Oftfc 
 
 .\\\EI 
 
 VlOS ANGELA 
 
 %: ^ %( 
 
 
 ^l-LIBRAI 

 
 THE EDUCATION 
 LIBRARY. 
 
 JOHN AMOS COMENIUS
 
 THE EDUCATION LIBRARY. 
 
 EDITED BY PHILIP MAGNUS. 
 
 An Introduction to the History of Educational Theories. 
 
 By OSCAR BROWNING, M.A., King's College, Cambridge. 
 
 II. 
 John Amos Comenius, Bishop of the Moravians. 
 
 His Life and Educational Works. 
 
 By S. S. LAURIE, A.M., F.R.S.E., Professor of the Institutes and 
 
 History of Education in the University of Edinburgh, Author 
 
 of ' Primary Instruction in relation to Education,' etc. 
 
 ill. 
 Old Greek Education. 
 
 By the Rev. Prof. MAHAFFY, M.A., U niversity of Dublin. 
 
 The following volumes are in preparation : 
 
 Home Training and School Teaching. 
 
 By the Rev. Dr. ABBOTT, Head Master, City of London School. 
 
 Psychology in its Bearings on Education. 
 
 By JAMES SULLY, M.A., Examiner in Mental and Moral Philosophy, 
 University of London. 
 
 Art Teaching in Schools. 
 
 By F. EDWARD HULME, F.L.S., F.S.A., Art Master, 
 Marlborough College. 
 
 The Teaching of Geography and History. 
 
 By F. S. PULLING, M.A., Exeter College, Oxford. 
 
 The Kindergarten System. 
 
 By Miss SHIRREFF. 
 
 Science Teaching in Schools. 
 
 By R. WOKMELL, M.A., D.Sc., Head Master, City Corporation 
 Schools ; and Prof. TILDEN, Mason's College, Birmingham. 
 
 School Management 
 
 By JOSEPH LANDON, Training College, Saltley. 
 
 LONDON : KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH & CO. 
 i PATERNOSTER SQUARE.
 
 JOHN AMOS COMENIUS 
 
 BISHOP OF THE MORAVIANS 
 
 HIS LIFE AND EDUCATIONAL WORKS 
 
 S. S. LAURIE, A.M., F.R.S.E. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THE 1NST1TUTBS AND HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH ; 
 
 AUTHOR OP ' PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN RELATION TO EDUCATION,' 
 ' PHILOSOPHY OF ETHICS,' ETC. 
 
 LONDON: KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH & CO. 
 
 i PATERNOSTER SQUARE 
 
 1881 
 
 U. C. L. A. 
 EDUC. DEPT.
 
 [ The rights oj translation and fff reproduction are reserved.}
 
 Ul . Education 
 
 /. L. A. Library 
 
 C. DEPL 
 
 C..1L2 
 
 I8BI 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 THIS book is the most complete so far as I 
 know the only complete account of Comenius 
 and his ' works that exists in any language. I 
 have gone carefully through the four volumes of 
 his didactic writings, containing 2271 pages of 
 Latin, good, bad, and indifferent. The German 
 translation of one of the treatises has also been 
 before me. The life is written, like the rest of 
 the book, entirely from original sources ; but I do 
 not endeavour to give an account of Comenius's 
 ecclesiastical relations. 
 
 It is not always easy to determine how much 
 of a voluminous and prolix writer should be 
 given. My object has been to omit nothing 
 essential. There is much in Comenius that is 
 fanciful, and even fantastic, and of this I have 
 endeavoured, in suitable places, to give enough 
 to exhibit the author's manner of thought. There 
 is much, again, that is now universally accepted 
 
 82773O
 
 VI 
 
 Preface. 
 
 in education, which I have yet preserved, because 
 the statement of it is essential to a proper expo- 
 sition of Comenius's system. My aim has been 
 to omit nothing that is characteristic or useful, or 
 historically important. 
 
 The scholastic habit of division and sub- 
 division was inherited by Comenius, and along 
 with this he had in great force the systematising 
 impulse of the German mind, though not himself 
 a German. He can leave nothing to Ibe under- 
 stood, but will sometimes imperil his whole theory 
 by insisting on the small as well as the great. 
 While following closely the argument of Comenius 
 I have dropped superfluous divisions and distinc- 
 tions, but wholly to avoid repetition was impracti- 
 cable. 1 
 
 S. S. LAURIE. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. 
 
 1 A pleasing and lucid sketch of Comenius and his work will 
 be found in Quick's Educational Biographies.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INTRODUCTION i 
 
 LIFE OF COMENIUS 19 
 
 AN ACCOUNT OF COMENIUS'S EDUCATIONAL 
 SYSTEM AND WORKS : 
 
 PART I. THE GREAT DIDACTIC : 
 
 FIRST SECTION : PANSOPHV AND THE AIM OF EDU- 
 CATION 71 
 
 SECOND SECTION : METHOD OF EDUCATION ' . 82 
 
 THIRD SECTION : ART OF EDUCATION . . 102 
 FOURTH SECTION : GENERAL ORGANISATION OF A 
 
 SCHOOL SYSTEM 138 
 
 PART II. THE METHOD OF LANGUAGES . 155 
 
 PART III. THE TEXT-BOOKS AND THE WAY 
 
 OF USING THEM 174 
 
 VESTIBULUM 174 
 
 JANUA 181 
 
 ATRIUM 189 
 
 SUBSIDIARY TEXT-BOOKS . ' . . . 191 
 
 Orbis Pictus . . . . . . . 191 
 
 Schola Ludus . . . . . . 194 
 
 Text-Book of Greek 195 
 
 PART IV. INNER ORGANISATION OF A PAN- 
 SOPHIC SCHOOL, AND THE INSTRUCTION- 
 PLAN 197 
 
 BRIEF CRITICISM OF COMENIUS'S SYSTEM . 216 
 
 INDEX 229
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE RENASCENCE. 
 
 IT is usual to date the revival of letters from the 
 time of Petrarch in Italy (1304-74) and Chaucer in 
 England (1328-1400), and to find the chief impulse 
 which the movement received from without, in the 
 dispersal of Greek scholars over Europe at the taking 
 of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. The new 
 birth of the mind of Western and Northern Europe was 
 a process similar to that which is repeated in the 
 intellectual history of every man who rises above those 
 forms and conventionalities of life and opinion in the 
 midst of which he has grown up. The intelligence of 
 men was overlaid with a burden of dogmatism and 
 pedantry of form in theology, ritual, philosophy, gram- 
 mar, and rhetoric. Looking straight at things things 
 of sense and of thought, contemplating those questions 
 which every thoughtful man has ultimately to answer 
 for himself, in an immediate way, and no longer through 
 the medium of mere phrases and forms, constituted the 
 essence of the revival. The regeneration of the human 
 spirit was felt in almost every department of intellectual 
 and moral activity. 
 
 A
 
 2 Introduction. 
 
 This return of the soul of man to Reality was, it 
 seems to me, the true characteristic of the revival. For 
 the dry bones of Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric, was 
 substituted the living substance of thought, and the 
 gymnastic of the schools gave place to the free play of 
 mind once more in contact with nature. The revival 
 was thus a return to realism the realism of a poetic 
 observation of nature, and of the thought of man on the 
 things that pertain to humanity. 
 
 The classical writers of Greece and Rome were, in 
 those days, almost the sole exponents of the new life, 
 and the alliance in them of truth and felicity of percep- 
 tion with beauty of expression so captivated the minds of 
 the Humanists that they surrendered to them their own 
 individuality. Beauty of expression was regarded as 
 inseparable from truth and elevation of thought. The 
 movement soon shared the fate of all enthusiasms. The 
 new form was worshipped, and to it the spirit and sub- 
 stance were subordinated. Style became the supreme 
 object of the educated class, and successful imitation, 
 and thereafter laborious criticism, became the marks of 
 the highest culture. The relation of ancient Rome to 
 Greece was somewhat similar, but with this difference, 
 that the Roman, being himself cast in an antique mould, 
 brought into literature the contribution of his own 
 freshness and originality. 
 
 When style and a wide and various knowledge of 
 stylists became the ambition of the cultivated man, it 
 can readily be understood that the education of boys 
 suffered. The object of schoolmasters being to prepare
 
 Introduction. 3 
 
 boys to admire and imitate perfection of form in an 
 ancient tongue, they had to fall back on the old gram- 
 matical drill. The chief permanent benefit to youth 
 was an improvement in the text-books, the works of 
 the classical writers themselves now taking the place of 
 epitomes and of barbarous Latinity. 
 
 It would have been strange if man's relations to 
 the unseen and eternal had escaped the criticism of 
 the reawakened soul : accordingly, we find the names 
 of Wycliffe and Huss conspicuous in the period of 
 Petrarch and Chaucer. When, later, subjects of spiritual 
 interest came fully within the scope of the modern 
 movement, they took precedence of all others, for 
 they concerned the business and touched the heart 
 of the humblest as well as of the highest. Reform 
 in religion introduced the element of passion into 
 the revival, and supplied the motive force necessary 
 to sustained and persistent activity. 
 
 In the earlier half of the sixteenth century the 
 Humanistic movement was represented by such men" 
 as Ludovicus Vives, Erasmus, Budseus, and Sir Thomas 
 More, and the parallel religious activity by the great 
 names of Luther and Calvin. In Melanchthon the 
 literary and theological streams met. Luther was un- 
 questionably a Humanist, but it was inevitable that 
 the deeper spiritual interests of which he was the 
 guardian should obscure the less urgent and less vital 
 claims of learning and culture. In his followers this 
 result was conspicuous. Men's minds became engrossed 
 with a reconstruction of faith and a reorganisation of
 
 4 Introduction. 
 
 the Church, an enterprise which shook Europe and dis- 
 turbed the old order to its foundations. The political 
 and ecclesiastical wars may be said to have lasted 
 nearly one hundred and thirty years. 
 J In the History of Education it is important to 
 recognise the existence of the two parallel streams of 
 intellectual and spiritual regeneration. The leaders of 
 both, like the leaders of all great social changes, at once 
 bethought themselves of the schools. Their hope was 
 in the young, and hence the reform of Education early 
 engaged their attentions 
 
 The pure Humanists, on the one hand, were intent 
 on the substitution of literary culture for grammatical 
 and logical forms, and cared only for the education of 
 the few; but their sympathy with the religious refor- 
 mation was notorious ; and they shared the suspicion 
 with which the Protestant Reformers were regarded by 
 the mediaeval Church. To know Greek was to be ex- 
 posed to insinuations of heresy. An attitude of hostility 
 towards the independent activity of the human mind 
 was not, however, peculiar to the mediseval Church ; it 
 is to be easily detected in certain forms of Protestant- 
 ism. Both alike are obscurantist, and regard reason 
 with suspicion, if not with aversion. They have a pro- 
 found distrust of Humanity. 
 
 The Church Reformers, on the other hand, had an 
 interest in the progress of culture scarcely less sincere 
 than that of the Humanists, but to this they added 
 compassion for the dense ignorance of the masses of 
 the people. The human soul, wherever found, was
 
 Introduction. 5 
 
 to them an object of infinite concern, and, unlike the 
 Humanists, they aimed at universal instruction. The 
 new form of the old faith, it was felt, could sustain 
 itself only on the basis of popular education. The Re- 
 formers were educational philanthropists in the truest 
 sense, and hence the people's school is rightly called 
 the child of the Reformation. It would be out of 
 place here, in illustration of what has been said, to 
 do more than advert to Luther's impassioned appeals, 
 and to Melanchthon's universal activity which earned 
 for him the honourable designation of Preceptor Ger- 
 manise. To the same union of the theological with 
 the philanthropic spirit was due the noble scheme of 
 popular education embodied in the Book of Polity of 
 the Reformed Church of Scotland, written so early as 
 1560. 
 
 -I The educational aims of the leaders of the Humanistic 
 and Theological revival respectively, while they did 
 not conflict, were thus different both in their spirit and 
 scope ; and it is important to note this/ if we are to 
 understand the history of Schools from the sixteenth 
 century down to our own time : for motive causes in 
 operation 350 years ago are still active. 
 
 While the literary Humanists, such as Erasmus, had 
 for their aim culture, and this almost exclusively 
 through the literatures of Greece and Rome, the theolo- 
 gical Humanists, though recognising culture, yet desired 
 to subordinate it at every stage to a religious purpose. 
 The latter had consequently on their side popular 
 sentiment, because they most truly represented the
 
 6 Introduction. 
 
 popular need. 'Above all things,' said Luther, Met 
 the Scriptures be the chief and the most frequently used 
 reading-book, both in primary and in high schools. . . . 
 Where the Holy Scriptures do not bear sway, there I 
 would counsel none to send his child ; for every institu- 
 tion will degenerate where God's Word is not in daily 
 exercise. . . . The High Schools ought to send forth 
 men thoroughly versed in the Scriptures to become 
 bishops and pastors, and to stand in the van against 
 heretics, the devil, and, if need be, the whole world.' 
 With all this, Luther's views of education were large 
 and liberal, including music, gymnastic, and history, as 
 well as the languages and mathematics. Melanchthon 
 also, while urging the pursuit of ancient philosophy in 
 its original sources, and of the literatures of Greece 
 and Rome, yet held by Christian teaching as the main 
 end of the school. So with Valentine Trotzendorf 
 and the eminent John Sturm of Strasburg, whose great 
 classical school was a model for all countries : ' a 
 wise and persuasive piety, knowledge, and purity and 
 elegance of diction,' were his aim. The Humanistic 
 Protestant schools thus embraced Christian teaching 
 as a vital part of their curriculum, the desire of the 
 Reformers being always to unite true learning with 
 sound theology. It was this theological humanism (so 
 to speak) that ultimately gained the day among the 
 Reformed Churches. 
 
 The Roman Catholic Church meanwhile was not 
 insensible to the scholastic changes which the modern 
 spirit had made inevitable. The new order of the
 
 Introduction. 7 
 
 Jesuits was authorised in 1540. Their special function 
 as a Church Society was preaching, confession, and 
 education, but the last-named chiefly. ' To this,' says 
 Ranke, ' they thought of binding themselves by a special 
 clause in their vows ; and although that was not done, 
 they made the practice of this duty imperative by the 
 most cogent rules. Their most earnest desire was to 
 gain the rising generation.' In 1626 they had already 
 467 Colleges and thirty-six Seminaries, and to their 
 zealous and self-denying labours the reaction from 
 Protestantism was mainly due. While subordinating 
 all learning, nay, every act of life, to the Catholic 
 idea, they yet had open minds for educational im- 
 provements. The best parts of the methods pursued in 
 the schools of Trotzendorf and Sturm were embodied 
 in their system. Familiarity with Latin as a common 
 language, however, rather than with the literature of 
 Latin, was their school aim. At the same time, they 
 were sufficiently influenced by the Humanistic revival 
 to discard scholastic barbarism and to cultivate style. 
 Where rhetoric and style are cultivated for themselves, 
 the result is a certain discipline of the faculties certainly, 
 but an absence of the genuine substance of education. 
 Expression, not thought, becomes the prime considera- 
 tion ; and it is only thought about the realities of sense 
 or about the products of thought that calls forth original 
 power. The Jesuit course included Latin and a moder- 
 ate amount of Greek, with logic and rhetoric for the 
 more advanced classes. They could show as good a 
 curriculum as the public grammar schools of their time.
 
 8 Introduction. 
 
 The superiority of the Protestant schools lay in the 
 greater freedom of spirit which characterised them, and 
 the greater regard paid to the substance of literature. 
 The Jesuits, however, were far in advance of their con- 
 temporaries in laying down for their teachers a definite 
 educational method stiff and inelastic certainly, but 
 yet a method. Little by little, little at a time, culti- 
 vation of the memory, thoroughness in a few things, 
 easy work, and a mild but persistent discipline, were 
 merits belonging to the Jesuit schools two hundred 
 years before they were practised to any large extent 
 elsewhere. It is not our business here to enter more 
 largely into the Jesuit system : our object is simply to 
 show that this religious Order accepted the Humanistic 
 movement, under narrow restrictions certainly, but these 
 not of a kind to render their Humanism a mere name. 
 
 Thus it was that on both sides of the great contro- 
 versy which began 350 years ago, and still continues, 
 religion furnished the motive of education; and so it 
 will ever be, although it is possible that the form which 
 the religious spirit takes may be so veiled as to be 
 invisible even to itself. On one side, it was recognised 
 that the way to faith was through obedience, and that 
 obedience, the first of virtues in a true Catholic, can 
 be secured in two ways by the careful shaping of 
 the minds of those who demand education, and by the 
 equally careful neglect of the intelligence of those who 
 can be safely passed by. On the other side, the 
 Humanistic revival was early lost in the more pressing 
 claims of the Theological revival, and the genuine
 
 Introduction. 9 
 
 humane spirit permanently survived only in the move- 
 ment to instruct the masses. The theological spirit it 
 was that gave the impulse necessary to carry education 
 down into the lower strata of society, and so to raise 
 the humanity of the people. 
 
 The improvements made in the grammar schools 
 under the influence of Melanchthon and Sturm, and, in 
 England, of Colet and Ascham, did not endure, save 
 in a very limited sense. Pure classical literature was 
 now read, a great gain certainly, but this was all. 
 There was no tradition of method, as was the case 
 in the Jesuit order. During the latter half of the 
 sixteenth century, the complaints made of the state 
 of the schools, the waste of time, the barbarous and 
 intricate grammar rules, the cruel discipline, were loud 
 and long, and proceeded from men of the highest intel- 
 lectual standing. It has to be remembered, however, 
 that all Europe had been embroiled in civil and ecclesi- 
 astical contentions, and that the seeds of popular edu- 
 cation and of an improved secondary system could not 
 possibly have developed themselves in an atmosphere 
 so ungenial. Indeed, until the remodelled school code 
 of Saxony appeared in 1773 the dawn so full of promise 
 was clouded. Two hundred years were lost. Scotland 
 alone was during this period busily carrying out, in a 
 truly national sense, the programme of the Reformation 
 and the Humanists, but this, in accordance with the 
 genius of Protestantism, mainly on the popular side. 
 
 But the complaints and demands of men of learning 
 and piety were not relaxed. To unity in the Reformed
 
 I o Introduction. 
 
 Churches they looked, but looked in vain, for a settle- 
 ment of opinion, and to the school they looked as the 
 sole hope of the future. The school, as it actually 
 existed, might have well filled them with despair. 
 Even in the Universities, Aristotelian Physics and 
 Metaphysics, and with them the scholastic philosophy, 
 still held their own. The reforms initiated mainly by 
 Melanchthon had not, indeed, contemplated the over- 
 throw of Aristotelianism. He and the other Human- 
 ists merely desired to substitute Aristotle himself in 
 the original for the Latin translation from the Arabic 
 (necessarily misleading), and the Greek and Latin 
 classics for barbarous epitomes. These very reforms, 
 however, perpetuated the reign of Aristotle, when the 
 spirit that actuated the Reformers was dead and there 
 had been a relapse into the old scholasticism. The 
 Jesuit reaction, also, which recovered France and South 
 Germany for the Papal See, was powerful enough to 
 preserve a footing for the metaphysical theology of 
 St. Thomas Aquinas and the schoolmen. In England, 
 Milton was of opinion that the youth of the Universities 
 were, even so late as his time, still presented with an 
 ; asinine feast of sow-thistles.' These retrogressions in 
 School and University serve to show how exceedingly 
 difficult it is to contrive any system of education, middle 
 or upper, which will work of itself when the contrivers 
 pass from the scene. Hence the importance, it seems 
 to us, of having in every University, as part of the 
 philosophical faculty, a department for the exposition of 
 this very question of Education surely a very important
 
 Introduction. 1 1 
 
 subject in itself as an academic study, and in its prac- 
 tical relations transcending perhaps all others. How 
 are the best traditions of educational theory and practice 
 to be preserved and handed down, if those who are to 
 instruct the youth of the country are to be sent forth 
 to their work from our Universities with minds abso- 
 lutely vacant as to the principles and history of their 
 profession if they have never been taught to ask them- 
 selves the questions, 'What am I going to do?' 'Why?' 
 and ' How?' This subject is one worthy of considera- 
 tion both by the Universities and the State. It was the 
 want of Method that led to the decline of Schools after 
 the Reformation period; it was the study of Method 
 which gave the Jesuits the superiority that on many 
 parts of the Continent they still retain. 
 
 In 1 605 there appeared a book which was destined 
 to place educational method on a scientific foundation, 
 although its mission is not yet, it is true, accomplished. 
 This was Francis Bacon's Advancement of Learning, 
 which was followed, some years later, by the Organon. 
 For some time the thoughts of men had been turning 
 to the study of Nature. Bacon represented this move- 
 ment, and gave it the necessary impulse by his masterly 
 survey of the domain of human knowledge, his pregnant 
 suggestions, and his formulation of scientific method. 
 Bacon was not aware of his relations to the science and 
 art of Education ; he praises the Jesuit schools, not know- 
 ing that he was subverting their very foundations. We 
 know inductively : that was the sum of Bacon's teaching. 
 In the sphere of outer Nature, the scholastic saying,
 
 1 2 Introduction. 
 
 Nihil est in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensu, was 
 accepted, but with this addition, that the impressions 
 on our senses were not themselves to be trusted. The 
 mode of verifying sense-impressions, and the grounds 
 of valid and necessary inference, had to be investigated 
 and applied. It is manifest that if we can tell how it 
 is we know, it follows that the method of intellectual 
 instruction is scientifically settled. 
 
 But Bacon not only represented the urgent longing 
 for a co-ordination of the sciences and for a new 
 method, he also represented the weariness of words, 
 phrases, and vain subtleties which had been gradually 
 growing in strength since the time of Montaigne, Ludo- 
 vicus Vives, and Erasmus. The poets, also, had been 
 placing Nature before the minds of men in a new aspect. 
 The Humanists, as we have said, while unquestionably 
 improving the aims and procedure of education, had 
 been powerless to prevent the tendency to fall once 
 more under the dominion of words, and to revert to 
 mere form. The realism of human life and thought, 
 which constituted their raison d'etre, had been unable to 
 sustain itself as a principle of action, because there was 
 no school of method. It was the study of the realities 
 of sense that was finally to place education on a 
 scientific basis, and make reaction, as to method at 
 least, impossible. 
 
 The thought of any age determines the education of 
 the age which is to succeed it. Education follows, it 
 does not lead. The School and the Church alike 
 march in the wake of science, philosophy, and political
 
 Introduction. 1 3 
 
 ideas. We see this illustrated in every epoch of 
 human history, and in none so conspicuously as in 
 the changes which occurred in the philosophy and edu- 
 cation of ancient Rome during the lifetime of the elder 
 Cato, and in modern times during the revival of letters 
 and the subsequent rise of the Baconian induction. 
 It is impossible, indeed, for any great movement of 
 thought to find acceptance without its telling to some 
 extent on every department of the body politic. Its 
 influence on the ideas entertained as to the education 
 of the rising generation must be, above all, distinct 
 and emphatic. Every philosophical writer on political 
 science has recognised this, and has felt the vast signi- 
 ficance of the educational system of a country both as 
 an effect the consequence of a revolution in thought 
 and as a cause, a moving force of incalculable power in 
 the future life of a commonwealth. Thus it was that 
 the Humanistic movement which preceded and ac- 
 companied the Reformation of religion shook to its 
 centre the mediaeval school-system of Europe; and 
 that subsequently the silent rise of the inductive spirit 
 subverted its foundations. 
 
 Bacon, though not himself a Realist in the modern 
 and abused sense of that term, was the father of Realism. 
 It was this side of his teaching which was greedily seized 
 upon, and even exaggerated. Educational zeal now ran 
 in this channel. The conviction of the Churches of the 
 time, that one can make men what one pleases (by fair 
 means or foul), was shared by the innovators. By 
 education, rightly conceived and rightly applied, the
 
 1 4 Introduction, 
 
 enthusiasts dreamed that they could manufacture men, 
 and, in truth, the Jesuits had shown that a good deal 
 could be done in this direction. The new enthusiasts 
 failed to see that the genius of Protestantism is the 
 genius of freedom, and that man refuses to be manu- 
 factured except on suicidal terms. He must first 
 sacrifice that which is his distinctive title to manhood 
 his individuality and will. That the prophets of edu- 
 cational Realism should have failed to see this is not 
 to be laid to their door as a fault : it merely shows 
 that they belonged to their own time and not to ours. 
 They failed then, as some fail now, to understand man 
 and his education, because they break with the past. 
 The record of the past is with them merely a record 
 of blunders. The modern Humanist more wisely 
 accepts it as the storehouse of the thoughts and life of 
 human reason. In the life of Man each individual of 
 the race best finds his own true life. This is modern 
 Humanism the Realism of thought. 
 
 Yet it is to the Sense-realists of the earlier half 
 of the seventeenth century that we owe the scientific 
 foundations of educational method, and the only 
 indication of the true line of answer to the complaints 
 of the time. In their hands sense-realism became 
 allied with Protestant Theology, and pure Humanism 
 disappeared. They were represented first by Wolfgang 
 von Ratich, a native of Holstein, born in 1571. 
 Ratich was a man of considerable learning. The 
 distractions of Europe, and the want of harmony, 
 especially among the Churches of the Reformation, led
 
 Introduction. 1 5 
 
 him to consider how a remedy might be found for many 
 existing evils. He thought that the remedy was to be 
 found in an improved school-system improved in 
 respect both of the substance and method of teaching. 
 In 1612, accordingly, he laid before the Diet of the 
 German Empire at Frankfort a Memorial in which he 
 promised, 'with the help of God, to give instruction for 
 the service and welfare of all Christendom:' and to 
 show 
 
 'i. How the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and other tongues 
 may easily be taught and learned both by young and 
 old, more thoroughly and in a shorter time. 
 
 ' 2. How, not only in High Dutch, but also in other 
 tongues, a school may be established in which the 
 thorough knowledge of all Arts and Sciences may be 
 learned and propagated. 
 
 ' 3. How, in the whole kingdom, one and the same 
 speech, one and the same government, and, finally, one 
 and the same religion, may be commodiously and 
 peacefully maintained.' 
 
 We speak of Ratich here, not with a view to the 
 exposition of his system, but merely as the pioneer of 
 the modern inductive school, and as the predecessor of 
 Comenius ; and it will suffice, therefore, to sum up his 
 leading principles as these are to be found stated by 
 Schmidt and Von Raumer in their Histories : 
 
 i. Everything according to the order and course of 
 Nature. 1 
 
 1 The American translation should always be compared with the 
 German ; e.g. the German of Von Raumer is ' Alles nach Ordnung
 
 1 6 Introduction. 
 
 2. Only one thing of a kind at a time. 1 
 
 3. One thing often repeated (i.e. keep at the same 
 thing, repeating it often). 
 
 4. Everything in the mother-tongue first : for in the 
 mother-tongue resides this advantage, that the pupil has 
 to think only of the thing he has to learn, and need not 
 trouble himself with the language over and above. 
 Out of the mother-tongue pass to other tongues. 
 
 5. Everything without violence. For by compulsion 
 and blows one disgusts youth with studies, and causes 
 them to assume an attitude of hostility to them. The 
 pupil must not be afraid of the teacher, but love him, 
 and hold him in honour, a result which will be found if 
 the teacher rightly discharges his function. 
 
 6. Nothing must be learned by rote, for intelligence 
 and acuteness are absent from the pupil who gives him- 
 self much to rote-learning. 
 
 7. Uniformity in all things, as well in the method of 
 teaching as in the books, rules, etc., so that the gram- 
 mar of the various languages taught may be as much as 
 possible harmonised. 
 
 8. First a thing in itself, and then the way of it. 
 Matter before form. Rules without matter confuse the 
 understanding. 
 
 9. Everything through experience and the investiga- 
 tion of particulars. 
 
 oder Lauff der Natur,' which is translated ' Everything in its order, 
 or the course of Nature. ' Schmidt says und, not oder. 
 
 1 The American translation says 'Only one thing at a time,' 
 and it equally misses the point elsewhere.
 
 Introduction. 1 7 
 
 The motto of the Ratichians was 'Per inductionem et 
 experimentum omnia' 1 
 
 Ratich's life was practically a failure. He did not 
 succeed in his scholastic work, and this is to be ascribed 
 to the following causes (i) His character; (2) the too 
 purely theoretical groundwork of his scheme ; (3) the 
 jealousy and opposition of others; (4) his wrong 
 application of his own principles ; (5) his want of that 
 instinctive feeling for the art of teaching, which was 
 conspicuous in his greater successor Comenius. He 
 died in 1635, at the age of sixty-four. His scheme 
 had meanwhile been most favourably received by many 
 learned men, and had attracted the attention of the 
 Princes of Central Europe. The University of Giessen 
 reported favourably on his pretensions, and the Ratich- 
 ians were by no means a small or uninfluential party 
 in the schools and Universities of Europe. In those 
 days some Universities seemed to take an interest in 
 Education. 
 
 The torch that fell from Ratich's hand was seized, 
 ere it touched the ground, by John Amos Comenius, 
 who became the head, and still continues the head, 
 of the Sense-realistic school. L His works have a 
 present and practical, and not merely an historical and 
 speculative, significance.^, 
 
 1 Raumer is a prejudiced writer, especially when dealing with 
 Ratich and the ' moderns ' (as he calls them) generally.
 
 LIFE AND WORKS OF COMENIUS. 
 
 JOHN AMOS COMENIUS (Komenski) was born at Nivnitz, 
 a village of Moravia, 1 on the 28th of March 1592. 
 His father was a miller. The family belonged to the 
 sect of Reformed Christians known sometimes as the 
 Bohemian, more generally as the Moravian, Brethren. 
 This sect of Christians has never attained to great 
 dimensions, but it has been distinguished by an activity 
 and zeal which have given it, notwithstanding the 
 fewness of its members, a conspicuous place among 
 religious communions. Although generally recognised 
 as Lutherans, they connect themselves by direct 
 ecclesiastical descent with the Bohemian Reformer 
 Huss, and have always preserved a distinct organisation 
 of their own. At the present day they number, it is 
 believed, only about 5000 communicants in Europe, 
 and 7000 in America. They acknowledge an episco- 
 pate, but their bishops have little power. Their chief 
 characteristic seems always to have been a certain 
 simplicity of faith, combined with an earnest personal 
 
 1 Some say at Comna or Comnia (near Briinn), whence the 
 surname Comnenius or Comenius. The family name was in 
 German Tijpfer, i.e. Potter. Comnia is in long, about 18 E. 
 from Greenwich, lat 49. Gindely simply says in the vicinity 
 of Ungarisch-Brod. At the University of Heidelberg he was 
 entered as a native of Nivnitz, a little village about a league from 
 Ungarisch-Brod.
 
 2O Life and Works 
 
 piety and a practical realisation of the brotherly rela- 
 tion in which all the members of a common Christian 
 Confession ought to stand to one another. 
 
 Comenius is usually called an Austro-Sclav ; that is 
 to say, a Sclav born within the sovereignty of Austria. 
 His family, and he himself consequently, spoke the 
 Bohemian or Czech tongue, which is a West-Sclav 
 dialect, and is considered to be the best of all the 
 Sclavonic forms. Huss may be said to have done for 
 this dialect what Luther afterwards did for German. 
 
 The young Comenius was born in troublous times. 
 The European disturbances and complications arising 
 out of the advance which the thought of man had 
 made in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries generally 
 denoted by the terms 'Revival of Letters' and the 
 ' Reformation of Religion,' or more generally ' the 
 Renascence,' had already been in active operation for 
 seventy years, and Comenius was growing old when the 
 close of the Thirty Years' War gave Europe peace, 
 after having made a great part of it a desert. Austria 
 was at that time the great German power. Prussia had 
 no political existence, while Poland was a large and 
 influential kingdom, including much of what is now 
 Russia. 
 
 Comenius's parents died while he was still a child, and 
 he was accordingly handed over to guardians. There 
 appears to have been a little money left by the father 
 enough to help in the education and maintenance of the 
 son. He received, however, only the limited amount 
 of instruction obtainable in one of those elementary
 
 of Comenius. 2 1 
 
 people's schools, which were the fruit of the Reforma- 
 tion the school of Strassnick. This amounted to read- 
 ing, writing, a knowledge of the Catechism, and of the 
 smallest beginnings of arithmetic. He had reached his 
 sixteenth year without having entered on the study ot 
 Latin at that time still the indispensable instrument of 
 all literature, and of international communication among 
 the learned. We are not to conclude from this that his 
 guardians neglected his education. The community of 
 which he was an orphan child had to raise up pastors for 
 their own instruction, and this necessity, independently 
 of other considerations, would have led to the fostering 
 of any boyish promise shown by young Comenius. 
 It is probable that he was a child of slow growth. It 
 was certainly not till his sixteenth year that he began 
 to feel and to show a desire for the life of a scholar. 
 There was probably an advantage in this. Unvisited 
 by ambitions which could carry him beyond the narrow 
 limits of his own quiet community, his mind must have 
 had time slowly and surely to imbibe the teachings of 
 the simple Brotherhood to which he belonged, and to 
 be thoroughly imbued with their earnest spirit. We 
 see the effects of this upbringing conspicuous through- 
 out his whole life. Simplicity, zeal, piety, self-sacrifice, 
 humility, are always present. The whole tenor of His" 
 life confirms his own confession that he was by nature 
 of a retiring disposition, had more of fear than of hope 
 in his constitution, that the part of innovator was one 
 alien to him, and that he was keenly alive to the fact 
 that those who think they have got some new light
 
 22 Life and Works 
 
 are often merely pursuing ignes fatui. ' Nor yet,' he 
 adds, ' do I desire to belong to that class of men who 
 cling to the old and the customary, spite of the indica- 
 tions of God Himself, Reason, and Common Sense.' 1 
 
 Out of the Moravian evangelical soil he grew, and a 
 Moravian in heart and soul he remained to the end. 
 It is important to note this. We have already pointed 
 out in the Introduction that the educational motive was 
 in the first Reformation age partly literary or Human- 
 istic, but chiefly religious or theological : in the second 
 Reformation age, to which Comenius belonged, the 
 intense conflict of opinion between the new and the 
 old faith made keener by the reaction to Catholicism 
 under the influence mainly of the Jesuits had driven 
 the Humanistic element to the wall, and the theological 
 aim now almost wholly obscured the literary. The 
 torch of reason, lighted in the schools half a century 
 previously, was now darkened by the smoke of theo- 
 logical contentions and disastrous wars. Comenius 
 was, above all things, a genuine representative of the 
 evangelical spirit; he was not afraid of science far 
 from it : he endeavoured to unite science and theology, 
 but he did not fairly appreciate Humanism, and 
 accepted the products of the genius of past ages only 
 in a half-hearted way. His eyes were turned to the 
 present and the future. 
 
 At sixteen Comenius went, or was sent, to a Latin 
 school, and in 1612, when he was twenty years of age, 
 we find him at the College of Herborn, in the duke- 
 1 Lectoribus, vol. i.
 
 of Comenius. 23 
 
 dom of Nassau, pursuing his theological studies under 
 Professor Alsted, afterwards Professor of Theology and 
 Philosophy at Weissenburg. To the lateness of the age 
 at which he began Latin we probably partly owe 
 Comenius's early insight into the defects of educational 
 methods. He was old enough to criticise, while submit- 
 ting to, the scholastic discipline and defective modes of 
 procedure, of which he was, with others, the victim. There 
 is no reason to believe that his school was worse than 
 schools elsewhere at that time, and of these he says that 
 ' they are the terror of boys, and the slaughter-houses of 
 minds, places where a hatred of literature and books 
 is contracted, where ten or more years are spent in 
 learning what might be acquired in one, where what 
 ought to be poured in gently is violently forced in and 
 beaten in, where what ought to be put clearly and 
 perspicuously is presented in a confused and intricate 
 way, as if it were a collection of puzzles, places where 
 minds are fed on words.' Well might Professor Lubinus 
 of Rostock say that the instruction and discipline of 
 schools seemed to have been the invention of some 
 wicked spirit, the enemy of the human race. ' Millibus 
 e multis,' he exclaims, 'ego quoque sum unus, miser 
 homuncio, cui amcenissimum vitae ver, florentes juven- 
 tutis anni, nugis scholasticis transmissi, misere perierunt. 
 Ah, quoties mihi postquam melius prospicere datum, 
 perditae aetatis recordatio, pectore suspiria, oculis 
 lacrymas, corde dolorem excussit. Ah, quoties me 
 dolor ille exclamare coegit 
 
 ' O mihi praeteritos referat si Jupiter annos.'
 
 24 Life and Works 
 
 Before Comenius left school, Ratich, of whom we 
 have already spoken, was at work ; and it was in 1612, 
 when Comenius was still at Herborn, that the public 
 document issued by the Universities of Jena and 
 Giessen, commenting on Ratich's proposed innovations, 
 first came under his notice. 1 The Ratichian scheme, on 
 which specially the University laudation was pronounced, 
 was printed under the following title : Wolphgangi Ra- 
 tichii de Studiorum rectificanda methodo Consilium. 
 
 Comenius was profoundly attracted by the new educa- 
 tional movement. 
 
 After a year or more spent in travel, during which 
 he resided at Amsterdam and studied at Heidelberg, 
 he returned to his native Moravia in 1614. Being 
 now twenty-two years of age, and being still too young 
 for the ministry, he was appointed Rector of the Mo- 
 ravian school at Praerovium (Prerau), near Olmiitz, 
 where he at once endeavoured to introduce improved 
 methods of instruction and a more humane discipline. 
 
 ' Ten years,' he says, 2 ' are given to the study of the 
 Latin tongue, and after all the result is disappointing. 
 Erasmus, Vives, Luther, Sturm, Frisch, Sanctius, 
 Uomavius, have all complained of this. Boyhood is 
 distracted,' he goes on to say, ' for years with precepts 
 of grammar, infinitely prolix, perplexed, and obscure, 
 and for the most part useless. Boys are stuffed with 
 vocabularies without associating words with things, or 
 indeed with one another syntactically.' It had been 
 
 1 Preface to vol. i. 
 
 8 Preface to first edition of the Janua Lingitarum.
 
 of Comenius. 2 5 
 
 hoped that the substitution for barbarous Latinity of 
 good authors, such as Terence, Cicero, Virgil, and 
 Horace the work of the Humanists, would cure the 
 universal evil by teaching boys the Latin tongue by 
 means of its purest writers. But this had failed, partly 
 because of the unpropitiousness of the time, but chiefly 
 because the secret of education lies in method, and in 
 the master who wields it. No attempt had been made 
 to secure either sound method or good masters. What 
 else but failure could be expected ? 
 
 At Prerau Comenius began by simplifying the Latin 
 Grammar, and wrote an elementary book for his pupils, 
 which was afterwards published at Prague in 1616 
 ( Grammaticae facilioris praecepta). 
 
 In this year he was ordained to the pastorate, but 
 whether this caused him to give up the school does not 
 appear. 1 He was not appointed to any special charge till 
 1618, when he was set over 'the most flourishing of all 
 the churches of the Moravian Brethren, that of Fulneck,' 
 near Troppau. Along with his ministerial charge, he 
 had the superintendence of a school recently erected ; 
 and he now began to consider more fully the subject of 
 instruction, and to put his thoughts on paper. 2 Here 
 too he married, and for two or three years spent a happy 
 and active life, enjoying the only period of tranquillity 
 in his native country which it was ever his fortune to 
 experience. For the restoration of a time so happy he 
 never ceased to pine during all his future wanderings. 
 
 1 Dedication to Schola Ludus, vol. iii. p. 831. 
 8 Preface to vol. i.
 
 26 Life and Works 
 
 The Thirty Years' War broke out, and in 1621 
 Fulneck was taken by the Spaniards, and all the pro- 
 perty of Comenius destroyed, including his library and 
 manuscripts. 1 For the next three years Comenius 
 seems to have resided, along with several other Mora- 
 vian pastors, under the protection of Karl von Zerotin, 
 a wealthy Moravian, and while there wrote a book 
 entitled The Labyrinth of the World and the Paradise of 
 the Heart, an allegorical writing on the vanity of earthly 
 things. 2 In 1622 he lost his wife and only child. In 
 1624 he and his fellow-pastors were compelled to leave 
 the protection of Zerotin, and thereafter, evading as best 
 they could the persecution of the Jesuits, they wandered 
 through various parts of Moravia and Bohemia, occa- 
 sionally visiting their communities secretly, and preach- 
 ing the Word and administering the Sacraments. 
 
 In July 1627 the evangelical pastors in Moravia and 
 Bohemia were formally proscribed by the Austrian 
 Government, acting under the instigation of the Jesuits. 
 Some took refuge among the Bohemian mountains with 
 Baron Sadouski von Slaupna. To one of the pastors 
 who took refuge there John Stadius by name the 
 Baron intrusted his three sons for their education. For 
 the benefit of the tutor, and at his request, Comenius 
 wrote some rules of method. In the autumn of that 
 
 1 Seyffart says that on this occasion he lost also his wife and two 
 children, but Comenius himself does not mention this in his Pre- 
 face to vol. i. Seyffart has doubtless other authority for what he 
 says. I confine myself solely to what can be ascertained by 
 collating Comenius's own writings. 
 
 3 Printed at Lissa in 1631.
 
 of Comenius. 2 7 
 
 year he paid a visit to Wilcitz, not far off, to look at the 
 library there. Among the books, he unexpectedly met 
 with the treatise of Elias Bodinus, recently imported 
 from Germany, and was fired with the ambition to pro- 
 duce a like work in his own Bohemian tongue. In this 
 ambition he was sustained by the approval, and indeed 
 solicitations, of his fellow-refugees, who were convinced 
 that he had much to say that would be of value to 
 schools and schoolmasters. While engaged in this 
 didactic work, he was disturbed by a new edict requir- 
 ing all the evangelical pastors to renounce their faith, or 
 finally leave the country. Churches and schools were 
 ruthlessly destroyed. Comenius from his retreat was a 
 witness from time to time of the acts of the persecutors, 
 and was overwhelmed with grief. He still, however, 
 desired to live within reach of the brethren of his 
 community, and did not leave the mountains, where 
 he thought he might possibly escape observation. His 
 active and practical mind began at once to consider 
 how he should proceed to restore religion and piety 
 should he ever be free again to work for his native 
 country. His didactic studies suggested to him that 
 the great agency for a future renovation lay in schools, 
 and he consoled himself with this reflection, and with 
 forming sanguine schemes for the future. His sole 
 desire now was to devote his life entirely to the young, 
 should it please God to restore him to his country, and 
 by the institution of schools, by supplying them with 
 good books, and with a simple and lucid method, to 
 build up, more surely than before, learning, virtue, and
 
 28 Life and Works 
 
 piety. Meanwhile by secret communications with his 
 brethren he tried to sustain their sinking spirits. The 
 persecution, however, waxed hotter, and rinding it im- 
 possible longer to continue in his concealment, he and 
 his companions fled, dispersing in different directions. 
 Comenius made for Poland, which he had once before 
 visited on a secret mission, having been sent thither 
 by the Moravian Brethren probably in order to ascer- 
 tain if they could find an asylum in that country. He 
 betook himself to the town of Lesna (Lissa, Leszno), in 
 Posnania, and obtained employment as a teacher in the 
 Moravian Gymnasium there apparently as Rector of 
 it. 1 The Count of Lissa (Rafael) afforded protection to 
 the persecuted brethren. His scholastic engagements, 
 and the desire to do his duty in an efficient way, gave a 
 fresh impulse to his didactic studies. He began to re- 
 construct his methods from the foundation, and to give 
 them a philosophic basis and a logical coherence. 
 
 Not only had the general question of Education 
 engaged many minds for a century and more before 
 Comenius arose, but the apparently subsidiary, yet all- 
 important, question of Method, in special relation to the 
 teaching of the Latin tongue, had occupied the thoughts 
 and pens of many of the leading scholars of Europe. The 
 whole field of what we now call Secondary Instruction 
 was occupied with the one subject of Latin ; Greek, and 
 
 1 In the Dictionnaire de Ptdagogie his scholastic function is 
 described as being that of organiser of the education of the 
 Moravian Colony only. That his duties were of a more general 
 kind is clear from his own writings. 

 
 of Comenius. 29 
 
 occasionally Hebrew, having been admitted only in the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century, and then only to a 
 subordinate place. This of necessity. Latin was the 
 one key to universal learning. To give to boys the pos- 
 session of this key was all that teachers aimed at until 
 their pupils were old enough to study Rhetoric and Logic. 
 Of these writers on the teaching of Latin, the most 
 eminent were Sturm, Erasmus, Melanchthon, Lubinus, 
 Vossius, Sanctius (the author of the Minerva), Ritter, 
 Helvicus, Bodinus, Valentinus Andreae, and, among 
 Frenchmen, Ccecilius Frey. 1 Nor were Ascham and 
 Mulcaster in England the least significant of the critics 
 of Method. Comenius was acquainted with almost all 
 previous writers on education, except probably Ascham 
 and Mulcaster, to whom he never alludes. He read 
 everything that he could hear of with a view to find a 
 method, and he does not appear ever to have been 
 desirous to supersede the work of others. If he had 
 found what he wanted, he would, we believe, have pro- 
 mulgated it, and advocated it as a loyal pupil. That he 
 owed much to previous writers is certain; but the prime 
 characteristic of his work on Latin was his own. Espe- 
 cially does he introduce a new epoch in education, by 
 constructing a general methodology which should go 
 beyond mere Latin, and be equally applicable to all 
 subjects of instruction. 
 
 Before bringing his thoughts into definite shape, he 
 
 1 Frey published at Paris in 1629 an educational treatise 
 entitled Ad divas scientias, artesqiw, et litiguas sermonesque extem- 
 poraneos nova et expeditissima \vid\.
 
 3O Life and Works 
 
 wrote to all the distinguished men to whom he could 
 obtain access. He addressed Ratich, among others, 
 but received no answer ; many of his letters also were 
 returned, because the persons addressed could not be 
 found. 1 Valentinus Andreae wrote to him in encourag- 
 ing terms, saying that he gladly passed on the torch to 
 him. His mind became now much agitated by the 
 importance of the question, and by the excitement of 
 discovery. He saw his whole scheme assuming shape 
 under his pen, and was filled, like other zealous men, 
 before and since, with the highest hopes of the benefits 
 which he would confer on the whole human race by his 
 discoveries. He resolved to call his treatise Didactica 
 Magna, or Omnes omnia docendi Artificium. He found 
 a consolation for his misfortunes in the work of invention, 
 and even saw the hand of Providence in the coincidence 
 of the overthrow of schools, through persecutions and 
 wars, and those ideas of a new method which had been 
 vouchsafed to him, and which he was elaborating. Every- 
 thing might now be begun anew, and untrammelled by 
 the errors and prejudices of the past. Some scruples 
 as to a theologian and pastor being so entirely pre- 
 occupied with educational questions, he had however 
 to overcome. 2 ( Suffer, I pray, Christian friends, that I 
 speak confidentially with you for a moment. Those 
 who know me intimately, know that I am a man of 
 moderate ability, and of almost no learning, but one 
 
 1 Among his correspondents were Sigmund Evenius, Abraham 
 Mencel, Paliurus, Jonston, Mochinger, Docem, George Winkler, 
 Martin Moser, and Niclassius. 
 
 3 Lectoribus, vol. i. p. 7.
 
 of Comenius. 3 1 
 
 who, bewailing the evils of his time, is eager to remedy 
 them, if this in any way be granted me to do, either 
 by my own discoveries or by those of another none of 
 which things can come save from a gracious God. If, 
 then, anything be here found well done, it is not mine, 
 but His, who from the mouths of babes and sucklings 
 hath perfected praise, and who, that He may in verity 
 show Himself faithful, true, and gracious, gives to those 
 who ask, opens to those who knock, and offers to those 
 who seek. Christ my Lord knows that my heart is so 
 simple that it matters not to me whether I teach or be 
 taught, act the part of teacher of teachers, or disciple of 
 disciples. What the Lord has given me I send forth for 
 the common good.' His deepest conviction was that 
 the sole hope of healing the dissensions of both Church 
 and State lay in the proper education of youth. The 
 "rz\vr\ Te\vu>v avOpioTrov ayeiv of Gregory Nazianzen was 
 with him a favourite quotation. At the same time, he 
 did not profess, as we have said, to supersede all others : 
 on the contrary, he truly and wisely says, ' Artem artium 
 tradere operosae molis res est, exquisitoque eget judicio; 
 nee unius hominis sed multorum, quum unus nemo 
 tarn sit oculatus cujus aciem non subterfugiant plurima.' 
 When he had completed his Great Didactic, he did 
 not publish it, for he was still hoping to be restored to 
 his native Moravia, where he proposed to execute all 
 his philanthropic schemes ; indeed, the treatise was first 
 written in his native Sclav or Czech tongue. 1 
 
 1 Found in the archives of Lissa in 1841, and republished in its 
 Czech form in 1849 by a Bohemian Society.
 
 32 Life and Works 
 
 While thus engaged in working out his theory and 
 method of education, Comenius had been searching 
 for some elementary Latin reading-book, which might 
 introduce boys easily to the use of the Latin tongue. 
 
 In addition to the defects already universally recog- 
 nised in the teaching of Latin, Comenius pointed out 
 that, even supposing the usual classical authors were 
 read and mastered, a boy would not then know the 
 Latin words expressing the things and ideas of his own 
 time. ' Finally, if so much time is to be spent on the 
 language alone,' he says, 'when is the boy to know 
 about things when will he learn philosophy, when 
 religion, and so forth? He will consume his life in 
 preparing for life.' Some epitome of the language is 
 wanted, in which the words and phrases will be reduced 
 to one body, as it were, and in this way much time 
 saved in acquiring them. For, as Isaac Habrecht truly 
 said, one would learn to know all the animals of the 
 world more quickly by visiting Noah's ark than by 
 traversing the world and picking up knowledge as we 
 went. 
 
 To meet this want, a member of the Irish College of 
 Salamanca (Bateus by name) had written a Janua Lin- 
 guarum, comprising in one lesson-book all the more 
 usual words, and these connected into sentences so 
 constructed that no vocable occurred more than once, 
 except such indispensable words as sum, et, in, etc. 
 This book was in Latin-Spanish, and was shortly after, 
 in 1615, published in Latin-English in London. Two 
 years after Isaac Habrecht of Strasbourg published a
 
 of Comenius, 33 
 
 Latin-Spanish-English-French edition, and so made it 
 quadrilingual, and on his return to Germany added a 
 German version, strongly commending it as an excellent 
 means of learning a language. The work was frequently 
 republished in many parts of Germany, was introduced 
 into many schools, and ultimately, in 1629, appeared 
 in eight languages. 
 
 At first Comenius hailed this book with pleasure, 
 but after carefully studying it, came to the conclusion 
 that it did not justify its title ; and this, first, because 
 it contained many words beyond the capacity of the 
 young, while omitting many in daily use ; secondly, 
 because the words, which were used only once, were 
 used in one signification only, whereas they constantly, 
 in native authors, have more than one meaning, and 
 thus pupils are misled ; and thirdly, because, where one 
 signification is alone given, it ought always to be the 
 primary one, which in the book in question was not the 
 case. There were other objections to the book : the 
 sentences did not contribute to the moral instruction 
 of youth, and were clumsy, and, indeed, even often 
 destitute of meaning. 
 
 ' My fundamental principle an irrefragable law of 
 didactics is,' he says, in speaking of his own Janua, 
 ' that the understanding and the tongue should advance 
 in parallel lines always. The human being tends to 
 utter what he apprehends. If he does not apprehend 
 the words he uses, he is a parrot ; if he apprehends 
 without words, he is a dumb statue. Accordingly, 
 under 100 heads, I have classified the whole uni- 
 
 c
 
 34 Life and Works 
 
 verse of things in a manner suited to the capacity of 
 boys, and I have given the corresponding language. I 
 have selected from Lexicons the words that had to be 
 introduced, and I include 8000 vocables in 1000 sen- 
 tences, which are at first simple, and thereafter gradually 
 become complex. I have used words, as far as prac- 
 ticable, in their primary signification, according to the 
 comprehension of the young, but have had to seek for 
 modern Latin words where pure Latin was not to be 
 had. I have used the same word only once, except 
 where it had two meanings. Synonyms and contraries 
 I have placed together, so that they may throw light on 
 one another. I have arranged the words so as to bring 
 into view concords and governments and declension. 
 The vernacular text (Czech or Bohemian) I have printed 
 separately on this occasion, as it would be useless to many 
 whose judgments on my effort I desire to have. An 
 index of the words (not however, absolutely necessary) 
 will be afterwards added; also a brief treatise on hom- 
 onyms, synonyms, etc., and a short, compendious, simple, 
 and easy grammar all of which, comprised in one 
 volume, will be a little treasure-house of school-learning.' 
 
 Three years were spent on the Janua alone, and yet 
 Comenius was far from thinking the work perfect : he 
 considered he had only led the way for others. He 
 hoped also himself, from time to time, to improve the 
 book. 
 
 He called this little book a ' Seminary of Tongues and 
 all Sciences,' because equal care had been given to things 
 and words. He desired to introduce some beginnings
 
 of Comenius. 35 
 
 and clear perception of things, and at the same time 
 to lay the foundations of learning, morals, and piety. 
 
 Speaking generally, we may say that Comenius's aim 
 vf&sJirsf, to simplify and graduate ; secondly, to teach 
 words through things ; thirdly, to teach things through 
 words. The book was a very remarkable innovation 
 on the then existing school text-books; but, notwith- 
 standing this, or because of it, when he published it in 
 1631, at the urgent solicitation of his friends, and before, 
 in his opinion, it was perfected, it achieved an im- 
 mediate and enormous success. 'People,' he says, 1 
 ' seemed to vie with one another in producing editions 
 of it.' It was translated into Greek, Bohemian, Polish, 
 German, Swedish, Belgian, English, French, Spanish, 
 Italian, Hungarian, Turkish, Arabic, and into a language 
 which he calls Mogolic, ' and which/ he says, ' was 
 familiar to the populations of India.' He next, in 1633, 
 published his Vestibulum, which was intended to serve 
 as an easy introduction to thefauua. 
 
 In 1632 there was convened a synod of the Moravian 
 Brethren at Lissa, at which Comenius (now forty years 
 of age) was elected to succeed his father-in-law Cyrillus 
 as Bishop of the scattered brethren a position which 
 enabled him to be of great service, by means of corre- 
 spondence, to the members of the community, who 
 were dispersed in various parts of Europe. Throughout 
 the whole of his long life he continued this fatherly 
 charge, and seemed never quite to abandon the hope 
 1 Dedication of Schola Ludus, vol. iii.
 
 36 Life and Works 
 
 of being restored, along with his fellow-exiles, to his 
 native land a hope doomed to disappointment. In 
 his capacity of Pastor-Bishop he wrote several treatises, 
 such as a History of the Persecutions of the Brotherhood, 
 an account of the Moravian Church-discipline and Order, 
 and polemical tracts against a contemporary Socinian. 
 
 Meanwhile his great Didactic treatise, which had been 
 written in his native Czech tongue, was yet unpublished. 
 He was, it would appear, stimulated to the publication 
 of it by an invitation he received in 1638, from the 
 authorities in Sweden, to visit their country and under- 
 take the reformation of their schools. 1 He replied that 
 he was unwilling to undertake a task at once so 
 onerous and so invidious, but that he would gladly 
 give the benefit of his advice to any one of their own 
 nation whom they might select for the duty. These 
 communications led him to resume his labour on the 
 Great Didactic, and to translate it into Latin, in which 
 form it finally appeared. 2 
 
 In education Comenius was a Sense- Realist the first 
 great and thoroughly consistent Realist. Von Raumer 
 says : ' He received his first impulse in this direction, 
 as he himself relates, from the well-known Spanish 
 pedagogue Ludovic Vives, who declared himself against 
 Aristotle, and demanded a Christian instead of a 
 heathen mode of philosophising.' ' It is not disputation 
 
 1 Preface to vol. i. 
 
 2 I cannot find the precise date. In the Dictionnaire de Ptda- 
 gogie it is stated that the work, though completed at the time stated 
 in the above, was not published till 1657. I think this is a mistake.
 
 of Comenius. 37 
 
 which leads to any result,' said Vives, 'but the silent 
 observation of Nature. It is better for the scholars to 
 ask questions and to investigate than to be disputing with 
 each other.' 'Yet,' says Comenius, 'Vives understood 
 better where the fault lay than what was the remedy.' 
 
 Comenius received a second impulse from Thomas 
 Campanella, who, however, did not satisfy him. ' But 
 when,' he says, ' Bacon's Instauratio Magna came into 
 my hands a wonderful work, which I consider the 
 most instructive philosophical work of the century 
 now beginning, I saw in it that Campanella's demon- 
 strations are wanting in that thoroughness which is 
 demanded by the truth of things. Yet again I was 
 troubled, because the noble Verulam, while giving the 
 true key of Nature, did not unlock her secrets, but only 
 showed, by a few examples, how they should be 
 unlocked, and left the rest to future observations to be 
 extended through centuries.' He goes on, in the 
 preface to the Physics, from which these utterances are 
 taken, to say that he is convinced that it is not Aristotle 
 who must be master of philosophy for Christians, but 
 that philosophy must be studied fully according to 
 the leading of sense, reason, and books. 'For,' he 
 continues, ' do we not dwell in the garden of Nature 
 as well as the ancients ? Why should we not use our 
 eyes, ears, and noses as well as they? And why 
 should we need other teachers than these our senses to 
 learn to know the works of Nature? Why, say I, 
 should we not, instead of these dead books, lay open 
 the living book of Nature, in which there is much more
 
 38 Life and Works 
 
 to contemplate than any one person can ever relate, 
 and the contemplation of which brings much more of 
 pleasure, as well as of profit ?' It is this realism which 
 explains his school-books and also his method. 
 
 It was natural that the strong realistic impulse should 
 travel beyond the sphere of schools, and cause men to 
 dream of great things. The Advancement of Learning 
 had filled Comenius, as well as other contemporary 
 men, with hopes of a rapid and unparalleled progress in 
 all the sciences, and a consequent improvement of the 
 conditions of human life. With a view to a thorough 
 co-ordination and universal diffusion of scientific know- 
 ledge, he contemplated the issuing of a complete body 
 of science as then understood. To effect this, the com- 
 bination of many minds, each in its own department, 
 and all under the guidance of some controlling intellect, 
 was necessary. Men were working in various parts of 
 Europe independently of each other, and, the younger 
 men especially, in ignorance of what had been actually 
 accomplished in the sciences to which they devoted 
 themselves. An exhaustive but concise and authori- 
 tative statement of all that was known in each depart- 
 ment could not fail to be of immense service, and, as 
 Comenius thought, for his mind was always practical, of 
 great influence on the progress and well-being of society. 
 This complete statement of the circle of knowledge he 
 called Pansophia, and it was in this direction that his real 
 life-work lay, in his own opinion ; his scholastic under- 
 takings being strictly subordinate to the greater task.
 
 of Comenius. 39 
 
 Although not prepared to give effect to his views in 
 proper form, he had been working at the Pansophy in 
 the retirement of his study during the years which saw 
 the completion of the first edition of his Janua and 
 of his Great Didactic. In the department of Science he 
 had already given to the world a treatise on Astronomy 
 and on the reforming of Physics (1633). He had also, 
 by correspondence, interested various learned men in 
 his encyclopaedic or pansophic scheme : among others, 
 Samuel Hartlib, the friend of Milton, who was then 
 resident in London, and to whom Milton addressed his 
 tractate on Education. 
 
 'Everybody knew Hartlib,' says Professor Masson 
 in his Life of Milton (vol. iii. p. 193). ' He was a 
 foreigner by birth, being the son of a Polish merchant 
 of German extraction, who had left Poland when that 
 country fell under Jesuit rule, and had settled in Elbing 
 in Prussia in very good circumstances. Twice married 
 before to Polish ladies, this merchant had married in 
 Prussia, for his third wife, the daughter of a wealthy 
 English merchant of Dantzic; and thus our Hartlib, 
 their son, though Prussian born, and with Polish con- 
 nections, could reckon himself half- English. The date 
 of his birth was probably about the beginning of the 
 century, i.e. he may have been eight or ten years older 
 than Milton. He appears to have first visited England 
 in or about 1628, and from that time, though he made 
 frequent journeys to the Continent, London had been 
 his head-quarters. Here, with a residence in the City, 
 he had carried on business as a "merchant," with
 
 4O Life and Works 
 
 extensive foreign correspondences and very respectable 
 family connections. . . . But it did not require such 
 family connections to make Hartlib at home in English 
 society. The character of the man would have made 
 him at home anywhere. He was one of those persons 
 now styled " philanthropists," or " friends of progress," 
 who take an interest in every question or project of 
 their time promising social improvement, have always 
 some iron in the fire, are constantly forming committees 
 or writing letters to persons of influence, and altogether 
 live for the public. By the common consent of all who 
 have explored the intellectual and social history of 
 England in the seventeenth century, he is one of the 
 most interesting and memorable figures of that whole 
 period. He is interesting both for what he did himself, 
 and also on account of the number and intimacy of his 
 contacts with other interesting people.' Hartlib was 
 not slow to be interested in the educational ideas of 
 Comenius, but he was specially inspired by the two 
 leading projects of the time the Union of Protestant 
 Christendom, and, by help of this, the settlement of 
 nations, and the union of the sciences in a complete 
 encyclopaedic form. Comenius, at his request, had sent 
 him a long epistle, setting forth in full his Pansophic 
 project, and this epistle was printed at Oxford in 1637, 
 without Comenius's consent, and widely circulated. The 
 treatise was called by Hartlib Porta Sapientiac reserala. 
 It is entitled by Comenius in the List of Contents (vide 
 Collected Works) Prodromus Pansophiae (Precursor of 
 Pansophy) and in the body "of his works, Pansophiae
 
 of Comenius. 41 
 
 praeludiwn, quo Sapientiae universalis necessitas, possi- 
 bilitas facilitasque (si rations certa ineatur) breviter ac 
 dilucide demonstrator. The running head-title of the 
 treatise again is Pansophici Libri Delineatio. To meet 
 the objections of critics, Comenius shortly after wrote a 
 brief treatise further expounding his views, entitled 
 Conatuum pansophicorum dilutidatio in gratiam Cen- 
 sorum facia (1638). 
 
 These treatises excited much interest throughout 
 Europe. Adolph Tassius, Professor of Mathematics at 
 Hamburg, wrote to Hartlib 1 saying, 'A philosophic 
 ardour flames in every corner of Europe, and with it 
 zeal for a better Didactic. If Comenius had done 
 nothing more than scatter such fruitful seeds in the 
 minds of all, he would have done enough.' 
 
 The reception accorded to the Pansophic ideas of 
 Comenius was encouraging enough, but it was apparent 
 to all, and to none more than Comenius, that they 
 could be carried out only by a community or college of " 
 learned men, and that this college would have to be 
 a permanent institution for the furtherance of science, 
 and for the authoritative promulgation from time to time 
 of the scientific status quo. A Collegium Didacticum 
 or Pansophicum was accordingly projected. It might 
 have been urged that the Universities existed for these 
 very purposes, but it is (it appears to me) a mistake to 
 suppose that these institutions had as yet thought of the 
 prosecution of science as the main end of their insti- 
 tution. Except in so far as they were seminaries of 
 * Disputations,' they were to a large extent merely higher 
 1 Vol. L p. 455.
 
 42 Life and Works 
 
 academies for giving instruction to qualify for the various 
 faculties and professions; and to convert them into 
 centres of scientific research and illumination would 
 not have been in those days possible, although it would 
 have been quite in harmony with their original design. 
 It is only in recent times that the purely scientific idea 
 has found its way into the heart of the University 
 system, and that Professors are expected to represent 
 and advance their subject as well as to afford instruction 
 in it to all comers. The combination of the scientific 
 with the teaching function constitutes, indeed, the ideal 
 of a University system. There was, in the beginning 
 of the seventeenth century, no way open to Comenius 
 and his friends save by the foundation of an entirely 
 new institution. For this, money was wanted, and also 
 influential support. 
 
 At the urgent solicitation of the sanguine Hartlib, 
 who had been busying himself among members of the 
 Long Parliament, Comenius repaired to London, which 
 he reached on the 22d September 1641. There he 
 found that he had been invited by Parliament itself; 
 but as it was prorogued for a few months owing to King 
 Charles's absence in Scotland, he had to wait. He 
 employed his time well in expounding his views to 
 various people of influence, and on the re-assembling 
 of Parliament he was asked to wait a little longer until 
 a commission of learned men could be appointed to 
 inquire into his proposals. Parliament even went so 
 far as to propose to set apart the revenues and buildings 
 of a college in London, or Winchester, or Chelsea, to
 
 of Comenius. 43 
 
 which men might be called from various parts of the 
 world and maintained in residence while prosecuting 
 their learned researches and giving effect to Comenius's 
 great Pansophic scheme. A statement of the revenues 
 of Chelsea College was even placed in Comenius's 
 hands, and he now began to entertain lively expecta- 
 tions that ere long the ideas of the great Verulam would 
 be realised, and a ' universal college opened, solely 
 devoted to the advancement of the sciences.' The 
 general unsettlement of affairs, aggravated by the Irish 
 rebellion and the massacre of the Protestants, did not 
 admit, however, of the carrying out of any peaceful 
 project. The country was on the eve of rebellion, and 
 the leaders in Parliament could scarcely be expected to 
 find time for any save the greatest national and political 
 affairs. Everything was in confusion, and Comenius, - 
 deeply disappointed, prepared to return to the Continent. 
 It was precisely at this moment that he received, from 
 a correspondent and admirer in Sweden, a letter which - 
 led him to change his plans. The name of this friend, 
 who plays an important part in Comenius's future life, 
 was Ludovic de Geer, a man of noble family, of con- 
 siderable wealth, and, happily, also of an enlightened 
 and progressive mind. He was a Dutchman settled 
 in Sweden. He assured Comenius that his personal 
 influence would enable him to promote his views in 
 Sweden (at that time ruled by Christina and the famous 
 Chancellor Oxenstiern), and that he could secure the 
 co-operation of others. In accepting this invitation, 
 Comenius had the approval of his English friends, but as
 
 44 Life and Works 
 
 De Geer had evidently in view the Didactic rather than 
 the Pansophic innovations of Comenius, they protested 
 by anticipation against his being drawn aside from what 
 they considered to be the larger aim to the more 
 restricted subject of school-books. 
 
 Comenius left London for Sweden in August 1642, 
 and was kindly received by De Geer at Nordkoping. 1 
 After a few days spent with his host, he was sent on 
 to Stockholm with introductions to Oxenstiern and to 
 John Skyte, Chancellor of the University of Upsala. 
 By both he was treated with respect, -and his plans, 
 Pansophic and Didactic, fully discussed. Of his inter- 
 views Comenius himself gives an account in the Preface 
 to the second volume of his works. ' For four days,' he 
 says, 'these two men held me in debate, but chiefly 
 Oxenstiern, that eagle of the North (Aquilonaris Aquila), 
 who questioned me as to my principles, both Pansophic 
 and Didactic, with a greater penetration and closeness 
 than had been exhibited by any of the learned with 
 whom I had come in contact. For the first three days 
 Didactic was the subject of his examination, and 
 he brought the interviews to an end with the following 
 remarks : " From youth up I have perceived a certain 
 violence in the customary method of school studies, 
 but I could never put my finger on the place where 
 the shoe pinched. When sent by my King, of glorious 
 memory, 2 as an ambassador to Germany, I conferred 
 with many learned men on the subject ; and when I 
 
 1 On the Baltic, eighty-five miles south-west of Stockholm. 
 8 Gustavus Adolphus.
 
 of Comenius. 45 
 
 was informed that Wolfgang Ratich had attempted a 
 reform of Method, I had no peace in my mind till I had 
 the man before me ; but he, instead of a conversation, 
 presented me with a huge book in quarto. I swallowed 
 that annoyance, and having run through the whole 
 volume, I saw that he had exposed the diseases of 
 schools not badly, but as for the remedies, they did not 
 seem to me to be adequate. Your remedies rest on 
 firmer foundations ; go on with your work," etc. To 
 which I replied that in these matters I had done what I 
 could, and that now I wished to pass to other matters. 
 His answer was : " I know that you are undertaking 
 greater things, for I have read the Prodromus of your 
 Pansophia, and on this point we shall talk to-morrow, for 
 public duties now call me elsewhere." On the following 
 day, when about to examine my Pansophic labours, but 
 with a greater aspect of severity, he prefaced his 
 examination with this question : " Can you bear con- 
 tradiction?" " I can," I replied. "The Prodromus was 
 published not by me but by my friends, for the very 
 purpose of receiving opinions and criticisms : and 
 if we admit these from any and every quarter, of whatso- 
 ever kind, why not from men of matured wisdom and 
 of eminent judgment?" He then began to speak 
 against the hopes I had conceived of a better state of 
 things as likely to arise from a rightly instituted 
 Pansophic study, first making political objections of 
 profound import, and then bringing fonvard the testi- 
 mony of Holy Writ, which seems to predict that darkness 
 and degeneracy rather than light and an improved
 
 46 Life and Works 
 
 state of society would prevail towards the end of the 
 world. My replies he received in the spirit indicated 
 by his concluding remarks: "To no one yet, I think, 
 have such things occurred. Stand on these founda- 
 tions, for either we shall reach a consensus of opinion in 
 the way you propose, or it will be made clear that there 
 is no way. Nevertheless my advice is that you devote 
 yourself first to benefit schools and to make the study 
 of Latin easier, and by that means to prepare a smoother 
 way for the greater things." ' 
 
 The Chancellor of the University added the weight 
 of his advice to the same effect, suggesting that Comenius 
 should move to a locality near Sweden, such as Elbing 
 on the Baltic coast of Prussia. Finding that his friend 
 De Geer was of the same mind, he yielded, in the 
 hope of bringing these troublesome and vexatious toils 
 to a close in a year or two. When he communicated 
 his resolution to his friends in England, he received 
 a strong protest They complained of his too great 
 facility in yielding to his Swedish advisers, and of 
 his unfaithfulness to the great Pansophic scheme. 
 ' Quo moriture ruis ?' wrote Hartlib. ' Minoraque 
 viribus audes ?' He was much shaken by these repre- 
 sentations the more, that they supported his own 
 real inclinations. A Swedish remonstrance, however, 
 reached him at Lesna. which finally determined him 
 to go to Elbing and prosecute his Didactic labours. 
 To these he now devoted himself, after first putting 
 to press, in 1643, at Danzig, a treatise on Pansophia, 
 entitled Pansophiae Diatyposis, Ichnographica et Oitho-
 
 of Comenius. 47 
 
 graphica, a work afterwards republished at Amsterdam 
 and Paris. 
 
 When, in his retirement at Elbing, where he was sup- 
 ported by De Geer, he had laboured at his Didactic 
 treatises for nearly four years ' rolling his Sisyphaean 
 stone/ as he calls it he again visited Sweden (1646) 
 with his manuscripts, and having submitted them to a 
 commission of three judges, was directed to publish 
 them as soon as he had given them his last touches. 
 Two years, however, of hard labour on the Lexicons ' 
 and Grammars which were to accompany his books 
 still awaited him, and it was only in 1648 that he was 
 in a position to publish. At this time he returned to 
 his Polish home at Lesna, the proper centre of his 
 episcopal work, and at the Lesna press the fruits of 
 his labours were printed. 
 
 A complete list of the works which were the fruit of 
 those six years' labours will be found at the end of this 
 memoir, under their proper titles. They included the* 
 most elaborate of all his treatises on Method, except 
 his Great Didactic, viz., The Newest Method of Languages 
 solidly based on Didactic Foundations, and a specimen of 
 a Vestibulum, for the final shape of which he refers his 
 readers to the Vestibulum afterwards revised at Patak 
 in Hungary : also a new edition of ihefanua, for which 
 also his readers are referred to its final and completed 
 form as revised at Patak : x a Latin-vernacular Grammar 
 
 1 Both Vestibulum and Janua were, however, printed at Lesna 
 before he went to Patak, as appears from vol. iii. in the Dedicatory 
 Epistle prefixed to the Schola Ludus.
 
 48 Life and Works 
 
 for thefanua, with appended annotations for the use of 
 teachers a very clear, complete, and yet brief work 
 compared with the Grammars of the time ; and a Latin- 
 German Lexicon, published later, in 1656, at Frankfort, 
 and not included in the collected works, as being too 
 cumbrous. 'A more advanced school-book, entitled 
 Atrium Linguae Latinae, he had just begun when he 
 was called into Hungary, where it was completed. The 
 imperfections of these books, as indeed of all his 
 writings, he is always ready to admit, pleading that no 
 one man could all at once correct the mistakes of the 
 past, place education on a right basis, and furnish the 
 school with proper instruments of teaching. 
 
 While still engaged in the completion of the works 
 which belong to this Elbing period, when he was subsi- 
 dised by De Geer, he received many testimonies from 
 men high in position as to the value of his labours. 
 An interesting correspondence with the Palatine of 
 Posnania, 'Christoph. Opalinski de Bnin,' himself an 
 author and a vigorous promoter of education in his own 
 country, was lost in the destruction of Lesna by the 
 Swedish army, in 1655, under Charles x. an invasion 
 which destroyed also the gymnasium at Sirakovia, 
 which Opalinski had founded and supplied with trans- 
 lations of Comenius's school-books. 1 
 
 The products of the six years of Elbing industry he 
 dedicated to De Geer. 
 
 Having discharged his obligations to his Swedish 
 1 jfudicia, novaeque disquisitlones. Vol. ii. of Works, p. 458.
 
 of Comenius. 49 
 
 friends in the department of Didactics, he was about 
 now, at last, to apply himself exclusively to the greater 
 Pansophic schemes, and was contemplating future 
 labours in this direction with much complacency when 
 he received a letter from the Prince Sigismund Racocus, 1 
 and his widowed mother, the Princess of Transylvania, 
 urging him to advise in the reformation of the schools 
 in their country. The requests of mother and son were 
 enforced by communications from theologians, and 
 were favourably entertained by him because of the 
 kindness shown in Transylvania to exiled Moravians. 
 Accordingly, in May 1650, he betook himself to Saros- 
 Patak, a market-town of Hungary, on the Bodrogh, and 
 thence, along with their Highnesses, to Tokay, twenty 
 miles to the north-east. It was in this year that he 
 published his Lux in Tenebris, a book on the fulfilment 
 of modern prophecy, and became entangled with one 
 Drabicius, 2 who gave himself out as a prophet and gained 
 a certain following. This weakness in Comenius may be 
 touched with a gentle hand. His theological writings 
 show that he had strong mystical leanings, and in later 
 life he was a devoted admirer of Madame Bourignon, 
 to whom, indeed, he stood in personal relations. 
 
 The form which his scholastic labours now took com- 
 
 1 George I., Ragotzski, Prince of Transylvania. This country 
 was not incorporated in the Austrian dominions till 1699. Hungary 
 accrued to Austria in 1526, and became hereditary in 1687. 
 
 1 For an account of Drabicius and Kotterus, see Bayle's Dic- 
 tionary. Their productions were largely embodied in Comenius's 
 book. The date of the publication of Lux in Tencbris is given 
 variously. This is doubtless due to the confounding of the Czech 
 and Latin editions. 
 
 D
 
 5O Life and Works 
 
 bined the Didactic with the Pansophic more fully than 
 hitherto. Being asked to put his idea of a Pansophic 
 school in writing, he printed his Illustris Scholae Pata- 
 kinae Idta, and thereafter in full detail his Scholae 
 Pansophicae classibus septem adornandae Delineatio. 
 During his residence at Patak, which lasted till 1654, 
 he produced fifteen works, among which were the new 
 editions of the Vestibulum an&Janua, the first edition 
 of the Atrium, the famous Orbis Pictus (World Illus- 
 trated), 1 and the Schola Ludus. 
 
 These text-books are described in the account of 
 Comenius's educational views which follows this sketch 
 of his life and labours. The most characteristic and 
 important of the works of this period was the Schola 
 Pamophica, or Universalis Sapientiae Ojfidna, an ac- 
 count of which will also be found in its proper place. 
 He desired to make the new Patak seminary not merely 
 a Pansophic school, but also to give it the character of 
 a Latin state, nay, even of Latium itself. Nothing but 
 Latin was to be spoken. 2 This was practicable, because 
 he contemplated a college in which all the pupils should 
 dwell together. 
 
 His patrons did all they could to fulfil their promises 
 of support They gave him a collegiate building, and, 
 in addition to this, they purchased the fourth house 
 from the college for the school. Comenius's plan was 
 to buy up the intervening houses, with their gardens, 
 and as many on the other side, so as to provide resi- 
 
 1 Printed at Nuremberg in 1658. 
 
 1 Deliberatio de Latio a Tiberi ad Brodrocum transferendo.
 
 of Comenius. 5 1 
 
 dences for seven masters, and also seven class-rooms. 
 The whole was to be surrounded by a continuous wall, 
 so that a little Latin state (Latina dvitatula) might be 
 planted, with its own open areas and gardens all en- 
 closed from the outer world. This was to be a little 
 republic, having its own customs, laws, judges, and 
 senate, and its own chapel and services. The masters 
 were to preside over a large family like fathers, and 
 there, in a course of seven years, beginning at the age 
 of twelve, boys were to be instructed in ' all things that ' 
 perfect human nature,' and trained to be pious Chris- 
 tians and wise and cultivated men. 
 
 The three-class school which formed the lower division 
 of this Pansophic seminary was organised with a view to 
 instruction in Latin along with Real things. The higher 
 classes, up to the seventh, are described elsewhere. 
 They do not seem ever to have been organised. 
 
 The Precepts of Manners, collected for the use of 
 youth in 1653, are amusing, and at the same time afford 
 evidence of the exaggerated conceptions which Comenius 
 entertained of the possibilities of education. He be- 
 lieved, in truth, that he could manufacture a man. 
 These also were written for the Patak school. 
 
 The Schola Ludus, which is a kind of dramatic Janua 
 Linguarum et Rerum, was likewise written and printed 
 for the Patak school. An elaborate Latino-latin Lexicon 
 was also composed during the four years' residence at 
 Patak. Comenius left it behind him in MS., and it was 
 afterwards printed at Amsterdam in 1657. 
 
 The Prince Sigismund, unfortunately, died prema-
 
 52 Life and Works 
 
 turely, and those in authority after his death resolved 
 to limit the new institution to the three-class Latin, or 
 philological, school, and for the use of this school the 
 Vestibulum, Janua, and Atrium were printed in Latin- 
 Hungarian. The Patak school was auspiciously opened 
 under three carefully selected masters, and Comenius 
 believed it to be flourishing in 1657, when, at Amster- 
 dam, he was writing his dedicatory epistle prefixed to 
 the Schola Ludus. It had, however, suffered from the 
 plague of 1655, which temporarily broke it up. Having 
 accomplished his work of organisation and book-writing, 
 Comenius left Hungary in 1654, pronouncing his vale- 
 dictory address on June 26. of that year, in presence of 
 a distinguished assembly. 1 
 
 In that address he informs his audience that his 
 objects in school reform were to give compendiums 
 for learning the Latin tongue, which would make the 
 acquisition of it pleasant; to introduce a higher and 
 better philosophy into school work, so as to fit youth 
 for the investigation of the causes of things; and to 
 create a higher tone of morals and manners. To carry 
 out these objects, he had constructed, he tells them, 
 a Vestibulum and a Janua of the Latin tongue for the 
 first two classes, with their accompanying lexicons and 
 grammars, and an Atrium for the third stage, with a 
 more extended grammar, including idioms, phrases, and 
 elegancies, and a Latino-latin lexicon. As to science, 
 arts, philosophy, morals, and theology, he had so con- 
 
 1 Laborum Scholasticorum Patakini obilorum Coroniso, vide 
 vol. iii. p. 1041.
 
 of Comenius. 53 
 
 structed the above-named books that they contained 
 the foundations of all departments of knowledge; in 
 brief, Pansophia in its elements. He thanks all for 
 their co-operation, and impresses on them, in eloquent 
 language, the duty of maintaining the school, and pro- 
 secuting the methods which he had taught them, which 
 he elsewhere sums up in the words, Noscenda uoscendo, 
 facienda faciendo, or Autopsy, looking at things for one- 
 self, and Autopraxy, doing or constant practice. 
 
 ' Vale Patakina schola ! ' he concludes. ' Vale ecclesia ! 
 Vale Patakum ipsum ! Valete omnes amici, Comeniique 
 vestri amicam apud vos retinete memoriam, amicis pro- 
 sequimini votis, etc. . . . Imprimis valete vos dilecti 
 collegae, atque si me Eliam vestrum fuisse credebatis et 
 ob meum a vobis discessum lugetis, ego vos ut meos 
 Elisaeos intueor et vobis de spiritu meo portionem 
 duplam coelitus dari opto; ut publici boni amore et 
 pro illo promovendo laborum tolerantia et ad infirmiores 
 condescentia progressibus denique bonis ita me superetis 
 quomodo miraculis patrandis Eliam superavit Elisaeus : 
 ad scholam hanc vestram et alias tarn sancte sapienterque 
 regendum quam sancte sapienterque scholas Prophet- 
 arum rexit Elisaeus !' 
 
 It must have been about 1652-53, while still in the~ 
 midst of his Patak labours, that he lost his best friend 
 and patron, Ludovic de Geer. A long letter of condo- 
 lence addressed to the son, Laurence, then settled at 
 Amsterdam as Swedish ambassador, concludes the third 
 volume of the Works. In this he recalls the virtues 
 and lauds the character of the father, who was, without
 
 54 Life and Works 
 
 doubt, a man of high public spirit, and of a generous 
 and liberal nature. For eight years he had supported 
 Comenius and his amanuenses, and was prepared, when 
 the opportunity offered, to contribute largely towards 
 the institution of a Pansophic College. 
 
 From Patak Comenius went, in 1654, to his former 
 home at Lesna. The war which almost immediately 
 after broke out (1655) involved the whole of Poland, 
 and caused, among other calamities, the destruction of 
 Lesna (1656). l He was thus forced to seek for some 
 safer asylum. 
 
 In the overthrow of the town, Comenius lost all his 
 property, including his library and manuscripts, which 
 contained the results of the studies which he had under- 
 taken with a view to the great Pansophic book which 
 was the chief aim of his life. Among the MSS. was one 
 which, he tells us, he considered the most precious of his 
 possessions ; it was his Silva or ' forest' (to use his own 
 peculiar expression) of Pansophic materials, a treasury 
 of definitions of all things, and of axioms, scientific and 
 philosophic, which he had spent twenty years in gather- 
 ing together. He had not, even then, been prepared 
 with a complete system, but he had in contemplation, 
 and nearly ready, a much more complete treatise than 
 any he had yet issued. 
 
 After the ruin of Lesna, he was invited by Laurence 
 
 1 The fate of Lesna was said to have been partly due to a pan- 
 egyric on Charles Gustavus, King of Sweden, which Comenius 
 indiscreetly published.
 
 of Comenius. 55 
 
 de Geer, the son of his former patron, to join him in 
 Amsterdam, there to take counsel as to his future. 
 From the temporary refuge which he had found for his 
 family he was driven by pestilence, and other friends 
 joining De Geer in urging him to make Amsterdam his 
 future home, he yielded, because, he himself says, ' I 
 have all my life long been accustomed to yield to 
 what seemed to be the guidance of Providence.' 1 
 Comenius was now sixty-three years of age. 
 
 To the loss of his Pansophic MSS. were now added 
 fresh demands on his time of a strictly scholastic kind, 
 and he had to return ' ad puerilia ilia utut mihi toties 
 nauseata Latinitatis studia.' An edition of his Schola 
 Ludus was demanded in Holland, and he found so 
 many errors and defects in the version printed at Patak 
 after his departure, that he had to devote a considerable 
 time to emending and printing. Then, it was impossible 
 to escape from the supposed necessity of constructing 
 another elementary book, a sequel to the Vestibulum, 
 to be entitled the Auctarium. He was also requested 
 by the Senate of Amsterdam to try his method on two 
 youths. His Latinity also was attacked, and this caused 
 him to write Pro Latinitate Januae Comenianae Apologia. 
 These labours, but especially this last treatise, revived an 
 interest in his method in the minds of many public 
 men, and he was asked to put his educational views in 
 the form of an epitome, so that busy men might read 
 them. This gave rise to his Synopsis Novissimae 
 1 The last Dedicatory Epistle.
 
 56 Life and Works 
 
 Methodi^ which, however, he did not think it worth his 
 while to republish in his Works, probably because it 
 is substantially repeated in other treatises. 
 ' The publication of his complete didactic works, to 
 which he now addressed himself at the instance of De 
 Geer, and under the patronage of the highest authorities 
 in Amsterdam, led him to take a critical survey of all 
 he had written, that he might confirm, retract, or 
 modify the opinions which he had from time to time 
 given forth. This treatise of retrospect and revision 
 he entitled Ventilabrum Sapientiae sive sapienier sua 
 retractandi Ars ' The Fanner of Wisdom, or the Art 
 of retracting one's own Opinions.' This fanner was 
 to winnow away the chaff and leave the solid grain. 
 He quotes Philo in support of this self-criticism : 
 ' Scientiae finis non contingit hominibus. Nemo enim 
 absolutus est in ulla scientia. Revera perfectiones et 
 vestigia unius sunt (nempe Z>).' He also quotes Aris- 
 totle as saying, ' It behoves a philosopher to forswear 
 even his own dogmas,' and a Roman Pontiff as remark- 
 ing, ' Wretched is that man who is the slave of his own 
 dogmas.' 
 
 In the Didactica Magna, which contains the system- 
 atic development of his principles and methods, he 
 finds that he has nothing to retract, but confines him- 
 self to a defence of the Syncretic Method, which is 
 there followed. Comenius recognises three methods of 
 ascertaining and expounding truth, the Analytic and 
 the Synthetic (which words he uses in our modern 
 acceptation), and the Syncretic. By this last he means
 
 of Comemus. 5 7 
 
 arguing by a method of parallels in nature, the method 
 of Analogy. He holds that the true character and 
 process of anything in the created world furnishes a 
 line of explanation for other things, which is of the 
 most convincing kind. The stricter view of Analogy 
 which is now accepted was not known to Comenius, 
 although he must have had before him the dictum of 
 the schoolmen : ' Similia illustrant quidem, non autem 
 probant.' 
 
 When, in the course of his retrospect, he re-peruses 
 his Praeludium Pansophicum, a sense of wasted years 
 oppresses him, and he is again afflicted with grief, 
 because he had, at the urgent entreaty of friends, 
 too readily deserted this the main line of his studies, 
 sacrificing the great ambition of his life to occupy him- 
 self exclusively with matters didactic. ' How badly 
 have I imitated,' he exclaims, 'that merchant seeking 
 for good pearls, who, when he had found a pearl of 
 great price, went away and sold all he had, and bought 
 it ! Oh wretched sons of light, who know not to 
 imitate the wisdom of the children of the world ! 
 Would that I, having once struck the Pansophic vein, 
 had followed it up, neglecting all else ! But so it happens 
 when we lend an ear to the solicitations clamouring 
 outside us rather than to the light shining within us.' 
 
 The corrections he has to make on his various 
 didactic writings are certainly very unimportant. They 
 all point in the direction of greater simplification, and 
 for this he looks to the labours of his successors rather 
 than to any revision of his own.
 
 58 Life and Works 
 
 About the year 1657 Comenius wrote and published 
 (in the fourth volume of his Works) four treatises, which 
 however constitute one. He desired to present his 
 principles in a brief and condensed, yet systematic way, 
 so that they might be accessible to men occupied with 
 public affairs. The first of these treatises is entitled 
 Scholasticis Labyrinthis Exitus in Planum, sive Machina 
 Didactica mechanice constructa : ad non haerendum am- 
 plius (in Docendi et Discendi muniis) sed progrediendum, 
 'An Issue out of School-labyrinths into the Open, or 
 a Didactic Machine mechanically constructed with a 
 view to no longer sticking fast in the work of Teach- 
 ing and Learning, but of advancing in them.' Schools, 
 he tells us, are to be compared to labyrinths, infinitely 
 distracting the minds of youth : the thread which is to 
 guide us through the labyrinths is a true and simple 
 method. The sciences and arts and tongues are to be 
 taught, but the precise quantity and goal of teaching 
 are not accurately laid down. The thread of Ariadne 
 Method is all-important, because it leads to distinct 
 issues by a proper way. Augustine says, Praestet pauca 
 scire quam infinita opinari ; Pliny says, Satius sit minus 
 serere et melius arare ; and again, Seneca, Melius est 
 scire pauca et Us rede uti quam scire mulla quorum 
 ignores usum. ' Our method,' says Comenius, ' offers few 
 things, but these necessary to life here and hereafter ; 
 few things, but these well consolidated by continued 
 exercises ; few things, but these having a direct utility.' 
 
 As he grew older, and looked back on his past work,
 
 of Comenius. 59 
 
 he became more and more convinced that he was 
 right in his aims and methods. He was now sixty-five 
 years of age. His views assumed to his mind a 
 definite and clear shape, and became almost axiomatic. 
 He admits certain errors in the details of working out 
 his views; for example, that his text-books are too 
 condensed, and attempt too much, and that it would 
 be hardly possible to accomplish in three years (the 
 Three-Class philological, or Latin school) all that he 
 once thought might be accomplished within that 
 period; but these faults he considers to be faults of 
 detail, and due to his own culpable neglect of the 
 principles he had himself laid down. Admitting so 
 much, he yet regards his method as so absolute in 
 its character that it may be likened to a machine 
 a clock, or a ship, or a mill. Set it going, and keep it 
 going, and you will find the result certain. It is really 
 of the nature of a mechanical construction, mechanic- 
 ally constructed. He is never weary of advocating 
 his system. He sums up his principles, and then, with 
 all the ardour of his youth, he afresh proceeds to con- 
 sider the means by which his great end is to be attained. 
 
 The Latin school is to be a college in which nothing 
 but Latin is to be spoken. Longum et difficile iter per 
 praecepta, usu et consuetudine iter breve et efficax. He 
 calls the brief treatise in which he advocates the in- 
 stitution of such a college Latium Redivivum, and urges 
 the authorities of Amsterdam to institute one. 
 
 With such a College he sees his way so to carry out 
 his methods as to justify him in recurring to one of his
 
 60 Life and Works 
 
 old ideas, and comparing his method to a printing-press, 
 which makes the impression of the type on the paper 
 without fail. So will the impression on minds by his 
 method be equally certain. Hence the name of his 
 next paper, Typographeum Vivum, or the Living Print- 
 ing Press. He here compares his method with clocks, 
 ships, agriculture (Ingenium enim vivus ager est ; Dis- 
 ciplinae aratro sementi praeparandus, Doctrinarum 
 seminibus obserendus, Exercitiorum pluvia, sole, vento 
 animandus), with the pictorial and sculptural arts, and 
 with architecture, but prefers to dwell on its likeness 
 to the typographic art, not only as to the mode of pro- 
 cedure, but also the result ; for whereas in the one 
 case you have books, in the other, every capable pupil 
 properly trained will be a walking library obambulans 
 Bibliotheca, 
 
 But the final aim of all this training is moral and 
 religious. Comenius never lost sight of this. As the 
 restoration of man to the Paradise which he forfeited, 
 and to the image of God which he lost, is the aim of 
 the Providence of God in Christ, so the aim of the 
 school is a restoration a bringing of its work and 
 methods into a harmony with moral and religious aims, 
 and subordinating the school to the Church as a spiritual 
 society. Hence the title of the next treatise, Paradisus 
 Juventuti Christianae reducendus. In this treatise he 
 mixes up the spiritual aim of the school with that of a 
 Paradise in the sense of a place that may be made a 
 happy one for boys, and indulges also in many forced 
 analogies between the school and the first Paradise.
 
 of Comenius. 6 1 
 
 Finally, in his Traditio Lampadis he solemnly hands 
 over the didactic work of his life to be carried on by 
 others, and commends his labours to God, who had 
 so favoured him as to make him the instrument of 
 sowing the seed of a better time for schools, and to 
 whose blessing he looks for a rich harvest in the 
 future. 
 
 Comenius was now sixty-six years of age, and had 
 just revised and completed the issue of his collected 
 Didactic works, extending to four folio volumes. He 
 had now said his last word. We can well believe the 
 simple-hearted and single-minded old Bishop, when he 
 tells us that he had been led by no personal ambition 
 to publish his works, and that he was very far from 
 desiring to derogate from the claims of those writers 
 who preceded him, and to whom he acknowledges his 
 obligations. Nor had his motive been the desire of 
 wealth, for he had sought nothing and gained nothing. 
 He had laboured and written, he says, influenced by 
 the love of God, and stimulated by the exhortations 
 of learned men, solely in the hope of improving the 
 education of youth, and preparing a better future for 
 humanity. 
 
 It is not to be supposed that Comenius's relations 
 to his original patron Ludovic de Geer were always 
 pleasant ; such relations seldom are. De Geer com- 
 plained of unnecessary delay, and Comenius had many 
 personal vexations to contend with arising out of his 
 pecuniary dependence. We learn also, from the last
 
 62 Life and Works 
 
 Dedicatory Epistle written by Comenius, and addressed 
 to some of the leading men in Amsterdam, that he 
 had not, even in his old age, escaped the general fate 
 of reformers. While his views on Education had been 
 ardently supported by some of the best men in Europe, 
 that obstructive of all education known as the 'practical 
 teacher,' had been at work. Detraction was busy, and 
 he was accused by the teachers of Amsterdam of 
 ' attacking schools.' To all this his reply was brief. ' I 
 can affirm,' he writes, 'from the bottom of my heart, 
 that these forty years my aim .has been simple and un- 
 pretending, indifferent whether I teach or be taught, 
 admonish or be admonished, willing to act the part of a 
 teacher of teachers, if in anything it may be permitted 
 me to be so, and a disciple of disciples where progress 
 may be possible. They say that I write against schools : 
 nay, it is for schools that I speak, and have spoken. 
 I presume our common ends are the same ; it is as to 
 methods and ways that we differ.' Malignity even 
 touched the character and motives of the old Bishop. 
 ' I have not, by the grace of God,' he says, 'so spent my 
 life that now in my old age I must avoid the light ; nor 
 are the things I have done till now of so little account 
 that I am to keep silence when I am asked to speak. 
 As to the allegation that I have preferred private to 
 public schools, this is incorrect ; my writings show 
 this. I have desired to give trouble to none, but 
 rather to lessen trouble. Why then should any delight 
 to molest me ? Let me live in tranquillity as long as 
 God wills me to be here ! With Thomas a Kempis
 
 of Comenius. 63 
 
 I can from my heart and the bitter lessons of experi- 
 ence say, " I have tried all things, nor anywhere have 
 I found peace, save in a little corner and a little book" 
 (angululo et libellullo). n 
 
 Of Comenius's domestic life and history not very 
 much is known. He married, as his second wife, the 
 daughter of Joh. Cyrillus, a priest of the Brotherhood 
 and a Senior, apparently about the year 1629. She 
 died in 1648, or the beginning of 1649, after having 
 borne five children a son, Daniel by name, and four 
 daughters. The eldest daughter, Dorothea, seems to 
 have married Johann Mohtor, a man of good Slovack 
 family, who had been under Comenius's educational 
 supervision at Lissa. The second daughter, Elizabeth, 
 married Figulus, one of her father's collaborateurs, and a 
 Moravian pastor. 
 
 Comenius continued to reside in Amsterdam, after 
 the publication of his collected Didactic works (com- 
 pleted in the end of 1657), maintaining himself and his 
 family by teaching, and partly, it would seem, supported 
 by the private liberality of the admirers of his life and 
 labours especially the De Geer family, at whose 
 expense his books were printed. He dedicated his 
 works to the city of Amsterdam, in gratitude for the 
 hospitality its people had shown to him. He lived for 
 nearly thirteen years after this, dying on the i5th of 
 
 1 The attack on Comenius by Nicolas Arnoldus, in his Discursus 
 TJieologicus contra Comenium, is personal and spiteful. Bayle's 
 treatment of Comenius shows a complete misapprehension of his 
 character.
 
 64 Life and Works 
 
 November 1671, in his eightieth year, and was buried 
 at Naarden. During these concluding years he does 
 not seem to have added to his Didactic writings, but 
 he printed several treatises of a religious character 
 intended to further the promotion of the unity of 
 Protestant Christendom, and continued to maintain 
 by correspondence his connection with the Moravian 
 Brethren, and the superintendence of their affairs. 
 His last publication was a confession, entitled One 
 Thing Needful,^ in which the piety of his heart and 
 the simplicity of his faith are alike conspicuous. 
 In this he thanks God that he had been a man of 
 aspirations. 
 
 Even in the declining years of his laborious life he 
 never for a moment lost sight of his great Pansophic 
 work, which was to place before the world of science and 
 letters the sum of human knowledge in all departments. 
 He set himself diligently to replace the materials and 
 MSS. which were destroyed at the sacking of Lesna, and 
 left a large number of papers behind him, enjoining his 
 son Daniel and his old friend and fellow-worker Nigrinus 
 to prepare them for publication. The son seems to 
 have troubled himself very little about the matter, but 
 Nigrinus worked for eight or nine years at the revision 
 
 1 Unum necessarium in vita et morte et post mortem quod non- 
 necessari mundi fatigatus et ad unum necessarium sese recipiens 
 senex J. A. Comenius anno aetatis suae 77, mundo expendendum 
 offert. Terent. Ad omnia aetate sapimus recte. Edit. Amstelo- 
 dami 1668. Afterwards republished in Leipzig in 1734. 
 
 A translation of the Bible into Turkish also occupied much of 
 his thoughts and time.
 
 of Comenius. 65 
 
 and preparation of ihe MS., being supported during the 
 task by the liberality of Gerard de Geer. But it does 
 not appear that any Pansophic publication ever saw the 
 light. 
 
 ' Comenius,' says Von Raumer truly, ' is a grand and 
 venerable figure of sorrow. Wandering, persecuted, 
 and homeless, during the terrible and desolating Thirty 
 Years' War, he yet never despaired ; but with enduring 
 truth, and strong in faith, he laboured unweariedly to 
 prepare youth by a better education for a better 
 future. Suspended from the ministry, as he himself 
 tells us, and an exile, he had become an Apostle ad 
 gentes minutulas Christianam juventutcm ; and cer- 
 tainly he laboured for them with a zeal and love worthy 
 of the chief of the Apostles.' 
 
 WORKS OF COMENIUS. 
 
 Comenius wrote various books on Physics and a great many 
 on Theological and Ecclesiastical subjects, in addition to those 
 on Education and on Pansophy. The chief of these were : 
 
 1. The Labyrinth of the World and the Paradise of the Heart. 
 Printed in the Czech language about 1621, but first published at 
 Lesna, in quarto, in 1631. 
 
 2. Historia unitatis fratrum et ratio disciplinae. 
 
 3. Physicae ad Lumen Divinum reformatae Synopsis. Lipsiae 
 1633, and Amsterodami 1643. 
 
 4. De bono Unitatis et Ordinis, Disciplinae et Obedientiae in 
 Ecclesia recte constituta, vel constituenda : Ecclesiae Bohemicae 
 ad Anglicanam Paraenesis. Amst. 1 660. 
 
 5. Lux in tenebris (a book on the fulfilment of prophecy in 
 modern events). 1650. 
 
 E
 
 66 Works of Comenius. 
 
 6. Historia Revelationum. 
 
 7. Unum Necessarium. Amst. I668. 1 
 
 EDUCATIONAL AND PANSOPHIC WORKS. 
 
 These were published at Amsterdam in 1657, in four vols. folio. 
 They are bound in one volume, and extend to 2271 pages.* 
 
 In the Dedicatory Epistle, dated 2Oth December 1657, the 
 author informs us that he had collected all his writings, arranging 
 them in chronological order, at the request of many leading men 
 in the State, and in compliance with a resolution of the governing 
 body (sacri senatus decreto). He dedicates his works to the city 
 of Amsterdam in recognition of the hospitable reception it had 
 given him. 
 
 The title is : 
 
 J. A. Comenii Opera didactica omnia, variis hucusque occasioni- 
 bus scripta, diversisque locis edita : nunc autem non tantum in 
 unum, ut simul suit, collecta, sed et ultimo conatu in Systema 
 unum mechanice constructum, redacta. Amsterodami impensis D. 
 Laurentii de Geer excuderunt Christophorus Cunradus et Gabriel 
 a Roy. Anno 1657. 4 voll. fol. 
 
 Erster Theil. (Schrift en von 1627-1642.) The Poland Period. 
 
 1. De primis occasionibus, quibus hue studiorum delatus fuit 
 Author, brevissima relatio. 
 
 2. Didactica magna. Omnes omnia docendi artificia exhibens. 
 
 3. Schola materni gremii, sive de provida Juventutis primo 
 sexennio Educatione. 
 
 4. Scholae vernaculae delineatio. 
 
 5. Janua latinae linguae primum edita. 
 
 6. Vestibulum ei praestructum. 
 
 7. Proplasma Templi Latinitatis Dav. Vechneri : et cur opus 
 non processerit. 
 
 8. De sermonis Latini studio. 
 
 1 Also, a History of the Persecutions of the Moravians, the 
 precise title of which I do not know. 
 
 8 The paging 451 to 591, vol. iii., is repeated by the printer.
 
 Works of Comenius. 
 
 9. Prodromus pansophiae. 
 
 10. Variorum de eo Censurae. 
 
 11. Pansophicorum Conatuum Dilucidatio. 
 
 Zweitcr Thtil. (Schriften von 1642-50.) The Elbing Period. 
 
 1. De novis Didactica studia continuandi occasionibus. 
 
 2. Methodus linguarum novissima fundamentis didacticis, solide 
 superstructa. 
 
 3. Lat linguae Vestibulum, rerum et linguae cardines exhibens. 
 
 4. Januae linguarum novissimae Clavis, Grammatica Latino- 
 vernacula. 
 
 5. Judicia novaeque disquisitiones. 
 
 Drifter Thdl. (Schriften von 1650-54.) The Patak Period. 
 
 1. De vocatione in Hungariam relatio. 
 
 2. Scholae pansophicae delineatio. 
 
 3. De repertis studii pansophici obicibus. 
 
 4. De ingeniorum cultura. 
 
 5. De ingenia colendi primario instrumento, Libris. 
 
 6. De reperta ad Authores latinos prompte legendos et intelli- 
 gendos facili, brevi et amoena via Schola Triclassi. 
 
 7. Eruditionis scholasticae pars I. Vestibulum, rerum et lin- 
 guae fundamenta ponens. 
 
 8. Eruditionis scholasticae pars II. Janua rerum linguarum 
 structuram extemam exhibens ; embracing 
 
 a. Lexicon Januale. 
 
 b. Grammatica Janualis. 
 
 c. Janualis rerum et verborum contextus, historiolam rerum 
 
 continens. 
 
 9. Eruditionis scholasticae pars III. Atrium rerum et lin- 
 guarum omamenta exhibens. 
 
 10. Fortius redivivus, sive de pellenda Scholis ignavia. 
 
 11. Praecepta morum in usum Juventutis collecta. Anno 1653. 
 
 12. Leges bene ordinatae scholae. 
 
 13. Orbis sensualium pictus. (Only an announcement. ) 
 
 14. Schola Ludus : h. e. Januae linguarum praxis comica. 
 
 15. Laborum scholasticorum in Hungaria obitorum Coronis.
 
 Works of Comenius. 
 
 Vierter Theil. (Schriften von 1654-57.) The Amsterdam Period. 
 
 1. Vita gyms, sive de occasionibus vitae, et quibus Autorem 
 in Belgium deferri, iterumque ad intermissa didactica studia redire 
 contigit. 
 
 2. Parvulis parvulus, Omnibus omnia, h. e. Vestibuli Latinae 
 linguae Auctarium, voces primitivas in sententiolas redigens. 
 
 3. Apologia pro Latinitate Januae Comenianae. 
 
 4. Ventilabrum sapientiae, sive sapienter sua retractandi ars. 
 
 5. E labyrinthis scholasticis exitus tandem in planum, sive 
 Machina didactica mechanice constructa. 
 
 6. Latium redivivum, hoc est, de forma latinissimi Collegii, 
 seu novae romanae civitatulae ; ubi latina lingua usu et consue- 
 tudine ut olim, melius tamen quam olim, addiscatur. 
 
 7. Typographeum vivum, hoc est : ars compendiose et tamen 
 copiose ac eleganter sapientiam non chartis, sed ingeniis impri- 
 mendi. 
 
 8. Paradisus ecclesiae reductus ; hoc est optimus scholarum 
 status, ad primae paradisiacae scholae ideam deh'neatus. 
 
 9. Traditio lampadis, hoc est studiorum sapientiae christia- 
 naeque juventutis et scholarum, Deo et hominibus devota com- 
 mendatio. 
 
 10. Paralipomena didactica. 
 
 Pansophiae diatyposis. Dantzic 1643. 
 
 In 1670 Comenius, when (as he states) he was seventy-eight 
 years of age, wrote a short preface to a trilingual edition of the 
 Janua English, Latin, and Greek, in parallel columns published 
 in London. Some quaint woodcuts of by no means bad execution 
 are prefixed to this edition, which I met with in the Advocates' 
 Library, Edinburgh. The cuts are illustrative of the different 
 departments of realistic study, as then understood. In these we 
 have represented Astronomy, Mathematics, Navigation, Geography, 
 Anatomy, Architecture. One of the anatomical illustrations is a 
 skeleton leaning in a pensive attitude on a table, while one long 
 bony hand rests on a skull.
 
 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM AND 
 WRITINGS OF COMENIUS.
 
 PART I. 
 
 THE GREAT DIDACTIC. 
 First Section. 
 
 PANSOPHY AND THE AIM OF EDUCATION. 
 
 THERE can be no doubt that it was chiefly the specu- 
 lations of Lord Verulam that fired the imagination of 
 Comenius, and led him to conceive hopes of reducing 
 all existing learning to a systematic form, and providing 
 for all the more ambitious youth of Europe, in a great 
 Pansophic College, opportunities for the universal study 
 of the whole body of science. To this universal and 
 systematised learning he gave the name of Pansophia 
 or Encyclopaedia. He was filled with high hopes of the 
 benefits which would arise from a revision and arrange- 
 ment of human knowledge hopes which he shared 
 with many men of his time, and which it would be 
 rash for us to say were without sufficient foundation. 
 
 The title of one of his treatises is 'A Prelude of 
 Pansophy, in which the necessity of universal wisdom, 
 its possibility and its practicability (if it be approached 
 according to a certai^ method) is briefly and clearly 
 demonstrated.' He draws a picture of the confusion
 
 72 The Educational System. 
 
 of existing knowledge, and the inadequacy of the treat- 
 ment of its various departments. He attributes this 
 to the ignorance of those in one place of what had 
 been done elsewhere, and to the too great specialisation 
 of inquirers. The writer on jurisprudence was ignorant, 
 it might be, of philosophy and physics, the writer on 
 physics was ignorant of metaphysics, the writer on 
 metaphysics and ethics ignored physics ; and so forth. 
 Hence inadequacy of treatment ; hence, too, the frag- 
 mentary presentation of all knowledge. To cure this 
 it was necessary that there should be an authorised 
 and systematised view of all learning arranged in a 
 philosophic order. Men who, in the higher depart- 
 ments of education, had been disciplined in this ency- 
 clopaedia, would have an universal culture that would 
 enable them to prosecute special branches with greater 
 firmness and accuracy. He called on learned men to 
 enable him by their contributions to construct such 
 a book, or series of books. As to method ; while the 
 spirit of the Baconian induction was in him, in so far 
 as he based knowledge on observation and on advancing 
 from particulars to generals, he had not grasped induc- 
 tion in its true significance. For, as Bacon himself 
 points out, the senses by themselves are not to be 
 trusted, and the processes of a true investigation are 
 toy^upplement, correct, and verify them. 
 V As all knowledge was to lead to God, and to God as 
 revealed through Christ, Comenius spoke of his encyclo- 
 psedism as a Christian Pansophy, and gave the ' special 
 titles of the seven parts of the temple of Christian 
 Pansophy.' The first part was to show the necessity
 
 The Great Didactic. 73 
 
 and possibility of the temple and to give its external 
 structure or outline to be called the Templi Sapientiae 
 Propylaeum. The second part was to give the first 
 approach to a knowledge of all knowable things a 
 general apparatus of wisdom in which the highest 
 genera and fundamental principles and axioms were to 
 be exhibited, from which, as the primal sources of truth, 
 the streams of all sciences flow and diverge, to be 
 called the Porta. The third part (the primum Atrium) 
 was to exhaust visible nature. The fourth (the Atrium 
 medium) was to treat of man and reason ; the fifth part 
 (Atrium internum), of man's essential nature free-will 
 and responsibility, and the repair of man's will in Christ 
 as the beginning of the spiritual life. The sixth part 
 (Sanctum sanctorum) was to be theological, and here 
 man was to be admitted to the study and worship of 
 God and his revelation, that thereby he might be led to 
 embrace God as the centre of eternal life. The seventh 
 part (Fons aquarum viventium) was to expound the use 
 of true wisdom and its dissemination, so that the whole 
 worULafight be filled with a knowledge of God. 
 v^nis is a sketch of a Pansophic University. The 
 same ideas worked out as applicable to a Secondary or 
 Latin School will be found in the sequel under the desig- 
 nation, ' The Inner Organisation of a Pansophic School.' 
 
 Comenius was a thoroughgoing Realist in education, 
 but he combined with this a fervent evangelicalism : 
 indeed, his whole purpose was to lead youth to God 
 through things to God as the source of all, and as the 
 crown of knowledge and the end of life. 
 
 I have chosen to introduce the educational reader
 
 74 The Educational System. 
 
 to Comenius in connection with his Pansophic schemes, 
 because they are the key to his intellectual life and his 
 educational aims. For it will be seen in the sequel 
 that the idea of a Christian Pansophy never deserts 
 him, and that, from his 'mother-school' upwards, his 
 purpose is to give to children and boys the elements of 
 universal knowledge adapted to the various stages of 
 school life. It is as the representative of encyclo- 
 paedism in education (in his case a Christian encyclo- 
 paedism), and as the first exhaustive writer on general 
 method, that Comenius claims our attention. As a type 
 of the realistic and encyclopaedic school of Educationa- 
 lists, he will probably never be superseded. 
 
 I shall now give an account of those works of 
 Comenius in which he endeavoured to give effect to 
 his educational views. The ' Great Didactic ' (Magna 
 Didactica 1 ) first arrests our attention, because it was 
 
 1 The word is of singular number, and Ars is understood. The 
 full title of the book is as follows : 
 
 DIDACTICA MAGNA; 
 
 UNIVERSALE OMNES OMNIA 
 DOCENDI ARTIFICIUM EXHIBENS : 
 
 Sive certus et exquisitus modus, per omnes alicujus Christiani 
 Regni communitates, Oppida et Vicos, tales erigendi Scholas, ut 
 Omnis utriusque sexus Juventus, nemine usquam neglecto, Literis 
 informari, Moribus expoliri, Pietate imbui, eaque ratione intra 
 pubertatis annos ad omnia quae praesentis et futurae vitae sunt 
 instrui possit, 
 
 Compendiose, Jucunde, Solide : 
 
 Ubi omnium quae suadentur, 
 
 Fundamenta, ex ipsissima rerum natura eruuntur : 
 
 Veritas, artium Mechanicarum, parallelis exemplis demonstratur : 
 
 Series, per Annos, Menses, Dies, Horas, disponitur ; 
 
 Via denique in effectum haec feliciter 
 
 deducendi, facilis et certa ostenditur.
 
 The Great Didactic. 75 
 
 put forth as a systematic treatment of the whole ques- 
 tion of Education. Here our object will be to make 
 Comenius speak as much as possible for himself. 
 
 In his prefatory remarks to the Great Didactic, 
 Comenius tells us that the Didactic Art has to be 
 studied in the interests of Parents, Teachers, Pupils, the 
 Commonwealth, the Church, and Heaven. 
 
 ' Quidnam,' says Diogenes the Pythagorean, ' est 
 fundamentum totius reipublicae ? Adolescentium edu- 
 catio. Haud enim unquam vites utilem fructum pro- 
 tulerint quae non bene sunt excultae.' ' It is our bounden 
 duty,' he adds, 'to consider the means whereby the 
 whole body of Christian youth may be stirred to vigour 
 of mind and the love of Heavenly things.' 
 
 General Statement of Aim. 
 
 I. Man is the last, the most complete, and the most 
 excellent of living creatures. 
 
 II. The final end of man lies beyond this life. This 
 life is threefold, viz., Vegetative, Animal, and Intellectual 
 or Spiritual. The first nowhere manifests itself outside 
 the body ; the second stretches forth to objects through 
 the operations of the senses ; the third is able to exist 
 separately as well as in the body, as in the case of 
 Angels. 'Jam quia evidens est, supremum hunc vitae 
 gradum a prioribus valide in nobis obumbrari et prae- 
 pediri, necessario sequitur futurum esse ubi in <x 
 deducatur.'
 
 76 The Educational System. 
 
 III. This life is only a preparation for an eternal 
 life. The visible world is a seed-plot, a boarding-house 
 and training-school for man. 
 
 'As certainly as the period spent in the mother's 
 womb is a preparation for the life in the body, so 
 certainly is the dwelling in the body a preparation for 
 that life which will take up the present and endure for 
 ever. Happy he who has brought forth from his 
 mother's womb well-formed limbs : happier a thousand 
 times he who carries hence a well-formed soul.' 
 
 IV. There are three steps of preparation for Eternity. 
 ' Se, et secum omnia, nosse ; Regere ; et ad Deum 
 Dirigere.' 
 
 It is accordingly required of man that 
 (i.) He should know all things. 
 (2.) He should have power over all things and 
 
 over himself. 
 (3.) He should refer himself and all things to God, 
 
 the Source of All. 
 
 These requirements are summed up in the words 
 EruditiOy Virtus seu Mores Honesti, Religio seu Pietas, 
 Knowledge, Virtue, and Piety. All else is merely 
 accidental and extrinsic. 
 
 V. The seeds of these three (Knowledge, Virtue, and 
 Religion) are in us by Nature, i.e. our first original and 
 fundamental nature, to which we are to be recalled by 
 God in Christ. 
 
 It is as certain that Man has been born fit for the 
 understanding of things, the harmony of morals, and 
 the love of God, as that there are roots to a tree.
 
 The Great Didactic. 77 
 
 KNOWLEDGE, or Eruditio. God has placed the roots 
 of eternal wisdom in man. He is fit to acquire all 
 knowledge, because he is the image of God. God is 
 omniscient, and the mind of man is like a polished 
 globular mirror hung up in a chamber, which receives 
 the forms (species) of all things. The body, the voice, 
 the vision of man are limited, but the mind is unlimited 
 in its sweep it is capable of all things. 
 
 Again, Man is a microcosm in which are enfolded the 
 seeds of all things, as well as of all knowledge. To him, 
 as inhabiting a natural body, are attached emissaries 
 and scouts, viz., his senses of seeing, hearing, smelling, 
 taste, and touch. 
 
 There is implanted in man a desire to know, and not 
 merely a tolerance of labour, but an appetite for labour. 
 The senses, e.g., seek about for objects. 
 
 The mind may be compared to the earth, for does it 
 not receive all kinds of seeds ? or, as Aristotle said, to 
 a tabula rasa, on which nothing is inscribed, but on 
 which everything may be inscribed; or the brain may 
 be compared to wax, on which every form may be 
 imprinted; for which the wisdom of God is to be 
 admired, who has made it, though small, capable of 
 receiving innumerable impressions. 
 
 Most fitly perhaps, is the mind to be compared to 
 a mirror, which reflects accurately all that is placed 
 before it 
 
 VIRTUE, or Mores Honesti. The seeds of moral life 
 are connate with man. He is adapted for a harmonia 
 morum. In the motions of the soul the principal
 
 78 The Educational System. 
 
 wheel is the will. The weights which drive this wheel 
 are the affections and appetites, but the reason is as a 
 movable bolt which opens and shuts the entrance of 
 these, and suspends or directs. 
 
 PIETY, or Religio. So also are the roots of religion 
 in man, for is he not the image of God ? The soul of 
 man longs after its likeness. God is the end of its 
 striving, and this is the summum bonum a longing not 
 wholly extinguished by the Fall. We are not to forget 
 our restoration in the new Adam. Everything returns 
 willingly to its own true nature, and it is easier for man, 
 by the grace of the Holy Spirit, to be wise, good, and 
 holy than it is for his adventitious depravity to stop his 
 progress. 
 
 Nature gives the seeds of knowledge, morality, and 
 religion, but it does not give knowledge, virtue, and 
 religion themselves. These have to be striven for. 
 Hence man is truly called animal disciplinabile, since 
 he cannot truly become a man except through disci- 
 pline. Man, then, has to be educated to become a 
 man. Even to use his limbs aright, he has to be edu- 
 cated. The mind, if weak or stupid, we all admit, 
 needs discipline ; but this is true even of the capable 
 understanding; for as rich soil, if not rightly tilled, 
 grows weeds and thistles in more than usual abundance, 
 so is it with the man of natural talent. 
 
 Education is to be carried out while the mind is yet 
 tender and the brain soft. And in order that the human 
 being may be educated to full humanity, God has given
 
 The Great Didactic. 79 
 
 him certain years of childhood during which he is not 
 fit for active life ; and that only is firm and stable which 
 has been imbibed during the earliest years. 
 
 The care of children belongs properly to their parents, 
 but they need the help of those specially set apart 
 for education preceptores, ludimagistrt\ professores and 
 there is, consequently, a need for schools and colleges. 
 Schools should be instituted in every part of the empire, 
 and the whole of the youth of both sexes should be sent 
 to these. Schools have been truly called humanitatis 
 officinae (workshops or manufactories of Humanity), 
 where man may be trained to be i . A rational 
 creature ; 2. A creature lord of other creatures and of 
 himself; 3. A creature which shall be the joy of his 
 Creator. 
 
 That only I call a school, Comenius says, which 
 is truly officina hominum, where minds are instructed 
 in wisdom to penetrate all things, where souls and their 
 affections are guided to the universal harmony of the 
 virtues, and hearts are allured to divine love, 'ubi 
 omnes omnia omnino doceantur.' 
 
 Luther, in 1525, in his exhortation to the States of 
 the Empire to erect schools, desires, inter aha, these 
 two things '(i) That in all cities, towns, and villages 
 schools be instituted to teach all the youth of both 
 sexes ; so that those engaged in agriculture and trades 
 might receive two hours' daily instruction in letters, 
 morals, and religion. (2) That they should be in- 
 structed according to some easier method, which would 
 not only not deter from study, but allure to it, so that
 
 8o The Educational System. 
 
 they should derive no less pleasure from their studies 
 than from their games.' But even now, ' ubi universales 
 illae scholae ? ubi blanda ilia methodus?' Even those 
 that exist for the wealthier classes are a terror to boys 
 and torture-chambers of minds. As to moral training 
 and manners, even the Universities are bad. And 
 why all this ? Because ' de bene vivendo in scholis 
 quaestio nulla movetur.' They have sought only know- 
 ledge. 
 
 And how have they sought this? In such a way 
 that they spend five, ten, or even more years over what 
 could be done in one year. What is capable of being 
 instilled and poured into the mind in the gentlest way 
 is violently stuffed in and stamped in. What might be 
 placed perspicuously and clearly before the eyes is 
 presented in an obscure, perplexed, and intricate way. 
 
 The mind is nowhere nourished with the true kernel 
 of things, but with the mere husk of words. 
 
 As to the study of the Latin tongue good Heavens ! 
 how laborious, how intricate, how prolix ! Mere 
 scullions, cooks, and soldiers will learn one, two, or 
 three foreign tongues more quickly than the pupils of 
 our schools will learn Latin only ; and these know 
 little of it, and are dependent on their lexicons. This 
 must arise from a bad method. Well may the distin- 
 guished Lubinus say that, when he thinks of the 
 immense labour, tedium, and loss in the teaching of 
 Latin, he is disposed to think that the method must 
 have been invented by some evil genius an enemy of 
 the human race. But why multiply testimony? I
 
 The Great Didactic. 
 
 81 
 
 myself am an unhappy instance of wasted boyhood and 
 youth years misspent, the memory of which I recall 
 with tears and sighs. But the past is irrevocable. Let 
 us do better for our posterity. 
 
 So much for the general Aim of Education according 
 to Comenius. He now proceeds to treat of Method, 
 taking the operations of external nature as his guide. 
 The parallelism is throughout forced, and often fanciful. 
 
 METHOD.
 
 Second Section. 
 THE METHOD OF EDUCATION. 
 
 REFORMATION is possible. I undertake an organisa- 
 tion of schools whereby 
 
 (i.) All the youth may be instructed save those to 
 whom God has denied intelligence. 
 
 (2.) And instructed in all those things which make a 
 man wise, good, and holy. 
 
 (3.) And that, as a preparation for life, in such a time 
 as will set him free before he is adult. 
 
 (4.) And that, without blows, severity, or compulsion, 
 but most lightly, gently, and, so to speak, spontaneously. 
 
 (5.) And that, in such a way that they shall be 
 trained, not to specious and superficial, but to true and 
 solid learning, and to the use of their own faculties, 
 not to dependence on others or on mere memory. 
 With like solidity will they be instructed in morality 
 and religion. 
 
 (6.) And that, so that the course of instruction shall 
 not be laborious, but very easy ; four hours a day being 
 sufficient. 
 
 Order it is that is the soul of the world ; order 
 sustains nature in all its parts.
 
 The Great Didactic. 83 
 
 Order too is the eye of the school, and we must 
 take from nature the order of the school. 
 
 Our business is to discover from the indications of 
 nature the principles which underlie the answers to the 
 following queries : 
 
 (i.) How life may be so prolonged as to enable us 
 to learn all things. 
 
 (2.) How arts may be shortened with a view to rapid 
 learning. 
 
 (3.) How we may seize the right occasions for 
 learning so as to learn Surely. 
 
 (4.) How we may unlock the mind so as to learn 
 Easily. 
 
 (5.) How we may sharpen the understanding so as 
 to learn Solidly. 
 
 Omitting other points, let us consider the three 
 problems contained in the words surely, easily, solidly 
 Certb, facile, solid'e. 
 
 Certb, or Surely.
 
 84 The Educational System. 
 
 I. CERTO, or SURELY. 
 
 How are we to teach and learn surely, i.e. so as to be 
 sure of our result ' ? 
 
 This is to be done by finding the modus operandi 
 of Nature, and accommodating ourselves to that, as 
 follows :* 
 
 FIRST PRINCIPLE. Nature attends to a fit time. 
 
 Birds do not begin the work of multiplying their species 
 in winter. So with other natural operations, such as the 
 growth in a garden ; the season determines all. Right 
 in the teeth of this, schools do not choose a fit time 
 for exercising the minds of pupils ; and they do not so 
 accurately arrange the exercises as to insure that all 
 things advance infallibly through their own successive 
 steps. 
 
 Just as Nature chooses spring as the time of prepara- 
 tion for future products, so the right time is boyhood 
 the spring of life. The right time of the day is the 
 morning hours, which is the spring of the day ; and as 
 to arrangement of studies, it may be said, generally, 
 that nothing should be taught except when it can be 
 comprehended. 
 
 SECOND PRINCIPLE. Nature prepares material for 
 itself before it gives it form. 
 
 In the school-books, matter does not precede form. 
 
 1 It will be noticed that successive principles yield the same or 
 similar rules. Hence considerable repetition.
 
 The Great Didactic. 85 
 
 In schools also they teach words before things the 
 mere clothing or husk of words before the reality itself. 
 Then in the study of a language they teach form 
 before things, because they teach rules before words 
 and sentences. They give rules and then examples, 
 whereas the light ought to precede that which it is 
 intended to light up. 
 
 In all instruction it is necessary that, having got ready 
 the necessary books and materials: (i.) The under- 
 standing be instructed before speech is demanded ; 
 (2.) That no language should be learned from a Gram- 
 mar, but from suitable authors, that real studies should 
 precede organic (formal), and that examples should 
 come before rules. 
 
 THIRD PRINCIPLE. Nature takes a fit subject for its 
 operation, or at least takes care that it be made fit. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) Let him who goes to school remain steadily 
 there. 
 
 (2.) Whatever study is taken up for treatment, let 
 the minds of the pupils be predisposed towards it (and 
 prepared for it). 
 
 (3.) Let all obstacles be removed out of the path of 
 the pupils. 
 
 FOURTH PRINCIPLE. Nature does not confuse itself in 
 its works, but advances distinctly to one thing after 
 another. 
 
 Wherefore let pupils be occupied with only one
 
 86 The Educational System. 
 
 study at a time ; that is to say, teach only one thing at 
 a time. 
 
 FIFTH PRINCIPLE. Nature begins all its operations 
 from within outwards, e.g. a tree grows from within, etc. 
 
 Teachers err herein, that instead of diligently explain- 
 ing and articulating everything, they would acquit them- 
 selves of their task of instructing youth, by speaking, 
 dictating, and exercising memory. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) Let the understanding of things be first formed, 
 then the memory exercised on what is understood, and 
 only in the third place, speech and hand (i.e. writing). 
 
 (2.) The teacher should attend to every way of open- 
 ing the intelligence, and must apply them fitly. 
 
 SIXTH PRINCIPLE. Nature begins all its formation 
 from generals, and thence proceeds to specialise e.g. it 
 warms and nourishes the whole mass of the egg, and 
 does not form first the head, then the wings, then the 
 feet, but, having warmed the whole, it sends its creative 
 force into the special parts, and there specialises. So, 
 a painter in painting a portrait does not draw first the 
 nose, then the ears, etc., but outlines the whole man on 
 the canvas roughly with chalk, and then proceeds to fill 
 in. So with instruction, the outline should first be given. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) From the very beginning of their instruction, the 
 (principles or) essential groundwork of all learning 
 should be given.
 
 The Great Didactic. 87 
 
 (2.) Every language, science, or art should first be 
 learned in its simplest rudiments. Thus the idea of 
 the whole, as a whole, will be grasped ; then, more fully, 
 rules and examples should be given; thereafter, pecu- 
 liarities and anomalies ; and finally, if necessary, com- 
 mentaries, etc. 
 
 SEVENTH PRINCIPLE. Nature does not proceed per 
 saltum, but step by step. The hatching goes on by 
 insensible degrees. So, a man building a house does 
 not begin from the top but from the foundation, and 
 step by step he rears his structure. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) The whole sphere of studies should be dis- 
 tributed carefully among the successive classes of the 
 school in such a manner that the earlier study always 
 prepares the way for what is to follow, and, as it were, 
 lights the path to it. 
 
 (2.) The time at the teacher's disposal should be 
 carefully distributed, so that its own peculiar task may 
 await every year, month, day, hour. 
 
 (3.) This distribution of the time should be most 
 closely attended to, so that nothing may be passed 
 over, and nothing put in its wrong order. 
 
 EIGHTH PRINCIPLE. Nature, when it once begins, does 
 not stop till it has completed its task. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) He who is handed over to the school should be 
 retained there until he is ready to come forth an in- 
 structed, moral, and religious man.
 
 The. Educational System. 
 
 (2.) The school should be in an undisturbed locality. 1 
 (3.) What has been laid down to be done should be 
 
 strictly carried on on the lines laid down, and no gap 
 
 permitted. 
 
 (4.) No one should be allowed to absent himself on 
 
 any pretext. 
 
 NINTH PRINCIPLE. Nature carefully avoids whatever 
 is contrary to its operations or hurtful. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) Permit a scholar the use of no books save those 
 which have to do with his own class. 
 
 (2.) The books should be so constructed that they 
 may with truth be called channels of Wisdom, Morality, 
 and Piety. 
 
 (3;) Dissolute associates in or out of school are not 
 to be tolerated. 
 
 II. FACILE, or EASILY. 
 
 We have exhibited the principles in accordance with 
 which the work can be done with certainty. Now we 
 proceed to show that it can also be done easily and 
 pleasantly. This will be the case if we attend to the 
 following ten principles (many of which repeat what has 
 been already laid down). 
 
 I. Let the education begin early, before the mind is 
 corrupted. 
 
 1 This belongs rather to the Third. Principle.
 
 The Great Didactic. 89 
 
 II. Let it be done with due preparation of the 
 mind. 
 
 III. Let it proceed from the more general to the 
 special. 
 
 IV. And from the easy to the more difficult. 
 
 V. Let no one be weighted with too much to learn. 
 VI. Let progress be slow everywhere. 
 VII. Let the intellect be forced to nothing save 
 what it spontaneously desires in accordance with its 
 age and with right method. 
 
 VIII. Let everything be communicated through the 
 senses, 
 
 IX. And turned to present use. 
 X. Let all things be taught according to one and 
 the same method. 
 
 Let us follow the steps of Nature as illustrative of 
 the above principles. 
 
 FIRST PRINCIPLE. Nature begins from pure elements. 
 
 The egg which is to be hatched is pure. The tender 
 minds we seek to train should be free from distractions 
 and uncorrupted. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) Let the education of youth begin early. 
 
 (2.) Let there be only one preceptor in each subject 
 for each pupil (i.e. do not send the child from one 
 master to another in the same subject). 
 
 (3.) Before all, let the morals be reduced to harmony 
 under the influence of the preceptor.
 
 9<D The Educational System. 
 
 SECOND PRINCIPLE. Nature predisposes matter so 
 that it shall seek form. 
 
 The bird hatched desires to walk and to peck, and 
 finally desires to fly. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) The desire of knowing and learning is to be 
 stirred up in boys in every way. cav ^$ ^iXo/ia^s rj/ 
 TToXv/j.ad-^'s. (Isoc.) 
 
 (2.) Let the method of teaching lessen the labour of 
 learning, so that nothing be a stumbling-block to the 
 pupil and deter from perseverance in study. 
 
 This ardour to acquire is to be excited by parents, 
 who should evince their respect for schoolmasters and 
 learning ; by teachers, who should be kind, paternal, and 
 ready to commend ; by schools, which should be plea- 
 sant rooms, well lighted, clean, and adorned with pictures, 
 etc. ; by the things which the pupils study, which should 
 be so presented as to attract; by the method, which should 
 be the natural method; and by magistrates, who should 
 be present at examinations and distribute rewards. 
 
 THIRD PRINCIPLE. Nature draws out all things from 
 beginnings, which in their bulk are small, in their virtue 
 strong. 
 
 Note in connection with this (i.) That every art be 
 summed up in rules, very short, but very exact. 
 (2.) That every rule be conceived in words as brief as 
 they are lucid. (3.) That numerous examples be given 
 with each rule, so that the applications of the rule, 
 however various, may be clear.
 
 The Great Didactic. 9 1 
 
 FOURTH PRINCIPLE. Nature proceeds from the more 
 easy to the more difficult. 
 
 We find Latin rules taught in Latin the unknown 
 by the equally unknown, and many other faults which 
 will be amended if 
 
 (i.) The teacher speak the same vernacular as the 
 boy. (2.) If all explanations of things be given in a 
 known tongue. (3.) If every grammar and lexicon be 
 adapted to that tongue (i.e. the vernacular) by means of 
 which the new is to be learned. (4.) If the study of 
 the new tongue advance by degrees the pupil being 
 taught first to understand, then to write, and finally to 
 speak it (which, being extemporaneous, is the most diffi- 
 cult). (5.) If, when Latin words are given with verna- 
 cular, the vernacular words, as being best known, always 
 come first. (6.) If the material of study be so arranged 
 that the scholar learns first that which is nearest, then 
 that which is near, then that which is more remote, and 
 finally that which is most remote (e.g. do not seek illus- 
 trations from theology or politics, but from things at hand 
 and familiar). (7.) If the senses of boys be first exer- 
 cised, then the memory, then the intelligence, 1 and 
 finally the judgment. For science takes its beginning 
 from the senses, and thence passes into the memory 
 through imagination, then by induction of singulars an 
 understanding of universals is formed, and finally a 
 judgment as to things understood takes effect, giving 
 the certitude of science. 
 
 1 Intelligence should precede memory, but the term is here used 
 of the generalising power.
 
 92 The Educational System. 
 
 FIFTH PRINCIPLE. Nature does not overweight itself, 
 but is content with few things at a time e.g. it does not 
 demand two birds out of one egg. 
 
 SIXTH PRINCIPLE. Nature does not hurry itself, but 
 proceeds slowly e.g. slow is the hatching of the bird. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) Spend as few hours as possible in public lessons; 
 four being the right number, as many more being left 
 for private study. 
 
 (2.) Fatigue the memory as little as possible, only 
 fundamental things being exacted, all else being allowed 
 to flow freely. 
 
 (3.) Proportion all things to the capacity, which, 
 according to the progress of years and studies, will 
 grow of itself. 
 
 SEVENTH PRINCIPLE. Nature pushes nothing forcibly 
 forward, except what, being already inwardly matured, 
 desires to burst forth e.g. the bird does not urge its 
 young to fly till their wings are ready. 
 
 Let nothing, then, be done against the grain. The 
 want of desire frequently arises from want of previous 
 preparation and explanation. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) Let nothing be attempted with youth except 
 those things which their age and ability not only admit 
 of but desire. 
 
 (2.) Let nothing be prescribed as a memory-task 
 which has not previously been thoroughly understood. 
 
 (3.) Let nothing be prescribed to be done till the
 
 The Great Didactic. 93 
 
 form of it and the rule of imitation have been suffi- 
 ciently pointed out and impressed. 
 
 EIGHTH PRINCIPLE. Nature assists itself in every 
 possible way e.g. there is vital warmth in the egg itself, 
 as well as in the maternal incubator. 
 
 Boys must be so far assisted as to understand what is 
 given them to do. The teacher who demands a task 
 without sufficient explanation and preparation is as cruel 
 as a nurse who would put an infant on the ground and 
 tell it to walk. We must bear patiently with weakness. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) Let no stripes be inflicted on account of studies : 
 (for if the boy does not learn, whose fault is it save the 
 teacher's, who either does not know how to make the 
 pupil docile, or does not care to do it ?). 
 
 (2.) Let what the pupils have to learn be so placed 
 before them and explained that they see it as clearly as 
 their own five fingers. 
 
 (3.) And in order that everything may be imprinted 
 the more easily, let the senses be applied to the subject 
 as often as possible e.g. let hearing be joined with 
 vision, and the hand with speech. It is not enough to 
 tell to the ears, but the teacher must present to the 
 eyes, that through them the instruction may reach the 
 imagination. Leave nothing until it has been impressed 
 by means of the ear, the eye, the tongue, the hand. 
 Write up on the walls (or draw) the substance of your 
 teaching. Thus the pupils will also acquire the habit 
 of writing down in their note-books.
 
 94 The Educational System. 
 
 NINTH PRINCIPLE. Nature produces nothing the use 
 of which is not ultimately apparent e.g. wings and feet 
 are found to be formed for flying and running. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 Let nothing be taught except for manifest use. 
 
 TENTH PRINCIPLE. Nature does all things uniformly 
 e.g. one bird is produced in the same way as all 
 other birds. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) Let there be one and the same method for 
 instructing in all sciences ; one and the same in all 
 arts ; one and the same in all tongues. 
 
 (2.) Let there be for all school-exercises the same 
 order and manner of procedure. 
 
 (3.) Use the same editions of books throughout. 
 
 III. SOLIDE, Or SOLIDLY. 1 
 
 Few give a solid amount of instruction to scholars. 
 This is a general complaint. 
 
 To cure these evils 
 
 I. Let only things likely to be of solid advantage 
 be treated of. 
 
 II. All these should be taught without separating any 
 of them from the curriculum. 
 
 1 There is in this chapter a good deal of forcing in' order to 
 make it run on ten principles like the preceding. It is enough 
 to enumerate the principles without going into all the details.
 
 The Great Didactic. 95 
 
 III. A solid basis should be laid for each. 
 
 IV. That basis should be laid deep. 
 
 V. Let everything subsequently aimed at rest on 
 these same foundations. 
 
 VI. Wherever distinctions are to be made, let these 
 be distinctly and most articulately made. 
 
 VII. Let all studies which follow be founded on those 
 that go before. 
 
 VIII. Let all things which as a matter of fact cohere 
 be always connected in teaching. 
 
 IX. Let everything be arranged according to its 
 true relation to the understanding, the memory, and the 
 speech. 
 
 X. Let everything be firmly implanted by continual 
 exercises. 
 
 FIRST PRINCIPLE. Nature begins nothing that will be 
 useless. 
 
 Wherefore in schools 
 
 (i.) Let nothing be taught which is not of the most 
 solid utility for this life and the next. 
 
 (2.) If some things have to be instilled into youth 
 only for the sake of this life, let them be of such a kind 
 as will not hinder the interests of the eternal life, and 
 as will produce solid fruit for this life. 
 
 SECOND PRINCIPLE. Nature omits nothing likely to 
 be of benefit to the body it is forming. 
 
 Therefore it is that in schools there must be not 
 merely knowledge, but also morals and piety.
 
 g6 The Educational System. 
 
 THIRD PRINCIPLE. Nature does nothing without a 
 foundation or root. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) The love of any studies that are begun should 
 be excited in the pupil. 
 
 (2.) The idea (i.e. outline or sketch) of the subject 
 to be taught language or art should first be given 
 before going to particulars. In this way a foundation 
 is laid in the mind of the pupil. 
 
 FOURTH PRINCIPLE. Nature sends its roots deep. 
 The general idea of the subject to be taught must 
 therefore be deeply impressed. 
 
 FIFTH PRINCIPLE. Nature produces everything from 
 a root ; nothing from any other source. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) Let all things be deduced from the unchange- 
 able elements of things. 
 
 (2.) Let nothing be learned by authority, but by 
 demonstration, sensible or rational. 
 
 (3.) Let nothing be taught by the analytic method 
 only, but rather by the synthetic. 
 
 SIXTH PRINCIPLE. Nature, the more the uses for 
 which it prepares anything, the more articulately does it 
 differentiate it into parts. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 Let there be no confusion in instruction. 
 
 SEVENTH PRINCIPLE. Nature, in each of its works, 
 is in perpetual progress, never halts, and never attempts
 
 The Great Didactic. 97 
 
 neiu things, the former things being cast aside, but only 
 continues what has been previously begun, increases it, and 
 perfects it. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) Let all studies be so arranged that the subse- 
 quent things shall be founded in what has preceded, 
 and be strengthened by them. 
 
 (2.) Let everything which is presented to the pupil, 
 and rightly understood, be fixed in the memory. 
 
 EIGHTH PRINCIPLE. Nature binds together everything 
 by continuous bonds. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) Let the studies of the whole life be so arranged 
 that they shall be one encyclopaedia, in which there 
 shall be nothing which does not arise out of a common 
 root, nothing not in its proper place. 
 
 (2.) Let everything that is taught be so strengthened 
 by reasons that no room shall be left for doubt or 
 forgetfulness. And further, let all things be taught 
 through their causes. 
 
 NINTH PRINCIPLE. Nature preserves, between root 
 and branches, a true proportion in respect of quantity and 
 quality. 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 (i.) Let everything taught be at once a subject of 
 reflection as to its use, lest anything should be learned 
 to no purpose (i.e. the root of knowledge must spread 
 out into the branches of its various applications). 
 
 G
 
 98 The Educational System. 
 
 (2.) Let everything that is learned be communicated 
 to others, that nothing may be known to no purpose. 
 
 TENTH PRINCIPLE. Nature develops and strengthens 
 itself by frequent movement, 
 
 There must therefore in everything be very frequent 
 repetitions and exercises. This is pressed strongly by 
 Comenius for various reasons. 
 
 Hence 
 
 The significance of the well-known distich 
 
 Multa rogare : rogata tenere : Retenta docere. 
 Haec tria discipulum faciunt superare magistrum. 
 
 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT IN RELATION TO SURE, SOLID, 
 AND EASY INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Comenius next proceeds to give suggestions for school 
 management. This was in his case a demand which 
 the reader was entitled to make, because the contem- 
 plated course of instruction was encyclopedic, and it 
 accordingly was difficult to see how the work could be 
 done in the ordinary school life. He held that by 
 beginning in due time, by pursuing good methods, and 
 by basing all instruction in language on the Realities 
 of Knowledge, it was possible to carry youth with ease 
 and certainty through a Pansophic curriculum. 
 
 The reasons why more rapid progress is not made in 
 schools are, he says, these (i.) Because there are no 
 fixed goals marking distinctly how far pupils are to be 
 carried in any one year, month, and day. (2.) Because
 
 The Great Didactic. 99 
 
 no way is marked out of infallibly reaching these goals. 
 (3.) Because things that are joined together by nature 
 are not taken up as connected, but separately. E.g. 
 Boys are employed in learning to read long before they 
 are taught to write. In Latin, again, boys are required 
 to struggle with the accidence and grammar rules, and 
 with mere words without things. He then goes on to 
 point out defects as to the inner organisation of schools 
 the masters, the classes, and the books in all which 
 animadversions he is undoubtedly right; but as the 
 defects to which he alludes for the most part no longer 
 exist in schools, we may pass at once to the general 
 rules which he lays down. 
 
 He maintains that one teacher will suffice for the 
 instruction of any number of boys. It seems to have 
 been the custom to teach boys either individually, or 
 two or three together, in Comenius's time. Comenius 
 was consequently right in maintaining that a consider- 
 able number could be taught together in a class. But 
 he places no limit on the number. Our modern 
 experience tells us there is a limit, if the class is to be 
 sufficiently taught. Comenius admits that the teacher 
 of one hundred boys could not personally ascertain 
 whether all did and understood their work; but by 
 arranging them in tens, and putting one of the boys 
 (whose work he had ascertained to be accurate) over 
 each troop of ten, he might check their exercises and 
 report to the master. The troops of ten he calls De- 
 curiae, and their captains Decuriones. 
 
 Then he gives various practical directions for teaching
 
 ioo The Educational System. 
 
 a large class, most of which are admirable. E.g. The 
 teacher must make all attentive to himself, and this 
 
 (i.) By always bringing before his pupils something 
 pleasing and profitable. 
 
 (2.) By introducing the subject of instruction in such 
 a way as to commend it to them, or by stirring their 
 intelligences into activity by inciting questions regard- 
 ing it. 
 
 (3.) By standing in a place elevated above the class, 
 and requiring all eyes to be fixed on him. 
 
 (4.) By aiding attention through the representation 
 of everything to the senses as far as possible. 
 
 (5.) By interrupting his instruction by frequent and 
 pertinent questions e.g. Tu aut tu quid modo dixi? 
 etc. etc. 
 
 (6.) If the boy who has been asked a question should 
 fail to answer, by leaping to the second, third, tenth, 
 thirtieth, and asking the answer without repeating the 
 question. 
 
 (7.) By occasionally demanding an answer from any 
 one in the whole class, and thus stirring up rivalry. 
 
 (8.) By giving an opportunity to any to ask questions 
 when the lesson is finished. 
 
 In the correction of the numerous written exercises 
 which Comenius would give, it would be necessary, of 
 course, to call in the aid of the Decuriones. 
 
 Comenius next speaks of the necessity of all boys 
 using the same books and same editions, and the im- 
 portance of a careful construction of school-books.
 
 The Great Didactic. 101 
 
 He next advocates the necessity of such careful 
 school-order as will insure that the same thing is done 
 by all at the same time. 
 
 Then, that all be taught according to the same 
 .method. 
 
 Next, that few, but select, words be used for the 
 explanation of things. 
 
 He next considers how two or three things can be 
 done together : 
 
 (i.) Let words always be conjoined with things. 
 Thereby we shall learn about realities. ' Id agendum 
 est,' says Seneca, Ep. ix., ' ut non verbis serviamus sed 
 sensibus.' (2.) Let the exercises of reading and writing 
 be always conjoined. (3.) Let exercises in style be not 
 mere exercises in style, but in matter, so that, while they 
 exercise the mind, they also attain some solid result. 
 (4.) Let what is learnt by the pupils be again taught 
 by them. (5.) Let the serious things of life be imitated 
 in a sportive way in school-exercises, e.g. rivalries may 
 be instituted in certain departments of knowledge (col- 
 lecting of plants, etc.), and the pupils who are most 
 successful dubbed Licentiate or Doctor. Again, they 
 may be dubbed, in connection with other studies, Kings, 
 Councillors, Chancellors, Secretaries, and so forth. (6.) 
 Let everything advance step by step. (7.) To prevent 
 all delay and retardation of progress, drop out whatever 
 is irrelevant or superfluous or too detailed. 
 
 The Art of Education.
 
 Third Section. 
 
 THE ART OF EDUCATION i.e. THE APPLICATION 
 OF METHOD TO PRACTICE. 1 
 
 WE have now given a view of Comenius's Theory of 
 Education, in respect of Aim and of Method. The 
 remaining half of the treatise, though forming a con- 
 tinuation of the parts which precede it, without any 
 indication of a division, is in point of fact the appli- 
 cation of the theory of Method to the Praxis, and 
 repetition is unavoidable. 
 
 Comenius recognises the labour which his conception 
 of the school and of method demands of the teacher, 
 and desires to show how that labour may be abbreviated 
 and the work made possible. As education was then 
 conducted, the task which Comenius imposed on teachers 
 would certainly have been beyond their powers. Accor- 
 dingly, he inquires first into the obstructions which so 
 retarded the work of schools, that those who had spent 
 a large part of their lives in them had not even paid 
 their respects to the Arts and Sciences, much less 
 
 1 The division which I have made is not in Comenius, but I 
 think it gives a clearer view of his system.
 
 The Great Didactic. 103 
 
 acquired a knowledge of them. These obstructions are 
 presented as follows, and they are generally merely 
 the negation of the positive rules of method already 
 enforced : 
 
 (i.) There are no fixed goals marking distinctly how 
 far pupils are to be carried in any one year, month, or 
 day. 
 
 (2.) No way of infallibly reaching these goals is marked 
 out. 
 
 (3.) Things that have a natural connection are not 
 taken up together, but separately e.g. reading without 
 writing, words without things. 
 
 (4.) The arts and sciences are treated of in a frag- 
 mentary way, and not encyclopaedically. 
 
 (5.) Different schools have different methods of pro- 
 cedure; nay, different teachers in the same school 
 follow diverse methods, and even the same teacher 
 will employ different methods in the different subjects 
 which he teaches. 
 
 (6.) The prevalence of individual teaching and the 
 want of classification. 
 
 (7.) Increase in the number of masters to meet the 
 above objection only increases the confusion. 
 
 (8.) Boys are often allowed by their masters to take 
 up what books they please, both in school and out of 
 school, instead of being kept in definite lines with pre- 
 scribed books. Boys thus get into a state of mental 
 confusion, from which only the more vigorous spirits 
 ever extricate themselves. 
 
 In seeking for remedies, Comenius seeks an analog)'
 
 IO4 The Educational System. 
 
 in nature, which, though destitute of intrinsic merit, is 
 yet so characteristic of his fanciful mode of procedure 
 that I may give it here. 
 
 Take the Sun in the heavens. By the diffusion of 
 his rays he discharges a laborious and infinite function 
 sufficing for all. And how does he work ? 
 
 (i.) He does not occupy himself with objects one by 
 one a tree or an animal, but illumines and warms the 
 whole earth. 
 
 (2.) By the same rays he lights up all, and discharges 
 himself of all his functions. 
 
 (3.) At the same time through all regions he gives 
 rise to spring and summer, autumn and winter. 
 
 (4.) He preserves the same order of operation ; as he 
 is to-day, so to-morrow, as he is this year, so next. 
 
 (5.) He produces everything out of its own germ, 
 and not from any other quarter. 
 
 (6.) He produces all things together which ought to 
 be together. 
 
 (7.) He produces all things by their own steps of 
 gradation, so that one thing makes way for another. 
 
 (8.) Finally, he does not produce useless things. 
 
 In imitation of the Sun and its operation : 
 
 (i.) Let there be only one teacher for a school, or at 
 least for a class. 
 
 (2.) In one subject, let there be but one author. 
 
 (3.) Let one and the same labour be expended on 
 the whole of the pupils present. 
 
 (4.) Let all disciplines and tongues be taught accord- 
 ing to one and the same method.
 
 The Great Didactic. 105 
 
 (5.) Let all things be taught from the foundation, 
 briefly and nervously. 
 
 (6.) Let all things be joined together in teaching 
 which are in themselves connected. 
 
 (7.) Let all things advance by indissoluble steps, so 
 that everything taught to-day may give firmness and 
 stability to what was taught yesterday, and point the 
 way to the work of the morrow. 
 
 (8.) Let everything that is useless be eliminated from 
 the teaching. 
 
 There is a curious parallelism here attempted between 
 the operations of the sun and of the schoolmaster, but 
 always fanciful, and frequently strained. I have no 
 doubt that the analogies of Nature frequently suggested 
 methods to the mind of Comenius, and on the other 
 hand, that good school-methods suggested to him the 
 modes of operations of Nature as they presented them- 
 selves to the non-scientific apprehension of the time. 
 
 Comenius now proceeds to apply the above eight 
 principles or rules to school-management, and throws 
 what he has to say into the form of problems to be 
 solved. 
 
 FIRST PROBLEM. How can one teacher suffice for any 
 number of pupils whatsoever ? 
 
 A large number of pupils is in itself an advantage to 
 both teacher and taught, stimulating the former and 
 exciting sympathy in work and emulation in studies. 
 To facilitate the teaching of a large class by one 
 instructor, certain rules, however, must be attended to.
 
 io6 The Educational System. 
 
 (i.) The whole class should be divided into certain 
 tribes or decurise, and over each of these an inspector 
 or decurio should be appointed. (2.) The teacher 
 should teach all at once, and none separately, either 
 in the school or privately all together and at once 
 (simul et semel). For this it is necessary that he possess 
 the art of fixing the attention of all on himself, and of 
 never saying anything except to listeners, and never 
 teaching anything save when all are attending. The de- 
 curiones will be a great aid in securing the attention of 
 their various divisions, but the master himself should 
 
 Endeavour always to present some teaching which 
 will please and profit the pupils. 
 
 At the beginning of every fresh task, he should pre- 
 pare the minds of his pupils, by commending to them 
 the new matter, either by showing its coherence with 
 what has already been put before, or by starting such 
 questions regarding it as will show their ignorance, 
 and make them more eager to know. 
 
 He should take up such a position, somewhat raised, 
 as will enable him to control the eyes and fix the atten- 
 tion of all on himself. 
 
 He should always assist attention by representing 
 what he teaches to the eyes of the class. 
 
 He should every now and then interrupt his teaching 
 by sudden questions as to what he has just said, or as 
 to the steps by which he has reached what he is telling 
 them. 
 
 If he fails to get an answer from the boy of whom he 
 has asked a question, he should leap to the second,
 
 The Great Didactic. 107 
 
 third, tenth, thirtieth, for an answer, without repeating 
 the question. 
 
 Sometimes, if one or two fail, he should ask the whole 
 class, praising the boy who first answers. 
 
 When the lesson is finished an opportunity should be 
 given to the pupils to ask public questions of the master, 
 either regarding the lesson then given, or any previous 
 one. 
 
 By following these expedients in teaching, the habit 
 of attention is formed in the pupils, not only for the 
 passing occasion, but for their whole lives. 
 
 The objection may be made that this class-teaching 
 is not sufficient : that there must be examination of the 
 individual exercises written, and of the lessons com- 
 mitted to memory ; and that for this many pupils de- 
 mand much time. To this Comenius replies that it is 
 not necessary that all be always heard, nor that all the 
 exercise-books be always examined. The decurions 
 will examine each the work of his own division. The 
 master himself, as supreme inspector, will pick out an 
 exercise to examine here and there, especially directing 
 himself to those whom he distrusts. As to memory- 
 tasks, one, or two, or three should be called upon, all 
 the rest listening, to repeat what has been prescribed. 
 Each need say a portion only. In this way, by the 
 examination of a few in no set order, the master will 
 cause all to prepare their work. So in dictation, call 
 on one or two to read out what they have written in 
 a distinct voice, while the rest look on their own books 
 and correct their own exercises, the master pouncing
 
 io8 The Educational System. 
 
 down on one here and there to see that the corrections 
 are being honestly made. 
 
 In the correction of written exercises more labour 
 seems to be demanded; but here too, following the 
 same line, a plan is found of abbreviating work. In 
 translation exercises, for example, one boy should rise 
 up and challenge an antagonist. When he has risen, 
 the challenger should read his translation, clause by 
 clause, all the rest attentively listening, the teacher, or 
 if not, a decurion, standing by to inspect the spelling. 
 When he has read a sentence, let him pause, and let the 
 antagonist then point out any error he may have noted. 
 Then let the other members of that decuria make their 
 criticisms, and thereafter the whole class, and finally 
 the teacher himself. Meanwhile let all the pupils look 
 at their translations and make corrections, with the 
 exception of the antagonist, who preserves his own 
 exercise unaltered, to be in its turn subjected to criti- 
 cism. That sentence being thoroughly corrected, go to 
 the next, and so to the end. Then let the antagonist 
 read off his own exercise in like manner, under the 
 inspection of his challenger, who will see that he has 
 made no corrections. Then call out another couple, 
 and so on according to the time available, the decurions 
 taking care that those in their own decuriae correct 
 their exercises. In this way it will happen that the 
 labour of the master will be saved; that all will be 
 instructed, and none neglected ; the attention of all will 
 be sharpened ; all will share in whatever is said to 
 one ; the variety of phrases inapplicable will form and
 
 The Great Didactic. 109 
 
 strengthen the judgment as to the matter of the exercise, 
 and promote facility in the language. A few pairs 
 having had their errors corrected, it will be seen that 
 there are now no more errors remaining. The rest of 
 the time may be given to the class as a whole, for the 
 answering of questions put by the pupils, and for allow- 
 ing any one to bring forward any turn of expression 
 which he may think better than that adopted. 
 
 The above remarks are made with special reference 
 to the version, but they are equally applicable to exercises 
 in Rhetoric, Logic, etc. 
 
 Thus Comenius solves the problem how one teacher 
 can suffice for one hundred pupils. 
 
 SECOND PROBLEM. The second rule of procedure 
 yields this question, How can all be taught from the same 
 books'} By requiring the pupils to have the same 
 editions, the same lexicons, grammar, etc. It is desir- 
 able to publish school-books which will contain, simply 
 and popularly put, all that it is necessary to teach in 
 school. Comenius advocates the dialogue form for 
 school-books, because they excite the interest and retain 
 the attention better than the didactic form, supporting 
 his preference by the fact that our lives are spent in 
 conversation, and dialogues are easily repeated. He 
 would further paint on the school-room walls the 
 skeleton or outline of the contents of the books in use. 
 
 THIRD PROBLEM. The third rule of procedure yields 
 this question : How is it possible that all the scholars
 
 1 10 The Educational System. 
 
 may be made to do the same thing at the same time ? By 
 beginning school-work only once a year, and arranging 
 it in such a way that every month, week, day, and even 
 hour, shall have its own proper task. 
 
 FOURTH PROBLEM. The fourth rule yields the follow- 
 ing question : How can all things be taught according to 
 one and the same method 1 There is only one natural 
 method for all studies sciences, arts, and languages, 
 and this will be shown in the sequel, and has already 
 been laid down in its principles. 
 
 FIFTH PROBLEM. The fifth rule yields the question : 
 How can the understanding of many things be set forth 
 in few words ? Fundamental things are to be taught, 
 and this not by means of large books or much talk, but 
 by means of well-selected words and principles, and 
 rules easy to be understood, and fruitful in their char- 
 acter. A gold coin is of more value than a hundred 
 leaden ones. As Seneca says, ' Precepts are to be 
 sown in the mind as seed is sown in the soil, and it is 
 not necessary that they be numerous, but efficacious.' 
 
 SIXTH PROBLEM. The sixth rule yields the question : 
 How can instruction be given so as to do two or three 
 things at the same time ? A tree grows in every part at 
 once ; so with an animal. In school we must imitate 
 Nature, guided by the following general canon : 
 ' Always and everywhere let the related be taught in 
 conjunction with its correlate' e.g. words with things, 
 reading with writing, etc.
 
 The Great Didactic. 1 1 1 
 
 Above all, never teach words without things, even in 
 the vernacular, and whatever the pupils see, hear, taste, 
 or touch, let them name. The tongue and the intelli- 
 gence should advance on parallel lines. And from this 
 it follows that a boy should never read or recite any- 
 thing which he does not understand ; and it further 
 follows that all authors are to be banished from 
 school except those who give a knowledge of useful 
 things. 
 
 So with reading and writing : let boys be taught not 
 merely to read, but to express themselves in writing at 
 the same time an exercise which is pleasing to them, 
 and very valuable. But the exercises should not be 
 exercises of style merely, but should have reference to 
 the department of knowledge they are studying e.g. 
 histories of the inventors of arts, and the places and 
 times in which arts flourished, or, it may be, exercises 
 of imitation. 
 
 Comenius holds also that boys should teach as well 
 as learn, and that sportive imitations of the serious work 
 of life might advantageously be introduced into the 
 school, side by side with serious employments e.g. 
 the boys should be encouraged to form themselves into 
 a semblance of political and social order, with the 
 titles of King, Councillors, Chancellor, Marshal, Secre- 
 taries, Ambassadors, and so forth. 
 
 SEVENTH PROBLEM. The seventh rule yields the 
 question : How can all things be prosecuted step by step 1 
 Comenius here refers the reader to those parts of the
 
 1 1 2 The Educational System. 
 
 methodology which deal specially with gradual step-by- 
 step progress. 
 
 EIGHTH PROBLEM. The eighth rule yields the ques- 
 tion : How shall we avoid and remove causes of retarda- 
 tion in our progress ? 
 
 The answer to this is, ' By a wise neglect.' It is not 
 the quantity of things known, but the real utility of 
 them, that is of importance. Therefore, the school 
 should neglect whatever is unnecessary, whatever is 
 alien to the pupil or subject of study, and whatever is 
 too detailed. Unnecessary knowledge is all that know- 
 ledge which is unnecessary to virtue and religion, and 
 all without which learning is attainable e.g. the names 
 of heathen idols and accounts of pagan rites, and all 
 comic and other writings which are immoral in their 
 character. Alien things are such as are foreign to the 
 natural tendency of the scholar. One boy has a turn for 
 theoretic and another for practical study, one for music, 
 another for grammar and logic, and so on. It is a 
 waste of time to employ a boy in music who is naturally 
 incapacitated for that subject, while he has strong 
 aptitude for another. 
 
 Too much detail is also condemned. It is absurd, 
 for example, to occupy classes, which are studying 
 natural history or botany, with all the differences of 
 plants and animals ; or when arts are the subjects of 
 study, with the names of all the tools. The school has 
 to do with the generic, at most with the leading differ- 
 ences ; if these are fully and solidly given, the rest
 
 The Great Didactic. 113 
 
 will be acquired through the occasions of life. Among 
 things too detailed are such school-books as full lexi- 
 cons, which only serve to confuse and overload a boy. 
 
 Comenius having dealt thus generally with the Art 
 of School Teaching, next proceeds to apply Method in 
 detail to the teaching of the three branches of all sound 
 education, viz., Knowledge, i.e. Sciences and Arts, 
 including Language (Eruditio), Morality (Virtus), and 
 Piety (JReligio). 
 
 I. METHOD AS APPLIED TO KNOWLEDGE. 
 (a.) THE SCIENCES. 
 
 Science is the knowledge of things the things of 
 external sight and of internal sight. As for the former 
 are needed the eye, the object, and light, which are the 
 conditions of vision, so for the latter are needed the 
 eye of the mind, an object, viz. all things, and the light 
 of attention. It is essential to a knowledge of the 
 sciences, viz. : 
 
 1. That the eye of the mind be pure. 
 
 This is a gift of God, speaking generally ; but we 
 have it in our own power not to suffer the looking-glass 
 of our mind to be dulled with dust, and its brightness 
 obscured. The dust referred to is idle, useless, and 
 vain mental occupations. Unless Reason also preside 
 over observation, we shall pick up dust and chaff instead 
 of grain. 
 
 2. // is necessary that objects be presented to the eye 
 of the mind. 
 
 H
 
 114 The Educational System. 
 
 Everything should be presented to as many senses 
 as possible, namely, visible things to sight, audible 
 things to hearing, odorous things to the smelling sense, 
 sapid things to the taste, tangible to the touch, and 
 when things have reference to more senses than one, 
 they should be presented to all those senses. For the 
 beginning of knowledge is from pure sense, not from 
 words ; and truth and certitude are testified to by the 
 evidence of the senses. The senses are the most faithful 
 stewards of the memory. Horace truly says (De Art. 
 Poet. 1. 1 80) : 
 
 ' Segnius irritant animcs demissa per aurem, 
 Quam quae sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus, et quae 
 Ipse sibi tradit spectator.' 
 
 Failing the objects themselves, diagrams and pictures 
 should be resorted to. 
 
 3. There must also be the light of attention. 
 Without this objects would be in vain presented ; by 
 
 means of it the learner receives all things with an 
 intelligence alive, and as it were gaping, to receive 
 instruction. 
 
 4. There must be a method of so presenting things that 
 a firm impression shall be made. 
 
 Objects must be placed before the eyes, not far off, 
 but at a fit distance, directly in front, and not obliquely, 
 in such a way that the whole object will be seen all 
 round, then part by part, and from the beginning to 
 the end, in order. Each individual character should 
 be fixed upon till everything has been seized correctly 
 by its differences.
 
 The Great Didactic. 115 
 
 These considerations as to the teaching of the 
 sciences yield nine very useful rules : 
 
 1. Whatever is to be known must be taught. Perfunc- 
 tory or negligent treatment of subjects will not suffice. 
 
 2. Whatever is taught should be taught as a thing 
 present to the pupil, and of a certain and definite use. 
 
 The things around us and their relations to life are 
 to be taught. 
 
 3. Whatever is taught should be taught directly, and 
 not in a roundabout way i.e. the thing itself, and not 
 elaborate and confused language about a thing. 
 
 4. Everything should be so taught as to show HOW it is 
 and becomes i.e. per causas. 
 
 To know a thing in its causes is true science. 
 
 5. Priora should come first, and posterior a next ; and, 
 therefore, whatever is presented as an object of knowledge 
 should be presented first generally, and thereafter in its 
 parts. 
 
 6. All the parts of a thing should be known, even the 
 more minute, none being omitted : also, its order, situation, 
 and connection with other things. 
 
 7. All things should be taught successively, but only 
 one at a time. 
 
 8. Each point should be insisted on until it is compre- 
 hended. 
 
 9. The differences of things should be carefully taught, 
 so that there may be a distinct knowledge. Qui btne 
 distinguit, bene docet. The variety and the truth of 
 things depends on their differences. 
 
 It is true that all preceptors are not equally expert
 
 1 1 6 The Educational System. 
 
 in applying method, and to assist them, therefore, the 
 sciences to be taught should be expounded in text- 
 books, according to the true method of teaching. 
 
 (#.) THE ARTS (exclusive of Foreign Languages), 
 
 By the Arts Comenius means Reading the vernacular, 
 Writing, Singing, Composition and Rhetoric, Logic or 
 Reasoning. His remarks are, however, applicable to 
 teaching in Technical Schools in the strict and proper 
 sense of the term technical. [By ' Technical' instruction 
 is, in these days, very generally meant instruction merely 
 in the elements of physical science generally; at other 
 times, in the elements of science in specific reference 
 to certain arts or trades ; at other times, but this rarely, 
 training to specific arts in workshop-schools.] 
 
 How are youth to be trained to the praxis of things ? 
 
 The answer to this is given in eleven canons : 
 
 1 . Let things thai have to be done be learned by doing 
 them. 
 
 Mechanics and artists do not teach their apprentices 
 by disquisitions, but by giving them something to do. 
 They are taught to make anything by making it, to 
 paint by painting, to dance by dancing, etc. So we 
 should teach to write by writing, to read by reading, to 
 sing by singing, to reason by reasoning, etc. 
 
 2. Let there always be present to the pupil a definite 
 form and norm of the things to be done. 
 
 The pupil can, as yet, do nothing of himself, and 
 must have something to imitate. To ask a boy to
 
 The Great Didactic. 117 
 
 make straight lines, squares, circles, drawings, etc., 
 without setting examples before him, and without giving 
 him the requisite tools, is cruelty. 
 
 3. Let the use of instruments be pointed out in reality 
 rather than in words ; that is to say, by example rather 
 than by precept. 
 
 Our grammars consist of precepts and rules, and 
 exceptions to rules, and limitations of exceptions, so 
 that boys are overwhelmed and stupefied. Mechanics 
 do not proceed in this way with their apprentices, but 
 let them look at the products of the workshop, and put 
 tools in their hands, and train them to imitate their 
 masters, admonishing them more by example than by 
 words if they see them go wrong. So it is also that 
 children learn to walk, speak, run, and play, viz., by 
 imitation. Precepts require application and vigour of 
 mind, whereas the feeblest are assisted by examples. 
 As Quintilian says, ' Longum et difficile iter est per prae- 
 cepta, breve et efficax per exempla.' 
 
 4. Lt t practice begin from the elements, and not from 
 completed works. 
 
 A carpenter does not start his pupil with the building 
 of turrets or citadels, but requires him to hold an axe, 
 cut wood, bore holes, drive nails, etc. So acts a painter 
 with his pupil. Nor do we teach to read by placing a 
 book before a child, but by giving him first the letters, 
 then syllables, then words. In grammar, accordingly, 
 we should give the tyro first single words, then two 
 together to be declined, then simple sentences, then 
 sentences with two and three clauses, till we bring him
 
 1 1 8 The Educational System. 
 
 to the full period and the complete oration. In rhe- 
 toric, we should exercise in synonyms, in attaching 
 appropriate epithets, in varying sentences by peri- 
 phrasis, and so gradually bring the pupil to the more 
 ornamental parts of style. 
 
 5. Let the first exercises of tyros be in a known subject. 
 This has been, in a former part of this treatise, laid 
 
 down. Pupils should not be burdened with things 
 remote from their age, powers of comprehension, and 
 present condition : this is to cause them to struggle 
 with shadows. That the boy may understand things, 
 take examples, not from Cicero, or Virgil, or theo- 
 logians, etc., but from things familiar, his book, 
 clothes, trees, house, school, etc. We in this way 
 connect what has to be learned with what is already 
 known, and make remembrance and the further exten- 
 sion of knowledge in the same direction easy. In 
 rules, the application of a rule being shown from a first, 
 second, or third known example, the boy will find it 
 easy to imitate it in all others. 
 
 6. Let imitation be always for a time the direct and 
 close imitation of a prescribed rule ; at a later stage the 
 imitation may be freer. 
 
 7. Let the things which are given as patterns be as per- 
 fect as possible, so that we may be able to pronounce him 
 perfect in his art who adequately imitates them. 
 
 This applies, not merely to the perfection of lines, 
 drawings, etc., to be imitated, but also to instruction 
 in rules, which should be very brief, very lucid and 
 intelligible. 

 
 The Great Didactic. 119 
 
 8. Let the strictest accuracy in imitation be insisted on 
 in the first attempts, so that there may not be the slightest 
 departure from the norm. 
 
 This is necessary, because the beginnings are the 
 foundations of all that follows, and any looseness in 
 the foundations will tell throughout. There should be 
 no haste ; he gets on fast enough who does not wander 
 from the road. 
 
 9. Let any deviation from accuracy be corrected by the 
 master there and then; but let him add observations by 
 way of rules or directions. 
 
 Arts are to be taught by examples rather than by 
 rules ; but very brief and lucid rules, exhibiting what is 
 implicit in the examples, should be given e.g. from 
 what point to start the task, at what point to aim, in 
 what way to advance. 
 
 10. A perfect discipline in an art consists in synthesis 
 and analysis. 
 
 That is to say, a pupil must first, beginning with the 
 most simple forms, be taught to construct in accordance 
 with a perfect pattern. This synthetic exercise, with the 
 help of such rules as have been formerly adverted to as 
 requisite, having been sufficiently practised, the pupils 
 should be introduced to the analysis of the work of 
 others, that they may see the art in full operation, 
 and discuss the principles which underlie successful 
 work. 
 
 11. Exercises should be continued till the habit of the 
 art has been formed.
 
 1 20 The Educational System. 
 
 (f.) LANGUAGES. 
 
 Languages are taught, not as themselves a part of 
 learning or wisdom, but as the instrument of acquiring 
 learning and wisdom, and communicating them to 
 others. All tongues are not to be learned. This would 
 be as impossible as it would be useless, and interfere 
 with the time due to acquiring a knowledge of 
 things. Necessary languages, accordingly, are alone to 
 be learned, first, the vernacular; secondly, the lan- 
 guages of neighbouring nations ; thirdly, Latin, as the 
 common tongue of the learned. Theologians will study 
 Greek and Hebrew, and physicians Greek and Arabic. 
 
 Nor should the whole of any language be learned, 
 but only what is necessary. It is not necessary to learn 
 to speak Greek and Hebrew as if we had to converse 
 in them, but only to learn them so far as is needful 
 for the understanding of what is written in these tongues. 
 The study of languages should run parallel with the 
 study of things, especially in youth, for we desire to 
 form men, not parrots. 
 
 From which it follows that words that denote things 
 are not to be learned separately and individually, 
 because things do not exist separately, but are seen 
 as being here or there, as doing this or that, as con- 
 joined with other things. This is the key to the Jamia 
 Linguarum. 1 In this book, only necessary words are 
 employed, contrary to the practice of some amplifiers 
 of the book, who stuff it with unusual words, and words, 
 1 See the chapter under this heading in the sequel.
 
 TJie Great Didactic. 121 
 
 too, away from the ordinary apprehension of the young. 
 And those make a similar mistake who occupy the minds 
 of the young with great authors such as Cicero, instead 
 of with language that treats of boyish things, reserving 
 adult things for the adult. Knowledge of language 
 advances, like the intellect, step by step ; Nature does 
 not proceed per sattum, nor does art when it imitates 
 Nature. A boy must be taught to walk before he can 
 be taught to dance. He must prattle before he speaks, 
 and he must speak before he can make an oration. 
 The following eight rules will make the acquisition of 
 languages short and easy : 
 
 1. Let mery language be learnt separately, 
 
 First, the vernacular is to be learned, and then a 
 neighbouring modern tongue, then Latin, and there- 
 after Greek, Hebrew, etc. : and, to prevent confusion, 
 let them be learned always one after the other, and not 
 together. When a firm hold has been got of each, they 
 may, with great benefit, be compared. 
 
 2. Let every language have a definite space of time 
 assigned to it. 
 
 As we must have respect to things, and as the ver- 
 nacular is more closely and naturally allied with things 
 which present themselves gradually to the intellect, it 
 demands more time than any other tongue, probably 
 eight or ten years ; that is to say, the whole of infancy, 
 and part of boyhood. Then should follow a modern 
 tongue, which can be sufficiently acquired in one year ; 
 then Latin, which may be despatched in two years ; 
 Greek in one, and Hebrew in half a year.
 
 J22 The Educational System. 
 
 3. Let every language be learned by practice rather than 
 by precept. 
 
 That is to say, by reading, re-reading, transcribing, 
 attempting imitations by hand and tongue all as often 
 as possible. 
 
 4. Let precepts, however, aid and strengthen practice. 
 This has been adverted to in the last chapter, and is 
 
 specially ' necessary in the acquisition of the learned 
 tongues, though applicable also to spoken languages. 
 
 5. Let the precepts of language be grammatical, not 
 philosophical. 
 
 That is to say, let them state the what and the how 
 of a usage, and not enter with subtlety into the why of 
 phrases and forms of syntax. This kind of speculation 
 is philosophical, not philological. 
 
 6. Let the precepts of a new language be first known as 
 differences from languages already known. 
 
 It is not only useless to teach what is common to a 
 new language with one already acquired, but it is con- 
 fusing and overwhelming. In Greek grammar there is 
 a very great deal which is common to it with Latin, 
 and only those things are to be taught in which Greek 
 differs from Latin, the rest being assumed. A very 
 few leaves will suffice to hold all that is new Greek 
 syntax, and everything will be thus more distinct to 
 the pupil, easier, and more firmly got hold of. 
 
 7. Let the first exercises in a new tongue be about sub- 
 jects already known to the pupil. 
 
 Not with a view to things, but with a view to the 
 more rapid command of words. The Catechism or
 
 The Great Didactic. 123 
 
 Bible History, for example, where the matter is known 
 and the same words frequently recur, would be good 
 books for the purpose ; or the Vestibuhim and Janua. 
 
 8. Let all tongues be learned by one and the same 
 method, 
 
 Comenius next sets forth the different steps in 
 learning a language, and divides the time into four 
 ages : 
 
 The prattling age of Infancy, with its corresponding 
 book the Vestibulum. 
 
 The Boy age the age of speaking correctly, with 
 its corresponding book the Janua. 
 
 The Juvenile age when elegant speech may be 
 acquired, with its corresponding book the Atrium 
 [here called the Palatium\ 
 
 The Virile age the age of nervous speech, with its 
 corresponding book, being extracts from good authors 
 the Thesaurus [afterwards called the Palatiuni\. 
 
 The Vestibulum should consist of little sentences, in 
 which several hundreds of the more common words 
 should be conveyed, with an appendix of the declen- 
 sions and conjugations. The Janua should contain all 
 the usual words in a language ; about 8000 should be 
 given in short sentences naturally expressed, with an 
 appendix of short and clear grammar rules. The 
 Palatium should contain treatises on all sorts of things, 
 in every kind of phraseology, with attention to elegance 
 of diction, accompanied with marginal notes on authors 
 from whom passages have been taken, and rules for 
 varying words and phrases in a thousand ways. The
 
 124 The Educational System. 
 
 Thesaurus will be composed of the classical authors 
 themselves, with rules for observing and collecting 
 nervous phraseology and varying idioms. A list of 
 authors not read, but who may be afterwards useful, 
 should be added. 
 
 Comenius would not put a dictionary of a language 
 into the hands of a beginner, but would have certain 
 subsidiary books constructed for each stage in Latin 
 a Latin-vernacular and vernacular-Latin vocabulary for 
 those using the Vestibulum ; an etymological lexicon for 
 those using the Janua ; a lexicon of phrases, synonyms, 
 etc. (Latino-Latin, Graeco-Greek), for those using the 
 Palatium ; and finally, a Promptuarium Catholicon 
 (vernacular and Latin) for those using the Thesaurus, 
 and in which everything may be found which will 
 exhibit the resources of the language. 
 
 II. METHOD APPLIED TO MORALITY. 
 
 As yet Method has been thought of in relation only 
 to knowledge to science, arts, including language to 
 which we may apply the remark of Seneca, ' Non discere 
 ista debemus sed didicisse? They are in truth only pre- 
 paratory to the true end, the pursuit of philosophy, 
 whereby we may become elevated, strong, high-minded. 
 We, as Christians, designate this end of education, 
 morality and piety, or virtue and religion, instruction in 
 which has to be introduced into all schools. Sixteen 
 rules for the instilling of morality may be given :
 
 The Great Didactic. 125 
 
 1 . All the virtues, without exception, are to be implanted 
 in youth. 
 
 This is essential to a harmony of the moral nature 
 harmonia morum, 
 
 2. But, first of all, the primary or cardinal virtues 
 have to be implanted, viz., Prudence, Temperance, For- 
 titude, and Justice. 
 
 Firm foundations must be laid for a building, that 
 all the various parts may cohere well with the basis. 
 
 3. By learning the true differences of things, and their 
 values, pupils will be instructed in PRUDENCE. 
 
 Sound judgment is the foundation of all virtue. We 
 must know the precise nature of each thing if we are to 
 discern the good from the bad, the desirable from the 
 undesirable. 
 
 4. During the whole period of instruction let the young 
 be taught TEMPERANCE in eating and drinking, sleep and 
 waking, labour and play, speaking and keeping silence. 
 
 The golden rule is Ne quid nimis. 
 
 5. Let boys learn FORTITUDE by overcoming themselves ; 
 to wit, by checking their desire to run about and play 
 beyond the proper time, or at the wrong time; by restrain- 
 ing their impatience, their grumbling, their anger. 
 
 Man is a rational animal, and he must be guided by 
 reason if he is to be truly king over his own actions. 
 But inasmuch as all boys are not fully capable of 
 reasoning, they will be taught self-command by being 
 accustomed to do the will of another rather than their 
 own, by promptly obeying, in all things, those above 
 them.
 
 126 The Educational System. 
 
 Under Fortitude we include an honourable frankness 
 of speech and tolerance of labour. 
 
 Ingenuous frankness is acquired by frequent conver- 
 sation with honourable men, and by doing in their 
 sight what has been ordered. Aristotle so educated 
 Alexander that in his twelfth year he conversed with 
 all sorts of men intelligently, kings and ambassadors, 
 learned and unlearned, townspeople and rustics, and 
 could contribute something apposite to the conver- 
 sation, either in the way of question or answer. Con- 
 versation with their elders, becomingly and modestly 
 conducted, should be encouraged in the young, and 
 their faults of manner thus corrected. 
 
 The young will acquire tolerance of labour if they 
 are always doing something or other either work or 
 play. Perpetual but moderate occupation of mind and 
 body give rise to industrious and active habits. ' Gener- 
 osos animos labor nutritj says Seneca. ^ 
 
 6. JUSTICE will be learned by doing harm to no one, by 
 giving to each his own, by avoiding lying and deceit, by 
 being generally serviceable and amiable. 
 
 Under Justice is included promptitude and alacrity in 
 serving others. 
 
 The inherent vice of selfishness is thereby counter- 
 acted, and regard for the public good engendered. 
 The boy has to be taught the scope of our life, that 
 we are born not for ourselves alone, but for God and 
 our fellow-men. 
 
 7. The formation of the virtues should begin from 
 tender years, before vices take possession of the soul.
 
 The Great Didactic. 127 
 
 If good seed be not sown, the field will still produce, 
 but the produce will, in that case, be weeds and tares. 
 Begin from the earliest years to plough and sow, if you 
 would reap a harvest. 
 
 8. The virtues are learned by constantly doing honour- 
 able things. 
 
 Things to be known are learned by knowing, things 
 to be done by doing; therefore, obedience is to be 
 learned by obeying, abstinence by abstaining, truthful- 
 ness by speaking the truth, constancy by being constant, 
 and so forth. 
 
 9. Let the examples of a well-constituted life always 
 shine as a lamp before children the examples of parents, 
 nurses, teachers, school-fellows. 
 
 Boys are as imitative as apes, and learn to imitate 
 long before they learn to know. Historical examples 
 are good, but living examples are better. 
 
 10. Nevertheless, precepts and rules of life are to be 
 added to examples. 
 
 The precepts of Scripture and the sayings of wise 
 men should be taught. 
 
 11. Children are to be most diligently guarded against 
 intercourse with bad companions, lest they be infected. 
 
 Vicious example is a poison to the mind, whether 
 it enter by the eye or ear. In consequence of our 
 depraved nature, evil things cling with wonderful facility 
 and tenacity. Idleness leads to evil, and hence the 
 importance of constant occupation, be it work or play. 
 
 12. Discipline is necessary for the purpose of with- 
 standing immoral habits.
 
 128 The Educational System. 
 
 By discipline is meant reproof by words and chastise- 
 ment by stripes. Punishment by stripes should be 
 reserved for moral offences. This subject is further 
 treated of below. 
 
 III. METHOD AS APPLIED TO PIETY. 
 
 Though piety is the gift of God through the Holy 
 Spirit, yet as the Spirit commonly acts through ordinary 
 means parents, teachers, and ministers of the Church, 
 it is right to consider the method of the duties of 
 these instruments. 
 
 Comenius gives great prominence to this part of his 
 Didactic, and treats of it at considerable length ; but 
 it cannot be said that Method in any strict application 
 of that term is successfully exhibited in its relation 
 to religious instruction. The chapter on this subject 
 is in reality a series of propositions in which the order 
 of Christian doctrinal teaching is laid down, and to 
 some extent the manner of it. The following para- 
 graphs contain the substance of his instructions : 
 
 After laying down three sources of piety, viz., the 
 Holy Scriptures, the world or nature, and ourselves 
 (i.e. the natural instincts and intuitions which give a 
 knowledge of God, and our dependence on Him), he 
 says that there are three ways of cherishing piety, viz., 
 meditation on the words, works, and goodness of God ; 
 prayer, which he defines to be perpetua ad Deum 
 suspiratio ; and self-examination. ' Examine yourselves
 
 The Great Didactic. 129 
 
 whether ye be in the faith : prove your own selves ' 
 (2 Cor. xiii. 5). 
 
 In educating children in religion we should attend 
 to the following rules : 
 
 Begin in infancy : we must sow good seed. 
 
 From the very first accustom the child to express 
 devotion bodily with his eyes, hands, feet, and tongue ; 
 by gazing towards heaven, spreading out his palms, 
 bending his knees, and invoking God and Christ, 
 reverencing and adoring the invisible Majesty. 
 
 Let them be taught that we are here not for this life 
 alone, but that eternity is our goal; that our chief 
 aim is to be so prepared as worthily to enter eternal 
 habitations; and that all we do must have the future 
 life in view, and that we must constantly bear in mind 
 the twofold destiny that awaits man hereafter. 
 
 Let them be taught that thrice happy are they who 
 so regulate their lives as to be worthy of dwelling with 
 God ; that whosoever walk with God here, will dwell 
 with Him everlastingly, and that by walking with God is 
 meant having Him constantly before our eyes, fearing 
 Him, and keeping His commandments. 
 
 Let them be taught to refer all things whatsoever 
 they hear or see, do or suffer, to God, mediately or 
 immediately. 
 
 Let them learn to occupy themselves from the 
 earliest years with those things that lead to God the 
 reading of the Holy Scriptures, the exercises of divine 
 worship, and good works. 
 
 i
 
 1 30 The Educational System. 
 
 Let the Holy Scriptures be the Alpha and Omega of 
 Christian schools. 
 
 Let whatever is learned from Scripture be referred to 
 the three graces of Faith, Hope, and Charity ; and let 
 these graces be taught with reference to practice. 
 These will be taught in relation to practice if the young 
 be taught to believe all that God has revealed, to do what 
 He commands, and to hope for what He promises. 
 
 Let boys be accustomed to the doing of those works 
 commanded by Heaven, that by those works they may 
 show forth their faith the works, namely, of temperance, 
 justice, compassion, patience, etc. 
 
 Let them be taught to see clearly the purposes of the 
 benefits God confers, and of the chastisements He 
 inflicts. 
 
 Let them be exhorted to keep the way of the Cross 
 as the most secure way, and let care be taken that no 
 vicious examples obstruct them in their path. 
 
 Finally, let them be taught that, since, because of the 
 imperfection of their nature, they can do no good thing, 
 they must rely on the perfection of Christ, the Lamb 
 of God that taketh away the sins of the world. 
 
 The mode of dexterously doing all this in the 
 different classes of the school has to be carefully con- 
 sidered. 
 
 Comenius maintains at considerable length, and with 
 occasional eloquence, the necessity of either banishing 
 Pagan authors from schools, or at least of using them 
 with caution. Realists like Comenius discouraged 
 purely classical studies, not merely because they usurped
 
 The Great Didactic. 131 
 
 the place which ought to be assigned to the study of 
 subjects having a practical bearing on this life, but also 
 because they obstructed or at least did not promote, 
 the true ends of a Christian school. 
 
 All now accept the opinion that the classical authors 
 are to be read by boys with due caution ; but I imagine 
 that none will be found to take the restricted view that 
 they should be excluded altogether from schools even 
 on religious grounds. Strict logical reasonings from a 
 fundamental principle are justly suspected when they 
 land us in such conclusions, and the majority of teachers 
 are content to sacrifice logic rather than part with their 
 common sense. 
 
 IV. ON SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 
 
 The Bohemians say that ' a school without discipline 
 is a mill without water.' For take the water away and 
 the mill stops; take discipline away and the school 
 lags. It does not follow from this that a school is 
 to be a place of cries, blows, and weals ; but there must 
 be vigilance and attention, both in the teacher and 
 taught. 
 
 What is discipline save a certain way whereby scholars 
 (discipuli) are made to be truly scholars ? 
 
 Let us consider, then, discipline in its end, its matter, 
 and its form its cur, quando, quomodo. 
 
 i. The end of discipline. This is not the punishment 
 of a transgressor for a fault he has committed (the done
 
 132 The Educational System. 
 
 cannot be undone), but the prevention of the recurrence 
 of the fault. Accordingly, the master must execute 
 punishment without passion, anger, or hatred, but in 
 such a way that the boy under discipline will recognise 
 that it is done for his good, and on that account will 
 accept it as he would accept a disagreeable draught 
 from a physician. 
 
 2. The matter of discipline. A severe discipline is 
 not to be exercised in the matter of studies, but only in 
 that of morals. If subjects of study are rightly arranged 
 and taught, they themselves attract and allure all save 
 very exceptional natures ; and if they are not rightly 
 taught, the fault is in the teacher, not the pupil. More- 
 over, if we do not know how to allure to study by skill, 
 we shall certainly not succeed by the application of 
 mere force. There is no power in stripes and blows 
 to excite a love of literature, but a great power, on 
 the contrary, of generating weariness and disgust. A 
 musician does not dash his instrument against a wall, 
 or give it blows and cuffs, because he cannot draw music 
 from it, but continues to apply his skill till he extracts 
 a melody. So by our skill we have to bring the minds 
 of the young into harmony, and to the love of studies, 
 if we are not to make the careless unwilling and the 
 torpid stolid. A spur and stimulus are often needed, 
 but a sharp word or a public reproof or the praise of 
 others who are doing well, will generally suffice. 
 
 Those who transgress in moral matters are to be 
 more seriously dealt with. Impiety, for example, such 
 as blasphemy and obscenity, and all that is done
 
 The Great Didactic. 133 
 
 against the law of God, constitute serious offences, and 
 can be expiated only by a severe chastisement. Con- 
 tumacy and deliberate perversity, wilful non-doing of 
 what the pupil knows ought to be done are to be 
 punished. Also, pride, envy, and sloth. 
 
 3. The how of discipline. The sun (regarded by 
 Comenius as the cause of atmospheric changes) always 
 gives forth light and warmth, often rain and wind, rarely 
 thunder and lightning. So (i.) The teacher should 
 always shine as an example, in his own person and 
 conduct, of all he requires from others. (2.) By words 
 of instruction, exhortation, and occasionally reproof, he 
 should labour to sustain discipline, being most careful 
 that all he says verily comes from a parental interest 
 in and affection for his pupils,' for if the pupils do not 
 see this they harden their hearts against discipline. 
 (3.) If any pupil is of so unhappy a disposition that 
 these gentler methods fail, more violent remedies should 
 be applied, lest anything should be left undone before 
 utterly despairing of a boy ; but great care has to be 
 exercised that we do not resort to extreme remedies 
 except in extrjeme cases. Extrema in extremis. The 
 whole object of discipline, we must never forget, is to 
 form in those committed to our charge a disposition 
 worthy of the children of God. 1 
 
 1 Speaking of the improvement of schools, Professor Eilhardus 
 Lubinus says : ' Prorsus sentio virgas et verbera servilia ilia 
 instrumenta ac ingeniis minime convenientia minime in scholis 
 adhibenda sed procul removenda esse et admovenda mancipiis et 
 servilis animi nequam servis. '
 
 134 The Educational System. 
 
 This is the end of Method as applied to Knowledge, 
 Virtue, and Religion, and it seems to be a fit place to 
 introduce some -precepts of Comenius which are given 
 in the Dissertatio de sermonis Latini studio. 
 
 PRACTICAL HINTS TO THE TEACHER OF A CLASS. 
 
 1. Let the teacher not teach as much as he is able to 
 teach, but only as much as the learner is able to learn. 
 
 2. Whatever difficulty and trouble scholastic labours 
 bring, let these be borne by the teacher, nothing being 
 left to the pupil except the desire to imitate, and the 
 acquisition of facility in imitating. 
 
 3. Whatever teachers wish their pupils to know, let 
 them set forth that thing with the greatest possible per- 
 spicuity. 
 
 4. Whatever teachers wish their pupils to do, let 
 them point out the way by themselves doing it. 
 
 5. Let nothing ever seem so easy as to relieve the 
 teacher of the duty of striving, in various ways, to make 
 it more perspicuous and more easy of imitation. 
 
 6. Never let the pupils be overburdened with a mass 
 of things to be learned. 
 
 7. Three things always are to be formed in the pupil, 
 viz., mind, hand, and tongue. 
 
 8. And these three come one after the other. It is 
 the easiest of the three to understand anything; the 
 next is to imitate it in writing ; the most difficult, and 
 that which is nearest perfection, is to be able to express 
 it with the tongue. This is applicable to arts and
 
 The Great Didactic. 135 
 
 sciences as well as language. Let the teachers there- 
 fore give heed that, whatever they desire their pupils 
 to learn easily and successfully, shall advance by these 
 gradations without confusion. 
 
 9. Always let examples precede, as being the matter 
 of instruction; let precepts and rules follow, as the 
 form. 
 
 10. Never dismiss any subject which has been begun, 
 until it is thoroughly finished. Let the teacher never 
 take more matter for a lesson than can be both set forth 
 and expounded within the same hour, and impressed 
 on the intellect and memory of the pupils, during that 
 same hour, by fit examples. 
 
 11. Let the first foundations of all things be thoroughly 
 laid, unless you wish the whole superstructure to totter. 
 
 1 2. Accordingly, whatever the teacher begins to teach, 
 let him give pains to see that it is accurate, and so 
 firmly learnt that those things which follow can be 
 safely built on the top of it. 
 
 13. If any thing has been wrongly apprehended, take 
 care that it do not drive roots into the mind, but that 
 it be immediately torn up. 
 
 14. Whatever is taught, let it be taught accurately, 
 that it may not cause misconception. 
 
 15. Let similar diligence be applied in giving exer- 
 cises in style (composition). 
 
 1 6. To insure this, let the example, which is given 
 for imitation, be unexceptionable, and let the imitation 
 of it be attempted only in the master's presence, and 
 under his inspection.
 
 136 The Educational System. 
 
 17. By far the greatest abridgment of labour is for 
 the teacher not to teach one boy alone, but many 
 together. 
 
 1 8. In order that this may be done, two things are 
 necessary : 
 
 (a.) That those pupils only be admitted into the 
 same class who are of equal advancement, and that 
 they be admitted at the same time. 
 
 (.) That skill be used, with a view to secure that 
 none of the pupils shall be ignorant of that which is 
 taught to all. 
 
 19. To secure this, the following things must be 
 attended to : 
 
 (a.) Let the teacher take care that he always brings 
 to his class something in the way of instruction likely 
 to please and to profit. 
 
 (.) At the beginning of every task the minds of the 
 pupils should be prepared for the instruction, either by 
 commending to their attention the subject to be taught ; 
 or by putting questions on what has been already taught, 
 which lead up to the new by showing its coherence with 
 the old ; or by bringing out their ignorance of the sub- 
 ject, so that they may receive the explanation of it with 
 greater avidity. 
 
 (c.) Let the master stand in a somewhat elevated 
 position, where he can see all round him and so prevent 
 any one from doing anything else but looking at him. 
 
 (</.) Let him always assist the attention of the pupils 
 by presenting everything, in so far as possible, to the 
 senses (hearing, seeing, etc.).
 
 The Great Didactic. 137 
 
 (e.) Let the teacher sharpen the attention of the pupils 
 by occasionally asking one here and there, ' What was 
 it I just said?' ' Repeat it/ etc. 
 
 (f.) If any one who has been asked a question fails, 
 let the teacher go to the second, third, tenth, thirtieth, 
 without repeating the question. 
 
 (g.) If one or another cannot do it, let him ask the 
 question of the whole class, and praise publicly the one 
 who answers first and best ; and 
 
 (h.) When the lesson is finished, let an opportunity 
 be given to pupils of asking the teacher questions 
 whether with reference to the lesson then given or to 
 any previous lesson. 
 
 These precepts in the art of teaching are not given 
 for the sake of the school alone, but because they pro- 
 mote habits in the pupil which are of value in after 
 life. 
 
 Fourth Section.
 
 Fourth Section. 
 
 ON THE GENERAL ORGANISATION OF A 
 SCHOOL SYSTEM. 
 
 A CERTAIN fixed time ought to be set apart for the 
 complete education of youth, at the end of which they 
 may go forth from school to the business of life, truly 
 instructed, truly moral, truly religious. 
 
 The time that is required for this is the whole period 
 of youth, that is to say, from birth to manhood, which is 
 fully attained in twenty-four years. Dividing the twenty- 
 four years into periods of six years each, we ought to 
 have a school suited to each period, viz., the school of 
 
 1. Infancy : the mother's lap up to six years of age. 
 
 2. Boyhood : Indus literarius, or vernacular public 
 school. 
 
 3. Adolescence : the Latin School or Gymnasium. 
 
 4. Youth : the University (Academia), and travel. 
 The Infant School should be found in every house, 
 
 the Vernacular School in every village and community, 
 the Gymnasium in every province, and the University in 
 every kingdom or large province. 
 
 In these various schools the same things will be
 
 The Great Didactic. 139 
 
 taught, each subject being adapted to the stage of pro- 
 gress ; in the earlier stages subjects will be taught more 
 broadly and generally, in the later more in detail. 
 
 In the Mother School the external senses chiefly will 
 be exercised in relation to objects and the distinguishing 
 of these. In the Vernacular School the inner senses, 
 imagination, 1 and memory will be exercised along with 
 their executory organs, the tongue and hand, by means 
 of reading, writing, drawing, singing, counting, measur- 
 ing, weighing, and learning by heart. In the Gymna- 
 sium the intellect and judgment will be formed by 
 means of dialectic, grammar, rhetoric, and the 'what' 
 and 'why' of the real sciences and arts. In the Uni- 
 versity those things will be taught which depend on 
 the Will of man and reduce the mind to harmony, 
 e.g. Theology, Mental Philosophy, Medicine (i.e. know- 
 ledge of the vital functions of the Body), Jurisprudence. 
 
 That this is the true method of procedure is mani- 
 fest ; for first external things are impressed on the senses, 
 then the mind seeks to express what it has received 
 by reproducing the images of things in memory, and by 
 the tongue and hand. Intelligence thereafter applies 
 itself to what has been so acquired, and compares and 
 weighs that it may learn the reasons and causes of 
 things, thereby promoting the understanding of things 
 and judgments regarding them. Finally, the Will seeks 
 to establish its sovereignty over all things. To inter- 
 fere with this order is to trifle with the whole subject, 
 and yet this is what those do who introduce boys to 
 1 i.e. the representative and reproductive imagination.
 
 140 The Educational System. 
 
 Logic, Ethics, Poetry, Rhetoric, before they have an 
 adequate knowledge of the realities of sense. 
 
 Again, the Mother School and the Vernacular School 
 will train all the population of both sexes ; the Gymna- 
 sium will train those boys who aim at being something 
 higher than artisans ; and the University will form the 
 future teachers and guides of others, so that there may 
 never be wanting for the Church, School, or State, fit 
 governors. These grades of schools find their analogy 
 in the spring, summer, autumn, and winter of the year. 
 But all these things have to be fully developed ; and 
 this Comenius now proceeds to do. 
 
 I. THE IDEA OF THE MOTHER SCHOOL. 
 
 In the Infant School (which is the family) the 
 elements have to be taught of everything necessary to 
 the building-up of the life of man, and we shall show 
 that this is possible by running over the different de- 
 partments of knowledge. 
 
 (a.) Metaphysics. Conception in infants is general 
 and confused ; they do not distinguish things according 
 to kind, but general terms are familiar to them and 
 arise out of ordinary observation, viz., Something, 
 Nothing, Is, Is-not, So, Otherwise, Where, When, Like, 
 Unlike, etc., which things are the foundations of Meta- 
 physics. 
 
 (b.} Physics. In this infant stage the child will learn 
 the rudiments of natural knowledge ; he learns to know 
 water, earth, fire, rain, snow, ice, stone, iron, tree,
 
 The Great Didactic. 141 
 
 grass, bird, fish, ox, etc. etc., and the parts of his own 
 body. 
 
 (c.) The beginnings of Optics he learns when he learns 
 to name light, darkness, and the principal colours. 
 
 (//.) Astronomy he begins when he learns to name 
 sun, moon, star, constellation, and the rising and setting 
 of these. 
 
 (e.} The beginnings of Geography are learned when 
 the child understands what a mountain is, a plain, a 
 valley, a river, a village, a city, a state. 
 
 (f.) Chronology is learned in its rudiments in 
 learning what an hour is, a day, a week, a month, a year, 
 yesterday, to-day, and to-morrow, etc. 
 
 (g.) History he learns in learning what has recently 
 happened, and the way in which it happened, and how 
 this or that man conducted himself. 
 
 (h.) Arithmetic he learns by finding out the much and 
 the little, by counting up to 10, and by the simplest 
 forms of addition and subtraction. 
 
 (/.) The rudiments of Geometry are learned in dis- 
 covering what is great and small, long and short, broad 
 and narrow, thick and thin, a line, a circle, etc., and 
 the ordinary measures. 
 
 (j.) Statics are learned in observing the light and 
 heavy, and by balancing things. 
 
 (.) Mechanics are learned by causing the children to 
 carry things from one place to another, to arrange things, 
 to build and take to pieces, to tie and untie. All such 
 things, the young delight to do, and they have merely 
 to be encouraged and directed in doing them.
 
 142 TJie Educational System. 
 
 (/.) The beginnings even of Dialectic are taught 
 by question and answer, and by requiring direct and 
 adequate answers to interrogations. 
 
 (m.) Grammar is acquired by the child in its 
 elements through the right articulating of his mother- 
 tongue, letters, syllables, words. 
 
 (n.) Rhetoric is acquired, in its beginnings, by hear- 
 ing the use of metaphors in ordinary conversation, and 
 of the rising and falling inflection in speech. 
 
 (0.) The foundation of a taste for poetry is laid by 
 learning little verses, chiefly of a moral kind. 
 
 (p.] The daily exercises of household piety, including 
 the singing of easy psalms and hymns, will give the 
 elements of music. 
 
 (q.) The rudiments of Economics are furnished by 
 noting the relations of father, mother, domestic servant, 
 and the parts of a house and its furnishings. 
 
 (;-.) Of Polity less can be learned, but even in this 
 sphere some knowledge of the civil government and the 
 names of governors and magistrates may be acquired. 
 
 (5.) But above all, the foundations of Morality have 
 to be firmly laid by training to temperance in all things, 
 cleanliness of habits, due reverence to superiors, prompt 
 obedience, truthfulness, justice, charity, continual occu- 
 pation, patience, serviceableness to others, civility. 
 
 (/.) In Religion and Piety the beginnings are to be 
 laid. The elements of the Christian religion should 
 be committed to memory, and the child should be 
 trained to recognise the perpetual presence of God, his 
 dependence on Him, and to see in Him a punisher of
 
 The Great Didactic. 143 
 
 evil and a rewarder of good. Simple prayers should be 
 taught, and the child led to bend the knee and fold the 
 hands in prayer. 
 
 Such is the task of the Mother-School, of which 
 Comenius promises to treat in more detail in a separate 
 treatise, entitled Informatorium Scholae Maternae. 
 
 In this separate treatise, however, little is added to 
 what has been already laid down. He urges his points 
 in more detail certainly, but without adding anything 
 new. The value of the treatise consists in its hortatory 
 character. The more important additions are under 
 the heads of discipline, of childish occupations, and of 
 bodily health. 
 
 As to discipline, he denounces as intolerable the 
 noise, irregularity, and licence of some families, and 
 urges as a remedy the example of elders, and verbal 
 reproof; but above all, encouraging words, which tell 
 powerfully with children. In the last resort only is the 
 rod advocated. 
 
 In the matter of occupations, he urges the encourage- 
 ment of all kinds of sports, and especially the love of 
 constructing buildings, etc., in imitation of what they 
 see, which is a natural instinct of children. 
 
 The bodily health of the child must be a prime 
 object, as bodily vigour is the condition of all proper 
 mental growth. It is not enough simply to pray that 
 our children may be healthy and vigorous. God's blessing 
 is given to labour on our part. Even during pregnancy, 
 the mother should keep in mind her duty to her off- 
 spring. She should devote her mind to religious exer-
 
 1 44 The Educational System. 
 
 cises more than usual, avoid all excesses in eating and 
 drinking, and all mental anxieties ; and yet she should 
 not be idle or luxurious, but occupy herself with alacrity 
 and cheerfulness in her usual duties. Comenius de- 
 nounces in fervent language the employment of milk- 
 nurses, holding that both Nature and Divine Providence 
 have marked out the duty of suckling as at once a 
 maternal duty and privilege. After the child is weaned, 
 simple diet only should be given, such as bread, milk, 
 butter, and some kinds of vegetables. 
 
 Books containing pictures of things should be put 
 into the hands of little children. This will stimulate 
 their observation, and help them to read, especially if 
 the names of the things drawn or painted are written 
 under the representations. 
 
 All the work of the Mother School is to be done in 
 the family circle. 
 
 II. THE IDEA OF THE VERNACULAR SCHOOL. 
 
 By the Vernacular School Comenius means what we 
 now call the Primary School, and he presumes it to be 
 attended by children from the age of six to twelve (their 
 thirteenth year). 
 
 The scope and aim of the Vernacular School are 
 stated in the form of an answer to those who hold that 
 such schools are only for girls, and those boys whose 
 destiny in life is industrial, and who maintain that for 
 those whose duration of education is to be more pro- 
 longed and whose aim is higher, the Latin School or 
 Gymnasium is the proper place from the first.
 
 The Great Didactic. 145 
 
 It is evident, he says, that this view is opposed to 
 all the principles that have been laid down. If it be 
 that our duty is to instruct all human beings in all those 
 things that have to do with human affairs, they must all 
 go through the same course as long as they hold together. 
 We desire to instruct all alike in moralities, and also to 
 promote mutual serviceableness, and we should remove 
 everything which can foster the disposition to appraise 
 oneself too highly, and to look down on others. Again, 
 we cannot venture to say of boys six years old what 
 their ultimate destination may be. Further, he objects 
 to the superstitious attachment to Latin the vernacular 
 tongue, modern tongues, and the study of things being 
 more important. Even the Latin tongue itself will be 
 better learned by one who knows his vernacular, and 
 who has in learning a new language simply to adapt 
 new names to things already known. In brief, the 
 Vernacular School ought to teach all that will be of 
 use for the whole of life, and this to all. 
 
 Subjects of Instruction in the Vernacular or Primary 
 School. 
 
 1. Let the pupil learn to read all things in his own 
 tongue, whether printed or script. 
 
 2. Let him learn to write first neatly, then quickly, 
 then with grammatical propriety, in accordance with 
 rules popularly expounded. 
 
 3. Let him learn arithmetic as far as necessary. 
 
 4. Let him learn to measure lengths, breadths, dis- 
 tances. 
 
 K
 
 1 46 The Educational System. 
 
 5. Let him learn to sing the more common melodies, 
 those who have an aptitude for it being also taught the 
 elements of harmony 1 (or notation?). 
 
 6. Let him learn by heart the psalms and hymns 
 more commonly used in churches. 
 
 7. Let him learn to repeat with accuracy the Cate- 
 chism, and important passages from Holy Writ. 
 
 8. Let him understand morality in its precepts, and 
 by means of examples suited to his age, and let him 
 begin the practice of it. 
 
 9. Let him understand as much of economy and 
 polity as is necessary for the understanding of what goes 
 on around him. 
 
 10. Let him not be ignorant of the general history 
 of the world its creation, fall and redemption, and its 
 government by the wisdom of God. 
 
 11. Let him be taught general geography, and the 
 geography of his own country more fully. 
 
 12. A general knowledge of the mechanical arts 
 should be given, that boys may better understand the 
 affairs of ordinary life, and that opportunities be thus 
 given to boys to find out their special aptitudes. 
 
 The beginnings of all kinds of knowledge will thus 
 be laid, whatever be the future destiny of the pupils. 
 
 Means of attaining the above Ends. 
 
 i. The school period being extended over six years, 
 the school should be divided into six classes, kept 
 apart from each other as much as possible. 
 1 Figuralis musica.
 
 The Great Didactic. 147 
 
 2. Each class should have its own books, which 
 should contain everything necessary for its instruction 
 in Literature, Morals, and Religion. These books 
 should exhaust the vernacular tongue, in so far as the 
 naming of things within the range of a boy's apprehen- 
 sion and all the more usual modes of speech, are con- 
 cerned. There ought to be six such books, differing in 
 their mode of treating subjects, not in the subjects they 
 treat : advancing always from the more simple to the 
 more special and detailed. They should be carefully 
 adapted to the age of the pupils, and should combine 
 the pleasant with the useful. As a school has been 
 compared to a garden, so the titles of these books 
 might well be made attractive by reference to a garden 
 e.g. the first might be called Violarium, the second 
 Rosarium, the third Viridarium, the fourth Labyrinthus, 
 the fifth Balsamentum, and the sixth Paradisus Animae. 
 
 3. The school-hours should not be more than four 
 daily two before noon and two after noon, thus 
 leaving time for amusement, and for domestic duties 
 when the children are poor. 
 
 4. The morning hours should be given to those 
 lessons that exercise the understanding and memory, 
 the afternoon to those which engage the voice and 
 hand. 
 
 5. In the morning hours, the teacher will read and 
 re-read the lesson, giving simple explanations, while all 
 listen attentively, and will then call on certain pupils, 
 one after the other, to read, the rest attentively follow- 
 ing. If the lesson is prolonged, the clever boys will be
 
 148 The Educational System. 
 
 able to say it off by heart, and later on the slower boys 
 also ; for the tasks will be short, and suited to the 
 capacity of the pupils. 
 
 6. In the afternoon, nothing new should be attempted. 
 The repetition of the morning lesson, transcription from 
 the printed book, and competition as to who remem- 
 bers most accurately, or can sing, write, or count 
 best. The neat transcription of the printed books is a 
 most valuable exercise, for the lesson is thereby more 
 thoroughly impressed on the mind through the occupa- 
 tion of the senses with it, and practice in correct spelling 
 and neat writing is given. The parents also learn from 
 these books what their children are doing at school. 
 
 In conclusion, Comenius recommends that if any 
 boys desire to learn foreign tongues they should begin 
 them after their tenth year, and during the latter part of 
 their attendance at the Vernacular School. For teach- 
 ing purposes, translations into the foreign language they 
 are learning of those books which are already known to 
 them in the vernacular tongue should be used. 
 
 III. THE IDEA OF THE LATIN SCHOOL, 
 OR GYMNASIUM. 
 
 In this school there should be an encyclopaedic 
 course, including four languages. 
 
 The course being a six years' one (from twelve years 
 of age to eighteen), there should also be six classes. 
 
 The subjects to be taught are as follows : 
 
 Grammar, that is to say, a thorough knowledge of
 
 ' The Great Didactic. 149 
 
 the vernacular and Latin, and such a knowledge of 
 Greek and Hebrew as may be necessary. 
 
 Dialectic, i.e. practice in defining, distinguishing, 
 arguing, and in resolving arguments. 
 
 Rhetoric, i.e. the power of elegant composition on 
 any given matter. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Geometry. 
 
 Music, practical and theoretical. 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 These are the boasted seven liberal arts which make 
 a man a master in philosophy. Comenius would have 
 them taught in the Gymnasium, and, in addition, the 
 following subjects : 
 
 Physics, including Natural History and Mineralogy, 
 and applications to the arts. 
 
 Geography. 
 
 Chronology. 
 
 History. 
 
 Ethics, i.e. a knowledge of the virtues and vices, 
 and of their special application to life. And, lastly, 
 
 Theology, so that youths should have, not only a 
 thorough knowledge of the doctrines of their faith, but 
 of the scriptural basis of them. 
 
 It is not presumed that a thorough knowledge of all 
 these subjects can be attained in the Gymnasium ; but 
 only that a solid foundation may be laid in them all. 
 
 To the six classes a separate name is assigned, 
 indicating the order in which studies are to be taken up, 
 viz., the Grammar class, the Physics class, the Mathe-
 
 150 The Educational System. 
 
 matical class, the Ethical class, the Dialectic class, and 
 the Rhetoric class. 
 
 The Grammar class comes first, as the key to all else. 
 Then the Physics precedes the Mathematics, because 
 the numbers and quantities dealt with in the former 
 are more within the sphere of sense than they are in 
 the latter. Mathematics is general and abstract. 
 Ethics will deal, not merely with the what of morality, 
 as in the Vernacular School, but advance to the why. 
 Dialectic will take up Physical and Ethical questions 
 with a view to the pro and con. : it will also include a 
 short course of logic, and the principles of investigation, 
 and sources of error. Rhetoric, or the art of fit and 
 elegant expression, comes last, when the youth has the 
 necessary material for writing, and its range will be 
 confined to very brief and very clear rhetorical precepts. 
 
 It has to be remarked that in every class, History, as 
 the eye of life, should find a place, so that all that is 
 most memorable in the past, both in deed and word, 
 may be known. This, so far from increasing the 
 burden on pupils, will lighten their labours. Little 
 text-books should be written, viz., one on Biblical His- 
 tory; one on natural things; one on inventions and 
 mechanical arts; one exhibiting the most illustrious 
 examples of virtue; one on the various customs of 
 nations; and finally, one containing all that is most 
 significant in the history of the world, and especially 
 of our own country. 
 
 It is to be taken for granted that Comenius, while 
 defining the distinctive work of each class, presumes
 
 The Great Didactic. 151 
 
 that the work done in the classes that precede it, is 
 still continued. Without this, how would a sufficient 
 knowledge of language, for example, be obtained? 
 The Dialectic and Rhetoric classes would afford special 
 opportunities for the revision of all the work done in 
 the classes that preceded them. 
 
 Comenius postpones the question of the special 
 method to be followed in the Gymnasium, merely 
 remarking that, of the four school hours, the two before 
 noon should be devoted to that subject by which the 
 class is named, and the two afternoon hours to history 
 and to exercises in writing and repeating. 
 
 IV. THE IDEA OF THE UNIVERSITY (Academia). 
 
 Every department of knowledge should be handled 
 in the Universities. There will be ne'ed, accordingly, 
 of Professors learned in all arts, sciences, faculties, 
 tongues, and also of a library for common use. 
 
 As to the method to be pursued : 
 
 1. Only the more select minds the flower of youth 
 should be sent to Universities, all others being relegated 
 to agriculture, the workshop, or trade. 
 
 2. Each should apply himself to that line of study 
 for which he is specially fitted, so that nothing may be 
 done invita Minerva. It would be well that the desti- 
 nation of youth should be fixed by a leaving-examination 
 in the Gymnasiums. 
 
 3. Minds of large mould should be stimulated to 
 universal knowledge, that there may be a certain number
 
 152 Tke Educational System. 
 
 of men of universal accomplishment 7roAiy*a#ets or 
 7ravcro<ot. 
 
 4. The University should retain only those students 
 who are industrious, honourable, and able. Those 
 pseudo-students, who go there to spend money and 
 waste time, should not be tolerated. 
 
 5. Authors of every kind should be studied ; but as 
 it is impossible for all to read everything that authors 
 have written, men, learned each in his own department, 
 should produce books which would contain, in a 
 systematic form, the sum of Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, 
 Galen, etc. These systematised summaries would serve 
 as an introduction for the use of those who were going 
 to study these great writers, and furnish all that was 
 necessary for those who had to devote themselves 
 specially to other studies. 
 
 6. Of academic exercises, a very important one is 
 public disputations : the students discussing, at an 
 afternoon meeting, what the Professor has given in a 
 forenoon meeting, and contributing to the subject from 
 their own reading, and suggesting questions, while the 
 Professor acts as president. 
 
 As regards Graduation : 
 
 University honours should be conferred only on the 
 worthy, and it should depend on a public inquiry by 
 commissioners, and not on private testimony, so that 
 Doctorships and Masterships may be conferred only on 
 those conspicuous for their diligent pursuit of learning. 
 The qualification of the candidates should be ascertained 
 by public oral questioning in the theory and praxis
 
 The Great Didactic. 153 
 
 of the subjects they have studied e.g. Where is this, 
 that, or the other passage to be found ? How does it 
 agree with this or that ? Do you know any author who 
 dissents from this view ? Who ? What arguments does 
 he advance, and how are they to be met? Again in 
 praxis: cases are to be put in conscience, or in 
 medicine, or in legal causes ; the how and the why is 
 to be put, and a variety of cases brought forward, so 
 that it may be seen that the candidate has a thorough 
 knowledge of his subject, and can judge wisely. 
 
 Travel with a view to education should be allowed 
 only, as Plato says, when the hotness of youth is over, 
 and the young man has acquired sufficient prudence 
 and tact. 
 
 So much for the University as a teaching body ; but 
 in addition to all this there ought to be a Schola 
 Scholarum or Collegium Didacticum founded somewhere 
 or other ; and if the foundation of such a college is 
 impossible, learned men in all parts of the world 
 devoted to the advancement of God's glory, should 
 combine to prosecute researches in science, and to 
 make new discoveries bearing on the improvement of 
 the human race. Neither one man nor one generation 
 is sufficient for this great task ; many men jointly and 
 in successive generations must carry on the work begun. 
 Such a universal school would be to the rest of schools 
 what the stomach is to the body the living workshop, 
 supplying sap, life, strength.
 
 154 The Educational System. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 Comenius in conclusion elaborates an analogy 
 between his method and the Art of Printing. As the 
 Art of Printing is to the old method of producing 
 copies of books, so is his method of education to the 
 methods then in use. Into this parallel we need not 
 follow him. A greater number of pupils, he maintains, 
 will be taught with fewer teachers ; a larger proportion 
 of pupils will be truly instructed ; and many who now 
 receive no benefit from schools will receive substantial 
 culture. As regards teachers, again, those who are not by 
 nature adapted to the work of instruction will, by follow- 
 ing sound method, acquire aptitude. As an organist 
 can play from a book, symphonies which he himself 
 could not possibly have composed, so a school-teacher 
 may learn to teach all subjects, if he have reduced into 
 a schematic form, as it were, all the subjects that have 
 to.be taught, and the whole method of teaching them. 
 
 I have now given the sum of the Great Didactic. 
 
 PART II.
 
 PART II. 
 
 METHOD IN THE TEACHING OF LANGUAGE MORE 
 FULLY CONSIDERED. 1 
 
 THE Didactica Magna does not contain all that 
 Comenius has to say. In the prefaces to his various 
 works there are- many sagacious observations both on 
 Methods and on Education in general. These obser- 
 vations apply chiefly to the teaching of language. 
 School-instruction in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- 
 turies was substantially language-instruction ; and' the 
 language chiefly, though not exclusively, taught was 
 Latin. It was unavoidable therefore that Comenius, 
 in applying his principles and rules of Method, should 
 have his attention largely concentrated on the teaching 
 of Latin. Prior to Ratich, indeed, the general interest 
 which had been excited throughout Europe in the 
 subject of Education had for its object, so far as 
 schools were concerned, chiefly the current methods of 
 teaching the Latin tongue. There was a widespread 
 and loudly expressed dissatisfaction with the results of 
 school-teaching. Boys and masters were alike unhappy 
 these as teachers, those as learners; great severity 
 
 1 From the Methodus Linguarum novissima fitndamentis didac- 
 ticis solide superstrucla, 1648.
 
 156 The Educational System. 
 
 of discipline was practised, and after all was done, 
 and all the years of youth had been spent in the study 
 mainly of one subject, the results were contemptible. 
 In 1614 Eilhardus Lubinus, an eminent theologian who 
 edited the Greek Testament in three languages, speaks 
 in these words : ' The customary method of instruc- 
 tion prevalent in schools is, it seems to me, precisely 
 what we might have expected had some one been 
 specially hired and paid to excogitate some way whereby 
 teachers might not introduce their pupils to a know- 
 ledge of Latin, and pupils might not be introduced, 
 except with immense toil, unspeakable tedium, infinite 
 loss, and the expenditure of a long period of time. 
 
 ' Quae quoties repeto vel iniqua mente revolvo 
 Concutior toties, penitusque horresco medullis.' 
 
 And again he remarks, ' When considering this matter 
 I have, to speak the truth, been often led to think 
 that some wicked and malign spirit an enemy of 
 the human race had through the agency of some 
 ill-omened monks originally introduced the method of 
 instruction.' And with what result ? 'The production 
 of Germanisms, Barbarisms, Solecisms, mere abortions 
 of Latin, dishonourings and defilements of the tongue.' 
 
 The most important, and indeed the only important, 
 treatise by Comenius on Method, in addition to the 
 Didactica Magna and the short treatise on the Mother 
 School (the substance of which I have incorporated 
 into the preceding analysis of the Didactica) is entitled 
 ' Noyissima Linguarum Methodus, firmly erected on
 
 Method of L angnages. 157 
 
 Didactic foundations, demonstrated in special relation 
 to the Latin Tongue, adapted with precision to the use 
 of Schools, but also capable of application with advan- 
 tage to other kinds of Studies.' This treatise was pub- 
 lished in 1648. It consists of thirty chapters the first 
 five of which are occupied with the consideration of 
 language itself, beginning, as is customary with the 
 author, ab ovo, and approaching the question he has to 
 solve in the most systematic manner. There is nothing 
 in these chapters worth reproducing for our time. 
 Indeed, it may almost be said that, like much of 
 Comenius's writing, they are characterised by a weari- 
 some, elaborate, and painfully systematic statement of 
 commonplace. There is no penetrating light cast 
 into any dark places. 
 
 The subsequent chapters are more instructive. The 
 principles laid down in the Didactica now reappear in 
 more special and detailed application to Latin. They 
 are, however, reached analytically, and no longer syn- 
 cretically. 
 
 Latin, Comenius maintains, is the one language to 
 be preferred to all others for schools, because it is the 
 vehicle not only of Roman, but of all, learning ; because 
 it is the common language of the learned ; because it is 
 an excellent introduction to the study of all tongues ; 
 and because, owing to the definiteness of its forms and 
 syntax, it presents fewer difficulties than Greek. There 
 is no special difficulty in learning Latin ; what we want 
 is a good method. Lubinus remarks that cooks and
 
 158 The Educational System. 
 
 scullions learn in a short time more of two or three 
 modern tongues by mixing with the people who speak 
 them than boys at school, after the greatest effort, learn 
 of the one language Latin. 
 
 In proceeding to consider the method hitherto 
 followed, Comenius indirectly answers Lubinus, for 
 he points out that a language learned only conversa- 
 tionally is imperfectly learned. When we have studied 
 a language methodically in its forms and syntax, we 
 then know that we know it ; any other mode of study 
 yields us only more or less of the fragments of a 
 language, and can at best give only a superficial 
 knowledge. 
 
 The evils which need a remedy are these : 
 
 1. The Latin language is taught abstractly, without 
 a prior knowledge of the things which the words denote. 
 
 It will be said that the boys already know in the 
 vernacular the things which the Latin words denote. 
 But it is a false conclusion that because boys know 
 how to utter vernacular words they therefore under- 
 stand them. How can it advantage a boy to. get 
 at vocabularies in which he finds such things as 
 Necessitas, necessity ; Pignus, a pledge ; if he do not 
 know what either ' necessity ' or ' a pledge ' means ? 
 Words should be learned in their connection with 
 things known. 
 
 2. The second evil is driving boys into the manifold 
 intricacies of grammar from the very first. 
 
 It is the custom of schools to treat grammar from the 
 formal instead of from the material side. This is to
 
 Method of L anguages. 1 5 < 
 
 count money in purse without the money. It woul 
 be less absurd if a knowledge of the grammar of the 
 vernacular had preceded the study of Latin, in which 
 case a knowledge of the meaning of grammatical terms 
 and rules in relation to the matter of language would 
 already exist in the boy's mind ; but it has not yet, says 
 Comenius, even been proposed to teach grammar in 
 vernacular schools, and boys are plunged into the 
 formal statements of grammar on their first beginning 
 Latin, so that they must imagine that grammar belongs 
 to Latin alone. To make matters worse, the Latin 
 Grammar is written in Latin. How should we adults 
 like, if we began to learn Arabic, to have a Grammar 
 written in Arabic put into our hands ? And yet what 
 we with our matured powers would resent, we demand 
 of the tender minds of boys. Not to speak of the 
 multitude and obscurity of the rules themselves, we 
 ask boys to straggle first with the words of a rule, then 
 with its sense, and finally with the genius of a tongue 
 alien to their vernacular. 
 
 3. The third evil is the practice of compelling boys 
 to take impossible leaps, instead of carrying them 
 forward step by step. 
 
 We introduce them from the grammar into Virgil and 
 Cicero, Virgil's Eclogues simply because they are 
 short, and Cicero's select epistles select being here 
 also equivalent to short. The sublimity of poetic style 
 is beyond the conception of boys, and the subject- 
 matter of Cicero's epistles is for grown men. It will be 
 said that this is done that boys may acquire the words,
 
 1 60 The Educational System. 
 
 phrases, etc., of these authors, in the expectation that 
 when they are older they will see their force. But why 
 ever separate words and things ? Unhappy divorce ! 
 Why begin to build a tower at the top ? It will also be 
 said that the object is to put a perfect model before boys 
 to which they may attain. Quite right to aim at a perfect 
 model when the aim is practicable, and if we proceed 
 gradually to the highest. But a boy must go step by 
 step, and advancing years will bring both the occasions 
 and the power of learning. If Cicero himself were to 
 enter our schools, and find boys engaged with his 
 works, it seems to me that he would be either amused 
 or indignant. Larger things are with great advantage 
 postponed to lesser things, and the lesser things, if 
 accommodated to the age of the learners, yield greater 
 fruits than larger things. The eminent grammarian 
 Vossius speaks (Lib. vii. Gram, i.) strongly against the 
 folly of loading boys with a mass of rules and excep- 
 tions, affirming that it is not merely useless, but hurtful 
 and obstructive. The language of Scioppius, the 
 annotator of the Sanctii Minerva, is stronger and more 
 fervid in denunciation than that of any other writer. 
 And when we bear in mind the construction of the Latin 
 Grammars then in use, that of Alvarus, for example, 
 having 500 rules and as many exceptions we cannot 
 be surprised at the unanimous condemnation of the 
 then current methods of teaching, and the almost 
 universal lamentation over the wasted years of youth. 
 
 Comenius gives some account of the various pro- 
 posals for reform current in his time. It was natural
 
 Method of Languages. 1 6 1 
 
 that many should be driven to the conversational 
 method as a means of attaining a knowledge of Latin 
 in the intercourse of daily life. Schoolmasters were 
 tyrants and torturers of boys, and the instrument of 
 their tyranny was the Latin Grammar. Caecilius Frey, 
 on the same side of the question, proposed the institu- 
 tion of Colleges, where all, including the servants, should 
 speak Latin and Greek. To these, boys might be sent in 
 their second year, and while not neglecting their mother 
 tongue, acquire a free use of Latin and Greek in con- 
 versation, during their play and at their meals. He 
 supported his scheme by the success which had attended 
 this method in the case of Montaigne, who when six 
 years old could speak Latin better than his native 
 French. On the other hand, Melanchthon, the restorer 
 of letters in Germany, and an ardent school reformer 
 (Praeceptor Germaniae, as he was called), strongly 
 advocates grammatical instruction, and inveighs 
 vehemently against those who would propose to teach 
 by practice alone without syntactical precepts. He 
 calls this method a confused kind of procedure, by 
 which it is not possible to obtain sound learning. He 
 considers that those who counsel such a method are 
 the worst friends of youth, and that they recommend 
 what is not only pernicious in its effects while the pupils 
 are still boys, but hurtful to them throughout life. A 
 contempt for grammatical precepts will engender a 
 similar contempt for the groundwork of other arts, 
 and sap the foundations of that reverence which is 
 the support of private and public morals. He con- 
 
 L
 
 1 62 The Educational System. 
 
 siders that ' penalties ought to be inflicted by the State 
 on those teachers who despise grammatical rules.' 
 
 The eminent Lipsius deplores the years, from ten to 
 thirteen, which he spent over grammatical trifles, and 
 thinks that the time would be better spent in reading, 
 and in obtaining a knowledge of things. Caselius 
 also advocated the reading of authors, and constant 
 exercises in writing Latin. Ratich, Comenius's distin- 
 guished predecessor in the work of Educational Reform, 
 was of Caselius's opinion, but his method was to put 
 an author level with a boy's capacity into a pupil's 
 hands at once such an author as Terence to get him 
 to read and re-read the Latin, in the expectation that 
 with some explanation by the master he would begin 
 gradually to understand. At the third reading only 
 should exercises in declining and conjugating be given, 
 and this not in accordance with rules, but merely 
 referring from time to time to types of declensions 
 and conjugations. At the fourth reading the syntax 
 and phraseology generally should be taken up and 
 taught by the master, but all from the author himself. 
 The master according to this method does almost every- 
 thing, the pupils being to a great extent .passive. Ratich 
 had many followers, and some keen opponents. 
 
 Lubinus desired some compendious way, and advocated 
 the construction of a book containing pictures of things, 
 with a certain number of brief sentences attached to 
 each, till all the words and phrases of Latin were 
 exhausted. These, he said, should be explained in 
 order, and committed to memory.
 
 Method of Languages. 163 
 
 But the most important attempt, in Comenius's 
 opinion (as I have elsewhere stated), was that made by 
 an Irishman a Jesuit father in the Anglican seminary 
 at Salamanca, to which reference has been already 
 made. This man, in conversation with some English- 
 men, members of an embassy to Spain, when asked how 
 a man might learn the Spanish language quickly, com- 
 mended his own method for learning Latin. He had 
 printed a book in which Latin words with a Spanish 
 translation were arranged in complete sentences, in 
 such a way (the same words never being repeated) 
 that any one learning these sentences would know the 
 foundations of the Latin tongue. This conversation 
 took place in 1605, and the book itself was afterwards 
 published in England with an English and French 
 version, and was reproduced in Germany with the 
 addition of a German version by Isaac Habrecht. The 
 celebrated Scioppius published a Latin-Italian edition, 
 and afterwards, in 1636, at Basel, an edition in Latin- 
 German-Greek-Hebrew appeared. 
 
 In 1628, says Comenius, when meditating on the 
 subject of a Latin first book, and having already come 
 to the conclusion that words and things were best 
 learned together, ' I planned a book in which all things, 
 the properties of things, and actions and passions of 
 things, should be presented, and to each should be 
 assigned its own proper word, believing that in one 
 and the same book the whole connected series of 
 things might be surveyed historically, and the whole 
 fabric of things and words reduced to one continuous
 
 1 64 The Educational System. 
 
 context. On mentioning my purpose to some friends, 
 one of them directed my attention to the Jesuit father's 
 Janua Linguarum, and gave me a copy. I leapt with 
 joy ; but on examination, I found that it did not fulfil 
 my plan. 
 
 In 1631 Comenius issued his Janua Lingua Latinae 
 Reserata, which was cordially received, and found its 
 way by translation into most European, and some 
 Asiatic, languages. A short experience of the book 
 satisfied him that an introduction to it was needed, 
 and he then published a Vestibulum in 1632. The 
 idea and plan of the Palatium and Thesaurus^- (as 
 mentioned in the Didactica) followed in due course. 
 
 THE METHOD. 
 
 It appears that many teachers, believing that there 
 was some hidden virtue in the Janua of Comenius, had 
 used it without discretion, and had consequently been 
 disappointed in the results. Comenius points out that 
 while a good text-book is always essential to the teacher, 
 the expected fruits can be gathered only by the applica- 
 tion of a good method. 
 
 The desideratum which method supplies is a simple 
 and short way to the knowledge of a language. So far 
 as words are concerned, this way is through things. 
 Words are only the ministers of things, and if we study 
 the former through the latter, we shall find one of the 
 first conditions of good method satisfied. Hence the 
 1 Called sometimes Atrium and Palatium.
 
 Method of Languages. 1 65 
 
 text-books published by Comenius which have been so 
 frequently referred to, and which will be described in 
 our next chapter. 
 
 But this is not all : the teacher must not only see 
 that the pre-conditions of a good method are satisfied ; 
 but he must himself follow a sound method in teaching. 
 What is that method ? It is already laid down in the 
 Great Didactic syncretically, i.e. worked out by compari- 
 son with something else, viz., Nature. But Comenius, 
 never weary of his task, takes up the question afresh, 
 and now deals with it analytically. He asks the ques- 
 tion, 'What is it to teach?' and answers, 'To make 
 another learn and know what the teacher already 
 knows.' To do this with art, is to follow certain defined 
 paths in teaching which will insure that acquisition is 
 quick, easy, and solid. He then asks 'what it is to 
 learn,' and answers, ' To advance to the knowledge of 
 the unknown through the known.' From this analytic 
 statement he deduces, under the head of General 
 Didactic, eighty propositions in thoroughly scholastic 
 style, and with not a little of the scholastic poverty of 
 genuine substance. It would be a waste of time to go 
 through these in detail, as all that is really valuable has 
 been already exhibited in the Great Didactic. Some 
 of his propositions, however, are worth quoting : 
 
 Where nothing is taught, nothing is learned. 
 
 Where the teaching is confused, the learning is 
 confused. 
 
 Where the teaching is negligent, the learning is 
 negligent.
 
 1 66 The Educational System. 
 
 Do not begin to teach any one who is unprepared 
 for the teaching. 
 
 Do not put off teaching one who is prepared. 
 
 Labour is for the learner ; for the teacher, direction 
 of the learners. 
 
 All things are to be taught by the threefold way of 
 Examples, Precepts, and Exercises. 
 
 Let the example always come first, the precept next, 
 and let the imitation by way of exercise follow close. 
 
 Let rules be short, clear, and true. 
 
 Discipline is the means used to press on learning. 
 
 Without discipline nothing is learned, or at least 
 nothing rightly. 
 
 Discipline must be a never-ceasing constant pressure; 
 never violent ; and always graduated, so as to be fitted 
 to its end, corporal chastisement being the final resort. 
 
 To learn is easier than to unlearn. 
 
 To teach is easier than to unteach, for the latter is a 
 double process, the former a single one. 
 
 In teaching we have to advance from few things to 
 many, from the brief to the more lengthened, from the 
 simple to the complex, from the general to the special, 
 from the near to the remote, from the regular to the 
 irregular. 
 
 Comenius passes from General Didactic to Special 
 Didactic, applying the general principles which he has 
 laid down to the method of instruction in Science 
 (which is knowledge generally), in Arts, and finally, 
 in Language, and to the general improvement of
 
 Method of Languages. 167 
 
 schools, traversing necessarily much of the ground 
 already traversed in the Great Didactic. 
 
 In dealing with Science, he gives prominence to the 
 dictum, Nihil est in intellectu quod non prius in sensu. 
 The senses are the primary and the constant guides 
 of knowledge. They are the sole solid foundations of 
 knowledge. Wherever it is possible, therefore, all 
 teaching should refer back to this ultimate basis of 
 sense. We must see that the thing represented is under- 
 stood. To know the differences of things is to know 
 things. 
 
 As to Memory : To this there is necessary, first, a 
 clear, firm, and true impression on the senses ; secondly, 
 the understanding of what is presented. Words by 
 themselves, if capable of no order or coherence that 
 can engage the understanding, are not to be committed 
 to memory, e.g. the vocables anima, esse, res, ordo, 
 difficult to remember if so learned, are easily remem- 
 bered thus, Ordo est anima rerum. Writing is a great 
 aid to memory. Repetitio memoriae pater et mater est. 
 
 Comenius, when he comes to Language, explains that 
 it is more difficult to acquire language than to learn 
 any one department of knowledge or science ; and this 
 because it is co-extensive with all knowable things. 
 Here he gives some preliminary directions : e.g. 
 
 The teacher is not to teach as much as he is com- 
 petent to teach, but only as much as the learner can 
 take in. 
 
 Examples rather than precepts or rules are to be 
 preferred in the earlier stages of teaching.
 
 1 68 The Educational System. 
 
 The teacher has to exercise patience, as everything 
 must go slowly with beginners. 
 
 A teacher who is learned in his department, and of 
 quick parts, is apt to lose his temper : he should re- 
 member that his business is not to transform minds, 
 but to inform them. 
 
 The questions of the Great Didactic are now re- 
 peated : How is language to be learnt quickly, plea- 
 santly, solidly? And the general answer is, Quickly, 
 by constant familiarising with examples ; pleasantly, by 
 giving clear precepts ; solidly, by continual practice ; 
 and all these objects are attained generally by following 
 good method. That is to say : 
 
 To insure Quickness. Clearly lay down the end at 
 which you aim, and neglect all that does not bear on 
 that end : keep to one example and one explanation of 
 it, relying on practice for all else : advance by gradual 
 steps, never per saltum : remember that steady, con- 
 tinuous progress is notable progress ; therefore, no day 
 without a line, no hour without its task : leave nothing 
 undone when once begun. 
 
 To insure Pleasantness. The secret of a pleasant 
 process lies in the handling of the minds of the young 
 in accordance with nature. To do otherwise is to 
 struggle against nature. Everything should be done 
 with paternal affection, all moroseness being banished. 
 Brevity, order, definiteness, should characterise the sub- 
 stance of our teaching. The senses must be always 
 appealed to when possible. As human nature rejoices 
 in doing, everything should be learned through its own
 
 Method of Languages. 1 69 
 
 praxis. The utility and bearing of what is learned 
 should be made manifest. Teaching should be tem- 
 pered with an agreeable variety, and the playful element 
 admitted. The rivalry and emulation of free games 
 should be encouraged in lessons : Quidquid in ludo 
 literario, lusus ingenii sit. 
 
 To insure Solidity. The leading principle here is 
 that we teach the your/; solid truth, and what will be of 
 solid use, avoiding frivolous things, and indeed every- 
 thing the truth and utility of which are not patent. Let 
 our examples be very select, placing the thing to be 
 learned distinctly before the eyes, so that every part of it 
 be seen : let the rules be few, brief, clear : let exercises 
 be appended sufficient in number to bring the example 
 and rule clearly out, as without these a vague idea leads 
 to vague and uncertain imitation. Let the first foun- 
 dations be solidly laid ; the beginnings of things are 
 the most important ; they should be taught slowly and 
 accurately. By precipitancy everything is destroyed. 
 Let everything therefore be rightly apprehended in its 
 beginning, and secure this by examination. The foun- 
 dations being solidly laid, proceed cautiously with the 
 superstructure. Let nothing be laid on the top of 
 foundations not yet firmly settled. Non multa sed 
 multum. Those who sow much and plough little, lose 
 much and reap little. Minus serere et melius arare satius 
 est. Bring all the senses into requisition wherever pos- 
 sible. Above all, the examples and rules being given, 
 give continual practice. Let repetitions and examina- 
 tions be constant. Let the pupils be required to teach
 
 1 70 The Educational System. 
 
 what they have acquired. Comenius presses the great 
 importance of this : Tanto quis erit doctior, quanta 
 docuerit frequentius, Fortius says, Multa ego didici a 
 preceptoribus met's, sed plura a condiscipulis meis ; a 
 discipulis autem plurima, 
 
 Comenius continues to enforce these principles, 
 especially pressing the importance of graded books with 
 only as much of the grammar or formal part of language 
 as is necessary to the understanding of them, and with 
 suitable lexicons attached. He points out the import- 
 ance of giving the pupil root-words and the formation 
 of their derivatives so as to give a stock of vocables. 
 He recurs frequently to the proposition, which with him 
 is vital, that a language is to be learned through things, 
 and that the text which treats of things shall be the 
 source out of which all language-knowledge shall be 
 drawn ; the grammar and lexicon, even in their graded 
 and modified forms, being merely subsidiary. This 
 leads him to the description of the principles on which 
 his own school-books were constructed. 
 
 Without books artificially constructed it is evident 
 that Comenius's method could not be carried out : 
 these books present, according to him, a sure, short, 
 and pleasant mode of access to all Latin authors. The 
 same things are treated of in each, but at each suc- 
 cessive stage in more advanced form the Vestibulum 
 giving only the simplest sentences, comprising primitive 
 and root-words, and only the ordinary regular inflections 
 and rules ; thejanua introducing to the full grammatical 
 structure and body of the language, and the Atrium
 
 Method of L anguages. 171 
 
 introducing to phrases, idioms, and elegances ; all these 
 taken together constituting, as the initial letters of these 
 various books indicate, a Via to authors. The best 
 instruments, however, are useless without a good method 
 of teaching, and a teacher who is not only skilled in his 
 art, but 'greedy of teaching:' if any other shall take 
 up the work, he will prostitute both himself and his art. 
 
 Following the above method, and using text-books such 
 as those compiled by the author, the pupil is brought 
 within the Palace of Latin Authors. He has been 
 already furnished with all the words necessary to enable 
 him to enter with advantage on the study of those which 
 treat of Realia, such as Pliny in Natural Science, Vit- 
 ruvius in Architecture ; in Medicine, Celsus ; in Eco- 
 nomics, Varro and Columella, etc. But with a view to 
 phrases and the daily forms of speech, and oratorical 
 and poetical language, he must study other authors, or 
 rather portions of them. For this, the first requirement 
 is a lexicon. Again, whatever author is read, the Gram- 
 mar should never be absent : if the author is in one 
 hand, the Grammar should be in the other, as Erasmus 
 recommends. 
 
 To acquire a thorough knowledge of Latin, and the 
 power of writing it purely and elegantly, the method is 
 threefold, viz., by Analysis, by Excerpts, and by Imi- 
 tation. 
 
 i. Analysis. The object of this is accurate trans- 
 lation into the vernacular. First, by close attention 
 ascertain the purport of the passage before you ; then
 
 172 The Educational System. 
 
 examine closely the way in which the author attains his 
 end, what words he uses, what phrases, what arguments, 
 what sentences, how these are arranged, until you have, 
 as it were, rearticulated the text. Superficial study is 
 of little value. 
 
 2. Excerption. Transfer into a repertory or diary all 
 words, phrases, and opinions, etc., which strike you. 
 
 3. Imitation. This has three stages. First, Meta- 
 phrasis, i.e. turning an author into the vernacular, and 
 after some days retranslating him into Latin, comparing 
 the result with the original, and making the requisite 
 corrections. Secondly, Turning the Latin into Latin, 
 thus : take the words in confused order, and try to write 
 them correctly ; or, abridge the text ; or, amplify it by 
 the insertion of additional words in the form of epithets, 
 phrases, or sentences. Thirdly, Imitation proper : 
 attempt, in the form of a familiar epistle or otherwise, 
 to write in the style of the author who has been selected 
 for imitation, on a subject of present importance but 
 similar to that treated of by the Latin author, comparing 
 our production with that of the classic selected for 
 imitation, until we have so transformed ourselves into 
 him, e.g. Cicero, that nothing will be agreeable to our 
 ears which has not a Ciceronian sound. 
 
 In following these practical directions we must take 
 care to keep to one author as our model, and to practise 
 daily. The exercises should also be graduated in diffi- 
 culty : in retranslating into Latin, for example, the work 
 should at first be done immediately after reading the 
 passage, and, after a little practice, at longer intervals.
 
 Method of L anguages. 173 
 
 With a view to promote the universal and ready 
 acquisition of Latin, Comenius again suggests, as part of 
 his method, the institution of schools which would be 
 ' Roman cities,' and where nothing but Latin should 
 be spoken or heard. 
 
 He further points out how, by the adoption of his 
 method, the learning of many languages would be facili- 
 tated, for not only would the same method be followed, 
 but the same sequence of initiatory books in a parallel 
 series. The Grammars of the various languages also 
 would be constructed on the same lines as the Latin 
 grammar in so far as the languages were common. 
 
 After showing that the method of studying language 
 is applicable, mutatis mutandis, to all arts and sciences, 
 and recommending the construction of systematic com- 
 pendiums of all things on the ascending scale of his Latin 
 text-books (e.g. in Philosophy a Vestibulum, then zjanua, 
 and then an Atrium], Comenius proceeds to show the 
 influence which his method would exercise in improving 
 the internal condition of schools, in promoting learning 
 and a genuine, thorough, and widespread acquisition of 
 the Latin tongue, in attracting the learned to the study 
 of things instead of words, and concludes with an appeal 
 to theologians and to the secular powers. 
 
 PART III.
 
 PART III. 
 
 COMENIUS'S TEXT-BOOKS AND THE WAY OF 
 USING THEM. 
 
 IN the writing of text-books Comenius had his prede- 
 cessors. The method of Lubinus, which I have briefly 
 explained on page 162, approximates very closely to that 
 of Comenius, while the Janua of the Jesuit father must 
 have supplied a valuable repertory of words and phrases. 
 It is to mistake Comenius's plan to say that his object 
 was to arrange all the more common words of the Latin 
 tongue in a series of sentences, with a view to exhaust 
 all the ordinary vocabulary. He wishes to attain this 
 end certainly, but through things. He considers that 
 if he can conceive a course of elementary lessons on 
 things in general, he will necessarily call into requisition 
 all the usual vocabulary of Latin, and so teach Latin 
 through things. This is in accordance with his great 
 pansophic idea. 
 
 THE VESTIBULUM. 
 First Edition. 
 
 This Latin Primer, though published subsequently 
 to ihejanua, comes first in order. It is an introduction
 
 The Text-Books. 175 
 
 to the Janua, and, for this reason, Comenius departed 
 from his first intention of making it a series of simple 
 colloquies. Upwards of 1000 Latin words were selected 
 and reduced to short sentences, all of them dealing 
 with things and their properties. These were thrown 
 into seven chapters comprising 427 sentences. The 
 chapters are thus entitled : 
 
 1. Concerning the accidents or qualities of things ; no 
 verbs being used save the substantive verb, e.g. ' Deus 
 est aeternus; mundus temporarius. Color est multiplex: 
 creta alba, tabula nigra, cinnabaris rubra. Mel est 
 dulce, sal salsum. Ossa dura, caro mollis, glacies 
 lubrica,' and so forth over sixty-two propositions. 
 
 2. Concerning the actions and passions of things e.g. 
 ' Sol lucet, luna splendet, stellae micant. Ignis ardet, 
 flamma flagrat. Herba crescit, folium viret, flos floret.' 
 In this way he runs through the most obvious facts con- 
 cerning things in the heavens ; the elements ; man's 
 body (e.g. caput repletur cerebro, tegiturque capillis, 
 excepto vultu) ; the mind, diseased conditions, the 
 different trades, etc. 
 
 3. The third chapter treats of the circumstances of 
 things, and this enables the author to introduce 
 adverbs, prepositions, and numerals. For example : 
 'Ubi fuisti? unde redis? Ex oppido. Cum nobis 
 ducimus, ante nos pellimus, a nobis trudimus.' 
 
 4. The fourth chapter treats of things in the school. 
 For example : ' Atramentum est in atramentario : calami 
 in calamario ; quibus scribimus in charta,' etc. 
 
 5. The fifth chapter treats of things at home.
 
 176 The Educational System. 
 
 6. Concerning things in the city. 
 
 7. Concerning the Virtues. 
 
 The rule followed is the opposite of that now almost 
 universal in elementary books; words are never repeated 
 if it be possible to avoid repetition. 
 
 The German is given in parallel columns, and the 
 pupil is required to read the German first, and then the 
 Latin. The lesson said in the morning is always to be 
 written in the afternoon. After going several times 
 through the book, the pupil learns it off by heart, so 
 many sentences each day. Along with the reading, the 
 declension and conjugation of the words proceeds : 
 first, nouns by themselves, then nouns with adjectives. 
 Tables of the declensions and conjugations are ap- 
 pended, to which reference is constantly to be made. 
 In declining, the terminations of the cases are not to 
 be said by heart, but to be first learned by practice, the 
 teacher giving the vernacular first, e.g. nubes what is of 
 a cloud ? what is to or for a cloud ? and so on, the boy 
 referring to his tables. After this has been done several 
 times, the tables are quickly and easily committed to 
 memory. Thus the boy who has properly mastered this 
 Latin Primer will have acquired 1000 vocables, and a 
 knowledge of the regular declensions and conjugations. 
 
 In the Dissertatio de sermonis Latini studio he enters 
 even more into detail ; the Vestibulum, he says, is first 
 to be read and written out for the sake of the Latin 
 words only, without translation. The pupil is then to 
 begin it over again and translate, first, the vernacular into 
 the Latin, and thereafter the Latin into the vernacular.
 
 The Text- Books. 177 
 
 Some knowledge of the parts of speech is to be obtained, 
 but parsing is not to be pressed. The chief things are 
 the easy reading and writing, and the thorough acquisi- 
 tion of the words. The vernacular version is to be 
 prefixed to each separate sentence (later the author 
 was content with a vernacular version printed by itself, 
 but as one book with the Latin). In all cases the 
 vernacular is to be first learned. The index at the 
 end of the Vestibulum is to be used in this way : a 
 word is to be given, and the sentence, or series of 
 words in the text where it is found, is then to be given 
 by the pupil from memory. The writing of the morning's 
 lessons at the afternoon meetings is constantly insisted 
 on by Comenius, because this exercise, by engaging the 
 senses, fixes the exercise in the minds of the pupils. 
 The learning of the tables of declensions is to be 
 begun only at the fourth reading of the text-book. 
 Comenius assumes that the text-book will be perused 
 ten times ; and in this way thoroughly got by heart. 
 Before leaving it, exercises were to be given in translat- 
 ing into Latin fresh sentences more or less connected, 
 composed of the words in the Vestibulum and its index. 
 
 Second Edition. 
 
 I have been thus particular in describing the first 
 edition of the Vestibulum, and the mode of using it, 
 because all the principles of Comenius's method of 
 procedure are exemplified in it, in so far as these can 
 be embodied in a text-book, and because it exhibits the 
 plan of his other books. 
 
 M
 
 1 78 The Educational System. 
 
 In the second edition of the Vestibulum (published, 
 or at least written, between 1650 and 1654, during his 
 school experience in Hungary) the plan is altered. 
 Comenius had made up his mind that, as children, 
 when learning to speak, used words before they made 
 sentences, so the Vestibulum should consist of lists of 
 words only, with this condition, that there should be 
 a coherence between the words of a group, thus : 
 
 57. Elementa Ignis, aer, aqua, terra. 
 
 58. In aethere Sidera. 
 
 A quibus veniunt Calor, frigus, aestus, gelu. 
 
 59. Sidera sunt Sol, luna, Stella. 
 
 60. In sole sunt Lux, radius, lumen. 
 
 Sine lumine est Umbra, caligo, tenebrae. 
 
 61. Ab igne venit Flamma, scintilla, fumus, et 
 
 fuligo. 
 
 And so on, selecting associated words, and, as much as 
 possible, primitive words, under 500 classes of things. 
 The words are in number about 5000. The boy who 
 had got up the whole thoroughly would accordingly 
 possess some 5000 vocables, besides the outlines of 
 Latin accidence. A broader basis was thus laid for 
 that encyclopaedic knowledge of things, and of words 
 through things, than could otherwise be done. 1 
 
 Mode of using the Vestibulum. The object is to 
 prepare for the Janua. The class using the book must 
 be able to write fluently, as well as to read articulately, 
 
 1 We get hints as to the use of this Latin Primer from Comenius's 
 letter to the teacher of the Vestibulary class at Patak, also from 
 the De Vestilntlari Praxi, etc.
 
 The Text- Books. 179 
 
 Latin words, whether in print or MS. They will learn 
 by heart the words of the Latin tongue given in their 
 text-book, with the translation of them, and acquire 
 perfect familiarity with the regular declensions and con- 
 jugations. The vernacular of the Latin is to be pre- 
 fixed to the school editions of the book, and this is to 
 be first read and learned, and thereafter the Latin. In 
 this way the words, which introduce to the elements of 
 encyclopaedic knowledge, will be first known in their 
 relation to things, and then the Latin words in relation 
 to the vernacular, the pupil thus going from the known 
 to the unknown. Two months should be spent in 
 thoroughly understanding and acquiring the vernacular 
 text, in fact in learning it by heart, before entering on 
 the Latin equivalent. The Latin text is then to occupy 
 four months. The teacher is always to read and explain 
 beforehand what his pupils are afterwards to read and 
 explain, and to be careful that no lesson is passed from 
 till it is thoroughly acquired. The pupils are then to 
 write the exercise in a book, and to conclude with saying 
 it by heart. The outlines of Latin grammar are given 
 in Latin, but they are to be carefully translated and 
 understood before being learned. Three months are 
 presumed to suffice for learning the grammar. The 
 directions given have simply reference to the thorough 
 acquisition of the forms. They are to be learned by 
 heart, but above all, questions are to be asked in every 
 possible way, and these questions are to be put in Latin. 
 Little sentences are to be constructed illustrating the 
 cases, tenses, etc. etc., and after all this is done the text
 
 1 80 The Educational System. 
 
 of the Vestibulum is to be again gone over and parsed. 
 The Lexicon, which is simply a list of words with 
 number-references to the part of the text in which they 
 may be found, is finally to be read over chiefly to test 
 the pupil's knowledge of the meaning of all the words 
 he is presumed now to have acquired. 
 
 In his Ventilabrum Sapientiae he expresses a desire 
 that the Vestibulum should be thrown into a dialogue 
 form, that the vernacular of the Latin rules should be 
 printed in parallel columns, and that pictures of the 
 things named should be introduced. 
 
 In 1657 Comenius published an addition to the last 
 edition of the Vestibulum, in which the primitive words 
 already used, and many others, were worked up into 
 short simple sentences. This book (called the Auc- 
 tariuni) was intended to serve as a revision of the work 
 done in the Vestibulum, to initiate into the construction 
 of sentences, and to serve as a bridge to the Janua. 
 But it was distinguished from the Vestibulum in this 
 respect, that whereas the latter was an arrangement of 
 words under the head of Things (classified), the former 
 was alphabetically arranged was in fact a lexicon 
 thrown into simple sentences e.g. under B we have 
 such sentences as these : Baccas fert laurus, non betula, 
 vel butus. Bellua maxima, in sylvis est Barrus, in aquis 
 balaena ; and so forth. The title of the book was 
 Parvulis parvulus, omnibus omnia. Hoc est, Vestibuli 
 Latinae linguae Auctarium ; voces Latinos primitivas 
 construi coeptas et in sententiolas breves redactas exhibens.
 
 The Text-Books. 181 
 
 In praeludium Sylvam Latinam ingressuris datam, i.e. 
 ' A little book for little ones, all things for all : that is to 
 say, a Supplement to the Vestibule of the Latin tongue, 
 exhibiting Latin primitive words in construction, and 
 thrown into brief little sentences, given as a prelude to 
 those about to enter the Latin Forest ' the ' Forest ' 
 being the collection of Latin words which formed the 
 introduction to the last edition of the Janua. 
 
 An accident led him to construct the Auctarium. 
 When in Amsterdam in 1656 he had his attention 
 directed to an edition of the Janua, published in 
 England with additions those additions professing to 
 give the roots of the Latin tongue woven into sentences. 
 He found that this addition departed in almost every 
 respect from the principles of his books, and was of a 
 kind to disgust rather than to attract boys. The idea, 
 however, pleased him, and he set himself to construct 
 the supplement to the Vestibulum under the title above 
 given. It is to be used as a revisal of the Vestibulum 
 and a bridge to the Janua. It was published in 1657. 
 
 THE JANUA LINGUAE LATINAE RESERATA. 
 
 First Edition. 
 
 The full title of this famous book is TJie Gate of 
 Languages Unlocked, or the Seminary of all Languages 
 and Sciences : that is, a compendious method of learn- 
 ing Latin or any other tongue, along with the elements 
 of all the Sciences and Arts, comprehended under a 
 hundred chapter-headings and in a thousand sentences ; 
 first published in the year 1631.
 
 1 82 The Educational System. 
 
 The one thousand sentences again comprehend eight 
 thousand different words in all. The sentences are at 
 first simple, and thereafter compound and complex. 
 After an introduction he begins, according to his pan- 
 sophic or encyclopaedic plan, with the origin of the 
 world, and in the course of his lessons takes a survey 
 of all nature, and even includes morals and religion. It 
 frequently happens, however, that a chapter is introduced 
 for the sake of the words, not of the things taught : for 
 example, the chapter on Ulcers and Wounds. The 
 easiest sentences are of this fashion, ' Deus omnia creavit 
 ex nihilo.' The more difficult are exemplified by the 
 following, 'Incendium ex quavis scintilla, si permittis, 
 oritur. Nam quidquid ignem concipit, id primum 
 gliscit, dein ardet, tuna flagrat et flammat; postremo, 
 crematum redigitur in favillas et cineres.' 
 
 Carrying out his expressed aim, Comenius en- 
 deavours throughout to give equal attention to both 
 things and words, but it is things that give the cue. 
 The headings of some of his chapters will convey some 
 idea of the scope of his writing: Concerning the 
 Origin of the World. Concerning the Elements. Con- 
 cerning the Firmament, Fire, Meteors, Waters, Earths, 
 Stones, Metals, Trees and Fruits, Herbs, Shrubs. 
 These things are treated of in thirteen chapters and 
 one hundred and forty-one sentences. Then we have 
 ' Concerning Animals,' which, under different subdi- 
 visions, occupies the book to the nineteenth chapter 
 inclusive. Then Concerning Man : his Body ; External 
 Members; Internal Members; the qualities or acci- 

 
 The Text- Books. 183 
 
 dents of the Body ; Diseases ; Ulcers and Wounds ; 
 the External Senses ; the Internal Senses ; Mind ; the 
 Will and the Affections : these occupy the book to 
 the twenty-ninth chapter inclusive. All the mechanic 
 arts now follow, and are concluded in the forty-eighth 
 chapter and 539th sentence. The rest of the book 
 treats of the House and its parts : Marriage and the 
 Family, in which occur statements which are very 
 curious as showing the freedom with which things were 
 spoken about to the young of 250 years ago. Next 
 follows Civic and State Economy, including a descrip- 
 tion of officers and institutions. The seventieth chap- 
 ter begins with Grammar, and goes on to Dialectic, 
 Rhetoric, Arithmetic, Geometry, and all branches of 
 knowledge, briefly describing what these are. In the 
 eighty-second chapter Ethics is introduced, and twelve 
 chapters are assigned to twelve virtues. Games, Death, 
 Burial, the Providence of God and Angels form the 
 subjects of the concluding chapters. This is encyclo- 
 paedism. 
 
 The German equivalent ran in parallel columns, and 
 was to be read first. 
 
 Comenius thus, with great laboXir and no small 
 ingenuity, gives effect to his own conceptions of the 
 substance of school-instruction and the method of 
 teaching languages at one and the same time. The 
 reader will at once see that the lines on which \hzjanua 
 are constructed are precisely the same as those on which 
 the Vestibulum is laid down, and the following higher- 
 class text-book (Atrium) again repeats (as will shortly
 
 184 The Educational System. 
 
 be seen) the substance of the Janua in a still more 
 developed and extended form. A brief grammatical 
 Appendix and Lexicon was to be added to the Janua, 
 but I have not met with these except in connection 
 with the new edition, of which I will now speak. 
 
 Second Edition. 
 
 The improved form of the Janua was published 
 between 1650-54, during his school experience in Hun- 
 gary, though substantially written at Elbing before 1650. 
 It is on the same lines as the first edition, but much 
 more elaborate and more difficult. In the fifteenth 
 chapter of the Novissima Linguarum Methodus he partly 
 explains the changes made. He has discarded the 
 . restriction he had previously imposed on himself, of not 
 repeating words : this he calls a superstition. The 
 greater latitude thus allowed enables him to write about 
 ' things' more fully and freely. The Lexicon, or Forest 
 of Words (Sylva Verboruni), strange to say (and con- 
 trary to his original plan), 1 comes first, and aims at being 
 etymological throughout. Moreover, it is Latin-Latin 
 and not Latin-vernacular. He intends this Lexicon to 
 be first gone over, then the Grammar which follows, 
 and finally the Janua itself. As to a vernacular-Latin 
 Lexicon, he thinks that boys should construct that for 
 themselves. Again, whereas it was thought desirable 
 that the vernacular should accompany, nay precede, the 
 
 1 But in accordance with the plan of the second edition of the 
 Vestibulum.
 
 The Text- Books. 185 
 
 Latin in the original fauna, the former is now discarded. 
 The reasons for beginning with the Lexicon, and then 
 proceeding to the Grammar and thereafter to the text 
 of the Janua, curiously illustrate the fancifulness of the 
 author's mind. 'When we want to build a [wooden] 
 house we first go to the wood and cut down trees (this 
 is the Lexicon of words) ; then we shape and fit the wood 
 cut down (this is the Grammar) ; and it is only then we 
 proceed to build the house (i.e. to give continuous narra- 
 tive).' The practical result is that the pupil has to go 
 through lists of vocables which would fill two hundred 
 octavo pages, and then a Grammar which would fill 
 fifty, before he begins the text-book itself. The text 
 itself is composed of one hundred short treatises about 
 everything on the earth, in the earth, and above the 
 earth, including an account of man, and brief state- 
 ments of morals and theology. It is, in short, an 
 encyclopaedia, arranged not alphabetically, but in a 
 natural order, and would fill 250 pages of an ordinary 
 school-book. Comenius apologises, indeed, for not 
 introducing everything about everything; the state of 
 knowledge, he regrets, does not admit of it. The 
 vocables of the Lexicon are not by any means ex- 
 hausted in the text, but all the words in the text are 
 understood to be found in the Lexicon ; but when 
 the boy finds them there, which he very often will 
 not, he is presented with their significations in Latin 
 only! 
 
 I shall give here a specimen of his lessons, taking 
 the beginning of his eighteenth lesson.
 
 i86 The Educational System. 
 
 Quadrupeda: primum, mansueta pecora et jumenta. 
 
 Quadrupes quid, 161 : partes illius essentiales, 162 : 
 genera, 163: pecora majora, 164: etminora, 165, 6, 7,8: 
 jumenta, 169 : Canes, feles, mures, 170, 71, 72. 
 
 1 6 1. Quadrupeda progenerant foetum vivum, aluntque 
 lacte uberum : grandiora unicum et rarius, minutiora 
 plures et frequentius. 
 
 162. Pro integumento habent vel pilos vel villos vel 
 lanam vel setas vel squamas ; pedes autem vel digitatos 
 armatos unguibus (ut Canis, etc.,) vel ungulates : et 
 quidem ungulave solida (ut equus) vel bifida (ut bos). 
 
 And so on through twelve paragraphs. 
 
 It is quite clear that Comenius, under the influence 
 of some fantastic notions of consistency developed in 
 his Novissima Methodus, has deserted nearly all that is 
 most characteristic and original in his system, excepting 
 his encyclopaedists Of this he never loses sight. 
 
 Mode of using the Janua. 1 The Lexicon, or words, 
 come first, then the Grammar, which teaches how to 
 weave these words into speech, and then the text of the 
 Janua, which lays the foundations, in a series of lessons, 
 of all knowledge. Comenius defends this order, as I 
 have said, on the ground that words are the rudiments 
 of speech, and that the materials of house-building must 
 be supplied before we begin to build a house. The 
 boys accordingly are first to read with the master the 
 words and their derivatives, as set down in the Lexicon, 
 
 1 See Letter to the Teacher of the Janual Class ; also De Latini 
 sermonis studio dissertatio, and elsewhere.
 
 The Text- Books. 187 
 
 as often as may be necessary, then take their pens and 
 transcribe them into their writing-books, and, finally, 
 say them by heart. The Grammar, which is a complete 
 syntax of the language, omitting elegancies, etc., is, as I 
 have said, Latin, but the prior study of the Lexicon is 
 presumed to make the Latin intelligible, while its simple 
 construction, as compared with other Grammars, makes 
 it easy and attractive. The text of the Janua is finally 
 to be taught in the same manner as the Vestibulum was 
 taught. 
 
 In his later years Comenius himself became sensible 
 of certain defects, and recommended that the vernacular 
 of all words should be given in the Lexicon, and also 
 that the vernacular of the text should be printed in 
 parallel columns ; thus returning to his original ideas. 
 
 The mode of using the Janua is given in more detail 
 in the Dissertatio de Sermonis Latini Studio, a propos of 
 the first edition, and he there tells us that the object, as 
 regards mere language, is to give the pupil all the 
 common words of the Latin tongue, to teach him their 
 meanings and roots, and also to teach him to form 
 sentences out of them with grammatical correctness. 
 An Etymological Lexicon and a Grammar containing 
 the body of the language (all save special idioms and 
 elegancies) are consequently added. 
 
 Like the Vestibulum, the Janua is to be gone through 
 ten times. At the second reading the whole should be 
 written out, vernacular and Latin. The teacher should 
 at this stage speak in Latin to his pupils, and induce 
 them also to speak to each other in Latin ; and with a
 
 1 88 The Educational System. 
 
 view to the increase of knowledge, will conversationally 
 explain and amplify the lessons of the Janua. At the 
 third reading, the teacher will read out the Latin and 
 call for the translation. Meanwhile the first part of the 
 Syntactical Grammar will be written out by the pupils. 
 At the fourth perusal, the remainder of the Grammar 
 will be written out, and the naming of the parts of speech 
 and of the inflexions in the text of the Janua thoroughly 
 acquired. At the fifth reading, special attention will 
 be given to the roots and derivatives, and the pupils 
 will begin to write out the Lexicon. At the sixth 
 perusal, synonyms, paronyms, etc., will be explained ; 
 and at the seventh reading the whole will be thoroughly 
 parsed with reference to the syntactical rules, which 
 will be written out carefully with their subjoined 
 examples. The recitation of the text will begin at 
 the eighth perusal. At the ninth reading special atten- 
 tion will be paid to the logical analysis examination 
 on the substance of the text and on grammar. This 
 sharpens the wit. The afternoon is always to be spent 
 in writing out the morning's work, in throwing the 
 Janua into the form of question and answer. The 
 tenth perusal will consist of the boys challenging each 
 other to repeat parts of the text. The written exercises 
 will consist of Latin compositions, the vernacular being 
 constructed by the teacher (apologues, fables, etc.) out 
 of the words in the Janua and its Lexicon, and trans- 
 lated into Latin by the pupils. 
 
 It has to be noted that Comenius, in his preface to 
 his Auctarium (vol. iv.), distinctly repudiates the first
 
 The Text- Books. 189 
 
 edition of the Janua, and wishes to be judged by the 
 second edition, which is substantially a new book. His 
 words are : ' Januam nostram linguarum postremam 
 pleniorem illam Encyclopaediolae faciem referentem et 
 prae qua priorem illam non atnplius agnoscimus nos- 
 tram.' In doing so he deserted his own principles. 
 
 THE ATRIUM. 
 
 The third Latin book was called the Atrium, and 
 this was to effect the transition from the Janua to the 
 Palatium or Palace of Authors?- Comenius now wishes 
 to introduce the pupil to the Latin tongue, used in a 
 freer way than in the Janua. The sentences are longer, 
 and the treatment of each subject more ample. The 
 main end kept in view is the familiarising of the pupil 
 with the elegancies and idioms of the language, and 
 the introducing him to rhetoric in a practical form. 
 To effect this, he gives a Grammar of Latin specially 
 designed to gather into one view the peculiarities and 
 elegancies of the Latin tongue. This Grammar is written 
 in Latin, and the pupil is to be now presumed compe- 
 tent to understand it. While intent on giving the pupil 
 acquaintance with the varieties and peculiarities of 
 Latin, and furnishing him with a liberal copia verborum, 
 he does not depart from his great principle to make 
 things carry words. The text of the Atrium follows the 
 same line as the Janua, but indulges in a larger and 
 more detailed treatment of the same subjects. In the 
 
 1 The Atrium is called elsewhere Palatium in the Didaclica, 
 and the Palatium is called the Thesaurus.
 
 1 90 The Educational System. 
 
 Janua, for example, he contents himself with such a 
 sentence as this : 
 
 ' Omnia reliqua ex his [quatuor elementis] constant. 
 Quippe ex iis generantur, iis nutriuntur, in eadem dum 
 corrumpuntur resolvuntur.' 
 
 In the Atrium he expands this as follows : 
 
 ' Hae sunt elementaris mundi rotae quatuor, per quas 
 eunt et redeunt omnia. Elementis vacans locus nullus 
 est : omnia his referta tamque dense' stipata sunt ut 
 inane spatium nusquam detur, sed agitatio, attritus, 
 permistio; quorum temperatura salutem dat rebus, in- 
 temperies perniciem. Solatio est, si quid corrumpitur, 
 in sua redire principia indeque res prodire novas.' 
 
 And so on with the usual 100 chapters and 1000 
 paragraphs (which, in the Janua first edition were 
 merely short sentences). In the edition before me, the 
 Atrium extends over 153 folio columns, and is consi- 
 derably longer than Caesar's Gallic War. 
 
 The comparison of the two passages which I have 
 cited will give a clear idea of the differences between 
 the two books. 
 
 This book having been thoroughly mastered, along 
 with its accompanying Grammar, the pupil is now sup- 
 posed to be able to enter freely on the study of Latin 
 authors, a Palatium or Thesaurus of selected works 
 being put before him. And certainly any boy, who had 
 mastered it, would be quite competent to attack Caesar, 
 Sallust, and the easier Orations of Cicero. The poets, 
 however, would present a difficulty, for the reading of 
 whom the way had not been prepared.
 
 The Text- Books. 191 
 
 Mode of using the Atrium. A complete Latin 
 Grammar in Latin is prefixed to the Atrium, and is to 
 be first studied by the pupils ; then the text, and finally 
 the Lexicon. The general method of procedure is pre- 
 sumed to be the same as in the Janua, but on this 
 Comenius is not explicit, and it would seem as if he 
 considered the printing of the vernacular to be un- 
 necessary at this advanced stage. We cannot imagine 
 that he intended the Atrium, with its Grammar, to be 
 learned by heart. The human mind could not have 
 borne the burden. 
 
 SUBSIDIARY TEXT-BOOKS. 
 
 i. The Orbis Pictus (The World Illustrated). 
 
 In 1657 appeared the Orbis Pictus, the second edition 
 following in 1659. This book was intended to be 
 supplementary and subsidiary to the Vestibulum and 
 Janua. It is simpler than even the first edition of the 
 Janua, and much more suitable for a school-book than 
 the second edition of the Vestibulum. In this little 
 book Comenius applies his principles more fully than 
 in any other, for we have not only a simple treatment 
 of things in general, but of things that appeal to the 
 senses, and along with the lessons we have pictures of 
 the objects that form the subjects of the lessons. In- 
 deed, the book may be best described as a series of 
 rude engravings of sensible objects, accompanied by a 
 description of them in short and easy sentences. For 
 example, we have the picture of a ship with its sails
 
 192 The Educational System. 
 
 partly set, and a number attached to each part of the 
 ship, which corresponds to a number in the lesson 
 thus : the No. 2 is engraved on the sails, and in the 
 lesson we have this sentence, 'The ship has (2) sails.' 
 The title of the book was, 'The World of Sensible 
 Things drawn ; that is, the Nomenclature of all Funda- 
 mental Things in the World and Actions in Life reduced 
 to Ocular Demonstration, so that it may be a Lamp to 
 the Vestibulum %&&Jan'ua of Languages.' 1 
 
 There were various editions of the Orbis ; that how- 
 ever which was in most complete accord with Comenius's 
 plan was arranged in three columns, thus : 
 
 Super terra 
 sunt 
 alti monies 1 
 profundae valles 2 
 Etc. 
 
 auf der Erden 
 sond 
 hohe berge 1 
 tiefe Thaler 2 
 Etc. 
 
 terra f., 1 die Erde. 
 
 altus-a-um, hoch. 
 profundus-a-um, tief. 
 Etc. 
 
 The figures referred to a wood-engraving of a land- 
 scape on the same page, and were affixed to the moun- 
 tains, hills, etc., as has been explained above in the 
 case of the lesson on the ship. 
 
 ' The foundation of all learning consists,' says Co- 
 menius in the preface, ' in representing clearly to the 
 senses sensible objects, so that they can be apprehended 
 easily. I maintain that this is the basis of all other actions, 
 inasmuch as we could neither act nor speak wisely 
 unless we comprehended clearly what we wished to say 
 or do. For it is certain that there is nothing in the 
 
 1 In some of the very numerous editions the title is slightly modi- 
 fied. The editions also varied in other respects, but the above 
 gives Comenius's own conception of the book.
 
 The Text- Books. 193 
 
 Understanding which has not been previously in the 
 Sense ; and consequently, to exercise the senses care- 
 fully in discriminating the differences of natural objects 
 is to lay the foundation of all wisdom, all eloquence, 
 and all good and prudent action.' It is the absence 
 from the school of the object about which we may be 
 speaking that makes learning and teaching alike so 
 troublesome and fruitless. 
 
 The cuts were done by Michael Endter of Nurem- 
 berg, to whom he felt most grateful for his labours, 
 and for enabling him to complete his design of an ele- 
 mentary book. ' This work,' he writes, ' belongs to 
 you ; it is entirely new in your profession. You have 
 given a correct and clear edition of the Orbis Pictus, 
 and furnished figures and cuts, by the help of which 
 the attention will be awakened and the imagination 
 pleased. This will, it is true, increase the expense of 
 the publication, but it will be certainly returned to you.' 
 
 It was consistent with the plan of the book, that it 
 should contain the vernacular only, or the Latin only, 
 or both. Comenius suggests that the vernacular itself 
 would be best learned from the Orbis. The Jan-ua 
 had an enormous sale, and was published in many 
 languages ; but the editions and sale of the Orbis Pictus 
 far exceeded those of the Janua, and, indeed, for some 
 time it was the most popular school-book in Europe, 
 and deservedly so.
 
 194 The Educational System. 
 
 2. The Schola Ludus. 
 
 Comenius frequently states in his writings that the 
 element of sport should be introduced into schools, 
 and with this view constructs a school drama, in which 
 the Janua (and a good deal of the language of the 
 Atrium) is introduced. The title is, Schola Ludus 
 seu Encyclopaedia Viva, Hoc est, Januae Linguarum 
 praxis Scenica: res omnes nomenclature^ Vestitas et Ves- 
 tiendas, sensibus ad vivum repraesentandi artificium exhi- 
 bens amoenum. In this singular production there are five 
 acts, twenty-one scenes, and fifty-two dramatis personae. 
 The object of the author is to give a theatric praxis of 
 the Janua, and partially of the Atrium, by bringing the 
 facts of the natural world into a scenic representation. 
 The characters represent the various departments of 
 knowledge, e.g. the geographer, the metallurgist, the 
 chemist, and so forth. For example, in the fifth scene 
 of the second act, Water is the subject, and there enter 
 on the stage the following personages : Aquinus (repre- 
 senting water in general), Marius (representing the sea) 
 Nubianus (representing the clouds), and Stillico (repre- 
 senting rain-drops, ice, foam, etc.). These interesting 
 characters give a great deal of valuable information. 
 Anything more dreary than this sportive Janua it is 
 impossible to conceive ; yet he assures us, in his dedi- 
 catory epistle, written at Amsterdam in 1657, that it was 
 most popular and successful with boys and masters ! 
 and elsewhere he says that it was performed with great 
 applause before the Princess and all her Court in
 
 The Text- Books. 195 
 
 Hungary. He believed that all school-exercises might 
 be converted into games. 
 
 Comenius was of opinion that every stage of school- 
 work during the Pansophic septennium might have its 
 dramatic exhibition. This dramatic sport in intellec- 
 tual work he connects mystically with the words of 
 Wisdom (the Son), in the 8th chapter of Proverbs : ' I 
 was by Him as one brought up with Him ; and I was 
 daily His delight, rejoicing always before Him ; rejoic- 
 ing in the habitable part of His earth; and my delights 
 were with the sons of men ! ' 
 
 The signification of Ludus as the Latin for school 
 had also its influence in suggesting these dramatic 
 exhibitions. 1 
 
 3. Text-Book of Greek. 
 
 He gives a specimen of what he would propose for 
 boys learning Greek in his Ventilabrum Sapientiae 
 published in 1657. It is, as might be expected, Latin- 
 Greek. He proposes that Vocabularies should be 
 taught to begin with i. The words that are alike in 
 Latin and Greek, e.g. Abyssus, a/2vo-o-os. 2. Those 
 which differ very little, e.g. fama, <f>TJf*r), forma, 
 [jLop^rj. 3. The more common words not alike, e.g. 
 frater, aSeA</>os. Then a few brief Greek rules should 
 be given, and an outline of Greek accidence appended 
 to the body of the book. As his chief object was to 
 introduce to the Greek Testament, the text-book, he 
 1 For the Palatium, see end of next chapter.
 
 196 The Educational System. 
 
 says, ought to consist of 100 select sentences of a moral 
 kind (the Latin and Greek in parallel columns), to be 
 thoroughly learned, the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and 
 the Ten Commandments. This would constitute a 
 Vestibulum, to be followed by a Janua, consisting of the 
 Greek Testament in Latin and Greek, or it might be a 
 summary of Testament narrative and of the Christian 
 faith. 
 
 So with Hebrew. 
 
 In concluding this account of the text-books, it has 
 to be stated that Comenius himself in his old age 
 admitted that he had departed from one of his own 
 leading principles in attempting to teach too much 
 within a limited space and time, and had burdened the 
 mind of boys with what was suitable only for adults. 1 
 
 1 A knowledge of the Text-Books is best to be obtained from 
 the books themselves, but in connection with them the prefaces 
 should be read, and the letters addressed to the teachers of the 
 new Patak School, an account of which is contained in the next 
 chapter. 
 
 PART IV.
 
 PART IV. 
 
 THE INNER ORGANISATION OF A PANSOPHIC 
 SCHOOL, AND THE INSTRUCTION-PLAN. 
 
 THE external organisation of a school-system has 
 been exhibited in the Great Didactic. The Mother 
 School, the Vernacular School, the Latin School or 
 Gymnasium, and the University, constituted together 
 Comenius's school-system for a State. The existing 
 school-systems of modern Europe, and especially that 
 of Germany, are a tribute to Comenius's sound judg- 
 ment. The organisation of instruction is certainly not 
 in accordance with Comenius's pansophic or encyclo- 
 paedic aspirations, but the attention which is now given 
 to real studies, and to the cultivation of the senses, 
 substantially give effect to his views. 
 
 The inner character and life of a school a Latin 
 school or Gymnasium being kept specially in view is 
 to be gathered from the 25th chapter of the Novissima 
 Methodus, and from the numerous writings of the 
 period from 1650-54, when Comenius was engaged in 
 organising a model school at Patak, in the north-east of 
 Hungary, about twenty miles from Tokay. 1 These 
 1 On the Theiss, known as the entrepot of the Tokay wine.
 
 198 The Educational System. 
 
 writings are numerous, prolix, and very tiresome 
 because of their repetitions. The following account is 
 based on an examination of all these writings, and 
 ought to be compared with the ideas of the various 
 graded schools expounded in the ' Great Didactic.' 
 
 THE SCHOOL. 
 
 The word school, schola or ludus, indicates an 
 institution where many are assembled together to 
 strive for some end, but to strive under the conditions 
 of play, and these conditions are movement, sponta- 
 neity, society, rivalry, order, and pleasurable exercise, 
 all of which things are to be attained by following the 
 methods laid down. The school will thus truly 
 become a ludus literarius. The object of the school as 
 a prelude of life is to train pupils to know with a view 
 to wisdom, to act, to express themselves, sapere, agere, 
 loqui. The letters of the words themselves yield the aims 
 of the school, thus : 
 
 Sapienter 
 Cogitare : 
 Honeste' 
 Operari : 
 Loqui 
 Argute'. 
 
 The initial letters, it will be observed, make the word 
 Schola, and this quite suits Comenius's fanciful way 
 of looking at things, and evidently yields him a real 
 satisfaction. The foundation of all is Knowledge,
 
 The Pansophic School. \ 99 
 
 because to act wisely or speak well is impossible for 
 an ignorant or foolish person. 
 
 A school has been called Officina Humanitatis, a 
 manufactory of humanity, and this designation, as 
 appears from the Great Didactic, Comenius adopts. 
 
 Now, when we say that the school is a manufactory 
 of Humanity, we mean that it has to aim at producing 
 in men that perfection of humanity whereby a man 
 becomes the image of God, the most Wise, most 
 Powerful, most Holy. 
 
 When we say that the school is an Officina, we mean 
 that it is a place where, by the use of certain instruments 
 and a certain art, we accomplish what we desire to 
 accomplish. The instruments are the persons and 
 things employed in teaching and learning, and the 
 art is the method laid down whereby tongue, action, 
 hand, and morals become what we desire them to 
 become. 
 
 These generally are the aims and characteristics of 
 a school when we have passed within its walls. While 
 keeping them carefully in view, we have to lay down 
 our scheme more fully. 
 
 General Statement. 
 
 The aim is pansophic or encyclopaedic. We have to 
 teach all things to all, if we would train to knowledge 
 and wisdom. We have to instruct in morality and 
 train to virtue ; we have to instil piety and train to a 
 pious habit ; and, finally, we have to form the tongue
 
 2OO The Educational System. 
 
 to expression and eloquence. Only in this way can we 
 train man to true humanity, and make him again the 
 image of God. 
 
 With this view the school must be organised, and a 
 set amount of work marked out for each grade or class. 
 There should be seven classes (those in the lowest class 
 being about twelve years of age). The three lowest 
 classes should be called Philological ; the fourth, Philo- 
 sophical ; the fifth, Logical ; the sixth, Political ; and 
 the seventh, Theological. 
 
 The Philological classes would naturally be designated 
 by the text-books they used : the first or lowest, which 
 would use the Vestibulum, being called Classis Vestibu- 
 laris, the second Classis Janualis, and the third Classis 
 Atrialis. The Philosophical class would give a rational 
 account of things ; the Logical would give discipline in 
 reasoning ; the Political would give instruction in laws 
 and the social order (including history) ; and the Theo- 
 logical would instruct in the mysteries of the Kingdom 
 of Heaven. 
 
 A separate room and a separate master should be 
 provided for each class, and the building should be on 
 an ample scale. There should be a public table for 
 poor scholars, so that the res angusta domi should be 
 an obstacle to none. 
 
 In a school so organised, and with such aims, the 
 pupils will learn all things necessary for this life and 
 the next, and that thoroughly. It will be a School of 
 Universal Wisdom in other words, a Schola Panso-
 
 The Pansophic School. 201 
 
 phica. 1 'There is nothing in Heaven or Earth, or in 
 the Waters, nothing in the Abyss under the earth, 
 nothing in the Human Body, nothing in the Soul, 
 nothing in Holy Writ, nothing in the Arts, nothing in 
 Economy, nothing in Polity, nothing in the Church, 
 of which the little candidates of Wisdom shall be 
 wholly ignorant.' They will be trained further in the 
 true and spontaneous use of knowledge, and in pru- 
 dence and morality. In this palaestra they ' will learn, 
 not for school, but for life,' so that the youths shall go 
 forth energetic, ready for everything, apt, industrious, 
 and worthy of being intrusted with any of the duties of 
 life, and this all the more if they have added to virtue a 
 sweet conversation, and have crowned all with the fear 
 and love of God. They will also go forth capable of 
 expression and eloquence, and that not merely in their 
 own tongue, but in the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. 
 
 For the attainment of these great results three instru- 
 ments are necessary : good books, good teachers, and a 
 good method. 
 
 The seven classes into which the school is to be 
 divided are to consist respectively of those pupils who 
 are at the same stage of progress, and are pursuing the 
 same objects of study. Each class should be in a 
 separate room, that the attention of the pupils may not 
 be distracted. Each class, again, should be divided 
 
 1 ' Schola Pansophica : Hoc est, Universalis Sapientiae officina 
 ab annis aliquot ubiubigentium erigi optata : nunc autem Auspiciis 
 Illustrissimi Domini D. Sigismundi Racod de Felseovadas, etc. 
 Saros-Pataki Hungarorum feliciter erigenda. Anno redditae 
 mundi salutis MDCLI.'
 
 202 The Educational System. 
 
 into decuriae composed of ten boys each, and presided 
 over by a boy older or more advanced than his fellows, 
 who should be called Moderator, Inspector, Psedagogus, 
 or Decurio. The duty of the decurio will be to see that 
 all the boys of his division are in their places at the right 
 time, that they attend to the work of the moment, to 
 assist backward boys, or report them to the preceptor, 
 and to be an example of conduct to all. The master him- 
 self shall not stand in a corner, nor shall he walk about, 
 but he will occupy a raised position facing the light, so 
 that he may see and be seen by all, and where drawings 
 and illustrations of lessons may also be easily seen. 
 
 The school-time must be so ordered that every year, 
 month, week, day, hour, may have its own task. The 
 tasks should be so arranged that they are within the 
 powers of the average mind : in this way the more 
 ordinary natures will be stimulated, while the more 
 precocious and brilliant will be retarded to their advan- 
 tage. Pupils should be admitted only at the beginning 
 of the school year. On no day should boys do more 
 than six hours' work, and those all in public and in 
 school. The rest should be given to relaxation and 
 domestic duties. The school is the proper place for 
 school work ; moreover, home-work is apt to be badly 
 done, and badly done work is more hurtful than no 
 work at all. The hours should not be consecutive : 
 the morning should be devoted to studies that call into 
 requisition the intellect, the judgment, and the memory; 
 the afternoon to the discipline of hand, voice, style, 
 demeanour (gestus).
 
 The Pansophic School. 203 
 
 The occupations of the Pansophic school are not all 
 of equal importance. They may be classed as primary, 
 secondary, and tertiary. The primary are those which 
 contain the essence or substance of Wisdom (knowledge), 
 Virtue, Piety, and Eloquence, such as Languages, Philo- 
 sophy, and Theology; the secondary are auxiliary to 
 these, such as History ; the tertiary only indirectly con- 
 tribute to the primary occupations, e.g. all that pertains 
 to vigour of health and mental alacrity, such as recrea- 
 tion and sports. But all the occupations and studies 
 have a place at each successive stage of progress, and are 
 to be presented according to the same method. 
 
 At the same time, the order of the instruction is 
 subject to certain general laws : for in the younger 
 classes we have to appeal chiefly to the senses, and to 
 cultivate observation ; and as the pupils advance, we 
 draw more on the activity of the memory, the intellect 
 proper, and the power of expressing what is known. 
 
 In the exercise of these powers there are also degrees : 
 for example, under the head of the Intellect there are 
 three stages ; the first comprehends the statement of 
 fact, the second the why of the fact, and the third 
 the fundamental principles which underlie the fact and 
 its reason, and enable the student to extend his investi- 
 gations in the same line : for example, a knowledge 
 of the compass and of the use of it is the first stage, 
 a knowledge of its construction and relation to other 
 things is the second stage, and such a knowledge of 
 the principles lying at the foundation of its construc- 
 tion and application as will enable the student to
 
 2O4 The Educational System. 
 
 advance further in the same line of investigation is 
 the third stage. So in Language you have three 
 stages : the power to prattle, to speak, and to speak 
 eloquently, and instruction must proceed in this order. 
 The same remarks apply to the graduated order of 
 auxiliary studies, such as History. This word is used 
 in an extended sense : in the third, or Atrial class, 
 it means stories which bear on the daily affairs of life 
 and on morals ; in the fourth, or Philosophical class, 
 it deals with Natural History the study of the works 
 of God ; in the fifth, or Logical class, it deals with the 
 history of human inventions mechanical history; in 
 the sixth, or Political class, it deals with the history of 
 the customs of various nations ; and in the seventh, or 
 Theological class, it deals with the universal history of 
 man in the Providence of God. The first or Vestibulary, 
 and the second or Janual class, are here omitted, because 
 they are occupied with the mere nomenclature of things, 
 which stands for history to young children. The same 
 remarks apply (but are not always successfully applied by 
 Comenius) to all the studies and exercises of the school. 
 The senses, he has said, have to be specially appealed 
 to in the earliest classes, since they are the guides to 
 knowledge. We do not speak to our pupils, but the 
 things themselves ; and everything should be taught by 
 means of the things themselves, or where these fail, by 
 accurate representations of them. The walls of the 
 school should be hung with pictures, and the reading- 
 books should be full of them. The intellect again will 
 be exercised by the explanation of everything that is
 
 The Pansophic School. 205 
 
 read or taught, and by requiring the explanation to be 
 given by the scholars, for we do not form parrots, but 
 men. The memory also has to be cultivated, for, 
 as Quintilian says, Tantum scimus quantum memoria 
 tenemus. But the exercise of the memory does not 
 mean the wearing the pupil out by requiring him to 
 learn things off by heart ; but the frequent and sufficient 
 presentation of things clearly understood, till, of their 
 own accord, they adhere. Weekly memory-contests, at 
 which the pupils challenge each other to state what 
 has been learned, will be of value in stimulating the 
 memory. 
 
 As regards style : let the pupils be required to write 
 weekly letters to one another on given subjects, and let 
 the decurio look after these, under the supervision of 
 the master. 
 
 The tongue will be exercised by requiring that the 
 conversation of the boys one with another be in Latin. 
 The voice will be cultivated by teaching all to sing, 
 and by teaching notation at certain fixed times. 
 
 The morals and demeanour of the pupils will receive 
 the close attention of the masters, and their reproof 
 of wrong, and their commendation of good conduct 
 will always be prompt. Further, the formation of a 
 school, and even of individual classes, into a republic, 
 with its senate and proctor, which will hold sessions 
 occasionally, and pronounce judgment on conduct, will 
 do much to prepare for the business of life. 
 
 Piety will be fostered by taking care that in going 
 to bed and rising, prayers be said and the Holy Scrip-
 
 206 The Educational System. 
 
 tures read ; also in beginning and ending the studies 
 of the day, and before and after meals. 
 
 To encourage the more active-minded boys, special 
 reading should be allowed of authors outside the usual 
 school-course, such as the sacred dialogues of Castalio, 
 the Colloquies of Erasmus, Epistles of Seneca, the 
 Histories of Nepos, Curtius, etc. 
 
 All sorts of exercises and innocent games are to be 
 not only permitted but encouraged, for giving vigour 
 and health to the body; and also sedentary games 
 which call for a certain quickness of wit. 
 
 Scenic representations and the acting of plays are to 
 be encouraged as a relaxation, so long as the subject 
 is not immoral in its character or treatment, as are 
 the Roman plays, but constructed to represent some 
 memorable histories, sacred or profane. These not 
 only afford recreation, but are educationally of good 
 effect in many ways. 
 
 The times of relaxation should be frequent half-an- 
 hour after every hour's work. The daily time-table 
 should be arranged somewhat as follows : 
 
 Forenoon. 
 
 6 to 7 A.M. Hymns, Reading of Scripture, Meditation, and 
 
 Prayers. 
 7j 8 T k e primary task of the class more theoretically 
 
 given. 
 9 10 The same practically given. 
 
 Afternoon. 
 
 I 2 P.M. Music, or some other pleasant mathematical exercise. 
 
 2.303.30 History. 
 
 4 5 Exercises in Style.
 
 The Pansophic School. 207 
 
 There should be two half-holidays weekly ; a fortnight 
 at Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost ; and a whole 
 month at the harvest-time. 
 
 More detailed Statement. 
 
 A still more detailed statement of the work of the 
 seven classes is to be obtained by reading what we 
 have already said of the Text-books in Part III., and 
 by what follows : 
 
 I. TJie Vestibulary Class. On the four walls of the 
 class-room should be painted the Latin characters, 
 models of the regular declensions and conjugations, and 
 brief moral precepts. 
 
 By means of a thorough study of the Vestibulum in 
 the way already laid down, the class will acquire a 
 knowledge of things in an elementary and yet funda- 
 mental way, and also of the roots of words, that is to 
 say, it will be instructed in the foundations of all intelli- 
 gence ; and in addition to this, it will be instructed in 
 morality in a form suited to boyhood. The rudiments 
 of arithmetic will at this stage be given, a knowledge 
 of weights, measures, and geometrical forms, and music. 
 The teacher will take advantage of the words learned 
 to add to the knowledge of the pupils. 
 
 II. The Janual Class. On one wall should be 
 painted illustrations of the most important natural 
 objects mentioned in the text of ihejanua, and opposite 
 these the more important artificial objects should be
 
 208 The Educational System, 
 
 drawn. The remaining two walls should be occupied 
 with grammatical warnings, having reference to the 
 peculiarities of the pupil's mother-tongue. 
 
 In religion the Catechism should at this stage be 
 thoroughly learned. 
 
 The knowledge of things and words and grammati- 
 cal construction is to be obtained from ihefanua. 
 
 Addition and Subtraction in Arithmetic ; the plane 
 figures in Geometry, and Music, are to be taught. 
 
 The Composition exercises will consist of the con- 
 struction of clauses and sentences on the foundation of 
 the words and rules ofthejanua. 
 
 III. The Atrial Class. The walls should be painted 
 over with emblems, and with a selection of warnings 
 regarding the elegancies of writing and speech. 
 
 In religion the work of this class will be to read an 
 epitome of Scripture (in Scripture words), and to learn 
 by heart a collection of psalms, hymns, and prayers. 
 The pupils will make acquaintance also with those nar- 
 ratives which are likely to generate virtue and piety. 
 
 In addition to the proper study of the Atrial Text- 
 book, Division and Multiplication in arithmetic, and 
 instruction in solid figures, should be given. Music will 
 be continued and select verses from the Latin poets 
 read. Exercises in style on the basis of the Atrium 
 will be given. 
 
 At this stage the Schola Ludus is to be introduced. 
 This, as I have elsewhere explained, was simply the 
 Janua thrown into dramatic form in accordance with
 
 The Pans op hie School. 209 
 
 the author's conviction that all the work of the Latin 
 school might take a gamesome form. 
 
 IV. The Philosophical Class. On the walls of this 
 class-room things are to be represented connected with 
 arithmetic, geometry, statics, anatomy. 
 
 In religious instruction, hymns and forms of morning 
 and evening prayer, and of prayers before and after 
 meals and studies, and a life of Christ harmonised from 
 the four Gospels, are to be read. 
 
 The class-book will be the first Palace of Wisdom, 
 in which there will be a survey and explanation of all 
 objects of nature written in a style higher and more 
 ornate than the style of the previous books. 
 
 The Rule of Three in Arithmetic, Geometry, Trigo- 
 nometry, and the elements of Statics, are to be taught ; 
 also Instrumental Music, and Natural History made up 
 out of ^Elian and Pliny. 
 
 As to style, which ought now to be on the model of 
 classical authors : this will be suspended so as to admit 
 of the last of the afternoon hours being devoted to 
 Greek, the object being to give sufficient Greek to 
 enable the boys, when they reach the subsequent 
 classes, to read the New Testament in the original. 
 
 V. The Logical Class. The walls of the class-room 
 should be painted over with a selection of Rules of 
 Logic and ingenious emblems representing emanations 
 of mind. 1 The religious instruction shall include the 
 
 1 Whatever this may mean. 
 O
 
 2 io The Educational System. 
 
 study of a collection of hymns and prayers and a 
 manual of the whole Bible, to be called the Gate of the 
 Sanctuaty, in which the substance of the sacred writ- 
 ings, as much as possible in the words of Holy Writ 
 itself, will be given : also a chapter of the Greek New 
 Testament should be read daily. 
 
 The afternoon hours should be devoted to Arithmetic, 
 Geometry, Astronomy, Geography, and the elements of 
 Optics, along with the History of Mechanical Inventions. 
 
 The class-book belonging to this stage will contain a 
 free treatment of various arts and a strict scientific 
 treatment of one, so as to bring into view the charac- 
 teristics of exact scientific truth as distinguished from 
 opinion. 
 
 Exercises in style should be given at this stage on 
 the model of the historians Csesar, Curtius, Nepos, 
 and Justin. The study of Greek is to be carried on 
 by those only who desire to prosecute that language 
 specially : these should read Greek orators, such as 
 Isocrates, and also the Moralia of Plutarch. 
 
 VI. The Political Class. The pictures on the class 
 wall should represent the significance of order and con- 
 nection ; e.g. there should be pictures of the human body 
 wanting certain limbs, others having a superabundance 
 of limbs, and one complete and well-formed. 
 
 In religion the full text of Scripture will be studied. 
 
 The class-book (the third book of Universal Wisdom) 
 will treat of human society. 
 
 Besides the applications of Arithmetic (ex arithmetids
 
 The Pansophic School. 211 
 
 Logistical}, applications of Geometry to Architecture, 
 the theory of the planets, and the doctrine of eclipses, 
 will be taught : compendiums of the geography of the 
 world will also be made. 
 
 For the sake of style, Sallust and Cicero, Virgil and 
 Horace, will be read. The pupils will now discuss 
 questions in Latin prescribed beforehand, and be en- 
 couraged to use greater freedom in their Latin style. 
 Verse-making yields no fruit worthy of the labour, but 
 should not be prohibited in the case of those who have 
 a disposition that way. 
 
 Those desirous of continuing their Greek studies 
 should read Thucydides and the poets. 
 
 VII. The Theological Class. Scriptural emblems, 
 shadowing forth the mysteries of Theology, should 
 adorn three sides of the class-room, and one should be 
 devoted to tables of the Hebrew Grammar and to 
 select Hebrew sayings. 
 
 The class-book, the concluding Palace of Wisdom, 
 should explain the intercourse of souls with God, etc. 
 Mathematics should consist of a study of sacred archi- 
 tecture ; e.g. the construction of the Mosaic Tabernacle, 
 the Temple of Solomon, etc. The history taught should 
 be universal history, with special reference to the 
 history of the Church and the order of Divine 
 Providence. The exercises in style should be in sacred 
 subjects; and, in addition to these various studies, 
 Hebrew should be acquired. 
 
 In the treatise De Latinae linguae studio perfect e insti-
 
 212 The Educational System. 
 
 tuendo Dissertatio Didactica, published in 1637, he 
 assumes that the upper classes read selections from 
 classical authors, which he proposes to arrange in four 
 books Epistolary, Historical, Oratorical, and Poetical, 1 
 and that the relative Lexicon, either in Latin-vernacular 
 or vernacular-Latin, should be a Lexicon of phrases, 
 idioms, and varieties of expression ; e.g. under the 
 word Dubito would come the following words and ex- 
 pressions, Haereo, hesito. Ambigo. Fluctuo, Incertus 
 sum quid agam. Incertum mihi est. In ancipiti sum ; 
 and so forth. 
 
 Looking to the exercises in style prescribed in 
 Comenius's latest edition of his educational views, as 
 given above, I think we must assume that the selec- 
 tions from classical authors were to be read along with 
 the special class-book of the year ; if not by all, at least 
 by all who could overtake them : and this, notwith- 
 standing the fact that extracts from classical authors 
 would doubtless be introduced into the class-books, in 
 so far as relevant to their subject-matter. 
 
 Thus in the space of seven years, beginning at twelve 
 years of age, the human being will be formed to a 
 whole and complete humanity in respect of Things, 
 Tongues, Morality, and Piety ; he will be able to judge 
 of all things, and in no important thing to err; and, 
 fortified with the elements of universal knowledge, he 
 may now be allowed to study all books, human and 
 divine, and enter on the business of life. 
 
 1 Palatium Epistolicum, with a hundred epistles ; Palatium 
 Historicum, P. Oratorium, P. Poeticum.
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 As Comenius increased in years the religious 
 element in his educational theories assumed more and 
 more prominence. But he never lost sight of his lead- 
 ing principles. The object of all education was to 
 train children to be sons of God, but the way to this 
 was through knowledge, and knowledge was through 
 method. His disposition to see fanciful parallels in 
 nature increased, and Scripture more and more seemed 
 to him to confirm his teachings. A mystical tendency 
 was manifested in his final works written in Amsterdam 
 between 1654-57, especially in his final educational 
 utterance written in Amsterdam, and entitled, 
 
 ' TJie Idea of Didactic out of the Eternal Arcana. 
 
 ' The Son can do nothing of himself, save what he 
 seeth the Father do ; for what things soever he doeth, 
 these also doeth the Son likewise. The Father loveth 
 the Son, and sheweth him all things.' John v. 19. 
 
 From this flow the following propositions (since the 
 ' invisible things of God from the creation of the world 
 are clearly seen, being understood by the things that 
 are made,' Rom. i. 20) : 
 
 1. That schools ought to be a kind of imitation of 
 heaven. 
 
 2. That the intercourse of teachers with taught 
 ought to be like that of fathers with sons.
 
 214 The Educational System. 
 
 3. That sons are able to know and do nothing of 
 themselves. 
 
 4. Whatever therefore they ought to know or to do 
 (both here and for eternity), all should be first shown 
 to them. 
 
 5. That the said showing beforehand devolves on 
 fathers, that is, on teachers. 
 
 6. And this, not by presenting examples alien to the 
 matter in hand, but proper to it, so that things that 
 have to be done may be taught by doing them. 
 
 7. That the imitation of all things be exacted in a 
 paternal spirit. 
 
 8. And that it be exacted so that sons may do all 
 things in like manner as the example. 
 
 On the other hand the eternal idea is departed from 
 whenever 
 
 1. All things are done in any sort of fashion, regard 
 being had to no type, much less the best. 
 
 2. The intercourse of teachers with pupils is nothing 
 else save that of hirelings with sheep for the sake of 
 the fat and the wool. 
 
 3. The pupils are left to themselves, and are required 
 to do what they have not yet been taught to do, as if 
 they were able of themselves to know what a teacher 
 knows. 
 
 4. And are not taught all things necessary for this 
 life arid the next, but only scraps. 
 
 5. And the teacher does not teach all things himself, 
 but commits them to another, or presents to the pupil a 
 dumb teacher a book. 
 
 6. And what he teaches he does not teach by
 
 Conclusion* 215 
 
 examples, but by precepts, and, when the pupil does not 
 do what he is ordered, by blows. 
 
 7. Or, when he does give examples, gives what are 
 alien to the matter in hand, and does not show how 
 they are to be rightly imitated. 
 
 8. Or, if he show examples, does not insist on the 
 imitation of them by much and constant practice. 
 
 9. And does not exact that imitation in such a way as 
 to make of every pupil a master capable of doing things 
 equal to what has been pointed out to him as models. 
 
 This is the sum of all that I wish to have done by 
 those who undertake to rear little sons of God. I have 
 no more to say. And you, gentlemen, with your 
 schools and all the youth of your city 1 dedicated to 
 Christ, I commend to the grace of God, and myself 
 to your favour ; signing these my last utterances on 
 Education on the day of the conversion of Paul, on 
 which may the hearts of us all turn to the Lord saying, 
 as Saul said, ' Lord, what wilt thou have me to do ?' 
 
 And now, O Jesus Christ, Eternal Wisdom, who 
 rejoicest in the habitable parts of the earth, and whose 
 delight is among the sons of men, who wast well pleased, 
 when dwelling with us in the flesh, to converse with 
 little ones and to think them worthy of Thy embraces 
 as being heirs of the Kingdom of Heaven, count worthy 
 of Thy favour now those who do not disdain to serve 
 Thy little ones ; so that by means of them Thy Blessed 
 Kingdom, here of Grace, there of Glory, may receive a 
 goodly increase, worthy of Thee, the King of the 
 Eternal World. Amen. Amen. Amen. 
 
 1 Amsterdam.
 
 BRIEF CRITICAL SURVEY. 
 
 THE object of this volume is to present Comenius 
 himself to the English reader not Comenius as I may 
 understand him. The latter would have been a com- 
 paratively easy task. His historical position, and his 
 relation to his predecessors, have been brought into 
 view in the Introduction, and his educational aims and 
 labours have been fully set forth in the sketch of his 
 life. We have now only to survey critically the leading 
 characteristics of his system. 
 
 The Realism of the Humanists had failed to produce 
 the results they had anticipated. It was in England 
 and Scotland, rather than on the continent of Europe, 
 that the genuine Humanistic spirit was most active in 
 schools. But not for long. Schools and schoolmasters 
 fell back under the dominion of words, abstract pro- 
 positions, and barren logicalities. This was inevitable. 
 The preoccupation of men's minds with theological 
 and political strife caused the true significance of the 
 educational revival to fall out of sight. The indispen- 
 sable condition, moreover, of the continuance of the 
 methods of Trotzendorf, and Sturm, and Ascham, was a 
 school of Teachers, and a tradition of Method. There 
 was neither the one nor the other.
 
 Critical Survey. 217 
 
 Comenius's inspiring motive, like that of all leading 
 educationalists, was social regeneration. He believed 
 that this could be accomplished through the school. ,. 
 He lived under the hallucination that by a proper / ' 
 arrangement of the subject-matter of instruction, and by 
 a sound method, a certain community of thought and 
 interests would be established among the young, which 
 would result in social harmony and political settlement. 
 He believed that men could be manufactured. Had 
 we Chinese to deal with, the dream of educational 
 enthusiasts might possibly be realised ; but its realisa- 
 tion would be a misfortune. We have, happily, not 
 Chinese to deal with, but the strong and vigorous 
 European races, full of character and individuality, 
 the loss of which would be the loss of manhood. 
 Variety, inequality, and strife seem to be essential to 
 the true life of the higher races. 
 
 Humanism, which had practically failed in the school, 
 had, apart from this fact, no attractions for Comenius, and 
 still less had the worldly wisdom of Montaigne. He was 
 a leading Protestant theologian, the pastor and bishop 
 of a small but earnest and devoted sect, and it was as 
 such that he wrote on Education. The best results of 
 Humanism could, after all, be only culture, and this 
 not necessarily accompanied by moral earnestness or 
 personal piety : on the contrary, probably dissociated 
 from these, and leaning rather to scepticism and intel- 
 lectual self-indulgence. At the same time, it must be 
 noted that he never fairly faced the Humanistic ques-
 
 2 1 8 The Educational System. 
 
 tion ; he rather gave it the cold shoulder from the first. 
 His whole nature pointed in another direction. When 
 he has to speak of the great instruments of Humanistic 
 education, the ancient classical writers, he exhibits 
 great distrust of them, and if he does not banish them 
 from the school altogether, it is simply because the higher 
 instruction in the Latin and Greek tongues is seen to be 
 impossible without them. Even in the Universities, as 
 his Pansophic scheme shows, he would have had Plato 
 and Aristotle taught chiefly by means of analyses and 
 epitomes. It might be urged in opposition to this view 
 of the anti-Humanism of Comenius, that he contem- 
 plated the acquisition of a good style in Latin in the 
 higher stages of instruction : true, but in so far as he 
 did so, it was merely with a practical aim, the more 
 effective and, if need be, oratorical enforcement of 
 moral and religious truth. The beauties and subtleties 
 of artistic expression had little charm for him, nor did 
 he set much store by the graces. The most conspicuous 
 illustration of the absence of all idea of Art in Comenius 
 is to be found in his school drama. The unprofitable 
 dreariness of that production would make a reader sick 
 were he not relieved by a feeling of its absurdity. 
 
 The educational spirit of the Reformers, the convic- 
 tion that all even the humblest must be taught to 
 know God, and Jesus Christ whom He has sent, was 
 inherited by Comenius in its completeness. In this 
 way, and in this way only, could the ills of Europe be 
 remedied, and the progress of humanity assured. While, 
 therefore, he sums up the educational aim under the
 
 Critical Survey. 2 1 9 
 
 threefold heads of Knowledge, Virtue, and Piety or 4^ 
 Godliness, he in truth has mainly in view the last two. 
 Knowledge is of value only in so far as it forms the only 
 sound basis, in the eyes of a Protestant theologian, of 
 virtue and godliness. We have to train for a here- 
 after. 
 
 In virtue and godliness Comenius did not propose to 
 teach anything save what the Reformed religion taught. 
 His characteristic merits in this department of instruc- 
 tion were these : 
 
 1. Morality and godliness were to be taught from 
 the first. Parents and teachers were to begin to train 
 at the beginning of the child's conscious life. 
 
 2. Parents and teachers were to give milk to babes, 
 and reserve the stronger meat for the adolescent and 
 adult mind. They were to be content to proceed 
 gradually, step by step. 
 
 3. The method of procedure was not only to be 
 adapted to the growing mind, but the mode of enforce- 
 ment was to be mild, and the manner of it kind and 
 patient. 
 
 Had Comenius done nothing more but put forth and 
 press home these truths he would have deserved our 
 gratitude as an educationalist. 
 
 But he did more than this. He related virtue and 
 godliness to Knowledge, By knowledge Comenius 
 meant knowledge of nature and of man's relation to 
 nature. It is this important characteristic of Comenius's 
 educational system that reveals the direct influence of 
 Bacon and his school. To the great Verulam he pays
 
 220 The Educational System. 
 
 reverence for what he owed him, but he owed him even 
 more than he knew. 
 
 In this field of Knowledge, the leading characteristic 
 of the educational system of Comenius is his Realism. 
 We have pointed out, 1 in contradiction of the assump- 
 tions of the modern sensationalist school, that the 
 Humanists were in truth Realists, and it may be safely 
 said that there can be no question among competent 
 judges as to the Realism which ought to characterise all 
 rational and sound instruction. The question rather 
 is as to the field in which the Real is to be sought 
 in the mind of man, or in external nature. As the 
 former may be called Humanistic-Realism, so the latter 
 may be called Sense or Naturalistic-Realism. Of the 
 latter, Comenius is the true founder, although his 
 indebtedness to Ratich was great. Mere acquisition 
 of the ordered facts of Nature, and man's relation to 
 them, was with him the great aim if not the sole aim 
 of all purely intellectual instruction. And here there 
 necessarily entered the governing idea, encyclopaedism, 
 or pansophism. Let all the arts and sciences, he said, 
 be taught in their elements in all schools, and more 
 fully at each successive stage of the pupil's progress. 
 It is by knowledge that we are what we are, and the 
 necessary conclusion from this must be, 'let all things 
 be taught to A all.' 
 
 It is at this point that many will part company with 
 Comenius. The mind stored with facts, even if these 
 1 be ordered facts, will not necessarily be much raised in 
 1 See Introduction.
 
 Critical Survey. 221 
 
 the scale of humanity as an Intelligence. The natural 
 powers may be simply overweighted by the process, 
 and the natural channels of spontaneous Reason choked. 
 In education, while our main business is to promote 
 the growth of moral purpose and of a strong sense 
 of duty, we have to support these by the discipline 
 of intelligence, and by training to power of work rather 
 than by information. On the other hand, only those 
 who are ignorant of the history and the recognised 
 results of education will wholly abjure Realism in the 
 Comenian sense; but it has to be assigned its own 
 place, and nothing more than this, in the education 
 of a human being. The sum of the matter seems to 
 be this, that while a due place in all education is to 
 be assigned to sense-realistic studies, especially in the 
 earlier years of family and school life, the Humanistic 
 agencies must always remain the most potent in the 
 making of a man. 
 
 Comenius and his followers, again, confound know- 
 ledge with wisdom. He affirms that ' all authors are 
 to be banished from school except those that give a 
 knowledge of useful things.' Wisdom is certainly not 
 to be opposed to knowledge, but it depends more on 
 a man's power of discrimination, combination, and 
 imagination, than on the extent of his mental store of 
 facts. Were it not so, our whole secondary education, 
 and all the purely disciplinal part of our University 
 instruction, would be very far astray. If the ancient 
 tongues are to be learned simply with a view to the 
 sum of knowledge they contain, it would be absurd to
 
 222 The Educational System. 
 
 waste the time of our youth over them. It would be 
 better to impose on our Universities the duty of fur- 
 nishing guaranteed translations for the use of the public. 
 We shall not, however, involve ourselves in controversy 
 here, as our object is merely to point out, generally, 
 the strong and weak points of our author. 
 
 Next in importance to pansophy or encyclopaeclism, 
 and closely connected with it, is the principle that a 
 knowledge of words and of things should go hand in hand. 
 Words are to be learned through things. Properly 
 interpreted, and under due limitations, this principle 
 will, we presume, be now generally accepted. We say, 
 under due limitations, because it is manifest that the 
 converse proposition, that ' things are learned through 
 words,' is easily capable of proof, and is indeed, in our 
 opinion, the stronghold of Humanistic teaching in its 
 earlier or school stages. 
 
 It is in the department of Method, however, that we 
 recognise the chief contribution of Comenius to educa- 
 tion. The mere attempt to systematise was a great 
 advance. In seeking, however, for foundations on which 
 to erect a coherent system, he had to content himself 
 with first principles which were vague and unscientific. 
 
 Modern Psychology was in its infancy, and Comenius 
 had little more than the generalisations of Plato and 
 Aristotle, and those not strictly investigated by him, for 
 his guide. In training to virtue, moral truth and the 
 various moralities were assumed as if they emerged 
 full-blown in the consciousness of man. In training to
 
 Critical Survey. 223 
 
 godliness, again, Christian dogma was ready to his hand. 
 In the department of knowledge, that is to say, know- 
 ledge of the outer world, Comenius rested his method 
 on the scholastic maxim, Nihil est in intellectu quod non 
 prius fuerit in sensu. This maxim he enriched with 
 the Baconian induction, comprehended by him how- 
 ever only in a general way. It was chiefly, however, 
 the imagined harmony of physical and mental processes 
 that yielded his method. He believed that the pro- 
 cesses of the growth of external things had a close 
 resemblance to the growth of mind. Had he lived in 
 these days he would doubtless have endeavoured to 
 work out the details of his method on a purely psycho- 
 logical basis; but in the then state of psychology he 
 had to find another thread through the labyrinth. The 
 mode of demonstration which he adopted was thus, as 
 he himself called it, the Syncretic or Analogical. What- 
 ever may be said of the harmony that exists between 
 the growth of nature and of mind, there can be no 
 doubt that the observation of the former is capable of 
 suggesting, if it does not furnish, many of the rules of 
 educational method. 
 
 From the simple to the complex, from the particular 
 to the general, the concrete before the abstract, and all, 
 step by step, and even by insensible degrees, these 
 were among his leading principles of method. But 
 the most important of all his principles was derived 
 from the scholastic maxim quoted above. As all is 
 from sense, let the thing to be known be itself presented 
 to the senses, and let every sense be engaged in the
 
 224 Th e Educational System. 
 
 perception of it. When it is impossible, from the nature 
 of the case, to present the object itself, place a vivid 
 picture of it before the pupil. The mere enumeration 
 of these few principles, even if we drop out of view all 
 his other contributions to method and school-manage- 
 ment, will satisfy any man familiar with all the more 
 recent treatises on Education, that Comenius, even 
 after giving his precursors their due, is to be regarded 
 as the true founder of modern Method, and that he 
 anticipates Pestalozzi and all of the same school. 
 
 When we come to consider Comenius's method as 
 specially applied to language, we recognise its general 
 truth, and the teachers of Europe and America will 
 now be prepared to pay it the homage of theoretical 
 approval at least. To admire, however, his own attempt 
 at working out his linguistic method is impossible, 
 unless we first accept his encyclopaedism. The very 
 faults with which he charged the school practices of 
 the time are simply repeated by himself in a new form. 
 The boy's mind is overloaded with a mass of words 
 the names and qualities of everything in heaven, on 
 the earth, and under the earth. It was impossible 
 that all these things, or even pictures of them, could 
 be presented to sense, and hence his books must 
 have inflicted a heavy burden on the merely verbal 
 memory of boys. We want children to grow into 
 knowledge, not to swallow numberless facts made up 
 into boluses. Again, the amount that was to be ac- 
 quired within a given time was beyond the youthful 
 capacity. Any teacher will satisfy himself of this who
 
 Critical Survey. 225 
 
 will simply count the words and sentences in the 
 Janua and Orbis, and then try to distribute these 
 over the school-time allowed by Comenius. Like all 
 reformers, Comenius was over- sanguine. I do not 
 overlook the fact that command over the Latin tongue 
 as a vehicle of expression was the prime necessity of 
 the time for all who meant to devote themselves to 
 professions and to learning, and that Comenius had 
 this justification for introducing a mass of vocables now 
 wholly useless to the student of Latin. But even for 
 his own time, Comenius, under the influence of his 
 encyclopaedic passion, overdid his task. His real merits 
 in language-teaching lie in the introduction of the prin- 
 ciple of graduated reading-books, in the simplification 
 of Latin grammar, in his founding instruction in foreign 
 tongues on the vernacular, and in his insisting on 
 method in instruction. But these were great merits, 
 too soon forgotten by the dull race of schoolmasters, 
 if, indeed, they were ever fully recognised by them till 
 quite recent times. 
 
 Finally, Comenius's views as to the inner organisa- 
 tion of a school were original, and have proved them- 
 selves in all essential respects correct. 
 
 The same may be said of his scheme for the organi- 
 sation of a State-system a scheme which is substan- 
 tially, mutatis mutandis, at this moment embodied in 
 the highly-developed system of Germany. 
 
 When we consider, then, that Comenius first formally 
 and fully developed educational method, that he intro- 
 duced important reforms into the teaching of languages,
 
 226 The Educational System. 
 
 that he introduced into schools the study of Nature, 
 that he advocated with intelligence, and not on purely 
 sentimental grounds, a milder discipline, we are justified 
 in assigning to him a high, if not the highest, place 
 among modern educational writers. The voluminous- 
 ness of his treatises, their prolixity, their repetitions, 
 and their defects of style, have all operated to prevent 
 men studying him. The substance of all he has written 
 has been, I believe, faithfully given by me, but it has 
 not been possible to transfer to these pages the fervour, 
 the glow, and the pious aspirations of the good old 
 Bishop. 
 
 If any are disposed to regard with impatience the 
 encyclopaedic proposals of Comenius, I would have 
 them consider that two great Englishmen, Milton and 
 Locke, shared substantially the same views. And when 
 we compare a youth who has been instructed merely in 
 the bare, bald facts of the outer world, and his relation 
 to them, with a youth who has been left to himself, we 
 rightly conclude that there is a certain educational power 
 even in mere information. And yet the summed-up 
 result, in respect of intelligence and character, in the case 
 of youths of encyclopaedic and superficial acquisitions is 
 not satisfactory. On the contrary, it is sadly disappoint- 
 ing when compared with the labour expended by both 
 teacher and taught. On the other hand, we certainly 
 find the supreme educational result that is to say, 
 wisdom, virtue, and capacity for affairs to have been 
 attained (as nearly as human imperfection admits of) by 
 a totally different process. We are thus forced to revise
 
 Critical Survey. 227 
 
 our theories. The way whereby nature makes a mind 
 is not so plain as at first appears. If educators could 
 find that secret way, it would doubtless be their duty to 
 follow it, cost what it might. 
 
 In seeking to ascertain our duty, let us not wilfully 
 exaggerate differences in modes of procedure where there 
 is essential community of aim. All educationalists, of 
 whatsoever school, who have endeavoured seriously to 
 think on the subject on which they write, agree in pro- 
 posing to themselves wisdom and virtue as their end. 
 ' Culture,' it is true, is the deity which some worship, 
 but it is difficult to say what culture is, and until we 
 have settled this, we may leave it out of account. This 
 we can safely affirm, that self-culture is possible only by 
 the culture of that which is not self. Were any man to 
 propose himself to himself as the object of his self-disci- 
 pline, he would emerge from the educational laboratory 
 a narrow-souled, insufferable prig. Let us drop culture, 
 then, and confine ourselves to the common ground of 
 wisdom and virtue. All agree so far, and the question at 
 issue these three hundred years, and still unsettled, is, by 
 what processes can this supreme end be attained ? By 
 moral instruction and training, all alike answer ; but by 
 what further instruments ? By the study of man and of 
 human life and thought, as these are embodied for us 
 in language and literature, or by the study of external 
 nature and our relations to it? We do not propose 
 here to attempt to answer the question, but in the 
 debate between Humanists and Sense-Realists a ser- 
 vice is rendered if the issue be narrowed and defined.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ACADEMIA, see University. 
 
 Aims and motives, Comenius's 
 defence of his own, 62. 
 
 Alsted, Professor, early teacher of 
 Comenius, 23. 
 
 Alvarus, Latin Grammar of, 160. 
 
 Amsterdam, city of, Comenius 
 expresses his gratitude to, 63. 
 
 Analogy, Comenius's use of, in 
 exposition, 57, 105 ; from the 
 carpenter's trade, 117; some- 
 times fanciful use of, throughout 
 the Great Didactic, 81 ; see Syn- 
 cretism. 
 
 Analysis, as a method of ascer- 
 taining truth, 56 ; with synthesis, 
 part of a perfect discipline in 
 an art, 119 ; how employed in 
 study of Latin, 171. 
 
 Andreae, Valentinus, on teaching 
 of Latin, 29, 30. 
 
 Apprentices, pupils considered as, 
 to an art, 116. 
 
 Aquinas, St. Thomas, and the 
 Jesuit reaction, 10. 
 
 Arabic, a necessary language for 
 physicians, 120. 
 
 Aristotle, his influence in the 
 Universities, 10 ; Latin trans- 
 lation of, from the Arabic for- 
 merly in use, 10 ; quoted on 
 abuse of self-consistency, 56 ; 
 to be taught by an epitome, 218. 
 
 Arithmetic, how to be taught in 
 the Mother School, 141. 
 
 'Arts,' what Comenius means by 
 the term, 116. 
 
 the seven liberal, taught in 
 
 the Gymnasium, 149. 
 
 Ascham, his influence on grammar 
 schools, 9 ; as a critic of Method, 
 29. 
 
 Associated words, principle of, 
 178. 
 
 Astronomy, Comenius's treatise 
 on, 39. 
 
 Atrium Lingua Latina, Com- 
 enius's, 48. 
 
 Atrium, the third Latin Text- 
 book, 189-191. 
 
 Attention, means of sustaining, in 
 pupils, TOO. 
 
 Auctarium, sequel to the Vesti- 
 bulum, 55, 180. 
 
 Augustine quoted, 58. 
 
 BACON, Lord, his Advancement 
 of Learning, n ; his Organon, 
 ii ; his study of Nature, n ; 
 the father of Realism, 13 ; im- 
 pression of his Instauralio 
 Magna on Comenius, 37 ; his 
 idea of a ' universal college,' 43 ; 
 his general influence on Com- 
 enius, 71, 219. 
 
 Bayle, in his Dictionary, mis- 
 apprehends Comenius's char- 
 acter, 63. 
 
 Bodinus, his work stirs up Comen- 
 ius, 27 ;on teach ing of Latin, 29.
 
 230 
 
 Index. 
 
 Bohemian Brethren, see Moravian, 
 
 19. 
 
 Bourignon, Madame, 49. 
 Budaeus, 3. 
 Building, love of, to be fostered in 
 
 children, 143. 
 Buildings, scale of school, 200. 
 
 CALVIN, 3. 
 
 Campanella, Thomas, his in- 
 fluence on Comenius, 37. 
 
 Challenges, from one boy to an- 
 other, 108. 
 
 Chaucer, i, 3. 
 
 Chastisement, Corporal, 166. 
 
 Chronology, rudiments of, to be 
 taught in Mother School, 141. 
 
 Church, the, follows, and does 
 not lead, in scientific, philoso- 
 phical, and religious progress, 
 
 12. 
 
 mediaeval ; its attitude to- 
 wards the humanistic move- 
 ment, 4. 
 
 Church Reformers, their attitude 
 to humanistic movement, 4 ; they 
 aim at universal instruction, 
 
 5- 
 
 Class-books, in vernacular school, 
 147. 
 
 Class-room, walls of, to be paint- 
 ed with Latin declensions, etc., 
 207. 
 
 Colet, his influence over Gram- 
 mar schools, 9. 
 
 Collegium Didacticum projected, 
 41. 
 
 Columella, to be studied for 
 Economics, 171. 
 
 Comenius (Komenski), John Amos, 
 his birth and family, 19 ; a 
 Sclav by origin and language, 
 20 ; early education, 21 ; begins 
 Latin in his sixteenth year, 21 ; 
 
 Moravian in heart and soul, 22 ; 
 barely appreciated Humanism, 
 22 ; at College of Herborn in 
 Nassau, 23 ; attracted to 
 Ratich's scheme, 24 ; appointed 
 to school at Prerau (1614) 24 ; 
 complains of bad method of 
 teaching Latin, 25 ; simplifies 
 the Latin Grammar, 25 ; pub- 
 lishes GrammaticcR facilioris 
 prcBcepta in 1616 ; ordained to 
 the church of Fulneck, 1618 ; 
 25 ; his marriage, 25 ; loses 
 library and MSS., 26; writes 
 Labyrinth of the World, 26 ; 
 loses his wife and only child, 
 26 ; writes rules of method for 
 John Stadius, 26 ; determines 
 to devote his life to the service 
 of the young, 27 ; takes refuge 
 from fresh troubles in Poland, 
 28 ; publishes his Seminary of 
 Tongues and all Sciences, 34 ; 
 his Vestibulum in 1633, 35 ; 
 chosen Bishop of the Scattered 
 Brethren, 35 ; visits London, 
 42 ; summing up of his life's 
 aim and character, 6r ; his 
 second marriage, 63 ; his family, 
 63 ; death, 64 ; 'an Apostle ad 
 gentes minutulas ' boys and 
 girls, 65 ; his merit in relating 
 virtue to knowledge, 219. 
 
 Comna, or Comnia, possible birth- 
 place of Comenius, 19. 
 
 Composition, one of the ' Arts ' 
 with Comenius, 116. 
 
 Conatuumpansophtcorum.etc., 41. 
 
 Continuity, necessity for, in teach- 
 ing, 97- 
 
 Conversation, use of, in learning 
 Latin, 161. 
 
 Czech, or Bohemian, language 
 spoken by Comenius, 20 ; his
 
 Index. 
 
 231 
 
 Great Didactic first written in, 
 
 DAY's WORK, limit of, 202. 
 Decuriones, teaching by means of, 
 
 99, 106 ; duty of, in model 
 
 school, 202. 
 
 Detail, too much, condemned, 112. 
 Devotion, to be expressed bodily 
 
 from the first, 129, 143. 
 Diagrams and pictures, use of, 
 
 "4. 144- 
 Dialectic, beginnings of, to be 
 
 taught in the Mother School, 
 
 142 ; in the Gymnasium, 149. 
 Dialogue form of school-books 
 
 advocated, 109. 
 Dictation, 107. 
 Dictionaries, not to be put into 
 
 hands of a beginnner, 124 ; set 
 
 Lexicons. 
 
 Didactica, see Magna Didactica. 
 Diet, of young children, should be 
 
 very simple, 144. 
 Differentiation, uses of, in teach- 
 
 ing, 96, 115. 
 Discipline, both verbal reproof and 
 
 chastisement are, 128, 131-134 ; 
 
 severe, to be exercised only in 
 
 offences against morals, 132, 143. 
 Disputations, public, usefulness 
 
 of, 152. 
 Docem, correspondent of Com- 
 
 enius, 30, . 
 Domavius, on waste of time in 
 
 learning Latin, 24. 
 Dramatic representations, use of, 
 
 194, 195. 
 
 ECONOMICS, beginnings of, may 
 be taught in the Mother School, 
 142 ; treated in a text-book, 183. 
 
 Editions of books, same, to be used 
 throughout, 94, 100, 103, 109. 
 
 Education, two parallel streams 
 in history of, 4 ; as understood by 
 the Humanists and Reformers, 
 5, 6 ; by the Jesuits, 7, 8 ; diffi- 
 culty inherent in every system, 
 10 ; importance of a department 
 of, as part of the philosophical 
 faculty, in our universities, 10 ; 
 want of method in, led to decline 
 of schools after Reformation, 
 ii ; study of method gave their 
 superiority to the Jesuits, 11 ; 
 follows, and does not lead, the 
 course of science, philosophy, 
 and politics, 12, 13 ; obligations 
 to the Sense-realists of first half 
 of seventeenth century for the 
 scientific foundations of method- 
 ism, 14. 
 
 Encycloposdism ofComenius, 74, 
 183-220. 
 
 Endter, Michael, his share in the 
 production of the Orbis Pictus, 
 
 193- 
 Epitomes, Comenius would teach 
 
 Plato and Aristotle by, 218. 
 Erasmus, 3, 12 ; on the bad method 
 
 of teaching Latin, 24, 29. 
 Europe, school-systems of modern, 
 
 a tribute to Comenius's judg- 
 ment, 197. 
 Evenius, Sigmund, correspondent 
 
 of Comenius, 30, . 
 Excerpts, use of, in study of Latin, 
 
 172. 
 Exercises in Style, not to be that 
 
 only, 101. 
 examination of written, 107, 
 
 108. 
 
 the first, of tiros to be in a 
 
 known subject, 118. 
 
 FAMILIAR things, examples to be 
 taken from, 118, 121.
 
 232 
 
 Index. 
 
 Family, the, treated in a text-book, 
 183. 
 
 Foreign languages, when to be 
 begun, 148. 
 
 Frey, Caecilius, or teaching of 
 Latin, 29, and footnote, 161. 
 
 Frisch, on waste of time in learn- 
 ing Latin, 24. 
 
 GAMES, treated in a text-book, 
 183 ; all school exercises might 
 be turned into, 195. 
 
 Geer, Gerard de, 65. 
 
 Laurence de, Comenius in- 
 vited by, to make Amsterdam 
 his home, 55. 
 
 Ludovic de, his friendship 
 
 with Comenius, 43-48 ; death 
 
 of, 53- 
 
 Geography, beginnings of, to be 
 taught in the Mother School, 
 141. 
 
 Geometry, rudiments of, to be 
 taught in Mother School, 141. 
 
 German Empire, Diet of, receives 
 Ratich's memorial, 15. 
 
 Gesture, as a discipline, 202. 
 
 Giessen, university of, favourable 
 to Ratich's pretensions, 17. 
 
 Goals, advantage of fixed, in 
 teaching, 103. 
 
 God, all knowledge should lead 
 to, 72, 73. 
 
 Graduation, University, 152. 
 
 Grammar, how to be taught, 117 ; 
 rudiments of, to be taught in 
 the Mother School, 142 ; to be 
 taught from the material side, 
 158 ; ought to be taught in the 
 Vernacular School, 159 ; Latin, 
 ofAlvarus, 160 ; an instrument 
 of torture, 161 ; Greek, only so 
 much to be taught as is different 
 from Latin, 122. 
 
 Grammars, overloading of, 117. 
 
 Grammar Schools, improvements 
 made in, under Melanchthon, 
 Sturm, Colet, and Ascham, not 
 permanent ; causes of this, 9. 
 
 Greek, knowledge of, exposed a 
 man to suspicion of heresy, 4 ; 
 moderate knowledge of, in- 
 cluded in Jesuits' course, 7 ; a 
 necessary language for theo- 
 logians and physicians, 120 ; 
 may be learned in one year, 
 121 ; text-book of, 195. 
 
 Gregory Nazianzen, Comenius's 
 favourite quotations from, 31. 
 
 Gymnasium, should be formed in 
 every province, 138 ; or Latin 
 School, the Idea of, 148-151. 
 
 HABRECHT, ISAAC, 32, 163. 
 
 Hartlib, Samuel, correspondent of 
 Comenius, 39, 46. 
 
 Health, bodily, of children, should 
 be a prime object with the 
 mother, even before birth, 143. 
 
 Heathen classics, Comenius's atti- 
 tude towards, 218. 
 
 Hebrew, a necessary language for 
 theologians, 120 ; may be learned 
 in half a year, 121 ; text-book of, 
 196. 
 
 Helvicus, on teaching of Latin, 
 29. 
 
 History, how to be taught in the 
 Mother School, 141 ; to be 
 taught in every class of the 
 Gymnasium, 150. 
 
 Holidays, 207. 
 
 Honours, university, 152. 
 
 Horace quoted, 114. 
 
 Hours, number of, to be spent in 
 vernacular school, 147. 
 
 Human knowledge, aims at re- 
 vision and arrangement of, 71.
 
 Index. 
 
 233 
 
 Humanism, theological, gained 
 the day among the Reformed 
 Churches, 6 ; Humanism of the 
 Jesuits not a mere name, 8. 
 
 Humanistic movement, its repre- 
 sentatives in earlier half of six- 
 teenth century, 3 ; its attitude to- 
 wards Aristotelianism, 10. 
 
 Humanistic revival and Theologi- 
 cal revival contrasted, 8. 
 
 Humanists, literary and theologi- 
 cal, their difference of aim, 5, 
 6 ; educational programme of 
 the Reformation and the Hum- 
 anists carried out in Scotland 
 alone, 9 ; comparative failure of 
 their Realism, 216. 
 
 Huss, 3, 19 ; what he did for the 
 Czech dialect, 20. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS on walls, use of, 
 
 207. 
 Illuslris Schola Patakincs IdeS., 
 
 50. 
 Imitation, use of, in study of 
 
 Latin, 172. 
 Induction, knowledge by ; the 
 
 sum of Bacon's teaching, n. 
 Infant (or Mother) School should 
 
 be formed in every house, 138 ; 
 
 the idea of, 140-142. 
 I socrates quoted, 90. 
 
 JANUA LINGUARUM, Bateus's, 32; 
 Comenius's remarks on, 33, 34, 
 
 47. 
 
 Janua Linguae Latinae reserata, 
 181-184 ! a Text-book, second 
 edition of, 184-189 ; to be gone 
 through ten times, 187. 
 
 Jena, university of, favourable to 
 Ratich's scheme, 24. 
 
 Jesuits, order of, education its spe- 
 cial function, 7, 8 ; merits and 
 
 demerits of their system, 8 ; 
 advantages arising from their 
 making a study of Method, n ; 
 their schools praised by Bacon, 
 ii ; under their instigation the 
 evangelical pastors proscribed, 
 26 ; their method of teaching 
 languages, 163. 
 
 Jonston, correspondent of Com- 
 enius, 30, n. 
 
 KEMPIS, a, quoted, 63. 
 
 Knowledge, confounded with wis- 
 dom by Comenius and his 
 followers, 221. 
 
 Komenski, see Comenius. 
 
 LABYRINTHS, schools compared 
 to, in their distracting influ- 
 ences, 58. 
 
 Language, the whole of a language 
 not to be learned, 120. 
 
 Languages, to be learnt separ- 
 ately, 121 ; order in which to be 
 learned, 121 ; modern, can be 
 learned in a year for each, 121 ; 
 to be learned by practice rather 
 than precept, 122 ; different 
 stages in learning, 123 ; not to 
 be learned from grammars, 85 ; 
 method as applied to, 120-124 ; 
 necessary languages in their 
 order, 120. 
 
 Latin literature, 5. 
 
 Latin, familiarity with, as a com- 
 mon language, the school-aim 
 of the Jesuits, 7 ; waste of time 
 in learning, 24 ; nothing but, to 
 be spoken in the school at Patak, 
 50, 59 ; to make compendium for 
 learning, one of the three chief 
 objects of his school reform, 52 ; 
 tedium and labour of learning, 
 as at present taught, 80 ; dis-
 
 234 
 
 Index. 
 
 advantage of, as a medium for 
 teaching Latin, 91 ; a necessary 
 language, 120 ; may be learned 
 in two years, 121 ; supersti- 
 tious attachment to, 145 ; Lubi- 
 nus on the torture of learn- 
 ing, 156 ; the vehicle of all 
 learning, 157 ; evil of abstract 
 teaching of, 158 ; grammar, 
 should not be written in Latin, 
 159 ; conversational method in 
 learning, 161, 187. 
 
 Latin School, see Gymnasium. 
 
 Latinity, Comenius defends his, 
 
 55- 
 Latino-latin Lexicon, Comenius's, 
 
 Si- 
 
 Latium Redivivum, 59 ; see 
 ' Roman Cities.' 
 
 Lessons, specimen of Comenius's, 
 185-186. 
 
 Letters, revival of, its date, i ; 
 characteristics, 2-5, 20. 
 
 Lexicons, full, condemned, 113 ; 
 etymological, preferred to a 
 Dictionary for a young pupil, 
 124 ; of phrases, synonyms, 124. 
 
 Library, walking, every capable 
 pupil to become a, 60. 
 
 Library and MSS., loss of, at 
 Lesna, 54. 
 
 Lipsius, on grammatical trifles, 
 162. 
 
 Literatures of Greece and Rome, 
 the almost exclusive channels of 
 culture with the literary Human- 
 ists, 5. 
 
 Logic, included in Jesuits' course, 
 7, 109 ; one of the ' Arts,' 116. 
 
 Lubinus, Professor, of Rostock, 
 quoted, 23, on teaching of 
 Latin, 29, 156 ; advocates 
 school-books with pictures, 162. 
 
 Ludus, Schola, 194. 
 
 Ludus Literarius, the school a, 
 198. 
 
 Luther, a Humanist, 3 ; his im- 
 passioned appeals in behalf of 
 popular education, 5 ; first place 
 in all schools claimed for the 
 Scriptures, 6 ; his services to the 
 German language, 20 ; on the 
 waste of time in learning Latin, 
 24. 
 
 Lux in Tenebris, Comenius's work 
 entitled, 49. 
 
 Magna Didactica, 30 ; first written 
 in Czech, 31, 74 ; general state- 
 ment of aim, 75 ; method of 
 education there inculcated, 82- 
 98 ; school management, 98-101 ; 
 the application of method to 
 practice, 102-113. 
 
 Management, school, 98-101. 
 
 Marriage, treated in a text-book, 
 183. 
 
 Masson, Professor, quoted, 39. 
 
 Mechanics, rudiments of, to be 
 taught in the Mother School, 
 141. 
 
 Melanchthon, 3 ; his universal ac- 
 tivity in behalf of education earns 
 him the title of Praeceptor Ger- 
 maniae, 5 ; holds Christian teach- 
 ing to be the main end of the 
 school, 6 ; his influence on gram- 
 mar schools, 9 ; his attitude to- 
 wards Aristotelianism in the 
 Universities, 10 ; on teaching of 
 Latin, 29 ; advocates instruction 
 in grammar, 161. 
 
 Memory, to be fatigued as little 
 as possible, 92 ; tasks of, 107 ; 
 how to be used, 167 ; weekly 
 contests in, 205. 
 
 Mencel, Abraham, correspondent 
 of Comenius, 30, .
 
 Index. 
 
 235 
 
 Method, the secret of education, 
 25 ; the Jesuits' appreciation of, 
 ii ; importance of, in relation 
 to teaching of Latin, 28 ; the 
 thread of Ariadne, 58 ; differ- 
 ence of Comenius's method from 
 the truly inductive, 72 ; Luther 
 recognises the necessity for, 79 ; 
 in Education, three great divi- 
 sions in, (i) Certo, 84-88, (2) 
 Facile, 88-94, (3) Solide, 94-98 ; 
 application of, to practice, 102- 
 113 ; applied in detail to the 
 sciences, 113-116; to the arts, 
 116-119 ; to languages, 120-124 ; 
 to morality, 124-128 ; to piety, 
 128-131. 
 
 Comenius's, as applied to 
 
 language, 224. 
 
 , Comenius's chief contribu- 
 
 tion to education, 222-224. 
 Methodi, Synopsis Novissimae, 
 
 55- 
 
 Methods, three, of ascertaining 
 and expounding truth, 56. 
 
 Methodus, Novissima Linguarum, 
 described, 156, 157. 
 
 Milton, his estimate of University 
 teaching in his own day, 10 ; 
 his friend Samuel Hartlib, 39, 
 
 Mochinger, correspondent of 
 Comenius, 30, n. 
 
 Modern languages, more im- 
 portant than Latin, 145. 
 
 Montaigne, 12, 161. 
 
 Morality, method as applied to, 
 124 ; all sciences and arts only 
 preparatory to, 124 ; foundations 
 of, taught in the Mother School, 
 142. 
 
 Morals and manners, introduction 
 of higher tone of, one of three 
 chief objects of school -reform, 
 52- 
 
 Morals (and religion), the final aim, 
 
 of all Comenius's teaching, 60. 
 
 Moravian (or Bohemian) Brethren, 
 
 19- 
 
 More, Sir Thomas, 3. 
 
 Moser, Martin, correspondent of 
 
 Comenius, 30, n. 
 Mulcaster, as a critic of Method, 
 
 29. 
 Music, elements of, how may be 
 
 taught in the Mother School, 
 
 142 ; in the Gymnasium, 149 ; 
 
 teaching of, 205. 
 Mystical leanings, Comenius's, 49, 
 
 213. 
 
 NATURALISTIC Realism, Com- 
 enius the true founder of, 229. 
 
 Nature, movement towards the 
 study of, represented by Bacon, 
 ii ; attitude of the poets to- 
 wards, 12 ; Ludovicus Vives on 
 study of, 37 ; Comenius's view 
 
 of, 37- 
 
 Nature, bent of, in each boy to be 
 encouraged, 112. 
 
 Neglect, uses of a wise, 112. 
 
 Neighbouring nations, languages 
 of, necessary, 120. 
 
 New Testament, in Greek, 210. 
 
 Niclassius, correspondent of Com- 
 enius, 30, n. 
 
 Notation, musical, to be taught, 
 205. 
 
 OBSTACLES and their remedies, 
 102-105. 
 
 Optics, beginnings of, taught in 
 the Mother School, 141. 
 
 Orbis Pictus, 50 ; fullest applica- 
 tion of Comenius's principles, 
 191 ; use of illustrations in, 192, 
 193 ; most popular school-book 
 in Europe, 193.
 
 Index. 
 
 Organisation, general, of a school 
 
 system, 138-154. 
 inner, of a Pansophic 
 
 school, 197-212. 
 Oxenstiern, 44. 
 
 PAGAN authors, caution in using, 
 130. 
 
 Paliurus, correspondent of Com- 
 enius, 30, n. 
 
 Pansophia, Comenius's conception 
 of, 38. 
 
 Pansophics Prceludium, 41. 
 
 Pansophice Diatyposis, 46. 
 
 Pansophic school, inner organisa- 
 tion of, 197-212. 
 
 Pansophy, or universal wisdom, 
 first part of Magna Didactica, 
 71 ; the temple of Christian, 72 ; 
 its seven different divisions, 73. 
 
 Paradisus Juventuti Christiana 
 reducendus, the school as a 
 spiritual society, 60. 
 
 Parsing, not to be pressed in 
 beginning Latin, 177. 
 
 Patak, Comenius's voluminous 
 work at, 50 ; Seminary at, to be 
 an imitation of a Latin state, 
 50 ; farewell address to school 
 at, S3- 
 
 People, schools for the, the child of 
 the Reformation, 5 ; Comenius 
 first taught in one of them, 21 ; 
 
 Pestalozzi, anticipated by Com- 
 enius, 224. 
 
 Petrarch, i, 3. 
 
 Philosophy, to introduce a better, 
 into school work, one of three 
 chief objects of school reform, 52. 
 
 Physicians, Greek and Arabic 
 necessary languages for, 120. 
 
 Physics, Comenius on the reform- 
 ing of, 39 ; taught in the Gym- 
 nasium, 149 ; rudiments of, 
 
 taught in the Mother School, 
 
 140. 
 Pictures and emblems, walls of 
 
 school to be hung with, 204, 208, 
 
 209, 210, 2ii ; reading-books to 
 
 be full of, do. ; see Diagrams ; 
 
 school-books with, advocated, 
 
 162. 
 
 Piety, method as applied to, 128. 
 Plants, advantages of collections 
 
 of, to the pupils, 101. 
 Plato, to be taught by an epitome, 
 
 218. 
 Pliny quoted, 58 ; to be studied 
 
 in highest class for natural 
 
 science, 171. 
 Pleasantness, how insured, in 
 
 learning, 168. 
 Poetry, taste for, may be laid in 
 
 the Mother School, 142. 
 Poland, its extent in the time of 
 
 Comenius, 20. 
 Polity, book of, in Reformed 
 
 Church of Scotland, exemplifies 
 
 union of theological with philan- 
 thropic spirit, 5. 
 Polity, something of, may be 
 
 taught in the Mother School, 142. 
 Port a Sapientite reserata, 40. 
 Prayer, defined, 128. 
 Precepts of manners, written for 
 
 the Patak school, 51. 
 Primary school ; see Vernacular 
 
 School. 
 
 Primer, Latin, see Vestibulum. 
 Printing Press, the Living, ana- 
 logy with schools, 60. 
 Prodromus Pansopkics, 41. 
 Progress, only those pupils who 
 
 have made equal, to be admitted 
 
 to the same class, 136. 
 Promptuarium Catholicon, the 
 
 Dictionary for Students in the 
 
 fourth stage, 124.
 
 Index. 
 
 237 
 
 Prophecy, modern, work on fulfil- 
 ment of, 49. 
 
 Proportion, necessity of observing, 
 in teaching, 97 ; of teachers to 
 taught, 99, 105. 
 
 Pseudo-students, not to be toler- 
 ated in University, 152. 
 
 Punishment, by stripes reserved 
 for moral offences, 128. 
 
 Pupils, much to be learned by the 
 teacher from, 170. 
 
 OUICKNESS, how insured, in learn- 
 ing, 168. 
 Quintilian quoted, 117. 
 
 RANKE quoted, 7. 
 
 Ratich, Wolfgang von, Comen- 
 ius's predecessor, 14-17 ; his 
 scheme favourably received by 
 Universities of Jena and Giessen, 
 24, 30, 155 ; on the teaching of 
 grammar, 162. 
 
 Raumer, von, 15, 36 ; his char- 
 acter of Comenius, 65. 
 
 Reading, to be taught with writing, 
 no, in. 
 
 the vernacular, one of the 
 
 ' Arts ' with Comenius, 116. 
 
 Realism, true and false, 13, 14 ; its 
 province in education, 221 ; 
 Comenius's thoroughgoing, in 
 education, 73. 
 
 Reformation, the, gave rise to 
 schools for the people, 5, 21. 
 
 Reformers, educational spirit of, 
 218. 
 
 Religion furnished motive of edu- 
 cation 350 years ago, 8; does 
 so still, 8. 
 
 (and morals), the final aim 
 
 of all Comenius's teaching, 60. 
 
 rules for educating children 
 
 in, 129-131 ; beginnings of, to 
 
 be taught in the Mother School, 
 142 ; exercises of, in schools, 
 205 ; always prominent in Com- 
 enius's scheme, 213. 
 
 Renascence, characteristics of the, 
 1-14, 20. 
 
 Repetition of lessons, advantages 
 of, 148, 167. 
 
 Republic, ideal Latin school, de- 
 scribed, 50, 51. 
 
 Research, scientific, endowment 
 of, 153- 
 
 Rhetoric, included in Jesuits' 
 course, 7, 109 ; one of the ' Arts,' 
 116 ; rudiments of, how acquired 
 in a Mother School, 142 ; in the 
 Gymnasium, 149. 
 
 Ritter, on teaching of Latin, 
 29. 
 
 Rivalry, advantages of, 100, 105. 
 
 Roman Catholic Church, its atti- 
 tude towards the scholastic 
 changes of the revival, 6 ; founds 
 the order of the Jesuits, 7. 
 
 ' Roman Cities,' schools which 
 should be, 173. 
 
 SANCTIUS, on waste of time in 
 
 learning Latin, 24, 29. 
 Saxony, remodelled school code 
 
 of, in 1773. 
 Schmidt, 15. 
 Schola ludus, Comenius's, quoted, 
 
 24-25 ; 50. 
 Schola Pansophica, or Universally 
 
 Sapientiee Officina, 50. 
 Schola Pansophicce classibus septem 
 
 adornandtz Delineatio, 50. 
 Schola Scholarum, for scientific 
 
 research, desirableness of, 153. 
 School, vernacular, should be 
 
 formed in every village, 138. 
 Schools of his own day, criticism 
 
 on, by Comenius, 23.
 
 2 3 8 
 
 Index. 
 
 Schools should be workshops of 
 humanity (' officina hominum '), 
 79 ; too often torture-chambers, 
 80. 
 
 School-instruction identical with 
 language-instruction in i5th and 
 i6th centuries, 155. 
 
 School-reform, three chief objects 
 of, 52. 
 
 Schoolmasters, the torturers of 
 boys, 161. 
 
 Scientific research, how to be en- 
 couraged, 153. 
 
 Scioppius, opposed to cumbrous 
 rules of Grammar, 160. 
 
 Scotland, carries out educational 
 programme of Reformation and 
 the Humanists, 9. 
 
 Seneca quoted, 58, 101, 124. 
 
 Senses, advantage of teaching 
 through the, 93, 100, 106, 114 ; 
 external, will be exercised chiefly 
 in Mother or Infant Schools, 
 139 ; inner, in vernacular school, 
 
 139- 
 
 Seyffart, ., 26. 
 Singing, one of the ' Arts ' with 
 
 Comenius, 116. 
 Skyte, John, of Upsala, 44. 
 Society, regeneration of, Com- 
 
 enius's inspiring motive, 217. 
 Solidity, how insured in learning, 
 
 169. 
 Specialisation, danger of too 
 
 great, 72. 
 Sports, all kinds of, approved 
 
 of, 143. 
 Statics, rudiments of, to be taught 
 
 in Mother School, 141. 
 Strassnick, school of, 21. 
 Sturm, John, of Strasburg, 6 ; 
 
 Jesuits adopt best parts of his 
 
 methods in their schools, 7 ; his 
 
 influence on grammar schools, 
 
 9 ; on waste of time in learning 
 Latin, 24, 29. 
 
 Style, importance attached to, by 
 the early Humanists, 2 ; faults of 
 cultivating for itself, 7 ; to im- 
 prove, weekly letters among the 
 pupils, 205. 
 
 Syncretism (theuseof Analogy), asa 
 method of ascertaining truth, 56. 
 
 Synthesis, as a method of ascer- 
 taining truth, 56. 
 
 TABLE, public, for poor scholars, 
 200. 
 
 Tassius, Adolph, quoted, 41. 
 
 Technical Schools, properly so- 
 called, 116. 
 
 Text-books, improvement in, chief 
 benefit to youth from revival of 
 letters, 3 ; those that require to 
 be written, 150 ; good, essential 
 to the teacher, 164 ; Comenius's 
 own, 174-196 ; Greek, 195 ; 
 Hebrew, 196. 
 
 Theologians, Greek and Hebrew 
 necessary languages for, 120. 
 
 Thirty Years' War, 20, 26. 
 
 Time-table, 206. 
 
 Topfer (potter), the family name 
 of Comenius, 19. 
 
 Traditio Lampadis, in his work, 
 Comenius passes on his didactic 
 mission to others, 61. 
 
 Transylvania, reform of schools in, 
 
 49- 
 Travel, with a view to education, 
 
 153- 
 
 Trotzendorf, Valentine, his aim in 
 education, 6 ; Jesuits adopt best 
 parts of his methods in their 
 schools, 7. 
 
 Turkish, Comenius's wish to trans- 
 late the Bible into, 64. 
 
 Typographeum Vivum, 60.
 
 Index. 
 
 239 
 
 UNITY of Protestant Christendom, 
 
 Comenius's desire for, 64. 
 Universities, Aristotelian physics, 
 
 metaphysics, and the scholastic 
 
 philosophy in the, 10. 
 University, should be found in 
 
 every kingdom or large province, 
 
 138- 
 (Academia), the Idea of, 
 
 I5I-I53- 
 
 Unum necessarium (' the one thing 
 needful '), Comenius's last work, 
 64. 
 
 VACATION, Christmas, etc., 207. 
 
 Varro, to be studied for Econo- 
 mics, 171. 
 
 Ventilabrum Sapientia, etc., a 
 critical survey of all he had 
 written, 56. 
 
 Vernacular, teacher to use same, 
 as the pupil, 91 ; a necessary 
 language, 120 ; demands more 
 time than any other language, 
 121 ; more important than Latin, 
 
 MS- 
 
 Vernacular-Latin Lexicon, should 
 be constructed by boys for them- 
 selves, 184. 
 
 Vernacular school, object and 
 scope of, 145-148. 
 
 Verse-making, not commended, 
 
 Vestibttlum, Comenius's, 35, 47, n. 
 (Latin Primer) Comenius's 
 
 first text-book, 174-177 ; second 
 edition of, 177-180 ; to be gone 
 through ten times, 187. 
 
 Virtues, the four Cardinal, 125. 
 
 Vitruvius, to be studied for Archi- 
 tecture, 171. 
 
 Vives, Ludovicus, 3, 12 ; on waste 
 of time in learning Latin, 24, 36. 
 
 Vocabularies, preferred to Diction- 
 aries for beginners, 124. 
 
 Vossius, on teaching of Latin, 29 ; 
 opposed to cumbrous rules of 
 grammar, 160. 
 
 WET nurses denounced, 144. 
 Winkler, George, correspondent 
 
 of Comenius, 30, . 
 Words versus things, 99, 101. 
 
 to be taught with things, 
 
 no, 160, 163, 222. 
 Writing, one of the ' Arts ' with 
 
 Comenius, 116. 
 Writings on Physics, Theology, 
 
 and Ecclesiastical affairs, list 
 
 of, 65. 
 on Educational and Pan- 
 
 sophic subjects, 66-68. 
 Wycliffe, 3. 
 
 ZEROTIN, Karl von, protects Com- 
 enius, 26.
 
 PRINTED BY T. AND A. CONSTABLE, PRINTERS TO HER MAJESTY, 
 AT THE EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY PRESS.
 
 A LIST OF 
 
 C. KEGAN PAUL AND CO.'S 
 PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 7 .8i.
 
 I, Paternoster Square, London. 
 
 A LIST OF 
 
 C KEGAN PAUL AND CO.'S 
 PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 ADAMS (F. O.), F.R.G.S. 
 The History of Japan. From 
 the Earliest Period to the Present 
 Time. New Edition, revised, a 
 volumes. With Maps and Plans. 
 Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 21*. each. 
 
 ADAMS (W. D.). 
 Lyrics of Love, from Shake- 
 speare to Tennyson. Selected and 
 arranged by. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth extra, 
 gilt edges, price y. 6d. 
 
 ADAMSON (H. T.), B.D. 
 The Truth as it is in Jesus. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 8s. 6d. 
 
 The Three Sevens. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 6rf. 
 
 A. K. H. B. 
 From a Quiet Place. A New 
 
 Volume of Sermons. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 ALBERT (Mary). 
 Holland and her Heroes to 
 the year 1585. An Adaptation from 
 Motley's " Rise of the Dutch Re- 
 public." Small crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price, 4.1 . f>d. 
 
 ALLEN (Rev. R.), M.A. 
 Abraham ; his Life, Times, 
 
 and Travels, 3,800 years ago. Se- 
 cond Edition. With Map. Post 
 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 ALLEN (Grant), B.A. 
 
 Physiological Esthetics. 
 
 Large post 8vo. 9*. 
 ALLIES (T. W.), M.A. 
 
 Per Crucem ad Lucem. The 
 
 Result of a Life. 2 vols. Demy 8vo. 
 
 Cloth, price 351. 
 
 A Life's Decision. Crown 
 STO. Cloth, price js. 6d. 
 
 AMATEUR. 
 
 A Few Lyrics. Small crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price zs. 
 
 ANDERSON (Col. R. P.). 
 Victories and Defeats. An 
 
 Attempt to explain the Causes which 
 have led to them. An Officer's 
 Manual. DemySvo. Cloth, price 141. 
 
 ANDERSON (R. C.), C.E. 
 Tables for Facilitating the 
 Calculation of every Detail in 
 connection with Earthen and 
 Masonry Dams. Royal 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 2 2S. 
 
 Antiope. A Tragedy. Large 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 ARCHER (Thomas). 
 About my Father's 
 
 Business. Work amidst the Sick, 
 the Sad, and the Sorrowing. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price zs. 6d. 
 
 ARMSTRONG (Richard A.),B. A. 
 Latter-Day Teachers. Six 
 Lectures. Small crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price xs . 6d. 
 
 Army of the North German 
 Confederation. 
 
 A Brief Description of its Organi- 
 zation, of the Different Branches 
 of the Service and their r6U in War, 
 of its Mode of Fighting, &c. &c. 
 Translated from the Corrected Edi- 
 tion, by permission of the Author, by 
 Colonel Edward Newdigate. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price 5.1. 
 
 ARNOLD (Arthur). 
 Social Politics. Demy 8vo. 
 
 Cloth, price 14^. 
 
 Free Land. 
 
 Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 Crown 8vo.
 
 A List of C. Kegan Paul &> Co.'s Publications. 
 
 AUBERTINCJ.J-). 
 
 Camoens' Lusiads. Portu- 
 guese Text, with Translation by. 
 With Map and Portraits. 2 vols. 
 Demy Svo. Price 30*. 
 
 Seventy Sonnets of Ca- 
 moens'. Portuguese text and trans- 
 lation, with some original poems. 
 Dedicated to Captain Richard F. 
 Burton. Printed on hand-made paper. 
 Cloth, bevelled boards, gilt top, 
 price ?s. 6d. 
 
 Aunt Mary's Bran Pie. 
 
 By the author of " St. Olave's." 
 Illustrated. Cloth, price 3*. 6d. 
 
 AVIA. 
 The Odyssey of Homer 
 
 Done into English Verse. Fcap. 
 4to. Cloth, price 15$. 
 
 BADGER(George Perry), D.C.L. 
 An English-Arabic Lexi- 
 con. In which the equivalents for 
 English words and idiomatic sen- 
 tences are rendered into literary and 
 cojloquial Arabic. Royal 410. Cloth, 
 price 9 gs. 
 
 BAGEHOT (Walter). 
 Some Articles on the De- 
 preciation of Silver, and Topics 
 connected with it. Demy Svo. Price 
 5*- 
 
 The English Constitution. 
 
 A New Edition, Revised and 
 Corrected, with an Introductory 
 Dissertation on Recent Changes and 
 Events. Crown Svo. Cloth, price 
 
 Lombard Street. A 
 
 Description of the Money Market. 
 Seventh Edition. Crown Svo. Cloth, 
 price ^s. f>d. 
 
 BAGOT (Alan). 
 Accidents in Mines : their 
 
 Causes and Prevention. Crown Svo. 
 Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 BAKER (Sir Sherston, Bart.). 
 Halleck's International 
 
 Law ; or Rules Regulating the 
 Intercourse of States in Peace and 
 War. A New Edition, Revised, with 
 Notes and Cases. 2 vols. Demy 
 Svo. Cloth, pnce 38*. 
 
 BAKER (Sir Sherston, Bart.} 
 continued. 
 
 The Laws relating to Qua- 
 rantine. Crown Svo. Cloth, price 
 i2s. 6d. 
 
 BALDWIN (Capt. J. H.), F.Z.S. 
 The Large and Small Game 
 of Bengal and the North-West- 
 ern Provinces of India. 410. With 
 numerous Illustrations. Second Edi- 
 tion. Cloth, price ais. 
 
 BANKS (Mrs. G. L.). 
 God's Providence House. 
 
 New Edition. Crown Svo. Cloth, 
 price 3.1. 6d. 
 
 Ripples and Breakers. 
 
 Poems. Square Svo. Cloth, price 51. 
 BARLEE (Ellen). 
 Locked Out : a Tale of the 
 
 Strike. With a Frontispiece. Royal 
 161110. Cloth, price is. 6d. 
 
 BARNES (William). 
 An Outline of English 
 Speechcraft. Crown Svo. Cloth, 
 price 4.?. 
 
 Poems of Rural Life, in the 
 Dorset Dialect. New Edition, 
 complete in i vol. Crown Svo. Cloth, 
 price 8s. 6d. 
 
 Outlines of Redecraft 
 
 (Logic). With English Wording. 
 Crown Svo. Cloth, price 3*. 
 
 BARTLEY (George C. T.). 
 Domestic Economy : Thrift 
 in Every Day Life. Taught in 
 Dialogues suitable for Children of 
 all ages. Small crown Svo. Cloth, 
 limp, 2S. 
 
 BAUR (Ferdinand), Dr. Ph. 
 A Philological Introduction 
 to Greek and Latin for Students. 
 Translated and adapted from the 
 German of. By C. KKGAN PAUL, 
 M.A. Oxon., and the Rev. E. D. 
 STONE, M.A., late Fellow of King's 
 College, Cambridge, and Assistant 
 Master at Eton. Second and re- 
 vised edition. Crown Svo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 BAYNES (Rev. Canon R. H.). 
 At the Communion Time. 
 A Manual for Holy Communion. 
 With a preface by the Right Rev.
 
 A List of 
 
 BAYNES (Rev. Canon R. H.) 
 continued. 
 
 the Lord Bishop of Derry and 
 Raphoe. Cloth, price is. 6d. 
 
 *** Can also be had bound in 
 French morocco, price zs . 6d. ; Per- 
 sian morocco, price y. ; Calf, or 
 Turkey morocco, price 3$ . 6d. 
 
 BELLINGH AM (Henry), Barris- 
 ter-at-Law. 
 
 Social Aspects of Catholi- 
 cism and Protestantism in their 
 Civil Bearing upon Nations. 
 Translated and adapted from the 
 French of M. le Baron de Haulle- 
 ville. With a Preface by His Emi- 
 nence Cardinal Manning. Second 
 and cheaper edition. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 3.1. 6d. 
 BENNETT (Dr. W. C.). 
 Narrative Poems&Ballads. 
 Fcap. 8vo. Sewed in Coloured Wrap- 
 per, price is. 
 
 Songs for Sailors. Dedicated 
 by Special Request to H. R. H. the 
 Duke of Edinburgh. With Steel 
 Portrait and Illustrations. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 35. fid. 
 
 An Edition in Illustrated Paper 
 Covers, price i*. 
 
 Songs of a Song Writer. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6*. 
 
 BENT 0- Theodore). 
 Genoa. How the Republic 
 Rose and Fell. With 18 Illustra- 
 tions. Demy 8vo. Cloth, price i&s. 
 
 BETHAM - EDWARDS (Miss 
 M.). 
 
 Kitty. With a Frontispiece. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 BEVINGTON (L. S.). 
 Key Notes. Small crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 Blue Roses ; or, Helen Mali- 
 nofska's Marriage. By the Author 
 of"VeYa." 2 vols. Fifth Edition. 
 Cloth, gilt tops, i2S. 
 
 * Also a Cheaper Edition in i 
 vol. With Frontispiece. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 BLUME (Major W.). 
 The Operations of the 
 
 German Armies in France, from 
 Sedan to the end of the war of 1870- 
 
 BLUME (Major "W .) continued. 
 71. With Map. From the Journals 
 of the Head-quarters Staff. Trans- 
 lated by the late E. M. Jones, Maj. 
 20th Foot, Prof, of Mil. Hist., Sand- 
 hurst. Demy 8vo. Cloth, price gs. 
 
 BOGUSLAWSKI (Capt. A. von). 
 Tactical Deductions from 
 
 the War of 1870-71. Translated 
 by Colonel Sir Lumley Graham, 
 Bart., late i8th (Royal Irish) Regi- 
 ment. Third Edition, Revised and 
 Corrected. Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 
 7*- 
 
 BONWICK(J.), F.R.G.S. 
 Egyptian Belief and Mo- 
 dern Thought. Large post 8vo. 
 Cloth, price los. 6d. 
 Pyramid Facts and Fan- 
 cies. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 51. 
 The Tasmanian Lily. With 
 Frontispiece. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price $i. 
 
 Mike Ho we , the Bushranger 
 of Van Diemen's Land. With 
 Frontispiece. New and cheaper 
 edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 
 3*. 6d. 
 
 BOWEN (H.C.), M.A. 
 English Grammar for Be- 
 ginners. Fcap.Svo. Cloth, price is. 
 
 Studies in English, for the 
 use of Modern Schools. Small crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price i*. 6d. 
 
 Simple English Poems. 
 English Literature for Junior Classes. 
 In Four Parts. Parts I. and II., price 
 6d. each, now ready. 
 BOWRING (Sir John). 
 Autobiographical Recollections. 
 With Memoir by Lewin B. Bowring. 
 Demy Svo. Price us, 
 
 Brave Men's Footsteps. 
 
 By the Editor of " Men who have 
 Risen." A Book of Example and 
 Anecdote for Young People. With 
 Four Illustrations by C. Doyle. 
 Sixth Edition. Crown Svo. Cloth, 
 price 3$. 6d. 
 
 BRIALMONT (Col. A.). 
 Hasty Intrenchments. 
 Translated by Lieut. Charles A. 
 Empson, R. A. With Nine Plates. 
 Demy Svo. Cloth, price 6*.
 
 C. Kcgan Paul &* Co.'s Publications, 
 
 BRIDGETT (Rev. J. E.). 
 History of the Holy Eucha- 
 rist in Great Britain. 2 vols., 
 demy 8vo. Cloth, price i&s. 
 
 BRODRICK (The Hon. G. C.). 
 Political Studies. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price 145. 
 
 BROOKE (Rev. S. A.), M. A. 
 
 The Late Rev. F. W. Ro- 
 bertson, M. A., Life and Letters 
 of. Edited by. 
 
 I. Uniform with the Sermons. 
 3 vols. With Steel Portrait. Price 
 ^s. 6d. 
 
 II. Library Edition. 8vo. With 
 Portrait. Price iw. 
 
 III. A Popular Edition, in i vol. 
 8vo. Price 6s. 
 
 The Spirit of the Christian 
 Life. A New Volume of Sermons. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 7$. 6d. 
 
 Theology in the English 
 
 PoetS. COWPBR, COLKRIDGB, 
 
 WORDSWORTH, and BURNS. Fourth 
 and Cheaper Edition. Post 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 Christ in Modern Life. 
 Fifteenth and Cheaper Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 Sermons. First Series. 
 Eleventh Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 Sermons. Second Series. 
 Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 7*. 
 
 The Fight of Faith. Ser- 
 mons preached on various occasions. 
 Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 7$. 6d. 
 BROOKE (W. G.), M. A. 
 
 The Public Worship 
 
 Regulation Act. With a Classified 
 Statement of its Provisions, Notes, 
 and Index. Third Edition, Revised 
 and Corrected. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price y. 6d. 
 
 Six Privy Council Judg- 
 ments 1850-1874. Annotated by. 
 Third Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price o*. 
 BROUN (J. A.). 
 
 Magnetic Observations at 
 Trevandrum and Augustia 
 M alley. Vol. I. 4to. Cloth, 
 price 63$. 
 
 The Report from above, separately 
 sewed, price 21*. 
 
 BROWN (Rev. J. Baldwin). 
 The Higher Life. Its Reality, 
 Experience, and Destiny. Fifth and 
 Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price $s. 
 
 Doctrine of Annihilation 
 in the Light of the Gospel 
 of Love. Five Discourses. Third 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 
 2.? . (>d. 
 
 The Christian Policy of 
 Life. A Book for Young Men of 
 Business. New and Cheaper Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 3$. 6d. 
 
 BROWN (J. Croumbie), LL.D. 
 Reboisement in France; or, 
 
 Records of the Replanting of the 
 Alps, the Cevennes, and the Pyre- 
 nees with Trees, Herbage, and Bush. 
 Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 12*. 6d. 
 
 The Hydrology of Southern 
 Africa. Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 
 los. 6d. 
 
 BROWNE (W. R.). 
 The Inspiration of the 
 New Testament. With a Preface 
 by the Rev. I. P. NORRIS, D.D. 
 Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price as. 6d. 
 
 BRYANT (W. C.) 
 Poems. Red-line Edition. 
 
 With 24 Illustrations and Portrait of 
 the Author. Crown 8vo. Cloth extra, 
 price 7$. 6d. 
 
 A Cheaper Edition, with Frontis- 
 piece. Small crown 8 vo. Cloth, price 
 35. 6d. 
 
 BURCKHARDT (Jacob). 
 The Civilization of the Pe- 
 riod of the Renaissance in Italy. 
 Authorized translation, by S. G. C. 
 Middlempre. 2 vols. Demy 8vo. 
 Cloth, price us. 
 
 BURTON (Mrs. Richard). 
 The Inner Life of Syria, 
 Palestine, and the Holy Land. 
 With Maps, Photographs, and 
 Coloured Plates, a vols. Second 
 Edition. Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 24^. 
 ** Also a Cheaper Edition in 
 one volume. Large post 8vo. Cloth, 
 price los. 6d. 
 
 BURTON (Capt. Richard F.). 
 The Gold Mines of Midian 
 and the Ruined Midianite 
 Cities. A Fortnight's Tour in
 
 A List of 
 
 BURTON (Capt. Richard F.)- 
 
 continued. 
 
 North Western Arabia. With nu- 
 merous Illustrations. Second Edi- 
 tion. Demy 8vo. Cloth, price iSs. 
 
 The Land of Midian Re- 
 visited. With numerous illustra- 
 tions on wood and by Chromo- 
 lithography. 2 vols. Demy 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 32$. 
 
 BUSBECQ (Ogier Ghiselin de). 
 His Life and Letters. By 
 
 Charles Thornton Forster, M.D. 
 and F. H. Blackburne Daniell, M.D. 
 2 vols. With Frontispieces. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price 24^. 
 BUTLER (Alfred J.). 
 Amaranth and Asphodel. 
 Songs from the Greek Anthology. 
 
 I. Songs of the Love of Women. 
 
 II. Songs of the Love of Nature. 
 
 III. Songs of Death. IV. Songs of 
 Hereafter. Small crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 2S. 
 
 BYRNNE (E. Fairfax). 
 Milicent. A Poem. Small 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 CALDERON. 
 
 Calderon's Dramas : The 
 Wonder- Working Magician Life is 
 a Dream The Purgatory of St. 
 Patrick. Translated by Denis 
 Florence MacCarthy. Post 8vo. 
 Cloth, price iof. 
 
 CANDUER (H.). 
 The Groundwork of Belief. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price fs. 
 
 CARPENTER (W. B.), M.D. 
 The Principles of Mental 
 Physiology. With their Applica- 
 tions to the Training and Discipline 
 of the Mind, and the Study of its 
 Morbid Conditions. Illustrated. 
 Fifth Edition. 8vo. Cloth, price 121. 
 
 CARPENTER (Dr. Philip P.). 
 His Life and Work. Edited 
 
 by his brother, Russell Lant Car- 
 penter. With portrait and vignette. 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price js. (>d. 
 
 CAVALRY OFFICER. 
 Notes on Cavalry Tactics, 
 Organization, &c. With Dia- 
 grams DemySvo. Goth, price ias. 
 
 CERVANTES. 
 The Ingenious Knight Don 
 
 ?uixote de la Mancha. A New 
 ranslation from the Originals of 
 1605 and 1608. By A. J. Duffield. 
 With Notes. 3 vols. demy 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 42s. 
 
 CHAPMAN (Hon. Mrs. E. W.). 
 A Constant Heart. A Story. 
 2 vols. Cloth, gilt tops, price n*. 
 
 CHEYNE (Rev. T. K.). 
 The Prophecies of Isaiah. 
 
 Translated, with Critical Notes and 
 Dissertations by. Two vols., demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price 255. 
 
 Children's Toys, and some 
 
 Elementary Lessons in General 
 Knowledge which they teach. Illus- 
 trated. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price $s. 
 
 Clairaut's Elements of 
 Geometry. Translated by Dr. 
 Kaines, with 145 figures. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 4$. fie/. 
 
 CLARKE (Mary Cowden). 
 Honey from the Weed. 
 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price ys. 
 
 CLAYDEN (P. W.). 
 England under Lord Bea- 
 
 consfield. The Political History of 
 the Last Six Years, from the end of 
 1873 to the beginning of 1880. Se- 
 cond Edition. With Index, and 
 Continuation to March, 1880. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price i6s. 
 
 CLERY(C.), Lieut.-Col. 
 Minor Tactics. With 26 
 Maps and Plans. Fifth and Revised 
 Edition. DemySvo. Cloth, price i6s. 
 
 CLODD (Edward), F.R.A.S. 
 The Childhood of the 
 World : a Simple Account of Man 
 in Early Times. Sixth Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 3*. 
 
 A Special Edition for Schools. 
 Price is. 
 
 The Childhood of Reli- 
 gions. Including a Simple Account 
 of the Birth and Growth of Myths 
 and Legends. Third Thousand. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 A Special Edition for Schools 
 Price if. (>d.
 
 C. Kegan Paul 6- Co?s Publications. 
 
 CLODD (Edward), F.R.A.S. 
 continued. 
 
 Jesus of Nazareth. With a 
 
 brief Sketch of Jewish History to 
 the Time of His Birth. Small 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 COGHLAN (J. Cole), D.D. 
 The Modern Pharisee and 
 other Sermons. Edited by the 
 Very Rev. A. H. Dickinson, D.D., 
 Dean of Chapel Royal, Dublin. New 
 and cheaper edition. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 7*. 6d. 
 
 COLERIDGE (Sara). 
 
 Pretty Lessons in Verse 
 
 for Good Children, with some 
 Lessons in Latin, in Easy Rhyme. 
 A New Edition. Illustrated. Fcap. 
 8vo. Cloth, price 3*. 6d. 
 Phantasmion. A Fairy Tale. 
 
 With an Introductory Preface by the 
 Right Hon. Lord Coleridge, of 
 Ottery St. Mary. A New Edition. 
 Illustrated. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price ^I. tut. 
 
 Memoir and Letters of Sara 
 Coleridge. Edited by her Daughter. 
 Cheap Edition. With one Portrait. 
 Cloth, price js. 6d. 
 COLLINS (Mortimer). 
 The Secret of Long Life. 
 
 Small crown 8vo. Cloth, price 3.1. 6d. 
 
 Inn of Strange Meetings, 
 
 and other Poems. Crown 8vo. 
 
 Cloth, price 5^. 
 COLOMB (Colonel). 
 
 The Cardinal Archbishop. 
 
 A Spanish Legend in twenty-nine 
 
 Cancions. Small crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 
 price 5$. 
 CONNELL (A. K.). 
 
 Discontent and Danger in 
 
 India. Small crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 
 price js. f>d. 
 CONWAY (Hugh). 
 
 A Life's Idylls. Small crown 
 
 8vo. Cloth, price 3.1. fid. 
 
 COOKE(Prof.J. P.) 
 Scientific Culture. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price if. 
 
 COOPER (H. I.). 
 The Art of Furnishing on 
 Rational and /Esthetic Prin- 
 ciples. New and Cheaper Edition. 
 Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price it. dd. 
 
 COPPEE(FransoU). 
 
 L'Exilee. Done into English 
 Verse with the sanction of the Author 
 by I. O. L. Crown 8vo. Vellum, 
 price 51. 
 
 CORFIELD (Prof), M.D. 
 Health. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 CORY (William). 
 A Guide to Modern Eng- 
 lish History. Part I. MDCCCXV. 
 MDCCCXXX. Demy 8vo. Cloth, 
 price gs. 
 
 COURTNEY (W. L.). 
 The Metaphysics of John 
 Stuart Mill. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price $s. f>d. 
 
 COWAN (Rev. William). 
 Poems : Chiefly Sacred, in- 
 cluding Translations from some 
 Ancient Latin Hymns, Fcap. 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 COX (Rev. Sir G. W.), Bart. 
 A History of Greece from 
 the Earliest Period to the end of the 
 Persian War. New Edition. 3 vols. 
 Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 36*. 
 
 The Mythology of the 
 Aryan Nations. New Edition, a 
 vols. Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 28*. 
 
 A General History of Greece 
 
 from the Earliest Period to the Death 
 of Alexander the Great, with a sketch 
 of the subsequent History to the 
 present time. New Edition. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price js. 6J. 
 
 Tales of Ancient Greece. 
 
 New Edition. Small crown 8vo 
 Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 School History of Greece. 
 
 With Maps. New Edition. Fcap 
 8vo. Cloth, price 3*. 64. 
 
 The Great Persian War 
 
 from the Histories of Herodotus. 
 New Edition. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, 
 price y. 6d. 
 A Manual of Mythology 
 
 in the form of Question and Answer 
 New Edition. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 3*. 
 
 An Introduction to the 
 Science of Comparative My- 
 thology and Folk-Lore. Large 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price of.
 
 A List of 
 
 COX (Rev. Sir G. W.), Bart., 
 M.A., and EUSTACE H1N- 
 TON JONES. 
 Popular Romances of the 
 
 Middle Ages. Second Edition in 
 one volume. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6*. 
 
 COX (Rev. Samuel). 
 A Commentary on the Book 
 of Job. With a Translation. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price 15*. 
 
 Salvator Mundi ; or, Is 
 
 Christ the Saviour of all Men? Sixth 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price $s. 
 
 The Genesis of Evil, and 
 other Sermons, mainly Expository. 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 CRAUFURD(A. H.). 
 
 Seeking for Light : Sermons. 
 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 51. 
 CRAVEN (Mrs.). 
 
 A Year's Meditations. 
 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 CRAWFURD (Oswald). 
 Portugal, Old and New. 
 With Illustrations and Maps. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price i6s. 
 
 CRESSWELL (Mrs. G.). 
 The King's Banner. Drama 
 
 in Four Acts. Five Illustrations. 
 4to. Cloth, price iof . dd. 
 
 CROZIER (John Beattie), M.B. 
 The Religion of the Future. 
 Crown Svo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 DALTON (John Neale), M.A., 
 R.N. 
 
 Sermons to Naval Cadets. 
 Preached on board H.M.S. "Bri- 
 tannia." Second Edition. Small 
 crown Svo. Cloth, price 31. 6d. 
 
 D'ANVERS (N. R.). 
 Parted. A Tale of Clouds 
 and Sunshine. With 4 Illustrations. 
 Extra Fcap. Svo. Cloth, price 3*. 6d. 
 
 Little Minnie's Troubles. 
 
 An Every-day Chronicle. With Four 
 Illustrations by W. H. Hughes. 
 Fcap. Cloth, price y. 6d. 
 
 D'ANVERS (N. ^-continued. 
 
 Pixie's Adventures ; or, the 
 Tale of a Terrier. With 21 Illustra- 
 tions. 161110. Cloth, price 4*. 6d. 
 
 Nanny's Adventures ; or, 
 the Tale of a Goat. With 12 Illus- 
 trations. i6mo. Cloth, price 4*. 6d. 
 
 DAVIDSON (Rev. Samuel), D.D., 
 LL.D. 
 
 The NewTestament.trans- 
 lated from the Latest Greek 
 Text of Tischendorf. A New and 
 thoroughly Revised Edition. Post 
 Svo. Cloth, price ioj. 6</. 
 
 Canon of the Bible : Its 
 
 Formation, History, and Fluctua- 
 tions. Third Edition, revised and 
 enlarged. Small crown Svo. Cloth, 
 price st. 
 
 DAVIES (G. Christopher). 
 Rambles and Adventures 
 of Our School Field Club. With 
 Four Illustrations. Crown Svo. 
 Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 DAVIES (Rev. J. L,.), M.A. 
 Theology and Morality. 
 Essays on Questions of Belief and 
 Practice. Crown Svo. Cloth, price 
 ^s. 6d. 
 
 DAVIES (T. Hart.). 
 Catullus. Translated into 
 English Verse. Crown Svo. Clth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 DAWSON (George), M.A. 
 Prayers, with a Discourse 
 on Prayer. Edited by hii Wife. 
 Fifth Edition, Crown Svo. Price 6s. 
 
 Sermons on Disputed 
 Points and Special Occasion*. 
 Edited by his Wife. Third Edition. 
 Crown Svo. Cloth, price 61. 
 
 Sermons on Daily Life and 
 
 Duty. Edited by his Wife. Second 
 Edition. Crown Svo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 DE L'HOSTE (Col. E. P.). 
 The Desert Pastor, Jean 
 
 Jarousseau. Translated from the 
 French of Eugene Pelletan. With a 
 Frontispiece. New Edition. Fcap. 
 Svo. Cloth, price 3*. 6d.
 
 C. Kegan Paul & Co.'s Publications. 
 
 DE REDCLIFFE (Viscount 
 Stratford), P.C., K.Q., G.C.B. 
 Why am I a Christian ? 
 
 Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price y. 
 
 DESPREZ (Philips.). 
 Daniel and John; or, the 
 Apocalypse of the Old and that of 
 the New Testament. Demy 8vo. 
 Cloth, price i. 
 
 DE TOCQUEVILLE (A.). 
 Correspondence and Con- 
 versations of, with Nassau Wil- 
 liam Senior, from 1834 to 1859. 
 Edited by M. C. M. Simpson. 
 vols. Post 8 vo. Cloth, price ait. 
 
 DE VERB (Aubrey). 
 Legends of the Saxon 
 Saints. Small crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 Alexander the Great. A 
 
 Dramatic Poem. Small crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 The Infant Bridal, and 
 other Poems. A New and En- 
 larged Edition. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, 
 price js. 6d. 
 
 The Legends of St. Patrick, 
 and other Poems. Small crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 51. 
 
 St. Thomas of Canterbury. 
 
 A Dramatic Poem. Large fcap. 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 5.1. 
 
 Antar and Zara : an Eastern 
 
 Romance. INISFAIL, and other 
 Poems, Meditative and Lyrical. 
 Fcap. 8vo. Price 6s. 
 
 The Fall of Rora, the 
 Search after Proserpine, _and 
 other Poems, Meditative and Lyrical. 
 Fcap. 8vo. Price 6*. 
 
 DOBELL (Mrs. Horace). 
 Ethelstone, Eveline, and 
 other Poems. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 DOBSON (Austin). 
 Vignettes in Rhyme and 
 
 Vers de Sociiitu. Third Edition. 
 Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 Proverbs in Porcelain. By 
 
 the Author of "Vignettes in Rhyme." 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Dorothy. A Country Story 
 
 in Elegiac Verse. With Preface. 
 Demy 8vo. Cloth, price $s. 
 
 DOWDEN (Edward), LL.D. 
 Shakspere : a Critical Study 
 of his Mind and Art. Fifth Edition. 
 Large post 8vo. Cloth, price 12*. 
 
 Studies in Literature, 1789- 
 
 1877. Large post 8vo. Cloth, price iaf. 
 
 Poems. Second Edition. 
 Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 DOWNTON (Rev. H.), M.A. 
 Hymns and Verses. Ori- 
 ginal and Translated. Small crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 3* . 6d. 
 
 DREWRY(G. O.), M.D. 
 The Common-Sense 
 Management of the Stomach. 
 Fifth Edition. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 2s. 6d. 
 
 DREWRY fO. O.), M.D., and 
 BARTLETT (H. C.), Ph.D., 
 F.C.S. 
 
 Cup and Platter : or, Notes 
 
 on Food and its Effects. New and 
 cheaper Edition. Small Svo. Cloth, 
 price i*. 6d. 
 
 DRUMMOND (Miss). 
 Tripps Buildings. A Study 
 from Life, with Frontispiece. Small 
 crown Svo. Cloth, price y. 6d. 
 
 DUFFIELD(A. J.). 
 Don Quixote. His Critics 
 and Commentators. With a Brief 
 Account of the Minor Works of Mi- 
 guel de Cervantes Saavedra, and a 
 statement of the end and aim of the 
 greatest of them all. A Handy Book 
 for General Readers. Crown Svo. 
 Cloth, price 3$. 6d. 
 
 DU MONCEL (Count). 
 The Telephone, the Micro- 
 phone, and the Phonograph. 
 With 74 Illustrations. Small crown 
 Svo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 DUTT (Tom). 
 
 A Sheaf Gleaned in French 
 Fields. New Edition, with Portrait. 
 Demy Svo. Cloth, price 101. 6J. 
 A 2
 
 10 
 
 A List of 
 
 DU VERNOIS (Col. von Verdy). 
 Studies in leading Troops. 
 
 An authorized and accurate Trans- 
 lation by Lieutenant H. J. T. 
 HUdyard, ?ist Foot. Parts I. and 
 II. Demy 8vo. Cloth, price ^s. 
 
 EDEN (Frederick). 
 The Nile without a 
 
 Dragoman. Second Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price js. 6d. 
 
 EDGEWORTH(F. Y.). 
 Mathematical Psychics: an 
 Essay on the Application of Mathe- 
 matics to Social Science. Demy 
 
 . 8vo. Cloth, price 7*. 6d. 
 
 EDIS (Robert W.). 
 Decoration and Furniture 
 of Town Houses. A series of 
 Cantor Lectures delivered before the 
 Society of Arts, 1880. Amplified 
 and enlarged, with 29 full-page Illus- 
 trations and numerous sketches. 
 Second Edition. Square 8vo. Cloth, 
 price i2S. 6d. 
 
 EDMONDS (Herbert). 
 Well Spent Lives : a Series 
 of Modern Biographies. Crown 8vo 
 Price ss. 
 
 Educational Code of the 
 Prussian Nation, in its Present 
 Form. In accordance with the 
 Decisions of the Common Provincial 
 Law, and with those of Recent 
 Legislation. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price zs. 6J. 
 
 EDWARDS (Rev. Basil). 
 Minor Chords; or, Songs 
 for the Suffering: a Volume of 
 Verse. Fcap. 8yo. Cloth, price 
 31. 6d. ; paper, price 21. 64. 
 
 ELLIOT (Lady Charlotte). 
 Medusa and other Poems. 
 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 ELLIOTT (Ebenezer), The Corn- 
 Law Rhymer. 
 
 Poems. Edited by his Son, 
 the Rev. Edwin Elliott, of St. John's, 
 Antigua. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price i&r. 
 
 ELSDALE (Henry). 
 Studies in Tennyson's 
 Idylls. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 ELYOT (Sir Thomas). 
 The Boke named the Go- 
 
 uernour. Edited from the First Edi- 
 tion of 1531 by Henry Herbert Ste- 
 phen Croft, M.A., Barrister-at-Law. 
 With Portraits of Sir Thomas and 
 Lady Elyot, copied by permission of 
 her Majesty from Holbein's Original 
 Drawings at Windsor Castle. 2 vols. 
 fcap. 410. Cloth, price 50$. 
 
 Epic of Hades (The). 
 
 By the author of " Songs of Two 
 Worlds." Twelfth Edition. Fcap. 
 8vo. Cloth, price -js. 6d. 
 ** Also an Illustrated Edition with 
 seventeen full-page designs in photo- 
 mezzotint by GEORGE R. CHAPMAN. 
 4to. Cloth, extra gilt leaves.price 25^, 
 and a Large Paper Edition, with 
 portrait, price los. dd. 
 
 EVANS (Anne). 
 Poems and Music. With 
 Memorial Preface by Ann Thackeray 
 Ritchie. Large crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 7.?. dd. 
 
 EVANS (Mark). 
 The Gospel of Home Life. 
 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 4*. dd. 
 
 The Story of our Father's 
 
 Love, told to Children. Fourth 
 and Cheaper Edition. With Four 
 Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, 
 price is. 6d. 
 
 A Book of Common Prayer 
 and Worship for Household 
 Use, compiled exclusively from the 
 Holy Scriptures. New and Cheaper 
 Edition. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price it. 
 
 The King's Story Book. 
 
 In three parts. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, 
 
 price is. 6d. each. 
 
 ** Parts I. and II., with eightfllus- 
 
 trations and two Picture Maps, now 
 
 ready. 
 
 EX-CIVILIAN. 
 Life in the Mofussil; or, 
 Civilian Life in Lower Bengal, a 
 vols. Large post 8vo. Price 14*. 
 
 FARQUHARSON (M.). 
 I. Elsie Dinsmore. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 3*. 6tL
 
 C. Kegan Paul & Co.'s Publications. 
 
 ii 
 
 FARQUHARSON 
 
 tinned. 
 
 (M.) con- 
 
 II. Elsie's Girlhood. Crown 
 
 8vo. Cloth, price 3.1. dd. 
 
 III. Elsie's Holidays at 
 Roselands. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 3*. fid. 
 
 FELKIN (H. M.). 
 Technical Education in a 
 Saxon Town. Published for the 
 City and Guilds of London Institute 
 for the Advancement of Technical 
 Education. Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 
 
 2S. 
 
 FIELD (Horace), B.A. Lond. 
 The Ultimate Triumph of 
 Christianity. Small crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 3.1. dd. 
 
 FINN (the late James), M.R.A.S. 
 Stirring Times ; or, Records 
 from Jerusalem Consular Chronicles 
 of 1853 to 1856. Edited and Com- 
 piled by his Widow. With a Preface 
 by the Viscountess STRANGFORD. 
 2 vols. Demy 8vo. Price 30*. 
 
 FLOREDICE(W. H.). 
 A Month among the Mere 
 
 Irish. Small crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 5f. 
 
 Folkestone Ritual Case 
 (The). The Argument, Proceedings 
 Judgment, and Report, revised oy 
 the several Counsel engaged. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price 25*. 
 
 FORM BY (Rev. HenryX 
 Ancient Rome and its Con- 
 nection with the Christian Re- 
 ligion : an Outline of the History of 
 the City from its First Foundation 
 down to the Erection of the Chair 
 of St. Peter, A. p. 42-47. With 
 numerous Illustrations of Ancient 
 Monuments, Sculpture, and Coinage, 
 and of. the Antiquities of the Chris- 
 tian Catacombs. Royal 410. Cloth 
 extra, price 50*. Roxburgh, half- 
 morocco, price 52*. dd. 
 
 FOWLE (Rev. T. W.), M.A. 
 The Reconciliation of Re- 
 ligion and Science. Being Essays 
 on Immortality, Inspiration, Mira- 
 cles, and the Being of Christ Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price ior. dd. 
 The Divine Legation of 
 Christ. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 7*. 
 
 FRASER (Donald). 
 Exchange Tables of Ster- 
 ling and Indian Rupee Cur- 
 rency, upon a new and extended sys- 
 tem, embracing Values from One 
 Farthing to One Hundred Thousand 
 Pounds, and at Rates progressing, in 
 Sixteenths of a Penny, from is. gd. to 
 is, yl. per Rupee. Royal 8vo. 
 Cloth, price loj. dd. 
 
 FRISWELL (J. Hain). 
 The Better Self. Essays for 
 Home Life. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 One of Two; or, A Left- 
 Handed Bride. With a Frontis- 
 piece. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 35. dd. 
 
 GARDINER (Samuel R.)andJ. 
 BASS MULL1NGER, M.A. 
 Introduction to the Study 
 of English History. Largecrown 
 8vo. Cloth, price QS. 
 
 GARDNER (J.), M.D. 
 Longevity: The Means of 
 Prolonging Life after Middle 
 Age. Fourth Edition, Revised and 
 Enlarged. Small crown 8 vo. Cloth, 
 price 4*. 
 
 GARRETT (E.). 
 By Still Waters. A Story 
 
 for Quiet Hours. With Seven Illus- 
 trations. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 GEBLER (Karl Von). 
 Galileo Galilei and the 
 Roman Curia, from Authentic 
 Sources. Translated with the sanc- 
 tion of the Author, by Mrs. GEORGE 
 STURGK. Demy 8 vo. Cloth, prise 12*. 
 
 GEDDES (James). 
 History of the Administra- 
 tion of John de Witt, Grand Pen- 
 sionary of Holland. Vol. I. 1623 
 1654. Demy STO., with Portrait. 
 Cloth, price 15*. 
 
 GEORGE (Henry). 
 Progress and Poveity. An 
 
 Inquiry into the Cause of Industrial 
 Depressions and of Increase of Want 
 with Increase of Wealth. The Re- 
 medy. Post 8vo. Cloth, price js. dd. 
 
 GILBERT (Mrs.). 
 Autobiography and other 
 Memorials. Edited by Josiah
 
 12 
 
 A List of 
 
 GILBERT (Mrs.) continued. 
 
 Gilbert. Third Edition. With Por- 
 trait and several Wood Engravings. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price js. bd. 
 
 GLOVER (F.), M.A. 
 Exempla Latina. A First 
 
 Construing Book with Short Notes, 
 Lexicon, and an Introduction to the 
 Analysis of Sentences. Fcap. 8vo. 
 Cloth, price zs. 
 
 GODWIN (William). 
 William Godwin: His 
 Friends and Contemporaries. 
 With Portraits and Facsimiles of the 
 handwriting of Godwin and his Wife. 
 By C. Kegan Paul. 2 vols. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price 285. 
 
 The Genius of Christianity 
 Unveiled. Being Essays never 
 before published. Edited, with a 
 Preface, by C. Kegan Paul. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 7$. 6d. 
 
 GOETZE (Capt. A. von). 
 Operations of the German 
 Engineers during the War of 
 1870-1871. Published by Authority, 
 and in accordance with Official Docu- 
 ments. Translated from the German 
 by Colonel G. Graham, V.C., C.B., 
 R.E. With 6 large Maps. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price 21*. 
 
 GOLDSMID(SirFrancis Henry). 
 Memoir of. With Portrait. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price $s. 
 
 GOODENOUGH (Commodore J. 
 G.), R.N.,C.B.,C.M.G. 
 
 Memoir of, with Extracts from 
 his Letters and Journals. Edited by 
 his Widow. With Steel Engraved 
 Portrait. Square 8vo. Cloth, 51. 
 
 ** Also a Library Edition with 
 Maps, Woodcuts, and Steel En- 
 graved Portrait. Square post 8vo. 
 Cloth, price i4J. 
 GOSSE (Edmund W.). 
 Studies in the Literature of 
 Northern Europe. Witha Frontis- 
 piece designed and etched by Alma 
 Tadema. Large post 8vo. Cloth, 
 price i2s. 
 
 New Poems. Crown 8vo. 
 
 Cloth, price js. 6J. 
 
 GOULD (Rev. S. Baring), M.A. 
 Germany, Present and Past. 
 2 Vols. Demy 8vo. Cloth, price us. 
 The Vicar of Morwenstow: 
 a Memoir of the Rev. R. S. Hawker. 
 With Portrait. Third Edition, re- 
 vised. Square post 8 vo. Cloth, los. (xt. 
 
 GRAHAM (William), M.A. 
 The Creed of Science : Re- 
 ligious, Moral, and Social. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price i2S. 
 
 GREENOUGH (Mrs. Richard). 
 Mary Magdalene : A Poem. 
 
 Large post 8vo. Parchment antique, 
 price 6f. 
 
 GRIFFITH (Thomas), A.M. 
 The Gospel of the Divine 
 Life. A Study of the Fourth Evan- 
 gelist. Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 14*. 
 
 GRIMLEY (Rev. H. N.), M.A. 
 Tremadoc Sermons, chiefly 
 on the SPIRITUAL BODY, the UNSEEN 
 WORLD, and the DIVINE HUMANITY. 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 GRUNER(M. L.). 
 Studies of Blast Furnace 
 Phenomena. Translated by L. D. 
 B. Gordon, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price 71. 6d. 
 
 GURNEY(Rev. Archer). 
 Words of Faith and Cheer. 
 
 A Mission of Instruction and Sugges- 
 tion. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price dr. 
 
 Gwen : A Drama in Mono- 
 logue. By the Author of the " Epic 
 of Hades." Second Edition. Fcap. 
 8vo. Cloth, price 5^. 
 
 HAECKEL (Prof. Ernst). 
 The History of Creation. 
 
 Translation revised by Professor E. 
 Ray Lankester, M.A., F.R.S. With 
 Coloured Plates and Genealogical 
 Trees of the various groups of both 
 plants and animals, a vols. Second 
 Edition. Post 8vo. Cloth, price 32*. 
 
 The History of the Evolu- 
 tion of Man. With numerous Il- 
 lustrations. 2 vols. Large post 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 32.5. 
 
 Freedom in Science and 
 Teaching. From the German of
 
 C. Kcgan Paul 6- Go's Publications. 
 
 HAECKEL (Prof. Ernst) con- 
 tinued. 
 
 Ernst Haeckel, with a Prefatory 
 Note by T. H. Huxley, F.R.S. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 HALF-CROWN SERIES. 
 Sister Dora : a Biography. 
 By Margaret Lonsdale. 
 True Words for Brave Men. 
 
 A Book for Soldiers and Sailors. By 
 the late Charles Kingsley. 
 
 An Inland Voyage. By R. 
 
 L. Stevenson. 
 
 Travels with a Donkey. By 
 
 R. L. Stevenson. 
 
 A Nook in the Apennines. 
 
 By Leader Scott. 
 
 Notes of Travel. Being 
 
 Extracts from the Journals of Count 
 Von Moltke. 
 
 Letters from Russia. By 
 
 Count Von Moltke. 
 English Sonnets. Collected 
 and Arranged by J. Dennis. 
 Lyrics of Love from Shake- 
 speare to Tennyson. Selected 
 and Arranged by W. D. Adams. 
 
 London Lyrics. By Frede- 
 rick Locker. 
 
 Home Songs for Quiet 
 Hours. By the Rev. Canon R. H. 
 Baynes. 
 
 Halleck's International 
 
 Law ; or, Rules Regulating the 
 Intercourse of States in Peace and 
 War. A New Edition, revised, with 
 Notes and Cases. By Sir Sherston 
 Baker, Bart. 2 vols. Demy 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 38*. 
 
 HARDY (Thomas). 
 A Pair of Blue Eyes. New 
 
 Edition. With Frontispiece. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 The Return of the Native. 
 
 New Edition. With Frontispiece. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 HARRISON (Lieut. -Col. R.). 
 The Officer's Memoran- 
 dum Book for Peace and War. 
 Third Edition.^ Oblong 32010. roan, 
 with pencil, price 3$. 64. 
 
 HARTINGTON (The Right Hon. 
 the Marquis of), M.P. 
 Election Speeches in 1879 
 and 1880. With Address to the 
 Electors of North-East Lancashire. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 3$. 6d. 
 
 HAWEIS (Rev. H. R.), M.A. 
 Arrows in the Air. Crown 
 8vo. Second Edition. Cloth, price 6s. 
 Current Coin. Materialism 
 The Devil Crime Drunkenness 
 Pauperism Emotion Recreation 
 The Sabbath. Third Edition. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 Speech in Season. Fourth 
 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price gs. 
 
 Thoughts for the Times. 
 
 Eleventh Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price js. 6d. 
 
 Unsectarian Family 
 
 Prayers. New and Cheaper Edition. 
 Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price if. 6d. 
 
 HAWKER (Robert Stephen). 
 The Poetical Works of. 
 
 Now first collected and arranged 
 with a prefatory notice by J. G. 
 Godwin. With Portrait. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price I2J. 
 
 HAWKINS (Edwards Comer- 
 lord). 
 
 Spirit and Form. Sermons 
 preached in the parish church of 
 Leatherhead. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6*. 
 
 HAWTREY (Edward M.). 
 Corydalis. A Story of the 
 Sicilian Expedition. Small crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price y. 6d. 
 
 HAYES (A. H.). 
 New Colorado and the 
 Santa Fe' Trail. With map and 
 60 Illustrations. Crown 8 vo. Cloth, 
 price gs. 
 
 HEIDENHAIN (Rudolf), M.D. 
 Animal Magnetism. Physi- 
 ological Observations. Translated 
 from the Fourth German Edition, 
 by L. C. Wooldridge. With a Pre- 
 face by G. R. Romanes, F.R.S. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 2j. dd. 
 
 HELLWALD (Baron F. von). 
 The Russians in Central 
 Asia. A Critical Examination, 
 down to the present time, of the
 
 A List of 
 
 HELLWALD (Baron F. von) 
 continued. 
 
 Geography and History of Central 
 Asia. Translated by Lieut. -Col. 
 Theodore Wirgman, LL.B. Large 
 post 8vo. With Map. Cloth, 
 price I2.r. 
 
 HELVIG (Major H.). 
 The Operations of the Ba- 
 varian Army Corps. Translated 
 by Captain G. S. Schwabe. With 
 Five large Maps. In a vols. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price 24*. 
 
 Tactical Examples : Vol. I. 
 The Battalion, price 1 5*. Vol. II. The 
 Regiment and Brigade, price IQJ. 64. 
 Translated from the German by Col. 
 Sir Lumley Graham. With numerous 
 Diagrams. Demy 8vo. Cloth. 
 HERFORD (Brooke). 
 The Story of Religion in 
 
 England. A Book for Young Folk. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 HINTON (James). 
 Life and Letters of. Edited 
 by Ellice Hopkins, with an Introduc- 
 tion by Sir W. W. Gull, Bart., and 
 Portrait engraved on Steel by C. H. 
 Jeens. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, &s. (xi. 
 
 Chapters on the Art of 
 Thinking, and other Essays. 
 With an Introduction by Shadworth 
 Hodgson. Edited by C. H. Hinton. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 81. 64. 
 The Place of the Physician. 
 To which is added ESSAYS ON THE 
 LAW OF HUMAN LIFK, AND ON THE 
 RELATION BETWEEN ORGANIC AND 
 INORGANIC WORLDS. Second Edi- 
 tion. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 3* . 64. 
 
 Physiology for Practical 
 Use. By various Writers. With 50 
 Illustration*. Third and cheaper edi- 
 tion. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 51. 
 
 An Atlas of Diseases of the 
 Membrana Tympani. With De- 
 scriptive Text. PostSvo. Price 6 6t. 
 The Questions of Aural 
 Surgery. With Illustrations, a vols. 
 Post 8vo. Cloth, price ixr. 64. 
 The Mystery of Pain. 
 New Edition. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth 
 limp, i*. 
 
 HOCKLEY(W. B.\ 
 Tales of the Zenana ; or, 
 
 A Nuwab's Leisure Hours. By the 
 Author of " Pandurang Hari." With 
 a Preface by Lord Stanley of Alder- 
 ley. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 2is. 
 
 Pandurang Hari; or, Me- 
 moirs of a Hindoo. A Tale of 
 Mahratta Life sixty years ago. With 
 a Preface by Sir H. Bartle E. 
 Frere, G. C. S. I., &c. New and 
 Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 HOFFBAUER (Capt.). 
 The German Artillery in 
 the Battles near Metz. Based 
 on the official reports of the German 
 Artillery. Translated by Capt. E. 
 O. Hollist. With Map and Plans. 
 Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 21*. 
 
 HOLMES (E. G. A.). 
 Poems. First and Second Se- 
 ries. Fcap.Svo. Cloth, pricey, each. 
 
 HOOPER (Mary). 
 Little Dinners : How to 
 Serve them with Elegance and 
 Economy. Thirteenth Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5.1. 
 Cookery for Invalids, Per- 
 sons of Delicate Digestion, and 
 Children. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 
 3*. 64. 
 
 Every -Day Meals. Being 
 
 Economical and Wholesome Recipes 
 for Breakfast, Luncheon, and Sup- 
 per. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price $s. 
 
 HOOPER (Mrs. G.). 
 The House of Raby. With 
 
 a Frontispiece. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 3*. 64. 
 
 HOPKINS (Ellice). 
 Life and Letters of James 
 Hinton, with an Introduction by Sir 
 W. W. Gull, Bart., and Portrait en- 
 graved on Steel by C. H. Jeens. 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth 
 price 8f . 64. 
 
 HOPKINS (M.). 
 The Port of Refuge; or, 
 
 Counsel and Aid to Shipmasters in 
 Difficulty, Doubt, or Distress. Crown 
 8vo. Second and Revised Edition. 
 Cloth, price 6s.
 
 C. Kegan Paul <5^ Co.'s Publications. 
 
 HORNER (The Misses). 
 Walks in Florence. A New 
 
 and thoroughly Revised Edition. 2 
 vols. Crown 8vo. Cloth limp. With 
 Illustrations. 
 
 Vol. 1. Churches, Streets, and 
 Palaces, los. 6d. Vol. II. Public 
 Galleries and Museums. $s. 
 
 Household Readings on 
 Prophecy. By a Layman. Small 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price 3^. 6d. 
 
 HULL (Edmund C. P.). 
 The European in India. 
 With a MEDICAL GUIDB FOR ANGLO- 
 INDIANS. By R. R. S. Mair, M.D., 
 F.R.C.S.E. Third Edition, Revised 
 and Corrected. Post 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 HUTCHISON (Lieut.-Col. F. J.), 
 and Capt.G. H. M ACGREGOR. 
 Military Sketching and Re- 
 connaissance. With Fifteen Plates. 
 Second edition. Small 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 The first Volume of Military Hand- 
 books forRegimental Officers. Edited 
 by Lieut.-Col. C. B. BRACKKNBURY, 
 R.A.. A.A.G. 
 
 HUTTON (Arthur), M.A. 
 The Anglican Ministry. Its 
 
 Nature and Value in relation to the 
 Catholic Priesthood. With a Pre- 
 face by his Eminence Cardinal New- 
 man. Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 14$. 
 
 INCHBOLDQ- W.). 
 
 Annus Amoris. Sonnets. 
 
 Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price 4*. fid. 
 INGELOW (Jean). 
 
 Off the Skelligs. A Novel. 
 
 With Frontispiece. Second Edition. 
 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 The Little Wonder-horn. 
 
 A Second Series of " Stories Told to 
 
 a Child." With Fifteen Illustrations. 
 
 Small Svo. Cloth, price 2s. (td. 
 
 Indian Bishoprics. By an 
 
 Indian Churchman. Demy Svo. 6d. 
 
 International Scientific 
 Series (The). 
 
 I. Forms of Water : A Fami- 
 liar Exposition of the Origin and 
 Phenomena of Glaciers. By J. 
 Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. With 25 
 Illustrations. Seventh Edition. Crown 
 Svo. Cloth, price $s. 
 
 International Scientific 
 Series (The) continued. 
 
 II. Physics and Politics ; or, 
 Thoughts on the Application of the 
 Principles of " Natural Selection " 
 and " Inheritance " to Political So 
 ciety. By Walter Bagehot. Fifth 
 Edition. Crown Svo. Cloth, price 4*. 
 
 III. Foods. By Edward Smith, 
 M.D., &c. With numerous Illus- 
 trations. Seventh Edition. Crown 
 Svo. Cloth, price 5$. 
 
 IV. Mind and Body: The Theo- 
 ries of their Relation. By Alexander 
 Bain, LL.D. With Four Illustra- 
 tions. Tenth Edition. Crown Svo. 
 Cloth, price 4*. 
 
 V. The Study of Sociology. 
 By Herbert Spencer. Tenth Edition. 
 Crown Svo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 VI. On the Conservation of 
 Energy. By Balfour Stewart, 
 LL.D., &c. With 14 Illustrations. 
 Fifth Edition. Crown Svo. Cloth, 
 price 5$. 
 
 VII. Animal Locomotion ; or, 
 Walking, Swimming, and B'lying. 
 By J. B. Pettigrew, M.D., &c. With 
 130 Illustrations. Second Edition. 
 Crown Svo. Cloth, price $s . 
 
 VIII. Responsibility in Mental 
 Disease. By Henry Maudsley, 
 M. D. Third Edition. Crown Svo. 
 Cloth, price $s. 
 
 IX. The New Chemistry. By 
 Professor J. P. Cooke. With 31 Illus- 
 trations. Fifth Edition. Crown Svo. 
 Cloth, price 5s. 
 
 X. The Science of Law. By 
 Prof. Sheldon Amos. Fourth Edition. 
 Crown Svo. Cloth, price $s . 
 
 XI. Animal Mechanism. A 
 Treatise on Terrestrial and Aerial 
 Locomotion. By Prof. E. J. Marey. 
 With 117 Illustrations. Second 
 Edition. Crown Svo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 XII. The Doctrine of Descent 
 and Darwinism. By Prof. Osca 
 Schmidt. With 26 Illustrations. 
 Fourth Edition. Crown Svo. Cloth, 
 price 5*. 
 
 XIII. The History of the Con- 
 flict between Religion and Sci- 
 ence. Bv J. W. Draper, M.D., 
 LL.D. Fifteenth Edition. Crown 
 Svo. Cloth, price 5*.
 
 i6 
 
 A List of 
 
 International Scientific 
 Series ( The) continued. 
 
 XIV. Fungi ; their Nature, In- 
 fluences, Uses, &c. By M. C. 
 Cooke, LL.D. Edited by the Rev. 
 M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S. With nume- 
 rous Illustrations. Second Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5.1. 
 
 XV. The Chemical Effects of 
 Light and Photography. By Dr. 
 Hermann Vogel. With 100 Illustra- 
 tions. Third and Revised Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price y. 
 
 XVI. The Life and Growth of 
 Language. By Prof. William 
 Dwight Whitney. Third Edition 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 55. 
 
 XVII. Money and the Mecha- 
 nism of Exchange. By W. Stan- 
 ley Jevoris, F. R. S. Fourth Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5$. 
 
 XVIII. The Nature of Light : 
 With a General Account of Physical 
 Optics. By Dr. Eugene Lommel. 
 With 1 88 Illustrations and a table of 
 Spectra in Chromo - lithography. 
 Third Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price $s. 
 
 XIX. Animal Parasites and 
 Messmates. By M. Van Beneden. 
 With 83 Illustrations. Second Edi- 
 tion. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price y. 
 
 XX. Fermentation. By Prof. 
 Schutzenberger. With 28 Illustra- 
 tions. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price $s. 
 
 XXI. The Five Senses of Man. 
 By Prof. Bernstein. With 91 Illus- 
 trations. Second Edition. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 5$. 
 
 XXII. The Theory of Sound in 
 its Relation to Music. By Prof. 
 Pietro Blaserna. With numerous 
 Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 XXIII. Studies in Spectrum 
 Analysis. By I. Norman Lockyer. 
 F.R.S. With six photographic Il- 
 lustrations of Spectra, and numerous 
 engravings on wood. Crown 8vo. 
 Second Edition. Cloth, price 6s. 6d. 
 
 XXIV. A History of the Growth 
 of the Steam Engine. By Prof. 
 R. H. Thurston. With numerous 
 Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. dd. 
 
 XXV. Education as a Science. 
 By Alexander Bain, LL.D. Third 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5$. 
 
 International Scientific 
 Series (The) continued. 
 
 XXVI. The Human Species. 
 By Prof. A. de Quatrefages. Third 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5.5. 
 
 XXVII. Modern Chromatics. 
 With Applications to Art and Indus- 
 try, by Ogden N. Rood. Second 
 Edition. With 130 original Illustra- 
 tions. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5$ . 
 
 XXVIII. The Crayfish : an Intro- 
 duction to the Study of Zoology. By 
 Prof. T. H. Huxley. Third edition. 
 With eighty-two Illustrations. Crown 
 
 8vo. Cloth, price 5.?. 
 
 XXIX. The Brain as an Organ 
 of Mind. By H. Charlton Bastian, 
 M.D. With numerous Illustrations. 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 5$. 
 
 XXX. The Atomic Theory. By 
 Prof. Ad. Wurtz. Translated by 
 E. Clemin-Shaw. Second Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price $s. 
 
 XXXI. The Natural Conditions 
 of Existence as they affect Ani- 
 mal Life. By Karl Semper. Second 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 XXXII. General Physiology of 
 Muscles and Nerves. By Prof. 
 J. Rosenthal. Second Edition, with 
 illustrations. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 5.5. 
 
 XXXIII. Sight: an Exposition 
 of the Principles of Monocular 
 and Binocular Vision. By Joseph 
 Le Conte, LL.D. With 132 illustra- 
 tions. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price y. 
 
 XXXIV. Illusions: A Psycho- 
 logical Study. By James Sully 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5.?. 
 
 XXXV. Volcanoes : What they 
 are and What they Teach. By 
 Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S. With 92 
 Illustrations on Wood. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price $s. 
 
 JENKINS (K.) and RAYMOND 
 
 The Architect's Legal 
 Handbook. Third Edition Re- 
 vised. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 JENKINS (Rev. R. C.), M.A. 
 The Privilege of Peter and 
 
 the Claims of the Roman Church 
 confronted with the Scriptures, the 
 Councils, and the Testimony of the 
 Popes themselves. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 33. 6d.
 
 C. Kegan Paul &* Co.'s Publications. 
 
 JENNINGS (Mrs. Vaughan). 
 Rahel : Her Life and Let- 
 ters. With a Portrait from the 
 Painting by Daffinger. Square post 
 8vo. Cloth, price ^s. 6d. 
 
 Jeroveam's Wife and other 
 Poems. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price 
 3*. 6d. 
 
 JOEL (L.). 
 
 A Consul's Manual and 
 Shipowner's and Shipmaster's Prac- 
 tical Guide in their Transactions 
 Abroad. With Definitions of Nauti- 
 cal, Mercantile, and Legal Terms ; 
 a Glossary of Mercantile Terms in 
 English, French, German, Italian, 
 and Spanish. Tables of the Money, 
 Weights, and Measures of the Prin- 
 cipal Commercial Nations and their 
 Equivalents in British Standards ; 
 and Forms of Consular and Notarial 
 Acts. Demy 8vO. Cloth, price 12$. 
 
 JOHNSON (Virginia W.). 
 The Catskill Mountains. 
 
 Illustrated by Alfred Fredericks. 
 Cloth, price 5$. 
 
 JOHNSTONE (C. F.), M.A. 
 Historical Abstracts. Being 
 Outlines of the History of some of 
 the less-known States of Europe. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price js. 6d. 
 
 JONES (Lucy). 
 Puddings and Sweets. Being 
 Three Hundred and Sixty-Five 
 Receipts approved by Experience. 
 Crown 8vo., price is. fid. 
 
 JOYCE (P. W.;), LL.D., &c. 
 Old Celtic Romances. 
 
 Translated from the Gaelic by. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price js. (>d. 
 
 KAUFMANN (Rev. M.), B.A. 
 Utopias; or, Schemes of 
 Social Improvement, from Sir 
 Thomas More to Karl Marx. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 5$. 
 
 Socialism : Its Nature, its 
 Dangers, and its Remedies con- 
 sidered. Crown 8 vo. Cloth, price js.6d. 
 
 KAY (Joseph), M.A., Q.C. 
 Free Trade in Land. 
 Edited by his Widow. With Preface 
 by the Right Hon. John Bright, 
 M. P. Sixth Edition. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 KENT(Carolo). 
 Carona Catholica ad Petri 
 
 succeesoris Pedes Oblata. De 
 Summi Pontificis Leonis XIII. As- 
 sumptione Epiggramma. In Quin- 
 quaginta Linguis. Fcap. 410. Cloth, 
 price 15$. 
 
 KER (David). 
 The Boy Slave in Bokhara. 
 
 A Tale of Central Asia. With Illustra- 
 tions. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 31. fid. 
 
 The Wild Horseman of 
 
 the Pampas. Illustrated. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price y. 6d. 
 
 KERNER (Dr. A.), Professor of 
 Botany in the University of 
 Innsbruck. 
 
 Flowers and theirUnbidden 
 
 Guests. Translation edited by W. 
 OGLK, M.A., M.D., and a prefatory 
 letter by C. Darwin, F. R. S. With Il- 
 lustrations. Sq. 8vo. Cloth, price gs . 
 
 KIDD (Joseph), M.D. 
 The Laws of Therapeutics, 
 
 or, the Science and Art of Medicine. 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 KINAHAN(G. Henry),M.R.I.A., 
 &c., of her Majesty's Geological 
 Survey. 
 
 Manual of the Geology of 
 Ireland. With 8 Plates, 26 Wood- 
 cuts, and a Map of Ireland, geologi- 
 cally coloured. Square 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 15$. 
 
 KING (Mrs. Hamilton). 
 The Disciples. Fourth Edi- 
 tion, with Portrait and Notes. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price ^s. 6d. 
 
 Aspromonte, and other 
 
 Poems. Second Edition. Fcap. 
 8vo. Cloth, price 4*. ftd. 
 
 KING (Edward). 
 Echoes from the Orient. 
 With Miscellaneous Poems. Small 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price 3*. 6W. 
 
 KINGSLEY (Charles), M.A. 
 Letters and Memories of 
 his Life. Edited by his WIFE. 
 With 2 Steel engraved Portraits and 
 numerous Illustrations on Wood, and 
 a Facsimile of his Handwriting.
 
 i8 
 
 A List of 
 
 KINGSLEY (Charles), M.A. 
 continued. 
 
 Thirteenth Edition. 2 vols. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price 36.1. 
 
 ** Also the ninth Cabinet Edition 
 in 2 vols. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 
 Ufi 
 
 All Saints' Day and other 
 Sermons. Second Edition. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, 7*. 6d. 
 True Words for Brave 
 Men : a Book for Soldiers' and 
 Sailors' Libraries. Eighth Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price ss. 6d. 
 
 KNIGHT (Professor W.). 
 Studies in Philosophy and 
 Literature. Large post 8vo. Cloth, 
 price js. 6d. 
 
 KNOX (Alexander A.). 
 The New Playground : or, 
 
 Wanderings in Algeria. Large 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price los. (>d. 
 LACORDAIRE (Rev. Pere). 
 Life : Conferences delivered 
 
 at Toulouse. A New and Cheaper 
 
 Edition. Crown 8 vo. Cloth, price3J.6rf. 
 LAIRD-CLOWES (W.). 
 
 Love's Rebellion : a Poem. 
 
 Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price y. fid. 
 LAMONT (Martha MacDonald). 
 
 The Gladiator : A Life under 
 
 the Roman Empire in the beginning 
 of the Third Century. With four 
 Illustrations by H. M. Paget. Extra 
 fcao. 8vo. Cloth, price 3.1. 6d. 
 
 LANG (A.). 
 
 XXXII Ballades in Blue 
 China. Elzevir. 8vo. Parchment, 
 price 5*. 
 
 LAYMANN (Capt.). 
 The Frontal Attack of 
 Infantry. Translated by Colonel 
 Edward Newdigate. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 2s. 6d. 
 
 LEANDER (Richard). 
 Fantastic Stories. Trans- 
 lated from the German by Paulina 
 B. Granville. With Eight full-page 
 Illustrations by M. E. Fraser-Tytler. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5.1. 
 
 LEE (Rev. F. G.), D.C.L. 
 The Other World; or, 
 Glimpses of the Supernatural. 2 vols. 
 A New Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 15*. 
 
 LEE (Holme). 
 Her Title of Honour. A 
 
 Book for Girls. New Edition. With 
 
 a Frontispiece. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 
 price $s. 
 LEIGH (Arran and Isla). 
 
 Bellerophon. Small crown 
 
 8vo. Cloth, price $s. 
 LEIGHTON (Robert). 
 Records and other Poems. 
 
 With Portrait. Small crown 8vo. 
 
 Cloth, price -js. f>d. 
 LEWIS (Edward Dillon). 
 
 A Draft Code of Criminal 
 
 Law and Procedure. Demy 8vo. 
 
 Cloth, price zis. 
 LEWIS (Mary A.). 
 
 A Rat with Three Tales. 
 
 New and cheaper edition. With 
 Four Illustrations by Catherine F. 
 Frere. Crown 8 vo. Cloth, price 3*. 6d. 
 
 LINDSAY(W. Lauder),M.D.,&c. 
 Mind in the Lower Animals 
 in Health and Disease. 2 vols. 
 Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 32^. 
 
 LLOYD (Francis) and Charles 
 Tebbitt. 
 
 Extension of Empire Weak- 
 ness? Deficits Ruin? With a 
 Practical Scheme for the Reconstruc- 
 tion of Asiatic Turkey. Small crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 3.5. 6d. 
 
 LOCKER (F.). 
 
 London Lyrics. A New and 
 Revised Edition, with Additions and 
 a Portrait of the Author. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, elegant, price 6s. 
 
 LOKI. 
 
 The New Werther. Small 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price is. 6d. 
 
 LORIMER (Peter), D.D. 
 John Knox and the Church 
 of England: His Work in her Pulpit, 
 and his Influence upon her Liturgy, 
 Articles, and Parties. Demy 8vo. 
 Cloth, price i. 
 
 John Wiclif and his 
 English Precursors, by Gerhard 
 Victor Lechler. Translated from 
 the German, with additional Notes. 
 2 vols. Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 21*. 
 
 Love's Gamut and other 
 Poems. Small crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 3$. 6d.
 
 C. Kegan Paul &* Co.'s Publications. 
 
 Love Sonnets of Proteus. 
 
 With frontispiece by the Author. 
 Elzevir 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 LOWNDES (Henry). 
 Poems and Translations. 
 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 LUMSDEN (Lieut.-Col. H.W.). 
 Beowulf. An Old English 
 Poem. Translated into modern 
 rhymes. Small crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 5*. 
 
 MAC CLINTOCK (L.). 
 Sir Spangle and the Dingy 
 Hen. Illustrated. Square crown 
 8vo. , price zs. 6d. 
 
 MACDONALD (G.). 
 Malcolm. With Portrait ot 
 the Author engraved on Steel. Fourth 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. Price 6s. 
 
 The Marquis of Lossie. 
 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 St. George and St. Michael. 
 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 6s. 
 MACKENNA (S. J.). 
 Plucky Fellows. A Book 
 for Boys. With Six Illustrations. 
 Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 3-r. (>d. 
 
 At School with an Old 
 
 Dragoon. With Six Illustrations. 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price $s. 
 
 MACLACHLAN (Mrs.). 
 Notes and Extracts on 
 Everlasting Punishment and 
 Eternal Life, according to 
 Literal Interpretation. Small 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price y. 6d. 
 
 MACLEAN (Charles Donald). 
 Latin and Greek Verse 
 Translations. Small crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price is. 
 
 MACN AUGHT (Rev. John). 
 Ccena Domini: An Essay 
 
 on the Lord's Supper, its Primi- 
 tive Institution, Apostolic Uses, 
 and Subsequent History. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price 14*. 
 MAGNUS (Mrs.). 
 About the Jews since Bible 
 
 Times. From the Babylonian exile 
 till the English Exodus. Small 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 MAGNUSSON (Eirikr), M.A., 
 and PALMER(E.H.), M.A. 
 
 Johan Ludvig Runeberg's 
 Lyrical Songs, Idylls and Epi- 
 grams. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 MAIR (R. S.), M.D., F.R.C.S.E. 
 The Medical Guide for 
 Anglo-Indians. Being a Compen- 
 dium of Advice to Europeans in 
 India, relating to the Preservation 
 and Regulation of Health. With a 
 Supplement on the Management of 
 Children in India. Second Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. Limp cloth, price y. (>d. 
 
 MALDEN (H. E. and E. E.) 
 Princes and Princesses. 
 
 Illustrated. Small crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 2S. (>d. 
 
 MANNING (His Eminence Car- 
 dinal). 
 
 The True Story of the 
 Vatican Council. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 53. 
 
 Marie Antoinette : a Drama. 
 
 Small crown 8vo. Cloth, price $s. 
 
 MARKHAM (Capt. Albert Hast- 
 ings), R.N. 
 
 The Great Frozen Sea. A 
 
 Personal Narrative of the Voyage of 
 the " Alert " during the Arctic Ex- 
 pedition of 1875-6. With six full- 
 page Illustrations, two Maps, and 
 twenty-seven Woodcuts. Fourth 
 and cheaper edition. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 A Polar Reconnaissance : 
 
 being the Voyage of the " Isbjorn " 
 to Novaya Zemlya in 1879. With 
 10 Illustrations. Demy 8vo. Cloth, 
 price i6s. 
 
 MARTINEAU (Gertrude). 
 Outline Lessons on 
 Morals. Small crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 35. 6d. 
 
 Master Bobby : a Tale. By 
 
 the Author of "Christina North." 
 With Illustrations by E. H. BELL. 
 Extra fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price y.f>d. 
 
 MASTERMAN (J.). 
 Half-a-dozen Daughters. 
 With a Frontispiece. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price y. 6d.
 
 20 
 
 A List of 
 
 McQRATH (Terence). 
 Pictures from Ireland. New 
 and cheaper edition. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 2S. 
 
 MEREDITH (George). 
 The Egoist. A Comedy inNar- 
 rative. 3 vols. Crown 8vo. Cloth. 
 
 %* Also a Cheaper Edition, with 
 Frontispiece. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 The Ordeal of Richard Fe- 
 
 verel . AH istory of Father and Son. 
 In one vol. with Frontispiece. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 MERRITT (Henry). 
 Art - Criticism and Ro- 
 mance. With Recollections, and 
 Twenty-three Illustrations in eau- 
 forte, by Anna Lea Merritt. Two 
 vols. Large post 8vo. Cloth, 251. 
 
 MIDDLETON (The Lady). 
 
 Ballads. Square l6mo. Cloth, 
 price y. 6d. 
 
 MILLER (Edward). 
 The History and Doctrines 
 
 of Irvingism ; or, the so-called Ca- 
 tholic and Apostolic Church. 2 vols. 
 Large post 8vo. Cloth, price 25*. 
 
 The Church in Relation to 
 the State. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 
 ^s. 6d. 
 
 MILNE (James). 
 Tables of Exchange for the 
 
 Conversion of Sterling Money into 
 Indian and Ceylon Currency, at 
 Rates from is. &d. to 2*. 3<*. per 
 Rupee. Second Edition. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price .2 2j. 
 
 MINCHIN G. G.). 
 Bulgaria since the War. 
 
 Notes of a Tour in the Autumn of 
 1879. Small crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 3S. 6d. 
 
 MOCKLER (E.). 
 A Grammar of the Baloo- 
 chee Language, as it is spoken in 
 Makran (Ancient Gedrosia), in the 
 Persia-Arabic and Roman characters. 
 Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price $s. 
 
 MOFFAT (Robert Scott). 
 The Economyof Consump- 
 tion; an Omitted Chapterin Political 
 Economy, with special reference to 
 the Questions of Commercial Crises 
 and the Policy of Trades Unions ; 
 and with Reviews of the Theories of 
 Adam Smith, Ricardo, J. S. Mill, 
 Fawcett, &c. Demy 8vo. Cloth, 
 price I&T. 
 
 The Principles of a Time 
 
 Policy : being an Exposition of a 
 Method of Settling Disputes between 
 Employers and Employed in regard 
 to Time and Wages, by a simple Pro- 
 cess of Mercantile Barter, without 
 recourse to Strikes or Locks-out. 
 Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 3*. 6d. 
 M onmouth : A Drama, of which 
 the Outline is Historical. Dedicated 
 by permission to Mr. Henry Irving. 
 Small crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5.1. 
 
 MOORE (Mrs. Bloomfield). 
 Gondaline's Lesson. The 
 
 Warden's Tale, Stories for Children, 
 and other Poems. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price $s. 
 
 MORELL (J. R.). 
 Euclid Simplified in Me- 
 thod and Language. Being a 
 Manual of Geometry. Compiled from 
 the most important French Works, 
 approved by the University of Paris 
 and the Minister of Public Instruc- 
 tion. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price as. 6J, 
 
 MORICE (Rev. P. D.), M.A. 
 The Olympian and Pythian 
 Odes of Pindar. A New Transla- 
 tion in English Verse. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price ^s. 6d. 
 
 MORSE (E. S.), Ph.D. 
 First Book of Zoology. 
 With numerous Illustrations. New 
 and cheaper edition. Crown Svo. 
 Cloth, price 2S. 6d. 
 
 MORSHEAD (E. D. A.) 
 The House of Atreus. 
 
 Being the Agamemnon Libation- 
 Bearers and Furies of jEschylus 
 Translated into English Verse. 
 Crown Svo. Cloth, price 7*. 
 
 MORTERRA (Felix). 
 The Legend of Allandale, 
 and other Poems. Small crown Svo. 
 Cloth, price 6s.
 
 C. Kegan Paul & Go's Publications, 
 
 21 
 
 MUNRO (Major-Gen. Sir Tho- 
 mas), K.C.B., Governor of 
 Madras. 
 Selections from His 
 
 Minutes, and other Official Writings. 
 Edited, with an Introductory Me- 
 moir, by Sir Alexander Arbuthnot, 
 K. C.S.I. ,C.I.E. Two vols. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price 30$. 
 
 NAAKE (J. T.). 
 
 Slavonic Fairy Tales. 
 
 From Russian, Servian, Polish, and 
 Bohemian Sources. With Four Illus- 
 trations. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 55. 
 
 NADEN (Constance W.). 
 Songs and Sonnets of 
 Spring-Time. Small crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 NEWMAN (J. H.), D.D. 
 
 Characteristics from the 
 
 Writings of. Being Selections 
 from his various Works. Arranged 
 with the Author's personal approval. 
 Third Edition. With Portrait. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 ** A Portrait of the Rev. Dr. J. H. 
 Newman, mounted for framing, can 
 be had. price is. 6d. 
 
 NICHOLAS (Thomas), Ph.D., 
 F.G.S. 
 
 The Pedigree of the English 
 People : an Argument, Historical 
 and Scientific, on the Formation and 
 Growth of the Nation, tracing Race- 
 admixture in Britain from the earliest 
 times, with especial reference to the 
 incorporation of the Celtic Abori- 
 gines. Fifth Edition. Demy 8vo. 
 Cloth, price i&r. 
 
 NICHOLSON (Edward Byron). 
 The Christ Child, and other 
 Poems. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 
 
 45. 6d. 
 
 The Rights of an Animal. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 3.$. 6d. 
 The Gospel according to 
 
 the Hebrews. Its Fragments trans- 
 lated and annotated, with a critical 
 Analysis of the External and Internal 
 Evidence relating to it. Demy 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 9-r. fid. 
 
 A New Commentary on 
 the Gospel according to Mat- 
 thew. Demy 8vo. Cloth, price i2j. 
 
 NICOLS (Arthur), F.G.S. , 
 F.R.G.S. 
 
 Chapters from the Physical 
 
 History of the Earth. An Introduc- 
 tion to Geology and Palaeontology, 
 with numerous illustrations. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 5$. 
 
 NOAKE (Major R. Compton). 
 The Bivouac ; or, Martial 
 Lyrist, with an Appendix Advice to 
 the Soldier. Fcap. 8vo. Price 5*. 6d. 
 
 NOEL (The Hon. Roden). 
 A Little Child's Monument. 
 
 Small crown 8vo. Cloth, price 3.5 . 6d. 
 
 NORMAN PEOPLE (The). 
 The Norman People, and 
 their Existing Descendants in the 
 British Dominions and the United 
 States of America. Demy 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 2 if. 
 
 NORRIS (Rev. Alfred). 
 The Inner and Outer Life 
 
 Poems. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 Notes on Cavalry Tactics, 
 
 Organization, &c. By a Cavalry 
 Officer. With Diagrams. DemySvo. 
 Cloth, price I2J. 
 
 Nuces : Exercises on the 
 Syntax of the Public School 
 Latin Primer. New Edition in 
 Three Parts. Crown 8vo. Each i*. 
 %* The Three Parts can also be 
 had bound together in cloth, price 3*. 
 
 OATES (Frank), F.R.G.S. 
 Matabele Land and the 
 Victoria Falls : A Naturalist's 
 Wanderings in the Interior of 
 South Africa. Edited by C. G. 
 Gates, B.A., with numerous illus- 
 trations and four maps. Demy 8vo. 
 Cloth. 
 
 O'BRIEN (Charlotte G.). 
 Light and Shade. 2 vols. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, gilt tops, price 
 12*. 
 
 Ode of Life (The). 
 Third Edition. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, 
 price ss. 
 
 OF THE IMITATION OF 
 CHRIST. Four books. Demy 
 32ino. Limp cloth, price if. 
 ** Also in Various bindings.
 
 22 
 
 A List of 
 
 O'HAGAN (John). 
 The Song of Roland. Trans- 
 lated into English Verse. Large 
 post 8vo. Parchment antique, price 
 IQS. 6d. 
 
 O'MEARA (Kathleen). 
 Frederic Ozanam, Professor 
 of the Sorbonne ; His Life and 
 Works. Second Edition. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price ^s. (>d. 
 Henri Perreyve and His 
 Counsels to the Sick. Small 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5$. 
 
 Our Public Schools. Eton, 
 
 Harrow, Winchester, Rugby, West- 
 minster, Marlborough, The Charter- 
 house. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 OWEN (F. M.). 
 John Keats. A Study. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price dr. 
 
 OWEN (Rev. Robert), B.D. 
 Sanctorale Catholicum ; or 
 Book of Saints. With Notes, Criti- 
 cal, Exegetical, and Historical. 
 Demy 8vo. Cloth, price i8s. 
 
 An Essay on the Commu- 
 nion of Saints. Including an 
 Examination of the " Cultus Sanc- 
 torum." Price 2S. 
 PALGRAVE (W. Gifford). 
 
 Hermann Agha ; An Eastern 
 Narrative. Third and Cheaper Edi- 
 tion. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 PANDURANG HARI ; 
 Or, Memoirs of a Hindoo. 
 With an Introductory Preface by Sir 
 H. Bartle E. Frere, G. C.S.I., C.B. 
 Crown 8vo. Price 6s. 
 
 PARCHMENT LIBRARY 
 (The). 
 
 Choicely printed on hand - made 
 paper, limp parchment antique, price 
 6s. each ; vellum, price 7.1. (xl. each. 
 
 Shakspere's Sonnets. 
 
 Edited by Edward Dowden, Author 
 of " Shakspere ; his Mind and Art," 
 &c. With a Frontispiece, etched 
 by Leopold Lowenstam, after the 
 Death Mask. 
 
 English Odes. Selected by 
 Edmund W. Gosse, Author of " Stu- 
 dies in the Literature of Northern 
 Europe." With Frontispiece on 
 India paper by Hamo Thornycroft, 
 A.R.A. 
 
 PARCHMENT LIBRARY (The) 
 
 continued. 
 
 Of the Imitation of Christ. 
 By Thomas a Kempis. A revised 
 Translation. With Frontispiece on 
 India paper, from a Design by 
 W. B. Richmond. 
 Tennyson's The Princess : 
 
 a Medley. With a Miniature Fron- 
 tispiece by H. M. Paget, and a Tail- 
 piece in Outline by Gordon Browne. 
 
 Poems : Selected from Percy 
 Bysshe Shelley. Dedicated to Lady 
 Shelley. With Preface by Richard 
 Garnet, and a Miniature Frontis- 
 piece. 
 
 Tennyson's "In Memo- 
 riam." With a Miniature Portrait 
 in eau forte by Le Rat, after a 
 Photograph by the late Mrs. Came- 
 ron. 
 
 PARKER (Joseph), D.D. 
 The Paraclete : An Essay 
 
 on the Personality and Ministry of 
 the Holy Ghost, with some reference 
 to current discussions. Second Edi- 
 tion. Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 12*. 
 
 PARR (Capt. H. Hallam). 
 A Sketch of the Kafir and 
 Zulu Wars : Guadana to Isand- 
 hlwana, with Maps. Small crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 The Dress, Horses, and 
 Equipment of Infantry and Staff 
 Officers. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price is. 
 
 PARSLOE (Joseph). 
 Our Railways : Sketches, 
 Historical and Descriptive. With 
 Practical Information as to Fares, 
 Rates, &c., and a Chapter on Rail- 
 way Reform. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 PATTISON (Mrs. Mark). 
 The Renaissance of Art in 
 France. With Nineteen Steel 
 Engravings. 2 vols. Demy 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 32*. 
 
 PAUL (C. Kegan). 
 Mary Wollstonecraft. 
 Letters to Imlay. With Prefatory 
 Memoir by, and Two Portraits in 
 eau forte, by Anna Lea Merritt. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6>.
 
 C. Kegan Paul 5s* Co?s Publications. 
 
 PAUL (C. Kegan) continued. 
 Goethe's Faust. A New 
 
 Translation in Rime. Crown Svo. 
 Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 William Godwin : His 
 Friends and Contemporaries. 
 With Portraits and Facsimiles of the 
 Handwriting of Godwin and his 
 Wife. 2 vols. Square post Svo. 
 Cloth, price 28$. 
 
 The Genius of Christianity 
 Unveiled. Being Essays by William 
 Godwin never before published. 
 Edited, with a Preface, by C. 
 Kegan Paul. Crown Svo. Cloth, 
 price 7$. 6d. 
 
 PAUL (Margaret Agnes). 
 Gentle and Simple : A Story. 
 2 vols. Crown Svo. Cloth, gilt tops, 
 price i2j. 
 
 %* Also a Cheaper Edition in one 
 vol. with Frontispiece. Crown Svo. 
 Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 PAYNE (John). 
 Songs of Life and Death. 
 Crown Svo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 PAYNE (Prof.J. F.). 
 Frobel and the Kindergar- 
 ten System. Second Edition. 
 A Visit to German Schools : 
 Elementary Schools in Ger- 
 many. Notes of a Professional Tour 
 to inspect some of the Kindergartens, 
 Primary Schools, Public Girls' 
 Schools, and Schools for Technical 
 Instruction in Hamburgh, Berlin, 
 Dresden, Weimar, Gotha, Eisenach, 
 in the autumn of 1874. With Critical 
 Discussions of the General Principles 
 and Practice of Kindergartens and 
 other Schemes of Elementary Edu- 
 cation. Crown Svo. Cloth, price 
 4S.6J. 
 
 PELLETAN (E.). 
 The Desert Pastor, Jean 
 
 Jarousseau. Translated from the 
 French. By Colonel E. P. De 
 L'Hoste. With a Frontispiece. New 
 Edition. Fcap. Svo. Cloth, price 
 3 s. 6d. 
 
 PENNELL (H. Cholmondeley). 
 Pegasus Resaddled. By 
 the Author of " Puck on Pegasus," 
 &c. &c. With Ten Full-page Illus- 
 trations by George Du Maurier. 
 Second Edition. Fcap. 4to. Cloth 
 elegant, price us. 6d. 
 
 PENRICE (Maj. J.), B.A. 
 A Dictionary and Glossary 
 
 of the Ko-ran. With copious Gram- 
 matical References and Explanations 
 of the Text, 410. Cloth, price 21*. 
 
 PESCHEL (Dr. Oscar). 
 The Races of Man and 
 
 their Geographical Distribution. 
 Large crown Svo. Cloth, price 9*. 
 
 PETERS (F. H.). 
 
 The Nicomachean Ethics 
 of Aristotle. Translated by. Crown 
 Svo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 PFEIFFER (Emily). 
 
 Quarterman's Grace, and 
 other Poems. Crown Svo. Cloth, 
 price 5*. 
 
 Glan Alarch : His Silence 
 and Song. A Poem. Second 
 Edition. Crown Svo. price 6s. 
 Gerard's Monument, and 
 other Poems. Second Edition. 
 Crown Svo. Cloth, price 6*. 
 
 Poems. Second Edition. 
 Crown Svo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 Sonnets and Songs. New 
 
 Edition. i6mo, handsomely printed 
 and bound in cloth, gilt edges, price 
 5*- 
 
 PIKE (Warburton). 
 The Inferno of Dante Ali- 
 ghieri. Demy Svo. Cloth, price 5.?. 
 
 PINCHES (Thomas), M.A. 
 Samuel Wilberforce: Faith 
 Service Recompense. Three 
 Sermons. With a Portrait of Bishop 
 Wilberforce (after a Photograph by 
 Charles Watkins). Crown Svo. Cloth, 
 price 4-r. 6d. 
 
 PLAYFAIR (Lieut. -Col.), Her 
 Britannic Majesty's Consul-General 
 in Algiers. 
 
 Travels in the Footsteps of 
 Bruce in Algeria and Tunis. 
 Illustrated by facsimiles of Brace's 
 original Drawings, Photographs, 
 Maps, &c. Royal 410. Cloth, 
 bevelled boards, gilt leaves, price 
 
 POLLOCK (Frederick). 
 Spinoza. His Life and Phi- 
 losophy. Demy Svo. Cloth, 
 price 1 6s.
 
 A List of 
 
 POLLOCK (W. H.). 
 Lectures on French Poets. 
 Delivered at the Royal Institution. 
 Small crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 POOR (Laura E.). 
 Sanskrit and its kindred 
 Literatures. Studies in Compara- 
 tive Mythology. Small crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 5$. 
 
 POUSHKIN (A. S.). 
 Russian Romance. 
 
 Translated from the Tales of Belkin, 
 &c. By Mrs. J. Buchan Telfer (nte 
 Mpuravieff). Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 3*. 6d. 
 PRESBYTER. 
 
 Unfoldings of Christian 
 Hope. An Essay showing that the 
 Doctrine contained in the Damna- 
 tory Clauses of the Creed commonly 
 called Athanasian is unscriptural. 
 Small crown 8vo. Cloth, price 41- M" 
 
 PRICE (Prof. Bonamy). 
 Currency and Banking. 
 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price dr. 
 Chapters on Practical Poli- 
 tical Economy. Being the Sub- 
 stance of Lectures delivered before 
 the University of Oxford. Large 
 post 8vo. Cloth, price i2s. 
 
 Proteus and Amadeus. A 
 
 Correspondence. Edited by Aubrey 
 DeVere. Crown 8 vo. Cloth, price 5 J. 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLBOY. 
 The Volunteer, the Militia- 
 man, and the Regular Soldier. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 PULPIT COMMENTARY(The). 
 Edited by the Rev. J. S. EXELL and 
 the Rev. Canon H. D. M. SPKNCK. 
 Genesis. By Rev. T. White- 
 law, M.A. ; with Homilies by the 
 Very Rev. J. F. Montgomery, D. D., 
 Rev. Prof. R. A. Redford, M.A., 
 LL.B., Rev. F. Hastings, Rev. W. 
 Roberts, M.A. An Introduction to 
 the Study of the Old Testament by 
 the Rev. Canon Farrar, D.D., 
 F.R.S. ; and Introductions to the 
 Pentateuch by the Right Rev. H. 
 Cotterill, D.D., and Rev. T. White- 
 law, M.A. Fourth Edition. Price 
 
 PULPIT COMMENTARY(The) 
 continued. 
 
 Numbers. By the Rev. R. 
 Winterbotham,LL.B. With Homilies 
 by the Rev. Prof. W. Binnie, D.D., 
 Rev. E. S. Prout, M.A., Rev. D. 
 Young, Rev. J. Waite, and an In- 
 troduction by the Rev. Thomas 
 Whitelaw, M.A. Price 155. 
 
 Joshua. By the Rev. J. J. 
 Lias, M.A. With Homilies by the 
 Rev. S. R. Aldridge, LL.B., Rev. 
 R. Glover, Rev. E. de Pressense, 
 D.D., Rev. J. Waite, Rev. F. W. 
 Adeney, and an Introduction by the 
 Rev. A. Plummer, M.A. Second 
 Edition. Price i2S. 6d. 
 
 Judges and Ruth. By Right 
 Rev. Lord A. C. Hervey, D.D., and 
 Rev. J. Morrison, D.D. With Ho- 
 milies by Rev. A. F. Muir, M.A. ; 
 Rev. W. F. Adeney, M.A. ; Rev. 
 W. M. Statham ; and Rev. Prof. J. 
 R. Thomson, M.A. Second Edition. 
 Cloth, price 15*. 
 
 i Samuel. By the Very Rev. 
 
 R. P. Smith, D.D. With Homilies 
 by the Rev. Donald Fraser, D.D., 
 Rev. Prof. Chapman, and Rev. B. 
 Dale. Third Edition. Price 155. 
 
 Ezra, Nehemiah, and 
 Esther. By Rev. Canon G. Rawlin- 
 son, M.A. ; with Homilies by Rev. 
 Prof. J. R. Thomson, M.A., Rev. 
 Prof. R. A. Redford, LL.B., M.A., 
 Rev. W. S. Lewis, M.A., Rev. J. A. 
 Macdonald, Rev. A. Mackennal, 
 B.A., Rev. W. Clarkson, B.A., Rev. 
 F. Hastings, Rev. W. Dinwiddie, 
 LL.B., Rev. Prof. Rowlands, B.A., 
 Rev. G. Wood, B.A., Rev. Prof. P. 
 C. Barker, LL.B., M.A., and Rev. 
 J. S. Exell. Fourth Edition. Price 
 
 I2f. 6[/. 
 
 Punjaub (The) and North 
 Western Frontier of India. By an 
 old Punjaubee. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 5*. 
 
 Rabbi Jeshua. An Eastern 
 Story. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 
 35. 6d. 
 
 RAVENSHAW (Joha Henry), 
 B.C.S. 
 
 Gaur: Its Ruins and In- 
 scriptions. Edited with consider-
 
 C. Kegan Paid & Co?s Publications. 25 
 
 RAVENSHAW (John Henry), 
 B.C. S. continued. 
 
 able additions and alterations by his 
 Widow. With forty-four photo- 
 graphic illustrations and twenty-five 
 fac-similes of Inscriptions. Super 
 royal 410. Cloth, 3^. 13$. f>d. 
 
 READ (Carveth). 
 On the Theory of Logic : 
 An Essay. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 Realities of the Future Life. 
 Small crown 8vo. Cloth, price 
 is. 6J. 
 
 REANEY (Mrs. G. S.). 
 Blessing and Blessed; a 
 Sketch of Girl Life. New and 
 cheaper Edition. With a frontis- 
 piece. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 31. &/. 
 Waking and Working ; or, 
 from Girlhood to Womanhood. 
 New and cheaper edition. With a 
 Frontispiece. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 3*. 6d. 
 
 Rose Gurney's Discovery. 
 A Book for Girls, dedicated to their 
 Mothers. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 
 y. 6d. 
 
 English Girls : their Place 
 and Power. With a Preface by 
 R. W. Dale, M.A., of Birmingham. 
 Third Edition. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 2.1 . 6d. 
 
 Just Anyone, and other 
 Stories. Three Illustrations. Royal 
 i6mo. Cloth, price is. fsd. 
 Sunshine Jenny and other 
 Stories. Three Illustrations. Royal 
 i6mo. Cloth, price is. 6d. 
 
 Sunbeam Willie, and other 
 Stories. Three Illustrations. Royal 
 i6mo. Cloth, price i*. 6d. 
 
 RENDALL (J. M.). 
 Concise Handbook of the 
 Island of Madeira. With plan of 
 Funchal and map of the I stand. Fcap. 
 8vo. Cloth, price is. f*i. 
 
 REYNOLDS (Rev. J. W.). 
 The Supernatural in Na- 
 ture. A Verification by Free Use of 
 Science. Second Edition, revised 
 and enlarged. Demy 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 145. 
 
 Mystery of Miracles, The. 
 By the Author of ' ' The Supernatural 
 in Nature." Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 RHOADES (Tames). 
 The Georgics of Virgil. 
 Translated into English Verse. Small 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price 55. 
 
 RIBOT (Prof. Th.). 
 English Psychology. Se- 
 cond Edition. A Revised and Cor- 
 rected Translation from the latest 
 French Edition. Large post 8vo. 
 Cloth, price of. 
 
 Heredity : A Psychological 
 Study on its Phenomena, its Laws, 
 its Causes, and its Consequences. 
 Large crown 8vo. Cloth, pnce gt. 
 
 RINK (Chevalier Dr. Henry). 
 Greenland : Its People and 
 its Products. By the Chevalier 
 Dr. HENRY RINK, President of the 
 Greenland Board of Trade. With 
 sixteen Illustrations, drawn by the 
 Eskimo, and a Map. Edited by Dr. 
 ROBERT BROWN. Crown 8vo. Price 
 lot. 6ii. 
 
 ROBERTSON (The Late Rev. 
 F. W.), M.A., of Brighton. 
 The Human Race, and 
 other Sermons preached at Chelten- 
 ham, Oxford, and Brighton. Second 
 Edition. Large post 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 7*. 6d. 
 
 Notes on Genesis. New 
 
 and cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo., 
 price 3/. 6d. 
 
 Sermons. Four Series. Small 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price 3*. &/. each. 
 Expository Lectures on 
 St. Paul's Epistles to the Co- 
 rinthians. A New Edition. Small 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 Lectures and Addresses, 
 with other literary remains. A New 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price $s. 
 An Analysis of Mr. Tenny- 
 son's " In Memoriam." (Dedi- 
 cated by Permission to the- Poet- 
 Laureate.) Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price M. 
 The Education of the 
 Human Race. Translated from 
 the German of Gotthold Ephraim 
 Lessing. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price 
 
 2J. M. 
 
 Life and Letters. Edited by 
 the Rev. Stopford Brooke, M.A., 
 Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen. 
 I. a vols., uniform with the Ser- 
 mons. With Steel Portrait. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price ^l. 6J.
 
 26 
 
 A List of 
 
 ROBERTSON (The Late Rev. 
 F. W.), M.A., of Brighton con- 
 tinued. 
 
 II. Library Edition, in Demy 8vo., 
 with Portrait. Cloth, price izj. 
 
 III. A Popular Edition, in one vol. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6*. 
 
 The above Works can also be had 
 half-bound in ntorocco. 
 V A Portrait of the late Rev. F. W. 
 Robertson, mounted for framing, can 
 be had, price 21. 6<i. 
 
 ROBINSON (A. Mary F.). 
 A Handful of .Honey- 
 suckle. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price 
 3*. M. 
 
 The Crowned Hippolytus. 
 Translated from Euripides. With 
 New Poems. Small crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 5^. 
 
 RODWELL (G. F.), F.R.A.S., 
 F.C.S. 
 
 Etna : a History of the 
 Mountain and its Eruptions. 
 With Maps and Illustrations. Square 
 8vo. Cloth, price QS. 
 
 ROSS (Mrs. E.), ("Nelsie Brook"). 
 Daddy's Pet. A Sketch 
 from Humble Life. With Six Illus- 
 trations. Royal i6mo. Cloth, price is. 
 
 ROSS (Alexander), D.D. 
 Memoir of Alexander 
 Ewing, Bishop of Argyll and the 
 Isles. Second and Cheaper Edition. 
 Demy 8vo. Cloth, price los. 6d. 
 
 SADLER (S. W.), R.N. 
 The African Cruiser. A 
 Midshipman's Adventures on the 
 West Coast. With Three Illustra- 
 tions. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 3$. dd. 
 
 SALTS (Rev. Alfred), LL.D. 
 Godparents at Confirma- 
 tion. With a Preface by the Bishop 
 of Manchester. Small crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, limp, price is. 
 
 SALVATOR(ArchdukeLudwig). 
 Levkosia, the Capital of 
 Cyprus. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 
 los. (>d. 
 
 SAMUEL (Sydney Montagu). 
 Jewish Life in the East. 
 
 Small crown 8vo. Cloth, price y. 6d. 
 SAUNDERS (John). 
 Israel Mort, Overman : A 
 Story of the Mine. Cr. 8vo. Price 6s. 
 
 SAUNDERS (John) continued. 
 
 Hirell. With Frontispiece. 
 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 31. 6d. 
 
 Abel Drake's Wife. With 
 
 Frontispiece. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 
 price 3s. 6d. 
 SAYCE (Rev. Archibald Henry). 
 
 Introduction to the Science 
 
 of Language. Two vols. , large post 
 
 8vo. Cloth, price 25*. 
 SCHELL (Maj. yon). 
 
 The Operations of the 
 First Army under Gen. von 
 Goeben. Translated by Col. C. H. 
 von Wright. Four Maps. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price as. 
 The Operations of the 
 First Army under Gen. von 
 Steinmetz. Translated by Captain 
 E. O. Hollist. Demy 8vo. Cloth, 
 price los. 6d. 
 
 SCHELLENDORF (Maj. -Gen. 
 B. von). 
 
 The Duties of the General 
 Staff. Translated from the German 
 by Lieutenant Hare. Vol. I. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, IDS. fid. 
 
 SCHERFF (Maj. W. von). 
 Studies in the New In- 
 fantry Tactics. Parts I. and II. 
 Translated from the German by 
 Colonel Lumley Graham. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price js. 6d. 
 
 Scientific Layman. The New 
 Truth and the Old Faith: are they 
 Incompatible? Demy 8vo. Cloth, 
 price los. dd. 
 
 SCOONES (W. Baptiste). 
 Four Centuries of English 
 Letters. A Selection of 350 Letters 
 by 150 Writers from the period of the 
 Paston Letters to the Present Time. 
 Edited and arranged by. Second 
 Edition. Large crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price gs. 
 
 SCOTT (Leader). 
 A Nook in the Apennines: 
 A Summer beneath the Chestnuts. 
 With Frontispiece, and 27 Illustra- 
 tions in the Text, chiefly from 
 Original Sketches. Crown 8ro. 
 Cloth, price js. dd. 
 
 SCOTT (Robert H.). 
 Weather Charts and Storm 
 Warnings. Illustrated. SecondEdi- 
 tion. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price $s. dd.
 
 C. Kegan Paul <5r- Go's Publications. 
 
 27 
 
 Seeking his Fortune, and 
 
 other -Stories. With Four Illustra- 
 tions. New and cheaper Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 21. dd. 
 SENIOR (N. W.). 
 Alexis De Tocqueville. 
 Correspondence and Conversations 
 with Nassau W. Senior, from 1833 to 
 1859. Edited by M. C. M. Simpson, 
 a vols. Large post 8vo. Cloth.price 21 s. 
 
 Seven Autumn Leaves from 
 Fairyland. Illustrated with Nine 
 Etchings. Square crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 35. 6d. 
 
 SHADWELL (Maj.-Gen.), C.B. 
 Mountain Warfare. Illus- 
 trated by the Campaign of 1799 in 
 Switzerland. Being a Translation 
 of the Swiss Narrative compiled from 
 the Works of the Archduke Charles, 
 Jomini, and others. Also of Notes 
 by General H. Dufour on the Cam- 
 paign of the Valtelline in 1635. With 
 Appendix, Maps, and Introductory 
 Remarks. Demy 8vo. Cloth, price ids. 
 
 SHAKSPEARE (Charles). 
 Saint Paul at Athens : 
 
 Spiritual Christianity in Relation to 
 some Aspects of Modern Thought. 
 Nine Sermons preached at St. Ste- 
 phen's Church, Westbourne Park. 
 With Preface by the Rev. Canon 
 FARRAR. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 55. 
 
 SHAW (Major Wilkinson). 
 The Elements of Modern 
 Tactics. Practically applied to 
 English Formations. With Twenty- 
 five Plates and Maps. S cond and 
 cheaper Edition. Small crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 9*. 
 
 * The Second Volume of "Mili- 
 tary Handbooks for Officers and 
 Non-commissioned Officers." Edited 
 by Lieut.-Col. C. B. Brackenbury, 
 R.A., A.A.G. 
 
 SHAW (Flora L.). 
 Castle Blair: a Story of 
 Youthful Lives. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, gilt tops, price us. Also, an 
 dition in one vol. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 SHELLEY (Lady). 
 Shelley Memorials from 
 Authentic Sources. With (now 
 first printed) an Essay on Christian- 
 ity by Percy Bysshe Shelley. With 
 Portrait. Third Edition. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 5*. 
 
 SHERMAN (Gen. W. T.). 
 Memoirs of General W. 
 T. Sherman, Commander of the 
 Federal Forces in the American Civil 
 War. By Himself. 2 vols. With 
 Map. Demy 8vp Cloth, price 241. 
 Copyright English Edition. 
 
 SHILLITO (Rev. Joseph). 
 Womanhood : its Duties, 
 Temptations, and Privileges. A Book 
 for Young Women. Second Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. Price 3*. 6d. 
 
 SHIPLEY (Rev. Orby), M.A. 
 Principles of the Faith in 
 Relation to Sin. Topics for 
 Thought in Times of Retreat. 
 Eleven Addresses. With an Intro- 
 duction on the neglect of Dogmatic 
 Theology in the Church of England, 
 and a Postscript on his leaving the 
 Church of England. Demy 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 12.1. 
 
 Church Tracts, or Studies 
 in Modern Problems. By various 
 Writers. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 5-r. each. 
 
 Sister Augustine, Superior 
 
 of the Sisters of Charity at the St. 
 Johannis Hospital at Bonn. Autho- 
 rized Translation by Hans Tharau 
 from the German Memorials of Ama- 
 lie von Lasaulx. Second edition. 
 Large crown 8vo. Cloth, price js. 6ti. 
 
 SKINNER (James). 
 Ccelestia : the Manual of St. 
 
 Augustine. The Latin Text side by 
 side with an English Interpretation, 
 in 36 Odes, with Notes, and a plea 
 for the Study of Mystic Theology. 
 Large crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 SMITH (Edward), M.D., LL.B., 
 F.R.S. 
 
 Health and Disease, as In- 
 fluenced by the Daily, Seasonal, and 
 other Cyclical Changes in the Human 
 System. A New Edition. Post 8vo. 
 Cloth, price ^s. 6d. 
 Practical Dietary for 
 Families, Schools, and the La- 
 bouring Classes. A New Edition. 
 Post 8vo. Cloth, price 31. 6d. 
 
 Tubercular Consumption 
 in its Early and Remediable 
 Stages. Second Edition. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 6>.
 
 28 
 
 A List of 
 
 Songs of Two Worlds. By 
 
 the Author of " The Epic of Hades." 
 Sixth Edition. Complete in one 
 Volume, with Portrait. Fcap. 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 71. 6d. 
 
 Songs for Music. 
 
 By Four Friends. Square crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price $J. 
 Containing songs by Reginald A. 
 Gatty, Stephen H. Gatty, Greville 
 J. Chester, and Juliana Ewing. 
 
 SPEDDING (James). 
 Reviews and Discussions, 
 Literary, Political, and His- 
 torical, not relating to Bacon. 
 Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 12$. 6d. 
 
 STAFFER (Paul). 
 Shakspeare and Classical 
 Antiquity : Greek and Latin Anti- 
 quity as presented in Shakspeare's 
 Plays. Translated by Emily J. Carey. 
 Large post 8vo. Cloth, price 12$. 
 
 St. Bernard on the Love 
 of God. Translated by Marianne 
 Caroline and Coventry Patmore. 
 Cloth extra, gilt top, price 4$. &/. 
 
 STEDMAN (Edmund Clarence). 
 
 Lyrics and Idylls. With 
 
 other Poems. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 
 price js. 6d. 
 STEPHENS (Archibald John), 
 
 LL.D. 
 
 The Folkestone Ritual 
 
 Case. The Substance of the Argu- 
 ment delivered before the Judicial 
 Committee of the Privy Council. On 
 behalf of the Respondents. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price 6*. 
 
 STEVENS (William). 
 The Truce of God, and other 
 Poems. Small crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 3.5. dd. 
 
 STEVENSON (Robert Louis). 
 Virginibus, Puerisque, and 
 other Papers. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 STEVENSON (Rev. W. F.). 
 Hymns for the Church and 
 Home. Selected and Edited by the 
 Rev. W. Fleming Stevenson. 
 
 The most complete Hymn Book 
 published. 
 
 STEVENSON (Rev. W. F.)-C<>H- 
 tiiiued. 
 
 The Hymn Book consists of Three 
 Parts : I. For Public Worship. 
 II. For Family and Private Worship. 
 III. For Children. 
 ** Published in various forms and 
 prices, the latter ranging from %d. 
 to 6s. Lists and full particulars 
 will be furnished on application to 
 the Publishers. 
 
 STOCKTON (Frank R.). 
 A Jolly Fellowship. With 
 
 20 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price jj. 
 
 STORR (Francis), and TURNER 
 Hawes). 
 Canterbury Chimes ; or, 
 
 Chaucer Tales retold to Children. 
 With Illustrations from the Elles- 
 mere MS. Extra Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, 
 price y. 6d. 
 
 STRETTON (Hesba). 
 David Lloyd's Last Will. 
 With Four Illustrations. Royal 
 i6mo., price 2s. 6d. 
 
 The Wonderful Life. 
 
 Thirteenth Thousand. Fcap. 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 2S . 6d. 
 
 Through a Needle's Eye : 
 
 a Story. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 
 6s. 
 
 STUBBS (Lieut.-Colonel F. W.) 
 The Regiment of Bengal 
 Artillery. The History of its 
 Organization, Equipment, and War 
 Services. Compiled from Published 
 Works, Official Records, and various 
 Private Sources. With numerous 
 Maps and Illustrations. 2 vok. 
 Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 32*. 
 
 STUMM (Lieut. Hugo), German 
 Military Attach^ to the Khivan Ex- 
 pedition. 
 
 Russia's advance East- 
 ward. Based on the Official Reports 
 of. Translated by Capt. C. E. H. 
 VINCENT. With Map. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 6>. 
 SULLY (James), M.A. 
 Sensation and Intuition. 
 Demy 8vo. Second Edition. Cloth, 
 price ipj. 6d. 
 
 Pessimism : a History and 
 a Criticism. Demy 8vo. Price 14*.
 
 C. Kegan Paul 6- Co.'s Publications. 
 
 29 
 
 Sunnyland Stories. 
 By the Author of " Aunt Mary's Bran 
 Pie." lUustrated. Small 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 3$. 6d 
 
 Sweet Silvery Sayings of 
 
 Shakespeare. Crown 8vo. Cloth 
 gilt, price js. 6d. 
 
 SYME (David). 
 
 Outlines of an Industrial 
 Science. Second Edition. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 Tales from Ariosto. Retold for 
 Children, by a Lady. With three 
 illustrations. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 4*. 6d. 
 
 TAYLOR (Algernon). 
 
 Guienne. Notes of an Autumn 
 
 Tour. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price +s. 6d. 
 TAYLOR (Sir H.). 
 
 Works Complete. Author's 
 
 Edition, in 5 vols. Crown 8vo. 
 
 Cloth, price 6s. each. 
 Vols. I. to III. containing the 
 
 Poetical Works, Vols. IV. and V. 
 
 the Prose Works. 
 
 TAYLOR (Col. Meadows), C.S.I., 
 M.R.I.A. 
 
 A Noble Queen : a Romance 
 
 (Indian History. New Edition. 
 
 With Frontispiece. Crown 8vo. 
 
 oth. Price 6s. 
 
 Seeta. New Edition with 
 frontispiece. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 Tippoo Sultaun : a Tale of 
 the Mysore War. New Edition with 
 Frontispiece. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 Ralph Darnell. New Edi- 
 tion. With Frontispiece. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 6f. 
 
 The Confessions of a Thug. 
 
 New Edition. With Frontispiece. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 Tara : a Mahratta Tale. 
 New Edition. With Frontispiece. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6*. 
 
 TENNYSON (Alfred). 
 The Imperial Library Edi- 
 tion. Complete in 7 vols. Demy 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 3 13*. 6d. ; in Rox- 
 burgh binding, 4 71. 6d. 
 
 TENNYSON 
 
 Author's Edition. Complete 
 in 6 Volumes. Post 8vo. Cloth gilt ; 
 or half-morocco, Roxburgh style : 
 
 VOL. I. Early Poems, and 
 
 English Idylls. Price 6*. ; Rox- 
 burgh, is. 6d. 
 
 VOL. II. Locksley Hall, 
 Lucretius, and other Poems. 
 Price 6s. ', Roxburgh, js. 6d. 
 
 VOL. III. The Idylls of 
 
 the King (Complete). Price js. 6d.; 
 Roxburgh, gs. 
 
 VOL. IV. The Princess, and 
 
 Maud. Price 6s.; Roxburgh, js. 6d. 
 
 VOL. V. Enoch Arden, 
 
 and In Memoriam. Price 6s. ; 
 Roxburgh, js . 6d. 
 
 VOL. VI. Dramas. Price Js.' f 
 
 Roxburgh, Ss. 6d. 
 
 Cabinet Edition. 12 vols. 
 Each with Frontispiece. Fcap. 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 2s. 6d. each. 
 
 CABINET EDITION. 12 vols. Com- 
 plete in handsome Ornamental Case. 
 32*. 
 
 The Royal Edition. With 
 25 Illustrations and Portrait. Cloth 
 extra, bevelled boards, gilt leaves. 
 Price 2 is. 
 
 The Guinea Edition. Com- 
 plete in 12 vols., neatly bound and 
 enclosed in box. Cloth, price us. 
 French morocco or parchment, price 
 3 w. 6d. 
 
 The Shilling Edition of the 
 
 Poetical and Dramatic Works, in 12 
 vols., pocket size. Price is. each. 
 
 The Crown Edition. Com- 
 plete in one vol., strongly bound in 
 cloth, price 6s. Cloth, extra gilt 
 leaves, price js. 6d. Roxburgh, 
 half morocco, price Ss . 6d. 
 
 %* Can also be had in a variety 
 of other bindings.
 
 A List of 
 
 TENNYSON (Alfred) continued. 
 Original Editions : 
 
 Ballads and other Poems. 
 
 Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price 5.1. 
 
 The Lover's Tale. (Now 
 for the first time published.) Fcap. 
 8vo. Cloth, y. 6d. 
 
 Poems. Small 8vo. Cloth, 
 
 price 6s. 
 
 Maud, and other Poems. 
 
 Small 8vo. Cloth, price 3$. 6d. 
 
 The Princess. Small 8vo. 
 
 Cloth, price 35. 6d. 
 
 Idylls of the King. Small 
 
 8vo. Cloth, price 55. 
 
 Idylls of the King. Com- 
 plete. Small 8vo. Cloth, price 6*. 
 
 The Holy Grail, and other 
 Poems. Small 8vo. Cloth, price 
 4S. 6d. 
 
 Gareth and Lynette. Small 
 
 8vo. Cloth, price 3$. 
 
 Enoch Arden, &c. Small 
 
 8vo. Cloth, price 3$. 6d. 
 
 In Memoriam. Small Svo. 
 Cloth, price 4.1. 
 
 Queen Mary. A Drama. 
 New Edition. Crown Svo. Cloth, 
 price 6s. 
 
 Harold. A Drama. Crowa 
 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 Selections from Tenny- 
 son's Works. Super royal i6mo. 
 Cloth, price 35. 6d. Cloth gilt extra, 
 price 4.1. 
 
 Songs from Tennyson's 
 
 'Works. Super royal 161110. Cloth 
 extra, price 3$. (>d. 
 
 Also a cheap edition. 161110. 
 Cloth, price zs, 6d. 
 Idylls of the King, and 
 other Poems. Illustrated by Julia 
 Margaret Cameron. 2 vols. Folio. 
 Half-bound morocco, cloth sides, 
 price 6 6s. each. 
 
 Tennyson for the Young and 
 for Recitation. Specially arranged. 
 Fcap. Svo. Price is. 6d. 
 
 Tennyson Birthday Book. 
 
 Edited by Emily Shakespear. 32010. 
 Cloth limp, 2S. ; cloth extra, 35. 
 
 *** A superior edition, printed in 
 red and black, on antique paper, 
 specially prepared. Small crown 8vo. 
 Cloth extra, gilt leaves, price $s. ; 
 and in various calf and morocco 
 bindings. 
 
 Songs Set to Music, by 
 
 various Composers. Edited by W. 
 G. Cusins. Dedicated by express 
 permission to Her Majesty the 
 Queen. Royal 410. Cloth extra, 
 gilt leaves, price 2 if., or in half- 
 inorocco, price 25$. 
 
 An Index to " In Memo- 
 riam." Price zs. 
 
 THOMAS (Moy). 
 A Fight for Life. With 
 
 Frontispiece. Crown Svo. Cloth, 
 price 3s. 6d. 
 
 THOMPSON (Alice C.). 
 Preludes. A Volume of 
 Poems. Illustrated by Elizabeth 
 Thompson (Painter of "The Roll 
 Call "). Svo. Cloth, price ^s. 6d. 
 
 THOMSON 0. Turnbull). 
 Social Problems ; or, an In- 
 quiry into the Law of Influences. 
 With Diagrams. Demy Svo. Cloth, 
 price IDS. 6d. 
 
 THRING (Rev. Godfrey), B.A. 
 Hymns and Sacred Lyrics. 
 Fcap. Svo. Cloth, price 3$. 6d. 
 
 TODHUNTER (Dr. J.) 
 A Study of Shelley. Crown 
 Svo. Cloth, price ^s. 
 
 Alcestis : A Dramatic Poem. 
 Extra fcap. Svo. Cloth, price 51. 
 Laurella; and other Poems. 
 Crown Svo. Cloth, price 6s. 6d. 
 
 Translations from Dante, 
 Petrarch, Michael Angelo, and 
 Vittoria Colonna. Fcap. Svo. 
 Cloth, price fs. fid. 
 
 TURNER (Rev. C. Tennyson). 
 Sonnets, Lyrics, and Trans- 
 lations. Crown Svo. Cloth, price 
 *s. 6d.
 
 C. Kegan Paul 6* Co.'s Publications. 
 
 TURNER (Rev. C. Tennyson) 
 continued. 
 
 Collected Sonnets, Old and 
 
 New. WithPrefatoryPoembyAlfred 
 Tennyson ; also some Marginal Notes 
 by S. T. Coleridge, and a Critical 
 Essay by James Spedding. Fcap. 
 8vo. Cloth, price 7.1. 6rf. 
 
 TWINING (Louisa). 
 Recollections of Work- 
 house Visiting and Manage- 
 ment during twenty-five years. 
 Small crown 8vo. Cloth, price 3.1. 6d. 
 
 UPTON (Major R. D.). 
 Gleanings from the Desert 
 of Arabia. Large post 8vo. Cloth, 
 price los. 6d. 
 
 VAUGHAN (H. Halford), some- 
 time Regius Professor of Modern 
 History in Oxford University. 
 New Readings and Ren- 
 derings of Shakespeare's Tra- 
 gedies. 2 vols. Demy 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 25$. 
 
 VILLARI (Prof.). 
 Niccplo Machiavelli and 
 His Times. Translated by Linda 
 Villari. 2 vols. Large post 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 24*. 
 
 VINCENT (Capt. C. E. H.). 
 Elementary Military 
 Geography, Reconnoitring, and 
 Sketching. Compiled for Non- 
 Commissioned Officers and Soldiers 
 of all Arms. Square crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 2S. 6d. 
 
 VYNER (Lady Mary). 
 Every day a Portion. 
 Adapted from the Bible and the 
 Prayer Book, for the Private Devo- 
 tions of those living in Widowhood. 
 Collected and edited by Lady Mary 
 Vyner. Square crown 8vo. Cloth 
 extra, price $J. 
 
 WALDSTEIN (Charles), Ph. D. 
 The Balance of Emotion 
 and Intellect : An Essay Intro- 
 ductory to the Study of Philosophy. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 WALLER (Rev. C. B.) 
 The Apocalypse, Reviewed 
 under the Light of the Doctrine of 
 the Unfolding Ages and the Resti- 
 tution of all Things. Demy 8vo. 
 Cloth, price ias. 
 
 WALTERS (Sophia Lydia). 
 The Brook: A Poem. Small 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price 3*. f>d. 
 
 A Dreamer's Sketch Book. 
 
 With Twenty-one Illustrations by 
 Percival Skelton, R. P. Leitch, 
 W. H. J. Boot, and T. R. Pritchett. 
 Engraved by J. D. Cooper. Fcap. 
 410. Cloth, price izs. dd. 
 
 WATERFIELD, W. 
 
 Hymns for Holy Days and 
 
 Seasons. 32010. Cloth, price is. 6d. 
 
 WATSON (William). 
 The Prince's Quest and 
 other Poems. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price $s. 
 
 WATSON (Sir Thomas), Bart., 
 M.D. 
 
 The Abolition of Zymotic 
 Diseases, and of other similar ene- 
 mies of Mankind. Small crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 3^. 6d. 
 
 WAY (A.), M.A. 
 
 The Odes of Horace Lite- 
 
 rally Translated in Metre. Fcap. 
 8vo. Cloth, price zs, 
 WEBSTER (Augusta). 
 Disguises. A Drama. Small 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price 55. 
 
 WEDMORE (Frederick). 
 The Masters of Genre 
 
 Painting. With sixteen illustrations. 
 Large crown 8vo. Cloth, price 
 js. 6d. 
 
 Wet Days, by* a Farmer. 
 
 Small crown 8vo. Cloth, price 6s. 
 WHEWELL (William), D.D. 
 His Life and Selections 
 from his Correspondence. By 
 
 Mrs. Stair Douglas. With Portrait 
 from a Painting by Samuel Laurence. 
 Demy 8vo. Cloth, price 21 s. 
 
 WHITAKER (Florence). 
 Christy's Inheritance. A 
 London Story. Illustrated. Royal 
 i6mo. Cloth, price if. 6d. 
 
 WHITE (A. D.), LL.D. 
 Warfare of Science. With 
 Prefatory Note by Professor Tyndall. 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price js. dd.
 
 32 A List of C. Kegan Paul 6* Co.'s Publications. 
 
 WHITNEY (Prof. W. D.) 
 Essentials of English 
 Grammar for the Use of Schools. 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 3.5. 6ii. 
 
 WICKSTEED (P. H.). 
 Dante : Six Sermons. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 5^. 
 
 WILKINS (William). 
 Songs of Study. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 WILLIAMS (Rowland), D.D. 
 Stray Thoughts from the 
 Note-Books of the Late Row- 
 land Williams, D.D. Edited by 
 his Widow. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 35. 6d. 
 
 Psalms, Litanies, Coun- 
 sels and Collects for Devout 
 Persons. Edited by his Widow. 
 New and Popular Edition. Crown 
 8vo. Cloth, price 3.1 . 6d. 
 WILLIS (R.), M.D. 
 Servetus and Calvin : a 
 Study of an Important Epoch in the 
 Early History of the Reformation. 
 8vo. Cloth, price i6s . 
 
 William Harvey. A History 
 of the Discovery of the Circula- 
 tion of the Blood. With a Portrait 
 of Harvey, after Faithorne. Demy 
 8vo. Cloth, price 145. 
 
 WILLOUGHBY(TheHon.Mrs.). 
 On the North Wind 
 
 Thistledown. A Volume of Poems. 
 Elegantly bound. Small crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price js. 6d. 
 
 WILSON (Erasmus). 
 Egypt of the Past. With 
 
 Chromo-lithographs and numerous 
 
 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 
 
 8vo. Cloth. 
 WILSON (H. Schfltz). 
 
 The Tower and Scaffold. 
 
 A Miniature Monograph. Large 
 
 fcap. 8vo. Price is. 
 Within Sound of the Sea. 
 
 By the Author of " Blue Roses," 
 
 " Vera," &c. Third Edition. 2 vols. 
 
 Crown 8vo. Cloth, gilt tops, price 
 
 IB*. 
 
 %* Also a cheaper edition in one 
 vol. with frontispiece. Price 6s. 
 
 WOLLSTONECRAFT (Mary). 
 Letters to Imlay. With a 
 
 Preparatory Memoir by C. Kegan 
 Paul, and two Portraits in eau forte 
 by Anna Lea Merritt. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 6s. 
 
 WOLTMANN (Dr. Alfred), and 
 WOERMANN(Dr. Karl). 
 History of Painting in An- 
 tiquity and the Middle Ages. 
 Edited by Sidney Colvin. With nu- 
 merous illustrations. Medium 8vo. 
 Cloth, price z&s. ; cloth, bevelled 
 boards, gilt leaves, price 30*. 
 
 WOOD (Major-GeneralJ.Creigh- 
 ton). 
 
 Doubling the Consonant. 
 Small crown 8vo. Cloth, price is. 6d. 
 
 WOODS (James Chapman). 
 A Child of the People, 
 and other poems. Small crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 55. 
 
 Word was made Flesh. 
 Short Family Readings on the 
 Epistles for each Sunday of the 
 Christian Year. Demy 8vo. Cloth, 
 price lof. 6</. 
 
 WRIGHT (Rev. David), M.A. 
 Waiting for the Light, and 
 other Sermons. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 6*. 
 
 YOUMANS (Eliza A.). 
 An Essay on the Culture 
 of _the Observing Powers of 
 Children, especially in connection 
 with the Study of Botany. Edited, 
 with Notes and a Supplement, by 
 Joseph Payne, F. C. P., Author of 
 Lectures on the Science and Art of 
 Education," &c. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 2s. 6d. 
 
 First Book of Botany. 
 Designed to Cultivate the Observing 
 Powers of Children. With 300 En- 
 gravings. New and Cheaper Edi- 
 tion. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price a s. 6d. 
 
 YOUMANS (Edward L.), M.D. 
 A Class Book of Chemistry, 
 on the Basis of the New System. 
 With 200 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price $s. 
 
 YOUNG (William). 
 Gottlob, etcetera. Small 
 crown 8vo. Cloth, price 3*. 6d. 
 
 LONDON: C. KEGAN PAUL & Co., i, PATERNOSTER SQUARE.
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
 Los Angeles 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 
 
 If 
 
 SUBJECT TO FINE 
 
 EDUCATtO(M 
 
 JUN 29 1961 
 
 DEC 7 1961 
 NOV 2 5 1963 
 
 DEC 
 
 MAR 1 1 1969 MAR 1 1 
 
 D./ PSYCH. 
 LIBRARY 
 
 Form L9-50m-9,'60(B3610s4) 444 
 
 NOT RETURNED TO 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 Novtm 
 
 ED/PSYCH LIB. 
 
 FEB 171983 
 
 RECEIVE 
 
 - 
 
 LIB.
 
 - l^ X 
 
 A 000 962 568 2 
 
 UCLA-ED/PSYCH Library 
 
 LB 475 C7L3 1881 
 
 L 005 613 593 2 
 
 (Tt