LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 RIVFRSIDF

 
 7 &> 
 
 PEDAGOGICS 
 
 AS A 
 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 By Dr. KARL ROSENKRANZ, 
 i 
 
 Doctor of Theology and Professor of Philosophy at the Univer- 
 sity of Konigsberg. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN 
 
 By ANNA C. BRACKETT. 
 
 (Reprinted from Journal of Speculative Philosophy. ~) 
 
 ST. LOUIS, MO.: 
 THE R. P. STUDLEY COMPANY, PRINTERS, CORNER MAIN & OLIVE STS. 
 
 1872.
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by 
 
 WILLIAM T. HARRIS, 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 fits Nature 
 
 'in its General < its Form 
 Idea 
 
 I. its Limits 
 PART I. 
 
 f Physical 
 
 Education 
 
 in its Special < Intellectual 
 Elements 
 I Moral 
 PART II. 
 
 f Family .... 
 'Passive -J Caste . . . . 
 
 China. 
 India. 
 
 
 L Monkish . . . 
 
 Thibet. 
 
 
 {Military . . . 
 
 Persia. 
 
 in its Particular National 
 Systems 
 
 PART HI. 
 
 Priestly . . . 
 Industrial . . 
 {^Esthetic . . . 
 
 Egypt- 
 Pho3nicia. 
 Greece. 
 
 
 Practical . . . 
 
 Borne. 
 
 Theocratic 
 
 Abstract Indi- 
 vidual 
 
 ( Northern 
 I Barbarians. 
 
 Jews 
 
 
 Monkish 
 
 
 Human ita- 
 *. rian , 
 
 Chivalric f for Special 
 Callings 
 
 ( Jesuitic. 
 (Pietistic. 
 
 
 .for Civil Life] to achieve an 
 Ideal of Culture 
 
 for Free Citizen 
 
 {The Huma- 
 nities. 
 The Philan- 
 thropic 
 Movem't. 
 
 mip.
 
 PEDAGOGICS AS A SYSTEM. 
 
 [Inquiries from teachers in different sections of the country as to the sources 
 of information on the subject of Teaching as a Science have led me to believe 
 that a translation of Rosenkranz's Pedagogics may be widely acceptable and 
 useful. It is very certain that too much of our teaching is simply empirical, 
 and as Germany has, -more than any other country, endeavored to found it 
 upon universal truths, it is to that country that we must at present look for 
 a remedy for this empiricism. 
 
 Based as this is upon the profoundest system of German Philosophy, no more 
 suggestive treatise on Education can perhaps be found. In his third part, as 
 will be readily seen, Rosenkranz follows the classification of National ideas 
 given in Hegel's Philosophy of History. The word " Pedagogics," though it 
 has unfortunately acquired a somewhat unpleasant meaning in English 
 thanks to the writers who have made the word "pedagogue" so odious 
 deserves to be redeemed for future use. I have, therefore, retained it in the 
 translation. 
 
 In order that the reader may see the general scope of the work, I append in 
 tabular form the table of contents, giving however, under the first and second 
 parts, only the main divisions. The minor heads can, of course, as they 
 appear in the translation, be easily located. 2V.] 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. The science of Pedagogics cannot be derived from a 
 simple principle with such exactness as Logic and Ethics. It 
 is rather a mixed science which has its presuppositions in 
 many others. In this respect it resembles Medicine, with 
 which it has this also in common, that it must make a dis- 
 tinction between a sound and an unhealthy system of educa- 
 tion, and must devise means to prevent or to cure the latter. 
 It may therefore have, like Medicine, the three departments 
 of Physiology, Pathology, and Therapeutics. 
 
 2. Since Pedagogics is capable of no such exact defini- 
 tions of its principle and no such logical deduction as other 
 sciences, the treatises written upon it abound more in shallow- 
 ness than any other literature. Short-sightedness and arro- 
 gance find in it a most congenial atmosphere, and criticism
 
 6 Pedagogics as a System. 
 
 and declamatory bombast flourish in perfection as nowhere 
 else. The literature of religious tracts might be considered to 
 rival that of Pedagogics in its superficiality and assurance, 
 if it did not for the most part seem itself to belong, through 
 its ascetic nature, to Pedagogics. But teachers as persons 
 should be treated in their weaknesses and failures with the 
 utmost consideration, because they are most of them sincere 
 in contributing their mite for the improvement of education, 
 and all their pedagogic practice inclines them towards admin- 
 istering reproof and giving advice. 
 
 3. The charlatanism of educational literature is also fos- 
 tered by the fact that teaching has become one of the most 
 profitable employments, and the competition in it tends to 
 increase self-glorification. 
 
 When " Boz " in his " Nicholas Mckleby " exposed the 
 horrible mysteries of an English boarding-school, many 
 teachers of such schools were, as he assures us, so accurately 
 described that they openly complained he had aimed his 
 caricatures directly at them. 
 
 4. In the system of the sciences, Pedagogics belongs to 
 the Philosophy of Spirit, and in this, to the department of 
 Practical Philosophy, the problem of which is the compre- 
 hension of the necessity of freedom ; for education is the con- 
 scious working of one will on another so as to produce itself 
 in it according to a determinate aim. The idea of subj ective 
 spirit, as well as that of Art, Science, and Religion, forms 
 the essential condition for Pedagogics, but does not contain 
 its principle. If one thinks out a complete statement of Prac- 
 tical Philosophy (Ethics), Pedagogics may be distributed 
 among all its grades. But the point at which Pedagogics itself 
 becomes organic is the idea of the Family, because in the 
 family the difference between the adults and the minors en- 
 ters directly through the naturalness of spirit, and the right 
 of the children to an education and the duty of parents 
 towards them in this respect is incontestable. All other 
 spheres of education, in order to succeed, must presuppose a 
 true family life. They may extend and complement the busi- 
 ness of teaching, but cannot be its original foundation. 
 
 In our systematic exposition of Education, we must not 
 allow ourselves to be led into error by those theories which
 
 Pedagogics as a System. 7 
 
 do not recognize the family, and which limit the relation of 
 husband and wife to the producing of children. The Platonic 
 Philosophy is the most worthy representative of this class. 
 Later writers who take great pleasure in seeing the world 
 full of children, but who would subtract from the love to a 
 wife all truth and from that to children all care, exhibit in 
 their doctrine of the anarchy of love only a sickly (but yet 
 how prevalent an) imitation of the Platonic state. 
 
 5. Much confusion also arises from the fact that many do 
 not clearly enough draw the distinction between Pedagogics 
 as a science and Pedagogics as an art. As a science it busies 
 itself with developing a priori the idea of Education in the 
 universality and necessity of that idea, but as an art it is the 
 concrete individualizing of this abstract idea in any given 
 case. And in any such given case, the peculiarities of the 
 person who is to be educated and all the previously existing 
 circumstances necessitate a modification of the universal aims\ 
 and ends, which modification cannot be provided for before- 
 hand, but must rather test the ready tact of the educator who, 
 knows how to make the existing conditions fulfil his desiredj 
 end. It -is exactly in doing this that the educator may show 
 himself inventive and creative, and that pedagogic talent cani 
 distinguish itself. The word "art" is here used in the same 
 way as it is used when we say, the art of war, the art of gov- 
 ernment, &c. ; and rightly, for we are talking about the 
 possibility of the realization of the idea. 
 
 The educator must adapt himself to the pupil, but not to \ 
 such a degree as to imply that the pupil is incapable of change, \ 
 and he must also be sure that the pupil shall learn through his 
 experience the independence of the object studied, which re- 
 mains uninfluenced by his variable personal moods, and the 
 adaptation on the teacher's part must never compromise this 
 independence. 
 
 6. If conditions which are local, temporal, and individual, 
 are fixed as constant rules, and carried beyond their proper 
 limits, are systematized as a valuable formalistic code, una- 
 voidable error arises. The formulae of teaching are admirable 
 material for the science, but are not the science itself. 
 
 7. Pedagogics as a science must (1) unfold the general 
 idea of Education ; (2) must exhibit the particular phases into
 
 8 Pedagogics as a System. 
 
 which the general work of Education divides itself, and (3) 
 must describe the particular standpoint upon which the gen- 
 eral idea realizes itself, or should become real in its special 
 processes at any particular time. 
 
 8. The treatment of the first part offers no difficulty. It 
 is logically too evident. But it would not do to substitute for 
 it the history of Pedagogics, simply because all the concep- 
 tions of it which appear in systematic treatises can be found 
 there. 
 
 Into this error Gr. Thaulow has fallen in his pamphlet on 
 Pedagogics as a Philosophical Science. 
 
 9. The second division unfolds the subject of the physi- 
 cal, intellectual and practical culture of the human race, and 
 constitutes the main part of all books on Pedagogy. Here 
 arises the greatest difficulty as to the limitations, partly be- 
 cause of the undefined nature of the ideas, partly because of 
 the degree of amplification which the details demand. Here 
 is the field of the widest possible differences. If e.g. one 
 studies out the conception of the school with reference to the 
 qualitative specialities which one may consider, it is evident 
 that he can extend his remarks indefinitely ; he may speak 
 thus of technological schools of all kinds, to teach mining, 
 navigation, war, art, &c. 
 
 10. The third division distinguishes between the different 
 standpoints which are possible in the working out of the con- 
 ception of Education in its special elements, and which there- 
 fore produce different systems of Education wherein the gen- 
 eral and the particular are individualized in a special manner. 
 In every system the general tendencies of the idea of educa- 
 tion, and the difference between the physical, intellectual and 
 practical culture of man, must be formally recognized, and 
 will appear. The How is decided by the standpoint which 
 reduces that formalism to a special system. Thus it becomes 
 possible to discover the essential contents of the history of 
 Pedagogics from its idea, since this can furnish not an in- 
 definite but a certain number of Pedagogic systems. 
 
 The lower standpoint merges always into the higher, and in 
 so doing first attains its full meaning, e.g. : Education for the 
 sake of the nation is set aside for higher standpoints, e.g. 
 that of Christianity ; but we must not suppose that the na-
 
 Pedagogics as a System. 9 
 
 tional phase of Education was counted as nought from the 
 Christian standpoint. Rather it itself had outgrown the limits 
 which, though suitable enough for its early stage, could no 
 longer contain its true idea. This is sure to be the case in 
 the fact that the national individualities become indestructi- 
 ble by being incorporated into Christianity a fact that con- 
 tradicts the abstract seizing of such relations. 
 
 11. The last system must be that of the present, and since 
 this is certainly on one side the result of all the past, while 
 on the other seized in its possibilities it is determined by the 
 Future, the business of Pedagogics cannot pause till it reaches 
 its ideal of the general and special determinations, so that 
 looked at in this way the Science of Pedagogics at its end 
 returns to its beginning. The first and second divisions al- 
 ready contain the idea of the system necessary for the Present. 
 
 FIRST PART. 
 The General Idea of Education. 
 
 12. The idea of Pedagogics in general must distinguish, 
 
 (1) The nature of Education in general ; 
 
 (2) Its form ; 
 
 (3) Its limits. 
 
 i. 
 
 The Nature of Education. 
 
 13. The nature of Education is determined by the nature 
 of mind that it can develop whatever it really is only by its 
 own activity. Mind is in itself free ; but if it does not actual- 
 ize this possibility, it is in no true sense free, either for itself 
 or for another. Education is the influencing of man by man, 
 and it has for its end to lead him to actualize himself through 
 his own efforts. The attainment of perfect manhood as the 
 actualization of the Freedom necessary to mind constitutes 
 the nature of Education in general. 
 
 The completely isolated man does not become man. Soli- 
 tary human beings who have been found in forests, like the 
 wild girl of the forest of Ardennes, sufficiently prove the fact 
 that the truly human qualities in man cannot be developed 
 without reciprocal action with human beings. Caspar Hau- 
 ser in his subterranean prison is an illustration of what man
 
 10 
 
 Pedagogics as a System. 
 
 
 would be by himself. The first cry of the child expresses in 
 its appeals to others this helplessness of spirituality on the 
 side of nature. 
 
 14. Man, therefore, is the only fit subject for education. 
 We often speak, it is true, of the education of plants and 
 animals ; but even when we do so, we apply, unconsciously 
 perhaps, other expressions, as "raising" and "training," in or- 
 der to distinguish these. "Breaking" consists in producing in 
 an animal, either by pain or pleasure of the senses, an activ- 
 ity of which, it is true, he is capable, but which he never 
 would have developed if left to himself. On the other hand, 
 it is the nature of Education only to assist in the producing 
 of that which the subject would strive most earnestly to de- 
 velop for himself if he had a clear idea of himself. "We speak 
 of raising trees and animals, but not of raising men ; and it 
 is only a planter who looks to his slaves only for an increase 
 in their number. 
 
 The education of men is quite often enough, unfortunate- 
 ly, only a " breaking," and here and there still may be found 
 examples where one tries to teach mechanically, not through 
 the understanding power of the creative WORD, but through 
 the powerless and fruitless appeal to physical pain. 
 
 15. The idea of Education may be more or less compre- 
 hensive. We use it in the widest sense when we speak of 
 the Education of the race, for we understand by this expres- 
 sion the connection which the acts and situations of differ- 
 ent nations have to each other, as different steps towards 
 self-conscious freedom. In this the world-spirit is the teacher. 
 
 16. In a more restricted sense we mean by Education the 
 shaping of the individual life by the forces of nature, the 
 rhythmical movement of national customs, and the might of 
 destiny in which each one finds limits set to his arbitrary will. 
 These often mould him into a man without his knowledge. 
 For he cannot act in opposition to nature, nor offend the ethi- 
 cal sense of the people among whom he dwells, nor despise 
 the leading of destiny without discovering through experience 
 that before the Nemesis of these substantial elements his 
 subjective power can dash itself only to be shattered. If he 
 perversely and persistently rejects all our admonitions, we 
 leave him, as a last resort, to destiny, whose iron rule must
 
 Pedagogics as a System. 11 
 
 educate him, and reveal to him the God whom he has misun- 
 derstood. 
 
 It is, of course, sometimes not only possible, but necessary 
 for one, moved by the highest sense of morality, to act in op- 
 position to the laws of nature, to offend the ethical sense of 
 the people that surround him, and to brave the blows of des- 
 tiny ; but such a one is a sublime reformer or martyr, and we 
 Are not now speaking of such, but of the perverse, the frivo- 
 lous, and the conceited. 
 
 17. In the narrowest sense, which however is the usual one, 
 we mean by Education the influence which one mind exerts on 
 another in order to cultivate the latter in some understood and 
 methodical way, either generally or with reference to some 
 special aim. The educator must, therefore, be relatively 
 finished in his own education, and the pupil must possess 
 unlimited confidence in him. If authority be wanting on the 
 one side, or respect and obedience on the other, this ethical 
 basis of development must fail, and it demands in the very 
 highest degree, talent, knowledge, skill, and prudence. 
 
 Education takes on this form only under the culture which 
 has been developed through the influence of city life. Up to 
 that time we have the naive period of education, which holds 
 to the general powers of nature, of national customs, and of 
 destiny, and which lasts for a long time among the rural 
 populations. But in the city a greater complication of events, 
 an uncertainty of the results of reflection, a working out of 
 individuality, and a need of the possession of many arts 
 and trades, make their appearance and render it impossible 
 for men longer to be ruled by mere custom. The Telemachus 
 of Fenelon was educated to rule himself by means of reflec- 
 tion ; the actual Telemachus in the heroic age lived simply 
 according to custom. 
 
 18. The general problem of Education is the development 
 of the theoretical and practical reason in the individual. If 
 we say that to educate one means to fashion him into morality, 
 we do not make our definition sufficiently comprehensive, be- 
 cause we say nothing of intelligence, and thus confound edu- 
 cation and ethics. A man is not merely a human being, but 
 as a reasonable being he is a peculiar individual, and differ- 
 ent from all others of the race.
 
 12 Pedagogics as a System. 
 
 19. Education must lead the pupil by an interconnected 
 series of efforts previously foreseen and arranged by the 
 teacher to a definite end ; but the particular form which this 
 shall take must be determined by the peculiar character of 
 the pupil's mind and the situation in which he is found. 
 Hasty and inconsiderate work may accomplish much, but only 
 systematic work can advance and fashion him in conformity 
 with his nature, and the former does not belong to education, 
 for this includes in itself the idea of an end, and that of the 
 technical means for its attainment. 
 
 20. But as culture comes to mean more and more, there 
 becomes necessary a division of the business of teaching 
 among different persons, with reference to capabil *ies and 
 knowledge, because as the arts and sciences are continually 
 increasing in number, one can become learned in any one 
 branch only by devoting himself exclusively to it, and hence 
 becoming one-sided. A difficulty hence arises which is also 
 one for the pupil, of preserving, in spite of this unavoidable 
 one-sidedness, the unity and wholeness which are necessary 
 to humanity. 
 
 The naive dignity of the happy savage, and the agreea- 
 ble simplicity of country people, appear to very great advan- 
 tage when contrasted on this side with the often unlimited 
 narrowness of a special trade, and the endless curtailing of 
 the wholeness of man by the pruning processes of city life. 
 Thus the often abused savage has his hut, his family, his 
 cocoa tree, his weapons, his passions ; he fishes, hunts, plays, 
 fights, adorns himself, and enjoys the consciousness that he 
 is the centre of a whole, while a modern citizen is often only 
 an abstract expression of culture. 
 
 21. As it becomes necessary to divide the work of teach- 
 ing, a difference between general and special schools arises 
 also, from the needs of growing culture. The former present 
 in different compass all the sciences and arts which are in- 
 cluded in the term "general education," and which were 
 classified by the Greeks under the general name of Encyclo- 
 paedia. The latter are known as special schools, suited to 
 particular needs or talents. 
 
 As those who live in the country are relatively isolated, 
 it is often necessary, or at least desirable, that one man should
 
 Pedagogics as a System. 13 
 
 be trained equally on many different sides. The poor tutor 
 is required not only to instruct in all the sciences, he must 
 also speak French and be able to play the piano. 
 
 22. For any single person, the relation of his actual edu- 
 cation to its infinite possibilities can only be approximately 
 determined, and it can be considered as only relatively fin- 
 ished on any one side. Education is impossible to him who 
 is born an idiot, since the want of the power of generalizing 
 and of ideality of conscious personality leaves to such an un- 
 fortunate only the possibility of a mechanical training. 
 
 Sagert, the teacher of the deaf mutes in Berlin, has made 
 laudable efforts to educate idiots, but the account as given in 
 his publication, " Cure of Idiots by an Intellectual Method, 
 Berlin, 1846," shows that the result obtained was only exter- 
 nal ; and though we do not desire to be understood as deny- 
 ing or refusing to this class the possession of a mind in po- 
 tentia, it appears in them to be confined to an embryonic 
 
 ii. 
 
 The Form of Education. 
 
 23. The general form of Education is determined by the 
 nature of the mind, that it really is nothing but what it makes 
 itself to be. The mind is (1) immediate (or potential), but (2) 
 it must estrange itself from itself as it were, so that it may 
 place itself over against itself as a special object of attention ; 
 (3) this estrangement is finally removed through a further ac- 
 quaintance with the object it feels itself at home in that on 
 which it looks, and returns again enriched to the form of im- 
 mediateness. That which at first appeared to be another than 
 itself is now seen to be itself. Education cannot create ; it 
 can only help to develop to reality the previously existent 
 possibility ; it can only help to bring forth to light the hid- 
 den life. 
 
 24. All culture, whatever may be its special purport, must 
 pass through these two stages of estrangement, and its remo- 
 val. Culture must hold fast to the distinction between the 
 subject and the object considered immediately, though it has 
 again to absorb this distinction into itself, in order that the 
 union of the two may be more complete and lasting. The 
 subject recognizes then all the more certainly that what at
 
 14 Pedagogics as a System. 
 
 first appeared to it as a foreign existence, belongs to it as its 
 own property, and that it holds it as its own all the more by 
 means of culture. 
 
 Plato, as is known, calls the feeling with which knowl- 
 edge must begin, wonder ; but this can serve as a beginning 
 only, for wonder itself can only express the tension between 
 the subject and the object at their first encounter a tension 
 which would be impossible if they were not in themselves 
 identical. Children have a longing for the far-off, the strange r 
 and the wonderful, as if they hoped to find in these an expla- 
 nation of themselves. They want the object to be a genuine 
 object. That to which they are accustomed, which they see 
 around them every day, seems to have no longer any objec- 
 tive energy for them ; but an alarm of fire, banditti life, wild 
 animals, gray old ruins, the robin's songs, and far-off happy 
 islands, &c. everything high-colored and dazzling leads 
 them irresistibly on. The necessity of the mind's making 
 itself foreign to itself is that which makes children prefer to 
 hear of the adventurous journeys of Sinbad than news of 
 their own city or the history of their nation, and in youth 
 this same necessity manifests itself in their desire of trav- 
 elling. 
 
 25. This activity of the mind in allowing itself to be 
 absorbed, and consciously so, in an object with the purpose of 
 making it his own, or of producing it, is Work. But when the 
 mind gives itself up to its objects as chance may present 
 them or through arbitrariness, careless as to whether they 
 have any result, such activity is Play. Work is laid out for 
 the pupil by his teacher by authority, but in his play he is 
 left to himself. 
 
 26. Thus work and play must be sharply distinguished 
 from each other. If one has not respect for work as an im- 
 portant and substantial activity, he not only spoils play for 
 his pupil, for this loses all its charm when deprived of the 
 antithesis of an earnest, set task, but he undermines his re- 
 spect for real existence. On the other hand, if he does not 
 give him space, time, and opportunity, for play, he prevents 
 the peculiarities of his pupil from developing freely through 
 the exercise of his creative ingenuity. Play sends the pupil 
 back refreshed to his work, since in play he forgets himself
 
 Pedagogics as a System. 15 
 
 in his own way, while in work he is required to forget him- 
 self in a manner prescribed for him by another. 
 
 Play is of great importance in helping one to discover 
 the true individualities of children, because in play they may 
 betray thoughtlessly their inclinations. This antithesis of 
 work and play runs through the entire life. Children anti- 
 cipate in their play the earnest work of after life ; thus the 
 little girl plays with her doll, and the boy pretends he is a 
 soldier and in battle. 
 
 27. Work should never be treated as if it were play, nor 
 play as if it were work. In general, the arts, the sciences, and 
 productions, stand in this relation to each other : the accu- 
 mulation of stores of knowledge is the recreation of the mind 
 which is engaged in independent creation, and the practice 
 of arts fills the same office to those whose work is to collect 
 knowledge. 
 
 28. Education seeks to transform every particular condi- 
 tion so that it shall no longer seem strange to the mind or in 
 anywise foreign to its own nature. This identity of conscious- 
 ness, and the special character of anything done or endured 
 by it, we call Habit [habitual conduct or behavior]. It con- 
 ditions formally all progress ; for that which is not yet be- 
 come habit, but which we perform with design and an exer- 
 cise of our will, is not yet a part of ourselves. 
 
 29. As to Habit, we have to say next that it is at first 
 indifferent as to what it relates. But that which is to be 
 considered as indifferent or neutral cannot be defined in the 
 abstract, but only in the concrete, because anything that is 
 indifferent as to whether it shall act on these particular men, 
 or in this special situation, is capable of another or even 
 of the opposite meaning for another man or men for the same 
 men or in other circumstances. Here, then, appeal must be 
 made to the individual conscience in order to be able from 
 the depths of individuality to separate what we can permit 
 to ourselves from that which we must deny ourselves. The 
 aim of Education must be to arouse in the pupil this spir- 
 itual and ethical sensitiveness which does not recognize any- 
 thing as merely indifferent, but rather knows how to seize in 
 everything, even in the seemingly small, its universal hu- 
 man significance. But in relation to the highest problems he
 
 16 Pedagogics as a System. 
 
 ) must learn that what concerns his own immediate personality 
 is entirely indifferent. 
 
 30. Habit lays aside its indifference to an external action 
 through reflection on the advantage or disadvantage of the 
 same. Whatever tends as a harmonious means to the reali- 
 zation of an end is advantageous, but that is disadvantageous 
 which, by contradicting its idea, hinders or destroys it. Ad- 
 vantage and disadvantage being then only relative terms, a 
 habit which is advantageous for one man in one case may be 
 disadvantageous for another man, or even for the same man, 
 under different circumstances. Education must, therefore, 
 accustom the youth to judge as to the expediency or inexpe- 
 diency of any action in its relation to the essential vocation 
 of his life, so that he shall avoid that which does not promote 
 its success. 
 
 31. But the absolute distinction of habit is the moral dis- 
 tinction between the good and the bad. For from this stand- 
 point alone can we finally decide what is allowable and what 
 is forbidden, what is advantageous and what is disadvan- 
 tageous. 
 
 32. As relates to form, habit may be either passive or ac- 
 tive. The passive is that which teaches us to bear the vicis- 
 situdes of nature as well as of history with such composure 
 that we shall hold our ground against them, being always 
 equal to ourselves, and that we shall not allow our power of 
 acting to be paralyzed through any mutations of fortune. 
 Passive habit is not to be confounded with obtuseness in re- 
 ceiving impressions, a blank abstraction from the affair in 
 hand which at bottom is found to be nothing more than a 
 selfishness which desires to be left undisturbed : it is simply 
 composure of mind in view of changes over which we have no 
 control. While we vividly experience joy and sorrow, pain 
 and pleasure inwoven as these are with the change of sea- 
 sons, of the weather, &c. with the alternation of life and 
 death, of happiness and misery, we ought nevertheless to 
 harden ourselves against them so that at the same time in 
 our consciousness of the supreme worth of the mind we shall 
 build up the inaccessible stronghold of Freedom in ourselves. 
 Active habit [or behavior] is found realized in a wide range 
 of activity which appears in manifold forms, such as skill,
 
 Formation of Habits. 17 
 
 dexterity, readiness of information, &c. It is a steeling of 
 the internal for action upon the external, as the Passive is a 
 steeling of the internal against the influences of the external. 
 
 33. Habit is the general form which instruction takes. 
 For since it reduces a condition or an activity within our- 
 selves to an instinctive use and wont, it is necessary for 
 any thorough instruction. But as, according to its content, it 
 may be either proper or improper, advantageous or disadvan- 
 tageous, good or biad, and according to its form may be the 
 assimilation of the external by the internal, or the impress 
 of the internal upon the external, Education must procure 
 for the pupil the power of being able to free himself from 
 one habit and to adopt another. Through his freedom he 
 must be able not only to renounce any habit formed, but to 
 form a new one ; and he must so govern his system of habits 
 that it shall exhibit a constant progress of development into 
 greater freedom. We must discipline ourselves, as a means 
 toward the ever-changing realization of the Good in us, con- 
 stantly to form and to break habits. 
 
 We must characterize those habits as bad which, relate 
 only to our convenience or our enjoyment. They are often 
 not blamable in themselves, but there lies in them a hidden 
 danger that they may allure us into luxury or effeminacy. 
 But it is a false and mechanical way of looking at the affair 
 if we suppose that a habit which has been formed by a cer- 
 tain number of repetitions can be broken by an equal number 
 of denials. We can never renounce a habit utterly except 
 through a clearness of judgment which decides it to be unde- 
 sirable, and through firmness of will. 
 
 34. Education comprehends also the reciprocal action of 
 the opposites, authority and obedience, rationality and indi- 
 viduality, work and play, habit and spontaneity. If we ima- 
 gine that these can be reconciled by rules, it will be in vain 
 that we try to restrain the youth in these relations. But a 
 failure in education in this particular is very possible through 
 the freedom of the pupil, through special circumstances, or 
 through the errors of the educator himself. And for this very 
 reason any theory of Education must take into account in 
 the beginning this negative possibility. It must consider be- 
 forehand the dangers which threaten the pupil in all possible
 
 18 Protection against Temptation. 
 
 ways even before they surround Mm, and fortify him against 
 them. Intentionally to expose him to temptation in order to 
 prove his strength, is devilish ; and, on the other hand, to 
 guard him against the chance of dangerous temptation, to 
 wrap him in cotton (as the proverb says), is womanish, ridic- 
 ulous, fruitless, and much more dangerous ; for temptation 
 comes not alone from without, but quite as often from with- 
 in, and secret inclination seeks and creates for itself the 
 opportunity for its gratification, often perhaps an unnatural 
 one. The truly preventive activity consists not in an abstract 
 seclusion from the world, all of whose elements are innate in 
 each individual, but in the activity of knowledge and disci- 
 pline, modified according to age and culture. 
 
 If one endeavors to deprive the youth of all free and in- 
 dividual intercourse with the world, one only falls into a 
 continual watching of him, and the consciousness that he is 
 watched destroys in him all elasticity of spirit, all confidence, 
 all originality. (^The police shadow of control obscures all 
 independence and systematically accustoms him to depend- 
 ence. *) As the tragi-comic story of Peter Schlemihl shows, 
 one cannot lose his own shadow without falling into the sad- 
 dest fatalities ; but the shadow of a constant companion, as 
 in the pedagogical system of the Jesuits, undermines all 
 naturalness. And if one endeavors too strictly to guard 
 against that which is evil and forbidden, the intelligence of 
 the pupils reacts in deceit against such efforts, till the educa- 
 tors are amazed that such crimes as come often to light can 
 have arisen under such careful control. 
 
 35. If there should appear in the youth any decided moral 
 deformity which is opposed to the ideal of his education, the 
 instructor must at once make inquiry as to the history of its 
 origin, because the negative and the positive are very closely 
 connected in his being, so that what appears to be negligence, 
 rudeness, immorality, foolishness, or oddity, may arise from 
 some real needs of the youth which in their development 
 have only taken a wrong direction. 
 
 36. If it should appear on such examination that the 
 negative action was only a product of wilful ignorance, of ca- 
 price, or of arbitrariness on the part of the youth, then this 
 calls for a simple prohibition on the part of the educator, no
 
 Reproof and Punishment. 19 
 
 reason being assigned. His authority must be sufficient to 
 the pupil without any reason. Only when this has happened 
 more than once, and the youth is old enough to understand, 
 should the prohibition, together with the reason therefor, be 
 given. 
 
 This should, however, be brief; the explanation must 
 retain its disciplinary character, and must not become ex- 
 tended into a doctrinal essay, for in such a case the youth 
 easily forgets that it was his own misbehavior which was the 
 occasion of the explanation. The statement of the reason 
 must be honest, and it must present to the youth the point 
 most easy for him to seize. False reasons are morally blama- 
 ble in themselves, and they tend only to confuse. It is a great 
 mistake to unfold to the youth the broadening consequences 
 which his act may bring. These uncertain possibilities seem 
 to him too powerless to affect him particularly. The severe 
 lecture wearies him, especially if it be stereotyped, as is apt 
 to be the case with fault-finding and talkative instructors. 
 But more unfortunate is it if the painting of the gloomy 
 background to which the consequences of the wrong-doing of 
 the youth may lead, should fill his feelings and imagination 
 prematurely with gloomy fancies, because then the represen- 
 tation has led him one step toward a state of wretchedness 
 which in the future man may become fearful depression and 
 degradation. 
 
 37. If the censure is accompanied with a threat of punish- 
 ment, then we have the same kind of reproof which in daily 
 life we call "scolding;" but if reproof is given, the pupil 
 must be made to feel that it is in earnest. 
 
 38. Only when all other efforts have failed, is punishment, 
 which is the real negation of the error, the transgression, or 
 the vice, justifiable. Punishment inflicts intentionally pain 
 on the pupil, and its object is, by means of this sensation, to 
 bring him to reason, a result which neither our simple prohi- 
 bition, our explanation, nor our threat of punishment, has 
 been able to reach. But the punishment, as such, must not 
 refer to the subjective totality of the youth, or his dispo- 
 sition in general, but only to the act which, as result, is a 
 manifestation of the deposition. It acts mediately on the dis- 
 position, but leaves the inner being untouched directly ; and
 
 20 Correction VERSUS Satisfaction of Justice. 
 
 this is not only demanded by justice, but on account of the 
 sophistry that is inherent in human nature, which desires to 
 assign to a deed many motives, it is even necessary. 
 
 39. Punishment as an educational means is nevertheless 
 essentially corrective, since, by leading the youth to a proper 
 estimation of his fault and a positive change in his behavior, 
 it seeks to improve him. At the same time it stands as a sad 
 indication of the insufficiency of the means previously used. 
 On no account should the youth be frightened from the com- 
 mission of a misdemeanor, or from the repetition of his nega- 
 tive deed through fear of punishment a system which leads 
 always to terrorism : but, although it may have this effect, it 
 should, before all things, impress upon him the recognition 
 of the fact that the negative is not allowed to act as it will 
 without limitation, but rather that the Good and the True 
 have the absolute power in the world, and that they are never 
 without the means of overcoming anything that contradicts 
 them. 
 
 In the statute-laws, punishment has the opposite office. 
 It must first of all satisfy justice, and only after this is done 
 can it attempt to improve the guilty. If a government should 
 proceed on the same basis as the educator it would mistake 
 its task, because it has to deal with adults, whom it elevates 
 to the honorable position, of responsibility for their own acts. 
 The state must not go back to the psychological ethical gene- 
 sis of a negative deed. It must assign to a secondary rank 
 of importance the biographical moment which contains the 
 deed in process and the circumstances of a mitigating charac- 
 ter, and it must consider first of all the deed in itself. It is 
 quite otherwise with the educator ; for he deals with human 
 beings who are relatively undeveloped, and who are only 
 growing toward responsibility. So long as they are still 
 under the care of a teacher, the responsibility of their deed 
 belongs in part to him. If we confound the standpoint in 
 which punishment is administered in the state with that in 
 education, we work much evil. 
 
 40. Punishment as a negation of a negation, considered 
 as an educational means, cannot be determined a priori, but 
 must always be modified by the peculiarities of the individual 
 offender and by the peculiar circumstances. Its administra-
 
 Three Kinds of Punishment. 21 
 
 tion calls for the exercise of the ingenuity and tact of the 
 educator. 
 
 41. Generally speaking, we must make a distinction be- 
 between the sexes, as well as between the different periods of 
 3 T outh ; (1) some kind of corporal punishment is most suita- 
 ble for children, (2) isolation for older boys and girls, and (3) 
 punishment based on the sense of honor for young men and 
 women. 
 
 42. (1) Corporal punishment is the production of physical 
 pain. The youth is generally whipped, and this kind of pun- 
 ishment, provided always that it is not too often administered 
 or with undue severity, is the proper way of dealing with wil- 
 ful defiance, with obstinate carelessness, or with a really per- 
 verted will, so long or so often as the higher perception is 
 closed against appeal. The imposing of other physical pun- 
 ishment, e.g. that of depriving the pupil of food, partakes of 
 cruelty. The view which sees in the rod the panacea for all 
 the teacher's embarrassments is censurable, but equally un- 
 desirable is the false sentimentality which assumes that the 
 dignity of humanity is affected by a blow given to a child, 
 and confounds self-conscious humanity with child-humanity, 
 to which a blow is the most natural form of reaction, in which 
 all other forms of influence at last end. 
 
 The fully-grown man ought never to be whipped, because 
 this kind of punishment reduces him to the level of the child, 
 and, when it becomes barbarous, to that of a brute animal, 
 and so is absolutely degrading to him. In the English schools 
 the rod is much used. If a pupil of the first class be put back 
 into the second at Eton, he, although before exempt from 
 flogging, becomes liable to it. But however necessary this 
 system of flogging of the English aristocracy may be in the 
 discipline of their schools, flogging in the English army is a 
 shameful thing for the free people of Great Britain. 
 
 43. (2) By Isolation we remove the offender temporarily 
 from the society of his fellows. The boy left alone, cut off 
 from all companionship, and left absolutely to himself, suffers 
 from a sense of helplessness. The time passes heavily, and 
 soon he is very anxious to be allowed to return to the com- 
 pany of parents, brothers and sisters, teachers and fellow- 
 pupils.
 
 22 Sense of Honor in the Pupil. 
 
 To leave a child entirely to himself without any supervi- 
 sion, even if one shuts him up in a dark room, is as mistaken 
 a practice as to leave a few together without supervision, 
 as is too often done where they are kept after school, when 
 they give the freest rein to their childish wantonness and 
 commit the wildest pranks. 
 
 44. (3) This way of isolating a child does not touch his 
 sense of honor at all, and is soon forgotten because it relates to 
 only one side of his conduct. It is quite different from pun- 
 ishment based on the sense of honor, which, in a formal 
 manner, shuts the youth out from companionship because 
 he has attacked the principle which holds society together, 
 and for this reason can no longer be considered as belong- 
 ing to it. Honor is the recognition of one individual by 
 others as their equal. Through his error, or it may be his 
 crime, he has simply made himself unequal to them, and in 
 so far has separated himself from them, so that his banish- 
 ment from their society is only the outward expression of the 
 real isolation which he himself has brought to pass in his 
 inner nature, and which he by means of his negative act only 
 betrayed to the outer world. Since the punishment founded on 
 the sense of honor affects the whole ethical man and makes 
 a lasting impression upon his memory, extreme caution is 
 necessary in its application lest a permanent injury be in- 
 flicted upon the character. The idea of his perpetual con- 
 tinuance in disgrace, destroys in a man all aspiration for 
 improvement. 
 
 Within the family this feeling of honor cannot be so ac- 
 tively developed, because every member of it is bound to 
 every other immediately by natural ties, and hence is equal 
 to every other. Within its sacred circle, he who has isolated 
 himself is still beloved, though it may be through tears. 
 However bad may be the deed he has committed, he is never 
 given up, but the deepest sympathy is felt for him because 
 he is still brother, father, &c. But first in the contact of one 
 family with another, and still more in the contact of an indi- 
 vidual with any institution which is founded not on natural 
 ties, but is set over against him as a distinct object, this feel- 
 ing of honor appears. In the school, and in the matter of 
 ranks and classes in a school, this is very important.
 
 Limits of Education. 23 
 
 45. It is important to consider well this gradation of 
 punishment (which, starting with sensuous physical pain, 
 passes through the external teleology of temporary isolation 
 up to the idealism of the sense of honor), both in relation to 
 the different ages at which they are appropriate and to the 
 training which they bring with them. Every punishment 
 must be considered merely as a means to some end, and, in so 
 far, as transitory. The pupil must always be deeply conscious 
 that it is very painful to his instructor to be obliged to pun- 
 ish him. This pathos of another's sorrow for the sake of his 
 cure which he perceives in the mien, in the tone of the voice, 
 in the delay with which the punishment is administered, will 
 become a puri fying fire for his soul. 
 
 in. 
 
 The Limits of Education. 
 
 46. The form of Education reaches its limits with the idea 
 of punishment, because this is the attempt to subsume the 
 negative reality and to make it conformable to its positive 
 idea. But the limits of Education are found in the idea of its 
 nature, which is to fashion the individual into theoretical and 
 practical rationality. The authority of the Educator at last 
 becomes imperceptible, and it passes over into advice arid ex- 
 ample, and obedience changes from blind conformity to free 
 gratitude and attachment. Individuality wears off its rough 
 edges, and is transfigured into the universality and necessity 
 of Reason without losing in this process its identity. Work 
 becomes enjoyment, and he finds his play in a change of 
 activity. The youth takes possession of himself, and can be 
 left to himself. 
 
 There are two widely differing views with regard to the 
 limits of Education. One lays great stress on the weakness 
 of the pupil and the power of the teacher. According to this 
 view, Education has for its province the entire formation of 
 the youth. The despotism of this view often manifests itself 
 where large numbers are to be educated together, and with 
 very undesirable results, because it assumes that the indivi- 
 dual pupil is only a specimen of the whole, as if the school 
 were a great factory where each piece of goods is to be 
 stamped exactly like all the rest. Individuality is reduced 

 
 24 The Limits of Individuality. 
 
 by the tyranny of such despotism to one uniform level till all 
 originality is destroyed, as in cloisters, barracks, and orphan 
 asylums, where only one individual seems to exist. , There is 
 a kind of Pedagogy also which fancies that one can thrust 
 into or out of the individual pupil what one will. \ This may 
 be called a superstitious belief in the power of Education. 
 The opposite extreme disbelieves this, and advances the pol- 
 icy which lets alone and does nothing, urging that individu- 
 ality is unconquerable, and that often the most careful and 
 far-sighted education fails of reaching its aim in so far as it 
 is opposed to the nature of the youth, and that this individu- 
 ality has made of no avail all efforts toward the obtaining of 
 any end which was opposed to it. This representation of the 
 fruitlessness of all pedagogical efforts engenders an indiffer- 
 ence towards it which would leave, as a result, only a sort of 
 vegetation of individuality growing at hap-hazard. } 
 
 47. The limit of Education is (1) a Subjective one, a 
 limit made by the individuality of the youth. This is a 
 definite limit. Whatever does not exist in this individu- 
 ality'as a possibility cannot be developed from it. Education 
 can only lead and assist ; it cannot create. What Nature 
 has denied to a man, Education cannot give him any more 
 than it is able, on the other hand, to annihilate entirely his 
 original gifts, although it is true that his talents may be 
 suppressed, distorted, and measurably destroyed. But the 
 decision of the question in what the real essence of any one's 
 individuality consists can never be made with certainty till 
 he has left behind him his years of development, because it 
 is then only that he first arrives at the consciousness of his 
 entire self; besides, at this critical time, in the first place, 
 much knowledge only superficially acquired will drop off; 
 and again, talents, long slumbering and unsuspected, may 
 first make their appearance. Whatever has been forced upon 
 a child in opposition to his individuality, whatever has been 
 only driven into him and has lacked receptivity on his 
 side, or a rational ground on the side of culture, remains at- 
 tached to his being only as an external ornament, a foreign 
 outgrowth which enfeebles his own proper character. 
 
 We must distinguish from that affectation which arises 
 through a misunderstanding of the limit of individuality, the
 
 Limit in the Means of Education. 25 
 
 way which many children and young persons have of sup- 
 posing when they see models finished and complete in grown 
 persons, that they themselves are endowed by Nature with 
 the power to develop into the same. When they, see a real- 
 ity which corresponds to their own possibility, the presenti- 
 ment of a like or a similar attainment moves them to an 
 imitation of it as a model personality. This may be some- 
 times carried so far as to be disagreeable or ridiculous, but 
 should not be too strongly censured, because it springs from 
 a positive striving after culture, and needs only proper 
 direction. 
 
 48. (2) The Objective limit of Education lies in the 
 means which can be appropriated for it. That the talent for 
 a certain culture shall be present is certainly the first thing ; 
 but the cultivation of this talent is the second, and no less 
 necessary. But how much cultivation can be given to it ex- 
 tensively and intensively depends upon the means used, and 
 these again are conditioned by the material resources of the 
 family to which each one belongs. The greater and more 
 valuable the means of culture which are found in a family 
 are, the greater is the immediate advantage which the culture 
 of each one has at the start. With regard to many of the 
 arts and sciences this limit of education is of great signifi- 
 cance. But the means alone are of no avail. The finest edu- 
 cational apparatus will produce no fruit where correspond- 
 ing talent is wanting, while on the other hand talent often 
 accomplishes incredible feats with very limited means, and, if 
 the way is only once open, makes of itself a centre of attrac- 
 tion which draws to itself with magnetic power the necessary 
 means. The moral culture of each one is however, fortu- 
 nately from its very nature, out of the reach of such de- 
 pendence. 
 
 In considering the limit made by individuality we recog- 
 nize the side of truth in that indifference which considers 
 Education entirely superfluous, and in considering the means 
 of culture we find the truth in the other extreme of pedagogi- 
 cal despotism, which fancies that it can command whatever 
 culture it chooses for any one without regard to his indi- 
 viduality. 
 
 49. (3) The Absolute limit of Education is the time when 
 the youth has apprehended the problem which he has to
 
 26 Arrival at the age of Majority. 
 
 solve, has learned to know the means at his disposal, and has 
 acquired a certain facility in using them. The end and aim 
 of Education is the emancipation of the youth. It strives to 
 make him self-dependent, and as soon as he has become so 
 it wishes to retire and to be able to leave him to the sole 
 responsibility of his actions. To treat the youth after he has 
 passed this point of time still as a youth, contradicts the very 
 idea of Education, which idea finds its fulfilment in the attain- 
 ment of majority by the pupil. Since the accomplishment of 
 education cancels the original inequality between the educa- 
 tor and the pupil, nothing is more oppressing, nay, revolting 
 to the latter than to be prevented by a continued dependence 
 from the enjoyment of the freedom which he has earned. 
 
 The opposite extreme of the protracting of Education be- 
 yond its proper time is necessarily the undue hastening of 
 the Emancipation. The question whether one is prepared 
 for freedom has been often opened in politics. When any 
 people have gone so far as to ask this question themselves, 
 it is no longer a question whether that people are prepared 
 for it, for without the consciousness of freedom this question 
 would never have occurred to them. 
 
 50. Although educators must now leave the youth free, 
 the necessity of further culture for him is still imperative. 
 But it will no longer come directly through them. Their 
 pre-arranged, pattern-making work is now supplanted by self- 
 education. Each sketches for himself an ideal to which in 
 his life he seeks to approximate every day. 
 
 In the work of self-culture one friend can help another 
 by advice and example ; but he cannot educate, for education 
 presupposes inequality. The necessities of human nature 
 produce societies in which equals seek to influence each 
 other in a pedagogical way, since they establish by certain 
 steps of culture different classes. They presuppose Education 
 in the ordinary sense. But they wish to bring about Educa- 
 tion in a higher sense, and therefore they veil the last form of 
 their ideal in the mystery of secrecy. To one who lives on 
 contented with himself and without the impulse toward self- 
 culture, unless his unconcern springs from his belonging to 
 a savage state of society, the Germans give the name of 
 Philistine, and he is always repulsive to the student who is 
 intoxicated with an ideal.
 
 SECOND PART. 
 The Special Elements of Education. 
 
 51. Education in general consists in the development in 
 man of his inborn theoretical and practical rationality; it 
 takes on the form of labor, which changes that state or 
 condition, which appears at first only as a mere concep- 
 tion, into a fixed habit, and transfigures individuality into 
 a worthy humanity. Education ends in that emancipa- 
 tion of the youth which places him on his own feet. The 
 special elements which form the concrete content of all Edu- 
 cation in general are the Life, Cognition, and Will of man. 
 Without life mind has no phenomenal reality ; without cog- 
 nition, no genuine, i.e. conscious, will; and without will, 
 no self-assurance of life and of cognition. It is true that 
 these three elements are in real existence inseparable, and 
 that consequently in the dialectic they continually pass over 
 into one another. But none the less on this account do they 
 themselves prescribe their own succession, and they have 
 a relative and periodical ascendancy over each other. In 
 Infancy, up to the fifth or sixth year, the purely physical 
 development takes the precedence ; Childhood is the time of 
 learning, in a proper sense, an act by which the child gains 
 for himself the picture of the world such as mature minds, 
 through experience and insight, have painted it ; and, finally. 
 Youth is the transition period to practical activity, to which 
 the self-determination of the will must give the first impulse. 
 
 52. The classification of the special elements of Peda- 
 gogics is hence very simple : (1) the Physical, (2) the Intel- 
 lectual, (3) the Practical. (We sometimes apply to these the 
 words Orthobiotics, Didactics, and Pragmatics.) 
 
 ./Esthetic training constitutes only an element of the edu- 
 cation of Intellectual Education, just as social, moral, and 
 religious training form elements of Practical Education. But 
 because these latter elements concern themselves with what
 
 28 Physical Education. 
 
 is external, the name " Pragmatics " is appropriate. In this 
 sphere, Pedagogics should coincide with Politics, Ethics, and 
 Religion ; but it is distinguished from them through the apti- 
 tude which it brings with it of putting into practice the prob- 
 lems of the other three. The scientific arrangement of these 
 ideas must therefore show that the former, as the more ab- 
 stract, constitutes the conditions, and the latter, as the more 
 concrete, the ground of the former, which are presupposed ; 
 and in consequence of this it is itself their principal teleo- 
 logical presupposition, just as in man the will presupposes 
 the cognition, and cognition life ; while, at the same time, 
 life, in a deeper sense, must presuppose cognition, and cog- 
 nition will. 
 
 FIRST DIVISION. 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 53. The art of living rightly is based upon a comprehen- 
 sion of the process of Life. Life is the restless dialectic 
 which ceaselessly transforms the inorganic into the organic, 
 but at the same time creates out of itself another inorganic, 
 in which it separates from itself whatever part of the inor- 
 ganic has not been assimilated, which it took up as a stimu- 
 lant, and that which has become dead and burned out. The 
 organism is healthy when its reality corresponds to this idea 
 of the dialectic, of a life which moves up and down, to and 
 fro ; of formation and re-formation, of organizing and disor- 
 ganizing. All the rules for Physical Education, or of Hygi- 
 ene, are derived from this conception. 
 
 54. It follows from this that the change of the inorganic 
 to the organic is going on not only in the organism as a whole, 
 but also in its every organ and in every part of every organ ; 
 and that the organic as soon as it has attained its highest 
 point of energy, is again degraded to the inorganic and 
 thrown out. Every cell has its history. Activity is, there- 
 fore, not contradictory to the organism, but favors in it the 
 natural progressive and regressive metamorphosis. This pro- 
 cess can go on harmoniously ; that is, the organism can be 
 in health only when not only the whole organism, but each 
 special organ, is allowed, after its productive activity, the 
 corresponding rest and recreation necessary for its self- 
 renewal. We have this periodicity exemplified in waking
 
 Dietetics. . 29 
 
 and sleeping, also in exhalation and inhalation, excretion 
 and taking in of material. When we have discovered the 
 relative antagonism of the organs and their periodicity, we 
 have found the secret of the perennial renewal of life. 
 
 55. Fatigue makes its appearance when any organ, or the 
 organism in general, is denied time for the return movement 
 into itself and for renovation. It is possible for some one 
 organ, as if isolated, to exercise a great and long- continued 
 activity, even to the point of fatigue, while the other organs 
 rest ; as e.g. the lungs, in speaking, while the other parts are 
 quiet ; on the other hand, it is not well to speak and run at 
 the same time. The idea that one can keep the organism in 
 better condition by inactivity, is an error which rests upon a 
 mechanical apprehension of life. Equally false is the idea 
 that health depends upon the quantity and excellence of the 
 food; without the force to assimilate it, it acts fatally rather 
 than stimulatingly. True strength arises only from actimty. 
 
 The later physiologists will gradually destroy, in the 
 system of culture of modern people, the preconceived notion 
 which recommended for the indolent and lovers of pleasure 
 powerful stimulants, very fat food, &c. Excellent works ex- 
 ist on this question. 
 
 56. Physical Education, as it concerns the repairing, the 
 motor, or the nervous, activities, is divided into (1) Diatetics, 
 (2) Gymnastics, (3) Sexual Education. In real life these ac- 
 tivities are scarcely separable, but for the sake of exposition 
 we must consider them apart. In the regular development of 
 the human being, moreover, the repairing system has a rela- 
 tive precedence to the motor system, and the latter to the 
 sexual maturity. But Pedagogics can treat of these ideas 
 only with reference to the infant, the child, and the youth. 
 
 FIRST CHAPTER. 
 
 Dietetics. 
 
 57. Dietetics is the art of sustaining the normal repair of 
 the organism. Since this organism is, in the concrete, an 
 individual one, the general principles of dietetics must, in 
 their manner of application, vary with the sex, the age, the 
 temperament, the occupation, and the other conditions, of the- 
 individual. Pedagogics as a science can only go over its gen-
 
 30 Dietetics. 
 
 oral principles, and these can be named briefly. If we attempt 
 to speak of details, we fall easily into triviality. So very 
 important to the whole life of man is the proper care of his 
 physical nature during the first stages of its development, 
 that the science of Pedagogics must not omit to consider the 
 different systems which different people, according to their 
 time, locality, and culture, have made for themselves ; many, 
 it is tru0 embracingj^ome preposterous ideas, but in general 
 never devoid of j ustification in their time. 
 
 58. The infant's first nourishment must be the milk of its 
 mother. The substitution of a nurse should be only an ex- 
 ception justified alone by the illness of the mother; as a 
 rule, as happens in France, it is simply bad, because a for- 
 eign physical and moral element is introduced into the family 
 through the nurse. The milk of an animal can never be as 
 good for a child. 
 
 59. When the teeth appear, the child is first able to eat 
 solid food ; but, until the second teeth come, he should be fed 
 principally on light, fluid nourishment, and on vegetable diet. 
 
 60. When the second teeth are fully formed, the human 
 being is ready for animal as well as vegetable food. Too 
 much meat is not good ; but it is an anatomical error to sup- 
 pose that man, ~by the structure of his stomach, was origi- 
 nally formed to live alone on vegetable diet, and that animal 
 food is a sign of his degeneracy. 
 
 The Hindoos, who subsist principally on vegetable diet, 
 are not, as has been often asserted, a very gentle race : a 
 glance into their history, or into their erotic poetry, shows 
 them to be quite as passionate as other peoples. 
 
 61. Man is omnivorous. Children have therefore a natu- 
 ral desire to taste of everything. For them eating and drink- 
 ing possess a kind of poetry ; there is a theoretic ingredient 
 blended with the material enjoyment. They have, on this 
 account, a proneness to indulge, which is deserving of pun- 
 ishment only when it is combined with disobedience and 
 secrecy, or when it betrays cunning and greediness. 
 
 62. Children need much sleep, because they are undergo- 
 ing the most active progressive metamorphosis. In after-life 
 sleep and waking should be subjected to periodical regula- 
 tion, but not too exactly.
 
 Gymnastics. 31 
 
 g 63. The clothing of children should be adapted to them ; 
 i.e. it should be cut according to the shape of the body, and 
 it must be loose enough to allow free play to their desire for 
 movement. 
 
 With regard to this as well as to the sleeping arrange- 
 ments for children, less in regard to food which is often 
 too highly spiced and too liberal in tea, coffee, &c. our age 
 has become accustomed to a very rational system. The cloth- 
 ing of children must be not only comfortable, but it should be 
 made of simple and cheap material, so that the free enjoy- 
 ment of the child may not be marred by the constant internal 
 anxiety that a rent or a spot may bring him a fault-finding 
 or angry word. From too great care as to clothing, may arise 
 a meanness of mind which at last pays too great respect to 
 it, -or an empty frivolity. This last may be induced by dress- 
 ing children too conspicuously. 
 
 64. Cleanliness is a virtue to which children should be 
 accustomed for the sake of their physical well-being, as well 
 as because, in a moral point of view, it is of the greatest sig- 
 nificance. Cleanliness will not endure that things shall be 
 deprived of their proper individuality through the elemental 
 chaos. It retains each as distinguished from every other. 
 While it makes necessary to man pure air, cleanliness of 
 surroundings, of clothing, and of his body, it develops in him 
 a sense by which he perceives accurately the particular lim- 
 its of being in general. 
 
 SECOND CHAPTER. 
 
 Gymnastics. 
 
 65. Gymnastics is the art of systematic training of the 
 muscular system. The action of the voluntary muscles, which 
 are regulated by the nerves of the brain, in distinction from 
 the involuntary automatic muscles depending on the spinal 
 cord, while they are the means of man's intercourse with the 
 external world, at the same time re-act upon the automatic 
 muscles in digestion and sensation. Since the movement of 
 the muscular fibres consists in the change of contraction and 
 expansion, it follows that Gymnastics must bring about a 
 change of movement which shall both contract and expand 
 -the muscles.
 
 32 Gymnastics. 
 
 66. The system of gymnastic exercise of any nation cor- 
 responds always to its way of lighting. So long as this 
 consists in the personal struggle of a hand-to-hand contest,. 
 Gymnastics will seek to increase as much as possible indi- 
 vidual strength and adroitness. As soon as the far-reaching- 
 missiles projected from iire-arms become the centre of all the 
 operations of war, the individual is lost in a body of men, out 
 of which he emerges only relatively in sharp-shooting, in the 
 charge, in single contests, and in the retreat. Because of this 
 incorporation of the individual in the one great whole, and 
 because of the resulting unimportance of personal bravery r 
 modern Gymnastics can never be the same as it was in an- 
 cient times, even putting out of view the fact that the subjec- 
 tiveness of the modern spirit is. too great to allow it to devote 
 so much attention to the care of the body, and the admira- 
 tion of its beauty, as was given by the Greeks. 
 
 The Turners' unions and halls in Germany belong to the 
 period of subjective enthusiasm of the German student popu- 
 lation, and had a political significance. At present, they 
 have been brought back to their proper place as an Educa- 
 tional means, and they are of great value, especially in large 
 cities. Among the mountains, and even in the country towns y 
 a special institution for bodily exercise is less necessary, for 
 the matter takes care of itself. The attractions of the situa- 
 tion and the games help to foster it. In great cities, how- 
 ever, the houses are often destitute of halls or open places 
 where the children can take exercise in their leisure moments. 
 In these cities, therefore, there must be some gymnastic hall 
 where the sense of fellowship may be developed. Gym- 
 nastics are not so essential for girls. In its place, dancing is 
 sufficient, and gymnastics should be employed for them only 
 where there exists any special weakness or deformity, when 
 they may be used as a restorative or preservative. They are 
 not to become Amazons. The bay, on the contrary, needs to 
 acquire the feeling of good-fellowship. It is true that the 
 school develops this in a measure, but not fully, because it 
 determines the standing of the boy through his intellectual 
 ambition. The academical youth will* not take much interest 
 in special gymnastics unless he can gain preeminence there- 
 in. Running, leaping, climbing, and lifting, are too mean-
 
 Gymnastics. 33 
 
 ingless for their more mature spirits. They can take a lively 
 interest only in the exercises which have a warlike charac- 
 ter. With the Prussians, and some other German states, the 
 art of Gymastics identifies itself with military concerns. 
 
 67. The real idea of Gymnastics must always be that the 
 spirit shall rule over its naturalness, and shall make this an 
 energetic and docile servant of its will. Strength and adroit- 
 ness must unite and become confident skill. Strength, car- 
 ried to its extreme produces the athlete ; adroitness, to its 
 extreme, the acrobat. Pedagogics must avoid both. All im- 
 mense force, fit only for display, must be held as far away 
 as the idea of teaching Gymnastics with the motive of utility ; 
 e.g. that by swimming one may save his life when he falls 
 into the water, &c. Among other things, this may also be a 
 consequence ; but the principle in general must always re- 
 main: the necessity of the spirit of subjecting its organism of 
 the body to the condition of a perfect means, so that it may 
 never find itself limited by it. 
 
 68. Gymnastic exercises form a series from simple to 
 compound. There appears to be so much arbitrariness in 
 them that it is always very agreeable to the mind to find, on 
 nearer inspection, some reason. The movements are (1) of 
 the lower, (2) of the upper extremities ; (3) of the whole bo- 
 dy, with relative striking out, now of the upper, now of the- 
 lower extremities. We distinguish, therefore, foot, arm, and 
 trunk movements. 
 
 69. (1) The first series of foot-movements is the most 
 important, and conditions the carriage of all the rest of the 
 body. They are (a) walking ; (b) running ; (c) leaping : each 
 of these being capable of modifications, as the high and the- 
 low leap, the prolonged and the quick run. Sometimes we 
 give to these different names, according to the means used, 
 as walking on stilts ; skating ; leaping with a staff, or by 
 means of the hands, as vaulting. Dancing is only the art of 
 the graceful mingling of these movements ; and balancing,, 
 only one form of walking. 
 
 70. (2) The second series embraces the arm-movements,, 
 and it repeats also the movements of the first series. It in- 
 cludes (a) lifting ; (6) swinging ; (c) throwing. All pole and 
 bar practice comes under lifting, also climbing and carrying,
 
 34 Gymnastics. 
 
 Under throwing, come quoit and ball- thro wing, and nine-pin 
 playing. All these movements are distinguished from each 
 other, not only quantitatively but also qualitatively, in the 
 position of the stretched and bent muscles ; e.g. running is 
 something different from quick walking. 
 
 71. (3) The third series, or that of movements of the 
 whole body, differs from the preceding two, which should 
 precede it, in this, thjat it brings the organism into contact 
 with a living object, which it has to overcome through its 
 own activity. This object is sometimes an element, some- 
 times an animal, sometimes a man. Our divisions then are 
 (a) swimming ; (b) riding ; (c) fighting, or single combat. In 
 swimming, one must conquer the yielding liquid material of 
 water by arm and foot movements. The resistance met on 
 account of currents and waves may be very great, but it is 
 still that of a will-less and passive object. But in riding 
 man has to deal with a self-willed being whose vitality calls 
 forth not only his strength but also his intelligence and cour- 
 age. The exercise is therefore very complicated, and the rider 
 must be able perpetually to individualize it according to the 
 necessity ; at the same time, he must give attention not only 
 to the horse, but to the nature of the ground and the entire 
 surroundings. But it is only in the struggle with men that 
 Gymnastics reaches its highest point, for in this man offers 
 himself as a living antagonist to man and brings him into 
 danger. It is no longer the spontaneous activity of an unrea- 
 soning existence ; it is the resistance and attack of intelli- 
 gence itself with which he has to deal. Fighting, or single 
 combat, is the truly chivalrous exercise, and this may be 
 combined with horsemanship. 
 
 In the single combat there is found also a qualitative 
 modification, whence we have three systems : (a) boxing and 
 wrestling ; (&) fencing with sticks ; and (c) rapier and broad- 
 sword fencing. In the first, which was cultivated to its high- 
 est^ point among the Greeks, direct immediateness rules. In 
 the boxing of the English, a sailor-like propensity of this 
 nation, fist-fighting is still retained as a custom. Fencing 
 with a stick is found among the French mechanics, the so- 
 called compagnons. Men often use the cane in their contests ; 
 it is a sort of refined club. When we use the sword or rapier,
 
 Sexual Education. 35 
 
 the weapon becomes deadly. The Southern Europeans excel 
 in the use of the rapier, the Germans in that of the sword. 
 But the art of single combat is much degenerated, and the 
 pistol-duel", through its increasing frequency, proves this .de- 
 generation. 
 
 T H I R D CHAPTER. 
 
 Sexual Education. 
 
 NOTE. The paragraphs relating to Sexual Education are designed for parents 
 rather than for teachers, the parent being the natural educator of the family and 
 sexual education relating to the preservation and continuance of the family. 
 This chapter is accordingly, for the most part, omitted here. It contains judi- 
 cious reflections, invaluable to parents and guardians. Tr. 
 
 72. Gymnastic exercises fall naturally into a systematic 
 arrangement determined by the chronological order of devel- 
 opment through infancy, childhood, and youth. Walking, 
 running, and leaping belong, to the first period ; lifting, swing- 
 ing, and throwing, to the second ; swimming, riding, and 
 bodily contests, to the third, and these last may also be con- 
 tinued into manhood. But with the arrival at youth, a new 
 epoch makes its appearance in the organism. It prepares 
 itself for the propagation of the species. It expands the indi- 
 vidual through the need which he feels of uniting himself 
 witli another individual of the same species, but who is a 
 polar opposite to him, in order to preserve the two in a new 
 individual. The blood rushes more vigorously ; the muscu- 
 lar strength becomes more easily roused into activity; an 
 indefinable impulse, a sweet melancholy takes possession 
 of the being. This period demands a special care in the 
 educator. 
 
 73. The general preventive guards must be found in a 
 rational system of food and exercise. By care in these direc- 
 tions, the development of the bones, and with them of the 
 brain and spinal cord at this period, may be led to a proper 
 strength, and that the easily-moulded material may not be 
 perverted from its normal functions in the development of 
 the body to a premature manifestation of the sexual instinct. 
 
 74. Special forethought is necessary lest the brain be too 
 early over-strained, and lest, in consequence of such preco- 
 cious and excessive action, the foundation for a morbid exci- 
 tation of the whole nervous system be laid, which may easily
 
 36 Intellectual Education Psyc?iological Faculties. 
 
 lead to effeminate and voluptuous reveries, and to brooding 
 over obscene representations. The excessive reading of nov- 
 els, whose exciting pages delight in painting the love of the 
 sexes for each other and its sensual phases, may lead to this,. 
 and then, the mischief is done. 
 
 SECOND DIVISION. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 
 
 80. Mens sana in corpore sano is correct as a pedagogical 
 maxim, but false in the judgment of individual cases ; because 
 it is possible, on the one hand, to have a healthy mind in an 
 unhealthy body, and, on the other hand, an unhealthy mind 
 in a healthy body. To strive after the harmony of soul and 
 body is the material .condition of all proper activity. The 
 development of intelligence presupposes physical health. 
 Here we are to speak of the science of the art of Teaching. 
 This had its condition on the side of nature, as was before 
 seen, in physical Education, but in the sphere of mind it is- 
 related to Psychology and Logic. It unites, in Teaching, con- 
 siderations on Psychology as well as a Logical method. 
 
 FIRST CHAPTER. 
 
 The Psychological Presupposition. 
 
 81. If we would have a sound condition of Philosophy, it 
 must, in intellectual Education, refer to the conception of 
 mind which has been unfolded in Psychology ; and it must 
 appear as a defect in scientific method if Psychology, or at 
 least the conception of the theoretical mind, is treated again 
 as within Pedagogics. We must take something for granted. 
 Psychology, then, will be consulted no further than is requi- 
 site to place on a sure basis the pedagogical function which 
 relates to it. 
 
 82. The conception of attention is the most important to 
 Pedagogics of all those derived ffom Psychology. Mind is 
 essentially self-activity. Nothing exists for it which it does 
 not itself posit as its own. We hear it not seldom implied 
 that something from outside conditions must make an im- 
 pression on the mind, but this is an error. Mind lets noth- 
 ing act upon it unless it has rendered itself receptive to it. 
 Without this preparatory self-excitation the object does not
 
 Psychological Faculties. 37 
 
 really penetrate it, and it passes by the object unconsciously 
 or indifferently. The horizon of perception changes for each 
 person with his peculiarities and culture. Attention is the 
 adjusting of the observer to the object in. order to seize it in 
 its unity and diversity. Relatively, the observer allows, for 
 .a moment, his relation to all other surroundings to cease, so 
 that he may establish a relation with this one. Without this 
 essentially spontaneous activity, nothing exists for the mind. 
 All result in teaching and learning depends upon the clear- 
 ness and strength with which distinctions are made, and the 
 saying, bene qui distinguit bene docit, applies as well to the 
 pupil. 
 
 83. Attention, depending as it does on the self-determin- 
 ation of the observer, can therefore be improved, and the pu- 
 pil made attentive, by the educator. Education must accus- 
 tom him to an exact, rapid, and many-sided attention, so that 
 at the first contact with an object he may grasp it sufficiently 
 and truly, and that it shall not be necessary for him always 
 to be adding to his acquisitions concerning it. The twilight 
 and partialness of intelligence which forces us always to new 
 corrections because a pupil at the very commencement did 
 not give entire attention, must not be tolerated. 
 
 84. We learn from Psychology that mind does not consist 
 of distinct faculties, but that what we choose to call so are only 
 different activities of the same power. Each one is just as 
 'essential as the other, on which account Education must grant 
 to each faculty its claim to the same fostering care. If we 
 would construe correctly the axiom a potiori Jit denominatio 
 to mean that man is distinguished from animals by thought, 
 and that mediated will is not the same as thought, we must 
 not forget that feeling and representing are not less neces- 
 sary to a truly complete human being. The special direction 
 which the activity of apprehending intelligence takes are 
 (1) Perception, (2) Conception, (3) Thinking. Dialectically, 
 they pass over into each other ; not that Perception rises into 
 Conception, and Conception into Thinking, but that Thinking 
 .goes back into Conception, and this again into Perception. 
 In the development of the young, the Perceptive faculty is 
 most active in the infant, the Conceptive in the child, and the
 
 38 The Intuitive Epoch. 
 
 Thinking in the youth ; and thus we may distinguish u A i in- 
 tuitive, an imaginative, and a logical epoch. 
 
 Great errors arise from the misapprehension of these dif- 
 ferent phases and of their dialectic, since the different forms 
 which are suitable to the different grades of youth are min- 
 gled. The infant certainly thinks while he perceives, but this 
 thinking is to him unconscious. Or, if he has acquired per- 
 ceptions, he makes them into conceptions, and demonstrates 
 his freedom in playing with them. This play must not be 
 taken as mere amusement ; it also signifies that he takes 
 care to preserve his self-determination, and his power of 
 idealizing, in opposition to the pleasant filling of his con- 
 sciousness with material. Herein the delight of the child for 
 fairy tales finds its reason. The fairy tale constantly destroys 
 the limits of common actuality. The abstract understanding 
 cannot endure this arbitrariness and want of fixed conditions, 
 and thus would prefer that children should read, instead,, 
 home-made stories of the "Charitable Ann," of the "Heedless 
 Frederick," of the "Inquisitive Wilhelmine," &c. Above all, 
 it praises "Robinson Crusoe," which contains much hetero- 
 geneous matter, but nothing improbable. When the youth 
 and maiden of necessity pass over into the earnestness of real 
 life, the drying up of the imagination and the domination of 
 the understanding presses in. 
 
 I. The Intuitive Epoch. 
 
 85. Perception, as the beginning of intellectual culture, 
 is the free grasping of a content immediately present to the 
 spirit. Education can do nothing directly toward the per- 
 formance of this act ; it can only assist in making it easy : 
 (1) it can isolate the subject of consideration ; (2) it can give 
 facility in the transition to another ; (3) it can promote the 
 many-sidedness of the interest, by which means the return 
 to a perception already obtained has always a fresh charm. 
 
 86. The immediate perception of many things is impos- 
 sible, and yet the necessity for it is obvious. We must then 
 have recourse to a mediated perception, and supply the lack 
 of actual seeing by representations. But here the difficulty 
 presents itself, that there are many objects which we are not
 
 The Intuitive Epoch. 6& 
 
 able to represent of the same size as they really are, and we 
 must have a reduced scale ; and there follows a difficulty in 
 making the representation, as neither too large nor too smalL 
 An explanation is then also necessary as a judicious supple- 
 ment to the picture. 
 
 87. Pictures are extremely valuable aids to instruction 
 when they are correct and characteristic. Correctness must 
 be demanded in these substitutes for natural objects, histo- 
 rical persons and scenes. Without this correctness, the pic- 
 ture, if not an impediment, is, to say the least, useless. 
 
 It is only since the last half of the seventeenth century > 
 i.e. since the disappearance of real painting, that the picture- 
 book has appeared as an educational means ; iirst of all, 
 coming from miniature painting. Up to that time, public life 
 had plenty of pictures of arms, furniture, houses, and church- 
 es; and men, from their fondness for constantly moving 
 about, were more weary of immediate perception. It was 
 only afterwards when, in the excitement of the thirty- years'" 
 war, the arts of Sculpture and Painting and Christian and 
 Pagan Mythology became extinct, that there arose a greater 
 necessity for pictured representations. The OrMs Rerum 
 Sensualium Pictus, which was also to be janua linguarum 
 reserata, of Amos Comenius, appeared first in 1658, and was. 
 reprinted in 1805. Many valuable illustrated books followed. 
 Since that time innumerable illustrated Bibles and histories- 
 have appeared, but many of them look only to the pecu- 
 niary profit of the author or the publisher. It is revolting to- 
 see the daubs that are given to children. They are highly 
 colored, but as to correctness, to say nothing of character,, 
 they are good for nothing. With a little conscientiousness 
 and scientific knowledge very different results could be ob- 
 tained with the same outlay of money and of strength. The- 
 uniformity which exists in the stock of books which Ger- 
 man book-selling has set in circulation is really disgraceful. 
 Everywhere we find the same types, even in ethnographical 
 pictures. In natural history, the illustrations were often 
 drawn from the imagination or . copied from miserable mod- 
 els. This has changed very much for the better. The same 
 is true of architectural drawings and landscapes^for which 
 we have now better copies.
 
 40 The Intuitive Epoch. 
 
 88. Children have naturally a desire to collect things, and 
 this may be so guided that they shall collect and arrange 
 plants, butterflies, beetles, shells, skeletons, &c., and thus 
 .gain exactness and reality in their perception. Especially 
 should they practise drawing, which leads them to form ex- 
 act images of objects. But drawing, as children practise it, 
 does not have the educational significance of cultivating in 
 them an appreciation of art, but rather that of educating the 
 eye, as this must be exercised in estimating distances, sizes, 
 and colors. It is, moreover, a great gain in many ways, if, 
 through a suitable course of lessons in drawing, the child is 
 advanced to a knowledge of the elementary forms of nature. 
 
 That pictures should affect children as works of art is 
 not to be desired. They confine themselves at first to distin- 
 guishing the outlines and colors, and do not yet appreciate 
 the execution. If the children have access to real works of 
 art, we may safely trust in their power, and quietly await 
 their moral or aesthetic effect. 
 
 89. In order that looking at pictures shall not degenerate 
 into mere diversion, explanations should accompany them. 
 Only when the thought embodied in the illustration is point- 
 ed out, can they be useful as a means of instruction. Simply 
 looking at them is of as little value towards this end as is 
 water for baptism without the Holy Spirit. Our age inclines 
 at present to the superstition that man is able, by means 
 of simple intuition, to attain a knowledge of the essence of 
 things, and thereby dispense with the trouble of thinking. 
 Illustrations are the order of the day, and, in the place of 
 enjoyable descriptions, we find miserable pictures. It is in 
 vain to try to get behind things, or to comprehend them, ex- 
 cept by thinking. 
 
 90. The ear as well as the eye must be cultivated. Music 
 must be considered the first educational means to this end, 
 but it should be music inspired by ethical purity. Hearing 
 is the most internal of all the senses, and should on this 
 account be treated with the greatest delicacy. Especially 
 should the child be taught that he is not to look upon speech 
 as merely a vehicle for communication and for gaining in- 
 formation j it should also give pleasure, and therefore he 
 should be taught to speak distinctly and with a good style,
 
 The Imaginative Epoch. 41 
 
 and this he can do only when he carefully considers what he 
 is going to say. 
 
 Among the Greeks, extraordinary care was given to mu- 
 sical cultivation, especially in its ethical relation. Sufficient 
 proof of this is found in the admirable detailed statements 
 on this point in the "Republic" of Plato and in the last book 
 of the "Politics" of Aristotle. Among modern nations, also, 
 music holds a high place, and makes its appearance as a con- 
 stant element of education. Piano-playing has become gen- 
 eral, and singing is also taught. But the ethical significance 
 of music is too little considered. Instruction in music often 
 aims only to train pupils for display in society, and the ten- 
 dency of the melodies which are played is restricted more 
 and more to orchestral pieces of an exciting or bacchanalian 
 character. The railroad-gallop-style only makes the nerves 
 of youth vibrate with stimulating excitement. Oral speech, 
 the highest form of the personal manifestation of mind, was 
 also treated with great reverence by the ancients. Among 
 us, communication is so generally carried on by writing and 
 reading, that the art of speaking distinctly, correctly, and 
 agreeably, has become very much neglected. Practice in 
 declamation accomplishes, as a general thing, very little in 
 this direction. But we may expect that the increase of pub- 
 lic speaking occasioned by our political and religious assem- 
 blies may have a favorable influence in this particular. 
 
 II. The Imaginative Epoch. 
 
 91. The activity of Perception results in the formation of 
 an internal picture or image of its ideas which intelligence 
 can call up at any time without the sensuous, immediate pres- 
 ence of its object, and thus, through abstraction and general- 
 ization, arises the conception. The mental image may (1) be 
 compared with the perception from which it sprang, or (2) it 
 may be arbitrarily altered and combined with other images, 
 or (3) it may be held fast in the form of abstract signs or sym- 
 bols which intelligence invents for it. Thus originate the 
 functions (1) of the verification of conceptions, (2) of the crea- 
 tive imagination, and (3) of memory ; but for their full de- 
 velopment we must refer to Psychology. 
 
 92. (1) The mental image which we form of an object may
 
 42 The Imaginative Epoch. 
 
 be correct ; again, it may be partly or wholly defective, if we 
 have neglected some of the predicates of the perception which 
 presented themselves, or in so far as we have added to it other 
 predicates which only seemingly belonged to it, and which 
 were attached to it only by its accidental empirical connection 
 with other existences. Education must, therefore, foster the 
 habit of comparing our conceptions with the perceptions from 
 which they arose ; and these perceptions, since they are lia- 
 ble to change by reason of their empirical connection with 
 other objects, must be frequently compared with our con- 
 ceptions previously formed by abstractions from them. 
 
 93. (2) We are thus limited in our conceptions by our 
 perceptions, but we exercise a free control over our concep- 
 tions. We can create out of them, as simple elements, the 
 manifold mental shapes which we do not treat as given to us, 
 but as essentially our own work. In Pedagogics, we must not 
 only look upon this freedom as if it were only to afford gra- 
 tification, but as the reaction of the absolute ideal native 
 mind against the dependence in which the empirical recep- 
 tion of impressions from without, and their reproduction in 
 conceptions, place it. In this process, it does not only fash- 
 ion in itself the phenomenal world, but it rather fashions out 
 of itself a world which is all its own. 
 
 94. The study of Art comes here to the aid of Pedagogics, 
 especially with Poetry, the highest and at the same time the 
 most easily communicated. The imagination of the pupil 
 can be led by means of the classical works of creative ima 
 gination to the formation of a good taste both as regards 
 ethical value and beauty of form. The proper classical works 
 for youth are those which nations have produced in the earli- 
 est stages of their culture. These works bring children face 
 to face with the picture which mind has sketched for itself in 
 one of the necessary stages of its development. This is the 
 real reason why our children never weary of reading Homer 
 and the stories of the Old Testament. Polytheism and the 
 heroism which belongs to it are just as substantial an element 
 of childish conception as monotheism with its prophets and 
 patriarchs. We stand beyond both, because we are medi- 
 ated by both, and embrace both in our stand-point. 
 
 The purest stories of literature designed for the amuse-
 
 The Imaginative Epoch. 43 
 
 mejit of children from their seventh to their fourteenth year, 
 consist always of those which were honored by nations and 
 the world at large. One has only to notice in how many 
 thousand forms the stories of Ulysses are reproduced by 
 the writers of children's tales. Becker's " Tales of Ancient 
 Times," Gustav Schwab's most admirable "Sagas of Antiqui- 
 ty," Karl Grimm's " Tales of Olden Times," &c., what were 
 they without the well-talking, wily favorite of Pallas, and 
 the divine swine-herd ? And just as indestructible are the 
 stories of the Old Testament up to the separation of Judah 
 and Israel. These patriarchs with their wives and children, 
 these judges and prophets, these kings and priests, are by no 
 means ideals of virtue in the notion of our modern lifeless 
 morality, which would smooth out of its pattern- stories for 
 the "dear children" everything that is hard and uncouth. 
 For the very reason that the shadow-side is not wanting here, 
 and that we find envy, vanity, evil desire, ingratitude, crafti- 
 ness, and deceit, among these fathers of the race and leaders 
 of "God's chosen people," have these stories so great an 
 educational value. Adam, Cain, Abraham, Joseph, Samson, 
 and David, have justly become as truly world-historical types 
 as Achilles and Patroclus, Agamemnon and Iphigenia, Hec- 
 tor and Andromache, Ulysses and Penelope. 
 
 95. There may be produced also, out of the simplest and 
 most primitive phases of different epochs of culture of one 
 and the same people, stories which answer to the imagination 
 of children, and represent to them the characteristic features 
 of the past of their people. 
 
 The Germans possess such a collection of their stories in 
 their popular books of the "Horny Sigfried," of the "Heymon 
 Children," of "Beautiful Magelone," "Fortunatus," "The 
 Wandering Jew," " Faust," " The Adventurous Simplicissi- 
 mus," "The Schildburger," "The Island of Felsenburg," 
 "Lienhard and Gertrude," &c. Also, the art works of the 
 great masters which possess national significance must be 
 spoken of here, as the Don Quixote of Cervantes. 
 
 96. The most general form in which the childish imagin- 
 ation finds exercise is that of fairy-tales ; but Education must 
 take care that it has these in their proper shape as national 
 productions, and that they are not of the morbid kind
 
 44 The Imaginative Epoch. 
 
 which poetry so often gives us in this species of literature, 
 and which not seldom degenerate to sentimental caricatures 
 and silliness. 
 
 The East Indian stories are most excellent because they 
 have their origin with a childlike people who live wholly in 
 the imagination. By means of the Arabian nitration, which 
 took place in Cairo in the flourishing period of the Egyptian 
 caliphs, all that was too characteristically Indian was ex- 
 cluded, and they were made in the " Tales of Scheherezade," 
 a book for all peoples, with whose far-reaching power in 
 child-literature, the local stories of a race, as e.g. Grimm's 
 admirable ones of German tradition, cannot compare. Fairy- 
 tales made to order, as we often see them, with a mediaeval 
 Catholic tendency, or very moral and dry, are a bane to the 
 youthful imagination in their stale sweetness. We must 
 here add, however, that lately we have had some better suc- 
 cess in our attempts since we have learned to distinguish 
 between the naive natural poetry, which is without reflec- 
 tion, and the poetry of art, which is conditioned by criti- 
 cism and an ideal. This distinction has produced good fruits 
 even in the picture-books of children. The pretensions 
 of the gentlemen who printed illustrated books containing 
 nothing more solid than the alphabet and the multiplication 
 table have become less prominent since such men as Speck- 
 ter, Frohlich, Gutsmuths, Hofman (the writer of " Slovenly 
 Peter"), and others, have shown that seemingly trivial things 
 can be handled with intellectual power, if one is blessed 
 with it, and that nothing is more opposed to the child's 
 imagination than the childishness with which so many writers 
 for children have fallen when they attempted to descend with 
 dignity from their presumably lofty stand-point. Men are 
 beginning to understand that Christ promised the kingdom 
 of heaven to little children on other grounds than because 
 they had as it were the privilege of being thoughtless and 
 foolish. 
 
 97. For youth and maidens, especially as they approach 
 manhood and womanhood, the cultivation of the imagina- 
 tion must allow the earnestness of actuality to manifest 
 itself in its undisguised energy. This earnestness, no longer 
 through the symbolism of play but in its objective reality,
 
 The Imaginative Epoch. 45 
 
 must now thoroughly penetrate the conceptions of the youth 
 so that it shall prepare him to seize hold of the machinery of 
 active life. Instead of the all-embracing Epos they should 
 now read Tragedy, whose purifying process, through the 
 alternation of fear and pity, unfolds to the youth the secret 
 of all human destiny, sin and its expiation. The works best 
 adapted to lead to history on this side are those of biogra- 
 phy of ancient times, Plutarch ; of modern times, the auto- 
 biographies of Augustine, Cellini, Rousseau, Goethe, Varnha- 
 gen, Jung Stilling, Moritz Arndt, &c. These autobiographies 
 contain a view of the growth of individuality through its 
 inter-action with the influences of its time, and, together with 
 the letters and memoirs of great or at least note-worthy men, 
 tend to produce a healthy excitement in the youth, who must 
 learn to fight his own battles through a knowledge of the 
 battles of others. To introduce the youth to a knowledge of 
 Nature and Ethnography no means are better than those of 
 books of travel which give the charm of first contact, the joy 
 of discovery, instead of the general consciousness of the con- 
 quests of mind. 
 
 If educative literature on the one hand broadens the field 
 of knowledge, on the other it may also promote its elabora- 
 tion into ideal forms. This happens, in a strict sense, through 
 philosophical literature. But only two different species of 
 this are to be recommended to youth : (1) well-written trea- 
 tises which endeavor to solve a single problem with spirit 
 and thoroughness ; or, (2) when the intelligence has grown 
 strong enough for it, the classical works of a real philoso- 
 pher. German literature is fortunately very rich in treatises 
 of this kind in the works of Lessing, Herder, Kant, Fichte, 
 Schleiermacher, Humboldt, and Schiller. But nothing does 
 more harm to youth than the study of works of mediocrity, 
 or those of a still lower rank. They stupefy and narrow the 
 mind by their empty, hollow, and constrained style. It is 
 generally supposed that these standard works are too diffi- 
 cult, and that one must first seize them in this trivial and 
 diluted form in order to understand them. This is one of the 
 most prevalent and most dangerous errors, for these Intro- 
 ductions or Explanations, easily-comprehended Treatises, 
 Summary Abstracts, are, because of their want of originality
 
 46 The Imaginative Epoch. 
 
 and of the acuteness which belongs to it, much more difficult 
 to understand than the standard work itself from which they 
 drain their supplies. Education must train the youth to the 
 courage which will attempt standard works, and it must not 
 allow any such miserable preconceived opinions to grow up 
 in his mind as that his understanding is totally unable to 
 comprehend works like Fichte's "Science of Knowledge," the 
 "Metaphysics" of Aristotle, or Hegel's "Phenomenology." 
 No science suffers so much as Philosophy from this false 
 popular opinion, which understands neither itself nor its au- 
 thority. The youth must learn how to learn to understand, 
 and, in order to do this, he must know that one cannot imme- 
 diately understand everything in its linest subdivisions, and 
 that on this account he must have patience, and must resolve 
 to read over and over again, and to think over what he has 
 read. 
 
 98. (3) Imagination returns again within itself to per- 
 ception in that it replaces, for conceptions, perceptions them- 
 selves, which are to remind it of the previous conception. 
 These perceptions may resemble in some way the perception 
 which lies at the basis of the conception, and be thus more or 
 less symbolical : or they may be merely arbitrary creations of 
 the creative imagination, and are in this case pure signs. In 
 common speech and writing, we call the free retaining of 
 these perceptions created by imagination, and the recalling 
 of the conceptions denoted by them, Memory. It is by no 
 means a particular faculty of the mind, which is again sub- 
 divided into memory of persons, names, numbers, &c. As to 
 its form, memory is the stage of the dissolution of concep- 
 tion ; but as to its content, it arises from the interest which 
 we take in a subject-matter. From this interest results, 
 moreover, careful attention, and from this latter, facility in 
 the reproductive imagination. If these acts have preceded, 
 the fixing of a name, or of a number, in which the content in- 
 teresting us is as it were summed up, is not difficult. When 
 interest and attention animate us, it seems as if we did not 
 need to be at all troubled about remembering anything. All 
 the so-called mnemonic helps only serve to make more diffi- 
 cult the act of memory. This act is in itself a double func- 
 tion, consisting of, first, the fixing of the sign, and second,
 
 The Logical Epoch. 47 
 
 the fixing of the conception subsumed under it. S^nce the 
 mnemonic technique adds to these one more conception, 
 through whose means the things with which we have to deal 
 are to be fixed in order to be able freely to express them in 
 us, it trebles the functions of remembering, and forgets that 
 the mediation of these and their relation wholly arbitrary 
 and highly artificial must also be remembered. The true 
 help of memory consists in not helping it at all, but in sim- 
 ply taking up the object into the ideal regions of the mind 
 by the force of the infinite self-determination which mind 
 possesses. 
 
 Lists of names, as e.g. of the Roman emperors, of the 
 popes, of the caliphs, of rivers, mountains, authors, cities, 
 &c. ; also numbers, as e.g. the multiplication table, the melt- 
 ing points of minerals, the dates of battles, of births and 
 deaths, &c., must be learned without aid. All indirect means 
 only serve to do harm here, and are required as self-discov- 
 ered mediation only in case that interest or attention has 
 become weakened. 
 
 99. The means to be used, which result from the nature 
 of memory itself, are on the one hand the pronouncing and 
 writing of the names and numbers, and on the other, repeti- 
 tion ; by these we gain distinctness and certainty. 
 
 All artificial contrivances for quickening the memory 
 vanish in comparison with the art of writing, in so far as 
 this is not looked at as a means of relieving the memory. 
 That a name or a number should be this or that, is a mere 
 chance for the intelligence, an entirely meaningless accident 
 to which we have unconditionally to submit ourselves as un- 
 alterable. The intelligence must be accustomed to put upon 
 itself this constraint. In science proper, especially in Phi- 
 losophy, our reason helps to produce one thought from 
 others by means of the context, and we can discover names 
 for the ideas from them. 
 
 III. The Logical Epoch. 
 
 . 100. In Conception there is attained a universality of 
 intellectual action in so far as the empirical details are 
 referred to a Schema, as Kant called it. But the necessity 
 of the connection is wanting to it. To produce this is the 

 
 48 The Logical Epoch. 
 
 task of the thinking activity, which frees itself from all rep- 
 resentations, and with its clearly defined determinations 
 transcends conceptions. The Thinking activity frees itself 
 from all sensuous representations by means of the processes 
 of Conception and Perception. Comprehension, Judgment, 
 and Syllogism, develop for themselves into forms which, as 
 such, have no power of being perceived by the senses. But 
 it does not follow from this that he who thinks cannot return 
 out of the thinking activity and carry it with him into the 
 sphere of Conception and Perception. The true thinking ac- 
 tivity deprives itself of no content. The abstraction affecting 
 a logical purism which looks down upon Conception and 
 Perception as forms of intelligence quite inferior to itself, is 
 a pseudo-thinking, a morbid and scholastic error. 'Education 
 will be the better on its guard against this the more it has 
 led the pupil by the legitimate road of Perception and Con- 
 ception to Thinking. Memorizing especially is an excellent 
 preparatory school for the Thinking activity, because it 
 gives practice to the intelligence in exercising itself in ab- 
 stract ideas. 
 
 101. The fostering of the Sense of Truth from the earli- 
 est years up, is the surest way of leading the pupil to gain 
 the power of thinking. The unprejudiced, disinterested yield- 
 ing to Truth, as well as the effort to shun all deception and 
 false seeming, are of the greatest value in strengthening the 
 power of reflection, as this considers nothing of value but the 
 actually existing objective circumstances. 
 
 The indulging an illusion as a pleasing recreation of the 
 intelligence should be allowed, while lying must not be 
 tolerated. Children have a natural inclination for mystifica- 
 tions, for masquerades, for raillery, and for theatrical per- 
 formances, &c. This inclination to illusion is perfectly nor- 
 mal with them, and should be permitted. The graceful king- 
 dom of Art is developed from it, as also the poetry of conver- 
 sation in jest and wit. Although this sometimes becomes 
 stereotyped into very prosaic conventional forms of speech, 
 it is more tolerable than the awkward honesty which takes 
 everything in its simple literal sense. And it is easy to 
 discover whether children in such play, in the activity of free 
 joyousness, incline to the side of mischief by their showing
 
 The Logical Presupposition or Method. 49 
 
 a desire of satisfying their selfish' interest. Then they must 
 be checked, for in that case .the cheerfulness of harmless 
 joking gives way to 'premeditation and dissimulation. 
 
 102. An acquaintance with logical forms is to be recom- 
 mended as a special educational help in the culture of intel- 
 ligence. The study of Mathematics does not suffice, because 
 it presupposes Logic. Mathematics is related to Logic in the 
 same way as Grammar, the Physical Sciences, &c. The logi- 
 cal forms must be known explicitly in their pure independent 
 forms, and not merely in their implicit state as immanent in 
 objective forms. 
 
 SECOND CHAPTER. 
 
 The Logical Presupposition or Method. 
 
 103. The logical presupposition of instruction is the order 
 in which the subject-matter develops for the consciousness. 
 The subject, the consciousness of the pupil, and the activity 
 of the instructor, interpenetrate each other in instruction, 
 and constitute in actuality one whole. 
 
 104. (1) First of all, the subject which is to be learned 
 has a specific determinateness which demands in its represen- 
 tation a certain fixed order. However arbitrary we may de- 
 sire to be, the subject has a certain self-determination of its 
 own which no mistreatment can wholly crush out, and this 
 inherent immortal reason is the general foundation of in- 
 struction. <. 
 
 To illustrate; however one may desire to manipulate a 
 language in teaching it, he cannot change the words in it, or 
 the inflections of the declensions and conjugations. And the 
 same restriction is laid upon our inclinations in the different 
 divisions of Natural History, in the theorems of Arithmetic, 
 Geometry, &c. The theorem of Pascal remains still the theo- 
 rem of Pascal, and will always remain so. 
 
 105. (2) But the subject must be adapted to the conscious- 
 ness of the pupil, and here the order of procedure and the 
 exposition depend upon the stage which he has reached in- 
 tellectually, for the special manner of the instruction must 
 be conditioned by this. If he is in the stage of perception, 
 we must use the illustrative method; if in the stage of con- 
 ception, that of combination ; and if in the stage of reflection 
 
 5
 
 50 The Logical Presupposition or Method. 
 
 that of demonstration. The first exhibits the object directly, 
 or some representation of it ; the second considers it accord- 
 ing to the different possibilities which exist in it, and turns 
 it around on all sides ; the third questions the necessity of the 
 connection in which it stands either with itself or with others. 
 This is the natural order from the stand-point of the scientific 
 intelligence: first, the object is presented to the perception; 
 then combination presents its different phases ; and, finally, 
 the thinking activity circumscribes the restlessly moving re- 
 flection by the idea of necessity. Experiment in the method 
 of combination is an excellent means for a discovery of rela- 
 tions, for a sharpening of the attention, for the arousing of a 
 many-sided interest ; but it is no true dialectic, though it be 
 often denoted by that name. 
 
 Illustration is especially necessary in the natural scien- 
 ces and also in aesthetics, because in both of these depart 
 ments the sensuous is an essential element of the matter dealt 
 with. In this respect we have made great progress in charts 
 and maps. Sydow's hand and wall maps and Berghaus's phy- 
 sical atlas are most excellent means of illustrative instruc- 
 tion ; also Burmeister's zoological atlas. 
 
 106. The demonstrative method, in order to bring about 
 its proof of necessity, has a choice of many different ways. 
 But we must not imagine, either that there are an unlimited 
 number, and that it is only a chance which one we shall take ; 
 or that they have no connection among themselves, and run, 
 as it were, side by side. It is not, however, the business of 
 Pedagogics to develop different methods of proof; this be- 
 longs to Logic. We have only to remember that, logically 
 taken, proof must be analytic, synthetic, or dialectic. Analy- 
 sis begins with the single one, and leads out of it by induc- 
 tion to the general principle from which its existence results. 
 Synthesis, on the contrary, begins with a general which is 
 presupposed as true, and leads from this through deduction 
 to the special determinations which were implicit in it. The 
 regressive search of analysis for a determining principle is 
 Invention ; the forward progress of synthesis from the sim- 
 ple elements seeking for the multiplicity of the single one is 
 Construction. Each, in its result, passes over into the other; 
 "but their truth is found in the dialectic method, which in each 

 
 Tlie Logical Presupposition or Method. 51 
 
 phase allows unity to separate into diversity and diversity 
 to return into unity. While in the analytic as well as in the 
 synthetic method the mediation of the individual with the 
 general, or of the general with the individual, lets the phase 
 of particularity be only subjectively connected with it in 
 the dialectic method, we have the going over of the general 
 through the particular to the individual, or to the self-deter- 
 mination of the idea, and it therefore rightly claims the title 
 of the genetic method. We can also say that while the inven- 
 tive method gives us the idea (notion) and the constructive 
 the judgment, the genetic gives us the syllogism which leads 
 the determinations of reflection back again into substantial 
 identity. 
 
 107. (3) The active mediation of the pupil with the con- 
 tent which is to be impressed upon his consciousness is the 
 work of the teacher, whose personality creates a method 
 adapted to the individual; for however clearly the subject 
 may be defined, however exactly the psychological stage of 
 the pupil may be regulated, the teacher cannot dispense with 
 the power of his own individuality even in the most objective 
 relations. This individuality must penetrate the whole with 
 its own exposition, and that peculiarity which we call his 
 manner, and which cannot be determined a priori, must ap- 
 pear. The teacher must place himself on the stand-point of 
 the pupil, i.e. must adapt himself; he must see that the ab- 
 stract is made cleiir to him in the concrete, i.e. must illus- 
 trate ; he must fill up the gaps which will certainly appear, 
 and which may mar the thorough seizing of the subject, i.e. 
 must supply. In all these relations the pedagogical tact of 
 the teacher may prove itself truly ingenious in varying the 
 method according to the changefulness of the ever-varying 
 needs, in contracting or expanding the extent, in stating, or 
 indicating what is to be supplied. The true teacher is free from 
 any superstitious belief in any one procedure as a sure spe- 
 cific which he follows always in a monotonous bondage. This 
 can only happen when he is capable of the highest method. 
 The teacher has arrived at the highest point of ability in 
 teaching when he can make use of all means, from the loftiness 
 of solemn seriousness, through smooth statement, to the play 
 of jest yes, even to the incentive of irony, and to humor. 

 
 52 The Subjects of Instruction. 
 
 Pedagogics can be in nothing more specious than in its 
 method, and it is here that charlatanism can most rea- 
 dily intrude itself. Every little change, every inadequate 
 modification, is proclaimed aloud as a new or an improved 
 method ; and even the most foolish and superficial changes 
 find at once their imitators, who themselves conceal their in- 
 solence behind some frivolous differences, and, with laugha- 
 ble conceit, hail themselves as inventors. 
 
 THIRD CHAPTER. 
 
 Instruction. 
 
 ' 108. All instruction acts upon the supposition that there 
 is an inequality between present knowledge and power and 
 that knowledge and power which are not yet attained. To 
 the pupil belong the first, to the teacher the second. Educa- 
 tion is the act which gradually cancels the original inequal- 
 ity of teacher and pupil, in that it converts what was at first 
 the property of the former into the property of the latter, 
 and this by means of his own activity. 
 
 I. The Subjects of Instruction. 
 
 109. The pupil is the apprentice, the teacher the master, 
 whether in the practice of any craft or art, or in the exposi- 
 tion of any systematic knowledge. The pupil passes from 
 the state of the apprentice to that of the master through 
 that of the journeyman. The apprentice has to appropriate 
 to himself the elements; journey manship oegins as he, by 
 means of their possession, becomes independent; the master 
 combines with his technical skill the freedom of production. 
 His authority over his pupil consists only in his knowledge 
 and power. If he has not these, no external support, no trick 
 of false appearances which he may put on, will serve to cre- 
 ate it for him. 
 
 110. These stages (1) apprenticeship, (2) journeyman- 
 ship, (3) mastership are fixed limitations in the didactic 
 process ; they are relative only in the concrete. The stand- 
 ard of special excellence varies with the different grades of 
 culture, and must be varied that it may have any historical 
 value. The master is complete only in relation to the jour- 
 neyman and apprentice ; to them he is superior. But on the
 
 The Subjects of Instruction. 53 
 
 other Land, in relation to the infinity of the problems of his 
 art or science, he is by no means complete; to himself he 
 must always appear as one who begins ever anew, one who 
 is ever striving, one to whom a new problem ever rises from 
 every achieved result. He cannot discharge himself from 
 work, he must never desire to rest on his laurels. He is the 
 truest master whose finished performances only force him on 
 to never-resting progress. 
 
 111. The real possibility of culture is found in general, 
 it is true, in every human being ; nevertheless, empirically, 
 there are distinguished: (1) Incapacity, as the want of all 
 gifts ; (2) Mediocrity ; (3) Talent and Genius. It is the part 
 ofPsychology to give an account of all these. Mediocrity 
 characterizes the great mass of mechanical intelligences, 
 those who wait for external impulse as to what direction 
 their endeavors shall take. Not without truth, perhaps, may 
 we say, that hypothetic-ally a special talent is given to 
 each individual, but this special talent in many men never 
 makes its appearance, because under the circumstances in 
 which it finds itself placed it fails to find the exciting occa- 
 sion which shall give him the knowledge of its existence. 
 The majority of mankind are contented with the mechanical 
 impulse which makes them into something and impresses 
 upon them certain determinations. Talent shows itself by 
 means of the confidence in its own especial productive possi- 
 bility, which manifests itself as an inclination, as a strong 
 impulse, to occupy itself with the special object which con- 
 stitutes its content. Pedagogics has no difficulty in dealing 
 with mechanical natures, because their passivity is only 
 too ready to follow prescribed patterns. It is more difficult 
 to manage talent, because it lies between mediocrity and 
 genius, and is therefore uncertain, and not only unequal to 
 itself, but also is tossed now too low, now too high, is by 
 turns despondent and over-excited. The general maxim for 
 deajing with it is to remove no difficulty from the subject 
 to which its efforts are directed. Genius must be treated 
 much in the same way as Talent. The difference con- 
 sists only in this, that Genius, with a foreknowledge of its 
 creative power, usually manifests its confidence with less 
 doubt in a special vocation, and, with a more intense thirst
 
 54 The Subjects of Instruction. 
 
 for culture, subjects itself more willingly to the demands of 
 instruction. Genius is in its nature the purest self-determin- 
 ation, in that it lives, in its own inner existence, the necessity 
 which exists in the thing. But it can assign to the New, which 
 is in it already immediately and subjectively, no value if this 
 has not united itself to the already existing culture as its 
 objective presupposition, and on this ground it thankfully 
 receives instruction. 
 
 112. But Talent and Genius offer a special difficulty to 
 education in the precocity which often accompanies them. 
 But by precocity we do not mean that they early render 
 themselves perceptible, since the early manifestation of gifts 
 by talent and genius, through their intense confidence, is 
 to be looked at as perfectly legitimate. But precocity is 
 rather the hastening forward of the human being in feeling 
 and moral sense, so that where in the ordinary course of na- 
 ture we should have a child, we have a youth, and a man in 
 the place of a youth. We may find precocity among those 
 who belong to the class of mediocrity, but it is developed 
 most readily among those possessed of talent and genius, be- 
 cause with them the early appearance of superior gifts may 
 very easily bring in its train a perversion of the feelings and 
 the moral nature. Education must deal with it in so far as 
 it is inharmonious, so that it shall be stronger than the de- 
 mands made on it from without, so that it shall not minister 
 to vanity ; and must take care, in order to accomplish this, 
 that social naturalness and lack of affectation be preserved 
 in the pupil. 
 
 Oar age has to combat this precocity much more than 
 others. We find e.g. authors who, at the age of thirty years, 
 in which they publish their collected works or write their 
 biography, are chilly with the feelings of old age. Music has 
 been the sphere in which the earliest development of talent 
 has shown itself, and here we find the absurdity that the 
 cupidity of parents has so forced precocious talents that chil- 
 dren of four or five years of age have been made to appear 
 in public. 
 
 113. Every sphere of culture contains a certain quantity 
 of knowledge and ready skill which may be looked at, as it 
 were, as the created result of the culture. It is to be wished
 
 The Subjects of Instruction. 55 
 
 that every one who turns his attention to a certain line of 
 culture could take up into himself the gathered learning which 
 controls it. In so far as he does this, he is professional. The 
 consciousness that one has in the usual way gone through a 
 school of art or science, and has, with the general inheritance 
 of acquisition, been handed over to a special department, cre- 
 ates externally a beneficial composure which is very favor- 
 able to internal progress. "We must distinguish from the 
 professional the amateur and the self-taught man. The ama- 
 teur busies himself with an art, a science, or a trade, without 
 having gone through any strict training in it. As a rule, he 
 dispenses with elementary thoroughness, and hastens towards 
 the pleasure which the joy of production gives. The conscious 
 amateur confesses this himself, makes no pretension to mas- 
 tership, and calls himself in distinction from the profes- 
 sional, who subjects himself to rules an unlearned person. 
 But sometimes the amateur, on the contrary, covers over his 
 weakness, cherishes in himself the self-conceit that he is 
 equal to the heroes of his art or science, constitutes himself 
 the first admirer of his own performances, seeks for their want 
 of recognition in external motives, never in their own want 
 of excellence; and, if he has money, or edits a paper, is in- 
 toxicated with being the patron of talent which produces 
 such works as he would willingly produce or pretends to pro- 
 duce. The self-taught man has often true talent, or even ge- 
 nius, to whose development nevertheless the inherited culture 
 has been denied, and who by good fortune has through his 
 own strength worked his way into a field of effort. The self- 
 taught man is distinguished from the amateur by the thor- 
 oughness and the industry with which he acts ; he is not only 
 equally unfortunate with him in the absence of school-train- 
 ing, but is much less endowed. Even if the self-taught man 
 has for years studied and practised much, he is still haunted 
 by a feeling of uncertainty as to whether he has yet reached 
 the stand-point at which a science, an art, or a trade, will re- 
 ceive him publicly of so very great consequence is it that 
 man should be comprehended and recognized by man. The 
 self-taught man therefore remains embarrassed, and does not 
 free himself from the apprehension that he may expose some 
 weak point to a professional, or he falls into the other ex-
 
 56 The Act of Learning. 
 
 treme he becomes presumptuous, steps forth as a reformer, 
 and, if he accomplishes nothing, or earns only ridicule, he 
 sets himself down as an unrecognized martyr by an unappre- 
 ciative and unjust world. 
 
 It is possible that the amateur may transcend the stage 
 of superficiality and subject himself to a thorough training; 
 then he ceases to be an amateur. It is also possible that the 
 self-taught man may be on the right track, and may accom- 
 plish as much or even more than one trained in the usual 
 way. In general, however, it is very desirable that every one 
 should go through the regular course of the inherited means 
 of education, partly that he-may be thorough in the elements, 
 partly to free him from the anxiety which he may feel lest 
 he in his solitary efforts spend labor on some superfluous 
 work superfluous because done long before, and of which he, 
 through the accident of his want of culture, had not heard. 
 We must all learn by ourselves, but we cannot teach our- 
 selves. Only Genius can do this, for it must be its own leader 
 in the new paths which it opens. Genius alone passes beyond 
 where inherited culture ceases. It bears this in itself as of 
 the past, and which it uses as material for its new creation; 
 but the self-taught man, who would very willingly be a ge- 
 nius, puts himself in an attitude of opposition to things 
 already accomplished, or sinks into oddity, into secret arts 
 and sciences, &c. 
 
 114. These ideas of the general steps of culture, of spe- 
 cial gifts, and of the ways of culture appropriate to each, 
 which we have above distinguished, have a manifold connec- 
 tion among themselves which cannot be established d priori. 
 We can however remark that Apprenticeship, the Mechanical 
 Intelligence, and the Professional life; secondly, Journey- 
 manship, Talent, and Amateurship ; and, finally, Mastership, 
 Genius, and Self-Education, have a relationship to each other. 
 
 II. The Act of Learning. 
 
 115. In the process of education the interaction between 
 pupil and teacher must be so managed that the exposition by 
 the teacher shall excite in the pupil the impulse to reproduc- 
 tion. The teacher must not treat his exposition as if it were 
 a work of art which is its own end and aim, but he must al-
 
 The Act of Learning. 57 
 
 ways bear in mind the need of the pupil. The artistic expo- 
 sition, as such, will, by its completeness, produce admiration; 
 but the didactic, on the contrary, will, through its perfect 
 adaptation, call out the imitative instinct, the power of new 
 creation. 
 
 From this consideration we may justify the frequent 
 statement that is made, that teachers who have really an ele- 
 gant diction do not really accomplish so much as others who 
 resemble in their statements not so much a canal flowing 
 smoothly between straight banks, as a river which works its 
 fqaming way over rocks and between ever-winding banks. 
 The pupil perceives that the first is considering himself' 
 when he speaks so finely, perhaps not without some self- 
 appreciation ; and that the second, in the repetitions and the 
 sentences which are never finished, is concerning himself 
 solely with him. The pupil feels that not want of facility or 
 awkwardness, but the earnest eagerness of the teacher, is the 
 principal thing, and that this latter uses rhetoric only as a 
 means. 
 
 116. In the act of learning there appears (1) a mechanical 
 element, (2) a dynamic element, and (3) one in which the 
 dynamic again mechanically strengthens itself. 
 
 117. As to the mechanical element, the right time" must 
 be chosen for each lesson, an exact arrangement observed, 
 and the suitable apparatus, which is necessary, procured. It 
 is in the arrangement that especially consists the educational 
 power of the lesson. The spirit of scrupulousness, of accu- 
 racy, of neatness, is developed by the external technique, 
 which is carefully arranged in its subordinate parts accord- 
 ing to its content. The teacher must therefore insist upon it 
 that work shall cease at the exact time, that the work be well- 
 done, &c., for on these little things many greater things eth- 
 ically depend. 
 
 To choose one's time for any work is often difficult 
 because of the pressure of a multitude of demands, but in 
 general it should be determined that the strongest and keen- 
 est energy of the thinking activity and of memory this being 
 demanded by the work should have appropriated to it the 
 first half of the day. 
 
 118. The dynamical element consists of the previously
 
 58 The Act of Learning. 
 
 developed power of Attention, without which all the exposi- 
 tion made by the teacher to the pupil remains entirely for- 
 eign to him, all apparatus is dead, all arrangement of no 
 avail, all teaching fruitless, if the pupil does not by his free 
 activity receive into his inner self what one teaches him, and 
 thus make it his own property. 
 
 119. This appropriation must not limit itself, however, to 
 the first acquisition of any knowledge or skill, but it must 
 give free existence to whatever the pupil has learned ; it must 
 make it perfectly manageable and natural, so that it shall 
 appear to be a part of himself. This must be brought about 
 by means of Repetition. This will mechanically secure that 
 which the attention first grasped. 
 
 120. The careful, persistent, living activity of the pupil 
 in these acts we call Industry. Its negative extreme is Lazi- 
 ness, which is deserving of punishment inasmuch as it passes 
 over into a want of self-determination. Man is by nature lazy. 
 But mind, which is only in its act, must resolve upon ac- 
 tivity. This connection of Industry with human freedom, 
 with the very essence of mind, makes laziness appear blame- 
 worthy. The really civilized man, therefore, no longer knows 
 that absolute inaction which is the greatest enjoyment to the 
 barbarian, and he fills up his leisure with a variety of easier 
 and lighter work. The positive extreme of Industry is the 
 unreasonable activity which rushes irf breathless chase from 
 one action to another, from this to that, straining the person 
 with the immense quantity of his work. Such an activity, 
 going beyond itself and seldom reaching deliberation, is un- 
 worthy of a man. It destroys the agreeable quiet which in 
 all industry should penetrate and inspire the deed. Nothing 
 is more repulsive than the beggarly pride of such stupid la- 
 boriousness. One should not endure for a moment to have 
 the pupil, seeking for distinction, begin to pride himself on an 
 extra industry. Education must accustom him to use a regu- 
 lar assiduity. The frame of mind suitable for work often 
 does not exist at the time when work should begin, but more 
 frequently it makes its appearance after we have begun. The 
 subject takes its own time to awaken us. Industry, inspired 
 by a love and regard for work, has in its quiet uniformity a 
 great force, without which no one can accomplish anything
 
 The Act of Learning. 69 
 
 essential. The world, therefore, holds Industry worthy of 
 honor ; and to the Romans, a nation of the most persistent 
 perseverance, we owe the inspiring words, " Incepto tantum 
 opus est, ccetera res expediet"; and, " Labor Improbus omnia 
 mncit." 
 
 " Every one may glory in his industry !" This is a true 
 word from the lips of a truly industrious man, who was also 
 one of the most modest. But Lessing did not, however, mean 
 by them to charter Pharisaical pedantry. The necessity 
 sometimes of giving one's self to an excess of work injurious 
 to the health, generally arises from the fact that he has not 
 at other times made use of the requisite attention to the ne- 
 cessary industry, and then attempts suddenly and as by a 
 forced march to storm his way to his end. The result of such 
 over-exertion is naturally entire prostration. The pupil is 
 therefore to be accustomed to a generally uniform industry, 
 which may extend itself at regular intervals without his 
 thereby overstraining himself. What is really gained by a 
 young man who has hitherto neglected time and opportu- 
 nity, and who, when examination presses, overworks him- 
 self, perhaps standing the test with honor, and then must 
 rest for months afterwards from the over-effort ? On all such 
 occasions attention is not objective and dispassionate, but 
 rather becomes, through anxiety to pass the examination, 
 restless and corrupted by egotism ; and the usual evil result 
 of such compulsory industry is the ephemeral character of 
 the knowledge thus gained. "Lightly come, lightly go," 
 says the proverb. 
 
 A special worth is always attached to study far into the 
 night. The student's "midnight lamp" always claims for itself 
 a certain veneration. But this is vanity. In the first place, it 
 is injurious to contradict Nature by working through the 
 night, which she has ordained for sleep ; secondly, the ques- 
 tion is not as to the number of hours spent in work and their 
 position in the twenty-four, but as to the quality of the work. 
 With regard to the value of my work, it is of no moment 
 whatsoever whether I have done it it in the morning or in the 
 evening, or how long I have labored, and it is of no conse- 
 quence to any one except to my own very unimportant self.
 
 60 The Act of Learning. 
 
 Finally, the question presents itself whether these gentlemen 
 who boast so much of their midnight work do not sleep in 
 the daytime ! 
 
 121, But Industry has also two other extremes : seeming- 
 laziness and seeming-industry. Seeming-laziness is the neg- 
 lecting of the usual activity in one department because a man 
 is so much more active in another. The mind possessed with 
 the liveliest interest in one subject buries itself in it, and, be- 
 cause of this, cannot give itself up to another which before 
 had engrossed the attention. Thus it appears more idle than 
 it is, or rather it appears to be idle just becuse it is more in- 
 dustrious. This is especially the case, in passing from one 
 subject of instruction to another. The pupil should acquire 
 such a flexibility in his intellectual powers that the rapid 
 relinquishment of one subject and the taking up of another 
 should not be too difficult. Nothing is more natural than 
 that when he is excited he should go back to the subject that 
 has just been presented to him, and that he, feeling himself 
 restrained, shall remain untouched by the following lesson, 
 which may be of an entirely different nature. The young 
 soul is brooding over what has been said, and is really ex- 
 ercising an intensive activity, though it appears to be idle. 
 But in seeming-industry all the external motives of activity, 
 all the mechanism of work, manifest themselves noisily, while 
 there is no true energy of attention and productivity. One 
 busies himself with all the apparatus of work; he heaps up 
 instruments and books around him ; he sketches plans ; he 
 spends many hours staring into vacancy, biting his pen, 
 gazing at words, drawings, numbers, &c. Boys, under the 
 protection of so great a scaffolding for work erected around 
 them, often carry on their own amusements. Men, who ar- 
 rive at no real concentration of their force, no clear denning 
 of their vocation, no firm decision as to their action, dissipate 
 their power in what is too often a great activity with abso- 
 lutely no result. They are busy, very busy ; they have hard- 
 ly time to do this thing because they really wish or ought to 
 do that; but, with all their driving, their energy is all dissi- 
 pated, and nothing comes from their countless labors.
 
 The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 61 
 
 III. The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 
 
 122. Now that we have learned something of the relation 
 of the teacher to the taught, and of the process of learning 
 itself, we must examine the mode and manner of instruction. 
 This may have (1) the character of contingency: the way in 
 which our immediate existence in the world, our life, teaches 
 us ; or it may be given (2) by the printed page ; or (3) it may 
 take the shape of formal oral instruction. 
 
 123. (1) For the most, the best, and the mightiest things 
 that we know we are indebted to Life itself. The sum of per- 
 ceptions which a human being absorbs into himself up to the 
 fourth or fifth year of his life is incalculable ; and after this 
 time we involuntarily gain by immediate contact with the 
 world countless ideas. But especially we understand by the 
 phrase " the School of Life," the ethical knowlege which we 
 gain by what happens in our own lives. 
 
 If one says, Vitce non scholce discendum est, one can 
 also say, Vita docet. Without the power exercised by the 
 immediate world our intelligence would remain abstract and 
 lifeless. 
 
 124. (2) What we learn through books is the opposite of 
 that which we learn through living. Life forces upon us the 
 knowledge it has to give ; the book, on the contrary, is en- 
 tirely passive. It is locked up in itself; it cannot be altered ; 
 but it waits by us till we wish to use it. We can read it ra- 
 pidly or slowly ; we can simply turn over its leaves what in 
 modern times one calls reading ; we can read it from begin- 
 ning to end or from end to beginning; we can stop, begin 
 again, skip over passages, or cut them short, as we like. To 
 this extent the book is the most convenient means for instruc- 
 tion If we are indebted to Life for our perceptions, we must 
 chieny thank books for our understanding of our perceptions. 
 We call book-instruction "dead" when it lacks, for the expo- 
 sition which it gives, a foundation in our perceptions, or when 
 we do not add to the printed description the perceptions 
 which it implies; and the two are quite different. 
 
 125. Books, as well as life, teach us many things which 
 we did not previously intend to learn directly from them. 
 From foreign romances e.g. we learn, first of all, while we 
 read them for entertainment, the foreign language, history
 
 62 The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 
 
 or geography, &c. We must distinguish from such books 
 as those which bring to us, as it were accidentally, a knowl- 
 edge for which we were not seeking, the books which are 
 expressly intended to instruct. These must (d) in their con- 
 sideration of the subject give us the principal results of any 
 department of knowledge, and denote the points from which 
 the next advance must be made, because every science arises 
 at certain results which are themselves again new problems ; 
 (5) in the consideration of the particulars it must be exhaust- 
 ive, i.e. no essential elements of a science must be omitted. 
 But this exhaustiveness of execution has different meanings 
 according to the stand-points of those for whom it is made. 
 How far we shall pass from the universality of the principal 
 determinations into the multiplicity of the Particular, into 
 the fulness of detail, cannot be definitely determined, and 
 must vary, according to the aim of the book, as to whether 
 it is intended for the apprentice, the journeyman, or the mas- 
 ter; (c) the expression must be precise, i.e. the maximum of 
 clearness must be combined with the maximum of brevity. 
 
 The writing of a text-book is on this account one of the 
 most difficult tasks, and it can be successfully accomplished 
 only by those who are masters in a science or art, and who 
 combine with great culture and talent great experience as 
 teachers. Unfortunately many dabblers in knowledge under- 
 value the difficulty of writing text-books because they think 
 that they are called upon to aid in the spread of science, and 
 because the writing of compendiums has thus come to be an 
 avocation, so that authors and publishers have made out of 
 text-books a profitable business and good incomes. In all 
 sciences and arts there exists a quantity of material which 
 is common property, which is disposed of now in one way, 
 now in another. The majority of compendiums can be dis- 
 tinguished from each other only by the kind of paper, print- 
 ing, the name of the publisher or bookseller, or by arbitrary 
 changes in the arrangement and execution. The want of 
 principle with which this work is carried on is incredible. 
 Many governments have on this account fixed prices for text- 
 books, and commissioners to select them. This in itself is 
 right and proper, but the use of any book should be left op- 
 tional, so that the one-sidedness of a science patronized by
 
 The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 63 
 
 government as it were patented, may not be created through, 
 the pressure of such introduction. A state may through its 
 censorship oppose poor text-books, and recommend good 
 ones ; but it may not establish as it were a state-science, a 
 state-art, in which only the ideas, laws and forms sanctioned 
 by it shall be allowed. The Germans are fortunate, in con- 
 sequence of their philosophical criticism, in the production of 
 better and better text-books, among which may be mentioned 
 Koberstein's, Gervinus', and Vilmar's Histories of Litera- 
 ture, Ellendt's General History, Blumenbach's and Burmeis- 
 ter's Natural History, Marheineke's text-book on Religion, 
 Schwegler's History of Philosophy, &c. So much the more 
 unaccountable is it that, with such excellent books, the evil 
 of such characterless books, partly inadequate and partly in 
 poor style, should still exist when there is no necessity for it. 
 The common style of paragraph-writing has become obnox- 
 ious, under the name of Compendium-style, as the most stiff 
 and affected style of writing. 
 
 126. A text-book must be differently written according 
 as it is intended for a book for private study or for purposes 
 of general circulation. If the first, it must give more, and 
 must develop more clearly the internal relations ; if the se- 
 cond, it should be shorter, and proceed from axiomatic and 
 clear postulates to their signification, and these must have 
 an epigrammatic pureness which should leave something to 
 be guessed. Because for these a commentary is needed which 
 it is the teacher's duty to supply, such a sketch is usually 
 accompanied by the fuller text-book which was arranged 
 for private study. 
 
 It is the custom -to call the proper text-book the " small" 
 one, and that which explains. and illustrates, the "large" 
 one. Thus we have the Small and the Large Gervinus, &c. 
 
 127. (3) The text-book which presupposes oral explana- 
 tion forms the transition to Oral instruction itself. Since 
 speech is the natural and original form in which mind mani- 
 fests itself, no book can rival it. The living word is the most 
 powerful agent of instruction. However common and cheap 
 printing may have rendered books as the most convenient 
 means of education however possible may have become, 
 through the multiplication of facilities for intercourse and
 
 64 The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 
 
 the rapidity of transportation, the immediate viewing of hu- 
 man life, the most forcible educational means, nevertheless 
 the living word still asserts its supremacy. In two cases 
 especially is it indispensable : one is when some knowledge 
 is to be communicated which as yet is found in no compen- 
 dium, and the other when a living language is to be taught, 
 for in this case the printed page is entirely inadequate. One 
 can learn from books to understand Spanish, French, English, 
 Danish, &c., but not to speak them ; to do this he must hear 
 them, partly that his ear may become accustomed to the 
 sounds, partly that his vocal organs may learn correctly to 
 imitate them. 
 
 128. Life surprises and overpowers us with the knowl- 
 edge which it gains ; the book, impassive, waits our conveni- 
 ence ; the teacher, superior to us, perfectly prepared in com- 
 parison with us, consults our necessity, and with his living 
 speech uses a gentle force to which we can yield without 
 losing our freedom. Listening is easier than reading. 
 
 Sovereigns e.g. seldom read themselves, but have ser- 
 vants who read to them. 
 
 129. Oral instruction may (1) give the subject, which is 
 to be learned, in a connected statement, or (2) it may unfold 
 it by means of question and answer. The first decidedly pre- 
 supposes the theoretical inequality of the teacher and the 
 taught. Because one can speak while many can listen, this 
 is especially adapted to the instruction of large numbers. 
 The second method is either that of the catechism or the dia- 
 logue. The catechetical is connected with the tirst kind of 
 oral instruction above designated because it makes demand 
 upon the memory of the learner only for the answer to one 
 question at a time, and is hence very often and very absurdly 
 called the Socratic method. In teaching by means of the dia- 
 logue, we try, by means of a reciprocal interchange of thought, 
 to solve in common some problem, proceeding according to the 
 necessary forms of reason. But in this we can make a dis- 
 tinction. One speaker may be superior to the rest, may hold 
 in his own hand the thread of the conversation and may guide 
 it himself; or, those who min^ie in it may be- perfectly equal 
 in intellect and culture, and may each take part in the devel- 
 opment with equal indepeml- < *. In this latter case, this
 
 The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 65 
 
 true reciprocity gives us the proper dramatic dialogue, which, 
 contains in itself all forms of exposition, and may pass 
 from narration, description, and analysis, through satire and 
 irony, to veritable humor. When it does this, the dialogue 
 is the loftiest result of intelligence and the means of its pur- 
 est enjoyment. 
 
 This alternate teaching, in which the one who has been 
 taught takes the teacher's place, can be used only where 
 there is a content which admits of a mechanical treatment. 
 The Hindoos made use of it in very ancient times. Bell and 
 Lancaster have transplanted it for the teaching of poor chil- 
 dren in Europe and America. For the teaching of the con- 
 ventionalities reading, writing, and arithmetic as well as 
 for the learning by heart of names, sentences, &c., it suffices, 
 but not for any scientific culture. Where we have large num- 
 bers to instruct, the giving of the fully developed statement 
 (the first form) is necessary, since the dialogue, though it may 
 be elsewhere suitable, allows only a few to take part in it. 
 And if we take the second form, we must, if we have a large 
 number of pupils, make use of the catechetical method only. 
 What is known as the conversational method has been some- 
 times suggested for our university instruction. Diesterweg in 
 Berlin insists upon it. Here and there the attempt has been 
 made, but without any result. In the university, the lecture 
 of the teacher as a self-developing whole is contrasted with 
 the scientific discussion of the students, in which they as 
 equals work over with perfect freedom what they have heard. 
 Diesterweg was wrong in considering the lecture-system as 
 the principal cause of the lack of scientific interest which he 
 thought he perceived in our universities. Kant, Fichte, Schel- 
 ling, Schleiermacher, Wolf, Niebuhr, &c., taught by lectures 
 and awakened the liveliest enthusiasm. But Diesterweg is 
 quite right in saying that the students should not be de- 
 graded to writing-machines. But this is generally conceded, 
 and a pedantic amount of copying more and more begins to 
 be considered as out of date at our universities. Neverthe- 
 less, a new pedantry, that of the wholly extempore lecture, 
 should not be introduced; but a brief summary of the ex- 
 tempore unfolding of the lecture may be dictated and serve a 
 very important purpose, of the lecture may be copied. The 
 6
 
 66 The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 
 
 great efficacy of the oral exposition does not so much consist 
 in the fact that it is perfectly free, as that it presents to im- 
 mediate view a person who has made himself the bearer of a 
 science or an art, and has found what constitutes its essence. 
 Its power springs, above all, from the genuineness of the 
 lecture, the originality of its content, and the elegance of its 
 form : whether it is written or extemporized, is a matter of 
 little moment. Niebuhr e.g. read, word for word, from his 
 manuscript, and what a teacher was he ! The catechetical 
 way of teaching is not demanded at the university except in 
 special examinations ; it belongs to the private work of the 
 student, who must learn to be industrious of his own free 
 impulse. The private tutor can best conduct reviews. The 
 institution which presupposing the lecture-system combines 
 in itself original production with criticism, and the connected 
 exposition with the conversation, is .the seminary. It pur- 
 sues a well-defined path, and confines itself to a small circle 
 of associates whose grades of culture are very nearly the 
 same. Here, therefore, can the dialogue be strongly devel- 
 oped because it has a fixed foundation, and each one can 
 take part in the conversation ; whereas, from the variety of 
 opinions among a great number, it is easily perverted into 
 an aimless talk, and the majority of the hearers, who have 
 no chance to speak, become weary. 
 
 130. As- to the way in which the lecture is carried out, it 
 may be so arranged as to give the whole stock of information 
 acquired, or, without beiug so exact and so complete, it -may 
 bring to its elucidation only a relatively inexact and general 
 'information. The ancients called the first method the eso- 
 teric and the second the exoteric, as we give to such lectures 
 now, respectively, the names scholastic and popular. The 
 first makes use of terms which have become technical in 
 science or art, and proceeds syllogistically to combine the 
 isolated ideas ; the second endeavors to substitute for techni- 
 calities generally understood signs, and conceals the exact- 
 ness of the formal conclusion by means of a conversational 
 style. It is possible to conceive of a perfectly methodical 
 treatment of a science which at the same time shall be gen- 
 erally comprehensible if it strives to attain the transparency 
 of real beauty. A scientific work of art may be correctly said
 
 Tlie Modality of the Process of Teaching. 67 
 
 to be popular, as e.g. lias happened to Herder's Ideas on the 
 Philosophy of the History of Mankind. 
 
 Beauty is the element which is comprehended by all, 
 and as we declare our enmity to the distorted picture-books, 
 books of amusement, and to the mischievous character of 
 " Compendiums," so we must also oppose the popular pub- 
 lications which style themselves Science made JEasy, &c., 
 in order to attract more purchasers by this alluring title. 
 Kant in his Logic calls the extreme of explanation Pedantry 
 and Gallantry. This last expression would be very charac- 
 teristic in our times, since one attains the height of popula- 
 rity now if he makes himself easily intelligible to ladies a 
 didactic triumph which one attains only by omitting every- 
 thing that is profound or complicated, and saying only what 
 exists already in the consciousness of every one, by depriv- 
 ing the subject dealt with of all seriousness, and sparing 
 neither pictures, anecdotes, jokes, nor pretty formalities of 
 speech. Elsewhere Kant says: "In the effort to produce in 
 our knowledge the completeness of scholarly thoroughness, 
 and at the same time a popular character, without in the 
 effort falling into the above-mentioned errors of an affected 
 thoroughness or an affected popularity, we must, first of all, 
 look out for the scholarly completeness of our scientific 
 knowledge, the methodical form of thoroughness, and first 
 ask how we can make really popular the knowledge method- 
 ically acquired at school, i.e. how we can make it easy and 
 generally communicable, and yet at the same time not sup- 
 plant thoroughness by popularity. For scholarly complete- 
 ness must not be sacrificed to popularity to please the peo- 
 ple, unless science is to become a plaything or trifling." It is 
 perfectly plain that all that was said before of the psycho- 
 logical and the logical methods must be taken into account 
 in the manner of the statement. 
 
 131. It has been already remarked ( 21), in speaking of 
 the nature of education, that the office of the instructor must 
 necessarily vary with the growing culture. But attention 
 must here again be called to the fact, that education, in what- 
 ever stage of culture, must conform to the law which, as the 
 internal logic of Being, determines all objective developments 
 of nature and of history. The Family gives the child his first
 
 68 TJie Modality of the Process of TeacJiing. 
 
 instruction ; between this and the school comes the teaching 
 of the tutor; the school stands independently as the antithe- 
 sis of the family, and presents three essentially different 
 forms according as it imparts a general preparatory instruc- 
 tion, or special teaching for different callings, or a universal 
 scientific cultivation. Universality passes over through par- 
 ticularizing into individuality, which contains both the gen- 
 eral and the particular freely in itself. All citizens of a state 
 should have (1) a general education which (a) makes them 
 familiar with reading, writing, and arithmetic, these being 
 the means of all theoretical culture ; then (b) hands over to 
 them a picture of the world in its principal phases, so that 
 they as citizens of the world can find their proper status on 
 our planet; and, finally, it must (c) instruct him in the his- 
 tory of his own state, so that he may see that the circumstan- 
 ces in which he lives are the result of a determined past in 
 its connection with the history of the rest of the world, and 
 so may learn rightly to estimate the interests of his own coun- 
 try in view of their necessary relation to the future. This 
 work the elementary schools have to perform. From this, 
 through the Realschule (our scientific High School course) they 
 pass into the school where some particular branch of science 
 is taught, and through the Gymnasium (classical course of a 
 High School or College) to the University. From its general 
 basis develop (2) the educational institutions that work tow- 
 ards some special education which leads over to the exercise 
 of some art. These we call Technological schools, where one 
 may learn farming, mining, a craft, a trade, navigation, war, 
 &c. This kind of education may be specialized indefinitely 
 with the growth of culture, because any one branch is capa- 
 ble in its negative aspect of such educational separation, as 
 e.g. in foundling hospitals and orphan asylums, in blind and 
 deaf and dumb institutions. The abstract universality of 
 the Elementary school and the one-sided particularity of the 
 Technological school, however, is subsumed under a concrete 
 universality, which, withou.t aiming directly at utility, treats 
 science and art on all sides as their own end and aim. Sci- 
 entia, est potentia, said Lord Bacon. Practical utility results 
 indirectly through the progress which Scientific Cognition 
 makes in this free attitude, because it collects itself out of
 
 The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 69 
 
 the dissipation through manifold details into a universal 
 idea and attains a profounder insight thereby. This organ- 
 ism for the purpose of instruction is properly called a Uni- 
 versity. By it the educational organization is perfected. 
 
 It is essentially seen that no more than these three types 
 of schools can exist, and that they must all exist in a per- 
 fectly organized civilization. Their titles and the plan of 
 their special teaching may be very different among different 
 nations and at different times, but this need not prevent the 
 recognition in them of the ideas which determine them. Still 
 less should the imperfect ways in which they manifest them- 
 selves induce us to condemn them. It is the modern tendency 
 to undervalue the University as an institution which we had 
 inherited from the middle ages, and with which we could at 
 present dispense. This is an error. The university presents 
 just as necessary a form of instruction as the elementary 
 school or the technological school. Not the abolition of the 
 university, but a reform which shall adapt it to the spirit of 
 the age, is the advance which we have to make. That there 
 are to be found outside of the university men of the most 
 thorough and elegant culture, who can give the most excel- 
 lent instruction in a science or an art, is most certain. But 
 it is a characteristic of the university in its teaching to do 
 away with contingency which is unavoidable in case of pri- 
 vate voluntary efforts. The university presents an organic, 
 self-conscious, encyclopaedic representation of all the sciences, 
 and thus is created to a greater or less degree an intellectual 
 atmosphere which no other place can give. Through this, all 
 sciences and their aims are seen as of equal authority a per- 
 sonal stress is laid upon the connection of the sciences. The 
 imperfections of a university, which arise through the rivalry 
 of external ambition, through the necessity of financial suc- 
 cess, through the jealousy of different parties, through schol- 
 arships, &c., are finitudes which it has in common with all 
 human institutions, and on whose account they are not all to 
 be thrown away. Art-academies are for Art what universi- 
 ties are for Science. They are inferior to them in so far as 
 they appear more under the form of special schools, as schools 
 of architecture, of painting, and conservatories of music ; 
 while really it may well be supposed that Architecture,
 
 70 The Modality of the Process of Teaching . 
 
 Sculpture, Painting, Music, the Orchestra, and the Drama, 
 are, like the Sciences, bound together in a Universitas arti- 
 um, and that by means of their internal reciprocal action 
 new results would follow. Academies, as isolated master- 
 schools, which follow no particular line of teaching, are 
 entirely superfluous, and serve only as a Prytaneum for 
 meritorious scholars, and to reward industry through the 
 prizes which they offer. In their idea they belong with the 
 university, this appearing externally in the fact that most of 
 their members are university professors. But as institutions 
 for ostentation by which the ambition of the learned was 
 flattered, and to surround princes with scientific glory as 
 scientific societies attached to a court, they have lost all sig- 
 nificance. They ceased to flourish with the Ptolemies and 
 the Egyptian caliphs, and with absolute monarchical govern- 
 ments. In modern times we have passed beyond the abstract 
 jealousy of the so-called Humanities and the Natural Scien- 
 ces, because we comprehend that each part of the totality can 
 be realized in a proper sense only by its development as rela- 
 tively independent. Thus the gymnasium has its place as that 
 elementary school which through a general culture, by means 
 of the knowledge of the language and history of the Greeks 
 and Romans, prepares for the university ; while, on the other 
 hand, the Realschule, by special attention to Natural Science 
 and the living languages, constitutes the transition to the 
 technological schools. Nevertheless, because the university 
 embraces the Science of Nature, of Technology, of Trade, of 
 Finance, ajid of Statistics, the pupils who have graduated 
 from the so-called high schools (holiern Burgersclmleri) and 
 from the Realschulen will be brought together at the uni- 
 versity. 
 
 132. The technique of the school will be determined in 
 its details by the peculiarity of its aim. But in general every 
 school, no matter what it teaches, ought to have some system 
 of rules and regulations by which the relation of the pupil to 
 the institution, of the pupils to each other, their relation to 
 the teacher, and that of the teachers to each other as well as 
 to the supervisory authority, the programme of lessons, the 
 apparatus, of the changes of work and recreation, shall be 
 clearly set forth. The course of study must be arranged so
 
 The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 71 
 
 as to avoid two extremes : on the one hand, it has to keep in 
 view the special aim of the school, and according to this it 
 tends to contract itself. But, on the other hand, it must con- 
 sider the relative dependence of one specialty to other spe- 
 cialties and to general culture. It must leave the transition 
 free, and in this it tends to expand itself. The difficulty is 
 here so to assign the limits that the special task of the school 
 shall not be sacrificed and deprived of the means of perform- 
 ance which it (since it is also always only a part of the whole 
 culture) receives by means of its reciprocal action with other 
 departments. The programme must assign the exact amount 
 of time which can be appropriated to every study. It must 
 prescribe the order in which they shall follow each other; 
 it must, as far as possible, unite kindred subjects, so as to 
 avoid the useless repetition which dulls the charm of study ; 
 it must, in determining the order, bear in mind at the same 
 time the necessity imposed by the subject itself and the psy- 
 chological progression of intelligence from perception, through 
 conception, to the thinking activity which grasps all. It must 
 periodically be submitted to revision, so that all matter which 
 has, through the changed state of general culture, become out 
 of date, may be rejected, and that that which has proved itself 
 inimitable may be appropriated ; in general, so that it may 
 be kept up to the requirements of the times. And, finally, the 
 school must, by examinations and reports, aid the pupil in 
 the acquirement of a knowledge of his real standing. The 
 examination lets him know what he has really learned, and 
 what he is able to do : the report gives him an account of his 
 culture, exhibits to him in what he has made improvement 
 and in what he has fallen behind, what defects he has shown, 
 what talents he has displayed, what errors committed, and 
 in what relation stands his theoretical development to his 
 ethical status. 
 
 The opposition of the Gymnasia to the demands of the 
 agricultural communities is a very interesting phase of edu- 
 cational history. They were asked to widen their course so 
 as to embrace Mathematics, Physics, Natural History, Geog- 
 raphy, and the modern languages. At first they stoutly re- 
 sisted; then they made some concessions; finally, the more 
 they made the more they found themselves in contradiction
 
 72 The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 
 
 with their true work, and so they produced as an independ- 
 ent correlate the Realschule. After this was founded, the 
 gymnasium returned to its old plan, and is now again able 
 to place in the foreground the pursuit of classical literature 
 and history. It was thus set free from demands made upon 
 it which were entirely foreign to its nature. The examina- 
 tion is, on one side, so adapted to the pupil as to make him 
 conscious of his own condition. As to its external side, it* 
 determines whether the pupil shall pass from one class to 
 another or from one school to another, or it decides whether 
 the school as a whole shall give a public exhibition an ex- 
 hibition which ought to have no trace of ostentation, but 
 which in fact is often tinctured with pedagogical char- 
 latanism. 
 
 133. The Direction of the school on the side of science must 
 be held by the school itself, for the process of the intellect in 
 acquiring science, the progress of the method, the determina- 
 tions of the subject-matter and the order of its development, 
 have their own laws, to which Instruction must submit itself 
 if it would attain its end. The school is only one part of the 
 whole of culture. In itself it divides into manifold depart- 
 ments, together constituting a great organism which in mani- 
 fold ways comes into contact with the organism of the state. 
 So long as teaching is of a private character, so long as it is 
 the reciprocal relation of one individual to another, or so long 
 as it is shut up within the circle of the family and belongs 
 to it alone, so long it has no objective character. It receives 
 this first when it grows to' a school. As in history, its first 
 form must have a religious character; but this first form, in 
 time, disappears. Religion is the absolute relation of man 
 to God which subsumes all other relations. In so far as Reli- 
 gion exists in the form of a church, those who are members 
 of the same church may have instruction given on the na- 
 ture of religion among themselves. Instruction on the subject 
 is proper, and it is even enjoined upon them as a law as a 
 duty. But further than their own society they may not ex- 
 tend their rule. The church may exert itself to make a reli- 
 gious spirit felt in the school and to make it penetrate all 
 the teaching ; but it may not presume, because it has for its 
 subject the absolute interest of men, the interest which is
 
 The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 73 
 
 superior to all others, to determine also the other objects of 
 Education or the method of treating them. The technical ac- 
 quisitions of Reading, Writing and Arithmetic, Drawing and 
 Music, the Natural Sciences, Mathematics, Logic, Anthro- 
 pology and Psychology, the practical sciences pf finance and 
 the municipal regulations, have no direct relation to religion. 
 If we attempt to establish one, there inevitably appears in 
 them a morbid state which destroys them ; not only so, but 
 piety itself disappears, for these accomplishments and this 
 knowledge are not included in its idea. 
 
 Such treatment of Art and Science may be well-meant, 
 but it is always an error. It may even make a ludicrous im- 
 pression, which is a very dangerous thing for the authority 
 of religion. If a church has established schools, it must see 
 to it that all which is there taught outside of the religious 
 instruction, i.e. all of science and art, shall have no direct 
 connection with it as a religious institution. 
 
 134. The Church, as the external manifestation of reli- 
 gion, is concerned with the absolute relation of man, the rela- 
 tion to God, special in itself as opposed to his other relations ; 
 the State, on the contrary, seizes the life of a nation accord- 
 ing to its explicit totality. The State should conduct the edu- 
 cation of all its citizens. To it, then, the church can appear 
 only as a school, for the church instructs its own people con- 
 cerning the nature of religion, partly by teaching proper, that 
 of the catechism, partly in quite as edifying a way, by preach- 
 ing. From this point of view, the State can look upon the 
 church only as one of those schools which prepare for a 
 special avocation. The church appears to the State as that 
 school which assumes the task of educating the religious ele- 
 ment. Just as little as the church should the state attempt 
 to exercise any influence over Science and Art. In this they 
 are exactly alike, and must acknowledge the necessity which 
 both Science and Art contain within themselves and by which 
 they determine themselves. The laws of Logic, Mathematics, 
 Astronomy, Morals, ^Esthetics, Physiology, &c., are entirely 
 independent of the state. It can decree neither discoveries 
 nor inventions. The state in its relations to science occupies 
 the same ground as it should do with relation to the freedom 
 of self-consciousness. It is true that the church teaches man,
 
 74 The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 
 
 but it demands from him at the same time belief in the truth 
 of its dogmas. It rests, as the real church, on presupposed 
 authority, and sinks finally all contradictions which may be 
 found in the absolute mystery of the existence of God. The 
 state, on the contrary, elaborates its idea into the form of 
 laws, i.e. into general determinations, of whose necessity it 
 convinces itself. It seeks to give to these laws the clearest pos- 
 sible form, so that every one may understand them. It con- 
 cedes validity only to that which can be proved, and sentences 
 the individual according to the external side of the deed (overt 
 act) not, as the church does, on its internal side that of in- 
 tention. Finally, it demands in him consciousness of his 
 deed, because it makes each one responsible for his own deed. 
 It has, therefore, the same principle with science, for the proof 
 of necessity and the unity of consciousness with its object 
 constitute the essence of science. Since the state embraces 
 the school as one of its educational organisms, it is from its 
 very nature especially called upon to guide its regulation in 
 accordance with the manifestation of consciousness. 
 
 The church calls this "profanation." One might say 
 that the church, with its mystery of Faith, always represents 
 the absolute problem of science, while the state, as to its form, 
 coincides with science. Whenever the state abandons the 
 strictness of proof when it begins to measure the individual 
 citizen by his intention and not by his deed, and, in place of 
 the clear insight of the comprehending consciousness, sets up 
 the psychological compulsion of a hollow mechanical autho- 
 rity, it destroys itself. 
 
 135. Neither the church nor the state should attempt to 
 control the school in its internal management. Still less can 
 the school constitute itself into a state within the state ; for, 
 while it is only one of the means which are necessary for de- 
 veloping citizens, the state and the church lay claim to the 
 whole man his whole life long. The independence of the 
 school can then only consist in this, that it raises within the 
 state an organ which works under its control, and which as 
 school authority endeavors within itself to befriend the needs 
 of the school, while externally it acts on the church and state 
 indirectly by means of ethical powers. The emancipation of 
 the school can never reasonably mean its abstract isolation,
 
 The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 75 
 
 or the absorption of the ecclesiastical and political life into 
 the school ; it can signify only the free reciprocal action of 
 the school with state and church. It must never be forgotten 
 that what makes the school a school is not the total process 
 of education, for this falls also within the family, the state, 
 and the church ; but that the proper work of the school is 
 the process of instruction, knowledge, and the acquirement, 
 by practice, of skill. 
 
 The confusion of the idea of Instruction with that of 
 Education in general is a common defect in superficial trea- 
 tises on these themes. The Radicals among those who are in 
 favor of so-called " Emancipation," often erroneously appeal 
 to "free Greece" which generally for this fond ignorance is 
 made to stand as authority for a thousand things of which it 
 never dreamed. In this fictitious Hellas of u free, beautiful 
 humanity," they say the limits against which we strive to-day 
 did not exist. The histories of Anaxagoras, Protagoras, Di- 
 agoras, Socrates, Aristotle, Theophrastus, and of others, who 
 were all condemned on account of their "impiety," tell quite 
 another story. 
 
 136. The inspection of the school may be carried out in 
 different ways, but it must be required that its special insti- 
 tutions shall be embraced and cared for as organized and 
 related wholes, framed in accordance with the idea of the 
 state, and that one division of the ministry shall occupy itself 
 exclusively with it. The division of labor will specially affect 
 the schools for teaching particular avocations. The prescrip- 
 tion of the subjects to be studied in each school as appropri- 
 ate to it, of the course of study, and of the object thereof, 
 properly falls to this department of government, is its imme- 
 diate work, and its theory must be changed according to the 
 progress and needs of the time. Niemeyer, Sctiwarz, and 
 others, have made out such plans for schools. Scheinert 
 has fully painted the Volkschule, Mager the Burgerschule, 
 Deinhard and Kapp the Gymnasium. But such delineations, 
 however correct they may^ be, depend upon the actual sum of 
 culture of a people and a time, and must therefore continually 
 modify their fundamental Ideal. The same is true of the meth- 
 ods of instruction in the special arts and sciences. Niemeyer, 
 Schwarz, Herbart, in their sketches of Pedagogics, Beneke in
 
 76 Education of the Will. 
 
 his Doctrine of Education, and others, have set forth in de- 
 tail the method of teaching Reading, Writing and Arithmetic, 
 Languages, Natural Science, Geography, History, &c. Such 
 directions are, however, ephemeral in value, and only rela- 
 tively useful, and must, in order to be truly practical, be al- 
 ways newly laid out in accordance with universal educational 
 principles, and with the progress of science and art. 
 
 The idea that the State has the right to oversee the school 
 lies in the very idea of the State, which is authorized, and 
 under obligation, to secure the education of its citizens, and 
 cannot leave their fashioning to chance. The emancipation 
 of the school from the State, the abstracting of it, would lead 
 to the destruction of the school. There is no difficulty in Pro- 
 testant States in the free inter-action of school and church, 
 for Protestantism has consciously accepted as its peculiar 
 principle individual freedom as Christianity has presented it. 
 For Catholic States, however, a difficulty exists. The Pro- 
 testant clergyman can with propriety oversee the Volksclmle, 
 for here he works as teacher, not as priest. In the Protestant 
 churck there are really no Laity according to the original 
 meaning of the term. On the contrary, Catholic clergymen 
 are essentially priests, and as such, on account of the uncon- 
 ditional obedience which, according to their church, they have 
 to demand, they usurp the authority of the State. From this 
 circumstance arise, at present, numberless collisions in the 
 department of school supervision. 
 
 THIRD DIVISION. 
 PRAGMATICS (EDUCATION OF THE WIIX). 
 
 137. Both Physical and Intellectual Education are in the 
 highest degree practical. The first reduces the merely natural 
 to a tool which mind shall use for its own ends ; the second 
 guides the intelligence, by ways conformable to its nature, 
 to the necessary method of the act of teaching and learning, 
 which finally branches out into an objective national life, 
 into a system of mutually dependent school organizations. 
 But in a narrower sense we mean by practical education the 
 methodical development of the Will. This phrase more clear- 
 ly expresses the topic to be considered in this division than 
 others sometimes used in Pedagogics \Bestrebungs vermogen,
 
 Social Culture. 77 
 
 conative power]. The will is already the subject of a science 
 of its own, i.e. of Ethics ; and if Pedagogics would proceed in 
 anywise scientifically, it must recognize and presuppose the 
 idea and the existence of this science. It should not restate in 
 full the doctrines of freedom of duty, of virtue, and of con- 
 science, although we have often seen this done in empirical 
 works on Pedagogics. Pedagogics has to deal with the idea 
 of freedom and morality only so far as it fixes the technique 
 of their process, and at the same time it confesses itself to 
 be weakest just here, where nothing is of any worth without 
 a pure self-determination. 
 
 138. The -pupil must (1) become civilized ; i.e. he must 
 learn to govern, as a thing external to him, his natural 
 egotism, and to make the forms which civilized society has 
 adopted his own. (2) He must become imbiied with morali- 
 ty; i.e. he must learn to determine his actions, not only with 
 reference to what is agreeable and useful, but according to 
 the principle of the Good; he must become virtually free, 
 form a character, and must habitually look upon the ne- 
 cessity of freedom as the absolute measure of his actions. 
 (3) He must become religious; i.e. he must discern that the 
 world, with all its changes, himself included, is only pheno- 
 menal; the affirmative side of this insight into the emptiness 
 of the finite and transitory, which man would so willingly 
 make everlasting, is the consciousness of the absolute exist- 
 ing in and for itself, which, in its certainty of its truth, not 
 torn asunder through the process of manifestation, constitutes 
 no part of its changes, but, while it actually presents them, 
 permeates them all, and freely distinguishes itself from them. 
 /'In so far as man relates himself to God, he cancels all finitude 
 and transitoriness, and by this feeling frees himself from the 
 externality of phenomena.J/Virtue on the side of civilization 
 is Politeness ; on that of morality, Conscientiousness ; and 
 on that of religion, Humility. 
 
 FIRST CHAPTER. 
 
 Social Culture. 
 
 139. The social development of man makes the beginning 
 of practical education. It is not necessary to suppose M spe- 
 cial social instinct. The inclination of man to the society of
 
 78 Social Culture. 
 
 men does not arise only from the identity of their nature, but 
 is also in certain cases affected by particular relations. The 
 natural starting-point of social culture is the Family. But 
 this, educates the child for Society, and by means of Society 
 the individual passes over into relations with the world at 
 large. Natural sympathy changes to polite behavior, and 
 this to the dexterous and circumspect deportment, whose 
 truth nevertheless is first the ethical purity which combines 
 with the wisdom of the serpent the harmlessness of the dove. 
 
 140. (1) The Family is the natural social circle to which 
 mall primarily belongs. In it all the immediate differences 
 which exist are compensated by the equally immediate unity 
 of the relationship. The subordination of the wife to the 
 husband, of the children to their parents, of the younger chil- 
 dren to their elder brothers and sisters, ceases to be subor- 
 dination, through the intimacy of love. The child learns 
 obedience to authority, and in this it gives free personal 
 satisfaction to its parents and enjoys the same. All the rela- 
 tions in which he finds himself there are penetrated by the 
 warmth of implicit confidence, which can be replaced for the 
 child by nothing else. In this sacred circle the tenderest 
 emotions of the heart are developed by the personal interest 
 of all its members in what happens to any one, and thus the 
 foundation is laid of a susceptibility to all genuine or real 
 friendship. 
 
 Nothing more unreasonable or inhuman could exist than 
 those modern theories which would destroy the family and 
 would leave the children, the offspring of the anarchy of free- 
 love, to grow up in public nurseries. This would appear to 
 be very humanitarian ; indeed these socialists talk of noth- 
 ing but the interests of humanity they are never weary of 
 uttering their insipid jests on the institution of the family, 
 as if it were the principle of all narrow-mindedness. Have 
 these fanatics, who are seeking afte.r an abstraction of hu- 
 manity, ever examined our foundling-hospitals, orphan asy- 
 lums, barracks, and prisons, to discover in some degree to 
 what an atomic state of barren cleverness a human being 
 grows who has never formed a part of a family ? The Family 
 is only one phase in the grand order of the ethical organiza- 
 tion ; but it is the substantial phase from which man passively
 
 Social Culture. 79 
 
 proceeds, but into which, as he founds a family of his own, 
 he actively returns. The child lives in the Family in the 
 common joy and grief of sympathy for all, and, in the emo- 
 tion with which he sees his parents approach death while he 
 is hastening towards the full enjoyment of existence, expe- 
 riences the finer feelings which are so powerful in creating in 
 him a deeper and more tender understanding of everything 
 human. 
 
 141. (2) The Family rears the children not for itself but 
 for the civil society. In this we have a system of morals pro- 
 ducing externally a social technique, a circle of fixed forms 
 of society. This technique endeavors to subdue the natural 
 roughness of man, at least as far as it manifests itself exter- 
 nally. Because he is spirit, man is not to yield himself to 
 his immediateness ; he is to exhibit to man his naturalness 
 as under the control of spirit. The etiquette of propriety on 
 the one hand facilitates the manifestation of individuality 
 by means of which the individual becomes interesting to oth- 
 ers, and on the other hand, since its forms are alike for all, it 
 makes us recognize the likeness of the individual to all oth- 
 ers and so makes their intercourse easier. 
 
 The conventional form is no mere constraint ; but essen- 
 tially a protection not only for the freedom of the individual, 
 but much more the protection of the individual against the 
 rude impetuosity of his own naturalness. Savages and peas- 
 ants for this reason are, in their relations to each other, by 
 no means as unconstrained as one often represents them, but 
 hold closely to a ceremonious behavior. There is in one of 
 Immerman's stories, "The Village Justice," a very excellent 
 picture of the conventional forms with which the peasant 
 loves to surround himself. The scene in which the towns- 
 man who thinks that he can dispense with forms among the 
 peasants is very entertainingly taught better, is exceedingly 
 valuable in an educational point of view. The feeling of 
 shame which man has in regard to his mere naturalness is 
 often extended to relations where it has no direct significance, 
 since this sense of shame is appealed to in children in refer- 
 ence to things which are really perfectly indifferent exter- 
 nalities. 
 
 142. Education with regard to social culture has two
 
 80 Social Culture. 
 
 extremes to avoid : the youth may, in his effort to prove his 
 individuality, become vain and conceited, and fall into an 
 attempt to appear interesting ; or he may become slavishly 
 dependent on conventional forms, a kind of social pedant. 
 This state of nullity which contents itself with the mechani- 
 cal polish, of social formalism is ethically more dangerous 
 than the tendency to a marked individuality, for it betrays 
 emptiness ; while the effort towards a peculiar differentiation 
 from others, to become interesting to others, indicates power. 
 
 143. When we have a harmony of the manifestation of 
 the individual with the expression of the recognition of the 
 equality of others we have what is called deportment or po- 
 liteness, which combines dignity and grace, self-respect and 
 modesty. We call it when fully complete, Urbanity. It treats 
 the conventional forms with irony, since, at the same time 
 that it yields to them, it allows the productivity of spirit to 
 shine through them in little deviation from them, as if it were 
 fully able to make others in their place. 
 
 -True politeness shows that it remains master of forms. 
 It is very necessary to accustom children to courtesy and to 
 bring them up in the etiquette of the prevailing social cus- 
 tom ; but they must be prevented from falling into an absurd 
 formality which makes the triumph of a polite behavior to 
 consist in a blind following of the dictates of the last fashion- 
 journal, and in the exact copying of the phraseology and 
 directions of some book on manners. One can best teach and 
 practise politeness when he does not merely copy the social 
 technique, but comprehends its original idea. 
 
 144. (3) But to fully initiate the youth into the institu- 
 tions of civilization one must not only call out the feelings of 
 his heart in the bosom of the family, not only give to him the 
 formal refinement necessary to his intercourse with society ; 
 it must also perform to him the painful duty of making him 
 acquainted with the mysteries of the ways of the world. This 
 is a painful duty, for the child naturally feels an unlimited 
 confidence in all men. This confidence must not be destroy- 
 ed, but it must be tempered. The mystery of the way of the 
 world is the deceit which springs from selfishness. We must 
 provide against it by a proper degree of distrust. We must 
 teach the youth that he may be imposed upon by deceit, dis-
 
 Moral Culture. 81 
 
 simulation, and hypocrisy, and that therefore he must not 
 give his confidence lightly and credulously. He himself must 
 learn how he can, without deceit, gain his own ends in the 
 midst of the throng of opposing interests. 
 
 Kant in his Pedagogics calls that worldly-wise behavior 
 by which the individual is to demean himself in opposition 
 to others, Impenetrability. By its means man learns how to 
 "manage men." In Lord Chesterfield's letters to his son, we 
 have pointed out the true value of egotism in its relation to 
 morals. All his words amount to this, that we are to con- 
 sider every man to be an egotist, and to convert his very 
 egotism into a means of finding out his weak side; i.e. to 
 flatter him by exciting his vanity, and by means of such flat- 
 tery to ascertain his limits. In common life, the expression 
 "having had experiences" means about the same thing as 
 having been deceived and betrayed. 
 
 SECOND CHAPTKR. 
 
 Moral Culture. 
 
 145. The truth of social culture lies in moral culture. 
 Without this latter, every art of behavior remains worthless, 
 and can never attain the clearness of Humility and Dignity 
 which are possible to it in its unity with morality. For the 
 better determination of this idea Pedagogics must refer to 
 Ethics itself, and can here give the part of its content which 
 relates to Education only in the form of educational maxims. 
 The principal categories of Ethics in the domain of morality 
 are the ideas of Duty, Virtue, and Conscience. Education 
 must lay stress on the truth that nothing in the world has 
 any absolute value except will guided by the right. 
 
 146. Thence follows (1) the maxim relating to the idea 
 of Duty, that we must accustom the pupil to unconditional 
 obedience to it, so that he shall perform it for no other rea- 
 son than that it is duty. It is true that the performance of a 
 duty may bring with it externally a result agreeable or dis- 
 agreeable, useful or harmful ; but the consideration of such 
 connection ought never to determine us. This moral demand, 
 though it may appear to be excessive severity, is the abso- 
 lute foundation of all genuine ethical practice. All "highest 
 
 7
 
 82 Moral Culture. 
 
 happiness theories," however finely spun they may be, when 
 taken as a guide for life, lead at last to Sophistry, and this 
 to contradictions which ruin the life. 
 
 147. (2) Virtue must make actual what duty commands, 
 or, rather, the actualizing of duty is Virtue. And here we 
 must say next, then, that the principal things to be consid- 
 ered under Virtue are (a) the dialectic of particular virtues, 
 {b) renunciation, and (c) character. 
 
 148. (a) From the dialectic of particular virtues there 
 follows the educational maxim that we must practise all 
 virtues with equal faithfulness, for all together constitute an 
 ethical system complete in itself, in which no one is indiffer- 
 ent to another. 
 
 Morality should recognize no distinction of superiority 
 among the different virtues. They reciprocally determine 
 each other. There is no such thing as one virtue which shines 
 out above the others, and still less should we have any spe- 
 cial gift for virtue. ^The pupil must be taught to recognize 
 no great and no small in the virtues, for that one which may 
 at first sight seem small is inseparably connected with that 
 which is seemingly the greatest. Many virtues are attractive 
 by reason of their external consequences, as e.g. industry be- 
 cause of success in business, worthy conduct because of the 
 respect paid to it, charity because of the "pleasure attending 
 it ; but man should not practise these virtues because he en- 
 joys them: he must devote the same amount of self-sacrifice 
 and of assiduity to those virtues which (as Christ said) are 
 to be performed in secret. 
 
 It is especially valuable, in an educational respect, to 
 gain an insight, into the transition of which each virtue is 
 empirically capable, into a negative as well as into a positive 
 extreme. The differences between the extremes and the 
 golden mean are differences in quality, although they ar- 
 rive at this difference in quality by means of difference 
 in quantity. Kant has, as is well known, attacked the 
 Aristotelian doctrine of the ethical /^eo-orsc, since he was con- 
 sidering the qualitative difference of the mind as differen- 
 tiating principle ; this was correct for the subject with which 
 he dealt, but in the objective development we do arrive on
 
 Moral Culture. 83 
 
 the other hand at the determination of a quantitative limit ; 
 e.g. a man, with the most earnest intention of doing right, 
 may be in doubt whether he has not, in any task, done more 
 or less than was fitting for him. 
 
 As no virtue can cease its demands for us, no one can 
 permit any exceptions or any provisional circumstances to 
 come in the way of his duties. Our moral culture will always 
 certainly manifest itself in very unequal phases if we, out of 
 narrowness and weakness, neglect entirely one virtue while 
 we diligently cultivate another. If we are forced into such un- 
 equal action, we are not responsible for the result ; but it is 
 dangerous and deserves punishment if we voluntarily encour- 
 age it. The pupil must be warned against a certain moral 
 negligence which consists in yielding to certain weaknesses, 
 faults, or ci imes, a little longer and a little longer, because he 
 has fixed u certain time after which he intends to do better. 
 Up to that time he allows himself to be a loiterer in ethics, 
 Perhaps he will assert that his companions, his surroundings, 
 his position, &c., must be changed before he can alter his in- 
 ternal conduct. Wherever education or temperament favors 
 sentimentality, we shall find birth-days, new-year's day, con- 
 firmation day, &c., selected as these turning points. It is not 
 to be denied that man proceeds in his internal life from epoch 
 to epoch, and renews himself in his most internal nature, nor 
 can we deny that moments like those mentioned are espe- 
 cially favorable in man to an effort towards self-transforma- 
 tion because they invite introspection ; but it is not to be 
 endured that the youth, while looking forward to such a mo- 
 ment, should consciously persist in his evil-doing. If he does, 
 we shall have as consequences that when the solemn moment 
 which he has set at last arrives, at the stirring of the first 
 emotion he perceives with terror that he has changed nothing 
 in himself, that the same temptations are present to him, the 
 same weakness takes possession of him, &c. In our"business, 
 in our theoretical endeavors, &c., it may certainly happen 
 that, on account of want of time, or means, or humor, we may 
 put off some work to another time ; but morality stands on 
 a higher plane than these, because it, as the concrete abso- 
 luteness of the will, makes unceasing demand on the whole 
 and undivided man. In morality there are no vacations, no
 
 84 Moral Culture. 
 
 interims. As we in ascending a flight of stairs take good care 
 not to make a single mis-step, and give our conscious atten- 
 tion to every step, so we must not allow any exceptions in 
 moral atfairs, must not appoint given times for better con- 
 duct, but must await these last as natural crises, and must 
 seek to live in time as in Eternity. 
 
 149, (6) From Renunciation springs the injunction of 
 self-government. The action of education on the will to form 
 habits in it, is discipline or training in a narrower sense. 
 Renunciation teaches us to know the relation in which we 
 in fact, as historical persons, stand to the idea of the Good. 
 From our empirical knowledge of ourselves we derive the 
 idea of our limits ; from the absolute knowledge of ourselves 
 on the other hand, which presents to us the nature of Freedom 
 as our own actuality, we derive the conception of the resistless 
 might of the genuine will for the good. But to actualize this 
 conception we must have practice. This practice is the proper 
 renunciation. Every man must devise for himself some spe- 
 cial set of rules, which shall be determined by his peculiari- 
 ties and his resulting temptations. These rules must have 
 as their innermost essence the subduing of self, the vanquish- 
 ing of his negative arbitrariness by means of the universality 
 and necessity of the will. 
 
 In order to make this easy, the youth may be practised 
 in renouncing for himself even the arbitrariness which is 
 permitted to him. One often speaks of renunciation as if it 
 belonged especially to the middle ages and to Catholicism \ 
 but this is an error. Renunciation in its one-sided form as 
 relying on works, and for the purpose of mortification, is 
 asceticism, and belongs to them ; but Renunciation in gen- 
 eral is a necessary determination of morals. The keeping 
 of a journal is said to assist in the practice of virtue, but its 
 value depends on how it is kept. To one it may be a curse, 
 to another a blessing. Fichte, Gothe, Byron, and others, have 
 kept journals and have been assisted thereby; while others, 
 as Lavater, have been thwarted by them. Vain people will 
 every evening record with pen and ink their admiration of 
 the correct course of life which they have led in the day de- 
 voted to their pleasure. 
 
 150. (c) The result of the practice in virtue, or, as it is
 
 Moral Culture. 85 
 
 commonly expressed, of the individual actualization of free- 
 dom, is the methodical determinateness of the individual will 
 as Character. This conception of character is formal, for it 
 contains only the identity which is implied in the ruling of a 
 will on its external side as constant. As there are good, strong 
 and beautiful characters, so there are also bad, weak, and 
 detestable ones. When in Pedagogics, therefore, we speak 
 so much of the building up of a character, we mean the mak- 
 ing permanent of a direction of the individual will towards 
 the actualization of the Good. Freedom ought to be the cha- 
 racter of character. Education must therefore observe closely 
 the inter-action of the factors which go to form character, viz., 
 (a) the temperament, as the natural character of the man ; 
 (/9) external events, the historical element; (?-) the energy 
 of the Will, by which, in its limits of nature and history, it 
 realizes the idea of the Good in and for itself as the proper 
 ethical character. Temperament determines the Rhythm of 
 our external manifestation of ourselves ; the events in which 
 we live assign to us the ethical problem, but the Will in its 
 sovereignty stamps its seal on the form given by these po- 
 tentialities. Pedagogics aims at accustoming the youth to 
 freedom, so that he shall always measure his deed by the 
 idea of the Good. It does not desire a formal independence, 
 which may also be called character, but a real independence 
 resting upon the conception of freedom as that which is ab- 
 solutely necessary. The pedagogical maxim is then : Be 
 independent, but be so through doing Good. 
 
 According to preconceived opinion, stubbornness and 
 obstinacy claim that they are the foundation of character. 
 But they may spring from weakness and indeterminate- 
 ness, on which account one needs to be well on his guard. 
 A gentle disposition, through enthusiasm for the Good, may 
 attain to quite as great a firmness of will. Coarseness and 
 meanness are on no account to be tolerated. 
 
 151. (3) We pass from the consideration of the culture of 
 character to that of conscience. This is the relation which 
 the moral agent makes between himself as manifestation and 
 himself as idea. It compares itself, in its past or future, with 
 its nature, and j udges itself accordingly as good or bad. This 
 independence of the ethical judgment is the soul proper of
 
 86 Religious Culture. 
 
 all morality, the negation of all self-deception and of all 
 deception through another. The pedagogical maxim is : Be 
 conscientious. Be in the last instance dependent only 
 upon the conception which thou thyself hast of the idea of 
 the Good ! 
 
 The self-criticism prompted by conscience hovers over 
 all our historical actuality, and is the ground of all our ra- 
 tional progress. Fichte's stern .words remain, therefore, eter- 
 nally true: "He who has a bad character, must absolutely 
 create for himself a better one." 
 
 THIRD CHAPTER. 
 
 Religious Culture. 
 
 152. Social culture contains the formal phase, moral cul- 
 ture the real phase, of the practical mind. Conscience forms 
 the transition to religious culture. In its apodeictic nature, 
 it is the absoluteness of spirit. The individual discerns in 
 the depths of its own consciousness the determinations of 
 universality and of necessity to which it has to subject itself. 
 They appear to it as the voice of God. Religion makes its 
 appearance as soon as the individual distinguishes the Abso- 
 lute from himself as personal, as a subject existing for itself 
 and therefore for him. The atheist remains at the stage of 
 insight into the absoluteness of the logical and physical, 
 aesthetic and practical categories. He may, therefore, b& 
 perfectly moral. He lacks religion, though he loves to cha- 
 racterize his uprightness by this name, and to transfer the 
 dogmatic determinations of positive religion into the ethical 
 sphere. It belongs to the province of religion that I demean 
 myself towards the Absolute not only as toward that which 
 is my own substance, and that in relation to it not I alone 
 am the subject, but that to me also the substance in itself is 
 a personal subject for itself. If I look upon myself as the 
 only absolute, I make myself devoid of spiritual essence. I 
 am only absolute self-consciousness, for which, because it as 
 idea relates only to itself, there remains only the impulse to- 
 a persistent conflict with every self-consciousness not identi- 
 cal with it. Were this the case, such a self-consciousness 
 would be only theoretical irony. In religion I know the Abso- 
 lute as essence, when I am known by him. Everything else,.
 
 Religious Culture. 87 
 
 myself included, is finite and transitory, however significant 
 it may be, however relatively and momentarily the Infinite 
 may exist in it. As existence even, it is transitory. The 
 Absolute, positing itself, distinguishing itself from itself in 
 unity with itself, is always like to itself, and takes up all the 
 iinrest of the phenomenal world back again into its simple 
 essence. 
 
 153. This process of the individual spirit, in which it rises 
 out of the multiplicity of all relations into union with the 
 Absolute as the substantial subject, and in which nature and 
 history are united, we may call, in a restricted sense, a 
 change of heart [Gemuth], In a wider sense of the word we 
 give this name to a certain sentimental cheerfulness (light- 
 heartedness), a sense of comfort of little significance. The 
 highest emotions of the heart culminate in religion, whose 
 warmth is inspired by practical activity and conscien- 
 tiousness. 
 
 154. Education has to fit man for religion. (1) It gives 
 him the conception of it ; (2) it endeavors to have this con- 
 ception actualized in him ; (3) it subordinates the theoretical 
 and practical process in fashioning him -to a determinate 
 stand-point of religious culture. 
 
 In the working out or detailed treatment of Pedagogics, 
 the position which the conception of religion occupies is very 
 uncertain. Many writers on Education place it at the begin- 
 ning, while others reserve it for the end. Others naively 
 bring it forward in the midst of heterogeneous surroundings, 
 but know how to say very little concerning it, and urge teach- 
 ers to kindle the fire of religious feeling in their pupils by 
 teaching them to fear God. Through all their writing, we 
 hear the cry that in Education nothing is so important as 
 Religion. Rightly understood, this saying is quite true. The 
 religious spirit, the consciousness of the Absolute, and the 
 reverence for it, should permeate all. Not unfrequently, how- 
 ever, we find that what is meant by religion is theology, or 
 the church ceremonial, and these are only one-sided phases 
 of the total religious process, The Anglican High- Church 
 presents in the colleges and universities of England a sad 
 example of this error. What can be more deadening to' the 
 spirit, more foreign to religion, than the morning and evening
 
 88 Theoretical Process of fteligious Culture. 
 
 prayers as they are carried on at Oxford and Cambridge with 
 machine-like regularity ! But also to England belongs the 
 credit of the sad fact, that, according to Kohl's report, there 
 live in Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, and London, 
 thousands of men who have never enjoyed any teaching in 
 religion, have never been baptized, who live absolutely with- 
 out religion in brutal stupidity. Religion must form the cul- 
 minating point of Education. It takes up into itself the didac- 
 tical and practical elements, and rises through the force of 
 its content to universality. 
 
 I. The Theoretical Process of lleliyious Culture. 
 
 155. Religion, in common with every content of the spirit, 
 must pass through three stages of feeling, conception, and 
 comprehension. Whatever may be the special character of 
 any religion it cannot avoid this psychological necessity, 
 either in its general history or in the history of the individual 
 consciousness. The teacher must understand this process, 
 partly in order that he may make it easier to the youth, 
 partly that he may guard against the malformation of the 
 religious feeling which may arise through the fact of the 
 youth's remaining in one stage after he is ready for another 
 and needs it. Pedagogics must therefore lay out beforehand 
 the philosophy of religion, on which alone can we found the 
 complete discussion of this idea. 
 
 156. (1) Religion exists first as religious feeling. The 
 person is still immediately identical with the Divine, does 
 not yet distinguish himself from the absoluteness of his be- 
 ing, and is in so far determined by it. In so far as he feels 
 the divine, he is a mystery to himself. This beginning is 
 necessary. Religion cannot be produced in men from the 
 external side; its genesis belongs rather to the primitive 
 depths in which God himself and the individual soul are es- 
 sentially one. 
 
 -The educator must not allow himself to suppose that he 
 is able to make a religion. Religion dwells originally in ev- 
 ery individual soul, for every one is born of God. Education 
 can only aid the religious feeling in its development. As far 
 as regards the psychological form, it was quite correct for 
 Schleiermacher and his followers to characterize the absolute-
 
 Theoretical Process of Religious Culture. 89 
 
 ness of the religious feeling as the feeling of dependence, for 
 feeling is determined by that which it feels ; it depends upon 
 its content. But in so far as God constitutes the content of 
 the feeling, there appears the opposite of all dependence or ab- 
 solute emancipation. I maintain this in opposition to Schlei- 
 ermacher. Religion lifts man above the finite, temporal and 
 transitory, and frees him from the control of the phenomenal 
 world. Even the lowest form of religion does this ; and when 
 it is said that Schleiermacher has been unjustly criticized 
 for this expression of dependence, this distinction is over- 
 looked. 
 
 157. But religious feeling as such rises into something 
 higher when the spirit distinguishes the content of this reli- 
 gious feeling from any other content which it also feels, rep- 
 resents it clearly to itself, and places itself over against it 
 formally as a free individual. 
 
 But we must not understand that the religious feeling is 
 destroyed in this process ; in rising to the form of distinct 
 representation, it remains at the same time as a necessary 
 form of the Intelligence. 
 
 158. If the spirit is held back and prevented from passing 
 out of the simplicity of feeling into the act of distinguishing 
 the perception from what it becomes, the conception if its 
 efforts towards the forming of this conception are continually 
 re dissolved into feeling, then feeling, which was as the first 
 step perfectly healthy and correct, will become morbid and 
 degenerate into a wretched mysticism. Education must, 
 therefore, make sure that this feeling is not destroyed by the 
 progress of its content into perception and conception on the 
 side of psychological form, but rather that it attains truth 
 thereby. 
 
 159. (2) Conception as the ideally transformed percep- 
 tion dissects the religious content on its different sides, and 
 follows each of these to its consequence. Imagination con- 
 trols the individual conceptions, but by no means with that 
 absoluteness which is often supposed ; for each picture has 
 in itself its logical consequence to which imagination must 
 yield ; e.g. if a religion represents God as an animal, or as 
 half animal and half man, or as man, each of these conceptions 
 has in its development its consequences for the imagination.
 
 90 Theoretical Process of Religious Culture. 
 
 160. "We rise out of the stage of Conception when the spi- 
 rit tries to determine the universality of its content according 
 to its necessity, i.e. when it begins to think. The necessity 
 of its pictures is a mere presupposition for the imagination. 
 The thinking activity, however, recognizes not only the con- 
 tradiction which exists between the sensuous, limited, form 
 of the individual conception, and the absolute nature of its- 
 content, but also the contradiction in which the conceptions 
 find themselves with respect to each other. 
 
 161. If the spirit is prevented from passing out of the 
 varied pictures of conception to the supersensuous clearness 
 and simplicity of the thinking activity if the content which 
 it already begins to seize as idea is again dissolved into the 
 confusion of the picture-world, then the religion of imagina- 
 tion, which was a perfectly proper form as the second step, 
 becomes perverted into some form of idolatry, either coarse 
 or refined. Education must therefore not oppose the thinking 
 activity if the latter undertakes to criticize religious concep- 
 tions ; on the contrary, it must guide this so that the dis- 
 covery of the contradictions which unavoidably adhere to 
 Sensuous form shall not mislead the youth into the folly of 
 throwing away, with the relative untruth of the form, also 
 the religious content in general. 
 
 It is an error for educators to desire to keep the imagina- 
 tion apart from religious feeling, but it is also an error to 
 detain the mind, which is on its formal side the activity of 
 knowing, in the stage of imagination, and to desire to con- 
 demn it thence into the service of canonical allegories. The 
 more, in opposition to this, it is possessed with the charm of 
 thinking, the more is it in danger of condemning the content 
 of religion itself as a mere fictitious conception. As a transi- 
 tion-stage the religion of imagination is perfectly normal, 
 and it does not in the least impair freedom if, for example, 
 one has personified evil as a living Devil. The error does 
 not lie in this, but in the making absolute these determinate, 
 .esthetic forms of religion. The reaction of the thinking- 
 activity against such sesthectic absolutism then undertakes 
 in its negative absolutism to despise the content also, as if 
 it were a mere conception. 
 
 162. (3) In the thinking activity the spirit attains that
 
 Theoretical Process of Religious Culture. 91 
 
 form of the religious content which is identical with that of its 
 simple consciousness, and above which there is no other for the 
 intelligence as theoretical. But we distinguish three varie- 
 ties in this thinking activity : the abstract, the reflective, and 
 the speculative. The Abstract gives us the religious content 
 of consciousness in the form of abstractions or dogmas, i.e. 
 propositions which set up a definition as a universal, and 
 add to it another as the reason for its necessity. The Re- 
 flective stage busies itself with the relation of dogmas to each 
 other, and with the search for the grounds on which their ne- 
 cessity must rest. It is essentially critical, and hence skep- 
 tical. The explanation of the dogmas, which is carried on in 
 this process of reasoning and skeptical investigation, is com- 
 pleted alone in speculative thinking, which recognizes the 
 free unity of the content and its form as its own proper self- 
 determination of the content, creating its own differences. 
 Education must know this stage of the intelligence, partly 
 that it may in advance preserve, in the midst of its changes, 
 that repose which it brings into the consciousness ; partly 
 that it may be able to lead to the process of change itself, in 
 accordance with the organic connection of its phases. We 
 should prevent the criticism of the abstract understanding 
 by the reflective stage as little as we should that of the ima- 
 gination by the thinking activity. But the stage of reflection 
 is not the last possibility of the thinking activity, although, 
 in the variety of its skepticism it often takes itself for such,, 
 and, with the emptiness of mere negation to which it holds, 
 often brings itself forward into undesirable prominence. It 
 becomes evident, in this view, how very necessary for man, 
 with respect to religion, is a genuine philosophical culture, 
 so that he may not lose the certainty of the existence of the 
 Absolute in the midst of the obstinacy of dogmas and the 
 changes of opinions. 
 
 163. Education must then not fear the descent into dog- 
 matic abstraction, since this is an indispensable means for 
 theoretical culture in its totality, and the consciousness can- 
 not dispense with it in its history. But Education has, in the 
 concrete, carefully to discern in which of these stages of 
 culture any particular consciousness may be. For if for 
 mankind as a race the fostering of philosophy is absolutely
 
 92 Practical Process of Religious Culture. 
 
 necessary, it by no means follows that this necessity exists 
 for each individual. To children, to women, e.g. for all kinds 
 of simple and limited lives, the form of the religion of the 
 imagination is well suited, and the form of comprehension 
 can come only relatively to them. Education must not, then, 
 desire powerfully and prematurely to develop the thinking 
 activity before the intelligence is really fully grown. 
 
 The superficial thinking which many teachers demand 
 in the sphere of religion is no less impractical than the want 
 of all guidance into rightly ordered meditations on religious 
 subjects. It is natural that the lower form of intelligence 
 should, in contrast with the higher, appear to be frivolous, 
 because it has no need of change of form as the higher has, 
 and on this account it looks upon the destruction of the form 
 of a picture or a dogma as the destruction of religion itself. 
 In our time the idea is very prevalent that the content itself 
 must change with the changing of the psychological form, 
 and that therefore a religion in the stage of feeling, of con- 
 ception, and of comprehension, can no longer be the same in 
 its essence. These suppositions, which are so popular, and 
 are considered to be high philosophy, spring from the super- 
 ficiality of psychological inquiry. 
 
 164. The theoretical culture of the religious feeling en- 
 deavors therefore with the freedom of philosophical criticism 
 to elevate the presupposition of Reason in the religious con- 
 tent to self-assured insight by means of the proof of the 
 necessity of its determinations. This is the only reasonable 
 pedagogical way not only to prevent the degeneration of the 
 religious consciousness into a miserable mysticism or into 
 frivolity, but also to remove these if they are already ex- 
 istent. 
 
 External seclusion avails nothing. The crises of the 
 world-historical changes in the religious consciousness find 
 their way through the thickest cloister walls ; the philoso- 
 pher Reinhold was a pupil of the Jesuits, the philosopher 
 Schad of the Benedictines. 
 
 II. The Practical Process of Religious Culture. 
 
 165. The theoretical culture is truly practical, for it gives 
 man definite conceptions and thoughts of the Divine and his
 
 Practical Process of Religious Culture. 93 
 
 
 
 relation to him. But in a narrower sense that culture is prac- 
 tical which relates to the Will as such. Education has in this 
 respect to distinguish (1) consecration religious feeling in 
 general, (2) the induction of the youth into the forms of a 
 positive religion, and (3) his reconciliation with his lot. 
 
 166. (1) Religious feeling presupposes morality as an in- 
 dispensable condition without which it cannot inculcate its 
 ideas. But if man from a merely moral stand-point places 
 himself in relation to the idea of Duty as such, the ethical 
 religious stand-point differs from it in this, that it places the 
 necessity of the Good as the self-determination of the divine 
 Will and thus makes of practice a personal relation to God, 
 changing the Good to the Holy and the Evil to Sin. Educa- 
 tion must therefore first accustom the youth to the idea, that 
 in doing the Good he unites himself with God as with the 
 absolute Person, but that in doing Evil he separates himself 
 from him. The feeling that he through his deed comes into 
 contact with God himself, positively or negatively, deepens 
 the moral conduct to an intense sensibility of the heart. 
 
 167. (2) The religious sense N which grows in the child that 
 he has an uninterrupted personal relation to the Absolute as 
 a person, constitutes the beginning of the practical forming 
 of religion. The second step is the induction of the child into 
 the objective forms of worship established in some positive 
 religion. Through religious training the child learns to re- 
 nounce his egotism ; through attendance on religious services 
 he learns to give expression to his religious feeling in prayer, 
 in the use of symbols, and in church festivals. Education 
 must, however, endeavor to retain freedom with regard to 
 these forms, so that they shall not be confounded with Reli- 
 gion itself. Religion displays itself in these ceremonies, but 
 they as mere forms are of value only in so far as they, while 
 externalities, are manifestations of the spirit which produ- 
 ces them. 
 
 If the mechanism of ceremonial forms is taken as reli- 
 gion itself, the service of God degenerates into the false ser 
 vice of religion, as Kant has designated it in Religion within 
 the Limits of Pure Reason. Nothing is more destructive to 
 the sensibility to all real religious culture than the want of 
 earnestness with which prayers, readings from the Bible,
 
 94 Practical Process of Religious Culture. 
 
 
 
 attendance on church, the communion, &c., are often practised 
 by teachers. But one must not conclude from this extreme 
 that an ignorance of all sacred forms in general would be 
 more desirable for the child. 
 
 168. (3) It is possible that a man on the stand-point of 
 ecclesiastical religious observances may be fully contented ; 
 he may be fully occupied in them, and perfect his life there- 
 by in perfect content. But by far the greater number of men 
 will see themselves forced to experience the truth of religion 
 in the hard vicissitudes of their lot, since they carry on some 
 business, and with that business create for themselves a 
 past whose consequences condition their future. They limit 
 themselves through their deeds, whose involuntary- voluntary 
 authors they become ; involuntary in so far as they are chal- 
 lenged to the deeds from the totality of events, voluntary in so 
 far as they undertake them and bring about an actual change 
 in the world. The history of the individual man appears 
 therefore on the one hand, if we consider its material, as the 
 work of circumstances ; but on the other hand, if we reflect 
 on the form, as the act of a pelf determining actor. Want of 
 freedom (the being determined through the given situation) 
 and freedom (the determination to the act) are united in 
 actual life as something which is exactly so, and cannot 
 become anything else as final. The essence of the spiritual 
 being stands always over against this unavoidable limitation 
 as that which is in itself infinite, which is beyond all history, 
 because the absolute spirit, in and for itself, has no history. 
 That which one calls his history is only the manifesting of 
 himself, and his everlasting return out of this manifestation 
 into himself an act which in absolute spirit coincides with 
 the transceuding of all manifestation. From the nature which 
 belongs to him there arises for the individual spirit the im- 
 pulse towards a holy life, i.e. the being freed from his history 
 even in the midst of its process. He gratifies this impulse 
 negatively through the considering of what has happened as 
 past and gone, as that which lives now only ideally in the 
 recollection ; and positively through the positing of a new 
 actual existence in which he strives to realize the idea of free- 
 dom which constitutes his necessity, as purer and higher than 
 before. This constant new-birth out of the grave of the past
 
 Practical Process of Religious Culture. 95 
 
 to the life of a more beautiful future is the genuine reconci- 
 liation with destiny. The false reconciliation may assume 
 different forms. It may abstain from all action because man 
 through this limits himself and becomes responsible. This 
 is to despair of freedom, which condemns the spirit to the 
 loss of itself since its nature demands activity. The abstract 
 quietism of the Indian penitents, of the Buddhists, of the fa- 
 natical ascetics, of the Protestant recluses, &c., is an error of 
 this kind. The man may become indifferent about the ethi- 
 cal determinateness of his deeds. In this case he acts ; but 
 because he has no faith in the necessary connection of his 
 deeds through the means of freedom, a connection which he 
 would willingly ascribe to mere chance, he loses his spiritual 
 essence. This is the error of indifference and of its frivolity, 
 which denies the open mystery of the ruling of destiny. Edu- 
 cation must therefore imbue man with respect for external 
 movements of history and with confidence in the inexhausti- 
 bleness of the progressive human spirit, since only by produ- 
 cing better things can he affirmatively elevate himself above 
 his past. This active acknowledgment of the necessity of 
 freedom as the determining principle of destiny gives the 
 highest satisfaction to which practical religious feeling may 
 arrive, for blessedness develops itself in it that blessedness 
 which does not know that it is circumscribed by linitude 
 and transitoriness, and which possesses the immortal cour- 
 age to strive always anew for perfection with free resigna- 
 tion at ' its non-realization, so that happiness and misery, 
 pleasure and pain, are conquered by the power of disinter- 
 ested self-sacrifice. 
 
 The escape from action in an artificial absence of all 
 events in life, which often sinks to a veritable brutalizing of 
 man. is the distinguishing feature of all monkish pedagogics. 
 In our time there is especial need of a reconciliation between 
 man and destiny, for all the world is discontented. The worst 
 form of discontent is when one is, as the French say, blase; 
 though the word is not, as many fancy, derived originally 
 from the French, but from the Greek /9Aa^, to wither. It is 
 true that all culture passes through phases, each of which 
 becomes momentarily and relatively wearisome, and that in 
 so far one may be blase in any age. But in modern times
 
 96 Absolute Process of Religious Culture. 
 
 this state of feeling has increased to that of thorough disgust 
 disgust which nevertheless at the same time demands en- 
 joyment. The one who is blase has enjoyed everything, felt 
 everything, mocked at everything. He has passed from the 
 enjoyment of pleasure to sentimentality, i.e. to rioting in 
 feeling ; from sentimentality to irony with regard to feeling, 
 and from this to the torment of feeling his entire weakness 
 and emptiness as opposed to these. He ridicules this also, 
 as if if it were a consolation to him totting away the universe 
 like a squeezed lemon, and to be able to assert that in pure 
 nothingness lies the truth of all things. And yet neverthe- 
 less this irony furnishes the point on which Education can 
 fasten, in order to kindle anew in him the religious feeling, 
 and to lead him back to a loving recognition of actuality, to 
 a respect for his own history. The greatest difficulty which 
 Education has to encounter here is the coquetry, the misera- 
 ble eminence and self-satisfaction which have undermined 
 the man and made him incapable of all simple and natural 
 enjoyment. It is not too much to assert that many pupils of 
 our Gymnasia are affected with this malady. Our literature 
 is full of its products. It inveighs against its dissipation,, 
 and nevertheless at the same time cannot resist a certain kind 
 of pleasure in it. Diabolical sentimentality ! 
 
 III. The Absolute Process of Religious Culture. 
 
 169. In comparing the stages of the theoretical and prac- 
 tical culture of the religious feeling their internal correspon- 
 dence appears. Peeling, as immediate knowledge, and the 
 consecration of the sense by means of piety ; imagination with 
 all its images, and the church services with their ceremonial 
 observances; finally, the comprehending of religion as the 
 reconciliation with destiny, as the internal emancipation 
 from the dominion of external events all these correspond 
 to each other. If we seize this parallelism all together, we 
 have the progress which religion must make in its historical 
 process, in which it (1) begins as natural; (2) goes on to his- 
 torical precision, and (3) elevates this to a rational faith. 
 These stages await every man in as far as he lives through 
 a complete religious culture, but this may be for the indivi- 
 dual a question of chance.
 
 Absolute Process of Religious Culture. 97 
 
 170. (1) A child has as yet no definite religious feel- 
 ing. He is still only a possibility capable of manifold deter- 
 minations. But, since he is a spirit, the essence of religion 
 is active in him, though as yet in an unconscious form. The 
 substance of spirit attests its presence in every individual, 
 through his mysterious impulse toward the absolute and 
 towards intercourse with God. This is the initiatory stage 
 of natural religion, which must not be confounded with the 
 religion which makes nature the object of worship (fetich- 
 ism, &c.) 
 
 171. (2) But while the child lives into this in his internal 
 life, he comes in contact with definite forms of religion, and 
 will naturally, through the mediation of the family, be intro- 
 duced to some one of them. His religious feeling takes now 
 a particular direction, and he accepts religion in one of its 
 historical forms. This positive religion meets the precise 
 want of the child, because it brings into his consciousness, 
 by means of teaching and sacred rites, the principal elements 
 which are found in the nature of religion. 
 
 ^ 172. (3) In contradistinction to the natural basis of reli- 
 gious feeling, all historical religions rest on the authoritative 
 basis of revelation from God to man. They address them- 
 selves to the imagination, and offer a system of objective 
 forms of worship and ceremonies. But spirit, as eternal, as 
 self-identical, cannot forbear as thinking activity to sub- 
 ject the traditional religion to criticism and to compare it as 
 a phenomenal existence. From this criticism arises a reli- 
 gion which satisfies the demands of the reason, and which, 
 by means of insight into the necessity of the historical pro- 
 cess, leads to the exercise of a, genuine toleration towards its 
 many-sided forms. This religion mediates between the unity 
 of the thinking consciousness and the religious content, while 
 this content, in the history of religious feeling, appears theo- 
 retically as dogma, and practically as the command of an 
 absolute and incomprehensible authority. It is just as sim- 
 ple as the unsophisticated natural religious feeling, but its 
 simplicity is at the same time master of itself. It is just as 
 specific in its determinations as the historical religion, but 
 its determinateness is at the same time universal, since it is 
 worked out by the thinking reason. 
 
 8
 
 98 Absolute Process of Religious Culture. 
 
 173. Education must superintend the development of the 
 religious consciousness towards an insight into the necessary 
 consequence of its different stages. Nothing is more absurd 
 than for the educator to desire to avoid the introduction of 
 a positive religion, or a definite creed, as a middle stage be- 
 tween the natural beginning of religious feeling and its end 
 in philosophical culture. Only when a man has lived through 
 the entire range of one-sided phases through the crudeness 
 of such a concrete individualizing of religion, and has come 
 to recognize the universal nature of religion in a special form 
 of it which excludes other forms only when the spirit of a 
 congregation has taken him into its number, is he ripe to 
 criticize religion in a conciliatory spirit, because he has then 
 gained a religious character through that historical experi- 
 ence. The self-comprehending universality must have such 
 a solid basis as this in the life of the man ; it can never form 
 the beginning of one's culture, but it may constitute the end 
 which turns back again to the beginning. Most men remain 
 at the historical stand-point. The religion of reason, as that 
 of the minority, constitutes in the different religions the invi- 
 sible church, which seeks by progressive reform to purify 
 these religions from superstition and unbelief. It is the duty 
 of the state, by making all churches equal in the sight of the 
 law, to guard religion from the temptation of impure motives, 
 and, through the granting of such freedom to religious indi- 
 viduality, to help forward the unity of a rational insight into 
 religion which is distinct from the religious feeling only in 
 its form, not in its content. Not a philosopher, but Jesus 
 of Nazareth freed the world from all selfishness and all 
 bondage. 
 
 174. With this highest theoretical and practical emanci- 
 pation, the general work of education ends. It remains now 
 to be shown now the general idea of Education shapes its 
 special elements into their appropriate forms. From the na- 
 ture of Pedagogics, which concerns itself with man in his 
 entirety, this exposition belongs partly to the history of cul- 
 ture in general, partly to the history of religion, partly to the 
 philosophy of history. The pedagogical element in it always 
 lies in the ideal which the spirit of a nation or of an age cre- 
 ates out of itself, and which it seeks to realize in its youth.
 
 THIRD PART. 
 Particular Systems of Education. 
 
 175. The definite actuality. of Education originates in the 
 fact that its general idea is individualized, according to its 
 special elements, in a specific statement which we call a 
 pedagogical principle. The number of these principles is 
 not unlimited, but from the idea of Education contains only 
 a certain number. If we derive them therefore, we derive at 
 the same time the history of Pedagogics, which can from its 
 very nature do nothing else than make actual in itself the 
 possibilities involved in the idea of Education. Such a deri- 
 vation may be called an d priori construction of history, but 
 it is different from what is generally denoted by this term in 
 not pretending to deduce single events and characters. All 
 empirical details are confirmation or illustration for it, but it 
 does not attempt to seek this empirical element d priori. 
 
 -The history of Pedagogics is still in the stage of infancy. 
 At one time it is taken up into the sphere of Politics ; at an- 
 other, into that of the history of Culture. The productions 
 of some of the most distinguished writers on the subject are 
 now antiquated. Cramer of Stralsund made, in 1832, an ex- 
 cellent beginning in a comprehensive and thorough history of 
 Pedagogy ; but in the beginning of his second part he dwelt 
 too long upon the Greeks, and lost himself in too wide an expo- 
 sition of practical Philosophy in general. Alexander Kapp 
 has given us excellent treatises on the Pedagogics of Aris- 
 totle and Plato. But with regard to modern Pedagogics we 
 have relatively very little. Karl v. Raumer, in 1843, be- 
 gan to publish a history of Pedagogics since the time of the 
 revival of classical studies, and has accomplished much of 
 value on the biographical side. But the idea of the general 
 connection and dependence of the several manifestations has 
 not received much attention, and since the time of Pestalozzi 
 books have assumed the character of biographical confes-
 
 100 Particular Systems of Education. 
 
 sions. Strumpell, in 1843, developed the Pedagogics of Kant r 
 Fichte, and Herbart. 
 
 176. Man is educated by man for humanity. This is the 
 fundamental idea of all Pedagogics. But in the shaping of 
 Pedagogics we cannot begin with the idea of humanity as 
 such, but only with the natural form in which it primarily 
 manifests itself that of the nation. But the naturalness of 
 this principle disappears in its development, since nations 
 appear in interaction on each other and begin dimly to per- 
 ceive their unity of species. The freedom of spirit over na- 
 ture makes its appearance, but to the spirit explicitly in the 
 transcendent form of abstract theistic religion, in which God 
 appears as the ruler over Nature as merely dependent ; and 
 His chosen people plant the root of their nationality no 
 longer in the earth, but in this belief. The unity of the 
 abstractly natural and abstractly spiritual determinateness 
 is the concrete unity of the spirit with nature, in which it 
 recognizes nature as its necessary organ, and itself as in its 
 nature divine. Spirit in this stage, as the internal presuppo- 
 sition of the two previously named, takes up into itself on 
 one hand the phase of nationality, since this is the form of ite 
 immediate individuali/ation ; but it no longer distinguishes 
 between nations as if they were abstractly severed the one 
 from the other, as the Greeks shut out all other nations 
 under the name of barbarians. It also takes up into itself 
 the phase of spirituality, since it knows itself as spirit^ 
 and knows itself to be free from nature, and yet it does not 
 estrange itself as the Jews did in their representation of pure 
 spirit, in reference to which nature seems to be only the work 
 of its caprice. Humanity knows nature as its own, because 
 it knows the Divine spirit and its creative energy manifest- 
 ing itself in nature and history, as also the essence of its own 
 spirit. Education can be complete only with Christianity a& 
 the religion of humanity. 
 
 177. We have thus three different systems of religion 
 (1) the National; (2) the Theocratic; and (3) the Humanita- 
 rian. The first works in harmony with nature since it educates 
 the individual as a type of his. species. The original nation- 
 ality endeavors sharply to distinguish itself from others, and 
 to impress on each person the stamp of its uniform type.
 
 System of National Education. 101 
 
 One individual is like every other, or at least should be so. 
 The second system in its manner of manifestation is identical 
 with the first. It even marks the national difference more 
 emphatically; but the ground of the uniformity of the indi- 
 viduals is with it not merely the natural common interest, 
 but it is the consequence of the spiritual unity, which ab- 
 stracts from nature, and as history, satisfied with no present, 
 hovers continual!}' outside of itself between past and future. 
 The theocratic system educates the individual as the servant 
 of God. He is the true Jew only in so far as he is this ; the 
 genealogical identity with the father Abraham is a condition 
 but not the principle of the nationality. The third system 
 liberates the individual to the enjoyment of freedom as his 
 essence, and educates the human being within national lim- 
 its which no longer separate but unite, and, in the conscious- 
 ness that each individual, without any kind* of mediation, 
 has a direct relation to God, makes of him a man who knows 
 himself to be a member of the spiritual world of humanity. 
 We can have no fourth system beyond this. From the side 
 of the State-Pedagogics we might characterize these sys- 
 tems as that of the nation-State, the God-State, and the 
 humanity-State. From the time of the establishment of the 
 last, no one nation can attain to any sovereignty over the 
 others. By means of the world-religion of Christianity, the 
 education of nations has come to the point of taking for its 
 ideal, man as determining himself according to the demands 
 of reason. 
 
 FIRST DIVISION. 
 THE SYSTKM OF NATIONAL EDUCATION. 
 
 178. The National is the primitive system of education, 
 since the family is the organic starting-point of all education, 
 and is in its enlargement the basis of nationality. 
 
 Education is always education of the mind. Even unor- 
 ganized nations, those in a state of nature, the so-called sav- 
 age nations, are possessed of something more than a mere 
 education of the body ; for, though they set much value upon 
 gymnastic and warlike practice and give much time to them, 
 they inculcate also respect for parents, for the aged, and 
 for the decrees of the community. Education with them is 
 essentially family training, and its content is natural love
 
 102 System of National Education. 
 
 and reverence. We cannot deny that the finer forms of those 
 to which we are accustomed are wanting. Besides, education 
 among all these people of nature is very simple and much 
 the same, though great differences in its management may 
 exist arising from differences of situation or from tempera- 
 ment of race. 
 
 179. National Education is divided into three special sys- 
 tems : (1) Passive, (2) Active, (3) Individual. It begins with 
 the humility of an abstract subjection to nature, and ends 
 with the arrogance of an abstract rejection of nature. 
 
 180. Man yields at first to the natural authority of the 
 family ; he obeys unconditionally its behests. Then he sub- 
 stitutes for the family, as he goes on his culture, the artificial 
 family of his caste, to whose rules he again unconditionally 
 yields. To dispense with this artificialty and this tyranny, 
 at last he abstracts himself from the family and from culture. 
 He flees from both, and becoming a monk he again subjects 
 himself to the tyranny of his order. The monks presents to 
 us the mere type of his species. 
 
 181. This absolute abstraction from nature and from cul- 
 ture, this quietism of spiritual isolation, is the ultimate result 
 of the Passive system. In opposition to this, the Active 
 system seeks the positive vanquishing of naturalness. Its 
 people are courageous. They attack other nations in order 
 to rule over them as conquerors. They live for the continua- 
 tion of their life after death, and build for themselves on this 
 account tombs of granite. They brave the dangers of the sea. 
 The abstract prose of the patriarchal-state, the fantastic chi- 
 meras of the caste-state, the ascetic self-renunciation of the 
 cloister- state, yield gradually to the recognition of actuality ; 
 and the fundamental principle of Persian education consisted 
 in the inculcation of veracity. 
 
 182. But the nationality which is occupied with simple, 
 natural elements other nations, death, the mystery of the 
 ocean may revert to the abstractions of the previous stage, 
 which in education often take on cruel forms nay, often 
 truly horrible. First, when the spirit begins not only to sus- 
 pect its true nature, but rather to recognize itself as the true 
 essence ; and when the God of Light places as the motto on 
 his temple the command to self-knowledge, the natural indi-
 
 System of Passive Education. 103 
 
 viduality becomes free. Neither the passive nor the active 
 system understands the free self-distinction of the individual 
 from the rest. In them, to be an individuality is a betrayal 
 of the very idea of their existence, and even the suspicion of 
 such a charge suffices utterly and mercilessly to destroy the 
 one to whom it refers. Even the solitary individuality of the 
 despot is not the one-ness of free individuality : he is only 
 an example of his kind ; only in his kind is he singular. 
 Nationality rises to individuality through the free dialectic 
 of its race, wherein it dissolves its own presupposition. 
 
 183. Nevertheless individuality must always proceed 
 from naturalness. Esthetically it seeks nature, but the na- 
 ture of the activity itself, in order, by penetrating it with 
 mind, to make of it a work of art ; practically it seeks it, 
 partly to disdain it in gloomy resignation, partly to enjoy it 
 in excessive sensual ecstasy, demoniacally to heighten the 
 extravagance of its own internal feeling in wild revels. 
 
 The Germans were not savage in the common signification 
 of this term. They were men each one of whom constituted 
 himself willingly a centre for others, or, if this was not the 
 case, renounced them in proud self-sufficiency. All the glory 
 and all the disgrace of our race lies in the power of individu- 
 alizing which is divinely breathed into our veins. As a natu- 
 ral element, if this be not controlled, it degenerates easily 
 into intractableness, into violence. The Germans need there- 
 fore, in order to be educated, severe service, the imposition of 
 difficult tasks ; and for this reason they appropriate to them- 
 selves, now the Roman law, now the Greek philology, now 
 Gallic usages, &c., in order to work off their superfluous 
 strength in such opposition. The natural reserve of the Ger- 
 man found its solvent in Christianity. By itself, as the his- 
 tory of the German race shows, it would have been destroyed 
 in vain distraction. First of all, the German race, in the con- 
 fidence of its immediate consciousness, ventured forth upon 
 the sea, and managed the ship upon its waves as if they rode 
 a charger. 
 
 FIRST GROUP. 
 THE SYSTEM OF PASSIVE EDUCATION. 
 
 184. All education desires to free man from his finitude, 
 to make him ethical, to unite him with God. It begins there-
 
 104 Family Education. 
 
 fore with a negative relation to naturalness, but at once falls 
 into a contradiction of its aim, which is to convert the oppo- 
 sition to nature into a natural necessity. Spirit subjects the 
 individual (1) to the rule of the family as naturally spiritual ; 
 (2) to the rule of the caste as to a principle in itself spiritual, 
 mediated through the division of labor, which it neverthe- 
 less, through its power of being inherited, joins again to the 
 family ; (3) to the abstract self-determination of the monkish 
 quietism, which turns itself away as well from the famity as 
 from work, and constitutes this flight from nature and his- 
 tory, this absolute passivity, into an educational ideal. 
 
 We shall riot here enter into the details of this system, 
 but simply endeavor to remove from their differences the 
 want of clearness which is generally found involved in any 
 mention of them, so that the phrases of hierarchical and 
 theocratical education are used without any historical accu- 
 racy . 
 
 I. Family Education. 
 
 185. The Family, as the organic starting-point of all edu- 
 cation, makes the beginning. The nation looks upon itself as 
 a family. Among all unorganized people education is family- 
 education, though they are not conscious of its necessity. 
 Identical in principle with these people, but distinguished 
 from them in its consciousness of it, the Chinese nation, in 
 their laws, regulations, and customs, have constituted the 
 family the absolute basis of their life and the only principle 
 of their education. 
 
 180. The natural element of the family is found in mar- 
 riage and relationship; the spiritual, in love. We may call 
 the nature of family feeling which is the immediate unity of 
 both elements, by the name of Piety. In so far as this ap- 
 pears not merely as a substantial feeling but at the same 
 time as law, there arises from it the subordination of the 
 abstract obedience of the woman as wife to the husband, of 
 children to the parents, of the younger children to the elder. 
 In this obedience man lirst renounces his self-will and his 
 natural roughness ; he learns to master his passions, and to 
 conduct himself with deferential gentleness. 
 
 -When the principle ruling the family is transferred to 
 political relations, there arises the tvranny of the Chines--
 
 Caste Education. 105 
 
 state, which cannot be fully treated here. We tind every- 
 where in it an analogical relation to that of parents and chil- 
 dren. In China the ruler is the father and mother of the 
 country; the civil officers are representatives of a paternal 
 authority, &c. It follows that in school the children will be 
 ranked according to their age. The authority of parents over 
 children is according to the principle entirely unconditional, 
 but in actuality very mild. The abandonment of daughters 
 by the poorest classes in the great cities is not objected to, 
 for the government rears the children in orphan asylums, 
 where they are cared for by nurses appointed by the state. 
 
 187. The distinction of these relations which are condi- 
 tioned by nature takes on the external shape of a definite 
 ceremonial, the learning of which is a chief element of edu- 
 cation. In conformity with the naturalness of the whole 
 principle all crimes against it are punished by whipping, 
 which does not necessarily entail dishonor. In order to lead 
 man to the mastery of himself and to obedience to those who 
 are naturally set over him, education develops an endless 
 number of fragmentary maxims to keep attention ever watch- 
 ful over himself, and his behavior always fenced in by a code 
 of prescriptions. 
 
 \Vc find in such moral sentences the substance of what 
 is called, in China, Philosophy. 
 
 188. The theoretical education includes Reading, Writ- 
 ing i.e. painting the letters with a brush Arithmetic, and 
 the making of verses. But the ability to do these things is 
 not looked at as means of culture but as ends in themselves, 
 and- to fit one therefore for the undertaking of state offices. 
 The Chinese possess formally all the means for literary cul- 
 ture printing, libraries, schools, and academies; but the 
 worth of these is not great. Their value has been often over- 
 rated because of their external resemblance to 'those found 
 
 among us. 
 
 1 1 . Caste Education. 
 
 189. The members of the Family are certainly imme- 
 diately distinguished among each other as to sex and age, but 
 this difference is entirely immaterial as far as the nature of 
 their employment goes. In China, therefore, every man can 
 attain any position ; he who is of humblest birth in the great
 
 106 Caste Education. 
 
 state-family can climb to the highest honor. But the pro- 
 gress of spirit now becomes so mediated that the division of 
 labor shall be made the principle on which a new distinction 
 shall arise in the family : each one shall perfect himself only 
 in that labor which was allotted to him as his own through 
 his birth into a particular family. This fatalism (caste- 
 distinction) breaks up the life, but increases its tension, for 
 spirit works on the one hand towards the deepening of its 
 distinctions; on the other, towards leading them back' into 
 the unity which the natural determining directly opposes. 
 
 190. The chief work of education thus consists in teach- 
 ing each one the rights and duties of his caste so that he 
 shall act only exactly within their limits, and not pollute him- 
 self by passing beyond them. As the family-state concerns 
 itself with fortifying the natural distinction by a far-reaching 
 and vigorous ceremonial, so the caste-state must do the same 
 with the distinction of class. A painful etiquette becomes 
 more and more endless in its requisitions the higher the caste, 
 in order to make the isolation more sharply defined and more 
 perceptible. 
 
 This feature penetrates all exclusively caste-education. 
 The aristocracy exiles itself on this account from its native 
 country, speaks a foreign language, loves its literature,, 
 adopts foreign customs, lives in foreign countries in Italy, 
 Paris, &c. In this way man becomes distinguished from oth- 
 ers. But that man should strive thus to distinguish himself 
 has its justification in the mystery of his birth, and this is 
 assuredly always the principle of the caste-state in which it 
 exists. The castes lead to genealogical records, which are 
 of the greatest importance in determining the destiny of the 
 individual. The Brahmin may strike down one of a lower 
 caste who has defiled him by contact, without becoming 
 thereby liable to punishment ; rather would he be to blame 
 if he did not commit the murder. Thus formerly was it with 
 the officer who did not immediately kill the citizen or the 
 common soldier who struck him a blow, &c. 
 
 191. The East Indian culture is far deeper and richer than 
 the Chinese. The theoretical culture includes Reading, Writ- 
 ing, and Arithmetic ; but these are subordinate, as mere 
 means for the higher activities of Poetry, Speculation, Sci-
 
 Buddhistic Education. 107 
 
 ence, and Art. The practical education limits itself strictly 
 by the lines of caste, and since the caste system constitutes a 
 whole in itself, and each for its permanence needs the others, 
 it cannot forbear giving utterance suggestively to what is 
 universally human in the free soul, in a multitude of fables 
 (Hitopadesa) and apothegms (sentences of Bartrihari). Espe- 
 cially for the education of princes is a mirror of the world 
 sketched out. 
 
 Xenophon's Cyropedia is of Greek origin, but it is Indian 
 in its thought. 
 
 III. Monkish Education. 
 
 192. Family Education demands unconditional obedience 
 towards parents and towards all who stand in an analogous 
 position. Caste Education demands unconditional obedience 
 to the duties of the caste. The family punishes by whip- 
 ping ; the caste, by excommunication, by loss of honor. The 
 opposition to nature appears in both systems in the form of 
 a rigid ceremonial, distinguishing between the differences 
 arising from nature. The family as well as the caste has 
 within it a manifold fountain of activity, but it has also just 
 as manifold a limitation of the individual. Spirit is forced, 
 therefore, to turn against nature in general. It must become 
 indifferent to the family. But it must also oppose history, 
 and the fixed distinctions of division of labor as necessitated 
 by nature. It must become indifferent to work and the pleas- 
 ure derived from it. That it may not be conditioned either 
 by nature or by history, it denies both, and makes its action 
 to consist in producing an abstinence from all activity. 
 
 193. Such an indifference towards nature and history 
 produces the education which we have called monkish. 
 Those who support this sect care for food, clothing, and 
 shelter, and for these material contributions, as the laity, 
 receive in return from those who live this contemplative 
 life the spiritual contribution of confidence in the blessings 
 which wait upon ascetic contemplation. The family institu- 
 tion as well as the institution of human labor is subordi- 
 nated to abstract isolation, in which the individual lives only 
 for the purification of his soul. All things are justified by 
 this end. Castes are found no more ; only those are bound
 
 108 Buddhistic Education System of Act ice Education. 
 
 to the observance of a special ceremonial who as nuns or 
 monks subject themselves to the unconditional obedience to 
 the rules of the cloister, these rules solemnly enjoining on 
 the negative side celibacy and cessation from business, and 
 on the positive side prayer and perfection. 
 
 194. In the school of the Chinese Tao-tse, and in the com- 
 mand to the Brahmin after he has established a family to 
 become a recluse, we find the transition as it actually exists 
 to the Buddhistic Quietism which has covered the rocky 
 heights of Thibet with countless cloisters, and reared the peo- 
 ple who are dependent upon it into a childlike amiability, 
 into a contented repose. Art and Science have here no value 
 in themselves, and are regarded only as ministering to reli- 
 gion. To be able to read in order to mutter over the prayers 
 is desirable. With the premeditated effort in the state of a 
 monk to reduce self to nothing as the highest good, the sys- 
 tem of passive education attains its highest point. But the 
 spirit cannot content itself in this abstract and dreamy ab- 
 sence of all action, though it demands a high stage of cul- 
 ture, and it has recourse therefore to action, partly on the 
 positive side to conquer nature, partly to double its own 
 existence in making history. Inspired with affirmative cour- 
 age, it descends triumphantly from the mountain heights, 
 and fears secularization no more. 
 
 SECOND GROUP. 
 THE SYSTEM OP ACTIVE EDUCATION. 
 
 195. Active Education elevates man from his abstract 
 subjection to the family, the caste, asceticism, into a concrete 
 activity with a definite aim which subjects those elements as 
 phases of its mediation, and grants to each individual inde- 
 pendence on the condition of his identity with it. These 
 aims are the military state, the future after death, and in- 
 dustry. There is always an element of nature present from 
 which the activity proceeds ; but this no longer appears, 
 like the family, the caste, the sensuous egotism, as imme- 
 diately belonging to the individual, but as something outside 
 of himself which limits him, and, as his future life, has an 
 internal relation to him, yet is essential to him and assigns 
 to him the object of his activity. The Persian has as an
 
 Military Education. 109 
 
 object of conquest, other nations; the Egyptian, death; the 
 Phoenician, the sea. 
 
 \. Military Education. 
 
 196. That education which would emancipate a nation 
 from the passivity of abstraction must throw it into the midst 
 of an historical activity. A nation finds not its actual limits 
 in its locality : it can forsake this and wander far away from 
 it. Its true limit is made by another nation. The nation 
 which knows itself to be actual, turns itself therefore against 
 other nations in order to subject them and to reduce them 
 to the condition of mere accidents of itself. It begins a 
 system of conquest which has in itself no limitations, but 
 goes from one nation to another, and extends its evil course 
 indefinitely. The final result of this attack is that it finds 
 itself attacked and conquered. 
 
 The early history of the Persian is twofold : the patriar- 
 chal in the high valleys of Iran, and the religio -hierarchical 
 among the Medes. We find under these circumstances a 
 repetition of the principal characteristics of the Chinese, In- 
 dian, and Buddhist educations. In ancient Zend there were 
 also castes. Among the Persians themselves, as they de- 
 scended from their mountains to the conquest of other 
 nations, there was properly only a military nobility. The 
 priesthood was subjected to the royal power which repre- 
 sented the absolute power of actuality . Of the Persian kings, 
 Cyrus attacked Western Asia; Cambyses, Africa; Darius 
 and Xerxes, Europe ; until the reaction of the spiritually 
 higher nationality did not content itself with self-preserva- 
 tion, but under the Macedonian Alexander made the attack 
 on Persia itself. 
 
 197. Education enjoined upon the Persians (1) to speak 
 the truth ; (2) to learn to ride and to use the bow and 
 arrow. There is implied in the first command a recognition 
 of actuality, the negation of all dreamy absorption, of all 
 fantastical indetermination ; and in this light the Persian, in 
 distinction from the Hindoo, appears to be considerate and 
 reasonable. In the second command is implied warlike prac- 
 tice, but not that of the nomadic tribes. The Persian fights 
 on horseback, and thus appears in distinction from the Indian
 
 110 Priestly Education. 
 
 hermit seclusion and the quietism of the Lamas as restless 
 and in constant motion. 
 
 -The Family increases in value as it rears a large number 
 of warriors. Many children were a blessing. The king of 
 Persia gave a premium for all children over a certain num- 
 ber. Nations were drawn in as nations by war ; hence the 
 immense multitude of a Persian army. Everything family, 
 business, possessions must be regardlessly sacrificed to the 
 one aim of war. Education, therefore, cultivated an uncon- 
 ditional, all-embracing obedience to the king, and the slight- 
 est inclination to assert an individual independence was high 
 treason and was punished with death. In China, on the con- 
 trary, duty to the family is paramount to duty to the state, 
 or rather is itself duty to the state. The civil officer who 
 mourns the loss of one of his family is released during the 
 period of mourning from the duties of his function. 
 
 198. The theoretical education, which was limited to read- 
 ing, writing, and to instruction, was, in the usages of culture, 
 in the hands of the Magians, the number of whom was esti- 
 mated at eighty thousand, and who themselves had enjoyed 
 the advantages of a careful education, as is shown by t their 
 gradation into Herbeds, Moheds, and Destur-Moheds ; i.e. into 
 apprentices, journeymen, and masters. The very fundamen- 
 tal idea of their religion was military ; it demanded of men 
 to fight on the side of the king of light, and guard against the 
 prince of darkness and evil. It gave to him thus the honor 
 of a free position between the world- moving powers and 
 the possibility of a self-creative destiny, by which means 
 vigor and chivalrous feeling were developed. Religion trained 
 the activity of man into actualization on this planet, increas- 
 ing by its means the dominion of the good, by purifying the 
 water, by planting trees, by extirpating troublesome wild 
 beasts. Thus it increased bodily comfort, and no longer, like 
 the monk, treated this as a mere negative. 
 
 II. Priestly Education. 
 
 199. War has in death its force. It produces this, and 
 by its means decides who shall serve and who obey. But the 
 nation that finds its activity in war, though it makes death 
 its absolute means, yet finds its own limit in death. Other
 
 Priestly Education. Ill 
 
 
 nations are only its boundaries, which it can overpass in 
 
 lighting with and conquering them. But death itself it can 
 never escape, whether it come in the sands of the desert 
 which buried for Cambyses an army which he sent to the 
 oracle of the Libyan Ammon or in the sea, that scorns the 
 rod of the angry despot, or by the sword of the freeman who 
 guards his household gods. On this account, that people 
 stands higher that in the midst of life reflects on death, or 
 rather lives for it. The education of such a nation must be 
 priestly because death is the means of the transition to the 
 future life, and consequently equivalent to a new birth, and 
 becomes a religious act. Neither the family-state, nor the 
 caste-state, nor the monkish nor military-state, are hierar- 
 chies in the sense that the leading of the national life by a 
 priesthood produces. But in Egypt this was actually the 
 case, because the chief educational tribunal was the death- 
 court which concerned only the dead, in awarding to them or 
 denying them the honor of burial as the result of their whole 
 life, but in its award affected also the honor of the surviv- 
 ing family. 
 
 200. General education here limited itself to imparting the 
 ability to read, write, and calculate. Special education con- 
 sisted properly only in an habitual living into a definite busi- 
 ness within the circle of the Family. In this fruitful and warm 
 land the expense of supporting children was very small. The 
 division into classes was without the cruel features of the In- 
 dian civilization, and life itself in the narrow Nile valley was 
 very social, very rich, very full of eating and drinking, while 
 the familiarity with death heightened the force of enjoyment. 
 In a stricter sense only, the warriors, the priests, and the kings, 
 had, properly speaking, an education. The aim of life, which 
 was to determine in death its eternal future, to secure for 
 itself a passage into the still kingdom of Amenth, manifested 
 itself externally in the care which they expended on the pre- 
 servation of the dead shell of the immortal soul, and on this 
 account worked itself out in building tombs which should 
 last for ever. The Chinese builds a wall to secure his family- 
 state from attack ; the Hindoo builds pagodas for his gods ; 
 the Buddhist erects for himself monastic cells ; the Persian
 
 112 Industrial Education. 
 
 constructs in Persepolis the tomb of his kings, where they 
 may retire in the evening of their lives after they have rioted 
 in Ecbatana, Babylon, and Susa ; but the Egyptian builds 
 his own tomb, and carries on war only to protect it. 
 
 III. Industrial Education . 
 
 201. The system of active education was to find its solu- 
 tion in a nation which wandered from the coast of the Red 
 Sea to the foot of the Lebanon mountains on the Mediterra- 
 nean, and ventured forth upon the sea which before that time 
 all nations had avoided as a dangerous and destructive ele- 
 ment. The Phoanician was industrial, and needed markets 
 where he could dispose of the products of his skill. But 
 while he sought for them he disdained neither force nor de- 
 ceit; he planted colonies; he stipulated that he should have 
 in the cities of other nations a portion for himself; he urged 
 the nations to adopt his pleasures, and insensibly introduced 
 among them his culture and even his religion. The educa- 
 tion of such a nation must have seemed profane, because it 
 fostered indifference towards family and one's native land, 
 and made the restless and passionate activity subservient to 
 gain. The understanding and usefulness rose to a higher 
 dignity. 
 
 202. Of the education of the Pho3nicians we know only 
 so much as to enable us to conclude that it was certainly va- 
 rious and extensive : among the Carthaginians, at least, that 
 their children were practised in reading, writing, and arith- 
 metic, in religious duties ; secondly, in a trade ; and, finally, 
 in the use of arms, is not improbable. Commerce became 
 with the Pho3nicians a trade, the egotism of which makes 
 men dare to plough the inhospitable sea, and to penetrate 
 eagerly the horror of its vast distances, but yet to conceal 
 from other nations their discoveries and to wrap them in a 
 veil of fable. 
 
 It is a beautiful testimony to the disposition of the 
 Greeks, that Plato and others assign as a cause of the low 
 state of Arithmetic and Mathematics among the Phoenicians 
 and Egyptians the want of a free and disinterested seizing 
 of them.
 
 Individual Education Esthetic Education. 113 
 
 THIRD GROUP. 
 THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 
 
 203. One-sided passivity as well as one-sided activity is 
 subsumed under Individuality, which makes itself into its 
 own end and aim. The Phoenician made gain his aim ; Tiis 
 activity was of a utilistic character. Individuality as a peda- 
 gogical principle is indeed egotistic in so far as it endeavors 
 to achieve its own peculiarity, but it is at the same time 
 noble. It desires not to have but to be. Individuality also 
 begins as natural, but it elevates nature by means of art to 
 ideality. The solution of beauty is found in culture, since 
 this renounces the charm of appearance for the knowledge 
 of the True. The aesthetic individuality is followed by the 
 practical, which has indeed no natural basis, but proceeds 
 from an artificial basis as a state formed for a place of refuge. 
 In order internally to create a unity in this, is framed a 
 definite code of laws ; in order externally to assure it, the 
 invincible warrior is demanded. Education is therefore, more 
 exactly speaking, juristic and military practice. The moral- 
 ity of the state is loosened as it reduces into its mechanism 
 one nation after another, until the individuality, become dae- 
 monic, makes its war-hardened legions tremble with weak- 
 ness. We characterize this individuality as daemonic because 
 it desires recognition simply for its own sake. Not for its 
 beauty and culture, not for its knowledge of business and its 
 bravery, only for its peculiarity as such does it claim value, 
 and in the effort to secure this it is ready to hazard life itself. 
 In its naturally-growing existence this individuality is deep, 
 but at the same time without self-limit. The nations educate 
 themselves to this individuality when they destroy the world 
 of Roman world that of self-limit and balance which they 
 find. 
 
 I. Esthetic Education. 
 
 204. The system of individual education begins with the 
 transfiguration of the immediate individuality into beauty. 
 On the side of nature this system is passion, for individuality 
 is given through nature; but on the side of spirit it is active, 
 for spirit must determine itself to restrain its measure as the 
 essence of beauty. 
 
 9
 
 114 ^Esthetic Education. 
 
 205. Here the individual is of value only in so far as lie 
 is beautiful. At first beauty is apprehended as natural, but 
 then it is carried over into the realm of spirit, and the 
 Good is posited as identical with the Beautiful. The ideal 
 of aesthetic education remains always that there shall be also 
 an external unity of the Good with the Beautiful, of Spirit 
 with Nature. 
 
 We cannot here give in detail the history of Greek Edu- 
 cation. It is the best known among us, and the literature in 
 which it is worked out is very widely spread. Among the 
 common abridged accounts we mention here only the works 
 of Jacobs, of Cramer & Bekker's " Charinomos." We must 
 content ourselves with mentioning the turning-points which 
 follow from the nature of the principle. 
 
 206. Culture was in Greece thoroughly national. Educa- 
 tion gave to the individual the consciousness that he was a 
 Greek and no barbarian,. a free man and so subject only to 
 the laws of the state, and not to the caprice of any one per- 
 son. Thus the nationality was freed at once from the abstract 
 unity of the family and from the abstract distinction of caste, 
 while it appeared with the manifold talents of individuals of 
 different races. Thus the Dorian race held as essential, gym- 
 nastics; the JEolians, music ; the Ionics,. poetry. TheJEolian 
 individuality was subsumed in the history of the two others, 
 so that these had to proceed in their development with an 
 internal antagonism. The education of the Dorian race was 
 national education in the fullest sense of the word; in it the 
 education of all was the same, and was open to all, even 
 including the young women ; among the Ionic race it was also 
 in its content truly national, but in its form it was varied and 
 unlike, and, for those belonging to various great families, 
 private. The former, reproducing the Oriental phase of ab- 
 stract unity, educated all in one mould ; the latter was the 
 nursery of particular individualities. 
 
 207. (1) Education in the heroic age, without any syste- 
 matic arrangement on the subject, left each one perfectly 
 free. The people related the histories of the adventures of 
 others, and through their own gave material to others again 
 to relate stories of them. 
 
 The Greeks began where the last stage of the active
 
 ^Esthetic Education. 115 
 
 system of education ended with piracy and the seizure of 
 women. Swimming was a universal practice among the sea- 
 dwelling Greeks, just as in England the mistress of the 
 ocean rowing is the most prominent exercise among the 
 young men, and public regattas are held. 
 
 208. (2) In the period of state-culture proper, education 
 developed itself systematically ; and gymnastics, music, and 
 grammatics, or literary culture, constituted the general peda- 
 gogical elements. 
 
 209. Gymnastics aimed not alone to render the body 
 strong and agile, but, far more, to produce in it a noble car- 
 riage, a dignified and graceful manner of appearance. Each 
 one fashioned his body into a living, divine statue, and in the 
 public games the nation crowned the victor. 
 
 -Their love of beautiful boys is explicable not merely by 
 their interest in beautiful forms, but especially by their 
 interest in individuality. The low condition of the women 
 could not lie at the foundation of it, for among the Spartans 
 they were educated as nearly as possible like the men, and 
 yet among them and the Cretans the love of boys was recog- 
 nized in their legislation. To be without a beloved (dfayc), 
 or a lover (e&Tn^xac), was among them considered as dis- 
 graceful as the degradation of the love by unchastity was 
 contemptible. What charm was there, then, in love ? Mani- 
 festly only beauty and culture. But that a person should be 
 attracted by one and not by another can be accounted for 
 only by the peculiar character, and in so far the boy-love 
 and the man-friendship which sprang from it, among the 
 Greeks, are very characteristic and noteworthy phenomena. 
 
 210. It was the task of Music, by its rhythm and meas- 
 ure, to fill the soul with well-proportioned harmony. So 
 highly did the Greeks prize music, and so variously did they 
 practise it, that to be a musical man meant the same with 
 them as to be a cultivated man with us. Education in this 
 respect was very painstaking, inasmuch as music exercises a 
 very powerful influence in developing discreet behavior and 
 self-possession into a graceful naturalness. 
 
 Among the Greeks we find an unrestricted delight in 
 nature a listening to her manifestations, the tone of which 
 betrays the subjectivity of things as subjectivity. In com-
 
 116 ^Esthetic Education. 
 
 parison with this tender sympathy with nature of the Greeks 
 who heard in the murmur of the fountains, in the dashing 
 of the waves, in the rustling of the trees, and in the cry of 
 animals, the voice of divine personality the sight and hear- 
 ing of the Eastern nations for nature is dull. 
 
 211. The stringed instrument, the cithern, was preferred- 
 by the Greeks to all wind instruments because it was not ex- 
 citing, and allowed the accompaniment of recitation or song, 
 i.e. the contemporaneous activity of the spirit in poetry. 
 Flute-playing was first brought from Asia Minor after the 
 victorius progress of the Persian war, and was especially cul- 
 tivated in Thebes. They sought in vain afterwards to oppose 
 the wild excitement raised by its influence. 
 
 212. Grammar comprehended Letters (?y>c/^ara), i.e. the 
 elements of literary culture, reading and writing. Much 
 attention was given to correct expression. The Fables of 
 JEsop, the Iliad, and the Odyssey, and later the tragic poets, 
 were read, and partly learned by heart. The orators borrowed 
 from them often the ornament of their commonplace remarks. 
 
 213. (3) The internal growth of what was peculiar to the 
 Grecian State came to an end with the war for the Hegemony. 
 Its dissolution began, and the philosophical period followed 
 the political. The beautiful ethical life was resolved into 
 thoughts of the True, Good, and Beautiful. Individuality 
 turned more towards the internal, and undertook to subject 
 freedom, the existing regulations, laws and customs, to the 
 criticism of reason as to whether these were in and for them- 
 selves universal and necessary. The Sophists, as teachers of 
 Grammar, Rhetoric, and Philosophy, undertook to extend 
 the cultivation of Reflection ; and this introduced instability 
 in the place of the immediate fixed state of moral customs. 
 Among the women, the Jletcerce undertook the same revo- 
 lution ; in the place of the norvta. pyTyp appeared the beauty, 
 who isolated herself in the consciousness of her charms and 
 in the perfection of her varied culture, and exhibited herself 
 to the public admiration. The tendency to idiosyncrasy often 
 approached wilfulness, caprice and whimsicality, and opposi- 
 tion to the national moral sense. A Diogenes in a tub became 
 possible; the soulless but graceful frivolity of an Alcibiades 
 charmed, even though it was externally condemned ; a Socra-
 
 c Education. 117 
 
 tes completed the break in consciousness, and urged upon the 
 system of the old morality the pregnant question, whether Vir- 
 tue could be taught? Socrates worked as a philosopher who 
 was to educate. Pythagoras had imposed upon his pupils the 
 abstraction of a common, exactly-defined manner of living. 
 Socrates, on the contrary, freed his disciples in general, those 
 who had intercourse with him leading them to the con- 
 sciousness of their own individuality. He revolutionized the 
 youth in that he taught them, instead of a thoughtless obe- 
 dience to moral customs, to seek to comprehend their pur- 
 pose in the world, and to rule their actions according to it. 
 Outwardly he conformed in politics, and in war as at Mara- 
 thon; but in the direction of his teaching he was subjective 
 and modern. 
 
 214. This idea, that Virtue could be taught, was realized 
 especially by Plato and Aristotle ; the former inclining to 
 Dorianism, the latter holding to the principle of individuality 
 in nearly the modern sense. As regards the pedagogical 
 means Gymnastics, Music, and Grammar both philoso- 
 phers entirely agreed. But, in the seizing of the pedagogical 
 development in general, Plato asserted that the education of 
 the individual belonged to the state alone, because the indi- 
 vidual was to act wholly in the state. On the other hand, Aris- 
 totle also holds that the state should conduct the education of 
 its citizens, and that the individual should be trained for the 
 interest of the state ; but he recognizes also the family, and 
 the peculiarity of the individual, as positive powers, to which 
 the state must accord relative freedom. Plato sacrificed the 
 family to the state, and must therefore have sacred mar- 
 riages, nurseries, and common and public educational insti- 
 tutions. Each one shall do only that which he is fitted to do, 
 and shall work at this only for the sake of perfecting it: to 
 what he shall direct his energies, and in what he shall be 
 instructed, shall be determined by the government, and the 
 individuality consequently is not left free. Aristotle also 
 will have for all the citizens the same education, which shall 
 be common and public; but he allows, at the same time, an 
 independence to the family and self-determination to the in- 
 dividual, so that a sphere of private life presents itself within
 
 118 Esthetic Education. 
 
 the state : a difference by means of which a much broader 
 sway of individuality is possible. 
 
 These two philosophers have come to represent two very 
 different directions in Pedagogics, which at intervals, in cer- 
 tain stages of culture, reappear the tyrannical guardianship 
 of the state which assumes the work of education, tyrannical 
 to the individual, and the free development of the liberal 
 state-education, in opposition to idiosyncrasy and fate. 
 
 215. The principle of aesthetic individuality reaches its 
 highest manifestation when the individual, in the decay of pub- 
 lic life, in the disappearance of all beautiful morality, iso- 
 lates himself, and seeks to gain in his isolation such strength 
 that he can bear the changes of external history around him 
 with composure "ataraxy." The Stoics sought to attain this 
 end by turning their attention inward into pure internality, 
 and thus, by preserving the self-determination of abstract 
 thinking and willing, maintaining an identity with them- 
 selves : the Epicureans endeavored to do the same, with this 
 difference however, that they strove after a positive satisfac- 
 tion of the senses by filling them with concrete pleasurable 
 sensations. As a consequence of this, the Stoics isolated 
 themselves in order to maintain themselves in the exclusive- 
 ness of their internal unconditioned relation to themselves, 
 while the Epicureans lived in companies, because they 
 achieved the reality of their pleasure - seeking principle 
 through harmony of feeling and through the sweetness of 
 friendship. In so far the Epicureans were Greeks and the 
 Stoics Romans. With both, however, the beauty of manifes- 
 tation was secondary to the immobility of the inner feeling. 
 The plastic attainment of the Good and the Beautiful was 
 cancelled in the abstraction of thinking and feeling. This 
 was the advent of the Roman principle among the Greeks. 
 
 216. The pedagogical significance of Stoicism and Epicu- 
 reanism consists in this, that, after the moral life in public 
 and in private were sundered from each other, the individual 
 began to educate himself, through philosophical culture, into 
 stability of character, for which reason the Roman emperors 
 particularly disliked the Stoics. At many times, a resigna- 
 tion to the Stoic philosophy was sufficient to make one sus-
 
 Practical Education. 119 
 
 peoted. But, at last, the noble emperor, in order to win him- 
 self a hold in the chaos of things, was forced himself to 
 become a Stoic and to flee to the inaccessible stillness of the 
 self-thinking activity and the self-moving will. Stoics and 
 Epicureans had both what we call an ideal. The Stoics used 
 the expression "kingdom"; as Horace says, sarcastically, 
 " Sapiens rex est nisi pituita molesta est" 
 
 II. Practical Education. 
 
 217. The truth of the solution of the beautiful individu- 
 ality is the promise of the activity conformable to its pur- 
 pose [i.e. teleological activity], which on the one hand con- 
 siders carefully end and means, and on the other hand seeks 
 to realize the end through the corresponding means, and in 
 this deed subjects mere beauty of form. The practical indi- 
 viduality is therefore externally conditioned, since it is not 
 its own end like the Beautiful, whether Stoical or Epicurean, 
 but has an end, and finds its satisfaction not so much in this 
 after it is attained as in the striving for its attainment. 
 
 218. The education of this system begins with very great 
 simplicity. But after it has attained its object, it abandons 
 itself to using the results of (Esthetic culture as. a recreation 
 without any specific object. What was to the Greeks a real 
 delight in the Beautiful became therefore with the Romans 
 simply an aesthetic amusement, and as such must finally be 
 wearisome. The earnestness of individuality made itself in 
 mysticism into a new aim, which was distinguished from the 
 original one in that it concealed in itself a mystery and ex- 
 acted a theoretically lesthetic practice. 
 
 219. (1) The first epoch of Roman education, as properly 
 Roman, was the juristic-military education of the republic. 
 The end and aim of the Roman was Rome; and Rome, as 
 from the beginning an eclectic state, could endure only while 
 its laws and external politics were conformable to some end. 
 It bore the same contradiction within itself as in its external 
 attitude. This forced it into robbery, and the plebeians were 
 related to the patricians in the same way, for they robbed 
 them gradually of all their privileges. On this account 
 education directed itself partlV to giving a knowledge of the 
 Law, partly to communicating a capacity for war. The boys
 
 120 Practical Education. 
 
 were obliged- to commit to memory and recite the laws of the 
 twelve tables, and all the youths were subject to military 
 service. The Roman possessed no individuality of native 
 growth, but one mediated through the intermingling of 
 various fugitives, which developed a very great energy. 
 Hence from the first he was attentive to himself, he watched 
 jealously over the limits of his rights and the rights of oth- 
 ers, measured his strength, moderated himself, and constant- 
 ly guarded himself. In contrast with the careless cheerful- 
 ness of the Greeks, he therefore appears gloomy. 
 
 The Latin tongue is crowded with expressions which 
 paint presence of mind, effort at reflection, a critical attitude 
 of mind, the importance of personal control : as gramtas mo- 
 rum, sui compos esse, sibi constare, austeritas, mr strenuus, 
 mr probus, mtam Jionestam gerere, sibimet ipse imperare, &c. 
 The Etruscan element imparted to this earnestness an espe- 
 cially solemn character. The Roman was no more, like the 
 Greek, unembarrassed at naturalness. He was ashamed of na- 
 kedness ; verecundia, pudor, were genuinely Roman. Vitam 
 prceferre pudori was shameful. On the contrary, the Greek 
 gave to Greeks a festival in exhibiting the splendor of his 
 naked body., and the inhabitants of Crotona erected a statue 
 to Philip only because he was so perfectly beautiful. Simply 
 to be beautiful, only beautiful, was enough for the Greek. 
 But a Roman, in order to be' recognized, must have done 
 something for Rome : se ~bene de republica mereri. 
 
 "220. In the first education of children the agency of the 
 mother is especially influential, so that woman with the 
 Romans took generally a more moral, a higher, and a freer 
 position. It is worthy of remark that while, as the beautiful, 
 she set the Greeks at variance, among the Romans, through 
 her ethical authority, she acted as reconciler. 
 
 221. The mother of the Roman helped to form his cha- 
 racter; the father undertook the work of instruction. When 
 in his fifteenth year the boy exchanged the toga prcetextata 
 for the toga mrilis, he was usually sent to some relative, or 
 to some jurist, as his guardian, to learn thoroughly, under 
 his guidance, of the laws and of the state ; with the seven- 
 teenth began military service. Air education was for a long 
 time entirely a private affair. On account of the necessity of
 
 Practical Education. 121 
 
 a mechanical unity in work which war demand^ the greatest 
 stress was laid upon obedience. In its restricted sense edu- 
 cation comprised Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic ; the last 
 being, on account of its usefulness, more esteemed by the 
 Romans than by the Greeks, who gave more time to Geome- 
 try. The schools, very characteristically, were called Ludi> 
 because their work was, in distinction from other practice^ 
 regarded simply as a recreation, as play. 
 
 The Roman recognized with pride this distinction be- 
 tween the Greek and himself; Cicero's Introduction to his 
 Essay on Oratory expresses it. To be practical was always 
 the effort of the reflective character of the Romans, which 
 was always placing new ends and seeking the means for 
 their attainment; which loved moderation, not to secure 
 beauty thereby, but respected it as a means for a happy suc- 
 cess (medium tenuere beati); which did not possess serene 
 self-limitation, or fftoypoauvq, but calculation quid valeant 
 humeri, quid f err e recu.sent; but which, in general, went 
 far beyond the Greeks in persistency of will, in constantia 
 animi. The schools were at first held publicly in shops ; 
 hence the name trimum. Very significant for the Roman 
 is the predicate which lie conferred upon theoretical subjects 
 when he called them artes bonce, optima, liberates, ingtnuce y 
 &c., and brought forth the practical element in them. 
 
 222. (2) But the practical education could no longer keep 
 its ground after it had become acquainted with the aesthetic. 
 The conquest of Greece, Asia Minor, and Egypt, made neces- 
 sary, in a practical point of view, the acquisition of the Gre- 
 cian tongue, so that these lands, so permeated with Grecian 
 culture, might be thoroughly ruled. The Roman of family 
 and property, therefore, took into his service Greek nurses 
 and teachers who should give to his children, from their ear- 
 liest years, Greek culture. It is, in the history of education, 
 a great evil when a nation undertakes to teach a foreign 
 tongue to its youth. Then the necessity of trade with the 
 Greeks caused the study of Rhetoric, so that not only in the 
 deliberations of the senate and people, but in law, the ends 
 might be belter attained. Whatever effort the Roman gov- 
 ernment made to prevent the invasion of the Greek rhetori- 
 cian was all in vain. The Roman youth sought for this
 
 122 Practical Education. 
 
 knowledge,which was so necessary to them in foreign lands, 
 e.g. in the flourishing school of rhetoric on the island of 
 Rhodes. At last, even the study of Philosophy commended 
 itself to the practical Roman, in order that he might recover 
 for himself confidence amid the disappointments of life. 
 When his practical life did not bring him any result, he de- 
 voted himself in his poverty to abstract contemplation. The 
 Greeks would have Philosophy for its own sake ; the ataraxy 
 of the Stoics. Epicureans, and Skeptics even, desired the result 
 of a necessary principle ; but the Roman^ on the contrary, 
 wished to lift himself by philosophemes above trouble and 
 misfortune. 
 
 This direction which Philosophy took is noteworthy, not 
 alone in Cicero and Seneca, but at the fall of the Roman em- 
 pire, when Boethius wrote in his prison his immortal work on 
 the consolations of Philosophy. 
 
 223. The earnestness which sought a definite end degen- 
 erated in the very opposite of activity with him who had no 
 definite aim. The idleness of the wealthy Roman, who felt 
 himself to be the lord of a limitless world, devoted itself to 
 dissipation and desire for enjoyment, which, in its entire 
 want of moderation, abused nature. The finest form of the 
 extant education was that in belles-lettres, which also for the 
 first time came to belong to the sphere of Pedagogics. There 
 had been a degeneration of art in India and Greece, and also 
 an artistic trifling. But in Rome there arose a pursuit of art 
 in- order to win a certain consideration in social position, and 
 to create for one's self a recreation in the emptiness of a soul 
 satiated with sensual debauchery. Such a seizing of art is 
 frivolous, for it no longer recognizes its absoluteness, and 
 subordinates it as a means to subjective egotism. Literary 
 salons then appear. 
 
 In the introduction to his Cataline, Sallust has painted 
 excellently this complete revolution in the Roman education. 
 The younger Pliny in his letters furnishes ample material to 
 illustrate to us this pursuit of belles-lettres. In Nero it 
 became idiotic. We should transgress our prescribed limits 
 did we enter here into particulars. An analysis would show 
 the perversion of the aesthetic into the practical, the aesthetic 
 losing thereby its proper nature. But the Roman could not
 
 Practical Education. 123 
 
 avoid this perversion, because, according to his original aim, 
 lie could not move except towards the utile et Jionestum. 
 
 224. (3) But this pursuit of fine art, this aimless parade, 
 must at last weary the Roman. He sought for himself again 
 an object to which he could vigorously devote himself. His 
 sovereignty was assured, and conquest as an object could no 
 more charm him. The national religion had fallen with the 
 destruction of the national individuality. The soul looked 
 out over its historical life into an empty void. It sought to 
 establish a relation between itself and the next world by 
 means of daemonic forces, and in place of the depreciated na- 
 tionality and its religion we find the eclecticism of the mystic 
 society. There were, it is true, in national religions certain 
 secret signs, rites, words, and meanings ; but now, for the first 
 time in the history of the world, there appeared mysteries as 
 pedagogical societies, which concerned themselves only with 
 private things and were indifferent to nationality. Every- 
 thing was profaned by the roughness of violence. Man be- 
 lieved no longer in the old gods, and the superstitious faith 
 in ghosts became only a thing fit to frighten children with. 
 Thus man took refuge in secrecy, which had for his satiety 
 a piquant charm. 
 
 225. The education of the mysteries was twofold, theo- 
 retical and practical. In the theoretical we find a regular 
 gradation of symbols and symbolical acts through which one 
 seemed gradually to attain to the revelation of the secret ; 
 the practical contained a regular gradation of ascetic actions 
 alternating with an abandonment to wild orgies. Both raised 
 one from the rank of the novice to that of the initiated. .In 
 the higher orders they formed an ethical code of laws, and 
 this form Pedagogics has retained in all such secret culture, 
 mutatis mutandis, down to the Illuminati. 
 
 In the Roman empire, its Persian element was the wor- 
 ship of Mithras ; its Egyptian, that of Isis ; its Grecian, the 
 Pythagorean doctrines. All these three, however, were much 
 mingled with each other. The Roman legions, who really 
 no longer had any native country, bore these artificial reli- 
 gions throughout the whole world. The confusion of excite- 
 ment led often to Somnambulism, which was not yet under- 
 stood, and to belief in miracles. Apollonius of Tyana, the
 
 124 Individual Education Theocratic Education. 
 
 messiah of Ethnicism, is the principal figure in this group ; 
 and, in comparison with him, Jamblichus appears only as an 
 enthusiast and Alexander of Abonoteichos as an impostor. 
 
 III. Abstract Individual Education. 
 
 226. What the despair of the declining nations sought 
 for in these mysteries was Individuality, which in its singu- 
 larity is conscious of the universality of the rational spirit, 
 as its own essence. This individuality existed more imme- 
 diately in the Germanic race, which nevertheless, on account 
 of its nature, formed first in Christianity its true actualiza- 
 tion. It can be here only pointed out that they most thor- 
 oughly, in opposition to nature, to men, and to the gods, felt 
 themselves to be independent; as Tacitus says, "Securi ad- 
 nersus homines, securi adversus Deos." This individuality, 
 which had only itself for an end, must necessarily be destroy- 
 ed, and was saved only by Christianity, which overcame and 
 enlightened its daemonic and defiant spirit. We cannot speak 
 here of a system of Education. Respect for personality, the 
 free acknowledgment of the claims of woman, the loyalty to 
 the leader chosen by themselves, loyalty to their friends (the 
 idea of fellowship), these features should all be well-noted, 
 because from them arose the feudalism of the middle ages. 
 What Caesar and Tacitus tell us of the education of the Ger- 
 mans expresses only the emancipation of individuality, which 
 in its immediate crudeness had no other form in which to 
 manifest itself than wars of conquest. 
 
 To the Roman there was something daemonic in the 
 German. He perceived dimly in him his future, his mas- 
 ter. When the Romans were to meet the Cimbri and Teu- 
 tons in the field, their commander had first to accustom them 
 for a whole day to the fearful sight of the wild, giant-like 
 forms. 
 
 SECOND DIVISION. 
 THE SYSTEM OF THEOCRATIC EDUCATION. 
 
 227. The system of National Education founded its first 
 stage on the substantial basis of the family- spirit; its second 
 stage on the division of the nation by means of division of 
 labor which it makes permanent in castes; its third stage 
 presents the free opposition of the laity and clergy ; in its
 
 System of Theocratic Education. 125 
 
 next phase it makes war, immortality, and trade, by turns, 
 its end ; thirdly, it posits beauty, patriotic youth, and the 
 immediateness of individuality, as the essence of mankind, 
 and at last dissolves the unity of nationality in the con- 
 sciousness that all nations are really one since they are all 
 human beings. In the intermixture of races in the Roman 
 world arises the conception of the human race, the genus Tiu- 
 manum. Education had become eclectic : the Roman legions 
 levelled the national distinctions. In the wavering of all 
 objective morality, the necessity of self-education in order 
 to the formation of character appeared ever more and more 
 clearly ; but the conception, which lay at the foundation, was 
 always, nevertheless, that of Roman, Greek, or German edu- 
 cation. But in the midst of these nations another system had 
 striven for development, and this did not base itself on the 
 natural connection of nationality, but made this, for the first 
 time, only a secondary thing, and made the direct relation 
 of man to God its chief idea. In this system God himself is 
 the teacher. He manifests to man His will as law, to which 
 he must unconditionally conform for no other reason than that 
 He is the Lord, and man His servant, who can have no other 
 will than His. The obedience of man is therefore, in this sys- 
 .tem, abstract until through experience he gradually attains to 
 the knowledge that the will of God has in it the very essence 
 of his own will. Descent, Talent, Events, Work, Beauty, Cour- 
 age, all these are indifferent things compared with the sub- 
 jection of the human to the divine will. To be well -pleasing 
 to God is almost the same as belief in Him. Without this 
 identity, what is natural in national descent is of no value. 
 According to its form of manifestation, Judaism is below the 
 Greek spirit. It is not beautiful, but rather grotesque. But 
 in its essence, as the religion of the contradiction between 
 the idea and its existence, it goes beyond nature, which it 
 perceives to be established by an absolute, conscious, and 
 reasonable Will; while the Greek concealed from himself 
 only mythically his dependence on nature, on his mother- 
 earth. The Jews have been preserved in the midst of all 
 other culture by the elastic power of the thought of God as 
 One who was free from the control of nature. The Jews 
 have a patriotism in common with the Romans. The Mac-
 
 126 System of Theocratic Education. 
 
 cabees, for example, were not inferior to the Romans in 
 greatness. 
 
 Abraham is the genuine Jew because he is the genuinely 
 faithful man. He does not hesitate to obey the horrible and 
 inhuman command of his God. Circumcision was made the 
 token of the national unity, but the nation may assimilate 
 members to itself from other nations through this rite. The 
 condition always lies in belief in a spiritual relation to which 
 the relation of nationality is secondary. The Jewish nation 
 makes proselytes, and these are widely different from the 
 Socii of the Romans or the Metoeci of the Athenians. 
 
 228. To the man who knows Nature to be the work of 
 a single, incomparable, rational Creator, she loses indepen- 
 dence. He is negatively freed from her control, and sees in her 
 only an absolute means. As opposed to the fanciful sensuous 
 intuitions of Ethnicism, this seems to be a backward step, 
 but for the emancipation of man it is a progress. He no 
 longer fears Nature but her Lord, and admires Him so much 
 that prose rises to the dignity of poetry in his telological 
 contemplation. Since man stands over and beyond nature, 
 education is directed to morality as such, and spreads itself 
 out in innumerable limitations, by means of which the dis- 
 tinction of man from nature is expressly asserted as a differ- 
 ence. The ceremonial law appears often arbitrary, but in its 
 prescriptions it gives man the satisfaction of placing himself 
 as will in relation to will. -For example, if he is forbidden 
 to eat any specified part of an animal, the ground of this 
 command is not merely natural it is the will of the Deity. 
 Man learns therefore, in his obedience to such directions, to 
 free himself from his self-will, from his natural desires. This 
 exact outward conformity to subjectivity is the beginning 
 of wisdom, the purification of the will from all individual 
 egotism. 
 
 The rational substance of the Law is found always in 
 the Decalogue. Many of our modern much-admired au- 
 thors exhibit a superficiality bordering on shallowness when 
 they comment alone on the absurdity of the miracles, 
 and abstract from the profound depth of the moral strug- 
 gle, and from the practical rationality of the ten command- 
 ments.
 
 System of Theocratic Education. 127 
 
 229. Education in this theocratical system is on one side 
 patriarchal. The Family is very prominent, because it is 
 considered to be a great happiness for the individual to be- 
 long from his very earliest life to the company of those who 
 believe in the true God. On its other side it is hierarchical, 
 as its ceremonial law develops a special office, which is to 
 see that obedience is paid to its multifarious regulations. 
 And, because these are often perfectly arbitrary, Education 
 must, above all, practise the memory in learning them all, so 
 that they may always be remembered. The Jewish mono- 
 theism shares this necessity with the superstition of ethni- 
 cism. 
 
 230. But the technique proper of the mechanism is not 
 the most important pedagogical element of the theocracy. 
 We find this in its historical significance, since* its history 
 throughout has a pedagogical character. For the people of 
 God show us always, in their changing intercourse with their 
 God, a progress from the external to the internal, from the 
 lower to the higher, from the past to the future. Its history, 
 therefore, abounds in situations very interesting in a peda- 
 gogical point of view, and in characters which are eternal 
 models. 
 
 231. (1) The will of God as the absolute authority is at 
 first to them, as law, external. But soon God adds to the 
 command to obedience, on one hand, the inducement of a 
 promise of material prosperity, and on the other hand the 
 threat of material punishment. The fulfilment of the law is 
 also encouraged by reflection on the profit which it brings. 
 But, since these motives are all external, they rise finally 
 into the insight that the law is to be fulfilled, not on their 
 account, but because it is the will of the Lord ; not alone be- 
 cause it is conducive to our happiness, but also because it is 
 in itself holy, and written in our hearts : in other words, man 
 proceeds from the abstract legality, through the reflection of 
 eudflemonism, to the iuternality of moral sentiment the 
 course of all education. 
 
 This last stand-point is especially represented in the 
 excellent Gnomic of Jesus Sirach a book so rich in pedago- 
 gical insight, which paints with master-strokes the relations 
 of husband and wife, parents and children, master and ser-
 
 128 System of Theocratic Education. 
 
 vants, friend and friend, enemy and enemy, and the dignity 
 of labor as well as the necessity of its division. This price- 
 less book forms a side-piece from the theocratic stand-point 
 to the Republic of Plato and his laws on ethical govern- 
 ment. 
 
 232. (2) The progress from the lower to the higher ap- 
 peared in the conquering of the natural individuality. Man, 
 as the servant of Jehovah, must have no will of his own ; but 
 selfish naturalness arrayed itself so much the more vigor- 
 ously against the abstract "Thou shalt," allowed itself to 
 descend into an abstraction from the Law, and often reached 
 the most unbridled extravagance. But since the Law in 
 inexorable might always remained the same, always per- 
 sistent, in distinction from the inequalities of the deed of 
 man, it forced him to come back to it, and to conform him- 
 self to its demands. Thus he learned criticism, thus he rose 
 from naturalness into spirit. This progress is at the same 
 time a progress from necessity to freedom, because criticism 
 always gradually opens a way for man into insight, so 
 that he finds the will of God to be the truth of his own self- 
 determination. Because God is one and absolute, there arises 
 the expectation that His Will will become the basis for the 
 will of all nations and men. The criticism of the understand- 
 ing must recognize a contradiction in the fact that the will of 
 the true God is the law of only one nation ; feared by other 
 nations, moreover, by reason of their very worship of God as 
 a gloomy mystery, and detested as odium generis humani. 
 And thus is developed the thought that the isolation of the 
 believers will come to an end as soon as the other nations 
 recognize their faith as the true one, and are received into it. 
 Thus here, out of the deepest penetration of the soul into 
 itself, as among the Romans out of the fusion of nations, we 
 see appear the idea of the human race. 
 
 233. (3) The progress from the past to the future unfolded 
 the ideal servant of God who fulfils all the Law, and so blots 
 out the empirical contradiction that the "Thou shalt" of the 
 Law attains no adequate actuality. This Prince of Peace, 
 who shall gather all nations under his banner, can therefore 
 have no other thing predicated of him than Holiness. He 
 is not beautiful as the Greeks represented their ideal, not
 
 System of Humanitarian Education. 129 
 
 brave and practical as was the venerated Virtus of the 
 Romans; he does not place an infinite value on his indi- 
 viduality as the German does : but he is represented as in- 
 significant in appearance, as patient, as humble, as he who, 
 in order to reconcile the world, takes upon himself the infir- 
 mities and disgrace of all others. The ethnical nations have 
 only a lost Paradise behind them ; the Jews have one also 
 before them. From this belief in the Messiah who is to come, 
 from the certainty which they have of conquering with him, 
 from the power of esteeming all things of small importance 
 in view of such a future, springs the indestructible nature of 
 the Jews. They ignore the fact that Christianity is the ne- 
 cessary result of their own history. As the nation that is 
 to Tie (des Seinsollens'), they are merely a historical nation, 
 the nation among nations, whose education whenever the 
 Jew has not changed and corrupted its nature through mod- 
 ern culture is still always patriarchal, hierarchal, and mne- 
 monic. 
 
 THIRD DIVISION. 
 
 THE SYSTEM OP HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 
 
 234. The systems of national and theocratic education 
 came to the same result, though by different ways, and this 
 result is the conception of a human race in the unity of which 
 the distinctions of different nations find their Truth. But 
 with them this result is only a conception, being a thing 
 external to their actuality. They arrive at the painting of an 
 ideal of the way in which the Messiah shall come. But these 
 ideals exist only in the mind, and the actual condition of the 
 people sometimes does not correspond to them at all, and 
 sometimes only very relatively. The idea of spirit had in 
 these presuppositions the possibility of its concrete actuali- 
 zation ; one individual man must become conscious of the 
 universality and necessity of the will as being the very es- 
 sence of his own freedom, so that all heteronomy should be 
 cancelled in the autonomy of spirit. Natural individuality 
 appearing as national determinateness was still acknowl- 
 edged, but was deprived of its abstract isolation. The divine 
 authority of the truth of the individual will is to be recog- 
 nized, but at the same time freed from its estrangement 
 towards itself. While Christ was a Jew and obedient to the
 
 130 System of Humanitarian Education. 
 
 divine Law, he knew himself as the universal man who deter- 
 mines himself to his own destiny ; and while only distin- 
 guishing God, as subject, from himself, yet holds fast to the 
 unity of man and God. The system of humanitarian educa- 
 tion began to unfold from this principle, which no longer 
 accords the highest place to the natural unity of national 
 individuality, nor to the abstract obedience of the command 
 of God, but to that freedom of the soul which knows itself 
 to be absolute necessity. Christ is not a mere ideal of the 
 thought, but is known as a living member of actual history, 
 whose life, sufferings and death for freedom form the secu- 
 rity as to its absolute justification and truth. The {esthetic, 
 philosophical, and political ideal are all found in the univer- 
 sal nature of the Christian ideal, on which account no one of 
 them appears one-sided in the life of Christ. The principle 
 of Human Freedom excludes neither art, nor science, nor 
 political feeling. 
 
 235. In its conception of man the humanitarian education 
 includes both the national divisions and the subjection of all 
 men to the divine law, but it will no longer endure that one 
 should grow into an isolating exclusiveness, and another 
 into a despotism which includes in it somewhat of the acci- 
 dental. But this principle of humanity and human nature 
 took root so slowly that its presuppositions were repeated 
 within itself and were really conquered in this reproduction. 
 These stages of culture were the Greek, the Roman, and the 
 Protestant churches, and education was metamorphosed to 
 suit the formation of each of these. 
 
 For the sake of brevity we would wish to close with these 
 general definitions ; the unfolding of their details is inti- 
 mately bound up with the history of politics and of civiliza- 
 tion. We shall be contented if we give correctly the general 
 whole. 
 
 236. "Within education we can distinguish three epochs : 
 the monkish, the chivalric, and that education which is to fit 
 one for civil life. Each of these endeavored to express all 
 that belonged to humanity as such ; but it was only after the 
 recognition of the moral nature of the Family, of Labor, of 
 Culture, and of the conscious equal title of all men to their 
 rights, that this became really possible.
 
 Epoch of Monkish Education. 131 
 
 I. The Epoch of Monkish Education, 
 
 237. The Greek Church seized the Christian principle 
 still abstractly as deliverance from the world, and therefore, 
 in the education proceeding from it, it arrived only at the 
 negative form, positing the universality of the individual 
 man as the renunciation of self.* In the dogmatism of its 
 teaching, as well as in the ascetic severity of its practical con- 
 duct, it was a reproduction of the theocratic principle. But 
 when this had assumed the form of national centralization, 
 the Greek Church dispensed with this, and, as far as regards 
 its form, it returned again to the quietism of the Orient. 
 
 238. The monkish education is in general identical in all 
 religions, in that, through the egotism of its way of living and 
 the stoicism of its way of thinking, through the separation 
 of its external existence and the mechanism of a thoughtless 
 subjection to a general rule as well as to the special com- 
 mand of superiors, it fosters a spiritual and bodily dulness. 
 The Christian monachism, therefore, as the fulfilment of 
 monachism in general, is at the same time its absolute dis- 
 solution, because, in its merely abstracting itself from the 
 world instead of affirmatively conquering it, it contradicts 
 the very principle of Christianity. 
 
 239. We must notice as the fundamental error of this 
 whole system, that it does not in free individuality seek to 
 produce the ideal of divine-humanity, but to copy in exter- 
 nal reproduction its historical manifestation. Each human 
 being must individually offer up as sacrifice his own indivi- 
 duality. Each biography has its Bethlehem, its Tabor, and 
 its Golgotha. 
 
 240. Monachism looks upon freedom from one's self and 
 from the world which Christianity demands only as an ab- 
 stract renunciation of self, which it seeks to compass, like 
 Buddhism, by the vow of poverty, chastity, and obedience, 
 which must be taken by each individual for all time. 
 
 This rejection of property, of marriage, and of self-will, 
 is at the same time the negation of work, of the family, and 
 of responsibility for one's actions. In order to avoid the 
 danger of avarice and covetousness, of sensuality and of 
 nepotism, of error and of guilt, monachism seizes the conve-
 
 132 Epoch of Monkish Education. 
 
 nient way of abstract severance from all the objective world 
 without being able fully to carry out this negation. Monkish 
 Pedagogics must, in consequence, be very particular about 
 an external separation of their disciples from the world, so 
 as to make the work of abstraction from the world easier and 
 more decided. It therefore builds cloisters in the solitude of 
 deserts, in the depth of forests, on the summits of mountains, 
 and surrounds them with high walls having no apertures ; 
 and then, so as to carry the isolation of the individual to its 
 farthest possible extreme it constructs, within these cloisters, 
 cells, in imitation of the ancient hermits a seclusion the im- 
 mediate consequence of which is the most limitless and most 
 paltry curiosity. 
 
 241. Theoretically the monkish Pedagogics seeks, by 
 means of the greatest possible silence, to place the soul in a 
 state of spiritual immobility, which at last, through the want 
 of all variety of thought, goes over into entire apathy, and 
 antipathy towards all intellectual culture. The principal 
 feature of the practical culture consists in the misapprehen- 
 sion that one should ignore Nature, instead of morally freeing 
 himself from her control. As she, again and again asserts 
 herself, the monkish discipline proceeds to misuse her, and 
 strives through fasting, through sleeplessness, through vol- 
 untary self-inflicted pain and martyrdom, not only to subdue 
 the wantonness of the flesh, but to destroy the love of life 
 till it shall become a positive loathing of existence. In and 
 for itself the object of the monkish vow property, the fami- 
 ly, and will is not immoral. The vow is, on this account, 
 very easy to violate. In order to prevent all temptation to 
 this, monkish Pedagogics invents a system of supervision, 
 partly open, partly secret, which deprives one of all freedom 
 of action, all freshness of thinking and of willing, and all 
 poetry of feeling, by means of the perpetual shadow of spies 
 and informers. The monks are welUversed in all police- 
 arts, and the regular succession of the hierarchy spurs them 
 on always to distinguish themselves in them. 
 
 242. The gloomy breath of this education penetrated all 
 the relations of the Byzantine State. Even the education of 
 the emperor was infected by it; and in the strife for freedom 
 waged by the modern Greeks against the Turks, the Igumeni
 
 Epoch of CMvalric Education. 133 
 
 of the cloisters were the real leaders of the insurrection. The 
 independence of individuality, as opposed to monkish ab- 
 straction, more or less degenerates into the crude form of 
 soldier and pirate life. And thus it happened that this prin- 
 ciple was not left to appear merely as an exception, but to 
 be built up positively into humanity ; and this the German 
 world, under the guidance of the Roman Church, undertook 
 to accomplish. 
 
 II. The Epoch of Chivalric Education. 
 
 243. The Romish Church negated the abstract substan- 
 tiality of the Greeks through the practical aim which she in 
 her sanctity in works founded, and by means of which she 
 raised up German individuality to the idealism of chivalry, 
 i.e. a free military service in behalf of Christendom. 
 
 244. It is evident that the system of monkish education 
 was taken up into this epoch as one of its elements, being 
 modified to conform to it : e.g. the Benedictines were accus- 
 tomed to labor in agriculture and in the transcribing of 
 books, and this contradicted the idea of monachism, since 
 that in and for itself tends to an absolute forgetfulness of the 
 world and a perfect absence of all activity in the individual. 
 The begging orders were public preachers, and made popu- 
 lar the idea of love and unselfish devotion toothers. They 
 labored toward self-education, especially by means of the 
 ideal of the life of Christ ; e.g. in Tauler's classical book on 
 the Imitation of Jesus, and in the work of Thomas-a-Kempis 
 which resembles it. Through a fixed contemplative com- 
 munion with the conception of the Christ who suffered and 
 died for Love, they sought to find content in divine rest and 
 self-abandonment. 
 
 245. German chivalry sprang from Feudalism. The edu- 
 cation of those pledged to military duty had become confined 
 to practice in the use^of arms. The education of the chivalric 
 vassals pursued the same course, refining it gradually through 
 the influence of court society and through poetry, which 
 devoted itself either to the relating of graceful tales which 
 were really works of art, or to the glorification of woman. 
 Girls were brought up without especial care. The boy until 
 he was seven years old remained in the hands of women ;
 
 134 Epoch of Chivalric Education. 
 
 then he became a lad (a young gentleman), and learned the 
 manner of offensive and defensive warfare, on foot and on 
 horseback ; between his sixteenth and eighteenth year, 
 through a formal ceremony (the laying on of the sword), he 
 was duly authorized to bear arms. But whatever besides 
 this he might wish to learn was left to his own caprice. 
 
 246. In contradistinction to the monkish education, Chi- 
 valry placed an infinite value on individuality, and this it 
 expressed in its extreme sensibility to the feeling of honor. 
 Education, on this account, endeavored to foster this reflec- 
 tion of the self upon itself by means of the social isolation 
 in which it placed knighthood. The knight did not delight 
 himself with common possessions, but he sought for him 
 who had been wronged, since with him he could find enjoy- 
 ment as a conqueror. He did not live in simple marriage, 
 but strove for the piquant pleasure of making the wife of 
 another the lady of his heart, and this often led to moral and 
 physical infidelity. And, finally, the knight did not obey 
 alone the general laws of knightly honor, but he strove, be- 
 sides, to discover for himself strange things, which he should 
 undertake with his sword, in defiance of all criticism, sim- 
 ply because it pleased his caprice so to do. He sought ad- 
 ventures. 
 
 247. The reaction against the innumerable number of 
 fantastic extravagancies arising from chivalry was the idea 
 of the spiritual chivalry which was to unite the cloister and 
 the town, abstract self-denial and military life, separation 
 from the world and the sovereignty of the world an unde- 
 niable advance, but un untenable synthesis which could not 
 prevent the dissolution of chivalry this chivalry, which, as 
 the rule of the stronger, induced for a long time the destruc- 
 tion of all regular culture founded on principles, and brought 
 a period of absence of all education. In this perversion of 
 chivalry to a grand vagabondism, and even to robbery, noble 
 souls often rushed into ridiculous excesses. This decline of 
 chivalry found its truth in Citizenship, whose education, how- 
 ever, did not, like the TTO/^C and the cimtas of the ancients, 
 limit itself to itself, but, through the presence of the princi- 
 ple of Christianity, accepted the whole circle of humanity as 
 the aim of its culture.
 
 Education for Civil Life Civil Education. 135 
 III. The Epoch of Education fitting one for Civil Life. 
 
 248. The idea of the State had gradually worked itself 
 up to a higher plane with trade and industry, and found in 
 Protestantism its spiritual confirmation. Protestantism, as 
 the self assurance of the individual that he was directly 
 related to God without any dependence on the mediation of 
 any man, rose to the truth in the autonomy of the soul, and 
 began out of the abstract phantasmagoria of monachism and 
 chivalry to develope Christianity, as the principle of humani- 
 tarian education, into concrete actuality. The cities were 
 not merely, in comparison with the clergy and the nobility, 
 the " third estate"; but the citizen who himself managed his 
 commonwealth, and defended its interests with arms, devel- 
 oped into the citizen of a state which absorbed the clergy and 
 nobility, and the state-citizen found his ultimate ideal in pure 
 Humanity as cognized through reason. 
 
 249. The phases of this development are (1) Civil edu- 
 cation as such, in which we find chivalric education meta- 
 morphosed into the so-called noble, both however being 
 controlled as to education, within Catholicism by Jesuitism, 
 within Protestantism by Pietism. (2) Against this tendency 
 to the church, we find reacting on the one hand the devotion 
 to a study of antiquity, and on the other the friendly alli- 
 ance to immediate actuality, i.e. with Nature. We can 
 name these periods of Pedagogics those of its ideals of 
 culture. (3) But the truth of all culture must forever re- 
 main moral freedom. After Education had arrived at a 
 knowledge of the meaning of Idealism and Realism, it must 
 seize as its absolute aim the moral emancipation of man 
 into Humanity ; and it must conform its culture by this aim, 
 since technical dexterity, friendly adroitness, proficiency in 
 the arts, and scientific insight, can attain to their proper rank 
 only through moral purity. 
 
 1. Civil Education as such. 
 
 250. The one-sidedness of monkish and chivalric educa- 
 tion was cancelled by civil education inasmuch as it de- 
 stroyed the celibacy of the monk and the estrangement of 
 the knight from his family, doing this by means of the inner
 
 136 Civil Education. 
 
 life of the family ; for it substituted, in the place of the nega- 
 tive emptiness of the duty of holiness of the celibate, the 
 positive morality of marriage and the family ; while, instead 
 of the abstract poverty and the idleness of the monkish piety 
 and of knighthood, it asserted that property was the object of 
 labor, i.e. it asserted the self-governed morality of civil so- 
 ciety and of commerce ; and, finally, instead of the servitude 
 of the conscience in unquestioning obedience to the command 
 of others, and instead of the freakish self-sufficiency of the 
 caprice of the knights, it demanded obedience to the laws of 
 the commonwealth as representing his own self-conscious, 
 actualized, practical Reason, in which laws the individual 
 can recognize and acknowledge himself. 
 
 As this civil education left free the sensuous enjoyment, 
 freedom in this was without bounds for a time, until, aftei 
 men became accustomed to labor and to their freedom of 
 action, the possibility of enjoyment created from within out- 
 ward a moderation which sumptuary laws and prohibitions 
 of gluttony, drunkenness, &c., could never create from the 
 external side. What the monk inconsistently enjoyed with 
 a bad conscience, the citizen and the clergyman could 
 take possession of as a gift of Gfod. After the first millen- 
 nium of Christianity, when the earth had not, according to 
 the current prophecies, been destroyed, and after the great 
 plague in the fourteenth century, there was felt an im- 
 mense pleasure in living, which manifested itself externally 
 in the fifteenth century in delicate wines, dainty food, great 
 eating of meat, drinking of beer, and, in the domain of dress,. 
 in peaked shoes, plumes, golden chains, bells, &c. There was 
 much venison, but, as yet, no potatoes, tea and coffee, &c. 
 The feeling of men was quarrelsome. For a more exact 
 painting of the Education of this time, very valuable au- 
 thors are Sebastian Brant, Th. Murner, Ulrich von Hutten, 
 Fischart, and Hans Sachs. Gervinus is almost the only one 
 who has understood how to make this material useful in its 
 relation to spirit. 
 
 251. In contrast with the heaven-seeking of the monks 
 and the sentimental love-making of the knight, civil educa- 
 tion established, as its principle, Usefulness, which traced out 
 in things their conformity to a proposed end in order to gain
 
 Civil Education. 137 
 
 as great a mastery over them as possible. The understand- 
 ing was trained with all exactness that it might clearly seize 
 all the circumstances. But since family -life did not allow the 
 egotism of the individual ever to become as great as was the 
 case with the monk and the knight, and since the cheer of a 
 sensuous enjoyment in cellar and kitchen, in clothing and 
 furniture, in common games and in picturesque parades, 
 penetrated the whole being with soft pleasure, there was de- 
 veloped with all propriety and sobriety a house-morality, 
 and, with all the prose of labor, a warm and kindly disposi- 
 tion, which left room for innocent merriment and roguery, 
 and found, in conformity to religious services, its serious 
 transfiguration. Beautiful burgher-state, thou wast weak- 
 ened by the thirty years' war, and hast been only acciden- 
 tally preserved sporadically in Old England and in some 
 places in Germany, only to be at last swept away by the 
 flood of modern world-pain, political sophistry, and anxiety 
 for the future ! 
 
 252. The citizen paid special attention to public educa- 
 tion, heretofore wholly dependent upon the church and the 
 cloister ; he organized city schools, whose teachers, it is true, 
 for a long time compassed only accidental culture, and were 
 often employed only for tumultuous and short terms. The 
 society of the brotherhood of the Hieronymites introduced a 
 better system of instruction before the close of the fourteenth 
 century, but education had often to be obtained from the so- 
 called travelling scholars (vagantes, bacchantes, scholastici, 
 goliardi). The teachers of the so-called scholce exteriores y 
 in distinction from the schools of the cathedral and cloister, 
 were called now locati, then stampuales in German, Kinder- 
 Meister. The institution of German schools soon followed 
 the Latin city schools. In order to remove the anarchy in 
 school matters, the citizens aided the rise of universities by 
 donations and well-invested funds, and sustained the street- 
 singing of the city scholars (currende), an institution which 
 was well-meant, but which often failed of its end because on 
 the one hand it was often misused as a mere means of sub- 
 sistence, and on the other hand the sense of honor of those 
 to whom it was devoted not unfrequently became, through 
 their manner of living, lowered to humiliation. The defect
 
 138 Civil Education. 
 
 of the monkish method of instruction became ever more 
 apparent, e.g. the silly tricks of their mnemotechnique, the 
 utter lack of anything which deserved the name of any prac- 
 tical knowledge, &c. The necessity of instruction in the use 
 of arms led to democratic forms. Printing favored the same. 
 Men began to concern themselves about good text-books. 
 Melanchthon was the hero of the Protestant world, and as a 
 pattern was beyond his time. His Dialectics, Rhetoric, Phys- 
 ics, and Ethics, were reprinted innumerable times, comment- 
 ed upon, and imitated. After him Amos Comenius, in the 
 seventeenth century, had the greatest influence through his 
 Didactica Magna and his Janua Reserta. In a narrower 
 sphere, treating of the foundation of Gymnasial Philology, 
 the most noticeable is Sturm of Strasburg. The universities 
 in Catholic countries limited themselves to the Scholastic 
 Philosophy and Theology, together with which we find 
 slowly struggling up the Roman Law and the system of 
 Medicine from Bologna and Salerno. But Protestantism first 
 raised the university to any real universality. Tubingen, 
 Konigsberg, Wittenberg, Jena, Leipzic, Halle, Gottingen, 
 &c., were the first schools for the study of all sciences, and 
 for their free and productive pursuit. 
 
 253. The Commons, which at first appeared with the clergy 
 and the nobility as the Third Estate, formed an alliance with 
 monarchy, and both together produced a transformation of 
 the chivalric education. Absolutism reduced the knights to 
 mere nobles, to whom it truly conceded the prerogative of 
 appointment as spiritual prelates as well as officers and coun- 
 sellors of state, but only on the condition of the most com- 
 plete submission; and then, to satisfy them, it invented the 
 artificial drinking festivals, of a splendid life at court, and a 
 temptingly-impressive sovereignty of beauty. In this condi- 
 tion, the education of the nobles was essentially changed in 
 so far as to cease to be alone military. To the art of war, 
 which moreover was made so very much milder by the inven- 
 tion of fire-arms, must be now added an activity of the mind 
 which could no longer dispense with some knowledge of 
 History, Heraldry, Genealogy, Literature, and Mythology. 
 Since the French nation soon enough gave tone to the style 
 of conversation, and after the time of Louis XIV. controlled
 
 Civil Education. 139 
 
 the politics of the continent, the French language, as conven- 
 tional and diplomatic, became a constant element in the edu- 
 cation of the nobility in all the other countries of Europe. 
 
 Practically the education of the noble endeavored to 
 make the individual quite independent, so that he should, by 
 means of the important quality of an advantageous personal 
 appearance and the prudence of his agreeable behavior, 
 make himself into a ruler of all other men, capable of enjoy- 
 ing his own position, i.e. he should copy in miniature the 
 manners of an absolute sovereign. To this was added an 
 empirical knowledge of men by means of ethical maxims, so 
 that they might discover the weak side of every man, and 
 so be able to outwit him. Mundus vuU decipi, ergo deci- 
 piatur. According to this, every man had his price. They 
 did not believe in the Nemesis of a divine destiny ; on the 
 contrary, disbelief in the higher justice was taught. One 
 must be so elastic as to suit himself to all situations, and, 
 as a caricature of the ancient ataraxy, he must acquire as a 
 second nature a manner perfectly indifferent to all changes, 
 the impassibility of an aristocratic repose, the amphibious 
 sang-froid of the " gentleman." The man in the world as the 
 man of the world sought his ideal in endless dissimulation, 
 and in this, as the flowering of his culture, he took the high- 
 est interest. Intrigue, in love as well as in politics, was the 
 soul of the nobleman's existence. 
 
 They endeavored to complete the refinement of manners 
 by sending the young man away with a travelling tutor. 
 This was very good, but degenerated at last into the mechan- 
 ism of the foolish travelling of the tourist. The noble was 
 made a foreigner, a stranger to his own country, by means 
 of his abode at Paris or Venice, while the citizen gradually 
 outstripped him in genuine culture. 
 
 254. The education of the citizen as well as that of the 
 noble was taken possession of, in Catholic countries by the 
 Jesuits, in Protestant countries by the Pietists : by the first, 
 with a military strictness; by the second, in asocial and 
 effeminate form. Both, however, agreed in destroying indi- 
 viduality, inasmuch as the one degraded man into a will-less 
 machine for executing the commands of others, and the other 
 deadened him in cultivating the feeling of his sinful worth- 
 lessness.
 
 140 Jesuitic Education. 
 
 (a) Jesuitic Education, 
 
 255. Jesuitism combined the maximum of worldly free- 
 dom with an appearance of the greatest piety. Proceeding 
 from this stand-point, it devoted itself in education to ele- 
 gance and showy knowledge, to diplomacy and what was 
 suitable and convenient in morals. To bring the future more 
 into its power, it adapted itself not only to youth in general, 
 but especially to the youth of the nobler classes. To please 
 these, the Jesuits laid great stress upon a fine deportment. 
 In their colleges dancing and fencing were well-taught. They 
 knew how well they should by this course content the noble, 
 who had by preference usurped the name of Education for 
 this technical way of giving formal expression to personality. 
 
 In instruction they developed so exact a mechanism that 
 they gained the reputation of having model school regula- 
 tions, and even Protestants sent their children to them. From 
 the close of the sixteenth century to the present time they 
 have based their teaching upon the ratio et institutio Stu- 
 diorum Societatis Jesu of Claudius Aquaviva, and, following 
 that, they distinguish two courses of teaching, a higher and 
 a lower. The lower included nothing but an external knowl- 
 edge of the Latin language, and some fortuitous knowledge 
 of History, of Antiquities, and of Mythology. The memory 
 was cultivated as a means of keeping down free activity of 
 thought and clearness of judgment. The higher course com- 
 prehended Dialectics, Rhetoric, Physics, and Morals. Dia- 
 lectics appeared in the form of Sophistry. In Rhetoric, they 
 favored the polemical-emphatic style of the African fathers 
 of the Church and their pompous phraseology ; in Physics, 
 they stopped with Aristotle, and especially advised the read- 
 ing of the books De Generatione et Corruptione, and De 
 Casio, on which they commented after their fashion ; finally, 
 in Morals casuistic skepticism was their central point. They 
 made much of Rhetoric on account of their sermons, giving 
 to it much attention, and introduced especially Declamation. 
 Contriving showy public examinations under the guise of 
 Latin School Comedies, they thus amused the public, dis- 
 posed them to approval, and at the same time quite inno- 
 cently practised the pupil in dissimulation. 
 
 Diplomacy in behavior was made necessary to the Jesuits 
 as well by their strict military discipline as by their system
 
 Pietistic Education. 141 
 
 of reciprocal mistrust, espionage, and informing. Abstract 
 obedience was a reason for any act of the pupils, and they 
 were freed from all responsibility as to its moral justifica- 
 tion. This empirical exact following out of all commands, 
 and refraining from any criticism as to principles, created a 
 moral indifference, and, from the necessity of having consid- 
 eration for the peculiarities and caprices of the superior on 
 whom all others were dependent, arose eye-service, and the 
 coldness of isolation sprang from the necessity which each 
 felt of being on his guard against every other as against a 
 tale-bearer. The most deliberate hypocrisy and pleasure in 
 intrigue merely for the sake of intrigue this most refined 
 poison of moral corruption were the result. Jesuitism had 
 not only an interest in the material profit, which, when it 
 had corrupted souls, fell to its share, but it also had an inter- 
 est in the process of corruption. With absolute indifference 
 as to the idea of morality, and absolute indifference as to the 
 moral quality of the means used to attain its end, it rejoiced 
 in the superiority of secrecy, of the accomplished and cal- 
 culating understanding, and in deceiving the credulous by 
 means of its graceful, seemingly-perfect, moral language. 
 
 It is not necessary to speak here of the morality of the 
 Order. It is sufficiently recognized as the contradiction, that 
 the idea of morality insists upon the eternal necessity of 
 every deed, but that in the realizing of the action all deter- 
 minations should be made relative and should vary with the 
 circumstances. As to discipline, they were always guided 
 by their fundamental principle, that body and soul, as in and 
 for themselves one, could vicariously suffer for each other. 
 Thus penitence and contrition were transformed into a 
 perfect materialism of outward actions, and hence arose the 
 punishments of the Order, in which fasting, scourging, im- 
 prisonment, mortification, and death, were formed into a 
 mechanical artificial system. 
 
 (b) Pietistic Education. 
 
 256. Jesuitism would make machines of man, Pietism 
 would dissolve him in the feeling of his sinfulness : either 
 would destroy his individuality. Pietism proceeded from 
 the principle of Protestantism, as, in the place of the Catholic 
 Pelagianism with its sanctification by works, it offered justi-
 
 142 Pietistic Education. 
 
 cation by faith alone. In its tendency to internality was its 
 just claim. It would have even the letters of the Bible trans- 
 lated into the vivacity of sentiment. But in its execution it 
 fell into the error of one-sidedness in that it placed, instead 
 of the actuality of the spirit and its freedom, the confusion of 
 a limited personality, placing in its stead the personality of 
 Christ in an external manner, and thus brought back into the 
 very midst of Protestantism the principle of monachism an 
 abstract renunciation of the world. Since Protestantism has 
 destroyed the idea of the cloister, it could produce estrange- 
 ment from the world only by exciting public opinion against 
 such elements of society and culture which it stigmatized as 
 worldly for its members, e.g. card-playing, dancing, the thea- 
 tre, &c. Thus it became negatively dependent upon works ; 
 for since its followers remained in reciprocal action with the 
 world, so that the temptation to backsliding was a perma- 
 nent one, it must watch over them, exercise an indispensable 
 moral-police control over them, and thus, by the suspicion of 
 each other which was involved, take up into itself the Jesuit- 
 ical practice, although in a very mild and affectionate way. 
 Instead of the forbidden secrecy of the cloister, it organized 
 a separate company, which we, in its regularly constituted 
 assembly, call a conventicle. Instead of the cowl, it put on 
 its youth a dress like that of the world, but scant and ashen- 
 colored ; it substituted for the tonsure closely-cut hair and 
 shaven beard, and it often went beyond the obedience of 
 the monks in its expression of pining humility and prud- 
 ish composure. Education within such a circle could not 
 well recognize nature and history as manifestations of God, 
 but it must consider them to be limitations to their union 
 with God, from which death can first then completely release 
 them. The soul which knew that its home could be found 
 only in the future world, must feel itself to be a stranger 
 upon the earth, and from such an opinion there must arise 
 an indifference and even a contempt for science and art, as 
 well as an aversion for a life of active labor, though an un- 
 willing and forced tribute might be paid to it. Philosophy 
 especially was to be shunned as dangerous. Bible lectures, 
 the catechism and the hymn-book, were the one thing need- 
 ful to the "poor in spirit." Religious poetry and music were, 
 of all the arts, the only ones deserving of any cultivation. The
 
 The Ideal of Culture The Humanitarian Ideal. 143 
 
 education of Pietism endeavored, by means of a carefully 
 arranged series of representations, to create in its disciples 
 the feeling of their absolute nothingness, vileness, godless- 
 ness, and abandonment by God, in order to displace the tor- 
 ment of despair as to themselves and the world by a warm, 
 dramatic, and living relation to Christ a relation in which 
 all the Eroticism of the mystical passion of the begging- friars 
 was renewed in a somewhat milder form and with a strong 
 tendency to a sentimental sweetishness. 
 
 2. The Ideal of Culture. 
 
 257. Civil Education arose from the recognition of mar- 
 riage and the family, of labor and enjoyment, of the equality 
 of all before the Law, and of the duty of self-determination. 
 Jesuitism in the Catholic world and Pietism in the Protestant 
 were the reaction against this recognition a return into the 
 abstract asceticism of the middle ages, not however in its 
 purity, but mixed with some regard for worldly possessions. 
 In opposition to this reaction the commonwealth produced 
 another, in which it undertook to deliver individuality by 
 means of a reversed alienation. On the one hand, it absorbed 
 itself in the conception of the Greek-Roman world. In the 
 practical interests of the present, it externalized man in a 
 past which held to the present no immediate relation, or it 
 externalized him in the affairs which were to serve him as 
 means of his comfort and enjoyment; it created an abstract 
 idealism a reproduction of the old view of the world or an 
 abstract Realism in a high appreciation of things which 
 should be considered of value only as a means. In one direc- 
 tion, Individuality proceeded towards a dead nationality ; in 
 the other, towards an unlimited world-commonwealth. In 
 one case, the ideal was the aesthetic republicanism of the 
 Greeks ; in the other, the utilitarian cosmopolitanism of the 
 Romans. But, in considering the given circumstances, both 
 united in the feeling of humanity, with its reconciliatory and 
 pitying gentleness toward the beggar or the criminal. 
 
 (a) The Humanitarian Ideal. 
 
 258. The Oriental-theocratic education is immanent in 
 Christian education through the Bible. Through the media- 
 tion of the Greek and Roman churches the views of the an-
 
 144 The Philanthropic Ideal. 
 
 cient world were subsumed but not entirely subdued. To 
 accomplish this was the problem of humanitarian educa- 
 tion. It aimed to teach the Latin and Greek languages, 
 expecting thus to secure the action of a purely humane dis- 
 position. The Greeks and Romans being sharply marked 
 nationalities, how could one cherish such expectations ? It 
 was possible only relatively in contradiction, partly to a pro- 
 vincial population from whom all genuine political sense had 
 departed, partly to a church limited by a confessional, to 
 which the idea of humanity as such had become almost lost 
 in dogmatic fault-findings. The spirit was refreshed in the 
 first by the contemplation of the pure patriotism of the an- 
 cients, and in the second by the discovery of Reason among 
 the heathen. In contrast to formlessness distracted by the 
 want of all ideal of culture of provincialism and dogmatic 
 confusions, we find the power of representation of ancient 
 art. The so-called uselessness of learning dead languages 
 imparted to the mind, it knew not how, an ideal drift. The 
 very fact that it could not find immediate profit in its knowl- 
 edge gave it the consciousness of a higher value than mate- 
 rial profit. The ideal of the Humanities was the truth to 
 Nature which was found in the thought-painters of the an- 
 cient world. The study of language merely with regard to 
 its form, must lead one involuntarily to the actual seizing of 
 its content. The Latin schools were fashioned into Gymna- 
 sia, and the universities contained not merely professors of 
 Eloquence, but also teachers of Philology. 
 
 (b) The Philanthropic Ideal. 
 
 259. The humanitarian tendency reached its extreme in 
 the abstract forgetting of the (present, and the omitting to 
 notice its just claim. Man discovered at last that he was not 
 at home with himself in Rome and Athens. He spoke and 
 wrote Latin, if not like Cicero, at least like Muretius, but he 
 often found himself awkward in expressing his meaning in 
 his mother-tongue. He was often very learned, but he lacked 
 judgment. He was filled with enthusiasm for the republi- 
 canism of Greece and Rome, and yet at the same time was 
 himself exceedingly servile to his excellent and august lords. 
 Against this gradual deadening of active individuality, the 
 result of a perverted study of the classics, we find now react-
 
 The Philanthropic Ideal. 145 
 
 ing the education of enlightenment, which we generally call 
 the philanthropic. It sought to make men friendly to the 
 immediate course of the 'world. It placed over against the 
 learning of the ancient languages for their own sake, the 
 acquisition of the more needful branches of Mathematics, 
 Physics, Geography, History, and the modern languages, 
 calling these the real studies. Nevertheless it often retained 
 the instruction in the Latin language because the Romance 
 languages have sprung from it, and because, through its long 
 domination, the universal terminology of Science, Art, and 
 Law, is rooted in it. Philanthropy desired to develope the 
 social side of its disciple through an abstract of practical 
 knowledge and personal accomplishments, and to lead him 
 again, in opposition to the hermit-like sedentary life of the 
 book-pedant, out into the fields and the woods. It desired 
 to imitate life even in its method, and to instruct pleasantly 
 in the way of play or by dialogue. It would add to the sim- 
 ple letters and names the contemplation of the object itself, 
 or at least of its representation by pictures ; and in this di- 
 rection, in the conversation-literature which it prepared for 
 children, it sometimes fell into childishness. It performed 
 a great service when it gave to the body its due, and intro- 
 duced simple, natural dress, bathing, gymnastics, pedestrian 
 excursions, and a hardening against the influences of wind and 
 weather. As this Pedagogics, so friendly to children, deemed 
 that it could not soon enough begin to honor them as citizens 
 of the world, it was guilty in general of the error of presup- 
 posing as already finished in its children much that it itself 
 should have gradually developed ; and as it wished to edu- 
 cate the European as such, or rather man as such, it came 
 into an indifference concerning the concrete distinctions of 
 nationality and religion. It coincided with the philologists 
 in placing, in a concealed way, Socrates above Christ, be- 
 cause he had worked no miracles, and taught only morality. 
 In such a dead cosmopolitanism, individuality disappeared 
 in the indeterminateness of a general humanity, and saw 
 itself forced to agree with the humanistic education in pro- 
 claiming the truth of Nature as the pedagogical ideal, with 
 the distinction, that while Humanism believed this ideal real- 
 ized in the Greeks and Romans, Philanthropism found itself
 
 146 The Philanthropic Ideal. 
 
 compelled to presuppose an abstract notion, and often mani- 
 fested a not unjustifiable pleasure in recognizing in the Indi- 
 ans of North America, or of Otaheite, the genuine man of 
 nature. Philosophy first raised these conceptions to the idea 
 of the State, which fashioned the cognition of Reason and of 
 the reform which follows from its idea, into an organic ele- 
 ment in itself. 
 
 The course which the developing of the philanthropic 
 ideal has taken is as follows : (1) Rousseau in his writings, 
 Emile and the Nouvelle Heloise, first preached the evangel 
 of Natural Education, the abstraction from History, the nega- 
 tion of existing culture, and the return to the simplicity and 
 innocence of nature. Although he often himself testified in 
 his experience his own proneness to evil in a very discourag- 
 ing way, he fixed as an almost unlimited axiom in French 
 and German Pedagogics his principal maxim, that man is by 
 nature good. (2) The reformatory ideas of Rousseau met 
 with only a very infrequent and sporadic introduction among 
 the Romanic nations, because among them education was 
 too dependent on the church, and retained its cloister like 
 seclusion in seminaries, colleges, &c. In Germany, on the 
 the contrary, it was actualized, and the Philanthropia, esta- 
 blished by Basedow in Dessau, Brunswick, and Schnepfen- 
 thal, made experiments, which nevertheless very soon de- 
 parted somewhat from the ultraism of Basedow and had very 
 excellent results. (3) Humanity existed in concrete only in 
 the form of nations. The French nation, in their revolution, 
 tried the experiment of abstracting from their history, of lev- 
 elling all distinctions of culture, of enthroning a despotism 
 of Reason, and of organizing itself as humanity, pure and 
 simple. The event showed the impossibility of such a be- 
 ginning. The national energy, the historical impulse, the 
 love of art and science, came forth from the midst of the revo- 
 lutionary abstraction, which was opposed to them, only the 
 more vigorously. The grande nation, their grande armee, 
 and gloire that is to say, for France absorbed all the 
 humanitarian phases. In Germany the philanthropic circle 
 of education was limited to the higher ranks. There was no 
 exclusiveness in the Philanthropia, for there nobles and citi- 
 zens, Catholics and Protestants, Russians and Swiss, were 
 mingled ; but these were always the children of wealthy
 
 The Philanthropic Ideal. 147 
 
 families, and to these the plan of education was adapted. 
 Then appeared Pestalozzi and directed education also to the 
 lower classes of society those which are called, not without 
 something approaching to a derogatory meaning, the people. 
 From this time dates popular education, the effort for the 
 intellectual and moral elevation of the hitherto neglected 
 atomistic human being of the non-property-holding multi- 
 tude. There shall in future be no dirty, hungry, ignorant, 
 awkward, thankless, and will-less mass, devoted alone to an 
 animal existence. "We can never rid ourselves of the lower 
 classes by having the wealthy give something, or even their 
 all, to the poor, so as to have no property themselves; but 
 we can rid ourselves of it in the sense that the possibility of 
 culture and independent self-support shall be open to every 
 one, because he is a human being and a citizen of the com- 
 monwealth. Ignorance and rudeness and the vice which 
 springs from them, and the malevolent frame of mind against 
 the human race, which are bound up with crime these shall 
 disappear. Education shall train man to self-conscious obe- 
 dience to law, as well as to kindly feeling towards the err- 
 ing, and to an effort not merely for their removal but for their 
 improvement. But the more Pestalozzi endeavored to realize 
 his ideal of human dignity, the more he comprehended that 
 the isolated power of a private man could not attain it, but 
 that the nation itself must make their own education their 
 first business. Fichte by his lectures first made the German 
 nation fully accept these thoughts, and Prussia was the first 
 state which, by her public schools and her conscious prepa- 
 ration for defence, broke the path for National Education ; 
 while among the Romanic nations, in spite of their more 
 elaborate political formalism, it still depends partly upon 
 the church and partly upon the accident of private enter- 
 prise. Pestalozzi also laid a foundation for a national peda- 
 gogical literature by his story of Leonard and Gertrude. 
 This book appeared at first in 1784, i.e. in the same year in 
 which Schiller's Robbers and Kant's Critique of Pure Reason 
 announced a new phase in the Drama and in Philosophy. 
 
 The incarnation of God, which was, up to the time of the 
 Reformation, an esoteric mystery of the Church, has since 
 then become continually more and more an exoteric problem 
 of the State.
 
 148 N Free Education. 
 
 S. Free Education. 
 
 260. The ideal of culture of the humanitarian and the 
 philanthropic education was taken up into the conception of 
 an education which recognizes the Family, social caste, the 
 Nation, and Religion, as positive elements of the practical 
 spirit, but which will know each of these as determined from 
 within through the idea of humanity, and laid open for recip- 
 rocal dialectic with the rest. Physical development shall be- 
 come the subject of a national system of gymnastics fashioned 
 for use, and including in itself the knowledge of the use of 
 arms. Instruction shall, in respect to the general encyclopae- 
 dic culture, be the same for all, and parallel to this shall run 
 a system of special schools to prepare for the special avoca- 
 tions of life. The method of instruction shall be the simple 
 representation of the special idea of the subject, and no 
 longer the formal breadth of an acquaintance with many 
 subjects which may find outside the school its opportunity, 
 but within it has no meaning except as the history of a sci- 
 ence or an art. Moral culture must be combined with family 
 affection and the knowledge of the laws of the commonwealth, 
 so that the dissension between individual morality and 
 objective legality may ever more and more disappear. Edu- 
 cation shall, without estranging the individual from the inter- 
 nality of the family, accustom him more and more to public 
 life, because criticism of this is the only thing which can 
 prevent the cynicism of private life, the half-ness of knowl- 
 edge and will, and the spirit of caste, which has so exten- 
 sively prevailed. The individual shall be educated into a 
 self-consciousness of the essential equality and freedom of 
 all men, so that he shall recognize and acknowledge himself 
 in each one and in all. But this essential and solid unity of 
 all men shall not evaporate into the insipidity of a humanity 
 without distinctions, but instead it shall realize the form of 
 a determinate individuality and nationality, and shall en- 
 lighten the idiosyncrasy of its nation into a broad humanity. 
 The unrestricted striving after Beauty, Truth, and Freedom, 
 actually through its own strength and immediately, not 
 merely mediately through ecclesiastical consecration, will 
 become Religion. 
 
 The Education of the State must rise to a preparation for 
 the unfettered activity of self-conscious Humanity.
 
 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 A PARAPHRASE OF DR. KARL ROSENKRANZ'S 
 PAEDAGOGIK ALS SYSTEM. 
 
 BY ANNA C. BRACKETT 
 
 ST. LOUIS: 
 G. I. JONES AND COMPANY. 
 
 1878.
 
 LB675- 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by 
 
 WILLIAM T. HARRIS, 
 In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The translation of ' ' Pedagogics as a System ' ' was prepared and 
 published five years ago. The wide demand for it that has made 
 itself known since that time, especially in normal schools, has proved 
 the value of such works in the" domain of education. At the same 
 time, the difficulty the students have always found in its use a diffi- 
 culty inseparable from any translation of a German metaphysical 
 treatise has led us to the conviction that a paraphrase into a more 
 easily understood form is a necessity, if the thought of Rosenkranz 
 is to be appropriated by the very class who are most in need of it. 
 As was remarked in the preface to the translation, we have in English 
 no other work of similar size which contains so much that is valuable 
 to those engaged in the work of education. It is no compendium of 
 rules or formulas, but rather a systematic, logical treatment of the 
 subject, in which the attention is, as it were, concentrated upon the 
 whole problem of education, while that problem is allowed to work 
 itself out before us. To paraphrase the text or, rather, to translate 
 it from the metaphysical language in which it at present appears into 
 a language more easy of comprehension without losing the real sig- 
 nificance of the statements, is the task which is here undertaken. 
 Free illustrations and suggestions have been interwoven to give point 
 and application to the thoughts and principles stated. This transla- 
 tion, or paraphrase, follows the paragraphs of the original and of the 
 first translation. The analysis of the whole work, as it appeared in 
 the original translation, is appended at the end of the "Introduc- 
 tion," as a guide to the student.
 
 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 INTEODUCTION. 
 
 1. The science of Pedagogics may be called a second- 
 ary science, inasmuch as it derives its principles from others. 
 In this respect it differs from Mathematics, which is independ- 
 ent. As it concerns the development of the human intelli- 
 gence, it must wait upon Psychology for an understanding of 
 that upon which it is to operate, and, as its means are to be 
 sciences and arts, it must wait upon them for a knowledge of 
 Its materials. The science of Medicine, in like manner, is 
 dependent on the sciences of Biology, Chemistry, Physics, 
 etc. Moreover, as Medicine may have to deal with a healthy 
 or unhealthy body, and may have it for its province to pre- 
 serve or restore health, to assist a natural process (as in the 
 case of a broken bone), or to destroy an unnatural one (as in 
 the case of the removal of a tumor), the same variety of work 
 is imposed upon Education. 1 
 
 2. Since the rules of Pedagogics must be extremely 
 flexible, so that they may be adapted to the great variety of 
 minds, and since an infinite variety of circumstances may arise 
 in their application, we find, as we should expect, in all edu- 
 cational literature room for widely differing opinions and the 
 wildest theories ; these numerous theories, each of which 
 
 1 The parallelism between these two sciences, Medicine and Education, is an 
 obvious point, which every student will do well to consider.
 
 6 The Science of Education. 
 
 may have a strong influence for a season, only to be over- 
 thrown and replaced by others. 2 It must be acknowledged 
 that educational literature, as such, is not of a high order. 
 It habits cant like religious literature. Many of its faults, 
 however, are the result of honest eifort, on the part of teach- 
 ers, to remedy existing defects, and .the authors are, therefore, 
 not harshly to be blamed. It is also to be remembered that 
 the habit of giving reproof and advice is one fastened in them 
 by the daily necessity of their professional work. 3 
 
 3. As the position of the teacher has ceased to be 
 undervalued, there has been an additional impetus given to 
 self-glorification on his part, and this also in connection with 
 the fact that schools are no longer isolated as of old, but sub- 
 ject to constant comparison and competition leads to much 
 careless theorizing among its teachers, especially in the literary 
 field. 
 
 4. Pedagogics, because it deals with the human spirit, 
 belongs, in a general classification of the sciences, to the 
 philosophy of spirit, and in the philosophy of spirit it must be 
 classified under the practical, and not the merely theoretical, 
 division. For its problem is not merely to comprehend the 
 nature of that with which it has to deal, the human spirit 
 its problem is not merely to influence one mind (that of the 
 pupil) by another (that of the teacher) but to influence it 
 in such a way as to produce the mental freedom of the pupil. 
 The problem is, therefore, not so much to obtain performed 
 works as to excite mental activity. A creative process is 
 required. The pupil is to be forced to go in certain beaten 
 tracks, and yet he is to be so forced to go in these that he shall 
 go of his own free will. All teaching which does not leave 
 the mind of the pupil fre,e is unworthy of the name. It is 
 true that the teacher must understand the nature of mind, as 
 
 2 This will again remind the student of the theories of treatment in medicine 
 in diseases which, in the seventeenth century, were treated only by bleeding and 
 emetics, are now treated by nourishing food, and no medicines, etc. 
 
 3 The teacher will do well to consider the probable result of the constant asso- 
 ciation with mental inferiors entailed by his work, and also to consider what 
 counter-irritant is to be applied to balance, in his character, this unavoidable- 
 tendency.
 
 TJie Science of Education. 1 
 
 he is to deal with mind, but when he has done this he has still 
 his main principle of action unsolved ; for the question is, 
 knowing the nature of the mind, How shall he incite it to 
 action, already predetermined in his own mind, without 
 depriving the mind of the pupil of its own free action? How 
 shall he restrain and guide, and yet not enslave? 
 
 If, in classifying all sciences, as suggested at the beginning 
 of this section, we should subdivide the practical division of the 
 Philosophy of Spirit, which might be called Ethics, one could 
 find a place for Pedagogics under some one of the grades of 
 Ethics. The education which the child receives through the 
 influence of family life lies at the basis of all other teaching, 
 and what the child learns of life, its duties, and possibilities, 
 in its own home, forms the foundation for all after-work. On 
 the life of the family, then, as a presupposition, all systems of 
 Education must be built. In other words, the school must 
 not attempt to initiate the child into the knowledge of the 
 world it must not assume the care of its first training ; that 
 it must leave to the family. 4 But the science of Pedagogics 
 does not, as a science, properly concern itself with the family 
 education, or with that point of the child's life which is domi- 
 nated by the family influence. That is education, in a certain 
 sense, without doubt, but it does not properly belong to a 
 science of Pedagogics. But, on the other hand, it must be 
 remembered that this science, as here expounded, presupposes 
 a previous family life in the human being with whom it has to 
 deal. 
 
 5. Education as a science will present the necessary 
 and universal principles on which it is based ; Education as 
 an art will consist in the practical realization of these in the 
 teacher's work in special places, under special circumstances, 
 and with special pupils. In the skillful application of the 
 principles of the science to the actual demands of the art lies 
 the opportunity for the educator to prove himself a creative 
 artist ; and it is in the difficulty involved in this practical 
 
 4 The age at which the child should be subject to the training of school life, or 
 Education, properly so-called, must vary with different races, nations, and differ- 
 ent children.
 
 8 The Science of Education. 
 
 work that the interest and charm of the educator's work 
 consists. 
 
 The teacher must thus adapt himself to the pupil. But, in 
 doing so, he must have a care that he do not carry this adapta- 
 tion to such a degree as to imply that the pupil is not to 
 change ; and he must see to it, also, that the pupil shall always 
 be worked upon by the matter which he is considering, and 
 not too much by the personal influence of the teacher through 
 whom he receives it. 5 
 
 6. The utmost care is necessary lest experiments which 
 have proved successful in certain cases should be generalized 
 into rules, and a formal, dead creed, so to speak, should be 
 adopted. All professional experiences are valuable as mate- 
 rial on which to base new conclusions and to make new plans, 
 but only for that use. Unless the day's work is, every day, a 
 new creation, a fatal error has been made. 
 
 7. Pedagogics as a science must consider Education 
 
 ( 1 ) In its general idea ; 
 
 ( 2 ) In its different phases ; 
 
 (3) In the special systems arising from this general idea, 
 acting under special circumstances at special times. 6 
 
 8. With regard to the First Part, we remark that by Edu- 
 cation, in its general idea, we do not mean any mere history of 
 Pedagogics, nor can anyjiistory of Pedagogics be substituted 
 for a systematic exposition of the underlying idea. 
 
 9. The second division considers Education under three 
 heads as physical, intellectual, and moral and forms, gen- 
 erally, the principal part of all pedagogical treatises. 
 
 In this part lies the greatest difficulty as to exact limita- 
 tion. The ideas on these divisions are often undefined and 
 apt to be confounded, and the detail of which they are capa- 
 ble is almost unlimited, for we might, under this head, speak 
 
 "' The best educator is he who makes his pupils independent of himself. This 
 implies on the teacher's part an ability to lose himself in his work, and a desire 
 for the real growth of the pupil, independent of any personal fame of his own 
 a disinterestedness which places education on a level with the noblest occupations 
 of man. 
 
 6 See analysis.
 
 The Science of Education. 9 
 
 of all kinds of special schools, such as those for war, art, 
 mining, etc. 
 
 10. In the Third Part we consider the different realizations 
 of the one general idea of Pedagogics as it has developed itself 
 under different circumstances and in different ages of the world. 
 
 O 
 
 The general idea is forced into different phases by the 
 varying physical, intellectual, and moral conditions of men. 
 The result is the different systems, as shown in the analysis. 
 The general idea is one. The view of the end to be obtained 
 determines in each case the actualization of this idea. Hence 
 the different systems of Education are each determined by the 
 stand-point from which the general ideal is viewed. Proceed- 
 ing in this manner, it might be possible to construct a history 
 of Pedagogics, a priori, without reference to actual history, 
 since all the possible systems might be inferred from the 
 possible definite number of points of view. 
 
 Each lower stand-point will lead to a higher, but it will not 
 be lost in it. Thus, where Education, for the sake of the 
 nation, 7 merges into the Education based on Christianity, the 
 form is not thereby destroyed, but, rather, in the transition 
 first attains its full realization. The systems of Education 
 which were based on the idea of the nation had, in the full- 
 ness of time, outgrown their own limits, and needed a new 
 form in order to contain their own true idea. The idea of the 
 nation, as the highest principle, gives way for that of Chris- 
 tianity. A new life came to the old idea in what at first 
 seemed to be its destruction. The idea of the nation was 
 born again, and not destroyed, in Christianity. 
 
 11. The final system, so far, is that of the present time, 
 which thus is itself the fruit of all the past systems, as well as 
 the seed of all systems that are to be. The science of Pedagog- 
 ics, in the consideration of the system of the present, thus again 
 finds embodied the general idea of education, and thus returns 
 upon itself to the point from whence it set out. In the First 
 and Second Parts there is already given the idea which domi- 
 nates the system found thus necessarily existing in the present. 
 
 7 Asiatic systems of Education have this basis (see $ 178 of the original).
 
 10 
 
 The Science of Education. 
 
 FIRST PART. ( Its Nature. 
 In its General < Its Form. 
 Idea. L Its Limits. 
 
 SECOND PART, f Physical. 
 In its Special < Intellectual. 
 Elements. L Moral. 
 
 Education. 
 
 
 
 f Family . . China. 
 Passive. i Caste. . . India. 
 I Monkish . Thibet. 
 
 
 National. 
 
 fMilitary. . Persia. 
 Active. < Priestly. . Egypt. 
 (.Industrial. Phoenicia. 
 
 
 Theocratic. 
 
 f ..Esthetic . Greece. 
 Individual J I >r 'ictiual . Rome. 
 1 Abstract ( Northern 
 (.Individual. | Barbarians 
 
 THIRD PART. 
 In its Particu- 
 lar Systems. 
 
 
 Monkish. 
 
 
 
 Chivalric. 
 
 
 Humanita- 
 rian. 
 
 'For Special I Jesuitic. 
 Callings. ( Pietistic. 
 
 
 
 {The Hu- 
 manities. 
 The 
 anth,!! 
 
 
 
 Movement^ 
 
 
 
 I For Free Citizenship.
 
 The Science of Education. 11 
 
 FIRST PART. 
 The General Idea of Education. 
 
 12. A full treatment of Pedagogics must distinguish 
 
 ( 1 ) The nature of Education ; 
 
 (2) The form of Education ; 
 
 (3) The limits of Education. 
 
 /. The Nature of Education. 
 
 13. The nature of Education is determined by the nature of 
 mind, the distinguishing mark of which is that it can be devel- 
 oped only from within, and by its own activity. Mind is es- 
 sentially free i. e., it has the capacity for freedom but it 
 cannot be said to possess freedom till it has obtained it by its 
 own voluntary effort. Till then it cannot be truly said to be 
 free. Education consists in enabling a human being to take 
 possession of, and to develop himself by, his own efforts, and 
 the work of the educator cannot be said to be done in any 
 sense where this is not accomplished. In general, we may 
 say that the work of education consists in leading to a full 
 development of all the inherent powers of the mind, and that 
 its work is done when, in this way, the mind has attained 
 perfect freedom, or the state in which alone it can be said to 
 be truly itself. 7 
 
 The isolated human being can never become truly man. If 
 such human beings (like the wild girl of the forest of Arden- 
 nes) have been found, they have only proved to us that recip- 
 rocal action with our fellow beings is necessary for the devel- 
 
 7 The definition of freedom here implied is this : Mind is free when it knosw 
 itself and wills its own laws.
 
 12 The Science of Education. 
 
 opment of our powers. Caspar Hauser, in his subterranean 
 prison, will serve as an example of what man would be without 
 men. One might say that this fact is typified by the first cry 
 of the newly-born child. It is as if the first expression of its 
 seemingly independent life were a cry for help from others. 
 On the side of nature the human being is at first quite helpless. 
 
 14. Man is, therefore, the only proper object of education. 
 It is true that we speak of the education of plants and of animals, 
 but we instinctively apply other terms when we do so, for we 
 say "raising" plants, and " training " animals. When we 
 " train " or " break " an animal, it is true that we do, by pain 
 or pleasure, lead him into an exercise of a new activity. But 
 the difference between this and Education consists in the fact 
 that, though he possessed capacity, yet by no amount of asso- 
 ciation with his kind would he ever have acquired this new 
 development. It is as if we impress upon his plastic nature 
 the imprint of our loftier nature, which imprint he takes 
 mechanically, and does not himself recognize it as his own 
 internal nature. We train him for our recognition, not for his 
 own. But, on the contrary, when we educate a human being, 
 we only excite him to create for himself, and out of himself, 
 that for which he would most earnestly strive had he any 
 appreciation of it beforehand, and in proportion as he does 
 appreciate it he recognizes it joyfully as a part of himself, as 
 his own inheritance, which he appropriates with a knowledge 
 that it is his, or, rather, is a part of his own nature. He 
 who speaks of " raising " human beings uses language which 
 belongs only to the slave-dealer, to whom human beings are 
 onty cattle for labor, and whose property increases in value 
 with the number. 
 
 Are there no school-rooms where Education has ceased to 
 have any meaning, and where physical pain is made to produce 
 its only possible result a mechanical, external repetition ? The 
 school-rooms where the creative word the only thing which 
 can influence the mind has ceased to be used as the means 
 are only plantations, where human beings are degraded to the 
 position of lower animals. 
 
 15. When we speak of the Education of the human
 
 The Science of Education. 13 
 
 race, we mean the gradual growth of the nations of the earth, 
 as a whole, towards the realization of self-conscious freedom. 
 Divine Providence is the teacher here. The means by which 
 the development is effected are the various circumstances and 
 actions of the different races of men, and the pupils are the 
 nations. The unfolding of this great Education is generally 
 treated of under the head of Philosophy of History. 
 
 16. Education, however, in a more restricted sense, 
 has to do with the shaping of the individual. Each one of us 
 is to be educated by the laws of physical nature by the rela- 
 tions into which we come with the national life, in its laws, 
 customs, etc., and by the circumstances which daily surround 
 us. By the force of these Ave find our arbitrary will hemmed 
 in, modified, and forced to take new channels and forms. We 
 are too often unmindful of the power with which these forces 
 are daily and hourly educating us i. e. , calling out our possi- 
 bilities into real existence. If we set up our will in opposition 
 to either of these ; if we act in opposition to the laws of nature ; 
 if we seriously offend the laws, or even the customs, of 
 the people among whom we live ; or if we despise our 
 individual lot, we do so only to find ourselves crushed in 
 the encounter. We only learn the impotence of the indi- 
 vidual against these mighty powers ; and that discovery is, 
 of itself, a part of our education. It is sometimes only by 
 such severe means that God is revealed to the man who per- 
 sistently misunderstands and defies His creation. All suffering 
 brought on ourselves by our own violation of laws, whether 
 natural, ethical, or divine, must be, however, thus recognized 
 as the richest blessing. We do not mean to 'say that it is 
 never allowable for a man, in obedience to the highest laws of 
 his spiritual being, to break away from the fetters of nature 
 to offend the ethical sense of his own people, or to struggle 
 against the might of destiny. Reformers and martyrs 
 would be examples of such, and our remarks above do not 
 apply to them, but to the perverse, the frivolous, and the con- 
 ceited ; to those who are seeking in their action, not the un- 
 doubted will of God, but their own individual will or caprice. 
 
 17. But we generally use the word Education in a still
 
 14 The Science of Education. 
 
 narrower sense than either of these, for we mean by it the 
 working of one individual mind upon or within another in 
 some definite and premeditated way, so as to fit the pupil for 
 life generally, or for some special pursuit. For this end the 
 educator must be relatively finished in his own education, and 
 the pupil must possess confidence in him, or docility. He 
 must be teachable. That the work be successful, demands the 
 very highest degree of talent, knowledge, skill, and pru- 
 dence ; and any development is impossible if a well-founded 
 authority be wanting in the educator, or docility on the part 
 of the pupil. 
 
 Education, in this narrowest and technical sense, is an out- 
 growth of city or urban life. As long as men do not congre- 
 gate in large cities, the three forces spoken of in 16 
 i. e., the forces of nature, national customs, and circum- 
 stances will be left to perform most of the work of Educa- 
 tion ; but, in modern city life, the great complication of 
 events, the uncertainty in the results though careful fore- 
 thought has been used the immense development of indi- 
 viduality, and the pressing need of various information, break 
 the power of custom, and render a different method necessary. 
 The larger the city is, the more free is the individual in it 
 from the restraints of customs, the less subjected to curious 
 criticism, and the more able is he to give play to his own 
 idiosyncrasies. This, however, is a freedom which needs the 
 counterpoise of a more exact training in conventionalities, if 
 we would not have it dangerous. Hence the rapid multipli- 
 cation of educational institutions and systems in modern times 
 (one chief characteristic of which is the development of ur 
 ban life). The ideal Telemachus of Fenelon differs very 
 much from the real Telemachus of history. Fenelon proposed 
 an education which trained a youth to reflect, and to guide him- 
 self by reason. The Telemachus of the heroic age followed 
 the customs (" use and wont") of his times with naive obe- 
 dience. The systems of Education once sufficient do not 
 serve the needs of modern life, any more than the defenses 
 once sufficient against hostile armies are sufficient against the 
 new weapons adopted by modern warfare.
 
 The Science of Education. 15 
 
 18. The problem with which modern Education has to 
 deal may be said, in general terms, to be the development in 
 the individual soul of the indwelling Reason, both practical 
 (as will) and theoretical (as intellect). To make a child 
 good is only a part of Education ; we have also to 
 develop his intelligence. The sciences of Ethics and Educa- 
 tion are not the same. Again, we must not forget that no 
 pupil is simply a human being, like every other human 
 being ; he is also an individual, and thus differs from every 
 other one of the race. This is a point which must never 
 be lost sight of by the educator. Human beings may be nay, 
 must be educated in company, but they cannot be educated 
 simply in the mass. 
 
 19. Education is to lead the pupil by a graded series 
 of exercises, previously arranged and prescribed by the edu- 
 cator, to a definite end. But these exercises must take on a 
 peculiar form for each particular pupil under the special cir- 
 cumstances present. Hasty and inconsiderate work may, by 
 chance, accomplish much ; but no work which is not system- 
 atic can advance and fashion him in conformity with his 
 tanure, and such alone is to be called Education ; for Educa- 
 tion implies both a comprehension of the end to be attained 
 and of the means necessary to compass that end. 
 
 20. Culture, however, means more and more every 
 year ; and, as the sum total of knowledge increases for man- 
 kind, it becomes necessary, in order to be a master in any one 
 line, to devote one's self almost exclusively to that. Hence 
 arises, for the teacher, the difficulty of preserving the unity and 
 wholeness which are essential to a complete man. The prin- 
 ciple of division of labor conies in. He who is a teacher 
 by profession becomes one-sided in his views ; and, as teaching 
 divides and subdivides into specialities, this abnormal one- 
 sideness tends more and more to appear. Here we find a par- 
 allelism in the profession of Medicine, with a corresponding 
 danger of narrowness ; for that, too, is in a process of con- 
 stant specialization, and the physician who treats nervous dis- 
 eases is likely to be of the opinion that all trouble arises from 
 that part of the organism, or, at least, that all remedies should
 
 16 The Science of Education. 
 
 be applied there. This tendency to oiie-sideness is inseparable 
 from the progress of civilization and that of science and arts. 
 It contains, nevertheless, a danger of which no teacher should 
 be unwarned. An illustration is furnished by the microscope 
 or telescope ; a higher power of the instrument implies a nar- 
 rower field of view. To concentrate our observation upon one 
 point implies the shutting out of others. This difficulty with 
 the teacher creates one for the pupil. 
 
 In this view one might be inclined to judge that the life of 
 the savage as compared with that of civilized man, or that of a 
 member of a rural community as compared with that of an 
 inhabitant of a city, were the more to be desired. The savage 
 has his hut, his family, his cocoa-palm, his weapons, his pas- 
 sions ; he fishes, hunts, amuses himself, adorns himself, and 
 enjoys the consciousness that he is the center of a little world ; 
 while the denizen of a city must often acknowledge that he is, 
 so to speak, only one wheel of a gigantic machine. Is the life 
 of the savage, therefore, more favorable to human develop- 
 ment? The characteristic idea of modern civilization is : The 
 development of the individual as the end for which the State 
 exists. The great empires of Persia, Egypt, and India, 
 wherein the individual was of value only as he ministered to 
 the strength of the State, have given way to the modern 
 nations, where individual freedom is pushed so far that the 
 State seems only an instrument for the good of the individual. 
 From being the supreme end of the individual, the State has 
 become the means for his advancement into freedom ; and 
 with this very exaltation of the value of the mere individual 
 over the State, as such, there is inseparably connected the seem- 
 ing: destruction of the wholeness of the individual man. But 
 
 o 
 
 the union of State and individual, which was in ancient times 
 merely mechanical, has now become a living process, in which 
 constant interaction gives rise to all the intellectual life of 
 modern civilization. 
 
 21. The work of Education being thus necessarily 
 split up, we have the distinction between general and special 
 schools. The work of the former is to give general develop- 
 ment what is considered essential for all men ; that of the
 
 The Science of Education. 17 
 
 latter, to prepare for special callings. The former should 
 furnish a basis for the latter i. e., the College should precede 
 the Medical School, etc., and the High School the Normal. 
 In the United States, owing to many causes, this is unfortu- 
 nately not the case. 
 
 The difference between city and country life is important 
 here. The teacher in a country school, and, still more, the 
 private tutor or governess, must be able to teach many 
 more things than the teacher in a graded school in the city, or 
 the professor in a college or university. The danger on the 
 one side is of superficiality, on the other of narrowness. 
 
 22. The Education of any individual can be only rela- 
 tively finished. His possibilities are infinite. His actual 
 realization of those possibilities must always remain far be- 
 hind. The latter can only approximate to the former. It can 
 never reach them. The term " finishing an education " needs, 
 therefore, some definition ; for, as a technical term, it has un- 
 doubtedly a meaning. An immortal soul can never complete 
 its development ; for, in so doing, it would give the lie to its 
 own nature. We cannot speak properly, however, of educat- 
 ing an idiot. Such an unfortunate has no power of generali- 
 zation, and no conscious personality. We can train him me- 
 chanically, but we cannot educate him. This will help to 
 illustrate the difference, spoken of in 14, between Educa- 
 tion and Mechanical training. 
 
 We obtain astonishing results, it is true, in our schools for 
 idiots, and yet we cannot fail to perceive that, after all, we 
 have only an external result. We produce a mechanical per- 
 formance of duties, and yet there seems to be no actual mental 
 growth. It is aii exogenous, and not an endogenous, growth, 
 to use the language of Botany. 9 Continual repetition, under 
 the most gentle patience, renders the movements easy, but, 
 after all, they are only automatic, or what the physicians call 
 reflex. 
 
 We have the same result produced in a less degree when we 
 
 8 Perhaps, however slow the growth, there is real progress in liberating the 
 imprisoned soul (?) 
 
 2
 
 18 The Science of Education. 
 
 attempt to teach an intelligent child something which is be- 
 yond his active comprehension. A child may be taught to do 
 or say almost anything by patient training, but, if what he is 
 to say is beyond the power of his mental comprehension, and 
 Jience of his active assimilation, we are only training him as 
 we train an animal ( 14), and not educating him. We 
 call such recitations parrot recitations, and, by our use of the 
 word, express exactly in what position the pupils are placed. 
 An idiot is only a case of permanently arrested development. 
 What in the intelligent child is a passing phase is for the idiot a 
 fixed state. We have idiots of all grades, as we have children 
 of all ages. 
 
 The above observations must not be taken to mean that 
 children should never be taught to perform operations in arith- 
 metic which they do not, in cant phrase, " perfectly under- 
 stand," or to learn poetry whose whole meaning they cannot 
 fathom. Into this error man} 7 teachers have fallen. 
 
 There can be no more profitable study for a teacher than to 
 visit one of these numerous idiot schools. He finds the alpha- 
 bet of his professional work there. As the philologist learns 
 of the formation and growth of language by examining, not 
 the perfectly formed languages, but the dialects of savage 
 tribes, so with the teacher. In like manner more insight into 
 the philosophy of teaching and of the nature of the mind can 
 be acquired by teaching a class of children to read than in 
 any other grade of work. 
 
 //. The Form of Education. 
 
 23. The general form of Education follows from the 
 nature of mind. Mind is nothing but what it itself creates 
 out of its own activity. It is, at first, mind as undeveloped or 
 unconscious (in the main) ; but, secondly, it acquires the power 
 of examining its own action, of considering itself as an object 
 of attention, as if it were a quite foreign thing i. e., it reflects 
 (in this stage it is really ignorant that it is studying its own na- 
 ture) ; and, finally, it becomes conscious that this, which it had 
 been examining, and of whose existence it is conscious, is its
 
 The Science of Education. 19 
 
 own self: It attains self-consciousness. It is through this 
 estrangement from itself, given back to itself again and re- 
 stored to unity, but it is no longer a simple, unconscious unity. 
 In this third state only can it be said to be free i. e., to pos- 
 sess itself. Education cannot create ; it can only help to de- 
 velop into reality the previously-existent possibility ; it can 
 only help to bring forth to light the hidden life. 
 
 24. All culture, in whatever line, must pass through 
 these two stages of estrangement and of reunion ; the re- 
 union being not of two different things, but the recognition of 
 itself by thought, and its acceptance of itself as itself. And 
 the more complete is the estrangement i. e., the more per- 
 fectly can the thought be made to view itself as a somewhat 
 entirely foreign to itself, to look upon it as a different and 
 independent somewhat the more complete and perfect will be 
 its union with and acceptance of its object as one with itself when 
 the recognition does finally take place. Through culture we are 
 led to this conscious possession of our own thought. Plato 
 gives to the feeling, with which knowledge must necessarily 
 begin, the name of wonder. But wonder is not knowledge ; 
 it is only the first step towards it. It is the half-terrified 
 attention which the mind fixes on an object, and the half-ter- 
 ror would be impossible did it not dimly forebode that it was 
 something of its own nature at which it was looking. The 
 child delights in stories of the far-off, the strange, and the 
 wonderful. It is as if they hoped to find in these some solu- 
 tion to themselves a solution which they have, as it were, 
 asked in vain of familiar scenes and objects. Their craving 
 for such is the proof of how far their nature transcends all its 
 known conditions. They are like adventurous explorers who 
 push out to unknown regions in hopes of finding the freedom 
 and wealth which lies only within themselves. They want to 
 be told about things which they never saw, such as terrible 
 conflagrations, banditti life, wild animals, gray old ruins, Rob- 
 inson Crusoes on far-off, happy islands. They are irresistibly 
 attracted by whatever is highly colored and dazzlingly lighted. 
 The child prefers the story of Sinbad the Sailor to any tales 
 of his own home and nation, because mind has this necessity
 
 20 The Science of Education. 
 
 of getting, as it were, outside of itself so as to obtain a view 
 of itself. As the child grows to youth he is, from the same 
 reasons, desirous of traveling. 
 
 25. Work may be defined as the activity of the mind 
 in a conscious concentration on, and absorption in, some object, 
 with the purpose of acquiring or producing it. Play is the 
 activity of the mind which gives itself up to surrounding ob- 
 jects according to its own caprice, without any thought as to 
 results. The Educator gives out work to the pupil, but he 
 leaves him to himself in his play. 
 
 26. It is necessary to draw a sharp line between work 
 and play. If the Educator has not respect for work as an ac- 
 tivity of great weight and importance, he not only spoils the 
 relish of the pupil for play, which loses all its charm of free- 
 dom when not set off by its antithesis of earnest labor, but he 
 undermines in the pupil's mind all respect for any real exist- 
 ence. On the other hand, he who does not give to the child 
 space, time, and opportunity for play prevents the originality 
 of his pupil from free development through the exercise of his 
 creative ingenuity. Play sends the child back to his work 
 refreshed, because in it he loses himself without constraint and 
 according to his own fancy, while in work he is required to 
 yield himself up in a manner prescribed for him by another. 
 
 Let the teacher watch his pupils while at play if he would 
 discover their individual peculiarities, for it is then that they 
 unconsciously betray their real propensities. This antithesis 
 of work and play runs through the entire life, the form only 
 of play varying with years and occupations. To do what we 
 please, as we please, and when we please, not for any reason, 
 but just because we please, remains play always. Children in 
 their sports like nothing better than to counterfeit what is to be 
 the earnest work of their after-lives. The little girl plays with 
 her dolls, and the boy plays he is a soldier and goes to mimic 
 wars. 
 
 It is, of course, an error to suppose that the play of a child is 
 simply muscular. The lamb and the colt find their full en- 
 joyment in capering aimlessly about the field. But to the 
 child play would be incomplete which did not bring the mind
 
 The Science of Education. 21 
 
 into action. Children derive little enjoyment from purely 
 muscular exercise. They must at the same time have an ob- 
 ject requiring mental action to attain it. A number of chil- 
 dren set simply to run up and down a field would tire of the 
 exercise in five minutes ; but put a ball amongst them and set 
 them to a game and they will be amused by it for hours. 
 
 Exceptional mental development is always preceded, and is, 
 indeed, produced by, an exceptional amount of exercise in the 
 form of play on the part of the special faculties concerned. 
 The peculiar tendencies exhibited in play are due to the large 
 development of particular faculties, and the ultimate giant 
 strength of a faculty is brought about by play. The genius is 
 no doubt born, not made ; but, although born, it would dwin- 
 dle away in infancy were it not for the constant exercise taken 
 in play, which is as necessary for development as food for the 
 maintenance of life. 
 
 27. Work should never be treated as if it were play, nor 
 play as if it were work. Those whose work is creative activity 
 of the mind may find recreation in the details of science ; and 
 those, again, whose vocation is scientific research can find rec- 
 reation in the practice of art in its different departments. 
 What is work to one may thus be play to another. This does 
 not, however, contradict the first statement. 
 
 28. It is the province of education so to accustom us to dif- 
 ferent conditions or ways of thinking and acting that they shall 
 no longer seem strange or foreign to us. When these have 
 become, as we say, " natural " to us when we find the ac- 
 quired mode of thinking or acting just what our inclination 
 leads us to adopt unconsciously, a Habit has been formed. A 
 habit is, then, the identity of natural inclination with the spe- 
 cial demands of any particular doing or suffering, and it is 
 thus the external condition of all progress. As long as we re- 
 quire the conscious act of our will to the performance of a deed, 
 that deed is a somewhat foreign to ourselves, and not yet a 
 part of ourselves. The practical work of the educator may 
 thus be said to consist in leading the mind of the pupil over 
 certain lines of thought till it becomes "natural" or sponta- 
 neous for him to go by that road. Much time is wasted in
 
 22 T7ie Science of Education. 
 
 schools where the pupil's mind is not led aright at first, for 
 then he has to unlearn habits of thought which are already 
 formed. The work of the teacher is to impress good methods 
 of studying and thinking upon the minds of his pupils, rather 
 than to communicate knowledge. 
 
 29. It is, at first sight, entirely indifferent Avhat a Habit 
 shall relate to i. e., the point is to get the pupil into the way 
 of forming habits, and it is not at first of so much moment 
 what habit is formed as that a habit is formed. But we can- 
 not consider that there is anything morally neutral in the ab- 
 stract, but only in the concrete, or in particular examples. An 
 action may be of no moral significance to one man, and under 
 certain circumstances, while to another man, or to the same 
 man under different circumstances, it may have quite a differ- 
 ent significance, or may possess an entirely opposite character. 
 Appeal must be made, then, to the individual conscience of each 
 one to decide what is and what is not permissible to that indi- 
 vidual under the given circumstances. Education must make 
 it its first aim to awaken in the pupil a sensitiveness to spirit- 
 ual and ethical distinctions which knows that nothing is in its 
 own nature morally insignifiant or indifferent, but shall recog- 
 nize, even in things seemingly small, a universal human signifi- 
 cance. But, yet, in relation to the highest interests of morality 
 or the well-being of society, the pupil must be taught to subor- 
 dinate without hesitation all that relates exclusively to his own 
 personal comfort or welfare for the well-being of his fellow- 
 men, or for moral rectitude. 
 
 When we reflect upon habit, it at once assumes for us the 
 character of useful or injurious. The consequences of a habit 
 are not indifferent. 
 
 Whatever action tends as a harmonious means to the realiza- 
 tion of our purpose is desirable or advantageous, and whatever 
 either partially contradicts or wholly destroys it is disad- 
 vantageous. Advantage and disadvantage being, then, only 
 relative terms, dependent upon the aim or purpose which we 
 happen to have in view, a habit which may be advantageous to 
 one man under certain circumstances may be disadvantageous 
 to another man, or even to the same man, under other circum-
 
 TJie Science of Education. 23 
 
 stances. Education must, then, accustom the youth to consider 
 for himself the expediency or inexpediency of any action in 
 relation to his own vocation in life. He must not form habits 
 which will be inexpedient with regard to that. 
 
 31. There is, however, an absolute distinction of habits as 
 morally good and bad. From this absolute stand-point we 
 must, after all, decide what is for us allowable or forbidden, 
 what is expedient and what inexpedient. 
 
 32. As to its form, habit may be either passive or active. 
 By passive habit is meant a habit of composure which surveys 
 undisturbed whatever vicissitudes, either external or internal, 
 may fall to our lot, and maintains itself superior to them all, 
 never allowing its power of acting to be paralyzed by them. It 
 is not, however, merely a stoical indifference, nor is it the com- 
 posure which comes from inability to receive impressions a 
 sort of impassivity. It is that composure which is the highest 
 result of power. Nor is it a selfish love of ease which inten- 
 tionally withdraws itself from annoyances in order to remain 
 undisturbed. It is not manifested because of a desire to be 
 out of these vicissitudes. It is, while in them, to be not of 
 them. It is the composure which does not fret itself over 
 what it cannot change. The soul that has built for itself this 
 stronghold of freedom within itself may vividly experience 
 joy and sorrow, pain and pleasure, and yet serenely know that 
 it is intrenched in walls which are inaccessible to their attacks, 
 because it knows that it is infinitely superior to all that may 
 chance or change. What is meant by active habit in distinction 
 from passive habit is found in our external activity, as skill, 
 facility, readiness of information, etc. It might be considered 
 as the equipping of our inner selves for active contest with 
 the external world ; while passive habit is the fortifying of our 
 inner selves against the attack of the external world. The 
 man who possesses habit in both these forms impresses him- 
 self in many different ways on the outer world, while at the 
 same time, and all the time, he preserves intact his personality 
 from the constant assaults of the outer world. He handles 
 both spear and shield. 
 
 33. All education, in whatever line, must work by forming
 
 24 The Science of Education. 
 
 habits physical, mental, or moral. It might be said to consist 
 in a conversion of actions which are at first voluntary, by 
 means of repetition, into instructive actions which are per- 
 formed, as we say, naturally i. e., without any conscious voli- 
 tion. We teach a child to walk, or he teaches himself to walk by 
 a constant repetition of the action of the will upon the necessary 
 muscles ; and, when the thinking brain hands over the mechan- 
 ism to the trained spinal cord, the anxious, watchful look dis- 
 appears from the face, and the child talks or laughs as he runs : 
 then that part of his education is completed . Henceforth the at- 
 tention that had been necessary to manage the body in walking 
 is freed for other work. This is onlv an illustration, easilv un- 
 
 */ */ 
 
 derstood, of what takes place in all education. Mental and 
 moral acts, thoughts, and feelings in the same way are, by 
 repetition, converted into habits and become our nature ; 
 and character, good or bad, is only the aggregate of our habits. 
 When we say a person has no character, we mean exactly this : 
 that he has no fixed habits. But, as the great end of human 
 life is freedom, he must be above even habit. He must not 
 be wholly a machine of habits, and education must enable him 
 to attain the power of breaking as well as of forming habits, so 
 that he may, when desirable, substitute one habit for another. 
 For habits may be ( 29), according to their nature, proper or 
 improper, advantageous or disadvantageous, good or bad ; and, 
 according to their form, may be (32) either the acceptance 
 of the external by the internal or the reaction of the internal 
 upon the external. Through our freedom we must be able, not 
 only to renounce any habit formed, but to form a new and 
 better one. Man should be supreme above all habits, wearing 
 them as garments which the soul puts on and off at will. It 
 must so order them all as to secure for itself a constant progress 
 of development into still greater freedom. In this higher 
 view habits become thus to our sight only necessary accom- 
 paniments of imperfect freedom. Can we conceive of God, 
 who is perfect Freedom, as having any habits? We might say 
 that, as a means toward the ever-more decided realization of the 
 Good, we must form a habit of voluntarily making and break- 
 ing off habits. We must characterize as bad those habits which
 
 The Science of Education. 25 
 
 relate only to our personal convenience or enjoyment. They 
 are often not essentially blameworthy, but there lies in them a 
 hidden danger that they may allure us into luxury or effemi- 
 nacy. It is a false and mechanical way of looking at the 
 affair to suppose that a habit which had been formed by a 
 certain number of .repetitions can be broken off by an equal 
 number of refusals. We can never utterly renounce a habit 
 which we decide to be undesirable for us except through de- 
 cision and firmness. 
 
 34. Education, then, must consider the preparation for 
 authorit} 7 - and obedience ( 17) ; for a rational ordering of one's 
 actions according to universal principles, and, at the same time, 
 a preservation of individuality ( 18); for work and play 
 ( 25) ; for habits of spontaneity or originality (28). To 
 endeavor by any set rules to harmonize in the pupil these op- 
 posites will be a vain endeavor, and failure in the solution of 
 the problem is quite possible by reason of the freedom of the 
 pupil, of surrounding circumstances, or of mistakes on the 
 part of the teacher, and the possibility of this negative result 
 must, therefore, enter as an element of calculation into the work 
 itself. All the dangers which may in any way threaten the 
 youth must be considered in advance, and he must be fortified 
 against them. While we should not intentionally expose the 
 youth to temptation in order to prove his strength of resistance, 
 neither should we, on the other hand, endeavor to seclude him 
 from all chance of dangerous temptation. To do the former 
 would be satanic ; while to do the latter would be ridiculous, 
 useless, and in fact dangerous in the highest degree, for tempta- 
 tion comes more from within than from without, and any secret 
 inclination will in some way seek, or even create, its own op- 
 portunity for gratification. The real safety from sin lies, not 
 in seclusion of one's self from the world l for all the elements 
 of worldliness are innate in each individual but in an occu- 
 pying of the restless activity in other ways, in learning and dis- 
 cipline ; these being varied as time goes on, according to the 
 age and degree of proficiency. Not to crush out, but to direct, 
 
 9 "When me they fly, I am the wings." Emerson.
 
 26 The Science of Education. 
 
 the child's activity, whether physical or mental, is the key to all 
 real success in education. The sentimentalism which has, during 
 the last few years, in this country (the United States), tended 
 to diminish to so great an extent the actual work to be per- 
 formed by our boys and girls, has set free a dangerous amount 
 6f energy whose new direction gives cause for grave alarm. 
 To endeavor to prevent the youth from all free and individual 
 relations with the real world, implies a never-ending watch 
 kept over him. The consciousness of being thus " shadowed " 
 destroys in the youth all elasticity of spirit, all confidence, and 
 all originality. A constant feeling of, as it were, a detective 
 police at his side obscures all sense of independent action, sys- 
 tematically accustoming him to dependence. Though, as the 
 tragic-comic story of Peter Schlemihl shows, the loss of a man's 
 own shadow may involve him in a series of fatalities, 2 yet to be 
 "shadowed" constantly by a companion, as in the pedagog- 
 ical system of the Jesuits, undermines all naturalness. And, 
 if we endeavor to guard too strictly against what is evil and 
 wrong, the pupil reacts, bringing all his intelligence into the 
 service of his craft and cunning, till the would-be educator 
 stands aghast at the discovery of such evil-doing as he had 
 supposed impossible under his strict supervision. Within the 
 circle of whatever rules it may be found necessary to draw 
 around the young there must always be left space for freedom. 
 Pupils should always be led to see that all rules against which 
 they fret are only of their own creation ; and that as grave-stones 
 mark the place where some one has fallen, so every law is 
 only a record of some previous wrong-doing. The law "Thou 
 shalt not kill " was not given till murder had been committed. 
 In other words, the wrong deed preceded the law against it, 
 and perfect obedience is the same as perfect freedom. No obe- 
 dience except that which we gain from the pupil's own convic- 
 tions has real educational significance. 
 
 35. If there appears in the youth any decided deformity 
 opposed to the ideal which we would create in him, we should at 
 
 10 The story of Peter Schlemihl, by Chamisso, may be read in the English trans- 
 lation published in "Hedge's German Prose Writers."
 
 The Science of Education. 27 
 
 once inquire into its history and origin. The negative and 
 positive are so closely related, and depend so intimately on 
 each other, in our being that what appears to us to be neg- 
 ligence, rudeness, immorality, foolishness, or oddity may 
 arise from some real necessity of the pupil which in its process 
 of development has only taken a wrong direction. 
 
 36. If it should appear, on such examination, that the 
 wrong action was the result of avoidable ignorance, of caprice, 
 or willfulness on the part of the pupil, this calls for a simple pro- 
 hibition on the part of the teacher, no reason being assigned. 
 His authority must be sufficient for the pupil without any 
 reason. When the fault is repeated, and the pupil is old 
 enough to understand, then only should the grounds of the 
 prohibition be stated with it. This should, however, be done 
 in few words, and the educator must never allow himself to 
 lose, in a doctrinal lecture, the idea of discipline. If he do, 
 the pupil will soon forget that it was his own misbehavior 
 which was the cause of all the remarks. The statement of 
 the reason must be honest, and must be presented to the yputh 
 on the side most easy for him to appreciate. False reasons 
 are not only morally wrong, but they lead the mind astray. 
 We also commit a grave error when we try to unfold to the 
 youth all the possible consequences of his wrong act, for those 
 possible consequences are too far off to affect his mind. The 
 long lecture wearies him, especially if it be in a stereotyped 
 form ; and with teachers who are fault-finding, and who like to 
 hear themselves talk, this is apt to be the case. Still more 
 unfortunate would it be if we really should affect the lively 
 imagination of a sensitive youth by our description of the 
 wretchedness to which his wrong-doing, if persisted in, might 
 lead him, for then the conviction that he has already taken 
 one step in that direction may produce in him a fear which in 
 the future man may become terrible depression and lead to 
 degradation. 
 
 37. If to censure we add the threat of punishment, we 
 have then what in common language is called scolding. 
 
 If threats are made, the pupil must be made to feel that 
 they will be faithfully executed according to the word.
 
 28, The Science of Education. 
 
 The threat of punishment is, however, to be avoided ; for cir- 
 cumstances may arise which will render its fulfillment not only 
 objectionable, but wrong, and the teacher will then find himself 
 in the position of Herod and bound " for his oath's sake " to a 
 course of action which no longer seems the best. Even the 
 laAV in affixing a penalty to definite crimes allows a certain 
 latitude in a maximum and minimum of awarded punishment. 
 
 38. It is only after other means of reformation have been 
 tried, and have failed, that punishment is justifiable for error, 
 transgression, or vice. When our simple prohibition ( 36), 
 the statement of our reason for the prohibition( 36), and threat 
 of punishment (37) have all failed, then punishment comes 
 and intentionally inflicts pain on the youth in order to force 
 him by this last means to a realization of his wrong-doing. And 
 here the punishment must not be given for general bad conduct 
 or for a perverse disposition those being vague generalities 
 but for a special act of wrong-doing at that time. He should 
 not be punished because he is naturally bad or because he is 
 generally naughty, but for this one special and particular act 
 which he has committed. Thus the punishment will act on the 
 general disposition, not directly, but through this particular 
 act, as a manifestation of the disposition. Then it will not 
 accuse the innermost nature of the culprit. This way of 
 punishment is not only demanded by justice, but it is absolutely 
 necessary in view of the fact of the sophistry inherent in 
 human nature which is always busy in assigning various 
 motives for its actions. If the child understands, then, that he 
 is punished for that particular act which he knows himself to 
 have committed, he cannot feel the bitter sense of injustice 
 and misunderstanding which a punishment inflicted for general 
 reasons, and which attributes to him a depravity of motives 
 and intentions, so often engenders. 
 
 39. Punishment as an educational means must, neverthe- 
 less, be always essentially corrective, since it seeks always to 
 bring the youth to a comprehension of his wrong-doing and to 
 a positive alteration in his behavior, and, hence, has for its aim 
 to improve him. At the same time it is a sad testimony of 
 the insufficiency of the means which have been previously tried.
 
 Tlie Science of Education. 29 
 
 We should on no account aim to terrify the youth by physical 
 force, so that to avoid that he will refrain from doing the 
 wrong or from repeating a wrong act already done. This 
 would lead only to terrorism, and his growing strength would 
 soon put him beyond its power and leave him without motive 
 for refraining from evil. Punishment may have this effect in 
 some degree, but it should, above all, be madeto impress deeply 
 upon his mind the eternal truth that the evil deed is never 
 allowed in God's universe to act unrestrained and according to 
 its own will, but that the good and true is the only absolute 
 power in the world, and that it is never at a loss to avenge any 
 contradiction of its will and design. 
 
 It may be questioned whether the moral teaching in our 
 schools be not too negative in its measures ; whether it do 
 not confine itself too much to forbidding the commission of the 
 wrong deed, and spend too little force in sacuring the per- 
 formance of the right deed. Not a simple refraining from the 
 wrong, but an active doing of the right would be the better 
 lesson to inculcate. 
 
 In the laws of the state the office of punishment is first to 
 satisfy justice, 3 and only after this is done can the improve- 
 ment of the criminal be considered. If government should 
 proceed on the same basis as the educator, it would make a 
 grave mistake, for it has to deal, not with children, but with 
 adults, to whom it concedes the dignity of full responsibility 
 for all their acts. It has not to consider the reasons, either 
 psychological or 'ethical, which prompted the deed. The 
 actual deed is what it has first of all to deal with, and only 
 after that is considered and settled can it take into view any 
 
 11 That is, punishment is retributive and not corrective. Justice requires that 
 each man shall have the fruits of his own deeds; in this it assumes that each 
 and every man is free and self-determined. It proposes to treat each man as free, 
 and as the rightful owner of his deed and its consequences. If he does a deed 
 which is destructive to human rights, it shall destroy his rights and deprive him of 
 property, personal freedom, or even of life. But corrective punishment assumes 
 immaturity of development and consequent lack of freedom. It belongs to the 
 period of nurture, and not to the period of maturity. The tendency in our 
 schools is, however, to displace the forms of mere corrective punishment (cor- 
 poral chastisement), and to substitute for them forms founded on retribution 
 e. g.j deprivation of privileges. See sees. 42 and 43.
 
 30 The Science of Education. 
 
 mitigating circumstances connected therewith, or any pecul- 
 iarity of the individual. The educator, on the other hand, 
 has to deal with those who are immature and only growing 
 toward responsibility. As long as they are under the care of 
 a teacher, he is at any rate partially accountable for what they 
 do. We must never confound the nature of punishment in the 
 State with that of punishment as an educational means. 
 
 40. As to punishment, as with all other work in education, 
 it can never be abstractly determined beforehand, but it must be 
 regulated with a view to the individual pupil and his peculiar 
 circumstances. What it shall be, and how and when adminis- 
 tered, are problems which call for great ingenuity and tact on 
 the part of the educator. It must never be forgotten that 
 punishments vary in intensity at the will of the educator. He 
 fixes the standard by which they are measured in the child's 
 mind. Whipping is actual physical pain, and an evil in itself 
 to the child. But there are many other punishments which 
 involve no physical pain, and the intensity of which, as felt by 
 the child, varies according to an artificial standard in dif- 
 ferent schools. "To sit under the clock" was a great pun- 
 ishment in one of our public schools not that the seat was 
 not perfectly comfortable, but that one was never sent there 
 to sit unless for some grave misdemeanor. The teacher has 
 the matter in his own hands, and it is well to remember this 
 and to grade his punishments with much caution, so as to 
 make all pass for their full value. In some schools even sus- 
 pension is so common that it does not seem to the pupil a 
 very terrible thing. " Familiarity breeds contempt," and fre- 
 quency implies familiarity. A punishment seldom resorted to 
 will always seem to the pupil to be severe. As we weaken, 
 and in fact bankrupt, language by an inordinate use of super- 
 latives, so, also, do we weaken any punishment by its fre- 
 quent repetition. Economy of resources should be always 
 practiced. 
 
 41. In general, we might say that, for very young children, 
 corporal punishment is most appropriate ; for boys and girls, 
 isolation ; and for older youth, something which appeals to the 
 sense of honor.
 
 The Science of Education. 31 
 
 42. (1) Corporal punishment implies physical pain. Gen- 
 erally it consists of a whipping, and this is perfectly justifiable 
 in case of persistent defiance of authority, of obstinate care- 
 lessness, or of malicious evil-doing, so long or so often as the 
 higher perceptions of the offender are closed against appeal. 
 But it must not be administered too often, or with undue se- 
 verity. To resort to deprivation of food is cruel. But, while 
 we condemn the false view of seeing in the rod the only pana- 
 cea for all embarrassing questions of discipline on the teach- 
 er's part, we can have no sympathy for the sentimentality 
 which assumes that the dignity of humanity is affected by 
 a blow given to a child. It is wrong thus to confound self- 
 conscious humanity with child-humanity, for to the average 
 child himself a blow is the most natural form of retribution, 
 and that in which all other efforts at influence at last end . 
 The fully grown man ought, certainly, not to be flogged, for 
 this kind of punishment places him on a level with the child ; 
 or, where it is barbarously inflicted, reduces him to the level of 
 the brute, and thus absolutely does degrade him. In English 
 schools the rod is said to be often used ; if a pupil of the first 
 class, who is never flogged, is put back into the second, he be- 
 comes again subject to flogging. But, even if this be necessary 
 in the schools, it certainly has no proper place in the army 
 and navy. 
 
 43. (2) To punish a pupil by isolation is to remove him 
 temporarily from the society of his fellows. The boy or girl 
 thus cut off from companionship, and forced to think only of 
 himself, begins to understand how helpless he is in such a 
 position. Time passes wearily, and he is soon eager to re- 
 turn to the companionship of parents, brothers and sisters, 
 teachers and fellow-students. 
 
 But to leave a child entirely by himself without any super- 
 vision, and perhaps in a dark room, is as wrong as to leave two 
 or three together without supervision. It often happens when 
 they are kept after school by themselves that they give the 
 freest rein to their childish wantonness, and commit the wildest 
 pranks. 
 
 44. (3) Shutting children up in this way does not touch
 
 32 The Science of Education. 
 
 their sense of honor, and the punishment is soon forgotten, 
 because it relates only to certain particular phases of their 
 behavior. But it is quite different when the pupil is isolated 
 from his fellows on the ground that by his conduct he has 
 violated the very principles which make civilized society 
 possible, and is, therefore, no longer a proper member of it. 
 This is a punishment which touches his sense of honor, for 
 honor is the recognition of the individual by others as their 
 equal, and by his error, or by his crime, he had forfeited his 
 right to be their equal, their peer, and has thus severed 
 himself from them. 
 
 The separation from them is thus only the external form of 
 the real separation which he himself has brought to pass with- 
 in his soul, and which his wrong-doing has only made clearly 
 visible. This kind of punishment, thus touching the whole 
 character of the youth and not easily forgotten, should be 
 administered with the greatest caution lest a permanent loss of 
 self-respect follow. When we think our wrong-doing to be 
 eternal in its effects, we lose all power of effort for our owii 
 improvement. 
 
 This sense of honor cannot be developed so well in family 
 life, because in the family the ties of blood make all in a cer- 
 tain sense equal, no matter what may be their conduct. He 
 who has by wrong-doing severed himself from society is still a 
 member of the family, and within its sacred circle is still be- 
 loved, though it may be with bitter tears. No matter how 
 wrong he may have been, he still can find there the deepest 
 sympathy, for he is still father, brother, etc. It is in the con- 
 tact of one family with another that the feeling of honor is 
 first developed, and still more in the contact of the individual 
 with an institution which is not bound to him by any natural 
 ties, but is an organism entirely external to him. Thus, to the 
 child, the school and the school-classes offer a means of devel- 
 opment which can never be found in the family. 
 
 This fact is often overlooked by those who have the charge 
 of the education of children. No home education, no private 
 tutorship, can take the place of the school as an educational 
 influence. For the first time in his life the child, on being
 
 The Science of Education. 33 
 
 sent to school, finds himself in a community where he is re- 
 sponsible for his own deeds, and where he has no one to shield 
 him. The rights of others for whom he has no special affec- 
 tion are to be respected by him, and his own are to be de- 
 fended. The knowledge gained at the school is by no means 
 the most valuable acquisition there obtained. It must never 
 be forgotten by the teacher that the school is an institution on 
 an entirely different basis from the family, and that personal 
 attachment is not the principle on which its rule can be rightly 
 based. 
 
 45. This gradation of punishment from physical pain, up 
 through occasional isolation, to the touching of the innermost 
 sense of honor is very carefully to be considered, both with 
 regard to the different ages at which they are severally appro- 
 priate and to the different discipline which they necessarily 
 produce. Every punishment must, however, be always looked 
 at as a means to some end, and is thus transitory in its nature. 
 The pupil should always be conscious that it is painful to the 
 teacher to punish him. Nothing can be more effectual as a 
 means of cure for the wrong-doer than to perceive in the man- 
 ner and tone of the voice, in the very delay with which the 
 necessary punishment is administered, that he who punishes 
 also suffers in order that the wrong-doer may be cured of his 
 fault. The principle of vicarious suffering lies at the root of 
 all spiritual healing. 
 
 ///. The Limits of Education. 
 
 46. As far as the external form of education is concerned, 
 its limit is reached in the instrumentality of punishment in 
 which we seek to turn the activity which has been employed in 
 a wrong direction into its proper channel, to make the deed 
 positive instead of negative, to substitute for the destructive 
 deed one which shall be in harmony with the constructive 
 forces of society. But education implies its real limits 
 in its definition, which is to build up the individual into 
 theoretical and practical Reason. When this work goes prop- 
 erly on, the authority of the educator, as authority, necessarily 
 3
 
 34 The Science of Education. 
 
 loses, every day, some of its force, as the guiding principles 
 come to form a part of the pupil's own character, instead of 
 being super-imposed on him from without through the media- 
 tion of the educator. What was authority becomes now ad- 
 vice and example ; unreasoning and implicit obedience passes 
 into gratitude and affection. The pupil wears off the rough 
 edges of his crude individuality, which is transfigured, so to 
 speak, into the universality and. necessity of Reason, but with- 
 out losing his identity in the process. Work becomes enjoy- 
 ment, and Play is found only in a change of activity. The 
 youth takes possession of himself, and may now be left to him- 
 self. There are two widely differing views with regard to the 
 limits of education ; one lays great stress on the powerlessness 
 of the pupil and the great power ot the teacher, and asserts 
 that the teacher must create something out of the pupil. 
 
 This view is often seen to have undesirable results, where 
 large numbers are to be educated together. It assumes that 
 each pupil is only *' a sample of the lot " on whom the teacher 
 is to affix his stamp, as if they were different pieces of goods 
 from some factory. Thus individuality is destroyed, and all 
 reduced to one level, as in cloisters, barracks, and orphan asy- 
 lums, where only one individual seems to exist. Sometimes it 
 takes the form of a theory which holds that one can at will 
 flog anything into or out of a pupil. This may be called a 
 superstitious belief in the power of education. The opposite 
 extreme may be found in that system which advocates a " se- 
 vere letting alone," asserting that individuality is unconquer- 
 able, and that often the most careful and circumspect education 
 fails of reaching its aim because the inherent nature of the 
 youth has fought against it with such force as to render abort- 
 ive all opposing efforts. This idea of Pedagogy produces a 
 sort of indifference about means and ends which would leave 
 each individuality to grow as its own instinct and the chance 
 influences of the world might direct. The latter view would, 
 of course, preclude the possibility of any science of education, 
 and make the youth only the sport of blind fate. The com- 
 parative power of inherited tendencies and of educational ap- 
 pliances is, however, one which every educator should carefully
 
 The Science of Education. 35 
 
 study. Much careless generalization has been made on this 
 topic, and opinion is too often based upon some one instance 
 where accurate observation of methods and influences have 
 been wanting. 
 
 47. Education has necessarily a definite subjective limit 
 in the individuality of the youth, for it can develop in him only 
 that which exists in him as a possibility. It can lead and 
 assist, but it has no power to. create. What nature has denied 
 to a man education cannot give him, any more than it can on 
 the other hand annihilate his original gifts, though it may 
 suppress, distort, and measurably destroy them. And yet it is 
 impossible to decide what is the real essence of a man's indi- 
 viduality until he has left behind him the years of growth, 
 because it is not till then that he fully attains conscious 
 possession of himself. Moreover, at this critical time many 
 traits which were supposed to be characteristic may prove 
 themselves not to be so by disappearing, while long-slumbering 
 and unsuspected talents may crop out. Whatever has been 
 forced upon a child, though not in harmony with his individu- 
 ality, whatever has been driven into him without having been 
 actively accepted by him, or having had a definite relation to 
 his culture will remain perhaps, but only as an external 
 foreign ornament, only as a parasitic growth which weakens 
 the force of his real nature. But we must distinguish from 
 these little affectations which arise from a misconception of 
 the limits of individuality that effort of Imitation which 
 children and young people often exhibit in trying to copy in 
 their own actions those peculiarities which they observe and 
 admire in perfectly-developed persons with whom they may 
 come in contact. They see a reality which corresponds to their 
 own possibility, and the presentiment of a like or a similar 
 attainment stirs them to imitation, although this external 
 imitation may be sometimes disagreeable or ridiculous to the 
 lookers-on. We ought not to censure it too severely, remem- 
 bering that it springs from a positive striving towards true 
 culture, and needs only to be properly directed, and never to 
 be roughly put down. 
 
 48. The objective limit of education consists in the means
 
 36 The /Science of Education. 
 
 which can be applied for it. That the capacity for culture 
 should exist is the first condition of success, but it is none the 
 less necessary that it be cultivated. But how much cultivation 
 shall be given to it must depend in very great degree on the 
 means which are practicable, and this will undoubtedly again 
 depend on the worldly possessions and character of the family 
 to which the pupil belongs. If he comes of a cultivated and 
 refined family, he will have a great advantage at the start over 
 his less favored comrades ; and, with regard to many of the arts 
 and sciences, this limitation of education is of great significance. 
 But the means alone will not answer. Without natural capac- 
 ity, all the educational apparatus possible is of no avail. On 
 the other hand, real talent often accomplishes incredible feats 
 with very limited means ; and, if the way is only once open, 
 makes of itself a center of attraction which draws to itself as 
 with magnetic power the necessary means. Moral culture is, 
 however, from its very nature, raised above such dependence. 
 
 If we fix our thought on the subjective limit that of indi- 
 viduality ( 47) we detect the ground for that indifference 
 which lays little stress on education ( 46, end). If, on the 
 other hand, we concentrate our attention on the means of cul- 
 ture, we shall perceive the reason of the other extreme spoken 
 of of that pedagogical despotism ( 46) which fancies that 
 it is able to prescribe and enforce at will upon the pupil any 
 culture whatever, without regard to his special characteristics. 
 
 49. Education comes to its absolute limit when the pupil 
 has apprehended the problem which he is to solve, has com- 
 prehended the means which are at his disposal, and has acquired 
 the necessary skill in using them. The true educator seeks to 
 render himself unnecessary by the complete emancipation of 
 the youth. He works always towards the independence of the 
 pupil, and always with the design of withdrawing so soon as 
 he shall have reached this stand-point, and of leaving him to 
 the full responsibility for his own deeds. To endeavor to hold 
 him in the position of a pupil after this time has been reached 
 would be to contradict the very essence of education, which 
 must find its result in the independent maturity of the youth. 
 The inequality which formerly existed between pupil and
 
 The Science of Education. 37 
 
 teacher is now removed, and nothing becomes more oppressive 
 to the former than any endeavor to force upon him the au- 
 thority from which, in reality, his own efforts have freed him. 
 But the undue hastening of this emancipation is as bad an 
 error as an effort after delay. The question as to whether a 
 person is really ready for independent action as to whether 
 his education is finished may be settled in much the same 
 way in education as in politics. When any people has pro- 
 gressed so far as to put the question whether they are ready 
 for freedom, it ceases to be a question ; for, without the inner 
 consciousness of freedom itself, the question would never have 
 occurred to them. 
 
 50. But, although the pupil may rightly now be freed from 
 the hands of instructors, and no longer obtain his culture 
 through them, it is by no means to be understood that he is 
 not to go on with the work himself. He is now to educate 
 himself. Each must plan out for himself the ideal toward which 
 he must daily strive. In this process of self-transformation a 
 friend may aid by advice and example, but he cannot educate, 
 for the act of educating necessarily implies inequality between 
 teacher and pupil. The human necessity for companionship 
 gives rise to societies of different kinds, in which we may, per- 
 haps, say that there is some approach to educating theiv mem- 
 bers, the necessary inequality being supplied by various grades 
 and orders. They presuppose education in the usual sense of 
 the word, but they wish to bring about an education in a higher 
 sense, and, therefore, they veil the last form of their ideal in 
 mystery and secrecy. 
 
 By the term Philister the Germans indicate the man of a 
 civilized state who lives on, contented with himself and devoid 
 of any impulse towards further self-culture. To one who is 
 always aspiring after an Ideal, such a one cannot but be repul- 
 sive. But how many are they who do not, sooner or later, in 
 mature life, crystallize, as it were, so that any active life, any 
 new progress, is to them impossible?
 
 ANALYSIS AND COMMENTARY. 
 
 1. Pedagogics is not a complete, independent science by itself. 
 It borrows the results of other sciences [e. g., it presupposes the 
 science of Rights, treating of the institutions of the family and civil 
 society, as well as of the State ; it presupposes the science of anthro- 
 pology, in which is treated the relations of the human mind to nature. 
 Nature conditions the development of the individual human being. 
 But the history of the individual and the history of the race presents 
 a continual emancipation from nature, and a continual growth into 
 freedom, i. e., into ability to know himself and to realize himself in 
 the world by making the matter and forces of the world his instruments 
 and tools. Anthropology shows us how man as a natural being 
 i. e., as having a body is limited. There is climate, involving heat 
 and cold and moisture, the seasons of the year, etc. ; there is organic 
 growth, involving birth, growth, reproduction, and decay; there is 
 race, involving the limitations of heredity ; there is the telluric life 
 of the planet and the circulation of the forces of the solar sys- 
 tem, whence arise the processes of sleeping, waking, dreaming, and 
 kindred phenomena; there is the emotional nature of man, involving 
 his feelings, passions, instincts, and desires ; then there are the five 
 senses, and their conditions. Then, there is the science of phenom- 
 enology, treating of the steps by which mind rises from the stage of 
 mere feeling and sense-perception to that of self-consciousness, i. e., 
 to a recognition of mind as true substance, and of matter as mere 
 phenomenon created by Mind (God). Then, there is psychol- 
 ogy, including the treatment of the stages of activity of mind, as 
 so-called "faculties" of the mind, e. g., attention, sense-perception, 
 imagination, conception, understanding, judgment, reason, and the like. 
 Psychology is generally made (by English writers) to include, also, 
 what is here called anthropology and phenomenology. After psychol- 
 ogy, there is the science of ethics, or of morals and customs ; then, the 
 Science of Rights, already mentioned ; then, Theology, or the Science 
 of Religion, and, after all these, there is Philosophy, or the Science of 
 Science. Now, it is clear that the Science of Education treats of 
 the process of development, by and through which man, as a merely
 
 The Science of Education. 39 
 
 natural being, becomes spirit, or self-conscious mind ; hence, it 
 presupposes all the sciences named, and will be defective if it ignores 
 nature, or inind, or any stage or process of either, especially An- 
 thropology, Phenomenology, Psychology, Ethics, Rights, ^Esthetics, 
 or Science of Art and Literature, Religion, or Philosophy]. 
 
 2. The scope of pedagogics being so broad, and its presuppositions 
 so vast, its limits are not well defined, and its treatises are very apt 
 to lack logical sequence and conclusion ; and, indeed, frequently to 
 be mere collections of unjustified and unexplained assumptions, 
 dogmatically set forth. Hence the low repute of pedagogical litera- 
 ture as a whole. 
 
 3. Moreover, education furnishes a special vocation, that of 
 teaching. (All vocations are specializing being cut off, as it were, 
 from the total life of man. The "division of labor" requires that 
 each individual shall concentrate his endeavors and be a part of the 
 whole). 
 
 4. Pedagogics, as a special science, belongs to the collection of 
 sciences (already described, in commenting on 1) included under 
 the philosophy of Spirit or Mind, and more particularly to that part 
 of it which relates to the will (ethics and science of rights, rather 
 than to the part relating to the intellect and feeling, as anthropology, 
 phenomenology, psychology, aesthetics, and religion. "Theoretical" 
 relates to the intellect, "practical" relates to the will, in this phil- 
 osophy). The province of practical philosophy is the investigation 
 of the nature of freedom, and the process of securing it by self- 
 emancipation from nature. Pedagogics involves the conscious exer- 
 tion of influence on the part of the will of the teacher upon the will 
 of the pupil, with a purpose in view that of inducing the pupil to 
 form certain prescribed habits, and adopt prescribed views and in- 
 clinations. The entire science of mind (as above shown), is pre- 
 supposed by the science of education, and must be kept constantly 
 in view as a guiding light. The institution of the family (treated in 
 practical philosophy) is the starting-point of education, and without 
 this institution properly realized, education would find no solid 
 foundation. The right to be educated on the part of children, and 
 the duty to educate on the part of parents, are reciprocal ; and there 
 is no family life so poor and rudimentary that it does not furnish the 
 most important elements of education no matter what the subse- 
 quent influence of the school, the vocation, and the state. 
 
 5. Pedagogics as science, distinguished from the same as an art: 
 the former containing the abstract general treatment, and the latter
 
 40 The Science of Education. 
 
 taking into consideration all the conditions of concrete individuality, 
 e. gr., the peculiarities of the teacher and the pupil, and all the local 
 circumstances, and the power of adaptation known as "tact." 
 
 6. The special conditions and peculiarities, considered in educa- 
 tion as an- art, may be formulated and reduced to system, but they 
 should not be introduced as a part of the science of education. 
 
 7. Pedagogics has three parts : first, it considers the idea and 
 nature of education, and arrives at its true definition ; second, it pre- 
 sents and describes the special provinces into which the entire field 
 of education is divided ; third, it considers the historical evolution of 
 education by the human race, and the individual systems of educa- 
 tion that have arisen, flourished, and decayed, and their special func- 
 tions in the life of man. 
 
 8. The scope of the first part is easy to define. The history of 
 pedagogics, of course, contains all the ideas or definitions of the 
 nature of education ; but it must not for that reason be substituted 
 for the scientific investigation of the nature of education, which alone 
 should constitute this first part (and the history of education be 
 reserved for the third part). 
 
 9. The second part includes a discussion of the threefold nature 
 of man as body, intellect, and will. The difficulty in this part of the 
 science is very great, because of its dependence upon other sciences 
 (e. gr., upon physiology, anthropology, etc.), and because of the 
 temptation to go into details (e. <?., in the practical department, to 
 consider the endless varieties of schools for arts and trades). 
 
 10. The third part contains the exposition of the various 
 national standpoints furnished (in the history of the world) for the 
 bases of particular systems of education. In each of these systems 
 will be found the general idea underlying all education, but it will be 
 found existing under special modifications, which have arisen through 
 its application to the physical, intellectual, and ethical conditions of 
 the people. But we can deduce the essential features of the differ- 
 ent systems that may appear in history, for there are only a limited 
 number of systems possible. Each lower form finds itself comple- 
 mented in some higher form, and its function and purpose then become 
 manifest. The systems of "national" education ('. e., Asiatic sys- 
 tems, in which the individuality of each person is swallowed up in the 
 substantiality of the national idea just as the individual waves get 
 lost in the ocean on whose surface they arise) find their complete ex- 
 planation in the systems of education that arise in Christianity (the 
 preservation of human life being the object of the nation, it follows
 
 The Science of Education. 41 
 
 that when realized abstractly or exclusively, it absorbs and annuls the 
 mental independence of its subjects, and thus contradicts itself by 
 destroying the essence of what it undertakes to preserve, i. e., life 
 (soul, mind) ; but within Christianity the principle of the state is 
 found so modified that it is consistent with the infinite, untram- 
 melled development of the individual, intellectually and morally, and 
 thus not only life is saved, but spiritual, free life is attainable for 
 each and for all). 
 
 11. The history of pedagogy ends with the present system as 
 the latest one. As science sees the- future ideally contained in the 
 present, it is bound to comprehend the latest system as a realization 
 (though imperfect) of the ideal system of education. Hence, the 
 system, as scientifically treated in the first part of our work, is the 
 system with which the third part of our work ends. 
 
 12. The nature of education, its form, its limits, are now to be 
 investigated. ( 13-50.) 
 
 13. The nature of education determined by the nature of Mind 
 or Spirit, whose activity is always devoted to realizing for itself what 
 it is potentially to becoming conscious of its possibilities, and to 
 getting them under the control of its will. Mind is potentially free. 
 Education is the means by which man seeks to realize in man his 
 possibilities (to develop the possibilities of the race in each indi- 
 vidual). Hence, education has freedom for its object. 
 
 14. Man is the only being capable of education, in the sense 
 above defined, because the only conscious being. He must know 
 himself ideally, and then realize his ideal self, in order to become 
 actually free. The animals not the plants ma}' be trained, or culti- 
 vated, but, as devoid of self-consciousness (even the highest animals 
 not getting above impressions, not reaching ideas, not seizing gen- 
 eral or abstract thoughts), they are not realized for themselves, but 
 only for us. (That is, they do not know their ideal as we do. ) 
 
 15. Education, taken in its widest compass, is the education of 
 the human race by Divine Providence. 
 
 16. In a narrower sense, education is applied to the shaping of 
 the individual, so that his caprice and arbitrariness shall give place to 
 rational habits and views, in harmony with nature and ethical cus- 
 toms. He must not abuse nature, nor slight the ethical code of his 
 people, nor despise the gifts of Providence (whether for weal or 
 woe), unless he is willing to be crushed in the collision with these 
 more substantial elements. 
 
 17. In the narrowest, but most usual application of the term,
 
 42 The Science of Education. 
 
 we understand by "education" the influence of the individual upon 
 the individual, exerted with the object of developing his powers in a 
 conscious and methodical manner, either generally or in special 
 directions, the educator being relative!}' mature, and exercising 
 authority over the relatively immature pupil. Without authority on 
 the one hand and obedience on the other, education would lack 
 its ethical basis a neglect of the will-training could not be com- 
 pensated for by any amount of knowledge or smartness. 
 
 18. The general province of education includes the development 
 of the individual into the theoretical and practical reason immanent 
 in him. The definition which limits education to the development of 
 the individual into ethical customs (obedience to morality, social 
 conventionalities, and the laws of the state Hegel's definition is 
 here referred to: " The object of education is to make men ethical ") 
 is not comprehensive enough, because it ignores the side of the intel- 
 lect, and takes note only of the will. The individual should not only 
 be man in general (as he is through the adoption of moral and 
 ethical forms which are general forms, customs, or laws, and thus 
 the forms imposed by the will of the race), but he should also be 
 a self-conscious subject, a particular individual (man, through his 
 intellect, exists for himself as an individual, while through his general 
 habits and customs he loses his individuality and spontaneity). 
 
 19. Education has a definite object in view and it proceeds by 
 grades of progress toward it. The systematic tendency is essential 
 to all education, properly so called. 
 
 20. Division of labor has become requisite in the higher spheres 
 of teaching. The growing multiplicity of branches of knowledge 
 creates the necessity for the specialist as teacher. With this tendency 
 to specialties it becomes more and more difficult to preserve what 
 is so essential to the pupil his rounded human culture and symmetry 
 of development. The citizen of modern civilization sometimes 
 appears to be an artificial product by the side of the versatility of 
 the savage man. 
 
 21. From this necessity of the division of labor in modern times 
 there arises the demand for two kinds of educational institutions 
 those devoted to general education (common schools, colleges, etc.), 
 and special schools (for agriculture, medicine, mechanic arts, etc). 
 
 22. The infinite possibility of culture for the individual leaves, 
 of course, his actual accomplishment a mere approximation to a 
 complete education. Born idiots are excluded from the possibility of 
 education, because the lack of universal ideas in their consciousness
 
 The Science of Education. 43 
 
 precludes to that class of unfortunates anything beyond a mere 
 mechanical training. 
 
 23. Spirit, or mind, makes its own nature ; it is what it pro- 
 duces a self-result. From this follows the form of education. It 
 commences with ( 1 ) undeveloped mind that of the infant wherein 
 nearly all is potential, and but little is actualized; (2) its first stage 
 of development is self-estrangement it is absorbed in the observa- 
 tion of objects around it; (3) but it discovers laws and principles 
 (universality) in external nature, and finally identifies them with rea- 
 son it comes to recognize itself in nature to recognize conscious 
 mind as the creator and preserver of the external world and thus 
 becomes at home in nature. Education does not create, but it eman- 
 cipates. 
 
 24. This process of self-estrangement and its removal belongs to 
 all culture. The mind must fix its attention upon what is foreign to 
 it, and penetrate its disguise. It will discover its -own substance 
 under the seeming alien being. Wonder is the accompaniment of this 
 stage of estrangement. The love of travel and adventure arises from 
 this basis. 
 
 25. Labor is distinguished from play : The former concentrates 
 its energies on some object, with the purpose of making it conform to 
 its will and purpose ; play occupies itself with its object according to 
 its caprice and arbitrariness, and has no care for the results or pro- 
 ducts of its activity ; work is prescribed by authority, while play is 
 necessarily spontaneous. 
 
 26. Work and Play: the distinction between them. In play the 
 child feels that he has entire control over the object with which he is 
 denling, both in respect to its existence and the object for which it 
 exists. His arbitrary will may change both with perfect impunity, 
 since all depends upon his caprice ; he exercises his powers in play ac- 
 cording to his natural proclivities, and therein finds scope to devel- 
 ope his own individuality. In work, on the contrary, he must have 
 respect for the object with which he deals. It must be held sacred 
 against his caprice, must not be destroyed nor injured in any 
 way, and its object must likewise be respected. His own personal 
 inclinations must be entirely subordinated, and the business that he 
 is at work upon must be carried forward in accordance with its 
 own ends and aims, and without reference to his own feelings in the 
 matter. 
 
 Thus work teaches the pupil the lesson of self-sacrifice (the right 
 of superiority which the general interest possesses over the particular), 
 while play develops his personal idiosyncrasy.
 
 44 The Science of Education. 
 
 27. Without play, the child would become more and more a ma- 
 chine, and lose all freshness and spontaneity all originality. With- 
 out work, he would develop into a monster of caprice and arbitrari- 
 ness. 
 
 From the fact that man must learn to combine with man, in order 
 that the individual may avail himself of the experience and labors 
 of his fellow-men, self-sacrifice for the sake of combination is the 
 great lesson of life. But as this should be voluntary self-sacrifice, 
 education must train the child equally in the two directions of spon- 
 taneity and obedience. The educated man finds recreation in change 
 of work. 
 
 28. Education seeks to assimilate its object to make what 
 was alien and strange to the pupil into something familiar and habitual 
 to him. [The pupil is to attack, one after the other, the foreign 
 realms in the world of nature and man, and conquer them for his own, 
 so that he can be "'at home " in them. It is the necessary condition 
 of all growth, all culture, that one widens his own individuality by 
 this conquest of new provinces alien to him. By this the individual 
 transcends the narrow limits of particularity and becomes generic 
 the individual becomes the species. A good definition of education 
 is this: it is the process by which the individual man elevates himself 
 to the species.] 
 
 29. (1) Therefore, the first requirement in education is that the 
 pupil shall acquire the habit of subordinating his likes and dislikes to 
 the attainment of a rational object. 
 
 It is necessary that he shall acquire this indifference to his own 
 pleasure, even by employing his powers on that which does not ap- 
 peal to his interest in the remotest degree. 
 
 30. Habit soon makes us familiar with those subjects which 
 seemed so remote from our personal interest, and they become agree- 
 able to us. The objects, too, assume a new interest upon nearer ap- 
 proach, as being useful or injurious to us. That is useful which serves 
 us as a means for the realization of a rational purpose ; injurious, if 
 it hinders such realization. It happens that objects are useful in one 
 sense and injurious in another, and vice versa. Education must 
 make the pupil capable of deciding on the usefulness of an object, by 
 reference to its effect on his permanent vocation in life. 
 
 31. But good and evil are the ethical distinctions which furnish 
 the absolute standard to which to refer the question of the usefulness 
 of objects and actions. 
 
 32. (2) Habit is (a) passive, or (b) active. The passive habit 
 s that which gives us the power to retain our equipoise of mind in the
 
 The Science of Education. 45 
 
 midst of a world of changes (pleasure and pain, grief and joy, etc). 
 The active habit gives us skill, presence of mind, tact in emergen- 
 cies, etc. 
 
 33. (3) Education deals altogether with the formation of habits. 
 For it aims to make some condition or form of activity into a second 
 nature for the pupil. But this involves, also, the breaking up of previ- 
 ous habits. This power to break up habits, as well as to form them, 
 is necessary to the freedom of the individual. 
 
 34. Education deals with these complementary relations (an- 
 titheses) : (a) authority and obedience ; (b) rationality (general 
 forms) and individuality ; (c) work and play ; (d) habit (general cus- 
 tom) and spontaneity. The development and reconciliation of these 
 opposite sides in the pupil's character, so that they become his second 
 nature, removes the phase of constraint which at first accompanies 
 the formal inculcation of rules, and the performance of prescribed 
 tasks. The freedom of the pupil is the ultimate object to be kept in 
 view, but a too early use of freedom may work injury to the pupil. 
 To remove a pupil from all temptation would be to remove possi- 
 bilities of growth in strength to resist it ; on the other hand, to ex- 
 pose him needlessly to temptation is fiendish. 
 
 35. Deformities of character in the pupil should be carefully 
 traced back to their origin, so that they may be explained by their 
 history. Only by comprehending the historic growth of an organic 
 defect are we able to prescribe the best remedies. 
 
 36. If the negative behavior of the pupil (his bad behavior) 
 results from ignorance due to his own neglect, or to his wilfulness, 
 it should be met directly by an act of authority on the part of the 
 teacher (and without an appeal to reason). An appeal should be 
 made to the understanding of the pupil only when he is somewhat 
 mature, or shows by his repetition of the offence that his proclivity 
 is deep-seated, and requires an array of all good influences to rein- 
 force his feeble resolutions to amend. 
 
 37. Reproof, accompanied b} 7 threats of punishment, is apt to de- 
 generate into scolding. 
 
 38. After the failure of other means, punishment should be 
 resorted to. Inasmuch as the punishment should be for the pur- 
 pose of making the pupil realize that it is the consequence of his 
 deed returning on himself, it should always be administered for 
 some particular act of his, and this should be specified. The 
 "overt act" is the only thing which a man can be held account- 
 able for in a court of justice ; although it is true that the harboring
 
 46 The Science of Education. 
 
 of evil thoughts or intentions is a sin, yet it is not a crime until 
 realized in an overt act. 
 
 40. Punishment should be regulated, not by abstract rules, but in 
 view of the particular case and its attending circumstances. 
 
 41. Sex and age of pupil should be regarded in prescribing the 
 mode and degree of punishment. Corporal punishment is best for 
 pupils who are very immature in mind ; when they are more developed 
 they may be punished by any imposed restraint upon their free wills 
 which will isolate them from the ordinary routine followed by their 
 fellow-pupils. (Deprivation of the right to do as others do is a 
 wholesome species of punishment for those old or mature enough to 
 feel its effects, for it tends to secure respect for the regular tasks by 
 elevating them to the rank of rights and privileges.) Forj-oung men 
 and women, the punishment should be of a kind that is based on a 
 sense of honor. 
 
 42. (1) Corporal punishment should be properly administered by 
 means of the rod, subduing wilful defiance by the application of 
 force. 
 
 43. (2) Isolation makes the pupil realize a sense of his depend- 
 ence upon human society, and upon the expression of this dependence 
 by cooperation in the common tasks. Pupils should not be shut up in a 
 dark room, nor removed from the personal supervision of the teacher. 
 (To shut up two or more in a room without supervision is not isola- 
 tion, but association ; only it is association for mischief, and not for 
 study. ) 
 
 44. (3) Punishment based on the sense of honor may or may 
 not be based on isolation. It implies a state of maturity on the part 
 of the pupil. Through his offence the pupil has destroyed his 
 equality with his fellows, and has in reality, in his inmost nature, 
 isolated himself from them. Corporal punishment is external, 
 but it may be accompanied with a keen sense of dishonor. Isolation, 
 also, may, to a pupil, who is sensitive to honor, be a severe blow to 
 self-respect. But a punishment founded entirely on the sense of 
 honor would be wholly internal, and have no external discomfort 
 attached to it. 
 
 45. The necessity of carefully adapting the punishment to the 
 age and maturity of the pupil, renders it the most difficult part of the 
 teacher's duties. It is essential that the air and manner of the 
 teacher who punishes should be that of one who acts from a sense of 
 painful duty, and not from any delight in being the cause of suffer- 
 ing. Not personal likes and dislikes, but the rational necessity which
 
 The Science of Education. 47 
 
 is over teacher and pupil alike, causes the infliction of pain on the 
 pupil. 
 
 46. Punishment is the final topic to be considered under the head 
 of "Form of Education." 
 
 In the act of punishment the teacher abandons the legitimate prov- 
 ince of education, which seeks to make the pupil rational or obedient 
 to what is reasonable, as a habit, and from his own free will. The pupil 
 is punished in order that he may be made to conform to the rational, 
 by the application of constraint. Another will is substituted for the 
 pupil's, and good behavior is produced, but not by the pupil's free 
 act. While education finds a negative limit in punishment, it 
 finds a positive limit in the accomplishment of its legitimate object, 
 which is the emancipation of the pupil from the state of imbecility, 
 as regards mental and moral self-control, into the ability to direct 
 himself rationally, When the pupil has acquired the discipline which 
 enables him to direct his studies properly, and to control his inclina- 
 tions in such a manner as to pursue his work regularly, the teacher 
 is no longer needed for him he becomes his own teacher. 
 
 There may be two extreme views on this subject the one tending 
 towards the negative extreme of requiring the teacher to do every- 
 thing for the pupil, substituting his will for that of the pupil, and 
 the other view tending to the positive extreme, and leaving eveiything 
 to the pupil, even before his will is trained into habits of self-control, 
 or his mind provided with the necessary elementary branches 
 requisite for the prosecution of further stndy. 
 
 47. (1) The subjective limit of education (on the negative 
 side) is to be found in the individuality of the pupil the limit to his 
 natural capacity. 
 
 48. (2) The objective limit to education lies in the amount of 
 time that the person may devote to his training. It, therefore, 
 depends largely upon wealth, or other fortunate circumstances. 
 
 49. (3) The absolute limit of education is the positive limit 
 (see 46), beyond which the youth passes into freedom from the 
 school, as a necessary instrumentality for further culture. 
 
 50. The pre-arranged pattern-making work of the school is now 
 done, but self-education may and should go on indefinitely, and will 
 go on if the education of the school has really arrived at its " abso- 
 lute " limit i. e., has fitted the pupil for self-education. Emanci- 
 pation from the school does not emancipate one from learning 
 through his fellow-men. Man's spiritual life is one depending upon 
 cooperation with his fellow-men. Each must avail himself of the
 
 48 The Science of Education. 
 
 experience of his fellow-men, and in turn communicate his own 
 experience to the common fund of the race. Thus each lives the 
 life of the whole, and all live for each. School-education gives the 
 pupil the instrumentalities with which to enable him to participate in 
 this fund of experience this common life of the race. After school- 
 education comes the still more valuable education, which, however, 
 without the school, would be in a great measure impossible. 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 2 26. Last two paragraphs should be within quotation marks, being from an 
 
 English author, 
 g 29. The second and third paragraphs belong to $ 30. the numbering being 
 
 omitted. 
 33. Line four "instructive" should be "intuitive."
 
 The Science of Education. 49 
 
 SECOND PART. 
 The Special Elements of Education. 
 
 51. Education is the development of the theoretical and 
 practical Reason which is inborn in the human being. Its 
 end is to be accomplished by the labor which transforms a 
 condition, existent at first only as an ideal, into a fixed habit, 
 and changes the natural individuality into a glorified humanity. 
 When the youth stands, so to speak, on his own feet, he is 
 emancipated from education, and education then finds its 
 limit. The special elements which may be said to make up 
 education are the life, the cognition, and the will of man. 
 Without the first, the real nature of the soul can never be 
 made really to appear; without cognition, he can have no gen- 
 uine will i.e., one of which he is conscious; and without 
 will, no self-assurance, either of life or of cognition. It must 
 not be forgotten that these three so-called elements are not to 
 
 O 
 
 be held apart in the active work of education ; for they are insep- 
 arable and continually interwoven the one with the other. But 
 none the less do they determine their respective consequences, 
 and sometimes one, sometimes another has the supremacy. In 
 infancy, up to the fifth or sixth year, the physical develop- 
 ment, or mere living, is the main consideration : the next 
 period, that of childhood, is the time of acquiring knowledge, 
 in which the child takes possession of the theory of the world 
 as it is handed down a tradition of the past, such as man 
 has made it through his experience and -insight; and finally, 
 the period of youth must pave the way to a practical activity, 
 the character of which the self-determination of the will must 
 decide. 
 
 52. We may, then, divide the elements of Pedagogics into 
 4
 
 50 The Science of Education. 
 
 three sections: (1) the physical, (2) the intellectual, (3) the 
 practical. (The words " orthobiotics," "didactics," and 
 " pragmatics" might be used to characterize them.) 
 
 ^Esthetic training is only an element of the intellectual, 
 as social, moral, and religious training are elements of the 
 practical. But because these latter elements relate to exter- 
 nal things (affairs of the world), the name pragmatics, is appro- 
 priate. In so far as education touches on the principles which 
 underlie ethics, politics, and religion, it concurs with those 
 sciences, but it is distinguished from them in the capacity 
 which it imparts for solving the problems presented by the 
 others. 
 
 The scientific order of topics must be established through 
 the fact that the earlier, as the more abstract, constitute the con- 
 dition of their presupposed end and aim, and the later because 
 the more concrete constitute the ground of the former, and 
 consequently their final cause, or the end for which they exist ; 
 just as in human beings, life in the order of time comes before 
 cognition, and cognition before will, although life really pre- 
 supposes cognition, and cognition will. 
 
 FIRST DIVISION. 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION, OR ORTHOBIOTICS. 
 
 53. Only when we rightly comprehend the process of 
 life may we know how to live aright. Life, the " circle of 
 eternal change," is constantly transforming the inorganic into 
 the organic, and after using it, returning it again to the realm of 
 the inorganic. Whatever it does not assimilate of that which it 
 has taken in simply as a stimulant, and whatever has become 
 dead, it separates from itself and rejects. The organism is in 
 perfect health when it accomplishes this double task of or- 
 ganizing and disorganizing. On the comprehension of this 
 single fact all laws of physical health or of hygiene are based. 
 This idea of the essence of life is expressed by Goethe in his 
 Faust, where he sees the golden buckets perpetually rising
 
 The Science of Education. 51 
 
 and sinking. 1 When the equilibrium of the upward and down- 
 ward motion is disturbed, we have disease. When the motion 
 ceases we have death, in which the whole organism becomes 
 inorganic, and the " dust returns to dust." 
 
 54. It follows from this that not only in the organism as 
 a whole, but in every organ, and every part of every organ, 
 this restless change of the inorganic to the organic is going on. 
 Every cell has its own history, and this history is only the 
 same as that of the whole of which it forms a part. Activity 
 is then not inimical to the organism, but is the appointed 
 means by which the progressive and retrogressive metamor- 
 phoses must be carried out. In order that the process may 
 go on harmoniously, or, in other words, that the body may be 
 healthy, the whole organism, and every part of it in its own 
 way, must have its period of productive activity and then 
 also its period of rest in which it finds renewal of strength for 
 another period of activity. Thus we have waking and sleep, 
 inspiration and expiration of air. Periodicity is the law of 
 life. When we understand the relative antagonism (their stage 
 of tension) of the different organs, and their cycles of activity, 
 we shall hold the secret of the constant self-renewal of life. This 
 thought finds expression in the old fairy stories of "The 
 Search after the Fountain of Youth." And the figure of the 
 fountain, with its rising and falling waters, doubtless finds its 
 origin in the dim comprehension of the endless double move- 
 ment, or periodicity of life. 
 
 55. When to any organ, or to the whole organism, not suf- 
 ficient time is allowed for it to withdraw into itself and to 
 repair waste, we are conscious of fatigue. While the other 
 organs all rest, however, one special organ may, as if sep- 
 arated from them, sustain a long-continued effort of activity 
 even to the point of fatigue, without injury as, e.g., the lungs 
 in talking while all the other members are at rest. But, on 
 the other hand, it is not well to talk and run at the same time. 
 
 1 Faust; Part L, Scene I. "How all weaves itself into the Whole! Each 
 works and lives in the other! How the heavenly influences ascend and descend, 
 and reach each other the golden buckets ! "
 
 52 The Science of Education. 
 
 The idea that the body may be preserved in a healthy state 
 longer by sparing it i.e., by inactivity is an error which 
 springs from a false and mechanical conception of life. It is 
 just as foolish to imagine that health depends on the abundance 
 and excellence of food, for without the power of assimilating 
 the food taken, nourishment of whatever kind does more harm 
 than good ; all real strength develops from activity alone. 
 
 56. Physical education, according as it relates to the re- 
 pairing, the muscular, or the emotional activities, is divided 
 into (1) diatetics, (2) gymnastics, (3) sexual education. 
 In the direct activity of life these all interact with each other, 
 but for our purposes we are obliged to speak of them as if 
 they worked independently. Moreover, in the development 
 of the human being, they come into maturity of development 
 in a certain order: nutrition, muscular growth, sexual ma- 
 turity. But Pedagogics can treat of these only as they are 
 found in the infant, the child, and the youth; for with the 
 arrival of mature life, education is over. 
 
 FIRST CHAPTER. 
 Diatetics. 
 
 57. By diatetics we mean the art of repairing the constant 
 waste of the system, and, in childhood, of also building it up to 
 its full form and size. Since in reality each organism has its 
 own way of doing this, the diatetical practice must vary 
 somewhat with sex, age, temperament, occupation, and cir- 
 cumstances. The science of Pedagogics has then, in this de- 
 partment, only to enunciate general principles. If we go into 
 details, we fall into triviality. Nothing can be of more impor- 
 tance for the whole life than the way in which the physical 
 education is managed hi the very first stages of development. 
 So generally is this fact accepted, that almost every nation has 
 its own distinct system, which has been carefully elaborated. 
 Many of these systems, no doubt, are characterized by gross 
 errors, and widely differ as to time, place, and character, and 
 yet they all have a justification for their peculiar form.
 
 The Science of Education. 53 
 
 58. The best food for the infsint in the first months of its 
 life is its mother's milk. The employment of another nurse, 
 if a general custom, as in France, is highly objectionable, 
 since with the milk the child is likely to imbibe to some ex- 
 tent his physical and ethical nature. The milk of an animal 
 can never supply the place to a child of that of its own mother. 
 In Walter Scott's story of The Fair Maid of Perth, Eachim 
 is represented as timorous by nature, having been nourished 
 by a white doe after the death of his mother. 
 
 59. When the teeth make their appearance, it is a sign that 
 the child is ready for solid food ; and yet, till the second teeth 
 appear, light, half-solid food and vegetables should constitute 
 the principal part of the diet. 
 
 60. When the second teeth have conje, then the organism 
 demands both vegetable and animal food. Too much meat is, 
 doubtless, harmful. But it is an error to suppose that man 
 was intended to eat vegetables alone, and that, as some have 
 said, the adoption of animal food is a sign of his degeneracy. 
 
 The Hindoos, who live principally on a vegetable diet, are 
 not at all, as has been asserted, a mild and gentle race. A 
 glance into their stories, especially their erotic poetry, proves 
 them to be quite as passionate as any other people. 
 
 61. Man is an omnivorous being. Children have, there- 
 fore, a natural desire to taste of every thing. With them, eat- 
 ing and drinking have still a poetic side, and there is a pleas- 
 ure in them which is not wholly the mere pleasure of taste. 
 Their proclivity to taste of every thing should not, therefore, 
 be harshly censured, unless it is associated with disobedience, 
 or pursued in a clandestine manner, or when it betrays cun- 
 ning and greediness. 
 
 62. Children need much sleep, because they are growing 
 and changing so fast. In later years, waking and sleeping 
 must be regulated, and yet not too exactly. 
 
 63. The clothing of children should follow the form of 
 the body, and should be large enough to give them free room 
 for the unfettered movement of every limb in play. 
 
 The Germans do more rationally for children in the matter 
 of sleep and of dress than in that of food, which they often
 
 54 The Science of Education. 
 
 make too rich, and accompany with coffee, tea, etc. The 
 clothing should be not only suitable in shape and size, it must 
 also be made of simple and inexpensive material, so that the 
 child may not be hampered in his play by the constant anxiety 
 that a spot or a rent may cause fault to be found with him. 
 If we foster in the child's mind too much thought about his 
 clothes, we tend to produce either a narrow-mindedness, which 
 treats affairs of the moment with too much respect and con- 
 cerns itself with little things, or an empty vanity. Vanity 
 is often produced by dressing children in a manner that 
 attracts attention. (No one can fail to remark the peculiar 
 healthful gayety of German children, and to contrast it with 
 the different appearance of American children. It is undoubt- 
 edly true that the climate has much to do with this result, but 
 it is also true that we may learn much from that nation in our 
 way of treating children. Already we import their children's 
 story-books, to the infinite delight of the little ones, and 
 copies of their children's pictures are appropriated constantly 
 by our children's magazines and picture-books. It is to be 
 greatly desired that we should adopt the very sensible custom 
 which prevails in Germany, of giving to each child its own lit- 
 tle bed to sleep in, no matter how many may be required ; and, 
 in general, we shall not go far astray if we follow the Germans 
 in their treatment of their happy children.) 
 
 64. Cleanliness is a virtue to which children should be 
 trained, not only for the sake of their physical health, but also 
 because it has a decided moral influence. Cleanliness will not 
 have things deprived of their distinctive and individual char- 
 acter, and become again a part of original chaos. It is only a 
 form of order which remands all things, dirt included, to their 
 own places, and will not endure to have things mixed and 
 confused. All adaptation in dress comes from this same prin- 
 ciple. When every thing is in its proper place, all dressing 
 will be suitable to the occasion and to the wearer, and the era 
 of good taste in dress will have come. Dirt itself, as Lord 
 Palmerston so wittily said, is nothing but " matter out of 
 place." Cleanliness would hold every individual thing strictly 
 to its differences from other things, and for the reason that it
 
 The Science of Education. 55 
 
 makes pure air, cleanliness of his own body, ofhis clothing, and 
 of all his surroundings really necessary to man, it develops in 
 him the feeling for the proper limitations of all existent 
 things. (Emerson says : " Therefore is space and therefore is 
 time, that men may know that things are not huddled and 
 lumped, but sundered and divisible." He might have said, 
 " Therefore is cleanliness.") 
 
 SECOND CHAPTER. 
 Gymnastics. 
 
 65. Gymnastics is the art of cultivating in a rational 
 manner the muscular system. The activity of the voluntary 
 muscles, which are under the control of the brain, in dis- 
 tinction from the involuntary, which are under the control 
 of the spinal cord, renders possible the connection of man 
 with the external world, and acts in a reflex manner back 
 upon the involuntary or automatic muscles for the purposes 
 of repair and sensation. Because the activity of muscle-fibre 
 consists in the change from contraction to expansion, and the 
 reverse, gymnastics must use a constant change of movements 
 which shall not only make tense, but relax the muscles that 
 are to be exercised. , 
 
 66. The gymnastic art among any people will always 
 bear a certain relation to its art of war. So long as fighting 
 consists mainly of personal, hand-to-hand encounters of two 
 combatants, so long will gymnastics turn its chief effort 
 towards the development of the greatest possible amount of 
 individual strength and dexterity. But after the invention 
 of fire-arms of long range has changed the whole idea 
 of war, the individual becomes only one member of a body, 
 the army, the division, or the regiment, and emerges from 
 this position into his individuality again only occasionally, 
 as in sharpshooting, in the onset, or in the retreat. Modern 
 gymnastics, as an art, can never be the same as the ancient 
 art, for this very reason : that because of the loss of the 
 individual man in the general mass of combatants, the matter
 
 56 The Science of Education. 
 
 of personal bravery is not of so much importance as formerly. 
 The same essential difference between ancient and modern 
 gymnastics, would result from the subjective, or internal 
 character of the modern spirit. It is impossible for us, in 
 modern times, to devote so much thought to the care of the 
 body and to the reverential admiration of its beauty as did 
 the Greeks. 
 
 The Turners' Unions and Turners' Halls in Germany be- 
 longed to the period of intense political enthusiasm in the 
 German youth, and had a political significance. Now they 
 have come back again to their place as an instrument of educa- 
 tion, and seem in great cities to be of much importance. In 
 mountainous countries, and in country life generally, a definite 
 gymnastic drill is of much less importance, for much and 
 varied exercise is of necessity a constant part of the daily life 
 of every one. 
 
 The constant opportunity and the impulse to recreation 
 helps in the same direction. In cities, on the contrary, there 
 is not free space enough either in houses or yards for children 
 to romp to their heart's and body's content. For this reason 
 a gymnasium is here useful, so that they may have compan- 
 ionship in their plays. For girls this exercise is less necessary. 
 Dancing may take its place, and systematic exercise should be 
 used only where there is a tendency to some weakness or de- 
 formity. They are not to become Amazons. On the other 
 hand, boys need the feeling of comradeship. It is true they 
 find this in some measure in school, but they are not there 
 perfectly on an equality, because the standing is determined to 
 some extent by his intellectual ability. The academic youth 
 cannot hope to win any great preeminence in the gymnastic 
 hall, and running, climbing, leaping, and lifting do not inter- 
 est him very much as he grows older. He takes a far more 
 lively interest in exercises which have a military character. In 
 Germany the gymnastic art is very closely united with the art 
 of war. 
 
 (The German idea of a woman's whole duty to knit, to 
 sew, and to obey implicitly is perhaps accountable for what 
 Rosenkranz here says of exercise as regards girls. We, how-
 
 The Science of Education. 57 
 
 ever, who know that the most frequent direct cause of debility 
 and suffering in our young women is simply and solely a want of 
 muscular strength, may be pardoned for dissenting from his 
 opinion, and for suggesting that dancing is not a sufficient 
 equivalent for the more violent games of their brothers. We 
 do not fear to render them Amazons by giving them more 
 genuine and systematic exercise, both physically and intel- 
 lectually. ) 
 
 67. The main idea of gymnastics, and indeed of all exer- 
 cise, is to give the mind control over its natural impulses, to 
 make it master of the body which it inhabits, and of itself. 
 Strength and dexterity must combine to give us a sense 
 of mastership. Strength by itself produces the athelete, 
 dexterity by itself the acrobat. Pedagogics must avoid both 
 these extremes. Neither must it base its teaching of gym- 
 nastics on the idea of utility as, e. g., that man might save his 
 life by swimming, should he fall into the water, and hence 
 swimming should be taught, etc. 
 
 The main thought must be always to enable the soul to 
 take full and perfect possession of the organism, so as not to 
 have the bodv form a limit or fetter to its action in its dealings 
 
 / O 
 
 with the external world. We are to give it a perfect instru- 
 ment in the body, in so far as our care may do so. Then we 
 are to teach it to use that instrument, and exercise it in that 
 use till it is complete master thereof. 
 
 ( What is said about the impropriety of making athletes and 
 acrobats may with justice be also applied to what is called 
 "vocal gymnastics;" whence it comes that we have too 
 often vocal athletes and acrobats in our graduates, and few 
 readers who can read at sight, without difficulty or hesitation, 
 and with appreciation qr enjoyment, one page of good 
 English.) 
 
 68. There are all grades of gymnastic exercises, from the 
 simple to the most complex, constituting a system. At first 
 sight, there seems to be so much arbitrariness in these 
 things that it is always very satisfactory to the mind to detect 
 some rational system vin them. Thus we have movements 
 () of the lower extremities, (6) of the upper, (c) of the
 
 58 The Science of Education. 
 
 whole body, with corresponding movements, alternately, of the 
 upper and of the lower extremities. We thus have leg, arm, 
 and trunk movements. 
 
 69. (1) The first set of movements, those of the legs and 
 feet, are of prime importance, because upon them depends the 
 carriage of the whole body. They are (a) walking, (6) run- 
 ning, (c) leaping ; and each of these, also, may have varieties. 
 We may have high and low leaping, and running may be 
 distinguished as to whether it is to be a short and rapid, or a 
 slow and long-continued movement. We may also walk on 
 stilts, or run on skates. We may leap with a pole, or with- 
 out one. Dancing is only an artistic and graceful combina- 
 tion of these movements. 
 
 70. (2) The second set comprises the arm movements, 
 which are about the same as the preceding, being (a) lifting, 
 (5) swinging; (c) throwing. The use of horizontal poles and 
 bars, as well as climbing and dragging, belong to lifting. 
 Under throwing, come quoit and ball-playing and bowling. 
 These movements are distinguished from each other not only 
 quantitatively, but qualitatively ; as, for instance, running is not 
 merely rapid walking ; it is a different kind of movement from 
 walking, as the position of the extended and contracted muscles 
 is different. 
 
 71. (3) The third set of exercises, those of the trunk, 
 differ from the other two, which should precede it, in that they 
 bring the body into contact with an object in itself capable of 
 active resistance, which it has to subdue. This object may be 
 an element (water), an animal, or a human being ; and thus we 
 have (a) swimming, (6) riding, (c) fighting in single combat. 
 In swimming we have the elastic fluid, water, to overcome by 
 means of arm and leg movements. This may be made very 
 difficult by a strong current, or by rough water, and yet we 
 always have here to strive against an inanimate object. On 
 the contrary, in horseback riding we have to deal with 
 something that has a self of its own, and the contest challenges 
 not our strength alone, but also our skill and courage. The 
 motion is therefore very complex, and the rider must be able 
 to exercise either or all of these qualities at need. But his
 
 The Science of Education. 59 
 
 attention must not be wholly given to his horse, for he has to 
 observe also the road, and indeed every thing around him. One 
 of the greatest advantages of horseback riding to the over- 
 worked student or the business man lies doubtlessly in the 
 mental effort. It is impossible for him to go on revolving in 
 his mind the problems or the thoughts which have so wearied 
 or perplexed him. His whole attention is incessantly de- 
 manded for the management of his horse, for the observation 
 of the road, which changes its character with every step, and 
 with the objects, far or near, which are likely to attract the 
 attention of the animal he rides. Much good, doubtless, results 
 from the exercise of the muscles of the trunk, which are not in 
 any other motion called into such active play, but much also 
 from the unavoidable distraction of the mind from the ordinary 
 routine of thought, which is the thing most needed. When 
 the object which we are to subdue, instead of being an animal, is 
 a man like ourselves, as in single combat, we have exercise both 
 of body and mind pushed to its highest power. We have then 
 to oppose an intelligence which is equal to our own, and no 
 longer the intelligence of an unreasoning animal. Single com- 
 bat is the truly chivalrous exercise ; and this also, as in the old 
 chivalry time, may be combined with horsemanship. 
 . In single combat we find also a qualitative distinction, and 
 this of three kinds: () boxing and wrestling, (b) fighting 
 with canes or clubs, and (c) rapier and sword fencing. The 
 Greeks carried wrestling to its highest pitch of excellence. 
 Among the British, a nation of sailors, boxing is still retained 
 as a national custom. Fencing with a cane or stick is much 
 in use amo'ng the French artisan class. The cane is a sort of 
 refined club. When the sword or rapier makes its appearance, 
 we come to mortal combat. The southern European excels 
 in the use of the rapier; the Germans in that of the sword. 
 The appearance of the pistol marks the degeneracy of the art 
 of single combat, as it makes the weak man equal to the 
 strong, and there is therefore no more incentive to train the 
 body to strength in order to overcome an enemy. (The trained 
 intelligence, the quick eye, the steady hand, the wary thought 
 to perceive and to take advantage of an opportunity these
 
 60 The Science of Education. 
 
 are the qualities which the invention of gunpowder set up 
 above strength and brute force. The Greek nation, and we 
 may say Greek mythology and art, would have been impos- 
 sible with gunpowder ; the American nation impossible with- 
 out it. ) 
 i ' 
 
 THIRD CHAPTER. 
 Sexual Education. 
 
 [This chapter is designed for parents rather than for teachers, 
 and is hence not paraphrased here. A few observations are, 
 however, in place.] Great care is necessary at the period of 
 youth that a rational system of food and exercise be main- 
 tained. But the general fault is in the omission of this care in 
 preceding years. One cannot neglect due precautions for 
 many years, and then hope to repair the damage caused, by ex- 
 treme care for one or two years. 
 
 Special care is necessary that the brain be not overworked 
 in early years, and a morbid excitation of the whole nervous 
 system thereby induced. We desire to repress any tendency 
 to the rapid development of the nervous system. Above all, 
 is the reading of the child to be carefully watched and 
 guarded. Nothing can be worse food for a child than what are 
 called sensational romances. That the reading of such tends 
 to enfeeble and enervate the whole thin-king power is a fact 
 which properly belongs to the intellectual side of our question 
 not yet reached, and may be here merely mentioned. But the 
 effect on the physical condition of the youth, of sucli carelessly 
 written sensational stories, mostly of the French type, and 
 full of sensuous, if not sensual suggestions, is a point not often 
 enough considered. The teacher cannot, perhaps, except indi- 
 rectly, prevent the reading of such trash at home. But every 
 influence which he can bring to bear towards the formation of a 
 purer and more correct taste, he should never omit. Where 
 there is a public library in the town, he should make himself 
 acquainted with its contents, and give the children direct help 
 in their selection of books.
 
 The Science of Education. 01 
 
 This is an external means. But he should never forget that 
 every influence which he can bring to bear in his daily work 
 to make science pleasant and attractive, and every lesson 
 which he gives in the use of pure, correct English, free from 
 exaggeration, from slang, and from mannerism, goes far to 
 render such miserable and pernicious trash distasteful even to 
 the child himself. 
 
 Every example of thorough work, every pleasure that comes 
 from the solving of a problem or the acquisition of a HCAV 
 fact, is so much fortification against the advances of the enemy ; 
 while all shallow half work, all pretence or show tend to 
 create an appetite in the child's mind which shall demand such 
 food . 
 
 The true teacher should always have in his mind these far- 
 away and subtle effects of his teaching ; not present good or 
 pleasure either for himself or his pupil, but the far-off good 
 the distant development. That idea would free him from the 
 notion, too common in our day, that the success or failure of 
 his efforts is to be tested b}^ any adroitly contrived system of 
 examinations ; or still worse, exhibitions. His success can 
 alone be tested by the future lives of his pupils by their 
 love for, or dislike of, new knowledge. His success will be 
 marked by their active growth through all their lives ; his fail- 
 ure, by their early arrested development.
 
 TJie Science of Education. 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. 
 
 BY WM. T. HARRIS. 
 
 [TO BE USED AS AN INTRODUCTION TO PARAGRAPHS 81 TO 102 OF ROSENKRANZ's 
 
 PEDAGOGICS.] 
 
 I. 
 
 What beings can be educated ; the plant has reaction against its surroundings in the 
 form of nutrition; the animal has reaction in the form of nutrition and feeling; Aris- 
 totle calls the life of the plant the " nutritive soul," and the life of the animal the " sen- 
 sitive soul." 
 
 The life of the plant is a continual reproduction of new individuals a process of 
 going out of one individual into another so that the particular individual loses its 
 identity, although the identity of the species is preserved. 
 
 That which is dependent upon external circumstances, and is only 
 a circumstance itself, is not capable of education. Only a "self" 
 can be educated; and a "self" is a conscious unity a " self -ac- 
 tivity," a being which is through itself, and not one that is made by 
 surrounding conditions. 
 
 Again, in order that a being possess a capacity for education, it 
 must have the ability to realize within itself what belongs to its 
 species or race. 
 
 If an acorn could develop itself so that it could realize, not only 
 its own possibility as an oak, but its entire species, and all the varie- 
 ties of oaks within itself, and without losing its particular individu- 
 ality, it would possess the capacity for education. But an acorn, 
 in reality, cannot develop its possibility without the destruction of its 
 own individuality. The acorn vanishes in the oak tree, and the crop 
 of acorns which succeeds is not again the same acorn, except in kind 
 or species.. "The species lives, but the individual dies," in the 
 vegetable world. 
 
 So it is in the animal world. The brute lives his particular life, 
 unable to develop within himself the form of his entire species, and
 
 The Science of Education. 63 
 
 still less the form of all animal life. And yet the animal possesses 
 self- activity in the powers of locomotion, sense-perception, feeling, 
 emotion, and other elementary shapes. Both animal and plant react 
 against surroundings, and possess more or less power to assimilate 
 what is foreign to them. The plant takes moisture and elementary 
 inorganic substances, and converts them into nutrition wherewith to 
 build its cellular growth. The animal has not only this power of 
 nutrition, which assimilates its surroundings, but also the power of 
 feeling, which is a wonderful faculty. Feeling reproduces within the 
 organism of the animal the external condition ; it is an ideal repro- 
 duction of the surroundings. The environment of the plant may be 
 seized upon and appropriated in the form of sap, or in the form of 
 carbonic acid, for the nourishment of that plant; but there is no 
 ideal reproduction of the environment in the form of feeling, as in 
 the animal. 
 
 In the activity of feeling, the animal transcends his material, cor- 
 poreal limits lives beyond his mere body, and participates in the 
 existence of all nature. He reproduces within himself the external. 
 Such being the nature of the activity of feeling, which forms the dis- 
 tinguishing attribute that divides animals from plants, the question 
 meets us at the outset, "Why is not the animal capable of educa- 
 tion? Why can he not realize within himself his entire species or 
 race, as man can? " 
 
 In order to settle this fundamental question, we must study care- 
 fully the scope and limits of this activity, which we have termed 
 "Feeling," and which is known under many names as, sensation, 
 sensibility, sensitivity, sense-perception, intuition, and others. 
 
 Education aims to develop the mind as intellect and will. It must 
 . know what it is to develop, and learn to distinguish higher or more 
 complete stages of intellect and will f rom^those which are rudimen- 
 tary. 
 
 Again," the discussion of mind begins properly with the first or 
 most undeveloped manifestation at the stage where it is common 
 to brutes and huma* beings. Hence we may begin our study of 
 educational psychology at this point where the distinction between 
 animal and plant appears, and where the question of the capacity for 
 education arises. 
 
 When we understand the relation of feeling or sensibility to the 
 higher manifestations of mind, we shall see in what consists a capacity 
 for education, and we shall learn many essentials in regard to the 
 matter and method, the what and the how of education. 
 
 A general survey of the world discovers that there is inter-action
 
 64 The Science of Education. 
 
 among its parts. This is the verdict of science, as the systematic 
 form of human experience. In the form of gravitation we under- 
 stand that each body depends upon every other body, and the 
 annihilation of a particle of matter in a body would cause a change 
 in that body which would affect every other body in the physical 
 universe. Even gravitation, therefore, is a manifestation of the whole 
 universe in each part of it, although it is not a manifestation which 
 exists for that part, because the part does not knotv it. 
 
 There are other forms wherein the whole manifests itself in 
 each part of it as, for example, in the phenomena of light, heat, 
 and possibly in magnetism and electricit}'. These forms of mani- 
 festation of the external world upon an individual object are de- 
 striictive to the individuality of the object. If the nature of a thing 
 is stamped upon it from without, it is an element only, and not a self ; 
 it is dependent, and belongs to that on which it depends. It does 
 not possess itself, but belongs to that which makes it, and which 
 gives evidence of ownership by continually modifying it. 
 
 But the plant, as we just now said, has some degree of self-activity, 
 and is not altogether made by the totality of external conditions. 
 The growth of the plant is through assimilation of external sub- 
 stances. It reacts against its surroundings and digests them, and 
 grows through the nutrition thus formed. 
 
 All beings that cannot react against surroundings and modify 
 them, lack individuality. Individuality begins with this power of 
 reaction and modification of external surroundings. Even the power 
 of cohesion is a rudimentary form of reaction and of special indi- 
 viduality. 
 
 In the case of the plant, the reaction is reaZ, but not also ideal. 
 The plant acts upon its food, and digests it, or assimilates it, and 
 imposes its form on that which it draws within its organism. It does 
 not, however, reproduce within itself the externality as that exter- 
 nal exists for itself. It does not form within itself an idea, or even 
 a feeling of that which is external to it. Its participation in the 
 external world is only that of real modification|D/ it or through it ; 
 either the plant digests the external, or the external limits #, and 
 prevents its growth, so that where one begins the other ceases. 
 Hence it is that the elements the matter of which the plant is 
 composed, that which it has assimilated even still retain a large 
 degree of foreign power or force a large degree of externality 
 which the plant has not been able to annul or to digest. The plant- 
 activity subdues its food, changes its shape and its place, subordi- 
 nates it to its use; but what the matter brings with it, and still re-
 
 The Science of Education. 65 
 
 tains of the world beyond the plant, does not exist for the plant ; the 
 plant cannot read or interpret the rest of the universe from that 
 small portion of it which it has taken up within its own organism. 
 And yet the history of the universe is impressed on each particle 
 of matter, as well within the plant as outside of it, and it could be 
 understood were there capacities for recognizing it. 
 
 The reaction of the life of the plant upon the external world is not 
 sufficient to constitute a fixed, abiding individuality. With each 
 accretion there is some change of particular individuality. Every 
 growth to a plant is by thp sprouting out of new individuals new 
 plants a ceaseless multiplication of individuals, and not the preserva- 
 tion of the same individual. The species is preserved, but not the 
 particular individual. Each limb, each twig, even each leaf is a new 
 individual, which grows out from the previous growth as the first 
 sprout grew from the seed. Each part furnishes a soil for the next. 
 When a plant no longer sends out new individuals, we say it is dead. 
 The life of the plant is only a life of nutrition. 
 
 Aristotle called vegetable life "the nutritive soul," and the life of 
 the animal the "feeling," or sensitive soul. Nutrition is only an 
 activity of preservation of the general form in new individuals, it is 
 only the life of the species, and not the life of the permanent individual. 
 
 Therefore we see that in the vegetable world we do not possess a 
 being that can be educated for no individual of it can realize within 
 itself the species ; its realization of the species is a continual process 
 of going out of itself in new individuals, but no activity of return to 
 itself, so as to preserve the identity of an individual. 
 
 II. 
 
 Feeling is a unity of the parts of an organism everywhere present in it; feeling is also 
 an ideal reproduction of the external surroundings; feeling is therefore a synthesis of 
 the internal and external. Aristotle joins locomotion and desire to feeling, as correlates ; 
 how desire is a more explicit recognition of the unity of the external and internal than 
 the first form of feeling is ; feeling reproduces the external without destroying its exter- 
 nality, while nutrition receives the external only after it has destroyed its individuality 
 and assimilated it; desire is the side of feeling that unfolds into will. 
 
 With feeling or sensibility we come to a being that reacts on the 
 external world in a far higher manner, and realizes a more wonderful 
 form of individuality. 
 
 The animal possesses, in common with the plant, a process of assim- 
 ilation and nutrition. Moreover, lie possesses a capacity to feel. 
 Through feeling, or sensation, all of the parts of his extended organ- 
 ism are united in one centre. He is one individual, and not a bundle 
 5
 
 66 The Science of Education. 
 
 of separate individuals, as a plant is. With feeling, likewise, are joined 
 locomotion and desire. For these are counterparts of feeling. He 
 feels i.e., lives as one indivisible unity throughout his organism 
 and controls it, and moves the parts of his body. Desire is more than 
 mere feeling. Mere feeling alone is the perception of the external 
 within the being, hence an ideal reproduction of the external world. 
 In feeling, the animal exists not only within himself, but also passes 
 over his limit, and has for object the reality of the external world 
 that limits him. Hence it is the perception of his finiteness his 
 limits are his defects, his needs, wants, inadequateness his sep- 
 aration from the world as a whole. In feeling, the animal perceives 
 his separation from the rest of the world, and also his union with it. 
 Feeling expands into desire when the external world, or some portion 
 of it, is seen as ideally belonging to the limited unity of the animal 
 being. It is beyond the limit, and ought to be assimilated within the 
 limited individuality of the animal. 
 
 Mere feeling, when attentively considered, is found to contain 
 these wonderful features of self-activity : it reproduces for itself the 
 external world that limits it ; it makes for itself an ideal object, which 
 includes its own self and its not-self at the same time. It is a higher 
 
 D 
 
 form than mere nutrition ; for nutrition destroys the nature of such 
 externality as it receives into itself, while feeling preserves the 
 external in its foreign individuality. 
 
 But through feeling the animal ascends to desire, and sees the 
 independent externality as an object for its acquisition, and through 
 locomotion it is enabled to seize and appropriate it in a degree which 
 the plant did not possess. 
 
 III. 
 
 The various forms of feeling its specialization: (a) touch, the feeling of mere limits, 
 the indifferent external independence of the organism and its surroundings ; (6) taste, 
 the feeling of the external object when it is undergoing dissolution by assimilation; 
 (c) smell, the feeling of chemical dissolution in general ; (d) hearing, the feeling of the 
 resistance of bodies against attacks: sound being vibration caused by elastic reaction 
 against attacks on cohesion; (e) seeing, the feeling of objects in their independence, 
 without dissolution or attack ; plant life, nutrition, a process in which the individuality is 
 not preserved either in time or in space; animal life, as feeling, preserves its individu- 
 ality as regards space, but not as regards time. 
 
 Having noted these important characteristics of the lower orders of 
 life, and found that reaction from the part against the whole from 
 the internal against the external belongs to plant life and animal 
 life, we may now briefly mention the ways in which feeling is par- 
 ticularized. In the lower animals it is only the feeling of touch ; in
 
 The Science of Education. 67 
 
 higher organisms it becomes also localized as seeing, hearing, taste, 
 and smell. These forms of sense-perception constitute a scale (as it 
 were) of feeling. With touch, there is reproduction of externality, 
 but the ideality of the reproduction is not so complete as in the other 
 forms. With taste, the feeling cognizes the external object as 
 undergoing dissolution, and assimilation within its own organism. 
 We taste only what we are beginning to destroy by the first process 
 of assimilation that of eating. In smell, we perceive chemical 
 dissolution of bodies. In seeing and hearing, we have the forms of 
 ideal sensibility. Hearing perceives the attack made on the indi- 
 viduality of an external thing, and its reaction in vibrations, which 
 reveal to us its internal nature its cohesion, etc. In seeing, we 
 have the highest form of sense-perception as the perception of things 
 in their external independence not as being destined chemically, 
 like the objects of taste and smell ; not as being attacked and resist- 
 ing, like the objects which are known through the ear ; not as mere 
 limits to our organism, as in the sense of touch. 
 
 Sense-perception, as the developed realization of the activity of 
 feeling, belongs to the animal creation, including man as an animal. 
 
 We have not yet, therefore, answered the question of capacity for 
 education, so far as it concerns a discrimination between man and 
 the brute. We have only arrived at the conclusion that the vege- 
 table world does not possess the capacity for education, because its 
 individual specimens are no complete individuals, but only transi- 
 tory phases manifesting the species by continual reproduction of 
 new individuals which are as incomplete as the old ones. Plant life 
 does not possess that self-activity which returns into itself in the 
 same individual if we may so express it; it goes out of one indi- 
 vidual into another perpetually. Its identity is that of the species, 
 but not of the individual. 
 
 How is it with the animal with the being which possesses sensi- 
 bility, or feeling? This question recurs. In feeling there is a reac- 
 tion, just as in the plant. This reaction is, however, in an ideal 
 form the reproduction of the external without assimilation of it 
 and especially is this the case in the sense of sight, though it is true 
 of all forms of sensation to a less degree. 
 
 But all forms of sensibility are limited and special ; they refer only 
 to the present, in its forms of here and now. The animal cannot feel 
 what is not here and now. Even seeing is limited to what is present 
 before it. When we reflect upon the significance of this limitation 
 of sense-perception, we shall find that we need some higher form of 
 self-activity still before we can realize the species in the individual
 
 68 The Science of Education. 
 
 i.e., before we can obtain the true individual the permanent 
 individuality. 
 
 The defect in plant life was, that there was neither identity of 
 individuality in space nor identity in time. The growth of the 
 plant destroyed the individuality of the seed with which we began, 
 so that it was evanescent in time*; it served only as the starting-point 
 for new individualities, which likewise, in turn, served again the same 
 purpose ; and so its growth in space was a departure from itself as 
 individual. 
 
 The animal is a preservation of individuality as regards space. He 
 returns into himself in the form of feeling or sensibility ; but as re- 
 gards time, it is not so feeling being limited to the present. With- 
 out a higher activity than feeling, there is no continuity of individu- 
 ality in the animal any more than in the plant. Each new moment 
 is a new beginning to a being that has feeling, but not memory. 
 
 Thus the individuality of mere feeling, although a far more perfect 
 realization of individuality than that found in plant life, is yet, 
 after all, not a continuous individuality for itself, but only for the 
 species. 
 
 In spite of the ideal self-activity which appertains to feeling, even 
 in sense-perception, only the species lives in the animal and the 
 individual dies, unless there be higher forms of activity. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Representation is the next form above sense-perception. The lowest phase of repre- 
 sentation is recollection, which simply repeats for itself a former sense-perception or 
 series of sense-perceptions ; in representation the mind is free as regards external 
 impressions ; it do'es not require the presence of the object, but recalls it without its own 
 time and place ; fancy and imagination are next higher than recollection, because the 
 mind not only recalls images, but makes new combinations of them, or creates them 
 altogether; attention is the appearance of the will in the intellect; with attention begins 
 the separation of the transient from the variable in perception; memory is the highest 
 form of representation; memory deals with general forms not mere images of expe- 
 rience, but general types of objects of perception ; memory, in this sense, is productive as 
 well as reproductive ; with memory arises language. 
 
 Here we pass over to the consideration of higher forms of intellect 
 and will. 
 
 While mere sensation, as such, acts only in the presence of the 
 object reproducing (ideally), it is true, the external object, the 
 faculty of representation is a higher form of self-activity (or of 
 reaction against surrounding conditions), because it can recall, at its 
 own pleasure, the ideal object. Here is the beginning of emancipation 
 from the limitations of time.
 
 The Science of Education. 69 
 
 The self-activity of representation can summon before it the object 
 that is no longer present to it. Hence its activity is now a double one, 
 for it can seize not only what is now and here immediately before it, 
 but it can compare this present object with the past, and identify or 
 distinguish between the two. Thus recollection or representation may 
 become memory. 
 
 As memory, the mind achieves a form of activity far above that of 
 sense-perception or mere recollection. It must be noted carefully 
 that mere recollection or representation, although it holds fast the per- 
 ception in time (making it permanent), does not necessarily constitute 
 an activity completely emancipated from time, nor indeed very far 
 advanced towards it. It is only the beginning of such emancipation. 
 For mere recollection stands in the presence of the special object of 
 sense-perception ; although the object is no longer present to the 
 senses (or to mere feeling), yet the image is present to the repre- 
 sentative perception, and is just as much a particular here and now as 
 the object of sense-perception. There intervenes a new activity on 
 the part, of the soul before it arrives at memory. Recollection is not 
 memory, but it is the activity which grows into it by the aid of the 
 activity of attention. 
 
 The special characteristics of objects of the senses are allowed to 
 drop away, in so far as they are unessential and merely circumstantial, 
 and gradually there arises in the mind the type the general form 
 of the object perceived. This general form is the object of memory. 
 Memory deals therefore with what is general, and a type, rather than 
 with what is directly recollected or perceived. 
 
 The activity by which the mind ascends from sense-perception to 
 memory is the activity of attention. Here we have the appearance 
 of the will in intellectual activity. Attention is the control of per- 
 ception by means of the will. The senses shall no longer passively 
 receive and report what is oefore them, but they shall choose some 
 definite point of observation, and neglect all the rest. 
 
 Here, in the act of attention we find abstraction, and the greater 
 attainment of freedom by the mind. The mind abstracts its view 
 from the many things before it, and concentrates on one point. 
 
 Educators have for many ages noted that the habit of attention is 
 the first step in intellectual education. With it we have found the 
 point of separation between the animal intellect and the human. 
 Not attention simply like that with which the cat watches by the 
 hole of a mouse but attention which arrives at results of abstrac- 
 tion, is the distinguishing characteristic of educative beings. 
 
 Attention abstracts from some things before it and concentrates
 
 70 The Science of Education. 
 
 on others. Through attention grows the capacity to discriminate 
 between the special, particular object and its general type. Gener- 
 alization arises, but not what is usually called generalization only a 
 more elementary form of it. Memory, as the highest form of repre- 
 sentation distinguishing it from mere recollection, which repro- 
 duces only what has been perceived such memory deals with the 
 general forms of objects, their continuity in time. Such activity of 
 memory, therefore, does not reproduce mere images, but only the 
 concepts or general ideas of things, and therefore it belongs to the 
 stage of mind that uses language. 
 
 V. 
 
 Language marks the arrival at the stage of thought at the stage of the perception 
 of universals hence at the possibility of education; language fixes the general types 
 which the productive memory forms ; each one of these types, indicated by a word, 
 stands for a possible infinite of sense-perceptions or recollections ; the word tree, stands 
 for all the trees that exist, and for all that have existed or will exist. Animals do not 
 create for themselves a new world of general types, but deal only with the first world 
 of particular objects : hence they are lost in the variety and multiplicity of continuous 
 succession and difference. Man's sense-perception is with memory; hence always 
 ;i recognition of the object as not wholly new, but only as an example of what he 
 is mostly familiar with. Intellectual education has for its object the cultivation of 
 reflection; reflection is the Platonic "Reminiscence," which retraces the unconscious 
 processes of thought. 
 
 Language is the means of distinguishing between the brute and 
 the human between the animal soul, which has continuity only in 
 the species (which pervades its being in the form of instinct), and the 
 human, soul, which is immortal, and possessed of a capacity to be 
 educated. 
 
 There is no language until the mind can perceive general types 
 of existence ; mere proper names nor mere exclamations or cries 
 do not constitute language. All words that belong to language are 
 significative they l ' express " or ; ' mean ' ' something hence they 
 are conventional symbols, and not mere individual designations. 
 Language arises only through common consent, and is not an inven- 
 tion of one individual. It is a product of individuals acting together 
 as a community, and hence implies the ascent of the individual into 
 the species. Unless au individual could ascend into the species he 
 could not understand language. To know words and their meaning 
 is an activity of divine significance ; it denotes the formation of 
 universals in the mind the ascent above the here and now of the 
 senses, and above the representation of mere images, to the activity 
 which grasps together the general conception of objects, and thus 
 reaches beyond what is transient and variable.
 
 The Science of Education. 71 
 
 Doubtless the nobler species of animals possess not only sense- 
 perception, but a considerable degree of the power of representation. 
 The}' are not only able to recollect, but to imagine or fancy to some 
 extent, as is evidenced by their dreams. But that animals do not 
 generalize sufficiently to form for themselves a new objective world 
 of types and general concepts, we have a sufficient evidence in the 
 fact that they do not use words, or invent conventional symbols. 
 With the activity of the symbol-making form of representation, 
 which we have named Memory, and whose evidence is the invention 
 and use of language, the true form of individuality is attained, and 
 each individual human being, as mind, may be said to be the entire 
 species. Inasmuch as he can form universals in his mind, he can 
 realize the most abstract thought ; and he is conscious. Conscious- 
 ness begins when one can seize the pure universal in the presence of 
 immediate objects here and now. 
 
 The sense-perception of the mere animal, therefore, differs from 
 that of the human being in this : 
 
 The human being knows himself as subject that sees the object, 
 while the animal sees the object, but does not separate himself, as 
 universal, from the special act of seeing. To know that I am I, is 
 to know the most general of objects, and to carry out abstraction 
 to its very last degree ; and yet this is what all human beings do, 
 young or old, savage or civilized. The savage invents and uses 
 language an act of the species, but which the species cannot do 
 without the participation of the individual. 
 
 It should be carefully noted that this activity of generalization 
 which produces language, and characterizes the human from the 
 brute, is not the generalization of the activity of thought, so-called. 
 
 It is the preparation for thought. These general types of things 
 are the things which thought deals with. Thought does not deal 
 with mere immediate objects of the senses ; it deals rather with the 
 objects which are indicated by words i.e., general objects. 
 
 Some writers would have us suppose that we do not arrive at gen- 
 eral notions except by the process of classification and abstraction, 
 in the mechanical manner that they lay down for this purpose. The 
 fact is that the mind has arrived at these general ideas in the process 
 of learning language. In infancj^, most children have learned such 
 words as i.s, existence, being, nothing, motion, cause, change, I, you, 
 he, etc., etc. 
 
 But the point is not the mere arrival at these ideas. Education 
 does not concern itself with that ; it does not concern itself with
 
 72 The Science of Education. 
 
 children who have not yet learned to talk -that is left for the nur- 
 sery. 
 
 ' It is the process of becoming conscious of these ideas by reflec- 
 tion, with which we have to concern ourselves in education. Reflec- 
 tion is everywhere the object of education. Even when the school 
 undertakes to teach pupils the correct method of observation how 
 to use the senses, as in "object-lessons" it all means reflective 
 observation, conscious use of the senses ; it would put this in the 
 place of the naive spontaneity which characterizes the first stages of 
 sense-perception. 
 
 We must not underrate these precepts of pedagogy because we 
 find that they are not what it claims for them ?'.e., they are not 
 methods of first discovery, and of arrival at principles, but only 
 methods of reflection, and of recognizing what we have already 
 learned. We see that Plato's " Reminiscence" was a true form of 
 statement for the perception of truths of reflection. The first know- 
 ing is utterly unconscious of its own method ; the second or scientific 
 form of knowing, which education develops, is a knowing in which 
 the mind knows its method. Hence it is a knowing which knows its 
 own necessity and universality. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Education presupposes the stage of mind reached in productive memory; it deals with 
 reflection; four stages of reflection: (a) sensuous ideas perceive things; (b) abstract 
 ideas perceive forces or elements of a process; (c) concrete idea perceives one process, 
 a pantheistic first principle, persistent force; (d) absolute idea perceives a conscious 
 first principle, absolute person. 
 
 We have considered in our psychological study thus far the forms 
 of life and cognition, contrasting the phase of nutrition with that of 
 feeling, or sensibility. We have seen the various forms of feeling in 
 sense-perception, and the various forms of representation as the 
 second phase of intellectual activity the forms of recollection, 
 fancy, imagination, attention, and memory. We draw the line 
 between the animals capable of education and those not capable of 
 it, at the point of memory defined not as recollection, but as the 
 faculty of general ideas or conceptions, to which the significant words 
 of language correspond. 
 
 With the arrival at language, we arrive at education in the humar> 
 sense of the term ; with the arrival at language, we arrive at the view 
 of the world at which thought as a mental process begins. As sense- 
 perception has before it a world of present objects, so thought has
 
 The Science of Education. 73 
 
 before it a world of general concepts, which language has defined 
 and fixed. 
 
 It is true that few persons are aware that language stands for a 
 world of general ideas, and that reflection has to do with this world of 
 universals. Hence it is, too, that so much of the so-called science of 
 education is very crude and impractical. Much of it is materialistic, 
 and does not recognize the self-activity of mind ; but makes it out to 
 be a correlation of physical energies derived from the transmuta- 
 tion of food by the process of digestion, and then by the brain eon- 
 verted into thought. 
 
 Let us consider now the psychology of thinking, or reflection,- and 
 at first in its most inadequate forms. As a human process, the know- 
 ing is always a knowing by universals a re-cognition, and not sim- 
 ple apprehension, such as the animals, or such as beings have that 
 do not use language. The process of development of stages of 
 thought begins with sensuous ideas, which perceive mere individual, 
 concrete, real objects, as it supposes. In conceiving these, it uses 
 language and thinks general ideas, but it does not know it, nor is it 
 conscious of the relations involved in such objects. This is the first 
 stage of reflection. The world exists for it as an innumerable con- 
 geries of things, each one independent of the other, and possessing 
 self-existence. It is the stand-point from which atomism would be 
 adopted as the philosophic system. Ask it what the ultimate prin- 
 ciple of existence is, and it would reply, " Atoms." 
 
 But this view of the world is a very unstable one, and requires 
 very little reflection to overturn it, and bring one to the next basis 
 that of abstract ideas. When the mind looks carefully at the world 
 of things, it finds that there is dependence and interdependence. Each 
 object is related to something else, and changes when that changes. 
 Each object is a part of a process that is going on. The process 
 produced it, and the process will destroy it nay, it is destroying it 
 now, while we look at it. We find, therefore, that things are not the 
 true beings which we thought them to be, but processes are the 
 reality. Science takes this attitude, and studies out the history of 
 each thing in its rise and its disappearance, and it calls this history 
 the truth. This stage of thinking does not believe in atoms or in 
 things; it believes in forces and processes "abstract ideas" 
 because they are negative, and cannot be seen by the senses. This 
 is the dynamic stand-point in philosophy. 
 
 Reflection knows that these abstract ideas possess more truth, more 
 reality, than the ' ' things ' ' of sense-perception ; the force is more
 
 74 The Science of Education. 
 
 real than the thing, because it outlasts a thing, it causes things to 
 originate, and to change, and disappear. 
 
 This stage of abstract ideas or of negative powers or forces finally 
 becomes convinced of the essential unity of all processes and of all 
 forces ; it sets up the doctrine of the correlation of forces, and 
 believes that persistent force is the ultimate truth, the fundamental 
 reality of the world. This we may call a concrete idea, for it sets 
 up a principle which is the origin of all things and forces, and also 
 the destroyer of all things, and hence more real than the world of 
 things and forces ; and because this idea, when carefully thought 
 out, proves to be the idea of self-determination self-activity. 
 
 Persistent force, as taught us by the scientific men of our da} T , is 
 the sole ultimate principle, and as such it gives rise to all existence 
 by its self-activity, for there is nothing else for it to act upon. It 
 causes all origins, all changes, and all evanescence. It gives rise to 
 the particular forces heat, light, electricity, magnetism, etc. 
 which in their turn cause the evanescent forms which sense-percep- 
 tion sees as "things." 
 
 We have described three phases : 
 
 I. Sensuous Ideas perceive " things." 
 
 II. Abstract Ideas perceive "forces." 
 
 III. Concrete Idea perceives "persistent force." 
 
 In this progress from one phase of reflection to another, the intel- 
 lect advances to a deeper and truer reality J at each step. 
 
 1 Hume, in his famous sketch of the Human Understanding, makes all the percep- 
 tions of the human mind resolve themselves into two distinct kinds : impressions 
 and ideas. " The difference between them consists in the degrees of force and 
 liveliness with which they strike upon the mind, and make their way into our 
 thought and consciousness. Those perceptions which enter with the most force 
 and violence we may name impressions, and under this name include all our sen- 
 sations, passions, and emotions, as they make their first appearance in the soul. 
 By ideas, I mean the faint images of these in thinking and reasoning." " The 
 identity which we ascribe to the mind of man is only a fictitious one." 
 
 From this we see that his stand-point is that of "sensuous ideas," the first stage 
 of reflection. The second or .third stage of reflection, if consistent, would not ad- 
 mit the reality to be the object of sense-impressions, and the abstract ideas to 
 be only "faint images." One who holds, like Herbert Spencer, that persistent 
 force . is the ultimate reality " the sole truth, which transcends experience by 
 underlying it" ought to hold that the generalization which reaches the idea of 
 unity of force is the truest and most adequate of thoughts. And yet Herbert 
 Spencer holds substantially the doctrine of Hume, in the words : " We must 
 predicate nothing of objects too great or too multitudinous to be mentally repre-
 
 The Science of Education. 75 
 
 Sense-ideas which look upon the world as a world of independent 
 objects, do not cognize the world truly. The next step, abstract 
 ideas, cognizes the world as a process of forces, and " things" are 
 seen to be mere temporary equilibria in the interaction of forces ; 
 " each thing is a bundle of forces." But the concrete idea of the 
 Persistent force sees a deeper and more permanent reality underly- 
 ing particular forces. It is one ultimate force. In it all multiplicity 
 of existences has vanished, and yet it is the source of all particular 
 existence. 
 
 This view of the world, on the stand-point of concrete idea, is 
 pantheistic. It makes out a one supreme principle which originates 
 and destroys all particular existences, all finite beings. It is the 
 stand-point of Orientalism, or of the Asiatic thought. Buddhism 
 and Brahminism have reached it, and not transcended it. It is a 
 necessary stage of reflection in the mind, just as much as the stand- 
 point of the first stage of reflection, which regards the world as com- 
 posed of a multiplicity of independent things ; or the stand-point of 
 the second stage of reflection, which looks upon the world as a col- 
 lection of relative existences in a state of process. 
 
 The final stand-point of the intellect is that in which it perceives 
 the highest principle to be a self-determining or self-active Being, 
 self-conscious, and creator of a world which manifests him. A logical 
 investigation of the principle of " pdrsistent force " would prove that 
 this principle of Personal Being is presupposed as its true form. Since 
 the " persistent force" is the sole and ultimate reality, it originates 
 all other reality only by self-activity, and thus is self-determined. 
 Self-determination implies self-consciousness as the true form of its 
 existence. 
 
 These four forms of thinking, which we have arbitrarily called sen- 
 suous, abstract, concrete, and absolute ideas, correspond to four views 
 of the world: (1) as a congeries of independent things; (2) as a 
 play of forces; (3) as the evanescent appearance of a negative 
 essential power ; (4) as the creation of a Personal Creator, who makes 
 it the theatre of the development of conscious beings in his image. 
 Each step upward in ideas arrives at a more adequate idea of the true 
 reality. Force is more real than thing; persistent force than particu- 
 lar forces ; Absolute Person is more real than the force or forces 
 which he creates. 
 
 eented, or we must make our predications by means of extremely inadequate 
 representations of such objects mere symbols of them." (Page 27 of "First 
 Principles.")
 
 76 The Science of Education. 
 
 This final form of thinking is the only form which is consistent with 
 the theory of education. Each individual should ascend by education 
 into participation conscious participation in the life of the species. 
 Institutions family, society, state, church all are instrumentalities 
 by which the humble individual may avail himself of the help of the 
 race, and live over in himself its life. The highest stage of thinking 
 is the stage of insight. It sees the world as explained by the prin- 
 ciple of Absolute Person. It finds the world of institutions a world 
 in harmony with such a principle.
 
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