UC-NRLF 
 
 2fl 21S 
 
 LB 
 
 1837 
 
 L6 
 
 D38 
 
 1901 
 
 MAIN 
 
GIFT OF 
 
FEE 1 1P71 
 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 IN THE 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 STATE 
 NORMAL 
 
 BY B. M. DAVIS 
 
 REPRINT FROM 
 
 LOS ANGELES NORMAL EXPONENT 
 JUNE, 1901 
 
NATURE STUDY IN THE LOS ANGELES .STATE NORMAL 
 
 While nature study is conceded as a necessary part of the common 
 school curriculum, it must be admitted that in practice much of it falls 
 far short of what is expected. 
 
 Indefiniteness of plan, disregard of natural interests of children, 
 repetition of topics from grade to grade, and above all the lack of insight 
 of the teacher as to the real aims and purposes of the subject, are 
 responsible, in part at least, for this failure. 
 
 The following synopsis of the nature study done in the training school 
 of the Los Angeles State Normal, represents the progress made so far 
 toward a solution of the difficulties just indicated, and an attempt to 
 put the subject on a better pedagogical basis. No claim is made that 
 the principles outlined or the course of study based upon them repre- 
 sent a final solution of the problem, but simply what is in actual oper- 
 ation in this school. It will continue to be revised and subjected to the 
 most severe tests of ordinary school conditions. 
 
 Synopsis. 
 
 I. THEORETICAL BASIS. (I, 2, 6, 7, 16, 17).* 
 
 (a.) Environment being twofold, physical and social (that of civil- 
 ization), both must be considered. As civilization advances less 
 attention may be paid to the first but we are not ready to neglect 
 it now, for the instincts formed during the race's complete 
 dependence on nature are still strong. 
 
 (b.) One of the chief aims in education is to give to the individual 
 power to adapt himself to his environment. This adaptation does 
 not depend so much upon the child's early training in special 
 lines as satisfying certain natural tendencies. These tendencies 
 or instincts aie what the race has found necessary to fit into 
 environment, hence must be considered in the present environ- 
 ment. The love of nature is probably one of the strongest instincts 
 of the child during the ages from four to ten. (I, 2.) 
 
 (c.) From the preceding it follows that the subject as related to 
 * Numbers refer to References. 
 
 44278 
 
jrs-. valuable in proportion to the opportunities out of 
 ' ' ' school to secure contact with nature. It must not be taken for 
 granted, however, that the subject should be neglected in favored 
 localities. In such places the natural advantages should be made 
 the most of. The country child should realize his opportunities 
 so that he may appreciate his surroundings. 
 
 (d.) The problem in the early school years of the child is to bring 
 into his life as much of nature as possible. In carrying out this 
 greater aim, the lesser ones, such as habits of observation and 
 interpretation, power of expression, etc., will be gained. 
 
 (e.) Nature work has its greatest value 
 in the kindergarten and early primary 
 years, but is valuable in later years in 
 furnishing an acquaintance with and 
 understanding of the common things of 
 nature, and the power to interpret them. 
 II. PURPOSES OR AIMS. (Definitely stated.) 
 
 (a.) Fundamental, satisfying natural 
 interests, thereby giving basis for acces- 
 sory development. (1,2.) 
 
 (b.) Character building, considering character in the sense of 
 being the adaptation of an individual to his physical and social 
 environment. The best adaptation not only secures the immedi- 
 ate but provides for the future. The latter can only be done by 
 the individual giving something to his environment, whether 
 physical or social, (e.g. Caring for animals and plants.) (I, 7, 17.) 
 
 (c.) General culture. (I, 3, 4, 5, 10, 11, 13, 14.) 
 
 1. Knowledge of the things of nature which all should know. 
 
 2. Training which may form a basis for future studies in pure 
 
 science, or application of science methods. 
 
 3. Experiences which may be useful in interpretation and 
 
 production of literature. 
 
 III. APPLICATION OF ABOVE. (All of II.) Three general lines of pro- 
 cedure, 
 (a.) Bringing into the child's experience as many things as pos- 
 
sible in the school room directly, and outside by means of reports 
 and collections. 
 
 (b.) Co-operative study of the natural environment of the school, 
 where the teacher organizes and directs the work. 
 (c.) Caring for animals and plants, utilizing the industrial or 
 human relations to nature, (e.g. The cow as a milk producer, 
 dairies, etc. (I. 8.) 
 
 IV. SELECTION OF MATERIAL. Two objects to be kept in view, viz: 
 natural interests of the child at different ages, and availability of 
 material. 
 
 (a.) Interests. (I, 12, 15, 17.) 
 
 "Attributes such as form, size, color and structure, which are 
 usually emphasized in science lessons have very little interest to 
 the child, while motion and use have very great attractions." (1,1.) 
 The animal as a moving object to secure and play with seems to 
 attract the child at first. Soon is added to this a desire to find 
 out what it does. When this great object is reached, aside from 
 interest in movements, the child is ready for something else. 
 The spirit of competition may be used to advantage in many ways 
 in all grades, (e.g. In securing specimens and in garden work.) (1,7.) 
 Tendency to collect things should be made the most of. In the 
 fifth and sixth grades group activity may be secured by forming 
 naturalist's clubs. (I, 16.) 
 
 (b.) Material. Chief source of material is in the immediate 
 environment of the school. The material at hand is used, for it 
 is most easily obtained and cared for. The outdoor studies 
 center around the garden work. The studies 
 of animals and plants in field excursions, 
 and in the class room are expected to stimu- 
 ulate observation out of school hours. All 
 outside experiences are used so that the 
 pupil may put a value on them, and have a 
 desire to increase them. Other things being 
 equal, the material is always selected which 
 will conform to the general aim of the sub- 
 ject. (II, a, b, c.) 
 
V. METHOD. (All of II.) General method has already been indi- 
 cated. Nature study differs somewhat from other nubjects in 
 having two phases of presentation, requiring different methods. 
 
 (a.) Observation. The child must gain his experiences from 
 actual contact or close observation. He must be led or directi d 
 in such a way that the great facts of whatever is observed may be 
 seen and appreciated, and not covered up in a mass of details. 
 Usually the child naturally selects, as his center of interest, the 
 most important characters. The questions which arise should be 
 answered by the object itself as far as possible. 
 
 (b.) Recitation. The basis of the recitation is what has been 
 previously observed. All points relating to the subject should be 
 recalled by the pupil and definitely expressed. The recitation 
 should stimulate accurate and extended observation, so that the 
 pupil may use his time better when new material is taken up. 
 
 VI. FACTS TO BE KEPT IN MIND IN HANDLING MATERIAL IN OBSER- 
 VATIONS OR RECITATION.* 
 
 "Nature study has largely to do with the relations of things." 
 (I, 14). 
 
 1. To the whole of which the object is a part. 
 
 2. To natural environment. 
 
 3. To past and future. 
 
 4. To other individuals, similar or otherwise. 
 
 5. To cause and effect. 
 
 6. To man. 
 
 7. To Creator. Natural laws. 
 
 8. To other school work. 
 
 Recognizing that the chief interest is not in the structure but 
 activities of animals and plants, the following is suggested : 
 
 ALL LIVING ORGANISMS ARE AT WORK AND ALL ARE DOING (each in its 
 own way) THE SAME KIND OF WORK, viz : 
 (a.) Its own support. 
 1. Nutrition (food and oxygen). 
 
 * These suggestions are expected to help teachers in preparing lesson-plans by 
 keeping the great facts of animals and plants before them. 
 
2. Protection (enemies, etc.) 
 
 (b. ) Production and care of organisms like itself. 
 ANIMALS. (III, 27, 28.) The animal body must be adapted to secure 
 the essentials of life for itself and young in its particular environ- 
 ment. With some, this region is extremely limited, because the 
 animal is adapted to conditions which have a very restricted area, 
 (e.g. Even or uniform temperature, water, etc. ) These adapta- 
 tions may be classified as follows : 
 
 1. Food securing. 2. Air securing. 3. Self protection. 4. Rival- 
 ry. 5. Defense and care of young. 6. Surroundings. 
 
 1. In getting food two things must be considered. 
 
 (a.) Nature of food, and how secured or captured, (e.g. If the 
 food of a certain animal consists of roots of plants, it must be 
 able to dig them up, or make burrows to reach them. After 
 reaching them the teeth and jaws must be adapted, to breaking 
 them off.) 
 
 (b.) How food is managed after being secured i.e. whether dis- 
 posed of at once and how (by teeth or other means) or stored up 
 for future use. 
 
 2. The adaptations for securing oxygen are easily determined. If 
 from air, by means of lungs or air tubes ; if from water, by means 
 of gills. 
 
 3. The animal may protect itself in any 
 of several ways, or by a combination 
 of all or part of these. 
 
 (a.) Hiding, using some means of 
 
 shelter, either from view or from 
 
 direct attack of the enemy. 
 (b.) Defending itself by inflicting some injury on enemy, as biting, 
 
 stinging, etc. 
 
 (c.) Running away, and thus escaping, 
 (d.) Imitating in color or form its surroundings in such a way as 
 
 not to be seen. 
 
 (e.) Imitating some animal known to be dangerous, 
 (f.) Being provided with protective armor which successfully 
 
 repels attacks. 
 
(Often the same adaptations which wilt secure protection will also 
 help in securing food. ) 
 
 4. Rivalry among members of its own species, (e.g. brilliant plum- 
 age of certain male birds.) 
 
 5. The animal must care for its young. In general this care depends 
 upon the individuals in the family. An interesting way to consider 
 this subject is to study the life histories of animals. In many 
 cases this is possible. The same questions as to food, oxygen, ene- 
 mies, etc., are to be noted in study of the care of the young, except 
 that the parent may provide for all or part of the essentials for 
 existence. (Egg, scale insect, ants, kangaroo, etc.) 
 
 6. Animals must adapt themselves to their surroundings. Some of 
 the factors are seasons, climate, water, dryness, etc. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOE STUDY OF INSECTS. 
 
 Equipments for the School Room. (Ill, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 
 
 37, 38, 39, V, 77.) 
 
 Insect Net. Made by fastening a hoop eight inches in diameter 
 of No. 8 wire to end of broom handle, and sewing a bag of netting 
 two feet deep to the hoop. 
 
 Cage. A small wooden box with posts extending from corners, 
 (8-12 in.) above the top of the box to support the netting. The 
 box should be partly filled with earth and growing seedlings. The 
 netting should cover the box completely. A paper shoe box 
 makes a very good cage. Collecting-boxes should be small card- 
 board or cigar boxes. 
 
 Poison Bottle. This is sometimes needed if insects are to be killed 
 and mounted. (Ill, 36.) 
 
 Collecting. Insects are usually hard to find on account of their 
 protective devices. Each plant should be looked 
 over quietly and carefully. A few plants should be 
 selected and hunted over slowly rather than a great 
 many hurriedly. Examine leaves , bark , flo wer, fruit , 
 stem and roots, taking note of places and con- 
 ditions. (II, 21.) 
 Points to Observe and Study. 
 Method of getting food from plants. (Jaws, teeth, etc.) 
 
How they deposit eggs, ovipositor, spinning apparatus, etc. 
 
 Movements, Wings Arrangement. If two pairs, arrangement 
 of each. How wings are used in flying. Resting condition, 
 whether spread or not. Character of wings as affecting flight. 
 Compare with birds. 
 
 Crawling movements. Legs Position and attachment. Order of 
 movements. Tracks in dust. 
 
 Attack and defense. Color, shell, odors, stings, concealment, etc. 
 
 Life History. Changes from egg to adult. These changes may be 
 watched by keeping the larvae and feeding them in the cage. 
 
 Table for identification of a few of the common orders. For closer 
 
 identification see (III, 27, 30, 31, 36.) 
 A. Jaw-like mouth parts for biting. 
 
 B. Two pair of wings, unlike in structure. 
 
 c. Outer wings sheath-like and meeting in a straight line; under 
 wings folding in two ways. Sheath-wings, (Coleoptera.) 
 cc. Outer wings leathery and meeting in a straight ridge ; under 
 wings folding lengthwise like a fan. Straight wings. (Orthoptera.) 
 
 BB. Two pair of wings, alike in structure. 
 
 c. With many nerves in the wings. Nerve-wings. (Neuroptera.) 
 cc. With few nerves in the wings. Membrane-wings. (Hymen- 
 optera.) 
 A A. Tube-like mouth parts for sucking. 
 
 B. Two pair of wings. 
 
 c. Wings covered with powdery scales. Scale-wings. (Lepidop- 
 tera. ) 
 
 cc. Wings not covered with scales. 
 
 d. Upper wings of uniform texture, with one wing crossing the 
 other in the back. Similar-wings. (Homoptera.) 
 
 dd. Wings plainly of two different textures, with one wing cross- 
 ing the other on the back. Dissimilar- wings. (Heteroptera.) 
 BB. One pair of wings. Two-wings. (Diptera.) 
 PLANTS. (IV, 45, 46, 48.52, 53.) 
 
 Flowering Plant. Many parts or organs, but three chief ones : 
 leaf, stem and root, each definitely related to something outside 
 of it. (IV, 52.) 
 
1. Leaf. (Foliage.) On stem always exposed to light, each leaf 
 seeking as much light as possible without danger. 
 
 Chief work of the leaf to make use of sunlight as power to 
 form starch-like compounds from carbon dioxide (taken from the 
 air) and water (taken from the ground). 
 
 Structure. Protecting region (epidermis). Working tissue (green 
 cells). Conducting tissue (veins). Openings (stomata). 
 
 Protection against cold, dryness, sunlight, rain, etc., by hairs, 
 thickened epidermis, water storage, movement of leaves, etc. 
 
 2. Stem. Great use of the stem for leaf display, and its character 
 depends upon the character of the 
 
 leaves it bears. * 
 
 Structure determined by its work. 
 All stems have protecting, grow- 
 ing, conducting, supporting, and 
 food storage regions. Variety due 
 to disposition of these regions. 
 
 Types. According to method of sup- 
 porting leaves, procumbent, climb- 
 ing (several kinds), floating and 
 erect. 
 
 3. Root. Adapted to soil relation, 
 and work is to absorb, this de- 
 pending on surface exposure. 
 
 Growth near end, and influenced by gravity and water. Many 
 roots used for food storage. 
 
 Types. Underground (the common type), aquatic (adapted for 
 getting free water), aerial (adapted for getting water from air), 
 parasite (adapted for getting water and food from other plants), 
 clinging (modified for support). 
 
 Additional points to be kept in mind in the study of plants : 
 
 Life History. If flowering plant, form and parts of seed, mode of 
 dispersal, food supply, stages of germination, disposal of seed- 
 coats in germination, etc. 
 
 8 
 
Environment. Soil, dry or wet. Character of soil (sand, clay, 
 etc.) Power of soil to retain moisture. Elevation. Exposure to 
 sun and winds. Relation to other plants. 
 
 Food. Adaptation of the plant for getting nourishment from the 
 ground. Character of the roots. 
 
 Adaptation for getting sunlight. Character of the stem as regards 
 leaf display. (Erect, climbing, etc.) 
 
 Arrangement and shape of the leaves. Structure of the leaves in 
 regard to protection from too much sunlight, or too free trans- 
 piration. Relation of this structure to the plant's ability to 
 thrive under various conditions. Effect of dry weather on plant. 
 
 Enemies. Plant enemies (rusts, mildews, etc.) Animal enemies, 
 means of protection from. Relation to man. Useful or harmful. 
 If harmful (a weed) points that make it so (rate of growth, repro- 
 duction, etc.) 
 
 Reproduction. Two methods. 1. Vegetative (ordinary growing 
 process). 2. Special bodies (spores of lower plants and seeds of 
 flow r ering plants). 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF FLOWERS. 
 
 Purpose of the flower twofold : (a.) Secure pollination, (b.) Pro- 
 tect the developing seed. (IV, 52.) 
 
 (a.) Pollination. This means the transfer of pollen, usually from 
 the pollen sacs of the flower to the stigma of another, sometimes 
 to its own stigma. When this is done, certain changes begin in 
 the ovary of the flower whose stigma receives the pollen, result- 
 ing ultimately in the formation of the seed. Without this process 
 (pollination) no seed can be formed. To secure pollination is the 
 first problem of the flower. There are almost as many ways of 
 working it out as there are kinds of flowers. Two means of trans- 
 fer of pollen are available wind and animals (chiefly insects.) 
 
 1. Wind. When this method is used the following adaptations 
 are necessary : a. Plants or flowers must be close together, b. 
 Large amount of pollen, c. Large expanse of btigma. (Illus- 
 trated by the oats, wheat, pine, etc.) 
 
 2. Insects. Three adaptations, a. Prevention of self-pollination. 
 
 9 
 
b. Securing visits from desirable insects, c. Preventing visits 
 from undesirable visitors, 
 (a.) Prevention of self-pollination. 
 
 The dangers of self-pollination arise only in flowers that have 
 both stamens and pistil. The stigma of the pistil is said to be 
 mature when it has upon it a sweetish, sticky fluid which holds 
 the pollen. Unless the stigma is in this condition the pollen will 
 not cause development of the seed in the ovary of the pistil. The 
 pollen is mature when it is shedding or ready to fall from pollen 
 sacs. There are many devices for preventing pollination, but 
 most of them may be included in three general methods : 
 
 1. Position, (flower so constructed as to be impossible for the 
 pollen to reach its own stigma.) 2. Consecutive maturity, (pol- 
 len and stigma maturing at different times.) 3. Difference in 
 pollen. 
 
 (b.) Cross-pollination by means of insects : 
 
 Some inducement must be offered, such as nectar, pollen, or, in 
 some cases, shelter. Color and odor serve as guides 
 to location of flowers. The flower must be so con- 
 structed as to compel the insect to touch the pollen 
 in one flower and rub SOL ie off on the stigma of the 
 other. Each flower has its own way, hence the 
 variety. 
 
 (c. ) Undesirable insects. Only flying insects are useful, but crawl- 
 ing in sects are attracted. Some of the adaptations for keepingthem 
 away are hairs, glandular secretions, water reservoirs, move- 
 ments, milk or glue, structure of flower, bloom, position of flower, 
 etc. 
 
 (b.) Protection of developing seed. 
 
 In general the developing seed is protected in two ways by me- 
 chanical means such as the plant protects itself with (thorns, etc ) 
 or chemical, having the part around the seed bitter or poisonous. 
 All parts of the flower, which are concerned in pollination alone 
 and do not help protect the growing seed, drop off or wither. 
 
 10 
 
VII. GENERAL OUTLINE OF COURSE IN NATURE STUDY THROUGH EIGHTH 
 
 GRADE (Spring Term 1901). * 
 Kindergarten. (No specified time.) 
 
 Garden work every day. Animals and plants in the rooms for 
 observations in connection with stories. Trips to parks. Chil- 
 dren encouraged to bring in anything of interest in nature. 
 First Grade. (Two twenty minute periods daily.) 
 
 Garden work as often as necessary to care for the plants 
 started in the fall. Harvesting of corn, beans, peas, etc. Field 
 lessons after the rains. (II, 19, 23, 25 ; IV, 47, 51.) 
 Animal study. (Ill, 26, 29, 41 ; V, 78.) 
 
 1. Rabbit, squirrel, and gopher. 2. Cow, sheep, and goat. 
 3. Hen, duck. 4. Frog and tadpoles. 5. Bees, caterpillars, 
 and butterflies. 
 
 Stories and poems taken in connection with animal and plant 
 study. General plan in animal study home, food, and adapta- 
 tion to environment (mode of life.) 
 
 Time taken for observation of any objects of interest at any time. 
 Correlation with literature and drawing. 
 
 Second Grade. (Twenty minute periods daily.) (References same as 
 for First Grade.) 
 
 Garden work. Preparation of ground and planting of common 
 vegetables corn, beans, squash, lettuce, radishes, carrots, 
 onions, etc. Observation on growth and care of plants. Flower 
 and fruit, introduced by study of the orange flower by tracing 
 fruit back to pistil. Idea brought out that the pistil has to do 
 with the fruit, and that the other floral 
 organs are necessary to start the devel- 
 opment of fruit. 
 Animal study. 
 
 Horned toad, lizard, turtle. Types of 
 seizers, climbers, waders, swimmers,, 
 runners from such birds as owl, parrot, 
 ostrich, sea-gull, pelican, and heron. 
 Such insects as are brought in by chil- 
 
 Detailed outline only given for the third grade, owing to lack of space. 
 
 11 
 
dren, especial attention given those found in connection with 
 the gardens. 
 
 Correlation with literature and drawing. 
 Third Grade. (Twenty minute periods daily.) 
 
 Garden work. Later stages and harvesting of wheat, barley, beets, 
 and other commercial plants. 
 
 Plants. "From flower to seed" of available plants on campus, 
 and also the common native plants. Collections made. 
 Animals. Life history, habits, etc., of toad, frog, and sala- 
 mander. 
 Occasional lessons on evaporation, weather, etc. 
 
 Correlation with literature, drawing, geography, arithmetic. 
 
 DETAILED OUTLINE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS OF THIRD GRADE.* 
 
 The work consists of plant and animal study taken together. 
 
 Ordinarily two periods are given to animal study and three to 
 
 plant study, but this order is varied to suit circumstances, such 
 
 as lack of material, etc. 
 Subjects. 
 
 Animal study. (II, 21, 23 ; III, 26 ; V, 67, 69, 80. ) 
 
 Frog and toad, general characters and habits. 
 
 Salamander, general characters and habits. 
 
 Life history of each. 
 
 Review of horned-toad and lizard for comparison. 
 
 Such insects as are found in connection with the study of plants. 
 Plant study. (II, 19 ; III, 47 ; IV, 50.) 
 
 Garden work. Commercial plants, wheat, etc. 
 
 From flower to seed of the most common wild flowers. 
 Frog and '/bad and their Life-histcries. 
 
 Material, collecting, and preservation. 
 Collecting. 
 
 For this a pail and net (with long handle) will be useful. 
 
 Some provision for keeping the feet dry, rubbers or rubber boots. 
 When to go. 
 
 Any time after the 20th of Jan. 
 
 Similar outlines have been prepared for all grades. 
 
 12 
 
Where to go. 
 
 Any quiet place where water has been 
 standing for some time. The pools 
 alotig the Los Angeles river may be 
 reached by taking the Daly street car 
 at the Buena Vista street bridge. 
 Ponds at the parks at unfrequented 
 parts. 
 
 Eggs are usually found in the garden pond. 
 How to hunt frogs and toads. 
 
 No specific directions ought to be necessary for this. They will 
 usually be found along the edges of the pond and will jump into 
 the water when frightened. They will soon come to the top of 
 the water for air, when they may be seen and caught with the 
 net. When caught they should be put in a covered pail or sack, 
 care being taken to give them enough air. 
 Where to find eggs. 
 
 Eggs will likely be found where the frogs and toads are. It may 
 take some careful hunting to find them. They are usually in 
 shallow water near the bank. Frog eggs are in rather large gel- 
 atinous masses clinging to sticks or plants. Each egg has in its 
 center a small black or dark spot (the egg proper). See preserved 
 specimens. 
 
 Toad eggs are deposited in similar manner, but are distin- 
 guished from frog eggs by being in strings, and are not always 
 attached to sticks. See preserved specimens. 
 As fast as they are gathered they should be placed in water. 
 Toads What to do with them. 
 
 Places should be prepared for them as nearly like their 
 natural surroundings as possible, and should be covered 
 with netting to keep them from escaping. A dish of 
 fresh w r ater should be in the box. Care should be taken 
 to have the box always clean. 
 
 Frogs They may be kept in the same place as the toads. 
 Feeding. Both frogs and toads are fond of small living animals 
 such as worms and insects. 
 Eggs. For the later stages put part of the eggs in the garden pond . 
 
 13 
 
The remainder, not too many, may be put in glass globes. Several 
 should be put in shallow dishes ( l / 2 doz. in each) for individual 
 observation. Care must be taken to keep the water well aerated. 
 This may be done by changing the water frequently or by forcing 
 air into the water by means of a bicycle pump. In all cases the 
 natural pond conditions should be imitated. 
 
 Observations. These should be made outside of recitation periodson 
 the animals in the school room. One trip to the garden pond should 
 be made each week to compare with other specimens. The changes 
 are rapid at first but less rapid as the animal grows older. 
 Things to be observed. Account of number from time to time. It will 
 be found that the number of individuals will gradually decrease. 
 
 Some reasons for this decrease lack of food, lack 
 
 of air, enemies. What kind? Other causes? 
 
 Comparison of rate of growth of those in the pond 
 
 with those in the school room. 
 
 Explanation of this difference, if possible. Does the 
 number of individuals have anything to do with the growth? 
 Under what conditions are the individuals the largest? Smallest? 
 Change in individuals. (Keep record on blackboard. > 
 Does the little black center change shape? 
 When does the animal begin to move in the egg? 
 When does the animal break from the egg? (Hatch.) 
 What does it do when it hatches? 
 When does it begin to swim? 
 
 What does it do when it is not swimming? (Bemains usually 
 fastened by V-shaped sucker to some object.) 
 In what part of the jar is it generally located? 
 Is there any reason why it likes this part of the jar better than 
 the other parts? 
 
 Is there any difference in the position of the animals just before 
 and just after giving them air? 
 Feeding. 
 
 They use small plants on the stones (slime) for food. New slime- 
 covered stones should be added from time to time. Examine the 
 stones after they have been in the water with the animals for 
 
 14 
 
some time. They may be fed with fresh meat or 
 coarse meal. 
 Later changes. 
 
 Big heads, legs, disappearance of tail. (Gradu- 
 ally?) 
 
 Significance of coming to the top of the water? 
 (Using new lungs.) 
 
 Final transformation. Beginning of life on land. 
 Along with the study of these transformations from egg to frog 
 or toad, observations should be made on the habits of the frogs 
 and toads which are kept in the room. 
 Toads. 
 
 They may be kept in the way already indicated, being careful to 
 keep the place cool and damp. The vessel holding the animals 
 should be covered with netting or wire screening so that they 
 may be seen easily. Pupils must be quiet while watching the 
 animals. The food consists of any small creeping or crawling 
 animals. These must be alive. Pupils may bring in insects, 
 worms, caterpillars, etc. 
 Points to be noticed. 
 
 Account should be taken of the number eaten in a given time. 
 These accounts should be repeated from time to time. 
 Estimates may then be made of the number of insects 
 and other animals destroyed in a season. 
 Way of disposing of different kinds of food. 
 Breathing. Nostrils opening and closing. 
 Habits as to darkness and light to be observed at home 
 
 by as many of the pupils 
 as possible. Encourage* 
 the pupils to have one or 
 more toads at home in 
 garden or yard. They 
 will probably remain if 
 put in a damp, cool, 
 shady place where they 
 can hide in day time. 
 
 15 
 
The animals should not be disturbed at first. They must get 
 used to their home and not be handled roughly. 
 
 Frogs They may be kept in the way already indicated. Try the same 
 food as with toads. Observe same points and make compar- 
 isons. 
 
 Recitations Whenever necessary the time may be taken to care 
 for the animals without any attempt to teach. 
 Throughout the whole course or subject the teacher must guide 
 the pupils rather than teach in a formal way. Refer, when pos- 
 sible, to the objects for answers to questions. The recitations 
 should consist in putting together from time to time what has 
 been seen, comparing records of individual pupils, and referring 
 back to the objects to settle undecided questions, putting the 
 final results, if important, on the board. The subjects indicated 
 under points to be observed will afford abundant material. The 
 life history of frog and toad will occupy under favorable condi- 
 tions about two or three months. 
 
 The changes are most striking and rapid in the first and last 
 stages, and therefore should receive the most attention. 
 
 Expression. 
 
 Drawings should be made from time to time so that the life 
 history may be represented in all forms of expression (oral, 
 written, and by drawings). 
 
 General aim . 
 
 The general aim is not so much to bring out the different facts as 
 such, but to bring the pupils in as natural a way as possible in 
 contact and in sympathy with some of the most common and un- 
 appreciated animals. The life of the frog or toad with its strug- 
 gles, activities, and dangers should be a revelation to inspire a 
 desire for similar knowledge of other forms of animal life. 
 
 Salamander. 
 
 This animal is related to the frog and toad, and may be kept 
 under the same conditions. 
 
 Where found. 
 In the water in most of the canyons near Los Angeles from Jan- 
 
 16 
 
uary to April. At this time they are swim- 
 ming in the water, and may be kept in water 
 for several months, but will probably thrive 
 better if put under similar conditions as indi- 
 cated for frog and toad. 
 Points to be observed. 
 
 General characters smooth skin, legs, tail, 
 mouth, etc. 
 
 Compare with frog and toad. 
 How does the animal breathe? Watch move- 
 ments. When in the water does it come to the top to 
 breathe? If so, how often? Look for bubbles of air? What part 
 of the head do they seem to came from? 
 
 Watch the animal get food. Feed flies or worms. Put small 
 piece of meat on end of wire or stick and pass several times in 
 front of its mouth. The animal may sometimes be induced to 
 take food in this way. 
 
 How does the animal move through the water? 
 Watch crawling movements on a board. 
 Compare the two movements. 
 
 Other points may be suggested to the teacher as the animals are 
 watched from time to time. 
 
 Eggs These may be found in the streams with the salamanders, 
 about the middle of March. They will be found 
 in small bunches clinging to sticks and weeds in 
 much the same way as the eggs of frogs. See 
 preserved specimens. 
 How taken care of. 
 
 Same as the eggs of frogs and toads. The devel- 
 opment is much slower. They may be seen mov- 
 ing about in the egg long before they hatch. After hatching they 
 may be cared for in the same way as the tadpoles of the frog and 
 toad. The time of complete change into adult animals will be 
 several months (6-9). 
 
 Points to be noticed Same as frog and toad. Compare. 
 The gills of the young salamander are not covered as in the tad- 
 
 17 
 
poles, but may be seen as a fringe around the head. The general 
 suggestions about the frog and toad will apply in the study of the 
 salamander and its life history. 
 Garden Work. 
 
 This consists of occasional observations on the commercial plants 
 
 f which were planted 
 / during the previous 
 term, and taking care 
 of them when they are 
 ready to be harvested. 
 In connection with 
 this some time may be 
 given to the methods 
 in actual use on the 
 California ranch in harvesting and caring for the products such as 
 wheat, barley, beets, etc. 
 Plants. 
 
 The object of this study is to get acquainted with the common 
 wild plants, both native and introduced. This object includes 
 the recognition by means of flower, and as far as possible by other 
 characters such as leaves and seed. As each plant is studied not 
 only are its general characters observed, but as far as possible 
 the adaptation of its flowers to secure pollination. 
 Method No specific directions can be given here. The teacher must 
 select some of the main facts about the plant and see that the pupils 
 observe and describe them. The real test is whether the child 
 can recognize the plant and recall the name, or if the name is 
 
 given to be able to select the plant 
 from among others. Such informa- 
 tion as is necessary for the teacher's 
 preparation may be obtained from 
 the references. 
 
 Collecting and caring for specimens. 
 As far as possible have the children 
 bring in their own specimens. Those 
 plants in the immediate vicinity of 
 
 18 
 
 * 
 
the Normal may be gathered by the class in field lessons. 
 Each pupil should preserve and mount a specimen of each plant 
 studied. These specimens, when finished, will furnish material 
 for review. 
 Fourth Grade. (Three twenty-five minute periods per week.) 
 
 Garden work. Cultivation and study of some members of the 
 Nightshade family of plants. (IV, 50.) 
 
 Plants. Review of some of the common California wild flowers. 
 Some of the common types of lower plant life. (Ferns and their 
 allies, mosses and liverworts, algae and fungi. (IV, 45, 46, 52.) 
 
 Animals. Common forms of animal life found at the sea-shore 
 (not studied the previous term , insects (after cray-fish,crab, etc.) 
 spiders, etc. (Ill, 26, 27, 30, 34, 36, 39.) 
 
 Correlation with literature, drawing, geography, manual training. 
 Fifth Grade. (One forty minute period per week.) 
 
 Plants. Continuation of the study of the work of plants begun in 
 the fall. Adaptations, (climbing, etc.) 
 Experiments in fermentation. 
 
 Correlation with literature, drawing, geography, arithmetic. 
 Sixth Grade. (One forty-five minute period per week.) 
 
 Time devoted to meetings of Junior Naturalists' Club. 
 Seventh Grade .(*) (One forty minute period per week.) 
 
 Discussions (with experiments and home readings) of simple phe- 
 nomena of light and electricity. Construction of voltaic cell, gal- 
 vanometer, and induction coils. Study of great men in history 
 of physirs: Franklin, Faraday, Edison, Field, Morse, et al. 
 Eighth Grade. ($) (One forty minute period per week.) 
 
 General study of air based on laboratory work on oxygen, nitro- 
 gen, carbon dioxide, watery vapor, smoke, etc. 
 
 Application of truths learned in explanation of combustion, ani- 
 mal and plant life. 
 
 Physiology. In addition to the subjects indicated in the above out- 
 line such phases of the subject of physiology as are adapted to the 
 different grades are selected and presented. These pertain chiefly 
 to the care of the body, formation of habits, etc. 
 
 Outlined by Dr. Schults. t Outlined by Mrs. English. 
 
 19 
 
VI. BlBMOGRAPHY OF REFERENCE BOOKS ON NATURE STUDY. 
 
 (The following list is not complete, but includes the most important 
 and useful.) 
 
 I. Underlying Principles Determining Method. 
 
 1. Barnes, Earl. "A Study in Children's Interests." Studies in 
 Education, (part VI, pp. 203-212.) 
 
 2. Burk, Frederick. "From the Fundamental to the Accessory." 
 Pedagogical Seminary, (vol. VI, 1898.) 
 
 3. Coulter, J. M. "Mission of Science in Education." Science, 
 (vol. XII, num. 295, Aug. 24, 1900.) 
 
 4. Coulter, J. M. "Some Problems in Education." Inland Edu- 
 cator, (vol. I, num. 9, 1901.) 
 
 5. Dewey, John. "School and Society." Chicago University 
 Press. 
 
 6. Davis, B. M. "Basis of Nature Study." Proceedings of Cal. 
 Teachers' Assoc. 1899. 
 
 7. Hodge, C. F. "Foundations of Nature Study." Pedagogical 
 Seminary, (vol. VI, num. 4, vol. VII, num. 1-2, 1899-1900.) 
 
 8. Hodge, C. F. "Nature Study and Life." Ginn & Co , 1901. 
 
 9. Hugh, D. D. "Animism in Children." 
 Northwestern Monthly, (vol. IX, pp. 450-453.) 
 
 10 James, Wm. "Talks to Teachers." Henry 
 Holt & Co 
 
 11. Jackraan, W. I. "Constructive Work in the 
 Common Schools." Educational Review, (vol. 
 XVII, pp. 105-124.) 
 
 12. Lucky, G. W. A. "Children's Interests." 
 Proceed, of Nat. Educational Assoc., 1897. 
 
 13 McMurray, Chas. "Special Method in Sci- 
 ence." Public School Pub. Co., Bloomington, 111, 
 
 14. Scott, C. B. "Nature Study and the Child." D. C. Heath 
 &Co. 
 
 15. Tayler, J. S. "Some Practical Aspects of Interest." Peda- 
 gogical Seminary, (vol VI, 1898.) 
 
 16. Van Liew, Chas. "Racial Traits in Group Activity Among 
 Children." Proceed. Nat Ed. Assoc., 1899. 
 
 20 
 
17. Van Liew, Chas. "Mental and Moral Development of the 
 Kindergarten Child." Kindergarten Review, (vol. X. pp. 87-94.) 
 
 II. Method. (5, 6, 7, 12, 13, of I.) 
 
 18. "Elementary School Record," (num. 4, Botany, 1900 ^Uni- 
 versity of Chicago Press. 
 
 19. Davidson, Alice Merritt. "California Plants. " Baumgardt & 
 Co., Los Angeles. 
 
 20. Jackman, W. I. "Nature Study in the Grammar Grades." 
 Macmillan Co. 
 
 21. Jackman, W. I. "Nature Study." Henry Holt & Co. 
 
 22. Jenkins & Kellogg. "Lessons in Nature Study." Whitaker 
 & Ray Co. 
 
 23. Lange, D. "Handbook of Nature Study. "Henry Holt & Co. 
 
 24. Lloyd and Carss. "Nature Study in the Horace Mann School " 
 Teachers College Record, March, 1900. 
 
 25. Wilson, L. L. "Nature Study in the Elementary Schools." 
 Macmillan Co. 
 
 III, Subject Matter. Animals.- -(20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, of II.) 
 General. 
 
 26. Burnett, M. "Zoology," (Elementary). Amer. Book Co. 
 
 27. Davenport, C. B. and C. G. "Introduction to Zoology." 
 Macmillan Co. 
 
 28. Jordon and Kellogg. "Animal Life." Appleton. 
 
 29. Lydeker, Sharp, et al. "Natural History." Appleton. 
 Insects and Spiders. 
 
 30. Comstock, J. H. "Insect Life." Teachers and Students Ed., 
 Appleton. 
 
 31. Cooke, M. "Insects Injurious and Beneficial. " H.S.Crocker 
 & Co., Sacramento, Cal., 1887. 
 
 32. Cooke, M. "Injurious Insects to Orchard." 
 
 33. Cragin, B. S. "Our Insect Friends and Foes. "Putnam, 1897. 
 
 34. Emerton, J. H. "The Structure and Habits of Spiders." B. 
 Whidder, Boston, 1897. 
 
 35. Hiatt, A. "Insecta. Guide for Science Teaching. " Ginn & Co. 
 
 36. Packard, A. S. "Entomology for Beginners." Henry Holt & Co. 
 
 37. Scudder, S. H. "Butterflies." Henry Holt & Co. 
 
 21 
 
38. Scudder, S. H. "Frail Children of the Air." Hough ton, 
 Mifflin & Co. 
 
 39. Weed, Clarence Moore. "Stories of Insect Life." Ginn&Co. 
 Birds. 
 
 40. Chapman, F. M. "Bird Life." Appleton, 1897. 
 
 41. Grinnell, Eliz. and Joseph. "Our 
 Feathered Friends." D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 42. Miller, Olive Thome. "In Nesting 
 Time." Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 
 
 43. Miller, 0. T. "Bird Ways." Hough- 
 ton, Mifflin & Co. 
 
 44. Miller, O. T. "Little Birds of the 
 Air." Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 
 
 IV Subject Matter. Plants. (18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, of II.) 
 
 45. Atkinson, G. F. "First Studies of Plant Life." Ginn & Co. 1901. 
 
 46. Barnes, C. R. "Outlines of Plant Life." Henry Holt & Co. 1901. 
 
 47. Bailey, L. H. "Garden Making." Macmillan Co. 
 
 48. Bailey, L. H. "Lessons with Plants." Macmillan Co, 
 
 49. Beal, W. J. "Seed Dispersal." Ginn & Co. 
 
 50. Bergen, J. Y. "Elements of Botany." Ginn & Co. 
 
 51. Clapp, H. L. "School Gardens." Pop. Sci. Monthly, vol. 
 52, pp. 445. 
 
 52 Coulter, J. M. "Plant Relations." Appleton. 
 
 53. Coulter, J. M. "Plant Structures." Appleton. 
 
 54. Jepson, W. L. "Flora of the Middle West." Encina Pub. 
 Co., Berkeley, Cal. 
 
 55. Morley, M. W. "Seed Babies." Ginn & Co. 
 
 56. Newell, JaneH. "Outlines of Lessons in Botany." Giiin&Co. 
 
 57. Putnam, B. L. "Children's Gardens." Kindergarten Review, 
 Sept., 1898, (pp. 22.) 
 
 58. Rattan, Volney. "Popular California Flora." Bancroft Pub. 
 Co., San Francisco. 
 
 59. Smith, G. B. "A German School with a Garden." Dep. Agr. 
 Experimental Station Circ. (num. 43.) 
 
 V. General and Popular Relating to Nature. 
 
 60. Bergen, Fanny D. "Glimpses at the Plant World." Ginn & Co, 
 
 22 
 
61. Buckley, A. B. "Life and Her 
 Children. ' ' Appleton. 
 
 62. Buckley, A. B. "Winners in 
 Life's Races." Appleton. 
 
 63. Burroughs, John. "Signs and 
 Seasons. " Houghton,Mifflin&Co. 
 
 64. Burroughs, John. "Riverby. " 
 
 65. Burroughs, John. "Winter 
 Sunshine." 
 
 66. Burroughs, John. "Wake 
 Robin." 
 
 67. Gage, S. H. "The Life History of the Toad." Cornell Teach, 
 ers' Leaflets, (num. 9.) 
 
 68. Gould, A. W. "Mother Nature's Children." Ginn & Co. 
 
 69. Hodge, C. F. "The Common Toad.'' Nature Study Leaflet, 
 Biology Series num 1, Worcester, Mass. 
 
 70. Hodge, C. F. "Our Common Birds." Nature Study Leaflet- 
 (num. 2 ) 
 
 71. Ingersol, Ernest. "Wild Neighbors." Macmillan Co. 
 
 72. Jordon, D. S. "True Tales of Birds and Beasts." Pop. Sci. 
 Monthly, (vol. 54.) 
 
 73. Jordon, D. S. "The Fur Seal as an Animal." Forum, (vol. 23.) 
 
 74. Kingsley, Chas. "Water Babies." (Abriged). Ginn & Co. 
 
 75. Morley, M. W. "Little Wanderers.'' Ginn & Co. 
 
 76. Muir, John. "Among the Ani- 
 mals of the Yosemite." Atlantic 
 Monthly, (vol. 82.) 
 
 77. Needham. James. "Outdoor 
 studies." Amer. Book Co. 
 
 78. Ricks, Geo. "Natural History 
 Object Lessons." D. C. Heath 
 &Co. 
 
 79. Thompson, E. S. "Wild Ani- 
 mals I Have Known." Scribner. 
 
 80. Wright, J. M. "Sea-side and Way-side." D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 B. M, DAVIS. 
 
 23 
 
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