
 01 it, will admit. Now it- is obvious^ that in English, a 
 noun governed by an active verb, or a preposition, is 
 very differently circumstanced, from a noun in the nomi- 
 native, or in the possessive case; and that a comprehen- 
 sive case, correspondent to that difference, must be useful 
 and proper. The business of parsing, and of showing the 
 connexion and dependence of words, will be most con- 
 veniently accomplished, by the adoption of such a case, 
 and the irregularity of having our nouns sometimes placed 
 in a situation, in which they cannot be said to be in any 
 case at all, will be avoided. 
 
 The author of this work long doubted the propriety of 
 assigning to English substantives an objective case: but 
 a renewed, critical examination of the subject; an exa- 
 mination to which he was prompted by the extensive and 
 increasing demand for the grammar, has produced in his 
 mind a full persuasion, that tlie nouns of our language are 
 entitled to this comprehensive objective case. 
 
 When the thin^ to which another is said to belong, is 
 expressed by a circumlocution, or by many terms, the 
 sign of the possessive case is commonly added to the last 
 term: as, "The king of Great Britain's dominions." 
 
 Sometimes, though rarely, two nouns in the possessive 
 case immediately succeed each other, in the following 
 form: "My friend's wife's sister;" a sense which would 
 be better expressed by saying, "tlie sister of my friend's 
 wife ;" or, ' 'my friend's sister-in-law." Some grammar! - 
 ans say, tliat in each of the following phrases, viz. "A 
 
52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 book of my brother's," «A servant of the queen's,'^ "A 
 soldier of the king's," there are two genitive cases; the 
 first phrase implying, "one of the books of my brother," 
 the next, "one of the sei-vants of the queen," and the last, 
 '^one of the soldiers of the king." But as the preposition 
 governs tl>3 objective case ; and as there are not, m each 
 of tliese sentences, two apostrophes with the letter 5 com- 
 ing after tliem, we cannot with propriety say, that there 
 are two genitive cases* 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OP ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Section* 1 i Of the nature of Adjectives^ and the degrees 
 of comparison. 
 
 An Adjective is a word added to a substantive, to 
 express its quality: as, **An industrious m2iVi','*' "A 
 virtuous vs^oman;" "A benevolent mind.'' 
 
 In English, the adjective is not varied on account of 
 ojender, number, or case. Thu&v^re say, **A careless 
 boy ; careless girls. " 
 
 The only variation which it admits, is that of the 
 degrees of comparison. 
 
 There are commonly reckoned three degrees of 
 comparison; the positive, the comparative, and the 
 
 SUPERLATIVE^ 
 
 Grammarians have generally enumerated these three 
 degrees of comparison ; but the first of them has been 
 thought by some writers, to be, impr^perlv^ termed a de- 
 gree of comparison ^ as it seems to be nothing more than 
 the simple form of the adjective, and not to imply either 
 comparison or degree. This opinion may be well found- 
 ed, unless the adjective be supposed to imply comparison 
 or degree, by containing a seci*et or general reference to 
 other things : as, when we say, "he is a tall man," "this 
 is a fair day," we make some reference to the ordinary 
 size of men, and to diiferent weather. 
 
 ' The Positive State expresses the quality of an ob- 
 ject, without any increase or diminution: as, gpod, 
 wi$e, great. 
 
ETYMOLO&Y* 53 
 
 The Comparative Degree increases or lessens the 
 positive in signification : asy wiser, greater, less wise* 
 
 The Superlative Degree increases or lessens the 
 positive to the highest or lowest degree: as, wisest, 
 greatest, least wise. 
 
 The simple word, or positive, becomes the compa- 
 rative, by adding r or er; and the superlative, by 
 adding sr or est, to the end of it: as, wise, wiser, 
 wisest; great, greater, greatest. And the adverbs 
 more and most, placed before the adjective, have the 
 same effect: as, wise, more wise, most wise^ 
 
 The termination ish may be accounted in some sort n 
 degree of comparison, by wliich the signification is dimin- 
 ished below the positive : as, black, blackish, or tending 
 to blackness ; salt, saltish, or having a little taste of salt. 
 
 The word rather is verj properly used to express a 
 small degree or excess of a quality : as, "She is rather 
 profuse in her expenses." 
 
 .. Monosyllables, for the most part^ are compared by er 
 and es^; and dissyllables by ?wore and 77iost: as, mild, 
 milder, mildest; irugal, more frugal,, most frugal. Dis 
 syllables ending in y; as, happy, lovely; and in le after 
 a mute, as, able, ample ; or accented on the last syllable, 
 as, discreet, polite; easily admit of er and est: as, hap- 
 pier, happiest; abler, ablest; politer, politest. Words 
 of more than two syllables hardly ever admit of those 
 terminations. 
 
 In some words the superlative is formed by adding thi" 
 adverb most to the end of them ; as, nethermost, utter- 
 most, or utmost, undermost, uppermost, foremost. 
 
 In English, as in most languages, there are some words 
 of very common use, (in which the caprice of custom is 
 apt to get the better of analogy, ) that are irregular iii 
 this respect: as, "good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; 
 little, less, least; much or many, more, most; near, 
 nearer, nearest or next; late, later, latest or last; old, 
 older or elder, oldest or eldest;" and a few others. 
 '"'An adjective put without a substantive,with the definite 
 article before it, becomes a substantive in sense and 
 meaning, and is written as a substantive ; as, "Providence 
 rewards the good, and punishes the bad,^^ ^ 
 E2. 
 
S4 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 subject of any discourse : first, the person who speaks,, 
 may speak of himself ; secondly, he may speak of the per- 
 son to whom he addresses himself; thirdly, he may speak 
 of some other person : and as the speakers, the persons 
 spoken to, and the other persons spoken of, may be many, 
 so each of these persons must have the plural number. 
 
 The numbers of pronouns, like those of substan- 
 tives, are two, the singular and the plural: as, /, tlioii^ 
 he; ive. ye or yoUf they. 
 
 Gender has respect only to the third person singu- 
 lar of the pronouns, he, she, it. lie is masculine ; she 
 is feminine; 27 is neutery 
 
 The persons speaking and spoken to, being at the same 
 time the subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be pre- 
 sent; from which, and other circumstances, their sex is 
 commonly known, and needs not to be marked by a dis- 
 tinction of gender in the pronouns: but the third person 
 or thing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects 
 unknown, it is necessary that it should be marked by a 
 distinction of gender; at least when some particular per- 
 son or thing is spoken of, that ought to be more distinctly 
 marked : accordingly the pronoun singular of the third 
 person, has the three genders, he, she, it. 
 
 #• Pronouns haye three cases; the nominative, the 
 possessive, and the objective. 
 
 The objective case of a pronoun has, ii\. general, a form 
 tlifferent from that of the nominative, or the possessive 
 rase. 
 
 The personal pronouns are thus declined: 
 
 Person. 
 
 Case. 
 
 First/''0 
 
 Norn. 
 
 ■- :, r. ■ 
 
 Pass. 
 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Second, 
 
 Norn. 
 
 
 Foss. 
 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Third. 
 
 Norn. 
 
 Mas, 
 
 Foss. 
 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Singular. 
 I. 
 
 Mine. 
 
 Me. 
 
 Thou. 
 
 Thine. 
 
 Thee. 
 
 He. 
 
 His. 
 
 Him. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 We. 
 
 Ours. 
 
 Us. 
 
 Ye or you. 
 
 Yours. 
 
 You. 
 
 They. 
 
 Theirs. 
 
 Them. , 
 
 -t 
 

 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Person. 
 
 Case. 
 
 Singular, 
 
 Third. 
 
 Norn. 
 
 . She. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Hers, 
 
 
 Obj. . 
 
 Her. 
 
 Third. 
 
 Noni. 
 
 It. 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 Foss. 
 
 Its. 
 
 
 Obj. 
 
 It. 
 
 Sf 
 
 Plural, 
 
 They. 
 
 Theirs. 
 
 Them. 
 
 They. 
 
 Theirs. 
 
 Them. 
 
 Section 2. Of the Relative Pronouns, 
 
 Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in general,- 
 to some word or phrase going before, which is thence 
 called the antecedent: they are, who, which^ and that: 
 as, **The man is happy t^^/io lives virtuously.^'* 
 
 fFhat is a kind of compound relative, including both 
 the antecedent and the relative, and is mostly equiva- 
 lent to that which: as, **This is what I wanted;" that 
 is to say, "Me thing which I wanted." 
 
 Who is applied to persons, which to animals and in- 
 animate thmgs: as, ''He is ^frienfl, who is faithful in 
 adversity;" "The bird, which sung so sweetly, is 
 flown;" "This is the tree, which produces no fruit." 
 
 T7iat, as a relative, is often used to prevent the too 
 frequent repetition of who and which. It is applied to 
 both persons and things: as, '^ffe that acts wisely de- 
 serves praise;" "Modesty is a quality that highly 
 csdorns a woman." 
 
 TVho is of both numbers, and is thus declined: 
 
 Singular and Plural. 
 Nominative, Who. 
 
 Possessive, Whose. 
 
 Objective. Whom. 
 
 TVhich, that, and what, are likewise of both numbers, 
 but they do not vary their teiinination ; except that whosi 
 is sometimes used as the possessive case of which: as, 
 *'Is there any other doctrine whose followers are pu- 
 nished ?" 
 
 * The relative pronoun, when used interrogatively, relates to a word or phrase 
 which i3 not antecedmu hut 8ub$t^v.ent, to the relative. S«e note undei U« Y^ 
 Rule of Syntax. 
 
58 ENGUSft GRAMMAR. 
 
 ."And the fruit 
 
 Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste 
 
 Brought death." * milton* 
 
 "Pure the joy without allaj, 
 
 Whose very rapture is tranquillity." young » 
 
 "The lights and shades, whose well accorded strife 
 Gives all the strength and colour of our life." pope. 
 
 ''This is one of the clearest characteristics of its being 
 a religion whose origin is divine." blair. 
 
 By the use of this license, one word is substituted for 
 three: as, "Philosophy, i^^Aose end is to instruct us in the 
 knowledge of nature," for, "Philosophy, ^Aeend of which 
 is to instruct us," &c. 
 
 Wio, which,2ind ivhat, have sometimes the words soever 
 and ever annexed to them; as, 'Whosoever or idhoever^ 
 ivhichsoever or whichever^ whatsoever or whatever:''^ but 
 they are seldom used in modern style. ♦ 
 
 -i-^The word that is sometimes a relative, sometimes a de- 
 monstrative pronoun^iind sometimes a conjunction. It is 
 a relative, when it may be turned into who or which with- 
 out destroying the sense: as, ''They that (who) reprove 
 us, may be our best friends;" "From every thing that 
 (which) you see, derive instruction." It is a demonstra- 
 l^e pronoun when it is followed immediately by a sub- 
 stantive, to which it is either joined, or refers, and which 
 it limits or qualifies: as, ''That boy^is industrious;" 
 "That belongs to me;" meaning, that book,, that desk, 
 &c. It is a conjunction, when it joins sentences together, 
 and cannot be turned into who or which, without destroy- 
 ing the sense : as, "Take care that every day be well 
 employed." '^'I hope he will believe tfiat I have not 
 acted improperly ."«^- 
 
 Who, which, and what, are called Interrogatives, when 
 they are used in asking questions; as, "Who is he?" 
 "TVhich is the book ?" "What art thou doing?" 
 
 JVhether was formerly made use of to signify inten-o- 
 gation: as, "Wliether of these shall I choose?" but it is 
 now seldom used, the interrogative which ifeing substi- 
 tuted for it. Some Grammarians think that the use of it 
 should be revived,^ as, like either and neither, it points to 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 59 
 
 the dual number; and would contribute to render our 
 expressions concise and definite. 
 
 Some writers have classed the interrogatives &s a sepa- 
 rate kind of pronouns ; but they are too nearly related 
 to the relative pronouns, both in nature and form, to ren- 
 der such a division proper. They do not, in fact, lose 
 the character of relatives, when they become interroga- 
 lives. The only difference is, that without an interroga- 
 tion, the relatives have reference to a subject wliich is 
 antecedent, definite, and known ; ivith an interrogation, 
 to a subject which is subsequent, indefinite, and unknown, 
 and which it is expected tliat the answer should express 
 and^ ascertain. 
 
 Section 3. Of the Adjective Pronouns. 
 
 Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, particu 
 patingthe properties both of pronouns and adjectives. 
 
 The adjective pronouns may be subdivided intc 
 four sorts, namely, the possessive, the distributive, the 
 demonstrative, and the indefinite. 
 
 1. The possessive are those which relate to posses 
 sion or property. There are seven of them ; viz. mi/^ 
 thy, his, her, our, "^Mr, their. 
 
 Mine and thine, instead of my and thy, were formerly 
 Used before a substantive, or adjective, beginning with a 
 vowel, or a silent h: as, **Blot out all mine iniquities." 
 
 The pronouns, his, mine, thine, have the same form, 
 whether they are possessive pronouns, or the possessive 
 cases of their respective personal pronouns. See note to 
 Rule 10. ^ 
 
 A few examples will probably assist the learner, to dis 
 tinguish the possessive pronouns from the genitive-cases 
 of their correspondent personal pronouns. 
 
 The following sentences exemplify the possessive pro- 
 nouns. — ''My lesson is finished; Thy books are defaced; 
 He loves his studies; She performs her duty; We ownt/. 
 our faults; Your situation is distressing; I admire their 
 virtues." ^ 
 
 The following are examples of the possessive cases of 
 the personal pronouns, — ''This desk is mine; the other 
 is thine; These trinkets are his; those are hers; Thi« 
 
60 ENGLISH GRAMMAH. 
 
 house is ours, and that is yours ^ Theirs is very commo- 
 dious." 
 
 1 Some grammarians consider its as a possessive pronoun. 
 ' The two words own and self, are used in conjunction 
 with pronouns. Own is added to possessives, both singu- 
 lar and plural: as, "iWy own hand,' our oz^^'n house." It 
 is emphatical, and implies a silent contrariety or opposi- 
 tion: as, "I live in my own house," that is, "not in a 
 hired house." Self is added to possessives: as, myself 
 yourselves; and sometimes to personal pronouns : as, him- 
 self itself themselves. It then, like own., expresses em- 
 phasis and opposition: as, "I did this myself," that is, 
 *'not another;"^ or it forms a reciprocal pronoun: aS) 
 *^*We hurt ourselves by vain rage." 
 
 Himself themselves, are now used in the nominative 
 case instead of hisself their selves; as, '^He came him* 
 self;" '*He himself shall do this;" "They performed it 
 themselves." 
 
 2. The distributive are those which denote the per- 
 sons or things that make up a number, as taken sepa- 
 rately and singly. They are eacli, every, either: as, 
 ^^Each of his brothers is in a favourable situation;" 
 ^^ Every man must account for hi|i[i§elf;'' *'I have not 
 Sj3en ei7/ier of them. ^ 
 
 \ .Each relates to two or more persons or things, and 
 Vi^nifies either of the two, or every one of any number 
 taken separately. 
 
 Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies 
 each one of them all taken separately. This pronoun 
 was formerly used apart from its noun, but it is now con- 
 stantly annexed to it, (^xcept in legal proceedings.^ as in 
 the phrase, "all and every of them." 
 
 Either relates to two persons or things taken separately, 
 and signifies tlie one or the other. To say, "either of 
 the three," is therefore improper. 
 
 Neither imports ''•not either f' that is, not one nor the 
 other: as, "Neither of my friends was there." 
 
 3. The demonstrative are those which precisely point 
 v)ut the subjects to which they relate: this and that, 
 these and those, are of this class: as, ^^This is true 
 ohaiity; tlmt is only its image." 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 61 
 
 7%i5 refers to the nearest person or thing, and that 
 to the most distant: as, *'77«s man is more intelligent 
 than that. " This indicates the latter or last mentioned; 
 that, the former or first mentioned: as, '^Both wealth 
 and poverty are temptations; that, tends to excite 
 pride, this, discontent.'" 
 
 Perhaps the words former and latter may be properly 
 ranked amongst the demonstrative pronouns, especially in 
 many x)f their appUcations. The following sentence may 
 serve as an example: "It was happy for the state, that 
 Fabius continued in the command with Minucius : the 
 former^ s phlegm was a check upon the latter^ s vivacity." 
 
 4. The Irulefinite are those which express their sub- 
 jects in an indefinite or general manner. The fol- 
 lowing are of this kind: some, Uher^ any, one, all, 
 such, &c^^ 
 
 Of these pronouns, only the words one and other are 
 varied. One has a possessive case, which it forms in the 
 same manner as substantives : as, one, one^s. This word 
 has a general signification, meaning people at large ; and 
 sometimes also a peculiar reference to tlie person who is 
 speaking: as, "One o"ght to pity the distresses of mai^ 
 kind." "0;ie is apt to love one's self." This word is 
 often used, by good writers, in the plural number: as, 
 **The great ones of the world;" '^The boy wounded the 
 t)ld bird, and stole the young ones-;^^ *'My wife and the 
 little ones are in good health." 
 ♦ Other is declined in the following manner : 
 
 Singi^^r. Plural. 
 
 Nom. Other Others, 
 
 Poss. Other^s Others\ 
 
 Obj. Other Others, 
 
 The plural others is only used when apart from tlte 
 noun to which it refers, whether expressed or understood ; 
 as, <'When you have perused these papers, I will send 
 you the others,^^ '*He pleases some, but he dis^ists 
 others^ When this pronoun is joined to nouns, either 
 lingular or plural, it has no variation : as, 'Hhe otRer 
 luan," *Hhe other men." 
 F 
 
63 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ^ The following phrases may seWe to exemplify the inde- 
 finite pronouns. "/Some of you are wise and good;" "A 
 few of them were idle, the others industrious;" "Neither 
 is there any that is unexceptionable;" '^One ought to 
 know one's own mind ;" ''They were all present ;" ''Such 
 is the state of man, that he is never at rest;" ^'Some are 
 happy, while others are miserable." 
 
 The word another is composed of the indefinite article 
 prefixed to the word other. 
 
 None is used in both numbers: as, ^'None is so deaf as 
 he that will not hear;" ''None of those are equal to 
 these." It seems originally to have signified, according 
 to its derivation, not one^ and therefore to have had no 
 plural; but there is good authority for the use of it in the 
 }>lural number : as, "None- that go unto her return again." 
 Prov. ii. 19. *'Terms of peace were none vouchsaf 'd." 
 Milton. " None of them are varied to express the gen- 
 der." "None of them have diiferent endings for i^e num- 
 bers." Lowth's Introduction. "None of their produc- 
 tions are extant." Blair. 
 
 We have endeavoured to explain the nature of the 
 adjective pronouns, and to distinguish and arrange them 
 intelligibly : but it is difficult, perhaps imjjracticable, to 
 define and divide them in a manner perfectly unexcep- 
 tionable. Some of them, in particular, may seem to re- 
 quire a different arrangement. We presume, however, 
 that, for every useful purpose, the present classification is 
 sufficiently correct. All the pronouns, except the per- 
 sonal and relative, may indeed, in a general view of them, 
 be considered as definitive pronouns, because they defins?- 
 or ascertain the extent of the common name, or general 
 term, to which they refer, or are joined; but as each 
 class of them does this, more br less exactly, or in a man 
 iier peculiar to itself, a division adapted to this circum 
 stance appears to be suitable to the nature of things, and 
 the understanding of learners. 
 
 - It is the opinion of some respectable grammarians, that 
 the words this, that, any, soine, such, his, their, our, &c. are 
 pronouns, when they are used separately from the nouns 
 lo which they relat» ; but that, when they are joined to 
 those nouns, they are not to be considered as belon^in^ 
 to this species of wor^s; because, in this association. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 68 
 
 they rather ascertain a substantive, than supply th6 place 
 of one. They assert that, in the phrases, ''give nte 
 /to," "this is John's," and ''such were some of you," 
 the words in italics are pronouns; but that, in the fol- 
 lowing phrases, they are not pronouns; ''this book is 
 instructive," "some boys are ingenious," "my health is 
 declining," "owr hearts are deceitful," &c. Other gram- 
 marians think, that all these words are pure adjectives; 
 and that none of them can prbperly bft called pronouns; 
 as the genuine pronoun stands by itself, without the aid 
 of a noun expressed or understood. They are of opinion, 
 that in the expressions, "Give me that," "this is John's," 
 &c. the noun is always understood, and must be supplied 
 in the mind of the reader: as, "Give me that bookf"^ 
 "this book is John's;" "and such persons were some pe,i'- 
 sons amongst you." 
 
 Some writers are of opinion that the pronouns should 
 be classed into substwirive 2Lud adjective pronouns. Under 
 the former, they include the personal and the relative; 
 Under the latter, all the others. But this division, though 
 a neat one, does not appear to be accurate. All the rela- 
 ,tive pronouns will not range under the substantive head.— 
 "We have distributed these parts of grammar, in the mode 
 which we think va.^»% correct and intelligible : but, for the 
 information of students, and to direct then- inquiries on 
 the subject, we state the different opinions oT sev^l 
 judicious grammarians. See the Octavo Grammar oh 
 these points. 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 
 OF VERBS. 
 
 Section 1. Of the nature of Verbs in general. 
 
 A VERB is a word which signifies to be, to do, or 
 to suffer; as, *'I am, T rule, I am ruled." 
 
 Verbs are of three kinds; active, passive, and 
 NEUTER. They are also divided into regular, ir- 
 regular, and defective. 
 
 A Verb Active expresses an action, and necessa- 
 rily implies an agent, and an object acted upon: as. 
 to love; "I love Penelope." 
 
64 ENGLISH OBAS^AB. 
 
 A Verb Passive expresses a passion or a suffering*, 
 Or the receiving of an action; and necessarily implies 
 an object acted upon, and an agent by which it is 
 acted upon: as, to be loved; **Penelope is loved by 
 me/' 
 
 A Verb Neuter expresses neither actioa nor pas- 
 sion," but being, or a state of being: as, **I am, I 
 sleep, I sit/\* 
 
 The verb active is also called transitive, because the 
 action passes over to the object, or has an effect upon 
 some other thing: as, "The tutor instructs his pupils;" 
 "I esteem the man." 
 
 Verbs neuter may properly be denominated intransi- 
 tlves, because the effect is confined within the subject, 
 and does not pass over to any object: as, "I sit, he lives, 
 they sleep." 
 
 Some of the verbs that are usually ranked among neu- 
 ters, make a near approach to the nature of a verb active; 
 but they may be distinguislied from it by their being in- 
 transitive : as, to run, to walk, to fly, &e. The rest are 
 more obviously neuter, and more clearly expressive of a 
 middle state between action and passion; as, to stand, to 
 lie, to sleep, &c. 
 
 In English, many verbs are used both in an active and a 
 ^i^uter signification, the construction only determining of 
 which kind they are: as, to flatten, signifying to inake 
 even or level, is a verb active; but when it signifies to 
 grow dull or insipid, it is a verb neuter. 
 
 A neuter verb, by the addition of a preposition, may 
 become a compound active verb. To smile is a neuter 
 verb; it cannot, therefore, be followed by an objective 
 
 * Verbs have been distinguished by sonre writers, into the following kinds. 
 
 1st. Active-transitive, or those which denote an action that passed from the 
 agent to some object : as, Caesar conquered Pompey. 
 
 2d. Active-intransitive, or those which express that kind of action, which has 
 no effect upon any thing beyond the agent himself: as, Csesar walked. 
 
 3d. Passive, or those which express, not action, but passion, whether pleasing 
 or painful: as, Portia was loved; Pompey was conquered. 
 
 4th. JVeuttr, or those which express an attribute that consists neither in action 
 nor passion: as, Ciesar stood. 
 
 This appears to be an orderly arrangement. But if the class ot active-intran- 
 sitive vei bs were admitted, it would rather perplex than assist the learner : for 
 the ditference between verbs active and neuter, as transitive and intraositive, i* 
 easy and obvious ; but the difference between veibs absolutely neuter and Intrar 
 sitively active, is not always dear. It is, indeed, often very difficuU to be asce 
 tained. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 65 
 
 case, nor be construed as a passive verb. We cannot say, 
 she smiled him, or, he was smiled. But to smile on being 
 a compound active verb, we properly sav, she smiled on 
 him; he was smiled on by fortune in every undertaking. 
 
 W Auxiliary or helping verbs, are those by theifelp of 
 which the English verbs are principally conjugated. 
 They are, do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, with their 
 variations; and let and must, which have no variation^ 
 
 In our definition of the verb, as a part of speech which 
 signifies to be, to do, or to suffer, &c. we have included 
 every thing, either expressly or by necessary consequence, 
 that is essential to its nature, and nothing that is not es- 
 sential to it. This definition is warranted by the authority 
 of Dr. Lowth, and of many other respectable writers on 
 grammar. There are, however, some grammarian, who 
 consider assertion as the essence of the verb. But^s th^, 
 participle and the infinitive, if included in it, would prove 
 insuperable objection's to their scheme, they have, without 
 hesitation, denied the former a place in the verb, and de- 
 clared the latter to be merely an ab&tract noun. This ap- 
 pears to be going rather too far in support of an hypothesis. 
 It seems to be incumbent on these grammarialis, to reject 
 also the imperative mood. What part of speecli would 
 they make the verbs in the following sentence? "Depart 
 instantly: improve your time: forgive us our sins." Will 
 it be said, that the verbs in these phrases are assertions? 
 
 In reply to these questions, it has been said, tlmt **De- 
 part instantly," is an expression equivalent to, '*I desire 
 you to depart instantly;" and that as the latter phrase im 
 plies affirmation or assertion, so does the former. But, 
 supposing the phrases to be exactly alike in sense, the 
 reasoning is not conclusive. 1st. In the latter phrase, the 
 only part ijnplying affirmation, is, "I desire." The words 
 "to depart," are in the infinitive mood, and contain no 
 assertion: they affirm nothing. 2nd. The position is not 
 tenable, that "Equivalence in sense implies similarity in 
 gi-ammatical nature." It proves too much, and therefore 
 nothing. -This mode of reasoning would ponfound the 
 acknowledged grammatical distinction of words. A pro • 
 
 " « Let, as a principal ve^, hiis latest and lettcth; but as a helping verb, U ad* 
 '"aits of no variation. 
 F.2 
 
66 ENGLISH ORAISMAR. 
 
 notin, on this principle, may be proved to be a noun;' m 
 noun, a verb; an adverb, a noun and preposition; the 
 superlative degree, the comparative; the imperative mood, 
 the indicative; the future tense, the present; and so on: 
 because thej may respectively be resolved into similar 
 meanings. Thus, in the sentence, '*I desire you to de- 
 part," the words to depart, may be called a noun, because 
 they are equivalent in sense to the noun departure, in the 
 following sentence, "I desire your departure." The words 
 "depart instantly," may be proved to be, not the impera- 
 tive mood with an adverb, but the indicative and infinitive, 
 with a noun and preposition; for they are equivalent to 
 *'I desire you to depart in an instant." The superlative 
 degree in this sentence, "Of all acquirements virtue is the 
 most valuable," may pass for the comparative, because it 
 convtj^s the same sentiment as, ''Virtue is more valuable 
 than every other acquirement." ^ 
 
 * We shall not pursue this subject any further j as the 
 reader must be satisfied, that only the word desire, in the 
 equivalent sentence, implies affirmation; and that one 
 phrase may, in sense, be equivalent to another, though 
 its grammatical nature is essentially different. 
 
 To verbs belong number, person, Moon^and tense* 
 
 ; Section 2. Of Number and JPer son. 
 
 Verbs have two numbers, the Singular and the 
 Plural: as, ''Irun, we run," &c. 
 
 In each number there are three persons; as^ 
 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 First Person, I love. We love. 
 
 Second Person. Thou lovest Ye-^r you love. 
 
 Third Person, He loves. They love. / 
 
 Thw the verb, in some parts of it, varies its endings, to 
 express, or agree with, different persons of the same num- 
 ber: as, ''I love, thou lovest; he loveth, or loves:^^ and al- 
 so to express different numbers of the same person: as:, 
 "thou lovest, ye /ore; he loveth, they /ove." In the plural 
 number of the verb, there is no variation of ending to ex 
 presi the different persons; and the verb, ia the three pe^ - 
 
£TYHOLOGYi ' 67 
 
 sons plural, is the same as it is in the first person singular. 
 Yet this scanty provision of terminations is sufficient for 
 all the purposes of discourse, and no ambiguity arises from 
 it: ^e verb being always attended, either with the noun 
 expressing the subject acting or acted upon, or with the 
 pronoun representing it. For this reason, the plural ter- 
 mination in en, they loven, they weren, formerly in use, was 
 laid aside as unnecessary, and has long been obsolete. 
 
 Section 3. Of Moods and Participles, 
 • 
 
 • Mood or Mode is a particular form of the verb, 
 showing the manner in which the being, action,, or 
 passion, is represented. 
 
 The nature of a mood may be more intelligibly explain- 
 ed to the scholar, by observing, that it consists in the 
 change which the verb undergoes, to signify various inten- 
 tions of the mind, aiidf various modifications and circum- 
 stances of action: which explanation, if compared witli 
 the following account and uses of the different moods, 
 will be found to agree with and illustrate them. 
 
 I There are five moods of verbs, the indicative, the 
 IMPERATIVE, the POTENTIAL, the SUBJUNCTIVE, and 
 
 the INFINITIVE. 
 
 The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares 
 a thing: as, *'He loves, he is loved:'' or it asks a 
 question: as, '^Does he love?" **Is he loved?" 
 
 The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, ex- 
 horting, entreating, or permitting: as; * 'Depart thou 3 
 mind ye J let us stay; go in peace^ 
 
 Though this mood derives its name from its intimation 
 of command, it is used on occasions of a very opposite na- 
 ture, even in the humblest supplications of an inferior 
 being to one who is infinitely his superior: as, '<Give us 
 this day our daily bread; and forgive us our trespasses.'* 
 
 • The Potential Mood implies possibility or liberty, 
 power, will, or obligation: as, **It may rain; he may 
 go or stay, I can ride; he would walk; they should 
 learn." 
 The Subjunctive Mood represents a thing under a 
 ndition, motive, wish, supposition, &c. and is pre- 
 
88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 ceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood^ and 
 attended by another verb: as, "I will respect him, 
 thoughhe chide me;" "Were he good, he would be 
 happy ;" that is **«/* he were good.'^ — See note S to 
 Rule 19. 
 
 The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general 
 and unlimited manner, without any distinction of num- 
 ber or person; as, 'Ho act, to speak, to be feared." 
 
 The participle is a certain form of the verb, and de- 
 rives its name from its participating, not only of the 
 properties of a verb, but also of those of an adjectiv^:^ 
 as, **I am diQsiYOxxsoi knowing him;^^ '•'Admired anct 
 applauded, he became vain;" '^Having finished his 
 work, he submitted it," &c. 
 
 There are three participles, the Present or Active, 
 the Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect: 
 as, **loving, loved, having loved." — Seep. 94. 
 
 Agreeably to the general practice of grammarians, wc 
 have represented the present participle, as active; and the 
 past, as passive: but they are not uniformly so: the pre- 
 sent is sometimes passive; and the past is frequently ac- 
 tive. Thus, ''The youth was consuming by a slow ma-- 
 iady;" "The Indian was burning by the cruelty of his 
 enemies;" appear to be instances of the present participle 
 being used passively. "He has instructed me;" "I have 
 gratefully repaid his kindness;" are examples of the past 
 participle being applied in an active sense. We may also 
 obseive, that the present participle is sometimes associated 
 widi the past and future tenses of the verb; and* the past 
 participle connected with the present and future tenses. — 
 The most unexceptionable distinction which grammarians 
 make between the participles, is, that the one points to 
 the continuation of the action, passion, or state, denoted 
 by the verb; and the other, to the completion of it. Thus, 
 the present participle signifies imperfect action, or action 
 oegim and not ended: as, "I am tvritinga. letter." The 
 past participle signifies action perfected, or finished: a#, 
 >'I ha.\e written sl letter;" '*The letter is writtm,'^^ 
 
 *Whcn this participle 13 joined to the verb «o havr, it is called perfec 
 is joined to tbc verb to be or understood with it, it is denofiiinated pa^ ^ < > 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 61^ 
 
 The participle is distinguished from the adjective, by 
 the former's expressing the idea of time, and the latter^a 
 denoting only a quality. The phrases, ' 'loving to give as 
 well as to receive," ''moving in haste," ' 'heated with 
 liquor," contain participles giving the idea of time; but 
 the epithets contained in the expressions, "a loving 
 child," "a moving spectacle," "a heated imagination," 
 mark simply the qualities referred to, without any regard 
 to time; and may properly be called participial adjectives. 
 Participles not only convey the notion of time; but they 
 also signify actions, and govern the cases of nouns and 
 pronouns, in the same manner as verbs do; and therefore 
 should be comprehended in the general name of verbs. 
 That they are mere modies of the verb, is manifest, if our 
 definition of a verb be admitted: for they signify bein^, 
 doing, or suffering, with the designation of time superadded. 
 But if the essence of the verb be made to consist in affir- 
 mation or assertion, not only the participle will be ex- 
 cluded from its place in the verb, but the infinitive itself 
 also; which certain ancient grammarians of great autho- 
 rity held to be alone the genuine verb, simple and uncon- 
 nected with persons and circumstances. 
 
 The following phrases, even when considered in them- 
 selves, show that participles include the idea of time: 
 '*The letter being written, or having been written}*'* 
 **Charles being writing, having written, or having been 
 writing.^^ But when arranged in an entire sentence, 
 which they must be to make a complete sense, they show 
 it still more evidently: as, ''Charles Imving written iht 
 letter, sealed and despatched it." — The participle does 
 indeed associate with aifferent tenses of the verb: as, **I 
 am writing," "I was writing," "I shall be writing:" but 
 this forms no just objection to its denoting time. If the 
 time of it is often relative time, this circumstance, far 
 from disproving, supports our position.* See observations 
 under Ride IS of Syntax. 
 
 \ Participles sometimes perform the office of substantives, 
 [and are used as such; as in the following instances: "The 
 
 * From the very nature of time, an action may be present now, it may kao* 
 been present formerly, or it may be presmt at some future yeriod— yet who ever 
 Qjpposedt that the present of the indicative denotes no time ? 
 
 Encyclopoedia BritcanicO' 
 
TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 beginning;^^ "a good understanding;'^^ "excellent writ- 
 ing;^^ "The chancellor's being attached to the king se- 
 cured his crown:" "The general's having failed in this 
 enterprise occasioned his dis^ace;" < 'John's having been 
 writing a long time had wearied him." 
 
 That the words in italics of the three latter examples, 
 perform the office of substantives, and may be considered 
 a^ such, will be evident, if we reflect, that the first of 
 them has exactly, the same meaning and construction as, 
 "The chancellor's attachment to the king secured his 
 crown;" and that the other examples will bear a similar 
 construction. The words, being attached, govern the word 
 chance^orh in the possessive case, in the one instance, as 
 clearly as attachment governs it in that case, in the other; 
 and it is only substantives, or words and phrases which 
 operate as substantives, that govern the genitive or pos- 
 sessive case. 
 
 The following sentence is not precisely the same as the 
 above, either in sense or construction, though, except the 
 genitive case, the words are the same; "The chancellor, 
 being attached to the kingj secured his crown." In the 
 former, the words, being attached, form the nominative 
 case to the verb, and are stated as the cause of the effect; 
 in the latter, they are not the nominative case, and make 
 only a circumstance to chancellor, which is the proper 
 nominative. It may not be improper to add anotner 
 form of this sentence, by which tne learner may better 
 understand the peculiar nature and form of each of these 
 modes of expression: "The chancellor being attached to 
 the king, his crown was secured." This constitutes what 
 *s properly called, the Case Absolute. 
 
 Section 4. Remarks on the Potential Mood. 
 
 That the Potential Mood should be separated from the 
 subjunctive, is evident, from the intricacy and confusion 
 which are produced by their being blended together, and 
 Irom the distinct nature of the two moods; the former of 
 which may be expressed without any condition, supposi- 
 tion, &c. as will appear from the following instances: 
 "They might have done better;" "We 7nay always iwat 
 uprightly;" "He was generous, and would not take re- 
 
ETYMaLOGY. 71 
 
 • venge;-' **We should resist the allurements of vice;" "I 
 I could formerly indulge myself in things, of which I can- 
 not now think but with pain." 
 
 Some Grammarians have supposed that the Potential 
 Mood, as distinguished above from the Subjunctive, coin- 
 cides with the Indicative. But as the latter "simply in- 
 dicates or declares a thing," it is manifest that the for- 
 mer, which modifies the declaration, and introduces an 
 idea materially distinct from it, must be considerably 
 different. '"I can walk," '*! should walk," appear to be 
 so essentially distinct from the simplicity of, "I walk," 
 *•! walked," as to warrant a correspondent distinction of 
 moods. The Imperative and Infinitive Moods, which are 
 allowed to retain their rank, do not appear to contain 
 such strong marks of disci'imination from the Indicative^ 
 fis are found in the Potential Mood. 
 
 There are other writers on this subject, who exclude 
 the Potential Mood from their division, because it is 
 formed, not by varying the principal verb, but by means 
 of the auxiliary verbs may, can, might, could, would, &:c.: 
 but if we recollect, that moods are used "to signify various 
 intentions of the mind, and various modincations and 
 circumstances of action," we shall perceive that those 
 auxiliaries, far from interfering with this design, do, in 
 the clearest manner, support and exemplify it. On the 
 reason alleged by these writers, the greater part of the 
 ^indicative Mood must also, be excluded; as but a small 
 part of it is conjugated without auxiliaries. The Subjunc- 
 tive too will fare no better; since it so nearly resembles tli^ 
 Indicative, and is formed by means of conjunctions, ex * 
 pressed or understood, which do not more effectually show 
 the varied intentions of the mind, than the auxiliaries do 
 which are used to form the Potential Mood. 
 
 Some writers havfe given our moods a much greater ex- 
 tent than we have assigned to them. They assert that the 
 English language may be said, without any great impro- 
 priety, to have as many moods as it has auxiliary verbs: 
 and they allege, ift support of their opinion, that the com 
 pound expression which they nelp to form, point out those 
 various dispositions and actions, which, in other languages. 
 are expressed by moods. Tnis would be to multiply tlie 
 moods without advantage. It is, however, certain, tliat th* 
 
7£ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 conjugation or variation of verbs, in the English lan^age, 
 is effected, almost entirely, by the means of auxiliaries. 
 We must, therefore, accommodate ourselves to this cir- 
 cumstance; and do that by their assistance, which has been 
 done in the learned languages, (a few instances to the 
 contrary excepted,) in another manner, namely, by var^r- 
 ing the form of the verb itself. At the same time, it is 
 necessary to set proper bounds to this business, so as not 
 to occasion obscurity and perplexity, when we mean to be 
 simple and perspicuous. Instead, therefore, of making a 
 separate mood for every auxiliary verb, and introducing 
 moods Interrogative, Optative, Promissive, Hortative, Fre- 
 cative, &c. we have exhibited such only as are obviously 
 distinct; and which, whilst they are calculated to unfold 
 and display the subject intelligibly to the learner, seem 
 to be sufficient, and not more than sufficient, to answer 
 all the purposes for which moods were introduced. 
 
 From Grammarians who form their ideas, and make 
 their decisions, respecting this part of English Grammar, 
 on the principles and construction of languages which, in 
 these points, do not suit the peculiar nature of our own, 
 but differ considerably from it, we may naturally expect 
 grammatical schemes that are not very perspicuous nor 
 perfectly consistent, and which will tend more to perplex 
 than inform the learner. See pages 76 — 78. 94 — 96, 
 99—102. 185— -184. 
 
 Sectiox 5. Of the Tenses. 
 
 ^ Tense, being the distinction of time, might seem to 
 admit only of the present, past, and future; but to 
 mark it more accurately, it is made to consist of six 
 variationsjviz. the present, the imperfect, the per- 
 T'ECT, the pluperfect, and the first and second 
 
 FUTURE tenses. 
 
 The Present Tense represents an action or event, 
 as passing at the time in which it is mentioiicd: as^ 
 **I rule; I am ruled; I think; I fear/f 
 
 The .present tense likewise expresses a character, qua- 
 lity, &c. at present existing: as, "He is an able man;^' 
 *'She is an amiable woman." It is also used in speaking 
 pf actioQB continued. ;rith occa'sioual intermissions, to the 
 
ETYMbtOGY. < ^> 
 
 present time: as, «He frequentlj" rides;" <*He walks out 
 every morning;" '*He goes into the country every sum- 
 mer." We sometimes apply this tense even to persons ^ 
 lonff since dead: as, <*Seneca reasons and moralizes 
 well;" *'Job speaks feelingly of his afflictions." 
 
 The present tense, preceded by the words, wlieuy before^ 
 €ifter^ as soon as, &c. is sometimes used to point out the 
 relative time of a future action: as, '••^FAen he arrives he 
 will hear the news;" **He will hear tlie news b'efore he 
 arrives, or as soon as he arrives, or, at farthest, soon 
 after he arrives;" '^The more she improves, the more 
 amiable she will be." 
 
 In animated historical nari-ations, this tense is some- 
 times substituted for the imperfect tense: as, "He enterfi 
 the territory of the peaceable inhabitants; he fights and 
 conquers^ takes an immense booty, which he divider 
 amongst his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy an emptv 
 triumph." 
 
 J The Imperfect Tense represents the action or event, 
 either as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished 
 ^t a certain time past: as, **I loved her for her mo- 
 desty and virtue;" <'They were travelling post when 
 lie met them." 
 
 The Perfect Tense not only refers to what is pasu 
 but also conveys an allusion to the present time: as, 
 ♦^I have finished my letter;" '^I have seen the persoi^ 
 that was i-ecommended to me.". 
 
 In the former example, it is signified that the finisliing 
 of the letter, though past, was at a period immediately, 
 or very nearly, preceding the present time. In the lat- 
 ter instance, it is uncertain whether the person mention- 
 ed was seen by the speaker a lona; or short time before. 
 The meaning*^ is, *'I have seen him sometime in tlie 
 course of a period which includes, or comes to, the pre- 
 sent time." \Vhen the particular time of anyocciirrencft 
 js specified, as prior to the present time, this tense is li^.t 
 -used: for it would be improper to STij, *'I have seen him 0^^. 
 yesterday;" or, ''I have finished my work last week.— ' 
 in these cases ihe imperfect is necessary: as, *'I saw 
 him yesterday;" "I finished my work last week." But 
 wihen we speak indefinitely of any thing past, as happen- 
 
T4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ing or not happening in the day, year, or age,- in which 
 we mention it, the perfect must be employed: as, "L 
 have been there this morning;" "I have travelled much 
 this year;" "We have escaped many dangers through 
 life." In referring, however, to such a division of the 
 day as is past before the time of our speaking, we use 
 the imperfect: as, ''They came home early this morning;" 
 *'He zvas with them at three o'clock this afternoon." 
 
 The perfect tense, and the imperfect tense, both denote 
 a thing that is past; but the former denotes it in such a 
 manner, that there is still actually 'remaining some part 
 of the time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing 
 has been done; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing 
 or action past, in such a manner, that nothing remains oJ" 
 that time m which it was done. If we speak of the pre- 
 sent centurjr, we say, "Philosophers have made great 
 discoveries in the present century:" but if we speak of 
 the last century, we say, "Philosophers made great dis- 
 coveries in the last century." ''He has been much afflictec^ 
 this year;" "I have this week read the king's proclama- 
 tion;" "I have heard great news this morning." In these 
 instances, "He has been,'^ "I have read,''' and '^heard,'' 
 denote things that are past; but they occurred in thi^ 
 year, in this week, and to-day; and still there remains a 
 part of this year, week, and day, v/hereof I speak. 
 
 In general, the perfect tense may be applied v/hereve^ 
 the action is connected with the present time, by the ac- 
 tual existence, either of the author, or of the work, 
 thou^li it may have been performed many centuries ago; 
 but if neither the author nor the work now remains, ii 
 cannot be used. We may say, "Cicero has ivritten ora- 
 tions;" but we cannot say, "Cicero has written poems;" 
 because the orations are in being, but the poems are lost. 
 Speaking of Priests in general, we may say, "They have 
 in all a^es claimed great powers;" because the general 
 order ot the priesthood still exists: but if we speak of 
 the Druids, as any particular order of priests, which 
 does not now exist, we cannot use this tense. We can- 
 not say, "The Druid priests have claimed great powers;" 
 but must say, "The Druid priests claimed great powei^sf*' 
 
EtTMOLOGY. 73 
 
 because that order is now totally extinct. See Pigkbovrn*^ 
 on the English Verb. i 
 
 • The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing, not only 
 as past, but also as prior to some other point of time 
 specified in the sentence: as, *'I had finished my let- 
 ter before he arrived." 
 
 The First Future Tense represents the action as yet 
 to come, either with or without respect to the precise 
 time: as, '^The sun will rise to-morrow;" ^'1 shall 
 see them again." 
 
 The Second Future intimates that the action will 
 
 be fully accomplished, at or before the time of another" 
 
 future action or event: as, ^'I sliall have dined at one 
 
 o'clock;" **The two houses will have finished their 
 
 '''business, when the king comes to prorogue them."^ 
 
 It is to be observed, that in thjf subjunctive mood, the 
 event being spoken of under a condition or supposition, or 
 in the form of a wish, and therefore as doubtful and con- 
 tingent, the verb itself in the present, and the auxiliary 
 both of the present and past imperfect times, often carry 
 ' with tliem somewhat of a future sense: as, '*If he come 
 to-morrow, I may speak to him;" ''If he should, or 
 would come to-morrow, I might, would, couhl, or should 
 speak to him.^' Observe also, that the auxiliary should 
 and would, in the imperfect times, are used to express 
 the present and future as well as the past: as, "It is my 
 desire, that he should, or would, come now, or to-mor- 
 row;" as well as, '*It was my desire, that he should or- 
 would come yesterday." So that in this mood the precise 
 time of the verb is very much determined by the nature 
 and drift of the sentence. 
 
 The present, past, and future tenses, may be used 
 either definitely or indefinitely, both with respecti;o time 
 and action. When they denote customs or habits, and not 
 individual acts, they are applied. indefinitely: as, ''¥ir- 
 ine promotes happiness;" "-The olcl Romans governed bv 
 benefits more than by fear;" <'I shall hereafter emplou 
 my time more usefully." In these examples, the worcl.^ 
 
 *See an account of the simple and compound tenses, at page 91. 
 
76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 pro7nofe$, governed, and shall employ^ are used indefi- 
 nitely, both in regard to action and time; for they are not 
 confined to individual actions, nor to any precise points 
 of present, past, or future time. When they are applied 
 to signify jjarticular actions, and to ascertain the precise 
 points of time to which they are confined, they are used 
 definitely; as in the following instances. "My brother 
 is writing ;^^ ''He built the house last summer, but did 
 not inhabit it till yesterday." "He iviU write another 
 letter to-morrow." 
 
 The different tenses also represent an action as complete 
 or perfect, or as incomplete or imjicrj'ect. In the phrases, 
 "I am writing," *^1 was writing," ''I shall be writing," 
 imperfect, unfinished actions are signified. But the loK 
 lowing examples, ''I wrote," *'I have written," "I had, 
 written," ''I shall have written," all denote complete, 
 perfect action. ^ 
 
 From the preceding representation of the different 
 tenses, it appears, that each of them h^s its distinct and 
 peculiar province; and that though som^ of them may 
 sometimes be used proniiscuously, or substituted one for . 
 another, in cases wnere great accuracy is not required, 
 yet there is a real and essential difference in their mean- 
 mg. — It is also evident, that the English language contains . 
 the six tenses which we have enumerated. Grammarians 
 Avho limit the number to two, or at most to three, name- 
 ly, the present, the imperfect, and the future, do not re- ' 
 fleet that the English verb is mostly composed of principal i 
 and auxiliary; and that these several parts constitute one 'j 
 ;verb. Either tlie English language has no regular future 
 tense, or its future is composed of the auxiliary and the 
 principal verb. If the latter be admitted, then the auxi- \ 
 liary and principal united, constitute a tense, in one 
 instance; and, from reason and analogy, may doubtless ^ 
 do so, in others, in which minuter divisions of time are ] 
 necessary, or useful. What reason can be assigned for 5 
 not considering this case as other cases, in which a whole ^ 
 is regarded as composed of several parts, or of principal 
 and adjuncts? There is nothing heterogeneous in the parts: 
 and precedent, analogy, utility, and even necessity 
 authorize the union. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. ^ 77 
 
 In support of this opinion, we have the authority of 
 eminent grammarians; in particular, that of Dr. Beattie. 
 **Some writers,'' says the Doctor, *'will not allow any 
 thing to be a tense, but what in one inflected word, ex- 
 presses an affirmation with time; for that those parts of 
 the verb are not properly called tenses, which assume 
 that appearance, by means of auxiliary words. At this 
 rate, we should have, in English, two tenses only, the 
 present and the past in the active verb, and in the passive 
 no tenses at all. But this is a needless nicety; and, if . 
 adopted, would introduce confusion into the grammatical 
 art. If amaveram be a tense, why should not amalUH 
 fiieram? If / heard be a tense, / did hear, I have heard, 
 and / shall hear, must be equally entitled to that appel- 
 lation." A 
 
 The prope? form of a tense, in the Greek and Latin 
 tongues, is certainly that which it has in the grammars of 
 those languages. But in the Greek and Latin grammars, 
 we uniformly find, that some of the tenses are formed by 
 variations of the principal verb; and others, by the ad- 
 dition of a helping verb. It is, therefore, indisputable, 
 that the principal verb, or rather its participle, and an 
 auxiliary, constitute a regular tense in the Greek and 
 I^atin languages. This point being established, we may, 
 doubtless, apply it to English verbs; and extend the 
 principle as far as convenience, and the idiom of o\ir 
 language require. 
 
 If it should be said, that, on the same ground that a par- 
 ticiple and auxiliary are allowed to form a tense, and the 
 verb is to be conjugated accordingly, the English noun 
 and pronoun ought to be declined at large, with articles 
 and prepositions; we must object to the inference. Such 
 a mode of declension is not adapted to our language. 
 This we think has been already proved.* It is also con- 
 fessedly inapplicable to the learned languages. Where 
 then is the grammatical inconsistency^ or the want of 
 conformity to the principles of analogy, iri making some 
 tenses of the English verb to consist of principal and 
 auxiliary; and the cases of English nouns, chiefly in 
 their termination? The argument from analogy, instead 
 
 ♦ See p»ge 50. 
 G2 
 
TB ENGLISH GRAMMAK* 
 
 of militating against us, appears to confirm and establish 
 our position. See pages 70—72. 94—96. 98—102. 
 183—184. ^^ 
 
 We shall close these remarks on the tenses, with a few 
 observations extracted from the ExVcyclop^dia Britan- 
 NicA. Thej are worth the student's attention, as a part 
 of them applies, not only to our views of the tenses, but 
 to many otlier parts of the work. — "Harris (by way of 
 hypothesis) has enumerated no fewer than twelve tenses. 
 Of this enumeration we can by no means approve: for, 
 without entering into a minute examination of it, nothin* 
 can be more obvious, than that his inceptive present, '*!£ 
 am going to write," is a future tense; and his completive 
 present, "\ have written," a past tei^e. But, as was 
 before observed of the classification ot^m;ds, we cannot 
 help being of opinion, that, to take the- tenses as they are. 
 commonly received, and endeavour to ascertain their 
 nature and their difterence«, is a much more useful exer- 
 cise, as well as more proper for a work of this kind, than 
 to raise, as might easily be raised, new theories cm the 
 subject."* 
 
 Section 6. The Conjugation, of the ^uociliary Verbs 
 TO HAVE and to be. 
 
 • The Conjugation of a verb, is the regular combina- 
 tion and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, 
 moods, and tenses. 
 
 The Conjugation of an active verb is styled the 
 ACTiyE voice; and that of a passive verb, the 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 The auxiliary and active verb to have, is conju- 
 gated in the following manner.j 
 
 *The following criticism affords an additional support to the author's system of 
 tbe tenses, &c. 
 
 " Under the lietid of Etymology, the author of this Grammar judiciously adhereW 
 to the natural simplicity of the English language, without embarrassing the.' 
 learner with distinctions peculiar to the Latin tongue. The difficult sulyect of 
 the Tenses, is clearly explained ; and with less encumbrance of technical phra- 
 aeology, than in most oth^r grammars."— -Snaij/ticoi Review. 
 

 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 TO HAVE. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present Tense, 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 i. 
 
 Per5. 1 have. 
 
 
 1. We have. 
 
 2. 
 
 Bers. Thou hast. 
 
 2. Ye or you have> 
 
 3. 
 
 Pers. He, she, 
 hath or has. 
 
 or it > 
 
 5. They have » 
 
 
 
 Imperfect Tense.*' 
 
 
 lingular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 i . 
 
 1 had.* 
 
 
 1. We had. 
 
 2. 
 
 Thou had St. 
 
 
 2. Ye or you had. 
 
 1. 
 
 He, &c. had. 
 
 
 3. They had. 
 
 
 
 Perfeci 
 
 I Tense,"" 
 
 
 -ingular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 ). 
 
 1 have had. 
 
 
 1. We have had. 
 
 '2. 
 
 Thou hast had. 
 
 
 £. Ye or you have had. 
 3. They have had. 
 
 3. 
 
 He has had. 
 
 
 
 
 Pluperfect Tense,'' 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plui-al. 
 
 1. 
 
 I had had. 
 
 
 1. We had had. 
 
 2. 
 
 Thou had«t had. 
 
 2. Ye or you had had. 
 
 3. 
 
 He had had. 
 
 
 3. They had had. 
 
 
 
 First Future Tense, 
 
 79 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall or will have. 1* We shall or will have. 
 
 % Thou shalt or wilt have. 2. Ye oryou shall or will have. 
 
 3. He shall or will have. 3. They shall or will have. 
 
 * The terms which we have adopted, to designate the three past tenses, may 
 not be exactly significant of their nature and distinctions. But as they are used 
 by grammarians in general, and have an established autlterity; and, especially, 
 as the meaning attached to each of them, and their difftreirt signiticationg, have 
 been carefully explained; we presume that no solid objtKLion can be made to the 
 use of terms so generally approved, and so explicitly defined. See page 78 anii 
 SO. We are supported in these sentiments, by the authority of Dr. Johnson, 
 dee Itoe first note in his "Grammar of the English Tongue," prefixed to liis 
 dictionary. If, however, any teachers should think it warrantable to change thn 
 established names, they cannot perhaps find any more appropriate, than the 
 ierma first preieHt, second preterit, and tkird preterit.— Bee tire Octavo Oiam- 
 
so ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Second Future Tense. 
 
 Singii'Ar. Plural 
 
 1. I shall have had. 1. We shall have had. 
 
 S. Thou wilt have had. 2: Ye or you will have had, 
 
 3. He will have had. 3. They w '! have Itad. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. Let me have. 1. Let us have. 
 
 2. Have, or have thou, or Q. Have, or have ye, or do 
 do thou have. ye or you have. 
 
 3. Let him have. 3. Let them have.Jy 
 
 The imperative mood is not strictly entitled to three 
 |)€rsons. The command is always addressed to the second 
 person, not to the first or third. For when we say, "Let 
 me have," ''Let him, or let them have," the meaning 
 and construction are, do thou, or do ye, let me, him, or 
 rhem have. In philosophical strictness, both number and 
 ])erson mi^ht be entirely excluded from every verb. 
 Tliey are, m fact, the properties of substantives, not a 
 })art of the essence of a verb. Even the name of the 
 imperative mood, does not always correspond to its nature: 
 for it sometimes petitions as well as commands. But, with" 
 respect, to all these points, the practice of our gramma- 
 rians is so uniformly fixed, and so analogous to the lan- 
 guages, ancient and modern, which our youth have to 
 study, that it would be an unwarrantable degree of inno- 
 vation, to deviate from the Established terms and arrange- 
 ments. See the advertisment at the end of the introduc- 
 tion, page 7; and the quotation from the EncyclopsedJa 
 Britannica, page 78. 
 
 Potential Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. ^ Plural, 
 
 1. 1 may or can -have, 1. We may or can have. 
 
 2. Thou mayst or canst have. 2. Ye or you may or can have. 
 
 3. He may or ean have. . 3. They may or can have.- ^ 
 
 * If such sentences sbould be rigorously examined, the Imperative w01 app-; 
 tj consfet merely In the word let. See Parsing, p. 203. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. Si 
 
 Imperfett Tense, 
 
 Siiigrular. Plural. 
 
 I. I miffht, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 
 
 should have. or should have. 
 
 ^l. Thou mightat, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
 wouldst,orshouldsthave. would, or should have. 
 
 He mi^ht, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 
 ■r should have. or should have. 
 
 Perfect Tense. ^ 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1 . I may or can have had. 1 . We may or can have had. 
 
 2. Thou. mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can 
 had. have had.. 
 
 3. He may or can have had. 3. They may or can have had 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 ■lin^lar. Plural. 
 
 J. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 
 should have had. or should have had. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
 wouldst, or shouldst have would, or should have 
 had. had. 
 
 3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 
 or should have had. or should have had.* 
 
 Sulijunctive Mood, 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 - iagular. Plural. 
 
 J. If 1 have. 1. If we have. 
 
 2. If thou have.t 2. If ye or you have. 
 
 3. If he have.t 3. If they have. 
 
 The remaining tenses of the subjunctive mood, are, iri 
 every respect, similar to the correspondent tenses of the 
 
 '* Shall and will when they denote inclination, resoluticm, promise, may be 
 
 considered, as wfcil as tlicir relarions Mowid and -toould, as iMflonging to tlje poten- 
 
 : .ood But as they generally signify futurity, they have been appropriated, 
 
 pino verbs, to the foimaiion of the future tenses of the indicative and sub- 
 
 ive mooo ,. 
 
 t GranimaM.in?. in ^eripral, conjugate the present of the auxijiary, ln'thi:> 
 
 manner. But we preatime that^is is tlie form of the verb, considered as Ci 
 
 principal, not as an auzdiary <W». See page 18:3, Note 5. 
 
3^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 indicative mood;* with the addition to the verb, of aeon* 
 junction, expressed or impiiied, denoting a condition, mo- 
 tive, wish, supposition, &c. It will be proper to direct 
 the learner to repeat all the tenses of this mood, with a 
 conjunction prefixed to each of them. See, on this sub- 
 ject, the observations at page 96; and the notes on the 
 nineteenth rule of syntax. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 PRESENT. To have. perfect. To have had. 
 
 Participles, 
 present or active. Having. 
 ^•J perfect. Had. 
 
 'j, compound PERFECT. Having had. % 
 
 As the subjunctive mood, in English, has no* variatioOy 
 in the form of the verb, from the indicative, (except in the 
 present tense, and the second future tense, of verbs gene- 
 rally, and the present and imperfect tenses of the verb to 
 be,) it would be superfluous to conjugate it in this work, 
 through every tense. But all the other mood-- and tenses 
 of the verbs, both in the active and passive voices, are 
 conjugated at large, that the learners may have no doubts 
 or misapprehensions respecting their particular forms. 
 They to whom the subject of grammar is entirely new, 
 and young persons especially, are much more readily and 
 effectually mstructed, by seeing the parts of a subject so 
 essential as the verb, unfolded and spread before them, 
 in all their varieties, than by being generally and curso- 
 rily informed of the manner in which they may be exhi- 
 bited. The time employed by the scholars, in conse- 
 quence of this display oi the verbs, h of small moment 
 cbmpared with the advantages which they will probably 
 derive from the plan. 
 
 It may not, however, be generally proper for young 
 persons beginning tlie study of grammar, to commit to 
 memory all the tenses of the verbs. If the simple tenses, 
 namely, the present and the imperfect, together with the 
 
 * Except that the second and third persons, singular and plural, of the seconcKl 
 future tense, require ihe auxiliary shall, shall, instead of wilt, will. Thus, "He 
 will have completed the work by midsunnner," is the indicative form; but tlie 
 subjunctive is, "If he shall have completed tlie .work by midsunmier." 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 8S 
 
 first future tense, should, in the first insfance, be com- 
 mitted to memory, and the rest ca«efully perused and 
 explained, the business will not be tedious to the scholars, 
 and their progress will be rendered more obvious and 
 pleasing. . The general view of the subjecst, thus acquired 
 and impressed, may afterwards be extended with ease 
 and advantage. 
 
 It appears to be proper, for the information of the 
 learners, to make a few observations in this pKace, on 
 some of the tenses, &:c. The first is, that, in the poten- 
 tial mood, some grammarians confound the present with 
 the imperfect tense; and the perfect with the pluperfect. 
 But that they are really distinct, and have an appropriate 
 reference to time, correspondent to the definitions of 
 those tenses, will appear from a few examples: "I wished 
 him to stay, but he would not;" "I could not accomplish 
 the business in time;" "It was im^ direction that he 
 should submit;" "He was ill^ but I thought he might 
 live;" **I inay have misunderstood him;" "He cannot have 
 deceived me;" "He might have finished the work soonei", 
 but he could not have done it better." — It must, however, 
 be admitted, that, on some occasions, the auxiliaries might, 
 could, would, and should, refer also to present and to 
 future time. See page 75. 
 
 The next remark is, that the auxiliary loill, in the first 
 person singular and plural of the second future tense; 
 and the auxiliary shall, in the second and third persons ^i' 
 that tense, in the indicative mood, appear to be incor- 
 rectly applied. The impropriety of such associations 
 may be inferred from a few examples: "I will have had 
 previous notice, whenever the event happens;" '^Thou 
 shalt have served thy apprenticeship berore the end of 
 the year;" "He shall have completed his business when 
 the messenger arrives." **I shall have had; thou ivilt 
 have served; he will have completed," &c. would havt' 
 been correct and applicable. The peculiar import of 
 these auxiliaries, as explained in page 90, under section 
 7, seems to account for their impropriety in the applica 
 tions just mentioned. 
 
 Some writers on Grammar object to the pVopriety of ad- 
 mitting the second future, in both the indicative and sub 
 junctive moods: but that thi« tense is applicable to^both 
 
^4 ENGLISH GRAMMA P. 
 
 >noods, will be manifest from the following example 
 "John "will have earned his wages the next new-year" 
 day," is a simple declaration, and therefore in the indi 
 cative mood: **If he shall have finished his work when 
 the bell rin^s, he. will be entitled to tlie reward," is con- 
 ditional and contingent, and is therefore in the subjunc 
 tive mood. 
 
 We shall conclude these detached observations, with 
 one remark which may be useful to the young scholar, 
 namely, that as the indicative mood is converted into the 
 subjunctive, by the expression of a condition, motive. 
 wish, supposition, &c. being superadded to it; so tht^ 
 potential mood may, in like manner, be turned "into tl); 
 subjunctive; as will be seen in the following example^ 
 **If I could deceive him, I should abhor it;" ''Thoua' 
 he should increase in wealth, he would not be charit;^ 
 ble;" ''Even in prosperity' he would gain no esteem, uji 
 less he should conduct lumself better." 
 
 * The auxiliary and neuter verb To be. is conjugater 
 ^s folio v\'sr 
 
 TO BE. 
 
 Indicative JNIood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 • • Siugular. Plnra!. 
 
 1. I am. ]. We are. 
 
 2. Thou art. 2. Ye or you are. 
 5. He, she, or \i i>. ?->. They are. 
 
 Iinperfcct Tense. 
 Singular. Plurul. 
 
 1. I was. 1. We were. 
 
 2. Thou wast. 2. Ye or you were 
 
 3. He was. 3. They were. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 Singular. . Plural. 
 
 1. I have been. 1. We have been. 
 
 % Thou hast been. 2. Ye or you have been* < 
 
 2. He hath or has be«,n. %. They have been. ^ ' 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 85 
 
 Pliqyerfect Tense, 
 
 lingular. Plural. 
 
 A. I had been. . 1. We had been. 
 
 2%. Thou hadst been, 2. Ye or jou had been. 
 
 ""' He had been. 3. They had been. 
 
 First Future Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. 1 shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 
 
 2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 2. Ye or you shall or will be. 
 ;>. He shall or will be. . 3, They shall or will be. 
 
 Second Futitre Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1.1 shall have been. 1. We shall liave been. 
 
 2. Thou wdlt have been. 2. Ye or you will havebeeir. 
 
 3. He will have been. ,S. Thev \\ ill have been. 
 
 ImperatiTe Moo^.; 
 
 Sijigular. PluraL 
 
 1. Let me be. t. Let us be. 
 
 2. Be thou or do tl-iou be. 2. Be ye or you, or do ye b\! 
 
 3. I^et him be. , 2. Let tlieni b^-^.' 
 
 Potential Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 ?!in2^ular- Plural. 
 
 1. -I may or can be. j. We may o/ , ..w uc 
 
 ^ Thou mayst or canst be. 2. Ye or you may or can be. 
 
 •". He may or can be. 3. They may or can be. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 >ingular. Plunii. 
 
 . 1 miicht, could, would, or 1. We mijrht, could, wouhi. 
 ^hfiuld he. or should be. 
 
 Thou mij^htst, couldst, 2. Ye or you mi<:;]it. could, 
 ■ oiildst, or shouldst be. would, or should be. 
 
 'le mi2;ht. could, would, ^,. Tliey might, cdtild^^ 
 shouUl be. ^Mmld.o/* shouhi be, 
 
 U 
 
^6 ENGLISH GBAMMAR* 
 
 Perfect Tense* % 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may orcan have been. 1 . We may or can have been. 
 
 2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can 
 been, have been. 
 
 3. He may or can have 3. They may or can have 
 been. been. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Si9*ular". Plural. ^ 
 
 1. I mi^ht, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would,' 
 
 shoum have been. or should have been. 
 
 9.. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could,"^ 
 
 wouldst, or shouldst have would, or should have 
 
 been. been. 
 
 3. He mi^ht, could, would, 3. They mi^ht, could, would. 
 
 or should have been. or should have been. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular Plural. 
 
 1. If I be. 1. If we be. 
 
 2. If thou be, 2. If ye or you be. 
 
 3. If he be. 3. If they be. 
 
 Imperfect Tense, 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I were. 1. If we were. 
 
 -2. If thou wert. 2. If ye or you were. 
 
 3. If he were. 3. If they were. 
 
 The remaining tenses of this mood are, in general, 
 similar to the correspondent tenses of the Indicative 
 ttiood. See pages 82, 94, 95, and the notes under thei 
 laineteenth rule of Syntax. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Present Tense, To be. Perfect. To have .b€eii. 
 
 Participles. 
 Present. Being. Perfect. Been%- 
 
 Qonxpound Perfect. Having beeiK 7 
 
KTYMOLOGT. oT 
 
 Section 7. The Auxiliary Verbs conjugated in their 
 simple form; with observations on threir peculiar nature 
 and force. 
 
 The learner will perceive that the preceding anxitiary 
 verts, to have and to ic, could not be conjugated through 
 all the mooils and tenses, without the help of other auxi- 
 liary verbs; namely, mai/,can,will^ shall, and their vari- 
 ations. That auxiliary verbs, in their simple state, and 
 unassisted by others, are of a very limited extent; and' 
 that they are chiefly useful, in the aid which they afford 
 in conjugating the principal verbs; will clearly appear to 
 the scholar, by a distinct conjugation of eacli of them, 
 uncombined with any other, jf hey are exhibited for his • 
 inspection; not to be committed to memory. 
 
 TO HAVE, j 
 
 Present Tense, 
 
 Sing, 1. 1 have. 2. Thou hast. 3. He hath or ha&. 
 Plur. 1 . We have. 2. Ye or you have. 3. They have. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. 1. I had. 2. Thou hadst. 3. He had. 
 Plur. 1. We had. 2. Ye or you had. 3. They had. 
 
 Perfect. I have had, &c. Pluperfect. I had had, &c. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Present. Having. Perfect. Had. 
 
 TO BE. 
 
 Present Tense, 
 
 Sing. 1. I am. 2. Thou art. 3. He is. 
 
 Plur. 1. We are. 2. Ye or you are. 3. They are. 
 
 Imperfect Tense, 
 
 Sing. 1. 1 was. 2. Thou wast. 3. He was. 
 Plur. 1. We were. 2. Ye or you were. 3. They were. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Present. Being. Perfect. Been. 
 
38 
 
 ipfGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 
 SHALL. 
 
 
 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 
 Sing, 
 Plun 
 
 !. IshalL^ 
 1. We shall. 
 
 2. Tiiou shalt. 
 ► 2. Ye or you slvall. 
 
 Imperfect Teiisie. 
 
 3. He shalL 
 3. They shalL 
 
 Sing. ] 
 Plur. 1 
 
 [.I should. ^ 
 . Wesliould. 
 
 2. Thou sliouldst. 
 ► 2. Yearvousliould, 
 
 niLi^ 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 3. He should. 
 . 3. They should. 
 
 Plur. : 
 
 I. I will. 
 1. We will. 
 
 2. Thou wilt. 
 2. Ye ar you will. 
 
 Imperfect Tense i \ 
 
 3. He will. 
 3. They wilL 
 
 Sing. ] 
 Plur. 1 
 
 . I would. 
 .We would. 
 
 2. Thou \^^uldst. 
 ► 2. Ye or you would. 
 
 MAY. 
 
 Present Tense 
 
 3. He would. 
 3* Thfey woulcL 
 
 Sing. 1 
 Plur. 1 
 
 . I may. 
 \. We may. 
 
 2. Thou^ may^. 
 2;, Ye oryou may. 
 
 3. He may. 
 3. They may. 
 
 Sing. 1. 1 might. 
 J'lur. 1. W'emiirht. 
 
 Smg. 1. 1 cau. 
 
 *3r 
 
 Pluf. 1. We can. 
 
 Sim 
 
 I could. 
 
 'Mur. 1. We could. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 2. Thou mightst. 
 2. Ye oryou miglit. 
 
 CAN. 
 
 Present T^nse. 
 
 2.. Thou canst. 
 2. Ye or you, can. 
 
 Imperfect Tense.. 
 
 2. Tliou couldst. 
 2. Ye or you could. 
 
 He might. 
 Tliey might, 
 
 3. He can. 
 3. Tliey can. 
 
 3. He could. 
 3. They could. 
 
 * Shall is here properly useil,^ the present tense, having the same analogy Vc 
 >huuld Uiai can has to couid, miiy to mi^hu aaAtciU to zcov.ld. 
 
- ETYMOLOGY. 8^ 
 
 TO DO. 
 
 Present Tense, 
 
 Sing, 1. 1 do. 2. Thou dost. 3. He doth or does, 
 Plur. 1. We do. 2. Ye or jou do. 3. They do. 
 
 Imperfect Tense, 
 
 Sing, 1. I did. 2. Thou didst. 3. He did 
 Plur. 1. We did. 2- Ye or you did. 3. They did. 
 
 Participles. 
 Present, Doing. Perfect, Done. 
 
 The verbs have^ be, will, and do, when they are uncon- 
 nected with a principal verb, expressed or understood, 
 are not auxiliaries, but principal verbs: as, "We have 
 enough;" '*I «m gratefuU" *'He ivills it to be so;" 
 "They do as they please." In this view, they also have 
 their auxiliaries: as, '•! shall have enough;" "I will be 
 grateful," &c. 
 
 The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear 
 from the following account of them. 
 
 Do and did mark the action itsel f, or the time of it, with 
 gre vCer energy and positiveness: as, ''I do speak truth;" 
 •'•I did respect him;" "Here am I, for thou didst call me." 
 They are of great use in negative sentences: as, "I do 
 not fear;" '*I did ?iot write." They are almost univer- 
 sally employed in asking questions: as, ''Does he learnr" 
 ''Did he not write?" They sometimes also supply the 
 place of another verb, and make the repetition of it, in 
 the same, or a subsequent sentence, unnecessary: as> 
 ^•You attend not to your studies as he c/oes/" (i. e. as he 
 attends, &c.) *'I shall come if I can; but if I d& noty 
 please to excuse me;" (i. e. if I come not.) 
 
 Let not only expresses permission, but entreating, ex- 
 horting, coramanaing: as, ''Let us know the truth;" 
 •'Let me die the death of the righteous;" "Let not thy 
 heart be too much elated with success;" **Let thy in- 
 clination submit to thy ditty." 
 
 May and might express the possibility or liberty of 
 Awng a thing; can and could, the power: as, "It may taiti;" 
 '*I may write or read:" **He might have improved- n^ore. 
 H2 
 
90 EKGLISH GRAMMAIf* 
 
 than he hasj'^ "He can write much better than he couftt 
 last year." 
 
 must is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes 
 necessity: as, "We must speak the truth, whenever We 
 do speaK, and we must not prevaricate." 
 
 Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates 
 resolution and promising; in tlie second and third person, 
 only foretels: as, "I will reward the good, and will punish 
 fhe wicked;" "We will remember benefits, and be grate- 
 ful;" "Thou wilt, or he will, repent of that folly;" "You 
 or they will have a pleasant walk." 
 . Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply fore 
 tels; in the second and third persons, promises, commands, 
 or threatens: as, "I shall go abroad;" "We shall dine 
 at home;" "Thoa shalt, or you shall, inherit the land:" 
 "Ye shall do justice, and love mercy;" ^^They shall ac- 
 count for their misconduct." The following passage is 
 not translated according to the distinct and proper mean 
 ings of the words shall and %vill: "Surely goodness and 
 mercy shall follow me all the da^s of my lite; and I wilt 
 ilwell in the house of the Lord forever;" it ought to be, 
 "/^i7/ follow me," and "I shall dwell." — The foreigner 
 vvho, as it is said, fell into the Tham.es, and cried out; ••! 
 unll be drowned, no body &/ia// help me;" made a sad 
 misapplicafion of these auxilianes. 
 
 These observ^ations respecting the import of the verb 
 will arid shall, must be understood of explicative sen 
 tences; for when the sentence Jl* interrogative, just tlu 
 reverse, for the most part, takes place: thus, "I shall go. 
 vou liill go;" express event only: but, '^iviU you gor' 
 nnports intention; and, '^shall I go?" refers to tlie wil' 
 jf aiaotlier. But, ^^lie shall go," and ' ^ shall he gor 
 both imply will; expressing or referring to a command 
 
 When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, th( 
 meaning of these auxiliaries likewise unttergoes sorn* 
 alteration; as the learners will readily perceive by afev 
 f'xamples: "He shall proceed," "If he shall proceed;'" 
 "You shall consent," "If you shall consent." These 
 iuixiliaries aire sometimes interchanged, in tiie indicativp 
 and subjunctive moods, to convey the same meaning ot 
 the auxiliary: as, "He wili not return," "If he shal^ 
 
ETY5IOLOGY. 91 
 
 not return;" *»He shall 4iot return," ''If he will not re- 
 turn." 
 
 ^roi^f/ypninarily denotes inclination of will; and should j 
 obligation: but they both v;iry their import, and are often 
 used to express simple event. 
 
 Section 8. The Conjugation of Regular Verbs. 
 
 . •* AGxrvE. 
 
 * 
 
 ' Verbs Active are called Re^lar, when they fornj 
 their imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and their 
 {)erfect participle, by adding to the verb e^, or donly 
 when the verb ends in e: as^ 
 
 Present. Imperfect. Perf. Particip. 
 
 I favour. I favoured. Favoured. 
 
 I love. 1 loved. Loved.^ 
 
 A Regular Active Verb is conjugated in the fol- 
 ' owing manner. 
 
 To LOVE. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present 'Tense, 
 
 ^'lllgula^. PluraL 
 
 i. Hove.* 1, We love, 
 
 I. Tliou lovest. 2. Ye or you love. , 
 
 nr loves. ^ 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 plural. 
 >:^ngular. ^^ W^loved. 
 
 t. I loved. , o,. Ye or YOU loved. 
 
 >. Thou lovedst. -■ ^^ f^^.^,^, 
 
 -.. He loved. ^' ^ 
 
 Perfect Teme. 
 
 ipi.ural. 
 
 Singular. 1. We have loved. 
 
 1 . I have loved. Y^ ^^ y^avc l©vc<R 
 
 ^2. Thou hast loved. ^- ^^^ |4|e ItJved. 
 
 T)ve 
 
9£ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Pluperfect Tense, 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 
 
 2. Thou hadst loved. 2. Ye or you had loved. 
 ."5. He had loved. 3. Tliey had loved. 
 
 First Future Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. * • » 1 
 
 I. I shall or will love. 1. We shall or will love. \ 
 
 I. Thou shalt or wilt love. 2. Ye or you shall or will love. 
 
 3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall.or will love. 
 
 Second Future Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall^ve loved. 1. We shall have loved. 
 
 2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. Ye or you will have loved. 
 
 3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 
 
 Those tenses are called simple tenses, which are formed 
 of the principal, without an auxiliary verb: as, "I love, 
 I loved.-' The compound tenses are such as cannot be 
 formed without an auxiliary verb:, as, "I have lovedj I 
 had loved; I shall or will love; I may love; I may he 
 loved; I may have been loved;" &c. These compounds 
 — aa^e— limsLev£r. to be considered as only different forms of 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 Singular. 
 3. Let me love. , r^^^", 
 
 VLethimW S.Vt\CZ^ 
 
 Potential Moad. 
 Fresent Tense. i 
 
 £,inay or can love, t w^ ^ ' ' 
 
 2. Thou mayst or canst love 2 vl . ^^ ^'* ^^^ ^^''^' 
 ^. He may Ir can CeV f tL.T"'"^^^*^!^^^^'^ 
 
Et'tkoiOGr. ^ 
 
 Imperfect Ten^e, 
 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 l.'l might, couldj would,' or 1. We mi^ht, could, would, 
 
 should love. or should love. 
 
 ^ Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could,,. 
 
 would9t,.orshouhlst love. would, or should love. 
 ^. He mid^t, could,, would, 3. They might,could,would-» 
 
 or should love. or should, love,. 
 
 I Perfect Tense. 
 
 j:ingular. - Plural. 
 
 I. I may or can have loved- 1.. We may or can have loved, 
 I, Thou mayst or canst 2. Ye or you may or caiv 
 
 have loved. have loved. 
 
 3. He may or can haye 3. They may or can ha\>: 
 
 loved. loved. 
 
 Flupmfeet Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. '' 
 
 1. I might, could, wottld, 1. We mio;ht, could, wotild. 
 or should have lov^d. or should have loved. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
 w6uldst,"^or shouldst have would, or should have, 
 loved. - . loved* 
 
 3. He mi^ht, could, would, 3. They might, could, would^^ 
 or should liave loved. or should have loved. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 Present Tense, 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I love. 1. If we lovci 
 
 2. If thou love., 2. If ye or you love. 
 
 3. If he love. 3. If they love^ 
 
 ,The remaining tenses of this mood, are, in genera?, 
 similar to the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. 
 See page 82, aivl page 95. ' • 
 
 It may be of use to the scholar, to remark, in this place, 
 that though only the conjunction if\^ affixed to the verb, 
 any other conjunction proper for the subjunctive mood, 
 may, with equal propriety, be occasionally annexed; The 
 
94. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 instance given is sufficient to explain the subject: mdre 
 would be tedious, and tend to emoarrass the learner. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Presents To love. Perfect, To ha\'e loved-. 
 
 Participles. 
 ,<■ Present. Loving. Perfect, Loved, 
 
 Compound Perfect. Having loved. J 
 
 The active verb may be conjuffated differemly, by add- 
 ing its present or active participle to the auxiliary verb to 
 btf through all its moods and tenses; as, instead of "I teach, 
 thou teachest, he teaches," &c.; we may say, "I am teach- 
 ing, thou art teaching, he is teaching,'* &.c.: and instead ot 
 *H taught/', &c. ^*I was teaching," &:c. and so on, through 
 all the vanitoons of the auxiliary. This mode of conju- 
 gation has, on particular occasions, a peculiar propriety j 
 and contributes to the harmony and precision oi the lan- 
 guage. These forms of expression are adapted to parti- 
 cular acts, not to general habits, or aiFections of the mind. 
 They are very frequently applied to neuter verbs; as, "I 
 am musing; he is sleeping."* 
 
 Some grammarians apply, what is called the conjunctive 
 temiination, to the persons of the principal verb, and toit^ 
 auxiliaries, through all the tenses of the subjunctive mood. 
 But this is certainly contrary to the practice of good wri- 
 ters. Johnson applies this termination to the present and 
 perfect tenses only. Lowtii restricts it entirely to the pre * 
 sent tense; and Priestley confines it to the present and im- 
 perfect tenses. This difference of opinion amongst gram- 
 marians of such eminence, may have contributed to that 
 diversity of practice, so observable in the use of the sub- 
 junctive mood. Uniformity in this point is highly desirable. 
 It would materially assist both teachers and learners; and 
 would constitute a considerable improvement in our lan- 
 guage. On this subject, we adopt the opinion of Dr. 
 luowth; and conceive we are fully w^arranted by his au- 
 
 * As tlie participle, in this mode of conjugation, perforins the office of a verb, 
 through all the moods and lenses; aiid as it implies the idea of time, and governs 
 the objeciive case of nouns a;..i pronouns, in tlie same manner as verbs do; is it 
 not manifest, that it is a species or form of the verb, and that it cannot be properly, 
 considered as a distinct part of speechi 
 
EJ-YMOLOGY. 95 
 
 fhority, and that of the most correct and elegant writers, iu 
 limiting the conjunctive termination of the principal verb, 
 to the second and third persons sinajular of the present tense. 
 
 Grammarians have not only difTered in opinion, repect- 
 ing the extent and variations of the subjunctive mood; but 
 a few of them have even doubted the existence of such a 
 mood in the English language. These writers assert, that 
 the verb has no variation from the indicative; and tliat a 
 conjunction added to the verb, gives it no title to become 
 a distinct mood; or, at most, no better than it would have, 
 if any other particle were joined to it. To these observa- 
 tions it may be replied; 1st. It is evident, on inspection, 
 that, in the subjunctive mood, the present tense of the 
 principal verbs, the present and imperfect tenses of the 
 verb to be, and the second and third persons, in both num 
 bers, of the second future tense of all verbs;* require a 
 variation from the forms which those tenses have in the 
 indicative mood. So much difference in the form of the 
 verb, would warrant a correspondent distinction of mood, 
 though the remaining parts of the subjunctive were, in all 
 respects, similar to those of the indicative. In other lan- 
 guages, a principle of this nature has l>een admitted, both 
 in the conjugation of verbs, and the declension of nouns. 
 2d. There appears to be as much propriety, in giving a 
 conjunction tne power of assisting to form the subjunctive 
 mood, as there is in allowing the particle fo to have an ef- 
 fect in the formation of the infinitive mood.t Sd. A con- 
 junction -added to tiie verb, shows the manner of being, 
 doing, or suffering, which other particles cannot show: 
 tliey do not coalesce with the verb, and modify it, as con- 
 junctions do. 4th. It may be said, ''If contingency con- 
 stitutes the subjunctive mood, then it is the sense of a 
 phrase, and not a conjunction, that determines this mood.-" 
 But a little reflection will show, that the contingent sense 
 lies in the meaning and force of the conjunction, ex- 
 pressed or understood. 
 
 This subject may be farther illustrated, by the following 
 observations. -^Moods have a foundation in nature. They 
 
 -* We think it has been proved, that the auxiliary is a constituent part of the 
 verb to which it relates: that the principal and ita anxlhary form but one verb. 
 . t Conjunctions have an influence on the nioud of the tbllowiag verb. 
 
 />r. BeattH. 
 'opjunctioBs have soroctimcB a government ef ajoods.~Z>/-. Loxctk. 
 
Hi ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 instance given is sufficient to explain the subject: mora 
 would be tedious, and tend to emoarrass the learner. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Present, To love. Perfect, To hare loved-. 
 
 Participles. 
 . t Present. Loving. Perfect. Loved, 
 
 Compound Perfect. Having loved. J 
 
 The active verb may be conjugated differeiM}^, by add- 
 ing its present or active participle to the auxiliary verb to 
 be, through all its moods and tenses; as, instead of "I teachy 
 thou teachest, he teaches," &c.; we may say, "I am teach- 
 ing, thou art teaching, he is teaching," &c.: and instead oi 
 *H taught," &.C. **I was teaching," &c. and so on, through 
 all the var^ions of the auxiliary. This mode of conju 
 gation has, on particular occasions, a peculiar propriety j 
 and contributes to the harmony and precision of the lan- 
 guage. These forms of expression are adapted to parti- 
 cular acts, not to general habits, or affections of the mind^ 
 They are very frequently applied to neater verbs; as, "1 
 am musing; he is sleeping."* 
 
 Some grammarians apply, what is called the conjunctive 
 t£wiinaiion, to the persons of the principal verb, and to its 
 auxiliaries, through all the tenses of the subjunctive mood. 
 But this is certainly contrary to the practice of good wri- 
 ters. Johnson applies this termination to the present and 
 perfect tenses only. Lowtii restricts it entirely to the pre- 
 sent tense; and Priestley confines it to the present and im- 
 perfect tenses. This difference of opinion amongst gram- 
 marians of such eminence, may have contributed to that 
 diversity of practice, so observable in the use of the sub- 
 junctive mood. Uniformity in this point is highly desirable. 
 It would materially assist both teachers and learners; and 
 would constitute a considerable improvement in our lan- 
 guage. On this subject, we adopt the opinion of Dr. 
 Lowth; and conceive we are fully w^arranted by his au- 
 
 * As the participle, in this mode of conjugation, perforins the office of a verb, 
 through all the nioods and tent-'is; aod as it implies the idea of time, and governs 
 the objeciive cas»^of nouns a .d pronouns, in the same manner as verbs do; is it 
 not manifest, that it is a speci(« or form of the verb, and tiiat it cannot be properly 
 considered as a distinct part of speechi 
 
EJ-YMOLOGY. 9j 
 
 fhority, and that of the most correct and elegant writers, in 
 limiting the conjunctive termination of the principal verb, 
 to the second and third persons singular of the present tense. 
 
 Grammarians have not only differed in opinion, repect- 
 in» the extent and variations of the subjunctive mood; but 
 a few of them have even doubted the existence of such a 
 mood in the English language. These writers assert, that 
 the verb has no variation from the indicative; ^nd that a 
 conjunction added to the verb, gives it no title to become 
 a distinct mood; or, at most, no better than it would have, 
 if any other particle were joined to it. To these observa- 
 tions it may be replied; 1st. It is evident, on inspection, 
 that, in the subjunctive mood, the present tense of the 
 principal verbs, the present and imperfect tenses of the 
 verb to be, and the second and third perstms, in both num- 
 bers, of the second future tense of all verb^^ require a 
 variation from the forms which those tenses have in the 
 indicative mood. So much difference in the form of the 
 verb, would warrant a correspondent distinction of mood, 
 though the remaining parts of the subjunctive were, in alt 
 respects, similar to those of the indicative. In other Ian- 
 ^ua<5es, a principle of this nature has l>^en admitted, both 
 m the conjugation of verbs, and the declension of nouns. 
 2d. There appears to be as much propriety, in giving a 
 conjunction tne power of assisting to form the subjunctive 
 mood, as there is in allowing the particle lo to have an ef- 
 fect in the formation of tlie infinitive mood.t Sd. A con- 
 junction -added to the verb, shows the manner of being, 
 doing, or suffering, which other particles cannot show: 
 they do not coalesce with the verb, and modify it, as con- 
 junctions do. 4th. It may be said, "If contingency con- 
 stitutes the subjunctive mood, then it is the sense of a 
 phrase, and not a conjunction, that determines this mood.^" 
 But a little reflection will show, that the contingent sense 
 lies in the meaning and force of the conjunction, ex- 
 pressed or understood. 
 
 This subject may be farther illustrated, by the following 
 observations. — Moods have a foundation in nature. They 
 
 * We think it has been proved, that the auxiliary is a constituent part of the 
 verb tn which it relates: tliat the principal and it3 anxUiary form but cM>e verb. 
 . t Conjunctions have an influence on lie mood of tlie tbllovviug verb. 
 
 Dr. £eat(H. 
 CopjunctioQs have somctimcB a governnacnt cf oioo^.—Dr. Lowth. 
 
96 EKm-ISH GRJVMMATl. 
 
 shp"vv what is certain; what is possible; what is condition 
 alj what is commanded. They express also other concep- 
 ibns and volitions; all signifying the manner of being, 
 doing, or sufteri.ug. But as it would .tend to obscure, 
 rather than elucidate the subje.?tyif the moods were par- 
 ticularly enumerated, grammarians have verj pn)per]\ 
 given tfiem such combinations and arrangements, as scr\ < 
 to explain the nature of thi§ part of language, and to 
 render the know.ted^e of it ,ea^il^- attainable. 
 
 The grammar* ol some languages .contain a greater 
 number of the moods, than others, and exhib'tt them in 
 <liiferent forms. The Greek and Ilwnajti. tongues denote 
 them, by particular variations in tlie >*erb itsr'elf. This 
 form, however, was the ^t^^ct of ingenr4i1^^and improve- 
 ment: it is not essential' to the nature of thfi subject. The 
 moods maK^e as eifegtuallj designa'ted by a plurality of 
 words, as'1^ .a change in* the appearance of a single word: 
 because the same ideas. are denoted, and the same end 
 accomplished, by eitlrer luanner of cxprcsvsi^n. 
 
 On tliis. ground, the moods of the English verb, as well 
 as Ihe tenses, are, witlv^eat propriety, formed partly by 
 the principal verb itselt^ and partly by the assistance 
 which fhat verb deriA'es.frojn other words. For furtliei 
 observations, relative to the! \ie\\ s and sentiments here aci 
 vancedjsee pagesri— 72. 70^-78. 1 00— 02— 1 85—1 8 \ 
 
 Verbs Passive arc cailed reguiar, wiien they form 
 dieir perfect participle^b3-tlie addition of r/ or ed, to the 
 verb: as, from the verb * 'To love," is formed the pas- 
 sive? **I am loved, I was loved, 1 shall be loved,'' ^:o. 
 A passive verb is conjugated by adding the perfect 
 participle to the auxiliary Vo be, through all its changes 
 of number,, .person, mood, and tense,"in the follovirinc: 
 manner. 
 
 TO BE LOrHD. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 
 
 3. Thou art loved. 2. Ye or you are loved. 
 
 3.. He is loved, • 3. Thov are loved > 
 
ETYMOLOGY. ST 
 
 hnptrfect Tense* 
 
 Singular, Plural. 
 
 1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 
 
 2. Thou wast loved. 2. Ye or you were lovedc 
 
 3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plufal. 
 
 1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 
 
 i2. Thou hast been loved. 2. Yeoryou have been loved 
 3. Hehathorhasbeen loved. S. They have been lovedc 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 i. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 
 
 2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. Ye or you had been loved 
 
 3. He had been loved. 3. They liad been loved. 
 
 First Future, Tense. 
 
 oiiiguiar. 'Plural. 
 
 J . 1 shall or will be loved. 1. We shall or uili be loved. 
 
 2. Thou shalt or wilt be 2. Ye or you sht^il or will be 
 loved. loved. 
 
 0. He shall or will be loved. 3. They shall or will be iovedc 
 
 Second Future Tense. 
 biny;uiav. Plural. 
 
 5. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved 
 ^, Thou wilt have been 2. Ye or you will have been 
 loved. loved. 
 
 3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 ^^ insular. Plural. 
 
 1. Let me be loved. 1. Let us be loved. 
 
 .2. Be thou loved, or do 2. Be yc or you loved, t'- u. 
 
 thou be loved. ye be loved. 
 
 " T,f>t Kim be loved. 3. .Let them be loved. 
 i 
 
9B ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Potential Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may or can be loved. 1. We may or can be loved. 
 
 2. Thou mayst ot canst be 2. Ye or you may or can be 
 loved. loved. 
 
 3. He may or can be loved. 3. They may or can be loved." 
 
 Lnperfect Tense, 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might, could, would, 1. We might, could, would, 
 or should be loved. or should be loved. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you midit, could, 
 wouldst, or shouldst be would, or should be lov- 
 loved....< ed. 
 
 3. He nii^ht, could, would, S.They might, could, would, 
 or should be loved. or should be loved. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may or can have been 1. We may or can have been 
 loved. loved. * 
 
 2. Thou mayst or canst 2. Ye or you may or can 
 have been loved. have been loved. 
 
 3. He may or can have 3. They may or can have 
 been loved. been loved: 
 
 Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 
 should have been loved. or should have been loved. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
 wouldst, or shouldst have would, or should have 
 been loved. been loved. 
 
 3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, 
 should have been loved. or should have been loved. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 
 
 2. If thou be loved. 2. If ye or you be loved. 
 
 3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 
 
ZTTMOIOGTY. 99 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 
 
 2, If thou wert loved. 2. If ye or you were loved. 
 5. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 
 
 The remaining tenses of this mood are, in general, si- 
 milar to the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. 
 See pages 82, 95, and the notes under the nineteenth 
 rule of Syntax. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Present Tense, Perfect. 
 
 To be loved. To have h^n loved. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Present. Being loved. 
 
 Perfect or Passive. Loved. 
 
 Compound Perfect. Having been loved. y 
 
 ' When an auxiliary is joined to the participle of the 
 principal verb, the auxiliary goes through all the variations 
 of person and number, and the participle itself continues 
 invariably the same. When there are two or more auxi- 
 liaries joined to the participle, the first of them only is 
 varied according to person and number. The auxiliary 
 must admits of no variation. 
 
 The neuter verb is conjugated like the active; but as \t 
 partakes somewhat of the nature of the passive, it affmits, 
 in many instances, of the passive form, retaining still the 
 neuter signification: as, "I am arrived;" "I was gone;"' 
 "I am grown." The auxiliary verb, arn^was, in this case, 
 precisely defines the time of the action or event, but does 
 not change the nature of it; the passive form still express- 
 ing, not properly a passion, but only a state or condition 
 of being. 
 
 Section 9. Observations on Passive Verbs. 
 
 Some writers on grammar assert, that there are no Pas- 
 sive Verbs in the English language, because we have no 
 
 4 
 
£G0 ENGLISa GRABfMAR^. 
 
 verbs of this kind with a peculiar termination, all of them' 
 being formed by the different tenses of the auxiliary fo he^ 
 Joined to the passive participle of the verb. This is, how- 
 ever, to mistake the tnie nature of the English verb; and 
 to regulate it, not on the principles of our own tongue, 
 but on those of foreign languages. The conjugation, or 
 the variation, of the English verb, to answer all the pur- 
 poses of verbs, is accomplished by the means of auxiliaries; 
 and if it be alleged tVat we have no passive verbs, be- 
 cause we cannot exhibit them without having recourse to 
 lielping verbs, it may with equal truth be said, that We 
 liaveno perfect^ pluperfect^ w future te-nse, in the indicative 
 or subjunctive mood; since these, as well as some other 
 parts of the verb active, are formed by auxiliaries. 
 
 Even ttee Greek and Latin passive verbs require an 
 auxiliary to conjugate some of their tenses; namely, the 
 former, in the preterit of the optative and subjunctive 
 moods; and the latter, in tlie perfect and pluperfect of 
 the indicative, the perfect, pluperfect, and fixture, of the 
 subjunctive mood, and the perfect of the infinitive. The 
 deponent verbs, in Latin, require also an auxiliary to con- 
 jugate several of their tenses. This statement abundantly 
 proves that the coitjugation of a verb in the learned lan- 
 guages does not^dhsist solely in varying the form of the 
 original verb. It proves that these languages, like our 
 own language, sometimes conjugate with an auxiliary, and 
 sometimes without it. There is, indeed, a difference* 
 What the learned langq^ges require to be done, in some 
 instances, the peculiar genius of our own tongue obliges 
 us t(Alo, in active verbs, principally, and in passive onesj 
 universally. In short, tlie variation of the verb, in Greek 
 and Latin, is generally accoB^plished by prefixes, or ter- 
 minations, added to the verb itself; in English, by the 
 addition of auxiliaries. 
 
 The English tongue is, in many respects, materially dif- 
 ferent from the learned languages. It is, therefore, very 
 possible to be mistaken ourselves, and to mislead and per- 
 plex others, by an undistinguishing attachment to the prin- 
 ciples and arrangement of the Greek and Latin Gramma- 
 rians. Much of the confusion and perplexity, which we 
 meet with in the writings of some English Grammarians, 
 on the subject of verbs, moods, and conjugations, has ariseis 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 101 
 
 from the misapplication of names. We are apt to think, 
 that Ihe old names must always be attached to the identi- 
 
 cal forms and things to which they were anciently attach 
 ed. But if we rectify this mistake, and properly adjust 
 the names to the peculiar forms and nature of the thmgs 
 in our own language, we shall be clear and consistent in 
 our ideas; and, consequently, better able to represent 
 them intelligibly to those whom we wish to inform. 
 
 The observations which we have made under this head, 
 and on the subject of the moods in anotiier place, will not 
 apply to the declension and cases of nouns, so as to require 
 us to adopt names and divisions similar to those of the 
 Greek and Latin languages: for we sliould then have more 
 cases than there are prepositions in connexion with the ar- 
 ticle and noun : and after all, it would be a useless, as welt 
 as an unwiehly apparatus; since every English preposition 
 points to, and governs, but one case, namely the objective; 
 which is also true with respect to our governing verbs 
 and participles. But the conjugation of an English verb 
 in form, through all its moods and tenses, by means of 
 auxiliaries, so far from being useless or intricate, is a 
 beautiful and regular display of it, and indispensably 
 necessary to the language. ^ 
 
 Some grammarians have alleged, tha.ton the same ground 
 that the voices, moods, and tenses, ar» admitted into the 
 English tongue, in the forms for which we have contended, 
 we should also admit the dual number, the paulo post future 
 tense, the middle voice^ and all the moods and tenses, 
 which are to be found in Greek and Latin. But this objec- 
 tion, though ur§ed with much reliance on its weight, is not 
 well founSed. If the arrangement of the moods, tense&, 
 &c. which we haye adopted, is suited to the idiom of our 
 tongue; and the principle, on which they are adopted, is 
 extended as far as use and convenience require; where 
 is the impropriety, in arresting our progress, and fixing 
 ou,r forms at the point of utility? A principle may be 
 warrantably adopted, and carried to a precise convenient 
 extent, without subjecting its supporters to the charge of 
 inconsistency, for not pursuing it beyond the line of use 
 aiwl propriety. 
 
 The importance of giving the ingenious student clear 
 and just ideas of the nature of our verbs, moods, and 
 12 
 
102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 
 
 tenses, will apologize for the extent of the Author's re 
 marks on these subjects, both here and elsewheft, and 
 for his solicitude to simplify and explain them. — He thinks 
 it has been proved, that the idiom of our tongue demands 
 the arrangement he has given to the English verb; and 
 that, though the learned languages, with respect to voices, 
 moods, and tenses, are, in general, differently constructed 
 from the English tongue, yet, in some respects, they are 
 so similar to it, as to warrant the principle wliich he has 
 adopted. See pages 71— 7^. 76—78. 94—96. 183— 
 184. 
 
 Section 10. Of Irregular Verbs, 
 
 ' Irregular Verbs are those w^hich do not form their 
 imperfect tense, and their perfect participle, by thf 
 addition of d or ed to the verb: as, 
 
 Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part. 
 
 I begin, I began, begun. 
 
 I know, I knew, known. 
 
 Irregular Verbs are of various sorts. 
 
 1. Such as have the present and imperfect tenses, and 
 perfect participle, the same: as, 
 
 Present. IinperCect. Perfect Part- 
 
 Cost, cost, cost. 
 
 Put, put, put. 
 
 2. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect par- 
 ticiple, the same: as. 
 
 Present. Imperfect Perfect Parf 
 
 Abide, abode, v abode. 
 
 Sell, sell, sold. 
 
 3. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect pa^ 
 liciple, different: as. 
 
 Present. Imperfect. Perfect Fart. 
 
 Arise, arose, arisen. 
 
 Blow, blew, blown. 
 
 Many verbs become irregular by contraction; as, <*feed». 
 jfed]; ;leave^left:" others by the termination ens as^ "faJJ, 
 
ETYMOLOGY. lOS 
 
 fell, fallen:" others by the termination ght; as, **buy, 
 bougte; teach, taught," &c. 
 
 The following list of the irregular verbs will, it is pre- 
 sumed, be found both comprehensive and accurate. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Perf. or Pass. Part. 
 
 Abide, 
 
 abode, 
 
 abode. 
 
 Am, 
 
 was. 
 
 been. 
 
 Arise, 
 
 ai'ose. 
 
 arisen. 
 
 Awake, 
 
 awoke, r. 
 
 awaked. 
 
 Bear, to b ringforthpdre, 
 
 born. 
 
 Bear, to carry, 
 
 bore, 
 
 borne. 
 
 Beat, 
 
 beat, 
 
 beaten, beat^ 
 
 Begin, 
 
 began. 
 
 begun. 
 
 Bend, 
 
 bent, 
 
 bent. 
 
 Bereave, 
 
 bereft, r. 
 
 bereft, r. 
 
 Beseech, 
 
 besought. 
 
 besought. 
 
 Bid, 
 
 bid, bade, 
 
 bidden, bid. 
 
 Bind, 
 
 bound, 
 
 bound. 
 
 Bite, 
 
 bit, 
 
 bitten, bit. 
 
 Bleed, 
 
 bled, 
 
 bled. 
 
 Blow, 
 
 blew, 
 
 blown. 
 
 Break, 
 
 broke, 
 
 broken. 
 
 Breed, 
 
 bred. 
 
 bred. 
 
 Bring, 
 Build, 
 
 brought, 
 built. 
 
 brought, 
 built. 
 
 Burst, 
 
 burst, 
 
 burst. 
 
 Buy, 
 
 bought, 
 
 bought. 
 
 Cast, 
 
 cas^ 
 
 cast. 
 
 Catch, 
 
 caught, R, 
 chid. 
 
 caught, R. 
 chidden, chid^ 
 
 Chide, 
 
 Choose, 
 
 chose, 
 
 chosen. 
 
 < 'leave, to stick 
 or adhere, 
 
 1- REGud^. 
 
 
 V leave, to splity 
 
 clove, or cleft.. 
 
 cleft, cloveju 
 
 (Ming, 
 Clothe, . 
 
 clung. 
 
 clung. 
 
 clothed, 
 
 elad, R. 
 
 Gome, 
 
 came. 
 
 come. 
 
 Cost, 
 
 cost,. 
 
 cost. 
 
 Crow, 
 
 crew, R. 
 
 crowed 
 
 Creep, . 
 
 crept^ 
 
 crept 
 
 Cyt, 
 
 cut. 
 
 cut. 
 
104 
 
 ENGLISH GHAMMAR. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Dare, to venture, durst. 
 
 Dare, R. to challenge. 
 
 Deal, 
 
 Big, 
 
 Do, 
 
 Draw, 
 
 Drive, 
 
 Drink, 
 
 Dwell, 
 
 Eat, 
 
 Fall, 
 
 Feed, 
 
 Feel, 
 
 Fight, 
 
 Find, 
 
 Flee, 
 
 Fling, 
 
 Fly, 
 
 Forget, 
 
 Forsake, 
 
 Freeze, 
 
 Get, 
 
 Gild, 
 
 Gird, 
 
 Give, 
 
 Go, 
 
 Grave, 
 
 Grind, 
 
 Grow, 
 
 Have, 
 
 Hang, 
 
 Hear, 
 
 Hew, 
 
 Hide^ 
 
 Hit, 
 
 Hold, 
 
 Hurt, 
 
 Keep, 
 
 ^it, 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Perf. or Pass. Part. 
 
 durst. 
 
 dared. 
 
 dealt, R. 
 
 dealt, R. 
 
 dug, R. 
 
 dug, R. 
 
 did. 
 
 done. 
 
 drew, 
 
 drawn. 
 
 drove. 
 
 driven. 
 
 drank, 
 
 drunk. 
 
 dwelt, R. ', 
 
 dwelt, R. 
 
 eat, or atcK 
 
 eaten. 
 
 fell, ^ 
 
 - fallen. 
 
 fed. 
 
 fed. 
 
 felt, 
 
 felt. 
 
 fought, 
 
 fought. 
 
 found, 
 
 found. 
 
 fled, 
 
 fled. 
 
 flung. 
 
 flung. ^ 
 
 flew. 
 
 flown. 
 
 forgot. 
 
 forgotten, forgot. 
 
 forsook, 
 
 forsaken. 
 
 froze, 
 
 frozen. 
 
 got, 
 
 got.* 
 
 gilt, R. 
 
 gilt, R. . > 
 
 girt, R. 
 
 girt, R. ; 
 
 gave. 
 
 given. 
 
 went, 
 
 gone. 
 
 graved, 
 
 graven, r. 
 
 ground, 
 
 ground. 
 
 grew, 
 had. 
 
 ^rown. 
 lad. 
 
 hung, R. 
 
 hung, R. 
 
 heard, ^ 
 hewed, ^v 
 
 heard. 
 
 hewn, R. 
 
 hid, 
 
 hidden, hid> x 
 
 hit. 
 
 hit. 
 
 held. 
 
 held. 
 
 hurt, 
 
 hurt. 
 
 kept, 
 
 kept. 
 
 knit, R. 
 
 knit. R-. 
 
 * QoUm is ne^Ijr obsolete. Its wmpowai forgoitvn is fiCn lo good tt£.. 
 
Present 
 
 Impcifeot- 
 
 Perf. or Paw. Part, 
 
 Know, 
 
 knew. 
 
 known. 
 
 Lade, 
 
 laded. 
 
 laden. 
 
 Lay, 
 
 laid, 
 
 laid. • 
 
 Lead, 
 
 led, 
 
 led. 
 
 Leave, 
 
 left, 
 
 left. 
 
 Lend, 
 
 lent. 
 
 lent. 
 
 Let, 
 
 let. 
 
 let. 
 
 Lie, to lie down. 
 
 lay, 
 
 lain. 
 
 Load, 
 
 loaded* 
 
 laden, r. 
 
 Lose, 
 
 lost. 
 
 lost. 
 
 Make, 
 
 made, 
 
 made. 
 
 Meet, 
 
 met. 
 
 met. 
 
 Mow, 
 
 mowed, 
 
 mown, R. 
 
 Pay, 
 
 paid, 
 
 paid. 
 
 Put, 
 
 put. 
 
 put. 
 
 Read, 
 
 read. 
 
 read. 
 
 Rend, 
 
 rent. 
 
 rent. 
 
 Rid, 
 
 rid. 
 
 rid. 
 
 Ride, 
 
 rode, 
 
 rode, ridden.* 
 
 Ring, 
 
 rung, rang, 
 
 rung. 
 
 Rise, 
 
 rose, 
 
 risen. 
 
 Rive, 
 
 rived, 
 
 riven. 
 
 Run, 
 
 ran. 
 
 run. 
 
 Saw, 
 
 sawed. 
 
 sawn, R. 
 
 Say, 
 
 said. 
 
 said. 
 
 See, 
 
 saw. 
 
 seen. 
 
 BeeK, 
 
 sought, 
 sokf. 
 
 sought, 
 sold. 
 
 Sell, 
 
 Send, 
 
 sent. 
 
 sent. 
 
 Set, 
 
 set. 
 
 set. 
 
 Shake, 
 
 shook, 
 
 shaken. 
 
 Shape, 
 
 shaped, 
 
 shaped, shapen, 
 
 Shave, 
 
 shaved, 
 
 shaven, r. 
 
 Shear, 
 
 sheared, 
 
 shorn. 
 
 Shed, 
 
 shed, 
 
 shed. 
 
 Shine, 
 
 shone, r. 
 
 shone, r. 
 
 Show, 
 
 showed. 
 
 shown. 
 
 Shoe, 
 
 shod, 
 
 shod. 
 
 Shoot, 
 
 shot. 
 
 shot. 
 
 ^ 
 
 *Ridden is nearly obsolete. 
 
106 
 
 fiNGtISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 Present. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Perf. or Pass. Part. 
 
 Shrink, 
 
 shrunk, 
 
 shrunk. . 
 
 Shred, 
 
 shred. 
 
 shred. 
 
 Shut, 
 
 shut. 
 
 shut. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 sung, saijg, 
 
 sung. n 
 sunk. 
 
 Sink, 
 
 sunk, sank, 
 
 Sit, 
 
 sat. 
 
 sat. 
 
 Slaj, 
 
 slew, 
 
 slain. 
 
 Sleep, 
 
 slept, 
 slid, 
 
 slept, 
 sliddefa. 
 
 Slide, 
 
 Sling, 
 Slink, 
 
 slung, 
 slunk, 
 
 slung, 
 slunk. 
 
 Slit, 
 
 slit, R. 
 
 slit, or slitted. 
 
 Smite, 
 
 smote. 
 
 smitten. 
 
 Sow, 
 
 sowed. 
 
 sown, R. 
 
 Speak, 
 
 spoke. 
 
 spoken. 
 
 Speed, 
 
 sped. 
 
 sped. 
 
 Spend, 
 
 speat. 
 
 spent. 
 
 Spill, 
 
 spilt, R. 
 
 spilt, R. 
 
 Spin, 
 
 spun, 
 
 spun. 
 
 Spit, 
 
 spit, spat, 
 
 spit, spitten.* 
 
 Split, 
 
 split, 
 
 split. 
 
 Spread, 
 
 spread, 
 
 spread. 
 
 Spring, 
 
 sprung, spraiig, 
 
 sprung. 
 
 Stand, 
 
 stood, 
 
 stood. 
 
 Steal; 
 
 stole. 
 
 stolen. 
 
 Stick, 
 
 stuck, 
 
 stuck. 
 
 Sting, 
 
 stung, 
 stunk. 
 
 stung, 
 stunk. 
 
 Stink, 
 
 Stride, 
 
 strode, or strid, 
 
 stridden. 
 
 Strike, 
 
 struck, 
 
 struck, or stricken. 
 
 String, 
 
 strung. 
 
 strung. 
 
 Strive, 
 
 strove. 
 
 striven. 
 
 Strow, or strew, 
 
 strowedorstrevved, \ ^^Z^ll^^"^^^' 
 
 Swear, 
 
 swore. 
 
 sworn, 
 
 Sweat, 
 
 svvet, R. 
 
 swet, R. 
 
 Swell, 
 
 swelled. 
 
 swollen, R. 
 
 Swim, 
 
 swum, swam. 
 
 swum. 
 
 Swing, 
 
 swung. 
 
 swung. 
 
 Take, 
 
 took, 
 
 taken. 
 
 
 * Spitten is nearly obsolete. 
 

 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 lt)7 
 
 Present. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Terf. or Pass. Part. 
 
 Teach, 
 
 taught, 
 
 taught. 
 
 Tear, 
 
 tore, 
 
 torn. 
 
 Tell, 
 
 told. 
 
 told. 
 
 Think, 
 
 thought, 
 
 thought. 
 
 Thrive, 
 
 throve, r. 
 
 thriven. 
 
 Throw, 
 
 threw, 
 
 thrown. 
 
 Thrust, 
 
 thrust, 
 
 thrust. 
 
 Tread, 
 
 trod, 
 
 trodden. 
 
 Wax, 
 
 waxed, 
 
 waxen, r. 
 
 Wear, 
 
 wore, . 
 
 worn. 
 
 Weave. 
 
 wove. 
 
 woven. 
 
 Weep, 
 
 wept. 
 
 wept. 
 
 Win, 
 
 won. 
 
 won. 
 
 Wind, 
 
 wound, 
 
 wound. 
 
 Work, 
 
 wrought. 
 
 wrought ar worked. 
 
 Wring, 
 
 wrung, 
 
 wrung. 
 
 Write, 
 
 wrote. 
 
 written. ? 
 
 In the preceding list, some of the verbs will be found 
 to be conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly; and 
 those which admit of the regular form are marked with 
 an R. There is a preference to be given to some of these, 
 which custom and judgment must determine. Those pre- 
 terits ancl participles wliich arc first mentioned in the list, 
 seem to be most eligible. The Compiler has not inserted 
 such verbs as are irregular only in familiar writing or 
 discourse, and whicli are improperly terminated by /, in- 
 stead of ed: as, learnt, spelt, spilt, &c. These should be 
 avoided in every sort of composition. It is, however, 
 proper to observe, that some contractions of ed into if, are 
 unexceptionable: and others, the only established forms 
 of expression: as, crept, gilt, &c.: and lost, felt, slept, 
 &c. These allowable and necessary contractions must 
 therefore be carefully distinguished by the learner, from 
 those that are exceptionable. The words which are 
 obsolete have also been omitted, that the learner might 
 not be induced to mistake them for words in present use. 
 Such are, wreathen, drunken, holpen, molten, gotten, 
 holden, bounden, &c.: and swang, wrang, slank, strawed, 
 ^t, brake, tare, ware, &c. 
 
1^ ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 
 
 Section 11. Of Defective Verbs; and of the different 
 ways in which verbs are conjugated. 
 
 Defective Verbs are those which are used only in 
 some of their moods and tenses. 
 
 The principal of them are these. 
 
 Preeent. Imperfect. Pcrf. or Pass. Part. 
 
 Can, could, 
 
 May, might, 
 
 Shall, should, 
 
 Will, would, ' 
 
 Must, must, 
 
 Ought, ought, 
 
 quoth, ^ 
 
 That the verbs must and ought have both a present and 
 past signification, appears from the following sentences: 
 •'I must own that I am to blame;" '*He must have been 
 mistaken;*' ''Speaking things which they ought not;" 
 ^'These ought ye to have done." 
 
 In most languages tliere are some verbs which are de- 
 fective with respect to persons. These are denominated 
 impersonal verbs. They are used only in the third per- 
 son, because they refer to a subject peculiarly appropriated 
 to that person; as, "It rains, it snows, it hails, it lightens, 
 it thunaers." But as tlie wov^ impersonal implies a total 
 absence of persons, it is improperly applied to those verbs 
 which have a person: and hent-e it is nvanifest, that there 
 is no such thing in English, ner indeed, in any language, 
 as a sort of verbs really impersonal. 
 
 The whole number of verbs in the English language, 
 regular and irregular, simple and compounded, taken to- 
 u;ether, is about 4300. 'I'lie number of irregular verbs, 
 the defective included, is about 177.* 
 
 Some Grammarians have thought that the English verh- 
 as well as those of the C-Jreek, Latin, French, and otiu ; 
 languages, might be classed into several conjugations 
 and that the three different terminations of the participle 
 might be the distinguishing characteristics. They have 
 accordingly proposed three conjugations; namely, tb*^ 
 
 « The wluMe number of ,w>ords, in the Engiisii language, is about thitly-fiv 
 , tiiousaiid. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. « 109 
 
 first to consist of verbs, the participles of whicli end in C(?, 
 
 its contraction t; the second, of those ending in ght; 
 
 <1 the third of those in en. But as the verbs of the first 
 
 tnjugation, would so greatly exceed in number those -of 
 
 miK tne others, as may be seen by the preceding account 
 
 Ot them; and as those of the t^ird conjugation are so 
 
 various in their form, and incapable of being reduced to 
 
 one plain rule; it seems better m practice, as Dr. Lowth 
 
 justly observes, to consider the first in ed as the only 
 
 regular form, and the other as deviations from it; after 
 
 the example of the Saxon and German Grammarians. 
 
 Before we close the account of the verbs, it may afford 
 instruction to the learners, to be informed, more particu- 
 larly than they have been, that different nations have 
 imade use of different contrivances for marking the tenses 
 and moods of their verbs. The Greeks and Latins, dis- 
 tinguish them, as well as the cases of their nouns, adjec- 
 tives, and participles, by varying the termination, or 
 otliervvise changing the form, of the word; retaining, 
 however, those radical letters, which prove the inflection 
 to be of the same kindred with its root. The modern 
 tongues, particularly the English, abound in auxiliar3f 
 words, which vary the meaning of the noun, or the verb, 
 without requiring any considerable varieties of inflection 
 Thus,/c?o love, idid love, I have loved, I had loved, I shall 
 love, have the same import with amOj amabam, amavi, 
 amaveram, amabo. It is obvious, that a language, like 
 the Greek and Latin, which can thus comprehend in one 
 word the meaning of two or three words, must have some 
 advantages over those which are not so comprehensive. 
 Perhaps, indeed, it may not be more perspicuous; but, in 
 the arrangement of words, and consequently in harmonr 
 and energy, as well as in conciseness, it may be much 
 more elegant. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Of Adverbs, 
 
 • An Adverb is a part c^ speech joined to a verb, an 
 adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to ex- 
 |)ress some quality or circumstance respecting it: aa, 
 
I to ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 '^He reads wellj^^ *^A truly good man;" <^He writes 
 vtiy correctly.'' 
 
 Some adverbs are compared, thus; <^Soon, sooner, 
 soonest;" ^^often, oftener; oftenest." Those ending 
 in ly, are compared hy more and 7nost: as, ** Wisely, 
 more wisely, most wisely. 'V 
 
 Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to 
 «^xpress compendiously in one word, what must otherwise 
 have required two or more: as, "He acted wisely," for, 
 }ie acted with wisdom; ''prudently," for, with prudence; 
 '•He did it here," for, he did it in this place; "exceeding- 
 ly," for, to a great degree; "often and seldom," for many, 
 and for few times; *'very," for, in an eminent de- 
 gree, &c 
 
 There are many words in the English language that 
 are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as ad- 
 verbs: as, "More men than women were there;" or, 
 •'I am more diligent than he." In the former sentence 
 ?nore is evidently an adjective, and in the latter, an ad- 
 verb. There are others that are sometimes used as 
 substantives, and sometimes as adverbs: as, "To-day's 
 lesson is longer than yesterday's;" here to-day and yes- 
 terday are substantives, because they are words that make 
 sense of themselves, and admit besides of a genitive case,: 
 but in the phrase, "He came home yesterday, and sets 
 out again to-day," they are adverbs of time; because 
 they answer to the question when. The adverb much js 
 used as all three: as, "Where much is given, much is 
 required;" *'Much money has been expended;" "It is 
 much better to go than to stay." In the first of these 
 sentences, much is a substantive; in the second, it is an 
 aBjective; and in the third, an adverb. In short, nothing 
 but the sense can determine what they are. 
 
 Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced t« 
 certain classes, the chief of which are those of Number^ 
 Order, Place, Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt, 
 Affirmation, Negation, Interrogation, and Comparison. 
 
 • 1. Of number: as, "Once, tiyice, thrice," &c. 
 
 SL Of order: as, "First, secondly, thirdly, foyrthlv, 
 iifthly, lastly, finally," &ic. 
 
ETYMOLOGY, 111 
 
 5. Q( place: asy ''Here, there, where, elsewhere, any- 
 Svhere, somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hither, 
 thither, upward, downward, forward, backward, whence, 
 hence, thence, whithersoever," &c. 
 
 4. Of time, ■^• 
 
 Of time present: as, "Now, to-day,*' &c. 
 
 Of time past: as, "Already, before, lately, yesterday, 
 iieretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago," &c. 
 
 Of time to come: as, "To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, 
 henceforth, henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, 
 immediately, straight ways," &c. 
 
 Of time indefinite: as, "Oft, often, oft times, often- 
 times, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, 
 yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again," &c. 
 
 %. Of quantity: as, ''Much, little, sufficiently, how 
 much, how great, enough, abundantly," &c. 
 
 6. Of manner or quality: as, "Wisely, foolishly, just- 
 ly, unjustly, quickly, slowly," &c. Adverbs of quality 
 are the most numerous kind; and they are generally 
 formed by adding the termination ly to an adjective or 
 participle, or changing le into /i/; as, "Bad, badly; 
 cheerful, cheerfully; able, ably; admirable, admirably." 
 
 r. Of doubt: as, * 'Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, 
 , perchance." 
 
 8. Of affirmation: as, "Verily, truly, undoubtedly, 
 doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really," &.c. 
 
 9. Of negation: as, "Nay, no, not, by no means, not 
 .at all, in no wise," &c. 
 
 ; 10. Of interrogation: as, "How, why, wherefore, 
 ' whether," &c. 
 
 11. Of comparison: a«, "More, most, better, bes^, 
 worse, worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike," %icj 
 
 Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are many 
 which are formed by a combination of several of th« 
 prepositions with the adverbs of place here,, there^ and 
 ivhere: as, "Hereof, thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto, 
 wliereto; hereby, thereby, whereby; herewith, therewith, 
 wherewith; herein, therein, wherein; therefore, (i. e. 
 there-for,) wherefore, (i. e, where-for,) hereupon oi 
 
112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 hereon, thereupon or thereon, whereupon or whereon,^' 
 he. Except therefore, these are seldom used. 
 
 In some instances the preposition suffers no change^ 
 but becomes an adverb merely by its application: as when 
 we say, "he rides about;''^ *%e was near falling;" "but 
 4I0 not after lay the blame on me." 
 
 There are also some adverbs, which are composed of 
 nouns, and the letter a used instead of at, on, &c,: as, 
 *•* Aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, asleep, aboard, ashore, 
 abed, aground, afloat," &c. 
 
 The words lohen and where, and all others of the same 
 nature, such as, whence, whither, whenever, wherever^ 
 &c. may be properly called adverbial conjunctions, be- 
 cause they participate the nature both of adverbs and con- 
 junctions: of conjunctions, as they conjoin'sentences^ of 
 adverbs, as they denote the attributes either of time or 
 of place. 
 
 It may be particularly observed with respect to the 
 word therefore, that it is an adverb, when, without joinins: 
 sentences, it only gives the sense of, for that reason. 
 When it gives that sense, and also connects, it is a con- 
 junction: as, ''He is good, therefore\ie is happy." The 
 same observation may be extended to the words conse- 
 quently, accordingly, and the like. When these are sub- 
 joined to and, or joined to if, since, &c. they are adverbs^ 
 the connexion being made without their help: when they^ 
 appear single, and unsupported by any other connectiv^^ 
 they may be called conjunctions." 
 
 The inquisitive scholar may naturally ask, what neces- 
 sity there is for adverbs of time, when verbs afe provided 
 with tenses, to show that circumstance. The answer is, 
 though tenses may be sufficient to denote the greater 
 distinctions of time, yet, to denote them all by the tenses 
 would be a perplexity without end. What a variety of 
 forms must be given to the verb, to denote yesterday, to - 
 dajy, to-morrow, formerly, lately, just now, now, imme- 
 diately, presently, soon, hereafter, &.C. It was this con- 
 sideration that made the adverbs of time necessary, over 
 and above the tenses. 
 
STYMOI.OGY. tlS 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Of Prepositions. 
 
 * Prepositions serve to xjonnect words with one 
 smother, and to show the relation between them. 
 
 The following is a list of the principal prepositions: 
 
 Of 
 
 into 
 
 above 
 
 at 
 
 off 
 
 to 
 
 within 
 
 below 
 
 near 
 
 on or upoit 
 
 for 
 
 without 
 
 between 
 
 up 
 
 among 
 
 by 
 
 over 
 
 beneath 
 
 down 
 
 after 
 
 with 
 
 under 
 
 from 
 
 before 
 
 about 
 
 in ' 
 
 through 
 
 beyond 
 
 behind 
 
 againsty 
 
 Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a prepositioi^: 
 'tis, to uphold, to invest, to overlook: and this composition 
 sometimes gives a new sense to the verb; as, to understand, 
 to withdraw, to forgive. But in English, the preposition 
 is more trequently placed i ^ter the verb, and separately 
 from it^ like an adverb, in which situation it is not less 
 apt to affect the sense of it, and to give it a new mean- 
 ing; and may still be considered as belonging to the v,ei-b, 
 and as a part of it. As, to cast, is to throw; but to cast 
 up, or to compute, an account, is c[uite a different thing: 
 thus, to fall on, to bear out, to give over, &c. So that 
 tlie meaning of the verb, and the jjropriety of the phrase, 
 depend on the preposition subjoined. 
 
 In the composition of many words, there are certain 
 syllables employed, which Grammarians have called in 
 separable prepositions: as, be, con, mis, &c. in bedeck, 
 conjoin, mistake: but as they are not words of any kind, 
 they cannot properly be called a species of preposition. 
 
 One great use of prepositions, in English, is, to express 
 -those relations, which, in some languages, are chiefly 
 marked by cases, or the different endings pf nouns. See 
 page 50. The necessity and use of them will appear 
 from the following examples. If we say, "he writes a. 
 pen," "they ran the river," ^*the tower feU the Greeks^,** 
 
il4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.^ 
 
 '•Lambeth is Westminster-abbey," there is observable 
 in each of these expressions, either a total want of con- 
 nexion, or such a connexion as produces falsehood or 
 nonsense: and it is evident, that, before they can be 
 mrned into sense, the vacancy must be filled up by some 
 connecting word^ as thus, ^'He writes with a pen;"' 
 *'they ran totvards the river;" "the tower fell upon the 
 Greeks;" ^'Lambeth is over against Westminster-abbey." 
 We see by these instances, how prepositions may be ne- 
 cessary to connect those words, which in their signifies 
 lion are not naturally connected. 
 
 Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptation^ 
 seem to have denoted relations of place; but they are 
 »ow used figuratively, to express other relations, for 
 example, as they who are above have in several respects 
 rhe advantage of such as are below, prepositions express- 
 ing high and low places are used for superiority and in- 
 feriority in general: as, "He is above disguise;" "we 
 serve under a good master;" ''he rules over a willing 
 people;" "we should do nothing beneath our character." 
 
 The importance of the prepositions will be further per- 
 ceived by the explanation of a few of them. 
 
 Of denotes possession or belonging, an effect or con- 
 sequence, and other relations connected with these: as* 
 "The house of my friend;" that is, "the house belonging 
 to my friend;" "He died o/'a fever;" that is, "in conse- 
 quence of a fever." 
 
 To, or untOy is opposed to from; as, "He rode from 
 Salisbury to AVinchester." , 
 
 For indicates the cause or motive of any action or cir- 
 cumstance, &:c. as, "He loves her/or (that is, on account 
 of) her amiable qualities." 
 
 By is generally used with reference to the cause, agent, 
 means, &c.; as, "He was killed by a fall:" that is, "a fall 
 was the cause of his being killed;" "This house was 
 built by him;" that is, "He was the builder of it." 
 
 IVith denotes the act of accompanying, uniting, &c..: 
 as, "We will go with you;" "They are on ^ood terms 
 with each other." — With also alludes to the instrument 
 or means; as, "He was cut with a knife." 
 
 In relates to time, place, the state or manner of being 
 or acting, &c»: as, "He was born in (that is, during) tihti 
 
ETYMOLOGY. ' 115 
 
 jear 1720;" "He dwells in the city;" "She lives in 
 Affluence." 
 
 Into is used after verbs that imply motion of any kind: 
 as, "He retired into the country;" '*Copper is converted 
 into brass." 
 
 JVithin^ relates to something comprehended in any 
 place or time: as, '*They are within the house;" "He 
 be»an and finished his work within the limited time." 
 
 The signification of ivithout is opposite to that o[ within: 
 as, "She stands without the gate:" But it is more fre- 
 fluently opposed to ivithj as, "You may go without me." 
 
 The import and force of the remaining prepositions 
 will be readily understood, without a particular detail of 
 diem. We shall, therefore, conclude this head with ob- 
 serving, that there is a peculiar propriety in distin^ishr 
 ing {he use of the prepositions by and tvith: which is 
 observable in sentences like the following: "He walks 
 with a staff % moonlight;" "He was taken by stratagem, 
 rind killed with a sword." Put the one preposition for 
 tlie other, and say, "he walks by a staff* ivith moonlight;" 
 ••he was taken with stratagem, and killed by a sword;" 
 and it will appear, that they differ in signification more 
 than one, at first view, would be apt to imagine. 
 
 Some of the prepositions have the appearance and effect 
 of conjunctions; as, ^^^fter their prisons were thrown 
 open," &c. '^Before I die;" "They made haste to be 
 ])rcpared against their friends arrived:" but if the noun 
 tune, which is understood, be added, they will lose their 
 conjunctive form; as, "After [the time when] their pri- 
 sons," &c. 
 
 The prepositions after, before, above, beneath, and seve- 
 ral others, sometimes appear to be adverbs, and may be so 
 considered: as, "They had their reward soon a/ye?';'" "He 
 died not lon^before;^- "He dwells above:^^ but if the nouns 
 time and place be added, they will lose- their adverbial 
 form; as, "He died not long before that time,''^ &c 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Of Conjunctions. 
 
 • A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chie^f 
 used to connect sentences; so as, out of two or more 
 
116 ENGLISIt GRAMMAR. 
 
 sentences, to make but one. It sometimes connect) 
 only words. 
 
 Conjunctions are principally divided into two sort? 
 the COPULATIVE and the disjunctive. 
 
 The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect oj 
 fo continue a sentence, by expressing an addition, ; 
 supposition, a cause, &c.: as, ''He and his brothe 
 reside in London;'' "I will go if he will accompany 
 me:" "You are happy, because you are good." 
 
 The Conjunction Disjunctive serves, not only to con 
 nect and continue the sentence, but also to express op 
 position of meaning in different degrees: as, ^'Thougi 
 he was frequently reproved, yet he did not reform;' 
 ''They came with her, but they went away withou 
 her." 
 
 The following is a list of the principal Conjunctions 
 
 The Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, for 
 because, therefore, wherefore. 
 
 The Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though 
 unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding, y" 
 
 I'he same word is occasionally used both as a c^unc 
 tion and as an adverb; and sometimes, as a preposition 
 "I rest then upon this argument;" then is here a con 
 junction: in the following phrase, it is an adverb; "H< 
 arrived then, and not before." "I submitted; for it wa 
 Vain to resist:" in this sentence, for is a conjunction 
 in the next, it is a preposition; "He contended for vie 
 tory only." In the first of the following sentences, sine 
 is a conjunction; in the second, it is a preposition; ant 
 in the third, an adverb: ''Since we must part, let us di 
 it peaceably:" "I have not seen him since that time:' 
 "Our friendship commenced long since,^^ 
 
 Relative pronouns as well as conjunctions, serve t( 
 connect sentences: as, "Blessed is the man who fearetl 
 the Lord, and keepeth his commandments." 
 
 A relative pronoun possesses the force both of a pronoui 
 and a connective. Nay, the union by relatives is rathe 
 closer, than that by mere conjunctions. The latter maj 
 form two or more sentences into one; but, by the former 
 several sentences may incorporate in one and the sam< 
 cfause of a sentence. Thus, thou seest a man, and he ii 
 
ETYMOLOGT. 117 
 
 IcsiUed Peter," is a sentence consisting of two distinct 
 clauses united by the copulative and: but, "the man whom 
 thou seest is called Peter," is a sentence of one clause, 
 and not less comprehensive than the other. 
 
 Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when the^ 
 appear to unite only words; as in the following instances' 
 "Duty and interest forbid vicious indulgences;" "Wis 
 dom or folly governs us." Each of these forms of ex 
 pression contains two sentences, namely; "Duty forbid* 
 vicious indulgences; interest forbids vicious indulgen 
 ces;" "Wisdom governs us, or folly governs us." 
 
 Though the conjunction is commonly used to connect 
 sentences together, yet, on some occasions, it merely 
 connects words, not sentences; as, ^'The king and queen 
 are an amiable pair;" where the affirmation cannot refer 
 to each; it being absurd to say, that the king or the queen 
 only is an amiable pair. So in the instances, "two and 
 two are four;" "the fifth and sixth volumes will complete 
 th^ §et of books." Prepositions also, as before observed, 
 connect words; but they do it tc sh'J*y th6 jelation wluch 
 the connected words have to each other: conjunctions, 
 when they unite words only, are designed to show the 
 relations, which those words, so united, have to other 
 parts of the sentence. 
 
 As there are many conjunctions and connective phrases 
 appropriated to the coupling of sentences, that are never 
 employed in joining the members of a sentence; so there 
 are several conjunctions appropriated to the latter use, 
 which are never employed in the former; and some tliat 
 are equally adapted to both those purposes: as, agairu 
 further, besides, &c. of the first kind; than, lest, unlens, 
 that, so that, &c. of the second; and but, and, for, there- 
 fore, &c. of the last. 
 
 We shall close this chapter w ith a few observations on 
 the peculiar use and advantage of the conjunctions; a 
 subject which will, doubtless, ^ive pleasure to the inge 
 nious student, and expand his views of the importance of 
 his grammatical studies. 
 
 "Relatives are not so useful in language, as conjunc- 
 tions. The former make speech more concise; the latter 
 make it more explicit. Relatives comprehend the meao- 
 ing of a pronoun and conjunction copulative: conjunctions. 
 
118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 while they couple sentences, may also express opposition, 
 inference, and many other relations and dependences. 
 
 Till men began to think in a train, and to carry their 
 reasonings to a considerable length, it is not probable that 
 they would make much use of conjunctions, or of any 
 other connectives. Ignorant people, and children, ge- 
 nerally speak in short and separate sentences. Ine 
 same thing is true of barbarous nations: and hence un- 
 cultivated languages are not well supplied with connect- 
 ing particles. The Greeks were the greatest reasoners 
 that ever appeared in the world; and their language, 
 accordingly, abounds more than any other in conm- 
 •tives. 
 
 Conjunctions are not equally necessary in all sorts of 
 writing. In poetry, where great conciseness of phrase is 
 required, and every appearance of formality avoided, 
 many of them would have a bad effect. In passionate 
 language too, it may be proper to omit them: because it 
 is the nature of violent passion, to speak rather in dis- 
 jointed, sentences, than in the way of inference and 
 argument. Books of aphorisms, like the Proverbs of 
 Solomon, have few connectives; because they instruct, 
 not by reasoning, but in detached observations. And 
 narrative will sometimes appear very graceful, when the 
 circumstances are plainly told, with scarcely any other 
 conjunction than the simple copulative and: which is 
 frequently the case in the historical parts of Scripture. 
 AVhen narration is full of images or events, the omission 
 of connectives may, by crowding the principal words 
 upon one another, give a sort of picture of hurry and 
 tumult, and so heighten the vivacity of description. But. 
 when facts are to be traced down through their conse- 
 quences, or upwards to their causes; when the compli- 
 cated designs of mankind are to be laid open, or conjec- 
 tures offered concerning them; when the historian argues 
 either for the elucidation of truth, or in order to state 
 the pleas and principles of contending parties;, there 
 will be occasion for every species of connective, as much 
 as in philosophy itself. In fact, it is in argument, investi- 
 gation, and science, that this p^rt of speech is peculiarly 
 and indispensably necessary. ' 
 
"ETTTMOLOGT. Ii9 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Of Interjections, 
 
 Interjections are words thrown in between the 
 parts of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions 
 bf the speaker: as, '^Oh! I have alienated my friend; 
 alas! I fear for life:" *^0 virtue! how amiable thou 
 art!" 
 
 The English Interjections, as well as those of other 
 'languages, are comprised within a small €ompass. They 
 are of different sorts, according to the different passions 
 which they serve to express. Those which mtimate 
 
 -eally! strange! Of calling, 
 disgust, /o^.'/e/ away! Of a call of the attention, lo! ht- 
 hold! hofrk! Of requesting silence, hush! hist! Of salutation, 
 welcome! hail! all hail! Besides these, several others, fre- 
 quent in the mouths of the multitude, might be enume- 
 rated; but, in a grammar of a cultivated tongue, it is un- 
 necessary to expatiate on such expressions of passion, as 
 are scarcely worthy of being ranked among the branches 
 ^f artificial language. — See the Octavo Grammar. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 OF DERIVATION. 
 
 - MOTION 1. Of the various ways in which words are 
 derived from one another. 
 
 Having treated of the different sorts of words, an^ 
 their various modifications, which is the first part of Ety- 
 mology, it is now proper to explain the methods by which 
 one word is derived from another. 
 
 Words are derived from one another in various wajg; 
 aij. 
 
 !. Substantives are derived from verbs. 
 
 •2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjective9> aHil. 
 6f mitimes from adverbs. 
 
 3. Adjectives are derived from substantives. 
 
 4. Substantives are derived from adjectives. 
 
 5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 
 
120 ENGLISH GRAMMAil. 
 
 1. Substantives are derived from verbs: as, from **to 
 lovC)" comes "lover;" from '*to visit, visiter;" from "to 
 survive, surviver," &c. , 
 
 In the following instances, and in many others, it is 
 difficult to determine vrhether the verb was deduced 
 from the noun, or the noun from the verb, viz. "Love, to 
 love; hate, to hate; fear, to fear; sleep, to sleep; walk, 
 to walk; ride, to ride; act, to act," &c. 
 
 2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and 
 sometimes from adverbs: as, from the substantive salt, 
 comes "to salt;" from the adjective warm, "to warm;" 
 and from the adverb /bri^«r(i, "to forward." Sometimes 
 they are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening 
 the consonant; as, from "grass, ^ graze:" sometimes by 
 adding en; as, from "length, to lengthen;" especially to 
 adjectives: as, from "short, to shorten; bright, to 
 brighten.'' 
 
 3. Adjectives are derived from substantives, in the fol- 
 lowing manner: Adjectives denoting plenty are derived 
 from substantives by addin* v: as, from "Health, healthy; 
 wealth, wealthy; might, mighty," &c. 
 
 Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing 
 is made, are derived from substantives by adding en: 
 as, from "Oak, oaken; wood, wooden; wool, wool- 
 len," &c. 
 
 Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from sub- 
 stantives, by addingyw/.* as, from "Joy, joyful; sin, sin- 
 ful; fruit, fruitful," &c. 
 
 Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of 
 diminution, are derived from substantives, by adding 
 sdme: as, from "Light, lightsome; trouble, troublesome; 
 toil, toilsome," &c. 
 
 Adjectives denoting want are derived from substan- 
 tives, by adding less: as, from "Worth, worthless;" 
 from "care, careless; joy, joyless," &c. 
 
 Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from sub- 
 stantives, by adding ly: as, from "Man, manly; earth, 
 earthly; court, courtly," &c. 
 
 Some adjectives are derived from other adiectives, or 
 /rom substantive?, by adding ish to them; which termi*. 
 nation when added to adjectives, imports diminution, or 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 121 
 
 lessening the quality: as, <* White, whitish;" i.e. some- 
 what white. When added to substantives, it signifies 
 Similitude or tendency to a character: as, "Child, child- 
 ish; thief, thievish." 
 
 Some adjectives are formed from substantives or verbs, 
 by adding the termination able; and those adjectives 
 signify capacity: as, '* Answer, answerable; to changCrt 
 changeable. " 
 
 , 4. Substantives are derived from adjectives, sometimes 
 by adding the termination ness: as, "White, whiteness; 
 swift, swiftness:" sometimes by adding th or t, and 
 making a small change in some oi the letters: as, "Long^ 
 length; high, height." 
 
 5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by 
 adding ly, or changing le into ly; and denote the same 
 quality as the adjectives from which they are derived: 
 as, from "base," comes "basely;" from "slow, slowly;-'' 
 iVom "able, ably." -^ 
 
 There are so many other ways of deriving words from 
 Aiwe, another, that it would be extremely difficult, and 
 nearly impossible, to enumerate them. The primitive 
 words of any language are^very few; the derivatives form 
 much the greater numbei^.^ A few more instances only 
 can be given here. 
 
 Some substantives are derived from other substantives, 
 by adding the terminations hond. or head, ship, ery, wick, 
 rick, dom, ian, nient, and age. 
 
 Substantives ending mhood or head, are such as signify 
 character or qualities: as, "Manhood, knighthood, false- 
 hood," &c. 
 
 Substantives ending in ship,a.ve those that signify office^ 
 employment, state, or condition: as, *^*Lordship, steward- 
 ship, partnership," &c. Some substantives in ship, are 
 derived from adjunctives: as, **Hard, hardship," &c. 
 
 Substantives which end in ery, signify action or habit: 
 as, ^'Slavery^ foolery, prudery," &c. Some substantive? 
 of this sort come from adjectives; as, '*Brave, bravery," 
 &c. 
 
 Substantives ending in wick, rick, and dom, denote do- 
 minion, jurisdiction, or condition: as, "Bailiwick, bishop- 
 rick, kingdoi;), dukedom, freedom," &c. 
 L 
 
 1 
 
J 22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Substantives wliich end in ian, are those that signify 
 profession; as, "Physician, musician," &c. Those that 
 end in mm^and «^e, come generally from the French, 
 and commonly signify the act or habit: as, * "•Command- 
 ment, usage." 
 
 Some substantives ending in m^d, are derived from 
 verbs or adjectives, and denote character or habit: as, 
 **Drunk, drunkard; dote, dotard." 
 
 Some substantives have the form of diminutives; bu 
 these are not many. They are formed by adding the 
 terminations, kiyi, ling^ ing, ock, c/, and the like: as, 
 ^^Lamb, lambkin; goose, gosling; duck, duckling; hill, 
 hillock; cock, cockerel," &c. 
 
 That part of derivation which consists in tracing Eng- 
 lish words to the Saxon, Greek, Latin, French, and other 
 languages, must be omitted, as the EnglisJi scholar is not 
 supposed to be acquainted with these languages. The 
 best English dictionaries will, however, furnish some in- 
 formation on this head, to those who are desirous of ob- 
 taining it. The learned Home Tooke, in his "Diversions 
 of Purley," has given an ingenious account of the deri- 
 vation and meaning of many of the adverbs, conjunctions, 
 and preposijtions. # 
 
 It is highly probable that the system of this acute gram- 
 marian, is founded in truth; and that adverbs, preposi- 
 tions, and conjunctions, are corruptions or abbreviation* 
 of other parts of speech. But as many of them are derived 
 from obsolete words in our own language, or from words 
 in kindred languages, the radical meaning of which is, 
 therefore, either obscure, or generally unknown; as the 
 system of this very able etymologist is not universally 
 admitted^ and as, by long prescription, whatever may 
 have been their origin, the words in question appear to 
 have acquired a title to the rank of distinct species; it 
 seems proper to consider them, as such, in an elementary 
 treatise of grammar: especially as this plan coincides 
 with that, by which other languages must be taught; and 
 will render the study of them less intricate. It is of 
 smadl moment, by what names and classification we dis- 
 tinguish these words, provided their meaning and use 
 are well understood. A philosophical consideration of 
 i-w^he subject, may, with great propriety, be entered upon 
 
ETYMOLOGr.' 125 
 
 by the grammatical student, when his knowledge and 
 judgment become more improved. 
 
 Section 2. Ji sketch of the steps, by which the English 
 Language has risen to its present state of refinement. 
 
 Before we conclude the subject of derivation, it will 
 probably be gratifying to the curious scholar, to be in- 
 formed of some particulars respecting the origin of the 
 English language, and the various nations to which it is 
 indebted for the copiousness, elegance, and refinement, 
 which it has now attained. 
 
 "When the ancient Britons were so harassed and 
 oppressed by the invasions of their northern neighbours, 
 the Scots and Picts, that their situation was tnuy mise- 
 rable, they sent an embassy (about the middle of the fifth 
 century) to the Saxons, a warlike people inhabiting the 
 north of Germany, with solicitations for* speedy relief. 
 The Saxons accordingly came over to Britain, and were 
 successful in repelling the incursions of the Scots and 
 Picts; but seeing the weak and defenceless state of the 
 Britons, they resolved to take advantage of it; and at 
 length established themselves in the greaterpart of South- 
 Britain, after having dispossessed the original inhabitants. 
 
 "From these barbarians, who founded several petty 
 kingdoms in this island, and introduced their own laws, 
 language, and manners, is derived the groundwork of 
 the English language; which, even in its present state of 
 
 displays very conspicuous 
 Saxon original. 
 
 "The Saxons did not long remain in quiet possession of 
 the kingdom; for before the middle of the^mth century, 
 the Danes, a hardy and adventurous nation, who had long 
 infested the northern seas with their piracies, began to 
 ravage the English coasts. Their first attempts were, 
 in general, attended with such success, that they were 
 encouraged to a renewal of their ravages; till, at length, 
 in the beginning of the eleventh century, they made them- 
 selves masters of the greater part of England. 
 
1:24 EN&LISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 "Though the period, during which these invader* 
 occupied the English throne, was very short, not greatly 
 exceeding half a century, it is highly probable that some 
 change was introduced by them into the language spoken 
 hy those, whom they hacl subdued: but this change can- 
 itot be supposed to have been very considerable, as the 
 Danish and Saxon language* arose from one common 
 source, the Gothic being the parent of botli. 
 
 "The next conquerors of this kingdom, after the Danes, 
 were the Nonnans, who, in the year 1066, introduced 
 their leader William to the possession of the English 
 throne. This prince, soon after his accession, endeavour- 
 ed to bring his own language (the Norman-French) int" 
 >i9e among his. new subjects; but his efforts were not ver^ 
 SMCcessful, as the Saxons entertained a gi'eat antipath' 
 to these haughty foreigners. In process oitime, howevet 
 many Norman words and phrases were incorporated into 
 the Saxon language: but its general form and construc- 
 tion still remained tlie same. 
 
 "From the Conquest to the Reformation, the languag* 
 continued to receive occasional accessions of foreign 
 word's, till it acquired such a degree of copiousness and 
 strength, as to render it susceptible of that polish, whicl 
 it has received from writers of taste and genius, in tin 
 last and present centuries. During this period, tlv 
 learned have enriched it with many significant expre^ 
 sions, drawn from tiie treasures of Greek and Roman 
 literature; the ingenious and tlie fashionable have im- 
 ported occasional supplies of French, Spanish, Italiai^ 
 and German words, gt^aned during their foreign excur 
 sions; and the connexions which we maintain, through 
 the medium of government and commerce, witK many 
 remote nations, have made some additions to our native 
 vocabulary. 
 
 "In this manner did the ancient language ^the An»lo- 
 Saxons proceed, through the various stages of innovation, 
 and the several gradations of refinement, to the forma- 
 lion of the present English tongue." 
 
 See the Twelfth chapter of the Octavo Grammar^ 
 
( 125 ) 
 
 PART III. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 The third part of grammar is Syntax, which treats 
 of the agreement and construction of words in a sen- 
 tence. 
 
 A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming a 
 complete sense. 
 
 Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 
 
 A simple sentence has in, it but one subject, apd 
 one finite* verb: as, *'Life is short." 
 
 A compound sentence consists of two or more 
 simple sentences connected together: as, *^Life is 
 short, and art is long;" **Idleness produces want, 
 vice, and misery." 
 
 As sentences themselves are divided into simple and 
 compound, so the members of sentences may be divided 
 likewise into simple and compound members: for whole 
 sentences, whether simple or compounded, may become 
 members of other sentences, by means of some additional 
 connexion; as in the followinj^ example: '"The ox know- 
 eth his owner, and the ass his mastei-'s crib; but Israel 
 doth not know, my people do not consider." This sen- 
 tence consists of two compounded members, j^ch of 
 which is subdivided into two simple members, wlifch are 
 properly called clauses. 
 
 There are three sorts of simple sentences; the expHco' 
 Hue, or explaining; the interrogative, or asking; the im- 
 perative, or commanding. 
 
 An explicative sentence is when a thing is said to be 
 or not to be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, 
 in a direct manner: as, "I am; thou writest; Thomas is 
 loved." If the sentence be neo;ative, the adverb not is 
 placed after tlie auxiliary, or after the verb itself when 
 it has no auxiliary: as, "I did not. touch him;" or, "J 
 touched him not." 
 
 * Finite verlte are Ujose to which number and person appertaiii. Verbs in Uia 
 injinitivt mood have tio respect to number ov persoii, %^, 
 
 L2 m 
 
1'2G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 1, 
 
 In art interrogative sentence, or when a question is 
 asked, the nominative case follows the principal verb or 
 the auxiliary: as, "Was it he?" "Did Alexander conquer 
 the Persians?" 
 
 In an imperative sentence, when a thing is commanded 
 to be, to do, to suffer, or not, the nominative case likewise 
 follows the verb or the auxiliary: as, "Go, thou traitor!" 
 ''Do thou go:" "Haste ye away:" unless the verb let be 
 used; as, "Let us be gone." 
 
 A phrase is two or more words rightly put toge- 
 ther, making sometimes part of a sentence, and 
 sometimes a whole sentence. 
 
 The principal parts of a simple sentence are, the 
 subject, the attribute, and the object. 
 
 The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the at- 
 tribute is the thing or action affirmed or denied of it; 
 and Ihe object is the thing affected by such action. 
 
 The nominative denotes the subject, and usually 
 goes before the verb or attribute; and the word oi 
 phrase, denoting the object, follows the verb; as, 
 **A wise man governs his passions." Here, a wise 
 man is the subject; governs, the attribute, or thing 
 affirmed; and his passions, the object. 
 
 Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord 
 and Government. 
 
 Concord is the agreement which one w^ord has with 
 another, in gender, number, case, or person. 
 
 Government is that power which one part of speech 
 has over another, in directing its mood, tense, or case. 
 
 To produce the agreement and right disposition of 
 \^ords in a sentence, the following rules and obser- 
 vations should be carefully studied. 
 
 RULE L 
 
 A Verb must agree with its nominative case, in 
 number and person: as, "I learn;'' ^'Thou art im- 
 J^roved;'' ''The birds sing." 
 
 The following are a few instances of the violation of 
 this rule. "What signifies good opinions, when our pi^c* 
 
RulC^l.] SYNTAX. l^f 
 
 tice ift bad?" <*what signifi/,^^ "There's two or three of 
 us, who have seen the work:" "there ffr6." "We may 
 suppose there was more impostors than one:" "there were 
 more." "I have considered what have been said on both 
 sides in this controversy:" "what has been said." "If 
 thou would be healtliy, live temperately:" "if thou 
 lOouldsty "Thou sees how little has been done:" "thou 
 seestJ^^ "Though thou cannot do much for the cause, thou 
 may and should do something:" ^^ canst not, mayst, and 
 shouldst.^^ "Full many a flower are born to blush un- 
 seen:" "is born." "A conformity of inclinations and 
 qualities prepare us for friendship:" ^'prepares us." "A 
 variety of blessings have been conferred upon us:" ''has 
 been." "In piety and virtue consist the liappiness of 
 man:" ''consists,-^ "To these precepts are subjoined a 
 copious selection of rules and maxims:" "^5 subjoined." 
 
 ^ 1.* The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is some- 
 times put as the nominative case to the verb: as, "To see 
 the sun is pleasant;" "To be good is to be happy; V "A 
 desire to excel others in learning and virtue is commend- 
 able;" "That warm climates should accelerate the growtii, 
 Qf the human body, and shorten its duration, is very rea- 
 sonable to believe;" "To be temperate in eating and 
 drinking, to use exercise in the open air, and to preserve 
 tlie mind free from tumultuous emotions, are the best 
 preservatives of health." 
 
 " 2. Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or the 
 participle, ought to have a nominative case, either ex- 
 pressed or implied: as, "Awake; arise;" that is, "Awake 
 ye; arise ye."V 
 
 We shall here add some examples of inaccuracy^ ia 
 the use of the verb without its nominative case. "As it 
 hath pleased him of his goodness to give you safe deli 
 verance, and hath preserved you in the great danger," 
 &:c. The xarh ''hath preserved,^^ has here no nominative 
 case, for it cannot be properly supplied by the preceding 
 word, "him,''^ which is in the objective case. It ought to 
 be, "and as he hath preserved you;''^ or rather, "and to 
 preserve you." "If the calm in which he was born, and 
 
 *^ The chief practical notes under eacli Rale, are regularly nurobere*!, in order' 
 io make them correspond to the exaiuples iB the voliiine ot Exercises, 
 
128 ENGLtBH GRAMMAR. [Rule 1. 
 
 fasted so long, had continued;" ''and which lasted," &c. 
 "These we have extracted from an historian of undoubted 
 credit, and are the same that were practised," &c.; ***and 
 they are the same." *'A man whose inclinations led him 
 to be corrupt, and had great abilities to manage the bu- 
 siness;" "and who had," &c. "A cloud gathering in the 
 noFth; which we have helped to raise, and may quickly 
 break in a storm upon our heads;" *'and which maj 
 quickly." 
 
 -3. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, 
 and when an address is made to a person, should belong 
 i» some verb, either expressed or implied: as, "Who, 
 wrote this book?" "James;" that is, "James wrote it." 
 "To whom thus Adam," that is, "spoke.''^ 
 
 One or two instances of the improper use of the nomi- 
 •native case, without any verb, expressed or implied, to 
 answer it, may be sufficient to illustrate the usefulness 
 of the preceding observation. 
 
 "Which rule, if it had been observed, a neighbouring 
 prince would have wauted a great deal of that incetjse 
 which hath been offered up to him." The pronoun it is 
 here the nominative case to the verb "observed;" and 
 which rule, is left by itself, a nominative case without 
 any verb following it This form of expression, though 
 improper, is very common. It ought to be, ^'j^ this rule 
 had been observed," &c. "Man, though he has great 
 variety of thoughts, and such from which others as well 
 as himself might receive profit and delight, yet they ar^ 
 all within his own breast." In this sentence, the nomi- 
 native man stands alone and unconnected with any verb, 
 either expressed or implied. It should be, "Though man 
 has great variety," &c. 
 
 ^ 4. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of 
 which may be understood as the subject of the affirmation, 
 it may agree with either of tliem: but some regard must 
 be had to that which is more naturally the subject of it, 
 as also to that which stands next to the verb: as, *'His 
 meat was locusts and wild honey;"^"A great cause of 
 the low state of industry were the restraints put upon it;" 
 "The wages of sin is death." 
 
 ^ 5. When the nominative case has no personal tense of 
 
Rule 1. 3 , SYNTAX. 129 
 
 a^verllvb"^ is put before a participle, independently on 
 the rest of the sentence, it is called the case absolute: 
 as, "Shame being lost, all virtue is lost;'^*'That havinjj 
 been discussed long ago, there is no occasion to resume 
 it."" 
 
 *^As in the use of the case absolute, the case is, in Eng- 
 lish, always the nominative\the following example is er- 
 roneous, in making it ihe objective, "Solomon was of 
 this mind; and I have no doubt he made as wise and true 
 proverbs, as any body has done since; him only excepted, 
 who was a much greater and wiser man than Solomon." 
 It should be, ''he only excepted." 
 
 ^-The nominative case is commonly placed before the 
 verb; but sometimes it is put after the verb^if it is a 
 simple tense; and between the auxiliary, and the verb or 
 participle, if a compound tense: as, 
 
 1st, When a question is asked, a command given, or a 
 wish expressed: as,"Confidest thou in me?" "Read thou:" 
 **Mayst thou be happy!" <'Long live the King!" 
 
 2d, When a supposition is made without the conjunc- 
 tion if: as, "Were it not for this;" "Had I been there/' 
 
 3d, When a verb neuter is used: as, "On a suddeu 
 appeared the king." 
 
 4th, When the verb is preceded by the adverbs, here, 
 fhere, then, thence, hence, thus, &c.: as, "Here am I;" 
 "There was he slain;" "Then cometh the end;J' "Tlience 
 ariseth his grief;" "Hence proceeds his anger;" "Thus 
 was the aifair settled." 
 
 5th, When a sentence depends on neither or nor, so as 
 to be coupled with another sentence: as, "Ye shall not 
 cat of it, neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die," 
 
 Some grammarians assert, that the plirases, asfollowSy 
 as appeal's, form what are called impersonal verbs; and- 
 should, therefore, be confined to the smgular number: as^ 
 **The ar^ments advanced were nearly as foU^yws;^" 
 •"The positions were as appears incontrovertible:" that is, 
 '*as it follows," "as it appears." If we give (say they) 
 the sentence a different turn, and instead of as, say such 
 «*. the verb is no longer te'rmed impersonal; but properly 
 
130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [^RuiC ■ 
 
 agrees with its nominative, in the plural number: a-. 
 "The arguments advanced were nearly such as follow;-' 
 "The positions were such as appear incontrovertible.'' 
 
 They who doubt the accuracy of Home Tooke's state- 
 ment, "That as, however and whenever used in English, 
 means the same as it, or thah or which;^^ and who are not 
 satisfied whether the verbs, in the sentence first men- 
 tioned, should be in the singular or the plural number, 
 may vary the form of expression. Tims, the sense of the 
 preceding sentences, may be conveyed in the following 
 terms. "The arguments advanced were nearly of the . 
 following nature;" "The following are nearly the argu- : 
 ments which were advanced;" "The arguments advanced ^ 
 were nearly tliose which follow:" "It appears that the 
 positions were incontrovertible;" "That the positions ^ 
 were incontrovertible is apparent;" "The positions were 
 apparently incontrovertible, " See the Octavo Gramm^; 
 the note under Rule I. 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 Two or more nouns, &c. in the singular number, 
 joined together by a copulative conjunction, express- 
 ed or understood, must have verbs', nouns, and pro- 
 nouns, agreeing with them in the plural number: as, 
 '' Socrates and Plato toere wise; they were the most 
 eminent philosophers of Greece;" ''The sun that 
 rolls over our heads, the food that we receive, the 
 rest that we enjoy, daily admonish us of a superior 
 and superintending Power, "t 
 
 This rule is often violated; seme instances of which 
 are annexed. "And so was also James and John the sons 
 of Zebedee, who were partners with Simon;" "and so 
 
 * These grammarians are supported by general usage, and by the authority of 
 an eminent-critic on language and composition. "W^hen a verb is used iniperson 
 ally," says Dr. Campbell in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, "it ought undoubtedly ta 
 be in the singular number, whether the neuter pronoun be expressed or under 
 stood. For this reason, analogy and usage favour this mode of expression: "Tha 
 conditions of the agreement were as follows;" and not, as follow. A few late 
 writers have inconsiderately adopted this last form, through a mistake of the 
 construction. For the same reason, we ought to say, "I shall consider his cen- 
 sures so far only as concerns my friend's conduct;" and not 'so far as concent.* 
 
 t See the exceptions to this rule, at p. 46 of the Key; 12th edition. 
 
Rule S.] SYNTAX. 131 
 
 f/?erc also," "All joy, tranquillity, and peace, even for 
 ever and ever, doth clwell;" ''dwell forever." "By whose 
 power all good and evil is distributed;" "are distributed." 
 **Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now pe- 
 rished;" "are perished." **The thoughtless and intem- 
 perate enjoyment of pleasure, the criminal abuse of it, 
 and the forgetfulness of our being accountable creatures, 
 obliterates every serious thoudit of the proper business 
 of life, and eifaces the sense of religion and of God;" It 
 ought to be, ''obliterale,^^ and ''effaceP 
 ■v 1. When the nouns are nearly related, or scarcely dis- 
 tinguishable in sense, and sometimes even when they are 
 very different, some authors have thought it allowable to 
 put the verbs, nouns, and pronouns, in the singular nuin- 
 ber: as, "Tranquillity and peace dwells there;" "Igno- 
 rancei,and negligence has produced the effect;" "The dis- 
 comfiture and slaughter was very great." But it is evi- 
 dently contrary to the first principles of grammar, to 
 consider two distinct ideas as one, however nice may be 
 
 ' their shades of difference: and if there be no difference, 
 
 ^ one of them must be superfluous, and ought to be rejected . 4-^ 
 To support the above construction, it is said, that the 
 verb may be understood as applied to each of the pre- 
 ceding terms; as in the following example. "Sand, and 
 salt, and a mass of iron, is easier to bear than a man 
 without understanding." But besides the confusion, and 
 the latitude of application, which such a construction 
 would introduce, it appears to be more proper and ana- 
 logical, in cases where the verb is intended to be applied 
 to -any one of the terms, to make use of the disjunctive 
 conjunction, which grammatically refers the verb to one 
 
 ' or other of the preceding terms in a separate view. To 
 preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and dis- 
 junctive conjunctions, would render the rules precise, 
 
 ; consistent, and intelligible. Dr. Blair very justly ob- 
 serves, that "two or more substantives, joined by a copu- 
 lative, must always require the verb or pronoun to whicK 
 tliey refer, to be placed in the plural number." 
 
 2. In many complex sentences, it is difficult for learn- 
 ers to determine, whether one or more of the clauses are 
 to be considered as the rj/.-minative case; and conse- 
 quently, whether the verb ^.hould be in the singular or 
 
13^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule i, 
 
 the plural number. We shall, therefore, set down a 
 nunfiber of varied examples of this nature, which may 
 serve as some government to the scholar, with respect 
 to sentences of a similar construction. "Prosperity, with 
 humility, renders its possessor truly amiable.'' "The 
 ship, with all her furniture, was destroyed." "Not only 
 his estate, his reputation too has suffered by liis miscon- 
 duct." "The general also, in conjunction with the offi- 
 c'ers, has applied for redress." "He cannot be justified; 
 for it is true, that the prince, as well as the people, was 
 blameworthy." **The king, witli his lifeguard, has just 
 passed through the village. " "In the mutual influencef 
 of body and soul, there is a wisdom, a wonderful wis-^' 
 dom, which we cannot fathom." '^Virtue, honour, nay- 
 ev«H self-interest, conspire to recommend the measure." 
 ^'Patriotism, morality, every public and private consider- 
 ation, demand our submission to just and lawful govern- 
 ment." "Nothing delights me so much as the works of 
 nature." 
 
 In support of such forms of expression as the following, 
 we see the authority of Hume, Priestley, and other wTit- 
 ers; and we annex them for the reader's consideration. 
 "A long course of time, with a variety of accidents and 
 circumstances, «re requisite to produce those revolutions.** 
 "Th€ king, with the lords and commons, /on?! an excel- 
 lent frame of government. " "The side A, with the sides 
 B and C, compose the triangle." "The fire communicated 
 itself to- the bed, which, with the furniture of the room, 
 and a valuable library, ivere all entirely consumed." it 
 is, however, proper to observe, that these modes of ex- 
 pression do not appear to be wan-anted by the just prin- 
 ciples of construction. The words, "A long course of 
 time," '*The king," '*The side A," and' ''which," are 
 the true nominatives to the respective verbs. In the last 
 example, the word all should be expunged. As the pre- 
 position with governs the objective case In English; and, 
 if translated into Latin, would govern the ablative case, 
 it is manifest, that the clauses following with, in the pre- 
 ceding sentences, cannot form any part of the nominative 
 case. They cannot be at the same time in the objective , 
 and the nominative cases. The following sentence ap- 
 pears to be unexceptionable; and may serve to explaui 
 
Hale 3.3 SYNTA^t. 133 
 
 tlie others. "The lords and commons are essential 
 branches of the British constitution.* the king, with them, 
 forms an excellent frame of government."* 
 ^3. If the singular nouns and pronouns, which are joined 
 together by a copulative conjunction, be of several per 
 sons, in making the plural pronoun agree with them in 
 |>erson, the second person takes place of the third, and 
 the first of both: as, "James, and thou, and I, are attached 
 to our country." "Thou and he shared it between youjX/ 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrarjr 
 to that of the conjunction copulative; for as the verb,, 
 noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms 
 taken separately, it must be in the singular number: 
 as, **Ignorance or negligence has caused this mis- 
 take;" **John, James, or Joseph, intends to accom- 
 i)any me;" **There is, in many minds, neither 
 Lnowledge nor understanding." 
 
 The following sentences are variations from this rule: 
 **A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, 
 as well as read them in a description;" "read tV." "Nei» 
 ther character nor dialogue were yet understood;" '^was 
 yet." "It must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or a 
 satire do not carry in them robbery or murder;" '''does 
 not carry in iV." "Death, or some worse misfortune, soon 
 divide them." It ought to be "divides.''^ 
 V 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun* 
 of different persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb 
 must agree with that person which is placed nearest to 
 it: as, "I or thou art to blame;" "Thou or I ffm in fault;*^ 
 **I, or thou, or he, is the author of it;" "George or I am. 
 the person." But it would be better to say; "Either I am 
 to blame, or thou art," &c. 
 
 *-2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun^ 
 or pronoun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree 
 with the plural noun and pronoun: as, "Neither povertv; 
 nor riches were injurious to him;" "I or they ivere of- 
 
 * Though the construction will not admit of a plural verb, the seiitenc« wa]|& 
 certainly etand better thus: "The king, the lords, and the coiuinone, /i»r« an ex- 
 cellent constitution." 
 
 M 
 
134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rulc 4* 
 
 fended by it." But in this case, the plural noun .or pro- 
 noun, when it can conveniently be done, should be placed 
 next to the verb. ^ 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 A noun of multitude, or signifying many, may 
 have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it, either of 
 the singular or plural number; yet not without re- 
 gard to the import of the word, as conveying unity 
 or plurality oi idea: as. The meeting was large;" 
 **The parliament is dissolved;" *'The nation is pow- 
 erful;" "My people (/o not consider: //ley have not 
 known me;" **The multitude eagerly pursue plea- 
 sure, as their chief good;" *^The council were divided 
 in their sentiments." 
 
 We ought to consider whether the term will imme- 
 diately suggest the idea of the number it represents, or 
 whether it exhibits to the mind the idea of tlie whole as 
 one thin^. In the former case, the verb ought to be plu- 
 ral; in the latter, it ought to be singular. Thus, it seems 
 improper to say, "The peasantry goes barefoot, and the 
 middle sort makes use of wooden shoes." It would ba 
 better to say, "The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle 
 sort make use," &c. because the idea in both these cases, 
 is that of a number. On the contrary, there is a harsh- 
 ness in the following sentences, in which nouns of num- 
 ber have verbs plural; because the ideas they represent 
 seem not to be sufficiently divided in the mind. ''The 
 court of Rome were not without solicitude." "The house 
 of commons were of small weight. " "The house of lordff 
 were so much influenced by these reasons." ''Stephen's 
 party were entirely broken up by the captivity of their 
 leader." "An army of twenty-four thousand were assem- 
 bled." "What reason have the church of Rome for pro- 
 ceeding in this manner?" "There is indeed no constitu- 
 tion so tame and careless of their own defence." "All 
 the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few 
 fingers, but his follies and vices are innumerable." Is 
 not mankind in this place a noun of multitude, and such 
 as requires the pronoun referring to it to be in the plural 
 number, their? 
 
Kule 5.] SYNTAX. 135 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, 
 and the nouns for which they stand, in gender and 
 number: as, *<This is the friend ivho7n I love;'^ <^That 
 is the vice ivhich I hate;" *'The king and the queen 
 had put on ^/ieiV robes;" *'The moon appears, and she 
 shines, but the light is not her own." 
 
 The relative is of the same person as the anteced- 
 ent, and the verb agrees with it accordingly: as, "Thou 
 loho lovest wisdom;" '^I who speak from experience." 
 
 Of this rule there are many violations to be met with; a 
 few of which may be sufficient to put the learner on his 
 guard. ^''Each of the sexes should keep within its parti- 
 cular bounds, and content themselves with the advantages 
 of their particular districts:" better thus: "The sexes 
 should keep within their particular bounds," &c. '*Can 
 any one, on their entrance into the w orld, be fully secure 
 that they shall not be deceived?" *'on M's entrance," and 
 *'that he shall." "One slipuld not think too favourably of 
 ourselves;" "of one's se^." "He had one acquaintance 
 which poisoned his principles;" '^who poisoned." 
 *- Every relative must have an antecedent to which it 
 refers, either expressed or implied: as, "Who is fatal to 
 others is so to hnnself;" that is, "//le manivho is fatal to 
 others.'^ 
 
 *- TVho^ which, what, and tlie relative that, though in the 
 objective case, are always placed before the verb; as are 
 also their compounds, lohoever, whosoever, Sic; as, "He 
 whom ye seek;"'*.f*This is what, or the thing which, oi 
 that you want;" "Wliomsoever you please to appoint." 
 TV hat is sometimes applied, in a manner which appears 
 to be exceptionable: as, "All fevers, except what are 
 called nervous," &c. It would at least be better to say, 
 "exQept those which Sire called nervous." 
 —4-. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of 
 the noun, are not employed in the same part of a sentence 
 as the noun which they represent; for it would be im- 
 proper to say, "The king he is just;" "I saw her the 
 niieen;'Z:"T]ie men they were there;" "Many woids they 
 
136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [TRulc 0» 
 
 darken speech;" *'Mj banks they are furnished with 
 bees." These personals are superfluous, as there is not 
 the least occasion for a substitute in the same part where 
 the principal word is present. The nominative case they^ 
 in the following sentence, is also superfluous; "Who, in- 
 stead of going about doing good, they are perpetually in- 
 tent upon doing mischief." 
 
 -^2. The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons as 
 well as to things; but after an adjective in the superlative 
 degree, and after the pronominai adjective same^ it i^ 
 generally used in preference to who or which: as, "Charles 
 XII. king of Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen 
 that the world ever saw;" "Cataline's followers were the 
 most profligate that could be found in any city." "He is 
 the same man that we saw before.">^ There are cases 
 wherein we cannot conveniently dispense with this rela- 
 tive as applied to persons; as first, after who the inter- 
 i-ogative; "Who that has any sense of religion, would 
 have argued thus?" Secondly, when persons make but a 
 part of the antecedent; '*The woman, and the estate, that 
 became his portion were too much for his moderation. 'i.. 
 In neither of these examples could any ether relative 
 have been used. 
 
 ^ 3. The pronouns whichsoever^ whosoever^ and the like, 
 are elegantly divided by the interposition of the corres- 
 ponding substantives: thus, '*0n whichsoever side the 
 king cast his eyes;" would have sounded better, if writ- 
 ten, "On which side soever," &c.< 
 "-4. Many persons are apt, in conversation, to put the ob- 
 jective case of the personal pronouns, in the place oi these 
 and those: as, "Give me them books;" instead of "/Aose 
 books." We may sometimes find this fault even in writ- 
 ing: as, "Observe them three there." We also frequently 
 meet with those instead of they^ at the beginning of a 
 sentence, and where there is no particular reference to 
 an antecedentj^as, ''•Those that sow in tears, sometimes 
 reap in joy." They that, or they who sow in tears. 
 
 It is not, however, always easy to say, whether a per- 
 s(mal pronoun or a demonstrative is preferable, in certain 
 constructions. "We are not unacquainted with the ca- 
 lumny of Mem j^or those] who openly make use of thQ 
 vrarmest professions." 
 
Bule 5.] SYNTAX. 1S7 
 
 "-5. In some dialects, the word what is improperly used 
 for that, and sometimes we find it in this sense m writing: 
 ''They will never believe but tvhat I have been entirely 
 to blame."' "I am not satisfied but what," &c. instead of 
 •*but /to.'«^ The word sometchat, in the following sen- 
 tence, seems to be used improperly. "These punish- 
 ments seem to have been exercised in somewhat an 
 arbitrary manner." Sometimes we read, ''In somewhat 
 of." The meaning is, "in a manner which is in some re- 
 spects arbitrary." 
 
 6. The pronoun relative who is so much appropiated 
 to persons, that there is generally harshness in the appli- 
 cation of it, except to the proper names of persons, or the 
 general terms 7nan, tvonian, &c. A term which only 
 implies the idea of persons, and expresses them by some 
 circumstance or epithet, will hardly authorize the use of 
 it: as, "That faction in England loho most powerfully 
 opposed his arbitrary pretensions." "That faction which,'^ 
 would have been better; and the same remark will serve 
 for the following examples: "France, who was in alliance 
 with Sweden." "The court, who,^^ &c. "The cavalry 
 f{)ho,^^ &c. "The cities who aspired at liberty." ''That 
 party among us toho,^^ &c. "The family whoiJi they con- 
 sider as usurpers." 
 
 In some cases it may be doubtful, whether this pronoun 
 is properly applied or not: as, "The number of substan- 
 tial inhabitants with whom some cities abound." Foi' 
 when a term directly and necessarily implies persons, it 
 may in many cases claim the personal relative. "None 
 of the company whom he most aft'ected, could cure him 
 of the melancholy under which he laboured." The word 
 acquaintance may have the same construction. 
 
 7. We hardly consider little children as persons, be- 
 cause that term gives us the idea of reason and reflection: 
 and therefore the application of the personal relative who, 
 in this case, seems to be harsh: "A child who.^^ It is 
 still more improperly applied to animals: "A lake fre- 
 quented by that fowl who7n nature has taught to dip the 
 wing in water." 
 
 w 8. When the name of a person is used merely as a 
 name, and it does not refer to the person, the pronoun 
 ivho ought not to be applied. "It is no wonder if such a 
 M 2 
 
t3€ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 'S~- 
 
 man did not shine at the court of queen Elizabeth, wha 
 was but another name for prudence and economy." Better 
 thus; "whose name was but another word for prudence," 
 ^tc^JThe word whose begins likewise to be restricted to 
 persons; jet it is not done so generally, but that eood 
 writers, even in prose, use it \vhen speaking of things. 
 The construction is not, however, generally pleasing, 
 as we may see in the following instances: "Pleasure, 
 vvhose nature," &c. ''Call every production, whose parts 
 and ivhose nature," &c. 
 
 «- la one case, however, custom authorizes us to use 
 tuhich, with respect to persons; and that is when we want 
 to distinguish one person of two, or a particular person 
 among a number of others. We should then say, ''PVhich 
 of the two," or ''•Which of them, is he or sher"^^ 
 -^. As the pronoun relative has no distinction of num- 
 ber, we sometimes find an ambiguity in the use of it: as, 
 when we say, "The disciples of Cnrist, whom we imitate;'?^ 
 we may mean the imitation either of Christ, or of his 
 disciples.^Tlie accuracy and clearness of the sentence, 
 depend very much upon the proper and determinate u§e 
 of the relative, so that it may readily present its ante- 
 <;edent to the mind of the hearer or reader, without any 
 obscurity or ambiguity. 
 
 *^" 10. It is and it was, are often, after the manner of the 
 French, used in a plural construction, and by some of our 
 best writers: as, ''It is either a few great men who decide 
 far the whole, or it is the rabble that follow a seditious 
 ringleader:" "It is they that are the real authors, thougli 
 t'le soldiers are the actors of the revolution;" "// was 
 the heretics that first began to rail," &c.;'^"'7is these 
 that early taint the female mind." This license in the 
 coastt uction of it is, (if it be proper to admit it at all,) 
 has, however, been certainly abused in the following sen- 
 tence, which is thereby made a very awkward one. "It 
 is Wonderful the very few accidents, which, in several 
 years, happen from this practice." 
 *- 11. The interjections 0! Oh! and ^9h! require the ob- 
 jective case of a pronoun in the first person after them: 
 as, "0 me! Oli me! Ah me!" But the nominative case 
 in the second person: as, "O thou persecutor!" **0h ye 
 hypocrites!" *'0 thou, who dwellest," &c. , 
 
Rule 6.] SYNTAX. 139 
 
 The neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to the Eng- 
 lish language, is frequently joined in explanatory senten- 
 ces, with a noun or pronoun of the masculine or feminine 
 gender: as, *'It was I;" "It was the man or woman that 
 didit.^' 
 
 The neuter pronoun it is sometimes omitted and un- 
 derstood; thus we say, "As appears, as follows;" for "As 
 it appears, as it follows;" and "May be," for "It may 
 be." 
 
 The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to ex- 
 press; 
 
 1st, The subject of any discourse or inquiry: as, *'// 
 happened on a summer's day;" '*Who is it that calls on 
 me?" 
 
 2d, The state or condition of any person or thing: as, 
 "How is it with you?" 
 
 Sd, The thing, whatever it be, that is tlie cause of any 
 effect or event, or any person considered merely as sk 
 cause: as, '*We heard her say it was not he;" "The 
 i. truth is, it was. I that helped her," 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 The relative is the nominative case to the verb, 
 when no nominative comes between it and the verb: 
 as, **The master who taught us;" **The trees which 
 are planted." 
 
 When a nominative comes between the relative 
 
 . and the verb, the relative is governed by some word 
 
 in its own member of the sentence: as, "He who 
 
 preserves me, to whom I owe my being, whose I am, 
 
 ' and whom I serve, is eternal." 
 
 In the several members of the last sentence, the rela- 
 tive performs a different office. In the first member, it 
 marks the agent; in the second, it submits to the govern- 
 ment of the preposition; in the third, it represents the 
 possessor; and m the fourth, the object of an action: 
 and therefore it must be in the three different cases, cor- 
 respondent to those offices. 
 
 When both the antecedent and relative become nomi- 
 natives, each to different verbs, the relative is the nomina- 
 
XAO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rulc 6. 
 
 tive to the former, and the antecedent to tlie latter verb: 
 as, " True Philosophy, which is the ornament of our nature, 
 consists more in the love of our duty, and the practice 
 of virtue, than in great talents and extensive knowledge/' 
 A few instances of erroneous construction, will illus- 
 trate both the branches of the sixth rule. The three 
 following refer to the first part. *'How can we avoid 
 being grateful to those whom, by repeated kind offices, 
 have proved themselves our real friends!" "These are the 
 men whom, you might suppose, were the authors of the 
 work:" "If you were here, you would find three or four, 
 w hom you would say passed their time agreeably:" in all 
 these places it should be who instead of lohom. The two 
 ktter sentences contain a nominative between the rela- 
 tive and the verb; and, therefore, seem to contravene the 
 rule: but the student will reflect, that it is not the nomi- 
 native of the verb with which the relative is connected. 
 The remaining examples refer to the second part of the 
 rule. "Men of fine talents are not always the persons 
 who we should esteem." "The persons who you dispute 
 ^\ ith, are precisely of your opinion." "Our tutors are our 
 benefiictors, who we owe obedience to, and who we ought 
 to love." In these sentences, whom should be used in- 
 stead of tvho. 
 
 '^. When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative 
 kind, the noun or pronoun containing the answer, must 
 be in the same case as that which contains the question: 
 as, '^Tfliose books are these? They are John's.''^ ''Who 
 gave them to him? IFe." "Of whom did you buy them? 
 Of a bookseller; hirn who lives at the Bible and Crown.'^ 
 ''Whom did you see there? Both Aim and the shopman." 
 The learner will readily comprehend this rule, by sup- 
 plying the words which are understood in the answers, 
 rfius, to express the answers at large, we should say, 
 ''They are John's books." "We gave them to him." 
 "We bought them of liim who lives," &c. "We saw 
 both him and the shopman." — As the relative pronoun, 
 when used interrogatively, refers to the subsequent word 
 or phrase containing the answer to the question, that 
 word or phrase may properly be .termed the subsequent, 
 t<» the interrogative. 
 
Rules 7, 8.] SYNTAX. 141 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 When the relative is preceded by two nominatives 
 of different persons, the relative and verb may agree 
 in person with either, according to the sense: as, *'I 
 am the man who command you;'' or, *'I am the man 
 ivho commands you. " 
 
 The form of the first of the two preceding sentences, 
 expresses the meaning rather obscurely. It would be 
 more perspicuous to sav; "I, who command you, am the 
 man." Perhaps the difference of meaning, produced by 
 referring the relative to different antecedents, will be 
 more evident to the learner, in the fullowinff sentences. 
 "I am the general who gives the orders to-day;" "I aiu 
 the general, who give the orders to-day;" that is, "I, who 
 give the orders to-day, am the general." 
 
 When the relative and the verb have been determined 
 to agree with either of the preceding nominatives, that 
 agreement must be preserved throughout the sentence; 
 as in the following instance; "I am the Lord that maketh 
 all things; that stretcheth forth the heavens alone." /*«♦ 
 xliv. 24. Thus far is consistent: The Lord, in the third 
 person, is the antecedent, and the verb agrees with the 
 relative in the third person: "I am the Lord, which Lord, 
 or he that maketh all things." If / were made the ante- 
 cedent, the relative and verb should agree with it in the 
 first person: as, "/am the Lord, that make all things, 
 that stretch forth the heavens alone." But should it 
 follow; "That spreadeth abroad the earth by myself;" 
 there would arise a confusion of persons, and a manifest 
 solecism. 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, be- 
 longs to a substantive, expressed or understood: as, 
 **He is a good, as well as a wise manf^ ^^Few are hap- 
 py;^^ that is, ^^persons:^' ^^This is a pleasant walk;" 
 that is, ^^This walk is,'^ &c. 
 
 Adjective pronouns must agree, in number, with 
 their substantives: as, "This book, these books; that 
 sort, those sorts; another road, other roads.'* 
 
142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rulc 8. 
 
 I. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 A few instances of the breach of this rule are here 
 exhibited. "I have not travelled this twenty years;'' 
 ^Hhese twenty." "I am not recommending these kind ot" 
 sufferings;" ^^Hhis kind." "Those set ot books was a 
 valuable present;" 'Hhat set." 
 
 1. The word means in the singular number, and the 
 phrases, "i>V this means^^^ '*By tluit jneans,^^ are used by 
 our best and most correct writers; namely, Bacon, Til- 
 lotson, Atterbury, Addison, Steele, Pope, &.c.*JThey ar^, * 
 indeed, in so general and approved use, that it would 
 appear awkward, if not affectecf, to apply the old singular 
 form, and say, "By this mean; by that mean; it was by^ 
 a jnean;^^ although it is more agreeable to the general ' 
 analogy of the language. "The word means (says Priest- 
 ley) belongs to the class of words, wliich do not changes 
 tlieir termination on account of number; for it is used 
 alike in both numbers.". 
 
 The word amends is used in this manner, in the fol- 
 lowing sentences: "Though he did not succeed, he 
 gained the approbation of his country; and with this 
 amends he was content." "Peace of mind is an honour- 
 able amends for the sacrifices of interest." "In return, 
 lie received the thanks of his employers, and the present 
 of a large estate: these were ample amends for all hi> 
 labours." "We have described the rewards of vice: the 
 good man's amends are of a different nature." 
 
 It can scarcely be doubted, that this word amends (like 
 the word means) had formerly its correspondent form in 
 
 * "/?«/ this means, he had them the more at vantage, being tired and harassed 
 with a long march." Bacon. 
 
 "By this means one ereat restraint from doing evil, would be taken away."— 
 "And this is an admirable means to improve men in virtue." — By that means 
 lliey have rendered tJieir duty more difficult." Tillotson. 
 
 "Ii renders us careless of approving ourselves to God, and by that means se 
 Hiring the continuance of his goodness." — "A good character, when established, 
 sJiouId not be rested in as an end, but employed as a means of doing still further 
 gwid." Atterbury. 
 
 ''By this means they are happy in each other."— "He by that means preserve- 
 Jiis superiority." Addison. 
 
 "Your vanity by this means will want its food." Steele. 
 
 *'Bii this means alone, their greatest obstacles will vanish." Pope. 
 
 "VVhich custom has proved the most effectual means to ruin the nobles." 
 
 Dean Stcift 
 
Uule 8*] SYNTAX. 14Q 
 
 tlie singular number, as it is derived from the French 
 amende, though now it is exclusively established in the 
 plural form. If, therefore, it be alleged that mean 
 should be applied in the singular, because it is derived 
 from the French rnoyen, the same kind of argument may 
 be advanced in favour of the singular amende; and the 
 general analogy of the language may also be pleaded in 
 support of it. 
 
 Campbell, in his "Philosophy of Rhetoric," has the 
 following remark on the subject before us: "No persons 
 of taste will, I presume, venture so far to violate the 
 present usage, and consequently to shock the ears of the 
 generality of readers, as to say, "By this inean, by that 
 mean,^^ 
 
 Lowth and Johnson seem to be against the use of means 
 in the singular number. They do not, however, speak 
 decisively on the point; but rather dubiously, and as if 
 they knew that they were questioning eminent authorities, 
 as well as general practice. That they were not deci- 
 dedly against the application of this word to the singular 
 number, appears from their own language: "Whole sen- 
 tences, whether simple or compound, may become mem- 
 bers of other sentences by means of some additional 
 connexion,''^ — Dr. Lowth's Introduction to English 
 Grammar, 
 
 "There is no other method of teaching that 'of which 
 any one is ignorant but by means of something already 
 known." — Dr. Johnson. Idler, 
 
 It is remarkable that our present version of the Scrip- 
 tures make no use, as far as the compiler can discover, 
 of the word mean; though there are several instances te 
 
 "There is no means of escaping the persecution."— "Faith is not only a means 
 •f obeying, but a principal act of obedience." Dr. Young. 
 
 "He looked on money as a necessary 7neon« of maintaining and increasiHg 
 power." Lord Lyttclton's Henry II. 
 
 "John was too much intimidated not to embrace every means afforded for iijs 
 •afety." Goldsmith. 
 
 "Lest this means should fail."— "By means of ship-money, the late king," ice. 
 — ''The only means of securing a durable peace." Hume. 
 
 '*By this means there was nothing left to the parliament of Ireland," &e. 
 
 Blackstone. 
 
 " By this means so many slaves escaped out of the hands of their masters." 
 
 Dr. Robertson. 
 
 "By this means they bear witness to each other." Burke. 
 
 "By this means the wrath of man was mad(|fto turn against itself," Dr. Blair. 
 
 "A magazine, which has, by this means, contained," &c. — "Birds, in gcneral,- 
 -procure iteir food by mcaus of Uieir beak. Dr. Poi^^ 
 
144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [RuIc 8v 
 
 be found in it of the use of means, in the sense and con- 
 nexion contended for. "By this means thou shalt have 
 no portion on this side the river." Ezra iv. 16. "That by 
 means of death,''^ &c. Heb. ix. 15. It will scarcely be 
 pretended, that th« translators of the sacred volumes 
 did not accurately understand the English language; or 
 that they would have a^lmitted one form of this word, 
 and rejected the other, had not their determination beea J 
 conformable to the best usage, An attempt therefore to 
 recover an old word, so long since disused by the most 
 correct writers, seems not litely to be successful; espe- 
 cially as the rejection of it is not attended with an^- 
 inconvenience. 
 
 The practice of the best and most con-ect writers, or 
 a great majority of them, corroborated by generaljj||fege, 
 forms, during its continuance, the standard of iM^age;* 
 cspeciallv, if, in particular instances, this practice con- 
 tinue, after objection and due consideration. Every 
 connexion and application of words and phrases, thus 
 supported, must therefore be proper, and entitled ta 
 respect, if not exceptionable in a moral point of view. 
 
 'Si volet usus 
 
 "Quern penes arbitrium est, et jus, et norma loquendi." HOR. 
 
 On this principle, many forms of expression, not less 
 deviating from the general analogy of the language, than 
 those before mentioned, are to be considered as strictly 
 proper and justifiable. Of this kind are the following. 
 "Aanc of them are varied to express the gender;" and 
 yet none originally signified no one. "He himself shall 
 do the work:" here, what was at first appropriated to 
 the objective, is now properly used as the nominative 
 case. ''You have behaved yourselves well:" in this 
 example, the word you is put in the nominative case plu*. 
 r^, with strict propriety; though formerlj it was con- 
 fined to the objective case, and^c exclusively used for 
 the nominative. 
 
 With respect to anomalies and variations of language^ 
 thus established, it is the grammarian^'s business to sm)- 
 mit, not to remonstrate. In pertinaciously opposing the 
 decision of proper authority, and contending for obsolete 
 modes of expression, he may, indeed, display learning and 
 critical sagacity; and, in some degree, obscure points 
 
Kuk 8.) SYNTAX. 145 
 
 rliat are sufficiently clear and decided ; but he cannot 
 reasonably liope either to succeed in his aims or to assist 
 the learner, in discovering and respecting the true stand- 
 ard and principles of language. 
 
 Cases which custom lias left dubious, are certainly 
 Avithin the grammarian's province. Here, he may reason 
 and remonstrate on the ground of derivation, analogy, 
 and propriety; and liis reasonings may refine and improve 
 the language: but wlien authority speaks out and decidon 
 the point, it were perpetually to unsettle the language, 
 to admit of cavil and debate. Anomalies then, under tno 
 limitation mentioned, become the law, as clearly as the 
 plainest analogies. 
 
 The reader Mill perceive that, in tli« following sen- 
 tences, the use of the word mean in the old form has a 
 very uncouth appearance: "By the mm?2 of adversity we 
 are often instructed." "Ke preserved his health by mean 
 of exercise." " Fi*ugality is one mean of acquiring a 
 competency." They should be, "By weans of adversi- 
 ty," &c. "By means of exercise," &c. "Frugality is one 
 means ;^'^ &c. 
 
 Good writers do indeed make use of the substantiAC 
 mean in the singular number, and in that number only, to 
 signify mediocnty, middle rate, &c, as, "This is a mean 
 between the two extremes." But in the sense of instru- 
 mentality, it has been long disused by the best authors, 
 and by almost every writer. 
 
 '"^his means and that means should be used only when 
 ihey refer to what is singular ; these means and those means, 
 when they respect plurals : as, "He lived temperately, 
 and by this means presen^d his health ;" "The scholars 
 were attentive, industriotis, and obedient to their tutors ; 
 and by these means acquired knowledge.''^/ 
 
 We have enlarged on this article, that the young stu - 
 dent may be led to reliect on a point so important, as that 
 of ascertaining the standard of propriety in the use of 
 language. 
 
 2. When two persons or things are spoken of in a sen- 
 tence, and there is occasion to mention tnem again for the 
 sake of distinction, thai is used in reference to the former, 
 and thiSf in reference to the latter: as, "Self-love, 
 wliich is the spring of actian in the soul, is Hiled by rea- 
 
146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rulc 8. 
 
 son : but for that, man would be inactive ; and but for this^ 
 he would be active to no end." y^ 
 
 3. The distributive adjective pronouns, each, every, 
 either, agree with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs, of the 
 singular number only: as, "The king of Israel, and Je- 
 hoshaphat, the king of Judah, sat each on his throne ;■' 
 "Every tree is known by its fruit :H^ unless the plural 
 noun convey a collective idea: as, *^Every six months ;"* 
 
 ^^ Every hundred years." r-The following phrases are 
 
 exceptionable. "Let each esteem others better than them- 
 selves:" It oiiorht to be '^himself.'^ "The lanjmao-e 
 111111 • 1 • *.® 
 
 should be both perspicuous and correct: m proportion 
 
 as ejYAer of thes^two qualities are wanting, the language 
 is imperfect :" it should be, "is wanting." '*Every on 
 of the letters bear regular dates, and contain proofs < ! 
 attachment :" '^bears a regular date, and contains.-^ ''•Eve 
 ry town and village were burned ; every grove and every 
 tree were cut down :" ''*was burned, and was cut down." 
 See the Key, p. 16 ; and the Octavo Grammar, Second 
 edition, volume 2, page 322. 
 
 Either is often used improperly, iiistead of each : as. 
 "The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah. 
 sat either of them on his throne ;" "Nadab and Abihu, 
 the sons of Aaron, took either of them his censer." Each 
 signifies both of them taJvcn distinctly or separately; eithci 
 properly signifies only the one or the other of them take? 
 disjunctively. 
 
 In the course of this work, some examples will appear 
 of erroneous translatums from the Holy Scriptures, witli 
 respect to grammatical construction : but it may be proper 
 to remark, that notv/ithstanding these verbal mistakes. 
 the Bible, for the size of it, is the most accurate gram ~ 
 matical composition tliat we have in the English language. 
 The authority of several eminent grammarians might b 
 adduced in support of this assertion ; but it may be sufii 
 cient to mention only that of Dr. Lowth, who says, "Th- 
 present translation of the Bible, is the best standard o! 
 the English language." 
 
 II. ADJECTIVES. 
 
 4. Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as ad~ 
 ve/as: as, "indifferent honest; excellent well ; miserable 
 
ule S.) SYNTAX. 14T 
 
 poor;" instead of "Indifferently honest J excellent! v well ; 
 miserably poor." "He behaved himself conformable to 
 that great example;" "co??/b/'7?i«t)/?/."/ "Endeavour to 
 live hereafter suitable to a person in thy station ;" ^'siiit- 
 ably.^^ "I can never think so very mean of him ;'- 
 ''''meanly.'''' "He describes this river agreeable to the 
 common reading:" "agreeably."'^ "A^reealile to my pro- 
 mise, I now write :" '''agreeably P "'Iny exceeding great 
 reward :" When united to an adjective, or adverb not 
 ending in /y, t\\Q word exceeding has ly added to it: as, 
 "exceedingly dreadful, exceedingly gieat;" "' exceedingly 
 well, exceedingly more active :" but when it is joined 
 to an adverb or adjective, having that termination, the ly 
 is omitted : as, "Some men think exceeding clearly, and 
 reason exceeding forcibly:" "She appeared, on this oc- 
 casion, exceeding lovely." "He acted in this business 
 bolder than was expected :" "They behaved the noblest^ 
 because they were disinterested." They should have been, 
 'hnore boldvy ; most nobly. ''^ — The adjective pronoun such 
 is often misapplied : as, "He was such an extravagant 
 young man, that he spent his whole patrimony in a few 
 years:" it should be, '''so extravagant a young man.^^ 
 '''I never before saw such large trees:" '^'saiv trees so 
 large.^^ When we refer to the species or nature of a 
 thing, the word such is properly applied : as, "Sucli a 
 temper is seldom found :" but when degree is signified, 
 we use the word so: as, "So bad a temper is seldom 
 found." 
 
 ^■^dverbs are likewise improperly used as adjectives: as, 
 "The tutor addressed him m terms rather warm, but suit- 
 ably to his offence ;" "5mV«6/e." "Th.ey were seen M^an- 
 derinw about solitarily and distressed ;" "5o/^7ary.'V^*He 
 lived m a manner agreeably to tlie dictates of reason and 
 religion;" "agreeable.^'' "Tlie study of syntax should be 
 previously to that of punctuation ;" "previous :''* 
 
 5. Double comparatives and superlatives should be 
 avoided : such as, "A worser conduct ;" "On lesser hopes;" 
 '^A more serener temper :" "The most straitest sect ;" "A 
 
 * For the rule to determine whether an adjective or an adverb is 
 to be used, see English Exercises, Sixteenth, or any subsequent, 
 edition, page 140. 
 
14^ ElfGLISHT GRAMMAR. (Rttlc S 
 
 more superior work." They should be, "worse conduct ;'* 
 ''•less hopes;" "a more serene temper;" "the straitesi 
 sect;" "a superior work." ],» 
 
 6. Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative sig- 
 nification, do not properly admit of the superlative or com 
 parative form superadded : such as, "Chief, extreme, per- 
 fect, right, universal, supreme," &c.; which are sometimes- 
 improperly written, "Chiefest, extremest,. perfectest.. 
 vjghtest, most universal, most supreme,?' &c.?-^The follow 
 iiig expressions are therefore improper. "He sometime^ 
 claims admission to the chiefest offices." "The quarrel 
 became so universal and national ;" "A method of attain- 
 ing the ?'io-/i/e«^ and greatest happiness." The phrase* 
 s(» perfect, so right, so extreme, so universal, &c. are in 
 correct; because ihtij imply that one thing is less perfect. 
 less extreme, &c. than another, which is not possible. 
 
 7. Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which tli. 
 degrees of comparison are applied and construed. Tlu 
 following are examples of wrong construction in this re 
 spect ; "This noble nation hath, of all others, admitted 
 fewer corruptions." The word feiver is here construed 
 precisely as if it were the superlative. It should be. 
 **This noble nation hath admitted fewer corruptions that 
 any other." We commonly say, "Tliis is the weakei 
 of the two;" or, "The weakest of the two:" but the 
 former is the regular mode of expression, because 
 there are only two things compared.' "The vice of co- 
 vetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any >. 
 other." "He celebrates the church of England as thet 
 jnost perfect of all others." Both these modes of expres 
 sion are faulty : we vshould not say, "The best of an 
 man," or, "The best of any other "man," for "the besi 
 of men." The sentences may be corrected by sub- 
 •stituting the comparative in the room of the superla 
 five. "The vice, &c. is what enters deeper into th 
 soul than any other." "He celebrates, &c. as more 
 perfect than any other." It is also possible to retain 
 the superlative, and render the expression grammati- 
 cal. "Covetousness, of all vices, enters the deepest into 
 the soul. " "He celebrates, &c. as the most perfect of 
 all churches." These sentences contain other errors, 
 against which it is proper to caution the learner, Th- 
 
Rule 8.) STJiTAX. 149 
 
 words deeper and deepest^ being intended for adverbs, 
 should have been more deeply^ most deeply. The phrases 
 more perfect^ and most perfect, are improper ; because, 
 perfection admits of no degrees of comparison. We maj 
 say nearer or nearest to perfection, or more or less im- 
 perfect. 
 
 8. In some cases, adjectives should not be separated 
 from tlieir substantives, even by words which modify their 
 meaning, and make but one sense with them: as, "A 
 large eribugh number surely." It should be, "A num- 
 ber large enough,'^^ "The tower sort of people are 
 good enough judges of one not very distant from them,". 
 
 The adjective is usually placed before its substantive : 
 as, "A generous man ;" "How amiable a woman !" The 
 instances in which it comes after the substantive, are the 
 following. 
 
 1st, When something depends upon the adjective ; and 
 when it gives a better sound, especially in poetry : as. 
 "A man generous to his enemies ;" "Feed me with food 
 convenient for me ;" "x\ tree three feet thickP "A body 
 of troops fifty thousand strong;^'' "The torrent tumbling 
 through rocks ah)mptP 
 
 2d, When the adjective is emphatical : as, "Alexander 
 the Great ^^"^ "Lewis the Bold;^^ "Goodness infinite}^' 
 *''Wisdom imsearchable.''^ 
 
 5d, When several adjectives belong to one substantive : 
 as, "A man just, wise, and charitable;" "A woman 
 modest, sensible, and virtuous." 
 
 4th, When the adjective is preceded by an adverb : 
 as, "A boy regularly studious;" "A girl unaffectedly 
 modest." 
 
 5th, When the verb to be, in any of its variations, 
 comes between a substantive and an adjective, the adjec- 
 tive may frequently either precede or follow it: as, 
 "The man is happy; or, happy is the man who makes 
 virtue his choice:'*' "The interview was delightful ;^^ or, 
 ^*deHghtful was the interview." 
 
 6th, When the adjective expresses some circumstance 
 oi a substantive placed after an active verb : as, "Va- 
 N ^ . ' 
 
150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rftle S^' 
 
 nitj often renders its possessor despicable.^^ In an exela- 
 matorj sentence, the adjective generally precedes the 
 substantive ; as, "How despicable does vanity often ren- 
 der its possessor!'' 
 
 Tliere is sometimes great beauty, as well asfor^e, in 
 placing the adjective before the verb, and the substan- 
 tive immediately after it : as, "Great is the Lord ! just 
 and true are thy ways, thou King of saints !" 
 
 Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after k 
 number of particulars compreliended under it. "Ambi" 
 tion, interest, honour, all concurred." Sometimes a sub^ 
 stantive, which likewise comprehends the preceding par- 
 ticulars, is used in conjunction with this adjective : as. 
 •^•Royalists, republicans, churchmen, sectaries, courtiei 
 patriots, all parties, concurred in the illusion." 
 •►.An adjective pronoun, in the plural number, will some- 
 times properly associate witli a singular noun : as, "Our 
 desire, your intention, their resignation." This associa- 
 tion applies rather to things of an intellectual nature, 
 than to those which are corporeal. It forms an excep- 
 tion to the general rule. 
 
 A substantive ' with its adjective is reckoned as on( 
 compounded word, whence they often take another ad-, 
 jective, and sometimes a tliird, and so on: as, "An old 
 man; a good old man; a very learned, judicious, good 
 old man." 
 
 Though the adjective always relates to a substantive,- - 
 it is, in many instances, put as if it were absolute; espe- 
 cially wliere tlie noun has been mentioned before, or is 
 easily understood, though not expressed : as, "I often 
 survey the green fields, as I am very fond of green ;^^ 
 "The wise, the virtuous, the honoured, famed, and 
 great," that is, "person ;" "The twelve," that is, "apos- 
 tles;" "Have compassion on the poor; be feet to the 
 lame, and eyes to tlie blindJ'^ 
 
 Substantives are often used as adjectives. In this case, 
 the word so used is sometimes unconnected with the sub- 
 stantive to which it relates ; sometimes connected with it - 
 by a hyphen ; and sometimes joined to it, so as to make 
 the two words coalesce. The total separation is proper, 
 when either of the two words is long, or when they can- 
 not be fluently pronounced as one word; as, an adjec 
 
Jlule 9.^ SYNTAX. 151 
 
 tive pronoun, a silver watch, a stone cistern : the hjrphen 
 is used, when both the words are short, and are readily 
 pronounced as a sinde word: as, coal-mine, corn-millj 
 fruit -tree^C^ie words coalesce, when they are readily 
 pronounced together; have a long established associa- 
 tion; and are m frequent use: as, honeycomb, ginger- 
 bread, inkhorn, Yorkshire. 
 
 Sometimes the adjective becomes a substantive, and 
 Jias another adjective joined to it : as, "Tlie chief good ;" 
 "Tlie vast immense oi space." 
 
 ^Vhen an adjective has a preposition before it, the 
 substantive being understood, it takes the nature of an 
 atlverb, and is considered as an adverb : as, "In general, 
 iaparticulai, in haste," &c!l/that is, "Generally, parti - 
 tularly, hastily." 
 
 Enow was formerly used as the plural of enough: but 
 i I is now obsolete. 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular 
 number only, individually or collectively: as, '*A 
 christian, an infidel, a score, a thousand." The defi- 
 nite article the may agree with nouns in the singular 
 and plural number: as, '*The garden, the houses, the 
 stars." 
 
 The articles are often properly omitted: when used, 
 they should be justly applied, according to their dis- 
 tinct nature: as, *'Gold is corrupting; the sea is 
 s;reen; a lion is bold." 
 
 It is of the nature of both tlie articles to determine 
 ci- limit the thing spoken of. *d determines it to be one 
 -ingle thin^ of the kind, leaving it still uncertain which: 
 fhe determmes which it iSj or of many, wliich thoy 
 iue. 
 
 The following passage will serve as an example of the 
 different uses of « and the, and of the force of the substan- 
 tive without any article. "Man was made for society, 
 a lid ought to extend his good will to all men : but a man » 
 
 ill naturally entertain a more particular kindness for the 
 
 (y I, with' whom he has the most frec^uent intercourse;.. 
 
 id enter into a still closer union with the man whose , 
 
 iiiper and disposition suit best with his own." 
 
152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rillc 9. 
 
 As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of 
 some use to exhibit a few instances : "And I persecuted 
 this way unto the death. " The apostle does not mean any 
 particular sort of death, but death in general : the definite 
 article therefore is improperly used: it ought to be "unto 
 death," without any article. 
 
 "When he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide 
 you into all truth ;" that is, according to this translation, 
 "into all ti-uth whatsoever, into truth of all kinds ;'■ 
 very different from the meaning of the evangelist, and 
 from the original, "into all the truth;" that is, "into all 
 evangelical truth, all truth necessary for you to know." 
 
 "Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel f" it ought to be 
 "///e wheel," used as an instrjirtnent for the particular pur- 
 pose of torturing criminals. "The Almighty hath given 
 reason to a man to be a light unto him :" it should rathei 
 be, "to man^'^ in general. "This day is salvation com* 
 to this house, forasmuch as he also Is the son of Abra 
 ham :" it ought to be, "a son of Abraham." 
 
 These remarks may sei've to show the great importance 
 of the proper use of the article, and the excellence of the 
 English language in this respect; which, by means of it 
 two articles, does most precisely determine the extent oi 
 signification of common names. 
 
 1. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by 
 the use or omission of the article cu If I say, "He be- 
 haved with a little reverence ;" my meaning is positive. 
 If I say, "He behaved with little reverence ;" my mean- 
 ing is negative. And these two are by no means the same, 
 or to be used in the same cases. By the former, I rathei 
 praise a person ; by the latter, I dispraise him. For the 
 sake of this distinction, which is a very useful one, we may 
 better bear the seeming impropriety of the article a before 
 nouns of number. When I say, "There were few men 
 with him ;" I speak diminutively, and mean to represent 
 them as inconsiderable : whereas, when I say ; "There 
 were a few men with him ;" I evidently intend to make 
 *lie most of them. 
 
 2. In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article 
 fo the former of two words in the same construction ; 
 though the French never fail to repeat it in this case. 
 
Rule IG.) SYNTAX. 163 
 
 "There were many hours, both of the night and day^ 
 which he could spend, without suspicion, in solitary 
 thought." It might have been "of the night and of the 
 day .'^. And, for tlie sake of emphasis, we often repeat the 
 article in a series of epithets.^ "He hoped that this title 
 would secure him an ample and an independent authority." 
 
 3. In common conversation, and in familiar style, we 
 li vMjuently omit the articles, which might be inserted with 
 jnopriety in writing, especially in a grave style. "At 
 worst, time might be gained by this expedient." "At the 
 worst," would have been better in this place. "Give me 
 iiere John Baptist's head." There would have been more 
 dignity in saying, "John the Baptist's head :" or, "The 
 head of John the Baptist." 
 
 The article the has sometimes a good effect in distin- 
 guishing a person by an epithet. "In the history of Henry 
 the fourth, by Father Daniel, we are surprised at not find- 
 ing him the great man." "I own I am often surprised that 
 he^hould have treated so coldly, a man so much the gen- 
 tleRan." —_ 
 
 This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of 
 the French, for the pronoun possessive : as, "He looks 
 him full in the face ;" that is, "in his face." "In his 
 presence they were to strike the forehead on the ground ;'* 
 that is, "their foreheads.''^ 
 
 We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat 
 tlie same article, wlien the adjective, on account of any 
 clause depending upon it, is put after the substantive. "Of 
 all the considerable governments among the Alps, a com- 
 monwealth is a constitution the most adapted of any to the 
 poverty of those countries." "With sucli a specious title 
 as that of blood, which with the multitude is always a 
 claim, the strongest, and the most easily comprehended." 
 "They, are not tne men in the nation the most difficult to 
 be replaced." 
 
 RULE X. 
 
 One substantive governs another, signifying a dif- 
 ferent thing, in the possessive or genitive case: as, 
 <*My father's house;" <*Man's happiness;" ^'Virtue's 
 reward," 
 
154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rulc 10. 
 
 ^^ When the annexed substantive signifies the same thing 
 as the first, there is no variation of case : as, "George, 
 king of Great Britain, elector of Hanover," &c.; "Pom- 
 pey contended with Caesar, the greatest general of his 
 time;" '^Religion, the support of adversity, adorns pros- 
 perity/' Nouns thus circtimstanced are said to be in 
 apposition to each other. The interposition of a relative 
 and verb will sometimes break the construction : as, 
 '*Pompey contended with Caesar, who ivas the greatest 
 general of his time." Here the word general is in the 
 nominative case, governed by note 4, under rule xi. 
 
 The preposition 0/ joined to a substantive, is not alwav-. 
 equivalent to the possessive case. It is only so, when th' 
 expression can be converted into the regular form of tli; 
 possessive case. We can say, "The reward of virtue,*'^ 
 and "Virtue's reward:" but though it is proper to say, 
 "A crown of gold," we cannot convert the expression 
 into the possessive case, and say, "Gold's crown." 
 
 Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the 
 possessive case : as, "Every tree is known by its fruit :'* 
 "Goodness brings its reward ;" "That desk is Twine.'-ifc- 
 
 The genitive its is often improperly used for ^tis or it is .- 
 as, "Its my book," instead of "It is my book." 
 •^he pronoun his. when detached from the noun tp which 
 it relates, is to be considered, not as a possessive pronoun, 
 but as the genitive case of the personal pronoun: as, 
 "This composition is Afs." ''Whose book is that? ''His.'' 
 If we used the noun itself, we should say, "This compo- 
 sition is John's."^^' 'Whose book is that?" "Eliza's.'* 
 The position will be still more evident, when we consider 
 that botli the pronouns in the following sentences must 
 have a similar construction: ''Is it her or his honour that 
 is tarnished r" "It is not hers, but /n's." 
 'Sometimes a substantive in the genitive or possessive 
 case stands alone, the latter one by which it is governed 
 being understood : as, "I called at the bookseller's," that 
 is, "at the bookseller's sAojo."-^ 
 
 1. If several nouns come together in the genitive case, 
 the apostrophe with s is annexed to the last, and under- 
 stood to the rest: as, "John aiid Eliza's books." "This 
 was my father, mother, and uncle's advice." But wh^n 
 any words intervene, perhaps on account of the increased 
 
Rule 10.) SYNTAX. 155 
 
 pause, the sign of the possessive should be annexed to 
 each : as, "They are John's as well as Eliza's books ;'*^ 
 ^•I had the physician's, the surgeon's, and the apothe> 
 carj's assistance." 
 
 2. In poetry, the additional s is frequently omitted, but 
 the apostrophe retained, in the same manner as in sub- 
 stantives of the plural number ending in s: as, "The 
 wrath of Peleus' son.'lA-This seems not so allowable in 
 prose ; which the following erroneous examples will de- 
 monstrate: "Moses' minister ;" "Phinehas' wife;" '•Fes- 
 tus came into Felix' room." ^*These answers were made 
 to tlie witness' questions." But in cases which would 
 give too much of the hissing sound, or increase the diffi- 
 culty of pronunciation, the omission takes place even in 
 prose : as, "For righteousness' sake ;" "For conscience' 
 sake." 
 
 3. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly 
 awkward between a genitive case, and the woid which 
 usually follows it: as, ''She began to extol the farmer's, 
 as she called him, excellent understanding." It ought 
 to.J>e, ''the excellent understanding of the farmer, as 
 she called him." 
 
 4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name 
 and an office, or of any expressions by which one part is 
 descriptive or explanatory of tlie otlier, it may occasiorji 
 some doubt to which of them the sign of the genitive case 
 should be annexed ; or whether it sliould be subjoined to 
 them both. Thus, some would say; "I left the "parcel at 
 Smith's the bookseller;" others, "at Smith the booksel- 
 ler's :" and perhaps others, "at Smith's the bookseller's." 
 The ffi'st of these forms is most agreeable to the English 
 idiom ; and if the addition consists of tv/o or more words, 
 the case seems to be less dubious: as, "I left the parcel 
 at Smith's, the bookseller and stationer." But as this 
 subject requires a little further explanation to make it in- 
 telligible to the learners, we shall add a few observations 
 tending to unfold its principles. 
 
 A phrase in which the words are so connected and de- 
 pendent, as to admit of no pause before the conclusion, 
 necessarily requires the genitive sign at or near the end 
 of the phrase : as, "Whose prerogative is it? It is the king 
 of Great Britain's ;" "That is the duke of Bridge water's 
 
156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 10. 
 
 canal," *'The bishop of LandafTs excellent book;" "The 
 lord major of London's authority j" "The captain of 
 the guard's house." 
 
 When words in apposition follow each other in quick 
 succession, it seems also most agreeable to our idiom, to 
 give the sign of the genitive a similar situation ; especial' 
 if the noun which governs the genitive be expressed : [ - 
 "The emperor Leopold's;" "Dionjsius the tyrant's;*' 
 "For David my servants sake;" "Give ine John tl ■ 
 Baptises head ;" "Paul tlie apostle^ s advice. " But \^'l ; f ' • \ 
 a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressc! : 
 and when the latter part of the sentence is extended ; 
 appears to be requisite that the sign should be applied t 
 the first genitive, and understood to the other : as, *'l r; 
 side at lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor: 
 ''Whose glory did he emulate? He emulated Caesar's, th*- 
 greatest general of antiquity." In the following sentences, 
 it would be very awkward to place the sign, either at th(^, 
 end of each of the clauses, or at the end of the latter one 
 alone: ''These psalms are David's, the king,' priest, and 
 prophet of tlie Jewish people;" "We staid a month at 
 lord Lyttelton's, the ornament of his country, and the 
 friend of every virtue." The sign of the genitive casv. 
 may very properly be understood at the end of these* 
 members, an ellipsis rt the latter part of sentences being 
 a common construction in our language; as the learner 
 will see by one or two examples : "Tliey wished to sub- 
 mit, but he did not;" that is, "he did not wish to submit ;'' 
 •»He said it was their concern, but not his;" that is, "/?r' 
 his concern^ 
 
 If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the lasr 
 ^clause only, we shall perceive that a resting place is want - 
 ed, and that the connecting circumstance is placed too rv' 
 motely, to be either perspicuous or agreeable : as 
 ■^'Whose glory did he emulate?" "He emulated Cassni 
 the greatest general of antiquity'' 8 p^ "These psalms a: 
 David, the king, priest, and propliet of the Jewish /?f f 
 ple^s,^^ It is much better to say, "This is PauVs advice, 
 the christian hero, and great apostle of tlie gentiles." 
 thin, "This is Paul the christian hero, and great apostb' 
 of the gentiks^ advice." On tiie other hand, tlie appUt a - 
 tion of the genitive sign t© botli or all of the nouns m ap- 
 
Rule 10.] SYNTAX. 157 
 
 position, would be generally harsh and displeasing, and 
 perhaps in some cases incorrect: as, "The emperor's 
 Leopold's;" "King's George's;" "Charles' the second's;" 
 "The parcel was left at Smith's the bookseller's and sta- 
 tioner's." The rules which we have endeavoured to elu- 
 cidate, will prevent the inconvenience of both thes<^ 
 modes of expression; and tlie j appear to be simple, per- 
 spicuous, and consistent with'^the idiom of the language^ 
 
 5. The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound; 
 so that we daily make more use of the particle of to ex- 
 press the same relation. There is something awkward 
 m the following sentences, in which this method has not 
 been taken. "The general, in the army's name, publish- 
 ed a declaration." "The commons' vote." "The lords' 
 house." "Unless he is very ignorant of the kingdom's 
 condition." It were certainly better to say, "In the name 
 of the army;"".^The vote of the commons;" ^'Tlie house 
 of lords;" "Tlie condition of tlie kingdom." It is also 
 rather har^ to use two English genitives with the same 
 substantive: as, "Whom he acquainted with the pope's 
 and the Icing's pleasure." "The pleasure of the pope and 
 the king," would have been better. 
 
 ^*>*-We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent 
 on one another, and connected by the preposition q/" ap- 
 plied to each of them: as, "The severit}' of the distress of 
 the son of the king, touched the nation;" but this mode 
 of expression is not to be recoii^mended. It would be 
 better to say, "The severe distress of the king's son, 
 touched the nation." We have a strikine; instance of this 
 laborious mode of expression, in the following sentence: 
 "Cy some o/*the books o/"each q/" these classes o/" litera- 
 ture, a catalogue will be given at the end of the v^'ork.^i* 
 
 6. In some cases, we use both the genitive termination 
 and tlie preposition of: as, "It is a discovery of Sir Isaar 
 Newton's." Sometimes indeed, uuless we throw the sen- 
 tence into another form, tliis method is ariasolutely neces- 
 sary, in order to distinguish the sense, and to give the idea 
 of property, strictly so culled, v/hich is the most important 
 of the relations expressed by the j^enitlvc case: for the 
 expreiisions, "This pictureoi my friend," and "This pic- 
 ture of my friend's," suggest very diu'erent ideas. The 
 latter only is tliat of property in llie strictcst'«ense. The 
 
 
 
158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. j_Hule IQ. 
 
 idea would, doubtless, be conveyed in a better manner, 
 by saying, "This picture belonging to my friend." 
 
 When this double genitive, as some grammarians term 
 it, is not necessary to distinguish the sense, and especially 
 in a grave style, it is generally omitted. Except to pre- ' 
 vent ambiguity, it seems to be allowable only in ^ases 
 which suppose the existence of a plurality of subjects of 
 the same kind. In the expressions, "A subject of the 
 emperor's;" "A sentiment of my brother's;", more than 
 one subject, and one sentiment, are supposed to belong! 
 to the possessor. But when this, plurality is neither in- 
 timated, nor necessarily supposed, the double genitive, 
 except as before mentioned, should not be used: as, 
 •'This house of the governor is very commodious;" "The 
 crown of the king was stolen;" "That privilege of the 
 scholar was never abused." (See page 51.) But after all 
 that can be said for this double genitive, as it is termed, 
 some grammarians think that it would be better to avoid 
 the use of it altogether, and to give the^lpentiment 
 another forra of expression. 
 
 7. When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning witli 
 a participle of the, present tense, is used as one name, or 
 to express one idea or circumstance, the noun on which** 
 it depends may be put in the genitive case; thus, instead 
 of saying, "What is the reason of this person dismissing 
 his servant so liastily?" that is, "What is the reason of 
 this person in dismissing his servant so hastily?" we may 
 say, and perhaps ouglit to say, "What is the reason of 
 this person's dismissing of Ms servant so hastily?" Ju- 
 as we say, "What is the reason of this person's hasty di> 
 mission of his servant?" So also, v/e say, "I remembei.\ 
 it being reckoned a great exploit;" or more properly, "jp 
 remember its being reckoned," &c. The following sen- 
 tence is correct and proper: "Much will depend on tlir 
 pupWs composing, but more on his reai/i/ig- frequently."* 
 It would not be <iccurate to say, "Much will depend on 
 the pupil composing,'^ &c. We also properly say; *'This 
 will be the eftect of the pupil's composing frequently;*' 
 Instead of, ^"Of the pupil composing frequently." 
 
Rule 11.] SYNTAX. 159 
 
 RULE XI. 
 
 Active verbs govern the objective case: as, **Truth 
 ennobles Aer;" **She comforts me;" **They support 
 ti5;" << Virtue rewards Aer/(?//oz^^ers." - , 
 
 In English, the nominative case, denoting the subject, 
 usually ^oes before the verb; and the objective case, de- 
 noting the object, follows tlie verb active; and it is the 
 order that determines the case in nouns; as, "Alexander 
 conquered the Persians." But the pronotm having a 
 proper form for each of those cases, is sometimes, when 
 it is in the objective case, placed before the verb; and, 
 when it is in the nominative case, follows the object and 
 verb; as, ''Whom ye ignorantly worship, ^zm declare I 
 unto you." 
 
 This position of tlie pronoun sometimes occasions its 
 proper case and government to be neglected: as in the 
 following instances: '*Who should I esteem more than 
 the wise and good?" "By the character of those who you 
 choose for your friends, your own is likely to be formed." 
 "Those are the persons who he thought true to his inte- 
 . rests." "Wlio should I see the other day but my old 
 friend." "Whosoever the court favours." In all these 
 places it ought to be whom, the relative being governed 
 m the objective case by the verbs "esteem, choose, 
 thought," &c. "He, who under all proper circumstances, 
 has the boldness to speak truth, choose for thy friend;" 
 It should be *'Aim who," &c. 
 
 ^4^erbs neuter do not act upon, or govern, nouns and 
 pronouns. "-He sleeps; they 7/iwse," &.c. are not transi- 
 tive. They are, therefore, not followed by an objective 
 case, specifying the object of an action. But when this 
 case, or an object of action, comes after such verbs, 
 though it may carry the appearance of being governed 
 by them, it is affected by a preposition or some other 
 word understood: as, "He resided many years [that is, 
 for or during many years] in that street;" *'He rod«. 
 several miles [that is,/br or through the space of several 
 miles] on that day;" "He lay an hour [that is, during an 
 hour] in great torture." In the phrases, "To dream a 
 dream/' "To live a virtuous life," •^To run a race," "To 
 
tBO ENGLXSR GRAMMAR. fRufeilt 
 
 walk the horse, ' "To dance the child," the verbs cei 
 cainly assume a transitive form, and maj not, in thes< 
 cases, be improperly denominated transitive verbs, y^ 
 
 1. Some writers, however, use certain neuter verlfi^as 
 if they were transitive, putting after them the objective 
 case, agreeably to the French constniction of reciprocal 
 verbs; but this custom is so foreign to the idiom of the 
 Ktiglish tongue, that it ought not to be adopted or imi- 
 iated. The following are some instances of this practice, 
 '-'Bepenting him of nis design." "The kin* soon found 
 reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous 
 enemies." "The popular lords did not fail to enlarge 
 themselves on the subject." ''The nearer his successes 
 •Approached him to the throne." "Go^ee thee away into 
 the land of Judah." "I think it by no mean? a fit and 
 decent thing to vie charities^" &c. "They have spent 
 their whole time and pains to agree the sacred with thr 
 profane chronology." 
 
 2. Active verbs are sometimes as improperly made 
 neuter; as, * 'I must /)rem2se with three circumstances." 
 * 'Those that think to ingratiate with him by ealumni 
 iiting me." 
 
 3. The neuter verb is varied like the active; but^ 
 having in some degree the nature of the passive, it ad- 
 mits, in many instances, of the passive form, retaining 
 still the neuter signification, chiefly in such verbs as sig- 
 nify some sort of motion, or change of place or condition: 
 as, "I am come; I was gone; I am grown; I was fallen.'' 
 The following examples, however, appear to be errone- 
 ous, in giving the neuter verbs a passive form, instead of 
 an active one, "The rule of our holy religion, from 
 ^vhich we are infinitely sweriyecV "The whole dbligatioit 
 of that law and covenant was also ceased.'''^ '''Whose 
 number was now amounted to three hundred." "This 
 mareschal, upon some discontent, was entered into a 
 conspiracy against his master." "At the end of a cam- 
 paign, when half the men are deserted or killed." It 
 should be, ^''have swerved, A«rf ceased," &c, 
 
 4. The verb to be, through all its variations, has the 
 same case after it, as tliat' which next,precedes it: "/ an. 
 he whom they invited;" "/f may be (or might have been 
 he, but it cannot be fSr could not have been) /,•" ^^It v 
 
Rule 12.] SYNTAX. 161 
 
 impossible to be they;^^ ^''It seems to have been he^ who 
 conducted himself so wisely;" "/^ appeared to be she 
 that transacted the business;" '*•! understood it to be 
 Awn;" "I believe it to have ])een themy^ "We at first 
 took it to be Her; but were afterwards convinced that it 
 was not sAe." *'He is not the person who it sj^emed he 
 was." *'He is really the person ivho he appeared to be." 
 *'»She is not now the woman whoinihe.j represented her 
 to have been." '•^fVhom do you fancy /n*m to be?" By 
 these examples, it appears that this substantive verb has 
 no government of case, but serves, in all its forms, as a 
 conductor t^ the cases; so that the two cases wliich, in. 
 the construction of the sentence, are the next before and 
 after it, must always be alike. Perhaps this subject will 
 be more intelligible to the learner, by observing, that the 
 words in the cases preceding and following the verb to be, 
 may be said to be in apposition to each oSier. Thus, in 
 the sentence^ "L understood it to be him," the words it 
 and him are in apposition; that is, "they refer to the 
 same thing, and are m the same case." 
 
 The following sentences contain deviations from the 
 nde, and exhibit the pronoun in a wrong case: "It might 
 have been him, but there is no proof of it;" < 'Though I 
 was blamed, it could not have been me;" "I saw one 
 whom I took to be sAe;" "She is the person loho I un- 
 derstood it to have been;" ^'TVIio do you think me to be?" 
 "Wiom do men say that I am?" "And whom think ye 
 
 that I am?" See the Octavo Grammar. 
 
 ■—Passive verbs which signify naming, &c. have the same 
 case before and after them: as, "He was called Caesar; 
 She was named Penelope; Homer is styled the prince of 
 poets; James was created a duke; The general was sa- 
 luted emperor; The professor was appointed tutor to the 
 pnnr.p." ^ 
 
 5. The auxiliary let governs the objective case: as, 
 "Let him beware;" "Let us judge candidly;" "Let 
 them not presume;" ''Let George study his lesson." 
 
 RULE XII/ 
 
 One verb governs another that follows it, or de- 
 fends upon it, in the infinitive mood: as, **Cease tQ 
 02 
 
152 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. fftulc 12. 
 
 do evil; learn to do well;" **We should be prepared 
 to render an account of our actions." 
 
 The preposition to, though generally used before 
 the latter verb, is sometimes properly omitted: as^ 
 ^*I heard him say it;" instead of ^Ho say it." 
 
 XThe verbs which have commonly other verbs following 
 fhem in the infinitive mood, without the sign to, are Bid, 
 dare, need, make, see^ hear, feel; and also, let, not used ^ 
 as an auxiliaiy; and perhaps a fc^v/ others: asj."I bade 
 him do iti" *'Ye dare not do it;" *'I saw him do it;" <'I 
 heard him say it;" "Thou lettest him go*"\. 
 
 1. In the following passages, the word to, tM sign of the 
 infinitive mood, where it is distinguished by Italic cha- 
 racters, is superfluous and improper. "I have observed 
 «ome satirists to use," &c. ,.^'To see so many to make so 
 little conscience of solreat a sin." "It cannot but be a 
 delightful spectacle to God and angels, to see a young 
 person, besieged by powerful temptations on every side^ 
 to . acquit himself gloriously, and resolutely to hold out 
 against the most violent assaults; to behold one in the 
 prime and flower of his a»e, that is courted by pleasures 
 and honours, by the devif, and all the bewitchmg vani- ^ 
 ties of the world, to reject all these^ and to cleave stead* ' 
 fastly unto God." 
 
 '^liis mood has also been improperly used in the follow- ' 
 ing places: "I am not like other men, to envy the talents 
 I cannot reach. 'V* 'Grammarians have denied, or at least 
 doubted, them toThe genuine." '^That all our doings may 
 be ordered by thy governance, to do always what i» 
 righteous in thy sight." 
 
 v^he infinitive is frerpiently governed by adjectives^ 
 substantives, and participles; as, "He is eagef to learn;" 
 ^*She is worthy to be lovedt''"**They have a desire to im- 
 prove;" "Endeavouring to persuade." 
 
 The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a sub- 
 stantive, expressing the action itself which the verb signi- 
 fies, as the participle has the nature of an adjective. — 
 Thus the infinitive mood does the office of a substantive 
 in different cases: in the nominative: as, "To play is plea* 
 wnti" in the objective: as, "Boys love to play}^^ "For (: 
 
Rule 15.] SYKTAX. 163 
 
 tvill is present with mej but to perform that which is 
 good, I find not." 
 
 The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used 
 independently on the rest of the sentence, supplying the 
 place of the conjunction' Me^ with the potential mood: 
 as, "To confess the truth, I was in fault;" "To be^in 
 with the first;" '*To proceed;" "To conclude;" that is, 
 •*That I may confess," &c. ^ 
 
 RULE XIIi; 
 
 In the use of words and phrases which, in point of 
 lime, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation 
 should be observed. Instead of saying, **The Lord 
 hath given, and the Lord- hath taken away;" we 
 should say, *'Tlie Lord gave, and the Lord hath 
 taken away." Instead of, '*I remember the family m6re 
 than twenty years;" it should be, '^I have remembered 
 the family more than twenty years." 
 
 It is not easy to give particular rules for the manage- 
 ment of the moods and tenses of verbs with respect to 
 one another, so that they may be proper and consistent* 
 ^ The best rule that can be given, is this very general one; 
 " "To observe what the sense necessarily requires." It 
 •may, however, be of use to give a few examples of irre- 
 ^ gular construction. "The last week I intended to have 
 ^ ivritten,^^ is a very common phrase; the infinitive being 
 •in the past time, as well as the verb which it follows. But 
 .Jt is certainly wrong; for how long soever it now is since 
 . I thought of writing, "to write" was then present to me, 
 ^and must still be considered as present, when I bring back 
 ^that time, and the thoughts or it. It ought, therefore, 
 ;^ to be, "The last week I intended to write.^^ The fol- 
 ^ lowing sentences are also erroneous: "I cannot excuse 
 - the rertiissness of tliose whose business it should have 
 been, as it certainly was their interest, to have interposed 
 ^, their good offices." "There were two circumstances which 
 ^. made it necessary for them to have lost no time." "His- 
 tory painters would have found it difficult to have invented 
 such a species of beings." They ought to be, 'Ho inter- 
 wse, to loscp to invent, ^^ "On the mon-ow, because he 
 
164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 13* 
 
 should have known the certainty, wherefore he was ac- 
 cused of the Jews, he loosed him." It oudit to be, <<be- 
 cause he wotild knoiv,''^ or rather, ''being ivuling to knowP 
 
 **The blind man said unto him, Lord, that I might 
 receive my sigiit." "If by any means I might attain unto 
 the resurrection of the dead;" 'hnay^^^ in both places, \ 
 would have been better. "From his biblical knowledge, 
 he appears to study the Scnptures with great attention)" 
 ^'to have studied,^'' &.c. "I^reared that I should have lost 
 it, before I arrived at the city;" *^sJio,uld lose it. " "I had 
 rather walk;" It sliould be, "I would rather walk." "It 
 would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform 
 it:" it should be, "If I coidd have performed it;" or, "It 
 would afford me no satisfaction, it I eould perform \iP ' 
 
 To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must : 
 1 ecollect that, in the subjunctive mood, the present and 
 imperfect tenses often caiTy with them a future sens« 
 and that the auxiliaries should a.nd would, in the impei 
 feet times, are used to express the present and future 
 as well as the past: for which see page 75. 
 
 1. It i& proper further to observe, that verbs of t!i 
 infinitive mood in the following form; "to write," "to b* 
 writing," and "to be written," always denote something 
 contemporary ivith the time of the governing verb, w 
 subsequent to it: but when verbs of that mood are ex- 
 pressed as follows; ^*To have been writing," "to have 
 Avritten," and *'to have been written," thpy always de- 
 note something antecedent to the time of the governing 
 verb. This remark is thought to be of importance; for > 
 if duly attended to, it will, in most cases, be sufficient ' 
 to direct iis in the relative application of these tenses. 
 
 The following sentence is properly and analogically 
 expressed: "I found him better than I expected to find 
 liim." "Expected to have found him," is irreconcilable 
 alike to grammar and to sense. Indeed, all verbs ex- 
 pressive of hope, desire, intention, or command, must 
 invariably be followed by the present, and not the per 
 feet of the infinitive. Every person would perceive a 
 error in this expression; "It is long since I commands 
 him to have done it:" Yet "expected to have foiind,^^ i 
 MO better. It is as clear that uit finding must be postt 
 
Rule IS.3 stNTA*. ife 
 
 rior to the expectation, as that the ohediehte ifiTist be 
 posterior to the command. 
 
 In the sentence which follows, the verb is with pro- 
 priety put in the perfect tense of the infinitive mood; "It 
 would have afforded me great pleasure, as often as I re- 
 flected upon it, to have been the messenger of such intel- 
 ligence." As the message, in this instance, was ante- 
 cedent to the j)leasure, and not contemporary with it, 
 the verb expressive of the message must aenote that an- 
 tecedence, by bein^ in the perfect of the infinitive. If 
 the message and the pleasure had been referred to as 
 contemporary, the subsequent verb would, with equal 
 propriety, have been put in the present of the infinitive: 
 as, **It would have afforded me great pleasure, to be tiie 
 messenger of such intelligence." In the former instance, 
 the phrase In que*5tion is equivalent to these words; "If 
 I had been the messenger;" in the latter instance, to this 
 expression; ^^ Being the messenger." — For a further dis- 
 cussion of this subject,, see the Eleventh edition of the 
 Key to the Exercises, p. 60, and the Octavo Grammar, 
 
 RULE XIII. 
 
 It is proper to inform the learner, that, in order to 
 express the past time with the defective verb ought, the 
 perfect of the infinitive must always be used: as, *'He 
 ought to have r/o7ieit." When we use this verb, this is 
 the only possible way to distinguish the past from the 
 present. ; 
 
 In support of tlie positions advanced under this rule, 
 we can produce the sentiments of eminent grammarians; 
 amongst whom are Lowth and Campbell. But there are 
 some writers on grammar, who strenuously maintain, that 
 the governed verb in the infinitive ouglit to be in the past 
 tense, when the verb which governs it, is in the past time. 
 Though this cannot be admitted, in the instances which 
 are controverted under this rule, or in any instances of a 
 similar nature, yet there can be no doubt that, in many 
 cases, in which the thing referred to preceded the go- 
 verning verb, it would be proper and allowable. We 
 may say; "From a con\ orsation I once had with him, he 
 appeared to have studied Homer with great ca?e and judg- 
 ment." It would be proper also to say, ''From his con- 
 versation, he appears to have studied Homer with great 
 
16Q ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (TJuk IS.' 
 
 care and judgment;" "That unhappy man is supposed to 
 have died bv violence." These examples are not only 
 consistent with our rule, but they confirm and illustrate 
 it.yit is the tense of the governing verb only, that marks 
 what is called the absolute time; the tense of the verb 
 governed, marks solely its relative time with respect to 
 the other. -^ 
 
 .To assert, as some writers do, that verbs in the infini- 
 tive mood have no tenses, no relative distinctions of pre-' 
 sent, past, and future, is inconsistent with just gramma- 
 tical views of the subject. That these verbs associate 
 with verbs in all the tenses, is no proof of their having 
 no peculiar time of their own. Whatever period the go- 
 verning verb assumes, whether present, past, or future, 
 the governed verb in the infinitive always respects that 
 period, and its time is calculated from it. Thus, the 
 time of' the infinitive may be before, after, or the same 
 as, the time of the governing verb, according as the thing 
 signified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, after, 
 or present with, the thing denoted by the governing verb. 
 It is, therefore, with great propriety, that tenses are as- 
 signed to verbs of the infinitive mood. The point of time 
 from which they are computed, is of no consequence; 
 since present, past, and future, are completely applica- 
 ble to them. 
 
 We shall conclude our observations under this rule, by 
 lemarking, that though it is often proper to use the per- 
 fect of the infinitive after the governing verb, yet tnere 
 are particular cases, in which it would be better to give 
 the expression a different form. Thus, instead of saying, 
 *'I wish to have written to him sooner," "I then wished 
 to have written to him sooner," "He will one day wish 
 to have written sooner;" it would be more perspicuous 
 and forcible, as well as more agreeable to the practice of 
 good writers, to say; "1 wish that I had written to him 
 sooner," "I then wished that I had written to him soon- 
 er," "He will one day wish that he had written sooner." 
 Should the justness of these strictures be admitted, there - 
 would still be numerous occasions for the use of the past 
 infinitive; as we may perceive by a few examples. "It 
 would ever afterwards have been a source of pleasure, 
 to have found him wise and virtuous." "To have de- ': 
 
Rule 14.] SYNTAX. 16r 
 
 ferred his repentance longer, would have disqualified 
 him for repenting at all." *'They will tlien see, that to 
 have faithfully performed their duty, would have been 
 their greatest consolation."* 
 
 RULE XIV. 
 
 Participles have the same government as the verbs 
 Jiave from which they are derived: as, '^I am weary 
 with hearing him;'' ''^She is instructing us;'' ''The 
 tutor is admonishing Charles." 
 
 1. Participles are sometimes governed by the article: 
 for the present participle, with the definite article the 
 before it, becomes a substantive, and must have the pre- 
 
 Eosition o/* after it: as, "These are the rules of fframmaiv 
 y the observing of which, you may avoid mistaltes." It 
 would not be proper to say, "by the observing which;" 
 nor, "by observing of which;" but the phrase, without 
 cither article or preposition, would be right: as, "by ob- 
 serving which. "/The article a or ««, has the same effect: 
 as* "This was a betrayino; of the trust reposed in him.'' 
 This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our Ian 
 guage, and from as plain a principle as any on wliicli it is 
 founded; namely, that a word which has the article be- 
 fore it, and the possessive preposition of after it. must b<^ 
 a noun: and, if a noun, it ought to follov/ the construc- 
 tion of a noun, and not to have the regimen of a verb. 
 It is tlie participial termination of this sort of words that 
 is apt to deceive us, and make us treat them as if they 
 were of an amphibious, species, partly nouns and partlv 
 verbs. <j 
 
 The following are a few examples of the violation of 
 this rule. "He was sent to prepare the way by preachinji 
 of repentance;" it ought to be, "by he preaching of re 
 pentance;" or, "by preaching repentance." "By tlie con 
 tinual mortifying our corrupt affections;" it should bo, 
 "by the continual mortifymg o/"," or, "by continually 
 mortifying our cori-upt affections." "They laid out them- 
 selves towards the advancing and promoting the good 
 
 » See Key to theilnglish Exercises, ElcccnViEdiv Rule jfiii. Tbe Note 
 
368 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rulc 14. 
 
 ©f it;" 'Ho'wards adT.ancing and promoting the good." 
 <'It is an overvaluing oursi^ves. to reduce every thin^ to 
 the narroNV measure of our capacities;" "it is overvaluing 
 ourselves,'' or, "an overvaluing o/" ourselves." ''Keepinr^ 
 of one day in seven, "&c.: it ought^o be, ^Uhe keeping 
 c/" one day;" or, ^'keepingone day." 
 
 A phrase in which the article precedes the present 
 participle and the possessrve preposition follows it, will 
 hot, in every instance, convey the sameineaning as wouxd 
 be conveyed bv the participle without the article anl 
 preposition, "fie expressed the pleasure he had in the 
 nearin^ of the philosopher," is capable of a diflerent 
 sense trom, "He expressed tlie pleasure he had in hearinir 
 the philosopher." When, therefore, we wisli, for the 
 sake of harmony or variety, to substitute une^f these 
 phraseologies for the other, we should previously con- 
 sider whether they are perfectly similar in the senti 
 ments they convey. 
 
 2. The same observations which have been made re 
 specting the effect of the article and participle, appeaj 
 to be applicable to the pronoun and participle, when 
 they are similarly associated: as, "Much depends on theii' 
 observing c/the rule, and error will be the consequence 
 of their neglecting of it;" instead of '•^fheir observing the 
 rule, and their neglecting it."\^We shall .perceive thi- 
 more clearly, if we substitute a noun for the pronoun: 
 as, "Much depends upon Tyro's observing ^f the rule." 
 &c. But, as this construction sounds rather harshl}', iv 
 would, in general, be better to express the sentimeni iu 
 the following, or some other form: "Much depends on tii^ 
 rulers being observed; and error will be the consequence 
 ai its being ncg/ectedr' or — "on obser\ingthe rule; and — 
 of neglecting it." This remark may be applied to seve- 
 ral other modes of expression to be found in this work; 
 which, though they are contended for as strictly correcij, 
 are not always the most eligible, on account of their un- 
 pleasant sound- ^ee pages 51, TO, IJa — 159. 
 
 We sometimes meet with expressions like the follow- 
 ing: "/n forming of his sentences, he was very exact;*' 
 **Prom calling of names, he proceeded to blows." Bu* 
 this is incorrect language; for prepositions do noi^ lik 
 articles and pronouns, concert the participle itself inU- 
 
 I 
 
Hule 150 SYNTAX. 169 
 
 the nature of a substantive; as we have shown above iri 
 the phrase, "By observing which." And jet the participle 
 with its adjuncts, may be considered as a snbstahtive 
 phrase in the objective case, governed by the preposition 
 or verb, expressed or understood: as, '^By promising 
 much, and performing hut little, we become despicable.'" 
 •^•He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely'^ 
 
 3. As the perfect participle xund the imperfect ten<e nvf 
 ■sometimes different in their form, care must be tiikeu 
 that they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequentlv 
 said, *^He begun," for *^he began;" **He run," for *'hV 
 ran;" "He drunk," for "he drank;" the participle beino- 
 here used instead ©f the imperfect tense: and miic)i 
 more frequently the imperfect tense instead of the par- 
 ticiple^Vks, "I had wrote," for "I had written;" "I was 
 chose," ' for *^^ was chosen;" "I have eat," for ''I hav</. 
 eaten." "His words were interwove with sighs;" ''were 
 interwoven.^'^ "He would have spoke;" '^spoken.''' "He 
 hath bore witness to his faithful servants;" ^'bomr.''- "Bv 
 ^his means he over-run his guide;" '^over-ran.'^' "Tho 
 sun has rose;" 'hisen.^^ "His constitution has beei.' 
 greatly shook, but his mind is too strong to be shook 
 by such causes;" ^'^shakc.n^'' in both places. "They wert- 
 verses wrote on glass;" ^^?vrittcn,^^ ^^Philosoph^rs havf 
 -often mistook the source of true happiness:" i- ought tf: 
 be ^'•mistakenJ'^ 
 
 '^The pai'ticiple ending in ed is often improperly con 
 tracted by chana-ing ed into t; as, "In good behaviour. 
 lie is not s?^r;3«5^ "by any pupil of the school." ''She was 
 much disfrest." They ought to be ^'surpassrd^'* "if/> 
 -tj-essed,^^^ 
 
 RULE XV. 
 
 ■ Adverbs, though they have no governmerit of ca;;t% 
 tense, &c. require an appropriate situation in the sen- 
 tence, viz. for the most part, before adjectives, aftt5i 
 verbs active or neuter, and frequently between thf^ 
 auxiliary and the verb: as, **He made a very sensibte 
 discourse; he spoke unaffectedly and forcibly, and ivm 
 qttenUvely heard by the whole assembly.'' 
 P 
 
170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rulc 15. 
 
 A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs 
 maj sei*ve to illustrate the rule. "He must not expect 
 to find study agreeable always;" ^'always agreeable." 
 "We always find them ready when we want them;'* 
 "we find them always ready," &:c. "Dissertations on 
 the prophecies which have remarkably been fulfilled:" 
 "which have been remarkably^ "Instead of looking 
 contemptuously down on the crooked in mind or in body, i 
 ■we shoukHook up thankfully to God, who hath made us 
 better;" "instead of looking down contemptuously^ &c. | 
 we should thankfully look up,''^ &c. "If thou art b'lesse?] 
 naturally with a good memory, continually exercise it;** 
 ^-naturally blessed,'^ &c. "exercise it continually.^'' 
 
 Sometimes the adveib is placed with propriety before 
 tlie verb, or at some distance after it; sometimes be- 
 tween the tv/o auxiliaries; and sometimes after them 
 both; as in the following examples. "Vice always creeps 
 by degrees, and insensibly twines around us those con- 
 cealed fetters, by wliich we are at last completely 
 bound." "He encouraged the English Barons to carry 
 their opposition farther.''' "They compelled him to de- 
 clare that he would abjure the realm /or 6r/?r:"' instead 
 of, "to carry farther their opposition;" and "to abjure 
 for ever the realm." "He ha.s gener-ally been reckoned 
 an honest man." "The book may always be had at sucli 
 a place;" in preference to "has been generally;'- and 
 "may be always." "These rules will be clearly under 
 ^ stood, after they have been diligently studied," are pre 
 ferable to, "These rules will clearly be understood, aft« 
 ihey have diligently been studied." 
 
 From the preceding remarks and examples, it appear- 
 that no exact and determinate rule can be given for tli^' 
 placing of adverbs, onall occasions. The general ruh' 
 may be of considerable use; but the easy flow and per- 
 spicuity of tlie phrase, arC'^he things which ought to be 
 chiefly regarded. 
 
 The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as: 
 a word that adds nothing to the sense; in wdiich case it 
 precedes the verb and the nominative noun: as, "There 
 is a person at the door;" "There are some thieves in 
 the house;" which would be as well, or better, expressed 
 W saying, "A person is at the door:'^ "Some thieve^ 
 
Hule 1S»} SYNTAX. 171 
 
 are in the house." Sometimes, it is made use of togive 
 a small degree of emphasis to the sentence: as, ^'Tnere 
 was a man sent from God, whose name was John." 
 When it is applied in its strict sense, it principally fol- 
 lows the verb and the nominative case: as, "The man 
 stands //lere." 
 
 1. The adverb never generally precedes the verb: as, 
 "I never was there;" "He never comes at a proper time." 
 When an auxiliary is used, it is placed indift'erently, 
 either before or after this adverb: as, "He was never seen 
 (or never was seen) to laugh from that time."' 
 
 Never seems to be improperly used in the following' 
 passages. "Ask nre- never so much dowry and gift." "It 
 I make my hands never so clean." "Charm he never so 
 wisely." The word "ever" would be more suitiible to the 
 sense. 
 
 2. In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of 
 place where, is often used instead of the pronoun relative 
 and a preposition. "They framed a protestation, where 
 they repeated all their former claims^" i. e. "z?2 which 
 they repeated." "The king was still determined to run 
 forwards, in the same course zvhere he was already, by 
 his precipitate career, too fatally advanced;*' i. e. "m 
 which he was." But it would be better to avoid this 
 mode of expression. 
 
 ^- The adverbs hence, thence, and ?6'/ience, imply a prepo- 
 sition; for they signify, "from this place, from that place^ 
 from what place. 2i- It seems, thereiore, strictly speakingj 
 to be improper to join a preposition with them, because 
 
 "it is superfluous: as. "This is the leviathan, from whence 
 the wits of our a^e are said to borrow their weapons;" 
 "An ancient author prophesies from hence." But the 
 origin of these words is little attended to, and the pre- 
 
 " position //W7Z, so often used in construction with them, 
 that the omission of it, in many cases, would seem stiff, 
 and be disagreeable. 
 
 **- The adverbs here, there, where, are often improperly 
 applied to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs 
 hither, thither, whither: as, "He came here hastily;" 
 "They rode there with speed." They should be, "He 
 came hither;^^ "They rode thither,^'' &c. ci^- 
 
 3. We have some examples of adverbs being used for 
 
IT^ . E^-^GLISH GRAMiMAR. [RuIftS I§, If^ 
 
 substantives: "In 1687, he erected it into a community of 
 regulars, since when, it has be^un to increase in those 
 countries as a religious order;" i. e. '*since which time*^l>< 
 ^^h. little while and I shall not see you;" i. e. '-a short 
 iime.''^ ''It is v/orth their while;" i. e."it deserves their 
 time and pains." But this use of the word rather suits- 
 ramiliar than grave style. The same may be said of the 
 phrase, "To do a thing awjhow^^^ i. e. "in any manner;" 
 or, '^somdioiv;^^ i. e. "'in some manner," "Somehow,, 
 worthy as these people are, they arc under the influence/ 
 of' prejudice." 
 
 RULE XVL 
 
 Two negatives, in English, destroy one another^ 
 or are equivalent to an affirmative: as, '^Nor did they 
 7iot perceive him;" that is 'Hhey did perceive him.'^ 
 ''His language, though inelegant, is not ungramma- 
 tkah,^^ that is, ''it is grammatical/' 
 
 It is better to express an affirmation, by a regular 
 affirmative, than by two separate negatives, as in the 
 former sentence: but when one of the negatives is joined 
 to another word, as in the latter sentence, the two nega^ 
 tives form a pleasing and delicate variety of expression. 
 
 Some writers have improperly employed two negatives 
 instead of one; as in the following instances: "I never 
 did repent of doing good, nor shall not now;" ''nor shall 
 I now.^^ "Never no imitator grew up to his author;" 
 -mever did any^"^ &c. "I cannot by no means allow him*, 
 what his argument must prove;" 'fl cannot by an"^ 
 means," &c. or, "I can by no means ^^ '*Nor let no com- 
 forter approach me;" "nor let any comforter," &c. "Nor 
 irs danger ever appreliended in such a government, na 
 more than we commonly apprehend danger from thunder 
 or earthquakes:" it should be, ''any morey "Ariosto,. 
 Tasso, Galileo, no more than Raphael, were not born in 
 republics." "Neither Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, any 
 more than Raphael, was born in a republic." 
 
 RULE XVII. 
 Prepositians govern the abjective case: as, "I have 
 
Rule 17»] SYNTAX* 173 
 
 heard a good character of her;^^ '^From him that is 
 needy turn not away;" **A word to the wise is suffi- 
 cient/or them;^^ '^We may be good and happy ?vith- 
 mtt riches.''^ 
 
 The following are examples of tlio nominative case 
 being used instead of the objective. "Who servest thou 
 under?" "Who do you speak to?" ">¥<) are still much 
 at a loss who civil power belongs to:" "Who dost thou 
 ask for?" "Associate not with those who none can speak 
 well of." In all these places it ought to be ^'whomP 
 See Note 1. 
 
 "•^he prepositions to and for are often understood, 
 chiefly before th||^ronouns: as, '*Give me the book;" 
 "Get me some paper;" that is, Ho me; for nie." "Who is 
 me;" i. e. "^o me." '*He was banisheu England;" i. e. 
 ^from England."--^ 
 
 1. The preposition is often separated from the relative 
 which it governs: as, "Whom wilt thou give it to?" in- 
 stead of, "7l> whom wilt thou give it?" "He is an author 
 whom I am much delighted witli;" ''The world is too 
 polite to shock authors with a truth, wliich generally their 
 booksellers are the first that inform them of." This is 
 an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined; it 
 prevails in common conversation, and suits very well 
 with the familiar style in writing: but the placing of the 
 preposition before the relative, is more graceful, as well 
 as more perspicuous, and agrees much better witli the 
 
 ^ solemn and elevated style. 
 
 2. Some v;riters separate the preposition from its noun, 
 'n order ic ronuect ditterent prepositions with the same 
 noun: as, "To suppose the zodiac and planets to be efli- 
 cient of, and antecedent to, themselves." This, whether 
 
 ^in the familiar or the solemn style, is alwa3^s inelegant, 
 and should generally be avoided. In forms of law, and 
 the like, where fulness and exactness of expression 
 must take place of every other consideration, it may be 
 admitted. 
 
 3. Different relations, and diiferent senses, must be 
 expressed by different prepositions, though in conjunction. 
 ^"ith the same verb or adjective. Thus we say, "to 
 
 uverse ivith a person, upon a subject, in a house," ^Cj 
 P ^. 
 
if 4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [ti^ule 17.' 
 
 We also say, "We are disappointed of a thing," when 
 we cannot get it, "and disappointed in it," when we have ^ 
 it, and find it does not answer our expectations. • But 
 two different prepositions must be improper in the Same 
 construction, and in the same sentence: as, "The com- 
 bat between thirty French as^ainst twenty Endish." 
 
 In some cases, it is difficult to say, to which of two- 
 prepositions the preference is to be given, as both arc 
 used promiscuously, and custom has not decided in fa- 
 vour of either of them. We say, "Expert at," and "expert 
 in a thing." "Expert at finding a remedy for his mis- 
 takes;" ''Expert m deception." 
 
 When prepositions are subjoined^ to nouns, they are 
 generally the same that are subjoineli to the verbs from 
 which the nouns are derived: as, "A compliance wxth^"* 
 "to comply loithf'' "A disposition to tyranny," "disposed^ 
 to tyrannize." 
 
 4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the prepo- 
 sition is of great importance, we shall select a consider- 
 able number of examples of impropriety, in the applica- 
 tion of this part of speech. , ^ 
 
 1st, With respect to the preposition of, — "He is resoh 
 ed of going to the Persian court;" "on going," &c. "He 
 was totally dependent of the Papal crown;" "o?2 the Pa- 
 pal," &c. "To call of a person," and "to wait of him;" 
 "on a person," &c. "He was eager of recommending it * 
 to his fellow citizens;" "in recommending," &c. Of is * 
 sometimes omitted, and sometimes inserted, after worthyr^ 
 as, "It is worthy observation," or, "of observation." 
 But it would have been better omitted in the following 
 sentences. "The emulation, who should serve their 
 country best, no longer subsists among them, but of who 
 should obtain the most lucrative command." "The rain 
 Iiath been falling of dc lon^ time;" "falling a long time." 
 "It is situation chiefly which decides of the fortune and 
 characters of men;" "decides the fortune," or, "co/ieer/i- 
 in^ the fortune." "He found the greatest difficulty of 
 writing;" "in writing." "It might have given me a 
 greater taste of its anticjuities." A taste o/a thing im- 
 plies actual enjoyment ot it; but a taste/or it, implies only 
 a capacity for enjoyment. "This had a mucn greater 
 abi^are of inciting him, than any regard after his father'^ 
 
Rule 17.] SYNTAX. 17B 
 
 commands;" "share in inciting," and "regard to his fa- 
 ther's," &c. 
 
 2d, With respect to the prepositions to and for. — ^"You 
 have bestowed your favours to the most deserving per- 
 sons;" '^upon the most deserving," &c. **He accused 
 the ministers for betraying the Dutch;" ^'of having be- 
 trayed." '*His abhorrence to that superstitious figure;" 
 "o/that," &c. "A great change to the better;" ''for the 
 better." "Your prejudice to my cause;" '^against.^^ "The 
 English were very different people then to what they are 
 at present;" "from what,",&G. "In compliance to the 
 declaration;" "ivithf^^ &c. "It is more than they thought 
 tor;" **thought o/." '*There is no need for it;" "of it." 
 For is superfluous in the phrase, "More than he knows 
 for.^^ *'No discouragement for the authors to proceed;" 
 'Ho the authors," &:c. "It Was perfectly in compliance 
 to some persons;" "withy "The wisest princes need 
 not think it any diminution to their greatness, or dero- 
 gation to their sufficiency, to rely upon counsel;" "dimi- 
 nution o/"," and "derogation yVom." 
 
 Sd, With respect to the prepositions tvith and upon.^-" 
 "Reconciling himself with the king." "Those things 
 which have the greatest resemblance with each other^ 
 frequently differ 3ie most." "That such rejection should 
 be consonant \#ith our common nature." "Conformable 
 with," &c. '<The history of Peter is agreeable with the 
 sacred texts." In all the above instances, it should be, 
 "/o," instead of "ivitk.'^'^ "It is a use that perhaps I 
 should not have thought on;" "thought o/*." "A greater 
 quantity may be taken from the heap, \vithout making 
 any sensible alteration upon it;" "in it." "Intrusted to 
 persons on whom the parliament could confide;" "in 
 whom." "He was made much on at Argos;" "much o/*." 
 "If policy can prevail upon force;" "over force." "1 do 
 likewise dissent with the examiner;" "fromJ*^ 
 
 4th, With respect to the prepositions in^ from, &c. — 
 ^They should bs informed in some parts of his charac- 
 ter;" "about ^^^ or, " concerning. '''* "Upon such occasions 
 as fell into their cognizance;" * 'under, ^^ ^That variety 
 of factions into which we are still engaged;" "in v^hich." 
 "To restore myself into the favour;" "to the favour.*^ 
 "'^CguUi he have profited from repeated experieBces;" 
 
It 6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rulc 18, 
 
 "61/.'* IVoni seems to be superfluous after forbear: as, 
 "He could not forbear from appointing the pope," &e. 
 '*A strict observ'^ance after times and fashions;" "of 
 times*" "The character which we may now value our- 
 selves by drawing;" '•'upon drawing." * 'Neither of them 
 shall make me swerve out of the path;" '•from the path.'' 
 "Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and swallow a 
 camel;" it ought to be, "which strain out a gnat, or take 
 a gnat out of the liquor by straining it." The impro- 
 priety of the preposition has wholly destroyed the mean- 
 ing of the phrase. 
 
 -^ The preposition among generally implies a number of 
 things. It cannot be properly used in conjunction with 
 the word every, which is in the singular number: as, 
 "Which is found among every species of liberty;" "The 
 opinion seems to gain ground among every body."*— ^ 
 
 5. The preposition to is made use of before nouns of 
 place, when tney follow verbs and participles of motion: 
 as, "I went to London;" "I am going to town." But the 
 preposition at is generally used after the neuter verb to 
 he: as, "I have been at London;" * 'I was at the place 
 appointed;" "I shall be at Paris."-,^We likewise say: 
 "He touched, arrived at any place." Tha preposition in 
 is set before countries, cities, and lar^e towns: as, "He 
 lives in France, in London, or in Birmingham." But 
 before villages, single houses, and cities which are in 
 distant countries, at is used; as, ''He lives at Hackney;" 
 •"He resides at Montpelier." 
 
 It is a matter of indifference with respect to the pro- 
 noun one another, whether the preposition of be placed 
 between the two parts of it, or bejfore them both. We 
 may say, "They were jealous of one another;" or, "They 
 were jealous one of another;" but perhaps the former \» 
 better. 
 
 Participles are frequently used as prepositions: as, 
 excepting, respecting, touching, concerning, according. 
 **They were all in fault except or excepting him." 
 
 RULE XVIII. 
 
 .Cpniunetions conntet the same moods and tenses 
 »£ verbs, and case§ of nouns and pronouns : as, <*Can* 
 
Kule tS.] SYNTAX. 377 
 
 dour is to be approved and practised:^^ '*If thou sin- 
 cerely desires and earnestly pursue virtue, she will 
 assuredly 6e/oz//ir? by thee, and prove a rich reward;'' 
 *^*The master taught her and me to write;" '^He and 
 sAe were schoolfellows.''* 
 
 A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule 
 may further display its utility. "If he prefer a virtuous 
 life, and is sincere in his professions, he will sue ce^d;"^ 
 "if he prefers.'''^ "To deride the miseries of the unhappy, 
 is inhuman; and wanting compassion towards them, ia 
 upchristian;-' "and to want compassion." "The parlia- 
 ment addressed the king, and has been prorogued the 
 rsame day;" "and was prorogued." "His wealth and hinv 
 bid adieu to each other;" '^and /le." "He entreated us, 
 my comrade and I, to live harmoniously;" "comrade and 
 me." "My sister and her were on good terms;" "and 
 she,'^'^ <*We often overlook the blessings which are in 
 our possession, and are searching after those which are 
 out of our reach:" it ought to be, "and search after." 
 
 1 . Conjunctions are, indeed, frequently made to connect 
 difterent moods and tenses of verbs: but in these instances 
 the nominative must generally, if not always, be repeated, 
 which is not necessary, though it may be done, under the 
 construction to which the rule refers. We may say, "He . 
 lives temperately, cf?zf/ he should live temperately;" '*He 
 Tnay return, but he unll not cantinue^^^ "She ivas proud^ 
 though she is now humble:" but it is obvious, that in such 
 C;^se9, the nominative ought to be repeated; and that, by 
 this means, the latter members of these sentences are ren- 
 dered not so strictly dependent on the preceding, as those 
 are which come under the rule. When, in the progress of 
 a sentence, we pass from the affirmative to the negative 
 form, or from the negative to the affirmative, the subject 
 or nominative is always resumed: as, "He is rich, but he 
 is not respectable." "He is not rich, but he is respect- 
 able." There appears to be, in general, equal reason for 
 repeating the nominative, and resuming the subject, when 
 the course of the sentence is diverted by a change of the 
 mood or tense. The following sentences may therefore 
 
 * This rule refers only to nouns and pronouns, which have tbeaamie bearing 
 Vr relation, with regard to other parts of the sentence. 
 
ITS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Tlule J9« 
 
 be improved. "Anger glances into the breast of a wise 
 man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools;" "but rests 
 only;" or, "but it will rest only." "Virtue is praised by 
 many, and would be desired also, if her worth were 
 really known;" "and she would." ''The world begins- 
 to recede, and will soon disappear;" "and *7 will." See 
 the Octavo Grammar, Rule xviii. 
 
 RULE XIX. 
 
 Some conjunctions require the indicative, some iitc 
 subjunctive mood, after them. It is a general rule, 
 that when something contingent or doubtful is im- 
 plied, the subjunctive ought to~be used: as, ''If I were 
 to write, he would not regard it;" ''He will not be 
 pardoned, u?ikss he repent.'' 
 
 Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute 
 nature require the indicative mood. "«/?- virtue ad- 
 vances, so vice recedes:'' "He is healthy, because he is 
 temperate." 
 
 The conjunctions, if, though ^ unless, except^ whether, 
 &c. generally require the subjunctive mood after them: 
 as, "//* thou 6e afflicted, repine not;" ^^ Though he slay 
 me, yet will I trust in him:" "He cannot be clean, wn- 
 less he tvctsh himself;" "No power, except it were given 
 fi'om above;" " Whether it wei^e I or they, so w« preach." 
 But even these conjunctions, when the sentence does 
 not imply doubt, admit of the indicative: as, '^'^hougk 
 he is poor, he is contented." — See subjunctive mood, p. 
 68, and pages 183, 184. 
 
 The following example may, in some measure, serve to 
 illustrate the distinction between the subjunctive and the 
 indicative moods. " Though he ivere dhmelj inspired, and 
 spoke therefore as the oracles of Godvwith supreme autho- 
 rity; though he were endued with supernatural powers, 
 and couid, therefore, have confirmed the truth of what he 
 uttered, by miracles; yet, in compliance with the way in 
 which human nature and reasonable creatures are usually 
 wrought upon, he reasoned." That our Saviour was di- 
 vinely inspired, and endued with supernatural powers, ai *" 
 
^ flule 19.] SYNTA-X. ITS 
 
 positions that are here taken for granted, as not admitting 
 he least doubt; they would therefore have been better 
 expressed in i}\e indicative mood: ''Though he was di- 
 inely inspired; though he was endued with supernatural 
 powers." The subjunctive is used in the like improper 
 manner in the following examnje: '^Though he were a son, 
 vet learned he obedience, by the things which he suffei-- 
 But, in a similar passage, the indicative, with great 
 ,,riety, is employed to the Sj^me purpose; ^'Though he 
 vxis rich, yet for your sakes he became poor.*' 
 
 1. Lest, and fhat, annexed to a command preceding, 
 necessarily require the subjunctive mood: as, "Love not 
 sleep, lest thou come to poverty;" ••Reprove not a scorn- 
 en lest he hate tliee;" *'Take heed tliat thou speak not to 
 Jacob." 
 
 If with but following it, when futurity is denoted, re- 
 ^juires the subjunctive mood: as, '*If\\tdo hut touch the 
 hills, they sliall smoke;" ''IfXxe be but discreet, lie will 
 succeed." But the indicative ou^ht to be used, on this 
 occasion, v>hen future time is not signified: as, "JJT, in this 
 expression, he does but jest, no offence should be taken;" 
 ^*]f she is but sincere, I am happy." The same distinc- 
 tion applies to the following forms of expression: "If he 
 do submit, it will be from necessity;" '^Though he does 
 submit, l;e is not convinced;" ^-If thou do not reward this 
 service, he will be discouraged;" "If thou dost heartily 
 forgive him, endeavour to forget the ofience." 
 
 2. In the following instances, the conjunction that, ex- 
 pressed or understood, seems to be improperly accompa- 
 nied with the subju active mood. "So much slie dreaded 
 his tyranny, thcm^j/^o^ fate of her friend she dare not la- 
 ment." ''He reasoned so artfully that his friends would 
 listen, and think \Jhat~\ he ?/'ere'not wrong." 
 
 3. The same conjunction governing both the indicative 
 and the subjunctive moods, in the same sentence, and in 
 the same circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety: 
 as in these instances. '•''If there be but one body of le-- 
 gislators, it is no better than a tyranny; lY" there are only 
 two, there will want a casting voice." "^ a man have a 
 hundred sheep, and one of them is gone astray," &c. 
 
 4. Almost all the irregularities, in the construction of 
 a^y language, have arisen from tiie ellipsis of some worda. 
 
ISO ENGLISH GRAMMAK. (KxHt 1% 
 
 which were originally inserted in the sentence, and made 
 it regular; and it is probable, that this has generally been , 
 the case with respect to the conjunctive form of words, 
 now in use; which will appear from the following exam- 
 ples: "We shall overtake him though he rwn;" that is, 
 ^'though he should run;" ^'Unless he act prudently, he 
 Avill not accomplish his purpose;" that is,<'unlesshe *'^«// 
 act prudently." "If he succeed and obtain his end, he wi 
 not be the happier for it;" tliat is, ^^if he should succe* 
 and should obtain his end." These remarks and example- 
 are designed to show the original of many of our preseni 
 conjunctive forms of expression; and to enable the stu- 
 dent to examine the propriety of using them, by tracing 
 the words in question to their proper origin and ancient 
 connexions. But it is necessary to be more particular on 
 this subject, and therefore we shall add a few observations 
 respecting it. 
 
 That part of the verb which grammarians call the pre- 
 sent tense of the subjunctive mood, has a future signinca- 
 tion. This is effected by varying the terminations of the - 
 second and third person singular of the indicative; as will - 
 be evident from the fjllo wing examples: "If thoujrjrosper, 
 thou shouldst be thankful;" "Unless he study more close- 
 ly, he will never be learned." Some writers however 
 would express these sditiments \.'ithout those variations; 
 "If thou prosperest,-^ ike. "Unless he studies,^^ &c.: and J 
 as there is great diversity of practice in this point, it is ^ 
 
 ner to offer the learners a tew remarks, to assist them i 
 Lstinguishing the right application cf these different 
 forms of expression. It may be considered as a rule, thai 
 the changes of termination are necessaijifHvhen these two 
 circumstances concur: 1st, When the subject is of a du- 
 bious and contingent nature; and !2d, When the verb ha 
 a reference to future time. In the following sentence^ 
 both these circumstances will be found to unite: ^^If the; 
 injure another, thou v/ilt hurt thyself;" "He has a ha: . 
 heart; and if he continue impenitent, he must suffei: 
 ^•He.will maintain his principles, though he lose his c. 
 ^ate$" ''Whether he succeed ov not, his intention islau'' 
 able;" "If he he not prosperous, he will not repine:" 
 ^'If a man smite his servant, and he <^ie," &c. Exod. xx 
 £0. In ail these examples, the things signified by ti 
 
Rule 19.] SYNTAX. 181 
 
 verbs are uncertain, and refer to future time. But id the 
 instances which follow, future time is not referred to; and 
 therefore a different construction takes place; "If thou 
 livest virtuously, thou art happy;" ''Unless he means 
 what he says, he is doublv faitniess;" "If he allows the 
 excellence of virtue, he Aoes not regard her precepts';" 
 ''Though he seerns to be simple and artless, he has de- 
 ceived us;" "Whether virtue is better than rank or 
 wealth, admits not of any dispute;" "If thou believest witii 
 all thy heart, thou mayst," &c. ^cts viii. 37. — There are 
 many sentences, introduced by conjunctions, in which 
 neitlier contingency nor futurity is denoted: as, "Thougli 
 he excels her in knowledge, she far exceeds him in vir- 
 tue." "I have no doubt of nis principles: but if he believers 
 the truths of religion, he does not act according to them." 
 *^hat both the circumstances of contingency and futu- 
 rity are necessary, as tests of the propriety of altering 
 tlie terminations, will be evident, by inspecting the fol- 
 lowing examples; which show that there are instances in 
 which neither of the circumstances alone implies the 
 other. In the three examples following, contingency is 
 denoted, but not futurity. "If he thinks as he speaks, 
 he may safely be trusted." "If he is now disposed to ity 
 I will perform the operation." "He acts uprightly, unless 
 he deceives me." In the following' sentences, futurity i» 
 signified, but not contingency. "As soon as the sun sets^ 
 it will be cooler." "As the autumn advances, these birds 
 will gradually emigrate,"-*^ 
 
 It appears, from the tenor of the examples adduced, 
 that the rules above mentioned may be extended to assert, 
 that in cases wherein contingency and futurity do not con- 
 cur, it is not proper to turn the verb from its signification 
 of present lime, nor to vary its form or termination. 
 The verb would then be in the indicative mood, whatever 
 conjunctions might attend it. — If these rules, which seem 
 to tovm. the true distinction between the subjunctive and 
 the indicative moods in this tense, were adopted and, 
 eslablished in practice, we should have, on this point, a 
 principle of decision simple and precise, and readily ap- 
 
 i^licitble to every case that might occur- — It will, doubt- 
 ess, sometimes happen, that, on this occasion, as well as 
 on many other occasions, a strict adherence to grammati- 
 
18^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 1^. 
 
 cal rules, would render the language stiff and formal: but 
 when case'j of this sort occur, it is better to give the ex- 
 pression a different turn, than to violate erammar for the 
 sake of ease, or even of elegance. See Rule 14. Note 2. 
 
 5. On the form of the auxiliaries in the compound 
 tenses of the subjunctive mood, it seems proper to make a 
 few observations. Some writers express tnemselves in the 
 perfect tense as follows: ^<If thou have determined, we 
 must submit:" "Unless he have consented, the writino- 
 will be void:" but we believe that few authors of critical 
 sagacity write in this manner. The proper form seems to 
 be, "If thou hast determined; unless he A«s consented," 
 &e. conformably to what we generally meet with in the 
 Bible: *'I have surnamed thee, though thou hast not 
 known me." Isaiah xlv. 4, 5. "What is the hope of the 
 liypocrite, though he hath gained," &c. Job xxvii. 8. See 
 also ^Scts xxviii. 4, 
 
 6. In the pluperfect and future tenses, we sometimes 
 meet with such expressions as these; "If thou A«r? ap- 
 plied thyself diligently, thou wouldst have reaped the 
 advantage;" "Unless thou shall speak the whole truth, we 
 cannot determine;" "If thou z^jiV/ undertake the business, 
 there is little doubt of success." This mode of express- 
 ing the auxiliaries does not appear to be warranted by 
 the general practice o£ correct writers. They should be 
 hadst, shalf, and wilt: and we find them used in this form, 
 in the sacred Scriptures. 
 
 "If thou hadst known," kc.Luke xix. 47. "If thou 
 hadst been here," &c. John xi. 21. "If thou ivilt, thou 
 canst make me clean," Matt, viii. 2. See also, 2 Sam. iu 
 27. Matt, xvii. 4. 
 
 7. The second perso^singular of the imperfect tense 
 in the subjunctive mood^.also very frequently varied in 
 its termination: asj "I^^^m loved him truly, thou wouldst 
 obey him;" "Thouelrthou did conform, thou hast gained 
 nothing by it.''' iTnis variation, however, appears to be 
 improper. Our present version of the Scriptures, which 
 we again refer to, as a ^ood grammatical authority in 
 points of this nature, decides against it. "If thou kneivesi 
 the gift," &c. John iv. 10. "If thou didst receive it, 
 why dost thou glory?" &c. 1 Cor, iv. 7. See also Dan. 
 V. 22. But it is proper to remark, that the form of the 
 
Rule 19.] SYKTAX. 183 
 
 verb to he, when used subjunctively in the imperfect 
 tense, is indeed Very considerably and properly varied 
 from that which it has in the imperfect of the indicative 
 mood: as the learner will perceive by turning to the 
 conjugation of that verb. 
 
 8. It may not be superfluous, also to observe, that the 
 auxiliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the 
 subjunctive, do not change the termination of the second 
 person singular. We properly say, *'If thou mayst or 
 canst go;*' **Though thou mightst live;" "Unless thou 
 conldst read;" ''If thou tvouldst learn;" and not, "If thou 
 may or can go," &c. It is sufficient, on this point, to 
 adduce the authorities of Johnson and Lowth; *'If tho« 
 shouldst goi'^ Johnson, '*If thou mayst, mightst, or couldst 
 love;" Lowth, Some authors think, that when that ex- 
 presses the motive or end, the termination of these aux- 
 iliaries should be varied: as, "I advise thee, tluit thou 
 may beware;" "He checked thee, that thou should not 
 presume:" but there does not appear to be any ground 
 for this exception. If the expression of "condition, doubt> 
 contingency," &c. does not warrant a change in the 
 form of these auxiliaries, why should they have it, when 
 a motive or end is expressed? The translators of the 
 Scriptures do not appear to have made the distinction 
 contended for. "Thou buildest the wall, that thou mayst 
 be their king." Neh. vi. 6. "There is forgiveness with 
 thee, that thou mayst be feared." Psalm cxxx. 4. 
 ^^rom the preceding observations under this rule, it 
 appears, that with respect to what is termed the present 
 tense of any verb, when the circumstances of contingency 
 and futurity concur, it is proper to vary the terminations 
 of the second and third persons singular; that without 
 the concurrence of those circumstances, the terminations 
 should not be altered; and that the verb and the auxilia- 
 ries of the three past tenses, and the auxiliaries of the 
 first future, undergo no alterations whatever: except the 
 imperfect of the verb to be, which, in cases denoting con- 
 tingency, is varied in all the persons of the singular 
 nu mber . ■*► See page 8 2. The Note. 
 
 After perusing what has been advanced on this subject, 
 it will be natural for the student to inquire, what is the 
 extent of the subjunctive mood? Some gramraariana 
 
184 ENGLISH GRAMMAH. [Rulc 19» 
 
 think it 'extends only to what is called the present tense 
 of verbs generally, under the circumstances of contin- 
 j^ency and fiitiirity; and to the imperfect tense of the 
 verb to be,, when \t denotes contingency, &c.: because in 
 these tenses only, the form of the verb admits of varia- 
 tion; and they suppose that it is variation merely which 
 constitutes the distinction of moods. It is the opinion of 
 other grammarians, (in which opinion we concur,) that, 
 besides the two cases just mentioned, all verbs in the 
 three past, and the two future tenses, are in the subjunc- 
 five mood, when they denote contingency or uncertainty, 
 though they have not any change of termination; and 
 that, when contingency is not signified, the verb, through 
 all these five 'tenses, belongs to the indicative mood, 
 wliatever conjunction may attend it. They think, that 
 the definition and nature of the subjunctive mood, have 
 no reference to cliange of termination, but that they refer 
 merely to tlie manner of the being, action, or passion, 
 signified by the verb; and that the subjunctive mood mav 
 as properly exist without a variation of the verb, as the 
 infinitive mood, which has no terminations different from 
 those of the indicative. The decision of this point may 
 not, by some grammarians, be thought of much conse- 
 quence. But the rules which ascertain the propriety of 
 varying, or not varying, the terminations of tne verb, 
 will certainly be deemed important. These rules may 
 be well observed, without a unifonnity of sentiment re- 
 specting the nature and limits of the subjunctive mood. 
 For further remarks on the subject, see pages 72, 76 — 
 78. 94—96. 100—102. 
 
 * We have stated, for the student's information, the different opinions of 
 grammarians, respecting the English Subjunctive Mood: First that whi«b 
 supposes there is no such mood in our language; Secondly, that which extends 
 it no farther than the variations of the verb extend; Thirdly, that which we 
 have adopted, and explained at large; and which, in general, corresponds with 
 the views of the most approved writers on English Grammar. We may add a 
 tCotirth opinion; which appears to possess, at least, iriuch plausibility. This 
 opinion admits the arrangement we have given, with one variation, namely, 
 tnat of assigning to the tirst tense of the subjunctive, two forms: 1st, that 
 which simply denotes contingency: as. "If he desires it, 1 will perform the 
 operation:" that is, "If he now desires it;" 2dly, that which denotes both con- 
 tingency and futurity; as. "If he desire it, I will perform the operation;" that 
 is. "If he should hereafter desire it." This last theory of the subjunctive mood, 
 rlaims the merit of rendering the whole system of the moods consistent and 
 regular; of being more conformable than any other, to tiie definition of the 
 
Rule 19.] SYNTAX. 185 
 
 9. Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunction? 
 belonginff to them, either expressed or understood; as, 
 
 1st. Though^ — yet, nevertheless: as, "TVtowg/t he was 
 lich, yet for our sakes he became poor." '^Though pow- 
 erful, he was meek." 
 
 2d, Whether — or: as, '^Whether he will go or not, 1 
 cannot tell," 
 
 3d, Either — or: as, "I will either send it, or bring it 
 myself," 
 
 4th, Neither — nor: as, ^^Neither he nor I am able to 
 compass it." 
 
 5th, As — as: expressing a comparison of equality: as, 
 •*She is as amiable as her sister; and as much respect- 
 ed." 
 
 6th, As — so: expressing a comparison of equality^ as. 
 *'As the stars, so shall thy seed be." 
 
 7th, Jls — so: expressing a comparison of quality: as, 
 ^•'As the one dieth, so dieth the other." '''As he reads, 
 they read," 
 
 8th, So — as: with a verb expressing a comparison of 
 quality: as, "To see thy glory, so as I nave seen thee m 
 the sanctuary." 
 
 9th, So — as: with a negative and an adjective exjM-esS' 
 ing a comparison of quantity: as, "Pompey was not so 
 gi-eat a general as Caesar, nor so great a man." 
 ' 10th, So — that: expressing a consequence: as, "He 
 was so fatigued, that he could scarcely move." 
 
 The conjunctions or and nor may often be used, with 
 nearly equal propriety. "The king, whose character 
 was not sufficiently vigorous, nor decisive, assented to 
 the measure." In this sentence, or would perhaps have 
 been better: but, Iq general, nor seems to repeat the ne- 
 gation in the former part of the sentence, and therefore 
 gives more emphasis to the expression. 
 
 1 0. Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly 
 and in pairs. The following are examples of this impro- 
 priety. "The relations are so uncertain, as that they 
 require a great deal of examination:" it should be, ^^that 
 they require," &.c. ''There was no man so sanguine, 
 
 subjunctive, and of not referring to the indicative mood forms of expr^esion. 
 . whicii ill accord with its simplicity and nature. Perhaps tbk theory will bear a 
 strict examination. 
 
 Q2 
 
186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rulc 19- 
 
 who did not apprehend some ill consequences:" it ought 
 id be, **so sanguine as not to apprehend," &c.; or, <'no 
 man, how sanguine soever, who did not," &c. '*To 
 trust in him is no more but to acknowledge his power." 
 *'This is no other but the gate of paradise." In both 
 these instances, but should be than. **We should suffi- 
 cient! j weigh the objects of our hope; whether thej are 
 such as we may reasonably expect from them what they 
 propose," &c. It ought to be, ''that we may reasonably," 
 &:c. ''The Duke had not behaved with that loyalty as 
 he ought to have done;" "with which he ought." "In 
 the order as the lie in his preface:" it should be, "in 
 order as they lie;"or, "in the order in which they lie." 
 "Such sharp replies that cost him his life;" ''as cost him," 
 &c. *'If he. were truly that scarecrow, as he is now 
 commonly painted;" "such a scarecrow," &c. "I wish I 
 could do that justice to his memory, to oblige the paint- 
 ers," &c.; "do swc/i justice as to oblige," &c. 
 
 There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning 
 with the conjunctive form of a verb. "Were there no 
 difference, there would be no choice." 
 
 A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses 
 of a sentence, is sometimes made use of: as, "Had he 
 done this, he had escaped;" "Had the limitations on the 
 
 I)rerogative been, in his time, quite fixed and certain, 
 lis integrity had made him regard as sacred, the bound- 
 aries of the constitution." The sentence in the common 
 form would have read thus: "If the limitations on the 
 prerogative had been, &c. his integrity would have made 
 iiim regard," &c. 
 
 The particle as, when it is connected with the pro- 
 noun such, has the force of a relative pronoun: as, "Let 
 such as presume to advise others, look well to their own 
 conduct;" which is equivalent to, "Let them who pre- 
 sume," &c.'.But when used by itself, this particle is to 
 be considered as a conjunction or perhaps as an adverb. 
 See the Key. 
 
 Our language wants a conjunction adapted to familiar 
 style, equivalent to notwithstanding. The words /or alU 
 thaty seem to be too low. "The word was in the mouth 
 
Rule 20.] SYNTAX. 187 
 
 of every one, but, for all that, the subject may still be a 
 secret." 
 
 In regard that is solemn and antiquated; becausevfouXiS. 
 do much better in the following sentence. "It cannot 
 be otherwise, in regard that the French prosody differs 
 from that of every other language." 
 
 The word excefpt is far preferable to other than. "It 
 admitted of no effectual cure other than amputation." 
 Except is also to be preferred to all hut, "Tliey were 
 happy all but the stranger." 
 
 In the two following phrases, the conjunction as is 
 improperly omitted; < 'Which nobody presumes, or is so 
 sanguine * to hope." "I must, however, be so just a to 
 own. " 
 
 The conjunction that is often properly omitted, and 
 understood: as, "I beg you would come to me;" "See 
 thou do it not;" instead of, "that you would," "that 
 thou do." But in the following and many similar phrases, 
 this conjunction were much better inserted: "Yet it is 
 reason the memory of their virtues remain to posterity." 
 It should be, **yet it isjust that the memory," &c. 
 
 RULE XX. 
 
 When the qualities of different things are com- 
 pared, the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by 
 the conjunction than or as, but agrees with the verlji, 
 or is governed by the verb or the preposition, ex- 
 pressed or understood: as, "Thou art wiser than I;'' 
 that is, **than I am." "They loved him more than 
 me;" i. e. "more than they loved me." "The senti- 
 ment is well expressed by Plato, but much better by 
 Solomon than him;" that is, "than by him."* 
 
 The propriety or impjppriety of many plu-ases, in the 
 preceding as well as in some other forms, may be dis- 
 covered, by suppljing the words that are not expressed; 
 which will be evident from the following instances of 
 erroneous construction. "He can read better than me." 
 "He is as good as her." "W^hether I be present or no." 
 "Who did this? Me." By supplying the words under- 
 
 * S«e the Tenth, or apy suhsequent. .Edition of the Key; Kule xx. The Note. 
 
188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rulc 21. 
 
 stood in each of these phrases, their impropriety and go- 
 verning rule will appear; as, "Better than I can read;" 
 "As good as she is;" "Present or not present;" "I did it." 
 1. By not attending to this rule, many errors have been 
 committed: a number of which is subjoined, as a further 
 caution and direction to the learner. "Thou art a much 
 greater loser than me by his death." "She suffers hourly 
 more than me." "We contributed a third more than the 
 Dutch, who were obliged to the same proportion more 
 than us." "King Charles, and more than him, the duke 
 and the popish faction, were at liberty to form new 
 schemes." "The drift of all his sermons was, to prepare 
 the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than 
 him, and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear." "It 
 was not the work of so eminent an author, as him to 
 whom it was first imputed." "A stone is heavy, and the 
 sand weighty; but a fool's wrath is heavier than them 
 both." "If the king give us leave, we may perform the 
 office as well as them that do." In these passages it 
 ought to be, "/, we^ he, they^'^ respectively. 
 - When the relative who immediately follows than, it 
 seems to form an exception to the 20th rule; for in that 
 connexion, the relative must be in the objective case; 
 as, * 'Alfred, than whom, a greater king never reigned," 
 &c. "Beelzebub, than whom, Satan excepted, none liigher 
 sat," &c. It is remarkable that in such instances, if the 
 personal pronoun were used, it would be in the nomina- 
 tive case; as, ''A gi*eater king never reigned than Ae,*" 
 that is, '•^than he wasP "Beelzebub, than Ae," &€.; that 
 is, Hhan he sat.^^ The phrase than whom^ is, however, 
 avoided by the best modern writers. ■«• 
 
 ^ RULE XXI. 
 
 To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express 
 our ideas in few words, an ellipsis, or omission of 
 some words, is frequently admitted. Instead of say- 
 ing, **He was a learned man, he was a wise man, and 
 he was a good man;'' we make use of the ellipsis, and 
 say, <*He was a learned, wise, and good man." 
 
 When the omission of words would obscure the 
 sentence, vireaken its force, or be attended with an 
 
Rule 21.] SYNTAX. 189 
 
 impropriety, they must be expressed. In the sen- 
 tence, <*We are apt to love who love us," the word 
 them should be supplied. **A beautiful field and 
 trees," is not proper language. It should be, * ^Beau- 
 tiful fields and trees;" or, **A beautiful field and fine 
 trees. " 
 
 Almost all compounded sentences are more or less el- 
 liptical; some examples of which maj be seen under the 
 different parts of speech. 
 
 1. The ellipsis of the article is thus used; "A man, 
 woman, and child;" that is, "a man, a woman, and a 
 child." "A house and garden;" that is, "a house and a 
 garden." '"The sun and moon;" that is, "the sun and 
 tlie moon." "The day and hour;" that is, "the day and 
 the hour." In all these instances, the article being once 
 expressed, the repetition of it becomes unnecessary. — 
 There is, however, an exception to this observation, 
 when some peculiai* emphasis requires a repetition; as 
 in the following sentence. "Not only the year, but the 
 day and the hour." In this case, the ellipsis of the last, 
 article would be improper. When a different form of 
 the article is requisite, the article is also properly re- 
 peated: as, *'a house and an orchard;" instead of, »*a 
 house and orchard." 
 
 2. Tlie noun is frequently omitted in the following 
 manner. "The laws of God and man;" that is, "the laws 
 of God and the laws of man." In some very emphatical 
 expressions, the ellipsis should not be used: as, "Christ 
 the power of God, and the wisdom of God;" which is more 
 emphatical than, "Christ the power and wisdom of God." 
 
 3. The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following 
 manner. "A delightful garden and orchard;" that is, "a 
 delightful garden and a delightful orchard." "A little 
 man and woman;" that is, "A little man and a little 
 woman." In such elliptical expressions as these, the 
 adjective ought to have exactly the same signification, 
 and to be quite as proper, when joined to the latter sub- 
 stantive as to the former; otherwise the ellipsis should 
 not be admitted. 
 
 Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns 
 of different numbers: as, "A magnificent house and gar- 
 
190 EXGLISII GRAMMAR. [Kule 21. 
 
 dens." In this case it is better to use another adjective; 
 as, "A magnificent house and fine gardens." 
 
 4. The followin;^ is the ellipsis of the pronoun, "I love 
 and fear him;" tiiat is, "I love him, and I fear him." 
 •*My house and lands;" that is, '*my house and my 
 lands." In these instances the ellipsis may take plac^ 
 with propriety; but if we would be more express and 
 empliatical, it must not be used: as, "His friends and 
 his foes;" "My sons and my daughters." 
 
 In some of the coiiniion forms of speech, the relative 
 pronoun is usually omitted: as, ''This is the man they 
 love;" instead of, "This is the man whom they love." 
 ' 'These are the goods they bought;" for, "These are the 
 iiooils which they bought." 
 
 In complex sentences,. it is much better to have the 
 lelutive pronoun expressed: as it is more proper to say, 
 "Tlie posture in which I lay;" than, ''In the posture' I 
 hiy:" *'Tlie horse on which I rode, fell down;" than, 
 •'The horse I rode, fell down." 
 
 The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a 
 stMitence together, and, to prevent obscurity and confu- 
 sion, should answer to each other with great exactness* 
 "We speak that we do know, and testify that we have 
 seen." Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, and 
 ought to be supplied: as, "We speak that ivhich we do 
 know, and testify that which we have seen." 
 
 5. The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following in- 
 stances. "The man was old and crafty;" that is, "the 
 man was old, and the man was crafty." "She was young, 
 and beautiful, and good;" that is, "She was young, she 
 was beautiful, and she was good." "Thou art poor, and 
 wretched, and miserable, and blind, ai¥l naked." If we 
 would fiJl up the ellipsis in the last sentence, thou art 
 ought to be repeated before each of the adjectives. 
 
 If, in such enumeration, we choose to point out one 
 property above the rest, that property must be placed 
 last, and the ellipsis supplied: as, **She is young and 
 beautiful, and she is good." 
 
 "I went to see and hear him;" that is, "I went to see 
 and I went to hear him." In this instance there is not only 
 an ellipsis of the governing verb / went^ but likewise of 
 the sign of the infinitive mood, which is governed by it. 
 
Rule 21.] SYNTAX. 191 
 
 Do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, might, and the rest 
 t)f the auxiliaries of the compound tenses, are frequently 
 used alone, to spare the repetition of the verb: as, *'He 
 regards his word, but thou dost not:" i. e. "dost not re- 
 gard it." *'We succeeded, but they did not;" "did not 
 succeed." "I have learned my task, but thou hast notj" 
 "hast not learned." "They must, and they shall be pu- 
 nished;" that is, "they must be punished." See the Key. 
 
 6. The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following 
 manner. '*He spoke and acted wisely;" that is, "He 
 spoke wisely, and he acted wisely." "Thrice I went 
 and offered my service;" that is, ''Thrice I went, and 
 thrice I offered my service." 
 
 7. The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the 
 verb, is seen in the following instances: "He went into 
 the abbeys, halls, and public buildings;" that is, ''he 
 went into the abbeys, ne went into the halls, and he 
 went into the public buildings." "He also went through 
 all the streets and lanes of the city;" that is, "through 
 all the streets, and through all the lanes," &c. "He 
 spoke to every man and woman there;" that is, "to every 
 man and to every woman." "This day, next month, last 
 
 J' ear;" that is, '*on this day, in the next month, in the 
 ast year." "The Lord do that which seemeth him good;" 
 that is, "which seemeth to him. !' 
 
 8. The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows: "They 
 ^confess the power, wisdom, goodness, and love, of their 
 Creator;" i. e. "the power, and wisdom, and goodness, 
 and love of," &c. "Though I love him, I do not flatter 
 him;" that is, "though I love him, yet I do not flatter 
 liim." 
 
 9. The ellipsis of the interjection is not very common; 
 it, however, is sometimes used: as, "Oh! pity and shame!" 
 that is, "Oh pity! Oh shame!" 
 
 As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the 
 English language, numerous examples of it might be 
 given; but only a few more can be admitted here. 
 
 In the following instance there is a very considerable 
 one: "He will often argue, that if this part of our trade 
 were well cultivated, we should gain from one naticm; 
 and if another, from another;" that is, "He will often 
 largue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated. 
 
192 ENGLISrt GRAMMAR. [Rulc 22^ 
 
 we should gain from one nation, and if another part of 
 our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from 
 another nation." 
 
 The following instances, though short, contain much 
 of the ellipsis. "Wo is me;" i. e. "wo is to me." "To 
 let blood;" i. e. "to let out blood." "To let down;" i. e. 
 "to let it fall or slide down." <*To walk a mile;" i. e. 
 "to walk through the space of a mile." *'To sleep all 
 night;" i. e. "to sleep through all the night." "To go a 
 fisning;" "To go a hunting;" i. e. *'to go on a fishing 
 voyage or business;" "to go on a hunting party." "I 
 dine at two o'clock;" i. e. '*at two of the clock." "By 
 sea, by land, on shore;" i. e. "by the sea, by the land, on 
 the shore." 
 
 10. The examples that follow are produced to show the 
 impropriety of ellipsis in some particular cases. "The 
 land was always possessed, during pleasure, by those in- 
 trusted with the command;" it should be, "those persons 
 intrusted;" or, "those who ivere intrusted." '<If he had 
 read further, he would have found several of his objec- 
 tions might have been spared;" that is, "he would have 
 found that several of his objections," &c. "There is 
 nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing their 
 own characters." It ought to be, "nothing in which 
 men;" and, "than i7i knowing." "I scarcely know any 
 part of natural philosophy would yield more variety and 
 use;" it should he,"tvhich would yield," &c. "In the tem- 
 per of mind he was then;" i. e. "m which he then was." 
 "The little satisfaction and consistency, to be found 
 in most of the systems of divinity I have met with, made 
 me betake myself to the sole reading of the Scriptures;" 
 it ought to be, ''which are to be found," and, ''which I 
 have met with." "He desired they might go to the altar 
 together, and jointly return their thanks to whom only 
 they were due;" i. e. "/o him to whom," &c. 
 
 RULE XXII. 
 
 All the parts of a sentence should correspond to eaich 
 other: a regular and dependent construction, through- 
 out, should oe carefully preserved. The following sen- 
 tence is therefore inaccurate: "He was more beloved 
 
Rulers.] SYNTAX. 195 
 
 but not so much admired, as Cinthio.'* It should be. 
 **He was more beloved than Cinthio, but not so 
 much admired, " 
 
 The first example under this rule, presents a most ir- 
 regular construction, namely, "He was more beloved as 
 Cinthio." The words more and so much, are very im- 
 properly stated as having the same regimen. In cor- 
 recting such sentences, it is not necessary to supply the 
 latter ellipsis; because it cannot lead to any discordant 
 or improper construction, and the supply would ofteabe 
 harsh or inelegant. See />. 1 85. 
 
 As the 22d Rule comprehends all the preceding rules, 
 it may,^ at the first view, appear to be too general to be 
 useful. But by ranging under it a number of sentences 
 peculiarly constructed, we shall perceive, that it is cal- 
 culated to ascertain the true grammatical construction 
 of many modes of expression, which none of the particu- 
 lar rules can sufficiently explain. 
 
 "This dedication may serve for almost any book, that: 
 has, is, or shall be published." It ought to be., "that has 
 been, or shall be published." "He was guided by interests 
 always different, sometimes contrary to, those of the com- 
 munity;" "different from;^^ or, "always different from 
 those of the community, and sometimes contrary to 
 them." "Will it be urged that these books are as old, or 
 even older than tradition?" The words, "as old," and 
 "older," cannot have a common regimen; it should be, 
 **as old as tradition, or even older.^' "It requires few 
 talents to which most men are not born, or at leasv 
 may not acquire;" "or which, at least, they may not ac 
 quire." "The court of chancery frequently mitigates 
 and breaks the teeth of the common law," In this con- 
 struction, the first verb is said, "to mitigate the teeth of 
 the common law," which is an evident solecism. "Miti- 
 
 fates the common law, and breaks the teeth of it," would 
 ave been grammatical. 
 **They presently grew into good humour, and good Ian- 
 ^age towards the crown;" "grow into good language,*' 
 18 very improper. "There is never wanting a set of evii 
 imstruments, who either out of mad zeal, private hatred, 
 w filthy lucre, are always ready," &c. We say properly- 
 
194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rulc ^S. 
 
 •'A man acts out of mad zeal," or, "oiit of nrivate ha- 
 tred;" but we cannot say, if we would speak English, 
 ^•'he acts out of filthy lucre." "To double her kindness 
 and caresses of me;" the word "kindness" requires to be 
 followed bj either to or for, and cannot be construed with 
 the preposition of. "Never was man so teased, or suf- 
 fered half the uneasiness, as I have done this evening:" 
 the first and third clauses, viz. * 'Never was man so teas- 
 ed, as I have done this evening," cannot be joined with-' 
 out an impropriety; and to connect the second and third, 
 th* word that must be substituted for as; "Or suffered 
 half the uneasiness that I have done;" or else, ''half so 
 much uneasiness as I have suffered." 
 
 The first part of the following sentence abounds with 
 adverbs, and those such as are hardly consistent with one 
 another: '"How much soever the reformation of this degen- 
 erate a^e is almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet 
 have a more comfortable'prospect of future times." The 
 sentence would be more correct in the following form: 
 ^'Though the reformation of this degenerate age is nearly 
 to be despaired of," &c. 
 
 "Oh! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life 
 with the blood ;thirsty; in whose hands is wickedness, and 
 their right-hand is full of gifts." As the passage, intro- 
 duced by the copulative conjunction a?i£/, was notmtended 
 as a continuation of the principal and independent part 
 of the sentence, but of the dependent part, the relative 
 whose should have been used instead of the possessive 
 their; viz. "and z^^Aose right-hand is full of gifts." 
 
 "Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered 
 into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared 
 for them that love him." There seems to be an impropri- 
 ety in this instance, in which the same noun serves in a 
 djDuble capacity, performing at the same time the offices 
 both of the nominative and objective cases. "Neither 
 hath it entered into the heart of man, to conceive the 
 things," &c. would have been re^lar. 
 
 "We have the power of retaining, altering, and com- 
 pounding, those images which we have once received, int» 
 all the varieties of picture and vision." It is very propetr 
 to say, "altering ana compounding those images which we 
 ^ve once received, into all the varieties of picture Jiad 
 
SYNTAX. 1^5 
 
 vision;" but we can with no propriety saj, "retaining them 
 into all the varieties;" and yet, according to the manner 
 in which the words are ranged, this construction is un- 
 avoidable: for "retaining, altering, and compounding," 
 are participles, each of which equally refers to, and go- 
 verns the subsequent noun, those images; and that noun 
 a^ain is necessarily connected with the following prepo- 
 sition, into. The construction might easily have been rec- 
 tified, by disjoining the participle retaining from the other 
 two participles, in this wav: "We have the power of re- 
 taining those images which we have once received, and 
 of altering and compounding them into all 'Idie varieties 
 of picture and vision;" or, perhaps, better thus: "We have 
 the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those 
 images which we ha\p once received, and of forming 
 them into all the varieties of picture and vision." 
 
 INTERJECTION. 
 
 For the syntax of the Interjection, see Rule v. Note 
 11. page 138, and Note 9, of Rule xxi. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR PARSINQ. 
 
 As we have finished the explanation of the different 
 parts of speech, and the rules for forming them into sen- 
 tences, it is now proper to give some examples of the 
 manner in which the learners should be exercised, in 
 oi'der to prove their knowledge, and to render^* f4*«»;iiaf 
 to them. This is called parsing. The nature of the sub- 
 jt;».t, .*c TTv.li aa uie auapration or it to learners, requires 
 that it should be divided into two parts; viz. parsing, as 
 it respects etymology alone; and parsing, as it respects 
 both etymology and syntax.* 
 
 Section 1. Specimens of Etymological Parsing, 
 
 * 'Virtue ennobles us." 
 
 Virtue is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, 
 the third person, the singular number, and in the nomina- 
 
 * See the "General Directions for tising the English Exercises," prefixed to the 
 Eighth and every subsequent eilicion of thai book. 
 
i96 ENGLISH ORAMMAH. 
 
 five case. ( Decline the noun.) Ennobles is a regular Terb 
 active, indicative mood, present tense, and the third per- 
 son singular. (Repeat the present tense, the imperfect tense^ 
 and the perfect participle,*) Us is a personal pronoun, of 
 the first person plural, and in the objective case. (Be- 
 dine if,) 
 
 "Goodness will be rewarded." 
 
 Goodness is a common substantive, of the neuter gen- 
 der, the third person, the singular number, and in the no- 
 minative case. (Decline it.) Will be rewarded, is a regular 
 vei'b, in the passive voice, the indicative mood, the first f u 
 ture tense, aifd the third person singular. (Repeat the pre- 
 sent tense, the imperfect tense, and theperfect participle.) 
 
 ''Strive to improle." 
 
 Strive is an irregular verb neuter, in the imperative 
 mood, and of the second person singular. (Repeat the 
 present tense, fyc) To improve is a regular verb neuter, 
 and in the infinitive mood. (Repeat the present tense, <^c. J 
 
 "Time flies, O! how swiftly." 
 
 Tirne is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, 
 the third person, the singular number, and in the nomina- 
 tive case- (Decline the noun.) Flies is an irregular verb 
 neuter, the indicative mood, present tense, and the third 
 person singular. (Repeat the present tense, ^c.) 0! is an 
 interjection. How and swiftly are adverbs. 
 
 Gratitude is a common substantive, of the neuter gen 
 der, the third person, the singular number, and in the 
 nominative case. (Decline it.) Is is an irregular verb 
 neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and the third 
 person singular. (Repeat the present tense, ^c.) A is the 
 indefinite article. Delightful is an adjective in the posi- 
 tive state. ( Repeat the degrees of comparison.) Emotion 
 is a common substantive of the neuter gender, the third 
 person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. 
 (Decline it.) 
 
 * The learner should occasionally repeat all the moods and tenses of the vexh- 
 
SYNTAX. 19^ 
 
 "They who forgive, act nobly." 
 ^cey is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the 
 plural number, and in the nominative case-. (Decline it,) 
 fVho is a relative pronoun, and the nominative case. (De- 
 eline it.) Forgive is an irregular verb active, indicative 
 mood, present tense, and the third person plural. (Be 
 peat the present tense, ^'C.) Act is a regular verb active, 
 indicative mood, present tense, and the third person plu 
 ral. (Repeat, ^c.) Nobly is an adverb of quality. (Re- 
 peat the degrees of comparison.) 
 
 **By living temperately, our health is promoted." 
 By is a preposition. Living is the present participle ol 
 the regular neuter verb "to live." (Repeat the partici- 
 ples.) Temperately is an adverb of quality. Our is an 
 adjective pronoun of tlie possessive kind. (Decline it.) 
 Health is a common substantive, of the third person, the 
 singular number, and in the nominative case. (Decline it.) 
 Is promoted is a regular verb passive, indicative mood, 
 present tense, and the third person singular. (Repeat, ^x.) 
 
 "We should be kind to them, who are unkind to us." 
 TVe is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the plural 
 number, and in the nominative case. (Decline it.) Should 
 be is an irregular verb neuter, in the potential mood, the 
 imperfect tense, and the first person plural. (Repeat the 
 present tense, Sj-c.) Kind is an adjective, in the positive 
 state. (Repeat the degrees of comparison.) To is a prepo- 
 sition. Them is a personal pronoun, of the third person, 
 the plural number, and in the objective case. (Decline 
 it.) Who is a relative pronoun, and in the nominative 
 case. (Decline it.) Are is an irregular verb neuter, in- 
 dicative mood, present tense, and the third person plural . 
 (Repeat, Sfc.) Unkind is an adjective in the positive state. 
 (Repeat the degrees of comparison.) To is a preposition. 
 Us IS a personal pronoun, of the first person, the plural 
 number, and in the objective case. (Decline it.) 
 
 Section 2. Specimens of Syntactical Parsing, 
 
 **Vice produces misery." 
 Vice is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, 
 fhfi third person, the singular number, and in the nojai- 
 
1^8 ENGLISH GfilAMMAR. 
 
 native case. Produces is a regular verb active, indicative 
 mood, present tense, the third person singular, agreeing 
 with its nominative "mce," according to rule i. which 
 sajs; (here repeat the nde.) Misery is a common substan- 
 tive, of the neuter gender, the third person, the singular 
 number, and the objective case, governed by the active 
 verb "produces," according to rule xi. which says, &c. 
 
 "Peace and joy are virtue's crown." 
 
 Peace is a common substantive. (Repeat the gender, 
 person, mimber, and case.) Jind is a copulative conjunc- 
 tion. Joy is a common substantive. (Repeat the person, 
 nurnber, and case,) Are is an irregular verb neuter, indi- 
 cative mood, present tense, and the third person plural, 
 agreeing with the nominative case "peace and joy," ac- 
 cording to RULE II. which sa}^s; (here repeat the rule.) 
 Virtues is a common substantive^ of the third person, the 
 singular number, and in the possessive case, governed by 
 the substantive ''crown," agreeably to rule x. which 
 says, &c. Crown is a common substantive, of the neuter 
 gender, the third person, the singular number, and in the 
 nominative case, agreeably to the fourth note of rule xr 
 
 "Wisdom or folly governs us." 
 
 Tf^sdoyn is a common substantive. (Repeat the gender^ 
 person, number, and case.) Or is a disjunctive conjunction. 
 FoUy is a common substantive. (Repeat the person, 7iiim- 
 her, and case.) Governs is a regular verb active, indica- 
 tive mood, present tense, and the third person singular^ 
 agreeing with its nominative case "wisdom" or ''folly," 
 according to rule hi. which says, &c. Us is a personal 
 pronoun, of the first person, plural number, and in the 
 objective case, governed by the active verb "governs," 
 agreeably to rule xi. which says, &c. 
 
 "Every heart knows its sorrows." 
 
 Every is an adjective pronoun of the distributive kind, 
 agreeing with its substantive "heart," according to Note 
 .9 under rule viii. which says, &c. Heart is a common 
 substantive. (Repeat the gender, person, number, and case.) 
 Knows is an irregular verb active, indicative mood, pre- 
 sent tense, third person singular, agreeing with its nomif 
 
SYNTAX. 1^9 ' 
 
 native case '^heart,'* according to rule i. which says, &c. 
 Its is a personal pronoun, of the third person singular, 
 and of the neuter gender, to agree with its substantive 
 ''heart," according to rule v. which says, &c.; it is in 
 the possesive case, governed by the noun * 'sorrows," 
 according to rule x, which says, &c. Sorrows is a com- 
 mon substantive, of the third person, the plural number, 
 and the objective case governed by the active verb 
 '^'knows," according to rule xi. which says, &c. 
 
 "The man is happy who lives wisely." 
 Tfie is the definite article. Man is a common substan- 
 tive. (Repeat the person^ number, and case.) Is is an ir- 
 regular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and 
 the third person singular, agreeing with the nominative 
 case *'man," according to rule i. which says, &c. Hap- 
 py is an adjective in the positive state. TVho is a relative 
 pronoun, which has for its antecedent, "man," with 
 which it agrees in gender and number, according to rulf. 
 v. which says, &c. Lives is a regular verb neuter, indica- 
 tive mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing 
 with its nominative "who," according to rule vi. whicli 
 says, &c. Wisely is an adverb of quality, placed after 
 the verb, according to rule xv. 
 
 "Who preserves us?" 
 Who is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, 
 and in the nominative case singular. The word to which 
 it relates, (its subsequent,) is the noun or pronoun con- 
 taining the answer to the question; agreeably to a note 
 under rule vi. Preserves is a regular verb active, indi- 
 cative mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing 
 with its nommative "who," according to rule vi. which 
 says, &c. Us is a personal pronoun. (Repeat thepersony 
 number, case, and rule.) 
 
 "Wliose house is that? My brother's and mine. 
 Who inhabit? We." 
 Whose is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, 
 and relates to the following words, "Brother's" and 
 "mine," agreeably to a note under rule vi. It is in the 
 possessive case, governed by "house," according to 
 RULE X. which says, &c. House is a common substantive. 
 
200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 f Repeat the gender, person, number, and case.) Is is an . 
 irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and 
 the third person singular, agreeing with its nominative 
 case "house," according to rule i. which sajs, &c. That 
 Is an adjective pronoun of the demonstrative kind. My 
 is an adjectfve pronoun of the possessive kind. Brother'' s 
 is a common substantive, of the third person, the singular 
 number, and in the possessive case, governed by "bouse*" 
 understood, according to rule x. and a note under rule 
 VI. And is a copulative conjunction. Mine is a personal 
 pronoun, of the first person, the singular number, and in 
 the possessive case, according to a note under rule x. 
 and another under rule vi. Who is a relative pronoun 
 of the interrogative kind, of the plural number, in the 
 nominative case, and relates to "we" following, according 
 to a note under rule vi. Inhabit is a regular verb active. 
 (Repeat the mood, tense, person, fyc.) It is a personal 
 pronoun, of the third person, the singular number, and 
 m the objective case, governed by the active verb "in- 
 habit," according to rule xi. which says, &c. We is a 
 personal pronoun, of the first person, the plural number, 
 and the nominative case to the verb "^inhabit'' under- 
 stood. The words "inhabit it" are implied after '*we," 
 agreeably to a note under rule vi. 
 
 "Remember to assist the distressed." 
 
 Remeinber is a regular verb active, imperative mood, 
 the second person singular, and agrees with its nomina- 
 tive case <'thou" understood. To assist is a regular verb 
 active, in the infinitive mood, governed by the preceding 
 verb "remember," according to rule xii. which says,&c. 
 The is the definite article. Distressed is an adjective 
 put substantively. 
 
 "We are not unemployed." 
 
 We is a personal pronoun. (Repeat the person, nurrtb^-, 
 and case.) Are is an irregular verb neuter. (Repeat the. 
 mood, tense, person, fc.) Not is an adverb of negation. 
 Unemployed is an adjective in the positive state. The 
 two negatives not and un, form an affirmative, agreeably 
 to RULE XVI. which says, &c. 
 
SYNTAX. ^Oi 
 
 •*This btuntj has relieved you and us; aM has grati- 
 fied the donor." 
 
 This is an adjective pronoun of the demonstrative kind. 
 Bounty is a common substantive. (Repeat the person, 
 number^ and case.) Has relieved is a regular verb active, 
 indicative mood, perfect tense, third person singular, 
 agreein;^ with its nominative "bounty," according to rulk 
 r. which says, &c. You is a personal pronoun, of the 
 second person plural, and in the objective case. (Repeat 
 the government and rule,) And is a copulative conjunc- 
 tion. Us is a personal pronoun, in the objective case. 
 You and us are put in the same case, according to rulk 
 xviii. which says, &c. Jind is a copulative conjunction. 
 Has gratified is a regular verb active, indicative mood, 
 perfect tense, and third person singular, agreeing with its 
 nominative "bounty," understood, "i/as relieved,''^ and 
 ^*Has gratified^^'' are in the same mood and tense, accord- 
 ing to RULE XVIII. which says, &c. The is the definite 
 article. Donor is a common substantive, of the third per- 
 son, the singular number, and the objective case governed 
 by the active verb "has gratified," according to rule xi. 
 which says, &c. See the Octavo Grammur, on Gender, 
 
 "He will not be pardoned, unless he repent." 
 
 He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular 
 number, masculine gander, and in the nominative case. 
 Will be pardoned is a regular passive verb, indicative 
 mood, first future tense, and the third person singular, 
 agreeing with its nominative "he," according; to rule i. 
 and composed of the auxiliaries "will be," and the periei t 
 participle "pardoned." Not is a negative adverb. Unles& 
 IS a disjunctive conjunction. Z/ie is a personal pronoun 
 (Repeat the person, number, gender, ana case.) Repent is a 
 regular verb neuter, in the subjunctive mood, the present 
 tense, the third person singular, and agrees with its no- 
 minative case "he," according to rule i. which says, &c. 
 It is in the subjunctive mood, because it implies a future 
 sense, and denotes uncertainty signified by the conjunct- 
 tion "unless, "agreeably to rule xix. and. th« notes. 
 
 "Good works being neglected, devotion is false." 
 Good works being neglected, being independent of the 
 
203 ENGLISH ORAMMAR. 
 
 rest of the pntence, is the case absolute, according to the 
 fifth note ofRULE i. Devotion is a common substantive. 
 (Repeat the member, person^ and case.) Is is an irregular 
 verb neuter. (Repeat the mood, tense, person, Sfc) False 
 is an adjective in the positive state, and belongs to its 
 substantive "devotion" understood, agreeably to rule 
 VIII. which says, &c. 
 
 "The emperor, Marcus Aurelius, was a wise and vir- 
 tuous prince." 
 
 The is the definite article. Emperor is a common sub- 
 stantive, of the masculine gender, the third person, the 
 singular number, and in the nominative case. Marcus 
 .iurelius is a proper name or substantive, and in the no- 
 minative case, because it is put in apposition with the 
 substantive "emperor," agreeably to the first note of rule 
 X. Was is an irre^lar verb neuter, indicative mood, 
 imperfect tense, and the third person singular, agreeing 
 with its nominative case "emperor." A is the indefinite 
 article. Wise is an adjective, and belongs to its substan- 
 tive "prince." And is a copulative conjunction. Virtuous 
 is an adjective, and belong, &c. Prince is a common 
 substantive, and in the nominative case, agreeably to the 
 fourth note of rule xi, 
 
 "To err is human." 
 To err, is the infinitive mood, and the nominative case 
 to the verb "is." Is is an irregular verb neuter, indica- 
 tive mood, present tense, and the third person singular, 
 agreeing with its nominative case "to err," agreeably to 
 note 1, undar itirXiE the first. Huniufb is ttu u.dj^«-tiT^, 
 and belongs to its substantive **nature" understood, ac- 
 cording to rule VIII. which says, &c. 
 
 "To countenance pei-sons who are guilty of bad actions, 
 is scarcely one remove from actually committing 
 them." 
 To countenance persons who are guilty of bad actions. 
 is part of a sentence, which is the nominative case to the 
 verb "is." Is is an irregular verb neuter, &c. agreeing 
 wiih the aforementioned part of a sentence, as its nomi- 
 native case, agreeably to note 1, under rule the first. 
 Scarcely is an advei'b. One is a numeral adjective agree- 
 
SYNfAX. 203 
 
 ing with its substantive * 'remove." Remove is a com- 
 mon substantive, of the neuter gender, the third person, 
 the singular number, and in the nominative case, a^ee- 
 ably to the fourth note of rule xi. From is a preposition. 
 Committing is the present participle of the regular active 
 verb "to commit." Them is a personal pronoun, of the 
 third person, the plural number, and in the objective 
 case, governed by the participle "committing," agreeably 
 to RULE XIV. which says, &c. 
 
 ^'Let me proceed." 
 
 This sentence, according to the statement of gramma- 
 rians in general, is in the imperative mood, of the first 
 person, and the singular number. The sentence may, 
 however, be analyzed in the following manner. Let is 
 an irregular verb active, in the imperative mood, of the 
 second person, the plural number, and agrees with its 
 nominative case "you" understood: as, "do you let." 
 Me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the singu- 
 lar number, and in the objective case, governed by the 
 active verb "let," agreeably to rule xi. which says, &c. 
 Proceed is a regular verb neuter, in the infinitive mood, 
 governed by the preceding verb "let," according to rule 
 XII. which says, &c. 
 
 "Living expensively and luxuriously destroys health.^ 
 By living frugally and temperately, health is preserved." 
 
 Living expensively and luxuriously^ is the nominative 
 case to the verb "destroys," agreeably to note 1, under 
 RULE I. Living frugcdly and temperately, is a substan- 
 tive phrase in the objective case, governed by the prepo- 
 sition *'by," according to note 2, under rule xxv. 
 
 The preceding specimens of parsing, if carefully stu- 
 died by the learner, seem to be sufficiently explicit, to 
 enable him to comprehend the nature of this employ- 
 ment; and sufficiently diversified, to qualify him, in 
 other exercises, to point out and apply the remaiftiug 
 Kules, both principal and subordinate. 
 
{ 204 ) 
 
 PART IV. 
 PROSODY. 
 
 Prosody consists of two parts: the former teaches 
 the true pronunciation of words, comprising ac- 
 cent, QUANTITY, EMPHASIS, PAUSE, and TONE; and 
 the latter, the laws af versification. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 Section 1. Of Accent. 
 
 Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the 
 voice, on a certain letter or syllable in a word, that 
 it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished 
 from them: as, in the word presume, the stress of the 
 voice must be on the letter w, and second syllable, 
 sume, which take the accent. 
 
 As words may be formed of a diiferent number of syl- 
 lables, from one to eight or nine, it was necessary to have 
 some peculiar mark to distinguish words, from mere sylla- 
 bles; otherwise speech would be only a continued succes- 
 sion of syllables, without conveying ideas; for, as words 
 are the marks of ideas, any confusion in the marks, must 
 cause the same in the ideas for which they stand. It was 
 therefore necessary, that the mind should at once per- 
 ceive what number ot syllables belongs to each word, in 
 utterance. This might be done by a perceptible pause 
 at the end of each word in speaking, as we form a cer- 
 tain distance between them m writnig and printing. — 
 But this would make discourse extremely tedious; and 
 though it might render words distinct, would make tlie^ 
 
Aetent.3 prosody. ^5 
 
 meaning of sentences confused. Syllables ihl^ht also be 
 sufficiently distinguished by a certain elevation or de* 
 pression of voice upon one syllable of each word, which 
 was the practice of some nations. But the English 
 tonffue has, for this purpose, adopted a mark of the 
 <?asiest and simplest kind, which is called accent, and 
 which effectually answers the end. 
 
 Every word in our language, of more than one syllable, 
 has one of them distiliguished from the rest in this man 
 ner; and some writers assert, that every monosyllalale of 
 two or more letters, has one of its letters tnus distinguished. 
 
 Accent is either principal or secondary. The principal 
 accent is tha:t whicn necessarily distinguishes one sylla- 
 ble in a word from the rest. The secondary accent is that 
 litress w hich we may occasionally place upon another syl- 
 lable, besides that which has the pnncipal accent; in ordler 
 to pronounce every part of the word more distinctly, for- 
 cibly^ and harmoniously: thus, "Complaisant, caravan," 
 and "violin," have frequently an accent on the first as 
 well as on the last syllable, though a somewhat less forci- 
 ble one. The same may be observed of "Repartee, referee, 
 privateer, domineer," &c. But it.must be observed, that 
 though an accent is allowed on the first syllable of these 
 words, it is by no means necessary; they may all be pro- 
 nounced with one accent, and tlrnt on the last syllable, 
 without the least deviation from propriety. 
 
 As emphasis evidently points out the most significanrt 
 word in a sentence; so, wnere other reasons do not for- 
 bid, the accent always dwells W'ith greatest force on that 
 part of the word which, from its importance, the hearer 
 nas always the greatest occasion to observe: and this is 
 necessarily the root or body of the word. But as harmony 
 df termination frequently attracts the accent from the root 
 to the branches of words, so th^ first and most natural 
 law of accentuation seems to operate less in fixing the 
 stress thaa any other. Our own Saxon terminations, in- 
 deed, with perfect uniformity, leave the principal part 
 of the word in quiet possession of what seems its lawful 
 property; but Latin and Greek terminations, of which 
 oar language is full, assume a right of preserving ttieir 
 original accent, and subject almost every word tiiey be* 
 «tow upon us to their own classical laws. " 
 S 
 
206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Scct. 1. 
 
 Accent, therefore, seems to be regulated in a great 
 measure by etymology. In words from the Saxon, the 
 accent is generally on the root; in words from the 
 learned languages, it is generally on the termination; 
 and if to these we add the diiFerent accent we lay on 
 some words, to distinguish them from others, we seem 
 to have the three great principles of accentuation; 
 namely, the radical, the terminational, and the distinc- 
 tive. The radical: as, "Love, lovely, loveliness;" the 
 terminational: as, "Harmony, harmonious;" the distinc- 
 tive: as, '^Convert, to convert." 
 
 ACCENT ON' DISSYLLABLES. 
 
 Words of two syllables have necessarily one of them 
 accented, and but one. It is true, for the sake of em- 
 phasis, we sometimes lay an equal stress upon two sue 
 cessive syllables: as, **i)i-rect, some-times;" but when 
 these words are pronounced alone, they have never more 
 than one accent. The word *'a-men," is the only word 
 which is pronounced with two accents when alone. 
 
 Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the 
 former syllable is commonly accented: as, '^Childish, 
 kingdom, detest, acted, toilsome, lover, scojQfer, fairer, 
 foremost, zealous, fulness, meekly, artist." 
 
 Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the ra- 
 dical word, have commonly the accent on the latter: as, 
 ^'To beseem, to bestow, to return." 
 
 Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, 
 the verb has commonly the accent on the latter, and the 
 lioun on the former syllable: as, "To cement, a cement; 
 to contract, a contract; to presage, a presage." 
 
 This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom 
 have their accent on the former, yet nouns often have it 
 on the latter syllable: as, "Delight, perfume." Those 
 jiouns which, in the common order of language, must have 
 preceded the verbs, often transmit their accent to the verbs 
 they form, and inversely. Thus, the noun "w^ter" must 
 have preceded the verb "to w^ter," as the verb "to cor- 
 rcsp6nd," must have preceded the noun "correspondent:" 
 ana "to pursue" claims priority to "pursuit." So that 
 we may conclude, wherever verbs deviate from the rule? 
 
Accent.] prosooy. 20T 
 
 it is seldom by chance, and generally in those words 
 only where a superior law of accent takes place. 
 
 All dissyllables ending in y, our, ow, le, ish, ck, ter, age^ 
 en, eh as, "Cranny, labour, willow, wallow;" except 
 **all6w, avow, endow, below, bestow;" "battle, banisb^ 
 cambric, batter, courage, fasten, quiet;" accent the for- 
 mer syllable. 
 
 Dissyllable nouns in cr, as, 'K^knker, blitter," have 
 tlie accent on the former sellable. 
 
 Dissyllable verbs, terminating in a consonant and c 
 final, as, "Comprise, escape;" or having a diphthong in 
 the last syllable; as, "Appease, reveal;" or ending in two 
 consonants; as, "Attend;" have the accents on the latter 
 syllable. 
 
 " Dissyllable nouns, having a diphthong in the latter syl- 
 lable, have commonly their accent on tSe latter syllable; 
 as, "Applause;" except some words in ain: as, "Villain, 
 curtain, mountain." 
 
 Dissyllables that have two vowels, which are separated 
 in the pronunciation, have always the accent on the first 
 syllable: as, "Lion, riot, quiet, liar, rtiin;" except 
 "create." 
 
 ACCENT ON TRISYLLABLES. 
 
 Trisyllables formed by adding a termination, or prefix- 
 ing a syllable, retain the accent of the radical word: as, 
 **L6veliness, tenderness, contemner, wagoner, physical, 
 bespatter, commenting, commending, assurance." 
 
 Trisyllables ending in ous, al, ion: as, "arduous, capi- 
 tal, mention," accent the first. 
 
 Trisyllables ending in ce, ent, and ate, accent the first 
 syllable: as, "Countenance, continence, Armament, im- 
 minent, elegant, propagate;" unless they are derived 
 from words having the accent on the las<t: as, **Conni- 
 vance, acquaintance;" and unless the middle syllable 
 has a vowel before two consonants: as, "Promulgate." 
 
 Trisyllables ending iny, as, "entity, specify, liberty, 
 victory, subsidy," commonly accent the first syllable. 
 
 Trisyllables ending in re or /e, accent the first sylla- 
 ble: as, "Legible, theatre;" except ''Disciple," and 
 9ome words which have a preposition: as, * 'Example, 
 indenture." 
 
208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR [Scct. J* 
 
 Trisyllables ending in mle, commonlj accent the first 
 syllable: as, "Plenitude, habitude, rectitude." 
 
 Trisyllables ending in ator, have the accent on the 
 middle syllable: as, '^Spectator, creator," &c.: except 
 **6rator, senator, barrator, legator." 
 
 Trisyllables which have in the middle syllable a diph* 
 thong, as, "Endeavour;" or a vowel before two con so^- 
 nants: as, ''Domestic;" accent the middle syllable. 
 
 Trisyllables that have their accent on the last syllable, 
 are commonly French: as, "Acquiesce, repartee, maga- 
 zine;" or they are words formed by prefixing one or two 
 syllables to a long syllable: as, "Immature, overcharge." 
 
 ACCENT ON POLYSYLLABLES. 
 
 Polysyllables, or words of more than three syllables^ 
 generally follow the accent of the words from which they 
 are derived: as, "arrogating, continency, incontinently, 
 commendable, communicabFeness," 
 
 Words ending in ator, have the accent generally on the 
 penultimate, or last syllable but one: as, "Emendator^ 
 gladiator, equivocator, prevaricator." 
 
 Words ending in /e, commonly have the accent on the 
 first syllable: as^ '*amicable, despicable:" unless the 
 second syllable has a vowel before two consonants: as, 
 '^Combustible, condemnable." 
 
 Words ending in ion, ous, and ty, have their accent on 
 the antepenultimate, or last syllable but two: as, "Sal- 
 vation, victorious, activity." 
 
 Words which end in ia, io, and cal, have the accent on 
 the antepenult: as, "Cyclopaedia, punctilio, despotical." 
 
 The rules respecting accent, are not advanced as com-^ 
 plete or infallible: they are merely proposed as useful. 
 Almost every rule of every language has its exceptions; 
 and, in English, as in otlier tongues, much must be 
 learned by example and authority. 
 
 It may be further observed, that though the syllable on 
 which the principal accent is placed, is nxed and certain, 
 yet we may, and do, frequently make the secondary prin- 
 cipal, and the principal secondary: thus, "Caravan, com- 
 plaisant, violin, repartee, referee, privateer, domineer,'* 
 may all have the greater stress on the first, and the les? 
 
Quantity.] prosody. 209 
 
 on the last syllable, without any violent offence to the 
 ear: nay, it may be asserted, that the principal accent on 
 the first syllable of these words, and none at ail on the 
 last, though certainly improper, has nothing in it grating 
 or discordant; but placing an accent on the second syllable 
 of these words would entirely derange them, and produce 
 great harshness and dissonance. The same observations 
 may be applied to ''demonstration, lamentation, provo- 
 cation, navigator, propagator, alligator," and every simi- 
 lar word in the language. 
 
 Section 2. Cf Quantity. 
 
 The quantity of a syllable is that time which is 
 occupiecl in pronouncing it. It is considered as long 
 
 or SHORT. 
 
 A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on 
 the vowel; which occasions it to be slowly joined in 
 pronunciation with the following letters: as, **Fall, 
 Dale, mood, hduse, feature." 
 
 A syllable is short, when the accent is on the con- 
 sonant; which occasions the vowel to be quickly join- 
 ed to the succeeding letter: as, ''ant, bonnet, hunger." 
 
 A long syllable generallj^ requires double the time 
 of a short one in pronouncing it; thus, **Mate" and 
 **N6te" should be pronounced as slowly again as 
 *^Mat"and*^Not." 
 
 Unaccented syllables are generally short: as, "ad- 
 mire, boldness, sinner." But to this rule there are 
 many exceptions: as, '*also, exile, gangrene, timpTre, 
 foretaste," &c. 
 
 When the accent is on a consonant, the syllable is 
 often more or less short, as it ends with a single conso- 
 nant, or vvith more than one: as, "Sadly, robber; persist, 
 m6.tchless." 
 
 When the accent is on a semi-vowel, the time of the 
 syllable may be protracted, by dwelling upon the semi- 
 vowel: as, ^'Cur', can', fulfil':" but when the accent 
 falls on a mute, the syllable cannot be lengthened in thts 
 same manner: as, "Bubble, captain, totter." 
 
 The quantity of vowels has, in some measure, beeu 
 S 2 
 
£10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Scct. 2. 
 
 considered under the first part of grammar, which treats^ 
 of the different sounds of the letters; and therefore we 
 shall dismiss tl»is subject with a few general rules and 
 observations. 
 
 1st, All vowels under the principal accent, before the 
 terminations tc, io, and ion, preceded by a single conso- 
 nant, are pronounced long: as,. "Regalia, folio, adhesion, 
 explosion, confusion:" except the vowel i, which in that 
 situation is short: as, "Militia, punctilio, decision, con- 
 trition." The only exceptions to this rule seem to be 
 "Discretion, battalion, gladiator, national, and rational." 
 
 2d, All vowels that immediately precede the termina- 
 tions ity and ety, are pronounced long: as, "Deity, piety, 
 spontaneity." But it one consonant precedes these ter- 
 minations, every preceding apcented vowel is short; 
 except w, and the a in "scar9ity," and **rarity;" as, 
 * 'Polarity, severity, divinity, curiosity; — impunity."" 
 Even^ "{i before two consonants contracts itself: aSy 
 ^'Curvity, taciturnity," &c. 
 
 3d, Vowels under the principal accent, before the ter- 
 minations ic and ica/, preceded by a single consonant, are 
 pronounced short: thus, "Satanic, pathetic, elliptic, har- 
 monic," have the vowel short; while "Tunic, runic, 
 cubic,'' have the accented vowel long: and '*pFanatical, 
 f>oetical, levitical, canonical," have tne vowel short; but 
 '^Cubical, musical," &c. have the u long. 
 
 4th, The vowel in the antepenultimate syllable of words^ 
 with the following terminafionsjis always pronounced short. 
 
 toqny; as, obloquy. parous^ as, oviparous. 
 
 strophe; as, apostroplie. eracy; as, aristocracy. 
 
 meter; as, barometer. gony;. as, cosmogony. 
 
 gonal; as, diagonal. phony; as, symphony.. 
 
 ' vorotls; as, camrt^orous. nomy; as, astronomy^ 
 
 ferous; as, somniferous. ferny; as, anatomy. 
 
 Jluous; as, superfluous. pcithy; as, antipatny. 
 
 fluent; as, mellifluent. 
 
 As no utterance \\4iich is void of proportion, can be- 
 a^greeable to the ear; and as quantity, or proportion of 
 time in utterance, greatly depends on a due attention ta 
 the accent;, it is absolutely necessarv for every person 
 who would attain a just and pleasing delivery, to be mas- 
 ter of that point. «Sfee this section in the Octavo Grammar^ 
 
Empha8i8.3 pnosoDr. 211 
 
 Section 3. Of Emphasis. 
 
 By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of 
 voice, by which we distinguish some word or words 
 on which we design to lay particular stress, and to 
 show how they affect the rest of the sentence. Somcr 
 times the emphatic words must be distinguished by a 
 particular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress. 
 
 On the rigiit management of the emphasis depends the 
 life of pronunciation. If no emphasis be placed on any 
 words, not only will discourse be rendered heavy and 
 lifeless, but the meaning often left ambiguous. If the 
 emphasis be placed wrong, we shall pervert and confound 
 the meaning wholly. To give a common instance: such 
 a simple question as this, **Do you ride to town to-day?*' 
 is capable of no fewer than four different acceptations, 
 according as the emphasis is differently placed on the 
 *vroids. If it be pronounced thus: '-'Do you ride to town 
 to-day?" the answer may naturally be, "No, we send a 
 servant in our stead." If thus: -'Do you ride to town 
 to-day?" answer, "No, we intend to walk." **Do you 
 ride to town to-day?" "No, we ride into the country." 
 '*Do you ride to town to-day?^^ '*No, but we shall to- 
 morrow." In like manner, in solemn discourse, Ae whole 
 force and beauty of an expression often depend on the 
 enu^hatic word; and we may present to the hearers quite 
 different views of the same sentiment, by placing the em- 
 phasis diiTerently. In the following words of our Saviour, 
 observe in what different lights liie tliought is placed, ac- 
 cording as the words are pronounced. "Judas, betrayest 
 4hou tl\e son of man with a kiss?" ^'Betrayest thou,^' 
 makes t'ae reproach turn on the infiimy of treachery. 
 "Betrayest ihoii^^^ makes it rest upon Judas's connexion 
 with his n\aster. "Betrayest thou the son ofman,^^ rests 
 it upon our Saviour's personal character and eminence. 
 '^Betrayest thou the son of man with a kiss?^'' turns it 
 upon his prostituting the signal of peace and friendship 
 to the purpose of destruction. 
 
 The emphasis often lies on the word that asks a (jues- 
 tion: as, ''f^/io said so?" "J^F/imwill become?" ''ffliai 
 shall I Aq}''' ''Whither shall I go?" "^% dost thou weep?'* 
 
S12 ^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect. 3, 
 
 And when two words are set in contrast, or in opposition 
 to one another, they are both emphatic: as, "He is the 
 l}/rant, not theVa/Aer, of his people;" "His subjects /ea/- 
 him, but they do not love him." 
 
 Some sentences are so full and comprehensive, that al- 
 most every word is emphatical: as, "Ye hills and dales, 
 ye rivers, woods, and plains:" or, as that pathetic expos- 
 tulation in the prophecy of Ezekiel, "Wh}^ will ye die!" 
 In the latter short sentence, every word is emphatical; 
 and on whichever word we lay the emphasis, whether 
 on the first, second, third, or fourth, it strikes out a dif- 
 ferent sense, and opens a new subject of moving expos- 
 tulation. 
 
 As accent dignifies the syllable on which it is laid, and 
 makes it more distinguished by the ear than the rest; so 
 emphasis ennobles the word to which it belongs, and pre- 
 sents it in a stronger light to the understanding. Were 
 there no accents, words would be resolved into their ori- 
 ffinal syllables: were there no emphasis, sentences would 
 be resolved into their original words; and, in this case, 
 the hearer would be under the painful necessity, first, of 
 making out the words, and afterwards, their meaning. 
 
 Emphasis is of two kinds, simple and complex. Simple, 
 when it serves to point out only the plain meaning of any 
 proposition; complex, when, besides the meaning, it marks 
 also some aftection or emotion of the mind; or gives a 
 meaning to words, which they would not have in their 
 usual acceptation. In the former case, emphasis is scarce- 
 ly more than a stronger accent, with little or no change 
 ef tone; when it is complex, besides force, there is always 
 superadded a manifest change of tone. 
 
 The following sentence contains an example 'of simple 
 emphasis: '*And Nathan said to David, Thou art the 
 man." The emphasis on thou, serves only to point out 
 the meaning of the speaker. But in the sentence which 
 follows, we perceive an emotion of the speaker super- 
 added to the simple meaning: "Why will ye die!" 
 
 As the emphasis often falls on words in dift'erent parts 
 of the same sentence, so it is frequently required to be 
 continued, with a little variation, on two, and sometimes 
 three words together. Tiie following sentence exempli" 
 fies both the parts of this position; '*lf you seek to make 
 
Emphasis^ prosody SI 5 
 
 one rich, study not to increase his stores^ but to dimmish 
 his desiresy Emphasis may be further distinguished, into 
 the weaker a«d the stronger emphasis. In the sentence, 
 '^Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution;'' 
 we perceive more force on the word strengtheiu than on 
 any other; though it is not equal to the stress which we 
 apply to the word indifferent, in the following sentence. 
 •'Exercise and temperance strengthen even an indifferent 
 constitution." It is also proper to remark, that the words 
 exercise, temperance, comtiliition, in the last example but 
 one, are pronounced with greater force, than the parti- 
 cles coid and the; and yet those words cannot properly 
 be called emphatieal: for the stress that is laid on them, 
 is no more than sufficient to convey distinctly the mean- 
 ing of each word. — From these observations it appears, 
 that the smaller parts of speech, namely, the articles, con- 
 junctions, prepositions, &c. are, in "general, obscurely 
 and feebly expressed; that the substantives, verbs, and 
 more significant words, are firmly and distinctly pronoun- 
 ced; and that the emphatieal words, those which mark 
 the mearung of a phrase, are pronounced with peculiar 
 stress and energy, though varied according to the degree 
 of their importance. 
 
 Emphasis, besides its other offices, is the great regu- 
 lator of quantity. Though the quantity of our syllables 
 is fixed, in words separately pronounced, yet it is muta- 
 ble, when these words are ranged in sentences; the long 
 jaeing changed into short, the short into long, according 
 to the importance of the words with regard to meaning: 
 and as it is by emphasis only, that the meaning can be 
 pointed out, emphasis must be the regulator of tne quan- 
 tity. A few examples will make this point very evident. 
 Pleas'd thou shalt hear — and learn the secret power, &:c. 
 Pleas'd thou shalt hear — and thou alone shalt hear — 
 Pleas'd thou shalt hear — in spite of them shalt hear — 
 Pleas'd thou shalt hear — though not behold the fair — 
 In the first of these instances, the words pleased and 
 hear, being equally emphatieal, are both long; whilst the 
 two intermediate words, thou and shalt, being rapidly 
 passed over, as the sense demands, are reduced to a 
 short quantity. 
 
 In the second instance, the word Mori by being the most 
 
£14 l5N(^trSH GRjmMAR. [Scct. 5, 
 
 important, obtains the chief, or rather the sole emphasis; 
 and thus, it is not only restored to its natural long quan- 
 tity, but obtains from emphasis a still greater degree of 
 length, than when prono^inced in its separate state. Thi>s 
 greater degree of length, is compensated by the dimimi- 
 Bon of quantity in tlie words pleased and hear, which are 
 sounded shorter than in the preceding instance. The 
 word shall still continues short. Here we may also ob- 
 serve, that though thou is long in the first part of the verso. 
 it becomes short when repeated in the second, on account 
 of the more forcible emphasis belonging to the word 
 aldne, which follows it. 
 
 In the third instance, the word shalt having the em- 
 phasis, obtains a long quantity. And though it is impos- 
 sible to prolong the sound of this word, as it ends m a 
 pure mute, yet in this, as in all similar instances, the 
 additional quantity is to be mad« out by a rest of the 
 voice, proportioned to the importance of the word. In 
 this instance, we may also observe, that the word shalt^ 
 repeated in the second part of the line, is reduced again 
 to a short quantity. 
 
 In the fourth instance, the word hear placed in oppo- 
 sition to the word behold, in the latter part of the line^ 
 obtains from the sense the chief emphasis, and a propor- 
 tionate length. The words thou ami shall, are again re- 
 duced to short quantities; and the word pleased lends 
 some of the time which it possessed, to the more import- 
 ant word hear. 
 
 From these instances, it is evident, that the quantity 
 of our vsyllables is not fixed; but governed by emphasis. 
 To observe a due measurement of time, on all occasions, 
 is doubtless very difficult; but by instruction, attention. 
 and practice, the difficulty may be overcome. 
 
 Emphasis changes, not only the quantity of words and 
 syllables, but also, in particular cases, the seat of the ac- 
 cent. This is demonstrable from the following examples. 
 
 "He shall increase, but I shall c/ecrease." "There is a 
 difference between giving and /djrgiving." "In this spe- 
 cies of composition, jo/awsibility is mucn more essential 
 than jorobabdity." In these examples, the emphasis re- 
 quires the accent to be placed on syllables, to which it 
 does not commonly belong. 
 
Pau8es.3 PROSODY. 215 
 
 In order to acquire the proper management of the em- 
 phasis, the great rule, and indeed the only rule possible 
 to be given, is, that the speaker or reader study to attain 
 a just conception of the force and spirit of the sentiments 
 which he is to pronounce. For to lay the emphasis with 
 exact propriet_^, is a constant exercise of ^ooa sense and 
 attention. It is far from being an inconsiderable attain- 
 ment. It is one of the greatest trials of a true and just 
 taste; and must arise from feeling delicately ourselves, 
 and from juddng accurately, of what is fittest to strike 
 the feelings oi others. 
 
 There is one error, against which it is particularly pro- 
 |)er to caution the learner; namely, that of multiplying 
 emphatical words too much. It is only by a prudent re 
 serve in the use of them, tliat we can give them any 
 weight. If they recur too often; if a speaker or reader 
 attempts to render every thing which he expresses of high 
 importance, by a multitude of strong emphases, we soon 
 learn to pay little regard to them. To crowd every sen- 
 tence with emphatical words, is like crowding all tlie 
 pagesof a book witli Italic characters, which, as to the ef- 
 fect, is just the same as to use no such^distinctions at all. 
 
 Section 4. Of Pauses, 
 
 Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total 
 cessation of the voice, during a perceptible, and, in 
 many cases, a measurable space of time. 
 
 Pauses are equally necessary to tlie speaker, and the 
 hearer. To the speaker, that he may tate breath, with- 
 out which he cannot proceed far in delivery; and that he 
 may, by these temporary rests, relieve the organs of 
 speech, which otherwise would be soon tired by continued 
 action: to the hearer, that the ear also may be relieved 
 from the fatigue, which it would otherwise endure from a 
 continuity- of sound;, and that the understanding may 
 have sufficient time to mark the distinction of sentences, 
 and their several members. 
 
 There are two kinds of pauses: first, emphatical pauses; 
 and next, such as mark the distinctions oi the sense. An 
 emphatical pause is made, after something has been said 
 oj peculiar moment, and on which we desire to fix the 
 
S16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Scct. 4,, 
 
 hearer's attention. Sometimes, before such a thin? is said, 
 we usher it in with a pause of this nature. Such pauses 
 have the same effect as a stron;^ emphasis; and are subject 
 to the same rules; especially to the caution just now given, 
 of not repeating them too frequently. For as they excite 
 uncommon attention, and of course raise expectation, if 
 the importance of the matter is not fully answerable to such 
 expectation, they occasion disappointment and disgusts 
 
 But the most frequent and the principal use of pauses, 
 is, to mark the divisions of tlie sense, and at the same time 
 to allow the speaker to draw his breath; and the proper 
 and -delicate adjustment of such pauses, is one of the most 
 nice and difficult articles of delivery. In all reading, and 
 public speaking, the management of the breath requires a 
 good deal of care, so as not to oblige us to divide words 
 from one another, which have so intimate a connexion, 
 that they ought to be pronounced with the same breath, 
 and without the least separation. Many sentences are 
 miserably mangled, and the force of the emphasis totally 
 lost, by the divisions being made in the wrong place. 'I'o 
 avoid this, every one, while he is speaking or reading, 
 "Should be very careful to provide a full supply of breath 
 for what he is to utter. It is a great mistake to imagine, 
 that the breath must be drawn only at the end of a period, 
 when. the voice is allowed to fall, it may easily be ga- 
 thered at the intervals of the period, when the voice is 
 only suspended for a moment; and, by this management, 
 one may always have a sufficient stock for carrying on 
 the longest sentence, without improper interruptions. 
 
 Pauses in reading, and public discourse, must be formed 
 upon the manner in which we utter ourselves in ordinary, 
 sensible conversation; and not upon the stifFartificial man- 
 ner which we acquire, from reading books according to the 
 common punctuation. It will by no means be sufficient to 
 ■attend to the points used In printing; for these are far from 
 raarkinga//the pauses which ought to be made in speaking. 
 A miechanical attention to these resting-places has perhaps 
 been one cause of monotony, by leading the reader to a sf- 
 milar tone at every stop, and a u niform cadence at every pe- 
 riod. The primary use of points is, to assist the reader in 
 .<4isceming the ^ammatical construction; and it is only as 
 a secondary object, that they regulate his pronunciamft. 
 
f*auses.5 PROSODY. 21 r 
 
 To render pauses pleasing and expressive, they must 
 •not only be made in tne right place, but also accompanied 
 with a proper tone of voice, by which the nature of these 
 pauses IS intimated; much more than by the length of 
 them, which can seldom be exactly measured. Sometimes 
 it is only a slight and simple suspension of voice that is 
 proper; sometimes a degree of cadence in the voice is 
 required; and sometimes that peculiar tone and cadence 
 v/hich denote the sentence to be finished. In all these 
 leases, we are to regulate ourselves, by attending to the 
 manner in which nature teaches us to speak, \vhen en- 
 gaged in real and earnest discourse with others. 
 
 It is a general rule, that the suspending pause should 
 be used when the sense is incomplete; and the closing 
 pause-, when it is finished. But there are phrases, in 
 which, though the sense is not completed, the voice takes 
 the closing, rather than the suspenaing pause; and others, 
 in which the sentence finishes by the pause of suspension. 
 
 The closing pause must not be confounded with that 
 fall of the voice, or cadence, with \vhich many readers 
 uniformly finish a sentence. Nothing is more destructive 
 of propriety and energy than t^is habit. The tones and 
 inflections of the voice at the close of a sentence, ought 
 to be diversified, according to the general nature of the 
 discourse, and the particular construction and meaning 
 of the sentence. In plain narrative, and especially in 
 argumentation, a small attention to the manner in which 
 we relate a fact, or maintain an argument, in conversa- 
 tion, will^show, that it is fiequently more proper to raise 
 the voice, than to let it fall, at the end of a sentence. 
 Some sentences are so constructed, that the last words 
 require a stronger emphasis than any of the preceding; 
 while others admit of being closed with a soft and gentle 
 sound. Where there is nothing in the sense which re- 
 quires the last sound to be elevated or emphatical, an 
 easy fall, sufficient to show that the sense is finished, will 
 be proper. And in pathetic pieces, especially those of 
 the plaintive, tender, or solemn kind, the tone of the pas- 
 sion will often require a still greater cadence of the voice. 
 The best method of correcting a uniform cadence, is fre- 
 quently to read select sentences, in which the stj^le is 
 pointed, and in which antitheses are frequently intro- 
 
S18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. fScct. 5* 
 
 duced: and argumentative pieces, or such as abound with 
 interrogatives, or earnest exclamation. 
 
 Section 5. Of Tones. 
 
 Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses; 
 consisting in the modulation of the voice, the notes 
 or variations of sound which we employ in the ex- 
 pression of our sentiments. 
 
 Emphasis affects particular words and phrases with a 
 degree of tone or inflection of the voice; but tones, 
 peculiarly so called, affect sentences, paragraphs, and 
 sometimes even the whole of a discourse. 
 
 To show the use and necessity of tones, we need only 
 observe, that the mind, in communicating its ideas, is in 
 a continual state of activity, emotion, or agitation, from 
 the different effects which those ideas produce in the 
 speaker. Now the end of such communication being, not 
 merely to lay open the ideas, but al^o the different feel- 
 ings which they excite in him who utters them, there 
 must be other signs than words, to manifest those feel- 
 ings; as words uttered in a monotonous manner, can re- 
 present only a similar state of mind, perfectly free from 
 all activity or emotion. As the communication of thesf 
 internal feelings, was of much more consequence in our 
 social intercourse, than the mere conveyance of ideas, 
 the Author of our being did not, as in that conveyance, 
 leave the invention of me language of emotion, to man; 
 but impressed it himself upon our nature in the same 
 manner as he has done with regard to the rest of the 
 animal world; all of which express their various feelings, 
 by various tones. Ours indeed, from the superior rank, 
 that we hold, are in a high degree more comprehensive; 
 as there is not an act of the mind, an exertion of the 
 fancy, or an emotion of the heart, which has not its pe- 
 culiar tone, or note of the voice, by which it is to be 
 expressed; and which is suited exactly to the degree of 
 internal feeling. It is chiefly in the proper use of these 
 tones, that the life, spirit, beauty, and harmony of de- 
 livery consist. 
 
 An extract from the beautiful lamentation of David over 
 Saul and Jonathan, may serve as an example of what h?is 
 
Tones.] prosody. 219 
 
 been said on this subject. "The beauty of Israel is slain 
 upon thy high places. How are the mighty fallen! Tell 
 'it not in Gath; publish it not in the streets of Askalon: 
 lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice; lest the 
 daughters of the uncircumcised triumph. Ye mountains 
 of Gilboa, let there be no dew, nor rain upon you, nor 
 fields of offerings; for there the shield of the mighty was 
 vilely cast away; the shield of Saul, as though he had 
 not been anointed with oil!" The first of these divisions 
 expresses sorrow and lamentation; therefore the note is 
 low. The next contains a spirited command, and should 
 be pronounced much higher. The other sentence, in 
 which he makes a pathetic address to the mountains 
 where his friends were slain, must be expressed in a note 
 quite different from the two former; not so low as the 
 first, nor so high as the second, in a manly, firm, and yet 
 plaintive tone.* 
 
 This correct and natural language of the emotions, is 
 not so difficult to be attained, as most readers seem to 
 imagine. If we enter into the spirit of the author's sen- 
 timents, as well as into the meaning of his words, we shall 
 not fail to deliver the words in properly varied tones. For 
 there are few people, who speak English without a pro- 
 vincial tone, that have not an accurate use of emphasis, 
 pauses, and tones, when they utter their sentiments in 
 earnest discourse: and the reason that they have not the 
 same use of them, in reading aloud the sentiments of 
 others, may be traced to the very defective and errone- 
 ous method, in which the art of reading is taught; where- 
 by all the various, natural, expressive tones of speech, 
 are suppressed, and a few artificial, unmeaning, reading 
 notes, are substituted for them. 
 
 But when we recommend to readers an attention to 
 the tone and language of emotions, we must be understood 
 to do it with proper limitation. Moderation is necessary 
 in this point, as it is in other things. For when reading 
 becomes strictly imitative, it assumes a theatrical manner, 
 and must be highly improper, as well as give offence to 
 the hearers; because it is inconsistent with that delicacy 
 and modesty, which, on all occasions, are indispensable. 
 
 * Hemes. 
 
^20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Versification* 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 Of Versification. 
 
 As there ai-e few persons who do not sometimes read 
 poetical composition, it seems necessary to give the stu- 
 dent some idea of that part of gramra^f. which explains 
 fhe principles of versification; that, in reading poetry, he 
 may be the better able to judge of its correctness, and 
 j'^^lish its beauties. When this lively mode of exhibiting 
 nature and sentiment, is perfectly chaste, it is often found 
 to be highly interesting and instructive. 
 
 Versification is the arrangement of a certain num- 
 ber and variety of syllables, according to certain 
 laws. 
 
 Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of 
 one verse, to the last sound or sellable of another. 
 
 Feet and pauses are the constituent parts of verse. 
 We shall consider these separately. 
 
 OF POETICAL FEET. 
 
 A certain number of syllables connected, form a foot. 
 They are called /ec/, because it is by their aid that the 
 voice, as it were, steps along through the verse, in a 
 measured mce; and it is necessary that the syllable* 
 which mark this regular movement of the voice, should, 
 in some manner, be distinguished from the others. Thi&^ 
 distinction was made among the ancient Romans, by di- 
 viding their syllables into long and short, and ascertaining 
 their quantity by an exact proportion of time in soundins 
 them; the long bein^ to tne short, as two to one; and 
 the long syllables, bemg thus the more important, mark- 
 ed the movement. In English, syllables are divided into^ 
 accented and unaccented; and the accented syllables 
 being as strongly distinguished from the unaccented, by 
 the peculiar stress of the voice upon them, are equally 
 capable of marking the movement, and pointing out the 
 regular paces of the voice, as the long syllables were by 
 their quantity, among the Romans. 
 
 When the feet are formed by an accent en vowels^ 
 they are exactly of the same nature as the ancient feet, 
 
Versification.] prosody. 221 
 
 and have the same just quantity in their syllables. St^ 
 that, in this respect, we have afl that the ancients had, 
 and something which they had not. We have in fact du- 
 plicates of each foot, yet with such a difference, as to 
 nt them for different purposes, to be applied at our 
 pleg^re. 
 
 E^ry foot has, from nature, powers peculiar to itself; 
 and it is upon the knowledge and right application xrt' 
 these powers, that the pleasure and eftect of numbers 
 chiefly depend. 
 
 All feet used in poetry consist either of two, or of three 
 syllables; and are reducible to eight kinds; four of two 
 syllables, and four of three, as follows: 
 
 DISSYLLi^LE. TRISYLLABLE. 
 
 A Trochee - o A Dactyl - 8 8 
 
 An Iambus 8 - An Amphibrach 8-8 
 
 A Spondee - - An Anapaest 8 8- 
 
 A Pyrrliic 8 8 A Tribrach 8 8 8 
 
 A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last 
 unaccented: as, "Hateful, pettish." 
 
 An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the 
 last accented: as, "Betray, consist." 
 
 A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented: 
 as, "The pale moon." 
 
 A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented: 
 as, "on the tall tree." 
 
 A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two 
 latter unaccented: as, < 'Labourer, possible." 
 
 An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unac- 
 cented; and the middle one accented: as, * 'Delightful, 
 domestic." 
 
 An Anapaest has the two first syllables unaccented, 
 and the last accented: as, "Contravene, acquiesce." 
 
 A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented: as, *'Nti- 
 merable, conquerable." 
 
 Some of these feet may be denominated principal iitti; 
 as pieces of poetry may be wholly, or chiefly formed of 
 any of them. Such are the Iambus, Trochee,'Dactyl, and 
 Anapaest. The others may be termed secondary feet; 
 because their chief use is to diversify the numbers, and 
 to improve the verse. 
 
 We shall first explain the nature of the principal feet 
 T 2 
 
SSa ENGLrsH GRAMMAR. fVersificationr 
 
 IAMBIC verses may be divided into several species, 
 according to the number of feet or syllables of which 
 they are composed. 
 
 1. The shortest form of the English Iambic consists of 
 an Iambus, with an additional short syllable: as. 
 
 Disdaining, 
 
 Complaining, 
 
 Consenting,. 
 
 Repenting. 
 We have no poem of this measure, but it may be met 
 with in stanzas. The Iambus, with this addition^ coin- 
 cides with the Amphibrach. 
 
 2. The second form of our Limbic is also too short to 
 be continued through any great number of lines. It con- 
 -sists of ^z^jo Iambuses. 
 
 What place is here! 
 
 What scenes appearl 
 
 To me the rose; 
 
 No longer glows. 
 It sometimes takes, or may take, an additional short syl- 
 feble: as. 
 
 Upon a mountain 
 Beside a fountain. 
 
 3. The third form consists of three Iambuses. 
 
 In places far or near, 
 Or famous or obscure, o^ 
 Where wholesome is the air, 
 Or where the most impure. 
 It sometimes admits of an additional short syllable: as, 
 Our hearts no longer languish. 
 
 4. The fourth form is made up of /ojwr Iambuses. 
 
 And may afcJast my weary age, 
 Find out the peaceful hermitage. 
 
 5. The fifth species of English Iambic, consists otfive 
 Iambuses. 
 
 How lov'd, h6w valu'd once, avails- thee not, 
 To whom related, or by whom begot: 
 
Ver«ificationrj wlosoi>t. 225 
 
 A heap of dust alone remains of thee; 
 'Tis all thou art, and all the proud shall be. 
 
 Be wise to-daj, 'tis madness to defer: 
 Next day the fatal precedent will plead; 
 Thus on, till wisdom is pushed out of life. 
 This is called the Heroic measure. In its simpkst form 
 it consists of five Iambuses; but by the admission of other 
 feet, as Trochees, Dactyls, Anapaests, &c. it is capable 
 of many varieties. Indeed, most of the English common 
 measures may be varied in the same way, as well as by 
 the different position of their pauses. 
 
 6. The sixth form of our Iambic is commonly called 
 i\it Jlhxandrine measure. It consists of sia? Iambuses. 
 
 For thou art but of dust; be humble and be wise. 
 The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic 
 rhyme; and when used sparingly, and with judgment, 
 occasions an agreeable variety. 
 
 The seas shall waste, the skies in smoke decay. 
 Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away; 
 But fixM his word, his saving pow'r remains: 
 Thy realm for ever lasts, thy own Messiah reigvs. 
 
 7. The seventh and last form of our Iambic measure> 
 i$ made up of seven Iambuses^ 
 
 The Lord descended from above,. 
 And bow'd the heavens high. 
 
 This was anciently written in one line; but it is now 
 broken into two; the first containing four feet, and the 
 second three. 
 
 When all thy mercies, my God. 
 
 My rising soul surveys, 
 Transported with the view, I'm lost 
 
 In wonder, love, and praise. 
 In all these measures, the accents are to be placed on eveN 
 syllables; and every line considered by itself, is, in gene- 
 ral, more melodious, as this rule is more strictly observed.. 
 
 TROCHAIC verse is of several kinds. 
 1 . The shortest Trochaic verse in our language, coa^ 
 eists of one Trochee and a long syllable. 
 
224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Vers'ificatioii.' 
 
 Tumfilt cease, 
 
 Sink to peace. 
 This measure is defective in dignity, and can seldom be 
 used on serious occasions. 
 
 2. The second English form of the Trochaic consists 
 c^ two feet; and is likewise so brief, that it is rarely 
 Hsed for any very serious purpose. 
 
 On the m5untain 
 By a fountain. 
 
 It sometimes contains two feet or trochees, with an ad- 
 ditional long syllable: as, 
 
 In the days of old 
 
 Fables plainly told. 
 
 3. The third species consists of three trochees: as, 
 
 When our hearts are mourning: 
 or of three trochees, with an additional long syllable: as. 
 Restless mortals toil for nought; 
 Bliss in vain from earth is sought; 
 Bliss, a native of the sky, 
 Never wanders. Mortals, try; 
 There you cannot seek in vani; 
 For to seek her is to gain. 
 
 4. The fourth Trochaic species consists of four tro- 
 chees: as. 
 
 Round us roars the tempest louder. 
 This form may take an additional long syllable? as follows: 
 
 Idle after dinner In his chair. 
 
 Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. 
 But this measure is very uncommon. 
 
 5. The fifth Trochaic species is likewise uncominon. 
 It is composed of Jive trochees. 
 
 All that walk on fdot or ride in chariots, 
 All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 
 
 6. The sixth form of the English Trochaic consists of 
 six trochees: as. 
 
 On a mduntain, stretch 'd beneath a hoary willow, 
 Lay a shepherd swain, and view'd the rolling billow. 
 
Versificition.] prosody* 5S5 
 
 Tliis seems to be the longest Trochaic line that our 
 langua^ijfe admits. 
 
 In all these Trochaic measures, the accent is to be 
 placed on the odd ayllables. 
 
 The DACTYLIC measure being very uncommon, we 
 shall give only one example of one species of it: 
 From the low pleasures of this fallen nature, 
 Rise we to hrgher, &.c. * 
 
 ANAP^STIC verses are divided into several species. 
 
 1 . The shortest anapaestic verse must be a single ana- 
 paest: as, 
 
 Biit in vain, 
 
 They complain. 
 This measure is, however, ambiguous; for, by laying 
 the stress of the voice on the first and third syllables, we 
 might make a Trochaic. And therefore the first and sim- 
 plest form of our genuine Anapaestic verse, is made up 
 of tufo Anapaests: as, 
 
 Biit his courage 'gan fail. 
 
 For no arts could avail. 
 This form admits of an additional short syllable. 
 
 Then his courage 'gan fail him, 
 
 Far no arts could avail him. 
 
 2. The second species consists of three Anapaests. 
 
 ye woods, spread your branches apace; 
 To your deepest recesses I fly; 
 
 1 would hide with the beasts of the chase; 
 
 I would vanish from every eye. 
 Tliis is a very pleasing measure, and much used, botli 
 in solemn and cheerful subjects. 
 
 3. The third kind of the English Anepaestic, consists 
 of four Anapaests. 
 
 May I govern my passions widi absolute sway; 
 And grow wiser and better as life wears away. 
 This measure will admit of a short syllable at the end: 
 a9,_ 
 
 On the warm cheek of youth, smiles and roses are 
 blending. 
 
S26 ENGLISH GRATaiwAR. [Versification. 
 
 The preceding are the difFerent kinds of the principal 
 feet, in their more simple forms. Thej are capable of 
 numerous variations, by the intermixture of those feet 
 with each other; and by the admission of the secondary 
 feet. 
 
 We have observed, that English verse is composed of 
 feet formed by accent; and that when the accent falls on 
 vowels, the feet are equivalent to those formed by quan- 
 tity. That the student may clearly perceive this difler- 
 ence, we shall produce a specimen of each kind. 
 
 O'er heaps of ruins stalk'd the stately hind. 
 Here we see the accent is upon the vowel in each se- 
 cond syllable. In the following line, we shall find the 
 same Iambic movement, but formed by accent on conso- 
 nants, except the last syllable. 
 
 Then rustling crackling, crashing th tinder down. 
 
 Here the time of the short accented syllables, is com- 
 pensated by a short pause, at the end of each word to- 
 which they belong. 
 
 We now proceed to show the manner in which poetry 
 is varied and improved, by the admission of secondary 
 feet into its composition. 
 
 Murmuring, and with him fled the shades of night. 
 The first foot here is a Dactyl; the rest are Iambics. 
 
 O'er mlny a frozen, many a fiery Alp. 
 This line contains three Amphibrachs mixed with Iambics. 
 
 Innumerable before th' Almighty's throne. 
 Here, in the second foot, we find a Tribrach. 
 
 See the bold youth strain up the threat'ning steep. 
 In this line, the first foot is a Trochee; the second a 
 genuine Spondee by quantity; the third a Spondee by 
 accent. 
 
 In the following line, the first foot is a Pyrrhic, the 
 3econd a Spondee. 
 
 That on weak wings from far pursues your flight. 
 
 From the preceding view of English versification, we 
 may see what a copious stock of materials it possesses. 
 For we are not only allowed the use of all the ancient 
 
Versification.3 prosody. 9^7 
 
 poetic feet, in our heroic measure, but vre have, as be - 
 tore observed, duplicates of each, agreeing in movement, 
 though differing in measure,* and which make different 
 impressions on the ear; an opulence peculiar to our 
 lan^age, and which may be the source of a boundless 
 variety. 
 
 OF POETICAL PAUSES. 
 
 There are two sorts of pauses, one for sense, and one 
 for melody, perfectly distinct from each other. The for- 
 mer may be called sentential, the latter harmonic pauses. 
 
 The sentential pauses are those which are known to us 
 by the name of stops, and which have names given them; 
 as the comma, semicolon, colon, and period.; 
 
 The harmonic pauses may be subdivided into iih^ final 
 pause, and the caesural pause. These sometimes coincide 
 with the sentential pause, sometimes have an indepen- 
 dent state, that is, exist where there is no stop in the sense. 
 
 The final pause takes place at the end of the line, 
 closes the verse, and marks the measure: the caesural 
 divides it into equal or unequal parts. 
 
 The final pause preserves the melody, without inter- 
 fering with the sense. For the pause itself perfectly 
 marks the bound of the metre; and being made only by 
 a suspension of the voice, not by any change of note, it, 
 can never aftect the sense. This is not the only advan- 
 tage gained to numbers, by this final pause or stop of 
 suspension. It also prevents that monotony, that same- 
 ness of note at the end of lines,^ which, however pleas- 
 ing to a rude, is disgusting to a delicate ear. For as 
 this final pause has no peculiar note of its own, but 
 always takes that which belongs to the preceding word, 
 it changes continually with the matter, and is as various 
 as the sense. 
 
 * It is the final pause which alone, on many occasions, 
 marks the difference between prose and verse; whicb 
 will be evident from the following arrangement of a few 
 poetical lines. 
 
 * Movement and measure are Uius distinguished. 3J<yvefmtnt exprencB Uie 
 1)rogres8ive order of sounds, whether from strong to weak, from long to short, 
 or vice vena. Measwe signifies tbe proportion of tlmei both in soondl aai^ 
 ^uaei. 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Versification. 
 
 **0f man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that for- 
 ^>idden tree, whose mortal taste broueht death into the 
 world, and all our wo, with loss of Eden, till one greater 
 man restore us, and regain the blissful seat, sing heavenly 
 muse!" 
 
 A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that 
 this was verse; but would take it for poetical prose. By 
 properly adjusting the final pause, we shall restore the 
 passage to its true state of verse. 
 
 Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
 Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
 Brought death into the world, and all our wo^ 
 With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
 Restore us, and regain the blissful seat. 
 Sing, heavenly muse! 
 These examples show the necessity of reading blank 
 verse, in such a manner, as to make every line sensible 
 to the ear; for, what is the use of melody, or for what 
 end has the poet composed in verse, if, in reading his 
 lines, we suppress his numbers, by omitting the final < 
 pause; and degrade them, by our pronunciation, into 
 mere prose? 
 
 The Caesura is commonly on the fourth, fifth, or sixth 
 syllable of heroic verse. 
 
 On the fourth syllable, or at the end of the second foot: 
 
 *S' . ... 
 
 The silver eel" m shining volumes roll'd, 
 
 The yellow carp" in scales bedropp'd with gold. 
 On the fifth syllable, or in the middle of the third foot: 
 as, 
 
 Round broken columns" dlasping ivy twin'd, 
 O'er heaps of ruin" stalk'd the stately hind. 
 On the sixth syllable, or at the end of the third foot: as, 
 Oh say what stranger cause" yet unexplor'd, 
 Could make a gentle belle" reject a lord. 
 A line may be divided into three portions, by two 
 caesuras: as, 
 
 Outstretch'd he lay" on the cold ground" and off 
 Look'd up to heav'n. 
 There is another mode of dividing lines, well suited tu 
 the nature of the couplet, by introducing semi-pauses, 
 
versification.] prosody. 239 
 
 Tvliich divide the line into four pauses/ The semi-pau86 
 way be called a demi-cassurcL - =- -. 
 
 The follomng lines admit of, and exemplify it. 
 
 Glows' while he reads" but trembles' as he WTites. 
 
 Reason' the card" but passion' is the gale. 
 
 Rides' in the whirlwina" and directs' the storm. 
 
 OF MELODY, HARMONY, AND EXPRESSION. 
 
 Having shown the general nature of feet and pauses, 
 the constituent parts of verse; we shall now point out, 
 more particularly, their use and importance. 
 
 Melody, harmony, and expression, are tlie three great 
 objects of poetic numbers. By melody, is meant, a pleas- 
 ing effect produced on the ear, from an apt arrangement 
 of the constituent parts of verse, according to the law.s 
 of measure and movement. Bv harmony, an effect pro- 
 duced by an action of the mincf, in comparing the ditfer- 
 eirt members of a verse with each other, and perceiving; 
 a due and beautiful proportion between tliem. By ex- 
 pression, such a choice and arrangement of the constitu- 
 ent parts of verse, as serve to enforce and illustrate the 
 thought or the sentiment. 
 
 We shall consider each of these three objects in versi- 
 fication, both with respect to the feet and the pauses. 
 
 1st. With regard to melody. 
 
 From the examples which we have given of verses 
 composed in all the principal feet, it is evident that a 
 considerable portion of melody is found in each of them, 
 though in different degrees. Verses made up of pure 
 Iambics have an excellent melody. 
 
 That the final and caesural pauses contribute to melo- 
 dy, cannot be doubted by any person who reviews the 
 instances which we have already given of those pauses- 
 To form lines of the first melodv, the caesura must be at 
 the end of the second, or of the third foot, or in fljje 
 middle of the third. 
 
 2d. With respect to hannony. 
 
 Verses composed of Iambics have indeed a fine har- 
 mony; but as the stress of the voice, in repeating sucfa 
 verses, is always in the same places, tliat is, on every 
 8eco;id syllable, such a uniformity would disgust the#«f^ 
 
9.ii0 EKGi.isH ghammar. f Versification^ 
 
 In a loiiff succession; and therefore such changes were 
 soudit fir, as might introduce the pleasure of variety, •' 
 without prejudice to melody; or which might even con-' 
 tribute to its improvement. Of this nature was the in- 
 froduction of the Trochee, to form the first foot of an 
 lieroic verse: as. 
 
 Favours to none, to all she smiles extends, 
 O'ft slie rejects, but never once offends. 
 Each of these lines begins with a Trochee; the remain- 
 ing feet are in the Iambic movement. In the following 
 line of the same movement, the fourth foot is a Trochee. 
 All these our notions vain, sees and derides. 
 The next change admitted for the sake of variety, with- 
 out prejudice to melody, is the intermixture of Pyrrhics 
 and Spondees; in which, two impressions in the one foot 
 make up for the want of one in the other; and two long 
 syllables compensate two short ones, so as to make the ' 
 *um of the quantity of the two feet, equal to two Iambics. 
 On the green bank to look into the clear 
 Smooth lake that to me seem'd another sky. 
 Stood rid'd stood vast infinitude confin'd. 
 The next variety admitted is that of the Amphibrach. 
 
 Which many a bard had chaunted mkny a day. 
 In this line, we find that two of the feet are Amphir 
 biwchs; and three, Iambics. 
 
 We have before shown that the caesura improves tlie 
 melody of verse; and we shall now speak of its other 
 more important office, that of being the chief source of 
 harmony in numbers. 
 
 The first and lowest perception of harmony, by mean* 
 of the caesura, arises from comparing two members of 
 the same line with each other, divided in the manner to 
 be seen in the instances before mentioned; because the 
 beauty of proportion in the members, according to each 
 of tliese divisions, is founded in nature; being as one t» 
 two — two to three— or three to two. 
 
 The next degree arises from comparing the members 
 of a couplet, or two contiguous lines: as, 
 
 See the bold youth" strain up the threatening steep, 
 Bush thro' the thickets" down the valleys sweep> 
 
Versification.^ prosody. S3t 
 
 Here we find the caesura of tlie first line, at tlie eml 
 €f the second lootj and in the middle of the third foot, 
 ill the last line. 
 
 Hang o'er their coursers' heads" with eager speed, 
 And earth rolls back" beneath the flying steed. 
 
 In this couplet, the caesura is at tJie end of the third 
 foot, in the first line; and of the second, m me latter line. 
 
 The next perception of harmony arises from comparing 
 a greater number of lines, and observing the relative pro- 
 portion of the couplets to each other, in point of similarity 
 and diversity, as: 
 
 Thy forests Windsor" and thy green retreats, 
 At once the monarch's" and the muse's seats, 
 Invite my lays." Be present Sylvan maids, 
 Unlock your springs" and open all your shades. 
 Not half so swift" the trembling doves can fly, 
 AVhen the fierce eagle" cleaves the liquid sky; 
 Not half so swiftly" the fierce eagle moves. 
 When thro' the clouds" he drives the trembling doves. 
 
 In this way, the comparison of lines variously appor- 
 tioned by the ditt'erent seats of the three esesuras, may 
 be the source of a great variety of harmony, cdnsistent 
 with the finest melody. This is still increased by the in- 
 troduction of two caesuras, and much more by that ol" 
 semi-pauses. The semi-pauses double every where the 
 terms of comparison; give a more distinct vievv of the 
 V hole and the parts; attbrd new proportions of ineasure- 
 tnent, and an ampler scope for diversity and equality, 
 those sources of beauty in harmony. 
 
 VYarms' In the sun" refreshes' in the breeze, 
 (tIows' in the stars" and blossoms' in tlie trees, 
 lives' through all life" extends' through all extent, 
 lr>preads' unaivided" operates' unspent. 
 
 Sd. The last ob^ct in versification regards expressioii. 
 
 When men express their sentiments by words, thev 
 naturally fall into that sort of movement of the voice, 
 which is consonant to that produced by tlie emotion in. 
 the mind; and the Dactylic or Anapaestic, the Trochaic. 
 Iambic, or Spondaic, prevails even in common discourse, 
 according to the difterent nature of the sentiments ex 
 
232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [VcrsificationC 
 
 pressed. To imitate nature, therefore, the poet, in ar- 
 ranging his words in the artificial composition of verse, 
 must take care to make the movement correspond to tlie 
 sentiment, bj the proper use of the several kinds of feet: 
 and this is the first and most general source of expres- 
 sion in numbers. 
 
 That a judicious management of the feet and pauses, 
 may be peculiarly expressive of particular operations and 
 sentiments, will sufficiently appear to the learner, by a 
 few select examples under eacli of those heads. 
 
 In the following instance, the vast dimensions of Satan 
 are shown by an uncommon succession of long syllables, 
 which detain us to survey the huge arch fiend, in hij* 
 fixed posture. 
 
 So stretch'd out huge rn length the arch fiend lay. 
 
 The next example affords instances of the power of a 
 Trochee beginning a line, when succeeded by an Iambus. 
 
 and sheer within 
 
 Lights on his feet: as when a prowling wolf 
 Leaps o'er the fence with ease into the fold. 
 
 The Trochee which begins the line shows Satan in the 
 act of lighting: the Iambus that follows, fixes him — 
 *'Lights on his feet." 
 
 The same artifice, in the beginning of the next line, 
 makes us see the wolf — "leap o'er the fence." But a? 
 the mere act of leaping over the fence, is not the onl ^ 
 circumstance to be attended to, but also the facility witk 
 wliich it is done, this is strongly marked, not only by the 
 smooth foot which follows — "with ease" — itself very ex- 
 plessive, but likewise by a Pjrrliic prccediua, the last 
 loot — "into the fold" — wliich indeed carries the wolf — 
 "with case into the fold." 
 
 The following instances show the effects produced by 
 c:csuras, so placed as to divide the line into very un- 
 equal portions: such as that after the 'first, and befoie 
 the last semipede. 
 
 -— — thus with the year 
 
 Seasons return, but not to me returns 
 Bay" or the sweet approach of even or morn. 
 
 Here the csesura after the first semipede Day, stops us 
 
PiaNCTUATION. 23S 
 
 unexpectedly, and forcibly impresses the imagination 
 
 with the greatness of the author's loss, the loss of sight. 
 No sooner had th' Almighty ceas'd, but all 
 The multitude of angels, with a shout 
 Loud" as from numbers without number" sweet 
 
 As from blest yoices uttering joy. '■ 
 
 There is something verj striking in this uncommon 
 
 caesura, which suddenly stops the reader, to reflect on 
 
 the importance of a particular word. 
 
 We shall close the subject, with an example containin^j^ 
 
 the united powers of many of the principles which ha^e 
 
 been explained. 
 
 Dire was the tossing" deep the groans" Despair" 
 Tended the sick" biusiest from couch to couch" 
 And over them triumphant death" his d^rt" 
 Shook" but delay'd to strike. 
 Many of the rules and observations respecting Prosod v, 
 
 are taken from "Sheridan's x\rt of Reading;" to which' 
 
 book the Compiler refers the ingenious student, for more 
 
 extensive information on the subject. 
 
 PUNCTUATION.* 
 
 Punctuation is the art of xlividing a written 
 composition into sentences, or parts of sentences, by 
 points or stops, for the purpose of marking the dif- 
 ferent pauses which the sense, and an accurate pro- 
 nunciation require. 
 
 The Comma represents the. shortest pause; the 
 SemicQlon, a pause double that of the comma; the 
 Colon, double that of the semicolon; and the Period, 
 double that of the colon. 
 
 The precise quantity or duration of each pause, cannot 
 be defined; for it varies with the time of the whole. The 
 same composition may be rehearsed in a quicker or sl6wer' 
 
 * As punctuation is intended to aid bf>T)i the sense, and the pronuncTation nf 
 u sentence.it could not have been exclusively discui^sed under the part of tfvntav. 
 or of Prosody. The nature of tlie subject, "its extent and imiwrtance, niVd tlx*. 
 grammatical knowledge which it pieoupposes, liavc itiduced us to luaie i^i» d[»- 
 tinct and subsequent article. 
 
 V a, 
 
S34 EifGLisH GRAMMAR. fCommat*" 
 
 time; but the proportion between tlie pauses should be 
 ever invariable. 
 
 in order more clearly to determine the proper applica- 
 tion of the points, we must distinguish between an imper- 
 fect phrase^ a simple se/itence, and a compound sentence. 
 
 An imperfect phrase contains no^assertion, or does not 
 amount to a proposition or sentence: as, "Therefore; in 
 haste; studious of praise.^' 
 
 A simple sentence has but one subject, and one finite 
 verb, expressed or implied: as, "Temperance preserves 
 health.^' t- ^ i- r 
 
 A compound sentence has more than one subject, or one 
 finite verb, either expressed or understood; or it consists 
 of two or more simple sentences connected together: as^ 
 "Good nature mends^and beautifies all objects;*' ^Virtue 
 refines the affeetions, but vice debases them." 
 
 In ft sentence, the subject and the verh, or either of 
 ^em, may be accompanied with several adjuncts: as, tho. 
 iipject, the en4, the circumstance of time, place, manner, 
 and the like: aiid the subject or verb may be either im- 
 mediately connected with them, or mediately; that is, hr 
 be^ng connected v/ith something which i* connected with 
 some other, and so on: as, ''The mind, unoccupied with 
 useful knowledge, becomes a magazine of trifles and fbf- 
 lies." 
 
 Meraber»-of sentences may be divided into simple and 
 compound members. See page 125 
 
 CHAPTER L * 
 
 Of the Comma. 
 
 The Commu usually separates those parts of a Sen* 
 tcnce, which, though very closely connected in sense 
 and construction, requirie a pause between them: 
 
 Rule i. With respect to a simple sentence, the several 
 word^ of which it consists have so near a relation to each 
 other, that, in general, no points are requisite, except a 
 full stop at the end of it: as, * *The fear of the Lord ik 
 ^e be^mning of wisdom;" "Every part of matter swarma 
 \\iith living creatures." 
 
 » A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and 
 the i)oimnative case is accompanied with inseperable ad- 
 
Comma.] punctuation. 23^5 
 
 juncts, may admit of a -pause immediately before the 
 verb: as, ''The good taste of the present age, has not al- 
 lowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English lan- 
 guage:" *'To be totally indifferent to praise or censure^ 
 IS a real defect in character." 
 
 Rule ii. AVhen the connexion of the different parts of 
 a simple sentence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, 
 a comma is usually introduced before the beginning, and 
 at the end of this phrase: as, "I remember, ivith gratitude, 
 his goodness to me:" ''His work is, in many respects, \ery 
 imperfect. It is, therefore, not much approved." But 
 when these interruptions are slight and unimportant, the 
 comma is better omitted: as, "Flattery is certainly per- 
 nicious;" "There is surely a pleasure in beneficence." 
 
 In the generality of compound sentences, there is fre- 
 quent occasion for commas. This will appear from the 
 ftllowing rules; some of which apply to simple, as well 
 as to compound sentences. 
 
 Rule hi. When two or more nouns occur in the sam^- 
 construction, they are parted by a comma: as, "Reason^ 
 virtue, answer one ^reat aim:" "The husband, wife, 
 and children, suffered extremely:"* "They took awaj 
 tbeir furniture, clothes, and stock in trade;" "He is^ 
 alternately supported by his fatlier, his uncle, and his^^ 
 elder brother." 
 
 From this rule there is mostly an exception, with re- 
 gard to two nouns closely connected by a conjunction: as^^ 
 '^Virtue am/ vice form a strong contrast to each other;" 
 *^*^Libertines call religion bigotry or superstition;" "There 
 is a natural difference between merit and demerit, virtue 
 and vice, wisdom and folly." But if the parts connected 
 are not short, a comma may be inserted, though the 
 conjunction is expressed: as, "Romances may be said to 
 be miserable rhapsodies, or dangerous incentives to evil;" 
 "Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies, aivJt 
 the vigour of our minds." 
 
 Rule iv. Two or more adjectives belonging to the same 
 substantive are likewise separated by commas: as, "Plain^ 
 honest truth, wants no artificial covering;" "David was 
 
 * Aa a conaiderable pause in pronunciation, is neceomry between the last^ 
 nj>un and tlie verb, a comma should be iiuierted to denote it. But as no panse 
 is aJifrw able between the last adjeciive and tlie noun, under Rule IV. tbe coutl9% 
 u tliere properly o»iUed. £«« W^ALKER's EUwcnts of El$<:uliwi^ 
 
5^6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [ComiTla. 
 
 fi brave, Tvise, and pious man;" "A woman, gentle, sen- 
 sible, well-educated, and religious,*" ''The most innocent 
 pleasures are the sweetest, the most rational, the most 
 aftecting, and the*most lasting." 
 
 But two adjectives, immediatelj connected bj a con- 
 junction^ are not separated by a comma: as, **True 
 wrorth is modest and retired;" "Truth is fair and artless, 
 simple «72c? sincere, uniform and consistent." "We must 
 be wise or foolish; there is no m.edium." 
 
 Rule v. Two or more verbs, having the same nomina- 
 tive case, and. immediatelj following one another, are 
 also separated bj commas: as, "Virtue supports in ad- 
 versity, moderates in prosperity:" "In a letter, we may 
 advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss." 
 
 Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, 
 are an exception to the above rule: as, "The study of 
 natural history expands and elevates the mind;" "Whe- 
 ther we eat or drink, labour or sleep, we should be mo- 
 derate." 
 
 Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule, 
 and exception: as, "A man, fearing, serving, and loving 
 his Creator;" "He was happy in being loved, esteemed, 
 and respected;" "By being admired and flattered, we 
 are often corrupted." 
 
 Rule vi. Two or more adverbs immediately succeed- 
 ing one another, must be separated by commas: as^ "We 
 are fearfully, wonderfully framed;" "Success generally 
 depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, iii 
 what we undertake." 
 
 But when two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, 
 they are not pai'ted by the comma: as, "Some men sin 
 deliberately and presumptuously;" "There is no middle 
 state; we must live virtuously or viciously." 
 
 Rule vii. WHien participles are followed by something 
 that depends on tliem, they are generally separated from 
 the rest of the sentence by a comma: as, **The king, 
 approving the plan, put it in execution;" ''His talents, 
 formed for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering 
 liim conspicuous;" "All mankind compose one family, 
 dissembled under the eye of one common Father." 
 
 Rule viii. When aconjunction is divided by^ phrase 
 fr sentence from the verb to which it belongs, such in- 
 
Comma.] puxcTUATiay. S3f 
 
 tervening phrase has usually a comma at each extremity: 
 as, **They set out eai'ly, and, before the close of the day, 
 arHved at the destined place." 
 
 Rule ix. Expressions in a direct address, are sepa- 
 rated from the rest of the sentence by commas: as, "Aii/ 
 son, give me thy heart;" '*I am obliged to you, my 
 friends^ for your many favours." , 
 
 Rule x. The case absolute, and the infinitive mood 
 absolute, are separated by commas from the body of the 
 sentence: as, "His father dying, he succeeded to the 
 estate;" ''At length, their ministry performed, and race 
 well run, they left the world in peace;" "To confess the 
 truth, I was much in fault." 
 
 Rule xi. Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to- 
 other nouns in the same case, by way of explication or 
 illustration, when accompanied with adjuncts, are set oft' 
 by commas: as, "Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was 
 eminent for his zeal and knowledge;" "The butterfly, 
 ^child of the summer, flutters in the sun." 
 
 But if such noun« are single, or only form a proper 
 name, they are not divided: as, "Paul the apostle;" "The 
 emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent booki" 
 
 Rule xii. Simple members of sentences connected by 
 comparatives, are for the most part distinguished by a 
 comma: as, "^s the hart panteth after the water brooks^ 
 io doth my soul pant after thee;" ''Better is a dinner of 
 herbs with love, than a stalled ox and hatred with it." 
 
 If the members in comparative sentences are short, 
 the comma is, in general, better omitted: as, "How 
 much better is it to ^et wisdom than gold!" "Mankind, 
 act ofiener from caprice than reason." 
 
 Rule xiii. When words are placed in opposition to 
 each other, or with soum marked variety, they require to 
 be distinguished by a comma: as, 
 
 "Tho' deep, yet clear; tho' gentle, yet not dull; i^ 
 
 Strong, without rage; without o'ernowing, full." ' 
 
 "Good men, in this frail, imperfect stato, are often found, 
 not only in union with, but in opposition to, the views 
 and conduct of one another." 
 
 Sometimes when the word with which the last prepo- 
 sition agrees, is single, it is better to omit the comim* 
 
S38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Comma. 
 
 before it: as, '^Matiy states were in alliance with^ and 
 under the j)rotection of Rome." 
 
 The same rule and restrictions must be applied when 
 two or more nouns refer to the same preposition: as. 
 ^'He was composed both under the threatening, and a» 
 tlie approach, q/'a cruel and lingering deatli;" "He wa- 
 not only the king, but the father of his people." 
 
 Rule xiv. A remarkable expression, or a short obser- 
 vation, somewhat in the manner of a quotation, may he 
 properly marked with a comma: as, *'It hurts a man' 
 I>riae to say, I do not know;" "Plutarch calls lying, the 
 vice of slaves." 
 
 Rule xv. Relative pronouns are connective words, 
 and eenerallj^ admit a comma before them: as, '<He 
 preaches sublimely, ivho lives a sober, righteous, and 
 pious life;" "There is no charm in the female sex, which 
 can supply the place of virtue." ^ 
 
 But when two members, or phrases, are closely con- 
 nected by a relative, restraining the general notion of 
 the antecedent to a particular sense, the comma should 
 be omitted: as, "Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue 
 mast make;'^ "A iwan who is of a detracting spirit, will 
 misconstrue the most innocent words that can be put 
 together." In the latter example, the assertion is not of 
 "a man in general," but of "a man who is of a detracdng 
 spirit;" and therefore they should not be separated. " 
 
 The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the 
 relative is not expressed, but understood: as, "It was 
 from piety, warm and unaffected, that his morals derived 
 strength." "This sentiment, habitual and strong, influ- 
 enced his whole conduct." In both of these examples, 
 the relative and verb which ivas, are understood. 
 
 Rule xvi. A simple member of a sentence, contained 
 within another, or following another, must be distin- 
 guished by the comma: as, "To improve time whilst ^\^' 
 are blessed with health, will smooth the bed of sickness.** 
 "Very often, while we are complaining of the vanity, and 
 the evils of human life, we make that vanity, and we in« 
 crease those evils." 
 
 If, however, the members succeeding each other, are 
 very closely connected, the comma is unnecessary: as, 
 ^'Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness." 
 
€omma.] punctuation. 55^ 
 
 When a verb in the infinitive mood, follows its govern*- 
 iug verb, with several words between them, those words 
 should generally have a comma at the end of them: as, 
 "It ill becomes good and wise meri, to oppose and degrade 
 one another." 
 
 Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common 
 dependence, and succeeding one another, are also divid- 
 ed by commas: as, "To relieve the indigent, to comfort 
 the afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the de- 
 serving, are humane and noble emplo}'Tnents." 
 
 Rule xvii. When the verb to be is Ibllowed by a verb 
 in the infinitive mood, which, by transposition, might be 
 made the nominative case to it, the former is generally 
 separated froni the latter verb, by a comma: as, "The^ 
 most obvious remedy is, to withdraw from all associa- 
 tions with bad men." "The first and most obvious re- 
 medy against the infection, is, to withdraw from all 
 associations with bad men." 
 
 Rule xviii. When adjuncts or circumstances arc of 
 importance, and often when the natural order of them is 
 inverted, they may be set off by commas: as, "Virtue 
 must be formed and supported, not by unfrequent acts, 
 but by daily and repeated exertions." "Vices, like sha- 
 dows, towards the evening of life, grow great and mon- 
 strous." "Our interests are interwoven by threads innu- 
 merable." "By threads innumerable, our interests are 
 interwoven." 
 
 Rule xix. Where a verb is understood, a comma may 
 often be properly introduced. This is a general rule, 
 which, besides comprising some of the preceding rules, 
 will apply to many cases not determined by any of them: 
 as, "From law arises security; from security, curiosity; 
 from curiosity, knowledge." In this example, the verb 
 "arises" is understood before * 'curiosity" and **know- 
 ledge;" at which words a considerable pause is necessary. 
 
 Rule xx. The words, nay^ so, hence, again, firsts «€- 
 €ondly, formerly, now^ las'Iy^ once more, c&oveall, on the 
 contra)^, in the next place^ iu short, a.nd all other words 
 and phrases of the same kuid, must generally be sepa- 
 rated from the context by a comma: as, "Remember thy 
 best and first friend; formerly^ iho^ supporter of thy ia- 
 fancy, and the guide oi thy chiidliood; iww, tUe guardian 
 
S40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ^Semicolon. 
 
 of thy youth, and the hope of thy coming years.'* *^He 
 fearetl want, hence, he over -valued riches.^' "This con- 
 duct may heal the diiFerence, nay, it may constantly 
 prevent any in future. ^'Finally, I shall only repeat 
 what has been often justly said." "If the spring put forth 
 no blossoms, in summer there will be no beauty, and in 
 autumn, no fruit; so, if youth be trifled away without 
 improvement, riper years may be contemptible, and old 
 age miserable." 
 
 In many of the foregoing rules and examples, great 
 regard must be paid to the length of the clauses, and tho 
 proportion which they bear to one another. An attention 
 to the sense of any passage, and to the clear, easy com- 
 munication of it, will, it is presumed, with the aid of the 
 preceding rules^ enable the student to adjust the proper 
 pauses, and the places for inserting the commas, 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Of the Semicolon. 
 
 The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound 
 sentence into two or more parts, not so closely con- 
 nected as those which are separated by a comma, nor 
 yet so little dependent on each other, as those whicli 
 are distinguished by a colon. 
 
 The semicolon is sometimes used, when the preceding 
 member of the sentence does not of itself give a complete 
 sense, but depends on the following clauses and some- 
 times when the sense of that member would be complete 
 without the concluding one: as in the following instan- 
 ces: "As the desire of approbation, when it works ac- 
 cording to reason, improves the amiable part of our spe- 
 cies in every thing that is laudable; so nothing is more de- 
 structive to them when it is governed by vanity and folly." 
 
 "Experience teaches us, that an entire retreat from 
 worldly affairs, is not what religion requires; nor does it 
 even enjoin a long retreat from them." 
 
 "Straws gwim upon the surface; but pearls lie at the 
 Iwttom." 
 
 "Philosophers assert, that Nature is unlimited in her 
 ©perations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in re- 
 serve; that knowledge will always be progressive; and 
 
iJolon.] PUNCTUATION, 241 
 
 that all future generations will continue to make disco- 
 veries, of whicn we have not the least idea." 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ^ Of the Colon, 
 
 The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two ^l' 
 «iore parts, less connected than those which are sepa- 
 rated by a semicolon; but not so independent as 
 separate distinct sentences. 
 
 The polon may be properly applied in the three fol^ 
 lowing ^es. 
 
 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, 
 but followed by some supplemental remark, or further 
 illustration of the subject: as, "Nature felt her inability 
 to extricate herself from the consequence^ of guilt: ih(^, 
 gospel reveals the plan of Divine interposition and aid." 
 **Nature confessed some atonement to be necessary: th« 
 gospel discovers that the necessary atonement is made." 
 
 9.. When several semicolons have preceded, and a still 
 greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connect- 
 ing or concluding sentiment: as, "A divine legislator 
 uttering his voice from heaven; an almighty governor, 
 stretchmg forth his arm to punish or reward; informing 
 us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for the righteous^ 
 and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked: these 
 'ire the considerations which overawe the world, wlilch 
 support integrity, and check guilt." 
 
 3. The Cfelon is commonly used when an example, ». 
 «|Uotation, or a speech is introduced: as, "The Scriptures 
 give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these 
 words: *God is love.' " *'He was often heard to say: 'I 
 have done with the world, aiid I am willing to leave it.' " 
 
 The propriety of using a colon, or semicolon, is some- 
 times determined by a conjunction's being expressed, or 
 tiot expressed: as, "Do not flatter yourselves with the 
 hope of perfect happiness: there is no sucli thing in the 
 world." **Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of 
 perfect happiness; /or there is po such thing in the world," 
 
jM2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. £DaSh.' 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Gf the Period. ^ 
 
 When a sentence is complete and independent, 
 and not connected in construction with the lollowing 
 sentence, it is marked with a Period. 
 
 Some sentences are independent of each other, both in 
 their sense and coHstruction: as, * 'Fear God. Honour; 
 the king. Have charity towards all men." Others are > 
 independent only in their grammatical construction: as,- - 
 **The Supreme Being changes not, either in his desire ' 
 to promote our happiness, or in the plan of his adminis- 
 tration. One li^ht always shines upon us from above. 
 One clear and direct path is always pointed out to man.'' 
 
 A period may sometimes be admitted between two 
 sentences, though they are joined by a disjunctive or co- 
 pulative conjunction. For the quality of the point does 
 not always depend on the connective particle, but on the 
 sense and structure of sentences: as, "Recreation^ 
 though they may be of an innocent kind, require steady 
 government, to keep them within a due and limited pro- 
 vince. But such as are of an irregular and vicious natur(i, 
 are not to be eoverned, but to be banished from every 
 tvell-regnlated mind. 
 
 "He who lifts himself up to the observation and notic0i 
 of the world, is, of all men, the least likely to avoitil 
 censure. For he draws upon himself a thousand eye? 
 \hat will narrowly inspect him in every part." 
 
 The period should be used after evei^^-abbreviate^d 
 word: as, "M.S. P.S. N. B. A.D. O.S. N.S."&c. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ()fthe Dash, Notes of Interrogation and Exclamation, ^c. 
 
 THE DASH. 
 
 The Dash, though often used improperlj^ by hast}^ and 
 -^♦incoherent writers, may be introduced with proprio^}^, 
 •where the sentence breaks off abruptly; where a signiji- 
 cant pause is required; or where there is an unexpetSted 
 twrn m the sentiment: as, "If thou art he, so much, re- 
 spected once — ^but, oh! how fallen! how degraded!" "If 
 
ExclaiuationJ punctuatiojt. 243 
 
 acting conformably to the will of our Creator; — if pro- 
 moting the welfare of mankind around us; — if securing 
 our own happiness; — are objects of the highest moment: 
 — then we are loudly called upon, to cultivate and extend 
 the great interests of religion and virtue." 
 
 "Here lies the great False marble, where? 
 
 Nothing but sordid dust lies iiere." 
 Besides the points which mark the pauses in discours^ 
 there are others, which denote a different modulation oi 
 voice, in correspondence to the sense. These are, 
 The Interrogation point, ? 
 The Exclamation point, ! 
 
 The Parenthesis, ( ) 
 
 INTERROGATION. 
 
 A note of Interrogation is used at the end of an inter- 
 rogative sentence; that is, when a question is asked: as, 
 •* Who will accompany me?" "Shall we always be friends?"^^ 
 
 Questions which a person asks himself in contempla- 
 tion, ought to be terminated by points of interrogation: 
 as, "Who adorned the heavens with such exquisite 
 beauty?" "At whose command do the planets perform 
 their constant revolutions?" 
 
 A point of interrogation is improper after sentences 
 iiHbich are not questions, but only expressions of admi- 
 ration, or of some other emotion. 
 
 ''How many instances have we of chastity and excel- 
 Jence in the fair sex!" 
 
 **\Vith wlmt prudence does the son of Siracii advise 
 'IS in the choice of our companions!" 
 
 A note of interrogation should not be employed, ih 
 cases where it is only said a question has been asked, 
 and where the words are not used as a question. *'The 
 Cyprians asked me, why I wept." To give this sentence' 
 the interrogative form, it should be expressed thus: "The 
 Cyprians said to me, *Why dost thou weep?' " 
 
 EXCLAMATION. 
 
 The note of Exclamation is applied to (expressions of 
 sudden emotion, surprise, joy, j^rief, &c. and also to invo- 
 cations or addresses: as, "My friend! this conduct amazes 
 me!" "Bless the Lord, my soul! and forget not all hia 
 benefitsi" 
 
244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Parenthesigi. 
 
 "Oh! had we botli our humble state maintain'd, 
 And safe in peace and povertj remaiu'd!" 
 "Hear me, O Lord! for thy loving kindness is great!" 
 It is difficult, in some cases, to distinguish between aii 
 interrogative and exclamatory sentence; but a sentence, 
 in which any wonder or admiration is expressed, and no 
 answer either expected or implied, may be always pro- 
 perly terminated by a note of exclamation: as, <'How 
 much vanfty in the pursuits of men!'* "Who can suffi- 
 ciently express the goodness of our Creator!" ''What is 
 more amiable than virtue!" 
 
 The interrogation and exclamation points are indeter- 
 ininate as to their quantity or time, and may be equivalent 
 in that respect to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the 
 sense may require. They mark an elevation of the voice. 
 The utdity of the points of Interrogation and Exclama- 
 tion, appears from the following examples, in which the 
 meaning is signified and discriminated solely by the points. 
 ''What condescension!" 
 "What condescension?" 
 "How great was the sacrifice!" 
 "How great was the sacrifice?" 
 
 PARENTHESIS. 
 
 •^ A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary 
 information, or useful remark, introduced into the body 
 of a sentence obliquely, and which may be omitted with- 
 out injuring the grammatical construction: ag, 
 
 "Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
 Virtue alone is happiness below." 
 "And was the ransom paid? It was; and paid 
 (What can exalt his bounty more?) for thee." 
 "To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save four or 
 five letters (for what is a name besides?) from oblivion.^ 
 -Know ye not, brethren, (for I speak to them that know 
 the law,) how that the law hath dominion over a man as 
 long as he liveth?" 
 
 If the incidental clause is short, or perfectly coincides 
 with the rest of the sentence, it is not proper,to use the 
 parenthetical characters. The following instances are 
 therefore improper uses of the parenthesis. "Speak you 
 
Apostrophe, &C.3 punctuation. 245 
 
 (who saw) his wonders in the deep." "Every planet (as 
 the Creator has made notliing in vain) is most probably 
 inhabited." "He found them asleep again; (for their ey^s 
 were heavy;) neither knew they what to answer him." 
 
 The parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the 
 voice, and may be accompanied with every point which 
 the sense would require, if the parenthetical characters 
 were omitted. It ought to terminate with the same kind 
 of stop which the member has, that precedes it; and l<» 
 contain that stop within the parenthetical marks. Wi> 
 TOUst, however, except cases of interrogation and excla- 
 mation: as, "While ttiey wish to please, (and why should 
 they not wish it?) they disdain dishonourable means.'* 
 "It was represented by an analogy, (Oh, how inadequate!) 
 which was borrowed from paganism." See the Octavo 
 Grammar^ on this subject. 
 
 There are other characters, which are frequently 
 made use of in composition, and which may be explained 
 in this place, viz. 
 
 An Apostrophe, marked thus ' is used to abbreviate 
 or shorten a word: as, Vis for it is$ tho^ for though; e^en 
 for even; judged for judged. Its chief use is to show 
 the genitive case of nouns: as, "A man's property; a 
 woman's ornament." 
 
 A Caret, marked thus a is placed where some word 
 happens to be left out in writing, and which is inserted 
 over the line. This mark is also called a circumflex, 
 when placed over a particular vowel, to denote a long 
 syllable: as, "Euphrates." 
 
 A Hyphen, marked thus - is employed in connecting 
 compounded words: as, "Lap-do^, tea-pot, pre-existence, 
 self-love, to-morrow, mother-in-law." 
 
 It is also used when a word is divided, and the former 
 part is written or printed at the end of one line, and thp 
 latter part at the beginning of another. In this case, it 
 IS placed at the end of the first line, not at the begin- 
 ning of the second. 
 
 The Acute Accent, marked thus ' : as, "Fancy." The 
 Grave thus ^ : as, "Fdvour." 
 
 In English, the Accentual marks are chiefly used in 
 
Q46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 spelling-books and dictionaries, to mark the syllables 
 which require a particular stress of the voice in pronun- 
 ciation. 
 
 The stress is laid on long and short syllables indiscri- 
 minately. In order to distinguish the one from the other, 
 some writers of dictionaries have placed the grave oi 
 Ihe former, and the acute on the latter, in this manner; 
 '^•Minor, mineral, lively, livid, rival, river." 
 
 The proper mark to distinguish a long syllable, i? 
 ibis ': as, "Rosy:" and a short one this ": as, "Folly." 
 This last mark is called a breve. 
 
 A Diaeresis, thus marked • , consists of two points 
 placed over one of the two vowels that would otherwise 
 make a diphthong, and parts them into two syllables: a». 
 '^'Creator, coadjutor, aerial." 
 
 A Section, marked thus §, is the division of a dis- 
 course, or chapter, into less parts or portions. 
 
 A Paragraph t denotes the beginning of a new sub- 
 ject, or a sentence not connected with the foregoing 
 This character is chiefly used in the Old, and in the Nev 
 Testaments. 
 
 A Quotation " ". Two inverted Commas are generally 
 placed at the beginning of a phrase or a passage, wliicli 
 R quoted or transcribed from the speaker or author in 
 his own words; and two commas in their direct position^ 
 are placed at the conclusion: as, 
 
 "The proper study of mankind is man." 
 
 Crotchets or Brackets [ ] sei-ve to enclose a word or 
 ■sentence, which is to be explained in a note, or the ex- 
 planation itself, or a word or a sentence which is intend- 
 ed-to supply some deficiency, or to rectify some mistake 
 
 An Index or Hand |C7" points out a remarkable pas 
 sage, or something that requires particular attention. 
 
 A Brace > is used in poetry at the end of a triplet 
 
 or three lines, which have the same rhyme. 
 
 Braces are also used to connect a number of words 
 with one common term, and are introduced to prevent a 
 repetition in writing or printing. 
 
 An Asterisk, or little star *, directs the reader to some 
 note in the margin, or at the bottom of the page. Twc^ 
 or three asterisks generally denote tl\e omission of scffi.e 
 
PUNCTUATION'. ^7 
 
 letters in a word, or of some bold or indelicate expres- 
 sion, or some defect in the manuscript. 
 
 An Ellipsis — is also used, when some letters in a 
 >vord, or some words in a verse, are omitted: as, **The 
 k— g," for "the king." 
 
 An Obelisk, which is qiarked thus t, and Parallels 
 thus II, together with the letters of the Alphabet, and 
 figures, arc used as references to the margin, or bottom 
 of the page. ;/ 
 
 PARAGRAPHS. 
 
 It may not be improper to insert, in this place, a few 
 general directions respecting the division of a composi- 
 tion into paragraphs. 
 
 Different subjects, unless they are very short, or very 
 numerous in small compass, should be separated into 
 paraojraphs. 
 
 "When one subject is continued to a considerable 
 length, the larger divisions of it should be put into para- 
 graphs. And it will have a good effect to form the breaks, 
 when it can properly be done, at sentiments of the most 
 weight, or that call for peculiar attention. 
 
 The facts, premises, and conclusions, of a subjects 
 sometimes naturally point out the separations into para- 
 graphs: aftd each of these, when of great length, will 
 agam require subdivisions at their most distinctive parts> 
 
 In cases which require a connected subject to bc» 
 formed into several paragraphs, a suitable turn of ex- 
 pression, exhibiting the connexion of the broken parts, 
 will give beauty and force to the division. See the Oc- 
 tavo Grammar, 
 
 DIRECTIONS respecting the use of capital letters. 
 
 It was formerly the custom to begin every noun witli 
 8C cajMtal: but as this practice was troublesome, and gave 
 the writing or printing a crowded and confused appear- 
 fOice, it lias been discontinued. It is, however, very 
 proper to begin with a capital, 
 
 1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, 
 tr any other piece of writing. 
 
 2. The first word after a period; and, if the two s^n- 
 
^48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 fences are totally independent, after a i^ote of interrogar- 
 (ion or exclamation. 
 
 But if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sen - 
 tences, are thrown into one general group; or if the 
 construction of the latter sentences depends on the fc- - 
 mer, all of them, except the first, may begin with a small 
 letter: as, "How long, ye simple ones, will ye love sim- 
 plicity? and the scorners delight in their scorning? and 
 fools hate knowledge?" "Alas! how difterent! yet ho\v 
 like the same!" 
 
 3. The appellations of the Deity: as, "God, Jehovah, 
 the Almighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, 
 *fhc Messiah, the Holy Spirit." 
 
 4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, 
 rivers, ships: as, "George, York, the Strand, the Alps.. 
 7 he Thames, the Seahorse." 
 
 5; Adjectives derived from the proper names of places: 
 as, ''Grecian, Roman, lEnglish, French, and Italian." 
 
 G. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a 
 ( olon, or when it is in a direct form: as, "Always re- 
 tnember this ancient maxim: *Know thyself.'" '*Oui- 
 ,2;reat Lawgiver says, *Take up thy cross daily, and fol- 
 I'ow me.' " But when a quotation is brought in obliquely 
 after a comma, a capital is unnecessary: as, "Solomon 
 observes, 'that pride goes before destruction.' " 
 
 The first word of an example may also very properly 
 hegin with a capital: as, "Temptation proves our virtue.*' 
 
 7. Every substantive and principal word in the titles 
 «f books: as, "Johnson's Dictionary of the English Lan- 
 guage;" "Thomson's Seasons;" "RoUin's Ancient His- 
 tory." 
 
 8. The first word of every line in poetry. 
 
 9. The pronoun /, and the interjection O, are written 
 in capitals: as, "I write;" "Hear, O earth!" 
 
 Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with 
 capitals, when they are remarkably emphatical, op th« 
 principal subject of the composition. 
 
( 2« ) 
 
 •APPENDIX. 
 
 CONTAINING RULES AND OBSERVATIONS FOR ASSISTING 
 YOUNG PERSONS TO WRITE WITH PERSPICUITY AND AC- 
 CURACY. TO BE STUDIED AFTER THEY HAVE ACQUIRED 
 A COMPETENT KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 PERSPICUITY 
 IS the fundamental quality of style: a quality so es- 
 sential in every kind of writing, that for the want of it 
 nothing can atone. It is not to be considered as merely 
 a sort of negative virtue, or freedom from defect. It has 
 higher merit: it is a degree of positive beauty. We are 
 pleased with an author, and consider him as deserving 
 praise, who frees us from all fatigue of searching for 
 lis meaning; who carries us through his subject with- 
 'cut any embarrassment or confusion; whose style flows 
 always like a limpid stream, through which we see t© 
 tke very bottom. 
 
 The study of perspicuity and accuracy of expression 
 consists of two parts: and requires attention, first, to 
 ^gle Words and Phrasesf and then, to the Cofistructio/i 
 oj Sentences. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Of Perspicuity and Accuracy of Expression, tviih 
 respect to single Words and Phrases* 
 I'hese qualities of style, considered with regard t© 
 words and phrases, requires the following properties; 
 PURITY, propriety, and precision. *" 
 
 , CHAPTER I. 
 
 OF PURITY. 
 
 Purity of style consists in the use of such words, 
 and such constructions, as belong to the idiom of the 
 language which we speak; in opposition to words and 
 phrases that are taken from other languages, or that 
 are ungrammatical, obsolete, new-coined, or used with- 
 out proper authority. All such words and phrases as 
 the following should be avoided: Quoth he; I wist not; 
 ireivhile; behest; selfsame; delicatesse, for delicacy; po^- 
 
250 APPENDIX. [Propriety. 
 
 iessc, for politeness; hauteur,^ for haughtiness^ incumber 
 mentycoiinexityj martyrised^ for encumbrance, connexion, 
 martyred. 
 
 Foreign and learned words, unless where necessity 
 requires them, should never be admitted into our com- 
 position. Barren languages may need such assistance, 
 but ours is not one of these. A multitude of Latin 
 words, in particular, have, of late, been poured in up- 
 on pur language. On some occasions, they give an 
 appearance of elevation and dignity to style; but {hey 
 often render it stiff and apparently forced. In generak 
 a plain, native style, is more intelligible to all readers; 
 and, by a proper management of words, it canbemad^ 
 as strong and expressive as this Latinised English, c 
 any foreign idioms* 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 OF PROPRIETY. 
 
 Propriety of language is the selection of such wortl-^ 
 r<s the best usage has appropriated to those ideas, 
 which we intend to express by them; in opposition to 
 low expressions, and to words and phrases which would, 
 be less significant of the ideas that we mean to convey 
 Style may be pure, that is, it may be strictly English, 
 w ithout Scotticisms or Gallicisms, or ungrammatical. 
 irregular expressions of any kind, and may, neverthc 
 less, be deficient in propriety: for the words may be 
 ill chosen, not adapted to the subject, nor fully ex- 
 pressive of the author's sense. 
 
 To preserve propriety, therefore, in our words and: 
 phrases, we must avoid low expressions; supply word>^ 
 /hat are wanting; be careful not to use the same word i- 
 different senses; avoid the injudicious use of technical phra- 
 ses, equivocal or ambiguous words, unintelligible expressions^ 
 and all such words and phrases as art not adapted to ov 
 meaning* 
 
 1. Avoid low expressions: such as, *'Topsy turvy, hni 
 ly burly, pellmeU; having a month's mind for a thing, 
 currying favour with a personj dancing attendance on 
 the great,*' &c. 
 
 "Meantime the Britons, left to shift for themselves, 
 were forced to call in the Saxons for their defence.'* 
 Xht phrase "fe// to sMft for themsehjea," is rather alow 
 
; iopriety.] jperspicui'ty, kc. 251 
 
 j>hrase, and too much in the familiar style to be proj^er 
 in a grave treatise. 
 
 2. Supply words that are tvanting* '^Arbitrary power 
 1 look upon as a greater evil than anarchy itself, as' 
 much as a savage is a happier state of life than a slave 
 at the oar:" it should have been, '*as much as the atatr. 
 
 ^f a savage is happier than that of a slave at the oar.' 
 *'He has not treated this subject liberally, by the. 
 views of others as well as his ownj" "By adverting Xo 
 the views of others," would have been better. *'This 
 generous action greatly increased his former services;'' 
 -it should have been, "greatly increased tlit merit of his 
 former services. " *'By the pleasures of the imagina- 
 tion or fancy (which 1 shall use promiscuously) I here 
 mean/* &c. This passage ought to have had the word 
 **ternis" supplied, which would have made it correct: 
 *^tertns which I shall use promiscuously." 
 
 It may be proper in this place to observe, that ar\i-- 
 cks and prepositions are sometimes improperly omit- 
 ted; as in the following instances; "How immense the 
 niiference between the pious and profanel*' "Death is 
 the common lot of all; of good men and bad." They 
 should have had the article and preposition repeated: 
 "How immense the difference between the pious and 
 Me profane!" "Death is the common lot of all; ©/"good 
 men and of bad." 
 
 The repetition of articles and prepositions is propei*, 
 •when we intend to point out the objects of which we 
 speak, as distinguished from each other, or in contrast^ 
 and when we wish that the reader's attention should 
 rest on that distinction: as, "Our sight is at once the 
 most delightful, and the most useful of all our senses." 
 
 3. In the same sentence^ be careful not to use the same word 
 too frequently^ nor in different senses. "One may have 
 an air which proceeds from a just sufficiency and know- 
 dedge of the matter before him, wkich may naturatly 
 produce some motions of his head and body, which 
 might become the bench better than the bar." 
 
 I'he pronoun which is here thrice used, in such a 
 jiianner as to throw obscurity over the sentence. 
 
 "Gregory favoured the undertaking, forno other 
 ^reason than this, that the manager) in counten^Ce^ 
 
S5S APPENDIX. [Propriety. 
 
 favoured his friend. " It should have been, * *resembled 
 hiis friend.'* 
 
 "Charity expands our hearts in love to God and 
 man: it is by the virtue of charity that the rich are 
 blessed and the poor supplied." In this sentence, the 
 word '^charity" is improperly used in tvo different 
 senses; for the highest benevolence, and for alms- 
 giving. 
 
 4., Avoid the injudicious use of technical terrrs. To in- 
 form those who do not understand sea-phrases, thai 
 '■^We tacked to the larboard, and stood off to sea,'- 
 would be expressing ourselves very obscurely, Tech- 
 nical phrases not being in current use, but only the pe- 
 culiar dialect of a particular class, we should never use 
 them but when we know they will be understood, 
 
 5. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous words. The follc^ving- 
 -sentences are exceptionable in this respect. "A;, for 
 
 sucH*animals as are mortal or noxious, we have a righ*: to 
 destroy them." '*I long since learned to like tiothiig , 
 but what you do.""' *'He aimed at nothing less than tht 
 crown," may denote either, * 'Nothing was less aimed 
 a-t by him than the crown," or, * 'Nothing inferior to \ 
 the crown could satisfy his ambition." ^'' I will have, 
 mercy, and not sacrifice." The first part of this sen- 
 tence denotes, "I will exercise mercy;" whereas it is 
 in this place employed to signify, "I require others 
 to exercise it.'* The translation should therefore have 
 been accommodated to these different meanings. ''They 
 wfire both much more ancient among the Persians, 
 tslian Zoroaster or Zerdusht.*' The or in this sentenpe. 
 is equivocal. It serves either as a copulative to syno^ 
 iiymous words, or as a disjunctive of different things. 
 If, therefore, the student should not know that Zoro- 
 aster and Zerdusht mean the same^person, he will mis- 
 take the sense. "The rising tomb a lofty column bore;" 
 **And thus the son the fervent sire addrest." Did the 
 tomb bear the colujnn, or the column the tomb? Did 
 the son address the sire, or the sire the son.^ 
 
 6. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent words or phrases. 
 **I have observed,** says Steele, "that the superiority 
 among these coffee-house politicians, proceed^ from an 
 opinion of gallantry and fashion.*' This sentence, con- 
 sidered in itself, eyidently conveys no meaning. FirS't| 
 
fpopriety.] perspicuity, &c. 25S 
 
 it is not said whose opinion, their own, or that of oth- 
 ers: Secondly, it is not said what opinion, or of what 
 sort, favourable or unfavourable, true or false, but iii 
 general, "an opinion of gallantry and fashion," which 
 contains no definite expression of any meaning. With 
 the joint assistance of the context, reflection, and con- 
 jecture, we shall perhaps conclude that the author in- 
 tended to say; *'That the rank among these politicians 
 was determined by the opinion generally entertained 
 of the rank, in point of gallantry and fashion, that 
 each of them had, attained." 
 
 "This temper of mind," says an author, speaking of 
 humility, "keeps our understanding tight about us.'' 
 Whether the author had any meaning in this expres- 
 sion, or what it was, is not easy to determine. 
 
 Sometimes a writer runs on in a sj>ecious verbosity, 
 amusing his reader with synonymous terms and iden- 
 tical propositions, well-turned periods, and highsovmd- 
 iug words: but at the same time, using those words 
 so indefinitely, that the reader can either affix no 
 meaning at all to them, or may affix to them almosi 
 any meaning he pleases. 
 
 "If it is asked," says a late writer, "whence arises 
 the harmony, or beauty of language? what are the rules 
 for obtaining it? the answer is obvious. Whatever ren 
 ders a period sweet and pleasant, makes it also grace- 
 ful. A good ear is the gift of nature; it may be much 
 improved, but not acquired by art. Whoever is pos- 
 sessed of it, will scarcely need dry critical precepts, 
 to enable him to judge of a true rhythmus, and melody 
 of composition. Just numbers, accurate proportions, 
 a musical symphony, magnificent figures, and that de- 
 ^ corum which is the result of all these, are unison to 
 the human mind." 
 
 The following is a poetical example of the same na- 
 ture, in which there is scarcely a glimpse of meaning, 
 though it was composed by an eminent poet. 
 
 I From harmony, from heavenly harmony, 
 
 This universal frame beg^n: 
 
 From harmony to harmony 
 Through all the compass of the notes it ran^ 
 The diapason closing full in man. 
 
 In general it may be said, that in writings of iius 
 If 
 
,254 APPENDIX. pPropricty. 
 
 stamp, we must accept of sound instead of sense; be- 
 ing assured, that if we meet with little that can inform 
 the judgment, we shall at least find nothing that will 
 offend the ear. And perhaps this is one reason that 
 we pass over such smooth language, without suspect- 
 ing that it contains little or no meaning. In order to 
 write or speak clearly and intelligibly, two things are 
 especially requisite: one, that we have clear and dis- 
 tinct ideas of our subject: and the other, that our words 
 be approved signs of those ideas. That persons who 
 think confusedly, should express themselves obscurely, 
 is not to be wondered at; for embarrassed, obscure, and 
 feeble sentences, are generally, if not always, the re- 
 sult of embarrassed, obscure, and feeble thought; but 
 that persons of judgment, who are accustomed to 
 scrutinize their ideas, and the signification of their 
 words, should sometimes write without any meaning, 
 is, at first sight, matter of admiration. This, how- 
 ever, when further considered, appears to be an effect 
 derived from the same cause, indistinctness of concep- 
 tion, and inattention to the exactimport of words. The 
 occasions on which we are most apt to speak and write 
 in this unintelligible manner, are the three following. 
 
 The Jirst is, where there is an exuberance of meta- 
 phor. Writers who are fond of the metaphoric style, 
 are generally disposed to continue it too long, and to 
 pursue it too far. 
 
 They are often misled by a desire of flourishing on 
 the several properties of a metaphor which they have 
 ushered into the discourse, without taking the trouble 
 to examine whether there are any qualities in the sub- 
 ject, to which these properties can, with justice and 
 perspicuity, be applied. The following instance of this 
 sort of writing is from an author of considerable emi- 
 nence. "Men must acquire a very peculiar and strong 
 habit of turning their view inward, in order to explore 
 the interior regions and recesses of the mind, the hol- 
 low caverns of deep thought, the private seats of fan- 
 cy, and the wastes and wildernesses, as well as the more 
 fruitful and cultivated tracts of this obscure climate." 
 A most wonderful way of telling us, that it is difficult to 
 trace the operations of the mind. The author having 
 detcHHined to represent the human mind under the 
 
Propriety.] perspicuity, &c. 255 
 
 metaphor of a country, revolved in his thoughts the ' 
 various objects which might be found in a country, 
 without considering .whether there are any things in ^ 
 the mind properly analogous to these. Hence the 
 strange parade he makes with regions and repesses^ hoi- 
 low caverns and private seats, wastes and wildernesses, 
 fruitful 2i\\d. cultivated tracts; words which, though they 
 have a precise meaning, as applied to country, have 
 no definite signification, as applied to mind. 
 
 The second occasion of our being apt to v/rite unin- 
 telligibly, is that wherein the terms most frequently 
 occurring, denote things which are of a complicated 
 •^ature, and to which the mind is not sufficiently fa- 
 ailiarised. Of these the instances are numberless in 
 every tongue; such as, Government, church, state, 
 constitution, power, legislature, jurisdiction, &c. 
 
 The third and principal occasion of unintelligible 
 writing, is, when the terms employed are very abstract, 
 and consequently of very extensive signification. Thus 
 the word lion is more distinctly apprehended by the 
 m,ind than the word beast, beast than animal, animal 
 than being. 
 
 The 7th and last rule for preserving propriety in our 
 words and phrases, is, to avoid all those which are not 
 " adapted to the ideas we mean to communicate; or which are 
 less significant than others, of those ideas. *'He feels any 
 sorrow that can arrive at man;" better ^''happen to man." 
 *'The conscience q{ approving one's self a benefactor, 
 lis the best recompense for being so;" it should have 
 .phetn ^'c&nsciousness.''^ ''He firmly believed the divine 
 preempt, 'There is not a sparrow falls to the ground,' " 
 &c. It should have been ^^ doctrine." 
 
 "It is but opening the eye, and the scene enters.'* 
 A see^e cannot be said to enter: an actor enters; but a 
 scene appears or presents itself. 
 
 "We immediately assent to the beauty of an object, 
 without inquiring into the causes of it:" it is proper 
 to say, that we assent to the truth of a proposition; but 
 it cannot so well be said, that we assent to the beauty of 
 an object, McknowkdgB would have expressed the sense 
 ivith propriety. 
 
 "The sense of feeling, can, indeed, give us a notion 
 of extension^ shape, and all other ideas that enter at the 
 
256 APKENDix^ [PfecisioB* 
 
 eye, except colours. " Extension 2Lnd shape cdin, vfith 
 no propriety, be called ideas; they are properties of 
 matter^ Neither is it accurate, to speak of any sense 
 skiving us a notion of ideas:, our senses give us the ideas 
 themselves. The meaning of the sentence would have 
 been proper, and much clearer, if the author had ex- 
 pressed himself thus: "The sense of feeling can, in- 
 deed, give us the idea of extension, figure, and all the 
 other properties of matter, which are perceived by the 
 eye, except colours." 
 
 "The covetous man never has a sufficiency; al- 
 though he has what is enough for nature," is much 
 inferior to, ." The covetous man never has enough: 
 although he has what is sufficient for nature.'* 
 
 '•A traveller observes the most striking objects he 
 sees; a general remarks all the motions of his enemyj" 
 better thus; "A traveller remarks,* Sec; "A general 
 observes," &c. ''*This measure enlarged his school, and 
 obliged him to increase the buildings;" it should be^ 
 ^Hncreased his school;" and ^'enlarge the buildings." 
 
 "He applied a medicine before the poison had time 
 to work:" better thus: "He applied an antidote,''^ See. 
 
 "The poison of a suspicious temper frequently 
 throws out its bad qualities, on all who are within its 
 reach;" better, "throws out its malignant qualities.'* 
 
 "I will go except I should be ill;" "I saw them all 
 unless two or three:" corrected thus: ' 'unless 1 should 
 be ill;" ''except two or three." 
 
 A selection of words and phrases, which are pecu- 
 liarly expressive of the ideas we design to communi- 
 cate; or v/hich are as particular and determinate in 
 their signification, as is consistent with the nature arx^ 
 the scope of the discourse; possesses great beauty 
 and cannot fail to produce a good effect. - 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OF PRECISION. 
 
 Precision is the third requisite of perspicuity with 
 respect to words and phrases. It signifies retrenching 
 superfluities, and pruning the expression, so as to ex- 
 hibit neither more nor less than an exact copy of the 
 person's idea who uses it. 
 
 The words used to express ideas may be faulty m 
 
Precision.] perspiguitv, 8cc. 357 
 
 three respects. 1st, They may not exf>ress the idea 
 which the author intends, but some other which only 
 resembles it; secondly, They may express that idea, 
 but not fully and completely; thirdly, They may ex- 
 press it, together with somethint^- more than is intend- 
 ed. Precision stands opposed to these three faults, 
 but chiefly to the last. Propriety implies a freedom 
 from the two former faults. The words which areused 
 may be proper; that is, thej? may express the idea in- 
 tended, and they may express it fully; but to be j^re- 
 'W, signifies that they express that idea and no more. 
 The use and importance of precision may be dedu 
 <;ed from the nature of the human mind. It never can 
 view, clearly and distinctly, more than one object at a 
 time. If it must look at two or three together, espe- 
 cially objects that have resemblance or connexion, it 
 finds itself confused and embarrassed. It cannot clearly 
 perceive in Avhat they agree, and in what they differ. 
 Thus, were any object, suppose some animal, to be 
 presented to my view, of whose structure I wished to 
 form a distinct notion, I should desire all its trappings 
 to be taken off;- I should require it to be brought be- 
 fore me by itself, and to stand alone, that there might 
 be nothing to divide my attention. The same is the 
 rase with words. If, when any one would inform me 
 of his meaning, he also tells me more than what con- 
 veys it; if he joins foreign circumstances to the prin- 
 cipal objects; if, by unnecessarily varying the expres- 
 sion, he shifts the point of view, and makes me sec 
 sometimes the object itself, and sometimes another 
 ihing that is connected with it, he thereby obliges me 
 to look on several objects at once, and I lose sight of 
 the principal. He loads the animal he is showing me, 
 with so many trappings and collars, that I cannot dis- 
 tinctly view it; or he brings so many of the same spe- 
 cies before me, somewhat resembling, and yet some- 
 what differing, that I see none of them clearly. When 
 an author tells me of his hero's courage in the day of 
 battle, the expression is precise, and I understand it 
 fully: but if, from the desire of multiplying words, he 
 should praise his courage and fortitude; at the mo- 
 ment he joins these words together, my idea begins to 
 vraver. He means to express one qualitv more strongly, 
 Y % . 
 
258 APpj-NDix. [Precisioa, 
 
 but be is in truth expressing two: courage resists dan- 
 gerj fortitude supports pain. The occasion of exert- 
 ing each of these qualities is different; and being led 
 to think of both together, when only one of them 
 should be considered^ my view is rendered unsteady, 
 and my conception of the object indistinct. 
 
 All subjects do not equally require precision. It is 
 sufficient, on many occasions, that we have a general 
 view of the meaning. The subject, perhaps, is of the 
 iyiown and familiar kuid, and we are in no hazard of 
 mistaking the sense of the author, though every word 
 ^vhich he uses is not precise and exact. 
 
 Many authors offend against this rule of precision. 
 \ considerable one, in describing a bad action, ex- 
 presses himself thus: ^'It is to remove a good and or- 
 derly affection, and to introduce an ill or disorderly 
 one; to commit an action that is ill, immoral, and un- 
 just; to do ill, or to act in prejudice of integrity, goo<| 
 nature, and worth. " 
 
 A crowd of unmeaning or useless words is'brought 
 together by, some authors, who, afraid of expressing 
 themselves in a common and ordinary manner, and 
 allured by an appaarance of splendour, surround every 
 thing which they mean to say with a certain copious 
 loquacity. 
 
 The great scarce of a loose style in opposition to 
 precision, is the injudicious use of the words termed 
 synonymous^ They are called synonymous, because 
 they agree in expressing one principal idea; but, for 
 the most part, if not always, they express it with some 
 diversity in the circumstances. 
 
 The following instances show a difference in the 
 meaning of words reputed synonymous, and point out 
 the use of attending, with care and strictness, to the 
 exact import of words. 
 
 Custom, habit. — Custom, respects the action: habiJ, 
 the actor. By custom, we mean the frequent repeti- 
 tion of the same act; by habit, the effect which that 
 repetition produces on the mind or body. By the 
 custom of walking often in the streets, one acquires a 
 habit of idleness. 
 
 Pftrfc, vawVy.— Pride makes us esteem ourselyeat 
 ( . 
 
Precision.] perspicuity, &c, 259 
 
 vanity makes us desire the esteem of others. It is just 
 to say, that a man is too proud to be vain. 
 
 Haughtiness, disdain. — Haughtiness is founded on 
 the high opinion we entertain of ourselves; disdain, 
 on the low opinion we have of others. 
 
 Oniy, alone. — Only, imports that there is no other of 
 the same kind; alone, imports being accompanied by 
 no other. An only child, is one that has neither bro- 
 ther nor sister; a child alone, is one who is left by 
 Itself. There is a difference, therefore, in precise lan- 
 guage, between these two phrases: ''Virtue only makes 
 us happy;" and "Virtue, alone makes us happy.'* 
 
 Wisdom, prudence. — Wisdom leads us to speak and 
 yX what is most proper. Prudence prevents our 
 speaking or acting improperly. 
 
 Entire, complete. — A thing is entire, by wanting none 
 of its parts; complete, by wanting none of the appen- 
 dages that belong to it. A man may have an entire 
 house to hiriiself, and yet not have one complete apart- 
 ment. 
 
 Surprised, astonished, amazed, confounded. — I am sur- 
 pri-sed with what is new or unexpected; I am asto- 
 liished at what is vast or great; I am amazed at what 
 is incomprehensible; I am confounded by what is 
 shocking or terrible. 
 
 Tranquillity, peace, cairn. — Tranquillity resjjects a si- 
 niation free from trouble, considered in itself; peace, 
 the same situation with respect to any causes that 
 might interrupt it; calm, with regard to. a disturbed 
 situation going before or following it. ^ A good man 
 enjoys tranquillity, in himself; peace, with others? 
 and calm, after the storm. 
 
 These are some of the numerous instances of words, 
 in our language, whose significations approach, but 
 are not precisely the same. The more the distinction 
 in the meaning of such words is attended to, the more 
 clearly and forcibly shall we speak or write. It may 
 not, on all occasions, be necessary to pay a great deal 
 of attention to very nice distinctions; yet the foregoing 
 instances show the utility of some general care to un- 
 derstand the distinct import of our words. 
 
 While we are attending to precision, we must be on 
 our guard, lest, from the desire of pruning too cloself^ 
 
^SO APJBNDix. [PrecisioCo 
 
 we retrench all copiousness. Scarcely in any language 
 are there two words that convey precisely the same 
 idea; a person thoroughly conversant in the propriety 
 of the language, will always be able to observe some- 
 thing that distinguishes them. As they are like dif- 
 ferent shades of the same colour, an accurate writer I 
 can employ them to great advantage, by using them-' 
 so as to heighten and complete the object which he"'- 
 presents to us. He supplies by one what was wanting V 
 in the other, to the strength, or to the finishing, of the ' 
 image which he means to exhibit. But, for this pur 
 pose, he must be attentive to the choice of his words, 
 and not employ them carelessly, merely for the sakcof^; 
 filling up a period, or of rounding or diversifying his 
 language, as if their signification were exactly the 
 same, while in truth it is not. To unite copiousness 
 and precision, to be full and easy, and at the same time 
 correct and exact in the choice of every word, is no 
 doubt one of the highest and most difficult attainments 
 in writing. ' 
 
 PART II. 
 
 ♦>F rERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY OF EXPRESSION, WITF 
 RESPEC^ TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Sentences, in general, should neither be very long, 
 nor very short: long ones require close attention to 
 make u% clearly perceive the connexion of the several 
 parts; and short ones are apt to break the sense, and 
 weaken the connexion of thought. Yet occasional!' 
 Ihey may both be used with force and propriety^ a 
 may be seen in the following sentences. 
 
 ••'If you look about you, and consider the lives of 
 others as well as your own; if you think how few are 
 born with honour, and how many die without name or 
 children; how little beauty we see, and how few friends 
 •we hear of; how much poverty, and how many diseases 
 there are in the world; you will fall down upon your 
 knees, and instead of repining at one affliction, will ad- 
 mire so many blessings which you have received from 
 the Divine hand." . This is a sentence composed of 
 several members linked together, and hanging upon 
 one another, so that the sense of the whole is not 
 brought out till the close. The following is an exam- 
 ple of one in which the sense is formed into short, in- 
 
Clearness.] perspicuity^ &c. 2$i- 
 
 dependent propositions, each co^iplete within itself, 
 *'I confess, it was want of consideration that made me 
 an author.- I wrote, because it amused me. I correct- 
 ed, because it was as pleasant to me to correct as to 
 vvrite. I published, because I was told I might please 
 such as it was a credit to please." 
 
 A train of sentences, constructed in the same man- 
 ner, and with the same number of members, should 
 iiever be allowed to succeed one another. A long suc- 
 cession of either long or short sentences should also 
 be avoided; for the ear tires of either of them when 
 too long continued. 
 
 Whereas, by a proper mixture of long and short pe- 
 riods, and of periods variously constructed, not only 
 the ear is gratified; but animation and force are given 
 to our style. 
 
 We now proceed to consider the things most essen- 
 tial to an accurate and a perfect sentence. They ap- 
 pear to be the four following: 1. clearness; 2. unity; 
 3. strength; 4. a judicious use of the figures of 
 
 SPEECH. 
 
 chapter I. 
 OF THE CLEARNESS OF A SENTENCE. 
 
 Purity, propriety, and precision, in words and 
 phrases separately considered, have already been ex- 
 plained, and shown to be necessary to perspicuous 
 and accurate writing. The just relation of sentences, 
 and the parts of sentences, to one another, and the due 
 arrangement of the whole, are the subjects whicJi re- 
 main to be discussed. 
 
 The first requisite of a perfect sentence is clearness. 
 
 Whatever leaves the mind in any sort of suspense 
 as to the meaning, ought to be avoided. Obscurity 
 arises from two causes; either from a wrong choice of 
 words, or a wrong arrangement of them. The choice 
 of words and phrases, as far as regards perspicuity, 
 has been already considered. The disposition of them 
 comes now under consideration. 
 
 The first thing to be studied here, is grammatical 
 propriety. But as the grammar of our language is 
 comparatively not extensive, there may be an obscure 
 order of words, where there is no transgression of any 
 g^rammatical rule. The relations of words, or mem* 
 
252 APPENDIX. [Precision... 
 
 bers of a period, are, with us, ascertained only by the 
 position in which they stand. 
 
 Hence a capital rule in the arrangement of sentences 
 is, that the words or members, most clearly related, 
 should be placed in the sentence as near to each other 
 as possible, so as to make their mutual relation clearly 
 appear. It will be proper to produce some instances, 
 in order to show the importance of this rule. 
 
 1. In the position of adverbs, "The Romans under- 
 stood liberty, at least, as well as we. " These words are 
 capable of two different senses, according as the em- 
 phasis, in reading them, is laid upon liberty, or upon 
 at least. The words should have been thus arranged; 
 *'The Romans understood liberty as well, at least, as 
 we." 
 
 ''Theism can only be opposed to polytheism, or 
 atheism." Is it meant that theism is capable of nothing 
 else besides being opposed to polytheism, or atheism? 
 This is what the words literally import, through the 
 wrong placing of the adverb only. It should have been, 
 "Theism can be opposed only to polytheism or atheism.'* 
 
 "By the pleasures Of the imagination, I mean only 
 such pleasures as arise originally from sight. " When it 
 is said, "/ mean only sueh pleasures,^ ^ it may be remark- 
 ed, that the adverb only is not properly placed. It is not 
 intended here to qualify the word mean, hixt such pleasures; 
 and therefore sliould have been placed in as close con- 
 nexion as possible withthe word which it limits or qua- 
 lifies. The style becomes more clear and neat, whefi the 
 words^re arranged thus: "By the pleasures of the ima- 
 gination, I mean such pleasures only as arise fron 
 sight." 
 
 In the following sentence, the word more is not in its 
 proper place. "There is not perhaps any real beauty or 
 deformity more in one piece of maUer than another." 
 The phrase ought to have stood thus: "Beauty or de- 
 formity in one piece of matter more than in another." 
 
 2. In the position of circumstances, and of particular 
 members. 
 
 An author, in his dissertation on parties, thus ex- 
 presses himself: "Are these designs which any man, 
 who is born a Briton, in any circumstances, in any si- 
 tuation, ought to be ashamed or afraid' to avow?" Here 
 
^Precision.] pershcuity, &c. 263 
 
 we are left at a loss, whether these words, **in any cir- 
 cumstances, in any situation," are connected with '*a 
 man born in Britain, in any circumstances or situation," 
 or with that man's ^'avowing his designs in any circum- 
 stances or situation into which he may be brought. " As 
 , it is probable that the latter was intended, the arrange- 
 I raentx)ught to have been conducted thus: *'Are these 
 designs which any man, who is born a Briton, ought 
 to be ashamed or afraid, in any situation, in any cir- 
 cumstances, to avow?" 
 
 The following is another instance of a wrong ar- 
 rangement of circumstances. "A great stone that I 
 ' happened to find, after a long search, by the »ea*shore, 
 served me for an anchor." One would think that the 
 search was confined to the sea shore: but as the mean- 
 ing is, that the great stone was found by the sea shore, 
 the period ought to have run thus: *'A great stoiie, 
 that, after a long search, I happened to find by the sea 
 shore, served me for an anchor." 
 
 It is a rule, too, never to crowd many circumstances 
 together, but rather to intersperse them in different 
 parts of the sentence, joined to the principal woixis on 
 which they depend. For instance: "What I had the 
 opportunity of mentioning to my friend, sometime ago, 
 in conversation, was not a new thought." These two 
 circumstances, ^'sometime ago,''' and **m conversation,''' 
 which are here put together, would have had a better 
 effect disjoined, thus: "What I had the opportunity, 
 sometime ago, of mentioning to my friend in conver- 
 sation, was not a new thought." 
 
 Here follows an example of the wrong arrangement 
 of a member of a sentence. "The minister of state 
 who grows less by his elevation, like a little statue placed 
 ©n a mighty pedestal, will always hafe his jealousy 
 strong about him." Here, so far as can be gathered 
 from the arrangement, it is doubtful whether the ob- 
 ject introduced, by way of simile, relates to what goes 
 before, or to what follows. The ambiguity is removed 
 by the following order: *'The minister of state who, 
 like a little statue placed on a mighty pedestal, grows 
 less by his elevation, will always," Sec. 
 
 Words expressing things connected in the thought, 
 ought to be placed as near together as possible, even 
 
264 APPENDIX. [Clearness. 
 
 when their separation wo« Id convey no ambiguity. This 
 will be seen in the following passages from Addison. 
 **For the Etngiish are naturally fanciful, and very often 
 disposed by that gloominess and melancholy of temper, 
 which are so frequent in our nation, to many wild notions 
 and extravagancies, to which others are not so liable. *" 
 Here the verb or assertion is, by a pretty long circuni 
 stance, separated from the subject to which it refers. 
 This might have been easily prevented, by placing the 
 circumstance before the verb, thus: *'For the English 
 are naturally fanciful, and by that gloominess and me- 
 lancholy of temper which are so frequent in our nation, 
 are ofteli ^sposed to many wild notions," &c. 
 
 ''For as no mortal author, in the ordinary fate and 
 vicissitude of things, knows to what use his works 
 may, some time or other be applied," Sec. Better thus: 
 '''For as, in the ordinary fate and vicissitude of things, 
 210 mortal author knows to what use, some time or 
 other, his works may be applied," Sec. 
 
 From these examples, the following observations will 
 occur: that a circumstance ought never to be placed be- 
 tween two capital members of a period; but either be- 
 tween the parts of the member to which it belongs, or in 
 such a manner as will confine it to its proper member. 
 When the sense admits it, the sooner a circumstance is 
 introduced, generally speaking, the better, that the ntore 
 important and significant words may possess the last 
 place, quite disencumbered. The following sentence 
 is, in this respect, faulty. *'The emperor was so in- 
 tent on the establishment of his absolute power in 
 Hungary, that he exposed the empire doubly to deso- 
 lation and ruin for the sake of it." Better thus: "That, 
 for the sake of it, he exposed the empire doubly to 
 desolation and fuin." 
 
 This appears to be a proper place to observe, tha' 
 when different things have an obvious relation to eacii 
 other, in respect to the order of nature or time, thut 
 order should be regarded, in assigning them their places 
 in the sentence; unless the scope of the passageb re- 
 quire it to be varied. The conclusion of the -folio win t^ 
 lines is inaccurate in this respect: '*But stiU there will 
 be such a mixture of delight, as is proportioned to the 
 de^ret in which apy obc of these quaUncations is most 
 
^^Cfearncss.] pehspicuity, Sec. 26r> 
 
 conspicuous and prevailing." The order in which the 
 two last words are placed, should have been reversed, 
 and made to stand, prevailing and conspicuous. — They 
 are conspicuous^ because they prevail. 
 
 The following sent<.'nce is a beautiful example of 
 strict conformity to this rule. '*Our sight fills the mind 
 with th-e largest variety of ideas, converses with its 
 objects at the greatest distance, and continues the 
 longest in action, without being tired or satiated witli 
 its proper enjoyments." This passage follows the oi 
 der of nature. First, we have the variety of objects 
 mentioned, which sight furnishes to the mind; next. 
 we have the action of sight on those objects; and lastly, 
 we have the time and continuance of its action. No 
 order could be more natural or exact. 
 
 The order which we now i^commend," is, iu single 
 words- especially, frequently violated for the sake of 
 better sound; but, perhaps in no instances, without a. 
 deviation from the line of strict propriety, 
 
 3. In the disposition of the relative pronouns., who. 
 which, what, whose, a;nd of aU those particles ivhich express 
 the connexion of the parts of speech idth one a?iother. 
 
 A small error in the position of these words rnay cloud 
 the meaning of the whole sentence; and even v/here the 
 meaning is intelligible, Ave always find something awk- 
 ward and disjointed in the structure of the sentence, 
 when these relatives are out of their proper place. 
 **This kind of wit," says an author, "\yas very much 
 in vogue among our countrymen., about an age or two 
 ago; who did not practise it for any oblique reason, 
 but purely for the sake of being witty." We are at 
 no loss about the meaning here; but the construction 
 would evidently be mended by disposing the circum- 
 stance, "about an age or two ago," in such a manner 
 as not to separate the I'elative ivho from its antecedent 
 our countrymen; in this way: **About an age or two 
 ago, this kind of wit was very much in vogue among 
 our countrymen, who did not practise it," Sec. 
 
 The following passage is still more censurable. "It 
 is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents 
 of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can pro- 
 tect us against, but the good providence of our Creator.'' 
 Which always refers grammatical! v to the suljstanu- 
 Z ' ^ 
 
266 APPE5IMX. [Unity.' 
 
 immediately preceding; and that, in the instance just 
 mentioned, is ''treasures." The sentence ought to 
 iiave stood thus: "It is folly to pretend, by heaping up 
 treasures, to arm ourselves against the accidents of 
 life, which nothing can protect us against," Sec. 
 
 With regard to relatives, it may be further observed, 
 that obscurity often arises from the too frequent repe- 
 tition of them, particularly of the pronouns tuAo and 
 they.f and them and theirs, when we have occasion to 
 refer to different persons; as in the following sentence 
 of Tillotson. '*Men look with an evil eye upon the 
 good that is in others, and think that their reputation 
 obscures them, and their commendable qualities stand 
 in their light; and therefore tfiey do what they can to 
 cast a cloud over them, that the bright shining of their 
 virtues may not obscure them.'* This is altogether 
 careless writing. When we find these personal pro- 
 nouns crowding too fast upon us, we have often no 
 method left, but to throw the whole sentence into some 
 other form, which may avoid those frequent references 
 to persons who have before been mentioned. 
 
 To have the relation of every word and member of 
 a sentence marked in the most proper and distinct 
 manner, not only gives clearness to it, but makes the 
 mind pass smoothly and agreeably along all the parts 
 of it. — See the Appendix /o7i^c Exercises. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OF THE UNITY OF A SENTENCE. 
 
 The second requisite of a perfect sentence, is its 
 Unity, 
 
 In every composition, there is always some connecting 
 principle among the parts. Some one object must reign 
 and be predominant. But most of all, in a single sen- 
 tence, is required the strictest unity. For the very 
 nature of a sentence implies that one proposition is 
 expressed. It may consist of parts, indeed, but these 
 parts must be so closely bound together, as to mak<^ 
 the impression upon the mind of one object, not oi 
 many. To preserve this unity of a sentence, Xhv. fol- 
 lowing rules must be observed. 
 
 In the Jirst place, During the course of the sentence^ 
 the scene should be changed as Utile as possible. We should 
 not be hurried by sudden transitions from person to 
 
Unity.] • PEasprpuiTY, &c, 267* 
 
 person, nor from subject to subject. There is com- 
 monly, in every sentence, some person or thing which 
 is the governing word. This should be continued so, 
 if possible, from the beginning to the end of it. 
 
 The following sentence varies from this rule: * 'After 
 we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I wag 
 welcomed by all my friends, who received me with the 
 greatest kindness." In this sentence, though the objects 
 contained in it have a sufficient connexion with each 
 other, yet, by this manner of representing them, by 
 shifting so often both the place and the person, ive afid 
 ihey, and /and laho, they appear in so disunited a view, 
 that the sense of connexion is much impaired. The 
 sentence is restored to its proper unity, by turning it 
 after the following manner. ''Having come to an an- 
 chor, I was put on shore, where I was v/elcomed by all 
 my friends, and received with the greatest kindness." 
 
 Here follows another instance of departure from the 
 rule. "The sultan being dangerously wounded, they 
 carried him to his tent: and, upon hearing of the defeat 
 of his troops, they put him into a litter, which trans- 
 ported him to a place of safety, at the distance of about 
 fifteen leagues." Better thus: "The sultan being dan- 
 gerously wounded, was carried to his tentj and, on 
 hearing of the defeat of his troops, was put into a lit- 
 ter, and transported to a place of safety about fifteen 
 leagues distant." 
 
 A second rule under the head of unity, is, Never to 
 crowd into one sentence^ thi7igs which have so little cminexion 
 that they could bear to be divided into two or three sentences. 
 
 The violation of this rule tends so much to perplex 
 and obscure, that it is safer to err by too many short 
 sentences, than by one that is overloaded and embarras- 
 sed." Examples abound in authors. "Archbishop Til- 
 lotson," says an author, "died in this year. He was 
 exceedingly beloved by king William and queen Mary, 
 who nominated Dr. Tennison, bishop of Lincoln, to 
 succeed him. " Who would expect the latter part of this 
 sentence to follow in consequence of the former.^ "He 
 was exceedingly beloved by both king' and queen," is 
 the proposition of the sentence. We'look for some proof 
 of this, or at least something related to it to follow; when 
 we are on a sudden carried off to a new proposition. 
 
2^S APPENDIX. [Unitf 
 
 The following sentence is still worse. The author^ 
 .=ipeaking of the Greeks under Alexander, says: "Their 
 march was through an uncultivated country, whose 
 ravage inhabitants fared hardly, having no other riches 
 than a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and 
 unsavoury, by reason of their continual feeding upon 
 sea-fish." Here the scene is changed upon us again 
 and again. The march of the Greeks, the description 
 of the inhabitants through whose country they travelled, 
 '.he account of their sheep, and the cause of their sheep 
 being ill-tasted foody form a jumble of objects, slightly 
 related to each other, which the reader cannot, with- 
 out much difficulty, comprehend under one view. 
 
 These examples have been taken from sentences of 
 no great length, yet very crowded. Writers who deal in 
 long sentences, are very apt to be faulty in this article^ 
 Take, for an instance, the following from Temple- 
 "The usual acceptation takes profit and pleasure for two 
 difterent things, and not only calls the followers or vo- 
 taries of them by the several names of busy and idle 
 men; but distinguishes the faculties of the mind, that 
 are conversant about them, calling the operations of the 
 first, Wisdom; and of the other, Wit; which is a Saxon 
 word, used to express what the Spaniards a«d Italians 
 call Ingenio^ and the French Esprit, both from the La- 
 tin, though I think wit more particularly signifies that 
 of poetry, as may occur in remarks on the Runic lan- 
 guage.'' When the reader arrives at the end of this 
 perplexed sentence, he is surprised to find himself at so 
 great distance from the object with which he set out. 
 
 Long, involved, and intricate sentences, are great 
 blemishes in composition. In writers of considerable 
 correctness, we find a period sometimes running out so 
 far, and comprehending so many particulars, as to be 
 more properly a discourse than a sentence. An author^ 
 speaking of the progress of our language after the time 
 of Cromwell, runs on in this manner: "To this suc- 
 ceeded that licentiousness which entered with the resto- 
 ration, and, from infecting our religion and morals, 
 fell to corrupt otir language; which last was not like 
 to be much improveii by those who at that time made 
 up the court of king Charles the Second; either such 
 as had followed him in his banishment, ar who had 
 
TJnity."). PERSPICUITY, 8cc. 2€9 
 
 been altogether conversant in the dialect of these times, 
 ©r young men who had been educated in thesaine coun- 
 try: so that the court, which used to be the standard of 
 correctness and propriety of speech, was then, and I 
 think has ever since continued, the worst school in 
 England for that accomplishment; and so will remain., 
 till better care be taken in the education of our nobility, 
 that they may set out into the world with some founda- 
 tion of literature, in order to qualify them for patterns 
 of politeness." 
 
 The author, in place of a sentence, has here given a . 
 loose dissertation upon several subjects. How many 
 different facts, reasonings, and observations, are here 
 presented to the mind at oncel and yet so linked to- 
 gether by the author, that they all make parts of a sen- 
 tence, which admits of no greater division in pointing 
 than a colon, between any of its members. 
 
 It may be of use here to give a specimen of a long 
 sentence, broken down into several periods; by which 
 we shall more clearly perceive the disadvantages of long 
 sentences, ^nd how easily they may be amended. Here 
 follows the sentence in its original form: "Though in 
 yesterday's paper we showed hcv/ every thing that is 
 great, new, or beautiful, is apt to affect the imagination 
 with pleasure, we must own, that it is impossible for us 
 to assign the necessary cause of this pleasure, because 
 we know neither the nature of an idea, nor the substance 
 of a human soul: and therefore, for want of such a light, 
 all that we can do, in speculations of this kind, is, to re- 
 flect on those operations of the soul that are most agree- 
 able; and to range, under their proper heads, what is 
 pleasing or displeasing to the mind, without being able ^ 
 to trace out the several necessary and efficient causes, 
 from whence the pleasure or displeasure arises." 
 
 The following amendment, besides breaking down 
 the period into several sentences, exhibits some other 
 useful alterations: "In yesterday's paper, we showed 
 that every thing which is great, new, or beautiful, is 
 apt to affect the imagination with pleasure. We must 
 own, that it is impossible for us to assign the efficient 
 tause of this pleasure, because we know not the nature 
 either of an idea, or of the human soul. All that ;wc ' 
 cjin do, therefore, iu speculations of this kind, is. tp^ 
 Z.2 
 
3T0' APPENDIX. [Strength. 
 
 reflect on the operations of the soul which are most 
 agreeable, and to range under proper heads what is 
 pleasing or displeasing to the mind.*' 
 
 A third rule for preserving the unity of sentences.^ 
 isj to keep clear of all unnecessary parentheses. 
 
 On some occasions, when the sense is not too long 
 suspended by them, and when they are introduced in a 
 proper place, they may add both to the vivacity and to 
 the energy of the sentence. But for the most part their 
 effect is extremely bad. They are wheels within wheels; 
 sentences in the midst of sentences: the perplexed 
 method of disposing of some thought, which a writer 
 wants judgment to introduce in its proper place. 
 
 The parenthesis in this sentence is striking and 
 proper^ 
 
 "And was the ransom paid? It was; and paid 
 "(VVhat can exalt tlie bounty more?) for thee." 
 
 But in the following sentence, we become sensible of 
 an impropriety in the use of it. "If your hearts se- 
 cretly reproach you for the wrong choice you have 
 made, (as there is time for repentance and retreat^ and 
 a return to wisdom is always honourable,) bethink 
 yourselves that the evil is not. irreparable." It would 
 be much better to express in a separate sentence, the 
 thoughts contained in this parenthesis; thus: "If your 
 hearts secretly reproach you for the wrong choice you 
 have made, bethink yourselves that the evil is not ir- 
 reparable. Still there is time for repentance and re- 
 treat; and a return to wisdom is always honourable.'' 
 — See the Appendix to the Exercises. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ^ OF THE STRENGTH OF A SENTENCE. 
 
 The third requisite of a perfect sentence, is, Strength 
 
 By this is meant such a disposition and management 
 
 of the several words and members, as shall bring out 
 
 the sense to the best advantage, and give every word 
 
 and every member, its due weight and force. 
 
 A sentence may be clear, it may also be compact in 
 -all its parts, or have the requisite unity, and yet, by 
 some circumstance in the structure, it may fail in that 
 strength of impression, which a better management, 
 jrould have produced* 
 
Strength.] perspicuity, Sec. 271 
 
 The Jirst rule for promoting the strength of a sen- 
 tence, is, to prune it of all redundant words and members^ 
 
 It is a general maxim, that any words which do not • 
 add some importance to the meaning of a sentence, 
 always injure it. Care should therefore be exercised 
 with respect to synonymous words, expletives, circum- 
 locutions, tautologies, and the expressions of unneces- 
 sary circumstances. The attention becomes remiss, 
 when words are multiplied without a correspondent 
 multiplication of ideas. ^'Content with deserving a 
 triumph, he refused the honour of it;" is better language 
 than to say, "Being content with deserving it," &c. 
 
 "In the Attic commonwealth," says an aut'ior, *'it 
 \\'as the privilege and birthright of every citizen and 
 poet, to rail aloud and in public." Better simply thus: 
 *4n the Attic commonwealth, it was the privilege of 
 every citizen to rail in public." 
 
 Another expresses himself thus: "They returned 
 back again to the same city from whence they came 
 forth;" instead of, "They returned to the city whence 
 they came." The five words, back^ again, same^from^ 
 and forth^ are mere expletives, that have neither use 
 nor beauty, and ptc therefore to be regarded as < 
 cumbrances. 
 
 The word but is often improperly used with that: 
 as, "There can be no doubt but that he seriously means 
 what he says." It is not only useless, but cumbersome: 
 * 'There can be no doubt that he seriously means what 
 he says." By transposing the parts of the sentence, 
 we shall immediately perceive the propriety of omit- 
 ing this word: "That he seriously means what he. 
 ^ays, there can be no doubt." • wUj^ 
 
 "I am honestly, seriously, and unalterably of opinion, 
 hat nothing can possibly be more incurably and em- 
 phatically destructive, or more decisively fatal, to a 
 kingdom, than the introduction of thoughtless dissi- 
 pation, and the pomp of lazy luxury." Would not the 
 full import of this noisy sentence be better expressed 
 thus: "I am of opinion, that nothing is more ruinous 
 to a kingdom, than luxury and dissipation." 
 
 Some writers use much circumlocution in exprcss- 
 ifig their ideas. A considerable one, for so very sim- 
 ple a thing as a man's wounding himself, says, **To 
 
2f2 APPENDIX. [Strength. 
 
 mangle, or wound, his outward form and constituticm, 
 his natural limbs or body." 
 
 But, on some occasions, circumlocution has a pe- 
 culiar force; as in the following sentence: "Shall not 
 the Judge of all the earth do right?" 
 
 In the sentences which follow, the ill effects of tau- 
 tology appear. 
 
 *'So it is, that I must ht forced to get home, partly 
 by stealth, and partly hy force." 
 
 "Never did Atticus succeed better in gaining the 
 itniversal love and esteem of «// men." 
 
 The subsequent sentence contains several unneces- 
 sary circumstances. "On receiving this information, 
 he arose, went out, saddled his horse, mounted him, 
 and rode to town." All is implied in saying, '*On 
 receiving this information, he rode to town." 
 
 This manner, however, in a certain degree, is so 
 strongly characteristic of the simple style of remote 
 ages, that, iir books of the highest antiquity, particu- 
 larly the Bible, it is not at all ungraceful. Of this kind 
 are the following scriptural phrases. "He lifted up 
 his voice, and w^ept." "He opened his mouth, and 
 said." It is true, .that, in strictness, they are not ne- 
 » cssary to the narration, but they are of some impor- 
 tance to the composition, as bearing the venerable sig- 
 nature of ancient simplicity. It may, on this occasion, 
 be further observed, that the language of the present 
 translation of the Bible, ought not to be viewed in an 
 exceptionable light, though some parts of it may ap- 
 pear to be obsolete. From universal admission, this, 
 language has become so familiar and intelligible, that 
 ■^\ all transcripts. and allusions, except where. the sense 
 is evidently injured, it ought to be carefully preserved. 
 And it may also be justly remarked, that, on religious 
 subjects, a frequent recurrence of scripture-language 
 3S attended with peculiar force and propriety. 
 
 Though it promotes the strength of a sentence, to 
 contract a roundabout method of expression, and to 
 ?op off excrescences, yet we should avoid the extreme 
 of pruning too closely: some leaves should be left to 
 shelter and surround the fruit. Even synonymous ex- 
 pressions may, on some occasions, be used with prG-», 
 priejty. One is, when an obscurer term, which we caii->v 
 
^(rength.J perspicuity, &c. 27S 
 
 not well avoid employing, needs to be explained by 
 one that is clearer. The other is, when the language 
 of the emotions is exhibited. Emotion naturally dwells 
 on its object: and when the reader also feels interest- 
 cd, repetition and synonymy have frequently an agree- 
 able effect. 
 
 The following passage, taken from Addison, who 
 delighted in a full and flowing style, may, by some per- 
 sons, be deemed not very exceptionable. "But there is 
 nothing that makes its way more directly to the soul 
 than beauty, which immediately diftuses a secret satis- 
 faction and complacency through the imagination, and 
 gives a finishing to any thing that is great or uncom- 
 mon. The very first discovery of it strikes the mind 
 with inward joy, and spreads a cheerfulness and delight 
 through all its faculties." Some degree of verbosity 
 may be discovered in these sentences, as phrases are 
 repeated which seem little more than the echo of one 
 another; such as — diffusing satisfaction and complacency 
 through the imagination — striking the niind with inward 
 jof — spreading cheerfulness and delight through all its fa- 
 culties. But, perhaps, some redundancy is more al- 
 lowable on such lively subjects, than it would be on 
 other occasions. 
 
 After removing superfluities, the second v\\\e for pro- 
 moting the strength of a sentence, is, to attend parti- 
 cularly to the use of copulativesy relatives, and all the par- 
 ticles employed for transition and connexion. 
 
 These little words, but^ andy or, which, whose, where, 
 then, therefore, because, 8cc. are frequently the most im- 
 portant words of any; they are the jpints or hinges 
 upon which all sentences turn; and, of course, mucl\^- 
 of their strength must depend upon such particles. 
 The varieties in using them are, indeed, so many, that 
 no particular system of rules respecting them can be 
 given. Some observations, tending to illustrate the 
 rule, may, however, be mentioned. 
 
 What is called splitting particles, or separating a 
 preposition from the noun which it governs, is to be 
 avoided. As if I should say, "Though virtue borrows 
 no assistance from, yet it may often be accompanied 
 by, the advantages of fortune." Here we are put to a 
 stand in thought, being obliged to rest a little on tht> 
 
':i!f4' APPENDIX. [Strength^'- 
 
 preposition by itself, which, at the same time, carries' 
 no sigpiificancy, till it is joined to its proper substantive. 
 
 Some writers needlessly multiply demonstrative and 
 relative particles, by the frequent use of such phrase- 
 ology as this: "There is nothing which disgusts us 
 sooner than the empty pomp of language." In intro- 
 ducing a subject, or laying down a proposition, to 
 which we demand particular attention, this sort of style 
 is very proper; but, on common occasions, it is better' 
 to express ourselves more simply and briefly: ''Noth- 
 ing disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of lan- 
 guage." ' 
 
 Other writers make a practice of omitting the rela- 
 tive, where they think the meanii>g can be understood 
 without it: as, "The man I love;" "The dominions 
 we possessed, and the conquests we made."' But 
 though this elliptical style is intelligible, and is allow- 
 able in conversation and epistolary writing, yet in all 
 writings of a serious and. dignified kind, it ought to be 
 avoided. There, the relative should always he insert- 
 ed in its proper place, and the construction filled up. 
 "The man whom I love." "The dominions which 
 we possessed, and the conquests which we made." 
 
 With regard to the copulative particle, and, which 
 occurs so frequently in all kinds of composition, several 
 observations are to be made. First, it is evident, that 
 the unnecessary repetition of it enfeebles style. The 
 following sentence from Sir William Temple, Avill serve 
 for an instance. He is speaking of the refinement of the 
 French language: "The academy, set up by Cardinal 
 Richelieu, to amuse the wits of that age a?id country, 
 wid divert them from raking into his politics and minis- 
 ^y, brought this into vogue; and the French wits have, 
 for this last age, been wholly turned to the refinement 
 of their style and language; and, indeed, with such 
 success, that it can hardly be equalled, and runs equally 
 through their verse a?id their prose." Here are no 
 fewer than eight ands in one sentence. Some writers 
 often make their sentences drag in this manner, by a 
 careless multiplication of copulatives. 
 
 But, in the next place, it is worthy of observation, 
 that though the natural use of the conjunction and, is 
 to join objects together, .yet, in fact, by dropping the 
 
Strength.] PERSTicriTT,^ &c. 2T5 
 
 conjunction, we often mark a closer connexion, a quicker 
 succession of objects, than when it is inserted between 
 them. "I came, I saw, I conquered," expresses with 
 more force the rapidity and quick succession of con- 
 quest, than if connecting particles had been used. 
 
 On the other hand, when we seek to prevent a quick 
 transition from one object to another, when we are 
 making some enumeration, in which we wish that the 
 objects should appear as distinct from each other as 
 possible, and that the mind should rest, for a moment, 
 on each object by itself, copulatives may be multiplied 
 with peculiar advantage. As when an author says, 
 *'Such a man might fall a victim to power; but truth, 
 and reason, and liberty, would fall with him. " Observe, 
 in the following enumeration nriade by the Apostle Paul, 
 what additional weight and distinctness are given to 
 each particular, by the repetitionof a conjunction: "I 
 am persuaded, that neither death, nar life, nor angels, 
 nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor 
 things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other 
 -creature, shall be able to separate us from the love of 
 God." 
 
 The words designed to mark the transition from one 
 i sentence to another, and the connexion between sen- 
 tences, are sometimes very incorrect, and perform their 
 office in an imperfect and obscure manner. The follow- 
 ing is an example of this kind of inaccuracy. *'By 
 greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object 
 only, but the largeness of a whole view. Such are the 
 prospects of an open champaign country, a vast un- 
 cultivated desert," Sec. The word such signifies of that 
 nature or quality, which necessarily presupposes some 
 adjective or word descriptive of a quality going before, 
 to which it refers. But, in the foregoing sentence, 
 there is no such adjective. The author had spoken of 
 greatness in the abstract only; and, therefore, such has 
 no distinct antecedent to which we can refer it. The 
 sentence would have been introduced with more pro 
 priety, by saying. To this class belong, or under this head 
 are ranged, the prospects, &c. 
 
 As connective particles are the hinges, tacks, and 
 
 pins, by which the words in the same clause, the 
 
 . clauses in the «,anie member, the members in the same 
 
576 APPENDIX. ^Strength. 
 
 sentence, and even the sentences in the same discourse, 
 are united together, and their relations suggested, so 
 they should not be either too frequently repeated, awk- 
 wardly exposed to view, or made up of polysyllables, 
 when shorter words would as well convey the meaning. 
 Notwithstanding that^ insomuch thaf^ forasmuch as^ fur- 
 thermore^f 8cc. are tedious words, which tend to over- 
 load and perplex a sentence. 
 
 We shall conclude this head with two remarks on 
 the subject of inserting or omitting the conjunctions. 
 The first is, that the illative conjunctions, the casual, 
 and the disjunctive, when they suit the sense, can more 
 rarely be dispensed with than the copulative. The 
 second is, that the omission of copulatives always suc- 
 ceeds best, when the connexion of the thoughts is either 
 very close, or very distant. It is mostly in the interme- 
 diate cases that the conjunction is deemed necessary. 
 When the connexion in thought is very distant, the 
 copulative appears absurd; and when very close, su- 
 perfluous. 
 
 The third rule for promoting the strength of a sen- 
 tence, is, to dispose of the capital word, orivords, so that 
 they may make the greatest impression. 
 
 That there are, in every sentence, such capital words 
 on which the meaning principally rests, every one 
 must see; and that these words should possess a con- 
 spicuous and distinguished place, is equally plain. 
 For the most part, with us, the important words are 
 placed in the beginning of the sentence. So in the fol- 
 lowing passages: **Silver and gold have I none; but 
 such as I have, give I unto thee," Sec. "Your fathers, 
 where are they? and the prophets, do they live for 
 ever.^'* 
 
 Sometimes, however, v/hen we intend to give weight 
 to a sentence, it is of advantage to suspend the mean- 
 ing for a little, and then bring it out full at the close. 
 *'Thus," says an author, ^*on whatever side we con- 
 template this ancient writer, what principally strikes 
 us, is hiE wonderful invention." 
 
 To accomplish this end, the placing of capital words 
 in a conspicuous part of the sentence, the natural or- 
 der of our language must sometimes be inverted. Ac- 
 ^ordin^ to this natural -order, the nominative has the 
 
first place, the verb the second, and the objective, if 
 it be an active verb that is employed, has the third. 
 Circumstances follow the nominative, the verb, or the 
 objective, as they happen to belong to any of them, 
 •'Diana of the Ephesians is great," is the natural order 
 of the sentence. But. its sti^ength is increased by inver- 
 sion, thus: **Great is Diana of the Ephesians.*' *4 
 profess, in the sincerity of my lieart," &c. is the na- 
 tural order of a circumstance. Inverted thus: "In the 
 sincerity of my heart, I profess," &c. 
 
 Some authors gixiatly invert the natural order of sen- 
 tences; others write mostly in a natural style. Each 
 method has its advantages. The inverted possesses 
 "Strength, dignity, and variety: the other, more nature, 
 ease, and simplicity. We shall give an instance of eaclj 
 method, taken from writers of considerable eminence 
 The first is of the inverted order. The author is speak- 
 ing of the misery of vice. *'This, as to the complete 
 immoral state, is, what of their own accord, men rea- 
 dily i-emark. Where there is this absolute degeneracyj 
 this total apostacy from all candour, truth, or equity, 
 there are few who do not see and acknowledge the mi- 
 sery which is consequent. Seldom is the case mis- 
 construed when at worst. The misfortune is, that we 
 look not on this depravity, nor consider how it stands 
 in less tTegrees. As if, to be absolutely immoral, were, 
 indeed, the greatest misery; but to be so in a little de- 
 gree, should be no misery or harm at all. Which, to 
 allow, is just as reasonable as to own, that it is the 
 greatest ill of a body to be in the utmost manner 
 maimed or distorted; but that to lose the use only of 
 ene limb, or to be impaired in some single organ or 
 member, is no ill worthy the least notice." Here is 
 no violence done to the language, tho'jgh there are 
 many inversions. 
 
 The following is an example of natural construction: 
 *'Our sight is the most perfect, and the most delight- 
 ful, of all our senses. It fills the mind with the largest 
 variety of ideas, converses with its objects at the great- 
 est distance, and continues the longest in action, witti- 
 out being tired, or satiated with its proper enjoyments- 
 The sense of feeling can, indeed, give us a notion of 
 eiien-sioii, shape, and all other iidjcas that enter at ihc 
 A A 
 
278 APPENDIX. [Strength. 
 
 eye, except colours; but, at the same time, it is very 
 much straitened and confined in its operations,*' &c. 
 
 But whether we use inversion or not, and in what- 
 ever part of the sentence we dispose of the capital 
 words, it is always a point of consequence, that these 
 capital words should stand clear and disentangled from 
 any other words that would clog them. Thus, when 
 there are any circumstances of time, place, or other 
 limitations, which the principal object of our sentence 
 requires to have connected with it, we must take care 
 to dispose of them, so as not to cloud that principal 
 object, nor to bury it under a load of circumstances. 
 This will be made clearer by an example. '"If, whilst 
 they profess only to please, they secretly advise, and give 
 instruction, they may now perhaps, as well as formerly, 
 be esteemed, with justice, the best and most honour- 
 able among authors." This is a well constructed sen- 
 tence. It contains a great many circumstances and ad- 
 verbs necessary to qualify the meaning; only, secretly, 
 as well, perhaps, now, toiih justice, formerly; yet these 
 are placed so properly, as neither to embarrass, nor 
 weaken the sentence; while that which is the capital 
 object in it, viz. ''being justly esteemed the best and 
 most honourable among authors," comes out in the 
 conclusion clear and detached, and possesses its pro- 
 per place. See now, what would have been the effect 
 of a different arrangement: ''If, whilst they profess to 
 please only, they advise and give instruction secretly, 
 •they may be esteemed the best and most honouraWe 
 among authors, with justice, perhaps, now as well us / 
 formerly." Here we have precisely the same words, 
 and the same sense; but by means of the circumstan- 
 ces being so intermingled as to clog the capital words, 
 the whole becomes feeble and perplexed. 
 
 The fourth rule for promoting the strength of sen- 
 tences, is, that a loeaker assertion or proposition should 
 ^ever come after a stronger one; and that, when our sen- 
 tence consists of two members, the longer should^ generality,' 
 be the concluding one. 
 
 Thus, to say, "When our passions have forsaken us, 
 we flatter ourselves with the belief that we have for- 
 saken them," is both more easy and more clear, than 
 to begin with the longer part of the proposition: ''We 
 
SH-eug^th-l PERSPicuiTT, Sec. ^79- 
 
 flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken 
 our passions, when they have forsaken us," 
 
 In general, it is agreeable to find a sentence rising 
 upon us> and growing in its irrtj^rtance, to the very lasi 
 word, when this construction can be managed without 
 affectation. "If we rise yet higher," says Addison, "and 
 consider the fixed stars as so many oceans of flame, that 
 are each of them attended with a different set of planetsj 
 and still discover new firmaments and new lights, that 
 are sunk further in those unfathomable depths of ether; 
 we are lost in such a labyrinth of suns and worlds, and 
 confounded with the magnificence and immensity of 
 nature." 
 
 The fifth v\x\q for the strength of sentences is, to avoid- 
 concluding them with an adverb, a preposition, or any incon- 
 siderable word. 
 
 Agreeably to this rule, wx should not conclude with 
 any of the particles, of, to, from, with, by. For instance, 
 it is a great deal better to say, *'Avarice is a crime of 
 which wise men are often guilty," than to say, "Avarice 
 is a crime which wise men are often guilty of." This is 
 a phraseology which all correct writers shun; and with 
 reason. For as the mind cannot help resting a little, on 
 the import of* the word which closes the sentence, it 
 must be clibctgrceable to be left pausing on a word, 
 which does not, by itself, produce any idea. 
 
 For the same reason, verbs which are used in a com- 
 pound sense, with some of these prepositions, are, though 
 not so bad, yet still not proper conclusions of a period: 
 such as, bring about ^ lay hold of, come over to, clear up, 
 and many other of this kin<l; instead of which, if we can 
 employ a simple verb, it always terminates the sentence 
 with more strength. Even the pronoun it, should, if 
 possible, be avoided in the conclusion: especially when 
 it is joined with some of the prepositions; as, with it, in it, 
 to it. We shall be sensible of this in the following sen- 
 tence. * 'There is not, in my opinion, a more pleasing 
 and triumphant consideration in religion than this, of the 
 perpetual progress which the soul makes towards the per- 
 fection of its nature, without ever arriving at a period 
 in it.^^ How much more agreeable the sentence, if it 
 had been so constructed as to close with the word period! 
 
 Besides particles and pronouns, any phrase, which 
 
280 AWENUrX. [S^^^S^^* 
 
 expresses a circurrtstance only, always appears badly ii> 
 the rear of a sentence. We may judge of this by the fol- 
 lowing passage: "Let i\ie therefore conclude by repeat- 
 ing, that division has cai*sed all the mischief we lament^ 
 that union alone can retrieve it; and that a great advance 
 towards this union, was the coalition of parties, so hap- 
 pily begun, so successfully carried on, and of late so un- 
 accountably neglected; to say no worse." This last' 
 phrase, "to say no worse," occasions a falling ofif at the* 
 cud. The proper disposition of such circumstances iii 
 a sentence, requires attention, in order to adjust them, 
 so as shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the 
 strength of the period. — Though necessary parts, they:\ 
 are, however, like irregular stones in a building, which 
 fry the skill of an artist^ where to place them with the 
 least offence. But it must be remembered, that the 
 close is always an unsuitable place for them. Notwith- 
 standing what has been said against concluding a period 
 with an adverb. Sec. this must not be understood to re- 
 fer to such words, when the stress and, significancy of 
 the sentence rest chiefly upon them^ In this case they 
 are not to be considered as circumstances, but as the 
 principal objects: as in the following sentence. "'In 
 their prosperity, my friends shall never fiear of me, i» ^ 
 their adversity, always." Here, ''•never'" and ^'alwai/a^^ 
 being emphatical words, . were to be so placed as to 
 make a strong impression. 
 
 The sixth rule relating to the strength of a sentence^. 
 is, that, in the members of a sentence^ where two things ar& 
 compared or contrasted with one another; where either a 
 resemblance ar an opposition is intended to be expressed? 
 some resemblance, in the language and construction, should 
 be preserved. For when the things themselves ^correspond 
 to each other y. we naturally expect to find a similar corres^ 
 pondence in the words. 
 
 Thus, when it is said, "The wise man is happy when -* 
 he gains his own approbation; the fool, when he re- 
 commends himself to the applause of those about him;** 
 the opposition would have been more regular, if it had 
 been expressed thus: *'The wise man is happy when he 
 gains his own approbation; the fool, when he gains that 
 of others." 
 
 "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues: an enemy in.- 
 
Strenglh.] perspioijity, &c, 281 
 
 flames his cnmes." Better thus: **A friend exag:ge- 
 rates a man's virtues^ an enemy, his crimes." 
 
 The following passage from Pope's Preface to his 
 Homer, fully exemplifies the rule just given: "'Homer 
 was the greater geniusj Virgil, the better artist: in the 
 one, we most admire the man 5 in the other, the work. 
 Homer hurries us with a commanding impetuosity; 
 \ irgil leads us with an attractive majesty. Homer scat- 
 ters with a generous profusion^ Virgil bestows with a 
 careful magnificence. Homer, like the Nile, pours out 
 his riches with a sudden overflow; Virgil, like a river 
 in its banks, with a constant stream." — Periods thus 
 constructed, when introduced with propriety, and not 
 returning too often, have a sensible beauty. But we 
 must beware of' carrying our attention to this beauty 
 too far. It ought only to be occasionally studied, when 
 comparison or opposition of objects naturaUy leads to it. 
 If such a construction as this be aimed at, in all out 
 sentences, it leads to a disagreeable uniformity; pro- 
 duces a regularly returning clink in the period, which 
 tires the ear;. and plainly discovers affectation. 
 
 The seventh rule for promoting the strength and effect 
 of sentences, is, to attend to the, sound, the harmony and 
 easy Jlow., of the words and members. 
 
 Sound is a quality much inferior to sense; yet such 
 as must not be disregarded. For, as long as sounds are 
 the vehicle or conveyance for our ideas, there will be a 
 very considerable connexion between the idea which is 
 ronveyed, and the nature of the sound which conveys it. 
 — Pleasing ideas, and forcible reasoning, can hardly be 
 transmitted to the mind, by means of harsh an^ disa- 
 greeable sounds. The mind revolts at such sounds, and 
 the impression of the sentiment must consequently be 
 weakened. The observations which we have to make 
 on this subject, respect the choice of words; their ar- 
 rangement; the order and disposition of the members: 
 and the cadence or close of sentences. 
 
 We begin with the choice of words. It is evident, 
 that words are most agreeable to the ear, when they art 
 composed of smooth and liquid sounds, in which there 
 is a proper intermixture of vowels and consonants; with- 
 out too many harsh consonants rubbing against each? 
 Aa2 
 
2^ APPEROiX. [Stfeflgl|H- 
 
 other; or too many open vowels in succession, to cause 
 a hiatus, or disagreeable aperture of the mouth. 
 
 It may always be assumed as a principle, that what- 
 ever sounds are difficult in pronunciation, are, in the 
 same proportion, harsh and painful to the ear. Vowels 
 give softness; consonants, strength to the sound of words. 
 The melody of language requires a just proportion of 
 each; and the construction will be hurt, will be rendered 
 either grating or effeminate, by an excess of either. 
 Long words are commonly more agreeable to the ear 
 than monosyllables. They please it by the composition 
 or succession of sounds which they present to it; and 
 accordingly, the most harmonious languages abound 
 most in them. Among words of any length, those are 
 the most melodious, which do not run wholly either upon 
 long or short syllables, but are composed of an inter- 
 mixture of them: such diS, repent^ profess, powerful, ve- 
 locity, celerity, independent, impetuosity. 
 
 If we would speak forcibly and effectually, we must 
 avoid the use of such words as the following; 1. Such as 
 are composed of words already compounded, the several 
 parts of which are not easily, and therefore not closely 
 united: as, ^'•Unsuccessfulness, wrongheadedness, tender- 
 heartednessr^ 2. Such as have the syllables which imme- 
 diately follow the accented syllable, crowded with con- 
 sonants that do not easily coalesce: as, ^'Questionless, 
 chroniclers, conventiclers:''' 3. Such as have too many syl- 
 tfibles following the accented syllable: as, '^ Primarily, 
 cursorily, summarily, peremptoriness:*' 4. Such as have 
 a short or unaccented syllable repeated, or foliov/ed by 
 another short or unaccented syllable very much resem- 
 bling: as, ^'Iiolily, sillily, lowlily, farriery.** A little 
 harshness, by the collision of consonants, which never- 
 theless our organs find no difficulty in articulating, and 
 wfilch do not suggest to the hearer the disagreeable 
 iyea either of precipitation or of stammering, is by ri^ 
 ipeans a sufficient reason fop suppressing a useful term." 
 The words hedg'd, fiedg'd, wedg'd, drudg'd, grudged, ad- 
 pidg'd, which some have thought very offensive, arti . 
 not exposed to the objections which lie against the 
 words above-mentioned. We should not do well to in- 
 •fdduce such hard and strong sounds too frequently j. 
 b\it when they are used sparingly aud properly, the/ 
 
■have even a good effect. They contribute to that va- 
 riety in sound which is advantageous to language. 
 
 The next head, respecting the harmony which results 
 froni a proper arrangement of words, is a point of greater 
 nicety. For, let the words themselves be ever so well 
 chosen, and well sounding, yet, if they be ill disposed, 
 the melody of the sentence is utterly lost, or greatly im- 
 paired. That this is the case, the learners will perceive 
 by the following examples. "Pleasures simple and mo- 
 derate always are the best:*' it would be better to say, 
 **Simple and moderate pleasures are always the best." 
 ••Office or rank maybe the recompense of intrigue, 
 versatility, or flattery;" better thus, "Rank or office 
 may be the reco.o^pftfsae ol flattery, versatility, or in- 
 trigue." "A great recommendation of the guidance 
 ofl'cred by integrity to us, is, that it is by all men easily 
 understood:" better in this form; *'It is a great recom- 
 mendation of the guidance oflered to us by integrity, that 
 it is easily understood by all men." In the following 
 examples, the words are neither selected nor arranged, 
 so as to produce the most agreeable effect. "If we 
 make the best of our life, it. is but as a pilgrimage, with 
 dangers surrounding it:" better thus, "Our life, at the 
 best, is a pilgrimage, and dangers surround it." "We 
 see that we are encumbered with difficulties, which wc 
 cannot prevent:" better, "We perceive ourselves involv- 
 ed in difficulties that cannot be avoided." "It is plain 
 to any one who views the subject, even slightly, that 
 there is nothing here that is without allay and purei" 
 improved by this form; "It is evident to the slightest 
 inspection, that nothing here is unallayed and pure." 
 
 Wc may take, for an instance of a sentence remarkably 
 harmonious, the following from Milton's Treatise on 
 Education: "We shall conduct you to a hill-side, la- 
 borious indeed, at the first ascent; but else so smooth^ 
 so green, so full of goodly prospects, and melodious 
 sounds on every side, that the harp of Orpheus was not 
 more charming." Every thing in this sentence con- 
 spires to promote the harmony. The words are well 
 chosen; full of liquids, and soft sounds; laborious, smooth, 
 g.reen, goodly^ milodious, charmingi and these words so 
 ^ifuUy arraiige4, that were w« to aiter tfee situatioiiol' 
 
284 APfBKDix. [Strength- 
 
 any one of them, we should, presently, be sensible of the 
 melody's suffering. 
 
 To promote this harmonious arrangement of words, 
 the following general direcdons will be found of some use. 
 1st, When the preceding word ends with a vowel, let 
 the subsequent one begin with a consonant; and vice 
 versa. A true friend, a cruel enemy ^ are smoother and 
 easier to the voice, than a true union, a cruel destroyer. 
 But when it is more perspicuou s or convenient, for vowels 
 ©r consonants to end one word and begin the next, it is 
 proper that the vowels be a long and short one; and that 
 the consonants be either a liquid and a mute, or liquids of 
 different sorts: thus, a lovely offspring; a purer design; 
 a calm retreat; are more fluent than, a happy union, a 
 hrief petition, a cheap triumph, a putrid distemper, a calm 
 matron, a clean nurse. From these examples, the student 
 will perceive the importanceof accurately understanding 
 the nature of vowels and consonants, liquids and mutes; 
 with the connexion and influence which subsist amongst 
 them. 2d, In general, a considerable number of long o 
 short words near one another should be avoided. *'Dis 
 appointment in our expectations is wretchedness:" bet- 
 ter thus; "Disappointed hope is misery." "No course 
 of joy can please us long:" better, "No course of enjoy- 
 ment can delight us long. " A succession of words hav- 
 ing the same quantity in the accented syllables, whether 
 it be long or short, should also be avoided. "James was 
 needy, feeble, and fearful:" improved thus, "James was 
 Hmid, feeble, and destitute. " "They could not be happy; 
 for he was silly, pettish, and sullen:" better thus; "They 
 eould not be happy; for he was simple, peevish, and 
 gloomy." 3d, Words which begin alike, or end alike, 
 must not come together; and the last syllable of the pre- 
 ceding word, should not be the same as the first syllable 
 of the subsequent one. It is not so pleasing and harmo- 
 nions to say, "This is a convenient contrivance;" "Htt 
 is an indulgent parent;" "She behaves with uniform for* 
 mality;" as, "This is a useful contrivance;" "He is a kind 
 liarent:" "She behaves with unvaried formality." 
 
 We proceed to consider the members of a sentence? 
 -with regard to harmony. They should not be too long, 
 Skor disproportionate to each other. When they have a 
 re^ul^ and proportional division, they ar€ luuch easier 
 
Sircjig^f).] PERSWWiw, SkC' 255" 
 
 to the voice, are more clearly understood, and better 
 remembered, than when this rule is not attended to: for 
 •whatever tires the voice, and offends the ear, is apt to 
 mar the strength of the expression, and to degrade th^ 
 sense of the author. And this is a sufficient ground for 
 paying attention to the order and proportion of senten- 
 ces, and the different parts of which they consist. The 
 following passage exhibits sentences in which the dif- 
 ferent members are proportionally arranged. 
 I Temple, speaking sarcastically of man, says; *.'But his 
 pride is greater than his ignorance, and what he wants 
 in, knowledge he supplies by sufficiency. When he has 
 looked about him as far as he can, he concludes there is 
 no more to be seen; when he is at the end of his line^ 
 he is at the bottom of the ocean; when he has shot his 
 best, he is sure none ever did, or ever can, shoot better, 
 <^r beyond it. His own reason he holds to be the certaitt 
 measure of truth; and his own knowledge, of what is 
 possible in nature." Here every thing is at once easy 
 to the breath, grateful to the ear, and intelligible to the 
 understanding. See another example of the same kind^ 
 in, the 17th and 18th verses of the 3d chapter of the pro- 
 phet Habakkuk, We may remark here, that our present 
 version of the Holy Scriptures, especially of the Psalms, 
 abounds with instances of an harmonious arrangement 
 of the words and members of sentences. 
 
 In the following quotation from Tillotson, we shall 
 become sensible of an effect very different fix)m that of the 
 preceding sentences. "This discourse, concerning the 
 easiness '^^f the Divine commands, does all along suppose 
 and acknowledge the difficulties of the first entrance upon 
 a religious course; except only in those persons who 
 have had the happiness to be trained up to religion, by 
 the easy and insensible degrees of a pious and virtuous 
 education.*' Here there is some degree of harshness and 
 unpleasantness, owing principally to this, that there is 
 properly no more than one pause or rest in the sentence,, 
 tailing betwixt the two members into which it is divi- 
 ded: each of which is so long as to occasion a con- 
 siderable stretch of the breath in pronouncing it. 
 
 With respect to the cadence or close of a sentence, 
 care should be taken, that it be not abrupt, or unplea- 
 sant. The following instance may be sufficient to show 
 
2*fi APPENDIX. [Figures, 
 
 the propriety of some attention to this part of the rule. 
 "V^irtue, diligence, and industry, joined with good tem- 
 per'Und prudence, are prosperous in general." It would 
 be better thus: '^Virtue, diligence, and industry, joined 
 with good temper and prudence, have ever been found 
 the surest road to prosperity. " An author speaking 
 of the Trinity, expresses himself thus; " It is a mystery 
 which we firmly believe the truth of, and humbly adore 
 the depth of. " How much better would it have been' 
 with thi^s transposition: "It is a mystery, the truth of 
 which we firmly believe, and the depth of which wq 
 humbly adore." 
 
 In order to give a sentence this proper close, the 
 longest member of it, and the fullest words, should be 
 reserved to the conclusion. But in the distribution of 
 the members, and in the cadence of the period, as well 
 as in the sentences themselves, variety must be observ- 
 ed: for the mind soon tires with a frequent repetition of 
 the same tone. 
 
 Though attention to the words and members, and the 
 close of sentences, must not be neglected, yet it must 
 also be kept within proper bounds. Sense has its own 
 harmonyj and in no instance should perspicuity, pre- 
 cision, or strength of sentiment, be sacrificed to sound. 
 All unmeaning words, introduced merely to round the 
 period, or fill up the melody, are great blemishes in 
 writing. They are childish and trivial ornaments, by 
 which a sentence always loses more in point of weight, 
 than it can gain by such additions to its sound. See 
 the Octavo Grammar, on this chapter. 
 
 See also the appendix to the Exercises. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OF FIGURES OF SPEECH. 
 
 The FOURTH requisite of a pei^fect sentence, is a ju- 
 dicious use of the Figures of Speech. 
 
 As figurative language is to be met with in almost 
 every sentence; and, when properly employed, confers 
 beauty and strength on composition; some knowledge of 
 it appears to be indispensable to the scholars, who are 
 learning to form their sentences with perspicuity, accu- 
 racy, and force. We shall, therefore, enumerate the 
 principal figures, and give them some explanation. 
 
 la general, Figures of Speech imply some departure 
 
Figures.] perspicuity, &c 3t7 
 
 from simplicity of expression; the idea which we mean 
 to convey is expressed in a particular manner, and with 
 some circumstance added, which is designed to render 
 the impression more strong and vivid. When I say, for 
 instance, *'That a good man enjoys comfort in the midst 
 Qf adversity;" I just express my thoughts in the sim- 
 plest manner possible: but when I say, *'To the upright 
 there ariseth light in darkness;" the same sentiment is 
 expressed in a figurative style; a new circumstance is 
 introduce4; ''light," is put in the place of "comfort," 
 and ''darkness" is used to suggest the idea of adversity. 
 In the same manner, to say, "It is impossible, by any 
 search we can make, to explore the Divine Nature fully," 
 is to make a simple proposition: but when we say, "Canst 
 thou, by searching, find out the Lord? Canst thou find 
 out the Almighty to perfection? It is high as heaven, 
 what canst thou do? deeper than hell, what canst thou 
 know?" this introduces a figure into style; the proposi- 
 tion being not only expressed, but with it admiration 
 and astonishment. 
 
 But, though figures imply a deviation from what may 
 be reckoned the most simple form of speech, we are not 
 thence to conclude, that they imply any thing uncommon, 
 or unnatural. On many occasions, they are both the most 
 natural, and the most common method of uttering our 
 sentiments. It would be very difficult to compose any dis- 
 course without using them often; nay, there are few sen- 
 tences of considerable length, fn which there does not 
 occur some expression that may be termed afigure. This 
 being the case, we may see the necessity of some atten- 
 tion, in order to understand their nature and use. 
 
 At the first rise of language, men would begin with 
 giving names to the different objects which they discern- 
 ed, or thought of. The stock of words would, then, be 
 very small. As men's ideas multiplied, and their ac- 
 quaintance with objects increased, their store of names 
 and words would also increase. But to the vast variety 
 of objects and ideas, no language is adequate. No lan- 
 guage is so copious, as to have a separate word for every 
 separate idea. Men naturally sought to abridge this la- 
 Ibour of multiplying words without end; and, in order to 
 lay less burden on their memories, made o^ne word, which 
 they bad already appropriated to a certain idea or object^ 
 
S^8 Ai*FENDix. [Figures. 
 
 stand also for some other idea or object, between which 
 and the primary one, they found, or fancied, some relation. 
 The names of sensible objects, were the words most early 
 introduced; and were, by degrees, extended to those 
 mental objects, of which men had more obscure concep- 
 tions, and to which they found it more difficult to assign 
 distinct names. They borrowed, therefore, the name of 
 some sensible idea, where their imagination found some 
 affinity. Thus, we speak of a piercing judgment, and a 
 clear head: a soft or a hard heart; a rough or a smooth 
 behaviour. We say, inflamed by anger, warmed by lo\'e, 
 swelled with pride, melted into grief; and these are almost 
 the only significant words whi<:h we have for such ideas. 
 
 The principal advantages of figures of speech, are 
 the two following. 
 
 First, They enrich language, and render it more co- 
 pious. By their means words and phrases are multiplied, 
 for expressing all sorts of ideas; tor describing even the 
 minutest differences; the nicest shades and colours of 
 thought; which no language could possibly do by pro- 
 per words alone, without assistance from Tropes. 
 
 Secondly^ They frequently give us a much clearer and 
 more striking view of the principal object, than we could 
 have, if it were expressed in simple terms, and divested 
 of its accessory idea. By a well chosen figure, even 
 conviction is assisted, and the impression of a truth upon 
 the mind, made more lively and forcible than it would 
 otherwise be. We perceive this in the following illus^ 
 tration of Young: *'When we dip too deep in pleasure, 
 we always stir a sediment that renders it impure and 
 noxious:" and in this instance: ''A heart boiling with 
 violent passions, will always send up infatuating fumes 
 to the head." An image that presents so much con- 
 gruity between a moral and a sensible idea, serves, lik" 
 an argument from analogy, to enforce what the authi 
 asserts, and to induce belief. 
 
 Having considered the general nature of figures, m 
 proceed next to particularize such of them as are of li. 
 most importance;' viz. Metaphor, Allegory, Compa:- 
 sonj Metonymy^ Synecdoche, Personification, A post} o 
 phe, Antithesis, Interrogation, Exclamation, Ampliii- 
 nation or Climax, &c. 
 
 A Metaphor is a figi^ire fouTided entirely on the re.s^hi- 
 
'iFigures.'] perspicuity, See. 289 
 
 blance which one object bears to another. Hence, it is 
 much allied to simile or compunson, and is indeed no 
 other than a comparison, expressed m an ahridijed forn>. 
 When I say of some great minister, *'that he uphold :> 
 the state, like a pillar which supports the weight of u 
 whole edifice," I fairly make a cojuparison: but when 
 I say of such a minister, "•That he is the pilUr of the 
 
 'state,'' it now becomes a nK'taplu.-r^ In the latter ca.'c, 
 the coniparisoji between the minisTL-r i.nd a j-Uiar is 
 made in the mind; but it is expr'jyi.ed without uriv < f 
 Xhe words that denote comparison. 
 
 The ibllowinj^ ai-e exampltrs of metapbof taken from 
 ■Scripture: *'I will be unto her a wail of fire roun;l 
 about, and will be the glory iu the midst of her. ' 
 
 '■"Thou art rny rock and my fortress." ''Thy word is a 
 
 •^amp to my feet, and a lig-ht to my path." 
 
 'Rules to l)e observed in the uSe oT nletaphors. 
 ''I. McicTjf/toh^ (14 well as of her 'fii^urc?^ slioiiJd on no or.' 
 casion, be .stuck On prc^nstly.; and stvovld always be such ii.'=> 
 accord vnth the strain of our sentimcut. The latter part cf 
 
 *the following passage, from -a late historian, is, in this 
 respect, very exceptionable. He is givint^ an ?xcount<^f 
 the famous act of parliament against irregular mar- 
 riages in England, '^'i'he bill,'* says he, "underwent 
 a great number of alterations and amendments, which 
 were not ?i^ectcd without violent contest. At lengch, 
 howevet','it was floated through^ijoth houses on the ti(Ui 
 of a ^*eat majorit^v, and steered into the safe haibour 
 of royal approbation." 
 
 "2. Care should lie takei\ that the resemblance^ which in 
 the fonr-ddt'jm cf the metaphor ^ hi' dear and persj i:uouby 
 not fitr-fi'tched, nor d[fficv.l' to ddscover. The transgression 
 of this rule makes what are called harsh or forced meta- 
 phors; whi-ch arc displeasing, because they })uzzle th«; 
 reader, and instead of illustrating liie thoilglit, rei;der 
 it pei'plexed and intricate. 
 
 ;;. In the third place, we shouM be careful, in the 
 C('nduct'<}f ineta^:)hr>rs, never to Jnrnhir inetaphorical and 
 phdn ian'gK/i^t'tr>-rcther* An aiitiioi, addressing himself 
 •to the kilig^ says: 
 
 To thee the world its i)rr^^erit h riaL'e'pnysr, 
 The harced earl\. but n»viUiie die uraiSt, 
 
 ' B b 
 
ii90 APPENT>1S. [FigUtCS. 
 
 It 19 plain, that, had not the rhytne misled him to the 
 rhoice of an improper phrase, he would have said, 
 
 The Afflrw?«<earl\', bot mature tlie crop; 
 utid so vould have continued the figure which he had 
 begun. Whereas, by dropping it unfinished, and by em- 
 ploying the literal word *'praisc," when we were expect- ^ 
 jng something that related to the harvest, the figure is * 
 broken, and the two members of the sentence have no 
 s^litabie correspondence to each other. 
 
 4s We should avoid making two inconsistent meta- 
 phors meet on one object. This is what is called mixed 
 metaphor, and is indeed one of the greatest misapplica- 
 frons of this figure. One may be *W/€7/e/'6rf under the 
 patronage of a great man:" but it would be wmng to 
 say, '"''shelUred under the mask of dissimulation:" as a 
 Tnask conceals, but does not shelter. A-ddison in his 
 letter from Italy, says: 
 
 I bridle in my stniggliog muse vi'itbpaia, 
 That longs to launch into a bolder straio. 
 
 The muse, figured as a horse, may be bridled^j but when 
 we speak of launching, we make it a ship; and by no 
 force of imagination, can it be supposed both ahorse 
 and a ship at one moment^ bridged, to hinder it from 
 launching. 
 
 The same author, elsewhere, says, *'There is not a 
 single view of human nature, which is not sufiicient to 
 cxtirtguish the seeds of pride. " Observe the incoherence 
 of the things here joined together^ making a view extiji- 
 guish, and extinguish seeds. 
 
 As metaphors ought never to be mixed, so they shouM 
 not be crowded together on the same object; for the mind 
 has difficulty in passing readily through many different 
 views of the same object, presented in jquick succession. 
 
 The last rule concerning metaphors, is, tlmt they be not 
 too far pursued. If the resemblance, on which the figure 
 is founded, be long dwelt upon, and carried into all its 
 minute circumstances, we tire the reader, who soon 
 ^grows weary of this stretch of fancy; and we render our 
 discourse obscure. This is. called straimng a metaphor. 
 Authors of a lively and strong imagination are apt to run 
 into this exuberance of metaphor. When they hit upon 
 a figure that pleases them, they are loth to part with it, 
 and frequently continue it se long, as to become .tedious 
 
Figures.] perspicuity^ Sec, 291 
 
 and intricate. We may observe, for insUnce, how tlte 
 following metaphor i*-spim out. 
 
 Thy tlioiiglits are vfisnbonds; all outward bound, 
 
 'Mulst surids, aud ruck?, aiid storms, to cruise for pleasure; 
 
 If ^ain'd, dear bouglil: and t>ettern)Ks'd than gain 'd 
 
 l^'aucy and sense, from an iiifectcii shore, 
 
 Thy carg-o briii<j[; ujid }>e-stilence the prize- 
 
 Tlien such a thirst, insatiable thirst, 
 
 Dy fond indulgeiscki but iniJam'd the more; 
 
 Fancy fet4U cruises, wiicn poor sense is tired. 
 
 An Allegory may be rei^ardcd as a metaphor continiied. 
 since it is the representation of some one thing by another 
 that resembles it, and which is made to stand for it. We 
 may take from the Scriptures a very fine example of an 
 4iilegory» in the 80th Psalm; where the people of Israel 
 are represented under the imageof a vine: and the figure 
 is carried throughout vith great exactness and beauty. 
 "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast 
 out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room 
 before itf and didst cause it to take deep root, and it 
 filled the land* The hill.s were covered with the shadow 
 of it: and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars-. 
 She sent out her bought, into the sea, and her branches 
 into the river. Why hast thou broken down her hedges-, 
 sa that aH- they which pass by the way do pluck her: 
 The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the w ih! 
 beast of the field doil^ devour it. Return, we beseech 
 Uiee, O God of Hosts, look down from heaven, and be- 
 held, and visit this vinei" See also Ezekiel, xvii. 22<*2 U 
 
 The first and principal requisite in the conduct of a:i 
 allegory, is, that the figunitive and the literal meaning he 
 not mixed ijiconsisteni/y together. Indeed, all the rules 
 that were given for metaphors, may also be applied to 
 allegories, on acco\jnt of the affinity they bear to each 
 other. The onlf material ditTtfrence between them, be- 
 sides the one being short and the other being prolonged. 
 is, that a metaphor always explains itself by the word;s 
 that are connected with it in their proper and natural 
 meaning: as, when I say, *'Achilles was a lion;" "An 
 able minister is the pillar of the state;" the "lion" and 
 the *'pillar" are sufficiently interpreted by the mention 
 of "Achilles" and the ''minister,'* which I join to them; 
 but an allegory is, or may be, allowed to stand less con- 
 fiijeted with the-literal meaning, the interpretation not 
 
292 APREXDix. fFigwres., 
 
 Iveing; so directly pointed out, butl^fi. to our own reflec- 
 tion. 
 
 A 11^:^0 ry vas a fa"v'ourite rnetbod of delivering; instruc- 
 tion ifi ancient times; (ov what we call f.ibles or parables, 
 are r.o other than alleg-ofies. By words and actions 
 atti'ib-ucd to beasts or inanlviTate objects, the dispositions 
 (.f r!">cn .w.ere fiii^ured: and what we call the moral, is the 
 n^fi-^iired sense or meaning of.the allegory. 
 
 A L\iriijmn>:onov iyin!,'il\\'\'i, when the resemblance be- 
 tween t'.vo objects is exprsasel in form^ and generally 
 pursued more fally than the nature of a metaphoV ad- 
 mits: as v/hen it is said, ""^The actions of princes are like 
 rio«;e great rivers, the course of which every one be- 
 I'.oids. b.tt their springs have been seen by few." ''^As 
 the mo'intains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord 
 is round about his. people. " *'Ijehold. how good and 
 how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in. 
 ntntyl It is like the precious ointment, Sec. and as the, 
 dew that descended' upon the mountains of Zion." 
 
 The advantage of this fignire u rises from the illustra-, 
 lion which the sin>ile employed gives to the principal 
 ♦ »bject; from the clearer view which it presents; or the 
 more strong impression Which it stamps upon the mind. 
 Observe tneeiiect of it in the following instance. The 
 aulhui- is explainiivg' the distinction between thepowers 
 of £en^:e and imagination in the human miiKi. "As v/ax," 
 says ho. '•'would not l*e adequate to tlie purpose of sig- 
 nature, i" it had not tha power to i-etain as well as to re- 
 ceive the impression, the same holds of the soul with 
 respe-ji to -ieiiie and imagination. Sense is its receptive 
 nov/eij imagination, its retentive. Had it sense with- 
 out irn?.glnatioTK it would not be as wax, but as water,- 
 vv'here, though all impie'^sions are instantly made, yet 
 as soon as they are maae, they are instantly lost." 
 
 In comparisons of this nr^ture, the understanding is 
 concerned much more than the fancy,: and therefore the 
 rules to be observed, with respect to them, are, that 
 they be clear, and that they be useful.: that they tend to 
 render our conception of the principal objects more dis- 
 tinct; and that they do not lead our view aside, and be- 
 wilder it with any false light. We should always re- 
 member that similies are not arguments. However apt 
 ihey may be, they dg no more than explain the Avriter^a 
 
rlgures.J PERSpreuiTV, 8tc. 293 
 
 sentiments, they do not prove them to be founded on 
 t:roth. 
 
 Comparisons ought not to be' founded on likenesses 
 which are too faint and remote. For these, in place of 
 assisting, strain the -mind to comprehend them, and 
 throw no light upon the subject.^ It is -also to be ob- 
 served, that a comparison which, in the principal cir- 
 cumstances, carries a sufficiently near resemblance, may 
 be'come unnatural and obscure, if pushed too far. No- 
 thing is more opposite to the deM;j;n of-this figure, than 
 to hunt after a great number of cvolacidences in minute 
 points, merely to show how far the writer's ingenuity 
 can stretch the resemblance.- 
 
 A Metonymy is founded on the several relations, of 
 cause and eifect, containt^r and contained, sign and thing 
 signified. When we say; "They read iMilton," the cause 
 is put instead of the effect; mertning ^'Milton's works." 
 On tlie other hand, when it is said, *'Gray hairs should 
 be respected,"' we put the effect for the cause, meaning 
 by * 'gray hairs," o/V/ a^e. ''The kettle boils," is a 
 phrase where the name of the container is substituted 
 for that of the thing contained. ''To assume the scep-*^ 
 tre," is a common expression for entering on royal au- 
 thority; the sign being put for the thing signified. 
 
 ^V'hen the whole is put for apart, or a part for the 
 
 hole; a genus for a species, .or a species ior a genus: 
 iu general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is 
 put for the precise object meant; the figure is then call- 
 ed a Synecdoche ov Comprehension. It is very common, 
 for instance, to describe a whole object by some remark- 
 able part of it: as when we say, '^a fleet of twenty sflreV,'" 
 in the place of '•^ships;'' when we tise the ^^head" for the 
 ^^person^'' the ^^waves'' for the ''^eo." In like manner, 
 an attribute may be put for a subject: as, ''Youth" for- 
 the "young," the "deep^" for the * 'sea;" and sometimes 
 a subject for its attribute. 
 
 Personification or Prosopopoeia, is that figure by which 
 "we attribute life and action to inanimate objects. The 
 use of this figure is very natural and extensive: there is 
 a wonderful proneness in human nature, under emotion, 
 to animate all objects. When we say, "the ground thirsts 
 (at rain," or, "the earth smiles with plenty;" when we 
 speak of "ambition*s being re*//e55," or, *'a disease's, 
 B b 3 . 
 
394 APPEXDix* [Figuresv 
 
 beini^ deceilfal/' such expressions show the facility with 
 which the mind can accommodate the properties of liv- 
 ing; creatures to things that are inanimate, or to abstract 
 conceptions of its own forming. The following are 
 striking exarnple:,s from the Scriptures: '*When Israel 
 went out of Egypt, the house of Judah from a people of 
 strange lang'jage: the ^ea saw it, and fled: Jordan was 
 driven back! Thi: mountains skipped like rartis, and 
 the little hills like lambs. What ailed thee, O thou sea! 
 that thou fleddest? Thou Jordan, that thou wast driven - 
 back? Ye mountains, that ye skipped like rams; and ye 
 little hills, like lambs? Tremble, thou earth, at the pre- 
 sence of the Lord, at the presence of the Ciod of Jacob." 
 ^''The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad 
 for them: and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as 
 the rose." 
 
 Milton thus describes the immediate effects of eating 
 the forbidden frurt. Terror produces the figure. 
 
 Karih trembled fi-oni her entrails, as again 
 
 In pangs, aatl nature gave a second groan; 
 
 fcky Jow'r'd, and. riiuti t!»g thuDikr, some sad drops 
 
 ^''/ept at completing of llie mortal sin. 
 The impatience of Adam to know his origin, is sup- 
 posed to prompt the personification of all the objects he 
 beheld, in order to procure information. 
 Thou sun, said I, fair light! 
 
 And thou enlighten'd earth, so fresh and gay! 
 
 Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, wootls, and plains, 
 
 And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell, 
 
 Tell, if you saw, how came I thus, how here? 
 We shall give a remarkably fine example of this figurje,-. 
 from bishop Sherlock. He has beautifully personified - 
 Natural Religion: and we may perceive, in the personifi- 
 cation, the spirit and grace which the figure, when well 
 conducted, bestpws on discourse. The author is com- 
 paring together our Saviour and Mahomet. *'Go (says. 
 he) to your Natural Religion: lay before her Mahomet^, 
 and his disciples, arrayed in armour and blood, riding 
 in triumph over the spoils of thousands who fell by his 
 victorious sword. Show her the cities which he set in 
 flames, the countries which he ravaged and destroyed, 
 and the miserable distress of all the inhabitants of the 
 earth. When she, has viewed him in this scene, carry 
 her into his retirement; show her the Prophet's cham- 
 ber; his concubines and his wives; and let her hear him 
 
Figures.] rERSwcurry, &c. 295 
 
 allege revelation, and a Divine command, to justify his 
 adultery and lust." 
 
 '*When she is tired with this prospect, then show her 
 the blessed Jesus, humble and meek, doing good to all 
 the sons of men. Let her see him in his most retired 
 privacies^ let her follow him to the mount, and hear his 
 devotions and supplications- to God. Carry her to his 
 table, to view his poor fare; and hear his heavenly dis- 
 course. Let her attend him to the tribunal-, and con- 
 sitler the patiejice with wliich he endured the scoffs and 
 reproaches of his enemies. Lead her to his cross;, let 
 her view him in the agony of death, and hear his last 
 prayer for his persecutors; 'Father, foi-give them, for 
 they know not what they do.' — When Natural Religion, 
 has thus viewed both, ask her, which is the Prophet of 
 God.^ — But her answer we-.have already had, when she 
 saw part of this scene, through theeyes^of the Centurion^ 
 w^ho attended at the cross. B-y him she spoke, and said, 
 'Truly this man was the Son of God.' " This is more 
 than elegant; it is truly sublime. The whole passage is 
 animated;, and the figure rises at the conclusion, when 
 Natural Religion, who, before, was only a spectator, is 
 introduced as speaking by the Centmion's voice. 
 
 This figure of speech is sometimes very improperly 
 and extravagantly applied. A capital error in personi- 
 fying objects, is, to deck them with fantastic and trifling 
 circumstances. A practice of this sort dissolves the 
 potent charm which enchants and deceives the reader; 
 and either leaves him dissatisfied, or excites, perhaps,, 
 his risibility. 
 
 Another error, frequent in descriptive personifications, 
 consists in introducing them, when the subject of discus- 
 sion is destitute of dignity, and the reader is not prepared 
 to relish them. One can scarcely peruse, with compo- 
 sure, the following use of this figure. It is the language 
 of our elegant poet Thomson, who thus personifies and 
 connects the bodily appetites, and their gratifications. 
 Then sated Hunger bids his brother Thirst 
 Produce the miehty bowl: 
 Nor wanting is the brown October, drawn 
 Mature and perfect, from his dark retreat 
 Of thirty years: and now his honest front 
 Flames in the light refulgent. 
 
 It is to be remarked, concerning this figure, and short 
 
0^6 APPENDIX. [Figures. . 
 
 metaphors and similies, which also have been alloweci 
 to be the proper language r)f high passion, thattheyafc 
 the proper expressioii ot it, only on those. occasions when 
 it.is so far moderated as to admit of words. The first and 
 highest transports seem to overwhelm the mind,- and 
 are denoted by silence or groans: next succeeds the via- 
 l"e]BLt.anclpassionatelanguage, of which these figures coTVr 
 stitute a great part. Such- agitation, however, cannot 
 long continue; the passions having spent their force, the 
 mind soon subsides into that exhausted and dispirited . 
 ri-tate, in which all. figures are improper. 
 
 Jlpostr&phe is a turning off from the regular course of 
 the subject, to address some person or thing; as, "Death 
 \h swallowed up in victory. O death! where is thy 
 sting? O grave! where is thy victory?" 
 
 The following is an instance of' personification and., 
 apostrophe united: "O thou sword of the Lord! how long 
 will, it be ere thou be quiet? put thyself up intothy scab- 
 bard, rest and be still! How can it be quiet, seeing the 
 Lord hath given it a charge against A skelon, and agains'- 
 Ihe sea-shore? there hath he appointed it." See also 
 an extraordinary >example of these figures, in the I4lh 
 chapter- of Isaiah, from the 4th to the 19th verse, where 
 the prophet describes the fall of the Assyrian empire. 
 
 A principal error, in the use of the Apostrophe, is\ 
 to deck the object addressed with affected ornamentsr 
 by which authors relinquish the expression of passion, 
 :md substitute for it the language of fancy. 
 
 Another frequent -error is, to extend this figure to too. 
 great length. The language of violent passion is always 
 concise, and often abrupt. It passes sudd'cnly from one 
 object to another. It often glances at a thought, starts 
 from it, and leaves it unfinished. The succession of 
 ideas is irregular, and connected by distant and uncom- 
 mon relations. Onfall these accounts, nothing is more 
 untiaturalthan long speeches, uttered by persons undeV 
 Ihc influence of strong passions. Yet this error occurs- 
 in several poets of distinguished reputation. 
 
 The next figure in .order, is Jlntithesis. Comparison is 
 founded on the resemblance; antithesis, on the contrast 
 OF opposition of two objects. Contrast has always the 
 effect, to make each of the contrasted objects appear in 
 tlxe stronger light. White, for instance, never appears : 
 
rigures.] rERsncuixy, &c. 297 
 
 so bright as when it is opposed to black; and when both 
 : viewed together. An author, in his defence of a 
 ifiu'l against the charge of murder, expresses himself 
 thus: -'Can you believe that the person whom he scru- 
 pled to slay, when he might have done so with full jus- 
 tice, in a convenient place, at a proper time, v/ith secure 
 impunity; he made no scruple to murder against justice, 
 in an nnfdvourahle place, at an unseasonable time, and 
 at the risk of capital condemnation?" 
 
 The followiiig examples further iUastrate thisffgure.. 
 
 Tho' deep, yet elevir; tho' gentle, yet not dui!;. 
 
 Sti'ong, without rage; withiiat u'er-'ovvmg-, full. ^^ 
 
 **If you wish to enrich a person^study not to increase 
 ITis stores, but to diminish his desires." 
 
 •'If you regulate your desires according to the stand- 
 ard of nature, you will never be poor; if according to 
 the standard of opinion, you will -ipvei' be rich." 
 
 A maxim, crnioral saying, very properly, receives the 
 form of the two last examples; both because it is sup- -^ 
 posed to bc^the fruit of meditation, and because it is de- 
 sigiied to be engraven on. the memory, which recals it 
 more easily by the help of such contrasted expressions. 
 Buc v.'here such sentences frequently succeed each other; 
 Vvhert this becomes an author's favourite and prevailing 
 maimer of expressing liimself, his style appears too 
 FiUich studied and laboured; it gives us the impression 
 of an,aiithor attending more to his manner of saying 
 things, thap to the things themselves. 
 
 The followint^- is a beautiful example of Antithesis. 
 ••'If ('ato may be censured, severely indeed, but justly^ 
 for abandoning the cause of liberty, which he would not, 
 Jvqwever, survive: what shall we say of those, Vvho e?n- 
 brace it faintly, pursue it irresolutely, grow tired of it 
 when they have much to hope, and give it up when they 
 luive nothing to fear.^" — The capital antithesis of this 
 sentence, is instituted between the, zeal of Cato for liber- 
 ty, and the indifference of some others of her patrons. 
 But, besides the leading antithesis, there are two sul>or- 
 dinate ones, in the latter member: **Grow tired of it, 
 when they have much to hope: and give it up, when 
 they have nothing to fear." 
 
 The eloquent Burke has exhibited a fine instance of^ 
 this figure, in his eulogium of the philanthropic Howard 
 
^98 APPENDIX. [Figures,^ 
 
 ''He hqts visited all Europe, — not to survey the sump^ 
 tuousness of palaces, or the stateliness of temples; not to 
 make accurate mrasurements of the remains of ancient 
 i^randeur, nor to form a scale cf the curiosity of modenv 
 arts; nor to colic t medals, or collate manuscripts: — but ' 
 to dive into the depths of dungeons; to plunge into the 
 infection of hospitals; to survey the mansions of sorrow 
 and pain; to take the gage, and dimensions of misery, 
 depression, and contempt; to remember the forgotten, .to 
 attend to the neglected, to visit the forsaken, and coni- 
 pare and collate the distresses of all men, in all countries.' . 
 
 The next figure concerning which we are to treat t^.' 
 called Hyperbole ov Exagf^eration. It,, consists in magni- 
 fying an object beyond its natural bounds. In all hy^- 
 guages, even in common conversation, hyperbolical ex- 
 pressions very frequently occur: as swift as the wind: ^ 
 as white as the snow; and the like; and the common 
 fv5rms of compliment, are almost allof them extravagant 
 hyperboles. If any thing be remarkably good or gie^t ' 
 in its kind, we are instantly ready to add to it some ex- 
 aggerating epithet, and to make it the greatest or best 
 v/.e ever saw. The imagination has always a tendency to 
 gratiiy itself, by magnifying its present object, and car- 
 rying it to excess. More or less of this hyperbolical ' 
 turn will prevail in language, according to the liveliness 
 of imagination among the people who speak it. Hence 
 young people deal much in hyperboles. Hence the Ian- 
 gu-jge of the Orientals was far more hyperbolical, than 
 that of the Europeans, who are of more phlegmatic, or, 
 perhaps .we may say, of more correct imagination. 
 Hence, among all writers in early times, and in the rudn 
 periods of society, we may expect this figure to abound. 
 Greater experience, and more cultivated society, abate 
 the warmth of imagination, and chasten the manner ©r' 
 expression. 
 
 Hyperboles are of two kinds; either such as are em- 
 ployed in description, or such as are sug:gested by the 
 warmth of passion. All passions without exception, 
 love, terror, amazement, indignation, and even grief, 
 throw the mind into confusion, aggravate their objects, 
 and of course prompt a hyperbolical style. Hence thp ' 
 following sentiments of Satan in Milton, as strongly as ., 
 they are described,, contain nothing but whatis niiturat-v 
 
^Figui-es.*] pERspictiTY, &C. Sl&g 
 
 jfind proper, exhibiting the picture of a mind agitatexi 
 -with rage and despair. 
 
 Me, miserable! which way shall I fly- 
 Infinite wrath, and infinite despair? 
 Which way 1 fly is Hell, myself am Hell; 
 And in the lowest depth, a lower deep, 
 6till threat'nittg to devour me, opens witJe, 
 To which the Hell I isti^ffer seems a Heaven. 
 
 The fear of an enemy augments the Conceptions oftKc 
 
 -size of their leader. *•! saw their chief," says the scout 
 
 of Ossian, ^Hall as a rock of ice; liis spear, the blasted 
 
 ;iir5 his shield, the rising moon: he sat on the shore like 
 
 a cloud of mist on the hill.'" 
 
 The errors frequent in the use of Hyperboles, arise 
 either from overstraining, or introducing them on un- 
 suitable occasions. Dryden, in his poem on the resto- 
 ration of king Charles the Second, compliments that 
 monarch, at the expense of the sun himself. 
 
 That star at yocr birth" shone out so bright, 
 It stain'd-the duller sun's meridian light 
 
 This is indeed mere bombast. It is difficult to ascer- 
 tain, by any precise rule, the proper measure and 
 boundary of this figure. Good sense and just taste tnvst 
 determine the point, beyond -which, if we pass, we be- 
 come extravagant. 
 
 Vision is another figure of speech, which is proper 
 only in animated and warm composition. It is produce<t 
 when, instead of relating something that is past, we use 
 the present tense, and describe it as actually passTrij^ 
 before our eyes. Thus, Cicero, in his fourth oration 
 against Catiline: '*I seem to myself to behold this city, 
 
 'the ornament of the earth, and the capital Of all natit)ns, 
 suddenly involved in one conflagration. I see'beforeme 
 the slaughtered heaps 6f citizens, lying unburied in the 
 
 4nidst of their ruined country. The furious countenanre 
 of Cethegus rises to my view, while, with a tiavage joy, 
 he is triumphing in your miseries." 
 
 This manner of description supposes a sort of enthu- 
 siasm, which carries the person who describes, in somfr 
 
 measure out of himself; and, when well executed, mus^ 
 needs, by the force of sympathy, impress the reader or 
 
 ^hearer very strongly. But, in order to a successful exe- 
 ;:ution, it requires an uncommonly warm imagination, 
 
oOO APVENiD'lx. [Figures. 
 
 and so happy a selection of circumstances, as shall 
 make us think we see before our eyes the scene that is 
 described. 
 
 Interrogation. The unfig;ured, literal use of intei-rogu- 
 tion, is to ask a question: but when men are stron:^lv 
 moved, whatever they would affirm or deny, with ^reut 
 earnestness, they naturally put in the form of a ctucstion, 
 expressing thereby'tlie strongest confidence ofthetrut;; 
 of their own sentiment, and appealing to their hearc: 
 for the impossibility of the contrary. Thus Balaum ex- 
 pressed himself to Balak. ''The Lord is not a man that 
 he should lie, neither the son of man that he should 
 repent. Hath Tie said it? and shall he not do it? Hath 
 he spoken it? and shall he not make it good?" 
 
 Interrogatioji gives life and spirit to discburse. We 
 see this in the animated, introductor)^i.peech of Cicero 
 against Catiline; "Hov/ long will you, Catiline, abuse our 
 patience? Do you not perceive that your designs are dis- 
 covered?" — He might "indeed have said; *'You abuse 
 our patience a long while. You must be sensible, tb.at 
 your designs are discovered." But it is easy to perceive, 
 how much this latter mode of expression falls short of 
 the force and vehemence of the former. 
 
 Exclamations are the efiect of strong emotions of the 
 mind: such as, surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the 
 like. **Wo is me that T sojourn in Mesech, that i dwell 
 in the tents of Kedarl" Psalms. 
 
 "O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a foun- 
 tain of tears, that I might weep day and night, for the 
 slain of the daughter of my people! C) that I had \n t k 
 wilderness a lodging-place of wayfaring m^nl" Jetxinv!';. 
 
 Though interrogations may be introduced into c'o-r; 
 and earnest reasoning, exclamations belong only ■> 
 strong emotions of the mind. When judiciously empn y- 
 ed, they agitate the hearer or the reader with sir.ii! .r 
 j)assions: but it is extremely impro])er, and souieiimcs 
 ridiculous, to use them on trivial occtisions, and on mc^u 
 or low subjects. The unexperienced writer often atteuinis 
 to elevate his language, by the copious display of th's 
 figure: but he rarely or never succeeds. He ftvMjueJt'.ly 
 renders his composition frigid to excess, or ubsolutoly 
 ludicrous, by calling on us to enter into his transpOii?!, 
 'vlien nothing is said ^r done to demand emotiuu. 
 
"Fig^ures.] perspicuity, Ecc. 501 
 
 Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to 
 our thoughts, not with a view to deceive, but to add force 
 to our observations. Persons may be reproved for their 
 negligqpce, by saying; "You have taken great care in- 
 deed." Cicero says of the person against whom he was 
 I pleading; "We have great reason to believe that the 
 I modest man would not ask him for his debt, when he 
 pursues his life." 
 
 I Ironical exhortation is a very agreeable kind of figure; 
 which, after having set the inconveniences of a thing, 
 in the clearest light, concludes with a feigned encou- 
 ragement to pursue it. Such is that of Horace, when 
 having beautifully described the noise and tumults of 
 Rome, he adds ironically; 
 
 "Go now, and study tuneful verse at Rome.' 
 
 The subjects of Irony are vices and follies of all kinds; 
 and this mode of exposing them, is often more effectual 
 than serious reasoning. The gravest persons have not 
 declined the use of this figure, on proper occasions. The 
 wise and virtuous Socrates made great use of it, in his 
 endeavours to discountenance vicious and foolish prac- 
 tices. Even in the sacred writings, we have a remarkable 
 instance of it. The prophet Elijah, when he challenged 
 the priests of Baal to prove the truth of their deity, 
 "mocked them, and said: Cry aloud, for he is a god; 
 either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in a jour- 
 ney, or perad venture he sleepeth, and must be awaked." 
 
 Exclamations and Irony are sometimes united: as in 
 Cicero's oration for Balbus, where he derides his ac- 
 cuser, by saying: "O excellent interpreter of the law! 
 master of antiquity! corrector and amender of our con- 
 stitution!" 
 
 The last figure of s])eech that we shall mention, is 
 what writers call Amplification or Climax. It consists lii 
 heightening all the circumstances of an object or action, 
 which we desire to place in a strong light. Cicero givers 
 a lively instance of this figure, when he says; "It is a 
 crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds; it is the height 
 of guilt to scourge him; little less than parricide to put 
 him to death: what name then shall I give to the act of 
 crucifying him?" 
 
 Archbishop Tillotson uses this figure very happily, to 
 recommend good and vktuous actions: "After we l\ave 
 
302 APPENDIX. [Figures.! 
 
 practised good actions awhile, they become easy; and 
 -vvhen they are easy, we begin to take pleasure in them; 
 and when they please us, we do them frequently; and 
 by frequency of acts, a thing grows into a habit; and con- 
 firmed habit is a kind of second nature; and so far as 
 any thing is natural, so far it is necessary; and we can 
 hardly do otherwise; nay, we do it many times when 
 we do not think of it." 
 
 We «ball conclude this article with an example of a 
 beautiful climax, taken from the charge of a judge to the 
 jury, in the case of a woman accused of murdering her 
 own child. ''Gentlemen, if one man had any how slain 
 another; if an adversary had killed his opposer, or a 
 woman occasioned the death of her enemy; even these 
 criminals would have been capitally punished by the 
 Cornelian law; but if this guiltless infant, that could 
 make no enemy, had been murdered by its own nurse, 
 what punishment would not then the mother have de- 
 manded? With what cries and exclamations would she 
 have stunned your ears? What shgll we say then, when 
 a woman, guilty of homicide, a mother, of the murder 
 of her innocent child, hath comprised all those misdeeds 
 in one single crime,^ a crime, in its own nature, detesta- 
 ble; in a woman, prodigious; in a mother, incredible; 
 and perpetrated against one whose age called for com- 
 passion, whose near relation claimed affection, and 
 whose innocence deserved the highest favour.'* 
 
 We have now finished what was proposed, concerning 
 Perspicuity in single words and phrases, and the accu- 
 rate construction of sentences. The former has been 
 considered under the heads of Purity, Propriety, and 
 Precision; and the latter, under those of Clearness, 
 Unity, Strength, and the proper use of Figurative Lan- 
 .guage. Though many of these attentions which have 
 been recommended, may appear minute, yet their effect 
 upon writing and style, ismuch greater than might, at 
 first, be imagined. A sentiment which is expressed in 
 accurate language, and in a period, clearly, neatly, and 
 well arranged, always makes a stronger impression on 
 the mind, than one that is expressed inaccurately, or in 
 a feeble or embarrassed manner. Every one feels this 
 upon a comparison: and if the effect be sensible in ohp 
 
Figures.] perspicuity, &c. 303 
 
 sentence, how much more in a whole discourse, or com- 
 position that is made up of such sentences? 
 
 The fundamental rule for writing with accuracy, and 
 into which all others might be resolved, undoubtedly is, 
 to communicate^) in correct language, and in the clearest and 
 most natural order, the ideas ivhich we mean to transfuse into 
 \ the minds of otlicrs. Such a selection and arrangement of 
 j words, as do most justice to the sense, and express it to 
 j most advantage, make an agreeable and strong impres- 
 sion. To these points have tended all the rules which 
 have been given. Did we always think clearly, and were 
 we, at the same time, fully masters of the language iii 
 which we write, there would be occasion for few rules. 
 Our sentences would then, of course, acquire all those 
 properties of clearness, unity, strength, and accuracy, 
 which have been recommeHded. For we may rest as- 
 sured, that whenever we express ourselves ill, besides 
 the mismanagement of language, there is, for the most 
 part, some mistake in our manner of conceiving the 
 subject. Embarrassed, obscure, and feeble sentences, 
 are generally, if not always, the result of embarrassed, 
 obscure, and feeble thought. Thought and expression 
 act and re-act upon each other. The understanding and 
 language have a strict connexion; and they who are 
 learning to compose and arrange their sentences with 
 accuracy and order, are learning, at the same time, to 
 think with accuracy and order; a consideration which 
 alone will recompense the student, for his attention to 
 this branch of literature. For afurther explanation of the 
 Figures of Speech, see the Octavo Cframmar, on this subjects 
 
ADDRESS 
 TO YOUNG STUDENTS. 
 
 The Compiler of these elements of the English language, hopes 
 it will not be deemed inconsistent with the nature and design oi 
 his work, to make a short address to the young persons engaged in 
 the study of it, respecting their future walks in the paths of lite- 
 rature, and the chief purpose to which they should apply their 
 acquisitions. 
 
 In forming this Grammar, and the volume of Illustrations con- 
 nected with it, the author was influenced by a desire to facilitate 
 your progress in learning, and, at the same time, to impress on 
 your minds principles of piety and virtue. He wished also to as- 
 sist, in some degree, the labours of those wIk) are cultivating your 
 understandings, and providing for you a fund of rational and use- 
 ful employnnent; an employment calculated to exclude those fri- 
 volous pursuits, and that love of ease and sensual pleasure, which 
 enfeeble and corrupt the minds of many inconsiderate youth, and 
 render tliem useless to society. 
 
 Without your own best exertions, the concern of others for your 
 vrelfare, will be of little avail: with them, you may fairly promise 
 yourselves success. The writer of this address, therefore, recom- 
 mends to you, an earnest co-operation with the endeavours of your 
 friends to promote your improvement and happiness. This co- 
 operation, whilst it secures your own progress, will afford you the 
 heart-felt satisfaction, of knpwing that you are cherishmg the 
 hopes, and augmenting the pleasures, of those with whom you are 
 connected by the most endearing ties. He recommends to you 
 also, serious and elevated views of the studies in which you noay 
 be engaged. Whatever may be your attainments, never allow 
 yourselves to rest satisfied with mere literary acquisitions, nor 
 with a selfish or contracted application of tliem. When they ad- 
 vance only the interests of this stage of being, and look not be- 
 yond the present transient scene, their influence is circumscribed 
 within a very narrow sphere. The great tmsiness of this life is 
 to prepare, and qualify us, for the enjoyment of a better, by cul- 
 tivating a pure and humble state of mind, and cherishing habits of 
 piety towards God, and benevolence to men. Every thing that 
 promotes or retards this important work, is of great moment to 
 you, and claims your first and mast serious attention. 
 
 If, then, the cultivation of letters, and an advancement in know- 
 ledge, are found to strengthen and enlarge your minds, to purify 
 and exalt your pleasures, a.nd to dispose you to pious and virtuous 
 sentiments and conduct, they produce excellent effects; which, 
 with your best endeavours to improve them, and the Divine bless- 
 ing superadded, will not fail to render you, not only wise and 
 good yourselves, but also the happy instruments of diffusing wis- 
 dom, religion, and goodness around you. Thus improved, your 
 acquisitions become handmaids to virtue; and they may eventually 
 serve to increase the rewards which the Supreme Being has pro- 
 
ADDRESS TO YOUNO STUDENTS. 305*" 
 
 jD3ise<iMo faithful and well-directed exertiwis, for the promotion of 
 truth and goodness amongst men. 
 
 But if you counteract the hopes of your friends, and the ten* 
 dency of these attainments; if you grow vain of your real or ima- 
 ginary distinctions, and regard with contempt, the virtuous, un- 
 lettered mind; if you suffer yourselves to be absorbed in over- 
 curious or trifling speculations; if your heart and principles be de- 
 based and poisoned, by the influence of corrupting and pemiciousr 
 books, for which no elegance of composition can make amends; 
 if you spend so much of your time in literary engagements, as to 
 make them interfere with higher occupations, and lead you to 
 forget, that pious and benevolent action is the great end of your 
 being: if such be the unhappy misapplication of your acquisiiiona 
 and advantages,— instead of becoming a blessing to you, they will 
 prove the occasion of greater condemnation; and, in tlie hour of 
 SCI ifus thought, they may excite the painful reflections, — that it 
 would liave heen better for you, to have remained illiterate and 
 unaspiring; to have been confined to the humblest walks of life; 
 and to have been even "hewers of wood and drawers of water"'' 
 all your days. 
 
 Contemplating the dangers to which you are exposed, the sor- 
 rows and dishonour which accompany talents misapplied, and 
 a course of indolence and folly, may you exert your utmost en- 
 deavours to avoid them! Seriously reflecting on the great end for 
 xvhich you were brought into existence; on the bright and encou- 
 raging examples of many excellent young persons; and on the 
 mournful deviati6ns of others, who once were promising-; may you 
 be so wise as to choose and follow that path, which leads to ho- 
 nour, usefulness, and true enjoyment! This is the morning of your 
 life, in which pursuit is ardent, and obstacles readily give way to 
 vigour and perseverance. Embrace this favourable season; de- 
 vote j'ourselves to the acquisition of knowledge and virtue; and 
 humbly pray to God that he may bless your labours. Often re- 
 flect on the advantages you possess, and on the source from whence 
 they are all derived. A lively sense of the privileges and bless- 
 ings, by which you have been distinguished, will induce you to 
 render to your heavenly Father, the just returns of gratitude and 
 love: and these fruits of early goodness will be regarded by him 
 as acceptable offerings, and secure to you his favour and protec- 
 tion. 
 
 Whatever difficulties and discouragements may be found in re- 
 sisting the allurements of vice, you may be humbly confident, 
 that Divine assistance will be aflbrded to all your good and pious 
 resolutions; and that every virtuous eflbrt will have a correspond- 
 ent reward. You may rest assured too, that all the advantages 
 arising from vicious indulgences, are light and contemptible, as 
 well as exceedingly transient, compared with the substantial en- 
 joyments, the present pleasures^ and the future hopes, which re- 
 sult from piety and virtue. The Holy Scriptures assure us, that 
 "The ways of wisdom are ways of pleasantness, and that all her 
 paths are peace:" "that religion has the promise of the lifif^ that 
 now is, and of that which is to come:" and that the truly good 
 man, whatever may be the condition allotted to him by Divine 
 Providence, "in all things gives thanks, and rejoices even in tri- 
 
306 Addr^^ss to young studejits. 
 
 bulation." — Some of these sentiments have been finely illiistrateet 
 by a celebrated poet. • The author of this address presents the il- 
 lustration to you, as a striking and beautiful portrait of virtue: 
 with his most cordial wisiies, that your hearts and lives may cor- 
 respond to it; and that jxjur happiness here, may be an earnest of 
 happiness hereafter. ^ 
 
 "Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
 
 Virtue alone is happiness below: 
 
 The only point where human bliss stands still; 
 
 And tastes the good, without the fall to ik 
 
 Where only merit constant pay receives, 
 
 Is bless'd in what it takes, and what it gives; 
 
 The joy unequall'd, if its end it gain. 
 
 Ana if it lose, attended with no pain: 
 
 Without satiety, though e'er so bless'd; 
 
 And but more relish'd as the more distress'd 
 
 The broadest mirth unfeeling folly wears, 
 
 Less pleasing far than virtue's very tears: 
 
 Good, from each object, from each place acquired!; 
 
 For ever exercis'd, yet never tir'd; 
 
 Never elated, while one man's oppress'd; 
 
 Never dejected, while another's bless'd: 
 
 And where no wants, no wishes can remain; 
 
 Since but to wish more virtue is to gain. — 
 
 For him alone hope leads from goal to goal. 
 
 And opens still, and opens on his soul; 
 
 Till lengthen'd on to faith, and unconfin'd. 
 
 It pours the blisg that fills up all the mind."^ 
 
 THE END 
 
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