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"A capital work; we heartily commend it." — Ciril Service Gazette. Erench Course, The Matriculation. By E. Weekley, M.A. 3s. 6d. Zbc IDiuivccait^ tutorial ^nce. J > » > * THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE ITS HISTORY AND STRUCTUEK BY W. H. LOW, M.A. LoND., AVTHOR OF "the INTEKMfcDlATE HISTORY OF ENULISH LITtnATUaB." SIXTH EDITION. BE VISED. London: W. B. CLIVE, (UniBereitg Sutoriaf (press (University Correspondence College Press), 157 Drury Lane, W.O. lUOl. in- CONTENTS. CHAnVll PAGE I. TiiK Relation of English to Other Languages BY its Origin 1 II. .Survey of the Chief- Changes that have taken PLACE in the Grammatical Structure of ^ English 5 2 III. Tin: Influence of otukk Languages upon English CO -' — Sources of our Vocabulary . . . .10 IV. The Alphabet and the Sounds of English . . 29 a. a: Q V. The Consonantal Sound Shiftings (" Grimm's Law," etc.) 41 VI, JlETHOD OF Derivation— Root and Stem— Prefixes AND Suffixes— Gradation and Mutation . . oo VII. Transposition, Assimilation, Addition, and Dis- appearance of Sounds in English . . . S7 VIII. On Till, History and Form of French Words ADOiriED in English ...... 61 IX. Introductory Remarks on Grammar, tuk. Parts of Speech, etc 6S VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAUHT X. The Noun 73 XI. Pkonouns 106 Xir. The Adjective 114 XIII. The Verb . . . " 130 XIV. The Adverb 173 XV. Prepositions 178 XVI. Conjunctions . 181 XVII. Interjections 183 XVIII. Syntax 184 XIX. Parsing and Analvsis .193 XX. Metre . * 201 Test Questions 215 Index I. Grammatical Terms, etc. , . . . . . 246 ,, II. Selected Words and Affixes .... 250- PREFACE. TiiK paragraphs of this book printed in the larger type cover the more elementary parts of the subject, and are meant to form a first course; together with the paragraphs in smaller typo to which no obelus (f) is prefixed they should be found sufficient to cover the requirements of the London University Matriculation Examination, The passages marked with an obelus are somewhat more advanced than the rest of the book, and may be omitted on a first reading. The writer desires here to acknowledge his indebtedness to Professor Skeat's Principles of Etymology, from which and from Koch a very large number of the examples are taken ; he has also made much use in certain parts of the book of Whitney's German Grammar, of Dr. AVright's Gothic Primer (for Grimm's Law), of Brachet's French Grammar, and of Miss Soames' Introduction to the Study of Phonetics. Professor Skeat's Dictionary has been constantly employed. It is to the author a matter of regret that Dr. Sweet's lumiiious New English Grammar did not appear till after the whole of this book was in type ; he has, how- ever, here and there made a few alterations suggested by a perusal of it. Many other books have of course been consulted, but he believes there is none besides those named to which he is under any considerable obligations. Vll VXll PREFACE. PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION. For this edition the type of the book has been reset, the whole having undergone thorough revision at the hands of Mr. A. J. Wyatt and others. Among the chief changes introduced are a fuller treat- ment of Verner's Law and an extended account of English metres. The sections on the former have replaced those which in earlier editions dealt with the Second Sound- Shifting, and the original numbering of sections remains unchanged throughout. (' ABBEEVIATIONS. Most of these, such as aO,j. for adjective, vh. for verb, etc., are not given here, as they cannot but be understood ; others are ;^ A.F, for Anglo-French. Qer. ,, German. I.E. ,, Indo-European. L.L. ,, Late or Low Latin. M.E. „ Middle English. N.E.D. ,, New English Dictionary. O.E. for Old EngUsh. O.F. Pop. R. Tetd. W.S. Old French. Popular. Romance. Teutonic. West Saxon. SYMBOLS. > is used for " becomes," " passes into," " gives as a derivative,' < is used for " comes from," " is derived from," etc. + i-i usedfor "in combination with," "together with." For the letters h^ ti, z, see { 28. * indicates a theoretical form, t is prefixed to paragraphs of a somewhat advanced character. etc. thp: ENGLISH LANGUAGE r/W JTISTOUY AXT) STliUCTURE. CHAPTP]R I. ThB RELATtON OP ENGLISH TO OTHER LANCiUAGES RY ITS Origix. § 1. Englisc. — About the middle of the fifth century invaders from the shores of tlie i^orth Sea began to seek Britain and settle it by colonisation and conquest. The settlers were men of various closely-connected Low German tribes, prominent amono- whom were the " Engle" or Angles. From theii- name, the language spoken by the GeiTuanic conqueroi-s of Britain became known as " Englisc " or (as we now pronounce it) English. That language is the foundation or backbone of the English of to-day. (/() The immigrants appear to have been mainly Angles (i.e. inhabitants of Angel, called bj- Bede Anfjidns — now Angeln — in •Schleswig), Saxons (whose name is retained in German Saxony and in English Sussex, Essex, Middlesex, i.e. South Saxons, East Saxons, &c.), and Jutes (who came from a district somewhat to the north of the Angles now known as Jutland, i.e. Juteland). In the oldest English remains (charters and glossaries dating from the seventh century) the existence of different dialects has been detected by scholars; the chief of these dialects are the Northumbrian, Mercian (Midland), and West Saxon (in the West and South) ; Xorthumbrian ind Mercian are Aitglian dialects ; Saxon is represented in literature K. L. B 2 THI-: ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§!)«- by the West Saxon. A. third dialect — Kentish — was spoken by the Jiiten of Kent. {b) Literature first flourished in Northumbria, and therefore among Angles, which seems to be the cause why the name " Englisc," or English, became used as a general term for the speech of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. Bede {d. 735) uses gens Auglorum, " nation of the Angles," comprehensively for all three tribes, and similarly, in at least one passage, lingua AngJornm, " language of the Angles," to indicate their common tongue. He even speaks of the laws of Ethel- bert of Kent as written Angloriiin scrmone, "in the speech of the Angles," where Alfred translates '■'on Englisc. ^^ Thus, as Mr. Bradley says (in the Ncic Eiiglhh Dlctlonarg), "the name English for the language is older than the name England for the country." § 2. The Nearest Relatives of English. — There were other Low Grei-maii peoples left behind on the mainland, and their lang'uages were closely akin to that of the invaders of Britain ; Dutch and Frisian are the chief survivors of these, and they constitute with English the so-called " Low German " group. But various other tribes or nations also spoke Germanic tongues of common oi'igin with these, though they differed from them more widely than these differed from one another ; thus we have the Scandinavian group (Norse, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish), High German (the language of modern Germany), and Gothic. All these tongues, together with some dialects of minor importance, constitute the Germanic or " Teutonic " (see a below) group of languages ; a tabular view of their relationships is given in § 4. («) As the word " German" is generally used in common speech to signify Modern High German, it is preferable to use "Teutonic " in the wider sense. N.B. — By German (or Ger.) henceforth throughout this book is signified Modern High German unless the contrary is explicitly stated. Teutonic (or Teut.) refers to any or all of the languages classed above as Teutonic or Germanic, or to the parent language. Primitive Teutonic (see § 3). t {b) The word Teutonic is derived from a Latinised form (adj., Teiitonicus, from Tentones, "Teutons") of a Teutonic word meaning "people"; this is in Gothic \>iHda, in O.E. \>cod. The Old High Ger. form of this word, with an adjective suffix, is diiif-isk, whence § 4J ir> UI.LATIOXSHIPS, 3 Ger. (h'ulHch (=" German") ami Enj^l. Dutch. The doiivutiou of " German" (which the Germans do not use, except in the wider sense of Teuton) is doubtful ; wu have it from a late Latin "Gcrmanus," which is perhaps from a Celtic word. § 3. Other Relatives of Euglish. — Just as English, Genuiiii, Dutch, Xorse, and othur hmguages have been gi'ouped together as close connections by birth, so have various other toiigues been similarly grouped, and in sevei'al of these we shall find we are interested. Thus, for instance, there are the Celtic, the Italic, the Slavonic groujjs or families. Further, just as the various languages which make up a given gi'oup may be regarded as dialects of a single original parent tongue, so too, may these various parent tongues be regarded again as dialects of one ancestral parent tong-ue. We know, for instance, that in comparatively modern times French, Italian, and Spanish have been developed out of spoken Latin, widely as they may, at first sight, appear to differ from it in many Avays. We have reason to believe that in somewhat similar ways all the languages grouped as Teutonic were developed out of one primitive Teutonic tongue ; and that likewise Irish, Gaelic, and the language of the Britons pi-oceed from a primitive Celtic tongue, and so on. Further, the investigations of philologists teach us that the primitive Italic, Celtic, Teutonic, and many other tongues were evolved in the remote past from a single type of speech ; to this the name Indo-European, or Aryan, is generally given in England. The Germans use the term " Indo-Germanic " for the whole family, and " Aryan " to indicate the section of it formed by the Indian and Iranian languages (see § 4). (rt) One of the chief distinctions which mark off the Teutonic languages from the other Indo-European ones lies in the way in which the former shifted the mutes. Another is the formation and use of a verbal conjugation having a preterite and past participle with dental suflBxes — the weak conjugation. § 4. A general view of the relationships between the chief members of the Indo-European famil}' of languages is easily obtained from a table such as the following: — THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§4 Indo-European (or Aryan). T. Table of the Indo-European Family of Languages. r {a) Indian Group, including Sanskrit I (dead), and several spoken lan- Asiatic -^ guages of India. I Iranian group, including Persian. *- {b) Armenian. f Hellenic, i.e. all varieties of Greek. Albanian. Italic group, including Classical Latin, and popular spoken Latin, -with its offspring, the Romance Lan- guages, viz.: — French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, &c. Celtic group, including («) Cornish I (dead), Cymric (Welsh), Breton, European i (h) Erse (Irish), Gaelic (Scotch), L Manx. Baltic -Slavonic group, including {a) Old Prussian (dead), Lithuanian, &c.; [b) Eussian, Polish, Czech (Bohemian). Teutonic group, including English, German, Norse, &c., given in , detail below. II. Table of the Teutonic Group of Languages. I. East Teutonie Divkion :—Goi\i\c (dead). II. North Teutonic Division: — Scandinavian, in- cluding Norse, Icelandic, Swedish, Danish. III. West Teutonic Division : — Teutonic (or Germanic). Engflish. Frisian. Dutch. Low German, including Old Saxon and Modern " Platt-Deutsch." [e) High German, of which the only e.'iistingrepre- sentative is always known as " German." [cT) CHAPTER II. Survey of the Chief Changes that have taken place IN THE Grammatical Structure of English. § 5. Decay of the Plexional System. Although, as has been said, the Liuguage ripokeu by the Anglo-Saxons is the basis of moJei-n English, yet the latter at first sight seems to have very little in common with it. The main causes that liave bi-onght this aliout are two : the vocabu- lary has been ever gi-owing bigger and moi'e heterogeneous owing mainly to the influence of other nations upon us (Ch. iii.) ; the flexional .system has been ever decaying and becoming simpler, until it has well-nigh disappeared. It is with this latter cause that we are mainly occupied in this chapter, and the statement concerning it in the pre- ceding sentence is of such impoi-tance that it may be Avell to make it again somewhat more fully and call particular attention to it : — A tendency to simplify its inflexional system is inherent in every Indo-European language; and in the case of English this natural tendency, aided hy certain external influences (§ 10), has converted a tongue which employed quite a number of distinctive flexions into one which has comparatively few. {») A language which expresses grammatical relationships mainly by flexion is called si/nthetic, i.e. "putting together" {a-w-, "with," "together"; ridrifii, "put").' A language which uses auxiliary ' It must not, however, be assumed that the elements of a.s.vnthetic form onco existed separately. Philologists are as yet unable to account for the orij^in of inflexions. 6 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 5, a independent words in place of flexion is called analytic, i.e. "un- loosing" {ava-, "back," " un-" ; Xvw, "loose"). Thus the ideas of voice, tense, person, and number, which are expressed synthetically, or unitedly, by the Greek i\i\v(reT}v, are expressed analytically, or separately, by the English "they two had been loosed." Compare again Latin amavissent with English " they would have loved." In the Latin sentence " am-o puer-i bon-i patr-em " each word is inflected, the -o telling us that a verbal form in the first person singular present indicative is being used, the -cm showing us that pcdrem is employed as a direct object, and so forth; but in the English equivalent, " I love the good boy's father," there is only one obvious inflexion, viz., -s. We must, however, note that the form of / marks it as the subject of the sentence. Again, the word love really contains in a weakened form (viz., -e) the primi- tive termination for the first person singular (-0) seen in the Latin am-o, and thus shows 'Ca.'A.i father cannot be its subject, inasmuch as a subject in the third person singular requires a predicate with the inflexion -a. It is manifest, therefore, that " synthetic " and "ana- lytic " are merely comparative terms. Just as Modern English is less synthetic than Old English (cp. / love the father of the good hoy with ic liifig-e \>o-ne faeder \>ae-s ybd-an cnap-an), so the Latin of Cicero, though more synthetic than either, would no doubt appear analytic could it be compared with its progenitor of the period 2000 b.c' An analytic language admits of less elasticity in the positions that words may occupy than one more rich in inflexions : John loves Susan is by no means the same as Susan loves John, while Susan John loves is inadmissible in prose and ambiguous in verse ; but in Latin we may say without ambiguity Balbus amat luliam, Balhtis Itiliam amat, Amat Balbus luliam, Amat luliam Balbus, luliam Balbus amat, luliam amat Balbus. With pronouns, something of the old flexibility is still retained in English. Thus Milton (Paradise lost, i. 44, 45) can say : " Him the Almighty Power Hurled headlong." § 6. Three well-marked stages are to be distinguished in this 251'ogress from the inflected or synthetic structure to the analytic (§ 5, a). 1 Cp. .Jespevsen, "Progress in Language," § 92. § 7] SL'KVKY OK ITS DEVELOHM KNT. 7 Old >J.N(,;lish (O.E.) is the ltu i)1i fnll inflexions : -as: -mi. -um, -ode, -a, -u, -e, &c. ^IiDDLE K.\(iMSH (^[.E.) is tlie eia of l>rdl<-il or weiik- encd inflexions, in wliicli tlie old flexional vowels weio redueed to -e, chiefly hecause, not liaving- the eliief stress (whicli in Teutonic words falls regularly on the root syllable), they had beoonie in jn-oeess of time less and less distinctly pronounced, till at leng-th they ceased to l)e diffei'entiated. ^Modern Excr-isu is the era of reduced inflexions, in which the Middle English -e disappeai-s wherever possible from pronunciation, while consonantal flexions disappear except in a few cases. § 7. The passage from O.E. to M.E., and again from M.E. to Modern English, was of course not effected sud- denly or consciously ; the termination -<<>", for instance, in the nom. ])lural of nouns did not at once pass into the -es of Middle English, nor did this immediately pass into the -s of to-day. There was a period in which the two forms -as and -es existed side by side, until the latter Anally pi-evailed, and so similarly there was a period whei-e -es struggled Avith -s before giving way. To these periods the convenient name of " Transition " is given, and, if we assign to each of them a range of about a century, we may draw out the following table to illustrate the changes which we have been consideinng : the dates assigiied, however, ai-e necessarily only rough a])])roximations to the truth, for there is no such thiu<>' as sudden chano-e in the structure of a language, but only growth ; moreover, in different areas the develo])ment Avas not of equal rapidity. Those dates apply (roughly) to East Midland English, the direct descendant of the Mercian dialect of O.E. and the parent of our modern literary dialect. THE KNGLISH LANGUAGE. [§8 § 8. Name of Period. Limits. Flexions. Hemarks. Old Exolish To 1100 ... Full To about the end of generation alive at the N. Conquest. laf Transition 1100 to 1200 ... Full and Weak- ened A century on- ward. Middle Eng- lish 1200 to 1400 ... Levelled Chaucer died 1100. 2nd Trnnsition HOOto 1500 ... Levelled and Vanishing A century on- ward. MODEKS ExG- USH from about loOO Nearly vanished Introduction of printing. 1476. § 9. If we desire typical examples of tlie three stages, we might take — O.E. leorn-i-an (inf.) sun-u hnnd-as. M.E. lern-eu soti-e hund-es. Modem leani ^on hounds. § 10. Foreign Influences. — We have ti-eated the decay of the flexional system and its replacement by the analytic as mainly due to a tendency inherent in the language, and we are justified in so doing both by the history of Old English before it was appreciably affected by foreig'n influ- ences, and l)y the history of cognate Teutonic tongues, which exhibit the effects of the same tendency without those external causes which have affected English. The progress of the movement, however, was probably facili- tated by the Scandinavian invasions of the ninth and following two centui'ies, which may have helped to un- settle the English flexional system, especially in East Anglia and Northumbria, and certainly by the Norman Conquest, which, by putting an end to the I'eigu of West- Saxon as a standard of language, left the vai-ious English dialects free to follow each its own course, and i^emoved any barrier to the introduction of Romance words and § 10, «] SL'KVKY OF ITS DKVKf.fd'MKNT. 9 mofk's i)f expression into Kiir j. On the other hand, v/ords beginning with j are (with very few exceptions) not native, as judge, jury, juvenile, jelhj. Sec, the O.E. consonantal i- or r/c- becoming y, as in '/ear from O.E. (/ear. Of words beginning with p few are of Teutonic origin [see § 47, d (iii.)]. The presence of th or dh (j 30) is generally a mark of English origin, these sounds being unknown to French (and Latin) ; but a number of words containing th are Greek (and are easily recognized as such), the th then transliterating the Greek : e.g. theme, antipathy, ethic, cestheticism. § 21. — Besides the native element and the Romance drafts of various stages, there have entered into Eiiglish, as into England, natives of almost every race under the sxm : these we may deal with slioi-tly here, though the whole subject is both large and interesting. Foreign words reach us (a) by direct contact with foreign peoples or {h) via literature, and there is no need for us to distinguish between the two cases here ; it follows that we have got words from many nations with whom we have had intercourse in Avarfare, trade, diplomacy, art, science, oi- any other way, as well as indirectly through the medium of writings of all kinds. In the following sections (§§ 22-27) the chief of these sources are touched on, aud what has been said in the pi'evious sections is summarised. (rt) It is to be remembered that the borrowing and coinage pro- cesses are ever going on around us ; to boycott, a yladstonc (bag), are coined from persons' names just as were to burke, a spencer in the past : closure, though practically coined (or re-coined) in our days, has followed the precedent of enclosure, exposure, (fee. : so, just as contact with Dutch seamen in the Elizabethan age and the seventeenth century gave us boom, schooner, skipper, modern warfare with the Dutch in South Africa in our day has taught us hoer, hirfcr, and trek. Foreign products at one time unknown in England have now become so familiar to us that their names are not uttered with any feeling of strangeness, e.g. tea, coffee, potato ; with less common or more recent introductions the process of naturalisation is still going on, e.g. banana, pimento. 20 the english language. [§ 22, a Summary of the Sources of our Vocabulary, with SOME Selected Examples. § 22. TEUTONIC. (A) The native Low German Element (see §§ 18,19). Add a large number of the commonest place and person names (but see § 25), especially in -ham ("home": cp. Ger. "-heim"), -ton ("town"), -ivich, -ford, -bridge: examples are Mickleham, Birmingham, Hampton ( = Ham + ton; § 68), Greenwich, WalUngford, Knightsbridge, Freeman, Smith, Baker. (B) Dutch. (i.) Many nautical terms, including ahoy, aloof, avast, boom, cruise, deck, hoist, hull, sMjpper (tlie native English form is shipper'), yacht, yaivl. (ii.) Some military terms and words easily connected with camp life, together with others, mainly due to English volunteers in the Low Countries during the Elizabethan period, or the Dutch merchants who settled in London about the same time, including beleaguer, blunderbuss, hnapsaclc, snaffle, suttler, trigger, waggon : boor, brandy, ledger, stiver. (iii.) Others worth noticing (some may come under the above headings) are (a) most (if not all) diminutives in -Tcin, such as manihln, bumpM^i, &c. (§ 126, h). (b) art terms : easel, landscape. (c) from place names: delf (Delft), holland, spa. (cZ) burgomaster, landgrave, margrave, elope, fop, frolic, hottentot, wainscot. Some words of Continental Low German origin not strictly Dutch (Netherlands in general, Flemish, Frisian) may be reckoned in with the above. (C) Scandinavian. (i.) Many words due to the viking raids and settlements, often not to be accurately distinguished from native words § 22, dJ sources of its vocAuuLAuy. 21 (see § 18) : among those certainly of Old Xorse or Uanisli origin are (§ 176, ?>) both, fro (cognate English //Wft), ill, ■same, they, them, their, till (prep.), husband, die, shy, which are remarkable as being such common words and belonging to such classes (§§ 18-19) as to indicate that the Danes' sjieech was indeed i-egarded as but a particulai- kind of " English." Further we may mention aye ( = ever), fellow, guess, happy, happen, hiisfing, low, vieeh, mid, rot, rotten, ugly, window, bulwarlc, furloiujh, greyhound, billoiv, raid, vihing, strand, thrall; scant, score, skill, shin, skirt, shell, and some others with initial sk- ; bask, busk (where the final -sk=.sik, reflexive pronoun) ; and -by (="town"), -dale, -firth, -frith, -thicaite, -wick in place names, such as Grimsby, Clydesdale, &c. ; as also Biding (§126,/). The word son was used in patronymics among the Northmen (e.g. Tri/r/f/vason, Bjdrnso)i) before it was so employed in English : probably its common employment with us {Johnson, Watson, Simson, &c.) is due to Northern influence; the O.E. method was by the suffix -inff (e.g. Broivning). (ii.) Later borroAvings frona ScandinaAnan languages include geysir (Iceland), floe, fog, and some others ; («) But such words are few, for we have had little contact with the Scandinavians since the Danish invasions until quite recently. Dahlia is coined from a Swede's name {Bahl + pseudo-Latin ending), just as Fuchsia from a German's [Fuchs). {h) A certain number of words of Scandinavian origin reached us through French — the Norman, it must be remembered, was a North-man. (D) (High) German. — But very few words have been taken directly from High German ; the commonest are meerschaum, plunder, poodle, swindler, waltz, and Dutch (=: Deutsch) ; others are fuchsia, hock (a wine), landau (from place-name), mesmenze (person-name + z're ; § 195), and zinc. (rt) Technical philological words (Germany being the ci-adle of scientific philology) very recently borrowed sometimes appear in 22 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 22, D English, but are scarcely adopted as English words : e.g. Umlaut f§ 63), Ablaut (§ 61). {h) Others of High German origin have reached us at different times mainly through French, in which there is a considerable number of such words: e.g. y«y, marshal, riches, &c. Dollar , wise- acre are High German words come to us via Dutch. § 23. ROMANCE. (Including" also words taken directly from Latin and words coined on the model of Latin or Romance words already naturalised.) (A) Latin (i.) of the First Period (see § 12). (a) Continental Borrowings. — More than a hundred words of Latin (or Latinised Greek) origin are common to Old English and other contemporary Teutonic dialects. Of these, however, not all were borrowed by the English before their emigration. The following words can be shown to belong to the Continental period: arh (j of pha)itaxij (see § 74, b) ; dropsy is shortened for hydropsy < Gk. vhpoo^ < SSwp. " water " ; frenzy or phrenzy is the Gk. cppfi^-qcris < " hand " + (pyfiv, "work " ; pk(cea.nd plate are both (through French and Latin) from Gk. -nXarvs, "broad" — the first from fcin. TrXoTela, Lat. platea, the second from Med. Lat. phda ; ink is the Lat. encftiislKin < tyKava-ros, " burnt in." t(i) The following points are noticeable with regard to the custom- ary transliteration of Greek words. ' (rough breathing) > /*. ^ and the second p oi pp > rh (pron . r). k > c. y before y, k, x > >' (pron. ng). > th (pron. as in thin), (p > ph (pron. /). x > '"'' (pron. /c). I > X (pron. ; initially). \p > ps {p silent initially). u > y, but av > (IK, ev > en, ov > u. ai > X or c, ot > w or e, ei > ci (pron. () or c or (". i subscript is not represented. § 25. Celtic. (i.) In O.K., and presumably learnt from the Britons (§ 12) ; there seem to be but very few : examples are bannock ("cake"), brock ("badger," tolerably common as person-name), crock ("pitcher"), dun (colour). (ii.) Borrowed (mainly in comparatively modern times) from Irish, Scotch, Welsh, &c. : e.g. (Erse) bog, brogue, banshee, fun, lough, shamrock, shillelagh, spalpeen, tory, usquebaugh or whiskey; (Gaelic) cairn, claymore, crag, gillie, glen, loch, macintosh (from person-name), slogan, sporran; (Cymric) jia7i7iel, coracle, kick. Add to these, of course, many names of natural features (notably rivers and mountains) in England, and the bulk of Welsh, Irish, and Scotch proper names : Britain, Thames. Lomond, Aberystwyth, Mackenzie, O'Flaherty. 26 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 25, a t(«) Further, we must remember that French retained some words from the Celtic vocabulary when this generally gave way to the Romance, and learned a few others perhaps at later times ; hence several words which have reached us through French are to be re- garded as of Celtic origin : e.g. car, and its derivatives career, carry, charge, chariot. § 26. Otliei" Indo-European Sources (see § 4). Slavonic. — Russian are drosky, rouble, steppe, and ukase (we use the Russian czar just as ws do the German kaiser in English, but both these are of Latin origin < Caesar) ; knout is taken by us from Russia, but is originally Scandinavian. Other Slavonic words are slave (properly " a Slav," " Slavonian," used as a term of degrada- tion, because the name of a conquered race) ; cravat (people-name = Croatian) ; polka (= Folish dance), mazurka (= Masovian dance). Persian. — Among the earliest in English are: (i.) Chess and its derivatives and terms: check, exchequer, rook, hazard, (ii.) Oriental plants, &c. : orange, lemon, peach, myrtle, lilac, (iii.) Scarlet, azure ; bazaar, caravan, divan, ttirban, turquoise; satrap, dervish, pasha, khedive, parsee, hourt , peri ; magic. Sanskrit, Hindoo, &c. — A few are old in English : e.g. pepper {via Greek and Latin in O.E.), nard (in Wiclif's Bible), sugar (in fourteenth century, t'ia French, &c.); others are banyan, indigo, musk ; camphor, candy; carmine, crimson, lake (colour). Direct borrowings from India date from the middle of the eighteenth century, and are now (owing to our interest in Anglo-Indian doings) apparently on the increase : bangle, chintz, chutney, loot, rajah, punkah, shampoo, are examples. But some of these latter are possibly loan words in Hindoo and not of Indo-European origin. § 27. N'on-Indo-European. The Semitic is the only non-Indo-European element of importance : (i.) Hebrew (with Aramaic, Syriac, Phoenician, &c.) : nearly all via the Scriptures. A few are quite common (mostly early, through L.-Gk. or F.-L.-Gk.) in non- scriptural parlance: alphabet, abbot, balm, camel, delta, elephant, iota and Jot ( < Iwra), jubilee, sajjphire, shibboleth ; others are alleluia, amen, cherub and seraph, hosanna. § 2G] SOURCES OF ITS VOCAIiULAKY. 27 hi/ssop, Uviathnr), maiuxi, mammo/i, Messiah, rnbbi, pharisee and nadducee, sahbuth, shekel. From Hebrew proper names are (besides Hebrew, Judith, Jew, Man/, Martha, &c.) bedlam {< Bethlehem), Jesuit ( < Jesiix), lazar (= "leper" < Lazarus), maudlin (\.e. Ma(/dale7te < Ma ff da la), simony ( < Simoii, who " offered them money " for the Holy Ghost), damaxk ■dnidam/ion (< Damasiuts und adj. Damascenus). (ii.) Arabic (often through mediaeval Spanish and French — the '• al " in these words is the prefixed definite article) : ali/ebra, alcohol, alkali, alcove, alkoran or koran ; so alchemy (where -chemy is Gk.) ; ameer, emir, admiral (Latinised form of ameer) ; amber, attar or otto (of roses), coffee, yazclle, hookah, jaiper, lute, myrrh, nitre, saffron, iherbet ; cipher, nadir, zenith, zero; caliph, harem, mayazine, Moslem (or Mussulman and Islam), mosque, sultan, sheik. Add from proper names Mahometan, Saracen. Other Non-Indo-European elements are many, but unim- portant : (i.) Magyar (spoken in Hungary) : hussar, tokay (from place name), shako {via French). (ii.) Turkish: bosh is the only quite common one ; others arc ottoman (from person-name), yrtr«!N«rt)y, bey, caviare. Notice that sultan, vizier, and others that might be expected to be Turkish are of Arabic origin. (iii.) Tartar : khan, tartar, Turk. (iv.) From Indian place-names come calico, cashm&re. Bengali : tom-tom [onomatopceic : j 19 (vi.)]. Dravidian (Malayalim, Telugu, Tamil, &;c.) : betel (nut), areca, teak, cheroot, cooly, pariah. Malay: amuck, bamboo, ourany-outang, sago, upas (tree). Java : bantam (from place-name) ; so gamboge from Cambodia. (v.) China: china ; tea, with bohea (from place-name), congou, hyson, oolony, pekoe, souchong; perhaps also silk (through L. and Gk.) and serge (F.-L.-Gk.). Japan: japan (vb. and noun). Tibet : lama (high priest). (vi.) Australian: kangaroo, boomei-ang. Polynesian: taboo, tattoo. (vii.) Africa— (rt) Egypt : gypsy (shortened from Egyptian), ibis, oasis [J 24 (i.)]. {b) Barbary : barb. Morocco: morocco. Canary Isles: canary. Gold Coast, &c. : chimpanzee, gorilla, guinea. 28 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 26 (viii.) America — {a) N. Am. Indian : hominy, mocassin, pemican, skunk, squmv, tomahawk, wigwam. ijj) Mexican (through Sp.) : cocoa, chocolate, tomato. (c) W. Indian : cannibal (from Caribbean), canoe, hurricane, mahogany, maize, potato, tobacco, (d) S. Am. lan- guages (mainly through Sp., Peruvian, and Brazilian) : ipecacuanha, guano, pampas, tapioca, quinine; alpaca, jaguar, Zfowia (sheep); puma,, tapir. t {a) Among non-Indo-European words must be classed hemp, for- merly supposed to come from Greek Kwua^is. This derivation is forbidden by the sound-shifting (cp. § 44) in hemp. The word may have been originally Scythian. In any case hemjj and Kavva^i^ are derived from a common source. •i!» CHAPTER IV. The Alphabet and thi: Sounds of English. § 28. A Letter is a symbol employed to represent a speech sound or combination of speech sounds. The letters used in English ai'c those of the Latin alphabet together with the symbol tv. («) The alphabet common to all the Teutonic nations was the Eunit (O.E. run, "mystery"). This was brought into England by the Angles and Saxons, as is shown by inscriptions (e.g. that on the Ruth- well Cross in Dumfriesshire). It was succeeded in the seventh century by the Latin alphabet introduced by Christian missionaries from Rome and lona, the form used by the latter being that current in Ireland, the metropolis of caligraphy in that age. For two sounds not to be accurately represented by the Latin letters the English continued to use Runic characters : these wore j' (won, =ir) and \> (thorn, =th,(lh) ; a new symbol 5 (eth, = \>) was formed from the Latin d ; these gave way to «•, th after the Conquest, and disappeared in M.E. The sign y or ye for "the" sometimes seen in pseudo-archaic style is a blunder tor the old " t>e," i.e. " the" — of course it was pronoimced the, not yi. Similarly " H " was written for " that." {b) The symbol J is simply a variant of i, which arose from the fashion of writing that letter with a tail {i, [j) in certain combinations ; it was not employed as a character representing a sound altogether distinct from i till the middle of the seventeenth century. (c) The symbol v is a variant of ii ; both began to be used as conson- ant as well as vowel signs in the M.E. period, generally representing O.E. /(= v) as well as O.E. n in English words, the two forms it and r beiny merely tuo 2cays of writing the same letter (just as some write i and others r nowadays). 30 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 28, fZ {d) The symbol w (= in form rv, uh — i.e. "double m ") is merely the M.E. substitute (due to the Anglo-French scribes) for the old Runic character ; the sound has remained unchanged. {e) The symbol q in the combination qu was introduced in French words in the M.E. period, and gradually supplanted the equivalent O.E. combination ctv : e.g. qi(ce)i = O.E. civen ; under the same influence c, which had only a k sound in O.E. (which used k very sparingly), took over the French s sound before e, i, y in foreign words, k replacing it in the same positions in native words. (/) The letter 3 [ = 2/-sound initially; in other positions it was a guttural or palatal spirant, according as a back or front vowel preceded it (see § 35, 36), except where it stood, by confusion of form, for z\ was also employed in M.E. ; the symbol is a variant of g. [cf) The Anglo-Saxons used each letter of the Latin alphabet to denote the English sound nearest to that which the letter represented in Latin as pronounced by the Celts. This (which did not differ widely from the Italian pronunciation of Latin) gives " Continental " values as the original sounds denoted by the English vowels «, e, «, o, m, which were sounded nearly as those of fffther, f«te, machine, note, rwle respectively, with corresponding short sounds. (A) The Latin alphabet had taken the letters x, y, z from the Greek, using the last two only in transliterating Greek words, for which purpose y did duty for Greek v. («■) The word alphabet, the name given to the whole of the letters used in anj^ one language, is from the Greek alpha, beta (the first two letters), terms of Semitic origin. § 29. Speech Sonnds are divided into Consonants, sounds formed by stopping or squeezing the breath in some part of the mouth or throat. Vowels (or Sonants), sounds formed without such stoppage of the breath. Hence, roughly speaking, a vowel (e.g. o, i) can be sounded alone ; a con- sonant (e.g. h, d) cannot. Diphthongs are formed by the union in one utterance of two vowels, the sound being produced at the moment of passing from one to the other. Both vowels however cannot be sonant : either the first or the second will be merely consonant. § 30] SOUNDS AND SYMHOLS. 31 («) Organs of Speech. — Speech sounds are produced by the expulsion of breatli from the lungs and the treatment by the organs of speech of the breath thus expelled. The air is driven through the windpipe to the larynx situated at its upper extremity ("Adam's apple," the projection which moves up and down when one swallows, marks its position); it is in the larynx that "voice" is formed. Across it stretch two elastic ligaments called the vocal cords, between which is an opening called the glottis, which can be nar- rowed or closed at will. The vocal cords are set vibrating by the breath passing into the larynx, and these vibrations produce voice. [To realize the exact position of the glottis attempt to sound the letter h without a following vowel : the spot where you feel the breath squeezed is the glottis. In forming other consonants (in English) the breath is stopped or squeezed after it has passed the larynx.] Speech sound, being formed in the larynx by the vibrations of the vocal cords under the action of breath, is modified and differentiated by the action of lips, tongue, teeth, palate. The palate consists of a hard and a soft part, as can easily be felt b}' moving the tip of the tongue along the roof of the mouth from the teeth backwards ; the back part of the soft palate is the "uvula," which can be moved backwards and forwards ; in ordinary breathing it lies forward, and so allows the breath to pass through the nose, and this is its position in forming the sounds called nasal («, m, ng, which we cannot pronounce if we have such a cold in the nose as to prevent the passage of the breath through it) ; it is pressed back, thus closing the nose passage, in the production of all other sounds. § 30. Consonantal Sounds are divided into Stops (or Checks, Mutes, Shut Sounds, Explosives), in forming' which the breath is entirely stopped for a time, being released again with an explosion. These are the sounds generally represented by^, h ; t, d; k, (J (as in go). Continuants (or Spirants, Open Sounds, Fricatives), in forming whicli the breath is only squeezed, so that the sound -can be prolonged by merely con- tinuing the breath. These are the sounds genex'ally represented by/, c ; fh (in fhin), th (in then: 32 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 30 phonetically dli) ; s, z\ sli, s or z in pleasure, azure (= zli) ; y {young') ; 7i, «-^ as in lohite ; and w (z(;e). N^ASALS (or " !N"ose " Sounds), viz., in, w, ?^^, wWcli corre- spond exactly to h, d, g, the breath in forming them being stopped by the lips, teeth, and soft palate respectively. On the other hand the passage through the nose is left free. Liquids (" flowing "), which form a group between Stops and Continuants, partially obstructing the breath, but not closing it entirely (as stops), nor leaving it an entirely free though contracted passage (as con- tinuants) : these are Z, r (roll). The Nasals, m and n, and the Liquids, as having the power to form syllables by themselves, are also called Sonants ; cp. prism, hitt{e)n, struggle, hutt{e)r. § 31. c, j, q, X. — Four consonantal symbols are not mentioned in the last paragraph because they do not represent simple consonantal sounds not otherwise re- presented. c when it stands before e, t, y is equivalent to the sound usually represented by s : cp. city and set, Cyrus and siren, cell and sell ; but when c stands before a, o, u it represents the sound otherwise represented by h : e.g. cat, kill. The combination ch (as in church) is equi- valent to t + sh (stop -f continuant) ; ch (as in Christ) = k. j is the soft sound (§ 32) corresponding to ch as in church, and is equivalent to d + zh (zh being the sound heard in .pleasure) — this sound is represented sometimes by g (before e, i), as in gentle, giu; sometimes by -dg when medial and -dge when final : e.g. jurf^ing, judge. q is only used in English before u, and is then equivalent to k : i.e. qu=: kiv. x=-k + s (as in box) or g+z (as in examine). § 32. Consonantal sounds are further classified as soft § 32, f] SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS. 33 (voiced) and hard (voiceless) ; the following can be ai'ranged in pairs: — • Hard. Soft. Hard. Soft. {th (thin) dh (then) *7 7/7 X sh zh(pleasure) hw to Except h, the other consonants (viz. the liquids and consonantal y) are generally voiced (soft) in English. (a) For " hard," " voiceless," the terms " sharp," " surd," " tenuis," are sometimes used ; and similarly for " soft," " voiced," the corresponding terms "flat," " sonant," " media" are employed. We use ' ' hard " and "soft " throughout this hook as the most easily comprehended. {b) " The consonants j;, t, k, &c., are called ' hard,' whilst b, d, g, &c., are called 'soft,' because in p, t, k there is a more forcible explosion of the breath. But this is not the most important point of difference between these two classes of consonants. The essential difference can be more easily appreciated if we study some of the open consonants or continuants. Take, for instance, s and z and prolong them. The sound of s, or hissing, is evidently formed by the breath ill the mouth ; but in the prolonged z, or buzzing, ajaint sound of tyioe, formed in the larynx, is distinctly heard at the same time. And the same thing may be very well observed in prolonging /and r. . . . The essential difference between the hard and soft consonants is, there- fore, that the hard consonants are simply formed by the breath (hence called ' breathed ' or ' voiceless '), whilst in the soft consonants there is a faint sound of voice (hence called ' voiced '). They are midway between the consonants and the vowels." — Miss Soames's Introduction to the Studi/ nf Phonetics . (c) " The main distinction between vowels and consonants is that while in vowels the mouth configuration merely modifies the voiced breath — which is, therefore, an essential element of them — in con- sonants the narrowing or stopping of the mouth passage is the foundation of the sound, and the state of the glottis is something secondary. Consonants can therefore be breathed as well as voiced, the mouth configuration alone being enough to produce a distinction without the help of ' voice.' " — Sweet's I'rimcr of Phonetics. E. L. D 84 THE ENCxLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 33 § 33. Consonantal sounds are further classified accord- ing to the organs of speech which give them their distinctive character. Thus, in producing p, h, the breath is stopped by closing the lips, whence these are called " lip-stops " or " labials " (L. lalnnm. " lip ") ; in f, d the bi-eath is stopped at the root of the upper teeth, whence these are called " dentals " (L. dent-, " tooth ") ; th, dh are produced with the tongue between the teeth, whence they are dental letters distinguished from other dentals by being called '' intei'-dentals " ; k, g are " throat stoj)S " or " gutturals " (L. guttur, "throat"). The upper teeth and lower lip come in contact to produce /, v, whence these letters are " labio-dental " ; h is formed by squeezing the breath in the glottis (§29, a) ; in sh, zh (pleasure), y, the blade or broad part of the tongue is pressed against the palate. The whole classification of the consonantal sounds appears in the following table : — § 34. 1 ii3 3 g n "3 1 1 1 5 STOPS : Hard P — — t k — Soft b — d 9 — NASALS in n ncj LIQUIDS — I r CONTINUANTS : Hard Jnv / th s sh,y — h Soft M' V dh z zh — — The sounds s, z, sh, zh, and the compounds ch, j, are known as " sibilant," i.e. " hissing " (pres. part, of L. sibilare, "to hiss "). § 37] SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS. 35 >■ is somotimes called a trill. if, 1/ (as in ire, i/c) an; Hometimes called "semi-vowels " or " semi- consonants." § 35. We see fioui the preceding table that we have twenty-three consonant souncLs, and tliat we have only twenty-one symbols, oF wliich fonr (c, j, q, a\ § 31) do not represent sonnd.s which could not be expre.ssed by the othei^s. The disproportion between our vowel-symbols and vowel-sounds is, however, far g'reater; for with the six symbols a, e, i, o, it, and ij we have to represent many times that number of vowels. § 36. The following words give twelve simple vowel sounds commonly heard : — Long. Short. father fat fate ' fetch feet fit fought ^ fop foavi ^'"'^' -^; ^o) ftm fool foot (a) Mr. Pitman's memorial sentences for these sounds will be familiar to students of his Phonograpliy. They are (long) "Half -pay she thought so poor," and (short) "That pen is not much good." § 37. A very common vowel sound is that heard in the second S3-Ilable of better, villa, cupboard, or the first syllable of grammarian, attend, verandah. This is some- times called " the obscure vowel," " the neutral vowel," or "the natural vowel." It only occurs in unaccented syllables, and may often be heard in such words as but, and, or, was, what, a, when used unemphatically in sen- tences. The accented vowel nearest it in sound is heard in but (accented), bun, one, &c. A long accented vowel corresponding (or almost corresponding) to it is heai'd in heard, urn, colonel. Final r is never sounded in southern English as a consonant except before a word beginning with a vowel (cp. " Hai/- grows fast" and "The hair of the head," fire and fiery), and not always then. Its 36 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 37 place is generally taken by the obscure vowel, so that in such words as hare, here, roar, &c., we have really diphthongs, of which this obscure vowel (usually denoted by phoneticians by 3 — i.e. a turned e) is the second element. § 38. The following woi'ds contain four of the com- monest diphthongal sounds : — fme [a (as in fatJiei-) + t (as in /i^)]. found [« (as in father) + ^ (as in put)^. ioist \_aw (as in Imv) +t (as in fit j']. iume \_i (as in fit) + 00 (as in fool)]. It mnst be noticed that the word " diphthong" applies solely to the sound, and not to the symbol or symbols, which in English are most misleading. {a) Thus we see that single symbols represent diphthongs in iuming, finer; on the other hand, simple vowel-sounds are often represented by a combination of letters, as in sheai, key, feet, niece, deceive (all having the same vowel as she, machine), in brmd (cp. pen), boot, foot (cp. p?'t), &c. § 39. In a perfect or ideal alphabet we should have one and only one symbol for each simple sound in the language, and this, as we have seen, is far from being the case with us. Our twenty-six letters have to represent twenty-three consonant sounds and at least thirteen simple vowels. (fl) But, it must be remembered, there are in reality a very much larger number of vowel sounds than it would be practicable to represent by separate symbols (to say nothing of diphthongs) ; for shades of difference between what appear to be to the untrained ear identical vowel sounds are easily discoverable by the phonetician. § 40. Our Spelling. — It follows from the nature of the case that our system of spelling could not be altogether phonetic (i.e. having sounds and symbols consistently corresponding) unless we were to add considerably to the number of our letters. It is not, however, paucity of symbols that mainly gives rise to the extraordinary §40, />] SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS, 'M anoiuulies of our spelliiij^, ])ut the inconsistent wiiy in which we employ such symbols as we liave. As a common example of the way in which a couple of different sounds are represented by the same symbol, where we have symbols enough to discriminate the sounds if we chose to use them, we may instance the inflexional s which is pronounced hai-d after a hard letter, but soft (^z, § 32) after a soft one: thus ca^s (both hard), cahs (both soft); similarly the inflexional d, -ed, e.g. hoped (:=p-\rt, both hard), stabfcecZ (=b + d, both soft). On the other hand, the instances given in §§ 31, 38, a, will illustrate oiu' ways of using a variety of symbols to represent a given sound. (a) An explanation of many of the anomalies of our orthography is afforded by the fact that, while our spelling- has changed little in essentials during the last three centuries, our pronunciation has vastly alten^d, so that the orthography is that of a now thoroughly archaic English pronunciation which it never very adequately represented. Spelling could be fixed and stereotyped, and this began to be done by the Elizabethan printers ; but the language itself altered in the course of nature. (h) To give one or two more examples of the curiosities of our orthography — the student will find others on examining any sentence or group of words — we take (from ]Miss Soames's Fhonetics) the follow- ing twentj'-one words which show the vowel heard in fate written in twenty-one different ways : — frtt^, l«dy, inil, mtii/, flayed, drt//lia, champagne, camp«!^n, atruiffJit, trait, hrt//pcnny, gwl, gai combination -oitc/h as in thouc/h, boicgh, thoiujhl (in each of which it has no trace of consonantal sound) and in cou(/h (cp. off), hiccough (cp. Clip), roiKjh (cp. ri'ff'), howjh (cp. hock). §41. "Etymological" Spellings. — Many misspell- ings arise from false notions of etymology, sometimes clue to mere confusion or analogy with other forms, sometimes to a conscious but misdirected attempt to force a word to show its origin by its form. Thus could, has been spelt with an I to assimilate its form to those of should and would ; but in these latter the I, though now unphonetic, is a survival from the time when it was sounded ; in could no I sound was ever heard (for could belongs to can, but ivould, should to will, shall : see § 177). On the other hand, debt, doubt, coming from French dette, doute, were properly spelt in M.E. without the /) which they now have in order that the connexion between them and the Latin originals of the French forms {debit-um, dubif-are) might be evident. The pa-tificial b made its appearance as early as the thirteenth century, from which time till the sixteentli century the spelling debte is occasionally found ; since the sixteenth centiiry debt has been the fixed spell- ing (N.E.D.). (a) Instances of pedantic spellings such as doubt, debt are common ; a few more may be considered. Phantom is the M.'E.fantom < O.F. fantosmc (novrfantdme), ultimately Gk. (pavTaaixa : it is of course from this last that the ph has been taken for the / which should commence the English word ; but we have kept the / in other words of the same origin, viz. fantasij (and its shortened form fancij), fantastic. [Words of "learned" formation coined from the same source properly keep the j»/i: e.g. phenomenon, dia-phan-oii-:, si/cophan/ (Gk. tru/co- = " fig "), &c. ; the stem is that of Gk. (paifeiv, " shew," " make to appear," (pd-eiv, "shine."] Posthumous (also spelt postamous) owes its h to a fanciful ety- mology connecting it with post, " after " + Am?w;, t, //, whicli were preserved in the chissical hniguagos in pdfei-, lirs, (joma, and in Trarrjp (pater), rpcts (treis), yo/os (genos), appear in modern English as/, fh, k, in f(tf her, three, hin. The student must clearly grasp the fact that none of these words is "derived" from another: pater, Trajrjp, father, all spring fi'om a common Indo-European source — thej ai'e " cognate," i.e. related by birth to one another, as children of the same parent, not as child and parent. § 43. The consonants Ave are concerned with in this chapter are the Indo-European stops or mutes and their descendants in English and some other tongues. These I.-E. stops may be conveniently classified as follows (cp. § 32) :- Aspirates Soft. Hard. Soft. Hard. Dentals d t dh th Gutturals ff (as in 170) k gh kh Labials h p bh ph {a) The sounds given above as "aspirates" are not the xpirtinfs (see § 30) heard in Mtc^-, this, enough, philosopher, &c., in English, but combinations of /, d, p. Sec, with /(, or aspirated t, d, p, as 42 THE RNOLISH LANr,rAGE. [§ 43, n / heard iu the Irish brogue-pronunciation of tale, rlalc, pail, &c. : if we put a vowel after them, we can sound them approximately without much difficulty, pronouncing them almost as in pot-home, mad-home, hloch-head, log-hut, loop-hole, club-house, but without an interval before the aspirate, and of course without dropping the aspirate as is usually done in Glaphani, Eltham, &c. [The fact that we so drop it illustrates the reason why aspirated consonants have I disappeared from English and other languages (Latin as well as the Teutonic ones) : they were found difficult to pronounce.'] [b) Of the sounds given above the aspirated hard mutes, viz. th, Ich, ph, were of rare occurrence in Indo-European, and their descendants in English need not further be discussed here. t {c) In addition to the pure gutturals there were in Indo-European two other series of mute consonants, viz. the palatals and the labio- gutturals or velars, which are usually represented by modifications of the letters Ic and (/. The palatals and a part of the labio- gutturals became pure gutturals in the European languages, but some of the labio -gutturals developed a iv after the guttural, some examples of which still survive in English : e.g. in quick, O.E. civic, from I.-E. iji(l ; cp. L. vic-tum, supine of «» fro. § 44. Sound-sliifting. — [The origiual stops (see the table iu § 48) were not all preserved unchanged in the separate languages which spi-ang from the primitive Indo-European tongue. One instance of this we have just noticed (§ 43, c). The Asiatic members of the family and Slavonic changed the palatal stops (§ 43, c) into spirants. The soft aspirates were preserved pure only in the Indian group. Greek changed these sounds into hard aspirates and Latin into hard spirants (i.e. at the begin- ning of words). Thus, I.-E. hJtero became Sanskrit hliardmi (Modern Hindi hliarun), but Gk. ^ipm (^ =p4-/i) and Lat. f('ro. On the other hand, Greek and Latin preserved the unaspirated dentals, labials, and pure gutturals intact.] The most sweeping changes, however, were made by Teutonic, which left none of the original stops the same, and it is to this Teutonic transformation that the tei-ni " sound-shifting " is particularly applied. The process must have begun with the simple hard stops. These §45, r^] fJKIMM's r,A\V. U^ became hard aspiiatc's, i.e. original /, A', p hccaiiif, I'c- spectively, th, hit, />li. Tlien tliese liard aspirates, tof^ether with both the liaid ami the soft as[)irates derived from Indo-Eiiropoaii. lirciiinc spirants, oi' parlially open sounds. Hence, th, kh,ph became \> (= tk in thrci'), x (= ''^ hi Cicr. tic/i), f; and dh, i/h, bli became (S (= th in thai), i, (= aiii, derived from an Indo-European papakasatam. This, according as the chief accent fell on the first, second, third, fourth, or fifth syllable, would have become in Teutonic fahdxaza^am, fa'ba'^dsa^ani, fahcf^aza6dm. It must be noted here that, as regards the accent itself, a great change took place during the Teutonic period. In Indo-Germanic no syllable of a word was necessarily debarred from receiving the accent. In Teutonic the root-syllable only could be accented. Every accent which did not originally fall on the root-syllable was transferred to it in Teutonic. This change took place after the operation of Verner's law had been completed. Thus, in the perfect tense singular number of a verb the Indo- European accent was on the root-syllable, but in the perfect tense plural and in the perfect participle it was on the inflected syllable. Teutonic made the accent fall on the root-syllable in each case. For example, in modern English fdll-en the accent is on the root fall, but in Indo- European it was on the last syllable of the termination enus, from which the modern termination e« is derived. t § 46. — (i.) A later change, the beginnings of which probably took place whilst Teiitonic was still one lan- guage, affected the soft spirants b, S, j, z, whether these were primary in Teutonic, or secondary (i.e. developed from the hard spirants in accordance with Verner's law). Under certain conditions b and S lost their openness, and became the stops h and cZ, viz., when initial, after nasals, and when doubled. Thus b-, ??ib, bb became &-, m&, hh, and similai'ly S-, ?iS, SS became tZ-, nd, dd. In O.E. ■S became d in all positions ; b remained between vowels, but was written / like the hard labial spirant. The spirant 5 became g after nasals, and when doubled, but remained spirant initially and so continued into and § 48] hrimm's r.AW. 45 tlnouj^li tlie O.K. jjci-ioil. In .NI.Iv it also became (j initially when followed by the guttural vowels a, o, n. Finally, the spirant z became r in all positions. (ii.) The hui'd spirant ^ became the simple aspirate h initially and between vowels. (iii.) Between vowels, or betAveen >•, I and a vowel, the hard spirants/, s, |> become soft {v, z, S) in O.E. t § 47. 33y referring to the facts stated in §§ 44-46, we can nndcrstand the isolation between the ap[)arentl\- inconsistent forms r()Upleor {iii»i and the English /.• heard in corn. For our purpose we may disregard hero entirely the Latin suffix, and the difference in the form and position of the vowels. But we should have no right to do so, if comparative philology had not shown us that the history and development of those words justify us in referring them back to a common prehistoric original. t $ 51. Examples of Grimm's Law.— («) Dentals— (i.) Original / (preserved in Greek and Latin) becomes in English th : Gk. TpeTs, L. tres, Eng. three ; Gk. tu, L. (vl, Eng. (/ton ; Gk. t6, L. is-te, Eng. t/mt ; Gk. (ppdrj^p, L. fra^er, Eng. bro^^er. (ii.) Original aspirated dental dh (preserved as in Greek, /initial]}' and ff medially in Latin) becomes (/ in English : Gk. Ot)- (root of Ti-67)-;ui, 9i)-(7w), Eng. ifo; Gk. Qvydrijp, Eng. r/aughter ; Gk. Qvpa, L. fores, Eng. r^or. (iii.) Original f/ (preserved in Greek and Latin) becomes t in English : Gk. 8uo, L. fhio, Eng. two ; Gk. ieKa, L. ^ecem, Eng. ^en ; Gk. Kaphla, L. corrf-is (genitive shows the stem), Eng. hear< ; Gk. o-SoVt-oj, L. rfent-em, Eng. cTKfiv, L. ^noscere (noscere), Eng. kno-w. Final guttural has frequently disappeared in English, so that the correspondence is often not apparent from the modern language: Gk. iyd, L. e^o, Eng. /for O.E. ic (i.e. ik). (c) Labials — (i.) Original ji; preserved in Latin and Greek becomes /(the labio- dental spirant now representing the Teutonic ph) in Mod. English : Gk. iraTiip, L. ji^ater, Eng. /ather ; Gk. irovs (iroS-), L. ^es (ped-), Eng. foot ; L. j^ecus, Eng. fee ; L. ^jiscis, Eng. fiab. ; L. juaucus, Eng. few [with the guttural spirant corresponding to the L. c{k) dropped in primitive Teutonic] ; Gk. jreAAa, L. pelViB, Eng. fell (a skin). In set'en (O.E. seo/on) the consonant stands iov pt, L. se^^em, Gk. eiTTo. (ii.) Original aspirated labial bh (preserved as (p in Greek, in Latin as/) becomes in English b : Gk. ^pdrrip, L. /rater, Eng. brother; Gk. ^epco, L./ero, Eng. bear ; Gk. ^fvyai, L. /ugio, Eng. iow (verb); The b thus produced has sometimes disappeared finally, but remained in the spelling of Gk. ySfx^os, Eng. com*. ^ 52] orim.m's r,A\v. Mi (iii.) UrigiiKil b, prfairvL-d in Greek and Latin ;ind torrtspondin^ to an English p, is rarely found. Of its appearance thus initially there are no examples— possibly there are no native English words beginning with p \ midially and finally the letter appears often enough in P^nglish words, but in such cases Latin and CJreek cognates with b are not easily found. These examples are given : — L. luA-ricus (for sluA-ricus), "slippery," Eng. slijW ; L. tri*-us, Eng. thor;; ; Eng. sleey^ is perhaps connected with L. lai-aro. § 52. The following' c.xaiiiples exliil)it in tabiil;ii' form tliu woi'kiug of (aiiuni's Law ; the letter.s in brackets in- dicate the " theoretical " coiTespondences. The German words which are given after the English ones illustrate the so-called "second" or " High-German " sound-shifting, the law of which (subject to some important exceptions) can be obtained from the diagram in § 4() b\- starting from Aspirata and reading round as follows : — English Aspirata corresponds to German Media, English Media corresponds to German Tenuis, English Tenuis corresponds to German Aspirata : — (i.) Dentals : — {t, th, d) fveti, three, dvei ; {th, d, t) Ovpa (//tuiu), (Zoor, tin- ; (r/, /, th) dxio, two, zwei. (ii.) Labials: — (p, ph, h) ^edeni, foot, 2^uss ; (pli, b, p) /rater, /n-otlier, Z^ruder ; (b, p, ph) (s)lu/'ricus, slip, schlei/en. (iii.) Gutturals : — (A-, A7;, (j) rornu, horn, Horn ; {kh, g, k) x'^P'''^'^ (khoi-tos), j/arden, Carten ; {g, k, kh) jur/uni, yoAe, Joch. E. L. E 50 CHAPTER VI. Method of Derivation — Root and Stem — Prefixes and Suffixes — Gradation and Mutation. § 53. If we examine the words — reduction^ educate^ ductile, ducal, we see at once that the group contains — (i.) an element which is common to all the words in the group, viz., -due- : and (ii.) various elements which we recognise as frequently- entering into the structure of other words not necessarily containing the said common element, viz., con-, re-, e-, and -io7i, -ate, -He, -al. The syllable -due- is said to be the root of each of these words. The sj'llables con-, re-, e-, and other syllables placed before the root, are called prefixes (L. prae, " before," and fixus, " fixed) ; the syllables -ate, -He, -al, and other syllables placed after the root are called suffixes (L. sub, ' ' under, ' ' and fixus) . {a) Both prefixes and suffixes may be grouped together under the name affix [ad, "to," and^ fixus). § 54. The words just examined (§ 53) are, however, not native English words, but derivatives from Latin, as of course the student will at once perceive : therefore due or duli is not an English root, but a Latin one, or, to be more precise, a Latin one in the form in which it some- times appears in English. t (a) The general Teutonic cognate of this root would by Grimm's Law have initial t and final kh (see § 52), and this is represented to §57] ROOT AND STEM. U8 in Mod. English in (ow (O.E. foi/-i-)i, pp. oi tPon: cp. Gcr. zcihoi), tie (O.E. t'jijf), twk, and twj (M.E. borrowings from Continental Low Gorman) ; so in German we have regularly zieh-cn, Zug, &c. § 55. A lilt If further study will reveal to us several more words in Kiio;lisli :ill traceable to the same origin or root, though this is not always clear at lix'st sight : e.g. dulxc, (Inclie.ss, duchy, doge, ducat, duct, dnctile, conduit, dnuchr, redoubt, subdue ; and also a number of words in wliich the root appears with a final sibilant (= .s) instead of a guttural (^•), such as iidroduce, reduce, traduce. All of these may be easily ti-aced back to Latin originals with the element duk, and this we find to be practically the Indo-European form. § 56. Still exaniiniiiu- words from the same groii)). wu may draw a clear distiuction between root and stem by the help of the words tduratiuu and rcdurlion : ilis- regarding the prefixes (e-, "out," re-, "back") entirely, it is easy to see that the elements -due- and -tion in the words are common, and the difference of the formation lies in the fact that the one word has the vowel -a- be- tween root and suffix (strictly speaking suffixes, -t-iu-n) and the other has not. This -a- is called a formative suffix or stem suffix : it is added in Latin to the root before other suffixes (especially those of inflexion), and seems to serve no other purpose than that of joining the suffix to the root : thus compai-e the Latin duc-tum (whence our -duct) with educ-a-tam (whence our -ducat-). Hence we may define a stem in conti-adistinction to a I'oot as a root -|- formative suffix: but very often, as the examples show, there is no formative suffix, and then stem and root are of course identical. § 57. So far we have taken Latin words in English, and we have selected those which easily exliil)it the root in a simple form ; we might do the same with native words, thus — bear (vb.), bearer, overbear i7iy, forbear 52 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 57, a all sliow a common element (hear) wliicli is practically the Teutonic I'oot (ber) in its Modern English form. t («) Here there is no stem suffix, so that ^erishoth stem and root : the word appears in Mod. German as bdr-en: the original Indo- European form would be hher [§ 47, d (ii.)], which is represented in Greek by ^e'p-oi, in Latin \)j fer-o. § 58. If we write down beside the word hear, or any its derivatives mentioned in the last section, the words hore (pret. of hear) and hare (archaic pret.), horn and home (past parts.), hirth, burthen or burden (a thing home), bier (a thing for bearing), we recognise at once that all these are connected by mean- ing and form : the common element or root will evidently be b*r, but we do not at once see what vowel to insert in place of the asterisk given above. We pi'oceed to examine the etymology of the words, and we find that the words birth, burthen are derivatives, and contaiii what are called mutated vowels (§ 63) — i.e. vowels which are modifications of stronger ones and which have been produced in the process of derivation : hence we shall not seek the root vowels in these words, and so may exclude them from our survey for the present. We are then left with hear, hare, hore, horn and borne, bier (which owes its spelling to influence of Fr. biere), and further investigation does not enable ns to find one I'oot vowel from which these different types proceed, though it enables us to discover certain relations between them. Hence, though we may write the Teutonic roots of hear, bare, born as her, bar, bor, we can only write the general root provisionally as h*r. Similarly the common Teutonic root of bind, band, bundle must, strictly speaking, be represented provisionally by b*nd, though the vowel of each of the three separate roots can easily be given. § 59. As far as is known roots have never existed independently ; though the loss of affixes of formation and inflexion in English has often resulted in producing what is practically a^ root form. Man, for example, looks § 60, «] HRKKIXE8 AND .SUFKtXES. O.S like a ineie loot, unci is idoutical in luriii willi llie root vum from which it comes ; but comparison witli its earliest forms in the Teutonic languages, and further comparison with other Tndo-Kurtjpean tongues, alike show us that it has only reached its present i-oot-like appearance after losing suffixes in process of time. If we then realize that roots are to be i-egarded as theoretical or hypcjthetical forms deduced by etymologists from the actual phenomena of language, Ave shall commit no serious error in regard- ing them (with Whitney) as the germs or raw " matei-ial, out of which weie developed vei-bs, nouns (adjectives and substantives), and pronouns, and through these the other parts of speech." § 60. Understanding clearly what has been said as to root, stem, &c., the student may find the following concise definitions of iise : — ''The root of a word is the monosyllable which results fi'om d("])riving it of any affixes it may have, and restoring the primitive form of the vowel if this has disappeai-ed or undergone alteration." {(() A Teutonic root we shall then understand to be a root as defined above in its primitive Teutonic form — that is to say, with the Teutonic forms of the Indo-European consonants and vowels. By the Indo-European or Aryan root we understand a root in its absolutcl}- original Indo-Europein form. Af5.xes are either suffixes or prefixes. "A suf5.x is a syllable or letter attached to a root or to another suffix or other suffixes for the purposes of language ; " (i.) a formative suffix connects the root with another suffix, especially in inflexion ; " (ii.) a fiexional or derivative suffix accompanies an alteration of meaning, the former causing such gram- matical changes as that of singular to plural, j)resent to past, &c., the latter producing what is i-ecognised as a flesh woi'd." " A prefix serves the same pui-pose as a derivative 54 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 60, a suffix, but is placed before the word to which it is attached ; it is never added to a bare root." (See § 59.) "The stem of a word is " (i.) root + formative siiffix ; " (ii.) root (whether exhibiting formative suffix or not) which shows a modification of the original vowel ; or " (iii.) identical with the root where there is neither formative suffix nor modification of vowel." § 61. Gradation. — We observed, in connection with the words hear, bom (§ 58), that in some words, obviously connected in meaning (as here, where one is the past participle of the other), the common element (b*r) cannot be expressed with a common vowel. A distinction between the vowels of the two forms here given is probably to be traced back to differences of aocent in the primitive Indo- European. The name given to differences between vowel sounds in two or more stems when these differences arise from distinctions due to primitive Indo - European is Gradation. We find gradation in all the " strong" verbs — i.e. those verbs which do not require a suffix to form their preterite tense (§ 168) — but gradation is not confined to them : thus queen, qnean (O.E. civen, civene^ exhibit gradation as clearly as hind, hound. On the other hand, of course, all vowel changes are not gradations : thus, as we shall see, thought, thinh ; man, men exhibit changes of a totally distinct nature from those treated above (see § 63). (a) Gradation is frequentlj^ called liy the German name Ablaut (" oflf-sound "). § 62. The chief varieties of gradation in Modern English are most clearly shown by the strong verbs ; but here, where Old English often kept four forms. Modern English has rarely retained more than two, levelling under one sound stems originally distinct. The following are representative of the chief gradation series as they appear in Modern English (which series serve as a basis for classifying the " strong " verbs, § 169) : — (i.) ilii've (ii.) rhave (iii.) (liv'iik (iv.) l)('(a- (V.) g/ve (vi.) wake §68] (iKADATION AND MITATION. 55 drove ilitven (clave) cloven (liv/iik (li/nik (hare) honi gave woke to which we may add a representative of a class which has stems exhibiting the results of rcdujilication and con- traction, and sometimes of gradation (§ 1G9, a) ; (vii.) fall ff'll (rt) Gradation is found in all Indo-European languages, in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, as well as in German, English, &c. {b) The series given above as illustrating gradation in llodcrn English appear in Old English as follows : — Infin. Pivt. Pret. Plur. Pi-et. Part. (i.) dnfan drdf drifon drifen (ii.) clvdfan cUaf chifon clofeu ,... . ^ ^'flpc" halp (W.SJiealp) hitlpon holpen ^ '' I drlitvan drone druncon druiiccn (iv.) hcran her blSron boren trcdan tned triedon treden efun gcaf geafon giefen (vi.) faran for foron farcn and (reduplicating) (vii.) feallan feoll feollon feaUen [Compare with these (besides the obviously similar Modern German gradations) : — (i.) -KiLQw, ire'ifOiOo, (in9ov ; fidiis, foediis, fides. (ii.) i\ii[9)(ronai, il\rj\ovda, ^Kvdoy; duco, diicein, (iii.) SipKo/Liai, SeSopKa, tSpaKov, mens, monco, mcinini. (iv.) ffTiWai, (TToK-fi, ffm, vm>7nm, which is now leduced in pronunciation (often in spelling) to single vi : e.g. ivimen for older toifmen, i.e. tvlf+men ; so Lammas < O.E. hlafmiesse < hldf ("loaf") -\-m8esse (" mass "). § 67. Disappearances. — Sounds may disappear from the beginning of a word (Aphaeresis), from the body (Syncope) or the end (Apocope), the cause being mainly the predominance of accented to the detriment of unac- cented syllables, Avith the accompanying tendency to con- traction and the decay of inflexional syllables. Apocope. — The whole history of the language illustrates this by the decay of the inflexional system (§ 5). t (") E.g. " Four good sons saw the church of Our Lady " would have beenin O.E. Feoirer yod-e snn-a mw-on ]>d cirle-an nr-re hlSf- (lici-an. Other notable instances besides those connected with in- • flexion are seen in the disappearance of guttural sounds at the end of a word (often preserved in the spelling) : e.g. tlioucjli., dough, through, day. t {b) O.E. 'Svah, cldh, iSnrh, daecj : cp. Ger. doch, Teig, diirch, Tag. Syncope. — The disappearance of a guttural or palatal from the body of a word, especially between two vowels, is very common : thus raui, nail, sail, tile have lost a medial spirant g. t (c) O.E. regn, nsegl, segl, tigele (irom L. tcgiila, § 23, «) : cp. Ger. Regen, Nagel, 8egel, Ziegel. The reduction of double consonant sounds to single ones [the doubled consonant often arising from assimilation (§ 66)] i'"^ the rule in English, for double consonants are very rarely pronounced : thus we write offal {— off + fall) with double /, but we pronounce only one. Aphaeresis. — We can no longer pronounce without difficulty such combinations as hi, hr ; hence loud, lord, § 68, h'] VARIOUS SOFNli t.AWS. 59 raiv have dro})pt'd their oi'iginal initial aspirate. So, too, tlie first element in cu or kit is no longer suunded, tliough it appears in writing in some words : e.g. knee, knight. Hw (now written ivh) generally di-ops its aspirate, i.e. becomes voiced — at least in the South — as in what, white, &c. t (d) O.E. hhld, hldford, hrWw, oieo, cuiht, huu't, hint, with which cp. Ger. lauf, roh, Knie [k sounded), Knechi [k sounded), uas, weisn. Other striking instances of aphaeresis are seen in r/m ("a trap"), a shortened form oi engine, and such abbrevia- tions as bus (for omnibus), mend (cp. amend), vanguard (t in its body, epithesis at its end. Prosthesis. — This is rare as a process of English word- formation. Tt is seen in the word neict, which arises from an en-f, etrf being the older form. The archaic nnncJe stands for mine uncle, and nonce owes its initial n to tlie M.E. dative of the definite article. In Romance words taken ready-made into English examples are somewhat more common: see hanghtij, estate (§ 82). (a) Nonce is found only in the archaic phrase "for the nonce^^ = M.E. for then ones, where then is the M.E. representative of O.E. '5n?>M, and ones {= once) is treated as a substantive ; the phrase means " for this once only," '• for this occasion." Ei'KNTHKSis. — A notable instance is the intrusion of /<.p between ni and another consonant (especially /, /■) when these consonants originally came together: slumber, bramble owe tlieir h to this cause ; similaT-ly empty has an intrusive p. In thunder, kindred, .«jj/v/(//i' the */ is epenthetic ; so in many Romance words in which the intrnsion took place before the words became English : e.g. tender, resemble, number, etc. (see § S3). {b) Shnnher (vb.) is the M.E. shoiibren and »himrcn, O.E. .i/inmi (sb.) ; cp. Ger. svhiiimmerii. Bramble is O.E. bremel. Empty is O.E. 60 THE KNGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 68, fc wmtuj. So thunder is O.E. \>unor (cp. Ger. Bonuer). Kindred is O.E. cynn-rxden {\ 125, b). Spindle is O.E. spinl, "instrument for 6;;?i?i«ing" Epithesis. — Final excrescent sounds (not letters) are not very common. Tlmmh, for instance, lias an apparently epithetic h (now, however, mute) ; but originally this was not final (O.E. Jmma >M.E. thomb-e), so that its growth was epenthetic. Several adverbs and prepositions ending originally in -.■; (§ 206, c) have excrescent -t : e.g. amongst, betwixt, against, amidst, whilst (similarly in some dialects uust may be heard for once) . § 69. Hard sounds become soft (i.e. are " voiced," § 32) in some instances (besides in assimilation, § 66). Instances are Mod.E. his, is, with, of, thou, that (cp. §§ 45, 46). § 70. The opposite change from soft to hard (unvoicing) is not common. An example is seen in gossip, where the jj was originally b, the word being a compound of god + sib, meaning " related in God." t (a) Sib, "akin," is cognate with Ger. Sippe, "kin." fil CHAPTKl? VIII. On the HisTOKY and Form op Frkxch Words Adopted IN English, § 71. As we liave seen, there is a very laige portion of the vocabulary we use which is of Romance origin, and nearly the whole of this lias been taken from French (§§ 14-16), with very slight changes. But the French words themselves are for the most part of Latin origin, and it will be useful for us to consider the way in which Latin words pass into Fjench, nnire especially as we have at times formed words directly from Latin but on the model of similai- words which we liave taken fi'om French. Thus, for instance, tremendous, stupendous have been coined by us from the L. treniendus, stupeiidux, the gerundives of treino, stupeo, but their termination -ous is due to analogy with (i.e. unconscious or conscious imitation of) -ous in so many English adjectives, e.g. ferocious, odious, joyous; but this -ous is from Fr. -eux (o\Aex -eus), L. -osus, and is not directly from L. -osus (§ 1.52,^). § 72. There are two distinct strata of Latiu words in French as in hhiglish, as has ali'eady been indicated. There are : (i.) The words wliich we may call native or home- gi'own French words, being the uatui-al offspring of the popular Latin spolcen language fi'om which Fi-euch is foi-med — in fact, these are tlie popular Latin spoken woi'ds passed down and modified by uatuiul causes in the mouths of Frenchmen. (ii.) Words deliberately formed from book-Latin. 62 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 72 The latter are naturally much nearer their original written form, and are therefore much more easily recognisable ; they present almost exactly the same appearance in English as in Fi-ench, and will give us little trouble and demand little attention in spite of their large numbers. It is usual to call words of this class words of " learned " formation, the other class being known as woi'ds of " popular " origin — the latter gi-ew, the former were made. § 73. The steps which mark the passage from Latin into French, are briefly these : — (i.) The accented Latin syllable siu-vives. (ii.) The syllables (one or two) following it vanish entirely or are reduced to a mute e. (iii.) The unaccented vowel preceding it disajipears, unless that vowel is in the first syllable. (iv.) A medial consonant, especially between two vowels, generally disappeai-s. Thus L. hon{i)tatem > F. bonte, whence Eng. bounty. L. ma(g)isirum > F. maistre (now •jn.at^re), whence Eng. master. L. se(c)i'irum > F. seiir (now snr), whence Eng. sure. L. ro{t)ihidum > F. roond (now rond), whence Eng. round. § 74. But words of " learned " formation, made from written Latin by adhering to the Latin spelling and forms as closely as possible, are not subject to these natural laws ; thus, for instance, van-i-ty, san-i-ty tell us by their preservation of the unaccented i (L. vanitdtem, sanitdtem) that they are not growths like bounty, but coinages. Now it often happens that the same oiiginal has furnished us with products of each kind (though these are not always so easily distinguished in English as they are in French, owing to our having accentuated both sets after the English model, viz., by throwing back the § 74, }.-] KKKNCir WOHDS I\ 1 NCF.ISIf. r,;5 Mcceiit) : IliiiK Latin fri'if/ih's l)ocomcR in ¥. frail'' fnow frcle) by j^rnwtli, 1)iit frnijih by forrnatiim ; liciicc oiu' words fniH and J'nnjil>\ (ff) The latter looks as if it hud ulwuys preserved the Latin accent ; hut this is not the case, for, had it done so, the vowel » following the accented syllahle would infallibly have disappeared ; what has really happened is that it has shitted back its accent in Englisli irom frai/tle io frdfjilc. (i) The following are some more of these doublets, as they are called — i.e. words of precisely the same origin and elements but of different resulting forms, the difference being due to historical causes : it should be noticed that the " popular " words in English are mostly of Anglo-French origin, wliile a large portion of the "learned" forma- tions date from the Konaissance (see § 16) : the " learned" forms are easily distinguished by their much closer representation of the Latin forms : — Latin. "Popular." " Ijt^rned." AntiqiiHS Antic Antique Bahamum Balm Balsam Blaspliemare Blame Blaspheme Cadentia Chance Cadence Camera Chamber Camera Computare Count (vb.) Compute Dcbitum I)ebt{^i\) Debit Dilatus Delay Dilate DiurnaUs Journal Diurnal Factionem Fash ion Faction Fragilin Frail Fragile Historia (Gk.) Story History Hospiiale Hostel Hospital, {Hotel from Mod. Fr. Spital form of Hostel) Ilionanus Human Humane Lfctio)icm Lesson Lection Legalis Loyal Legal Regalis Royal Itegal Maiorem Mayor Major Paralysis (Gk.) Palsy Paralysis Pauper Poor Pauper Penitentia Penance Penitence Ti IK ENGLISH Liitiii. " Populai Totioncm FoisoH Folentem Puissant Quietus Coy Rede nip tionem Ransom Superjicies {-/(icies) Surface Traditioncin Treason Vocalis Voivel ^■^ THK ENGLISH LAXGrAGK. [§ 74, }, "Learned." Potion Potent Quiet Redemption Superjicies Tradition Vocal § 75.— An important effect of this preservation of the Latin accent in French is clearly seen in the derivation of nouns in which (as is especially the case in certain words of the Latin " third " declension) the accentuation, or the apparent stem, of the nominative differed from that of the oblique cases : here, as a rule, the oblique case form survived (the accusative is generally taken as a type) : for instance the Latin 'potionem, not -potio^ survives in French, where it yields foison, where the final n shows us at once that the nominative form is not its jDarent : here the learned formation has also adopted the common oblique shape, so that we get as a doublet (§ 74, 6) potion (cp. English poison ?ind potion). Similarly F. dejit is li. dent-em, not dens; F. dnc (Eng. du.ke) is L". duc-em, not d^ix. § 76. We will now briefly consider the chief sound laws explained in the last chapter in their effects upon French, as illustrated in Romance words in English ; in connec- tion with which it will also be convenient occasionally to notice some of these laws operating in Latin words before they passed into French. § 77. Metathesis (see §65). F. troubler (whence Eng. trouble) < pop. L. turhulare (from turbula, dim. of tiirba, "crowd"). § 78. Assimilation (see § 66). — This is very common in Latin, notable instances being seen in the prefixes which constantly assimilate their final consonant to the consonant beginning the word to which they are prefixed. The word § 78] FRENCH WORDS IN ENGLISH. 65 asstmilafe is an example, bein<^ deii\L'(l fiDiii tlie L. nssivi- ilare < ad, '' to '' + similare, "to make like" (from stmilis, "like"). Other examples of the same nature are given under the Latin prefixes (§ 198) : some typical instances are offer (ub+ferre), aggresive (ad + gressns, part, of qradi), collect (cum + lectum, sup. of legere), impatieyd {in, "not" -\-pnHentem, part, of pati). So a soft letter frequently assimilates to a hard one before the participial or supine suffix -ttis, -turn : we get, for example, agent from agentem, the pres. part, of agere, but act from the supine stem ac-tum, which stands for ag + turn. Frequently (as also in English) the result of the complete assimilation of two consonants is to cause the disappearance of one of them : thus examine comes from the Latin examinare (whence F. examiner and our examine), which comes from the L. excimen, thS,t stands for exammen < ex-ag-vien (from ex + agere). This law has so far been illustrated from changes that took place before the French period : in the formation of French itself the same tendency continued, but to a gi^eater extent : for example, the last word instanced pro- duced the wot'd essaini, " swarm " (examen is, of course, its learned "doublet"), where the k + s heard in ea- are re- duced to s -1- s. So our word essaij or assay is the F. essai from Jj.- exagium. Other assimilations resulting generally in the disappear- ance of a consonant (Syncope) are worth noticing : — p disappears between two consonants : thus L. compn- tare (cum + piitare) becomes in F. compter and conter, whence (through the Anglo-F. form of the latter, viz. counter) we have count: its doublet is compute. So hos- pitale gives hostel, hotel (§ 74, b) ; hospitem gives host (Mod. F. hote) ; captivns gives caitiff (and captive) ; capitate gives chattel (and capital). The combination ct after a vowel commonly passes into t (but influencing the previous vowel) : thus L. factum gives F. fait and Eng. feat (of which fact is a doublet) ; so conduit comes from L. con- ductum. E. L. P ■^6 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 79 § 79, Apocope (see § 67). — The whole history of the derivation of French from spoken Latin illustrates this, in the tendency of the syllable or syllables that follow the accented syllable to disappear or pass into " mute " e (see § 73, ii.) ; an instance seen in a whole class of words is furnished by the abstract suffix -ty < F. -te < L. -tatem. As other examples notice due from F. deu (now du, past part, of devoir) from a pop. L. debutus, a perf. part, coined from dehere, "owe" : contrast its learned doublet debit {debitum). Degree is the F. degret or degre (now degre) from L. de, " down " + gradus, " step " : degrade is practically its doublet (degradare < de + gradus) ; but agree is a (= L. ad) 4- F. gret or gre (now gre) from L. grains, " pleasing " ; so the archaic maugre, " in spite of," corresponds with F. malgre (quasi L. mal-um grat-um). § 80. Syncope (see § 67) is amply illustrated in the last paragraph in § 73, and in the words of " popular " formation given in § 74. t {«) Allow, owing to this process of syncopation, represents two different words (cp. -gree, \ 79) : in its usual sense "permit, grant," it is the L. allocare, " grant, lease " {ad + locus) ; in its archaic sense "approve," it is ad + laudare ; both fell together in older French as aloner {aUouer < allocare, "give a stipend," alone survives), and became in M.E. alouen. § 81. Aphaeresis (see § 67) is seen in the habitual dropping of the Latin h in French, and this is also felt in some English words where we write the letter but do not pronounce it : e.g. honotir, heir, Jionr, &c. ; the symbol has disappeared in ostler = hosteler, " hostel-keeper." Diamond has lost its initial vowel in French where it is diamant, a shorter form of adiamant from L. adamanta; its doublet is adamant. t (a) L. adamas, acc. adamanta, is Gk. dSajuas, a ver}' hard stone, lit. "untamable," from d-, " un-," and Sa/^aj/, "tame" [Ufmv is cognate with domare and tame ; § 47, h, iii.). Strange has lost initial vowel : F. estrange (now Strange) § 84] FRENCn WORDS IN ENOMRH. 67 from L. ediranens, from exh'a ; extraneous is its doublet ; the vowel is kept in the verb estrange. p (sound) disappears in the initial (Greek) combina- tion ps : psalm, psalter, &c. ; so in modern formations, as psyclwlngy and the like. § 82. Prosthesis (see § QS). — The combinations st, sp, sm, sc when initial commonly prefixed an e in French, e.g. espace (L. spatimii), cponx (older cspoux, L. sponsus, participle of spondeo, "promise"); this e, however, is not generally retained in the English forms : e.g. space, spouse. Estate, however, shows it, = F. estat (now etat) from L. status (part, of stare, " stand "), and therefore a doublet of state ; so esquire is F. escuyer (now ecuyer) from L. scxitaritts, " shield-bearer," from .oi/ runs \ when he is cold, the second element is an advkriwal clause [limits r7t«s] ; and in The hoy takes the cake | rchich is hurnt, which is hurnt is an AruKCTiVK clause, foi- it rpialiiies cal-e. % 93. Logically every sentence, simple, complex, or subordinate'^ may be regarded as consisting of only two parts, the subject and the predicate; but the former term is generally restricted in grammar to a noun (or its equivalent) without any of its attributes (or qualifying words or phrases), while the verb alone (or the verb with such other help as is necessary to make a complete asser- tion, §§ 280, 2;U) is called the predicate : thus, if we take the sentence. The hrave little boy saved his hrolhers life, the word hoy is the grammatical subject, and the word saved is the predicate. (,i) The subject is said to be in the Nominative Case (see !j 114). 72 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 94 § 94. In the above sentence the word life is said to be the object (or direct object) of the verb saved; that is to say, it denotes that upon which the action expressed by the verb is directly exercised, and is joined to the verb without the intervention of a preposition. («) The direct object of a verb is said to be in the Objective Case (see § 114). § 95. A verb which takes a direct object is called Transitive ; other verbs are Intransitive. («) L. transitivus < transifmn, sup. of transire < trans, "across" + ire, " go " ; in- in intransitive = " not." (i) See the classification of verbs in § 157. 73 CHAPTER X. Thk Noun. I. CLASSIFICATION. § 96. The name of anybody or anythinrr. animate or iiianiimite, matei'ial or iinniaterial, is a Noun. (a) Derivation: < F. iiom, "name" <^ L. now-oi, "n;imc." (b) It follows frum the definition thiit any word (no matter to what part of speech it generally belongs), or any combination of words, may, by being regarded merely as a name, be used as a noun. Examples are : He yearns for the Unknou-ahlc (adjective used as noun). Never is a long day (adverb used as noun). Let us have no ifs and buts (conjunctions used as nouns). Tl'Iiat yoH say is mere nonsense^ I say, "Do not go" \ (Clauses, &c., as nouns). I say that you ought not to go ) {c) The word Noun is used by some grammarians to include not only what we here call Noun (Noun-Substantive or Substantive), but also Adjective and Pronoun. § 97. Nouns are divided into two main classes: — (i.) A Conimou Noun is a name an object has in common witli (Jlhei- members of its class : e.g. man, city, river, (ii.) A Proper Noun is tlie name an object has peculiar or proper to itself, distinguishing it from all other objects : e.g. Cicero, Faris, Cam. {a) Proper means literally " own " : L. proprius. 74 THE ENGLISH IjANGUAGE. [§ 98 § 98. Further, special names are given to certain kinds of Nouns : (i.) A Collective Noun denotes a number of persons or other animals taken together as constituting a single thing : e.g. school, assembly, brigade, crowd, fiock. (ii.) An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, state, condition : f^iu-pvliiij, ease, decay. (iii.) A Verbal Noun may be formed from any Verb: — (1) By putting to before it : " To eat is necessary." (2) By adding -ing to it ; " Eating is necessary." (a) If we substitute /oo(f for to cat or eating in the latest examples, we see at once that we are right in regarding these forms as nouns. {b) Collective Nouns are nearly always common : see the examples above. Occasionally they are used like proper nouns, as when we say " Farliament meets to-day " ; with which usage may be compared such a sentence as " Father is coming," where the speaker uses the common noun father as if it were the proper name of one particular person. (c) Class names, whether denoting individual objects, as man, pig, knife, or denoting the whole of the class, as man, oxygen, cloth, steel, are all reckoned as common. [d) It is unnecessary to group abstract nouns (and verbal nouns, which evidently form a class of abstracts) as either common or proper : they are generally considered, however, to belong to the former class, but may become proper by personification : e.g. " Silencewa,s pleased," Milton, P.L., iv. 601. II. INFLEXION. § 99. Nouns have Inflexions which mark number and case. (i.) Number. § 100. The distinction between (1) the Singular Number, the form of a noun used to denote one object, and (2) the Plural Numbei', the form used to denote more than one, is usually made by the inflexion s. The general rule is : — § 101] THK NOUN. 75 Add .s to the singular to form the plural : finis, nit-s, exceptions, adjectives. But after sibilant sounds (§34) we must add -rs : thus, loss-es, equi7iox-es, wish-es, (Ufrlies. (a) -es is the fuller and earlier form, which is contruetoJ to -v wherever the sound allows of it. (b) Notice that some words that end in a sibilant sound are written with a final mute c : such only add the lettci- -s to the eye, but to the ear they add the syllable -es : e.g. smu M.E. Hv-cn, liv-e. Mod. E. live; but O.E. /r/(subst.) > M.E. lif Mod. E. life. Similarly love terminates in v sound both as substantive and verb because it stands for O.E. luf-ian (infin.) and htf-u (noun) > M.E. l(jv-en and lov-e. Observe that we never allow v to stand as a final letter, always following it by e mute, even after a short vowel, e.g. have, give. § 102. A few words have plurals in -en or -n. (i.) Ox, ox-en is tlie only one whicli shows this method clearly in Modern English. (ii.) In cliildr-en, brethr-en, ki-ne (archaic pL of cow) we § 103, h] THE NOCN. 77 have the same suffix added to -vvoids which were already plural. Hence these are called double plnral-forma fsee § 103). (rt) In O.E. -an was the termination in the plural of a large number of nouns (the " weak " decleneion) ; this became in M.E. -en, which was frequently displaced by the -« plural, especially in the North. t (li) Ox-en stands for O.E. ox-aii, plural of ox-a, which became in M.E. ox-c, whence Mod.E. ox (cp. Ger. Och^e, pi. Ochsen, and observe that the -n, -en plural is very common in German). Ey-en, ey-ne < O.E. efiy-an, M.E. eg-en, ei-en, &c. (cp. Ger. Anyen) ; similarly hosen, shoon represent O.E. hosan, and late dative plural scon. Eyeti or ey)ie (eyes), hosen (hose), shoon (shoes) are archaic or dialectic. (c) aid (child) had in O.E. dropped the -r (which was part of the stem) in the singular, but frequently retained it in the plural, which was either did (unchanged) or cild-r-u : from the latter we get M.E. child-re and child-cr (still used dialectically) ; but, these not seeming like plural forms, the suflSx -en was added (in the South and Mid- lands), whence our form. Calf, lamb, egg and others formerly exhibited an r of the stem in the plural, but this has disappeared, the words following the analogy of the bulk of our nouns. (Op. Ger. Kinder, Kdlber, Lammer, Eier, &c.). § 103. Some plurals formed by mutation (§ 63) are in use : these are foot, feet ; goose, geese; louse, lice; man, men; mouse, mice; tooth, teeth. Woman being a compound of man (= tctfe + man) has plural women. Mutation is seen in combination with a plui^al suffix in brethren (brother), kine (cow). + (rt) Mutation plurals were fairly common in O.E., the suffix of plurality which caused mutation regularly disappearing (§ 63). Thus sing, fot, plur. fot { < *fot-iz) ; so gus, gea ; mm, mys ; td\>, ti]> ; mann (inonn), wcini ; hoc, bee (books), &c. (Cp. Ger. Fusse, Gdn.%-e, Mdm-e, Zdhn-e, Mdnn-er, Biich-er, Sec). (b) Women (pron. wimmen) has kept the original vowel-sound (short- ened) in the first syllable : O.E. ulfmen, uJmmen ; the vowel in the singular has been affected by the influence of the preceding w. 78 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 103, c t [c) Brethr-en was formed in M.E. by adding the -en plural sufiBx to M.E. Brether or Brethre, mutation plur. of Brother (cp. Ger. Bruder, Briider) : in O.E. the plural was bro'Sor or bro^ru; rarely with mutation . t {d) Coiv is in O.E. en, plural eg by regular mutation (cp. Ger. Kiih-e) : to this was added in M.E. the suffix -n, whence our kinc, used now with the meaning " cattle," not as mere plural of coiv, for which cows is employed. § 104. Some plui'al forms are identical with the singular : such are deer, sheep, swine. («) This was the regular method of forming the plural of mono- syllabic neuters with long root-syllable in O.E. : e.g. dear, sceap, swm, hus (house), wlf {woma,n) , folc, &c. § 105. Several words expressing measure, weight, and similar notions may be left uninflected in the plural after numerals, as " five foot ten," '■'a, three yard measure," " dbfive pound note." (ffl) Similarly some other words may use the same forms in the singular as in the plural when the latter is taken in a collective sense : thus " he caught three little fishes,''^ but " a large number of fishy {b) Some Latin words in -ics remain unchanged in English (§ 106, d). § 106. Some words have two forms in the plural : — (i.) Native words, or words long naturalised, in which the forms are of the same origin and have both been re- tained to mark different shades of meaning ; as a rule one of these plurals has a collective force, the "regular" formation having the usual plural sense : e.g. brother hrotliers (by blood) cloth die penny cloths (kinds of cloth, plur. of " a cloth ") dies (instruments of coining) hrethreii (of a com.- munity) clothes (clothing) dice (collective : the set used in gambling) pennies (individually) pence (collective) § 107J THK NOUN. 70 (a) In pence, dice tho -ce inorely representa the hard sound of #, as in cloths ; in clothes, dies, pennies the s is soft (= z). Pence is a con- tracted form. (/') The plural of pea is regularly peas : the form pease (as in pease- pudding) may be regarded as a collective-singular. The singular iovm. pea has dropped a final * owing to this being taken for the mark of tho i)lura]. Pease is tlie M.E. pese, O.E. p\se, from L pisiiin (sec § 23). The -s of the root is retained to the oye in the F. pots. Similarly cherrij originally terminated in s ; but this, being taken for a mark of the plural, has been entirely dropped in tho singular. Cherrij is the F. cerise, L. ccrasus, from Gk. Kepaaos ; possibly from the place Cerasos. Barial, riddle, shuttle have dropped an -$ in the singular from a similar cause. (ii.) Foreign words, mainly scientiKc terms, in which the foi'eign plural is restricted to its technical use: e.g. Scientifi c . Popular . formula formulae formulas index indices indexes fungus fiOigi funyuses (c) In other foreign words which have retained their foreign forms usage varies. Sometimes they make their plurals as if they were used in their own language ; at others — and this is the case generally when the words become at all freely used — they are regarded as naturalised and take the usual Euglisli inflexion : e.g. crocuses, asyluma, but errata, addenda. [d] In many cases the usage varies without any such clear variation of meaning as in (ii.) above : e.g. memorandums and memoranda. (<■) In a few cases, where we have an anglicised form for the singular and a regular English plural formed thence, we retain a foreign plural form with a slight distinction of usage : as cherub, cherubs and cherubim (Hebrew); seraph, seraphs tluA. seraphim (Kebreyi); bandit, bandits &nd banditti (Ital.). i/) Latin and Greek words ending in -is, even though fully naturalised, change -is to -es instead of adding -es : e.g. axis, axes ; analysis, analyses; crisis, crises. Similarly those in -i'''^''^'- ^1 (i.) By using abstract foi- concrete, e.g. fnifhs, hanhhi.j)x, humours^ st riK/tjUiKjs. (ii ) By iLsing tlio class-name in a more limited sense: coah (= separate lumps of coal, i.e. plui^al of "a coal," or " kinds of coal "), bra'>he(p. (b) iVijM/^- in Latin means "neither," i.e. "neither masculine nor feminine." ((•) A noun which may without change of form denote a male or female is sometimes said to be of common gender : e.g. pareiif, infant, hahij. III. FORMATION. (i.) FnU.MATIOX OP COMPOUND NoUNS. § 120. A Compound is a combination of two (or more) independent weirds fulfilling the function of a single word. It is treated a.s one word, in contradistinction to a mere cojijunction of its elements, by giving it a single principal accent, instead of allowing each element to have its own accent; further, to the compound i.s usually giA'en a specialised meaning : e.g. fox-terrier, seaweed, hJackijuariJ, codsfgunrd. The following are the chief methods of forming com- pound nouns : — (i.) Noun qualified by an adjective : e.g. (j rand fat her, blackberry, hothouse. (ii.) Noun qualified by a noun : e.g. birtliday, cotmtry- man, icitchcnift, warfare, song-bird; the second element is often formed from a verb, and the first represents its object : e.g. book-seller, boot-making, playicright. (iii.) Noun governed by a preceding verb : e.g. spend- thrift, kill-joy, dare-devil, turnkey. (iv.) Other methods are seen in inside, by-play, godsend, farexcell, stand-by, passer-by, over-all, he-goat, self-love, good- for-nothing, ne'er-do-well, son-in-laiv . § 121. A number of suffixes of derivation ought, sti'ictly 90 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 121 speaking, to be treated here, but it is more convenient to deal with them in § 124 ef seq. {a) -mail appears as a mere agerrt suffix (like -er, § 12G, a) in several words : e.g. seaman, fireman, horseman, bellman, hangman, waterman. In several words a quasi-genitival s appears after the fii-st element: e.g. tradesman, salesman, statesman, kinsman, &c. -man is added to a word which already has the suffix -er in fisherman. In alderman the first element is O.E. ealdor, " elder," " chief." (h) -wife (= " woman ") is similarly used for the feminine in house- wife, fishtvife, &c. {c) -loriyht (= "worker") appears in playivright, wheelwright, shipwright. In wainwright the first syllable is a doublet of wagon. [TFright < M.E. loriglite, formed by metathesis (^ 65) from O.E. wyrht-a, cp. wyre-an, "to work," cp. weorc, "work."] (d) -craft {" skill") appears in witchcraft, priestcraft, handicraft; the last word stands for hand- craft with an intrusive i, due to associa- tion with handiivorh. Handiwork rightly has this i, for it represents M.E. hand-iwerc and O.E. hand-getceorc, geiveorc heing almost equivalent in meaning to weorc, from which it is formed with the collective pre- fix ge-. (e) In warfare the second syllable is the same as our noun fare, meaning originally a "journeying," and so a " carrying-on," " com- portment " : we have it in thorough -fare, " passage thorough^' or " through " (through is merely a shorter form of thorough) ; ivel-fare, "successful faring" [cp. fare well =^'ma,y you fare well"]; chafer = chap-fare, where chap means "bargain" (O.E. ceap), as in chapman (and the familiar abbreviation of it, chap). (/) -kind in mankind, &c., is the same as the word kin (O.E. mann- cynn), but it owes its added d to the influence of the word kind (" sort "—as in "this kind of thing," &c.), with which it is etymo- logically closely connected. [The substantive kind is the O.E. eynd, connected with cynn, and means in the first place "nature," "inborn disposition," as in the phrase " after his kind " : the adjective kind similarly meant originally "natural," the present meaning "benevolent" being a later development.] § 122, a] THE NOUN. 91 ((/) -herd (a herd, i.e. "keeper") appears in cowherd, swineherd, (joatherd, nhepherd (i.e. sheep-herd), &c. [Potsherd does not contain this suffix : it is not pots-herd, but pot-shei'd or pot -shard : the second syllable means a " fragment," "cutting," from the verb shear, with •which are connected tihire, score, &c.) [The words herd, " Hock," and herd, "keeper," were distinguished in O.E. ; the former was hcord, the latter was hierde, connected with it. By the decay of the suffix, the two have become identical.] urf(, "through"; ffrill is a Dutch cognate. Orchard is literally ort-yard, ort or wyrt meaning "root" (with which word it is etymolog^cally connected). Wort survives in various plant names : cole-ivort, &c. Kluge, however, derives oyt from Latin hortus, which is from the same I.E. original as yard. According to this both elements of the word have the same meaning : cp. htut-end < F. bout, "end." Somersanlt is O.F. soubre-sault, where the souhre = L. supra, and the other element is L. saltus, " a leap," from sal-ire, " to leap." Steward is O.E. stl-weard, i.e. " ward or keeper of the sties''^ ; similarly Marshal originally meant "horse -servant " [from French, which got it, however, from Old High German : the first syllable means '* horse," and is cognate with mare ; the second is in Hod. Ger. SchaJk (rogue), and meant originally "servant "]. Stirrup is in O.E. stlg-rap = *'climbing-ro;j«." Walnut means "foreign ««<," the first syllable being O.E. wealh, "foreign" (whence Wales, Welsh, Com- xc all : the Anglo-Saxons called the British "foreigners"). In walrus the first syllable is of totally different origin, being (the Scandinavian form of) the word ivhale ; the second syllable is the Scandinavian form of the word horse, so that walrus = ^^ whale-horse^'' (O.E. hors, O.N. hros, meta- thesis forms ; Ger. Ross with h dropped before r, j 67). Wassail is originally a salutation = "be thou of good cheer," O.Danish tvsesheil, cp. O.E. wes hdl, i.e. wes, imperative of verb " to be" (cp. Ger. ffe-jces-en, atni see ^ 116, l>) + hdl, "hale" (hale ia a, Northern doublet of whole, in which the ti; is a misspelling ; it is properly absent in other words from the same source : health, hail, holy, heal, &c.). (b) A few more woi-ds to which, as to cray-fish, mistaken etymology has given a false shape are here noticed : — Ember-days: the first element is O.E. ymbryne, "circuit" {y»ib, " around," cognate with Ger. urn and L. ambi- ; ryne, " run "). Frontispiece is not a compound of piece (see § 41, S). Goodbye is a corruption of " God be with you." Mandrake is a corruption of maitdragora (Gk.), the name of a plant. 94 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 122, b Fickaze is a corruption of M.E. pieois, and owes its form to popular etymology, attempting to connect it -with axe. Wormwood is a compound of O.E. iverian, " protect," " cover " {whence u-ear), and mod, "mind," "mood" : thus the original mean- ing is " mind -guard." (ii.) Formation of Nouns with Suffixes. A. The Native Element. § 123. Primitive Words. — A number of monosyllabic substantives have no trace of derivational suffix or prefix, and appear to be simple roots in a Modern English form (but see § 59): e.g. cnw, foot, foe. Others again, though plainly not of this number, appear with obscure elements whose force and form cannot be precisely determined : e.g. mother, water, child. § 124. In many nouns formative suffixes appear, which once existed as independent words but have lost their full force in composition : the chief of these apjoear in king-diova., ma7i-'b.ood, fi'iend-ship. («) These differ in degree, not in kind, from the last element of such compounds as witchcraft, goodman, shipwright, &c. (§ 121) ; they are distinguished from them only in having more completely lost their full independent meaning when used in forming nouns. {h) -dom (the same word as doom from the verb do) forms abstract nouns denoting primarily "power," " jurisdiction," and so "condi- tion" ; many abstracts thus formed have acquired a concrete mean- ing. Many are hybrids. Examples of the use of this suffix are : (i.) from nouns: kingdom, earldom; hybrids: princedom, dukedom, popedom, Christendom. (ii.) from adjectives : freedom, wisdom (= tvise-dom). The suffix is still living, though rarely used except in fresh forma- tions of a half-humorous kind : tinkcrdom, boredom. Thraldom and some others are of Scandinavian origin ; but halidame (= holi-dom), holidame are incorrect forms of early Modern English § 12i,d] TnK NOUN. 95 due to mistaken connexion of the word with the Virgin. The correct form is halidom < O.E. halig doin (cp. Ger. heiligtum). Seldom does not belong hero (see § 20G, d) ; nor does random, which represents an O.F. ramlon, " force," " swiftness," and so " haste." t The O.E. form is dom (the long vowel is preserved in doom) as in wls-dom ; Ger. cognate is -turn, as in Komgtum. (<•) •hood forms abstracts denoting " state," " condition" : (i.) from nouns : manhood, childhood, brotherhood, nisterhood, neigh- bourhood, knighthood, tcidowhood ; and rarely (ii.) from adjectives: likelihood, falsehood. The last named is a hybrid (h. fals-iis) ; so is priest -hood. It appears as -head in Godhead (i.e. God-hood). t The O.E. form is hdd as in cild-hdd, which gave M.E. -hood (and -hede) ; the Ger. cognate is -hcit, as in Kiudheit, Freiheit. This suffix does not appear in lireli-hood, which, however, owes its form to analogy with it ; the older form is live-lode, i.e. life-lode, "life-/<'rt^/ing," -lode being the same as the substantive lode (of metal in a mine), and of the same origin as the vb. lead. M.E. Uvelude, liflode, O.E. lif-ldd. {d) -ship forms abstracts denoting "shape," "state," "condition" ; many thus formed have acquired a concrete meaning. Examples of its use are : (i.) from novms : f-iendship, lordship, ladyship, horsemanship, wor- ship (= worth-ship). (ii.) from an adjective : hardship. Many are hydrids (the suffix can still be used in fresh formations), as membership (L. membr-um), mastership, clerkship, scholarship, fellow- ship, &c. The second syllable in landscape, seascape, is the Dutch form of the same suffix. + The O.E. form is -scipc, from same source as the " weak present" verb«firt«, to "shape," whenceour verb shape; the noun ship is of the same origin. Examples of its use in O.E. asefreondscipe, weor\>seipe ; the Ger. cognate is -schaf-t (from schaffen, "shape"), as in Freimd- schaft, landschaft , Ofi THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 125 § 125. Rarer suffixes of the same class (i.e. knoAvn to have been once independent words) appear in wed-lock, know-ledge, hat-red., hishop-vic, and in the numerals hund-ved, four-teen, for-ty. (a) In wed-lock the first element means " pledge"; -lock (O.E. Ific) originally meant "sport," "game," and "gift." Knoiv-ledge ex- hibits the iScandinavian form of the same suffix. {b) -red, abstract noun sufiix denoting " condition," " stipulation " (the meaning of the O.E. word rxden), is found in hatred and kin- dred ( < M.E. kin-rede, ^ G8, transformation, by analogy with O.E. sibb-rseden, M.E. sibrede, "relationship," of O.E. cijnren, i.e. cynn-ryne, "family," "course," or "line"; cp. O.E. ryne, "a running"). (c) For -red (= "reckoning") in hund-ved, and -teen, -ty (= "ten ") in four-teen, for-ty, &c., see under Numerals, § 147. {d) -ric in bishop-ric signifies "dominion," "rule." Bishop-rio is a hybrid {\ 24). t The O.E. form is -rice ; the Ger. cognate is Eeich (" kingdom"), used as suffix in Kmigreich, &c. ; the cognate in Latin is reg- (as seen in reg-ere, reg-em, reg-num, &c.). The adjective rich (primitive meaning "powerful") is practically the same word as rice (cp. Ger. adj. reich) above; its appearance in French is due to its having been borrowed from the Teutons. § 126. Many suffixes seen in the formation of nouns cannot be shown to have had independent existences. The chief of tliese appear in the words play-ev, " one who plays," agp,nt suffix, sJiov-el, " thing to shove with," instrumental suffix, ivarm-th, " state of being wai^m," ■") , ^ good-ness, " quality of behig good," i ^^*^™^^ ^^'^^^ leani-ing, " to leam " ( = verb-noun), ) si^^^es ; and in the words (originally all dirnimitives) ; 5 12n, h] TlIK NOI-N. 97 hnll-ock, /.(///-el, r.hick-en, farth-iiig, '//'/. -1-ing, J aiiih -Tain ; and ill the feminine words spin-ster, vixen. (rt) -er (donoting primarily malo agent) may bo added to almost any verb (or noun regarded as verb): e.g. bx/.-cr (one who huhrx), gardener, fcani'r, Imrr, rider, singer, teaeher, hunter. In such a word as cottag-er it is used loosely to signify "one connected with" (especially by habitation) : so in London-er, viUng-er. It is freely used in names of instruments regarded primarily as agents: pointer, sharpener, drawer. It is spelt (but not pronounced) slightly differently in bcgg-ar, li-ar. It has been a living sufEx throughout the whole history of the language, and hence is freely used with foreign stems : e.g. paint-er, point-e)' ; and is even added to Greek formations as in jw/fo/o/^jffji^/i-fr, biograph-er, where the Gk. -ist (§ 128, a) would seem more appropriate. Many words in -er are now used for feminine as well as masculine : e.g. teacher, dancer; it forms a masculine, however, from a feminine in widoiv-er (^ 117, «). The feininiiio suflix properly corresponding to it is -slcr as in xpin-s/rr, but this is also now commonly found as a masculine agent suflix (i 117, b). The Romance suflix -ear (Lut. -or) has freqiiently givon way to this form, or become identical with it, owing to its prevalence and similarity of pronunciation and force : it is frequently impossible to distinguish between the -er native and -er from French -eiir. On the other hand, the native suffix is sometimes spelt as if it were of Latin origin, as saihr (for sail-er) : this is due to influence of -or words from Latin, such as author (L. aiutor-cm): hence such parallel forms as sailor and miler (with different meanings). t The O.E. form is -ere, as in leornere ; the Gcr. cognate is -er, as in Rcifrr. {b) -el (more frequently spelt -le) marks a class of words originally denoting agents and subsequently instruments : most of these are from verbal roots. Examples are cripp-le {creep), gird-le (gird), shor-el (shore), shult-le (shoot), spind-le [for spin-el (see ^ 68) from spin']; steep- le is from adj. steep; stile has this suffix in a contracted form, standing for stig-cl, from sfig-an, to "•< {)>), d (all closely connected), as in tr('0K'"5 {truth), druga^ {drought), dJrd {deed), &c. ; the Ger. cognates appear as -t, -d : e.g. Schrif-t {schreib-en), Bran-d {brenn-en), Tha-t {than). The L. cognate is the -t- of passive participles, as in stra-t-us {sterno), whence our street {via strata, § 23, a). {e) -ing used to form nouns from verlis may be added to any verb, being treated now as a regular inflexion in forming verbal nouns (see § 98, iii.) : e.g. hunting, electioneering, jerrymandering. t The O.E. form is -utig (later -ing), as in the noun leom-ung, leorn-ing ; the Ger. cognate is -ung similarly used : e.g. Beschreib- ung. (/) -ing, a personal termination, sometimes with a diminutive or depreciative sense, appears in farth-ing (i.e. fourth-ing) and in Rid-ing (Yorkshire), where it stands for thrid-ing, i.e. third-ing, a Scandinavian word. It is traced also in shill-ing, hcrr-ing, penn-y (for penn-ing), tvhit-ing, and in the now obsolete words stveet-ing (preserved as a proper name), lord-ing, hild-ing. It was used freely in O.E. to form patronymics, = " son of " (much like -son, which generally supplanted it owing to Scandinavian influence) : hence proper names in -ing, Buch as Brown-ing, Will-ing, and place-names such as Barl;-ing, Dork- ing (i.e. places where lived the Barkings or Dorkings, children of Bark, Dork). King is contracted from kin-ing, where kin (O.E. cyn) = "race," "tribe," "nation"; similarly celc, "noble" (cognate Ger. edel) appears in many O.E. names : Ethel-bert, Ethel-red, &c.]. {g) -ling is a double diminutive suffix formed of -l {-el, above) + ing ( above) and has generally supplanted the simple -ing. It is seen in dueh-ling (a little duck), darling [dear), gosling, (goose), codling, seedling, stripling, youngling, starling (older star, like Ger. Staar, meant the same bird) ; so nestling (a little thing belonging to, fit for, a nest), nursling, yearling, foundling, suckling, sapling, &c. ; with notion of con- tempt common to diminutives in lordling, groundling, changeling, hire- ling, shaveling , fopling , &c. Sterling st&nds for easterling or esterling ("little eastern person"), the name given in the thirteenth century to the merchants from the east (Flemings, Hanse-towns' men), who traded with England. t The O.E. diminutives are -ing and -l-ing^ ; the Ger. cognate -el, -I is freely used in the double suffix l-ein, as in Eind-lein, Jiing-lein. (A) -kin forms a few dimimitives in native words: e.g. lamb-kin, pip-kin (' ' pipe ' ') , gris-kin (Icel. grtss, ' ' a young pig ") . It was more largely used in Dutch, and the following words (and some others) appear to have come thence into English : — cana-kin {can), catkin (flower name, but properly a diminutive of cat), firkin (from Dutch form oifour), niannikin {man). It appears in proper names such as Malkin (= little Maud), Gri- malkin {grey malkin, " a cat "), Peterkin and the shorter form Ferkin, Siinpkin ("little Sim," i.e. Simeon, with intrusive^; cp. Simpson), Tomkin, JFatkin {Wat abreYintion oi Walter; cp. Watson), &c. Bodkin meant originally "a small dagger," M.E. hoydekin, in Chaucer ; its origin is at present unknown. Welkin does not contain this suffix : it is from the plural of the O.E. woken, " cloud," where c (i.e. k) is part of the root ; cp. Ger. Wolke. t -kin is a compound suffix rarely found in O.E. : the German cognate is -o/i«w, freely used as in Mddchen {Magd), Liebchen {Lieb), &c. The k is probably the same as that in bullock ; the other element in the suffix may be identical with the -en below {j). {i) -ock is found in the diminutives bull-ock, hill-ock, humm-ock ("a little hump "). t The suffix of diminution appears to be originally -c (i.e. k) rather than -oc{k), which has perhaps been used through the influence of the form bullock : it is only found in O.E. in this one word bullu-c and in styr-ic (a " stirk," kind of bull), from steor, a " steer," unless § 127, a] THE NOUN. 101 iHvruck or larh, E. laweree (Ger. Lerche), belongs here, which is doubtful. (j) -en is an old diminutive suffix in maid-en, chick-en (dim. of cock). Eitt-cn is the M.E. kit-oun, where the suffi.v is French (§ 127, k). Mitten is the M.E. mitaine, from O.F. mitaine (whose origin is doubtful, some considering it Teut., others Celt.). t The O.E. suffix ia seen in mJvdcn (for mwijclen, cp. O.E. mxg^, " maid ") : words with this suffi.x were neuter. (/■) -en as feminine suffix (see vixen, ^ 117, d, e). B. The Foreign Element. § 127. Our vocabulaiy contains nouns showing a very large variety of Romance suffixes. The chief of these appear in the following : — Personal: .secretary, cnrpent-ev, prcm-iev, chancell-or ; jur-or, sav-ioxLV ; Justor-ia,n, c(/^;/-ain ; (idmr-site, jxr-y; hurg-ess; the feniinines heir-ess, e.rec » -trix ; ro/r-ard. Abstract Nouns: igwor-ance, prud-ence; .aI, kc, it passed into French in the form -ade, of frequent occurrence : thus arcade, balustrade, crusade (F. croisade, from cruix, from crucein, "cross"), grenade, cavalcade, &c. {/) -eii.sis (adjectival ending in Latin in such names as Carthagini- ensis, &c.) is represented in English in burg-ess, Portugu-est, marqu-ess. iff) For -ess, -trix (as in heiress, testatrix), see ^§ 116, 118. [h) The L. abstract -antiam, -entiam arc easily recognized in derivatives such as ig)iora.nce, prudence ; the longer form -ency appears in transparencij, &c. Silence is L. silentium. (i) -ice is L. -itia, -itium, as injustice, sei'vice ; the French form of this is -esse, as in noblesse, richesse (whence riches, § 108, a). iJ) -tude is L. -tudo, -tudinem, only in "learned" derivatives: beatitude, gratitude. (^0 -'ty) -ity represent F. -te, -ite, L. -itas, -ilatem : thus ct/y is F. cite, L. civitatem ; charity, F. charite, from L. caritatem (from cams, " dear ") ; bounty, F. bonfe, L. bonitarlem. So in verity, stupidity, facility and faculty (doublets), avidity, &c. (/) -y often represents a F. -ie, L. -ia, abstract or collective noun ending: e.g. industry {F. Industrie, L. industrid). [in) -io, -ionein (often in combination -tio, -sio) is very common in English and French. It appears as -tion, -sion in many NTords whose etymology is at once obvious : invention, a-sptrsion, combination, iiijlcxion ; it is less like its original in poison (L. potion-cm, " draught ' ') , fashion {\j. f actionem, irom fact -urn ; a doublet \s faction), &c. {n) -age is a French form of pop. L. -aticum, as in voyage (L. viaticum, from via, " way "), savage {silvaticuiii, from silra, " wood "), courage (from L. cor, "heart"); it was used as a suffix in English, and hence appears in hybrids, such as bond-age. (o) -(t)ure, as in nature, is simply L. -{t)ura: so in overture, aper- ture, ice. (p) -and, -end are from L. gerundival stems {-and being always through the French form) : vi-and{s) (F. viande, L. vivenda, from viv-«re, " live "), legend (L. legvnda, from legere, " read "■). 104 THK ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§127,9 [q) L. -ulm {-i/hi, -ultmi) appears in people (F. peitple, L. poptihi.s), table (tabula), anyle (L. angulus), &c. ; also in chapter (F. chapitre, L. capitaliiit/). It keeps near its original in "learned" formations such as globule and cellule (where it has diminutive force), calculus, &c. It appears as a compound suffix in many instrumental and diminutive formations : e.g. specta-c-le (L. spectaculnni), oracle (L. oraculum) , particle, &c. Damsel (M.E. damonel, from F. damoiselle, fem. of damoisel, " youth ") represents L.L. domicell-a for clominicella, fem, diminutive of dominus, "lord." Cupola has L. -ula in an Italian form — a diminutive of cupa, " cup." (r) L. -orium appears plainly in learned formations such as rip/epi'ory, and others given ahove. Parloitr stands for parlat-orinm, lit. " a place to talk in," from pop. L. parlare {F.parler), from parabolare, " talk" (Gk. -Kapa^oXi), "parable," " word.") [s] L. -wiew as in regimen (fx-om regere, "rule") appears in short- ened form in charm, F. charme, L. car -men ; volume = Jj. volumen (from volvere, "roll"). In regi-men-t, entertain-men-t and other words containing this common suffix — some hybrids, e.g. beicilderment — we have the comjjound suffix -men-turn. Moment and movement are doublets (L. morere, " move "). [t) -ace is found in words which have passed through Italian, where it has an augmentative, but generally depreciatory, force : e.g. populace (L. populus, "people"). It appears in terrace (L. terra, "earth"). [Palace is vx&vely Ij. palat'mm. Place is Jj. platea, "broad walk," from Gk. trXaTvs, "broad." Space is L. spatium.) {u) -on -oon have augmentative force in the languages derived from Latin. Eng. cannon, from F. canon, is L. canna, "reed" (from Gk. Kavv-q : but Eng. canon, though ultimately from the same source, is the Gk. icavwv, "rod," "ruler," and therefore does not contain this suffix) : so balloon = "a big balV^ (F. ballon). Other examples (Spanish, &c.) are seen in doubloon, quadroon (Ital.), lagoon, "a big laJce''^ (from L. Incus). (r) The French diminutive -ette appears as -et in lancet ("a little lance''^), hatchet (F. hache, "axe"), banner-et, leveret (F. lievre, "hare,"' L. Icpor-), claret (F. clair-et, from adj. clair, L. clarus, " clear "), .//'j»7r-(fV, &c. Coquette, rosette, etiquette are the Modern French words kept unchanged. It was frequently added to words containing the diminutive -/- (L. -uius, above), thus giving rise to a double diminutive suffix -let : e.g. rtvu-l-et (L. rivulus from rivus), § 128] Tin; nol-n. 105 (jaunt-kt (F. yaitt, " glove," from Gaud, Gaiinf, or Ghent in Fliinders), iiotclel, ringlet ("a little rinrj " — hybrid). (w) -ard, which appears in several substantives, is of Teutonic origin (O.II.G. -hurl), but comes into English in words taken from French. Thus coward is O.F. coarl, from Lat. caiidd, " tail "+ this suffix , in other formations (made in English) it has a similar depre- ciative force : e.g. drunkard, dullard, braggart. The same suffix appears in Spaniard. § 128. Fiutlier, the .suffixes contained in words of Greek origin have come to ns thvongh a Romance sonrce. We liave the cliief of tliem in . soph-ist ; barhar-isvn ; lo(j-ic ; to which we may add some which were independent words, hnt are now nsed as suffixes of derivation : tliese are seen in f/co-logy, /''/c-gram, ^eo-graphy. ((?) -ist, the Gk. -io-tt/j (adopted in L. as -i.sta), appears not only in Greek words such as soph-ist (iro^xJy, "wise"), antagon-ist [avri, " against " + o7wj't(rT^s, "struggler," from aytiv, "contest"), but also in words with the first element of Latin origin : e.g. non -conformist, art-ist, (jiiiet-isf, dent -ist ; so cgo-t-ist (for ego-isl, horn ego, "I"), where the t between the vowels is perhaps due to the termination of the last examples, as well as to the desire to avoid hiatus. The suffix is still living : e.g. scientist. Nihilist. {I') -ism, the Gk. -laf^os (in L. as -ismus), forms abstract nouns : soph-ism, antagon-ism, barbar-ism, the-ism, &c. Hybrids (the suffix being living) are not unconamon : social-ism. (r) -ic, properly an adjective siiffix, Gk. -ikos (generally fern, -ikt] in its English derivatives, agreeing with re'xi'i?, "art," understood), appears in names of sciences, arts, &c. : mus-ic, log-ic ; with added -.f of plural, mathemat-ic-s, cth-ic-s, polit-ic-s ; cp. to fiadriiJ.aTiKd, TO TToMriKa. When used as adjectives in English, words ending formerly in -ic frequently have the Lat. -al (§ 152, d) added: e.g. tnechan-ic-al, mathemat-ic-al. Vublic (L. publicHs), civic (L- cirictis) do not contain this suffix, but its Latin cognate. "O' For the Prefixes used in English nouns, see the general Alphabetical List in §§ 197-8. 106 CHAPTER XI. Pronouns. 1. GLAS8IFIGATI0N. § 129. Pronouns denote persons or things whose names have been previously mentioned, or are presumed to be known : they indicate without naming. («) Derivation: F. pronom from L. 2)ro, "instead of"+ nomen, "name." {b) Logically pronouns are a species of noun : in grammar it is found convenient to treat them as a different part of speech. As far, however, as syntax is concerned, the treatment of the two is practically identical. § 129 A. Pronouns are classified as Personal e.g. J, you, she. Possessive ours, theirs. Reflexive and Emphatic imjself, themselves. Demonstrative ^^'^'s that.^ Interrogative ^vho ? lohich ^ Relative who, which. Indefinite one, some. (a) Certain words discussed as Numeral and Indefinite Adjectives (Ch. xii.) are freely used also as Pronouns, and are sometimes called Numeral Pronouns : these include all the cardinal numbers and such words as all, mmiij, some, &c. (i) A pronoun is called reflexive (L. reflectere, " bend back") when it refers to the subject of the sentence and is not in the nominative case : e.g. " He did it for himself;' "I helped myself ; but the same words are often merely emphatic : e.g. "I w!y«e//did it." § 130, c] PRONOUNS. 107 ((•) Interrogative Pronouns (L. interrotjare, "ask") are used in asking questions : e.g. " JFho did it ? " " What do you say ? " (rf) Relative Pronouns (L. relat-um, used as supine of referre, " bear back") usually refer to a noun or pronoun already used in the same sentence (called the Antecedent), and also servo to connect the chiuso in which they occur with the rest of the sentence : " I took the book tchich lay on the table." II. INFLEXION AND HISTORY. § 130. The forms of tho Personal and Possessive Pronouns are : — FiKST Person. JSecond Person.] Third Person. Nominative... / we thou you, ye he she Possessive ... ( my \ mine our ours thy thine your yours his her hers Objective ... me us thee you him her it they .. their its ., . theirs it them {a) Of the possessive forms (i.) My, our, thy, your, her, their are only used in the position of attributive adjectives, i.e. immediately before a noun ; like all possessive cases now used in English, their force is adjectival, and they are generally termed Possessive Ailjccliii's. (ii.) Mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, theirs are used only as possessive pronouns, i.e. when the noun they depend on does not follow : e.g. " Thisis your book, but that is mine." But mine and thine are occasionally found as archaisms for thy and my before a vowel. (iii.) His may be possessive adjective or pronoun. (b) The forms thou, thy, thine, thee are archaic : we use them now only in addresses to the Deity and in poetic diction. Originally thou, thcc were regularly emploj'cd for tho singular ; ye, yoit for the plural : subsequently the plural forms became customary in polite converse for tho singular as well as the plural, thou, thee being used by a superior to an inferior, or in addresses of endearment, close familiarity, &c. : cp. the German use of du, and the French of tu. Ye is also archaic : it represents the old nominative, but has been displaced by the object-form you (see \ 131, a). (c) In mine, thine the n is the old possessive singular inflexion 108 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 130, C (the e is merely orthographical, denoting the length of the vowel), and of these my, thy are merely shortened forms. In her (possessive) we have preserved a remnant of the possessive singular fennnine inflexion. In his the final s is the common possessive singular inflexion : his was originally both masc. and neut. {d) Its is quite a modern form (17th cent.) which has supplanted his as neuter, an intermediate form it (uninflected) being sometimes foimd ; the -s here is the usual possessive inflexion, given by analogy ■with other possessives. {e) Ours, yours, hers, theirs are sometimes called double genitives ; they owe their form to the fact that the -r had lost its genitival force ; hence an -s was added by analogy with ordinary genitives, particularly with his. Lowland Scotch extends the analogy to the remaining possessive pronoun : e.g. " This is tnities^' ( =mitie). (/) The m in him is the old case-ending of the dative masculine (and neuter) singular, which is only preserved in this word and in whom (see § 135) ; in them, it is the dative plural flexion, as in whilom (§ 206, d). In her (object) the r is the remnant of the dative (not accusative) singular feminine flexion. Observe therefore that him, her, whom are dative forms which have come to be used in all object relations (i.e. accusative and dative), supplanting the older accusative in accordance with the general tendency which has levelled these cases in all nouns in English. {g) Similarly m.e, us, thee, you represent both the old accusative and the dative, which in these words fell together even in O.E. by the loss of a final -{i)c from the accusative. It (object) represents the old accusative, which was the same as the nominative ; the dative form was him, which is now used only as a masculine. {It) She is derived quite regularly from O.E. seo, the feminine form of the definite article. The O.E. feminine pronoun was heo, which often took the form Ite in M.E. ; but this form was already bespoken for the masculine. To avoid confusion, therefore, the feminine singular (like the plural) gradually appropriated the form of the definite article. (i) In it (O.E. Itit) the t is a neuter suffix (cp. Lat. istitdi) ; the /( has been dropped through lack of stress, it being almost always unaccented (as in it rains). § 13-2, a] PKONOrNS. 109 {J) The O.E. forms corresponding to they, their, them (from O.E. brt, \>^)a, )>ietn, with influence on the vowels from Icel. ]>eir, ];>eira, \>cii)i, the nom. gen. and dat. plural of the definite article) were hie, hiera, him, which became in M.E. hi, hir, him. Although Chaucer invariably used the forms hir and hem, they have been sup- planted by those of the definite article, probably on account of the confusion of hir, hem (plural) with hir, him (sing.). See (A). t § 131. The O.E. forms are :— Siugular. Nom. ic("I") K«("thou") Ace. me (older mcc) ^e (older )?ec) Gen. mhi \>i>i Dat. mc )>« Plural. Nom. ive ge Ace. us (older mic) eow (older coicic) Gen. ure eoicer Dat. ni eotv There were also duals tvit (" we two"), uncit and unc, nnccr, imc ; and ffif (" ye two "), iucif and inc, ificer, inc. Cp. the Ger. cognates throughout. Singular. Phu-al. Nom. /(tf("he") /(r« (" she ' Ace. /'(//'' Inc Gen. his hiere Dut. him hiere § 132. The forms of the Demonstrative Pronouns hif ("it") hie hit hie h ix hiera him him are this, plur. these ; that, plar. those. (a) This (demonstrative adjective and pronoun) has historically both plurals these and (hose, but the latter is now used only as plural of that (adj. and pron.). That itself is by origin (but no longer in use) the ?«?//«< (" that ") \>(l Ace. );>one \>(i \>ixit \>d Gen. ))xs \>S7-e \>3es \>ara, i>Bera Dat. J'k;;? i>%re \>xm \psem Instr. \>g \>p For se, seo, from the latter of which is our she, are generally found in M.E. hf, Ko. Singular. Plural. , , Nom. i>es \>eos JjisC'this") J>a« Ace. J)«s«e }pas J>i.s \>as Gen. \>ises ))isse \>ises \>issa Dat. \>imni J^iwe ])isimi \>is{s)um Instr. }>y.s )>y.s § 133. Theformsof the Interrogative Pronoun are: — Masc. and Neut. Fern. Sing, r N^ominative . . . who ivhat and \ Possessive .... whose Plural [ Objective whom ivhat § 134. The Relative Pronouns are (i.) ivho, &c. (§ 133), (ii.) which, (iii.) that (subject and. object, sing, and plural). t (a) The O.E. forms are :— Nom. /nva (" who ") husf {" what ") Ace. hu'one hn;et Gen . hivses Dat. hivsem Instr. hivy Note that whom is hy origin dative only. § 135. Which is used as an interrogative or relative pronoun, but in the latter case (now) only for a neuter antecedent or for infants and lower animals. As an inter- rogative adjective it may be the attribute of nouns of any gender, and so may tohat. + («) Which is a compound equivalent in meaning to "whom- like" : O.E. hivilo, hwelc < hwl + lie ; cp. Ger. ivelch-er and the formation of such, § 148. §136] PRONOUNS. Ill § 136. Tlie history of the relative pronouns in English is a curious one. The lack of a relative pronoun in O.p]. was supplied in several ways, especially hy the use of the demonstrative of which tlidt is the neuter (§ 132, h), and of the particle J>t'. But fe became appropriated as the definite ai-ticle, and that was already sufficiently hard worked in other ways — thouofh it has continued in common use as a relative pronoun — so that the aid of the inteiTOgative pronouns was gi-adually called in. A few appro -ximate dates will helji the student to remember what changes have taken phice. liy about 1250 A.D. the use of that as the relative pronoun had become universal. But about this very time the adjective xcliich began to be used in the same way, both as a sub- stantive, and also of persons as well as things (cp. The Lord's Prayer). By 1400 a.d. it was well established in its new function, and continued until the seventeenth century to share the field with that, although less ex- tensively used. Meanwhile the use of the inteiTogative who as a relative had begun, and in the seventeenth century had become common, so that by that time we have thiee relative pronouns competing for popular favour, with The Spectator (No. 78) ignorantly supporting " the humble petition of n-hn and ichich " as against " the jack- sprat th((t.'' Some division of the field of labour had therefore become necessary. Which has now stepped into the place of what as the neuter of who wdien used as a relative ; it is no longer used of persons except as an archaism. Moreover, there is a class of constructions from which that has withdrawn in favour of rcho, which, those namely in which the antecedent is already sufficiently defined without the aid of the relative clause : e.g. we no longer say " My father, that is in the garden." (a) It is worthy of especial note that the usu of ir/wKe (relative) as a neuter is justified both by the usage of the best writers and by ety- mology, although it is true that, while it is historically the genitive equallj' of !/7(o and of tv/itrt (J 134, a), it is now used, on account of the kaleidoscopic changes recorded above, as one form of the genitive of the relative which. 112 THE EN(;LIf?H LANGUAGE. [§ 137 § 137. Self. — Tlie forms myself, thyself, yourself, hhn- self, herself, itself, with their plurals otirselves, yourselves, themselves, are used along with the corresponding personal pronouns /, thou, he, &c., either in a reflexive or in an emphatic sense. («) Of these uses the emphatic is the earlier one. Originally the simple word self was added to the pronoun for emphasis, and declined in agreement with it. Thus we have in O.E. ic self, " I (my)self " ; '^il self, "thou (thy)self" ; mlnselfes, "of me myself" ; me selfum, " to me myself," and so on. {h) But even in the oldest English a dative of the personal pronoun emphasized was sometimes introduced between the nominative pronoun and the nominative self. This dative was probably, at first, connected with the verb of the sentence, and was reflexive or ethic in character ; but afterwards it was used in cases when no such refiexive or ethic sense was possible, and connected itself with the word self, from which it ultimately became inseparable. Thus Alfred the Great wrote (before 900) : H(fa hie '^eah Se (dat.) 4y'//(nom.), " yet have them for thyself" ; and in the Ormulum (circ. 1200) we always find ice me sellf, "I myself" ; ]>u ]>e sellf, "thou thyself," &c. The next step was for the datives to be supplanted by the possessives wi/, thy, his, &c. In the case of the third personal pronoun, however, the possessive forms, hissvlf, theirselres, have not held their ground, except in the language of the lower classes. The influence of the feminine herself {her being both a dative and a possessive form) may have helped to preserve the form himself, and also, indirectly, themselves. t (c) Chaucer and Wiclif use the se^Z-compounds in much the same waj' as Modern English does. Cp. Wiclif: Zm^t? xxiv. 39, " Y my silf am " (O.E. ic sylf hit eovi). ,, John xi. 51, "he seide not this thing of hym silf" (O.E. ne cw;&b he '5;e/ of him sylfum). {d) Finally, self caime to be regarded as a substantive : " Tarqtiin's self" (Shakespeare), " my other self ," love of self. (e) The keflexive use of self began to come in before the Norman Conquest, although in O.E. the simple personal pronouns were com- monly used (as in Modern French) as objects of the reflexive verb. § 138] PRONOUNS. 118 This usage survives in some dialects (e.g. in the Lancashire) and in poetry. Cp. "Thou btai'st thee like a king" (Shakespeare). " When like a king he bore him " i^Flnjhl of Xerxe»). Note also such expressions as " I had all my wits about ;«<•." " lie took upon him to do so." " When Thou tookest upon Thee to deliver man " [rrayer-bvok). (/) In O.E. the weak form selfa was used as an adjective in the sense of " same " : e.g. se selfa ci/niiit/, "the same king." This use survives in Shakespeare; see luiiff Lear i. i. 70: "I am made of that self metal as my sister" (reading of the Folios; the Quartos have self- same). § 138, Aught, nauglit ai-e compounds ; see nut (§ 208). Tlio otlier iiuleliuite pronouns are discussed under Indefinite Adjectives (ch. xii.) ; for the numevals see § 147. 114 CHAPTER XII. The Adjective. I. 0LAS8IFIGATI0N. § 139. An adjective is a "word used with a substan- tive to qualify it. («) Adjective fr. L. ndjecfirns, " added to," from adjicere < ad, " to" +Jaccre, "throw." (/>) Adjectives are freely used in English (as in other languages) with the omission of the word they qualify, in which case they come to bo regarded as substantives : e.g. " The learned say so," "The best of it is," &c. (c) Monosyllabic adjective and adverb forms are often identical : e.g. "a quick train" (adj.) ; "come qiiiclc''^ (adv.) ; see § 202, a. 140. Adjectives are classified as Qualitative Numeral Determinative . Indefinite . e.g. black, tall, cold three, tiventy my, this, the every, some, all, a («) Further subdivisions of the last two classes are often made ; thus some recognise the following classes : — this, the my, your Demonstrative Possessive Distributive . Indefinite Interrogative Relative Quantitative. every, each some, a, siindr// ichat ? tch ich ? ivhat, which many, all § 142] THK ADJECTIVE. 11 .') Further, Adjectives such iis this, any, his, &c., which are often used as Pronouns, are sometimes called Pronominal Adjectives or Adjective-Pronouns. (I>) The older grammarians gave the name of definite article (L. arliculim, "a joint") to the demonstrative adjective ///'/ they called a, an the indeliuite article. II. INFLEXION AND HISTORY. § 141. The only inflexions which adjectives now retain are those of Comparison. No change of fonn marks any difference of gender, number, or case, except in the words this, that, whicli have plural forms distinct from the singular ; see § 182. (a) The O.E. adjective was fully inflected, and had two diflcrent modes of declension according as it was preceded by a demonstrative adjective (weak declension) or was not so preceded (strong), much as in Modern German. The two declensions gradually fell into one by the levelling of the bulk of the inflexions to -e, which finally itself disappeared (^ G). t {f>) The O.E. declensions of god, "good," will show the various inflexions : — Strong. Weak. III. n. ' f. 111. n. f. Sing Nom. god god god gbda gbde gbde Ace. godnc god gbde godan gbde gbdan Gen. godes gbdre gbdan Dat. gbdum gbdre gbdau Instr. gbde gbdan Plur. N.A. Gen. Dat. gbde gbda gbdra gbdum god gbdan godra gbdum In M.E. (e.g. in Chaucer's East Midland of later part of fourteenth century) the strong form has gbd a.j\(l the weak gbde in the singular throughout ; in the plural gbde for all forms. But adjectives of more than one syllable — especially of Romance origin — are generally uninflected. § 142. There are three degrees of comparison : viz. the Positive (e.g. Jong)., Comparative {longer), Superlative (longest). {a) The Positive adjective expresses a quality without reference to the same quality as possessed by anything else : e.g. "'a big boy," "a liith book." 116 THE ENeLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 142 The Comparative expresses an excess of a quality in the thing denoted by the noun it qualifies over the extent of that quality possessed hy something with which comparison is made: e.g. "a bigger boy" (i.e. bigger than some other indicated or mentioned, or than the same boy at some other time) . The Superlative expresses excess of a quality in the thing denoted by the noun it qualifies over the extent of that quality possessed by all other things with which comparison is made: e.g. "the biggest boy " (i.e. bigger than any other boy with whom the boy indicated is compared). {b) Only adjectives of quality (and one or two of quantity : e.g. much, little) admit of comparison ; and many adjectives of quality have meanings which obviously do not allow them to be compared when used literally: e.g. complete, unique, wooden, square, cone-shaped ; yet frequently to such words a somewhat extended and metaphorical meaning is given, under which circumstances they may admit the idea of comparison : thus by " this is squarer than that " we probably mean " this more nearly approaches the figure of a square than that does." § 143. The Comparative and Superlative degrees may be formed (i.) Flexionally : by the addition of -er, -est to the positive : longer, longest ; or (ii.) Analytically : by using the adverbs more, most before the positive : more ridiculous, most laughable. The former method is used v^ith monosyllables and with some words of two syllables (especially such as end in -le, -er, -y) ; the latter method (the consideration of which does not properly belong to accidence) is preferred in other cases. Thus we say quick, quick -er, quick- est ; speedy, speed-ier, speed-iest (or 7nore and Tnost speedy) ; rapid, more rapid, most rapid (but rapid-er, rapid-est are allowable; stupidest is freely used); tnore insuffer - able, most ludicrous, [a) Certain mere spelling changes take place on adding the flexions of comparison. Final e disappears : e.g. fine, fin-er, subtl-est ; final y, preceded by a consonant, becomes i : e.g. happi-er, silli-est ; final con- sonant after short accented vowel is doubled : e.g. big-g-er, thin-n-cr. §144] THE ADJECTIVE. 117 (h) As noticed above, there is no absolutely hard and fast rule with regard to the use of one or the other mode of comparison : thus even with words of more than two syllables the -rr, -est forms arc somo- times used, and on the oth^r hand more, most are sometimes used with monosyllables. f (r) The -rr of comparatives is in O.E. -r-n, where the « is merely the weak adjectival inflexion, which has, a.s usual, vanished : the superlative -est < O.E. -ost (also spelt -iist, -ast) and -est, the latter facing with mutation of the root-vowel in both comparative and superlative: e.g. heard (" hard "), ^f«>-^rrt, hcardost ; cald ("old"), iehha, {eldest. t [d) The comparative termination represents Teutonic -is- (causing mutation) and -o:-, which stands for an Indo-European -ijis- (for the change from -.v- to -r- see § 45, h) : it is cognate with tlie suffix of comparison in Latin [e.g. dur-iur (for a hypotljetical ditr-ios)'] and in Gk. fxiiio (contracted for hypothetical ixey-ioff-a, comp. of jue^-as). The sufKx in Mod(;rn German is precisely as in English (e.g. sehou, schoiier). t {e) The superlative ending is a compound suffix representing Teutonic -es-f and -os-t, where the first element is of the same origin as the comparative suffix discussed above, and the -t has superlative force; it represents an Indo-European -is-to and -os-to, of which we see the first element in the usual Latin superlative, as in dur- iss-imits, and both in the Gk. ixiy-iff-ro-s- The suffix in Modem German is practically the same as in ]\Iodem English, but is con- tracted where possible to -U (e.g. scJwn-st, sihs-est). § 144. ni-superlatives. — A certain number of super- latives are found ending in -most (which is not the advoi'b "most"): notice that these liavo as a iiile com- paiatives but no reguhir positives, having been formed from adverbs : — [foni] former foremost and first [/ore], [/o7-//i] further furthest awd furthermost [in] inner inmost and innermost Older outmost, outermost utter utmost, uttermost [?(/p] uirper upmost, uppei-most {a) The termination -most is a double superlative suffix : its form should be -m-est, for it is compounded of the superlative suffix -m (no longer used independently) and the superlative suffix -est ; its [out-] I 118 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 144 change of form to -most is due to a supposed connection with the adverb most. [b) The -m- as a superlative flexion is the same as that we see in Jj, pri-m-us (whence Eng. ^rjwje), ulti-m-us, inti-m-»s, &c. {c) Pormer, foremost, first. — The old form of the superlative was /or-)H-« (where -m- is the superlative flexion above discussed) ; to this was added the termination -est, producing the double super- lative formest, which subsequently became foremost by false analogy with nwst as explained above. The comparative /orwjcr was formed to match this superlative, the original superlative force of the m being lost sight of: hence /or-wi-er exhibits a comparative suffix tacked on to a superlative one. First exhibits the superlative formed in the regular way bj^ the suffix -est ; but it has undergone contraction, and the root vowel (v/hich was originally «, not o) has been mutated : O.E. fijrst iorfyr + -est. {(l) Inmost, iunerm.ost. — Inmost is formed on the same principle hs foremost above: the r in the parallel form innermost is due to con- fusion with the comparative (O.E. superl. is inn-e-mest). It may be noticed that most of the comparatives in the list above {inner, outer, &c.) are practically used only as positives, since they cannot be followed by them. Outer and utter are doublets: as to the formation of the superlatives, the same remarks apply as on inmost and innermost. [e) Similarly are formed such words as northmosf, northernmost, topmost, and others, -most coming to be used practically as a super- lative inflexion. § 145. The following adjectives exhibit peculiarities of comparison : — far late farther later, latter farthest latest, last nigh, near old ■nigher, Clearer older, elder nighest, next, neared oldest, eldest {<>) Pai'tlier, further, &c. — There are two hypotheses as to the derivation oi further : it is either from the root of fore with the com- parative suffix -ther, as in o-ther ; or from the root oi forth (from the same root as fore, with a suffix) with the comparative suffix -er. In the former case, the -th- was retained in the su^eTla.iiye furthest. Again, § 145] Tin: aiukctivk. lift farther and fdrthenl are the comparative and superlative of /«>-, and therefore should be, if formed regularly in Modern English, furrer, farrest ; but they owe their th to a mistaken connexion with further, furthest. + (h) The O.E. forms are fore, for^ (adverbs) ; /(o-Sca ; formn, fyrmest, and fyrest (no th superlative); and for, "far," Jierra, Jierrest, the last two showing mutation. For -ther as comparative suffix see § 150, i. (c) Itater, latter are parallel forms of the comparative, the doubled t being merely an orthographic device to denote the shortness of the vowel : inter is used as the comparative of lale in its ordinary mean- ings ; /lifter is restricted to denote the second of two things men- tioned. Siniilarlj' last [which is a contracted form < latsf < latest (cp. best y. In M.E. the i/ of ivyrsa became u through influence of preceding w. The o in tvorse is merely orthographic, as in son (O.E. smw). The superlative stands for wors-est, i.e. is contracted (cp. best, last) . t [d] Less, Least. — The stem here, as in ivorse, ends in -s, viz. Ids : the formation is similar to that considered in (r) above. («) More, Most, Much, Mickle.— The word more now does duty for two words kept distinct in the earlier language; viz. (i.) wo, a comparative adverb, meaning "more in number," used like Ij. plus ; and (ii.) more, a comparative adjective, meaning " greater," L. maior. Both come from the same root, but more has an additional comparative suffix -r : most exhibits the usual superlative suffix, but contracted after the vowel. Mickle (in which the -Ms an adjective termination, § 151) is the Northern derivative of O.E. mic-el used as the positive of these words ; in the South micel or m}/cel> M.E. vmckel>Uod. E. much. The § ^1-7^ TIIK AI).li:CTIYK. \-2\ uso of mi(c/i, in its primitivo sense " great," is preserved in a few place-names, e.g. 3fiu/i If'tnloek, while muckle, mickh- retain the same force in the North. (N.B. — Muiiij is from an entirely different root.) t {/) The O.E. forms are ma and mdra (comparative adverb and adjective), w,7.sY .• Gcr. mehr, iiivisl. With O.E. «iiV<;/ cp. G^.tity-aK-ii}. The totally unconnected word mamj is in O.E. mam//, iinoiii/, Inter mxitif/, moiiij, the vowel in imeniff bein:^ duo to the inlluenco of leniff. We preserve the later O.E. pronunciation of the root- vowel (so also in ani/, § 150, c), though not the spelling. The German cognate is maiich. § 147. Primitive Words. — A number of monosyllabic adjectives have no trace of suffix oi- prefix, and appear to be simple roots in their ^lodem English form : e.g. nil, good, one. Others again, though evidently not primitive, appear with obscure suffixes, whose original force and form cannot be very exactly traced : eg. fair (O.E. fieger). (n) Among words belonging to these classes are the numerals (which may be regarded by origin perhaps as pronouns rather than adjectives) from one to ten : — O.E. L. Gk. Ger. one an cognate with un-m ein t-wo tied duo 5 I/O zwei three Srco tri-a rpi-a drei four fcotvpr quattnor TfTTap-a riry five flf quinquc TreVre />'"'/ six siex sex H sechs seven scofon septcm eiTTa niehen eight cahta octo OKTW acht nine niffon novem ivvia iieun ten tien decern 54Ka zehti (h) A note on the form of the other numerals may be conveniently added here : — eleven, O.E. en{d)iefan (cogn. Ger. elf, Teutonic ain-lif), is a compound in which the first element means one (and is practically that word in another form), while the meaning of the second element {-lefan, ■levcn) is uncertain. Perhaps e-kveii means one + ten ; cp. the formation of Lat. un-dccim and Gk. eV-Se/ca.. Another suggestion is that /i/is from a root meaning "leave," so that eleven would mean •' one left " or " one more " (than ten). 122 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 147 twelve is in O.E. twelf (cogn. Ger. zwolf), which stands for hva + lif, where tiva = "two" and lif (as in eleven above) may mean " ten " : thus ttcelve may mean "two more" (than ten) : cp. forma- tion of dito-decim, Sw-SfKa. thirteen: this is t/iree+ ten, with metathesis in the first element (cp. thirty). So -teen = " ten " in fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, Sec. twenty, O.E. twentig (Ger. zxvanzxg) ; the first syllable twen = O.E. twegen, "two"; -^y = O.E. -tig, "ten" (this -tig pre- serves the guttural lost in O.E. tlen : cp. dec-em) : so -tg = " ten" in thirty , forty , Sec. hundred is a compound in which the first syllable hund- is cognate with the first syllable of L. ceut-um (for decem-t-uni), and means " a hundred " : the -red is a word meaning "reckoning," "tale." Cognate with Ger. hundert. thousand is a word of unexplained origin, found in all the Teutonic languages (Ger. Tausend). The only cardinal of Eomanco origin is mill-ion, from L. mille, " thousand." Two other words of Romance origin connected with the numerals are second (L. secundus : it has displaced the English other in this sense) and dozen, F. douzaine < douze (L. duodecim) + suflix -aine (L. -anus, § 127, d). (c) The adjective an (with its short form a used before con- sonants) is an unemphatic form of the numeral one (cp. use of Ger. ei'H and F. un). The indefinite pronoun one, used like Ger. mmi and F. on (with which it is not etymologically connected), is the same word. (d) Twain (now archaic) and two spring from a difference of gender : itvain is O.E. ttcegcn (ci^. twentig cCbove), the masculine; two is ttvd, the feminine and neuter. ITI. FORMATION. (i.) Compounds. § 148. Compounds (§ 120) are generally easily recognis- able : w(j may take, as typical examples of various kinds, stone-hlmd, well-fed, epocli-riutldng, hlucJi-Jiearted. {a) The classes discussed in § 149 belong here, strictly speaking. (See ^ 121.) § 1491 THK ADJECTIVK. 12:^ (A) A number of disgiiisod compounds among the indefinite adjec- tives and pronouns should be noticed. each : this contains the suflix which often appears as -like, -ly (§ 149, <■) ; O.E. a-'/f < «, " ever " + yi ( >fje) prefix + Uc, »' like." sticli is in a similar way equivalent to " so-Zi/iC" : O.E. suite < sH-d + lie (Ger. soldi). which, similarly, = " who like " (see § 135), every is a compound of ever and each (see above) : O.E. S/te + lele, M.E. erii-ilk, cverich. Ilk = " same " (Scotch, " that ilk ") is not con- nected with this word, but is from O.E. ilea = " same." either is equivalent to " ever-M'/ie^/f^r," being in O.E. le(j)>€r, a con- traction of a'ijhux\>e) < ii, " ever " (as in each, aught) +ffi ( >ffe) prefi.v + lnarWy, ''whether'' (§ 150, )) : Ger.jeder. neither is equivalent to '' no-ivhelher'" : O.E. mlhwx'&er, where lid = "no," "not," and " hivx^cr = " tvhether.'" aught, naught (pronouns): sec not (§ 208). ((') Righteous is a corruption of " right- wise," O.E. riht-uls, " wise as to what is right " ; cp. " weather- »'ise." The corruption is due to the influence of the Romance -ous (§ 152, g). § 149. Teutonic sufl5.xes which are known to have existed as independent words appear in s^ert(^fast, )/('n//fold, pJayfnl, hem-fless, /»'?»like and vianly, norfkviaxd. {a) .fast (the same as the adjective /«*/, "fixed ") appears only in steadfast (" tirm in its stead,'' or place), and in shamefaced, which a corruption by popular etymology connected with face ; the original meaning of shamcfast is " fixed in modesty," " modest," shame having its old sense of modesty, as in shameless. t The O.E. form is -fast, as in stedcfant, scamufsest, so^fiest {aoS, "sooth," "truth"). {b) -fold forma multiplicatives : e.g. manifold, fourfold. It can be added to any numeral (except one). t O.E. -feald, same origin as verb fold ; same force, metaphor and usage as cognate Ger. -fait. {c) -ful, same as adj. //(//, with the same meaning, in sorrowful ("full of sonow"), thankful, la u ful, beautiful [a. hyhrid: Y.beaute), &c. 124 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 149 t The O.E. form is -full : e.g. sorgfull [sortj, "sorrow"); Ger. cognate appears in gedanken-voll, Sec. (d) -less denotes " absence of " when used in composition ; examples are heartless, careless, thoughtless, &c. N.B. — It is not connected etymologically with adverb hss, but is practically a doublet of adjective hose, and is allied to verbs loose, lose, t The O.E. form is -leas: e.g. drleas (ar, "honour") ; Ger. -los, as in herzlos ("heartless "). (c) -like, -ly ( = adj. "like" ; the longer form is found only in modern formations) appears in inanUke, eatUke, godlike, manly, godly, goodly, ghostly, &c. It is (in the form -ly) the usual adverb formative (J 205). It enters (in disguised forms of like) into such, u-hich, each, every (see § 148). t It is the O.E. -lie, as in gdstlic (" ghostly"), cor-Mc (" earthly"), &c. ; the Ger. cognate -lich (the independent word is gleich, for eg- leich) is used similarly: e.g. mdnnlivh. (/) -ward ("turned to") appears in northward, homeward, back- ward, forward (" turned to the /ore or front ^'), froward (turned/?-o»i), &c. t The O.E. form is -iveard, as in hdmweard ; the Ger. cognate is used (like Eng. -icard-s, ^ 207) in forming adverbs : e.g. heimwdrt-s, " home-ivard-s.^' The root is the same as that of O.E. tveoi%m (Ger. warden), " become " ; cognate with L. vert-erc, supine vcrs-um, whence a-verse (i.e. " fro-ward "), re-verse, &c. (ii.) Suffixes. A. Teutonic Suffixes. § 150. Of the Teutonic suffixes not known to have existed as indej)endent v^^ords the chief appear in the follov^^ing words : — iveari-sonxe, (jnJd-exi, four-th., blood-y, child-iah. ; in the participial formations, lov-ing, helov-ed, hroJc-en ; and in the comparative formations, o-ther, utt-ev. (a) -some, with the force "full of," "adapted to," appears in wholesome, unnsome (O.E. wyn, "joy"), quarrehome (a hybrid; F. § 1;"50, f/] THE APJECTIVK. 12') qtterelle, L. querela, from qiiei-'i, "complain"), toilsome, noxmme (F. w?«trtf, from L. nocere, "hurt"). Lissom is equivalent to lithesome. Buxom is M.E. buJi-siim, from O.E. bi'Kj-an, "to boic, bend"; its recorded sense is "obedient," i.e. probably "pliable," "supple," " Joi<;-some," so to say. t The O.E. form is -sum, as in u-i/n.sum; the Ger. cognate -sam has the same force : e.g. furchtsam ("fearsome"), bicysam ("flexible"). {b) -en, -n is used to form adjectives from names of materials : e.g. wooden, woollen, brazen (brass), silver-n (archaic), leather-n. t The O.E. form is the same, but its earlier form -in caused muta- tion, as in gold, gyldcn, from *(jHldin. ((■) -en, n, being the past participial suffix of strong verbs (J 1G8), we have it in many of these forms used as adjectives and in analogous forms: e.g. broken, unbroken, misshapen. The adjectival form often preserves the sufiBx where the verbal form has dropped it (see § 170, b). (d) .th forms ordinal adjectives from the cardinals (§ 147) : thus fourth, one-and-tweutieth, millionth (hybrid, § 117, b). In third the suffix appears as d (the form is a metathesis for thrid ; cp. thirty, thirteen ; Ger. dritte). f The cognate suffix is seen in L. and Ger. ordinals : cp. L. ttr-t- ius, Eng. thir-d, Ger. {der) dri{t)-t-c (§ 52). {e) -y forms adjectives from a large number of nouns : e.g.foam-i/, dirt-y, dust-y, thirst-y. An-y is O.E. sen-iy, from an, " one,^' the i causing mutation. In M.E. this became shortened to eny, any. Mod. English has preserved the spelling of the latter and the pronunciation of the former (cp. many, § 146, e). For every see § 148, b. t The O.E. form is -iy, as in Jiinig, above; cognate Ger. -iy (fre- quently causing mutation), as in cin-iy, yiit-iy. (/) -ish. forms adjectives from nouns and adjectives generally with pejorative or diminutive force : e.g. childish, womanish, mannish ("like a, child, ^^ &c., in bad sense; contrast childlike, &c.), yreenish ("rather green"). It appears in national names, as English ($ 1 : mutation from * Any Use), French (from Frank, with mutation and con- traction < Frankish), Scotch (cp. fuller form, Scottish), &c. t The O.E. form is -isc : e.g. Enylisc ; in Ger, it is -isch, used much aa in English : e.g. kindisch, hofisch, enylisch. (y) -ed, -d, -t, the past participial suffix of weak verbs (§ 168), occurs in many adjectives formed on a similar model : good-natured. 1'26 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 150, g irell-meaiif, housed, dead (vb. die), learned, provisioned, hooted and spurred (where it is obvious that these are formed directly from the nouns boot, spur). {h) -ing is merely the present participial suffix : loving, charming, &c. [^ 166 (iii.)]. (») -ther appears as a comparative suffix in whether, and its compounds either, neither (§ 148), and in o-ther (which has lost an n: cp. Ger. ander), further (but noi farther, § 145), &c.. Whether (O.E. hvx^er) is from the root of who (O.E. hivd) and means originally " which of two"; co2;nate with L. u-ter, Gk. nS-r^p-os, Ger. tve-der (which now means "neither," conjunction). Rather does not belong here : it is the regular comparative of archaic rathe, " early," and is now only used as an adverb. § 151. Among obscurer Tentonic suffixe.s, those shown in the following words are noticeable : — hitt-er, fick-le, yell-ovr, east-em. («) -er, as in hitt-er (root of bite), in contracted form in fair (O.E. fxffcr) ; cp. Gk. -ros in niKpSs, &c. {h) -le, as mfel{-le, micMe, little, idle, evil, and (contracted) in foul ; cp. Gk. -los in rvcpxSs, &c. (c) -ow (Lat. -vus) in yelloiv (L. helrus), sallozv, fallow. (d) -ern in eastern, western, northern, southern. B. Romance Suffixes. § 152. Our vocabulary contains adjectives showing a large number of suffixes of Romance origin (many of which we have already seen in treating of nouns, § 127). The chief of these appear in respect - able, sens-ihle, iniagin -nry, famil -ia.r, /i?«?i-an, div-ine, loy-al, cnt-el, gent-le, pner-ile, ctv-il, t'ft/i-ant, priid-ent, odl-OTXS, mor-ose, rapaci-ous, capt-ive, splend-id, orn-a.te, fin-ite, Vienn-ese, puhl-ic. («) See§ 127 for -ary, -iar, -an, -ian, -ain, -ate, -ese, ic (as in puhl-ic), and other forms of these. § 152, (/] TMK ADJKCTIVi:. 127 {!>) L. -bills (ill -ii/'i/is, -t/tilis, -ii/iilis) h:i8 the force ol " udapl'-'l for," " givi n to," and appears as -bh' in French and English (many of such words being new coinages in these languages) ; capable (L. capere, "take"), sociable (h. Kociu.s, "companion"), soluble (L. solvere, "solve"), lovable (hybrid, Eng. love). Able is L. hnbilU, from habere, "have" (for dropped //, see § 81) ; so ability, L. habilitate))!. (c) L. -inns, cognate with E. -en (§ 150, b),Y. -in, appears in div-ine (L. diviniLs, " god-like," from divus, " god"), can-ine (dog-like, from L. cants, "dog"), feline, sanguine, crystalline, infantine. Pilgr-im has the suffix in somewhat altered form; cp. F. piler-in (for pelegr-in) from Late L. jjelegrJniis < L. per/gr-inus (from pereger, "traveller," from per, "through" f ager, "land"); peregr-ination shows the L'ltin form clearly. (d) L. -alia, -elis, -ills are very common in English, especially in the form -al (wliich is often added to other adjectival sufTixes : e.g. adject -iv-al, log-ic-al). Examples: mor-al, soci-al, nonn-al, nrti- fci-al; cru-cl ; frag-ile, sen-iU, infant -He ; civ-il ; gent-He, gent-le. In gentle, -le is merely the modern form of older -il, -He; words which now show the -He are consequently as u rule of learned forma- tion {cp. fragile, frail, § 74). {e) L. -ent-em, -aut-em, the pres. participial forms, both passed into French as -ant, and thence into English in the same form ; but -ent from -eut-em is common, both through the action of pseudo- etymological spelling and the formation of new words direct from Latin. Examples: prudent (L. adj. prud-ent-e)n) and provident (L. p>-ovident-e))i), potent, absent, present; valiant (L. valor), puissant (doublet of potent, L. potent-em, through French), distant, elegant. Notice pairs such as dependent and dependant, where the -ent form is used as adjective, and the -ant as noun. (/) In -esc-ent we have the above termination in words derived from Latin inceptive verbs in -sco ; adol-esc-ent, efferv-esc-ent. (g) L. -OBUS (" full of ") passes in words of learned formation into Eng. -ose, as in />T//)esqTie, hin-Iesqyie, picliiresqxie. &c. (a) The Greek sulHx -iV/c-oj and L. -isc-ii.s are sparingly found : the latter becomes in Italian -esco, and this is the origin {via French) of our -efqiie words. § 154. The Gx'eek .siiffix -ic is common in certain (;las.ses of words : it has been discussed under noun suffixes (§128,r). § 155. For the prefixes (native and foreign) see §§ 196-199. E. L. 130 CHAPTER XIII. The Verb. I. CLASSIFICATION. § 156. The Verb makes an assertion (see § 87, 4) ; it expresses state or action : e.g. " He ivas being beaten." " Why do you come ? " " I saw her." (a) The presence of a verb is absohitely necessary in a sentence (see § 91): hence the Latins called it vcrb-nm, i.e. '^ the word"; •whence French rerhe, English verb. (h) Certain forms and combinations closely connected with verbs have not the power of making an assertion : these are the verb-nouns and verb-adjectives (Infinitives, Participles, &c. ), grouped together as the "Verb Infinite"; the true verbal forms constitute the Verb Finite. § 157. Every Verb is either (i.) Transitive, that is to say, it indicates an action which is exercised directly upon some object: e.g. " He loves his father " ; " I saiv him " ; where loves, saiv are transitive, and father, Mm are the direct objects ; or (ii.) Intransitive, that is to say, it indicates an action (state, &c.) which is not so exercised : e.g. " The man falls " ; " The dog harks " ; "We live." («) Transitive is from F. transitif, L. u by the conjunction of hiudts and \>u (= "thou"), whence Inndtf]^ and then bindest ; cp. Ger. (c)st (bindist, litbst, &c.), which similarly stands for -is + dn. The -st in a few preterite- present verbs is, however, of different origin (see § 177, b). § 161. Tense denotes primarily the time to whicli the action, &c., denoted by the verb is refeiTed. (i.) Tlie Present tense is the simple form of the verb, without flexion ; it represents the action (or condition) as now going on or existing : I love, you sing. (ii.) The Past (or Preterite) is foi-med by inflexion ; it shows that the action or condition is a past one : com- pare I sing and I sang ; I love and I loved. § 162. The only inflexional suffix of tense is the -ed {-d, -t) of the preterite ; us we .see, huwevei-, from the above example (sing, sang), inflected preterites may be foi'med by vowel-change (" strong" verbs, § 167). {a) Tense < F. temps, L. tempus, " time." {b) The preterite (weak or strong) has no longer any inflexions of person or number, save in the rarely used second person singular, which in weak verbs has preserved the O.E, -est [-es, -is, § 160, /), and in strong verbs has adopted the same ending. In strong verbs in O.E. the second singular preterite and the preterite plural frequently had a vowel which differed from the first and third singular preterite, but Mod.E. has retained only one stem throughout (J 169, c). The plural preterite (both strong and weak) ended in O.E. in -on, reduced to -en and e in M.E., and banished entirely from Mod.E. t {e) The O.E. forms of the present and past indicative and sub- 134 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§162,C junctive of a strong verb {beran, to bear) and a weak verb {hleran, to hear) are : ' Indicative. Present. Past. Sing. 1 binde hlere bond hierde 2 bindest (bintst) hter[e)st bunde hlerdest 3 binders [b int) hter{c)'^ bond hierde Plural binda^ Jnera^ bundojt hlerdon Subjunctive. Sing. 1, 2, 3 binde Mere bunde hierde Plural binden hleren bundcn, -on hierden, -on The corresponding M.E. (Chaucer) forms are : Indicative. Present. Past. Sing. 1 bynde here bond herde 2 byndest herest {bounds) bond herdest 3 byndeth hereth bond herde Plural bynde{n) here{n) boimde{n) herde {n) Subjunctive. Sing. 1, 2, 3 bynde here bounde 1, 3 herde 2 herde{st) Plural bynde{n) here(n) boiinde{n) herde[n) § 163. Mood. — The way in which the assertion conveyed by the verb is conceived may be indicated by the form of the verb. (a) The Indicative Mood is used for mere statement direct question, &c. : e.g. " I was not happy." " Are you coming ? " (6) The Subjunctive Mood is sometimes used for possi- bility, contingency, &c. ; it is rarely found except in dependent clauses : e.g. " I would do it, if I were you." The use of the distinctive subjunctive forna is very limited, its place having been taken by the indicative, and its function performed by combination with auxiliaries ; see further in 5§ 232-5. § 164. The only distinction between subjunctive form and indicative in Mod.B. is to be found in the third person singular present [Jie loves (indie), if he love (subj.)], and in the pret. of the verb to be. § 166] THE VER15. 1H5 {(i) The subjunctive (or optative) and indicfttive forms became confused early in the history of the language. The subjunctive pro- sent and preterite of all verbs in O.E. ended in -e throughout the singular, and -en throughout the plural, but the latter in the preterite often gave way to the -on of the indicative. In M.E. weak preterites indicative and subjunctive are practically identical, the -it of the second person singular often invading the subjunctive. See $ 162, c. § 165. Tlie Imperative Mood has the same form as the simple verb : e.g. " Go ! " " Bun away." " Let me alone." It expresses command, entreaty, and the like. t [a) The history of its form may bo easily seen from the following : — O.E. M.E. (Chaucer) Mod.E. bind h'ltr bijnd her{e) unin- ,. , , ,. .V (bundeUh) hereth fleeted yhijitd her[e) bind, hear § 166. The Verb Infinite includes (i.) The Infinitive, w hich is the simple form of tlie verb, very often preceded by to ; it is a noun, but partakes of the nature of a verb, inasmuch as it may have a direct object, and may be limited by an adverb : e.g. " I like to see my friends often." " I will fetch him." (rt) The infinitive without to (the simple infinitive) and the infinitive with to (gerundial infinitive) represent distinct forms in O.E. The simple form is the O.E. infinitive : e.g. bindan, " the act of bind- ing" ; to bind represents the dative of the above governed by the preposition : e.g. to bindanne, " to bind," in such a phrase as " Here is a book to bind." The levelling of inflexions in M.E. reduced these two forms to one and the same {bindcn, binde), and to then came to be used as the mere sign of the infinitive. But the gerundial force of the dative form remains clearl}' in such expressions as " a house to let," "knives to grind," " not the right thing to do" &c. (ii.) The Verb-Noun in -ing, similarly used : e.g. " 1 like seeing my friends." " Driving rapidly is healthy." 136 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§166 (iii.) The Present Participle, wliicli is a verb- adjective : e.g. " He is dying." " He is helping his mother." It is formed just as the verb-noun is, by adding -ing to the verb, but it must not be confused with it. ip) The forms in -ing are, as we see, (i.) verbal noun (gerund), (ii.) verb-adjective (present participle). The former was represented in O.E. by abstract nouns in -loig and -hicj formed from verbal roots ; the number of these increased in M.E. — the termination was then -ing only — especially when the present participial form in -bide (older -endc) had become altered by the influence of the abstract noun ending into -inge, and then (with decay of flexion) -ing; when once these two originally distinct forms, the verb-noun and the present participle, fell together, there was nothing to hinder the formation of the verb-noun from any verb as a regular part of conjugation. (c) Hence, in such a phrase as " I kept him /row breaking his word,'"' the last four words originate from a construction such as " from the breaking of his word," where breaking is an ordinary abstract noun. {d) Phrases such as "to go a-Jishing,^^ " a- hunting," &c., preserve this -ing noun governed by a preposition, «- standing for on. (iv.) The Past Participle, also a verb-adjective: e.g. " This is hroTcen.'' " He has broken it." " This is wanted." " He has not wanted this." t ('') The various forms discussed in this section are in their older stages : — O.E. M.E. (Chaucer) Infin. Gerund. Pres. Part. Past Part. Verb-Noun bindan to bindanne bindende gebunden \biiidung) hleran to Jileranne hierende gehlered (hlerung) binde{n) 1 binde{n) \ bindene binding (e) {i)bounde{n) binding herein) here[n) herene heringe {i)hered hering § 167. The follovping are all the simple forms of the English verb, uninflected as well as inflected : — \ §167] TmC VKUIi. l;{7 Verb Finite. ruESENT tea.se. Siny. Plural (all persons). 1. 3. } Indicative. Siiujunctivb, I lean/, break- ifluant, break thou want-ist, brcak-ist if thou want, break he tvant-s, breaks if he want, break Willi t, break icant, break ImI'EUATIVE. Plur. } """"'' ^''^"^'''' FAST TEASE. Sing. Plural (all persons). Infinitive 1. IwiiHt-ed, broke 2. thou want-ed-st, brok-cst 3. he tvant-ed, broke if I u anted, if thou wanted, if he tcanted, broke wanted, \ want-ed, Verb Infinite. [to) want, break. PiiESENT Pauticiple broke broke broke broke want- breaking. Past Participle brok-en. wanting, tvant-ed. Geiiund or Verb-Noun inff, breaking. Observe that strong and weak verbs are conjugated exactly alike, except as far as the formation of preterite and past participle are concerned. (a) Certain spelling' cliangfes which take place in inflexion should be noticed : — (i.) A mute c terminating the simple form of the verb disappears before another vowel : e.g. lov-ed, hv-ing. It is, however, retained in order to preserve the j sound oi g : e.g. singe-ing. (ii.) After sibilants the 3rd sing. pres. has the full inflexion -es, sounded as a distinct syllabic : " he iosn-cs, brmh-es, touch-es.^' (iii.) g after a consonant is written -ie- before -d, -s : den-y, den-ied, den-ies ; but plugs, play-ed. (iv.) The combination -aged is written -aid in some verbs : e.g. lag, laid ; pag, paid. (v.) Final consonant preceded by an accented short vowel is doubled before the c or i in an inflexion : e.g. forgot-t-en, pet-t-ing, expel-l-ed. The same rule is generally, although wrongly, observed with a single -I, even after an unaccented vowel : e.g. level-l-ed. 138 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§168 § 168. The past participle and the preterite are formed in one of two ways, according as the verb is weak or strong. (i.) A Weak Verb is one which forms its preterite by adding -ed {-d, -t) ; its past participle is identical with the preterite. " (I) ivanti (I) want-ed, (I have) want-edy (ii.) A Strong Yerb is one which forms its preterite without snffix, but with vowel-change (called " gradation," § 62) ; its past participle has either the suffix -en or no suffix at all. There is often a further vowel-change in the past participle : e.g. " (I) speak, (I) spohe, (I have) spoJc-en.'' " (I) sing, (I) sang, (I have) sung." § 169. The following is a fairly complete list of the Strong Verbs. It must be noticed that new verbs are now always conjugated as weak, and new formations on the strong model have long ceased to be made. Many verbs once strong have also taken weak forms : such verbs are called Mixed Verbs. the (Weak forms are printed in this list in italics. The order is alp betical, except that compounds, where given, are put under simple verb. A few archaic forms are given, marked f . ) Pres. Pret. Past Part. abide abode abode bear bore born, borne forbear forbore forborne beat beat beaten begin began begun bid bade, bid bidden forbid forbade forbidden bind bound bound, boundenj bite bit bitten blow blew blown break broke broken carve carven| carved carved §169] THE VERB. lyi Pres. Prct. Past Part. chide cliid chidden choose chose chosen cleave ("' divide ' ") clove cloven cleft cleft cling clung clung come came comtj crow crew crcnoed crowed dig diig dug digged . digged do did done draw drew drawn drink drank clrunk, drunken (adj.) drive drove driven eat ate, eat eaten fall fell fallen fight fought fought find found foil 1 id fling flung Hung fly flew flown forsake forsook forsaken freeze froze frozen get got got forget foi'got forgotten give gave given go {;ii-eni) gone grind ground ground groAV grew grown hang- hung hung hanged hanged hew hewed hewn hide hid hidden, hid hold held held behold beheld beheld know knew known load laden loaded loaded lie lay lain 140 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§169 Pres. melt mow ride ring rise I'ive run saw see seethe sew shake shape shave shear shine shoot show, shew shrink sing sink sit slay- slide sling slink smite sow speak bespeak Pret. Past Part, molten t melted melted mown mowed mowed rode ridden rang rung rose risen rived riven ran run sawn sawed sawed saw seen seethed sodden (adj.) seethed sewn sewed sewed shook shaken shaped shapen + shaped shaven + shaved shaved shore shorn sheared sheared shone shone shot shot showed, shewed shown, shewn shrank shrunk, shrunken + sang sank sung sunk sat sat slew slain slid slid slung slunk slung slunk smote smitten sown sowed solved spoke bespoke spoken bespoken, bespoke §169J THK VKRfl. in Pros. Pret. Paat Part. spin span,;}; spun spun sprino; sprang sprung staiul st ( X )(-l stood steal stole stolen stick stuck stuck sting stung stung stink stank stunk stride strode strode, stridden J strike struck struck, stricken (adj.) string strung strung strive strove striven strew sti'ewn stretved strewed swear swore sworn swell swollen swelled sw'elled swim swam swum swing swung swung take took taken tear tore torn thrive throve thriven throw threw thrown tread trod trodden wake (awake) woke woke ivahed waked wear wore worn weave wove woven weaved weaved win won won wind wound wound wring A\T.'Ung wrung write vn'ote written We may add here burst burst burst let let let classed as strong by their origin, though now all trace of 142 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 169 vowel-change has disappeared, thus levelling the forms with such as those of thrust, hit: see § 174 (iv.). Eemarlcs on the Strong Verbs. (a) From the oldest stage of the language and the cognate languages we see that a niunher of these verbs formed their preterite by reduplication ; but there is nothing to distinguish these now from the ordinary strong verbs, except in the case of higlit ( = " was called "), O.E. hcht, where the reduplicated h is seen. Among other verbs originally of this class (some of which are now weak) are bloiv,Jloiv, grow, know, roiv, sow; sleep, sweep, iveep ; fall, hold, leap, hew, let ("permit"). t Such a word as O.E. haldmn, healdan (" hold ") is typical of this class. "We find its preterite in O.E. as Mold; but the Gothic haihald shows the reduplication clearly : so hight, O.E. het and heht (from hdtan) = Gothic hai-hdit ; while examples preserving traces of reduplication fairly clearly in O.E. are leolc [Mean, "jump "), reord {rWdan, "counsel," "rede"). {b) In the other strong verbs six different vowel- gradations were originally to be distinguished. Verbs, however, passed from one class into another, and, moreover, many stems have quita disappeared : hence the distinctions between these six classes (or seven, if we include the reduplicated verbs above) are no longer clear. Typical examples in Modern English are given under Grada- tion in § 62. (c) In the older stages of the language all strong verbs, except the sixth ("fare") class and the reduplicating verbs, exhibited a difference of stem between the first singular preterite and the plural ; so that many of them had four different stems (§ 61) : IModern English has always levelled this distinction, generally (but not always) retaining the singular form throughout the preterite. The use (especially by uneducated persons) of such preterites as hegun, drunk, sung, shrunk is due to the combined influence of the old past plural and of the past participle. Book-language allows only began, drank, sang, shrank. Further, there is a tendency to reduce the stems to two (as may be seen in the alphabetical list above), and this is aided by the process described above, and by the levelling of the preterite and past participial stems through the adoption of the one or the other for both. §171] THK VERB. 143 (rf) The O.E. equivalents of typical verbs of each class are given in §62,i. By comparing them with the modem verhs in § G'2, wo Heo that in classes (i.) and (iii.) the three stems are still kept, but singular and plural preterite are levelled under singular ; in the others the same levelling has taken place. In (ii.), (iv.), and (v.) four stems have been reduced to two. 51. E. occupies a position midway between Mod.E. and O.E. in this respect. § 170. Strong verbs which have become weak frequently preserve some form of their older conjugation which is restricted to special purpo.=;es. In the following instances the strong past pai-ticiple is used as a mere adjective (and that generally in certain phrases only), while the weak form is ordinarily employed for the past participle : — cloven, as in '^ dorm hoof": usual past pait. of cleave being cfe/i' {&a)grave ,, graved hew , , hewed , loaded graven, hetcn, >> " graven image " rough-//<;(t« " laden, )» " heavy-laden " -lorn, molten. "forlorn " " molten metal" sodden. ) > ' ' sodden turf ' ' shaven, ) > " smouth-*//rttr« " shapen. 5> " mis-.shapcn " ( lade \ load] lose melt seethe shave shape >> >> lost melted seethed shaved shaped [a) Between mown and mowed, shorn and sheared, sowed and sown, swollen and swelled there is a somewhat similar, but perhaps not so clearly marked, diiference of usage, {h) In a few cases a similar distinction is preserved between variant forms of a strong past participle, the longer (and older) one being restricted to specific phrases and generally used merely as an .adjective. Examples are — " A drunken man " ; " he is (or has) drunk.^^ " I am beholden to you " ; "I have beheld him." " It is your bonnden duty " ; "I am bound to do it." " His sunken (or sunli) eyes " ; "a sunken rock " ; "he has sunk." '* His shrunken (or shrunk) frame " ; " his frame was shrunk." " He was conscience-«('ricn.r« " ; "he was struck." "A down-trodden people " ; " he has trod (or trodden) it down." § 171. Of strong verbs which have become weak, there are several, Ijeside;; tliose already mentioned in 144 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 171 § 170, wliicli preserve traces of tlieir origin, either by a mixture of the two conjugations, or by keeping parallel strong and weak forms : thus croiv (O.E. crd- wan, redupl. verb) makes pret. crew or croioed, past part. crowed ; others may be seen in the italicised words in the alphabetical list. Some other verbs originally sti'ong retain strong forms only as archaisms, or show us that they were once strong verbs by giving us deri- vatives from gradational stems : thus help, archaic past part, holpen ; hake, haken ; lose, lorn (as in forlorn ; cp. § 45, a) ; wax, waxen ; wash, (yiQ.)tvaslien ; climb, archaic preterite clonib. {a) The verb hang has weak forms derived from an O.E. weak verb hangian, and qiiasi-sirong forms which are really new formations from O.E. lieuff, preterite of a strong verb hon, "to hang." This preterite lieng became shortened in M.B. to heng, whence hing (cp. pronunciation of English). Then hing was looked upon as an in- finitive like sing, and a past part, hung coined after the analogy of sung. Finally hung became used also as a preterite, and hing was lost as infinitive. The weak forms [hanged) are scarcely used except for the action of suspending by the neck, and not always then. There was originally a similar grammatical distinction between the two verbs which have given us ivake, woke, and tvake, xoaked ; a tendency to similar confusion is heard in the speech of uneducated people with regard to sit and set, though here the distinct forms are clearly marked (§ 188). {h) Other forms once strong have now been supplanted by weak ones without leaving any trace of the old conjugation in the modern language : such are how, brew, burn, creep, dread, delve, fare, flow, fret (by origin a compound of eat), latigh, leap, lie (to " tell a false- hood"), n)efe, rue, row, shove, slit, sleep, wade, weigh, wreak, writhe. § 172. A few verbs once weak have taken strong forms. Wear is one of these : it possibly owes loore and worn (for weared) to analogy with bear, bore, born and tear, tore, torn. Others are chide, hide, ring, dig, stick, spit. (a) Spit, pret. S2)at, which appears to be a strong formation like sit, sat, is really derived, regularly, from two weak verbs, O.E. s^nttan (pret. spitte), whence spit, and O.E. splettan (pret. spsette), whence M.E. spatte, Mod.E. spat. § 174] Tin: vi:rii. 145 § 173. The verbs in the alpliabetieal list terminating with a dental (-d, -/), and having no past participial -en, should be carefully learned, because there is often little in their form, to distinguish them from the contracted weak verbs enuinerated below ; they are respectively classed as stiong and weak owing to their etymology. Thus, burst, let (" allow ") are strong ; but thrus-t, let (" hinder," a legal term) are weak. t (a) burst ia in O.E. berstan, baerst,bi(rst•(^«< stands for 'ill.^. thriisten, pret. thruste ; and let (''hinder"), for letten, letle. § 174. In the Weak Verbs the departures fi"om the regular type (e.g. ircjit. irauted) are : (i.) Merely orthographic changes : e.g. pet, pet-t-ed, &c. ; these have been pointed out in § 167, a. (ii.) After 1, n, the sound d easily became t, and is often so written : e.g. Pros. Pret. and Past Part, dwell dwelt smell smelt or smelled spell spelt or spelled spill spilt or spilled burn burnt or burned learn leaint or learned pen (to " confine ") pent or penned biit pen (to " use a pen," " write ") penned (iii.) Some verbs ending in -Id, -nd have contracted forms in -It, -nt instead of (or as well as) -hied, -nd<.'d : e.g. Pres. Pret. and Past Part. {bended is archaic, but , , 1 i ^ is found as adi. in bend bent < , , . **, . poetry and in certain phrases) E. L. 146 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Pres. Pret. and Past P blend blent or blended lend lent rend rent send sent spend spent wend went or wended build built gild gilt or gilded so also gird girt or girded [§m went is used to supply a past tense for the verb go. (iv.) Some verbs ending in -d, -t exhibit no change of foi'm owing to a similar contraction {-d for -ded^ -t for ted) : such are Pres. cast cost cut hit hurt knit let put set shut slit split sweat thrust wet whet rid shed shred spread Pret. and Past Part, cast cost cut hit hurt knitted (part.), knit (adj. in well-knit) let put set shut slit split sweat and sweated thrust wetted, sometimes wet whetted, sometimes whet rid shed shred spread We may group with these others ending in d, -t which §174] THE VKRB. U7 contract the suffix in a similar way, at the same time shortening the vowel of the stem : — Pros, bleed breed feed k'!ul light meet read speed Pret. and Past Part, bled bred fed led lit and lighted met read sped (v.) Some have not the same vowel sound in pres. as they have in pret. and past pai^t. (ep. the last group). They are, however, easily distinguished from strong verbs by the inflexive -d, -t. (1) Long vowel in present : shortened in px'et. and past part., with contracted suffix : — Pres. bereave creep deal dream feel flee keep kneel lean leap leave mean say shoe sleep sweep weep Pret. and Past Part, bereft and bereaved crept dealt dreamt and dreamed felt fled kept knelt leant leapt left meant said shod slept swept wept (2) Verbs which even in the prehistoric (Teiitonic) 148 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 174 period added the termination for the pret. and part, with- out any connecting vowel which would have caused muta- tion (see § 175, a) : — Pres. Pret. and Past Part. beseech besought bring brought buy bought seek sought sell sold teach taught tell told think thouo-ht (vi.) Some other irregularities are these : — have has its pret. tense and past part, contracted to had. («) The indie, pres. of have is / have, thou hast, he lias, plur. have ; 8ubj. pres. sing, and plur., have. Similarly ftiake has fnade contracted for pret. makede, part, maked. (In the part, the final -e serves merely to denote the length of the a.) clothe makes clothed and clad. ifork has loorhed and lorought (§ 65). {b) In the older stages of the language there was a clear distinction of conjugation between verbs which added the suffix of inflexion directly to the root and those which inserted a connective vowel before it, thus making another syllable: e.g. hert [hear) has in M.E. pret. hcr-d'i (2 syll.), while love has pret. lov-e-de (3 syll.) ; Mod.E. has levelled these by dropping (to the ear, not always in spelling) the connecting vowel wherever possible : thus heard, loved have each one syllable only. Where the -ed is a separate syllable, as in ivant-ed, it is because no elision is possible without the disappearance of the inflexive d; this, however, often happens (cp. hlend-ed and blent, spent, &c., above). It is to be observed, therefore, that blent, heard have not elided a medial syllable, while loved, made, &c., have : where we find § 175] THE VEun. 149 11 loDgtr and a shorter form ending in u dontal {blended, bimt), tho former, contrary to tho usual rulo in such matters, is tho newer formation. t (<•) Tho O.E. weak conjugations exhibit three clearly marked types (busidL'S § 175 below) : (1) Mer-an, hier-de, hler-ed ("hear"), (2) uen-nan, tven-ede, weii-ed{" wean "), (3) luf-ian, luf-ode, hif-od ("love"), of which ('2) and (3) fall together in M.E., and all three are levelled (where possible) in JIod.E. ; and, further, the distinction between pret. and past part, disappears with the dropping of tho final e from tho former. § 175. The difference of vowel in verbs such as sell sold ; teach, taught (and tlie others in § 174, v. 2, aliove) is not tlue to gnulutiou. These verbs are, therefore, not classed as strong, but as weak. t («) In the present of each of these verbs, with the exception of hnn'j and catch, there was originally an i or j following the root- syllable, which in consequence had its vowel mutated in the earliest English period. After causing mutation the i fell out ; similarly the ./, which was found after an originally short syllable, fell out after producing gemination of the final consonant of the root as well as mutation of the root-vowel. Hence the original mc, hnrj, sul, tdc, tnl, \>a»c became in O.E. sec, hjcg, sell, five, tcU, i>e)ic, and these have yielded ^lod.'E.seek, buy, sell, teach, tell, think. The root-syllable has also suffered some modification in the preterite through the termination which, in the case of these verbs, was added immediately to it. Thus in O.E. we find sohte, buhte, salde (in Anglian), tdhtc (Anglian), talde (Anglian), \mltti\ These became in early M.E. sohte, bnhtc, sdhlc, tdhte, tdldc, \>6hte ; and then (by development of u before // after a and o, and by change of a to the vowel-sound in law, which may be expressed by oo) sonhte, houhte, sbblde, tauhte, tboldc, \>ouhte, whence Mod.E. souyht, bought, sold, taught, told, thought. The g in sought, &c., is merely an orthographical addition, intended to reinforce the h in representing the earlier guttural pronunciation of these words. The verb bri)ig is peculiar. The present is borrowed from a strong verb, like sing. Brought, O.E. briihtc, is properly the pret. of O.E. brengean (< *brangian), a weak verb. The development of the Modem from the Old English form has been the same as in the case of thought. Finally, catch, IM.E. caccheu, from O.F. cachier, Low L. *captiarc, should by rights have eatched in the pret., a form which does occur in early M.E. writers, and even in Shakespeare (see Coriolanus, i. iii. 66, 150 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 175 68, where "caught" and "catched" are used by the same speaker). Caught was, however, commonly used as the preterite of cacchen as early as Chaucer. It is formed on the analogy of M.E. Jaughte, the regularly formed preterite of M.E. lacchev, "to catch" (cp. Mod.E. latch, noun). Minor Conjugations. § 176. The verb to be is conjugated as follows : — • Indie. Pres. : sing, am, art, is ; plur. are. Indie. Pret. : sing, was, nasi, was ; plur. were. Subj. Pres. : he (tl^ro^^gl^out). Subj. Pret. : were (tlirougliout). Imper. : he. Infin. : (to) he. Pres. Part. : heing. Past Part : heen. Tlie form he is sometimes found as an archaic pres. indie, and u'ert as 2nd sing. pret. t {(() -mi verhs. The Indo-Germanic verb had its 1st pers. sing, pres. indie, in -o or -mi ; the latter has left no manifest trace in Mod.E. except in the word a-m (cp. L. am-o and su-ni, Gk. Xv-oi and el-jjii ; and see § 160). The verbs do and go are also by origin -mi verbs, and in the case of the former the O.E. (Anglian) dom preserves a trace of this. {h) The four roots in the conjugation of this verb are : (1) es : hence am, O.E. com for hypothetical cn-mi, in which the vi is probably the remnant of first personal pronoun (i.e. of root seen in Eng. me) ; cp. L. s-um [= hypothetical cs^u^m], Gk. el-fii. is shows a weakened form of the same stem, without any suffix of flexion; cp. Gk. ia-.-ri, L. cs-t, and Mod. Ger. is-f, in each of which the dental represents the ending of the third person (see § 160). The usual O.E. plur. form is sindon = es-ind-on, in which the -on is an O.E. addition (§ 162, b), the forms sind, sint being also found. Cp. with these L. s-unt and Gk. ea-ov-rai, and the Mod. Ger. s-ind. (2) or : hence art, from O.E. eart, which in M.E. became art in the Midland and Northern districts. are, O.E. ar-on, a Northumbrian plur. form. § 177, «j TiiK vKRi!. i:. I (3) bheu : lienco he, heiny, hccn (strong contracted past part. : cp. blown, Sec). Tho root is cognate with that of h./to (i.o. *f'Ji-[<>), Cik. e, from a prehistoric cun\>e, the lengthening of the vowel in cfi\>e being due to the disappearance of the nasal after it. The infinitive in O.E. ajDpears as cunnan, whence the Mod.E. adjective (originally a pres. part.) cnnn-xng, which appears first in M.E. On the other hand, a nonn eioinuny or cunning, meamng " trial," "testing," is found in O.E. , and this has probably given the Mod.E. noun cunmng, which appears with its present signification in the fourteenth century. The past part, was r«5 (= " known "), whence our tin-couth, " unknown," and so " odd." The M.E. pret. was at first kouthe, which differed only in spelling from the O.E. word, and is made by Chaucer to rhyme with -monthe in Bertemouthe. The analogy of other weak preterites, however, had already begun in Chaucer's time to substitute konde for it (cp. Prologue, 1. 713, where it rhymes with loude). Lack of sentence- stress ultimately produced shortening of the vowel ; hence onr modern pronunciation. Finally an I crept into the written word through the analogy of should and would, and this was actually pronounced from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, but is now again mute, though still occasionally heard from uneducated persons. t (/) May (O.E. rnxg) [a strong preterite of the same conjugation as tread (§ 62)] meant originally " I have power" ; its original final § 179] Tin; vi:i;n. lo8 guttural boi-amo vocali/.od in M.E. ;«ni. Thi^ nriit. v/uh ineahte {i.e. mag + tc) and inififc, whence M.E. in'Kjhtc and Mou.pj. miyht, in which (as in 80 many other cases) the guttural is jireBerved in the spelling, but not in the sound (cp. Gcr. minj, iwichli). The root (its Tout. f)rm is dkkj) appears in L. machina, from Gk. fn]Xavf\, and in many English words : e.g. micorf (Ger. darf) was used in the same sense, but has been now entirely supplanted by it ; possibly it is to analogy with this old strong pret., at the time when the forms tharf and need (M.H. nede) were used indifferently, that we owe the pseudo-strong 3rd sing. pres. he need. § 180. Do. The verb do is conjugated as a strong verb ; O.E. 2nd, 3rd sing. § 182] THE vRicn. 1 ).> (test, d^S, giivo place early in M.E. to dost, doth, the vowels of which became in pronunciation, though not in spelling, changed to u in early Mod.E., and afterwards shortened to u, whence our present pronun- ciation of these words. The past part, done (in which the final <• is purely a trick of orthography, as in borne, one) exhibits the usual -en of strong verhs reduced to u after a vowel : cp. alai-n, drau-n. t It is originally a -mi verb (§ 17G, « : cp. its cognate ti-Otj-;h), and is found in Ist pcrs. sing. pres. in O.E. (rarely) as dum ; ?/«/ repre- sents O.E. dyde. Conjugation tcifh Auxiliaries, Compound Forms of the Verb, .fc. § 181. W(.' liave not eiiougli tenses fonued by inflexion to enable us to express all distinctions of time, &c.,by that means ; we therefore resort to combinations of the verb we wish to conjugate with othei- verbs known as auxiliaries (§ 157,/) ; the name " tense " is then given to the whole combination thus formed. We thus get the following scheme of tenses : — Present- -Simple Hove )) Continuous I am loving ?j Perfect I have loved J5 Perfect Continuous I have been loving Past - —Simple (Preterite) I loved )) Continuous I was loving ij Perfect I had loved 5> Pei-fect Continuous T had been loving Future - —Simple I shall love >) Continuous I shall he loving ly Perfect I shall have loved »> Pei-fect Continuous I shall have been loving § 182. Auxiliaries are similai-ly used to fomi the Passive construction (§157, b) or " voice," and they may also be used to indicate mood. The conjugation of a verb in the simple and chief compound forms is as follows (the ^rd pers. sing, alone is given in the finite verb, except in the imperative, which has only second persons) : — o o > H o la « P o o >; O h-t ft n 00 too Si o o |J CD ^ ^ . -4^ 0) Jo 1 i Pi • 1— 1 eg C> ^ ptl Qi q:) ^ rO l-O r-S£ 8 -« -I-H -P Qi CO • >-« o S g C>J S CD e e CJ5 s ■pi pi =5 > • ■-1 '-^ rO r-^ r-^ 5- -TS "^3 ^ § r>* Hi -a s CO (a S tij ^-^ n "^ §^ ^ •5^ -^ r-s: 5 t^ g &> s 9i Qi qi &s 's" =^^ § &s •5 CD ^ &^ <» S 8 e "^ o s g-^ S S> S rO g 5^ .S i-sS '^ ^J "o •c* '•s* -r^ !» ^ ?3 ^2 CC CO i 11- ^ k1 .> '^ ■8 -si 1 i) 1 1 PJ ^ • r-t -rH (^ P^ 1=1 -P Pt OQ /— N -p cc fi ^'^ ^ QJ d (B 6 00 (3 H 9 C '^ CL, cc a P! "-^ rt CD s 3 «==^ C ■V in CD MO -P c a; Ph -P fl Pi CB 0) i(/ as adj. and part, in s/ie is strikiui/). t {(/) Hence it is evident that / am arrived, and similar construc- tions of past participles of intransitive verbs, show the logical way of forming the perfect with these verbs ; in English (less in German) it has ))eon largely discarded in favour of the Jtavc method. Where we use be in such cases it is to lay stress on the fact that the action is completely finished, and the subject continues in the state denoted by the participle, which is then a mere adjective : e.g. she is arrived implies that she is still here, still in a state of having arrived ; hence, when the verb is limited by an adjunct in such a way that stress is laid on the action, we always use tho " have" form : e.g. Our friends have rapidly dispersed ; but we say also Our friends are dispersed. III. FORMATION. § 184. We may regard as primitive nearly all verbs of tlie sti'ong conjugation, and many of the weak coujugatiou which cannot be shown to be dei^ivative. (rt) Further, as far as we are concerned here, we have nothing to remark on the formation of such verbs as hvi, which, though not primitive, inasmuch as their original derivation from other words is traceable, now exhibit no signs of formative elements. Thus the verb love is Jt.E. loven, liifen, from O.E. liijran, which contains the same root as the noun Infn ; in other words, the verb " love" is derived from the noun "love." (J) Of course every verb exhibited in O.E. a flexion of conjugation : e.g. siny (inf.), O.E. sing-an ; we may, however, disregard these merely grammatical suffixes here, especially as they have disappeared entirely from Mod.E. (f) Other verbs not primitive show some trace of their origin by preserving a consonantal sound which has been aflfectcd (generally softened by the neighbouring vowels): e.g. house (noun) and home (where s = z, verb) ; life and live. [O.E. has, whence M.E. hom ; M.E. verb housen. So O.E. /F/and verb lijiau (pron. livuni).'] 160 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 185 § 185. Owing to the general disappearance of verbal flexions we can use any noun as a verb withont change of form : e.g. nouns : iron, yacht, chair ; verbs : to iron, he yachts, they chaired him. There is nothing further to remark on such formations. They are, of course, all weak (§ 169). (ff) In O.E. such verbs usually bore traces of their secondary- nature : e.g. luf-i-an (where the -i- shows that the verb is a deriva- tive). [b) Frequently the modern form of the root-vowel shows the effect of the vowel of the suffix, this having caused mutation : e.g. to set, sell, fell (§§ 175, 188). But, of course, new formations have no mutation. § 186. A number of verbs are identical in form with nouns or adjectives, but are distinguished fi'om them by a diif erence of accent : e.g. present, to preshit. («) Other instances are : — absent, to absent ; decent, to accent ; compound, to compound ; export, to export ; frequent, to frequent; subject, to subject. (J) In O.E. the accent generally fell on the first syllable, whence we retain the practice of throwing back the stress as far as possible ; but such verbs as began with an unimportant prefix were not accented on this : e.g. arise, become, forgive. French words, on the other hand, retained the Latin accent, so that through loss of a final unaccented syllable the stress frequently fell on the last syllable (§§ 73, 74), or the last but one. This accentuation of French words when they passed into English early began to give way to the English' system, the result in some cases being the retention of the accent on the final syllable for the verb-form by analogy with similarly accented native verbs (cp. accent, arise) and the throwing back of the accent, in accordance with native usage, in the noun and adjective forms, as seen in the instances given above. See Sweet's Neiv English Grammar, §§ 879-888, from which the following lines are quoted: "When a foreign word is used in different senses, it often happens that in its more familiar meaning it throws the stress back, keeping § 1*^8, r] Tin; vi:i;i;. 101 the original Btrcss in tho leas familiar meaning. Thus wo keep the original Latin stress in the adjective uitymt and tho numo Auyiltlua = Latin auijihtus, but throw it back iu tho month-namo Awjii.^t. So also tho adjective tnimite keeps its Latin stress, which is thrown back in tho more familiar noun mtnutc." § 187. A large number of verbs formed fi-om ikhiils preserve an ellect of this formation in the mutated vowel : e.g. blood, bleed; doom, deem. t (a) O.E. bldd, bledan ; dom, dcmau. § 188. A certain number of weak verbs show that they have been derived from strong ones by mutation of stem-vowel. Such pairs ai'e Strong. Weak. sit set fall fell drink drench lie lay fare (now weak) ferry In such pairs the strong form is originally intransitive ; the weak is transitive and causative. Thus fell is " to make to fall," &c. The double forms of hang and wake properly belong here also : see § 171, r?. (a) Tho number of such pairs is much less now than iu O.E., because tho secondary and weak form has often usurped the functions of its parent while retaining its own. t {b) The causative form has generally the same root-vowel, but mutated, as the preterite of the intransitive verb. Thus O.E. sittan has preterite sict (' ' sat"), from Teutonic s) The suffix is in O.E. -n-ian, as in the above example. It« use in iForming factitivos from adjectives, &c., is comparatively modem ; but it is, however, now generally so employed, and is to bo looked on as still living. It is practically the only iia/ivf suffix (but see § 19.')) that we have which now serves to impart a distinctively verbal shape to a word. German, wliich retains its verb flexions, uses it rarely, as it serves the same end by simply adding these : e.g. rot, rot-en (where of course the -en is not cognate with that of redd-en); cp., however, lehr-cn and ler-n-en. In ojT-n-en, eig-n-cn (for ojen-en, cig-e»-e>i) the first -n is cognate with that of ope-n, ow-n (i.e. is past participial). (c) -le, -er are suffixes used chiefly in frequentative verbs, especially such as seem to be of imitative origin : habb-lr, ratt-le, ^jmr/c-le, ritxt-le, cnanb-lc, whist-Ic; chalt-cr, clatt-cr, patt-cr, glimm-cr. Cp. Ger. Idch-el-n, glimm-er-n. {d) -k, which appears in a few verbs, has an intensive or iterative force. An example is har-k (allied to hear) and hear-k-en (the same word with suffix -ot above discussed : cp. Ger. hor-ch-en and Jwr-en). This -/.• appears in stal-k (connected with O.E. stiellan, "to leap"), ical-k (root ical, meaning " roll," as in rolv-ere), liir-k (cp. " to lower," Ger. lauer-n), and smir-k (connected with smile). (e) -s, -se appears in cleanse, " to make clean," and in hlc-*.s (from blood) : so grasp (grap-sc) . Grasp is a metathesis form (} 65) oi grap-se (Ger. grapsen), from the same root as grip. Ble.ts is 51. E. blessen, O.E. bletsian, bladsian, formed by mutation from blod, "blood," with this suffix; the original meaning was, perhaps, " to sprinkle with blood." B. Foreign. § 191. ^lauy Latin verbs have no trace of verbal suffixes beyond those of mere flexion, and these latter vanish when the words reach lis in English. Thus L. judic-are, part- ire, recip-ere, vend-ere, become F. jug-er, pnrt-ir, reccv-nir (formerly recev-er), vend-re, whence oui* judge, depart, receive, vend ; so aedific-are becomes F. edifi-er, and appears in English as edify. [a) Such words in M.E. received the usual termination of the English verb, e.g. juggen,jiigen (" judge "), which, of course, has dis- 164 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 191, a appeared in the usual way in Mod. E. Others have since been formed (often directly from Latin) on the same model, thus presenting the bare stem : e.g. act (L. act-nm), dilate (L. dilat-are). (b) Edi-fy and others in -fy. These words are compounds in Latin, or are formed in English and French on the model of those derived from such compounds, so that the -fy (F. -fier, L. -ficare, from facere, "make ") is used as a factitive verbal suffix (cp. English -en, 5 190) in a certain class of words of learned construction : examples are forti-fy (cp. stre»gth-en), hcauti-fy, petri-fy (L. petriim, from Gk. Trerpos, "stone," -petre in. salt-petre), morti-fy, solidi-fy. So in contemptuous, semi-humorous formations, such as Frenchi-fy. § 192. The Latin infinitive flexion has occasionallj been partially preserved by its being treated as part of the stem. Thus render is M.E. rend-r-en, from F. rend-re, from L. redd-ere ; so in sur-rend-er (where sur = L. super, § 198). {a) The nouns Uis-ure, pleas-nre (M.E. leiser, early Mod. E. plesur) are also derived from old Romance infinitives : F. lois-ir, plais-ir ; L. Jic-ere, plac-ere ; but owe their suffix to the influence of the many abstract nouns in -ure formed from verb-roots : e.g. rapture, exposure^ &c. So dev-oir (archaic in English), F. dev-oir (older dever), L. deb-ere, "owe." § 193. -ish appears in many verbs of Romance origin, as in pun-ish, fiour-isli, fin-ish. (r>) Its origin is seen more plainly in the corresponding French words, which have the steins pun-iss- , Jfor-iss- , Ji>/-iss- (as shown, e.g. in pun-iss-ais, Jlor-iss-ant, Jin-iss-c) . This -iss- is the Latin inceptive verbal suffix -esc- [nsmflor-esc-erc), which was freely used in popular Latin. Thus French infinitive fieurir represents L. Jiorere ; but fiorissant < \i.Jlor-esc-entem. § 194. Various other sufilxes which appear in Romance verbs are not themselves verbal formatives. These have been already discussed in their place. Examples are seen in adjudic-ate, trem-h-le, pre-s-ent, aug-ment, &c. {a) The past part, stem -ate (§ 127, c) is very freely used in English verbs where French employs the mere infinitive stem: e.g. contrast § 197] TIIK VKKIl. 165 English nUu-ate, perpetti^ate with French situ-er, perpitu-er. Henco we see such words are coined in English from Latin, and have not reached us through French. Thus, adjudic-ate is an English forma- tion (L. ud-judk-utta), but [&<1)-Jiidge is F. juyer, from judic-are ; so vindicate and {Te)venge. In many other cases the stem of the Latin supine gives the English verb where French preserves the infinitive ; op. neglect, act, with nvgliger, agir. {b) tremble is the French trmn-b-ler (where the b is intrusive, §83), from L. trem-ul-are ; but this is from the adj. trem-ul-iis, so that the suffix is adjectival in its origin, not verbal. In granulate, the / is L. diminutive (§ 127 : gran-id-um from gran-um). § 195. The verbal suffix -ise or -ize (ciril-ise, civil-izc) is conuuou in EngHsli i'oriuations, and is still living, so that it often appears in hybrids : it is Greek by origin. (rt) The Greek form is -i^-etv (as in iro\efJLi(eti>, " make war," from ■tt6Kffj.os, " war"), which in popular Latin was freely used as -iz-are, and in French as -i.scr, whence our -ise, -ize (the spellings are both used : on etymological grounds -ise is preferable, as showing that the suffix passed through French ; but for phonetic reasons -ize is obviously preferable). Examples of English verbs derived from Greek originals with this suffix nve philosoph-ise, critic-ise, hai-mon-ise ; hybrids are moral-ise, civil-ise, italic-ise, xitil-ise, central-ise (Gk. Ktvrp- + -«/, L. adj. suffix, § 153, d), terror-ise, &c. (ii.) Prefixes (Verbs, Nouns, Adjectives, &c.). § 196. The prefixes in the following sections are given in alphabetical order in each of three divisions, Teu- tonic, Latin, Gi-eek, without regaid to the part of sjjeech where they most commonly a^ipear. As a rule (perhaps always) they were originally adverbs, and therefore used (at first) freely to form what were, in reality, compound verbs. A. Teutonic. § 197. Teutonic Prefixes: — a- (i.) verbal; "forth," "away " : a-riae, a-hide, a-icake. (ii.) "ever," disguised in aught (§ 208), either (§ 148). 1^6 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 197 (iii.) for various prepositions, " of," " on," " at " : a-down, a-Uve, a-do. (iv.) for various other O.E. prefixes: a-hout (§ 214, fc), a-long (§ 214, a), a-ware. be-, same in origin as prep, by : he-reave, beset, he-smear, he-take. for- has intensive force in for-bear, for-gwe ; privative and pejorative in forswear ("swear falsely"), for-get, for-go (" go without," often missipeU forego) . fore-, as in " be-/ore " : fore-hade, fore-gone, foresee, foresight, foreshorten. gain-, as in " a-gains-t " : gainsay (op. "contradict"). mis-, pejorative, " a-miss " : mis-deed, mis-understand, mis-take. or-: only in or-deal [see (e) below]. to-, " asunder " : to-brake (obsolete pret. : used in Bible, A.V. Judges ix. 53, but misprinted as two words). un-\ merely privative with nouns and adjectives, "not": un-ahle, un-helief, un-kind. un-^ verbal prefix; (i.) denoting the reversal of an action : un-do, un-har, un-bind, un-lock, unsay. (ii.) intensive in un-loose (§214). wan-: only in ivan-ton [see (h) below]. with-, " against," " back " : in with-draw, loith-hold, ivithstand. Add to these the first element in after-izoow, forth- coming, in-lay, onset, outside, ovev-do, to-day, under-f/o, \ij^-hold, where the adverb (or preposition) is clearly shown in its modern form and signification, so that these and such words may be regarded as compounds. § 197, e] TiiK VKiU!. IC? (rt) a- (i.) as ill a-wake, Sec, is the weakened form of or- [seo (e) below] and is cognate with Ger. et-, as in er-wachen ; originally meant "out," "away," "forth," as in O.E. a-farau, " fare away." a- (iii.) a-doH-H = O.E. of-dfoie, where of is prep, of ; a-live = on - life ; so a-hcd, a-foot, a-back, &c. A-do — at + do, a Northern combination, at being used in the North aa we use to, with the gorundial infinitive : cp, such a phrase as *• Here's a to-do about nothing." a- (iv.) aware represents O.E. ge-uxr, which became in iI.E. ytcar, iwar. The prefix ffe, very common in O.E. (as in Ger. gcwahr, genehm, &c.), had a sort of collective force, and was generally prefixed to past participles (as always in German). It appears in the archaic y-clept ("called"), and y- wis (" surely" : QQX.gewm), and in e-7ioHgh (O.E. ye-uoh : cp. Ger. fje-nug). {b) be- (" by," " around ") : (i.) modifies the meaning of a transitive verb: e.g. he- set ; or(ii.) turns an intransitive verb into a transitive one, as be-speak. Arising out of the latter usage it often has a sort of intensive force, as in be-dabble, bespatter. It forms verbs from nouns : e.g. be-frieiid, he-dew, be-xc\tvh ; it has privative force in be-head. [It is the O.E. prefix unchanged, but loss freely used. Used in German much as in English: e.g. hc-freunden ("befriend"), be-nehmen ("takeaway")]. The same prefix (= hy) appears in he-lotc, he-sides, h-iit (§ 214, b). {c) for- (same in origin as prep, for) is cognate with Ger. ver-. N.B. — In for-feit, for-close, the first clement is of Romance origin (J 198). {d) mis- is probably not allied to vb. miss. The German cognate miss- (e.g. miss-versteheu, ^' misundeisfaud ") is similarly used. N.B. — In mis-chance, mis-chief, and some others, the suflix is of Romance origin (§ 198). {e) or-, fairly common in O.E. adjectives with privative force (e.g. or-sory, " without sorroiv"), is now kept only in or-deal, properly " a deal-ing out," and so "judgment," "test." The prefix originally denotes origin, " out of," and hence the privative force noted above. In German it is more freely employed, e.g. Ur-ted ("judgment," cognate with or-deal), Vr-sachc, Ur-sprtoiy, &c. 0>7 (archaic ; used 168 THE ENGLISH LAKGUAGE. [§ 197, e in pi. orts, "leavings"; see Julius Caesar iv. i. 37) contains this prefix; O.E. or + etan, "to <>«<"; hence oris = "uneaten things," " refuse." (/) to-, "asunder," not now used; cognate with Ger. ze7'- in zer-reisen (" tear into hits "), zer-hrechen (" break up "), &c. ig) un-i, privative, is used like its cognates, L. in- (§ 198), Ger. ?(«-. Tin--, "back," is cognate with Ger. ent- (as in cnt-binden, "un- bind"), L. ant-e (§ 198), and Gk. avr-i (§ 199). The same prefix in another form appears in a-lovg [\ 214), and in ff«-swe/-, which is O.E. and-swerian (vb.), where siverian = "to speak, swear" (cp. the form of the prefix in Ger. Ant-wort, Ant-litz). {h) -wan- in O.E. had much the same force as un- privative. Wan-ton is M.E. ivan-towen, where the second element represents O.E. togen, past part, of teon, "draw," "educate." Thus wan-ton is literally " un-trained," "ill-bred" — the sense of the Ger. un-ge-zogen, where zogen is the cognate of the -ton above. JFan-t, u'an-e are from the same root. («) with- (same origin as the preposition, but retaining only the meaning "against " in compounds) is cognate with Ger. tvieder, wider, "again" and "against" ; wieder-holen, wider-stelien. (j) It is to be noticed that on and in also enter into combinations in somewhat altered forms ; for on-, see a- (iii.) above. In- some- times becomes im- before p, b (^ 68) : e.g. im-hed, which is sometimes spelt cm-bed by influence of Romance en- (§ 198). B. Latin. § 198. Prefixes of Latin Origin (the syllables in heavy type are the Latin forms) :— ab-, abs-, a- ("from"): ah-negation, ab-rupt ; abs-tain, ahs-cond; a-bridge (doublet of ab-breviate), a-vert. ad- (" to ") : ad-here, ad-jecHve ; witli various assimi- lations, as in a-cJneve, ag-gravate, al-low, as-seni, &c. {a) Advance, advantage have inserted a ante- ("before"): aw/e-cetZcn/, ante-nuptial, antc-diluvian ; anfi-cipafe. bi-, bis- ("double," "twice") : bl-ci/ch; h{-Una Judeas ahengon ]>afct up and )pset heafod adun " They crucified the Jews feet up and heads down." M.E. has many such examples, and the same construction is fouud in Old French and Old Norse. (d) Here also the " objective of quality " should be placed, of which we have an instance in Julius Ccesar i. i. 9: "You, sir, tvhat trade are you?" Cp. also the expressions " "We were the same height,'" " He is just yo?«r ffr/^," &c. Sweet (New English Grammar, Part ii., § 1987) describes this objective as purely adjectival in function, and sujDposes it to have arisen from the dropping of a preposition, inas- much as we can still say, for example, it is of no tcse in place of it is no use. (v.) when governed by prepositions (see § 211). (e) A common error is the use of tvho for whom when the prepo- sition governing the relative or interrogative does not precede it : e.g. " "Who is it written by ? " " The man who, as it happened, there had been such a fuss about, was quite innocent. ' ' (vi.) after a few adjectives ; e.g. tvorth, like, near. (vii.) an indirect object after a transitive verb : e.g. " He gave me [indir. obj.] a look''' (dir. obj.); " He got me [indir. obj.'] a cab " (dir. obj.). (/) "While the direct object is the thing upon which the action of the transitive verb is directly exercised, the indirect object may be connected with the verb in various more or less remote ways, includ- ing most of the functions of the Latin dative. § 229. The possessive is chiefly used attributively (§ 112). («) Other relations formerly denoted by the genitive case are now generally expressed by the preposition of and the objective : thus " of a morning " (cp. Ger. Morgens), " worthy of death," &c. The main functions of the genitive are generally classified as either subjective or objective, the genitive in the latter case denoting the § 231] SYNTAX. 189 object of some action or feeling expressed by the word on whifh it depends : thus amor dci = (i.) "the love of god," i.o. love felt towards God (objective) ; or (ii.) " God's love," the love felt by God (subjective). Except in a few instances the Mod. E. inflected form is always sub- jective. Byron, however, has " T/ii/ sire's maker and the earths,''' and Scott "7?// Enylond's hiiifj and Scotland's queen." This genitive is also found with pronouns : cp. " The deep damnation of his taking- oflE " {Macbeth, i. vii. 20) ; " Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder" [Tlamlet, i. v. 25). Similarly wc can say '■'Its removal would be a great advantage " ; " My election was duo to his influ- ence," &c. § 230. Many transitive verbs are usetl with another ■word (noun, adjective) to point out the result attained by the action of the verb. The word used for this purpose is called a factitive complement of the predicate : e.g. "They made l](hvai'd [ilir. obj.] A-twj/ " (factitive com- plement : objective case). "They made Edward [dir. obj.] drunk" (fact, comple- ment : adj.). " Me [subj.] was made Jciiig" (fact, complement : nom.). " He [subj.] was vaade drunk'' (fact, complement: adj.). § 231. INlany intransitive verbs require the help of some other word (noun, adj.) to make the sense complete. Such a verb is called a verb of incomplete predication,' and the word which completes the sense is called the c ANALYSIS. U>7 Analysis of b : 1. [_that'\ direct object of 3 below. 2. they subject. 3. had predicate. (iii.) " He declared that the best and the woi-st of them were the piej of accidents." Complex sentence (A) containing one subordinate nouu- clause (6), the best . . . accidents. Analysis of A : 1. He subject. 2. declared predicate. 3. Clause b direct object of 2. Analysis of b : that connective joining A and b. the best, &c., as in § 243 above. § 247. Or, in tabular form : 198 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§247 Qj Qi s -S ^ ^ GC ?• -^ 3^ >o 1 1 ><--i «(5 /— V/-^ ^— N^^ O H I— 1 !>! i-H 'M ■*- -*^ -« ><= 'd el OS a CJ5 - s 1 1 1 — 1 ^ CD >;> e W c 6C o pi rO >— I S S-i ^ 'S Q ndof orC tin "-3 o 0) •'"7 • f— i pi o W ^ < ^ ^ g «) <* 55 Oj ^ Qi o 03 -4^ CO ^ ?<1 "^ s - o ..:S' f^ Sen III 5>.^ -^ CO < 1 — 1 < (b) that and fi of then prey of §240] I'ARSlNfi AND ANALYSrS. 1!>1» § 248. Sentences grammatically independent of (jne another, but joined by a conjunction, are called co- ordinate, and till- whole strncture into which thev entei- is called a compound sentence ; it is dividetl for the purpose of analysis into separate sentences, and then treated as shown above. § 249. Exam})le of analysis of compound sentence : " Homer knew nothiu"* of it, and (U'claretl llml lliu Ijt-.-t of them were not free from accidents.' Compound .sentence, consisting of A. Homer . . . it joined by and to B. [/ie] declared . . . accidents. The rest of the analysis is as shown in §§ 2-^-1 above. 200 CHAPTER XX. Accentuation. § 250. The general tendency in English is to throw the accent as near the beginning of the word as possible. That the position of the accent is of great moment will be seen by a consideration of the following inductive "rules," which summarise conveniently the effects of the presence and absence of syllabic stress. § 251. Rule 1. When a word is increased in length an ■original long vowel is often shortened. Compare wild with wilderness „ child ,, children ,, break ,, breakfast „ white „ Whitby „ bleed „ (bledde > ) bled. § 252. Rule 2. In compounds of two syllables, accented on the first syllable, a long vowel in the latter syllable is often shortened by the lack of stress upon it. Thus : O.E. scip (" ship ")+tun (" enclosure ") > Shipton O.E. Dun + Stan >I)unstan 0.^. eorl + ddm > earldom. § 253. Rule 3. The unaccented vowel, or even a whole syllable, often disappears in words of two or more .syllables. Thus : — O.E. fugol > foivl M.E. fourtenight > fortnight M.E. laverock > lark Mod. E. luncheon > lunch Hunstanton is pronounced Hunston Worcester „ Wooster This rule is also illustrated in the general disinflexion of the language. 201 CHAPTER XXI. Metre. § 254. Prosody treats of the mechanism of verses and stanzas. By a verse (more often called a line) is meant a com- bination of syllables falling into a rhythm suflBciently regular to be recognisable when it reverts or i-ecurs. It is this regularity which distinguishes the rhythm or flow of verse from the rhythm or flow of prose. A stanza, or strophe, is, in like manner, a combination of verses, according to some regular plan : the number of verses in a strophe cannot be less than two and rarely exceeds twelve. The rh.3rthni of a combination of syllables is based chiefly upon two properties Avhich they possess, quantity and accent. According as quantity or accent foiTns the chief foundation of the rhythm, the verse is said to be quantita- tive or accentual. Classical verses are believed to have been built in the main on quantity. The poetry of modern Europe depends chiefly upon accent. In Anglo-Saxon and ancient Teutonic vei'se generally, there was a very remarkable balance between the two chief constituents of rhythm. It should be noted that tlie rhythm or flow of a verse is also in part detei'mined by the quality of the vowels and consonants of which the syllables ai'e composed and by the manner in which tliese sounds blend and har- monise Avith each other. But, inasmuch as the cum])ositiou of the rhythm in regard to these matters has not been reduced to law, it does not fall within the scope of Prosody. 202 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 255 § 255. The arrangement of accents or quantities in a verse is called metre. § 256. The metrical line, or verse, is divided into feet, each foot containing one, and not more than one, accented syllable. If consisting of more than three feet, it is usually further divided into two portions by a pause or ccicsura. § 257. The following names are given to the feet most commonly used in English verse : — Iamb, an unaccented syllable followed by an accented one — aiody. Trochee, an accented syllable followed by an unaccented one — father. Anapaest, two unaccented syllables followed by an accented one — referee. Dactyl, an accented syllable followed by two unaccented ones — fatherly. {(() Each example given above shows a foot formed by a single word ; but of course this is not a necessary condition. [h) The names of the feet are retained from the classic system of scansion, which depended on quantity (i.e. syllable-length) : e.g. a dactyl was a long syllable followed by two short ones. Among the names of oth'^r classic feet sometimes applied to English verse, we should notice the Spondee, consisting of two accented syllables. § 258. Accent: Arsis, Thesis. — A metrical foot is made up of two parts : the arsis, which consists of the accented syllable ; and the thesis, consisting of the unac- cented syllable or syllables. There are two kinds of accent, both of which are em- ployed in verse making : viz. word-accent and sentence - accent. The former emphasises one syllable above others in a word ; the latter one word above others in a sentence. § 259. Word-accent. — A word of more than two syl- lables can have two accents, a primary and a secondary § 260] METKK. 203 accent: e.g. jasfij]/. Tlic secondiuily (iis well as the primarily) accented syllable can he used to form the arsis of a foot : e.g". And justify the ways of God to men. {Puradhe Li».t i. 20.) A compound word of two .syllables has al.so a primary and a secondaiy accent ; hut in this case the secondary accent cannot be used in the arsis except at the expense of the primary ; that is to say, Avithout for the time becoming the primary accent. Thus ^lilton accents hiankhul .some- times on the first, sometimes on the second, syllable : e.g. Above mankind or aught than mdnlcind higher. The same transference of sti*ess in a compound word may be bi-ought about by the prefixing of an adjective : thus sea-mew ; but And shrieks the wild sea-mew, (Byron). § 260. Sentence-accent. — The laws of sentence-accent have not vet l)L'eu t'lillv investigated, but it may be said generally that the "'presentive" words (nouns, verbs, adjec- tives) have stronger sentence stress than the " symbolic" or relational words (cp. § 18). Thus, if two monosyllables, one a preposition, the other a noun, stand in juxtaposition in a verse, the former will be in thesis, the latter probably in ar.sis. Thus the feet of God and to men in the line cpioted above are both iambic ; so again is the u-ihj.'?, the article being of weaker sti"ess than the noun. Words -which in this way lose their accent to a following word are said to 1)e " proclitic '" ; those which lose their ac- cent to a preceding word ai'e called " enclitic." Frequently a pronoun following a transitive verb is enclitic : e.g. Take her up tenderly; note that in this line the .slight sentence-stress on tip and the secondary accent on -l]/ are both ignoi'ed. Again, a monosyllabic adjective can lose its accent when it precedes a strongly accented word, especially when it is itself preceded by an adjective : cp. The plain, i-oii;//i Hero turn a crafty knave. (Pope.) 204 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 260 This case is similar to tliat mentioned above (Jtlie wild sea- metv). Where two monosyllabic words, both of weak sentence-stress, occur together, it would not always be easy to know which was in arsis without referring to the rest of the verse. Thus to it is clearly an iambus in Thou art a scholar, speak to if, Hor&tio [Hamlet i. i. 42), whereas to me is a trochee in That could do no vengeance to me [As Yon Like It iv. ii. 48), where it rhymes with looo me in the previous line. From these considerations it is clear that " arsis " and "thesis," "accented" and "unaccented," are relative terms, and that, metri causa, a word of weak sentence-stress may be in arsis in one foot of a verse, whilst a word of natur- ally stronger stress is in thesis in another foot of the same verse. But the poet's licence stops here : in the same foot the word of distinctly stronger stress must be in the arsis. Only in a comic poem could such a combination as to man be used as a trochee. § 261. Pause-accent. — The natural accent of a word is heightened by a preceding pause : thus the beginning of the line and the first ^Dlace after the "caesura" (§256) are positions of strong metrical accent. Hence it is that even in iambic metre it is common to find trochees in these positions. Hence also we are able to decide which word has the accent in such combinations as and to, or the in the line And to the stack | or the barn-door. Finally, it is clear that all the accents of aline of verse need not be equally strong. Such regularity as Ave have in the line To wage by force or guile eternal war (Paradise Lost i. 121) would be intolei-ably monotonous if continued through many verses. It is, however, a mistake to say, as some have done, that an accent can be omitted from a verse of § 263] METRE. 20i this kind without destroying the metre. For example, in the lines Infinite wn'ith and tiifinite despriir find How nvercome this dire calamity, which have been said to contain onl}- foni- accent.s each, the secondary accents in infinite and cahhaity supply the necessary arses. § 262. Accoi'ding- to the number of accents in :i lino (one, two, three, (tc), tlie verse is ssiid to lu* monometer, dimeter, trimeter, tetram.eter, pentam.eter, hexa- meter, nr heptameter. In theory each of the.se measures niitiht be formed witii any one of the four kind.s of feet mentioned in § 257. In practice the iambic measures are far the most common in English poetiy, although ana- paestic and troeliaic verses are also not uncommon, ^fr. Swinburne says that to English " all variations and com- binations of anapaestic, iambic, or trochaic metre are as natural and pliable as all dactylic and spondaic forms of verse are iinnatui-al and abhorrent " (see his Studies in Song, p. 6S). Sometimes anapaestic and iambic feet are found together in the same verse, as in Campbell's Our b6- I gles sang truce, | for the night | cloud had low- | ered. § 263. Examples of Iambic Metres : Monometer : Thus I Pass by. (Herrick.) Dimeter and Trimeter : For in my mind Of ill! mankind I love but y6u alone. Tetrameter : The wiiy was long, the wind was cold, (scoit.j Pentameter : Of that forbidden tree whose mortal t'lste. (Milton.) 206 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 263 Hexametei' : That like a wounded sn^ke drags its slow length along. (Pope.) Heptameter : Attend all ye who list to hear our noble England's priiise. (Macaulay.) To tliese may be added " common metre," wliicli is a combination of iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter usually aiTanged as a couplet. Coleridge's Ancient Manner furnishes the finest example of a poem in this metre : O sleep it is a gentle thing Beloved from pole to pole. It is common in moral and religious poetry : How doth the little busy bee Improve each shining hour. Special names for some of tbe measures mentioned above are " octosyllabic verse "' for iambic tetrameter, " Alexandrine " for iambic hexameter, " septenarius " and also " fourteener "' for iambic beptametei\ § 264. Iambic pentametei", which is by far the most im- portant of English metises, is known as blank verse when unrhymed, as heroic verse when rhymed in couplets. Chaucer's Ganterhury Tales, Dryden's Absalom and Achito- phel, and Pope's Dunciad are famous examples of heroic couplet. Shakespeai'e and Milton both employ blank verse, the former in dramatic, the latter in epic, poetry. § 265. Trocliaic Measures : Monometer : Thy My Beauty Duty. (Herbert.) Dimeter : ^ Autumn closes Round the roses. § 267] METKK. 207 Trimeter : Go where glory waits thee. (Moore.) Tetrameter: Once upun a midnight dn'ary, While I pondered wi'ak rmd wc'ary. (E. A. Poe.) § 266. A common anapaestic measure is the tetm- meter : e.g. There's a hower of roses by Benderneer's stream. (Moore.) The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold. (Byron. j Other anapaestic metres are less common. Browning's Saul gives an example of anapaestic pentameter : "And grow one in the sense of this world's life, and then the last song." We have anapaestic dimeter lines in Shelley's Fugitives : e.g. " A bold pilot I trow Who should follow us now," and trimeter in Cowper's AkxitiuJer ScUdrl; : " From the centre all round to the sea." It will be seen that the anapaestic measure is apt to ride rough- shod over the natural sentence-accent of words ; so that even nouns and adjectives are occasionally thrust into the thesis. It is only by referring to the context that we can tell how to scan the combination life and then in the line from Browning. It may be urged, how- ever, that life is really the second element of a compound, xoyhV-^ life. § 267. Dactylic Measures : Monometer : Solemnly, SlournfuUy. (Longfellow.) Dimeter : Ta^ke her up tenderly. (Hood.) 208 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 267 Trimeter : Up with me, up with me, into the | clouds,' (Wordsworth.) Tetrameter : Cold on his cradle the dew-drops are shining. (Heber.) § 268. The attempt to introduce classic metres in English has given us hexameters in which the accent takes the place of the long syllable. An example (from Longfellow's Evangeline) is : "This is the | forest prim- | aeval, the | mlirmuring | pines and the | hemlocks." Sometimes elegiac couplets, consisting of a hexameter followed by a pentameter, have been successfully written : " 'Tis but to I change idle | fancies for | memories | wilfully | falser, 'Tis but to I go and have | been. | Come, little | b^rk, let us | g6." § 269. Metrical Auxiliaries : Assonance, Allitera- tion, Rhyme. — Unessential to verse, but at the same time of great use for indicating the structure and defining the rhythm of successive verses, as well as for uniting them together, are rhyme, alliteration, assonance. Of these, assonance has played but a small part in English verse ; alliteration, which was once an invariable accompani- ment of metrical composition, now survives chiefly as an element in the harmony of verse ; rhyme, in spite of some opposition, notably on the part of Milton, is in full vogue at the present time, and seems likely to keep its place permanently. § 270. Assonance is heard when two or more words in corresponding metrical positions contain the same accented vowel, biit have different consonants following it : e.g. pane . . . fate. 1 Cloiid.i^ is here hypermetric. Such additional syllables are frequent in other measures, e.g. in anapaestic tetrameter : " Thou art gone to the grave, but we will not deplore | thee." (Heber.) § 27;l] MKTRK. 209 § 271. Alliteration occurs when two or more wonls. either close to, or not far apart from, each other, hcLriii their accented syllable with the same consonant or vowel sound : e.g. The /air ireezc /;lew, the white /oam /low, The furrow followed free. Here the alliterations are much more powerful in the second line than in the first, inasmuch as tlie meti-ical accent falls oji each of the allitci-atini,' syll:il»lcs. Indeed, according to the principles of the earliest English vei-se, there is no alliteration in the first line at all, or ralhei- none sufficient for metrical purposes. So, again, in a line which is frequently quoted as an example of alliteration. An Anstriiin f/rmy awfully ffrc'iycil, the only really alliterating words are "Austrian" and "awfully," which begin with the s;nne vowd sound in an accented position. Alliteration is sometimes spoken of as initial rhj-me, in contrast to ordinary, or end, rhyme. § 272. Hhyme, if spelt in accordance with its derivation from O.E. rhn, " number," would be written ri'mp, an orthography sometimes employed. It is, in effect, a double assonance, the agreement in sound of the following con- sonants, as well as of the accented vowels, of two woi-ds in corresponding metrical positions : e.g. pane . . . fane. In English rhyme it is necessaiy that the consonants ]»rc- ceding the rhyming vowels shall be dilferent. Rhymes may be either single (" ma^sculine "), as in wref, seat; or double ("feminine"), as in meeting, seatinrf ; or even triple, as in steadily, readily. Stanzas or Strophes. § 273. A stanza is a group of verses combined accordincj to some regul.ir plan, so as to be easily recognisable when- ever it occurs (see § 254-). B. L. P 210 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 273 Generally speaking', the feet wliicli are found in a stanza will all l)e of the same kind, although iambic or anapaestic feet, and similiarlj trochaic and dactylic feet, combine freely together. Again, as a rule, the same metre will prevail through- out a stanza ; but this is by no means always the case. The four most famous strophes are the rhyme royal, the Spenserian stanza, the ottava rima, and the sonnet. § 274. The rhyme royal has been supposed, with small probability, to take its name fi'om tlie fact of its having beeri employed by James I. of Scotland in a poem entitled TJie Kingis QuJiair, attributed to him. It consists of seven iambic pentameter lines, the rhymes of which are arranged as follows : ab ahh c c (cp. the Spenserian stanza ])elo\v). Chaucer uses this stanza in his Troilus and Cressida, and in some of the Canterbury Tales. § 275. The Spenserian stanza closely resembles this, but insei^ts a pentameter line rhyming witli the second of the stanza in the seventh place, and adds an Alex- andrine or iambic hexameter at the close, the f.rr mgement of the rhymes being « b a b b c b cc. Example : A litltj lowly Hermitage it was a Downe in a dale, hard by a forests side, b Far from resort of people that did pas a In traveill to and froe : a litle wyde /' There was an holy chappell edifyde, b Wlierein the He rmite dcwly wont to say c His holy thinges each morn and eventyde : b Thereby a christall stroame did gently play, c Which from a sacred f ountaine welled forth alway. c § 276. The ottava rima is an eight-lined stanza of iambic pentameter lines, which was introduced from the Italian by Sir Thomas Wyatt. The arrangement of §277] METRK. 211 rliyniOR is a h a hnhr c. Longfol low's Hi ids of Iy Wyatt early in the sixteenth century, and soon became a favourite stanza with English poets, many of whom have, however, somewhat deviated fi-om the moilel of Petrarch, the great Italian writer of sonnets. (a) As regards treatin<'nt of subject, Petrarch interrupts tlie course of thouglit at the end of the octave, or first eight lines, so as to bring a fresh idea into the ncstcttc, or final six line^. In the earlier English sonnets, in Milton's, and in many of Wordsworth's, the sense runs continuously on, rising often to a climax at the ch^se. (b) In regard to the arr.mgoment of the rhymes there lias been a ehjser imitation of the Italian sonnels since the time of Shaki'sptaro. Shakespeare's scheme divides the sonnet into llnic stan/as i.f (our lines each and r. final couplet, the rhymes being a h II li . c (f c il . c f V f . ij r hand, allows hut four or five iliymes, tho first two being confined to tlie octave : thus a h h a . n h h a || c d c . d c d or v d e . e d c . This scheme has been generally fulhnvi d as far as the octavo is con- cerned, but there has been somj freedom in distributing tlie rhymes of tho sestctte. (e) Wordsworth's sonnet on the sonnet and its writers may be 212 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 277 quoted in illuslration for its interest, though it is unusually irregular in its rhymes : Scorn not the sonnet, critic ; you have frowned a llindless of its just honours ; with this key b Shakespeare unlocked his heart ; the melody b Of this small lute gave ease to Petrarch's wound, a A thousand times this pipe did Tasso sound, a Camoens soothed with it an exile's grief ; c The sonnet glittered a gay myrtle leaf c Amid the cypress with which Dante crowned a His visionary hrow : a glow-worm lamp, d It cheered mild Spenser, called from faery land e To struggle through dark ways ; and when a damp d Fell round the path of Milton, in his hand e The thing hecame a trumpet, whence he hlew / Soul -animating strains — alas ! too few. / Other sonnets of Wordsworth's — e.g. the famous one on Westmin.iicr Bridfje — will he found to follow the Petrarchan model exactly in regard to the rhymes. § 278. Two other stanzas may be mentioned. The stanza used hy Gray consists of four decasyllabic iambic lines rhyming alternately ; see the specimen quoted on p. 18. It is known as the heroic quatrain, or the elegiac stanza. A four-line stanza of octosyllabic lines, in which the first and fourth lines rhyme together and the second and third rhyme together, has been familiarized by Tennyson's use of it in In Mevioriam : Our little systems have their day, They have their day and cease to he ; They are hut broken lights of Thee, And Thou, Lord, art more than they. § 279. Example of scansion: Forthwith | upright || he rears | from off | the pool His might- | y stat- | ure || ; on | each hand | the flames Driven back- | ward slope | their point- | ing spires, || and, rolled § 283J METRK. n-.i In bill- I 0W8, II Iti'ivo | i' tho midst | a horr- | id \;iIo. Tlicii with I cxpiin- | ded wings || ho steers | his flight Aloft, II iiKi'im- I bent <>i\ \ the du.'-k- | y iiir, That lelt | una- | sual wiight. || [I'ltradise Lost, i. 221-227.) Notice : (i.) tho very varied positions of the caesura ; (li.) the initial troehee in tho fifth line ; (iii ) tho use of i' t/ic as an equivalent for one syllable ; (iv.) the way in which tho sense is several times continued into tho next line without any deliuite pause. This is some- times called cnjambement. Styles of Foctry. §280. Tlie Hvu })rincipal stylus of poetry are: (i.) lyrir, (ii.) epic, (iii.) dramatic, (iv.) didactic, and (v.) past- oral. § 281. Lyric poetry was oiigiually, as its name implies, intended to be sung to the accompaniment of the harp. Tn character it is essentially sponi:uieous and eiiiotioiial. Thus Tennyson speaks of sorrow loosening I'roui the lip and again Short swallow-llights of song ; I do but sing because I must, And pipe 1 ut ad the linnets sing. § 282. Epic poetry is concerned with some action or circumstance of a great and memorable nature, such as the wrath of Achilles, which is the subject of the lliml, or the first disobedience of man, wliich is that of runulise Lost. § 283. Dramatic poetry brings the action itself befoi-e us, and does not merely describe it. It is mox-e complex than either lyric or epic poetry, uniting in some degree the elements of both. The plays of Shakespeare tuv universally acknowledged to be the crowning ellort of the human mind in this field of literatui'e. 214- THE ENGLISH LANCiUAGE. [§ 284 § 284. Didactic poetry deals with i-eligion and morals as well as with arts and sciences ; in English literature it includes such poems as Dryden's Reliyio Laid, Pope's Essay on Man, Cowper's Task, &c. § 285. Pastoral poetry deals with country life ; its personages are shei)herds and shepherdesses, who, in their actions and conversation, exhibit sim})le and un- aifected human nature as contrasted with the artiticiality which is the result of life in cities. The most famous example of this kind of composition in English is the tShephei-d'' s Calendar oi Spenser. Pastoral poetry is of ten allegorical, as in the case of Milton's Lycidas. TEST QUESTIONS. CHAFrKR T. 1. Name tlie present languages of the IJritish Lsles, and ali-o any otlieis that were formerly spoken within them. 2. Express, in tabular form, the relationship of English to the other European languages. 3. What languages had aire ady been spoken in this island or were being spoken when the Anglo-Saxon Conrpiest took place ? Were they in any way akin to the dialects spoken by the Angles and the Saxons ? 4. Show, by a table, the relationship of Anglo-Saxon and Modrrn English to the other Teutonic languages of Europe. 5. Explain carefully the following terms : — philoloijij, Aryan, Anglo-Saxon, Indo-Europea^i,, Teutonic, Seinitio, Romance, High German. 6. Explain carefully the following terms : — Scandinaviau, Celtic, Classical, synthetic, analytic. Low German, Gothic, Erse. 7. What European languages are most closely related to English ? Give reasons for your answer. 8. Why is our language called " English " rather than " West-Soxon " or " ]\lercian " ? 9. Give a table of the Indo-European family of languages. 10. Give a detailed table of the Teutonic group of languages. 216 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER II. 11. Into what periods may the English language be divided with regard to inflexional changes 1 12. English is now an analytic language. What do you understand by this 1 13. Explain, with illustrations, the dilFerence between a synthetic and an analytic language. 14. What do you understand by ^^ the levelling of in- flexions " ? How was this levelling brought about ? 15. Distinguish between Old English, Middle English, and Modern Eni:clish. 16. Estimate the effect of the Scandinavian invasions upon our language. 17. In which parts of England was flexional decay most rapid ? Endeavour to account for your facts. 18. Explain, with illustrations, the effect of the Norman Conquest upon ovir flexional system. CHAPTER III. 19. What do you know of the origins of the English language ? 20. Explain, as carefully as you can, how our language comes to contain so many words of Latin descent. Mention some that we might very well do without, or might well have done without. 21. From what other sources besides Latin have we borrowed words 1 Show that our vocabulary is constantly being enlarged. 22. On what occasions, and in what ways, have Classical and Romance words entei-ed the English language ? 23. Mention six words that English has borrowed from other Teutonic languages, twelve borrowed from the QUKSTI0N8. Iil7 lioiiiance liinguageH, uml twelve froui uny non-Aryan languages. 24. Show how the languages of the Celts, tlio Konians, the Danes, and tlie Normans have, at (liHi-nnt timts, affected the English tongue. 25. 8how how, at difFerent times, foreign words have become part of the English tongue. What is meant \>y an acclimatized foreign word in English? 26. Briefly show how largely l']ngli.sh has borrowed words from other languages. Do you con.-ider this an advantage or a disadvantage ? 27. Give as large a list as you can of the Classical words which found their way into our language before the Norman Conquest, and point out how tliey were probably introduced. 28. Mention teti words which have come to us from the Italian, yjve from the Dutch, five from the Hebrew, and ten from the modern French. 29. Mention te7i words which have come to us from Asiatic languages, five from the Scandinavian, and fee each from Hebrew and from modern German. 30. Whence have we obtained the following words, and at what period in our history : — million, veal, yacht, baijonet, dclf odd, ivaltz, bajjtize, tehphone, hoycoti ? 31. Whence have we obtained the following word.s ;uid at what period in our history : — galvanize, aljiJuihel, loom, Camhridfje, cowl, Imsting, suffer, barbarous, kiss, coffee ? 32. Whence have we obtained the following words, antl at what period in our history: — locomotive, licije, busk, zareba, caiulle, forlorn-hope, p)oodle, stevedrnx, macaroni ? 33. Whence have we obtained the following words, and at what period in our history : — blame, Thames, chutnee, sabbath, admiral, clieroot, gypsy, pemmican, hurricane, polkal 34. Whence have we obtained the following words, and at what period in our history : — car, glen, amen, jloe, hoisf^ psychology, father, are, icas, s/tovy ? 218 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 35. Divide the words of L;itin origin in English into chist^es according to the periods at which they have been adopted, and give three examples of each class. 36. Discuss fully the Greek element in English. 37. Give an account, with dates, of the introduction of the Latin element into the English language. Wi-ite down any ten lines of ICnglish poetry, and underline the words of non-Teutonic oi-igin. 38. Underline the non-Teutonic words in the following passage : — " Underneath tins sable hearse Lies the subject of all verse ; Sidney's sister, Pembroke's mother. Death ! Ere thou hast slain another, Learned, fair and good as she, Time shall throw a dart at thee." 39. Underline the non-Teutonic words in the following passage : — " Not once nor twice in our rough island-stoiy The path of duty was the road to glory ; He who walks it, only thirsting For the riglit, and learns to deaden Love of self, before his journey closes, He shall iind the stubl>orn thislle bursting Into glossy purples that outredden All voluptuous garden roses." 40. Underline the non-Teutonic words in the following passage : — " My good blade carves the casque of men ; My tough lance thrusteth sure; My faith is as the faith of ten Because my heart is pure." 41. Underline the non-Teutonic words in the following passage : — " Take a toad within a stone Seated while time crumbles on Ever since when at the first For man's transgression earth was cursed." 42. Underline the non-Teutonic words in the following passage: — QUESTIONS. '210 •* I'trliaiis in lliis neglected !<|„,t is laid Soiiie lii'iirt onco jirof,Mi:iiiL with celestial tire ; }f:ui(ls Unit (lie rud of omiiire tiii^'ht liavc swiiyai Or waked to ecstasy the living Ijrc." •t.">. IJiiilorliiiu the non-Teutonic words in tliu following passage : — " Si. me murmur when their sky is clear And wholly brij^ht to view, If one (lark spot of cloud ai)|)car In tlieir great heaven of blue." 44. ^Iciition ten words that have come into our language during the last fifty ycais. 45. ITow do Avo find names for such things as new games, new inventions, new jiolitical or social ideas? Clivo instances. 4G. State what you know of the history of every word in the in\ sent question, noting any peculiarities in the form or significance of each. 47. On what grounds is English said to bo a Teutonic language? 48. Why Ls our language called English ? Do you consider the name an appropriate one? . 49. Point out anv classes of English words wliiih are purely Teutonic. CHAPTEll IV. 50. Whence have we received the litters of our alphahet ? Arrange them according to their sound. 51. Exemplify the facts that in English the same letter represents difl'erent sounds, and that difiierent letters represent the same sound. Is there any remedy for such confusion ? 52. Classify the sounds of the English language, and show in what way they are represented by the letters of our alphabet. 220 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 53. How many sounds has the symbol a in English ? Also, in what other ways can the vowel sound heard in hate be expressed ? 54. Show how frequently in English the pronunciation of a word does not correspond with its orthography. How would you account for such discrepancies ? 55. Define and explain the terms letter, vowel, accent, guttural, sibilant. What two different pronunciations has the combination thi How many has the combination oitgh 1 56. Give as good an account as you can of the letter a and its various sounds in Englif^h, with examples. How does it come to have so many various sounds 1 57. What other permi.ssible spellirgs are there current of these words: — inflection, j)vogramme, rhyme, era, medicevall What is to bo said for or against them ] 58. Enumerate and account for the chief anomalies of modern English spelling. 59. Give examples of : — (rt) a single letter standing for a double sound ; (b) a letter standing for two or more different sounds ; (c) two or more letters standing for a single sound ; {d) difleient letters representing the same sound. 60. Enumerate, with examples, the different sounds represented by the letter e. What is the use of a final e mute, in snch words as viine, dive ? 61. Explain, as clearly as possible, the difference between soft (\oiced) and hard (voiceless) consonants. When is the letter r trilk d in Engli.-h 1 62. What letters, formerly in use, have disappeared from our alphabet ? Which of them do you think we ought to have kept 1 63. In what respect is our alphabet unequal to its work ? How would you propose to remedy matters 1 QI'E'^TTOXS. 221 G4. What are tlie requiremonts of a perfect alphal)et? Briefly criticize our own from this point of view. G5. Wliat do you understand by tho term ohscure vowel ? G6. WJiat is meant hy a letter? Give some account of tho letter c and its uses. What various sounds are repre- sented in English by the letter u 1 67. What is meant by tho oi'gans of speech 1 How would you define a voweH How many more vowel sounds are there in English than vowel symbols ? GS. Comment on tho spelling of the following words: — frontispiece, cranfish, fancy, phantom, handlv.'orh, livelihood, posthumous, victuals. 69. Comment on the spelling of the following words : — debt, island, isle, eyry, honour, scent, scytlie, esquire. 70. Comment on the spelling of the following words : — landscape, thunder, hawk, newt, apron, gospel, tyrant, Nmfolk. 71. Which letters do yoii consider redundant in our alphabet ? In what other ways can we represent the sounds of ch,j, c, and x1 CHAPTER V. 72. Give some account of what is known as Grimm's Law. 73. State Grimm's Law, and give some illustrations of it. 7t. Give the cognate in Classical language of a Teutonic initial aspirate, and explnin how it is that there is here an apparent exception to Giimni's Law. 75. Why is Grimm's Law so callid? State biiefly on what facts the law is based. 76. Give a mnemonic for Grimm's Law. Point out any weak points in the ordinary statement of Grimm's Jjiw. 77. Give the Classical cognates of the following words, and show how you arrive at them : — brot/ier, daughter, fell (skin), beech, dooi', ten. 222 THE ENGLISH LANGUAOE. 78. Give the Classical cognates of the following words, and show how you arrive at them : — guest, nail, slip, wit, tame, fare. 79. Give the Classical cognates of the following words, and show how you arrive at them : — fee, heal, hound, child, knoio, three. 80. How do you account for the t in German Vaterl What should it be according to Giimm's Law ? 81. Point out the difference in time between the first and second sound-shiftings. 82. Distinguish between cognate and derived words. Fully explain, with examples, the term cognate. 83. In which series of consonantal sounds is Grimm's Law most consistently carried oat? Can it bo said to be carried out at all in the other series ? CHAPTER VL 84. Define a root, an English root. What are hybrids ? Mention any hybrids that are generally recognized as good English. 85. How is it that hyhrids are so frequently met with in English? Illustrate your answer by examples. 8G. Distinguish between cognate and derived, as applied to words. Mention some words cognate with hea,r (verb), and some derived from it. 87. What do you understand by the term Umlaut 1 How is it caused ? Give examples. 88. How would you attempt to find the root of an ordinary English word, e.g., comjirehension ? Give a few illustrativ'e examples. 89. Distinguish between root and stem in English. Are they ever identical ? 90. Explain the terms snffi.r, prefix, affix. Illustrate their use in word-formation. QUESTIONS, 223 91. What do you luulorstand by Afilaul (_^nulation)? Where do we find the best examples of it ? 92. State briefly, with exaiu[)les, how from a few roots many words are built up. Give the roots of the folhnviiig words : — slatioiiary, reduction, illaviiuatio)i. CITAPTKR VTI. 93. Explain what is meant by: — metal/icftif}, aphire-^is, syncope, prostJicsis. 94. Explain the terms : — injlexion, assimilatiuu, eli/nwlor/i/, jy/ioneiics, accidence. 95. Account for the facts that : — (1) The s in roads and robes is sounded as z ; (2) The d in hoped and missed is sounded as t] (3) The ]} ill Campbell and cupboard is not sounded at all. 90. Point out the changes or additions that have taken place in the letters in the following words : — gossip, number, esquire, master, and cite other words in illustration. 97. Point out the letter changes or additions of letters that have taken place in the following words: — amidst, Jdndrcd, bathe.^ hiives, thimble, sugar, ichence, loud. 98. Comment on the form of the words rain, fowl, sail, adder, apron, umpire, nickname, neivt. CHAPTER VTII. 99. How and when did we acquire the Romance words which are to be found in our language f 100. Give half-a-dozen examples of French words and phrases that haVc come into our language during recent years. Do you consider thcii- adoption an advantage or a disadvantage ? 224 THE ENGLISH LANOUACR. 101. "There are two dLstinct classes of Eomance words in our language: (1) those of learned formation; (2) those of popular origin." Explain briefly the meaning of this. 102. Why is it that the surviving forms of Romance words are usually shorter than the original Latin ones? Give a few illustrative examples. 10.3. Mention some ten Latin words that appear in English in two forms, one derived directly, the other in- directly. Give both En<^lish forms as well as the Latin one. What are such pairs of words called ] Trace the following E,omance words to their original forms, and account for the changes that have taken place : — 104. Sure, frail, poison, trouble, story, impatient, count, alloy}. 105. Ostler, diamond, strange, estate, establish, howl, chamber, envy. 106. Season, treason, ransom, maugre, essay, chattel, spouse. 107. State, with illustrations, anything you know about the effects of accent in English. 108. " In the passage of words from Latin to English (usually through French) the accented syllable survives, the following unaccented ones disappear or are reduced to e mute." Illustrate this by means of examples. CHAPTER IX. 109. How are words groiiped with reference to their grammatical usage? In which group or groups do you place than, but, divine, single, that, lohtle ? 110. Define the several parts of speech. 111. Give the arguments for and against the recognition of the English article as a distinct part of speech. Define a part of speech. QUESTIONS. 225 llU. Doliiie tlio U'lin ijrainmar. What is lueaut \>y calling a mode of expression uvtjraminaliculX 113. Define inflexion, and account for its partial dis:ij.pear- ance fiom our language. 114. What parts of spee.h in English have to .some extent retained their inflexions? Endeavour to expl.iin your facts. 115. Define the terms accidence, si/iUax, suhjecl, predicate^ sentence. Why is a sentence spoken of as the nnit uj speech ? 116. How are sentences classed? lllu.strate your answer by examples. 117. Define the terms transitive and inlra)mtive as applied to verbs. Derive these terjns. CIIAPTEil X. 118. Define the term nomi. Tnio what elas.ses are nouns divided ? Give definitions and ill u.strat ions in each ca.se. 119. What English nouns have no change of form, either in the singular or in the plural number 1 Account for this. 120. Describe, giving examples, the various ways of dis- tinguishing the plural number of English nouns l)y sufli.v. 121. Show that the addition of the plural sign s al- together alters the meaning of many English words. 122. Write down the plural of gallows, topaz, solo, echo, Mary. Mention some ^\•ord in whose plural form theie is variety of usage, and some that have been wrongly taken for pluraLs, though really singular. 123. How would you describe the number of the following words : — alms, banns, hermiries, optics, puidtry, jmde, salmon, scissors, sheep, sixj^ences, thanks, loheat 1 124. Give a list of double plurals of English nouns, iu K. L. li 226 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. which one form has the collective idea and the other the distributive idea. 125. Describe carefully the different ways of forming the plural of nouns in English, stating what you know of the history of each. 126. Are the following words strictly of the singular or the plural number : — eaves, tidings, alms, news, riches, means 1 Are there any words that have only a singular form, and any that have only a plural form ? 127. Discuss the plural form children. Write down six nouns that have no special form to express plurality. Is it correct to speak of " a two-foot rule " ? 128. Mention any English nouns which form their plurals by processes generally obsolete. Which of the following are genuine plurals, and how do you account for the forms which are not such : — alms, summons, hanns, costs, sessions, weeds, dice 1 129. Discuss each of these plural forms : — leaves, oxen, kine, men, hretltren ; also the forms news, p«z7is, riclies, eaves. 130. Explain how it is that s has become practically the only suffix used to form the plural of nouns. Do you think that any foreign influence is traceable here? 131. Explain clearly why roof and brief take simply s in the plural, while calf and fe^/" change the j/" into ves. 132. What is the rule for the formation of the plural of nouns ending in 3/ ? Give the plural forms of ladi/, chimneij, Nancy, soliloquy. 133. Give examples of m,utation ]3lurals and plurals in en that are still in use. Mention any plurals in ewthat occur in the Authorised Version of the Bible, but are now obsolete. 134. Write brief notes on the following plural forms: — kine, brethren, children, loomen. 135. Give ten examples of foreign words which retain their original plural forms. i QUESTIONS. 227 130. l)i.stilll,Mli^ll bctweoii the two pluials (>f i/nlcj; foi'niida,J\in(jus, cherub, t/eiiius. 137. Which of tho following do you ci^nsider to bo gemiine plurals : — amends, riches, cdins, means, banns, eaves, politics, summonsl 138. Give rules for forming the plurals of compound nouns. Give tl.e plurals of tho following words, with com- ments where you think fit : — spoonful, Lcn'd Chancelloi', farewell, heir-aj^parent, mother-in-law, turnkey. 139. Give the plurals of the following compound nouns, adding any comment you think fit : — Good Templar, looker- on, Lord- Lieutenant, Coi)i7)iander-in-Clbief, Judje Advocate General, court-martial, ]Vill-o-the-ioisp, lady's-maid. Give the plurals of the following nouns, adding such com- ment as you think necessary : — 140. Euclid, pain, ember, h'eech, rhinoceros, monsieur, .Ur., toage, Miss Brown, copper, compass, draught, beef, cluip, scale, light, shot, ground. 141. lioohsellcr, good, spectacle, ivater, liippopolumus, crisis, radius, seraph, vortex, lee. 112. Die, hose, cow, stratum, flag-lieuteiutnt, iron, altoiviey- general, arvi, beau, focus. 143. What is meant by tho case of a noun? How did the word come to be used in such a sense 1 144. Trace, with illustrations, the decline of inflexion in English, 145. Explain clearly the method of forming the pos.scs.sive case in English. 146. Discuss these phrases: — next Lady-day, for con- science' sake, a friend of mine, the Emperor of Germany s accession, the Queen's rebels, for John his sake. 147. Form the possssive case of the following : —6o//s, princess, princeases, Wednesday, St. James, Mr. Junes, fcct^ child. 228 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 148. In what various ways can difference of sex be denoted liy English nouns? Exphiin the forms loidower, mistress, gandei', bridegroom. 149. Make a list of the different ways of expressing gender in English nouns, adding a few notes on the history of each. 150. Explain the following words : — woman, lady, vixen, semj^stress, widower, drake. 151. What is meant hy gender in grammar? Enumerate the vaiious ways of indicating gender in English. Comment on the forms : — songster, tajjster, he-goat, 2^u7ister, songstress. 152. Comment on the following forms : — marchioness, miss, heroine, landgravine, abbess, goddess, nurse, testatrix, infanta, sow. 153. Give the feminine forms of the following: — he?'o, bachelor, earl, monk, nepheio, lord, lad, bull, stag, miller. Add any comments you think fit. 154. Give ten instances in which distinction of sex is denoted l)y words of quite separate origin, and explain in some, at least, of them why it is so. 155. What do you understand by the expressions:— neuter gender, common gender 1 To what extent may gender be said to exist in Englisli grammar? 15G. Enumerate the chief ways of forming compound nouns in EnglLsh. Give ten examples. 157. Comment briefly on tlie following compound nouns : — he-goat, passer-by, spendthrift, loitchcraft, handicraft, haiidiirork, inanldnd, houseioife, j>otsIierd, nickname. 158. Comment briefly on the formation of the following words : - Gaelic, ban-dog, bridal, gospiel, nostril, orchard, ham, harbour. 153. Comment briefly on the formation of the following words: — steward, lady, huzzy, brimstone, stirrup, lammas, tad])ole, neighbour. IGO. Comment briefly on the formation of the following QUESTIONS. 229 words: — lord, forlnhjld, s]i(niicj'aced, luindkerchicf, contitahle, niyhtinrjale, husband, ivalnut. 161. Comment briefly on the formation of the follouinfj words : — good-bye, mandrake, pickaxe, vjomnvood, j/v<,swu7, frontisjnece, landscape, twilight. 1G2. Cive a list of the chief suffixes used to form abstract nouns in English. 163. What is the original meaning of the suilixes : -dom, -hood, -shipl Comment on the forms Godhead, livelihoiid. 164. What do you know of the suffixes in tlio following words: — barley, ivedlock, hemlock, hillock, hatred, bishajn-icl 165. Give a list of the chief agent suffixes to be found in English nouns. Oommiiit on the forms : — maltster, spinJiter, rhymester, widoicer, sailor. 166. Give a list of the chief diiuiiuitive suilixes in English, with examples. 1G7. What is the force of llic sutiix in each of the following noinis : — Browning, riding, width, gentleness, gentility, gosling, loelkin, chickeal 168. What is the force of the suilix in each of the following nouns : — heailien, darling, tailor, chemist, singer, livelihood, husband, orchards 1G9. What is the force of the sutiix in ench of (he following nomis : — steward, butler, deemster, knowledge, maidenhood, firkin, faith, paddock ? 170. What is the force of the suilix in each of the idllowing nouns : — fish)}>ov{/er,skij)jtrr, kindred, drake, damsel, fashion, venison, cabinetl 171. What is the force of the siillix in each of the following noinis : — sentiment^ ticket, voyage., passenger, danger, closure, civility, stevedore ? 172. What is the foi(o of the suflix in e.ach of the following nouns: — catei-hism, Jacobite, agony, eiulurance, mathematics, vtagislrate, circus, donkey i 230 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER XI. 173. How would you define a pronoun? And how classify the words so called ? 174. Decline the three personal pronouns, and comment on their history. 175. Discuss the etymology and usage of mc, thee, my and viine, our and ours, their and theirs, who and what, why and which. 176. Name the adjectival pronouns, discus.sing the etymology and usage of each. 177. Notice any difleienees in usage between the relatives that, who, which. 178. What do you understand by a pronoun? What by a reflexive pronoun ? Point out the inconsistency of saying / myself, and yet he himself. 179. Decline the fir.st and second personal prononns, and discuss the variations in usage of them at different times. 180. Discuss the etymology and usage of the masculine possessive his; and the neuter possessive its. 181. Write a short history of the second personal pronoun. 1 82. Trace, as fully as you can, the history of the inflexions of the third personal pronoun, singular and plural. _ 183. Discuss the origin of the relative pronoims, and distinguish their n.se in modern English. What equivalents are there in English for the relative pronoun? Give illustrative senteneas. 184. Why is it that we have oidy one form hivi, her, whom, for accusative and dative? 185. Discuss briefly, with regard to origin, the forms sAe, its. What is meant by a reflexive pronoun ? Ql'KSTKlNS. J,;! 18G. Give n list of (ho iiuli'liiiiti; [H'onouiis. Wli.-it i'h h relative pronoun 1 187. C()iiinioi\t on tho dilVrrout usiifjcs of tlio word l/ml. What do \ou iiiidt'r.vtaiiil by tho toi-in jiouscssirn jn'ouonn ? CH AFTER Xir. 188. Defiiio .111 adjective. What kinds of adjectives admit of comparison ? 189. Give examples of adjectives used as nouns. Derive the term adjei tivo. 190. Kxplain, with examples, the difler. nt methods of comparing adjeetives. 191. Comment, on the tullowing forms :_////•/// cr, furtlirr, rather, nearer, later, latter. 192. What are our commonest adj( etival sullixos ] What adjectives have we corresponding to the nouns, parish, cat, Juyrse, alms, church, bishop 1 193. Discuss the adjectives ^)e?yec^, ^oWcti, Z?mar, French. Do tliey admit of compaiison 1 19-1:. Explain tlie words : fourteen, tircnti/, /I'iiling (as in Nartlb Riihnij), Jortmjht, J'artlunrj, do'^en, htnnlred, score, million, eleven. 195. Discuss the forms aught, naught, none, for the nonce, willy nilhj, each, sumlnj. 19G. Compare dry, complete, old, unhappy, near, late, far. What kinds of adjectives do not admit of compaiison ? 197. Tn wliat various ways lias the roniparativc of adjec- tives been at any time foruu d in Engli.-ii ? Explain tho forms elder, inferim', icorse, lesser. State wiiieh, if any, of them are comparatives according to present n.sage. 198. Wliieh of onr numerals are non-Teutonic? Com- Oient on the forms: drain, elcrcn, hundred, tirenty. 232 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 199. Mention some of the chief Teutonic suflBxes used in forming adjectives. Comment on the forms : — righteous^ either, heartless, godly. 200. Comment on the adjectival forms : — beloved, loving, hidden, backward, forward, froward, other, rather, brazen. 201. Comment on the adjectival forms : — dusty, second, third, childish, sensible, respectable, crystalline, social. 202. Comment on the adjectival forms : — prudent, senile, tremendous, captive, yellow, stupid, dissolute, jncturesque, choleric. 203. Point out the relics of any other method of forming the sviperlative than the addition of -est. 204. Give examples of double comparative and double superlative forms, and of forms combining both signs. 205. Comment on the forms : — inmost, uttermost, former, foremost, first, upp)ermost, furtJiermost. CHAPTER XIII. 20G. Define a verb. How far ai^e we justified in regard- ing the verb as the most important of the parts of speech ? 207. Distinguish between strong and weak verbs. On what principle are .strong verl;)s classified 1 208. Show that think, teach, loill, do not belong to the strong conjugation, in spite of their change of vowel, and state exactly what are the marks of tho strong conjugation. 209. Define infinitive, strong iierh, umik verb, present par- ticij)le, verbal noun, auxiliary verb. 210. Define, giving examples, tra^isitive verb, intransitive verb, impersonal verb, verb of incomplete predicatio7i. 211. To which conjugation do these verbs belong : — bring, fight, read, hang, beseech, go 1 212. Show that the weak is our living conjugation. Why is it called weak ? What other names for it are suggested 1 QUESTIONS. 233 213. What ilu you in an by conjugation? Explain briefly the use of each of the clifTorent uiootls in English. 214. Give instances of voi*bsthat can be used both transi tively and intransitively ; also of some thut can bo used lx)th as comjilete predicates and as incomplete ; also of some that can be used both as auxiUaries and as ordinary verbs. 215. Mention some strong verbs in ^vhich the n of the past participle has di-opped off; some in which the preterite has come to be used as the past participle ; and .some ^vhich have two forms of the preterite. 216. Show from still familiar forms that vielt, mow, slucve, sivell, were once of the strong conjugation : and \vrito down the past participles of shoe, light, wwk, knit, speed. 217. Explain fully how the loss of inflexions is supplied in English verbs. 218. Explain the correct usage of sludl and will. 219. What part of .speech is the infinitive? Distinguish between the simple inlinitive and tlio dative infinitive. 220. Show how tlie present conjugation of s/«'t/^ and will illustrates their origin, and mention any phra.ses or deriva- tives in A\hich the primary meaning of either appaai-s to survive. 221 To which conjugation do the following verbs be- long :—Ji(jht, teach, hide, do,Jlow,Jlee,Jli/, tell, toWi 222. How are weak verbs classified ? 223. Distinguish between the infinitive and the gerund in modern English : and discu.ss the forms in -iinj in the following sentence : — "John and two Jishiinj friends started off early this morning, with tin ir /i.shiiKj i-ods, to thi; river ; hut fishintj was bad to-day, so they have come back empty- handed." 224. (a) The hanging pictures, (h) The hanging of the pictures. Explain the ditrerence between the two words in italics. What is the originul form of the sullix -ing in each case? 234 THE ENCLTsn language. 225. Discuss the following verbal forms in italics : — (a) ITow do you do ? (h) I do you to vnt. (c) Woo loorlh the day. (d) He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 226. Mention some strong verbs that have become weak. Have any originally weak verbs taken strong forms ? 227. Account for the following forms : — told, soucjht, caught, coidd, must, vnt, are, went, ought, bright. 228. What do you understand by the expression strong - vieak verb ? Discuss the forms, must, could, should, durst. 229. Explain the difference in usnge between melted and molten, shaved and shorn, engraved and graven, mowed and nunnU'. 230. How do you acct>nnt for the marked differences in the forms of tl.e verb to bel 231. What traces of I'odnplicatlon are there in the language? Account for the I in coidd. 232. Jye^xwc tense. Give examples of the following tenses : — present coniiwaous, j)ast perfect, imperfect, future perfect. 233. Explain and account for the difference in accent between present (noun), present (verb), compound (adj.), compound {yevh), frequent [tid].), freq^ient (verb). 234. Cite six derived words with English,, six with Latin, .'^ix with Gnek, and six with Fi-ench suffixes. 235. Give a list of the chief Teutonic verbal suffixes, and explnin the force of each. 236. Explain the foi^ce of the suffix in each of the following vei-bs : — edify, gladden, glimmer, busk, claftp, moralize, pmiish, tremble. 237. Explain the force of the pi-efix in each of the following :—yo?'6iVZ, ti.ndo, besmear, abstract, contradict, with- draw, jn'ocecd, analyze. 238. Explain the force of the prefix in each of the following : — mistake, arise, loanton, disgust, survive, translate.^ empliasize, monopolize, neglect. QUESTIONS, 235 239. Give tho verbs corrosponilinf:^ to the following nouns and adjectives : — tohite, material, (/old, clieap, mule, st/slcni, Jeiv'i/, deemster. 240. Cive the voib.«! corros]>onding to tho following' iinnna and adjectives: — liquid, bridf/e, lujlitniiuj, glorij, dd'dij, station, sodden, shot, fwloni. 241. Give tho transitive forms of the following verbs: — sit, fall, drink, fare, siooop, lie. 242. Give a list of the chief Teutonic verbal prefixes. 243. Explain the force of the prefix in oach of these verbs: — besmear, be/iead, bethink, foresee, gainsay, withstand. 244. Explain the force of tlie prefix in each of tliese verbs : — mistake, to-brake, unbitul, forget, frrbcar, vmnton, arise. 245. Comment on tho forms: — don, sparkle, bespatter, grasp, bless, dout. 240. Give exam2)los of d(Toc(i\e verbs. Write down the second i^orson singular preterite of am. What alternative foi-ni is found ? 247. Show that there is no future tense in the Engli.sh language; and indica'co how we express tlie ideas of .simple futurity, of intention and of compidsion. 248. Wh.at is the force of the prefix in each of the following verbs: — abstain, indent, dilfuse, conntermand, circnmve/iit, omit, suggest 1 249. What is the force of tlio j^ofix in each of tho following verbs : — sinnmnint, ivtcrrnjd, neglect, pardon, select, assent, forfeit, trespass ? 236 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER XIV. 250. What is an adverb ? lu what ways are adverbs formed ? 251. From what other parts of speech are adverbs formed and what is their function 1 Can you cast any light on the forms darkling, whilom, piecemeal, aftei-wards 1 252. Classify adverbs according to their meaning. 253. What are the adverbs answering to the adjectives shy, far, fust, kindly, lowly ? Explain the forms betimes, ivhilom, ereiohile, ashore. 254. Give a concise account of the formation of adverbs. 255. Give a list of adverbs that are derived from pro- nouns, with comments on theii- forms. 256. Discuss the forms : — about, betwixt, nntil, duriyig, ex- cept, amongst, save, beside, aboard, abaft, till, notunlJtstandhig. 257. Give examples of adverbs formed fi*om the oblique cases of nouns. 258. Classify the adverbial forms based on the pronouns he, thee, who. 259. Discuss the terminations of the forms : — always, twice, seldom, why, then, here, hither, 260. Comment on the forms : — grovelling, sidling, no-wise, not, lo-moiTow, ajar, aught. 261. What do you understand by an adverbial conjunc- tion? What other term is there for it? Give a list of adverbial conjunctions. 262. To what extent are adverbs inflected? Give examples of adjectives or other parts of speech being used as adverbs. QUESTIONS. 237 CllArTKll XV. 2G3. Pefino a preposition. How are prepositions usually classilii d 1 2G4. Why are pre})()sitions so Ciilkd ? Discuss tlic use of past in " lie wnnt past the house"; of of in " Tlio Islaml of Great Britain " ; of bi/ in " Do your duty b>/ the University." 265. Give the origin and meaning of: — save, but, between, notwitJistaiuling , during, 266. Give examples of the diflerent senses in which by, to, with, ai-e used. 267. How are prepositions formed ? Give examples of prepositions formed fiom nouns, adverbs, other prcpo.sitions. 268. What are verl)al prepositions 1 Give a list of them explaining fully their history and usage. 269. Comment on the forms : — till, off, near, over, aboard, beside, during, notwit/mtanding, save. CHAPTERS XVI. ) " Oh ! I am the cook and the captain bold, And the mate of the Nancy brig." (c) " He h.id lost his wile while he w;is Governor of Jamaica." (cZ) " You may do what you have done a century ago." 280. Quote six examples of incorrect English you have noticed in conversatioii, and point out the oiror in each case. 281. Parse jjlease in "Please write dearly"; thank in " Tliank you " ; like in " If you like " ; bad in " Erom Ijad to worse " ; you in " Get you gone." 282. Correct or justify : — (ft) " I don't like those sort of peoi)lo." (b) " Jle aggravated me." (c) "Was it' him r' 283. Give a list of verbs after which the infinitive should b»i used. 240 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER XIX. Analyse the following, and parse the words in italics : — 284. " Good unexpected, evil unforesceu, Appear by turns, as fortune shifts the scene : Some, praised aloft, come Uimhling down amain, Then fall so hard, they bound and rise again." 285. 286. " To a huntsman His toil is Ms delight, and to complain Of weariness would show as poorly in him As if a general should grieve for a wound Received upon his forehead, or his Irrast, After a glorious victory." "The aged man, that coffers up his gold. Is plagued with crami)s, and gouts, and painful fits, And .scarce hath eyes his treasure to behold ; But still like jnning Tantalus he sits. And useless bans tiie harvest, of his wits, Having no other pleasure of his gain But torment, tliat it cannot cure his pain." 287. "Sloth makes all things difficult, but industry all easy; and he that riseth late must trot all day, and shall scarce overtake his I business at night ; while laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon I overtakes him." 288. ' " Circles are prais'd, not that abound I In largeness, hut tK exactly round : \ So life we praise that docs excel -i Not in much time, but acting well." I 289. QUESTIONS. 241 W/icre luve roi;_Mis, disturbing joalou-sy Until c;ill /uw,\v7/alliictioii'3 scutinel, O'ive false alarms ; sui,'ycstoth mutiny, And, in a peaceful hour, doth cry kill, kill." 290. " The bride kissed the goblet. The knight took it vp, He quaffed uU the wine, and he threw down the cup. yhe hxjked down to Jiliiah, and she looked up to sigh, With a smile on her lii>, and a tear in her eye. lie took her soft hand ere her mother could bar ; ' Now tread we a measure ! ' said young Lochinva:." 291. " Though a soldier, in time of peace, is like a chimney in summer, yet what wise man would pluck down his chimney btOiUoC iiis almanack tells him 'tis the middle of June I " 292. 293. * Thcrifore at Pentecost, which l)ring8 The spring, clothed like a bride, When III atling buds unfold their wii g.4, And bishop's-caps have goklen rings, Musing upon many things, 1 sou (//it the woodlands wide." "Pleasant it was, when woods were green, And winds were soft and low, To lie amid some sylvan scene. Where, the long drooi)iug boughs between, Shadows dark and sunlight sheen Alternate come and go." 294. " There is not a man in the world, but desires to be, or to be thought to be, a wise man ; and yet if he considered how little he contributes himself thereunto, he might wonder to find himself in any tolerable degree of undemtanding," " Up with it high ; unfurl it wide ; that all the host may know How God hath humbled the proud house which nrought His Church such woe." E. L. 1' 242 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 29G. " JTavinfi heard that the cadi of one of his twelve tribes adminis- tered iustice in an admirable manner, and pronounced decisions in a style worlhy of King Solomon himself, Bou-Akas determined to judge for hims'elf as to the truth of the report." 297. 298. 299 300. 301. 302. «' Oh, it was a i\.m& forlorn. When the fatherless was born I Give her wings that she may fly Or she sees her infant die ! " •' Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, ivhosc mortal taste Brought death into the world, and all our woe With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, Sing, heavefily muse/". " Thammuz came next behind. Whose annual wound in Lebanon allured The Syrian damsels to lament his fate, In am'rous ditties all a snmmer''s day ; While smooth Adonis from his native rock Man purple to the sea, supposed with blood Of Thammuz yearly loownded." •* So let it rest : and time loill come When here the tender-hearted May heave a gentle sigh for him. As one of the departed." " Beside yon straggling fence that skirts the way, With blossomed furze unprofitably gay, There, in his noisy mansion, slilled to rule. The village master taught his little school." " The way of fortune is like the milky way in the sky ; which is a meeting or knot of a number of small stars, not seen asunder, but giving light together ; so are there a number of little and scarce discerned virtues, or rather faculties and customs, that make men fortunate." i QUESTIONS. 24^ 303. " In that same hour and hall, the finj^crs of a hand Came forth afj;ainst the wall, and wrote as if on sand : The finj,'crs of a man ; — a solitary hand AloJUj the letters ran, and traced them like a wand," 304. 305. 30G. 307. 308. 309. " Three poets in three distant ages horn, Greece, Italy, and England did adorn. The first in loftiness of thouj^'ht surpassed, The next in ninjesty ; in hotk the laxt. The force of nature could no further go ; To make a third sJie joined the other two." " To-morrow, ere fresh morning streak the east With first approach of light, we must be risen, And at our pleasant labour, to reform Yon flowery arbours." '* 77/«.9 Satan, talking to his nearest mate, AVith head vj)lift above the wave, antl eyes That sjHirklinf/ blazed ; his other parts beside Prone on the Hood, rxti ndcd long and large, Lay floating many a rood." " Then when he saw it eoi/ld hold no more, Bishop Hatto he made fast the door ; And while for mercy on Christ they call, He set fire to the barn and burned them all. " Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled, And still where many a garden flower grows iv^ild ; There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose. The village preacher's modest inansion rose," " You saw the greatest warrior of the age — conqueror of Italy, humbler of Germany, teiTor of the North, — you saw him account all his matchless victories poor compared with the triumph which jou are now in a condition to win I " 244 THE KNGLISH LANGUAGE. 310. " From every clime theij come To see thy leauty, and to share thy joy, O Sion 1 an assembly such as earth Saw 7iever, such as heaven stoops down to sec." 311. Ho I Philip, send, for charity, thy Mexican pistoles, 'J'hat Antwerp monks may sing a mass for thy 2)0 or spearmen's souls." 312 " Love had he found in huts where poor men lie / Ilis daily teachers had been woods and rills. The silence that is in the starry sky, The sleep that is among the lonely hills." 313. " For swift to cast and swift to locst the ghastly war-Jlame spread ; High on St. Michael's Mount it shone ; it shone on Beachy Head. Far on the deep the Spaniard saw, along each southern shire, Cape beyond cajic, in endless range, those twinhling i)oints of fire.'' 314. " The castled crag of Drachenfels Frowns o'er the wide and winding Rhine, Whose breast of waters broadly swells Between the banks that bear the vine ; And hills all rich with blossomed trees. And fields which promise corn and wine And scattered cities crowning these. Whose far white walls along them shine, Have strewed a scene which I should see With douVjle joy ivert thou with me." 315. " If the government of any other country contains an insurrection- ary principle, as France did when she offered to aid the insurrection of her neighbours, your interference is warranted ; if the government of another country contains the principle of universal empire, aa France did, and provmlgated, your interference is justifiable." QUESTIONS. 245 316. "With thy clear keen joyance L.inf;iior cannot be : Shadow of annoyance Never came near thoe : TJum lovext ; hut nevr knew hwe'x sad satiety* 317. " He now preparcil To speak ; whereat their douhled ranks they bend From winp; to win?, and half enclose him round Witli all his peers: attention held them mnte. Thrice he essayed, and thrice, in spite of scorn, Tears, svch as angeh tveejj, lurst forth." CHAPTER XX. 318. "Wliat do you understand by : — rhi/rne, rhythm, alliteration, metre, assonance ? Give examples in each case. 319. Which spelling do you prefer, rhyme or rime ? Give reasons for your preference. 320. Give an account of three or four metres that you have met with in Englisli poetry. What do you under stand by hlanh verse ? INDEX Tlie viimhcrs refer to ihe sections of the hoolc. I.— GRAMMATICAL TERMS, ETC. Ablaut, 61. Absolute construction, 227, 2"S. Accent, 2.)9-6L Accent distinguishing between ■words similarly spelt, ISO. Accentuation, 2.')0-3. Accidence, Province of, 89. Active : see Verbs. Additions to words, GS. Adjectives: definition, 139 ; classification (quality, qur.n- tity, etc.), 140 ; inflexion, 141 ; comparison (normal), 142-3 ; irregular, 144-6 ; for- mation, 148-55. Adverbs : definition, 200 ; classi- fication (mmner, place, etc.), 201 ; comparison, 202 ; for- mation, 204-9. Aflix, 53, 60. Albanian. 4. Alexandrine, 263. Alliteration, 271. Alphabet, 28. Analysis, 242-9. Analytic language, 5. Anapaest, 257. Anapaestic Metres, 266. Angles, 1. Anglo-French, 14. Anglo-Saxon : see Old English. Aphaeresis, 67, 81. Apocope, 67, 79. Apposition, 225. Arabic, 27. Armenian, 4. Arsis, 258. Aryan ; see Indo-European. Asiatic Languages, 4. Assimilation, 66, 78. Aspirates, 43. Assonance, 270. Baltic-Slavonic Languages, 4. Blank verse, 264. Breton, 4. Caesura, 256. Case : Formation of possessive, 112-3; O.E. case flexion, 114; ti-accs of case flexion. other than the possessive in modern English, 130, 206. Celtic languages, 4 ; element in English, 12, 25. Checks,'32. Chinese, 27. Clauses : see Sentences. Cognate, IMeaningof thetei-m, 42. Common ]\Ietre, 263. Comparative : i^ee Adjectives. Compounds, Formation of : nouns, 120; adjectives, 148; verbs. 189. 240 IXDKX I. 2r Conrortls, 223-6. Conjiii^ation : see Vc'rl)s. Coiijiiiiclions, 217-0. ConsoTianls, Dcfiiiiliuu (if, 20; clii.ssilicatioii, 30-4. Continunnts, 30. Cymric, 4. Dactyl, 257. Dactylic SIctrcs, 2G7. Declension, 21.'i. Dentals, 33-1. Derivatives, ')S. Dialects of Old Eni^'lish 1. Diphthong, 20, 38. Disiippearancos from words, G7. Douldets, 74. Dutch Element in En',';ish, 22. English, 1. Epenthesis, GS, 83. Epithesis, G8, 84. Erse, 4. Factitive predicate : see Verhs. Feet (metrical), 2.')6. Finite : see Verbs. Flexions, Decay of, in Englisli, ."i ; all native, in English, 17; definition. 88. French, 4. French element in English : see Romance. PVench words, tin ir formation, GO-6 Fricatives, 30. Gaelic, 4. Gender, 11'). 119. Gerund, gerundive : see Yerhs. Gothic, 4. Gradation, Gl. Grammar, Definition of, 8.5. Greek woi'ds in English, 24. Grimm'a law (Chapter V.) : se- lected examples, 52. Gutturals, 33, 3t. Hard consonants, 32. Ilehrew, 27. Hellenic, 4. Heroic verse, 2G4. Hexameter, 2G3. High CJerman element in Eng- lish, 22. Himloo, 4, 2G. Hungarian, 27. Hybrid, 17. Iamb, 257. Iambic metres, 263. Indian group of languages, 4. Indirect object, 228. Indo-European languages. 3 ; Table of, 1. Infinite, infinitive : see Verbs. Tnllexion, 88. Interjections, 220-1. Intransitive : nee V( rbs. Iranian group of languages, 4. Italian, 4, 23. Jutes, 1. I/ibials, 33-34. i^atin element in English: see Romance. Letter, 28. Liquids, 30. Low German group, 2, 4. Manx, 4. l\Ietathcsis, 65, 77. iletre, 255. Middle English, Meaning of the term, 6. IMood, 163. JIutation, 62. Mutes, 32. Nasals, 30. Nominative, 93, 227. Norman influence, 14. Nouns: di'finition, 96 ; common, proper, 97 ; collective, ab- stract, verbal, 98. Plurals, 100-111 ; in -s, 100-2: nouns entling in -v, 101 ; in -f, 101; -en^ -n pliu-ds, 102 : mutation plurals, 103; doub!i' plural forms, 102; imchanged 248 THE ENGLISH LANGT7AGE. plurals, 105 ; nouns with two plurals, 106 ; foreign words in the plural, 106 ; plurals treated as singulars, 107 ; singulars treated as plurals, 108 ; nouns which have no phiral form, 109 ; nouns which liavo no singu- lar form, 110; plural of compounds, 111 ; formation, 120-8. Numerals, 147. ^ Ohjoctive, 93, 228. Old English, IMcaning of the term, G. Onomatopccia, 19. Open consonants, 30. Parsing, 240-1. Parts of speech. Definitions of, 87. Passive : see Verhs. Pentameter, 262-3. Persian, 4, 26. Plural of nouns : see Nouns. Poetry: lyric, 281; ejuc, 282; dramatic, 283 ; didactic, 284 ; pastoral, 285. Portuguese, 4, 23. Positive degree : see Adjectives. Possessivo,"ir2-3, 229. Predicate, 90-1, 227, 230-1. Prefix, Explanation of the term, 53, 60 ; lists, 196-9. Preposititms, 210-6. l*rescntive words, 18. Primitive words, 123, 147, 184. Pronouns, Definition of, 129 ; classification (personal, pos- sessive, reflexive, etc.), 129A ; inflexion, 130-4; double pos- sessive forms, 130; O.E. forms, 131-2, 134; relative, 136, 226. Prosody, 254. Prosthesis, 68, 82. "Retained ohject, 228. Ehyme, 272. Khyme Eoyal, 274. Rhythm, 254. Romance element in English, 14- 19; Latin of the "First" and "Second" periods, 12, 23; French, 14, 15, 23; Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, 23. Romance languages. Origin of, 3 ; Table, 4. Roumanian, 4. Root, Explanation of the term, 53, 54, 56-60. Root, English, 54 ; Teutonic, 60. Sanskrit, 4, 26. Saxons, 1. Scandinavian element in English, 13, 22. Scandinavian languages, Talde 4. Scansion, 279. Sclavonic, 4, 26. Semi-vowels, 34. Sentences : definition, 86 ; classi- fication, 92, 245, 248. Sex, how indicated, 115-S. Shall and Will, 177. Sibilants, 34. Sonants, 30. Soft consonants, 32. Sonnet, 277. Spanish^ 4, 23. Speech, Organs of, 29. Spelling, Inconsistencies of, 40-1 ; etymological, 41. Spenseiian stanza, 275. Spirants, 30, 43-46. Spondee, 257. Stanza, 254, 273-8. Stem, 56. Stops, 32. Strong declension, 113. Strong verbs, 168-9. Subject, 90-1. Subjunctive, Use of , 232-5. Snifixes, Explanation of the term, 50, 56, 00 ; of nouns, 121-8; of adjectives, 150-4. INDEX T. 249 Superlative degree : .lee Adjee- lives. Symbolic words, 18. Syncope, 67, 80. Syntax, Province of, 89. Synthetic Inngunge, 5. Tense, 161. Teutonic element in English, 17-19, 22. Teutonic Innnuagos, Description of, 2; ta'hle.'-t. ITicsi.s, 2r)8. Transitive : sec Verbs. Trocliaic Metres, 265. Trochee, 2r)7. Turkish, 27. Umlaut, 62. Unvoicing, 70. Verbs: definition, ir)6; finite, infinite, ir)6; transitive, in- transitive, 157 ; active, pas- sive, l.>7 ; auxiliary, neuter reflexive, imper.sonal, 157 incomplete predication, 231 factitive prcilicato, 230 number, person, 159, 160 ; tense, mood, 161-6 ; gerund- ial infinitive, 160, 237 ; verb-noun (or gerund), 166, 239 ; verb-adjective (parti- ciples), 106, 238; definition of "weak" and '"stHmg" conjugation, 168 ; list of strong verbs, 169 ; strong verbs -which ha\e become weak, 171 ; weak verl)3 become strong, 172 ; irregu- larities in the weak verbs, 17-1-5; strong-weak verbs and other minor conjuga- tions, 176-80; conjugation in full, 181-3. Formation of verbs, IS 1-99, Verncr's law, 45-7. Vocative, 227. Voiced and Voiceless, 32. Voicing, 69. Vowel, (3bscuro, 37. Vowels, Difinilion of, 29 ; chief varieties, 36, 37. Weak conjugation, 168. W(':ik declension, 113. II.— SELECTED WORDS AND AFFIXES. A, H7. a-, 197-9, 214, ab-, abs-, 198. Abbess, 116. Able, 152. -able, 152. About, 214. -ace, 127. -acle, 127. Acre, 51. -ad, 127. ad-, 198. Adamant, 81. -ade, 127. Ado, 197. Advance, 198. After, 213. Against,68, 200,214, -age, 127. Aggressive, 78. Agree, 79. -ain, 127, 152. al-, 27. -al, 152. Ahis, 221. Alderman, 121. Allow, 80. Alone, 67. Along, 214. Alms, 24, 108. Am, 17G. ambi-, 199. amphi-, 199. An, 147. an-, a-, 199. ana-, 199. -ance, 127. Ancient, 127. And, 219. -and, 127. Anent, 214. Angel, 24. Answer, 197. -ant, 152. ante-, 193. Anthem, 24. anti-, 198-9. Antic, 74. Anticipate, 198. Antique, 74. arch-, 199. -ard, 127. Are, 176. Art, 17G. -ary, 127, 152. Assimilate, 78. -ate, 127, 151, 194. Aught, 208. Aunt, 19. fluto-, 199. Awake, 197. Aware, 197. BailifP, 152. Balloon, 127. Balm, 73. Balsam, 78. Barbarous, 19. Barley, 122. Barn, 122. Baxter, 117. Be, 176. be-, 197, 214. Bear (vb), 44, 51. Bedlam, 26. Beef, 19. 2J0 Best, 146. Better, 146. bi-, bis-, 198. Birth, 126. Bishop, 24. Blame, 74. Blaspheme, 74. -bio, 152. Bleed, 187. Bless, 190. Bodkin, 126. Bosh, 221. Bough, 51. Bounty, 73. Bow (vb), 51. Bramble, 68, 126. Brand, 65, 126. Breadth, 120. Brethren, 103, 106. Bridal, 12G. -bridge, 22. Brilliant, 26. Brother, 47,51. Brought, 175. Bullock, 126. Bundle, 126. Burial, 126. Bus, 67. But, 214. Buxom, 150. -by, 22. Cadence, 74. Caitiff, 78. Camera, 74. Can, 177. Cannon, 127. Canon, 24, 127. -caster, 23. catu-, 199. Caught, 175. -ccstor, 23. Chaffer, 121. Chamber, 74, 83. Chance, 74. Charm, 127. Chancellor, 127. Chandler, 19. C liajiler, 127. Cliaritv, 127. Chattels. 78. CheiTV, lOG. -Chester, 23. Ciiiclcen, 126. Children, 102. Cliurch, 24. circiim-, 198. Civic, 128. Clad, 174. Claret, 127. Clasp, 65. Clerk, 24. Culd, 51. Collect, 78, 198. -coin, 23. com-, 198. Comh, 51, Compute, 74, 78. Conduit, 78. Connect, 198. Constable, 122. contra-, 198. Copper, 23. Com, 50, 51. CoiTupt, 198. Costemionger, 121. Could, 41. Count, 74. counter-, 198. Cousin, 19. Coward, 127. Cowl, 23. Coy, 74. -craft, 121. Crayfish, 122. Creed, 23. Cripple, 126. IXDEX ir. 25] Crus.ade, 127. Each, 148. Cunning, 177. Earth, 12G. Cznr, 26, 118. Eat, 51. Eaves, 108. -dale, 22. Egotist, 128. Damask, 26. Eight, 147. Dam.son, 26. Either, 148. Damsel, 127. ek-, 199. Dare, 178. Eke, 51. Darling, 126. -el, 126. Daughter, 51. Elder, 145. de-, 198. Eleyen, 117. Deacon, 24. em-, 198-9. Dean, 127. Ember-days, 122 Debit, 74. Empress, 118. Debt, 41, 74. Empty, 68. Deed, 126. -on, 102, 117, 150. 1 Deem, 187. -en (vb. suffi.x), 190 Deer, 104. en-, 198-9. Degrade, 79. -ence, 127. Degree, 79. -end, 127. Delay, 74. Enemy, 127. demi-, 198. Enough, 197. Devil. -24. enter-, 198. di-, 198-9. -ent, 152. dia-, 199. Envious, 152. Diamond, 80. epi-, 199. Dilate, 74. -er, -est (comparative dis-, di-, 198. suffixes), 142-3. Do, 51, 180. -er, 117, 126-7, 151. Doff, 189. -er (vb. suffix;, 154. -dom, 124. -cm, 150. Door, 51. -es, 100. Doubt, 41. -esque, 153. Dough, 51. -ess, 116, 127. Dozen, 147. Essay, 78, 198. Draft, 126. Estate, 82. Drake, 23. V22. Etheling, 126. Drench, 1S8. Every, 148. Dropsy, 24. ex-, e-, 198-9. Drought, 126. Examine, 78. Duchess, 116. extra-, 198. Duchy, 127. [ ey-ne, 102. Duo, 79. 1 Eyry,41. During, 215. Dutcli, 2. Faction, 74. dys-, 109. larther, 145. Ea.shion, 74. -0, 6. 1 -fast, 149. 252 THE EXGLISH LANGUAGE. Father, 42, 47, 51. Tawn, 190. Feat, 78. Fee, 51. Feet, 103. Fell (sb.), 51. FeU (vb.). ISS. Ferrv, 18S. Fever, 23. Few, 51. Filth, 126. First, 144. -firth, 20. Fish, 51. Five, 147. -fold, 149. Foot, 51, 63. for-, 197. -ford, 22. fore-, 197. Foreclose, 198. Foremost, 144. Forfeit, 198. Forlorn, 47, 170. Former. 144. Four, 147. Fragile, 74. Frail, 74. Frenzy, 24. Fridav, 113. -frith; 22 Frontispiece, 41. Fuchsia, 22. -ful, 149. Further, 14.5. -fy, 191. gain-, 197. Gall, 51. Garden, 51. (rarlic, 122. Gauntlet, 127. Geese, 103. Gin, 67. Glede, 126. Godhead, 124. Good-bye, 122. Goose, 51, 103. Gosling, 126. Gospel, 122. Gossip. 70, 122. Govern, 24. -gram, 128. -graphy, 128. Grasp, 65, 190. Grimalkin , 126. Grocer, 19. Groom, 51. Grovelling, 207. Guest, 51. Had, 174. Halidome, 124. -ham, 22. Handicraft, 121. Handiwork, 121. Hang. 170. Hatred. 125. Haughty, 82. Head, 51. -head. 124. Health, 126. Heart, 51. Heave, 51. hemi-, 199. Hemp, 27. Hen, 51. Hence, 206. Her, hers, 130-1. -herd, 121. Here, 206. hetero-, 199. Hide. 172. Hight, 169. Him, 130-1. HLs. 130-1. History, 74. Hither, 20C. homo-, 199. -hood, 124. Horn, 47, 51. Hospital, 74. Hosen. 102. Host, 78. Hostel, 74-8. Hotel, 74-8. Hoyel, 126. Hound, 51. How, 206. HoAvl, 82. Huckster, 117. Humble, 83. Hundred, 51, 147. Husband, 122. Hussy, 122. hyper-, 199. hypo-, 199. I, 51. -ian, 127. -iar, 152. -ible, 152. -ic, 128. -ice, 127. -id, 152. -ier, 127. -iff, 152. -11, -ile, 152. Impatient, 78. in-, 198. Inch, 23. -ine (Lat.), 152. -ine (Gk.), 118. -ing, 126, 166. Ink, 24. Innermost, 144. inter-, 198. -ion, 127. -iour, 127. Is, 176. -ise, 195. -ish (ad j . suffix . ) , 1 5 . -ish (vb. suffix). 193. Island, 41. -ism, 128. -ist, 128. It, its. 130-1. -ite, 152. -ity, 127. -iye, 152. -ize, 195. Jot, 26. Journal, 74. Journey, 127. Jury, 127. INDEX II. 253 -k (verb suftLx), 190. Kerchief, 122. Kernel, 126. Kin, 51. -kin. 126. -kind. 121. Kindred, 125. Kine, 103. King, 126. Kitchen, 23. Kitten, 126. Knee, 51. Know, 51. Ivnowltdye, 125. Lady, 122. Lady day, 113. Lammas, 66. Lark, 126. Ijatter, 145. Lay, 153. -le, 126. -le (vb. suflBs), 154. liCast, 146. liecral, 74. Leisure, l'J2. Less, 146. -less, 149. Lesson, 74. -let, 127. Let, 173. Lewd, 23. Lie, 51. -like, 142. -ling, 126. -lingi'adv. suffix), 207. Lissom, 150. Livelihood, 124. -lo-v, 128. -long, 207. Lord, 122. Loud, 51. Loval, 74. -ly, 149, 204. -m(snperlatives),144. -m (verbs), 176. Made, 174. Major, 7-i. -ruan, 121. Man. 63. .Alandrake, 122. Mankind, 121. ^larchioness, 116. Marshal, 122. Mass, 23. Master, 73. Maudlin, 26. Maugre. 79. May, 177. Mavor. 74. Me; 130-1. Mead, 126. -meal, 207. ilegrims, 199. Men, 102. -men, -ment, 127 meta-, 199. ilickle, 146. Mile, 23. :Million, 147. Mine, 130. Minster, 24. ilint, 23. mis-, 197-8. ilistress, 116. Mitten, 126. Monday, 113. -mong-, 121. Mongrel, 126. Monk, 24. More, 146. -most, 144. Most, 146. i Mote, 179. Much, 146. Must, 179. My, 130. Naught, 16 'J. . Near, 145. I Need, 179. Neglect, 19S. Neighbour. 122. Neither, 14 S. -ness, 126. Next, 145. I Newt, 68. Nickname, 122. Nightingale, 122. Nine, 147. Nonce. 68. Nor, 219. Nostril. 122. Not, 208. Noon, 23, Noun, 96. Number, 83. Nurse, 118. ob-, obs-, 198. -ock, 126. Of, 47, 212. OS, 47, 212. Ufful. 67. < >ffer, 78. -ola, 127. -on, 127. Once, 206. One, 147. -oon, 127. Open. 190. -or, 127. Or, 219. or-, 197. Orchard, 122. Ordeal, 197. Ort. 197. -ory, 127. -ose, 152. Ostentatious, 19>. Ostler, 84. -ot. 127. I Ought, 179. \ -our, 127. [ Our, ours, 130, 131. -ous, 71, 152. Over, 213. , Owe, 179. Own. 190. Uxen, 102. Palsy, 74. pin-, panto-, 199. p;ira-, 199. Paralysis. 74. Parlour, 127. 254 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Tar son, 198. Past, 215. Pauper, 74. Pea, 23, 106. Pear, 23. Penance, 74. Penitence, 71. Penny, 126. Pepper, 23, 2G. per-, 198. peri-, 199. Phantom, 41. I'henomenon, 41- Pifkaxe, 122. I'ilgrim, 152. Pine, 23. Pit, 23. Place, 24, 127. Plaintive, 152. Plate, 24. Pleasure, 192. Poison, 74, 75. Pontiff, 152. Poor, 74. por-, 198. Pork, 19. Posthumous, 41. Potent, 74. Potion, 74-5. Potsherd, 121. Poimd, 23. pKC-, 198. Priest, 24. Prison, 19S. pro- (Lat.), 198. pro- (Gk.), 109. I'roj^er, 97. Provost, 23. Prudent, 152. Public, 128 Puissant, 74, 152. Puny, 198. Quick, 43. Raise, 188. Random, 124. Uansom, 74. Rather, 150. Raw, 51. re-, red-, 198. Rear, 188. Receipt, 41. Recipe, 41. Red, 125. Regal, 74. Render, 98. -ric, 125. Riches, 108, 127. Riddle, 12G. Riding, 126. Righteous, 148. Round, 73. Royal, 74. -s (adv.), 206. Saturday, 23, 113. Savage, 127. Save, 215. Saviour, 127. Scandal, 24. -scape, 124. Scent, 41. Scholar, 127. Scion, 41. Scythe, 41. se-, 198. -se (vb. suffix), 190. Second, 147. Seed, 126. Seldom, 124, 208. Self, -self, 137. Semblance, 83. semi-, 198. Sempstress, 117. Set, 188. Seven, 51, 147. Shall, 177. Shamefaced, 149. She, 130. Sheep, 104. Sheriff, 152. Shilling, 126. -ship, 124. Shoon, 102. Shrift, 126. Sight, 126. Simony, 26. Sirloin, 198. Six, 147. -sk, 22. Slander, 24. Sleep, 51. Slip, 51. Sloth, 126. Slumber, 68. Sodden, 47, 170. Sold, 175. -some, 150. Somersault, 12 2. -son, 22. Songstress, 117- Sought, 175. Sovereign, 41. Space, 82. Spend, 23. Spindle, 68, 126. Spinster, 117. Spit, 170. Spital, 74. Spouse, 82. Squire, 82, 127. Steeple, 126. -ster, 117. Sterling, 126. Steward, 122. Stile, 126. Stirrup, 122. Strange, 81. Street, 23. Strength, 126. Story, 74. Stupendous, 152. sub-, 198. Such, 148. Summons, 108. Sunday, 113. super-, 198. Sure, 73. Surface, 74, 198. Surgeon, 24. Swine, 104. Sycophant, 41. syn-, 199. Taught, 175. Ten, 51, 114. IXDEX II. 255 Tender, 83. Teutonic, 2. -Ih, 120, loO. That, 51, lo2, 131, 13G. The (adv.), 206. Thee, 130-1. Tlu'ir, theirs, 130. Th.Mu, 130-1. Then, 206. Thence, 206. -ther, 150. There, 20G. Thev, 130. Thimhle, 126. Thine, 130. Third, 150. Thirteen, 147. This, these, 132. Thither, 206. Thorp, 51. Those, 132. Thou, 51, 130. Thousand, 147. Three, 42, 147. Thrice, 206. Thrust, 173. Thumb, 68. Thunder, 68. Thursday, 113. Thus, 206. -thwaite, 22. Thv, 130. Till, 212. -tion, 127. to-, 197. -ton, 22. Tooth, 51. tra-, 198. trans-, 198. Treason, 74. Tremendous, 152. Trespass, 198. Tribe, 51. -Irix, lis. Troth, 126. Trouble, 77. -tude, 127. Tuesday, 113. Twain, 147. Twelve, 147. Twenty, 147. Twice, 206. Two, 147. -ty, 127. TjTant, 84. un-, 197. Uncle, 19. Under, 213. Until, 214. Unto, 214. -ure, 127. Us, 130-1. Utter, 144. Vanguard, 67- Veal, 19. Viands, 127. vice, 198. Victuals, 41. Viscount, 198. Vixen, 63, 117. Vowel, 74. Voyage, 127. Walnut, 122. Walrus, 122. Wanton, 197. -ward, 149. -wards, 207. Warfare, 121. Was, 176. Wassail, 122. -ways, 207. Webster, 117. Wedlock, 12.). Wedncsdav, 113. Welkin, 126. Were, 47, 176. What, 51, 133. When, 206. Whence, 206. Where, 206. Whether, 150. Which, 134-6. AVhilom, 206. Whilst, 68, 206. Whither, 206. "Who, whom, 133, 134, 136. Whose, 133, 136. Why, 206. -wich, 22. -wick, 22. Widower, 126. -wife, 121. Will, 177. -^^^se, 207. Witenageraote, 113. with-, i97. Woman, 66. Women, 102. Work, 51. ^ Vorm wood , 122. Worse, 146. Worship, 124. Worst, 146. Wot, 51. -Wright, 121. Wrousrht, 174. y-, 197. -y, 127, 150. Ye, 130-1. Yoke, 51. Yoii, 130-1. Your, 130. Yours, 130. Zounds, 221. rill.NTKU AT THE lirilLl.VGTO.N I'HKJ-S, CAMUKIUUK. Select Ui^t of 1Boo\\B IX TnE XDinivcveit^ ITutonal Sencs PUBLISHED AT THE UIIVERSITT TUTORIAL PRESS {Universili/ Correspondence College Press). W. B. CLIVE, 13 BOOKSELLERS ROW, LONDON, W.C. CONTENTS. 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