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 J > » > * 
 
 
 THE 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 ITS HISTORY AND STRUCTUEK 
 
 BY 
 
 W. H. LOW, M.A. LoND., 
 
 AVTHOR OF "the INTEKMfcDlATE HISTORY OF ENULISH LITtnATUaB." 
 
 SIXTH EDITION. BE VISED. 
 
 London: W. B. CLIVE, 
 
 (UniBereitg Sutoriaf (press 
 
 (University Correspondence College Press), 
 
 157 Drury Lane, W.O. 
 lUOl.
 
 in- 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAnVll PAGE 
 
 I. TiiK Relation of English to Other Languages 
 
 BY its Origin 1 
 
 II. .Survey of the Chief- Changes that have taken 
 PLACE in the Grammatical Structure of 
 ^ English 5 
 
 2 III. Tin: Influence of otukk Languages upon English 
 
 CO 
 
 -' — Sources of our Vocabulary . . . .10 
 
 IV. The Alphabet and the Sounds of English . . 29 
 
 a. 
 a: 
 
 Q V. The Consonantal Sound Shiftings (" Grimm's 
 
 Law," etc.) 41 
 
 VI, JlETHOD OF Derivation— Root and Stem— Prefixes 
 
 AND Suffixes— Gradation and Mutation . . oo 
 
 VII. Transposition, Assimilation, Addition, and Dis- 
 appearance of Sounds in English . . . S7 
 
 VIII. On Till, History and Form of French Words 
 
 ADOiriED in English ...... 61 
 
 IX. Introductory Remarks on Grammar, tuk. Parts of 
 
 Speech, etc 6S
 
 VI CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER PAUHT 
 
 X. The Noun 73 
 
 XI. Pkonouns 106 
 
 Xir. The Adjective 114 
 
 XIII. The Verb . . . " 130 
 
 XIV. The Adverb 173 
 
 XV. Prepositions 178 
 
 XVI. Conjunctions . 181 
 
 XVII. Interjections 183 
 
 XVIII. Syntax 184 
 
 XIX. Parsing and Analvsis .193 
 
 XX. Metre . * 201 
 
 Test Questions 215 
 
 Index I. Grammatical Terms, etc. , . . . . . 246 
 
 ,, II. Selected Words and Affixes .... 250-
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 TiiK paragraphs of this book printed in the larger type 
 cover the more elementary parts of the subject, and are 
 meant to form a first course; together with the paragraphs 
 in smaller typo to which no obelus (f) is prefixed they 
 should be found sufficient to cover the requirements of 
 the London University Matriculation Examination, The 
 passages marked with an obelus are somewhat more 
 advanced than the rest of the book, and may be omitted 
 on a first reading. 
 
 The writer desires here to acknowledge his indebtedness 
 to Professor Skeat's Principles of Etymology, from which 
 and from Koch a very large number of the examples are 
 taken ; he has also made much use in certain parts of 
 the book of Whitney's German Grammar, of Dr. AVright's 
 Gothic Primer (for Grimm's Law), of Brachet's French 
 Grammar, and of Miss Soames' Introduction to the Study of 
 Phonetics. Professor Skeat's Dictionary has been constantly 
 employed. It is to the author a matter of regret that 
 Dr. Sweet's lumiiious New English Grammar did not appear 
 till after the whole of this book was in type ; he has, how- 
 ever, here and there made a few alterations suggested by 
 a perusal of it. Many other books have of course been 
 consulted, but he believes there is none besides those 
 named to which he is under any considerable obligations. 
 
 Vll
 
 VXll 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION. 
 
 For this edition the type of the book has been reset, the 
 whole having undergone thorough revision at the hands of 
 Mr. A. J. Wyatt and others. 
 
 Among the chief changes introduced are a fuller treat- 
 ment of Verner's Law and an extended account of English 
 metres. The sections on the former have replaced those 
 which in earlier editions dealt with the Second Sound- 
 Shifting, and the original numbering of sections remains 
 unchanged throughout. 
 
 (' 
 
 ABBEEVIATIONS. 
 
 Most of these, such as aO,j. for adjective, vh. for verb, etc., are not given here, as 
 they cannot but be understood ; others are ;^ 
 
 A.F, for Anglo-French. 
 
 Qer. ,, German. 
 
 I.E. ,, Indo-European. 
 
 L.L. ,, Late or Low Latin. 
 
 M.E. „ Middle English. 
 
 N.E.D. ,, New English Dictionary. 
 
 O.E. for Old EngUsh. 
 
 O.F. 
 
 Pop. 
 
 R. 
 
 Tetd. 
 
 W.S. 
 
 Old French. 
 Popular. 
 Romance. 
 Teutonic. 
 West Saxon. 
 
 SYMBOLS. 
 
 > is used for " becomes," " passes into," " gives as a derivative,' 
 < is used for " comes from," " is derived from," etc. 
 + i-i usedfor "in combination with," "together with." 
 For the letters h^ ti, z, see { 28. 
 * indicates a theoretical form, 
 t is prefixed to paragraphs of a somewhat advanced character. 
 
 etc.
 
 thp: 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 r/W JTISTOUY AXT) STliUCTURE. 
 
 CHAPTP]R I. 
 
 ThB RELATtON OP ENGLISH TO OTHER LANCiUAGES RY 
 
 ITS Origix. 
 
 § 1. Englisc. — About the middle of the fifth century 
 invaders from the shores of tlie i^orth Sea began to 
 seek Britain and settle it by colonisation and conquest. 
 The settlers were men of various closely-connected Low 
 German tribes, prominent amono- whom were the " Engle" 
 or Angles. From theii- name, the language spoken by 
 the GeiTuanic conqueroi-s of Britain became known as 
 " Englisc " or (as we now pronounce it) English. That 
 language is the foundation or backbone of the English 
 of to-day. 
 
 (/() The immigrants appear to have been mainly Angles (i.e. 
 inhabitants of Angel, called bj- Bede Anfjidns — now Angeln — in 
 •Schleswig), Saxons (whose name is retained in German Saxony and 
 in English Sussex, Essex, Middlesex, i.e. South Saxons, East Saxons, 
 &c.), and Jutes (who came from a district somewhat to the north 
 of the Angles now known as Jutland, i.e. Juteland). In the oldest 
 English remains (charters and glossaries dating from the seventh 
 century) the existence of different dialects has been detected by 
 scholars; the chief of these dialects are the Northumbrian, Mercian 
 (Midland), and West Saxon (in the West and South) ; Xorthumbrian 
 ind Mercian are Aitglian dialects ; Saxon is represented in literature 
 
 K. L. B
 
 2 THI-: ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§!)«- 
 
 by the West Saxon. A. third dialect — Kentish — was spoken by the 
 Jiiten of Kent. 
 
 {b) Literature first flourished in Northumbria, and therefore among 
 Angles, which seems to be the cause why the name " Englisc," or 
 English, became used as a general term for the speech of Angles, 
 Saxons, and Jutes. Bede {d. 735) uses gens Auglorum, " nation of the 
 Angles," comprehensively for all three tribes, and similarly, in at 
 least one passage, lingua AngJornm, " language of the Angles," to 
 indicate their common tongue. He even speaks of the laws of Ethel- 
 bert of Kent as written Angloriiin scrmone, "in the speech of the 
 Angles," where Alfred translates '■'on Englisc. ^^ Thus, as Mr. Bradley 
 says (in the Ncic Eiiglhh Dlctlonarg), "the name English for the 
 language is older than the name England for the country." 
 
 § 2. The Nearest Relatives of English. — There 
 were other Low Grei-maii peoples left behind on the 
 mainland, and their lang'uages were closely akin to that 
 of the invaders of Britain ; Dutch and Frisian are the 
 chief survivors of these, and they constitute with English 
 the so-called " Low German " group. But various other 
 tribes or nations also spoke Germanic tongues of common 
 oi'igin with these, though they differed from them more 
 widely than these differed from one another ; thus we 
 have the Scandinavian group (Norse, Icelandic, Danish, 
 Swedish), High German (the language of modern 
 Germany), and Gothic. All these tongues, together with 
 some dialects of minor importance, constitute the Germanic 
 or " Teutonic " (see a below) group of languages ; a 
 tabular view of their relationships is given in § 4. 
 
 («) As the word " German" is generally used in common speech 
 to signify Modern High German, it is preferable to use "Teutonic " in 
 the wider sense. N.B. — By German (or Ger.) henceforth throughout 
 this book is signified Modern High German unless the contrary is 
 explicitly stated. Teutonic (or Teut.) refers to any or all of the 
 languages classed above as Teutonic or Germanic, or to the parent 
 language. Primitive Teutonic (see § 3). 
 
 t {b) The word Teutonic is derived from a Latinised form (adj., 
 Teiitonicus, from Tentones, "Teutons") of a Teutonic word meaning 
 "people"; this is in Gothic \>iHda, in O.E. \>cod. The Old High 
 Ger. form of this word, with an adjective suffix, is diiif-isk, whence
 
 § 4J ir> UI.LATIOXSHIPS, 3 
 
 Ger. (h'ulHch (=" German") ami Enj^l. Dutch. The doiivutiou of 
 " German" (which the Germans do not use, except in the wider sense 
 of Teuton) is doubtful ; wu have it from a late Latin "Gcrmanus," 
 which is perhaps from a Celtic word. 
 
 § 3. Other Relatives of Euglish. — Just as English, 
 Genuiiii, Dutch, Xorse, and othur hmguages have been 
 gi'ouped together as close connections by birth, so have 
 various other toiigues been similarly grouped, and in 
 sevei'al of these we shall find we are interested. Thus, 
 for instance, there are the Celtic, the Italic, the Slavonic 
 groujjs or families. Further, just as the various languages 
 which make up a given gi'oup may be regarded as dialects 
 of a single original parent tongue, so too, may these 
 various parent tongues be regarded again as dialects of 
 one ancestral parent tong-ue. We know, for instance, that 
 in comparatively modern times French, Italian, and 
 Spanish have been developed out of spoken Latin, widely 
 as they may, at first sight, appear to differ from it in 
 many Avays. We have reason to believe that in somewhat 
 similar ways all the languages grouped as Teutonic were 
 developed out of one primitive Teutonic tongue ; and that 
 likewise Irish, Gaelic, and the language of the Britons 
 pi-oceed from a primitive Celtic tongue, and so on. 
 Further, the investigations of philologists teach us that 
 the primitive Italic, Celtic, Teutonic, and many other 
 tongues were evolved in the remote past from a single 
 type of speech ; to this the name Indo-European, or 
 Aryan, is generally given in England. The Germans 
 use the term " Indo-Germanic " for the whole family, 
 and " Aryan " to indicate the section of it formed by the 
 Indian and Iranian languages (see § 4). 
 
 (rt) One of the chief distinctions which mark off the Teutonic 
 languages from the other Indo-European ones lies in the way in 
 which the former shifted the mutes. Another is the formation and 
 use of a verbal conjugation having a preterite and past participle 
 with dental suflBxes — the weak conjugation. 
 
 § 4. A general view of the relationships between the 
 chief members of the Indo-European famil}' of languages 
 is easily obtained from a table such as the following: —
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 [§4 
 
 Indo-European 
 (or Aryan). 
 
 T. Table of the Indo-European Family of Languages. 
 
 r {a) Indian Group, including Sanskrit 
 I (dead), and several spoken lan- 
 
 Asiatic -^ guages of India. 
 
 I Iranian group, including Persian. 
 *- {b) Armenian. 
 
 f Hellenic, i.e. all varieties of Greek. 
 Albanian. 
 
 Italic group, including Classical Latin, 
 and popular spoken Latin, -with 
 its offspring, the Romance Lan- 
 guages, viz.: — French, Italian, 
 Spanish, Portuguese, &c. 
 Celtic group, including («) Cornish 
 I (dead), Cymric (Welsh), Breton, 
 
 European i (h) Erse (Irish), Gaelic (Scotch), 
 
 L Manx. 
 
 Baltic -Slavonic group, including {a) 
 Old Prussian (dead), Lithuanian, 
 &c.; [b) Eussian, Polish, Czech 
 (Bohemian). 
 Teutonic group, including English, 
 German, Norse, &c., given in 
 , detail below. 
 
 II. Table of the Teutonic Group of Languages. 
 
 I. East Teutonie Divkion :—Goi\i\c (dead). 
 
 II. North Teutonic Division: — Scandinavian, in- 
 
 cluding Norse, Icelandic, Swedish, Danish. 
 
 III. West Teutonic Division : — 
 
 Teutonic 
 
 (or 
 Germanic). 
 
 Engflish. 
 Frisian. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Low German, including Old Saxon and 
 Modern " Platt-Deutsch." 
 [e) High German, of which the only e.'iistingrepre- 
 sentative is always known as " German." 
 
 [cT)
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Survey of the Chief Changes that have taken place 
 IN THE Grammatical Structure of English. 
 
 § 5. Decay of the Plexional System. Although, as 
 has been said, the Liuguage ripokeu by the Anglo-Saxons 
 is the basis of moJei-n English, yet the latter at first sight 
 seems to have very little in common with it. The main 
 causes that liave bi-onght this aliout are two : the vocabu- 
 lary has been ever gi-owing bigger and moi'e heterogeneous 
 owing mainly to the influence of other nations upon us 
 (Ch. iii.) ; the flexional .system has been ever decaying 
 and becoming simpler, until it has well-nigh disappeared. 
 It is with this latter cause that we are mainly occupied in 
 this chapter, and the statement concerning it in the pre- 
 ceding sentence is of such impoi-tance that it may be Avell 
 to make it again somewhat more fully and call particular 
 attention to it : — 
 
 A tendency to simplify its inflexional system is inherent in 
 every Indo-European language; and in the case of English 
 this natural tendency, aided hy certain external influences 
 (§ 10), has converted a tongue which employed quite a number 
 of distinctive flexions into one which has comparatively few. 
 
 {») A language which expresses grammatical relationships mainly 
 by flexion is called si/nthetic, i.e. "putting together" {a-w-, "with," 
 "together"; ridrifii, "put").' A language which uses auxiliary 
 
 ' It must not, however, be assumed that the elements of a.s.vnthetic form onco 
 existed separately. Philologists are as yet unable to account for the orij^in of 
 inflexions.
 
 6 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 5, a 
 
 independent words in place of flexion is called analytic, i.e. "un- 
 loosing" {ava-, "back," " un-" ; Xvw, "loose"). Thus the ideas of 
 voice, tense, person, and number, which are expressed synthetically, 
 or unitedly, by the Greek i\i\v(reT}v, are expressed analytically, or 
 separately, by the English "they two had been loosed." Compare 
 again Latin amavissent with English " they would have loved." In 
 the Latin sentence 
 
 " am-o puer-i bon-i patr-em " 
 
 each word is inflected, the -o telling us that a verbal form in the first 
 person singular present indicative is being used, the -cm showing us 
 that pcdrem is employed as a direct object, and so forth; but in the 
 English equivalent, 
 
 " I love the good boy's father," 
 
 there is only one obvious inflexion, viz., -s. We must, however, note 
 that the form of / marks it as the subject of the sentence. Again, 
 the word love really contains in a weakened form (viz., -e) the primi- 
 tive termination for the first person singular (-0) seen in the Latin 
 am-o, and thus shows 'Ca.'A.i father cannot be its subject, inasmuch as a 
 subject in the third person singular requires a predicate with the 
 inflexion -a. It is manifest, therefore, that " synthetic " and "ana- 
 lytic " are merely comparative terms. Just as Modern English is less 
 synthetic than Old English (cp. / love the father of the good hoy 
 with ic liifig-e \>o-ne faeder \>ae-s ybd-an cnap-an), so the Latin of Cicero, 
 though more synthetic than either, would no doubt appear analytic 
 could it be compared with its progenitor of the period 2000 b.c' 
 An analytic language admits of less elasticity in the positions that 
 words may occupy than one more rich in inflexions : John loves Susan 
 is by no means the same as Susan loves John, while Susan John loves is 
 inadmissible in prose and ambiguous in verse ; but in Latin we may 
 say without ambiguity Balbus amat luliam, Balhtis Itiliam amat, Amat 
 Balbus luliam, Amat luliam Balbus, luliam Balbus amat, luliam amat 
 Balbus. With pronouns, something of the old flexibility is still 
 retained in English. Thus Milton (Paradise lost, i. 44, 45) can 
 say : " Him the Almighty Power Hurled headlong." 
 
 § 6. Three well-marked stages are to be distinguished 
 in this 251'ogress from the inflected or synthetic structure 
 to the analytic (§ 5, a). 
 
 1 Cp. .Jespevsen, "Progress in Language," § 92.
 
 § 7] SL'KVKY OK ITS DEVELOHM KNT. 7 
 
 Old >J.N(,;lish (O.E.) is the ltu i)1i fnll inflexions : -as: -mi. 
 -um, -ode, -a, -u, -e, &c. 
 
 ^IiDDLE K.\(iMSH (^[.E.) is tlie eia of l>rdl<-il or weiik- 
 encd inflexions, in wliicli tlie old flexional vowels 
 weio redueed to -e, chiefly hecause, not liaving- the 
 eliief stress (whicli in Teutonic words falls regularly 
 on the root syllable), they had beoonie in jn-oeess of 
 time less and less distinctly pronounced, till at 
 leng-th they ceased to l)e diffei'entiated. 
 
 ^Modern Excr-isu is the era of reduced inflexions, in 
 which the Middle English -e disappeai-s wherever 
 possible from pronunciation, while consonantal 
 flexions disappear except in a few cases. 
 
 § 7. The passage from O.E. to M.E., and again from 
 M.E. to Modern English, was of course not effected sud- 
 denly or consciously ; the termination -<<>", for instance, in 
 the nom. ])lural of nouns did not at once pass into the -es 
 of Middle English, nor did this immediately pass into the 
 -s of to-day. There was a period in which the two forms 
 -as and -es existed side by side, until the latter Anally 
 pi-evailed, and so similarly there was a period whei-e -es 
 struggled Avith -s before giving way. To these periods the 
 convenient name of " Transition " is given, and, if we assign 
 to each of them a range of about a century, we may draw 
 out the following table to illustrate the changes which we 
 have been consideinng : the dates assigiied, however, ai-e 
 necessarily only rough a])])roximations to the truth, for 
 there is no such thiu<>' as sudden chano-e in the structure 
 of a language, but only growth ; moreover, in different 
 areas the develo])ment Avas not of equal rapidity. Those 
 dates apply (roughly) to East Midland English, the direct 
 descendant of the Mercian dialect of O.E. and the parent 
 of our modern literary dialect.
 
 THE KNGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 [§8 
 
 § 8. 
 
 Name of Period. 
 
 Limits. 
 
 Flexions. 
 
 Hemarks. 
 
 Old Exolish 
 
 To 1100 ... 
 
 Full 
 
 To about the end 
 of generation 
 alive at the 
 N. Conquest. 
 
 laf Transition 
 
 1100 to 1200 ... 
 
 Full and Weak- 
 ened 
 
 A century on- 
 ward. 
 
 Middle Eng- 
 lish 
 
 1200 to 1400 ... 
 
 Levelled 
 
 Chaucer died 
 1100. 
 
 2nd Trnnsition 
 
 HOOto 1500 ... 
 
 Levelled and 
 Vanishing 
 
 A century on- 
 ward. 
 
 MODEKS ExG- 
 USH 
 
 from about loOO 
 
 Nearly vanished 
 
 Introduction of 
 printing. 1476. 
 
 § 9. If we desire typical examples of tlie three stages, 
 we might take — 
 
 O.E. leorn-i-an (inf.) sun-u hnnd-as. 
 
 M.E. lern-eu soti-e hund-es. 
 
 Modem leani ^on hounds. 
 
 § 10. Foreign Influences. — We have ti-eated the decay 
 of the flexional system and its replacement by the analytic 
 as mainly due to a tendency inherent in the language, and 
 we are justified in so doing both by the history of Old 
 English before it was appreciably affected by foreig'n influ- 
 ences, and l)y the history of cognate Teutonic tongues, 
 which exhibit the effects of the same tendency without 
 those external causes which have affected English. The 
 progress of the movement, however, was probably facili- 
 tated by the Scandinavian invasions of the ninth and 
 following two centui'ies, which may have helped to un- 
 settle the English flexional system, especially in East 
 Anglia and Northumbria, and certainly by the Norman 
 Conquest, which, by putting an end to the I'eigu of West- 
 Saxon as a standard of language, left the vai-ious English 
 dialects free to follow each its own course, and i^emoved 
 any barrier to the introduction of Romance words and
 
 § 10, «] SL'KVKY OF ITS DKVKf.fd'MKNT. 9 
 
 mofk's i)f expression into Kii<rlisli. We pioceed t<» deal 
 more fully with these foreiji^ii iiiHueiices in describinj^ the 
 sources of tlie vocabulary of Modem English in the next 
 c]iai)tei-. But it may be well to point out hei*e that, 
 whatever influence foreign tongues may have exerted in 
 assisting the tendency of the inflexions to become levelled, 
 in no case have they been the cause of giving us any new- 
 inflexion or method of inflexion ; nil flw inflexions v.si'd t?/ 
 English are nativi' EnrjUsh, and therefore of course Teutonic. 
 
 (<i) It has been thought without suflScient grounds that the employ- 
 ment of -*, -en for the plural of (nejirly) all nouns was somewhat 
 assisted by the French usage which also employed the same suffix 
 (though of quite different history) ; the -« jjlural noun flexion is 
 of course English (O.E. -as), but it was only one among many 
 formerly employed.
 
 10 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Influence op other Languages upon English — 
 Sources of our Vocabulary. 
 
 § 11. Bearing in mind what lias been said as to the 
 gradiial pi^ogress from the flexional to the analytic stage, 
 we may now study the evolution of modern English chiefly 
 with regard to its vocabulary. Here we have mainly to 
 follow the course of the nation's history. 
 
 § 12. Earliest Foreign Elements. — Until the in- 
 vasion of Bi'itain we suppose the language of Angles and 
 Saxons to have been purely Teutonic in vocabulary, with 
 the exception of such Latin words as were used by them 
 and other G-ei-man tribes on the Continent. The Angles 
 and Saxons harried, displaced, and absorbed the Celtic 
 inhabitants of a great part of Britain, and from them 
 adopted a few Celtic words, as well as a little of the Latin 
 known to the Britons, who had long been under Roman 
 sway. Christianity was preached to the English by Roman 
 missionaries (Augustine's mission, 597 A.D.), and this was 
 the beginning of the first considerable influx of Latin 
 words, the words so introduced being in the first place 
 those connected with ecclesiastical usages, several of them 
 being therefore ultimately of Greek origin ; from the 
 ninth century and onwards there was also a considerable 
 amount of translation from Latin originals, by which 
 means some more Latin words were introduced. The 
 words thus broug'ht into Old Eno-lish are known as " Latin 
 of the second period," those learned on the Continent or 
 from the Britons being " Latin of the first period."
 
 § 14] SOUKCKS I IK ITS VOCABULAUY. 11 
 
 («) Upwards of three hundred words derived from, or through, 
 the Latin found thtir way into Old Englisli. Of theseaconsiderahle 
 numher arc not found in Jlodern English : others which we still 
 possess are not descended from the O.E. period, hut from the JI.E., 
 when they were re-introduced through the French. For instance : 
 amjel, chalice, oyster, ride, -iniiit, sit/ii, are from O.F. angele, calice, oistre, 
 riule, mint, si(/,ic, not from O.E. cmjcl, calic, osfre, regol, sanet, segn. 
 
 § 13. Scandinavian. — The Scandinavian invasions of 
 the ninth and iolLjw ing centiu'ie.s, culminating- in the 
 ascendency of a Novse dynasty over all England half a 
 century before the !Korman Conquest, caused, the intro- 
 duction of a niiniber of Scandinavian woi'ds, especially in 
 East Anglia and Xorthunihi-ia ; some of these are easily 
 distinguished and and are given in the list below, but in 
 other cases it is extremely doubtful whethei- a Avord is of 
 Xoz'se or native English origin, tlie two languages being 
 closely akin by birth (§2) and strikingly alike in their 
 Teutonic vocabulaiy at this period. A more important 
 effect of the Xorse invasions on the language Avas probably 
 the influence it had on the inflexional system of Avhich we 
 have ah'eady spoken (§ 10). 
 
 § 14. The Normans (Anglo-French). — Some other 
 words of Latin origin may have reached us before the 
 Conquest through the medium of the Xormans, with whom 
 the later Saxon kings (notably Edward the Confessor) 
 had intimate relations. These Xormans or Xorthmen had 
 raided upon Fi-anee and settled there, much as their kin 
 had done in England : brought in contact, hoAvever. Avith a 
 Romance-speaking nation, they had practically abandoned 
 their own tongue, and spoke French, the dialect of it used 
 by them being known as Xoi-man-Erenoh. The Conquest 
 of England by the Xormans, which we date from the 
 Battle of Hastings, established Xorman- French as the 
 language of the ruling classes — coui't, king, nobility, 
 priesthood. English, of course, ncA'er ceased to be spoken, 
 but it Avas noAv the language of a subject people, and Avas 
 for a time little cultivated as a literary medium. Yet 
 it Avas the tongue of the conquered that Avas destined
 
 12 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§14 
 
 to survive, enriched with vast borrowings from the 
 conquerors' language, which itself finally ceased to he 
 their mother-tongue before the end of the fourteenth 
 century. The influx of Norman - French (or Anglo- 
 French) words into English makes itself first noticeable in 
 the scanty remains of the English writings of the twelfth 
 centuiy ; and from this time onwai'ds to the time when 
 Anglo-French Avas itself dying oiit (somewhat before 1400) 
 the bori'owing from Anglo-French went on to a vast 
 extent, so that by the time when business in the law 
 courts was first allowed to be conducted in English (1362), 
 and when childi^en were first taught in school through the 
 medium of English (1385) instead of Anglo-French, 
 English had become a thoroughly composite language, 
 having grafted upon the Teutonic stock a large number of 
 words of Romance origin, whicli it inflected and used 
 precisely as if they were native, and to which it imparted 
 an appearance and form that seem at first sight thoroughly 
 English, so tliat only to the trained eye or ear of the 
 philologist do they appear at all foreign. 
 
 {(i) A descendant of Norman-French survives on British soil in the 
 Channel Islands. 
 
 § 15. Continental French in Middle English. — 
 
 Besides the influx of Anglo-French, there was another 
 soui'ce whence Fi-ench words were introduced into Middle 
 English. This is Continental French, which was spoken 
 by the early Plantagenet kings and their courts, and was 
 the medium of a literature which powerfully influenced 
 oui' writers, especially during the fourteenth century and 
 after. Hence French words were adopted into Eng-lish ; 
 later borrowings, even when coined directly from Latin, 
 have usually been formed on the models of these. 
 
 § 16. Hevival of Learning. — The borrowing and coin- 
 age of words of Latin origin was greatly increased by the 
 revival of the study of the classics and the Renaissance of 
 Literature in the sixteenth century, and by the increased 
 intei'est displayed in theology, arts, and science which 
 accompanied it ; nor has the coinage ever ceased — it was
 
 § 17] SOURCES OK ITS VOCABULAKY. 13 
 
 particularly active in tliu seventeenth century —and it is 
 not likely to do so entii-ely while new words are i-equired for 
 new ideas and can easily be foi-med from the dead lanu-uaiies 
 on the model of earlier examples, ado])ted in the Middle 
 English period. It is important to notice that the latei- 
 borrowings (with some inconsiderable exceptions) shape 
 themselves on the model of words thus taken centui-ies ago 
 from Latin througli the medium of Old French, even where 
 they do not happen to have passed through French at all 
 and are quite modern in their formation. 
 
 {a) There is nothing (as Dr. IMurray points out) in procession and 
 proffressio)i to show that one is eleventh (better: early twelfth) cen- 
 tury, the other sixteenth. . . . Even photograph, geology, telephone 
 have the form they would have had if they had been living words in 
 the mouthsof Greeks, Latins, French, and English from the beginning, 
 instead of formations of the nineteenth century : evangelist, astronomy, 
 dialogue are words which have so lived, their present form being the 
 result. Photograph, Sec, take their form as (/they had so lived. 
 
 § 17. Comparison of the Native Teutonic with the 
 Romance Element in English. — No other Lmguage has 
 had an influence ujion oui' vocabulaiy in any way com- 
 parable Avith that of Latin, which (mainly, of coui-se, via 
 French) has given ns a .supply of words that far out- 
 numbers the native Teutonic store ; at least, such we shall 
 find to be the case if we consult a dictionarv, where each 
 word is entered only once and whei'e the abstruse and the 
 familiar i-ank as equal ; but in writing and in actual 
 speech each of us uses only a certain proportion of all the 
 gi'eat mass of words in the language, and this proportion, 
 be it as small as that of the peasant or as considerable as 
 that of ^Shakespeare, contains practically all the living 
 native Teutonic element ; and this is 07ie of the reasons 
 that justify us in regarding the composite English of the 
 nineteenth century as Low German, not Romance. The 
 words which we all use and must use, and without which 
 it is difficult to fi'ame a couple of consecutive sentences, ai'e 
 all native, and essentially the same words as our Low- 
 German forcgoers used in the England of Alfi-ed and, 
 earlier still, on the mainland of Europe ; hence, even
 
 14 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 17 
 
 from considerations of vocabulary alone, we should 
 be justified in regarding* spoken English as a Low 
 German language. But in the classification of languages 
 structui^e is of more importance than vocabulary — shape 
 and form rather than stuff and colour — and this, as we have 
 seen (§ 10), is pui'e Teutonic in our tongue. Let us observe 
 here that one effect of all our flexions being native is to 
 create a hybrid — i.e. a word containing elements from more 
 than one languag'e — out of every non-native word which 
 exhibits flexions : tlius, for instance, rive is Old N^orse, 
 invention French, yacht Dutch; but, since these are fully 
 natui'alised English, we can inflect them, thereby immedi- 
 ately adding an English element as in rir-en, inventions, 
 yacht-ing. 
 
 § 18. The subject of the native constituents of 
 modern English is so interesting and important that we 
 shall do well to examine them a little more closely in 
 contrast with the Romance elements. To begin with let 
 ns notice that Romance words consist almost entirely of 
 "presentive" words; that is to say, of words which call 
 up some definite conception to the mind (nouns verbs, 
 adjectives), while the " symbolic" or i-elational words, the 
 absolutely necessary links of speech which only have 
 meaning in connection with other words, are practically 
 all Teutonic ; but a considerable proportion of the 
 " presentive " class, especially such as are most necessary 
 and common in everyday affairs, are also Teutonic. 
 
 In the following- section an attempt is made to present a simple 
 classification of the Teutonic elements of the vocabulary. Adverbs 
 are not given here as a separate part of speech, falling as they do 
 under the head either of conjunctions or prepositions, or being 
 obviously derived from other parts of speech. (See §§ 204-8.) 
 
 § 19. Teutonic are 
 
 (i.) All inflexions, 
 (ii.) All pronouns, 
 (iii.) All numerals, except the adjective second, which
 
 § lUJ KOUKCKS OK ITS VOCAIUrLAKY. 15 
 
 has iei)laceil otln'r wlieii more tlian two thing's are 
 discussed, and doztni, million, hiUian, which aic Romance. 
 
 (iv.) Most of the coujunctious and prepositions: e.g. 
 and, in, hut; but other parts of speech or combinations 
 used in phice of these are often Romance or hybrid : e.g. 
 except, pmvidi-d, (jrantmy^, con.tidenn^, hecdiisc, dxriiv, &c. 
 (§§214-215). 
 
 (v.) All genuine interjections or natural expressions of 
 emotion by a mere cry. 
 
 (a) But some words of this class originally presentive arc now 
 usfid symbolically : «/"« is the chief Romance form now used as an 
 interjection (§ 221). 
 
 (vi.) Onomatopoeic words, i.e. worils which endeavour 
 to imitate by sonud the tiling tliey name, such as coo, huzz, 
 hiss, Jiush. 
 
 (n) But words formed originally hy this process in other tongues 
 have also been borrowed like others l)y English, e.g. iincnnxy 
 { <F. <L.), barbarous < L. harbarus < Gk. 0dp0apos, "a foreigner" — 
 one who says fiap-fiap. 
 
 (vii.) Several living suffixes and prefixes, such as -hess, 
 -ly, -er, tin-, as well of course as many no longer living. 
 (By " living " is meant such as are still used to form new 
 woi'ds.) But several common living ones are foreign : 
 e.g. ante-, in-, -ity, -ess (fem.), -ism (Gk.), -ize (Gk.), 
 -ist (Gk.). 
 
 (viii.) Verbs. 
 
 All the auxiliaries are Teutonic (symbolic and 
 indispensable, § l^j- 
 
 Also all strong verbs (including those once strong but 
 now weak; see §§ 168-171) and their derivatives (§ 188) ; 
 and all verbs with mutated present stems, such as think, 
 scdl, &c. (see § 173). 
 
 Of other verbs, many which denote the commonest or 
 most necessaiy actions, states, &c., and therefore could 
 scarely have become so little used by the English as to
 
 16 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 19 
 
 give way to foreign intruders, are Teutonic : such are, for 
 instance (besides those included in the chxsses indicated 
 above, among which are eat, drinh, sing, sleep, go, do, 
 run, hite, toake, hear), mahe, live, ivend,fill, kiss, grref, learn, 
 ivorh, clothe, tveigh, wish, se7id, till, stir, live, dwell, heal, 
 name, listen, cleanse, feed. 
 
 But examples of French verbs (especially early boiTOw- 
 ings) which replace or exist side by side with native 
 ones ai'e common enough, e.g. move, suffer, rest, tiirn, fail, 
 join, please, preach, state, view. 
 
 There is a vast number of other Fx-ench verbs in P]nglish, 
 especially among those more particularly associated with 
 higher culture of various kinds, e.g. quote, stupefy, exhort, 
 summon. 
 
 («) Cp. exist (Latin) with be (Teut.), commence (R.) with begin (T.), 
 tolerate (L.) with bear (T.), meditate (L.) and ponder (L.) with think (T.). 
 
 (ix.) Adjectives. 
 
 Besides the pronominal and numeral (see ii. and iii. 
 above), to the native element belong most of those which 
 denote common qualities (cp. viii. above) : e.g. o-ed. Mack, 
 white, green, little, strong, short, good, better, best, bad, near, 
 far, bright, sloio, quick, fast, loose. But French are the 
 monosyllabic large, long, brief, curt, false, coy, sage, frail, 
 with many more ; and (mostly of later origin) a very 
 large numbei- of others, such as ciuiet, cruel, jealous, equal, 
 stupid, fragile, amiable, dependent, regal. 
 
 {(() Cp. ancient (Romance) and old (Teut.), mute (R.) and dumb 
 {T.), false (R.) and untrue (T.), sage (R.) and }rise (T.). 
 
 (x.) Nouns. 
 
 As with vei'bs and adjectives, many of the indispensable 
 and most common ai-e Teutonic, e.g. : — 
 
 " Natural " features — earth, sea, ivater, land, heavens, 
 atone, sand. But air is Romance ( < F. air < L. aer < Gk. 
 arfp). 
 
 Names of beings, common family relationships, &c. — 
 man, ■woman, child, father, mother, daughter, son, brother,
 
 § 20] SOURCES OF ITS VOCAUL'LARY. 17 
 
 sister, husband, ivife. But Romance are aunt [<0.F. ante 
 (now tante) < L. ainita^], cousin ( < F. cousin < L. con- 
 sobrinus), uncle ( < F. ancle < L. avunculus, "maternal 
 uncle," diminutive of avus, " grandfather "). 
 
 Names of many familiar creatures — cow, ox, hound, pig, 
 fish, fly, horse, sheep, calf. But Romance are beef ( < F. 
 bceuf <h. bovem, ace. of bos, "ox"), pork ( < F. po>r 
 <L. porc7is, "pig"), mutton (<F. moufon), veal [<0.F. 
 reel (now vcau) < L. vitellus, diminutive of vitulus, 
 "calf"],&c. 
 
 Names of trades, callings, professions, &c., are nearly 
 all Romance, with, as might be expected, the exception of 
 a few^ humble and indispensable ones : thus baker, plough- 
 man, smith are Teutonic ; but Romance are butcher, grocer 
 (i.e. grosser, " one who deals wholesale or in gross,'' < F. 
 grassier < gros, " gi-eat," <\j.\j. .grossus, "big," "fat"), 
 tailor (<F. tailleur <tailler, "to cut"), chandler (<F. 
 chandelier <pop. L. candelarins < h. candela, "candle"); 
 and Romance of course are advocate, solicitor, barrister, 
 tutor, 'accountant, professor, author, poet, parson, curate, 
 editor, general, colonel, captain, lieutenant, doctor, surgeon. 
 
 Further, Romance are the greater part of our nouns 
 denoting things not absolutely indispensable for everj'day 
 life, including a vast number of abstract nouns, of terms 
 connected with art, literature, and science, theology, &c. 
 These are so numerous that it is scarcely worth while 
 giving examples ; in the sentences just written, for instance 
 (beginning with " Further," six lines above), the follow- 
 ing nouns and adjectives are Romance : liornance, part, 
 nouns, indispensable, vast, number, abstract, terms, art, 
 literature, science, theology (Gk.), numerous, examples (and 
 denotvag, including, connectetX); but notice the Teutonic 
 nouns, things, day, life, ichile. 
 
 § 20. A sti-iking proof of the ubiquitousness of the native 
 element in English will be seen if we attempt to construct 
 
 I It should be remembered that Frencli nouns and adjectives are, with small 
 exception, from the accusative form of their Latin originals: thus F. rose 
 (sine.) is from L. rosam (not from rosa), and similarly roses (pi.) is from rosas, 
 not from rosae. 
 
 E.L. C
 
 18 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 20 
 
 sentences wliicli contain no Teutonic words ; it can be 
 done, but it is extremely difficult, while it is almost 
 impossible to write a paragraph of half a dozen lines under 
 the same conditions, inasmuch as we are deprived of the 
 use of articles, auxiliaries, conjunctions, pronouns, &c. ; 
 moreover the Teutonic element is almost certain to assert 
 itself in some necessary inflexion. 
 
 («) E.g. ♦' Stupidity perpetually claims attention. Terrible accidents 
 occur frequent??/ durtwy theatrical proceedtwys ; extraordinary ac- 
 tivity prevents similar ridiculous panic." Perhaps an imperative 
 sentence is the most we can make without any Teutonic element at 
 all — e.g. "Triumph gross stupidity, silence acute perception!" — 
 unless we use a naturalized Latin plural form as in "Errata cause 
 terrible inconvenience." On the other hand, it is possible to write 
 many pages without necessarily using Romance words ; but it is not 
 natural or easy for us to do so, and we cannot do it without circum- 
 locution or straining, when the matter does not deal with bare and 
 simple statement of common facts. As an example, we maj^ observe 
 the first three stanzas of Gray's Elegy, in which the diction is remark- 
 ably simple : yet here there are Romance words (in italics below) 
 which could not easily be removed and replaced by equivalent 
 Teutonic substitutes : — 
 
 " The curfew tolls the knell of parlrn^ day. 
 The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 
 The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 
 And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 
 
 ' * Now fadei the glimmering landscape on the sight, 
 And all the air a solemn stillness holds, 
 Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight. 
 And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds : 
 
 " Save that from yonder 'wy-mantledi tower 
 
 The moping owl doth to the moon complain 
 Of such as, wandering near her secret bower, 
 Molest her ancient, solitary 7-eiffn." 
 
 [b) Apart from the classification by meaning and function, the 
 mere form will also often help us to recognize that a word is Teutonic. 
 Thus, for instance, all stems showing gradation (§61) are Teutonic; 
 so also nearly all words beginning with iv, which is unknown to
 
 § 21, a] SOURCES OF ITS VOCABULARY. 19 
 
 French and Latin, and all beginning with wh ; nearly all containing 
 ffh or beginning with >j. On the other hand, v/ords beginning with 
 j are (with very few exceptions) not native, as judge, jury, juvenile, 
 jelhj. Sec, the O.E. consonantal i- or r/c- becoming y, as in '/ear 
 from O.E. (/ear. Of words beginning with p few are of Teutonic 
 origin [see § 47, d (iii.)]. The presence of th or dh (j 30) is generally 
 a mark of English origin, these sounds being unknown to French (and 
 Latin) ; but a number of words containing th are Greek (and are 
 easily recognized as such), the th then transliterating the Greek : 
 e.g. theme, antipathy, ethic, cestheticism. 
 
 § 21. — Besides the native element and the Romance 
 drafts of various stages, there have entered into Eiiglish, 
 as into England, natives of almost every race under the 
 sxm : these we may deal with slioi-tly here, though the 
 whole subject is both large and interesting. Foreign 
 words reach us (a) by direct contact with foreign peoples 
 or {h) via literature, and there is no need for us to 
 distinguish between the two cases here ; it follows that 
 we have got words from many nations with whom we 
 have had intercourse in Avarfare, trade, diplomacy, 
 art, science, oi- any other way, as well as indirectly 
 through the medium of writings of all kinds. In the 
 following sections (§§ 22-27) the chief of these sources 
 are touched on, aud what has been said in the pi'evious 
 sections is summarised. 
 
 (rt) It is to be remembered that the borrowing and coinage pro- 
 cesses are ever going on around us ; to boycott, a yladstonc (bag), are 
 coined from persons' names just as were to burke, a spencer in the 
 past : closure, though practically coined (or re-coined) in our days, 
 has followed the precedent of enclosure, exposure, (fee. : so, just as 
 contact with Dutch seamen in the Elizabethan age and the seventeenth 
 century gave us boom, schooner, skipper, modern warfare with the 
 Dutch in South Africa in our day has taught us hoer, hirfcr, and trek. 
 Foreign products at one time unknown in England have now become 
 so familiar to us that their names are not uttered with any feeling of 
 strangeness, e.g. tea, coffee, potato ; with less common or more recent 
 introductions the process of naturalisation is still going on, e.g. 
 banana, pimento.
 
 20 the english language. [§ 22, a 
 
 Summary of the Sources of our Vocabulary, with 
 SOME Selected Examples. 
 
 § 22. TEUTONIC. 
 
 (A) The native Low German Element (see §§ 18,19). 
 
 Add a large number of the commonest place and person names 
 (but see § 25), especially in -ham ("home": cp. Ger. "-heim"), 
 -ton ("town"), -ivich, -ford, -bridge: examples are Mickleham, 
 Birmingham, Hampton ( = Ham + ton; § 68), Greenwich, WalUngford, 
 Knightsbridge, Freeman, Smith, Baker. 
 
 (B) Dutch. 
 
 (i.) Many nautical terms, including ahoy, aloof, avast, 
 boom, cruise, deck, hoist, hull, sMjpper (tlie native English 
 form is shipper'), yacht, yaivl. 
 
 (ii.) Some military terms and words easily connected 
 with camp life, together with others, mainly due to 
 English volunteers in the Low Countries during the 
 Elizabethan period, or the Dutch merchants who settled 
 in London about the same time, including beleaguer, 
 blunderbuss, hnapsaclc, snaffle, suttler, trigger, waggon : boor, 
 brandy, ledger, stiver. 
 
 (iii.) Others worth noticing (some may come under the 
 above headings) are 
 
 (a) most (if not all) diminutives in -Tcin, such as 
 
 manihln, bumpM^i, &c. (§ 126, h). 
 
 (b) art terms : easel, landscape. 
 
 (c) from place names: delf (Delft), holland, spa. 
 
 (cZ) burgomaster, landgrave, margrave, elope, fop, frolic, 
 hottentot, wainscot. 
 
 Some words of Continental Low German origin not strictly Dutch 
 (Netherlands in general, Flemish, Frisian) may be reckoned in with 
 the above. 
 
 (C) Scandinavian. 
 
 (i.) Many words due to the viking raids and settlements, 
 often not to be accurately distinguished from native words
 
 § 22, dJ sources of its vocAuuLAuy. 21 
 
 (see § 18) : among those certainly of Old Xorse or Uanisli 
 origin are (§ 176, ?>) both, fro (cognate English //Wft), ill, 
 ■same, they, them, their, till (prep.), husband, die, shy, 
 which are remarkable as being such common words and 
 belonging to such classes (§§ 18-19) as to indicate that 
 the Danes' sjieech was indeed i-egarded as but a particulai- 
 kind of " English." Further we may mention aye 
 ( = ever), fellow, guess, happy, happen, hiisfing, low, vieeh, 
 mid, rot, rotten, ugly, window, bulwarlc, furloiujh, greyhound, 
 billoiv, raid, vihing, strand, thrall; scant, score, skill, shin, 
 skirt, shell, and some others with initial sk- ; bask, busk 
 (where the final -sk=.sik, reflexive pronoun) ; and -by 
 (="town"), -dale, -firth, -frith, -thicaite, -wick in place 
 names, such as Grimsby, Clydesdale, &c. ; as also Biding 
 (§126,/). 
 
 The word son was used in patronymics among the Northmen 
 (e.g. Tri/r/f/vason, Bjdrnso)i) before it was so employed in English : 
 probably its common employment with us {Johnson, Watson, Simson, 
 &c.) is due to Northern influence; the O.E. method was by the 
 suffix -inff (e.g. Broivning). 
 
 (ii.) Later borroAvings frona ScandinaAnan languages 
 include geysir (Iceland), floe, fog, and some others ; 
 
 («) But such words are few, for we have had little contact with 
 the Scandinavians since the Danish invasions until quite recently. 
 Dahlia is coined from a Swede's name {Bahl + pseudo-Latin ending), 
 just as Fuchsia from a German's [Fuchs). 
 
 {h) A certain number of words of Scandinavian origin reached 
 us through French — the Norman, it must be remembered, was a 
 North-man. 
 
 (D) (High) German. — But very few words have been 
 taken directly from High German ; the commonest are 
 meerschaum, plunder, poodle, swindler, waltz, and Dutch 
 (=: Deutsch) ; others are fuchsia, hock (a wine), landau 
 (from place-name), mesmenze (person-name + z're ; § 195), 
 and zinc. 
 
 (rt) Technical philological words (Germany being the ci-adle of 
 scientific philology) very recently borrowed sometimes appear in
 
 22 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 22, D 
 
 English, but are scarcely adopted as English words : e.g. Umlaut 
 f§ 63), Ablaut (§ 61). 
 
 {h) Others of High German origin have reached us at different 
 times mainly through French, in which there is a considerable 
 number of such words: e.g. y«y, marshal, riches, &c. Dollar , wise- 
 acre are High German words come to us via Dutch. 
 
 § 23. ROMANCE. 
 
 (Including" also words taken directly from Latin 
 and words coined on the model of Latin or Romance 
 words already naturalised.) 
 
 (A) Latin (i.) of the First Period (see § 12). 
 
 (a) Continental Borrowings. — More than a hundred 
 words of Latin (or Latinised Greek) origin are common 
 to Old English and other contemporary Teutonic dialects. 
 Of these, however, not all were borrowed by the English 
 before their emigration. The following words can be 
 shown to belong to the Continental period: arh (<L. area), 
 drake in dral-e^j ( < L. draco), inch (<0.E. ynce with 
 mutation from L. uncia), hitchen (Low L. coquina), mile 
 (<L. milia), mnit (<L. moneta), pea ( <Ij. pisum), pepper 
 (<Jj. piper), pit (<L. putens), post (<L. postis), potmd 
 (< L. poiido [indecl.], not from pondtis), Satiirday 
 (<L. Satnrni dies), street (<L. strata via), icall 
 ( <L. vallum). 
 
 (b) Sorrowed in England before 600 A.D. — Place- 
 names in -Chester, -caster, -cester (e.g. Chester, Cirencester^ 
 Ijancaster : <L. castrum), -coin in \jva.coln (<L. colonia) ; 
 also copor (<Low L. cuprum), pear (<L. pirum), port 
 ( < L. portus), provost ( < L. praepositus) . 
 
 (c) Probably borrowed before 600 A.D., but 
 whether on the Continent or in England is 
 uncertain. — Coivl ( < L. cucullus), fever ( < L. fehris), pine 
 {<1j. poena). 
 
 (ii.) Borrowed after 600 A.D. — Altar, candle, cook 
 ( < L. coquus), creed (< L. credo), disciple, mass 
 (<L. missa), mm (<L. nonna), noon (<L. iiona hora).
 
 § 23, 1)J SOURCES OF ITS VOCABULARY. 23 
 
 temple (<L. teynplum), and several of Greek origin (see 
 § 24, below). 
 
 Of less cei-tain date are: chalk ( < LraZc-e»i), cheese 
 (<L. cm^e-us), lake ( < L. hicuf!). 
 
 All the above are nouns: verbs are offtr ( < L. offerre), 
 prove (< L. jirohnre), impend ( < L. dispendere) . Crisp 
 (<L. crispus) is the only surviving adjective cei-tainly of 
 Latin origin ; but leivd (O.E. Ixiced) may be from Low L. 
 laicns. 
 
 (a) We may note here, among words taken directly from Latin, a few 
 nouns taken mainly in quite modem times without change of form — 
 these are mostly technical and scientific : appendij:, axis, formiiln, 
 fiin^Ks, index, memorroi'lion, series. 
 
 (B) Prencli. 
 
 (i.) From Norman- French as spoken in England (Anglo- 
 French) : § 14. 
 
 (ii.) From Continental French, and coinages from Latin 
 on the model of French words naturalised in English, as: 
 discussed in §§ 15-16. 
 
 (iii.) Fi'om modern French (since about 1660). Here the 
 Continental pronunciation of the symbols is fi^equently a 
 guide : cp., for example, the sound of ch in champagne 
 and in chamber; other instances are amateur, campaign, 
 critique, ennui, etiquette (but of Germanic origin : a doublet 
 of ticket), connoisseur, restaurant, rouge, trousseau. 
 
 (C) Italian. 
 
 The major part of the vocabulary of music : duet, con- 
 tralto, opera, piano, prima donna, quartet, quintet, semihreve, 
 solo, sonata, soprano, trio, &c. Also canto and stanza, 
 broccoli, cupola, dado, dilettante, ditto, macaroni, manifesto, 
 motto, stiletto, umbrella, volcano. 
 
 (D) Spanish : armada, flotilla, commodore, stevedore, 
 comrade, domino, duenna, flamingo, merino, mosquito, iiegro, 
 peccadillo, punctilio, quadroon, tornado, vanilla, &c. Sherry 
 is from a Spanish place-name (Xeref:). 9io j^ort (wine) is 
 from the Portuguese Oporto ; other Fortugnese words are 
 caste, moidore, molasses, pimento, fetish, parasol.
 
 24 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§24 
 
 § 24. Greek. 
 
 (i.) Via Latin in Old English (see §§12, 23, A above) : 
 these ai-e mostly woi^ds connected with the Church, Scrip- 
 ture, &c. : examples are alms (shortened from O.E. eehnesse 
 
 < ecclesiastical L. alimosina < Gk. iXerjfxoo-vvrj), anthem 
 ( < L. antiphona < Gk. avTLcf)u)vr) — ''^ antip]w}/e'' is its 
 doublet), apostle (<L. apostokis < Gk. dTrdo-ToXos) , bishop 
 (L. episcopus < Gk. i-n-L-aKOTros, " over-seer ") and arch- 
 hishojJ {arch =: G]i. ap^i-, "chief"), canon ( < Gk. kovwv, 
 "a rule"), clerk (<L. chricus < Gk. kXtjpiko? < ^X-^pos, 
 "portion"), deacon ( < L. diaconus < Gk. StuKoios, 
 "servant"), devil (<L. diabolus < Gk. Sia/3oXos, "slan- 
 derer "), martyr (< Gk. fxdprvp, " witness "), 7ninster 
 {<Jj. monasterium < Gk. ixovao-Trjpiov < p.6vo<;, "alone": 
 inonastery is a doublet through French), monk (< L. 
 7nonachtis < Gk. /xova^os </xovos), pope (O.E. papa <L. 
 papa < Gk. Trd-n-ira^, " father" : a doublet of ^opa). 
 
 Others are anchor, hittter, cofper (< Gk. Kvirpos, 
 " Cyprus "), dish (Gk. 8to-/<os : its doublet is disc), pepper. 
 
 t (a) For explanation of the term "doublet " see § 74, b. Of the 
 above ■words biskoj), bnfter, devil, dish, pepper belong to the Continental 
 period, and copper to the first period in England. Church (O.E. cyrice 
 
 < KvpiaKa, neuter plural of KvpiaK6s, " belonging to the lord " — Kvpios) 
 cannot have come through the Latin. It was probablj- borrowed from 
 Gothic, though it does not occur in existing remains of that language. 
 Prieat, which has been supposed to come from ■wpea^vTepos, in defiance of 
 phonology, is probably from L. prae- or p7-o-jMsitus. O.E. engel, 
 " angel," belongs to the Continental period. Mod. English awyeHs not 
 from this, but from the O. French mujele. 
 
 (ii.) Besides these classes, Greek words which passed into 
 Latin share the fortune of Latin words, and therefore reach 
 us through French (as well as occasionally through other 
 Romance languages) just as Latin words do (§§ 14-16) : 
 examples are (A.-F.) astronomy, haptize, hible, and (Con- 
 tinental French) philosopher (0 .Y . philosoph e -\- r . Compare 
 chorister : F. choriste), sophism, &c. Further, Greek has 
 been constantly used and is used still for the purpose of 
 coining words (in French or in English) i-eferring to the 
 sciences and arts, the model of established words being
 
 § 25] SOURCES OP ITS VOCAIiULAKY. 25 
 
 genei'ally fallowed — examples (whose derivation presents 
 no difficulty to any one with an elementary acquaintance 
 with (Ireek) are (irrhieohxjii, psijchohxjij, sijiifJu'sis, tliermo- 
 meter, telephone, phoiioyraph, chiromancy, &c. 
 
 ((/) A few words of Greek origin whose etymologies are not at all 
 obvious at first sight are worth noticing : fihnne is a doublet of bhu- 
 pheme, slander of ncandnl, po/xi/ of parali/niK, f«»c>j of pha)itaxij 
 (see § 74, b) ; dropsy is shortened for hydropsy < Gk. vhpoo^ < SSwp. 
 " water " ; frenzy or phrenzy is the Gk. cppfi^-qcris < <ppi]v (stem (ppiv-), 
 "heart"; govern < F. yoitverner < L. gtihernare < Gk. icvfiepyau, 
 " to steer " ; surgeon was formerly chirnrgeon < F. cJiirurgicn 
 
 < F. ehirurgie, " surgerj'," < Gk. x^'powpYto, " hand- working " 
 
 < x*'P> " hand " + (pyfiv, "work " ; pk(cea.nd plate are both (through 
 French and Latin) from Gk. -nXarvs, "broad" — the first from fcin. 
 TrXoTela, Lat. platea, the second from Med. Lat. phda ; ink is the Lat. 
 encftiislKin < tyKava-ros, " burnt in." 
 
 t(i) The following points are noticeable with regard to the custom- 
 ary transliteration of Greek words. ' (rough breathing) > /*. 
 ^ and the second p oi pp > rh (pron . r). k > c. y before y, k, x > >' 
 (pron. ng). > th (pron. as in thin), (p > ph (pron. /). x > '"'' 
 (pron. /c). I > X (pron. ; initially). \p > ps {p silent initially). 
 u > y, but av > (IK, ev > en, ov > u. ai > X or c, ot > w or e, ei > ci 
 (pron. () or c or (". i subscript is not represented. 
 
 § 25. Celtic. 
 
 (i.) In O.K., and presumably learnt from the Britons 
 (§ 12) ; there seem to be but very few : examples are 
 bannock ("cake"), brock ("badger," tolerably common as 
 person-name), crock ("pitcher"), dun (colour). 
 
 (ii.) Borrowed (mainly in comparatively modern times) 
 from Irish, Scotch, Welsh, &c. : e.g. (Erse) bog, brogue, 
 banshee, fun, lough, shamrock, shillelagh, spalpeen, tory, 
 usquebaugh or whiskey; (Gaelic) cairn, claymore, crag, 
 gillie, glen, loch, macintosh (from person-name), slogan, 
 sporran; (Cymric) jia7i7iel, coracle, kick. 
 
 Add to these, of course, many names of natural features 
 (notably rivers and mountains) in England, and the bulk 
 of Welsh, Irish, and Scotch proper names : Britain, Thames. 
 Lomond, Aberystwyth, Mackenzie, O'Flaherty.
 
 26 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 25, a 
 
 t(«) Further, we must remember that French retained some words 
 from the Celtic vocabulary when this generally gave way to the 
 Romance, and learned a few others perhaps at later times ; hence 
 several words which have reached us through French are to be re- 
 garded as of Celtic origin : e.g. car, and its derivatives career, 
 carry, charge, chariot. 
 
 § 26. Otliei" Indo-European Sources (see § 4). 
 
 Slavonic. — Russian are drosky, rouble, steppe, and ukase (we 
 use the Russian czar just as ws do the German kaiser in English, 
 but both these are of Latin origin < Caesar) ; knout is taken by us 
 from Russia, but is originally Scandinavian. Other Slavonic words 
 are slave (properly " a Slav," " Slavonian," used as a term of degrada- 
 tion, because the name of a conquered race) ; cravat (people-name 
 = Croatian) ; polka (= Folish dance), mazurka (= Masovian dance). 
 
 Persian. — Among the earliest in English are: (i.) Chess and its 
 derivatives and terms: check, exchequer, rook, hazard, (ii.) Oriental 
 plants, &c. : orange, lemon, peach, myrtle, lilac, (iii.) Scarlet, azure ; 
 bazaar, caravan, divan, ttirban, turquoise; satrap, dervish, pasha, 
 khedive, parsee, hourt , peri ; magic. 
 
 Sanskrit, Hindoo, &c. — A few are old in English : e.g. pepper 
 {via Greek and Latin in O.E.), nard (in Wiclif's Bible), sugar (in 
 fourteenth century, t'ia French, &c.); others are banyan, indigo, musk ; 
 camphor, candy; carmine, crimson, lake (colour). Direct borrowings 
 from India date from the middle of the eighteenth century, and are 
 now (owing to our interest in Anglo-Indian doings) apparently on 
 the increase : bangle, chintz, chutney, loot, rajah, punkah, shampoo, are 
 examples. But some of these latter are possibly loan words in 
 Hindoo and not of Indo-European origin. 
 
 § 27. N'on-Indo-European. 
 The Semitic is the only non-Indo-European element of importance : 
 
 (i.) Hebrew (with Aramaic, Syriac, Phoenician, &c.) : nearly all 
 via the Scriptures. A few are quite common (mostly early, through 
 L.-Gk. or F.-L.-Gk.) in non- scriptural parlance: alphabet, abbot, 
 balm, camel, delta, elephant, iota and Jot ( < Iwra), jubilee, sajjphire, 
 shibboleth ; others are alleluia, amen, cherub and seraph, hosanna.
 
 § 2G] SOURCES OF ITS VOCAIiULAKY. 27 
 
 hi/ssop, Uviathnr), maiuxi, mammo/i, Messiah, rnbbi, pharisee and 
 nadducee, sahbuth, shekel. 
 
 From Hebrew proper names are (besides Hebrew, Judith, Jew, 
 Man/, Martha, &c.) bedlam {< Bethlehem), Jesuit ( < Jesiix), lazar 
 (= "leper" < Lazarus), maudlin (\.e. Ma(/dale7te < Ma ff da la), simony 
 ( < Simoii, who " offered them money " for the Holy Ghost), damaxk 
 ■dnidam/ion (< Damasiuts und adj. Damascenus). 
 
 (ii.) Arabic (often through mediaeval Spanish and French — the 
 '• al " in these words is the prefixed definite article) : ali/ebra, 
 alcohol, alkali, alcove, alkoran or koran ; so alchemy (where -chemy is 
 Gk.) ; ameer, emir, admiral (Latinised form of ameer) ; amber, attar or 
 otto (of roses), coffee, yazclle, hookah, jaiper, lute, myrrh, nitre, saffron, 
 iherbet ; cipher, nadir, zenith, zero; caliph, harem, mayazine, Moslem (or 
 Mussulman and Islam), mosque, sultan, sheik. 
 
 Add from proper names Mahometan, Saracen. 
 
 Other Non-Indo-European elements are many, but unim- 
 portant : 
 
 (i.) Magyar (spoken in Hungary) : hussar, tokay (from place name), 
 shako {via French). 
 
 (ii.) Turkish: bosh is the only quite common one ; others arc 
 ottoman (from person-name), yrtr«!N«rt)y, bey, caviare. Notice that sultan, 
 vizier, and others that might be expected to be Turkish are of Arabic 
 origin. 
 
 (iii.) Tartar : khan, tartar, Turk. 
 
 (iv.) From Indian place-names come calico, cashm&re. Bengali : 
 tom-tom [onomatopceic : j 19 (vi.)]. Dravidian (Malayalim, Telugu, 
 Tamil, &;c.) : betel (nut), areca, teak, cheroot, cooly, pariah. Malay: 
 amuck, bamboo, ourany-outang, sago, upas (tree). Java : bantam (from 
 place-name) ; so gamboge from Cambodia. 
 
 (v.) China: china ; tea, with bohea (from place-name), congou, hyson, 
 oolony, pekoe, souchong; perhaps also silk (through L. and Gk.) and 
 serge (F.-L.-Gk.). Japan: japan (vb. and noun). Tibet : lama (high 
 priest). 
 
 (vi.) Australian: kangaroo, boomei-ang. Polynesian: taboo, tattoo. 
 
 (vii.) Africa— (rt) Egypt : gypsy (shortened from Egyptian), ibis, 
 oasis [J 24 (i.)]. {b) Barbary : barb. Morocco: morocco. Canary 
 Isles: canary. Gold Coast, &c. : chimpanzee, gorilla, guinea.
 
 28 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 26 
 
 (viii.) America — {a) N. Am. Indian : hominy, mocassin, pemican, 
 skunk, squmv, tomahawk, wigwam. ijj) Mexican (through Sp.) : 
 cocoa, chocolate, tomato. (c) W. Indian : cannibal (from Caribbean), 
 canoe, hurricane, mahogany, maize, potato, tobacco, (d) S. Am. lan- 
 guages (mainly through Sp., Peruvian, and Brazilian) : ipecacuanha, 
 guano, pampas, tapioca, quinine; alpaca, jaguar, Zfowia (sheep); puma,, 
 tapir. 
 
 t {a) Among non-Indo-European words must be classed hemp, for- 
 merly supposed to come from Greek Kwua^is. This derivation is 
 forbidden by the sound-shifting (cp. § 44) in hemp. The word may 
 have been originally Scythian. In any case hemjj and Kavva^i^ are 
 derived from a common source.
 
 •i!» 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Alphabet and thi: Sounds of English. 
 
 § 28. A Letter is a symbol employed to represent 
 a speech sound or combination of speech sounds. The 
 letters used in English ai'c those of the Latin alphabet 
 together with the symbol tv. 
 
 («) The alphabet common to all the Teutonic nations was the Eunit 
 (O.E. run, "mystery"). This was brought into England by the 
 Angles and Saxons, as is shown by inscriptions (e.g. that on the Ruth- 
 well Cross in Dumfriesshire). It was succeeded in the seventh century 
 by the Latin alphabet introduced by Christian missionaries from Rome 
 and lona, the form used by the latter being that current in Ireland, 
 the metropolis of caligraphy in that age. For two sounds not to be 
 accurately represented by the Latin letters the English continued to 
 use Runic characters : these wore j' (won, =ir) and \> (thorn, =th,(lh) ; 
 a new symbol 5 (eth, = \>) was formed from the Latin d ; these 
 gave way to «•, th after the Conquest, and disappeared in M.E. The 
 sign y or ye for "the" sometimes seen in pseudo-archaic style is 
 a blunder tor the old " t>e," i.e. " the" — of course it was pronoimced 
 the, not yi. Similarly " H " was written for " that." 
 
 {b) The symbol J is simply a variant of i, which arose from the 
 fashion of writing that letter with a tail {i, [j) in certain combinations ; 
 it was not employed as a character representing a sound altogether 
 distinct from i till the middle of the seventeenth century. 
 
 (c) The symbol v is a variant of ii ; both began to be used as conson- 
 ant as well as vowel signs in the M.E. period, generally representing 
 O.E. /(= v) as well as O.E. n in English words, the two forms it and 
 r beiny merely tuo 2cays of writing the same letter (just as some write i 
 and others r nowadays).
 
 30 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 28, fZ 
 
 {d) The symbol w (= in form rv, uh — i.e. "double m ") is merely 
 the M.E. substitute (due to the Anglo-French scribes) for the old 
 Runic character ; the sound has remained unchanged. 
 
 {e) The symbol q in the combination qu was introduced in French 
 words in the M.E. period, and gradually supplanted the equivalent 
 O.E. combination ctv : e.g. qi(ce)i = O.E. civen ; under the same 
 influence c, which had only a k sound in O.E. (which used k very 
 sparingly), took over the French s sound before e, i, y in foreign 
 words, k replacing it in the same positions in native words. 
 
 (/) The letter 3 [ = 2/-sound initially; in other positions it was a 
 guttural or palatal spirant, according as a back or front vowel preceded 
 it (see § 35, 36), except where it stood, by confusion of form, for z\ 
 was also employed in M.E. ; the symbol is a variant of g. 
 
 [cf) The Anglo-Saxons used each letter of the Latin alphabet to 
 denote the English sound nearest to that which the letter represented 
 in Latin as pronounced by the Celts. This (which did not differ 
 widely from the Italian pronunciation of Latin) gives " Continental " 
 values as the original sounds denoted by the English vowels «, e, «, o, m, 
 which were sounded nearly as those of fffther, f«te, machine, note, rwle 
 respectively, with corresponding short sounds. 
 
 (A) The Latin alphabet had taken the letters x, y, z from the Greek, 
 using the last two only in transliterating Greek words, for which 
 purpose y did duty for Greek v. 
 
 («■) The word alphabet, the name given to the whole of the letters 
 used in anj^ one language, is from the Greek alpha, beta (the first two 
 letters), terms of Semitic origin. 
 
 § 29. Speech Sonnds are divided into 
 
 Consonants, sounds formed by stopping or squeezing 
 the breath in some part of the mouth or throat. 
 
 Vowels (or Sonants), sounds formed without such 
 stoppage of the breath. Hence, roughly speaking, 
 a vowel (e.g. o, i) can be sounded alone ; a con- 
 sonant (e.g. h, d) cannot. 
 
 Diphthongs are formed by the union in one utterance of 
 two vowels, the sound being produced at the moment 
 of passing from one to the other. Both vowels 
 however cannot be sonant : either the first or the 
 second will be merely consonant.
 
 § 30] SOUNDS AND SYMHOLS. 31 
 
 («) Organs of Speech. — Speech sounds are produced by the 
 expulsion of breatli from the lungs and the treatment by the organs of 
 speech of the breath thus expelled. The air is driven through the 
 windpipe to the larynx situated at its upper extremity ("Adam's 
 apple," the projection which moves up and down when one swallows, 
 marks its position); it is in the larynx that "voice" is formed. 
 Across it stretch two elastic ligaments called the vocal cords, 
 between which is an opening called the glottis, which can be nar- 
 rowed or closed at will. The vocal cords are set vibrating by 
 the breath passing into the larynx, and these vibrations produce 
 voice. 
 
 [To realize the exact position of the glottis attempt to sound the 
 letter h without a following vowel : the spot where you feel the breath 
 squeezed is the glottis. In forming other consonants (in English) the 
 breath is stopped or squeezed after it has passed the larynx.] 
 
 Speech sound, being formed in the larynx by the vibrations of the 
 vocal cords under the action of breath, is modified and differentiated 
 by the action of lips, tongue, teeth, palate. The palate consists of 
 a hard and a soft part, as can easily be felt b}' moving the tip of the 
 tongue along the roof of the mouth from the teeth backwards ; 
 the back part of the soft palate is the "uvula," which can be moved 
 backwards and forwards ; in ordinary breathing it lies forward, and so 
 allows the breath to pass through the nose, and this is its position in 
 forming the sounds called nasal («, m, ng, which we cannot pronounce 
 if we have such a cold in the nose as to prevent the passage of the 
 breath through it) ; it is pressed back, thus closing the nose passage, 
 in the production of all other sounds. 
 
 § 30. Consonantal Sounds are divided into 
 
 Stops (or Checks, Mutes, Shut Sounds, Explosives), in 
 forming' which the breath is entirely stopped for 
 a time, being released again with an explosion. 
 These are the sounds generally represented by^, h ; 
 t, d; k, (J (as in go). 
 
 Continuants (or Spirants, Open Sounds, Fricatives), in 
 forming whicli the breath is only squeezed, so 
 that the sound -can be prolonged by merely con- 
 tinuing the breath. These are the sounds genex'ally 
 represented by/, c ; fh (in fhin), th (in then:
 
 32 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 30 
 
 phonetically dli) ; s, z\ sli, s or z in pleasure, azure 
 (= zli) ; y {young') ; 7i, «-^ as in lohite ; and 
 w (z(;e). 
 
 N^ASALS (or " !N"ose " Sounds), viz., in, w, ?^^, wWcli corre- 
 spond exactly to h, d, g, the breath in forming them 
 being stopped by the lips, teeth, and soft palate 
 respectively. On the other hand the passage 
 through the nose is left free. 
 
 Liquids (" flowing "), which form a group between Stops 
 and Continuants, partially obstructing the breath, 
 but not closing it entirely (as stops), nor leaving it 
 an entirely free though contracted passage (as con- 
 tinuants) : these are Z, r (roll). 
 
 The Nasals, m and n, and the Liquids, as having the 
 power to form syllables by themselves, are also called 
 
 Sonants ; cp. prism, hitt{e)n, struggle, hutt{e)r. 
 
 § 31. c, j, q, X. — Four consonantal symbols are not 
 mentioned in the last paragraph because they do not 
 represent simple consonantal sounds not otherwise re- 
 presented. 
 
 c when it stands before e, t, y is equivalent to the 
 sound usually represented by s : cp. city and set, Cyrus 
 and siren, cell and sell ; but when c stands before a, o, u 
 it represents the sound otherwise represented by h : 
 e.g. cat, kill. The combination ch (as in church) is equi- 
 valent to t + sh (stop -f continuant) ; ch (as in Christ) = k. 
 
 j is the soft sound (§ 32) corresponding to ch as in 
 church, and is equivalent to d + zh (zh being the sound 
 heard in .pleasure) — this sound is represented sometimes 
 by g (before e, i), as in gentle, giu; sometimes by -dg 
 when medial and -dge when final : e.g. jurf^ing, judge. 
 
 q is only used in English before u, and is then equivalent 
 to k : i.e. qu=: kiv. 
 
 x=-k + s (as in box) or g+z (as in examine). 
 
 § 32. Consonantal sounds are further classified as soft
 
 § 32, f] SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS. 33 
 
 (voiced) and hard (voiceless) ; the following can be 
 ai'ranged in pairs: — • 
 
 Hard. Soft. Hard. Soft. 
 
 {th (thin) dh (then) 
 *7 7/7 X 
 
 sh zh(pleasure) 
 
 hw to 
 
 Except h, the other consonants (viz. the liquids and 
 consonantal y) are generally voiced (soft) in English. 
 
 (a) For " hard," " voiceless," the terms " sharp," " surd," 
 " tenuis," are sometimes used ; and similarly for " soft," " voiced," 
 the corresponding terms "flat," " sonant," " media" are employed. 
 We use ' ' hard " and "soft " throughout this hook as the most easily 
 comprehended. 
 
 {b) " The consonants j;, t, k, &c., are called ' hard,' whilst b, d, g, 
 &c., are called 'soft,' because in p, t, k there is a more forcible 
 explosion of the breath. But this is not the most important point of 
 difference between these two classes of consonants. The essential 
 difference can be more easily appreciated if we study some of the open 
 consonants or continuants. Take, for instance, s and z and prolong 
 them. The sound of s, or hissing, is evidently formed by the breath 
 ill the mouth ; but in the prolonged z, or buzzing, ajaint sound of 
 tyioe, formed in the larynx, is distinctly heard at the same time. And 
 the same thing may be very well observed in prolonging /and r. . . . 
 The essential difference between the hard and soft consonants is, there- 
 fore, that the hard consonants are simply formed by the breath (hence 
 called ' breathed ' or ' voiceless '), whilst in the soft consonants there 
 is a faint sound of voice (hence called ' voiced '). They are midway 
 between the consonants and the vowels." — Miss Soames's Introduction 
 to the Studi/ nf Phonetics . 
 
 (c) " The main distinction between vowels and consonants is that 
 while in vowels the mouth configuration merely modifies the voiced 
 breath — which is, therefore, an essential element of them — in con- 
 sonants the narrowing or stopping of the mouth passage is the 
 foundation of the sound, and the state of the glottis is something 
 secondary. Consonants can therefore be breathed as well as voiced, 
 the mouth configuration alone being enough to produce a distinction 
 without the help of ' voice.' " — Sweet's I'rimcr of Phonetics. 
 
 E. L. D
 
 84 
 
 THE ENCxLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 [§ 33 
 
 § 33. Consonantal sounds are further classified accord- 
 ing to the organs of speech which give them their 
 distinctive character. Thus, in producing p, h, the breath 
 is stopped by closing the lips, whence these are called 
 " lip-stops " or " labials " (L. lalnnm. " lip ") ; in f, d 
 the bi-eath is stopped at the root of the upper teeth, 
 whence these are called " dentals " (L. dent-, " tooth ") ; 
 th, dh are produced with the tongue between the teeth, 
 whence they are dental letters distinguished from other 
 dentals by being called '' intei'-dentals " ; k, g are " throat 
 stoj)S " or " gutturals " (L. guttur, "throat"). The upper 
 teeth and lower lip come in contact to produce /, v, 
 whence these letters are " labio-dental " ; h is formed 
 by squeezing the breath in the glottis (§29, a) ; in sh, 
 zh (pleasure), y, the blade or broad part of the tongue is 
 pressed against the palate. The whole classification of 
 the consonantal sounds appears in the following table : — 
 
 § 34. 
 
 1 
 
 
 ii3 
 
 3 
 g 
 
 n 
 
 "3 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 STOPS : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hard 
 
 P 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 k 
 
 — 
 
 Soft 
 
 b 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 NASALS 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 ncj 
 
 
 LIQUIDS 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 r 
 
 
 CONTINUANTS : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hard 
 
 Jnv 
 
 / 
 
 th 
 
 s 
 
 sh,y 
 
 — 
 
 h 
 
 Soft 
 
 M' 
 
 V 
 
 dh 
 
 z 
 
 zh 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 The sounds s, z, sh, zh, and the compounds ch, j, are known as 
 " sibilant," i.e. " hissing " (pres. part, of L. sibilare, "to hiss ").
 
 § 37] SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS. 35 
 
 >■ is somotimes called a trill. 
 
 if, 1/ (as in ire, i/c) an; Hometimes called "semi-vowels " or " semi- 
 consonants." 
 
 § 35. We see fioui the preceding table that we have 
 twenty-three consonant souncLs, and tliat we have only 
 twenty-one symbols, oF wliich fonr (c, j, q, a\ § 31) do not 
 represent sonnd.s which could not be expre.ssed by the 
 othei^s. The disproportion between our vowel-symbols 
 and vowel-sounds is, however, far g'reater; for with the 
 six symbols a, e, i, o, it, and ij we have to represent many 
 times that number of vowels. 
 
 § 36. The following words give twelve simple vowel 
 sounds commonly heard : — 
 
 Long. Short. 
 
 father fat 
 
 fate ' fetch 
 
 feet fit 
 
 fought ^ fop 
 
 foavi ^'"'^' -^; ^o) ftm 
 
 fool foot 
 
 (a) Mr. Pitman's memorial sentences for these sounds will be 
 familiar to students of his Phonograpliy. They are (long) "Half -pay 
 she thought so poor," and (short) "That pen is not much good." 
 
 § 37. A very common vowel sound is that heard in 
 the second S3-Ilable of better, villa, cupboard, or the first 
 syllable of grammarian, attend, verandah. This is some- 
 times called " the obscure vowel," " the neutral vowel," 
 or "the natural vowel." It only occurs in unaccented 
 syllables, and may often be heard in such words as but, 
 and, or, was, what, a, when used unemphatically in sen- 
 tences. The accented vowel nearest it in sound is heard 
 in but (accented), bun, one, &c. A long accented vowel 
 corresponding (or almost corresponding) to it is heai'd in 
 heard, urn, colonel. 
 
 Final r is never sounded in southern English as a consonant except 
 before a word beginning with a vowel (cp. " Hai/- grows fast" and 
 "The hair of the head," fire and fiery), and not always then. Its
 
 36 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 37 
 
 place is generally taken by the obscure vowel, so that in such words 
 as hare, here, roar, &c., we have really diphthongs, of which this 
 obscure vowel (usually denoted by phoneticians by 3 — i.e. a turned e) 
 is the second element. 
 
 § 38. The following woi'ds contain four of the com- 
 monest diphthongal sounds : — 
 
 fme [a (as in fatJiei-) + t (as in /i^)]. 
 found [« (as in father) + ^ (as in put)^. 
 ioist \_aw (as in Imv) +t (as in fit j']. 
 iume \_i (as in fit) + 00 (as in fool)]. 
 
 It mnst be noticed that the word " diphthong" applies 
 solely to the sound, and not to the symbol or symbols, 
 which in English are most misleading. 
 
 {a) Thus we see that single symbols represent diphthongs in 
 iuming, finer; on the other hand, simple vowel-sounds are often 
 represented by a combination of letters, as in sheai, key, feet, niece, 
 deceive (all having the same vowel as she, machine), in brmd (cp. pen), 
 boot, foot (cp. p?'t), &c. 
 
 § 39. In a perfect or ideal alphabet we should have 
 one and only one symbol for each simple sound in the 
 language, and this, as we have seen, is far from being the 
 case with us. Our twenty-six letters have to represent 
 twenty-three consonant sounds and at least thirteen 
 simple vowels. 
 
 (fl) But, it must be remembered, there are in reality a very much 
 larger number of vowel sounds than it would be practicable to 
 represent by separate symbols (to say nothing of diphthongs) ; for 
 shades of difference between what appear to be to the untrained ear 
 identical vowel sounds are easily discoverable by the phonetician. 
 
 § 40. Our Spelling. — It follows from the nature of the 
 case that our system of spelling could not be altogether 
 phonetic (i.e. having sounds and symbols consistently 
 corresponding) unless we were to add considerably to the 
 number of our letters. It is not, however, paucity of 
 symbols that mainly gives rise to the extraordinary
 
 §40, />] SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS, 'M 
 
 anoiuulies of our spelliiij^, ])ut the inconsistent wiiy in 
 which we employ such symbols as we liave. As a common 
 example of the way in which a couple of different sounds 
 are represented by the same symbol, where we have 
 symbols enough to discriminate the sounds if we chose 
 to use them, we may instance the inflexional s which is 
 pronounced hai-d after a hard letter, but soft (^z, § 32) 
 after a soft one: thus ca^s (both hard), cahs (both soft); 
 similarly the inflexional d, -ed, e.g. hoped (:=p-\rt, both 
 hard), stabfcecZ (=b + d, both soft). On the other hand, 
 the instances given in §§ 31, 38, a, will illustrate oiu' 
 ways of using a variety of symbols to represent a given 
 sound. 
 
 (a) An explanation of many of the anomalies of our orthography 
 is afforded by the fact that, while our spelling- has changed little in 
 essentials during the last three centuries, our pronunciation has vastly 
 alten^d, so that the orthography is that of a now thoroughly archaic 
 English pronunciation which it never very adequately represented. 
 Spelling could be fixed and stereotyped, and this began to be done by 
 the Elizabethan printers ; but the language itself altered in the course 
 of nature. 
 
 (h) To give one or two more examples of the curiosities of our 
 orthography — the student will find others on examining any sentence 
 or group of words — we take (from ]Miss Soames's Fhonetics) the follow- 
 ing twentj'-one words which show the vowel heard in fate written in 
 twenty-one different ways : — frtt^, l«dy, inil, mtii/, flayed, drt//lia, 
 champagne, camp«!^n, atruiffJit, trait, hrt//pcnny, gwl, gai<ge, \cin, 
 thei/, brf«k, ek, oheycd, rcigu, vveigh, vreighcd. 
 
 On the other hand, the symbol <(■ represents a different sound in 
 each of the following words : father, fate, fall, fat, wan, organ, as 
 well as (in combination with other letters) in pea, foaitiy earth, care, 
 said, guinea. 
 
 Among consonantal symbols we may notice, besides some akeady 
 indicated, such anomalies as — 
 
 ch in churm (= tsh), chasm (= k), chaise (= sh), and schiatn (where it 
 is silent). 
 
 g in go (soft guttural stop), gentle {=j = d + zh, ^ 31), in -ling {-ng 
 nasal), in finger (where the -«^ = nasal ng + g as in go), and in the 
 
 ri;u493
 
 •^S THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 40, J> 
 
 combination -oitc/h as in thouc/h, boicgh, thoiujhl (in each of which it 
 has no trace of consonantal sound) and in cou(/h (cp. off), hiccough (cp. 
 Clip), roiKjh (cp. ri'ff'), howjh (cp. hock). 
 
 §41. "Etymological" Spellings. — Many misspell- 
 ings arise from false notions of etymology, sometimes clue 
 to mere confusion or analogy with other forms, sometimes 
 to a conscious but misdirected attempt to force a word to 
 show its origin by its form. Thus could, has been spelt 
 with an I to assimilate its form to those of should and 
 would ; but in these latter the I, though now unphonetic, 
 is a survival from the time when it was sounded ; in could 
 no I sound was ever heard (for could belongs to can, but 
 ivould, should to will, shall : see § 177). On the other hand, 
 debt, doubt, coming from French dette, doute, were properly 
 spelt in M.E. without the /) which they now have in 
 order that the connexion between them and the Latin 
 originals of the French forms {debit-um, dubif-are) might 
 be evident. The pa-tificial b made its appearance as 
 early as the thirteenth century, from which time till the 
 sixteentli century the spelling debte is occasionally found ; 
 since the sixteenth centiiry debt has been the fixed spell- 
 ing (N.E.D.). 
 
 (a) Instances of pedantic spellings such as doubt, debt are common ; 
 a few more may be considered. 
 
 Phantom is the M.'E.fantom < O.F. fantosmc (novrfantdme), ultimately 
 Gk. (pavTaaixa : it is of course from this last that the ph has been taken 
 for the / which should commence the English word ; but we have 
 kept the / in other words of the same origin, viz. fantasij (and its 
 shortened form fancij), fantastic. [Words of "learned" formation 
 coined from the same source properly keep the j»/i: e.g. phenomenon, 
 dia-phan-oii-:, si/cophan/ (Gk. tru/co- = " fig "), &c. ; the stem is that 
 of Gk. (paifeiv, " shew," " make to appear," (pd-eiv, "shine."] 
 
 Posthumous (also spelt postamous) owes its h to a fanciful ety- 
 mology connecting it with post, " after " + Am?w;<s, "ground" : it is 
 really the Latin superlative formed from post. The h is found in 
 French. 
 
 Receipt has the p of the stem (L. recepttun, re-cipere, capere), which 
 should have disappeared (F. recette) as it has in con-ceit, de-ceit, &c.
 
 § 41, h'] sni'Ni's AM' sy.Mnor,s. MO 
 
 Tho word rucipc (throo syllables) is simply the Lutin imperative 
 ( = " Take thou ") used as a noun owing to its standing regularly first 
 in formulas fur concoctions, &c. 
 
 tScriif is from tho F. sent-iy, L. xcnl-ire, " feel," and was formerly 
 written sent. Tho intrusive c is perhaps duo to analogy with ncience 
 (L. sricntin, xfirr, '• know "), with which of course it is unconnected : 
 several other words were thus misspelled with sc for n in tho seven- 
 teenth century, of which scythe and scion remain. [Sci/the stands for 
 older sitfie (O.E. *JiV, siySe : ep. Ger. Sense, O.G.II. segama) ; 
 the same root meaning "cut" appears in Lat. st^'-are, whence 
 sec-ant, insect, bisect, sick-le, scion. Sec. Scion appears in iI.E, as 
 sion, from O.F. sier, " to cut " (but Mod. Fr, writes scier, scion), 
 from L. seca)Y.'} 
 
 Sovereign owes the spelling of its last syllable to a supposed con- 
 nexion with "reign," L. regnum; it should rather be soveran (or 
 sovran, as Milton spells it) being from F. sonverain (older soverain), from 
 L.L. sKperanns, adj. formed from super, "above." The Italian 
 soprano, adopted into English, is a doublet of it, coming from the same 
 adjective. 
 
 Victuals owes its c to the L. victuaUa (victuin from vivere, " live "), 
 from which it is derived through the O.F. vitaillcs (Mod. F. vb. 
 avitniller) : the modern spelling disguises tho history, but the modem 
 pronunciation [vilt'/s) is correct. 
 
 (A) Other misspellings of words due to the influence of similar forms 
 (see could a,hovo) have as a rule followed from a " popular " etymology, 
 which, has altered its pronunciation as well (see "crayfish," "liveli- 
 hood," &c., in ^ r22, 124, c). 
 
 Eyry is so spelt by confusion apparently with JI.E. ey, " egg" (cp. 
 Ger. Ei) : the spelling ucry (nothing to do with aerial and air < Gk. 
 ai)p) shows a little more clearly its derivation from the L.L. area, 
 "nest." 
 
 Frontispiece owes tlic spelling of its final syllable and the pro- 
 nunciation of it to confusion with the word piece ; it should 
 rather be front ispice, from L.L. front i-spicium, where the second 
 element is from L. .-ipec-crr, "see" (stem of our spec-its, a-spec-t, 
 spcc-ial, Sec). 
 
 Island (in which the .v was never pronounced) has been influenced 
 in spelling by a natural tendency to connect it with tho word isle ; 
 but, whereas isle is O.F. isle (now He, L. insula), island is A.S. iy-land 
 (where ly means " island ").
 
 40 THK ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§41 
 
 Addendum. — The classification of sounds given above is all that 
 the ordinary learner will require : a scientific treatment of phonetics 
 is beyond the scope of this book. It may, however, be here noted 
 that, strictly speaking, the sound heard in fern, turn (§ 39, a) should 
 be added to the long simple vowel sounds (§ 36), and the obscure 
 vowel (§ 37) to the short ; while the sounds heard in fate and foam 
 {\ 36) should be transferred to the diphthongs (§ 38) : 
 
 fate [e (as in survey) + i (as in Jit)'], 
 foam [o (as in poke) + u (as in put)].
 
 41 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Consonantal Sound Shiktings (''Gkimm's Law," &c.). 
 
 § 42. Tres and Three. —Some of the most striking 
 characteristics wliich distiiiufuisli the Teutonic from tlie 
 other Indo-Kui'opean hinguagx\s appear in the way in 
 which the foi-mer ti-eated certain of the consonants. 
 For example, tlie In(h)-Knropean ]>, t, //, whicli were 
 preserved in the chissical hniguagos in pdfei-, lirs, (joma, 
 and in Trarrjp (pater), rpcts (treis), yo/os (genos), appear 
 in modern English as/, fh, k, in f(tf her, three, hin. 
 
 The student must clearly grasp the fact that none of 
 these words is "derived" from another: pater, Trajrjp, 
 father, all spring fi'om a common Indo-European source — 
 thej ai'e " cognate," i.e. related by birth to one another, 
 as children of the same parent, not as child and parent. 
 
 § 43. The consonants Ave are concerned with in this 
 chapter are the Indo-European stops or mutes and their 
 descendants in English and some other tongues. These 
 I.-E. stops may be conveniently classified as follows 
 (cp. § 32) :- 
 
 Aspirates 
 
 Soft. Hard. Soft. Hard. 
 
 Dentals d t dh th 
 
 Gutturals ff (as in 170) k gh kh 
 
 Labials h p bh ph 
 
 {a) The sounds given above as "aspirates" are not the xpirtinfs 
 (see § 30) heard in Mtc^-, this, enough, philosopher, &c., in English, 
 but combinations of /, d, p. Sec, with /(, or aspirated t, d, p, as
 
 42 THE RNOLISH LANr,rAGE. [§ 43, n 
 
 / heard iu the Irish brogue-pronunciation of tale, rlalc, pail, &c. : 
 if we put a vowel after them, we can sound them approximately 
 without much difficulty, pronouncing them almost as in pot-home, 
 mad-home, hloch-head, log-hut, loop-hole, club-house, but without an 
 interval before the aspirate, and of course without dropping the 
 aspirate as is usually done in Glaphani, Eltham, &c. [The fact that 
 we so drop it illustrates the reason why aspirated consonants have 
 
 I disappeared from English and other languages (Latin as well as the 
 Teutonic ones) : they were found difficult to pronounce.'] 
 
 [b) Of the sounds given above the aspirated hard mutes, viz. 
 th, Ich, ph, were of rare occurrence in Indo-European, and their 
 descendants in English need not further be discussed here. 
 
 t {c) In addition to the pure gutturals there were in Indo-European 
 two other series of mute consonants, viz. the palatals and the labio- 
 gutturals or velars, which are usually represented by modifications 
 of the letters Ic and (/. The palatals and a part of the labio- gutturals 
 became pure gutturals in the European languages, but some of the 
 labio -gutturals developed a iv after the guttural, some examples of 
 which still survive in English : e.g. in quick, O.E. civic, from I.-E. 
 iji(l ; cp. L. vic-tum, supine of «» fro. 
 
 § 44. Sound-sliifting. — [The origiual stops (see the 
 table iu § 48) were not all preserved unchanged in the 
 separate languages which spi-ang from the primitive 
 Indo-European tongue. One instance of this we have 
 just noticed (§ 43, c). The Asiatic members of the family 
 and Slavonic changed the palatal stops (§ 43, c) into 
 spirants. The soft aspirates were preserved pure only in 
 the Indian group. Greek changed these sounds into hard 
 aspirates and Latin into hard spirants (i.e. at the begin- 
 ning of words). Thus, I.-E. hJtero became Sanskrit 
 hliardmi (Modern Hindi hliarun), but Gk. ^ipm (^ =p4-/i) 
 and Lat. f('ro. On the other hand, Greek and Latin 
 preserved the unaspirated dentals, labials, and pure 
 gutturals intact.] 
 
 The most sweeping changes, however, were made by 
 Teutonic, which left none of the original stops the same, 
 and it is to this Teutonic transformation that the tei-ni 
 " sound-shifting " is particularly applied. The process 
 must have begun with the simple hard stops. These
 
 §45, r^] fJKIMM's r,A\V. U^ 
 
 became hard aspiiatc's, i.e. original /, A', p hccaiiif, I'c- 
 spectively, th, hit, />li. Tlien tliese liard aspirates, tof^ether 
 with both the liaid ami the soft as[)irates derived from 
 
 Indo-Eiiropoaii. lirciiinc spirants, oi' parlially open sounds. 
 Hence, 
 
 th, kh,ph became \> (= tk in thrci'), x (= ''^ hi Cicr. tic/i), 
 
 f; and 
 dh, i/h, bli became (S (= th in thai), i, (= <j in South Ger. 
 
 tagc), b (like r, but l)i-labial). 
 
 Lastly, the original sini[)l(' soft .stops became hard, i.e. 
 d, g, b became respectively /, A', p. 
 
 t § 45. Changes undergone by the Spirants in the 
 Teutonic and Subsequent Periods : Veruer's Law, 
 &c. 
 
 By the Teutonic period is meant the time intervening 
 between the separation of Teutonic from iTido-Europoan 
 and the break-up of Teutonic into the various languages 
 mentioned in Table II. on page 4. 
 
 Early Teutonic possessed the following spirants : — 
 
 Hard : /, ]', x, ■''■ Soft : b, S, j, z. 
 
 Of tliese .s and z were inherited from Indo-European ; the 
 others were first developed, as we have seen, in Teutonic 
 (cp. § 44) . 
 
 These spii-ants underwent important changes, partly 
 befoi-e, ])artly after, the sepai-ation of parent Teutonic 
 into particular languages. 
 
 ('/) Verner's Law.- In accordance witli a law lirst 
 enunciatcil by Kail \'crncr. Professor at Copenhagen, in 
 1877, the discovery of which is perhaps the most brilliant 
 achievement of modern philological science, many of the 
 originally hard spirants l)ecame soft in the first part of 
 the Teutonic pei'iod. Verner found that this change was 
 regulated by the position of the chief accent in the Indo- 
 European word. Eveiy hard spirant not initial or not 
 immediately preceded in Indo-Euiopean by an accented 
 vowel became soft in Teutonic. Thus, suppose there had
 
 44 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 45, (/ 
 
 been in early Tentouic a word fafaxasa]>aiii, derived from 
 an Indo-European papakasatam. This, according as the 
 chief accent fell on the first, second, third, fourth, or fifth 
 syllable, would have become in Teutonic 
 
 fahdxaza^am, 
 fa'ba'^dsa^ani, 
 
 fahcf^aza6dm. 
 
 It must be noted here that, as regards the accent itself, 
 a great change took place during the Teutonic period. 
 In Indo-Germanic no syllable of a word was necessarily 
 debarred from receiving the accent. In Teutonic the 
 root-syllable only could be accented. Every accent which 
 did not originally fall on the root-syllable was transferred 
 to it in Teutonic. This change took place after the 
 operation of Verner's law had been completed. Thus, in 
 the perfect tense singular number of a verb the Indo- 
 European accent was on the root-syllable, but in the 
 perfect tense plural and in the perfect participle it was 
 on the inflected syllable. Teutonic made the accent fall 
 on the root-syllable in each case. For example, in modern 
 English fdll-en the accent is on the root fall, but in Indo- 
 European it was on the last syllable of the termination 
 enus, from which the modern termination e« is derived. 
 
 t § 46. — (i.) A later change, the beginnings of which 
 probably took place whilst Teiitonic was still one lan- 
 guage, affected the soft spirants b, S, j, z, whether these 
 were primary in Teutonic, or secondary (i.e. developed 
 from the hard spirants in accordance with Verner's law). 
 Under certain conditions b and S lost their openness, and 
 became the stops h and cZ, viz., when initial, after nasals, 
 and when doubled. Thus b-, ??ib, bb became &-, m&, hh, 
 and similai'ly S-, ?iS, SS became tZ-, nd, dd. In O.E. 
 ■S became d in all positions ; b remained between vowels, 
 but was written / like the hard labial spirant. 
 
 The spirant 5 became g after nasals, and when doubled, 
 but remained spirant initially and so continued into and
 
 § 48] hrimm's r.AW. 45 
 
 tlnouj^li tlie O.K. jjci-ioil. In .NI.Iv it also became (j 
 initially when followed by the guttural vowels a, o, n. 
 
 Finally, the spirant z became r in all positions. 
 
 (ii.) The hui'd spirant ^ became the simple aspirate h 
 initially and between vowels. 
 
 (iii.) Between vowels, or betAveen >•, I and a vowel, the 
 hard spirants/, s, |> become soft {v, z, S) in O.E. 
 
 t § 47. 33y referring to the facts stated in §§ 44-46, 
 we can nndcrstand the isolation between the ap[)arentl\- 
 inconsistent forms r()Uple<l IjoIow, viz., between — • 
 
 (i,) seethe (pres. infinitive) and sodden (porf. part.), in (3.E. sio^an : 
 
 ioden. 
 (ii.) lose and -lorn [in forlorn), in O.Y,. forleosan : forloi-en. 
 
 (iii.) freeze slvl^ frore (Milton, P.L. ii. 505), in O.'Ei. friosan : froren. 
 (iv.) was and were, in O.E. u-ces : uxron (from *icez6)i). 
 (v.) deatJi and dead, in O.E. dia^S : dead (from an old participle 
 
 in -/o). 
 (vi.) brother and father, in O.E. hrd\>or {<ppdTr)p) : fa^dir {rrarrip). 
 Note that Ih in Mod.E. father dates only from the six- 
 teenth century, 
 (vii.) ffeese And fishes, in O.E. //is : fiscas. 
 (viii.) exit and exist, pronounced cksit, cgzist . 
 (ix.) Lat. corxu and horn (< *xorn <*khor»). 
 
 (x.) o/^' and (f, in O.E. c/ (adverb, accented) : of (preposition, un- 
 accented). 
 (xi.) this and his, is (= hiz, iz), this being usually accented, and his, 
 is usually unaccented. 
 
 § 48. Sound-shifting (continued) : Grimm's Law.— 
 Jacob Grimm, in tlic second edition uf his JJtutfiche 
 Grammatik (published 1822), first bi'ought the coiTe- 
 spondences, already observed by Rask, between certain of 
 the consonants in the classical languages and in the 
 Teutonic languages under general rules, and so prepared 
 the way for the modern moi'e exact explanation of the 
 processes of sound-shifting which has been given above.
 
 46 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 48 
 
 We may represent Grinim^s statement of liis law by the 
 
 following diagram : 
 
 wliicli we are to interpret tliu.s, starting from tenuis and 
 going I'oiTnd the circle : — 
 
 A classical tenuis corresponds to a Teutonic aspirate, 
 ,, aspirate ,, ,, media, 
 
 ,, media ,, ,, tenuis. 
 
 By an aspirate here is understood either (i.) Indo- 
 European stop+/i or (ii.) Teutonic spirant; and, again, 
 by media, either (i.) Indo-European soft stop or (ii.) Teu- 
 tonic soft spirant. 
 
 § 49. Examples of these correspondences are given in 
 § 51. They must be studied in conjunction with what 
 has been said in §§ 44-47. It must be noted also that 
 they are occasionally obscui'ed by sound changes which 
 have taken place since the O.E. period. Thus the initial 
 consonant of thou and fJiat, which is now soft, was prob- 
 ably still hard in the O.E. period. 
 
 + § 50. In the following section (§ 51) we examine the action of 
 the shifting process, as far as it concerns English, in some detail. 
 For original Indo-European Latin examples are taken where they 
 retain the original sound sufficiently clearly ; in other cases (notably 
 for the aspirated mutes) Greek forms are given. Examples from less- 
 known tongues, which often better preserve the original sound (e.g. 
 Sanskrit), are not adduced. Modern English forms are given in pre- 
 ference to older ones (or to other Teutonic forms) where they show 
 the sound discussed with sufficient clearness. In all the words cited,
 
 § 51, h] grimm's law. 47 
 
 our only business at present is with the particular sounds considered 
 as illustrative of the shif tings, and the question of their other relations 
 to one another is not entered into ; but the student is not to suppose 
 that the vowels in such forms are necessarily equivalent, still less that 
 they " don't count." If, for instance, we write h.ffraniim, Eng. com, 
 we merely state that from the same form or root originally containing 
 g come the Latin // in (/r(i>iii»i and the English /.• heard in corn. For 
 our purpose we may disregard hero entirely the Latin suffix, and the 
 difference in the form and position of the vowels. But we should 
 have no right to do so, if comparative philology had not shown us 
 that the history and development of those words justify us in referring 
 them back to a common prehistoric original. 
 
 t $ 51. Examples of Grimm's Law.— («) Dentals— 
 (i.) Original / (preserved in Greek and Latin) becomes in English th : 
 Gk. TpeTs, L. tres, Eng. three ; Gk. tu, L. (vl, Eng. (/ton ; Gk. t6, 
 L. is-te, Eng. t/mt ; Gk. (ppdrj^p, L. fra^er, Eng. bro^^er. 
 
 (ii.) Original aspirated dental dh (preserved as in Greek, /initial]}' 
 and ff medially in Latin) becomes (/ in English : Gk. Ot)- (root of 
 Ti-67)-;ui, 9i)-(7w), Eng. ifo; Gk. Qvydrijp, Eng. r/aughter ; Gk. Qvpa, 
 L. fores, Eng. r^or. 
 
 (iii.) Original f/ (preserved in Greek and Latin) becomes t in English : 
 Gk. 8uo, L. fhio, Eng. two ; Gk. ieKa, L. ^ecem, Eng. ^en ; Gk. Kaphla, 
 L. corrf-is (genitive shows the stem), Eng. hear< ; Gk. o-SoVt-oj, 
 L. rfent-em, Eng. <ooth ; L. \\dere, Eng. wo< ; L. edere, Eng. ea^ 
 
 (b) Gutturals— 
 
 (i.) Original Ji (preserved in Greek and Latin) becomes Ji (represent- 
 ing in primitive Teut. spirant x? pronounced much as ch in loc/i, 
 Ger. or Scot., ^ 4fi) initially, pronounced in O.E. as at present: Gk. 
 Kvuv, L. canis, Eng. /(ound; Gk. KapSia, L. cor, Eng, /ieart : Gk. 
 fKarSy, L. centum, Eng. /mndred, cp. § 147, b; L. caput, Eng. //ead 
 (O.E. heafod); L. can-ere ("sing"), Eng. hen (fem., cp. O.E. hana, 
 "cock"); Gk. Kf'pas, L. comu, Eng. horn ; L. cap-ere, Eng. /(eave; 
 L. (?uod, Eng. ;c/(at (= Incat). Medially and finally it was represented 
 in O.E. by It (pronounced like Ger. ch guttural spirant when final or 
 before a consonant; between vowels it disappeared in O.E.), which 
 generally disappears entirely from Mod. English, though the spelling 
 sometimes preserves traces of it : Gk. 5«'ko, L. decern, O.E. icon (for 
 ti/(an), now ten; L, duco, O.E. *teo//an (whence toic, tie) ; L. pecus, 
 O.E. feo/(, now fee. In some words there is now no trace of the
 
 48 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 51, h 
 
 original guttural, theO.E. h having disappeared initially from English 
 before I, r {\ 67) : Gk. kKvtos, L. (in)clutu8, " renowned," O.E. Aliid, 
 now hud; Gk. Kpias (flesh), L. crudus, O.E. Atebw, now raw. 
 
 (ii.) Original aspirated guttural gh (preserved as % in Greek ; in 
 Latin h initially, g, Sec, otherwise; cp. the Teutonic treatment of 
 Teutonic kh above, § 46) becomes g in English : Gk. x*^^"^) Eng. 
 ^all ; Gk. x^r, L. Aanser, Eng. goose (O.E. gos for gons for gans ; cp. 
 Ger. Gans) ; Gk. \6pTos, L. /tortus, Eng. ga.Td-en ; L. homo, Eng. 
 ^room (with intrusive r, O.E. gnma) ; L. Aoetis, Eng. ^uest. Medially 
 and finally the English guttural has frequently disappeared, though 
 sometimes leaving traces in thb spelling: Gk. jely^os (wall), Eng. 
 ^ough (O.E. da/(, stem dag- ; cp. Ger. Tei^) ; Gk. ttjjxvs, Eng. (el)bot<', 
 bour//i (O.E. boA, stem boy- ; cp. Ger. Boyen) ; Gk. Ae'x-os, L. lec-tua 
 (for ley-tus), " bed," Eng. He (O.E. licg-nn ; cp. Ger. lie^en). 
 
 (iii.) Original^ [pronounced as in go (preserved in Greek and Latin)] 
 becomes k in English : Gk. "yeV-os, L. gen-us, Eng. kin ; Gk. ayp6s, 
 L. a^er, Eng. acre; Gk. epyoy, Eng. worA- ; L. ^ranum, Eng. corn ; 
 L. ge\-u (frost), Eng. col-d ; L. auy-ere, Eng. eA;e ; Gk. (vySf, L. 
 ju-gam, Eng. yoke. We do not pronounce a k before an n in Mod. 
 English, though the spelling often represents the older pronunciation : 
 Gk. •<f6i'v, L. yenu, Eng. knee ; Gk. yt-yvu>cTKfiv, L. ^noscere (noscere), 
 Eng. kno-w. Final guttural has frequently disappeared in English, 
 so that the correspondence is often not apparent from the modern 
 language: Gk. iyd, L. e^o, Eng. /for O.E. ic (i.e. ik). 
 
 (c) Labials — 
 
 (i.) Original ji; preserved in Latin and Greek becomes /(the labio- 
 dental spirant now representing the Teutonic ph) in Mod. English : 
 Gk. iraTiip, L. ji^ater, Eng. /ather ; Gk. irovs (iroS-), L. ^es (ped-), 
 Eng. foot ; L. j^ecus, Eng. fee ; L. ^jiscis, Eng. fiab. ; L. juaucus, 
 Eng. few [with the guttural spirant corresponding to the L. c{k) 
 dropped in primitive Teutonic] ; Gk. jreAAa, L. pelViB, Eng. fell (a 
 skin). In set'en (O.E. seo/on) the consonant stands iov pt, L. se^^em, 
 Gk. eiTTo. 
 
 (ii.) Original aspirated labial bh (preserved as (p in Greek, in Latin 
 as/) becomes in English b : Gk. ^pdrrip, L. /rater, Eng. brother; 
 Gk. ^epco, L./ero, Eng. bear ; Gk. ^fvyai, L. /ugio, Eng. iow (verb); 
 The b thus produced has sometimes disappeared finally, but remained 
 in the spelling of Gk. ySfx^os, Eng. com*.
 
 ^ 52] orim.m's r,A\v. Mi 
 
 (iii.) UrigiiKil b, prfairvL-d in Greek and Latin ;ind torrtspondin^ 
 to an English p, is rarely found. Of its appearance thus initially 
 there are no examples— possibly there are no native English words 
 beginning with p \ midially and finally the letter appears often 
 enough in P^nglish words, but in such cases Latin and CJreek cognates 
 with b are not easily found. These examples are given : — L. luA-ricus 
 (for sluA-ricus), "slippery," Eng. slijW ; L. tri*-us, Eng. thor;; ; Eng. 
 sleey^ is perhaps connected with L. lai-aro. 
 
 § 52. The following' c.xaiiiples exliil)it in tabiil;ii' form 
 tliu woi'kiug of (aiiuni's Law ; the letter.s in brackets in- 
 dicate the " theoretical " coiTespondences. 
 
 The German words which are given after the English ones illustrate 
 the so-called "second" or " High-German " sound-shifting, the law 
 of which (subject to some important exceptions) can be obtained from 
 the diagram in § 4() b\- starting from Aspirata and reading round as 
 follows : — English Aspirata corresponds to German Media, English 
 Media corresponds to German Tenuis, English Tenuis corresponds 
 to German Aspirata : — 
 
 (i.) Dentals : — 
 
 {t, th, d) fveti, three, dvei ; 
 
 {th, d, t) Ovpa (//tuiu), (Zoor, tin- ; 
 
 (r/, /, th) dxio, two, zwei. 
 
 (ii.) Labials: — 
 
 (p, ph, h) ^edeni, foot, 2^uss ; 
 
 (pli, b, p) /rater, /n-otlier, Z^ruder ; 
 
 (b, p, ph) (s)lu/'ricus, slip, schlei/en. 
 
 (iii.) Gutturals : — 
 
 (A-, A7;, (j) rornu, horn, Horn ; 
 
 {kh, g, k) x'^P'''^'^ (khoi-tos), j/arden, Carten ; 
 
 {g, k, kh) jur/uni, yoAe, Joch. 
 
 E. L. E
 
 50 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Method of Derivation — Root and Stem — Prefixes and 
 Suffixes — Gradation and Mutation. 
 
 § 53. If we examine the words — 
 reduction^ educate^ ductile, ducal, 
 we see at once that the group contains — 
 
 (i.) an element which is common to all the words in the 
 group, viz., -due- : and 
 
 (ii.) various elements which we recognise as frequently- 
 entering into the structure of other words not necessarily 
 containing the said common element, viz., con-, re-, e-, and 
 -io7i, -ate, -He, -al. 
 
 The syllable -due- is said to be the root of each of these 
 words. 
 
 The sj'llables con-, re-, e-, and other syllables placed 
 before the root, are called prefixes (L. prae, " before," 
 and fixus, " fixed) ; the syllables -ate, -He, -al, and other 
 syllables placed after the root are called suffixes (L. sub, 
 ' ' under, ' ' and fixus) . 
 
 {a) Both prefixes and suffixes may be grouped together under the 
 name affix [ad, "to," and^ fixus). 
 
 § 54. The words just examined (§ 53) are, however, 
 not native English words, but derivatives from Latin, as 
 of course the student will at once perceive : therefore due 
 or duli is not an English root, but a Latin one, or, to be 
 more precise, a Latin one in the form in which it some- 
 times appears in English. 
 
 t (a) The general Teutonic cognate of this root would by Grimm's 
 Law have initial t and final kh (see § 52), and this is represented to
 
 §57] 
 
 ROOT AND STEM. 
 
 U8 in Mod. English in (ow (O.E. foi/-i-)i, pp. oi tPon: cp. Gcr. zcihoi), 
 tie (O.E. t'jijf), twk, and twj (M.E. borrowings from Continental Low 
 Gorman) ; so in German we have regularly zieh-cn, Zug, &c. 
 
 § 55. A lilt If further study will reveal to us several 
 more words in Kiio;lisli :ill traceable to the same origin 
 or root, though this is not always clear at lix'st sight : e.g. 
 dulxc, (Inclie.ss, duchy, doge, ducat, duct, dnctile, 
 conduit, dnuchr, redoubt, subdue ; 
 and also a number of words in wliich the root appears with 
 a final sibilant (= .s) instead of a guttural (^•), such as 
 iidroduce, reduce, traduce. 
 All of these may be easily ti-aced back to Latin originals 
 with the element duk, and this we find to be practically 
 the Indo-European form. 
 
 § 56. Still exaniiniiiu- words from the same groii)). wu 
 may draw a clear distiuction between root and stem 
 by the help of the words tduratiuu and rcdurlion : ilis- 
 regarding the prefixes (e-, "out," re-, "back") entirely, 
 it is easy to see that the elements -due- and -tion in the 
 words are common, and the difference of the formation 
 lies in the fact that the one word has the vowel -a- be- 
 tween root and suffix (strictly speaking suffixes, -t-iu-n) 
 and the other has not. This -a- is called a formative 
 suffix or stem suffix : it is added in Latin to the root before 
 other suffixes (especially those of inflexion), and seems to 
 serve no other purpose than that of joining the suffix 
 to the root : thus compai-e the Latin duc-tum (whence our 
 -duct) with educ-a-tam (whence our -ducat-). Hence we 
 may define a stem in conti-adistinction to a I'oot as a 
 root -|- formative suffix: but very often, as the examples 
 show, there is no formative suffix, and then stem and root 
 are of course identical. 
 
 § 57. So far we have taken Latin words in English, and 
 we have selected those which easily exliil)it the root in a 
 simple form ; we might do the same with native words, 
 thus — 
 
 bear (vb.), bearer, overbear i7iy, forbear
 
 52 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 57, a 
 
 all sliow a common element (hear) wliicli is practically the 
 Teutonic I'oot (ber) in its Modern English form. 
 
 t («) Here there is no stem suffix, so that ^erishoth stem and root : 
 the word appears in Mod. German as bdr-en: the original Indo- 
 European form would be hher [§ 47, d (ii.)], which is represented in 
 Greek by ^e'p-oi, in Latin \)j fer-o. 
 
 § 58. If we write down beside the word hear, or any 
 its derivatives mentioned in the last section, the words 
 
 hore (pret. of hear) and hare (archaic pret.), horn 
 and home (past parts.), hirth, burthen or burden 
 (a thing home), bier (a thing for bearing), 
 
 we recognise at once that all these are connected by mean- 
 ing and form : the common element or root will evidently 
 be b*r, but we do not at once see what vowel to insert in 
 place of the asterisk given above. We pi'oceed to examine 
 the etymology of the words, and we find that the words 
 birth, burthen are derivatives, and contaiii what are called 
 mutated vowels (§ 63) — i.e. vowels which are modifications 
 of stronger ones and which have been produced in the 
 process of derivation : hence we shall not seek the root 
 vowels in these words, and so may exclude them from 
 our survey for the present. We are then left with 
 
 hear, hare, hore, horn and borne, bier (which owes its 
 spelling to influence of Fr. biere), 
 and further investigation does not enable ns to find one 
 I'oot vowel from which these different types proceed, 
 though it enables us to discover certain relations between 
 them. Hence, though we may write the Teutonic roots of 
 hear, bare, born as her, bar, bor, we can only write the 
 general root provisionally as h*r. Similarly the common 
 Teutonic root of bind, band, bundle must, strictly speaking, 
 be represented provisionally by b*nd, though the vowel of 
 each of the three separate roots can easily be given. 
 
 § 59. As far as is known roots have never existed 
 
 independently ; though the loss of affixes of formation 
 and inflexion in English has often resulted in producing 
 what is practically a^ root form. Man, for example, looks
 
 § 60, «] HRKKIXE8 AND .SUFKtXES. O.S 
 
 like a ineie loot, unci is idoutical in luriii willi llie root 
 vum from which it comes ; but comparison witli its 
 earliest forms in the Teutonic languages, and further 
 comparison with other Tndo-Kurtjpean tongues, alike show 
 us that it has only reached its present i-oot-like appearance 
 after losing suffixes in process of time. If we then realize 
 that roots are to be i-egarded as theoretical or hypcjthetical 
 forms deduced by etymologists from the actual phenomena 
 of language, Ave shall commit no serious error in regard- 
 ing them (with Whitney) as the germs or raw " matei-ial, 
 out of which weie developed vei-bs, nouns (adjectives and 
 substantives), and pronouns, and through these the other 
 parts of speech." 
 
 § 60. Understanding clearly what has been said as 
 to root, stem, &c., the student may find the following 
 concise definitions of iise : — 
 
 ''The root of a word is the monosyllable which results 
 fi'om d("])riving it of any affixes it may have, and restoring 
 the primitive form of the vowel if this has disappeai-ed 
 or undergone alteration." 
 
 {(() A Teutonic root we shall then understand to be a root as 
 defined above in its primitive Teutonic form — that is to say, with 
 the Teutonic forms of the Indo-European consonants and vowels. 
 By the Indo-European or Aryan root we understand a root in its 
 absolutcl}- original Indo-Europein form. 
 
 Af5.xes are either suffixes or prefixes. 
 
 "A suf5.x is a syllable or letter attached to a root 
 or to another suffix or other suffixes for the purposes of 
 language ; 
 
 " (i.) a formative suffix connects the root with another 
 suffix, especially in inflexion ; 
 
 " (ii.) a fiexional or derivative suffix accompanies an 
 alteration of meaning, the former causing such gram- 
 matical changes as that of singular to plural, j)resent to 
 past, &c., the latter producing what is i-ecognised as a 
 flesh woi'd." 
 
 " A prefix serves the same pui-pose as a derivative
 
 54 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 60, a 
 
 suffix, but is placed before the word to which it is attached ; 
 it is never added to a bare root." (See § 59.) 
 
 "The stem of a word is 
 
 " (i.) root + formative siiffix ; 
 
 " (ii.) root (whether exhibiting formative suffix or not) 
 which shows a modification of the original vowel ; or 
 
 " (iii.) identical with the root where there is neither 
 formative suffix nor modification of vowel." 
 
 § 61. Gradation. — We observed, in connection with 
 
 the words hear, bom (§ 58), that in some words, obviously 
 connected in meaning (as here, where one is the past 
 participle of the other), the common element (b*r) cannot 
 be expressed with a common vowel. A distinction between 
 the vowels of the two forms here given is probably to be 
 traced back to differences of aocent in the primitive Indo- 
 European. The name given to differences between vowel 
 sounds in two or more stems when these differences arise 
 from distinctions due to primitive Indo - European is 
 Gradation. We find gradation in all the " strong" verbs 
 — i.e. those verbs which do not require a suffix to form 
 their preterite tense (§ 168) — but gradation is not confined 
 to them : thus queen, qnean (O.E. civen, civene^ exhibit 
 gradation as clearly as hind, hound. On the other hand, 
 of course, all vowel changes are not gradations : thus, 
 as we shall see, thought, thinh ; man, men exhibit changes 
 of a totally distinct nature from those treated above 
 (see § 63). 
 
 (a) Gradation is frequentlj^ called liy the German name Ablaut 
 (" oflf-sound "). 
 
 § 62. The chief varieties of gradation in Modern 
 English are most clearly shown by the strong verbs ; 
 but here, where Old English often kept four forms. 
 Modern English has rarely retained more than two, 
 levelling under one sound stems originally distinct. The 
 following are representative of the chief gradation series 
 as they appear in Modern English (which series serve as 
 a basis for classifying the " strong " verbs, § 169) : —
 
 (i.) 
 
 ilii've 
 
 (ii.) 
 
 rhave 
 
 (iii.) 
 
 (liv'iik 
 
 (iv.) 
 
 l)('(a- 
 
 (V.) 
 
 g/ve 
 
 (vi.) 
 
 wake 
 
 §68] (iKADATION AND MITATION. 55 
 
 drove ilitven 
 
 (clave) cloven 
 
 (liv/iik (li/nik 
 
 (hare) honi 
 
 gave 
 woke 
 
 to which we may add a representative of a class which 
 has stems exhibiting the results of rcdujilication and con- 
 traction, and sometimes of gradation (§ 1G9, a) ; 
 
 (vii.) fall ff'll 
 
 (rt) Gradation is found in all Indo-European languages, in Sanskrit, 
 Greek, and Latin, as well as in German, English, &c. 
 
 {b) The series given above as illustrating gradation in llodcrn 
 English appear in Old English as follows : — 
 
 Infin. Pivt. Pret. Plur. Pi-et. Part. 
 
 (i.) dnfan drdf drifon drifen 
 
 (ii.) clvdfan cUaf chifon clofeu 
 
 ,... . ^ ^'flpc" halp (W.SJiealp) hitlpon holpen 
 
 ^ '' I drlitvan drone druncon druiiccn 
 
 (iv.) hcran her blSron boren 
 
 trcdan tned triedon treden 
 
 efun gcaf geafon giefen 
 
 (vi.) faran for foron farcn 
 and (reduplicating) 
 
 (vii.) feallan feoll feollon feaUen 
 
 [Compare with these (besides the obviously similar Modern German 
 gradations) : — 
 
 (i.) -KiLQw, ire'ifOiOo, (in9ov ; fidiis, foediis, fides. 
 
 (ii.) i\ii[9)(ronai, il\rj\ovda, ^Kvdoy; duco, diicein, 
 
 (iii.) SipKo/Liai, SeSopKa, tSpaKov, mens, monco, mcinini. 
 
 (iv.) ffTiWai, (TToK-fi, f<TTa.\r]u ; pello, pulsus. 
 
 (v.) Tpinw, TeTpO(pa, TpOLTTfcrdai', seQKor, sociiis. 
 
 (vi.) ^170), aTparr\yus ', <ii/o, eiji. 
 
 (vii.) cado, cecidi ; pello, pepuli. 
 
 And observe that Greek perfects are regularly reduplicated.] 
 
 § 63. Miitation (or Umlaut — Ger. nm, '' about," Lanf, 
 "sound") is the modification brought about in (he vowel 
 
 t (red
 
 56 THI5 ENGLISH LANGCAOE. [§ ^'^ 
 
 of an accented syllable by the influence of a vowel in the 
 following suffix. This suffix has generally disappeared 
 or become disguised in Modern English, so that the cause 
 which has produced the mutation is no longer apparent. 
 In the cases here dealt with the vowel producing mutation 
 was originally an i. Examples of mutated vowels are 
 very common. 
 
 (i.) In plurals of nouns — men, cp. man ; nit'ce, cp. 
 moHse (§ 103). 
 
 («) O.E. viann, pi. iiiciui for * mann-iz, where -iz is the plural 
 terminatioa correspoDcling to Gk. -es, L. -es : cp. feet, O.E. fet 
 from *fdtiz, Gk. 7rd5-ey, L. ped-en : so mm, pi. mi/s. Cp.Ger. Manner, 
 Mause. 
 
 (ii.) In gender — v?'xen, cp. fox. 
 
 {b) O.'Ei. fox, tem.fi/xen (^ 117, d) ; cp. Ger. Fuchs-in. 
 
 (iii.) In comparison — old, elder, &c. 
 {c) O.E. cald, ieldra : cp. Ger. alt, alter. 
 
 (iv.) In derivation — set, cp. sat (pret. stem of sj't) ; 
 strength, cp. strong; thimble, cp. thurnb : and in many 
 other instances noticed in various parts of this book.
 
 57 
 
 CUAi'TEK VU. 
 
 Transposition, Assimilation, Addition, and Disappear- 
 ance OP Sounds in English. 
 
 § 64. We have already discussed some of the changes 
 that certain sounds have passed through before the Avords 
 they occur in are to be regarded as Englisli. In the follow- 
 ing sections (§§ 65-70) we deal with the cliaiigvs incident 
 to words during their life in P]nglish itself, and Ave there- 
 fore confine ourselves here to changes in the native ele- 
 ment or in foreign AVords aftei* adoption into I'higlish. 
 The Romance element, hoAveA'er, is of such importance 
 that Ave deA^ote some further space (in the next chapter) 
 to its history before it passed into English. 
 
 § 65. Metathesis is tlie name giA'^en to the transposi- 
 tion of sounds which sometimes takes place, especially 
 Avhen one of them is r : thus hnrn and brand are from the 
 same root, but in the one case the h and r are separated by 
 a vowel, in the other they combine befcn^e it ; so three and 
 thirteen. Clasp is a metathesis form of clap-se (§ 190, e), 
 and (jrasp similarly stands for grap-se (from same source 
 as grope). In some dialects ax is commonly heard for ask : 
 the latter is the only form recognised in modern standard 
 l^Jnglish, but in the older stages both forms wei'e common. 
 
 § 66. Assimilation. — Two adjacent consonants of 
 whicli one is hard (voiceless) and tlie other soft (voiced) 
 become both hard or both soft: thus, foi- instance, the 
 suffix -.9 in nouns and A'erbs is pronounced either hard (s) 
 or soft (-) accoi'ding as it follows a hiird or soft consonant, 
 as e.g. bids {d-\-z), bits (t+s). Siniihirly inflexional d in
 
 58 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 66 
 
 the weak verbs is eithei' d or t under the same cii-cum- 
 stances, as e.g. hoped (p + f), hut snubbed (b + d) [the 
 spelling is often misleading (see § 40)]. 
 
 Letters produced by the same, or nearly the same, organs 
 are often assimilated : thus the lip letters / or v + 7n >fm, 
 vm>7nm, which is now leduced in pronunciation (often 
 in spelling) to single vi : e.g. ivimen for older toifmen, i.e. 
 tvlf+men ; so Lammas < O.E. hlafmiesse < hldf ("loaf") 
 -\-m8esse (" mass "). 
 
 § 67. Disappearances. — Sounds may disappear from 
 the beginning of a word (Aphaeresis), from the body 
 (Syncope) or the end (Apocope), the cause being mainly 
 the predominance of accented to the detriment of unac- 
 cented syllables, Avith the accompanying tendency to con- 
 traction and the decay of inflexional syllables. 
 
 Apocope. — The whole history of the language illustrates 
 this by the decay of the inflexional system (§ 5). 
 
 t (") E.g. " Four good sons saw the church of Our Lady " would 
 have beenin O.E. Feoirer yod-e snn-a mw-on ]>d cirle-an nr-re hlSf- 
 (lici-an. 
 
 Other notable instances besides those connected with in- • 
 flexion are seen in the disappearance of guttural sounds at 
 the end of a word (often preserved in the spelling) : e.g. 
 tlioucjli., dough, through, day. 
 
 t {b) O.E. 'Svah, cldh, iSnrh, daecj : cp. Ger. doch, Teig, diirch, Tag. 
 
 Syncope. — The disappearance of a guttural or palatal 
 from the body of a word, especially between two vowels, 
 is very common : thus raui, nail, sail, tile have lost a 
 medial spirant g. 
 
 t (c) O.E. regn, nsegl, segl, tigele (irom L. tcgiila, § 23, «) : cp. Ger. 
 Regen, Nagel, 8egel, Ziegel. 
 
 The reduction of double consonant sounds to single ones 
 [the doubled consonant often arising from assimilation 
 (§ 66)] i'"^ the rule in English, for double consonants are 
 very rarely pronounced : thus we write offal {— off + fall) 
 with double /, but we pronounce only one. 
 
 Aphaeresis. — We can no longer pronounce without 
 difficulty such combinations as hi, hr ; hence loud, lord,
 
 § 68, h'] VARIOUS SOFNli t.AWS. 59 
 
 raiv have dro})pt'd their oi'iginal initial aspirate. So, too, 
 tlie first element in cu or kit is no longer suunded, tliough 
 it appears in writing in some words : e.g. knee, knight. 
 Hw (now written ivh) generally di-ops its aspirate, i.e. 
 becomes voiced — at least in the South — as in what, 
 white, &c. 
 
 t (d) O.E. hhld, hldford, hrWw, oieo, cuiht, huu't, hint, with which 
 cp. Ger. lauf, roh, Knie [k sounded), Knechi [k sounded), uas, weisn. 
 
 Other striking instances of aphaeresis are seen in r/m 
 ("a trap"), a shortened form oi engine, and such abbrevia- 
 tions as bus (for omnibus), mend (cp. amend), vanguard 
 (<av(inf-guard), &c. ; alone (= aJl + ane) has the short 
 form l(i)U'. 
 
 § 68. Additions. — - Sounds are added under certain 
 conditions. The process is caWed prostJieai.'^ at the beginning 
 of a word, epe)ithesi>t in its body, epithesis at its end. 
 
 Prosthesis. — This is rare as a process of English word- 
 formation. Tt is seen in the word neict, which arises from 
 an en-f, etrf being the older form. The archaic nnncJe 
 stands for mine uncle, and nonce owes its initial n to tlie 
 M.E. dative of the definite article. In Romance words 
 taken ready-made into English examples are somewhat 
 more common: see hanghtij, estate (§ 82). 
 
 (a) Nonce is found only in the archaic phrase "for the nonce^^ 
 = M.E. for then ones, where then is the M.E. representative of 
 O.E. '5n?>M, and ones {= once) is treated as a substantive ; the phrase 
 means " for this once only," '• for this occasion." 
 
 Ei'KNTHKSis. — A notable instance is the intrusion of /<.p 
 between ni and another consonant (especially /, /■) when 
 these consonants originally came together: slumber, bramble 
 owe tlieir h to this cause ; similaT-ly empty has an intrusive 
 p. In thunder, kindred, .«jj/v/(//i' the */ is epenthetic ; so in 
 many Romance words in which the intrnsion took place 
 before the words became English : e.g. tender, resemble, 
 number, etc. (see § S3). 
 
 {b) Shnnher (vb.) is the M.E. shoiibren and »himrcn, O.E. .i/inmi 
 (sb.) ; cp. Ger. svhiiimmerii. Bramble is O.E. bremel. Empty is O.E.
 
 60 THE KNGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 68, fc 
 
 wmtuj. So thunder is O.E. \>unor (cp. Ger. Bonuer). Kindred is O.E. 
 cynn-rxden {\ 125, b). Spindle is O.E. spinl, "instrument for 6;;?i?i«ing" 
 
 Epithesis. — Final excrescent sounds (not letters) are 
 not very common. Tlmmh, for instance, lias an apparently 
 epithetic h (now, however, mute) ; but originally this was 
 not final (O.E. Jmma >M.E. thomb-e), so that its growth 
 was epenthetic. Several adverbs and prepositions ending 
 originally in -.■; (§ 206, c) have excrescent -t : e.g. amongst, 
 betwixt, against, amidst, whilst (similarly in some dialects 
 uust may be heard for once) . 
 
 § 69. Hard sounds become soft (i.e. are " voiced," 
 § 32) in some instances (besides in assimilation, § 66). 
 Instances are Mod.E. his, is, with, of, thou, that (cp. 
 §§ 45, 46). 
 
 § 70. The opposite change from soft to hard (unvoicing) 
 is not common. An example is seen in gossip, where the 
 jj was originally b, the word being a compound of god + sib, 
 meaning " related in God." 
 
 t (a) Sib, "akin," is cognate with Ger. Sippe, "kin."
 
 fil 
 
 CHAPTKl? VIII. 
 
 On the HisTOKY and Form op Frkxch Words Adopted 
 
 IN English, 
 
 § 71. As we liave seen, there is a very laige portion of 
 the vocabulary we use which is of Romance origin, and 
 nearly the whole of this lias been taken from French 
 (§§ 14-16), with very slight changes. But the French 
 words themselves are for the most part of Latin origin, 
 and it will be useful for us to consider the way in which 
 Latin words pass into Fjench, nnire especially as we have 
 at times formed words directly from Latin but on the 
 model of similai- words which we liave taken fi'om French. 
 
 Thus, for instance, tremendous, stupendous have been coined by us 
 from the L. treniendus, stupeiidux, the gerundives of treino, stupeo, but 
 their termination -ous is due to analogy with (i.e. unconscious or 
 conscious imitation of) -ous in so many English adjectives, e.g. 
 ferocious, odious, joyous; but this -ous is from Fr. -eux (o\Aex -eus), 
 L. -osus, and is not directly from L. -osus (§ 1.52,^). 
 
 § 72. There are two distinct strata of Latiu words 
 in French as in hhiglish, as has ali'eady been indicated. 
 There are : 
 
 (i.) The words wliich we may call native or home- 
 gi'own French words, being the uatui-al offspring of the 
 popular Latin spolcen language fi'om which Fi-euch is 
 foi-med — in fact, these are tlie popular Latin spoken 
 woi'ds passed down and modified by uatuiul causes in the 
 mouths of Frenchmen. 
 
 (ii.) Words deliberately formed from book-Latin.
 
 62 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 72 
 
 The latter are naturally much nearer their original 
 written form, and are therefore much more easily 
 recognisable ; they present almost exactly the same 
 appearance in English as in Fi-ench, and will give us 
 little trouble and demand little attention in spite of their 
 large numbers. It is usual to call words of this class 
 words of " learned " formation, the other class being 
 known as woi'ds of " popular " origin — the latter gi-ew, 
 the former were made. 
 
 § 73. The steps which mark the passage from Latin 
 into French, are briefly these : — 
 
 (i.) The accented Latin syllable siu-vives. 
 
 (ii.) The syllables (one or two) following it vanish 
 entirely or are reduced to a mute e. 
 
 (iii.) The unaccented vowel preceding it disajipears, 
 unless that vowel is in the first syllable. 
 
 (iv.) A medial consonant, especially between two 
 vowels, generally disappeai-s. 
 
 Thus L. hon{i)tatem > F. bonte, whence Eng. bounty. 
 
 L. ma(g)isirum > F. maistre (now •jn.at^re), whence 
 Eng. master. 
 
 L. se(c)i'irum > F. seiir (now snr), whence Eng. 
 sure. 
 
 L. ro{t)ihidum > F. roond (now rond), whence Eng. 
 round. 
 
 § 74. But words of " learned " formation, made 
 from written Latin by adhering to the Latin spelling and 
 forms as closely as possible, are not subject to these 
 
 natural laws ; thus, for instance, van-i-ty, san-i-ty tell us 
 by their preservation of the unaccented i (L. vanitdtem, 
 sanitdtem) that they are not growths like bounty, but 
 coinages. Now it often happens that the same oiiginal 
 has furnished us with products of each kind (though these 
 are not always so easily distinguished in English as they 
 are in French, owing to our having accentuated both sets 
 after the English model, viz., by throwing back the
 
 § 74, }.-] 
 
 KKKNCir WOHDS I\ 1 NCF.ISIf. 
 
 r,;5 
 
 Mcceiit) : IliiiK Latin fri'if/ih's l)ocomcR in ¥. frail'' fnow 
 frcle) by j^rnwtli, 1)iit frnijih by forrnatiim ; liciicc oiu' 
 words fniH and J'nnjil>\ 
 
 (ff) The latter looks as if it hud ulwuys preserved the Latin accent ; 
 hut this is not the case, for, had it done so, the vowel » following the 
 accented syllahle would infallibly have disappeared ; what has really 
 happened is that it has shitted back its accent in Englisli irom frai/tle 
 io frdfjilc. 
 
 (i) The following are some more of these doublets, as they are called 
 — i.e. words of precisely the same origin and elements but of different 
 resulting forms, the difference being due to historical causes : it 
 should be noticed that the " popular " words in English are mostly of 
 Anglo-French origin, wliile a large portion of the "learned" forma- 
 tions date from the Konaissance (see § 16) : the " learned" forms are 
 easily distinguished by their much closer representation of the Latin 
 forms : — 
 
 Latin. 
 
 "Popular." 
 
 " Ijt^rned." 
 
 AntiqiiHS 
 
 Antic 
 
 Antique 
 
 Bahamum 
 
 Balm 
 
 Balsam 
 
 Blaspliemare 
 
 Blame 
 
 Blaspheme 
 
 Cadentia 
 
 Chance 
 
 Cadence 
 
 Camera 
 
 Chamber 
 
 Camera 
 
 Computare 
 
 Count (vb.) 
 
 Compute 
 
 Dcbitum 
 
 I)ebt{^i\) 
 
 Debit 
 
 Dilatus 
 
 Delay 
 
 Dilate 
 
 DiurnaUs 
 
 Journal 
 
 Diurnal 
 
 Factionem 
 
 Fash ion 
 
 Faction 
 
 Fragilin 
 
 Frail 
 
 Fragile 
 
 Historia (Gk.) 
 
 Story 
 
 History 
 
 Hospiiale 
 
 Hostel 
 
 Hospital, 
 
 
 {Hotel from Mod. Fr. 
 
 Spital 
 
 
 form of Hostel) 
 
 
 Ilionanus 
 
 Human 
 
 Humane 
 
 Lfctio)icm 
 
 Lesson 
 
 Lection 
 
 Legalis 
 
 Loyal 
 
 Legal 
 
 Regalis 
 
 Royal 
 
 Itegal 
 
 Maiorem 
 
 Mayor 
 
 Major 
 
 Paralysis (Gk.) 
 
 Palsy 
 
 Paralysis 
 
 Pauper 
 
 Poor 
 
 Pauper 
 
 Penitentia 
 
 Penance 
 
 Penitence
 
 
 Ti 
 
 IK ENGLISH 
 
 Liitiii. 
 
 
 " Populai 
 
 Totioncm 
 
 
 FoisoH 
 
 Folentem 
 
 
 Puissant 
 
 Quietus 
 
 
 Coy 
 
 Rede nip tionem 
 
 Ransom 
 
 Superjicies 
 
 {-/(icies) 
 
 Surface 
 
 Traditioncin 
 
 Treason 
 
 Vocalis 
 
 
 Voivel 
 
 ^■^ THK ENGLISH LAXGrAGK. [§ 74, }, 
 
 "Learned." 
 Potion 
 Potent 
 Quiet 
 
 Redemption 
 Superjicies 
 Tradition 
 Vocal 
 
 § 75.— An important effect of this preservation of the 
 Latin accent in French is clearly seen in the derivation of 
 nouns in which (as is especially the case in certain words 
 of the Latin " third " declension) the accentuation, or the 
 apparent stem, of the nominative differed from that of 
 the oblique cases : here, as a rule, the oblique case 
 form survived (the accusative is generally taken as a 
 type) : for instance the Latin 'potionem, not -potio^ survives 
 in French, where it yields foison, where the final n shows 
 us at once that the nominative form is not its jDarent : 
 here the learned formation has also adopted the common 
 oblique shape, so that we get as a doublet (§ 74, 6) 
 potion (cp. English poison ?ind potion). Similarly F. dejit 
 is li. dent-em, not dens; F. dnc (Eng. du.ke) is L". duc-em, 
 not d^ix. 
 
 § 76. We will now briefly consider the chief sound laws 
 explained in the last chapter in their effects upon French, 
 as illustrated in Romance words in English ; in connec- 
 tion with which it will also be convenient occasionally 
 to notice some of these laws operating in Latin words 
 before they passed into French. 
 
 § 77. Metathesis (see §65). 
 
 F. troubler (whence Eng. trouble) < pop. L. turhulare 
 (from turbula, dim. of tiirba, "crowd"). 
 
 § 78. Assimilation (see § 66). — This is very common 
 in Latin, notable instances being seen in the prefixes which 
 constantly assimilate their final consonant to the consonant 
 beginning the word to which they are prefixed. The word
 
 § 78] FRENCH WORDS IN ENGLISH. 65 
 
 asstmilafe is an example, bein<^ deii\L'(l fiDiii tlie L. nssivi- 
 ilare < ad, '' to '' + similare, "to make like" (from stmilis, 
 "like"). Other examples of the same nature are given 
 under the Latin prefixes (§ 198) : some typical instances 
 are offer (ub+ferre), aggresive (ad + gressns, part, of qradi), 
 collect (cum + lectum, sup. of legere), impatieyd {in, "not" 
 -\-pnHentem, part, of pati). So a soft letter frequently 
 assimilates to a hard one before the participial or supine 
 suffix -ttis, -turn : we get, for example, agent from agentem, 
 the pres. part, of agere, but act from the supine stem ac-tum, 
 which stands for ag + turn. Frequently (as also in English) 
 the result of the complete assimilation of two consonants 
 is to cause the disappearance of one of them : thus examine 
 comes from the Latin examinare (whence F. examiner and 
 our examine), which comes from the L. excimen, thS,t stands 
 for exammen < ex-ag-vien (from ex + agere). 
 
 This law has so far been illustrated from changes that 
 took place before the French period : in the formation of 
 French itself the same tendency continued, but to a 
 gi^eater extent : for example, the last word instanced pro- 
 duced the wot'd essaini, " swarm " (examen is, of course, its 
 learned "doublet"), where the k + s heard in ea- are re- 
 duced to s -1- s. So our word essaij or assay is the F. essai 
 from Jj.- exagium. 
 
 Other assimilations resulting generally in the disappear- 
 ance of a consonant (Syncope) are worth noticing : — 
 
 p disappears between two consonants : thus L. compn- 
 tare (cum + piitare) becomes in F. compter and conter, 
 whence (through the Anglo-F. form of the latter, viz. 
 counter) we have count: its doublet is compute. So hos- 
 pitale gives hostel, hotel (§ 74, b) ; hospitem gives host 
 (Mod. F. hote) ; captivns gives caitiff (and captive) ; capitate 
 gives chattel (and capital). The combination ct after a 
 vowel commonly passes into t (but influencing the previous 
 vowel) : thus L. factum gives F. fait and Eng. feat (of 
 which fact is a doublet) ; so conduit comes from L. con- 
 ductum. 
 
 E. L. P
 
 ■^6 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 79 
 
 § 79, Apocope (see § 67). — The whole history of the 
 derivation of French from spoken Latin illustrates this, in 
 the tendency of the syllable or syllables that follow the 
 accented syllable to disappear or pass into " mute " e (see 
 § 73, ii.) ; an instance seen in a whole class of words is 
 furnished by the abstract suffix -ty < F. -te < L. -tatem. As 
 other examples notice due from F. deu (now du, past part, 
 of devoir) from a pop. L. debutus, a perf. part, coined from 
 dehere, "owe" : contrast its learned doublet debit {debitum). 
 Degree is the F. degret or degre (now degre) from L. de, 
 " down " + gradus, " step " : degrade is practically its 
 doublet (degradare < de + gradus) ; but agree is a (= L. ad) 
 4- F. gret or gre (now gre) from L. grains, " pleasing " ; so 
 the archaic maugre, " in spite of," corresponds with F. 
 malgre (quasi L. mal-um grat-um). 
 
 § 80. Syncope (see § 67) is amply illustrated in the 
 last paragraph in § 73, and in the words of " popular " 
 formation given in § 74. 
 
 t {«) Allow, owing to this process of syncopation, represents two 
 different words (cp. -gree, \ 79) : in its usual sense "permit, grant," 
 it is the L. allocare, " grant, lease " {ad + locus) ; in its archaic sense 
 "approve," it is ad + laudare ; both fell together in older French as 
 aloner {aUouer < allocare, "give a stipend," alone survives), and 
 became in M.E. alouen. 
 
 § 81. Aphaeresis (see § 67) is seen in the habitual 
 dropping of the Latin h in French, and this is also felt in 
 some English words where we write the letter but do not 
 pronounce it : e.g. honotir, heir, Jionr, &c. ; the symbol has 
 disappeared in ostler = hosteler, " hostel-keeper." 
 
 Diamond has lost its initial vowel in French where it is 
 diamant, a shorter form of adiamant from L. adamanta; 
 its doublet is adamant. 
 
 t (a) L. adamas, acc. adamanta, is Gk. dSajuas, a ver}' hard stone, 
 lit. "untamable," from d-, " un-," and Sa/^aj/, "tame" [Ufmv is 
 cognate with domare and tame ; § 47, h, iii.). 
 
 Strange has lost initial vowel : F. estrange (now Strange)
 
 § 84] FRENCn WORDS IN ENOMRH. 67 
 
 from L. ediranens, from exh'a ; extraneous is its doublet ; 
 the vowel is kept in the verb estrange. 
 
 p (sound) disappears in the initial (Greek) combina- 
 tion ps : psalm, psalter, &c. ; so in modern formations, as 
 psyclwlngy and the like. 
 
 § 82. Prosthesis (see § QS). — The combinations st, sp, 
 sm, sc when initial commonly prefixed an e in French, 
 e.g. espace (L. spatimii), cponx (older cspoux, L. sponsus, 
 participle of spondeo, "promise"); this e, however, is not 
 generally retained in the English forms : e.g. space, spouse. 
 Estate, however, shows it, = F. estat (now etat) from 
 L. status (part, of stare, " stand "), and therefore a doublet 
 of state ; so esquire is F. escuyer (now ecuyer) from L. 
 scxitaritts, " shield-bearer," from .<fr»f?<m, "shield"; doublet 
 sqtdre ; escutcheon and sctitcheon are from the same word, 
 Especial and special are O.F. especial from L. specialis, 
 adj. formed from species, "kind": so espy and spy are 
 from one root. Establish (O.F. establir, now etablir) is 
 from stahilis, " stable," from stare. 
 
 h, though it generally disappears from Latin words in 
 French, is in a very few cases inserted where it is absent 
 in the Latin original. Thus the first syllable of haughty 
 (the -y is an English adj. suffix, § 150, e) is the French 
 haut fi^om L. altus ; so howl is O.F. huller (now hurler) 
 from L. idulare. 
 
 § 83. Epeuthesis (see § 68) is seen in tendre (whence 
 tender) from L. ten(e)ru7n ; humble from L. ]ium(i)levi; 
 number (F. nombre) from L. iium{e)rus; resemble, semblance 
 &c., from F. sembler, from L. sim(ic)lare, from similis, 
 " like " ; chamber, F. chambre, L. cam(e)ra. 
 
 § 84. Epithesis (see § 6S) is seen in tyrtntt (the Mod. 
 F. form is tyran) from L. tyrannus (from Gk.).
 
 68 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Introductory Remarks on Grammar, the Parts op 
 
 Speech, &c. 
 
 § 85. The grammar of a language treats of the forms 
 which words assume, a^id the ways in which they are 
 used for the expression of thought. 
 
 (a) The word is sometimes also used in a wider sense to cover tlie 
 study of the various methods and forms employed during the whole 
 existence of a language. 
 
 (b) Hence the grammai'ian does not make rules to teach us to 
 speak correctly ; but he calls attention to the methods employed by 
 writers and speakers whose methods of writing and speaking are 
 approved by the educated section of the community. When we speak 
 of an expression as " ungrammatical " or "bad grammar," we simply 
 mean that educated people do not approve of its employment. 
 
 § 86. The unit of speech is a sentence, i.e. a combina- 
 tion of words — or much more rarely (in English) a word 
 — which expresses a thought with intelligibility and 
 completeness : thus 
 
 go ! ; I run ; he really otight not to behave so foolishly 
 are sentences : but 
 
 going ; I running ; he not behave 
 are not sentences. 
 
 § 87. Words ai-e classified by grammarians according 
 to the distinctive functions they perform in enabling us
 
 § 89] INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON GRAMMAR. 69 
 
 to express our ideas in language. The classes thus niade 
 are called Parts of Speech. These are — 
 
 (1) The Noun, which is a name: Thomas, man, folly. 
 
 (2) The Pronoun, which stands for a Noun, indicating 
 without actually naming: he, ivho, one (indefinite). 
 
 (3) The Adjectivk, which qualifies a noun, desci'ibing 
 or further defining the thing named : (jnod, the, fourth. 
 
 (4) The Verb, which makes an assertion : tells, is, ate. 
 
 (rt) "Assertion" is hero used to coyev inqtiiry , command, entreaty, 
 as well as mere statement. 
 
 (5) The Advbrb, which modifies a verb or adjective, 
 limiting the assei'tion or qualification ; it may also be 
 used to modify another adverb : quickly, very, thus. 
 
 (G) The Conjunction, which joins words or groups of 
 words together : and, lohilst, because. 
 
 (7) The Preposition, which governs a noun (or its 
 equivalent, § 91) in such a way as to form with its object 
 an adjectival or adverbial phrase : of, in, agaiiist. 
 
 (8) The Interjection, which is a mere cry or exclama- 
 tion : oh ! alas ! hah ! 
 
 § 88. Flexion. — Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and 
 verbs (and, in a few cases, adverbs) undergo certain 
 changes of form for corresponding changes of meaning : 
 consider, for example, the difterence of form and meaning 
 between hoy and })oys ; mouse and mice ; hind and hound ; 
 want and wanted; tall and taller; he and Ms. Such a 
 change of form is called Flexion (or Inflexion), and any 
 letter or syllable added in this way is known as an 
 inflexional suffix. 
 
 (rt) Flexion is from the stem of h.J/ex-ioii, sup. oijiccto, "bend." 
 
 § 89. That part of grammar which states and classifies 
 inflexions is called Accidence ; that part of grammar
 
 70 THE ENOLISH LANCtUAGE. [§ 89 
 
 which is concerned with the relations of words to one 
 another in forming sentences is called Syntax. 
 
 But, since the division between accidence and syntax 
 is an entirely artificial one, we cannot absolutely separate 
 the one from the other. In the following- eight chapters 
 (x.-xvii.) we shall devote our attention mainly to the 
 methods of formation and inflexion of the various pai-ts 
 of speech (including, for convenience, grammatical classi- 
 fication) ; but certain syntactical relations and terms, dis- 
 cussed in the next paragraphs, require to be understood 
 in the first place. 
 
 § 90. A sentence is composed of 
 
 (1) a subject, concerning which something is asserted; and 
 
 (2) a predicate, containing the assertion. 
 
 Thus- 
 Subject. Predicate. 
 I run 
 Thomas is unhappy 
 To dance is very pleasant. 
 
 In such sentences as Is he ready ? Ought Thomas to go ? 
 Go ! we separate the two members thus — 
 
 Subject. Predicate. 
 
 he is . . . ready 
 
 Thomas ought . . . to go 
 
 [ijotc'] go. 
 
 § 91. It is evident from the definitions and the examples 
 that (1) the subject must be a noun (" name "), or a com- 
 bination of words which is equivalent in function to a name 
 and so performs the part of a noun ; and 
 
 (2) the predicate must contain a verb. 
 
 § 92. A sentence may be : 
 
 (i.) a simple structure, such as 
 
 The boy runs (simple independent sentence) ; or
 
 8 031 INTI.TIIMTTOIIY KEMAHKS ON OlIAMMAl:. 71 
 
 (ii.) two or more such sentences joinnd by a conjunction, 
 as 
 
 Tlir hoy runs and the tjirl dances (roMrnfND skntenci;); or 
 
 (iii.) ;in independent sentence joined with one or more 
 .siil)-sout(Micos (or chiuses), which do not o;ive a comi)lete 
 and intelligible sense when taken apart from the former; 
 these clauses perforin tlir function of noun, adjective, or 
 adverb, and are called dependent or siMiORDiNATK clauses. 
 The independent or ruiNcirAi- sentence, together with 
 the dependent clauses, forms what is called a complex 
 sentence: e.g. in 
 
 The hoy says \ that he is iU, 
 
 (1) The hoy says is an independent or principal sentence ; 
 
 (2) that he is ill names thr thing he says, and is there- 
 fore a dependent noun-clause. 
 
 Similarly, in 
 
 The }>oi/ runs \ when he is cold, 
 
 the second element is an advkriwal clause [limits r7t«s] ; 
 
 and in 
 
 The hoy takes the cake | rchich is hurnt, 
 
 which is hurnt is an AruKCTiVK clause, foi- it rpialiiies cal-e. 
 
 % 93. Logically every sentence, simple, complex, or 
 subordinate'^ may be regarded as consisting of only two 
 parts, the subject and the predicate; but the former 
 term is generally restricted in grammar to a noun (or its 
 equivalent) without any of its attributes (or qualifying 
 words or phrases), while the verb alone (or the verb with 
 such other help as is necessary to make a complete asser- 
 tion, §§ 280, 2;U) is called the predicate : thus, if we take 
 the sentence. 
 
 The hrave little boy saved his hrolhers life, 
 the word hoy is the grammatical subject, and the word saved 
 is the predicate. 
 
 (,i) The subject is said to be in the Nominative Case (see !j 114).
 
 72 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 94 
 
 § 94. In the above sentence the word life is said to be 
 the object (or direct object) of the verb saved; that is to 
 say, it denotes that upon which the action expressed by 
 the verb is directly exercised, and is joined to the verb 
 without the intervention of a preposition. 
 
 («) The direct object of a verb is said to be in the Objective Case 
 (see § 114). 
 
 § 95. A verb which takes a direct object is called 
 Transitive ; other verbs are Intransitive. 
 
 («) L. transitivus < transifmn, sup. of transire < trans, "across" 
 + ire, " go " ; in- in intransitive = " not." 
 
 (i) See the classification of verbs in § 157.
 
 73 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Thk Noun. 
 
 I. CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 § 96. The name of anybody or anythinrr. animate or 
 iiianiimite, matei'ial or iinniaterial, is a Noun. 
 
 (a) Derivation: < F. iiom, "name" <^ L. now-oi, "n;imc." 
 
 (b) It follows frum the definition thiit any word (no matter to 
 what part of speech it generally belongs), or any combination of 
 words, may, by being regarded merely as a name, be used as a noun. 
 Examples are : 
 
 He yearns for the Unknou-ahlc (adjective used as noun). 
 
 Never is a long day (adverb used as noun). 
 
 Let us have no ifs and buts (conjunctions used as nouns). 
 
 Tl'Iiat yoH say is mere nonsense^ 
 
 I say, "Do not go" \ (Clauses, &c., as nouns). 
 
 I say that you ought not to go ) 
 
 {c) The word Noun is used by some grammarians to include not 
 only what we here call Noun (Noun-Substantive or Substantive), but 
 also Adjective and Pronoun. 
 
 § 97. Nouns are divided into two main classes: — 
 
 (i.) A Conimou Noun is a name an object has in 
 common witli (Jlhei- members of its class : e.g. man, city, 
 river, 
 
 (ii.) A Proper Noun is tlie name an object has 
 peculiar or proper to itself, distinguishing it from all 
 other objects : e.g. Cicero, Faris, Cam. 
 
 {a) Proper means literally " own " : L. proprius.
 
 74 THE ENGLISH IjANGUAGE. [§ 98 
 
 § 98. Further, special names are given to certain kinds 
 
 of Nouns : 
 
 (i.) A Collective Noun denotes a number of persons 
 or other animals taken together as constituting a single 
 thing : e.g. school, assembly, brigade, crowd, fiock. 
 
 (ii.) An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, 
 
 state, condition : f^iu-pvliiij, ease, decay. 
 
 (iii.) A Verbal Noun may be formed from any Verb: — 
 
 (1) By putting to before it : " To eat is necessary." 
 
 (2) By adding -ing to it ; " Eating is necessary." 
 
 (a) If we substitute /oo(f for to cat or eating in the latest examples, 
 we see at once that we are right in regarding these forms as nouns. 
 
 {b) Collective Nouns are nearly always common : see the examples 
 above. Occasionally they are used like proper nouns, as when we 
 say " Farliament meets to-day " ; with which usage may be compared 
 such a sentence as " Father is coming," where the speaker uses the 
 common noun father as if it were the proper name of one particular 
 person. 
 
 (c) Class names, whether denoting individual objects, as man, pig, 
 knife, or denoting the whole of the class, as man, oxygen, cloth, steel, 
 are all reckoned as common. 
 
 [d) It is unnecessary to group abstract nouns (and verbal nouns, 
 which evidently form a class of abstracts) as either common or proper : 
 they are generally considered, however, to belong to the former class, 
 but may become proper by personification : e.g. " Silencewa,s pleased," 
 Milton, P.L., iv. 601. 
 
 II. INFLEXION. 
 
 § 99. Nouns have Inflexions which mark number and 
 case. 
 
 (i.) Number. 
 
 § 100. The distinction between 
 
 (1) the Singular Number, the form of a noun used to 
 denote one object, and (2) the Plural Numbei', the form 
 used to denote more than one, 
 
 is usually made by the inflexion s. The general rule is : —
 
 § 101] THK NOUN. 75 
 
 Add .s to the singular to form the plural : finis, 
 nit-s, exceptions, adjectives. 
 
 But after sibilant sounds (§34) we must add -rs : thus, 
 loss-es, equi7iox-es, wish-es, (Ufrlies. 
 
 (a) -es is the fuller and earlier form, which is contruetoJ to -v 
 wherever the sound allows of it. 
 
 (b) Notice that some words that end in a sibilant sound are written 
 with a final mute c : such only add the lettci- -s to the eye, but to the 
 ear they add the syllable -es : e.g. smu<t(je-.s, rose-n, iiiaze-s. 
 
 (c) History of the Plural Snjfix -es, -s. — In Old English one class of 
 nouns formed its plural nominative and accusative by the inflexion 
 -«,v, which became -rs (also spelt -is, -ys, -us) in Middle English, and 
 was further reduced to -s wherever possible in IModern English. The 
 nearly universal use of -es, -s, as the plural suffix in preference to the 
 other modes was not due to Norman-French influence, which language 
 also formed its plural by a sibilant {-es, -s, -z), having adopted the 
 •s of the Latin ace. plur. , masc. and fem. {-as, -os, -es, -us). 
 
 t {(i) Cp. O.E. domas M.E. doom-es {-is, ys) Mod. E. dooms 
 
 kiUff-S 
 
 lord-s 
 Jish-es 
 Jlower-s 
 lion-s 
 Serjeant -s. 
 
 § 101. Some changes which take place on the addition 
 of the plural suffix require notice. 
 
 (i.) -rj preceded by a consonant becomes -ies: e.g. cry, 
 cries ; fancy, fancies ; soliloquy, soliloquies. But donlcey-s, 
 boys, days, and other words in which the y is preceded 
 by a vowel, follow the general rule. 
 
 {a) For a few words ending in -o preceded by a consonant we write 
 the plural in -oes (without, however, adding a syllable) : e.g. /uro, 
 heroes; potato, jMtafoen. 
 
 (ii.) Some nouns ending in the sound /(smiu'times spelt 
 -fe) change the f sound into v (always spelt ve) before 
 adding the plural .s- {=z). In all these the final / is 
 preceded either by / or by a long vowel. Examjiles are 
 
 eyni»y-as 
 
 king-es 
 
 hlaford-es 
 
 lord-es 
 
 Jisc-as 
 
 fiseh-es 
 
 Anglo-F. flur-es 
 
 four-es 
 
 Icon-es 
 
 koun-s 
 
 seriant-es 
 
 seriaunt-
 
 76 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 101 
 
 calf, calves; leaf, leaves; Icnife, knives: similarly life, loaf, 
 thief, wife, self, shelf, ivolf. 
 
 {b) All the above words are of pure English origin. Other Teutonic 
 words follow the general rule 
 
 (i.) when the vowel sound is short : cUjf'-s, muffs, ruffs ; 
 
 (ii.) when the vowel sign is long oo : roofs, hoofs (rarely hooves) ; and 
 
 (iii.) occasionally when other long vowels precede the / sound : 
 ffe-s, reef-s, strife-s. 
 
 (c) "Words which have reached us through the French regularly 
 take s : e.g. briefs, chiefs, f/riefs, gulfs, safe-s, stuff's. 
 
 {d) Wharf, dwarf usually make in the plural ivharfs, dwarfs ; but 
 wharves, dxvarves are also found. Scarf generally makes scarves, 
 sometimes scarfs. 
 
 («) In O.E. / had usually the sound of the modern/: this sound 
 has been preserved as a final sound, as in life, thief (§ 69, a) ; but 
 between vowels, or between vowels and voiced consonants, O.E. /had 
 the sound of v, which is still preserved in the plurals lives, thieves, &c. 
 "Where we find / retained in the plural we may set it down to the 
 influence of French words and to the general tendency in English to 
 have the root of a word identical in singular and plural. In verbs 
 whose stem terminated in / in O.E. the old sound — i.e. v (between 
 vowels) — has been preserved by the continuance of a following inflex- 
 ion throughout the M.E. period : thus live, believe, strive, thieve, &c. 
 (cp. nouns life, belief, strife, thief, kc). 
 
 t (/) Thus O.E. lif-ian (infin.), pronounced livian, > M.E. Hv-cn, 
 liv-e. Mod. E. live; but O.E. /r/(subst.) > M.E. lif Mod. E. life. 
 
 Similarly love terminates in v sound both as substantive and verb 
 because it stands for O.E. luf-ian (infin.) and htf-u (noun) > M.E. 
 l(jv-en and lov-e. 
 
 Observe that we never allow v to stand as a final letter, always 
 following it by e mute, even after a short vowel, e.g. have, give. 
 
 § 102. A few words have plurals in -en or -n. 
 
 (i.) Ox, ox-en is tlie only one whicli shows this method 
 clearly in Modern English. 
 
 (ii.) In cliildr-en, brethr-en, ki-ne (archaic pL of cow) we
 
 § 103, h] THE NOCN. 77 
 
 have the same suffix added to -vvoids which were already 
 plural. Hence these are called double plnral-forma fsee 
 § 103). 
 
 (rt) In O.E. -an was the termination in the plural of a large number 
 of nouns (the " weak " decleneion) ; this became in M.E. -en, which 
 was frequently displaced by the -« plural, especially in the North. 
 
 t (li) Ox-en stands for O.E. ox-aii, plural of ox-a, which became 
 in M.E. ox-c, whence Mod.E. ox (cp. Ger. Och^e, pi. Ochsen, and 
 observe that the -n, -en plural is very common in German). Ey-en, 
 ey-ne < O.E. efiy-an, M.E. eg-en, ei-en, &c. (cp. Ger. Anyen) ; 
 similarly hosen, shoon represent O.E. hosan, and late dative plural scon. 
 Eyeti or ey)ie (eyes), hosen (hose), shoon (shoes) are archaic or dialectic. 
 
 (c) aid (child) had in O.E. dropped the -r (which was part of the 
 stem) in the singular, but frequently retained it in the plural, which 
 was either did (unchanged) or cild-r-u : from the latter we get M.E. 
 child-re and child-cr (still used dialectically) ; but, these not seeming 
 like plural forms, the suflSx -en was added (in the South and Mid- 
 lands), whence our form. Calf, lamb, egg and others formerly 
 exhibited an r of the stem in the plural, but this has disappeared, 
 the words following the analogy of the bulk of our nouns. (Op. Ger. 
 Kinder, Kdlber, Lammer, Eier, &c.). 
 
 § 103. Some plurals formed by mutation (§ 63) are in 
 use : these are 
 
 foot, feet ; goose, geese; louse, lice; man, men; mouse, 
 mice; tooth, teeth. 
 
 Woman being a compound of man (= tctfe + man) has 
 plural women. 
 
 Mutation is seen in combination with a plui^al suffix in 
 brethren (brother), kine (cow). 
 
 + (rt) Mutation plurals were fairly common in O.E., the suffix of 
 plurality which caused mutation regularly disappearing (§ 63). Thus 
 sing, fot, plur. fot { < *fot-iz) ; so gus, gea ; mm, mys ; td\>, ti]> ; 
 mann (inonn), wcini ; hoc, bee (books), &c. (Cp. Ger. Fusse, Gdn.%-e, 
 Mdm-e, Zdhn-e, Mdnn-er, Biich-er, Sec). 
 
 (b) Women (pron. wimmen) has kept the original vowel-sound (short- 
 ened) in the first syllable : O.E. ulfmen, uJmmen ; the vowel in the 
 singular has been affected by the influence of the preceding w.
 
 78 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 [§ 103, c 
 
 t [c) Brethr-en was formed in M.E. by adding the -en plural sufiBx 
 to M.E. Brether or Brethre, mutation plur. of Brother (cp. Ger. 
 Bruder, Briider) : in O.E. the plural was bro'Sor or bro^ru; rarely with 
 mutation . 
 
 t {d) Coiv is in O.E. en, plural eg by regular mutation (cp. Ger. 
 Kiih-e) : to this was added in M.E. the suffix -n, whence our kinc, 
 used now with the meaning " cattle," not as mere plural of coiv, for 
 which cows is employed. 
 
 § 104. Some plui'al forms are identical with the 
 
 singular : such are deer, sheep, swine. 
 
 («) This was the regular method of forming the plural of mono- 
 syllabic neuters with long root-syllable in O.E. : e.g. dear, sceap, 
 swm, hus (house), wlf {woma,n) , folc, &c. 
 
 § 105. Several words expressing measure, weight, and 
 similar notions may be left uninflected in the plural 
 
 after numerals, as " five foot ten," '■'a, three yard measure," 
 " dbfive pound note." 
 
 (ffl) Similarly some other words may use the same forms in the 
 singular as in the plural when the latter is taken in a collective 
 sense : thus " he caught three little fishes,''^ but " a large number of 
 
 fishy 
 
 {b) Some Latin words in -ics remain unchanged in English 
 (§ 106, d). 
 
 § 106. Some words have two forms in the plural : — 
 
 (i.) Native words, or words long naturalised, in which 
 the forms are of the same origin and have both been re- 
 tained to mark different shades of meaning ; as a rule one 
 of these plurals has a collective force, the "regular" 
 formation having the usual plural sense : e.g. 
 
 brother hrotliers (by blood) 
 cloth 
 
 die 
 
 penny 
 
 cloths (kinds of cloth, 
 plur. of " a cloth ") 
 
 dies (instruments of 
 coining) 
 
 hrethreii (of a com.- 
 
 munity) 
 clothes (clothing) 
 
 dice (collective : 
 the set used in 
 gambling) 
 pennies (individually) pence (collective)
 
 § 107J THK NOUN. 70 
 
 (a) In pence, dice tho -ce inorely representa the hard sound of #, as 
 in cloths ; in clothes, dies, pennies the s is soft (= z). Pence is a con- 
 tracted form. 
 
 (/') The plural of pea is regularly peas : the form pease (as in pease- 
 pudding) may be regarded as a collective-singular. The singular 
 iovm. pea has dropped a final * owing to this being taken for the mark 
 of tho i)lura]. Pease is tlie M.E. pese, O.E. p\se, from L pisiiin (sec 
 § 23). The -s of the root is retained to the oye in the F. pots. 
 Similarly cherrij originally terminated in s ; but this, being taken 
 for a mark of the plural, has been entirely dropped in tho singular. 
 Cherrij is the F. cerise, L. ccrasus, from Gk. Kepaaos ; possibly from the 
 place Cerasos. Barial, riddle, shuttle have dropped an -$ in the 
 singular from a similar cause. 
 
 (ii.) Foreign words, mainly scientiKc terms, in which the 
 foi'eign plural is restricted to its technical use: e.g. 
 
 Scientifi c . Popular . 
 
 formula formulae formulas 
 
 index indices indexes 
 
 fungus fiOigi funyuses 
 
 (c) In other foreign words which have retained their foreign forms 
 usage varies. Sometimes they make their plurals as if they were 
 used in their own language ; at others — and this is the case generally 
 when the words become at all freely used — they are regarded as 
 naturalised and take the usual Euglisli inflexion : e.g. crocuses, 
 asyluma, but errata, addenda. 
 
 [d] In many cases the usage varies without any such clear variation 
 of meaning as in (ii.) above : e.g. memorandums and memoranda. 
 
 (<■) In a few cases, where we have an anglicised form for the singular 
 and a regular English plural formed thence, we retain a foreign plural 
 form with a slight distinction of usage : as cherub, cherubs and cherubim 
 (Hebrew); seraph, seraphs tluA. seraphim (Kebreyi); bandit, bandits &nd 
 banditti (Ital.). 
 
 i/) Latin and Greek words ending in -is, even though fully 
 naturalised, change -is to -es instead of adding -es : e.g. axis, axes ; 
 analysis, analyses; crisis, crises. Similarly those in -i<?s remain un- 
 changed : species, series. 
 
 § 107. Some plural forms are treated as singular 
 
 (and collective) in spite of their plural sufli.x: :
 
 80 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 107 
 
 (x.) Small-pox, news are always so treated. 
 
 («) Pox is properly the plural oi pock, " a little pit " ; pock and 
 pocks are used in this sense. 
 
 (ii.) Amends, tidings, means, pains are often so treated. 
 
 (iii.) Mathematics, politics, ethics, dynamics, and othei-s 
 formed by adding -s to the Greek adjective suffix -ic, are 
 sometimes regarded as singulars, sometimes as plurals. 
 
 § 108. Two words wliicli are singular by origin are now 
 regarded as plural owing to their ending in -s ; these are 
 riches, eaves. For a similar reason alm,s, though originally 
 singular only, is now treated as either singular or plural. 
 We still, however, say a sum,mons. 
 
 {a) Riches represents M.E. richcsse, of which a plural richesses is 
 found : this is the French richesse, in which the -esse is the termina- 
 tion of an abstract noun. [The adj. rich is a genuine English 
 (O.E.) word, but the word ricJies we have from the French, which 
 had taken it from a Teutonic source.] 
 
 t [b) Eaves represents M.E. evese, of which a plural eveses is 
 found ; in O.E. it is efes (singular) : hence, we see, s is part of the 
 root. 
 
 t (c) Alms is similarly M.E. almessc, O.E. xlmesse; this is from 
 the Low L. aliiiiosina from Gk. iKirjfj.offvvr} : hence the s is not a 
 mark of the plural. 
 
 t {d) Summons is in M.E. somotins, representing O.F. semonse 
 (Mod. F. semonce), the feminine of O.F. semons, somons, part., from 
 L. siimmonere (Mod. F. semondre) < sub + nionere : hence the * is not 
 a mark of the plural. 
 
 § 109. The only nouns that have no plurals are those 
 which signify something whose meaning does not admit 
 of the idea of plurality. Such are, strictly speaking, 
 all abstracts, class-names, proper names, &c., such as 
 childhood, mankind, strugcjling, ether, Semiramis. But we 
 frequently give them plurals.
 
 ^ nil ''"'"•: >'''^''^'- ^1 
 
 (i.) By using abstract foi- concrete, e.g. fnifhs, hanhhi.j)x, 
 humours^ st riK/tjUiKjs. 
 
 (ii ) By iLsing tlio class-name in a more limited sense: 
 coah (= separate lumps of coal, i.e. plui^al of "a coal," or 
 " kinds of coal "), bra'<ses, waters, gases. 
 
 (iii.) By using a proper name as common, either (1) be- 
 cause it really is common to a (small) class : e.g. the 
 Simpkinsona, all the Jacks and Jills; or (2) because the 
 proper name stands in our minds for an object possessing 
 certain qualities : e.g. " tlie Haickinses, the Drakes, the 
 Davises, the lialeighs, were the founders of the ocean 
 empire." 
 
 (a) "We often use the name of authors, painters, &c., to designate 
 their works : " half a dozen Euclids " (i.e. hooks) ; " I douht if those 
 are genuine Raphaek " (pictures). 
 
 § 110. Some nouns ai'e not used in the singular. 
 These include : 
 
 (i.) Things consisting of two separate members (whence 
 the plural suffix) always used in combination : e.g. acissors, 
 pincers, pliers, shears, tongs; breeches (a dou})le plui-al ; 
 cp. O.E. broc, pi. brec), draicers, trousers. 
 
 (ii.) Nouns denoting a collection of items (frequently 
 adjectives to which the plui'al suffix has been added) : 
 e.g. annals, credentials, entrails, j^vcincis, victuals, vitals; 
 ethics, mathematics, and others in -ic-s (see § 107) ; 
 environs, premises, billiards ; mitmps, measles. 
 
 § 111. Plural of Compound Nouns. 
 
 (i.) Compounds (§ 120) are generally treated as if the 
 whole combination formed one word, and hence the pluial 
 inflexion is suffixed to the last element: thus we say 
 mouthfuls, lord chancellors, judge-advocate-gencrals, will- 
 n'-the-7cisps, field-marshals, castaways, faretcells, toothpicks, 
 lady-helps, turnkeys. 
 
 (ii.) In compounds consisting of a noun limited by 
 an adjectival phrase (§ 87, 7), the former is generally 
 E. L. a
 
 82 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, [§ HI 
 
 inflected where the force of the limitation is clearly felt : 
 hence we say sisters -in-laio, men-of-ioar ; but will-o'-the- 
 tvisps, fotir-in-hands, Tam-o' -Shanters. 
 
 (iii.) In a few formations on the French model, where 
 the adjective follows the noun, the noun alone is inflected : 
 e.g. courts-Tnartial, knights-errant, heirs apparent, heirs 
 presumptive, peers spiritual (but the last three are scarcely 
 true compounds). 
 
 (a) No doubt such forms are only preserved by the fact that the 
 plurals are little used ; when such combinations are more popular 
 they conform to the natural tendency of the language : e.g. attorney- 
 generals, perhaps court-martials. 
 
 {!)) In a few combinations on the same model, where the second 
 element is a French adjective (or noun), both are sometimes inflected ; 
 but this is extremely rare, and only survives as a relic of mediaeval 
 terms of law and chivalry : e.g. Knights Templars, Lords Justices, 
 ■perha.-pa Lords Lieutenants ; but we may say Knight- Templars, Lord- 
 Justices, Lord- Lieutenants ; so also in nearly all modern formations: 
 e.g. lady-superintendents, lady -companions ; "byii noiicQ men-servants. 
 
 [c) In loose compounds such as lookers-on, hoAigers-on, the noun 
 is inflected : contrast castaways. 
 
 (ii.) Case. 
 
 § 112. A noun in the singular maybe inflected to show 
 that the person or thing it denotes stands in the relation 
 of possessor to some other person or thing. The noun so 
 inflected is said to be in the Possessive Case : e.g. " the 
 hoy's face is black " (where the form hoys — not hoy, hoys, 
 hoys'— -iellB us that it is the face which helongs to the hoy 
 that is black). 
 
 [a) This inflected possessive is mainly used with the names of 
 animate beings, its place being commonly supplied in neuters by the 
 preposition 0/ followed by the uninflected noun, which is then said to 
 be in the objective case. But cp. § 113, c below, and such expressions 
 as " our country's good," " the year's end," &c. 
 
 §113. The possessive case singular is formed by 
 adding 's to the noun : huy, hoy's.
 
 § 113, e] THE NOUN. 83 
 
 The possessive case plui-al is formed 
 
 (i.) by adding 's to the plural form of the noun, if that 
 does not end in s: e.g. the mens amusements, the children s 
 toys ; 
 
 (ii.) by simply adding the apostrophe (') to the plural 
 form, whei-e — as is usually the case — that ends in s: e.g. 
 the persons' names, the judges' pensions. 
 
 {a) Tho apostrophe in the singular is only a way of distinguishing 
 the possessive singular from the plural in writing ; it is no part of 
 inflexion. In the plural possessive, the apostrophe servos a similar 
 purpose : cp. boi/^s, boys, boys ; hence the possessive plural (except in 
 the case of words not forming the plural in s) has really no distinctive 
 inflexion, for in such a word as persons^ the s is the plural inflexion, 
 and the apostrophe only a graphical device. 
 
 {b) Notice that after sibilants the '« makes a complete syllable : cp. 
 princess, princesses, princesses, princesses' — the last three are all pro- 
 nounced exactly the same. 
 
 (r) After a sibilant letter or sound the apostrophe is sometimes used 
 without inflexion to mark the possessive singular : e.g. for conscience'' 
 sake, Thucydides' works, St. Francis' sacrifice; but the tendency is to add 
 the suffix : e.g. &t. James's Square, Mrs. Jones's dance, or to avoid the 
 construction by using the noun with the preposition 0/ before it. 
 
 {d) Case inflexions were beginning to bo unsettled — in part perhaps 
 owing to Scandinavian influence — before the Conquest : during the 
 M.E. period -cs, which was in O.E. confined, as a genitive singular 
 suffix, to certain classes of masculine and neuter nouns, became 
 gradually almost universal, while no distinction of case was made in 
 the plural; the -es became shortened where possible to -s in the usual 
 way (see § 6). The s in men's, children's, Sec, is due to analogy with 
 ordinary nouns which have the s plural, and consequently keep that 
 letter in the possessive. 
 
 {e) Feminine nouns in O.E. had generally the genitive in -e or an : 
 these were levelled to -e in M.E.,and an « was frequently added, 
 though there are instances of the e genitive until almost the modem 
 period. It survives, with the usual disappearance of the inflexional 
 vowel, in Lady day [= " (Our) Lady's day "], where Lady stands for 
 M.E. Lady-e, O.E. htxfdig-an. Notice also in the names of the days 
 of the week that we have a genitival s in Tu-ts-day, Wedn-es-day,
 
 84 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 [§113,e 
 
 Thur-s-day (= Tiw''s day, Woden's day, Thor's day — Tiw, Woden. Thar 
 being Teutonic gods) , but not in the others. The first element in Sunday 
 stands for O.E. sumi-an, M.E. sunn-e, gen. sing. fem. = "sun's " ; in 
 Monday, for O.E. mon-an, M.E. inon-e,gen. sing. masc. (see /» below) 
 = "moon's" ; in Friday for O.E. Frige, genitive of an unrecorded 
 *Frtgu, M.E. Frei, i^ri = " Friga's " (Frija being a Teutonic 
 goddess) ; Satur-day is found in M.E. both as Sater-day atid Sateres- 
 dai, in O.E. as Saster- and Smtern-dseg, i.e. "day of Saturn^^ or 
 Saturnus, a Roman deity. 
 
 (/) In ivitenagembt we have a genitive plural (see h below) : it is a 
 compound of gemot, " meeting," and tvitena, gen. pi., " of the wise 
 men." 
 
 (g) Traces of other case endings are preserved in the pronouns (see 
 ^ 130) and in some adverbs (see § 206). 
 
 + (A) The chief forms of declension in O.E. are shown in the 
 
 following words :— 
 
 Strong. 
 
 
 
 Weak. 
 
 
 M. 
 
 N. 
 
 F, 
 
 M. 
 
 N, 
 
 P. ^ 
 
 "wolf" "animal" 
 
 "glove" 
 
 "hunter" 
 
 "eye" 
 
 "sun" 
 
 Sing. N. %vulf 
 
 deor 
 
 9M 
 
 hunt- a 
 
 eag-e 
 
 sunn-e 
 
 A. wnlf 
 
 deor 
 
 glof-e 
 
 hunt-an 
 
 eag-e 
 
 sunn- an 
 
 Gr. wulf-es 
 
 deor-es 
 
 glof-e 
 
 hunt-an 
 
 eag-an 
 
 sunn-an 
 
 D. tvulf-e 
 
 deor-e 
 
 glof-e 
 
 hunt-an 
 
 eag-an 
 
 sunn -an 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N. A. wulf-as 
 
 deor 
 
 glof-a 
 
 hunt-an 
 
 eag-an 
 
 sunn-an 
 
 G. wulf-a 
 
 deor-a 
 
 glof-a 
 
 hunt-ena 
 
 eag-ena 
 
 sunn-ena 
 
 D. wulf-um 
 
 dear -tun 
 
 glof-um 
 
 hunt-iim 
 
 eag-wn 
 
 stmn-um 
 
 Nouns which have plurals in -n are said to be of the "weak" 
 declension: others are "strong." Cp. the declension of Ger. Wolf, 
 Tier, Auge, Sonne, &c. 
 
 Nouns which show mutation (all such are strong) are declined as 
 follows : — 
 
 " foot," masc. 
 
 " borough," fem. 
 
 Sing. N. A. fot 
 
 G. fot-es 
 D.fet 
 
 fct 
 fot -a 
 fbt-um 
 
 burg 
 
 byrig 
 
 hyrig 
 
 byrig 
 
 burg-a 
 
 burg-um 
 
 § 114. Tlie term case is used of a noun or pronoun to 
 denote certain syntactical relationships (§§ 93, 94), with-
 
 § 116] THE NOUN. 85 
 
 out regard to inflexion. Unclerstandin<; it in tliis sense, 
 we may write the I'liU declension of an Kiiglisli noun 
 or pronoun in the following way : — 
 
 Sing. Nominative hoy, I : e.g. "the boy runs" ; "/ run." 
 Objective hoy, me : e.g. " he struck the hoy and 
 
 me. 
 
 Possessive horfs, my: e.g. " the hoy''s hat"; " my 
 book." 
 
 Plur. Nominative hoys, we 
 Objective hoys, us 
 Possessive hoys' , our. 
 
 (iii.) Gendek. 
 
 § 115. Difference of Sex may be shown in English 
 words 
 
 (i.) by combinations in which the one element (gener- 
 ally the first) clearly shows the sex : e.g. 
 
 cocJc-sjxirrmv, 'maid-servant, hilly-goat, pea-lien. 
 
 (ii.) by using pairs of woi-ds not etyniologioally con- 
 nected : e.g. 
 
 father, inotlier ; cock; hen; Sir, Madam. 
 
 § 116. Difference of Sex is also shown by the use of 
 Sii£S.xes. The suffix comnionly employed, and the only 
 living one (i.e. still available for use) is -ess. 
 
 [a] This -ess is the French -esse {a.a in prophetesse),-po-p. L. -issa (as in 
 prophetissa from propheta) ; the Gk. cognate is -Kxcra. It is added 
 alike t© words of Romance origin and to words of Teutonic origin, 
 forming hybrids in the latter case. 
 
 (i.) -e.ss is simply added to the masculine in 
 
 heir, heiress; so priestess, prophetess, lioness, hostess, 
 giantess, countess (used as fem. of earl), shepherdess, 
 peeresa, po'ioress, mayoress.
 
 86 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 116 
 
 (ii.) -ess is added to the masculine, and causes shorten- 
 ing of the masculine termination, in 
 
 ambassador, ambassadress ; enchanter, enchantress ; 
 so protectress, traitress, huntress, portress, empress. 
 
 (iii.) From sorcer-ess (fem. of sorcer-er), governess, and 
 some others the masculine ending disappears entirely. 
 
 {b) The following words with this termination should he noticed : — 
 
 Abh'sii : this is from the French, contracted from the L. abbat-issa ; 
 abbot is L. ahbat- (nom. abbas), a Biblical word (of Syriac origin). 
 Abbot is found in O.E. (through Latin of the monks, § 12) as abbod, 
 and so is the longer feminine form abbndisse. Hence abbess, though 
 the feminine to abbot, is not directly derived from it. 
 
 Duchess : this is the French duchesse, older ducesse, fem. of due (L. 
 due-em), whence our duke. 
 
 Marchioness: pop. L. marehion-issa, from pop. L. marcMon-em, 
 ' ' prefect of the marches or boundaries ' ' ; hence it ought to correspond 
 regularly to an English marchion, but there is no such word ; it is 
 used as feminine of marquis, O.F. markis, L. marchensis, same meaning 
 as marchio. Marquess is another spelling of marquis. [The word 
 from which these forms are derived is Teutonic = mark, line, 
 boundary; so in Lord of the March, mark (coin), to mark and 
 reward-, ?H«rgrave (for mark-gxa.a.i, "count of the mark,''' a Dutch 
 word), &c.] 
 
 Mistress: this represents O.F. maistresse (now maitresse), feminine 
 of maistre (now maitre), whence our master ; maistre is L. magistr-um 
 (from root oimag-n-us). 3Iister (generally written Mr.) is a variant 
 of master, with weakened vowel. Missus or Mrs. is a corruption 
 of Mistress. Miss is an abbreviation of Mistress. Observe the way in 
 which (1) Master and Mistress, (2) Mr. and Mrs., (3) Master and Miss 
 are used to correspond with one another. Master and Mistress did 
 duty for all till modern times. 
 
 Songstress, sempstress have double feminine suffixes (see § 117, c). 
 
 § 117. The Teutonic feminine suffixes -ster and -en 
 survive in the feminine nouns spinster, vix-en. 
 
 {a) In O.E. there were various gender terminations. Masculines 
 in -a frequently corresponded to feminines in -e, but these were 
 levelled under -e in M.E. (§6); thus hunt-a, "hunter," became
 
 § 118] THE NOUN. 87 
 
 htint-e, and so lost its distinctive masculine termination ; to supply 
 this the O.E. termination -ere (M.E. -er) was more freely used than 
 in the earlier period, and is now the common agent suffix ; it was the 
 more readily accepted in the M.E. period as it was akin in sound to 
 the French -eur (L. -or-em), which was frequent in Romance 
 words, and had the same force. But when -er came to be thus 
 generally used as the common masc. suffix words ending in -er were 
 generally regarded as masculine, even when this -er was part of the 
 feminine suffix -stcr (older -e.s(re) ; the feminine was then formed by 
 adding the Romance -ess discussed above. 
 
 {b) Spinster is etymologically a female spinner; its survival as a 
 feminine is due to the sense (" an unmarried woman") in which it 
 came to be used. The proper names Baxter, Webster, Brewster are ety- 
 mologically feminines corresponding to Baker, Webber ( = " weaver "), 
 Brctvcr. -ster, having lost its feminine force, is found as a masc. 
 agent suffix in songster, huckster (Dutch form = hawk-er, also Dutch), 
 deemster ("one who deems," i.e. pronounces dooms or judgments, 
 used in the Isle of Man), tapster, maltster, and with a certain familiar 
 or depreciatory sense in youngster, gamester, punster, oldster, trickster. 
 
 (r) If distinctive feminine forms of such words are required, the 
 Romance -ess is added : thus soiig-str-ess, semp-str-ess or seam-str-ess 
 (female "seam-er," i.e. sew-er; for the p see § 68) have double 
 feminine suffixes. 
 
 [d) Vixen means " she-/oa;" ; the masculine keeps the O.E. initial 
 sound (/) ; the v in vixen is due to Kentish influence. 
 
 t {e) The O.E. forms were fox, fgxen .■ so god, gyden (goddess) ; 
 the termination caused mutation of the original vowel to y (see J 63). 
 Cp. Filchs-in, Gott-in, and many others in German, where this suffix 
 is commonly used for the feminine. 
 
 § 118. Feminine suffixes and feminine nouns termina- 
 ting with feminine suffixes have been imported from 
 various foreign languages : 
 
 (i.) L. -trix (straight from Latin, and therefore showing 
 the nominative termination), the feminine con-esponding 
 to the male -tor, found in legal tei-ms, such as testator, 
 testatrix ; so execu-tr-ix, prosecn-tr-ix, inheri-tr-ix (cp. 
 heir-ess), proprie-tr-ix (cp. proprie-tr-ess), administra-tr-i.r.
 
 88 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 118 
 
 {(/) This sufSx in French is -ice, e.g. nourrice, L. nutr-ic-em (ace. 
 oinutrix, from nufr-ire, "nourish"), whence our nurse. Empress in 
 M.E. is emperice as well as emperesse ; the former shows the derivation 
 from L. imperatricem, fern, of hnperator ; the latter and its Mod.E. 
 descendant preferred the common -ess suffix. 
 
 (ii.) Landgravine, Margravhie are Dutcli forms. 
 
 (b) The suffix here is connate with the -en in vixen, and the -in in 
 Ger. Fitch s- in, &c. 
 
 (iii.) Heroine is the Greek rjpwLvrj (heroine), fern, of ^pws 
 (heros), "hero." 
 
 (iv.) A few feminine words retain a foreign -a ; such 
 have generally reached us throiigh Italian or Spanish : 
 e.g. infanta (Span.), donna (Ital.), signora (Ital.), sultana 
 (through Ital. from Ai^abic). The corresponding masculine 
 suffix is -0, as in virtuos-o, incognit-o, &c. (L. -us, -a). 
 
 [c) Czarina is used as the feminine of Czar. This word has been 
 borrowed from Russia, of course, but it is of Latin origin, being 
 derived (as is Ger. Kaiser) from L. Caesar. 
 
 § 119. Nouns Avhich name males are said to be of the 
 Masculine gender, females of the Feminine gender ; 
 
 those which name sexless objects are said to be Neuter. 
 Hence gender in English is " natural," that is to say, it 
 corresjionds with sex. 
 
 (ff) Gender and Sex. In some languages the termination of an 
 adjective is varied in a way which depends upon the noun it qualifies 
 and agrees with. Thus in Latin, for instance, we say 
 
 mal-us puer, mal-a puella, mal-um helium, 
 
 for had boy, bad girl, bad war. 
 
 The nouns in such languages are classified according to the way they 
 affect adjectives, and the three classes are said to be of different 
 genders. In older English (as in German, Greek, Latin) there existed 
 the three genders as given above, the masculine including many nouns 
 which were not names of males, and so forth, and the adjective quali- 
 fying a noun being inflected in accordance with the grammatical 
 gender of the noun (see § 141). French has reduced its genders 
 to two by discarding the neuter : thus tin bon gar<;on or chapeau,
 
 § 121] TlIK NOL'N. 89 
 
 loi-e boiiH-c ftlle or pliinie. In Modern English the form of ;in (nijectivo 
 is in no way aflected by the noun it (lualifies, the inflexions having 
 long disappeared after becoming levelled. Hence grammatical gender 
 does not exist in Modem English, the only genuine remnants of it 
 existing in such pronouns as uhu-t, i-t (^^ 131, 135), and such plurals 
 as ilecr, >>he(p. 
 
 (b) iVijM/^- in Latin means "neither," i.e. "neither masculine nor 
 feminine." 
 
 ((•) A noun which may without change of form denote a male or 
 female is sometimes said to be of common gender : e.g. pareiif, 
 infant, hahij. 
 
 III. FORMATION. 
 
 (i.) FnU.MATIOX OP COMPOUND NoUNS. 
 
 § 120. A Compound is a combination of two (or more) 
 independent weirds fulfilling the function of a single 
 word. It is treated a.s one word, in contradistinction 
 to a mere cojijunction of its elements, by giving it a 
 single principal accent, instead of allowing each element 
 to have its own accent; further, to the compound i.s 
 usually giA'en a specialised meaning : e.g. fox-terrier, 
 seaweed, hJackijuariJ, codsfgunrd. 
 
 The following are the chief methods of forming com- 
 pound nouns : — 
 
 (i.) Noun qualified by an adjective : e.g. (j rand fat her, 
 blackberry, hothouse. 
 
 (ii.) Noun qualified by a noun : e.g. birtliday, cotmtry- 
 man, icitchcnift, warfare, song-bird; the second element is 
 often formed from a verb, and the first represents its 
 object : e.g. book-seller, boot-making, playicright. 
 
 (iii.) Noun governed by a preceding verb : e.g. spend- 
 thrift, kill-joy, dare-devil, turnkey. 
 
 (iv.) Other methods are seen in inside, by-play, godsend, 
 farexcell, stand-by, passer-by, over-all, he-goat, self-love, good- 
 for-nothing, ne'er-do-well, son-in-laiv . 
 
 § 121. A number of suffixes of derivation ought, sti'ictly
 
 90 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 121 
 
 speaking, to be treated here, but it is more convenient to 
 deal with them in § 124 ef seq. 
 
 {a) -mail appears as a mere agerrt suffix (like -er, § 12G, a) in 
 several words : e.g. seaman, fireman, horseman, bellman, hangman, 
 waterman. In several words a quasi-genitival s appears after the 
 fii-st element: e.g. tradesman, salesman, statesman, kinsman, &c. -man 
 is added to a word which already has the suffix -er in fisherman. In 
 alderman the first element is O.E. ealdor, " elder," " chief." 
 
 (h) -wife (= " woman ") is similarly used for the feminine in house- 
 wife, fishtvife, &c. 
 
 {c) -loriyht (= "worker") appears in playivright, wheelwright, 
 shipwright. In wainwright the first syllable is a doublet of wagon. 
 
 [TFright < M.E. loriglite, formed by metathesis (^ 65) from O.E. 
 wyrht-a, cp. wyre-an, "to work," cp. weorc, "work."] 
 
 (d) -craft {" skill") appears in witchcraft, priestcraft, handicraft; 
 the last word stands for hand- craft with an intrusive i, due to associa- 
 tion with handiivorh. Handiwork rightly has this i, for it represents 
 M.E. hand-iwerc and O.E. hand-getceorc, geiveorc heing almost equivalent 
 in meaning to weorc, from which it is formed with the collective pre- 
 fix ge-. 
 
 (e) In warfare the second syllable is the same as our noun fare, 
 meaning originally a "journeying," and so a " carrying-on," " com- 
 portment " : we have it in thorough -fare, " passage thorough^' or 
 " through " (through is merely a shorter form of thorough) ; ivel-fare, 
 "successful faring" [cp. fare well =^'ma,y you fare well"]; 
 chafer = chap-fare, where chap means "bargain" (O.E. ceap), as in 
 chapman (and the familiar abbreviation of it, chap). 
 
 (/) -kind in mankind, &c., is the same as the word kin (O.E. mann- 
 cynn), but it owes its added d to the influence of the word kind 
 (" sort "—as in "this kind of thing," &c.), with which it is etymo- 
 logically closely connected. 
 
 [The substantive kind is the O.E. eynd, connected with cynn, and 
 means in the first place "nature," "inborn disposition," as in the 
 phrase " after his kind " : the adjective kind similarly meant 
 originally "natural," the present meaning "benevolent" being a 
 later development.]
 
 § 122, a] THE NOUN. 91 
 
 ((/) -herd (a herd, i.e. "keeper") appears in cowherd, swineherd, 
 (joatherd, nhepherd (i.e. sheep-herd), &c. [Potsherd does not contain 
 this suffix : it is not pots-herd, but pot-shei'd or pot -shard : the second 
 syllable means a " fragment," "cutting," from the verb shear, with 
 •which are connected tihire, score, &c.) 
 
 [The words herd, " Hock," and herd, "keeper," were distinguished 
 in O.E. ; the former was hcord, the latter was hierde, connected with 
 it. By the decay of the suffix, the two have become identical.] 
 
 <t 
 
 (h) •iito)iger (" dealer," from a hypothetical word inotKj, meaning 
 mixture," as in amuinj ; cp. O.E. ;ry-«'Wi/ = " egg-mixture ") 
 
 appears in ironmonger, cheesemonger, costermonger (where coster is for 
 
 costard, a kind of apple), and others. 
 
 § 122. Disguised Compounds.— Many compouiuLs d(j 
 uot reveal the force and form of their elements at first 
 sight, the obscurity arising (i.) fi'om the operation of the 
 various phonetic laws, and (ii.) from the influence exercised 
 over the forms of words by more familiar ones whicli 
 resemble them without necessarily having any etymological 
 connection with them (Analogy). Thus (i.) gossip stands 
 for god + sih, " related in God," as sho\\Ti above (§ 70) ; 
 nickname stands for " an eke name" (see § 68), i.e. a name 
 given eke, or in addition ; (ii.) cray-fish is not really a com- 
 pound at all, and has nothing to do witli fi?h save by the 
 inflvience of analogy of form and meaning : it stands for 
 Old French crevisse (now ecrevisse), a Teutonic word, 
 etymologically connected with crab. 
 
 (fl) Among interesting compounds are the following: — 
 
 Barn, M.E. berne, O.E. bcrn < here-sern, in which bere means 
 " Jrt;iey," ani ieni, "house." ^rtrfey < *a;r (synonym of bere, but 
 how connected with it is uncertain) + leac, " leek," "plant" : its O.E. 
 form is b:i^rUc. Garlic (which has retained the final guttural) has the 
 same second .syllable: the first, O.E gar, means "spear," .so that 
 garlic = "spear-leek." 
 
 Constable, O.F. conestable (now cminetabic) is the L. comes stabnli, 
 " count of the stable." [^Count is F. comte from L. com-it-em (ace. of 
 cumes), " companion," from cum, " with " + stem of it-um, sup. of ire, 
 "go." Stable, L. siabulum, "stall," is from the root of stare, "stand.]
 
 92 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 122, 
 
 a 
 
 t Drake stands.accordingto some etymologists, for end-rake (cp. § 67), 
 where fWfHs an old word meaning duck (O.E. ened ; cp. Ger. Entc, 
 Lat. anas, anatis), and rake (allied to -rlc and rich, § 125, <^) means 
 " male," " lord." Thus drake would be really equivalent to " duck- 
 male " : for the mode of formation compare pea-cock (in which pea is 
 derived from L. pavo). Kluge, however, takes drake (<M E. drake, 
 O.E. unrecorded draca) as the simple form of a Teutonic drakon- pre- 
 served also in the German compound enterich. 
 
 Gospel stands for O.E. yod-vspel, i.e. the '■'■ good-spelV or story : 
 a translation of L. evancjeVmm, i.e. ivayyeKwv. The vowel was pro- 
 bably shortened through the addition of the syllable -apel (cp. gosling, 
 from O.E. gos (Skeat), and see husband below). 
 
 Husband is a word of Scandinavian formation meaning " house- 
 master " : the first element is cognate with house, the second (0. Norse 
 hlandi) is in origin a present participle meaning " one who dwells " 
 [cognate with boor, properly "dweller," " tiller" (Ger. Bauer), -hour 
 in nexghhonr below]. Note the shortening of the vowel in hv,s- as in 
 the case above. Hussy is shortened for house-wife [O.E. hus + ivif, 
 whence huswif, pron. Jiussif [c^^. Greenwich), and so Missy]. 
 
 Kerchief is older cover + chef, where chef is French and means 
 "head" (L. caput ; the substantive chief is the same word) : cover, 
 P. couvrc (now couvrir) is L. co-operire. 
 
 Iiord, Lady, Lammas have as first element the old form of loaf 
 (O.E. hhlf, § 67, d) : lord is O.E. hlaford for hldf-weard, " loaf-ward," 
 the bread guarder ; lady is O.E. Jilxf-dige, where the second element 
 means " kneader " and is connected with dough (cp. Ger. Teig, Goth. 
 deigan, "to knead"); Lammas (August 1st) is O.E. hlaf-msesse, i.e. 
 "loaf-mass," harvest-mass. 
 
 Neighbour is "one who dwells near," the elements being O.E. 
 neah, ^'nigh.'' + gebi'ir, bur, "tiller," "dweller"; see husband 
 above. 
 
 Nightingale, lit. ' ' night-singer, ' ' has an intrusive n : the elements 
 are O.E. niht, gen. nihte, " night," and unrecorded gala, " singer " 
 (cp. O.E. galan, "to sing " ; giellan, " to scream," Mod.E. " yell ") ; 
 cp. Ger. Nachtigall. 
 
 Nostril is a compound of 7iose (O.E. nosu) : the second syllable is 
 closely connected with thrill, thirl (metathesis, § 65), and means
 
 5 122, h] THK XOIX. 93 
 
 "hole," connected with O.E. \>urf(, "through"; ffrill is a Dutch 
 cognate. 
 
 Orchard is literally ort-yard, ort or wyrt meaning "root" (with 
 which word it is etymolog^cally connected). Wort survives in various 
 plant names : cole-ivort, &c. Kluge, however, derives oyt from Latin 
 hortus, which is from the same I.E. original as yard. According to 
 this both elements of the word have the same meaning : cp. htut-end 
 < F. bout, "end." 
 
 Somersanlt is O.F. soubre-sault, where the souhre = L. supra, and 
 the other element is L. saltus, " a leap," from sal-ire, " to leap." 
 
 Steward is O.E. stl-weard, i.e. " ward or keeper of the sties''^ ; 
 similarly Marshal originally meant "horse -servant " [from French, 
 which got it, however, from Old High German : the first syllable 
 means '* horse," and is cognate with mare ; the second is in Hod. Ger. 
 SchaJk (rogue), and meant originally "servant "]. 
 
 Stirrup is in O.E. stlg-rap = *'climbing-ro;j«." 
 
 Walnut means "foreign ««<," the first syllable being O.E. wealh, 
 "foreign" (whence Wales, Welsh, Com- xc all : the Anglo-Saxons 
 called the British "foreigners"). In walrus the first syllable is of 
 totally different origin, being (the Scandinavian form of) the word 
 ivhale ; the second syllable is the Scandinavian form of the word 
 horse, so that walrus = ^^ whale-horse^'' (O.E. hors, O.N. hros, meta- 
 thesis forms ; Ger. Ross with h dropped before r, j 67). 
 
 Wassail is originally a salutation = "be thou of good cheer," 
 O.Danish tvsesheil, cp. O.E. wes hdl, i.e. wes, imperative of verb " to 
 be" (cp. Ger. ffe-jces-en, atni see ^ 116, l>) + hdl, "hale" (hale ia a, 
 Northern doublet of whole, in which the ti; is a misspelling ; it is 
 properly absent in other words from the same source : health, hail, 
 holy, heal, &c.). 
 
 (b) A few more woi-ds to which, as to cray-fish, mistaken 
 etymology has given a false shape are here noticed : — 
 
 Ember-days: the first element is O.E. ymbryne, "circuit" {y»ib, 
 " around," cognate with Ger. urn and L. ambi- ; ryne, " run "). 
 
 Frontispiece is not a compound of piece (see § 41, S). 
 
 Goodbye is a corruption of " God be with you." 
 
 Mandrake is a corruption of maitdragora (Gk.), the name of a 
 plant.
 
 94 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 122, b 
 
 Fickaze is a corruption of M.E. pieois, and owes its form to 
 popular etymology, attempting to connect it -with axe. 
 
 Wormwood is a compound of O.E. iverian, " protect," " cover " 
 {whence u-ear), and mod, "mind," "mood" : thus the original mean- 
 ing is " mind -guard." 
 
 (ii.) Formation of Nouns with Suffixes. 
 
 A. The Native Element. 
 
 § 123. Primitive Words. — A number of monosyllabic 
 substantives have no trace of derivational suffix or prefix, 
 and appear to be simple roots in a Modern English form 
 (but see § 59): e.g. cnw, foot, foe. Others again, though 
 plainly not of this number, appear with obscure elements 
 whose force and form cannot be precisely determined : e.g. 
 mother, water, child. 
 
 § 124. In many nouns formative suffixes appear, which 
 once existed as independent words but have lost their 
 full force in composition : the chief of these apjoear in 
 
 king-diova., ma7i-'b.ood, fi'iend-ship. 
 
 («) These differ in degree, not in kind, from the last element of 
 such compounds as witchcraft, goodman, shipwright, &c. (§ 121) ; they 
 are distinguished from them only in having more completely lost their 
 full independent meaning when used in forming nouns. 
 
 {h) -dom (the same word as doom from the verb do) forms abstract 
 nouns denoting primarily "power," " jurisdiction," and so "condi- 
 tion" ; many abstracts thus formed have acquired a concrete mean- 
 ing. Many are hybrids. 
 
 Examples of the use of this suffix are : 
 
 (i.) from nouns: kingdom, earldom; hybrids: princedom, dukedom, 
 popedom, Christendom. 
 
 (ii.) from adjectives : freedom, wisdom (= tvise-dom). 
 
 The suffix is still living, though rarely used except in fresh forma- 
 tions of a half-humorous kind : tinkcrdom, boredom. 
 
 Thraldom and some others are of Scandinavian origin ; but halidame 
 (= holi-dom), holidame are incorrect forms of early Modern English
 
 § 12i,d] TnK NOUN. 95 
 
 due to mistaken connexion of the word with the Virgin. The correct 
 form is halidom < O.E. halig doin (cp. Ger. heiligtum). 
 
 Seldom does not belong hero (see § 20G, d) ; nor does random, which 
 represents an O.F. ramlon, " force," " swiftness," and so " haste." 
 
 t The O.E. form is dom (the long vowel is preserved in doom) as in 
 wls-dom ; Ger. cognate is -turn, as in Komgtum. 
 
 (<•) •hood forms abstracts denoting " state," " condition" : 
 
 (i.) from nouns : manhood, childhood, brotherhood, nisterhood, neigh- 
 bourhood, knighthood, tcidowhood ; and rarely 
 
 (ii.) from adjectives: likelihood, falsehood. The last named is a 
 hybrid (h. fals-iis) ; so is priest -hood. 
 
 It appears as -head in Godhead (i.e. God-hood). 
 
 t The O.E. form is hdd as in cild-hdd, which gave M.E. -hood 
 (and -hede) ; the Ger. cognate is -hcit, as in Kiudheit, Freiheit. 
 This suffix does not appear in lireli-hood, which, however, owes its 
 form to analogy with it ; the older form is live-lode, i.e. life-lode, 
 "life-/<'rt^/ing," -lode being the same as the substantive lode (of metal 
 in a mine), and of the same origin as the vb. lead. M.E. Uvelude, 
 liflode, O.E. lif-ldd. 
 
 {d) -ship forms abstracts denoting "shape," "state," "condition" ; 
 many thus formed have acquired a concrete meaning. Examples of 
 its use are : 
 
 (i.) from novms : f-iendship, lordship, ladyship, horsemanship, wor- 
 ship (= worth-ship). 
 
 (ii.) from an adjective : hardship. 
 
 Many are hydrids (the suffix can still be used in fresh formations), 
 as membership (L. membr-um), mastership, clerkship, scholarship, fellow- 
 ship, &c. The second syllable in landscape, seascape, is the Dutch 
 form of the same suffix. 
 
 + The O.E. form is -scipc, from same source as the " weak present" 
 verb«fi<y;i>rt«, to "shape," whenceour verb shape; the noun ship is of the 
 same origin. Examples of its use in O.E. asefreondscipe, weor\>seipe ; 
 the Ger. cognate is -schaf-t (from schaffen, "shape"), as in Freimd- 
 schaft, landschaft ,
 
 Ofi THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 125 
 
 § 125. Rarer suffixes of the same class (i.e. knoAvn to 
 have been once independent words) appear in 
 
 wed-lock, know-ledge, hat-red., hishop-vic, 
 and in the numerals hund-ved, four-teen, for-ty. 
 
 (a) In wed-lock the first element means " pledge"; -lock (O.E. Ific) 
 originally meant "sport," "game," and "gift." Knoiv-ledge ex- 
 hibits the iScandinavian form of the same suffix. 
 
 {b) -red, abstract noun sufiix denoting " condition," " stipulation " 
 (the meaning of the O.E. word rxden), is found in hatred and kin- 
 dred ( < M.E. kin-rede, ^ G8, transformation, by analogy with 
 O.E. sibb-rseden, M.E. sibrede, "relationship," of O.E. cijnren, i.e. 
 cynn-ryne, "family," "course," or "line"; cp. O.E. ryne, "a 
 running"). 
 
 (c) For -red (= "reckoning") in hund-ved, and -teen, -ty 
 
 (= "ten ") in four-teen, for-ty, &c., see under Numerals, § 147. 
 
 {d) -ric in bishop-ric signifies "dominion," "rule." Bishop-rio 
 is a hybrid {\ 24). 
 
 t The O.E. form is -rice ; the Ger. cognate is Eeich (" kingdom"), 
 used as suffix in Kmigreich, &c. ; the cognate in Latin is reg- (as 
 seen in reg-ere, reg-em, reg-num, &c.). The adjective rich (primitive 
 meaning "powerful") is practically the same word as rice (cp. Ger. 
 adj. reich) above; its appearance in French is due to its having been 
 borrowed from the Teutons. 
 
 § 126. Many suffixes seen in the formation of nouns 
 cannot be shown to have had independent existences. 
 The chief of tliese appear in the words 
 
 play-ev, " one who plays," agp,nt suffix, 
 
 sJiov-el, " thing to shove with," instrumental suffix, 
 
 ivarm-th, " state of being wai^m," ■") , ^ 
 
 good-ness, " quality of behig good," i ^^*^™^^ ^^'^^^ 
 
 leani-ing, " to leam " ( = verb-noun), ) si^^^es ; 
 
 and in the words (originally all dirnimitives) ;
 
 5 12n, h] TlIK NOI-N. 97 
 
 hnll-ock, /.(///-el, r.hick-en, farth-iiig, '//'/. -1-ing, 
 J aiiih -Tain ; 
 
 and ill the feminine words 
 
 spin-ster, vixen. 
 
 (rt) -er (donoting primarily malo agent) may bo added to almost 
 any verb (or noun regarded as verb): e.g. bx/.-cr (one who huhrx), 
 gardener, fcani'r, Imrr, rider, singer, teaeher, hunter. In such a word 
 as cottag-er it is used loosely to signify "one connected with" 
 (especially by habitation) : so in London-er, viUng-er. 
 
 It is freely used in names of instruments regarded primarily as 
 agents: pointer, sharpener, drawer. It is spelt (but not pronounced) 
 slightly differently in bcgg-ar, li-ar. 
 
 It has been a living sufEx throughout the whole history of the 
 language, and hence is freely used with foreign stems : e.g. paint-er, 
 point-e)' ; and is even added to Greek formations as in jw/fo/o/^jffji^/i-fr, 
 biograph-er, where the Gk. -ist (§ 128, a) would seem more appropriate. 
 
 Many words in -er are now used for feminine as well as masculine : 
 e.g. teacher, dancer; it forms a masculine, however, from a feminine 
 in widoiv-er (^ 117, «). The feininiiio suflix properly corresponding 
 to it is -slcr as in xpin-s/rr, but this is also now commonly found as a 
 masculine agent suflix (i 117, b). 
 
 The Romance suflix -ear (Lut. -or) has freqiiently givon way to 
 this form, or become identical with it, owing to its prevalence and 
 similarity of pronunciation and force : it is frequently impossible to 
 distinguish between the -er native and -er from French -eiir. On 
 the other hand, the native suffix is sometimes spelt as if it were of 
 Latin origin, as saihr (for sail-er) : this is due to influence of -or 
 words from Latin, such as author (L. aiutor-cm): hence such parallel 
 forms as sailor and miler (with different meanings). 
 
 t The O.E. form is -ere, as in leornere ; the Gcr. cognate is -er, as 
 in Rcifrr. 
 
 {b) -el (more frequently spelt -le) marks a class of words originally 
 denoting agents and subsequently instruments : most of these are 
 from verbal roots. Examples are cripp-le {creep), gird-le (gird), shor-el 
 (shore), shult-le (shoot), spind-le [for spin-el (see ^ 68) from spin']; 
 steep- le is from adj. steep; stile has this suffix in a contracted form, 
 standing for stig-cl, from sfig-an, to "•<<//," "climb" (see stirrup, 
 § 122, a). 
 
 K. L. H
 
 98 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 126, b 
 
 f Like utite, several others with this suffix have dropped a medial 
 (/ and contracted (§ 67): e.g. fo^^•l (O.E. fugol ; cp. Ger. Voffel), 
 hail (cp. Ger. Hngel), sail (cp. Ger. Scgel), tail (cp. Ger. Zagel). 
 
 -el, -le has a diminutive force in limd-le, hov-el ("a little house," 
 O.E. hof, as in Ger.), kern-el (from corn, with mutation ; § 63), 
 bram-b-le (from O.E. hri-mel, with intrusive b ; ^ 68), thim-b-le (from 
 thumb, with mutation). Similarly it appears in spangle, sparkle, 
 paddle (for spaddle, from spade). It appears after the suffix -er in 
 cock-er-cl, pik-€r-cl[pike), mong-r-el (where mong as in a,-mong, mong-er, 
 &c. = " mixture "). 
 
 In buri-al (vb. burg), ridd-le {read, «(^e = <' explain ") , shuft-le, 
 and perhaps some others, the original English suffix was -els ; the -s 
 sometimes appears in Middle English, but has finally been discarded, 
 owing to its being taken for the sign of the plural (§ 106, a). 
 
 In hrid-al the final syllable has nothing to do with this suffix : 
 the word is a compound equivalent to brides ale = " bride feast." 
 
 t The O.E. form is -el (often spelt -I, -ol), and in burial. Sec, -els ; 
 the Ger. cognate is -el, as in Dcck-el (vb. decken). 
 
 {c) -ness, a living suffix, is used very freely to form abstracts 
 (which have sometimes acquired a concrete meaning) from adjectives: 
 goodness, badness, redness, blackness, whiteness, ciai/ringncss, gladness, 
 madness, likeness ; tvitness, wilderness. It is freely added to Romance 
 adjectives, especially such as are monosyllabic (and therefore not of 
 obviously foreign appearance) : e.g. rudeness, falseness, Jrerceness, base- 
 ness, &c.; the corresponding Romance termination is -ify (§ ]27,k), 
 and hence we find gentleness and gentility, scarceness and scarcity, 
 activeness and activity, stupidness and stupidity, &c. "When there is no 
 difi'erence of meaning in such pairs, the Romance termination is 
 considered preferable as avoiding a hybrid. 
 
 t The O.E. form is -nes as in gellcnes ; the Ger. cognate is -nis, 
 e.g. Gleichnis. 
 
 [d) -til, -t, -d are found (i.) in nouns which are derived from verbs 
 and denote the result of the action of the verb (much like a neuter 
 passive participle in Latin) , and (ii.) in abstracts formed from adjectives. 
 The suffix is practically identical in origin with the -d of the passive 
 participle of weak verbs. Examples : 
 
 (i.) from verbs, [a] th: bir-th {yh. hear), ear-th {y\). ear,'' ioiilV), 
 grow-th, steal-th, tilth (vb. till), tro-th (vb. trow), (b) It becomes t 
 generally in combinations where th is difficult to pronounce, i.e.
 
 § 126,/] THE NOUN. 99 
 
 after /, gh (originally guttural), s, as in shrif-t (shrive), drift {drive), 
 rif-t (i-ive), thonfjh-t (cp. past part, of think), draf-t or draiujh-t {draw, 
 older drag-an), drought (O.E. drugian, "to dry"), weigh -t, fro».t 
 (cp. froz-ctt),JJigh-t {fly, older fliog-an), sigh-t {.sre, older *seh-an) ; it 
 appears as rf in dec-d (root of do), glede (" a glouing coal "), »ee-d {sow), 
 floo-d {flow), bran-d {burn), mead {mow). In growth and titcaUh we 
 have SI.E. formations from groic, steal, and therefore no mutation. 
 
 (ii.) from adjectives, {a) th : warm-th, slo-th (slow), truth ; it 
 causes the vowel to be shortened in dcar-th {dear), dep-th {deep), uid-th 
 {wide); and to be mutated — for the full form of the suffix was 
 anciently -ith—m brrad-lh (< O.E. hrTvdn, c^.O.'E. had, "broad"), 
 fll-th {foul, O.E. fill), health (<0.E. /w/J?, cp. O.E. hdl, " whole "), 
 Icng-th {long), streng-th {strong), mirth {merry), {b) It is t in cases 
 where th is difficult to pronounce (as above), height {high : Miltonic 
 highth may often be heard from the uneducated). Of the above 
 warmth, dearth, depth, breadth, and sloth arc M.E. formations. 
 
 t The O.E. suffixes are -a\<, -uY, i\> {)>), d (all closely connected), 
 as in tr('0K'"5 {truth), druga^ {drought), dJrd {deed), &c. ; the Ger. 
 cognates appear as -t, -d : e.g. Schrif-t {schreib-en), Bran-d {brenn-en), 
 Tha-t {than). The L. cognate is the -t- of passive participles, as in 
 stra-t-us {sterno), whence our street {via strata, § 23, a). 
 
 {e) -ing used to form nouns from verlis may be added to any verb, 
 being treated now as a regular inflexion in forming verbal nouns (see 
 § 98, iii.) : e.g. hunting, electioneering, jerrymandering. 
 
 t The O.E. form is -utig (later -ing), as in the noun leom-ung, 
 leorn-ing ; the Ger. cognate is -ung similarly used : e.g. Beschreib- 
 ung. 
 
 (/) -ing, a personal termination, sometimes with a diminutive or 
 depreciative sense, appears in farth-ing (i.e. fourth-ing) and in Rid-ing 
 (Yorkshire), where it stands for thrid-ing, i.e. third-ing, a Scandinavian 
 word. It is traced also in shill-ing, hcrr-ing, penn-y (for penn-ing), 
 tvhit-ing, and in the now obsolete words stveet-ing (preserved as a 
 proper name), lord-ing, hild-ing. It was used freely in O.E. to form 
 patronymics, = " son of " (much like -son, which generally supplanted 
 it owing to Scandinavian influence) : hence proper names in -ing, 
 Buch as Brown-ing, Will-ing, and place-names such as Barl;-ing, Dork- 
 ing (i.e. places where lived the Barkings or Dorkings, children of Bark, 
 Dork). King is contracted from kin-ing, where kin (O.E. cyn) 
 = "race," "tribe," "nation"; similarly c</^e^tH^, "prince," = son
 
 100 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 126,/ 
 
 of an "ethel" or noble [O.E. .■ei>elc, "noble" (cognate Ger. edel) 
 appears in many O.E. names : Ethel-bert, Ethel-red, &c.]. 
 
 {g) -ling is a double diminutive suffix formed of -l {-el, above) 
 + ing ( above) and has generally supplanted the simple -ing. It is 
 seen in dueh-ling (a little duck), darling [dear), gosling, (goose), codling, 
 seedling, stripling, youngling, starling (older star, like Ger. Staar, meant 
 the same bird) ; so nestling (a little thing belonging to, fit for, a nest), 
 nursling, yearling, foundling, suckling, sapling, &c. ; with notion of con- 
 tempt common to diminutives in lordling, groundling, changeling, hire- 
 ling, shaveling , fopling , &c. 
 
 Sterling st&nds for easterling or esterling ("little eastern person"), 
 the name given in the thirteenth century to the merchants from the 
 east (Flemings, Hanse-towns' men), who traded with England. 
 
 t The O.E. diminutives are -ing and -l-ing^ ; the Ger. cognate -el, 
 -I is freely used in the double suffix l-ein, as in Eind-lein, Jiing-lein. 
 
 (A) -kin forms a few dimimitives in native words: e.g. lamb-kin, 
 pip-kin (' ' pipe ' ') , gris-kin (Icel. grtss, ' ' a young pig ") . It was more 
 largely used in Dutch, and the following words (and some others) 
 appear to have come thence into English : — cana-kin {can), catkin 
 (flower name, but properly a diminutive of cat), firkin (from Dutch 
 form oifour), niannikin {man). 
 
 It appears in proper names such as Malkin (= little Maud), Gri- 
 malkin {grey malkin, " a cat "), Peterkin and the shorter form Ferkin, 
 Siinpkin ("little Sim," i.e. Simeon, with intrusive^; cp. Simpson), 
 Tomkin, JFatkin {Wat abreYintion oi Walter; cp. Watson), &c. 
 
 Bodkin meant originally "a small dagger," M.E. hoydekin, in 
 Chaucer ; its origin is at present unknown. 
 
 Welkin does not contain this suffix : it is from the plural of the 
 O.E. woken, " cloud," where c (i.e. k) is part of the root ; cp. Ger. 
 Wolke. 
 
 t -kin is a compound suffix rarely found in O.E. : the German 
 cognate is -o/i«w, freely used as in Mddchen {Magd), Liebchen {Lieb), 
 &c. The k is probably the same as that in bullock ; the other element 
 in the suffix may be identical with the -en below {j). 
 
 {i) -ock is found in the diminutives bull-ock, hill-ock, humm-ock ("a 
 little hump "). 
 
 t The suffix of diminution appears to be originally -c (i.e. k) rather 
 than -oc{k), which has perhaps been used through the influence of 
 the form bullock : it is only found in O.E. in this one word bullu-c 
 and in styr-ic (a " stirk," kind of bull), from steor, a " steer," unless
 
 § 127, a] THE NOUN. 101 
 
 iHvruck or larh, E. laweree (Ger. Lerche), belongs here, which is 
 doubtful. 
 
 (j) -en is an old diminutive suffix in maid-en, chick-en (dim. of 
 cock). 
 
 Eitt-cn is the M.E. kit-oun, where the suffi.v is French (§ 127, k). 
 
 Mitten is the M.E. mitaine, from O.F. mitaine (whose origin is 
 doubtful, some considering it Teut., others Celt.). 
 
 t The O.E. suffix ia seen in mJvdcn (for mwijclen, cp. O.E. mxg^, 
 " maid ") : words with this suffi.x were neuter. 
 
 (/■) -en as feminine suffix (see vixen, ^ 117, d, e). 
 
 B. The Foreign Element. 
 
 § 127. Our vocabulaiy contains nouns showing a very 
 large variety of Romance suffixes. The chief of these 
 appear in the following : — 
 
 Personal: .secretary, cnrpent-ev, prcm-iev, chancell-or ; 
 jur-or, sav-ioxLV ; Justor-ia,n, c(/^;/-ain ; (idmr-site, jxr-y; 
 hurg-ess; the feniinines heir-ess, e.rec » -trix ; ro/r-ard. 
 
 Abstract Nouns: igwor-ance, prud-ence; .<i ,r -ice, jtcst- 
 ice ; servi-tvide ; sfiipid-ity, baim-ty, hou-oviv ; juggler--^ ; 
 perfid-y, calumu-y ; founda-tion, pus'<-ion, pois-on ; marri- 
 age, ^ee/--age, nat-Xive, a gr ic id t --are; rep rui i -smd ; divid- 
 end ; crus-Si.de, jerem /-ad. 
 
 Instruments, means, places devoted to special uses, &c. : 
 sperf-acle, o?--acle ; dormit-ovy, h tr a f -ory. pari -oxa; volu- 
 me, char-va., regi-m.en, instru-T3iexit. 
 
 Depreciative, collective, augmentative : popul-a,ce, terr- 
 ace ; colonn-2ide ; ball-oon, cann-on. 
 
 Diminutive : damsel ; ang-le, ghh-ule, parti-cle, cup- 
 ola.; 77V-ulet, gaiiut-let, chari-ot. 
 
 {a) The Latin -arius {-ariion), aris become (i.) P. aire, and Eng. 
 -ary, e.g. L.L. secret-arins (from sccret-un), F. sccrit-aire, Eng. 
 secretary ; so granariiim gives granary ; it exists in many adjectives — 
 necessary, ordinary, &c. (ii.) French -er, -ier, and English -ar, -er, 
 -ier, -eer, &c. : e.g. L. primarius, Y. premier, Eng. premier; L.L. 
 carpentarius, F. charpentier, Eng. carpenter; so scholar {scholaris),
 
 102 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 127, a 
 
 engineer, grenadier ; the termination becomes a regular agent suffix. 
 In adjectives we find -ar rather frequently, as in secular, peculiar. 
 
 Squire has this suffix much disguised by contraction, L. scutarms, 
 from scutum, " shield." This termination is adjectival rather than 
 substantival in Latin. 
 
 [b) The Latin -or {-orem) becomes -eur in French, and should pass 
 into -er in Eng. : an example is perhaps visiter (generally, however, 
 spelt 'Visitor) ; as a rule, however (owing to knowledge of Latin and 
 ignorance of etymology), these words are spelt in English with -or : 
 examples are actor, pastor, tailor (F. tailler, to cut), saviour (F. sauveur, 
 L. salvator). 
 
 In many words in -erit is difficult to distinguish the Eng. -er{^ 126, «) 
 from the result of the French -eur, -er, -ier. Thus chancell-or 
 belongs not to this group, but to («) above, being the mediaeval Latin 
 cancellarius (F. chancelier). [C'ancellarius is from cancellus (whence our 
 chancel), "grating" or "screen"; the cancellarius was " an officer 
 who stood near the screen before the judgment seat."] M.E. had 
 canceler, chancelier. Similarly Mod. E. counsellor was in M.E. counseiler. 
 Again cp. Mod. E. bachelor, M.E. bacheler. 
 
 {c) The L. -or {-oris) in abstract nouns is usually spelt -our in 
 English, as in honour (F. honneur, L. honorem), labour, &c. The 
 American spelling in -or is meant to represent the sound more 
 clearly. 
 
 (rf) The L. -anus (adjective suffix by origin) appears in various 
 English nouns and adjectives as -an, -ane, ain, &c. Thus Rom-an 
 (L. liom-anus), pacj-an (L. pag-anus), human, and humane (L. humanus). 
 Christian (L. Ghristianus), certain, &c. Ancient is in F. ancien (for 
 the excrescent t in English cp. § 84), which is the L. ante " before " 
 + this suffix. Bean {F . doyen) is L. decanus, from dec-em, "ten." 
 The usual French form of the suffix is -ain, in which shape we have 
 it in chaplain (cp. chapeV), captain (cp. caput), certain, &c. 
 
 {e) The L. -atus, -atum (pass. part, suffix) appears in many nouns 
 and adjectives (and verbs ; § 194, «). Most of these are easily under- 
 stood : e.g. advocate, episcopate, consulate, legate, curate, disconsolate, 
 &c., where the suffix is fully preserved. In French words of popular 
 formation this -atus becomes e (e.g. aimS, part, of aimer, < amatus), and 
 in English derivatives appears generally as y, ey, when unaccented : 
 jury (L. jnrattis), duchy (L. ducatus), Amy (F. Aimee, L. Ama-ta), 
 journey (*diurnata) ; where the original accent is kept we have Mod. E. 
 -ee for L. -dtus (cp. legatee, devotee).
 
 § 127, p] THE NOUN. lOS 
 
 Notice that ene)iiy does not belong here (F. »nne»u, L. inimiciw, i.e. 
 in-, '• not " + amicus, " friend "). 
 
 This L. -adis, -ata, gave rise in Spanish to -(ula, as in armada 
 (L. arinata), and from Spanish, Proven(,>aI, kc, it passed into French 
 in the form -ade, of frequent occurrence : thus arcade, balustrade, 
 crusade (F. croisade, from cruix, from crucein, "cross"), grenade, 
 cavalcade, &c. 
 
 {/) -eii.sis (adjectival ending in Latin in such names as Carthagini- 
 ensis, &c.) is represented in English in burg-ess, Portugu-est, marqu-ess. 
 
 iff) For -ess, -trix (as in heiress, testatrix), see ^§ 116, 118. 
 
 [h) The L. abstract -antiam, -entiam arc easily recognized in 
 derivatives such as ig)iora.nce, prudence ; the longer form -ency 
 appears in transparencij, &c. Silence is L. silentium. 
 
 (i) -ice is L. -itia, -itium, as injustice, sei'vice ; the French form of 
 this is -esse, as in noblesse, richesse (whence riches, § 108, a). 
 
 iJ) -tude is L. -tudo, -tudinem, only in "learned" derivatives: 
 beatitude, gratitude. 
 
 (^0 -'ty) -ity represent F. -te, -ite, L. -itas, -ilatem : thus ct/y is 
 F. cite, L. civitatem ; charity, F. charite, from L. caritatem (from 
 cams, " dear ") ; bounty, F. bonfe, L. bonitarlem. So in verity, stupidity, 
 facility and faculty (doublets), avidity, &c. 
 
 (/) -y often represents a F. -ie, L. -ia, abstract or collective noun 
 ending: e.g. industry {F. Industrie, L. industrid). 
 
 [in) -io, -ionein (often in combination -tio, -sio) is very common in 
 English and French. It appears as -tion, -sion in many NTords 
 whose etymology is at once obvious : invention, a-sptrsion, combination, 
 iiijlcxion ; it is less like its original in poison (L. potion-cm, " draught ' ') , 
 fashion {\j. f actionem, irom fact -urn ; a doublet \s faction), &c. 
 
 {n) -age is a French form of pop. L. -aticum, as in voyage (L. 
 viaticum, from via, " way "), savage {silvaticuiii, from silra, " wood "), 
 courage (from L. cor, "heart"); it was used as a suffix in English, 
 and hence appears in hybrids, such as bond-age. 
 
 (o) -(t)ure, as in nature, is simply L. -{t)ura: so in overture, aper- 
 ture, ice. 
 
 (p) -and, -end are from L. gerundival stems {-and being always 
 through the French form) : vi-and{s) (F. viande, L. vivenda, from 
 viv-«re, " live "), legend (L. legvnda, from legere, " read "■).
 
 104 THK ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§127,9 
 
 [q) L. -ulm {-i/hi, -ultmi) appears in people (F. peitple, L. poptihi.s), 
 table (tabula), anyle (L. angulus), &c. ; also in chapter (F. chapitre, 
 L. capitaliiit/). It keeps near its original in "learned" formations 
 such as globule and cellule (where it has diminutive force), calculus, &c. 
 It appears as a compound suffix in many instrumental and diminutive 
 formations : e.g. specta-c-le (L. spectaculnni), oracle (L. oraculum) , 
 particle, &c. Damsel (M.E. damonel, from F. damoiselle, fem. of 
 damoisel, " youth ") represents L.L. domicell-a for clominicella, fem, 
 diminutive of dominus, "lord." Cupola has L. -ula in an Italian 
 form — a diminutive of cupa, " cup." 
 
 (r) L. -orium appears plainly in learned formations such as rip/epi'ory, 
 and others given ahove. Parloitr stands for parlat-orinm, lit. " a place 
 to talk in," from pop. L. parlare {F.parler), from parabolare, " talk" 
 (Gk. -Kapa^oXi), "parable," " word.") 
 
 [s] L. -wiew as in regimen (fx-om regere, "rule") appears in short- 
 ened form in charm, F. charme, L. car -men ; volume = Jj. volumen 
 (from volvere, "roll"). In regi-men-t, entertain-men-t and other 
 words containing this common suffix — some hybrids, e.g. beicilderment 
 — we have the comjjound suffix -men-turn. Moment and movement 
 are doublets (L. morere, " move "). 
 
 [t) -ace is found in words which have passed through Italian, 
 where it has an augmentative, but generally depreciatory, force : e.g. 
 populace (L. populus, "people"). It appears in terrace (L. terra, 
 "earth"). [Palace is vx&vely Ij. palat'mm. Place is Jj. platea, "broad 
 walk," from Gk. trXaTvs, "broad." Space is L. spatium.) 
 
 {u) -on -oon have augmentative force in the languages derived 
 from Latin. Eng. cannon, from F. canon, is L. canna, "reed" (from 
 Gk. Kavv-q : but Eng. canon, though ultimately from the same source, 
 is the Gk. icavwv, "rod," "ruler," and therefore does not contain 
 this suffix) : so balloon = "a big balV^ (F. ballon). Other examples 
 (Spanish, &c.) are seen in doubloon, quadroon (Ital.), lagoon, "a big 
 laJce''^ (from L. Incus). 
 
 (r) The French diminutive -ette appears as -et in lancet ("a little 
 lance''^), hatchet (F. hache, "axe"), banner-et, leveret (F. lievre, 
 "hare,"' L. Icpor-), claret (F. clair-et, from adj. clair, L. clarus, 
 " clear "), .//'j»7r-(fV, &c. Coquette, rosette, etiquette are the Modern 
 French words kept unchanged. It was frequently added to words 
 containing the diminutive -/- (L. -uius, above), thus giving rise to 
 a double diminutive suffix -let : e.g. rtvu-l-et (L. rivulus from rivus),
 
 § 128] Tin; nol-n. 105 
 
 (jaunt-kt (F. yaitt, " glove," from Gaud, Gaiinf, or Ghent in Fliinders), 
 iiotclel, ringlet ("a little rinrj " — hybrid). 
 
 (w) -ard, which appears in several substantives, is of Teutonic 
 origin (O.II.G. -hurl), but comes into English in words taken from 
 French. Thus coward is O.F. coarl, from Lat. caiidd, " tail "+ this 
 suffix , in other formations (made in English) it has a similar depre- 
 ciative force : e.g. drunkard, dullard, braggart. The same suffix 
 appears in Spaniard. 
 
 § 128. Fiutlier, the .suffixes contained in words of 
 Greek origin have come to ns thvongh a Romance sonrce. 
 We liave the cliief of tliem in 
 
 . soph-ist ; barhar-isvn ; lo(j-ic ; 
 
 to which we may add some which were independent words, 
 hnt are now nsed as suffixes of derivation : tliese are 
 seen in f/co-logy, /''/c-gram, ^eo-graphy. 
 
 ((?) -ist, the Gk. -io-tt/j (adopted in L. as -i.sta), appears not only 
 in Greek words such as soph-ist (iro^xJy, "wise"), antagon-ist [avri, 
 " against " + o7wj't(rT^s, "struggler," from aytiv, "contest"), but 
 also in words with the first element of Latin origin : e.g. non -conformist, 
 art-ist, (jiiiet-isf, dent -ist ; so cgo-t-ist (for ego-isl, horn ego, "I"), 
 where the t between the vowels is perhaps due to the termination of 
 the last examples, as well as to the desire to avoid hiatus. The suffix 
 is still living : e.g. scientist. Nihilist. 
 
 {I') -ism, the Gk. -laf^os (in L. as -ismus), forms abstract nouns : 
 soph-ism, antagon-ism, barbar-ism, the-ism, &c. Hybrids (the suffix 
 being living) are not unconamon : social-ism. 
 
 (r) -ic, properly an adjective siiffix, Gk. -ikos (generally fern, -ikt] 
 in its English derivatives, agreeing with re'xi'i?, "art," understood), 
 appears in names of sciences, arts, &c. : mus-ic, log-ic ; with added 
 -.f of plural, mathemat-ic-s, cth-ic-s, polit-ic-s ; cp. to fiadriiJ.aTiKd, 
 TO TToMriKa. When used as adjectives in English, words ending 
 formerly in -ic frequently have the Lat. -al (§ 152, d) added: e.g. 
 tnechan-ic-al, mathemat-ic-al. 
 
 Vublic (L. publicHs), civic (L- cirictis) do not contain this suffix, but 
 its Latin cognate. 
 
 "O' 
 
 For the Prefixes used in English nouns, see the general 
 Alphabetical List in §§ 197-8.
 
 106 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Pronouns. 
 
 1. GLAS8IFIGATI0N. 
 
 § 129. Pronouns denote persons or things whose 
 names have been previously mentioned, or are presumed 
 to be known : they indicate without naming. 
 
 («) Derivation: F. pronom from L. 2)ro, "instead of"+ nomen, 
 "name." 
 
 {b) Logically pronouns are a species of noun : in grammar it is 
 found convenient to treat them as a different part of speech. As far, 
 however, as syntax is concerned, the treatment of the two is practically 
 identical. 
 
 § 129 A. Pronouns are classified as 
 
 Personal e.g. J, you, she. 
 
 Possessive ours, theirs. 
 
 Reflexive and Emphatic imjself, themselves. 
 
 Demonstrative ^^'^'s that.^ 
 
 Interrogative ^vho ? lohich ^ 
 
 Relative who, which. 
 
 Indefinite one, some. 
 
 (a) Certain words discussed as Numeral and Indefinite Adjectives 
 (Ch. xii.) are freely used also as Pronouns, and are sometimes called 
 Numeral Pronouns : these include all the cardinal numbers and such 
 words as all, mmiij, some, &c. 
 
 (i) A pronoun is called reflexive (L. reflectere, " bend back") when 
 it refers to the subject of the sentence and is not in the nominative 
 case : e.g. " He did it for himself;' "I helped myself ; but the same 
 words are often merely emphatic : e.g. "I w!y«e//did it."
 
 § 130, c] PRONOUNS. 107 
 
 ((•) Interrogative Pronouns (L. interrotjare, "ask") are used in 
 asking questions : e.g. " JFho did it ? " " What do you say ? " 
 
 (rf) Relative Pronouns (L. relat-um, used as supine of referre, " bear 
 back") usually refer to a noun or pronoun already used in the same 
 sentence (called the Antecedent), and also servo to connect the chiuso 
 in which they occur with the rest of the sentence : " I took the book 
 tchich lay on the table." 
 
 II. INFLEXION AND HISTORY. 
 
 § 130. The forms of tho Personal and Possessive 
 Pronouns are : — 
 
 FiKST Person. JSecond Person.] Third Person. 
 
 Nominative... 
 
 / 
 
 we 
 
 thou 
 
 you, ye 
 
 he 
 
 she 
 
 Possessive ... 
 
 ( my 
 \ mine 
 
 our 
 ours 
 
 thy 
 thine 
 
 your 
 yours 
 
 his 
 
 her 
 hers 
 
 Objective ... 
 
 me 
 
 us 
 
 thee 
 
 you 
 
 him 
 
 her 
 
 it they 
 .. their 
 
 its ., . 
 
 theirs 
 it them 
 
 {a) Of the possessive forms 
 
 (i.) My, our, thy, your, her, their are only used in the 
 position of attributive adjectives, i.e. immediately before a noun ; 
 like all possessive cases now used in English, their force is adjectival, 
 and they are generally termed Possessive Ailjccliii's. 
 
 (ii.) Mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, theirs are used only as 
 possessive pronouns, i.e. when the noun they depend on does not 
 follow : e.g. " Thisis your book, but that is mine." But mine and thine 
 are occasionally found as archaisms for thy and my before a vowel. 
 
 (iii.) His may be possessive adjective or pronoun. 
 
 (b) The forms thou, thy, thine, thee are archaic : we use them now 
 only in addresses to the Deity and in poetic diction. Originally thou, 
 thcc were regularly emploj'cd for tho singular ; ye, yoit for the plural : 
 subsequently the plural forms became customary in polite converse for 
 tho singular as well as the plural, thou, thee being used by a superior 
 to an inferior, or in addresses of endearment, close familiarity, &c. : 
 cp. the German use of du, and the French of tu. 
 
 Ye is also archaic : it represents the old nominative, but has been 
 displaced by the object-form you (see \ 131, a). 
 
 (c) In mine, thine the n is the old possessive singular inflexion
 
 108 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 130, C 
 
 (the e is merely orthographical, denoting the length of the vowel), 
 and of these my, thy are merely shortened forms. 
 
 In her (possessive) we have preserved a remnant of the possessive 
 singular fennnine inflexion. 
 
 In his the final s is the common possessive singular inflexion : his 
 was originally both masc. and neut. 
 
 {d) Its is quite a modern form (17th cent.) which has supplanted 
 his as neuter, an intermediate form it (uninflected) being sometimes 
 foimd ; the -s here is the usual possessive inflexion, given by analogy 
 ■with other possessives. 
 
 {e) Ours, yours, hers, theirs are sometimes called double 
 genitives ; they owe their form to the fact that the -r had lost 
 its genitival force ; hence an -s was added by analogy with ordinary 
 genitives, particularly with his. Lowland Scotch extends the analogy 
 to the remaining possessive pronoun : e.g. " This is tnities^' ( =mitie). 
 
 (/) The m in him is the old case-ending of the dative masculine 
 (and neuter) singular, which is only preserved in this word and in 
 whom (see § 135) ; in them, it is the dative plural flexion, as in whilom 
 (§ 206, d). In her (object) the r is the remnant of the dative (not 
 accusative) singular feminine flexion. Observe therefore that him, 
 her, whom are dative forms which have come to be used in all object 
 relations (i.e. accusative and dative), supplanting the older accusative 
 in accordance with the general tendency which has levelled these 
 cases in all nouns in English. 
 
 {g) Similarly m.e, us, thee, you represent both the old accusative 
 and the dative, which in these words fell together even in O.E. by 
 the loss of a final -{i)c from the accusative. It (object) represents 
 the old accusative, which was the same as the nominative ; the dative 
 form was him, which is now used only as a masculine. 
 
 {It) She is derived quite regularly from O.E. seo, the feminine form 
 of the definite article. The O.E. feminine pronoun was heo, which 
 often took the form Ite in M.E. ; but this form was already bespoken 
 for the masculine. To avoid confusion, therefore, the feminine 
 singular (like the plural) gradually appropriated the form of the 
 definite article. 
 
 (i) In it (O.E. Itit) the t is a neuter suffix (cp. Lat. istitdi) ; the 
 /( has been dropped through lack of stress, it being almost always 
 unaccented (as in it rains).
 
 § 13-2, a] PKONOrNS. 109 
 
 {J) The O.E. forms corresponding to they, their, them (from 
 O.E. brt, \>^)a, )>ietn, with influence on the vowels from Icel. ]>eir, 
 ];>eira, \>cii)i, the nom. gen. and dat. plural of the definite article) were 
 hie, hiera, him, which became in M.E. hi, hir, him. Although 
 Chaucer invariably used the forms hir and hem, they have been sup- 
 planted by those of the definite article, probably on account of the 
 confusion of hir, hem (plural) with hir, him (sing.). See (A). 
 
 t § 131. The O.E. forms are :— 
 
 Siugular. 
 
 Nom. ic("I") K«("thou") 
 
 Ace. me (older mcc) ^e (older )?ec) 
 
 Gen. mhi \>i>i 
 
 Dat. mc )>« 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nom. ive ge 
 
 Ace. us (older mic) eow (older coicic) 
 
 Gen. ure eoicer 
 
 Dat. ni eotv 
 
 There were also duals tvit (" we two"), uncit and unc, nnccr, imc ; 
 and ffif (" ye two "), iucif and inc, ificer, inc. Cp. the Ger. cognates 
 throughout. 
 
 Singular. Phu-al. 
 
 Nom. /(tf("he") /(r« (" she ' 
 
 Ace. /'(//'' Inc 
 
 Gen. his hiere 
 
 Dut. him hiere 
 
 § 132. The forms of the Demonstrative Pronouns 
 
 hif ("it") 
 
 hie 
 
 hit 
 
 hie 
 
 h ix 
 
 hiera 
 
 him 
 
 him 
 
 are 
 
 this, plur. these ; that, plar. those. 
 
 (a) This (demonstrative adjective and pronoun) has historically both 
 plurals these and (hose, but the latter is now used only as plural of 
 that (adj. and pron.). That itself is by origin (but no longer in use) 
 the ?«?//<tT singular (nom. and ace. only) of the "definite article," 
 i.e. corresponds with the. (Observe that -t is a neuter inflexion — 
 and the only English one surviving— in it, that, uhat.)
 
 110 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 132, h 
 
 t {b) The O.E. forms are- 
 Singular. PltiraL 
 
 Nom. se seo )>«< (" that ") \>(l 
 
 Ace. );>one \>(i \>ixit \>d 
 
 Gen. ))xs \>S7-e \>3es \>ara, i>Bera 
 
 Dat. J'k;;? i>%re \>xm \psem 
 
 Instr. \>g \>p 
 
 For se, seo, from the latter of which is our she, are generally found 
 
 in M.E. hf, Ko. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 ,   , 
 
 Nom. i>es \>eos JjisC'this") J>a« 
 
 Ace. J)«s«e }pas J>i.s \>as 
 
 Gen. \>ises ))isse \>ises \>issa 
 
 Dat. \>imni J^iwe ])isimi \>is{s)um 
 
 Instr. }>y.s )>y.s 
 
 § 133. Theformsof the Interrogative Pronoun are: — 
 
 Masc. 
 
 and Neut. 
 
 Fern. 
 Sing, r N^ominative . . . who ivhat 
 
 and \ Possessive .... whose 
 Plural [ Objective whom ivhat 
 
 § 134. The Relative Pronouns are (i.) ivho, &c. 
 (§ 133), (ii.) which, (iii.) that (subject and. object, sing, 
 and plural). 
 
 t (a) The O.E. forms are :— 
 
 Nom. /nva (" who ") husf {" what ") 
 Ace. hu'one hn;et 
 
 Gen . hivses 
 
 Dat. hivsem 
 
 Instr. hivy 
 
 Note that whom is hy origin dative only. 
 
 § 135. Which is used as an interrogative or relative 
 pronoun, but in the latter case (now) only for a neuter 
 antecedent or for infants and lower animals. As an inter- 
 rogative adjective it may be the attribute of nouns of 
 any gender, and so may tohat. 
 
 + («) Which is a compound equivalent in meaning to "whom- 
 like" : O.E. hivilo, hwelc < hwl + lie ; cp. Ger. ivelch-er and the 
 formation of such, § 148.
 
 §136] PRONOUNS. Ill 
 
 § 136. Tlie history of the relative pronouns in 
 English is a curious one. The lack of a relative pronoun 
 in O.p]. was supplied in several ways, especially hy the use 
 of the demonstrative of which tlidt is the neuter (§ 132, h), 
 and of the particle J>t'. But fe became appropriated as the 
 definite ai-ticle, and that was already sufficiently hard 
 worked in other ways — thouofh it has continued in 
 common use as a relative pronoun — so that the aid of the 
 inteiTOgative pronouns was gi-adually called in. 
 
 A few appro -ximate dates will helji the student to 
 remember what changes have taken phice. liy about 
 1250 A.D. the use of that as the relative pronoun had 
 become universal. But about this very time the adjective 
 xcliich began to be used in the same way, both as a sub- 
 stantive, and also of persons as well as things (cp. The 
 Lord's Prayer). By 1400 a.d. it was well established in 
 its new function, and continued until the seventeenth 
 century to share the field with that, although less ex- 
 tensively used. Meanwhile the use of the inteiTogative 
 who as a relative had begun, and in the seventeenth 
 century had become common, so that by that time we 
 have thiee relative pronouns competing for popular favour, 
 with The Spectator (No. 78) ignorantly supporting " the 
 humble petition of n-hn and ichich " as against " the jack- 
 sprat th((t.'' Some division of the field of labour had 
 therefore become necessary. 
 
 Which has now stepped into the place of what as the 
 neuter of who wdien used as a relative ; it is no longer 
 used of persons except as an archaism. Moreover, there 
 is a class of constructions from which that has withdrawn 
 in favour of rcho, which, those namely in which the 
 antecedent is already sufficiently defined without the aid of 
 the relative clause : e.g. we no longer say " My father, 
 that is in the garden." 
 
 (a) It is worthy of especial note that the usu of ir/wKe (relative) as a 
 neuter is justified both by the usage of the best writers and by ety- 
 mology, although it is true that, while it is historically the genitive 
 equallj' of !/7(o and of tv/itrt (J 134, a), it is now used, on account of the 
 kaleidoscopic changes recorded above, as one form of the genitive 
 of the relative which.
 
 112 THE EN(;LIf?H LANGUAGE. [§ 137 
 
 § 137. Self. — Tlie forms myself, thyself, yourself, hhn- 
 self, herself, itself, with their plurals otirselves, yourselves, 
 themselves, are used along with the corresponding personal 
 pronouns /, thou, he, &c., either in a reflexive or in an 
 emphatic sense. 
 
 («) Of these uses the emphatic is the earlier one. Originally the 
 simple word self was added to the pronoun for emphasis, and declined 
 in agreement with it. Thus we have in O.E. ic self, " I (my)self " ; 
 '^il self, "thou (thy)self" ; mlnselfes, "of me myself" ; me selfum, 
 " to me myself," and so on. 
 
 {h) But even in the oldest English a dative of the personal pronoun 
 emphasized was sometimes introduced between the nominative pronoun 
 and the nominative self. This dative was probably, at first, connected 
 with the verb of the sentence, and was reflexive or ethic in character ; 
 but afterwards it was used in cases when no such refiexive or ethic 
 sense was possible, and connected itself with the word self, from which 
 it ultimately became inseparable. Thus Alfred the Great wrote 
 (before 900) : H(fa hie '^eah Se (dat.) 4y'//(nom.), " yet have them for 
 thyself" ; and in the Ormulum (circ. 1200) we always find ice me sellf, 
 "I myself" ; ]>u ]>e sellf, "thou thyself," &c. The next step was 
 for the datives to be supplanted by the possessives wi/, thy, his, &c. 
 In the case of the third personal pronoun, however, the possessive 
 forms, hissvlf, theirselres, have not held their ground, except in the 
 language of the lower classes. The influence of the feminine herself 
 {her being both a dative and a possessive form) may have helped to 
 preserve the form himself, and also, indirectly, themselves. 
 
 t (c) Chaucer and Wiclif use the se^Z-compounds in much the 
 same waj' as Modern English does. Cp. 
 
 Wiclif: Zm^t? xxiv. 39, " Y my silf am " (O.E. ic sylf hit eovi). 
 ,, John xi. 51, "he seide not this thing of hym silf" 
 (O.E. ne cw;&b he '5;e/ of him sylfum). 
 
 {d) Finally, self caime to be regarded as a substantive : " Tarqtiin's 
 self" (Shakespeare), " my other self ," love of self. 
 
 (e) The keflexive use of self began to come in before the Norman 
 Conquest, although in O.E. the simple personal pronouns were com- 
 monly used (as in Modern French) as objects of the reflexive verb.
 
 § 138] PRONOUNS. 118 
 
 This usage survives in some dialects (e.g. in the Lancashire) and in 
 poetry. Cp. 
 
 "Thou btai'st thee like a king" (Shakespeare). 
 
 " When like a king he bore him " i^Flnjhl of Xerxe»). 
 Note also such expressions as 
 
 " I had all my wits about ;«<•." 
 
 " lie took upon him to do so." 
 
 " When Thou tookest upon Thee to deliver man " [rrayer-bvok). 
 
 (/) In O.E. the weak form selfa was used as an adjective in the 
 sense of " same " : e.g. se selfa ci/niiit/, "the same king." This use 
 survives in Shakespeare; see luiiff Lear i. i. 70: "I am made of 
 that self metal as my sister" (reading of the Folios; the Quartos 
 have self- same). 
 
 § 138, Aught, nauglit ai-e compounds ; see nut 
 (§ 208). Tlio otlier iiuleliuite pronouns are discussed 
 under Indefinite Adjectives (ch. xii.) ; for the numevals 
 see § 147.
 
 114 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 The Adjective. 
 
 I. 0LAS8IFIGATI0N. 
 
 § 139. An adjective is a "word used with a substan- 
 tive to qualify it. 
 
 («) Adjective fr. L. ndjecfirns, " added to," from adjicere < ad, " to" 
 +Jaccre, "throw." 
 
 (/>) Adjectives are freely used in English (as in other languages) 
 with the omission of the word they qualify, in which case they come 
 to bo regarded as substantives : e.g. " The learned say so," "The best 
 of it is," &c. 
 
 (c) Monosyllabic adjective and adverb forms are often identical : 
 e.g. "a quick train" (adj.) ; "come qiiiclc''^ (adv.) ; see § 202, a. 
 
 140. Adjectives are classified as 
 
 Qualitative 
 Numeral 
 Determinative . 
 Indefinite . 
 
 e.g. black, tall, cold 
 three, tiventy 
 my, this, the 
 every, some, all, a 
 
 («) Further subdivisions of the last two classes are often made ; 
 thus some recognise the following classes : — 
 
 this, the 
 my, your 
 
 Demonstrative 
 
 Possessive 
 
 Distributive . 
 
 Indefinite 
 
 Interrogative 
 
 Relative 
 
 Quantitative. 
 
 every, each 
 some, a, siindr// 
 ichat ? tch ich ? 
 ivhat, which 
 many, all
 
 § 142] THK ADJECTIVE. 11 .') 
 
 Further, Adjectives such iis this, any, his, &c., which are often 
 used as Pronouns, are sometimes called Pronominal Adjectives or 
 Adjective-Pronouns. 
 
 (I>) The older grammarians gave the name of definite article (L. 
 arliculim, "a joint") to the demonstrative adjective ///'/ they called 
 a, an the indeliuite article. 
 
 II. INFLEXION AND HISTORY. 
 
 § 141. The only inflexions which adjectives now retain 
 are those of Comparison. No change of fonn marks any 
 difference of gender, number, or case, except in the words 
 this, that, whicli have plural forms distinct from the 
 singular ; see § 182. 
 
 (a) The O.E. adjective was fully inflected, and had two diflcrent 
 modes of declension according as it was preceded by a demonstrative 
 adjective (weak declension) or was not so preceded (strong), much 
 as in Modern German. The two declensions gradually fell into one 
 by the levelling of the bulk of the inflexions to -e, which finally itself 
 disappeared (^ G). 
 
 t {f>) The O.E. declensions of god, "good," will show the various 
 inflexions : — 
 
 
 
 Strong. 
 
 
 
 Weak. 
 
 
 
 
 III. n. 
 
 ' f. 
 
 111. 
 
 n. 
 
 f. 
 
 Sing 
 
 Nom. 
 
 god god 
 
 god 
 
 gbda 
 
 gbde 
 
 gbde 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 godnc god 
 
 gbde 
 
 godan 
 
 gbde 
 
 gbdan 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 godes 
 
 gbdre 
 
 
 gbdan 
 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 gbdum 
 
 gbdre 
 
 
 gbdau 
 
 
 
 Instr. 
 
 gbde 
 
 
 
 gbdan 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 N.A. 
 Gen. 
 Dat. 
 
 gbde gbda 
 gbdra 
 gbdum 
 
 god 
 
 
 gbdan 
 godra 
 
 gbdum 
 
 
 In M.E. (e.g. in Chaucer's East Midland of later part of fourteenth 
 century) the strong form has gbd a.j\(l the weak gbde in the singular 
 throughout ; in the plural gbde for all forms. But adjectives of 
 more than one syllable — especially of Romance origin — are generally 
 uninflected. 
 
 § 142. There are three degrees of comparison : viz. the 
 Positive (e.g. Jong)., Comparative {longer), Superlative 
 (longest). 
 
 {a) The Positive adjective expresses a quality without reference 
 to the same quality as possessed by anything else : e.g. "'a big boy," 
 "a liith book."
 
 116 THE ENeLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 142 
 
 The Comparative expresses an excess of a quality in the thing 
 denoted by the noun it qualifies over the extent of that quality 
 possessed hy something with which comparison is made: e.g. "a 
 bigger boy" (i.e. bigger than some other indicated or mentioned, or 
 than the same boy at some other time) . 
 
 The Superlative expresses excess of a quality in the thing denoted 
 by the noun it qualifies over the extent of that quality possessed by 
 all other things with which comparison is made: e.g. "the biggest 
 boy " (i.e. bigger than any other boy with whom the boy indicated is 
 compared). 
 
 {b) Only adjectives of quality (and one or two of quantity : e.g. 
 much, little) admit of comparison ; and many adjectives of quality 
 have meanings which obviously do not allow them to be compared 
 when used literally: e.g. complete, unique, wooden, square, cone-shaped ; 
 yet frequently to such words a somewhat extended and metaphorical 
 meaning is given, under which circumstances they may admit the idea 
 of comparison : thus by " this is squarer than that " we probably mean 
 " this more nearly approaches the figure of a square than that does." 
 
 § 143. The Comparative and Superlative degrees may 
 
 be formed 
 
 (i.) Flexionally : by the addition of -er, -est to the 
 positive : longer, longest ; or 
 
 (ii.) Analytically : by using the adverbs more, most 
 before the positive : more ridiculous, most laughable. 
 
 The former method is used v^ith monosyllables and with 
 some words of two syllables (especially such as end in -le, 
 -er, -y) ; the latter method (the consideration of which 
 does not properly belong to accidence) is preferred in 
 other cases. Thus we say quick, quick -er, quick- est ; 
 speedy, speed-ier, speed-iest (or 7nore and Tnost speedy) ; 
 rapid, more rapid, most rapid (but rapid-er, rapid-est are 
 allowable; stupidest is freely used); tnore insuffer - able, 
 most ludicrous, 
 
 [a) Certain mere spelling changes take place on adding the flexions 
 of comparison. Final e disappears : e.g. fine, fin-er, subtl-est ; final y, 
 preceded by a consonant, becomes i : e.g. happi-er, silli-est ; final con- 
 sonant after short accented vowel is doubled : e.g. big-g-er, thin-n-cr.
 
 §144] THE ADJECTIVE. 117 
 
 (h) As noticed above, there is no absolutely hard and fast rule with 
 regard to the use of one or the other mode of comparison : thus even 
 with words of more than two syllables the -rr, -est forms arc somo- 
 times used, and on the oth^r hand more, most are sometimes used 
 with monosyllables. 
 
 f (r) The -rr of comparatives is in O.E. -r-n, where the « is 
 merely the weak adjectival inflexion, which has, a.s usual, vanished : 
 the superlative -est < O.E. -ost (also spelt -iist, -ast) and -est, the 
 latter facing with mutation of the root-vowel in both comparative and 
 superlative: e.g. heard (" hard "), ^f«>-^rrt, hcardost ; cald ("old"), 
 iehha, {eldest. 
 
 t [d) The comparative termination represents Teutonic -is- (causing 
 mutation) and -o:-, which stands for an Indo-European -ijis- (for the 
 change from -.v- to -r- see § 45, h) : it is cognate with tlie suffix of 
 comparison in Latin [e.g. dur-iur (for a hypotljetical ditr-ios)'] and in 
 Gk. fxiiio (contracted for hypothetical ixey-ioff-a, comp. of jue^-as). 
 The sufKx in Mod(;rn German is precisely as in English (e.g. sehou, 
 schoiier). 
 
 t {e) The superlative ending is a compound suffix representing 
 Teutonic -es-f and -os-t, where the first element is of the same origin 
 as the comparative suffix discussed above, and the -t has superlative 
 force; it represents an Indo-European -is-to and -os-to, of which 
 we see the first element in the usual Latin superlative, as in dur- 
 iss-imits, and both in the Gk. ixiy-iff-ro-s- The suffix in Modem 
 German is practically the same as in ]\Iodem English, but is con- 
 tracted where possible to -U (e.g. scJwn-st, sihs-est). 
 
 § 144. ni-superlatives. — A certain number of super- 
 latives are found ending in -most (which is not the 
 advoi'b "most"): notice that these liavo as a iiile com- 
 paiatives but no reguhir positives, having been formed 
 from adverbs : — 
 
 [foni] former foremost and first 
 
 [/ore], [/o7-//i] further furthest awd furthermost 
 
 [in] inner inmost and innermost 
 
 Older outmost, outermost 
 
 utter utmost, uttermost 
 
 [?(/p] uirper upmost, uppei-most 
 
 {a) The termination -most is a double superlative suffix : its form 
 should be -m-est, for it is compounded of the superlative suffix -m 
 (no longer used independently) and the superlative suffix -est ; its 
 
 [out-] I
 
 118 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 144 
 
 change of form to -most is due to a supposed connection with the 
 adverb most. 
 
 [b) The -m- as a superlative flexion is the same as that we see in 
 Jj, pri-m-us (whence Eng. ^rjwje), ulti-m-us, inti-m-»s, &c. 
 
 {c) Pormer, foremost, first. — The old form of the superlative 
 was /or-)H-« (where -m- is the superlative flexion above discussed) ; 
 to this was added the termination -est, producing the double super- 
 lative formest, which subsequently became foremost by false analogy 
 with nwst as explained above. The comparative /orwjcr was formed to 
 match this superlative, the original superlative force of the m being 
 lost sight of: hence /or-wi-er exhibits a comparative suffix tacked on 
 to a superlative one. First exhibits the superlative formed in the 
 regular way bj^ the suffix -est ; but it has undergone contraction, and 
 the root vowel (v/hich was originally «, not o) has been mutated : 
 O.E. fijrst iorfyr + -est. 
 
 {(l) Inmost, iunerm.ost. — Inmost is formed on the same principle 
 hs foremost above: the r in the parallel form innermost is due to con- 
 fusion with the comparative (O.E. superl. is inn-e-mest). It may be 
 noticed that most of the comparatives in the list above {inner, outer, 
 &c.) are practically used only as positives, since they cannot be 
 followed by them. Outer and utter are doublets: as to the formation 
 of the superlatives, the same remarks apply as on inmost and 
 innermost. 
 
 [e) Similarly are formed such words as northmosf, northernmost, 
 topmost, and others, -most coming to be used practically as a super- 
 lative inflexion. 
 
 § 145. The following adjectives exhibit peculiarities 
 of comparison : — 
 
 far 
 late 
 
 farther 
 later, latter 
 
 farthest 
 latest, last 
 
 nigh, near 
 old 
 
 ■nigher, Clearer 
 older, elder 
 
 nighest, next, neared 
 oldest, eldest 
 
 {<>) Pai'tlier, further, &c. — There are two hypotheses as to the 
 derivation oi further : it is either from the root of fore with the com- 
 parative suffix -ther, as in o-ther ; or from the root oi forth (from the 
 same root as fore, with a suffix) with the comparative suffix -er. In the 
 former case, the -th- was retained in the su^eTla.iiye furthest. Again,
 
 § 145] Tin: aiukctivk. lift 
 
 farther and fdrthenl are the comparative and superlative of /«>-, and 
 therefore should be, if formed regularly in Modern English, furrer, 
 farrest ; but they owe their th to a mistaken connexion with further, 
 furthest. 
 
 + (h) The O.E. forms are fore, for^ (adverbs) ; /(o-Sca ; formn, 
 fyrmest, and fyrest (no th superlative); and for, "far," Jierra, 
 Jierrest, the last two showing mutation. For -ther as comparative 
 suffix see § 150, i. 
 
 (c) Itater, latter are parallel forms of the comparative, the doubled 
 t being merely an orthographic device to denote the shortness of the 
 vowel : inter is used as the comparative of lale in its ordinary mean- 
 ings ; /lifter is restricted to denote the second of two things men- 
 tioned. Siniilarlj' last [which is a contracted form < latsf < latest (cp. 
 best<hetst, § HG)] is used only in speaking of a number of things 
 regarded as forming a series. 
 
 f (d) The cognates of lute, L. lass-iis and Ger. lass, have better 
 preserved the original force of the word — "weary," "slow." The 
 root lat is the same as that of the verb let, "hinder." 
 
 (e) Nigh, uear, &c. — Nif/h is compared quite regularly (viz. 
 nigh-er, n'ujh-est), but it also has an older contracted superlative 
 next [in which the x stands for the O.E. spirant /* (now written (jh in 
 nigh, but no longer sounded) + * ; sec (/) below] : the nigh forms are 
 archaic and poetical. Xear is etymologically the (contracted) com- 
 parative of nigh, and therefore a doublet of Higher : but owing to its 
 form it has been taken for a positive, whence nearer, nearest have 
 been formed from it in the usual way. Hence nea-r-er is etymo- 
 logically a double comparative, while nca-r-esi shows a superlative 
 suffix appended to a comparative one. 
 
 t (/) Tlie O.E. forms are ucah, nearra, nlehst, and next : cp. 
 Ger. nach (guttural preserved) and nahe, ndhcr, ndehst ; similarly 
 Ger. Iiochst corresponds to a now obsolete Eng. hext (O.E. hiehit = 
 "highest"). 
 
 (g) Older, elder. — Elder, eldest show mutation caused by tho 
 suffix of conipari.son (see § 143, e, d). Older, oldest are later regular 
 formations, on the analogy of nearly all other comparatives, which 
 either were without mutation or have discarded it.
 
 130 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 146 
 
 § 146. In a few adjectives (and adverbs) the positive 
 form has no etymological connection with the comparative 
 and superlative : — 
 
 good, tcell better best 
 
 bad, evil, ill ivorse tvorst 
 
 much, many more most 
 
 little less least 
 
 (a) All the above words, except r/ood, bad, evil, many, may be used 
 as adverbs as well as adjectives : ill and well are generally adverbs. 
 
 {b) Better, Best.— The root is bat, which may be taken to repre- 
 sent what the positive form would be : the comparative from this is 
 formed regtilarly with the aufEx -er, with mutation [see § 143, d : 
 thus better- stands for bat + ir{a)] : the superlative best stands for betst 
 (for bat + isf) , with contraction of suffix, and the usual assimilation and 
 reduction of -tst to -st (for which cp. last, $ 145). 
 
 t («) Worse, Worst.— The comparative here is formed from a root 
 ending in -*■, viz. wers : the general Teutonic type of the comparative 
 of this would he ivirsiza (it appears in Gothic as ivairs-iz-a), later 
 wiorsiza : owing to contraction the z of the comparative suffix has not 
 passed as usual into r (§ 143, d) ; the stem shows mutation of io to ie, 
 which later > y. In M.E. the i/ of ivyrsa became u through influence 
 of preceding w. The o in tvorse is merely orthographic, as in son (O.E. 
 smw). The superlative stands for wors-est, i.e. is contracted (cp. best, 
 last) . 
 
 t [d] Less, Least. — The stem here, as in ivorse, ends in -s, viz. 
 Ids : the formation is similar to that considered in (r) above. 
 
 («) More, Most, Much, Mickle.— The word more now does duty 
 for two words kept distinct in the earlier language; viz. (i.) wo, a 
 comparative adverb, meaning "more in number," used like Ij. plus ; 
 and (ii.) more, a comparative adjective, meaning " greater," L. maior. 
 Both come from the same root, but more has an additional comparative 
 suffix -r : most exhibits the usual superlative suffix, but contracted 
 after the vowel. 
 
 Mickle (in which the -Ms an adjective termination, § 151) is the 
 Northern derivative of O.E. mic-el used as the positive of these 
 words ; in the South micel or m}/cel> M.E. vmckel>Uod. E. much. The
 
 § ^1-7^ 
 
 TIIK AI).li:CTIYK. 
 
 \-2\ 
 
 uso of mi(c/i, in its primitivo sense " great," is preserved in a few 
 place-names, e.g. 3fiu/i If'tnloek, while muckle, mickh- retain the same 
 force in the North. (N.B. — Muiiij is from an entirely different root.) 
 
 t {/) The O.E. forms are ma and mdra (comparative adverb and 
 adjective), w,7.sY .• Gcr. mehr, iiivisl. With O.E. «iiV<;/ cp. G^.tity-aK-ii}. 
 
 The totally unconnected word mamj is in O.E. mam//, iinoiii/, Inter 
 mxitif/, moiiij, the vowel in imeniff bein:^ duo to the inlluenco of 
 leniff. We preserve the later O.E. pronunciation of the root- vowel 
 (so also in ani/, § 150, c), though not the spelling. The German 
 cognate is maiich. 
 
 § 147. Primitive Words. — A number of monosyllabic 
 adjectives have no trace of suffix oi- prefix, and appear to 
 be simple roots in their ^lodem English form : e.g. nil, 
 good, one. Others again, though evidently not primitive, 
 appear with obscure suffixes, whose original force and 
 form cannot be very exactly traced : eg. fair (O.E. 
 fieger). 
 
 (n) Among words belonging to these classes are the 
 numerals (which may be regarded by origin perhaps as 
 pronouns rather than adjectives) from one to ten : — 
 
 
 O.E. 
 
 L. 
 
 Gk. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 one 
 
 an 
 
 cognate with un-m 
 
 
 ein 
 
 t-wo 
 
 tied 
 
 duo 
 
 5 I/O 
 
 zwei 
 
 three 
 
 Srco 
 
 tri-a 
 
 rpi-a 
 
 drei 
 
 four 
 
 fcotvpr 
 
 quattnor 
 
 TfTTap-a 
 
 riry 
 
 five 
 
 flf 
 
 quinquc 
 
 TreVre 
 
 />'"'/ 
 
 six 
 
 siex 
 
 sex 
 
 H 
 
 sechs 
 
 seven 
 
 scofon 
 
 septcm 
 
 eiTTa 
 
 niehen 
 
 eight 
 
 cahta 
 
 octo 
 
 OKTW 
 
 acht 
 
 nine 
 
 niffon 
 
 novem 
 
 ivvia 
 
 iieun 
 
 ten 
 
 tien 
 
 decern 
 
 54Ka 
 
 zehti 
 
 (h) A note on the form of the other numerals may be 
 conveniently added here : — 
 
 eleven, O.E. en{d)iefan (cogn. Ger. elf, Teutonic ain-lif), is a 
 compound in which the first element means one (and is practically that 
 word in another form), while the meaning of the second element 
 {-lefan, ■levcn) is uncertain. Perhaps e-kveii means one + ten ; cp. the 
 formation of Lat. un-dccim and Gk. eV-Se/ca.. Another suggestion is 
 that /i/is from a root meaning "leave," so that eleven would mean 
 •' one left " or " one more " (than ten).
 
 122 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 147 
 
 twelve is in O.E. twelf (cogn. Ger. zwolf), which stands for hva 
 + lif, where tiva = "two" and lif (as in eleven above) may mean 
 " ten " : thus ttcelve may mean "two more" (than ten) : cp. forma- 
 tion of dito-decim, Sw-SfKa. 
 
 thirteen: this is t/iree+ ten, with metathesis in the first element 
 (cp. thirty). So -teen = " ten " in fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, Sec. 
 
 twenty, O.E. twentig (Ger. zxvanzxg) ; the first syllable twen 
 = O.E. twegen, "two"; -^y = O.E. -tig, "ten" (this -tig pre- 
 serves the guttural lost in O.E. tlen : cp. dec-em) : so -tg = " ten" in 
 thirty , forty , Sec. 
 
 hundred is a compound in which the first syllable hund- is cognate 
 with the first syllable of L. ceut-um (for decem-t-uni), and means 
 " a hundred " : the -red is a word meaning "reckoning," "tale." 
 Cognate with Ger. hundert. 
 
 thousand is a word of unexplained origin, found in all the 
 Teutonic languages (Ger. Tausend). 
 
 The only cardinal of Eomanco origin is mill-ion, from L. mille, 
 " thousand." Two other words of Romance origin connected with 
 the numerals are second (L. secundus : it has displaced the English 
 other in this sense) and dozen, F. douzaine < douze (L. duodecim) 
 + suflix -aine (L. -anus, § 127, d). 
 
 (c) The adjective an (with its short form a used before con- 
 sonants) is an unemphatic form of the numeral one (cp. use of Ger. 
 ei'H and F. un). The indefinite pronoun one, used like Ger. mmi and 
 F. on (with which it is not etymologically connected), is the same 
 word. 
 
 (d) Twain (now archaic) and two spring from a difference of gender : 
 itvain is O.E. ttcegcn (ci^. twentig cCbove), the masculine; two is ttvd, 
 the feminine and neuter. 
 
 ITI. FORMATION. 
 
 (i.) Compounds. 
 
 § 148. Compounds (§ 120) are generally easily recognis- 
 able : w(j may take, as typical examples of various kinds, 
 stone-hlmd, well-fed, epocli-riutldng, hlucJi-Jiearted. 
 
 {a) The classes discussed in § 149 belong here, strictly speaking. 
 (See ^ 121.)
 
 § 1491 THK ADJECTIVK. 12:^ 
 
 (A) A number of disgiiisod compounds among the indefinite adjec- 
 tives and pronouns should be noticed. 
 
 each : this contains the suflix which often appears as -like, -ly 
 (§ 149, <■) ; O.E. a-'/f < «, " ever " + yi ( >fje) prefix + Uc, »' like." 
 
 sticli is in a similar way equivalent to " so-Zi/iC" : O.E. suite < 
 sH-d + lie (Ger. soldi). 
 
 which, similarly, = " who like " (see § 135), 
 
 every is a compound of ever and each (see above) : O.E. S/te + lele, 
 M.E. erii-ilk, cverich. Ilk = " same " (Scotch, " that ilk ") is not con- 
 nected with this word, but is from O.E. ilea = " same." 
 
 either is equivalent to " ever-M'/ie^/f^r," being in O.E. le(j)>€r, a con- 
 traction of a'ijhux\>e) < ii, " ever " (as in each, aught) +ffi ( >ffe) prefi.v 
 + lnarWy, ''whether'' (§ 150, )) : Ger.jeder. 
 
 neither is equivalent to '' no-ivhelher'" : O.E. mlhwx'&er, where 
 lid = "no," "not," and " hivx^cr = " tvhether.'" 
 
 aught, naught (pronouns): sec not (§ 208). 
 
 ((') Righteous is a corruption of " right- wise," O.E. riht-uls, 
 " wise as to what is right " ; cp. " weather- »'ise." The corruption is 
 due to the influence of the Romance -ous (§ 152, g). 
 
 § 149. Teutonic sufl5.xes which are known to have 
 existed as independent words appear in 
 
 s^ert(^fast, )/('n//fold, pJayfnl, hem-fless, /»'?»like and 
 vianly, norfkviaxd. 
 
 {a) .fast (the same as the adjective /«*/, "fixed ") appears only in 
 steadfast (" tirm in its stead,'' or place), and in shamefaced, which a 
 corruption by popular etymology connected with face ; the original 
 meaning of shamcfast is " fixed in modesty," " modest," shame having 
 its old sense of modesty, as in shameless. 
 
 t The O.E. form is -fast, as in stedcfant, scamufsest, so^fiest {aoS, 
 "sooth," "truth"). 
 
 {b) -fold forma multiplicatives : e.g. manifold, fourfold. It can be 
 added to any numeral (except one). 
 
 t O.E. -feald, same origin as verb fold ; same force, metaphor and 
 usage as cognate Ger. -fait. 
 
 {c) -ful, same as adj. //(//, with the same meaning, in sorrowful 
 ("full of sonow"), thankful, la u ful, beautiful [a. hyhrid: Y.beaute), 
 &c.
 
 124 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 149 
 
 t The O.E. form is -full : e.g. sorgfull [sortj, "sorrow"); Ger. 
 cognate appears in gedanken-voll, Sec. 
 
 (d) -less denotes " absence of " when used in composition ; examples 
 are heartless, careless, thoughtless, &c. 
 
 N.B. — It is not connected etymologically with adverb hss, but is 
 practically a doublet of adjective hose, and is allied to verbs loose, lose, 
 
 t The O.E. form is -leas: e.g. drleas (ar, "honour") ; Ger. -los, as 
 in herzlos ("heartless "). 
 
 (c) -like, -ly ( = adj. "like" ; the longer form is found only in 
 modern formations) appears in inanUke, eatUke, godlike, manly, godly, 
 goodly, ghostly, &c. It is (in the form -ly) the usual adverb formative 
 (J 205). It enters (in disguised forms of like) into such, u-hich, each, 
 every (see § 148). 
 
 t It is the O.E. -lie, as in gdstlic (" ghostly"), cor-Mc (" earthly"), 
 &c. ; the Ger. cognate -lich (the independent word is gleich, for eg- 
 leich) is used similarly: e.g. mdnnlivh. 
 
 (/) -ward ("turned to") appears in northward, homeward, back- 
 ward, forward (" turned to the /ore or front ^'), froward (turned/?-o»i), 
 &c. 
 
 t The O.E. form is -iveard, as in hdmweard ; the Ger. cognate is 
 used (like Eng. -icard-s, ^ 207) in forming adverbs : e.g. heimwdrt-s, 
 " home-ivard-s.^' The root is the same as that of O.E. tveoi%m (Ger. 
 warden), " become " ; cognate with L. vert-erc, supine vcrs-um, whence 
 a-verse (i.e. " fro-ward "), re-verse, &c. 
 
 (ii.) Suffixes. 
 
 A. Teutonic Suffixes. 
 
 § 150. Of the Teutonic suffixes not known to have 
 existed as indej)endent v^^ords the chief appear in the 
 follov^^ing words : — 
 
 iveari-sonxe, (jnJd-exi, four-th., blood-y, child-iah. ; 
 
 in the participial formations, 
 
 lov-ing, helov-ed, hroJc-en ; 
 
 and in the comparative formations, 
 o-ther, utt-ev. 
 
 (a) -some, with the force "full of," "adapted to," appears in 
 wholesome, unnsome (O.E. wyn, "joy"), quarrehome (a hybrid; F.
 
 § 1;"50, f/] THE APJECTIVK. 12') 
 
 qtterelle, L. querela, from qiiei-'i, "complain"), toilsome, noxmme (F. 
 w?«trtf, from L. nocere, "hurt"). Lissom is equivalent to lithesome. 
 Buxom is M.E. buJi-siim, from O.E. bi'Kj-an, "to boic, bend"; its 
 recorded sense is "obedient," i.e. probably "pliable," "supple," 
 " Joi<;-some," so to say. 
 
 t The O.E. form is -sum, as in u-i/n.sum; the Ger. cognate -sam has 
 the same force : e.g. furchtsam ("fearsome"), bicysam ("flexible"). 
 
 {b) -en, -n is used to form adjectives from names of materials : e.g. 
 wooden, woollen, brazen (brass), silver-n (archaic), leather-n. 
 
 t The O.E. form is the same, but its earlier form -in caused muta- 
 tion, as in gold, gyldcn, from *(jHldin. 
 
 ((■) -en, n, being the past participial suffix of strong verbs (J 1G8), we 
 have it in many of these forms used as adjectives and in analogous 
 forms: e.g. broken, unbroken, misshapen. The adjectival form often 
 preserves the sufiBx where the verbal form has dropped it (see § 170, b). 
 
 (d) .th forms ordinal adjectives from the cardinals (§ 147) : thus 
 fourth, one-and-tweutieth, millionth (hybrid, § 117, b). In third the 
 suffix appears as d (the form is a metathesis for thrid ; cp. thirty, 
 thirteen ; Ger. dritte). 
 
 f The cognate suffix is seen in L. and Ger. ordinals : cp. L. ttr-t- 
 ius, Eng. thir-d, Ger. {der) dri{t)-t-c (§ 52). 
 
 {e) -y forms adjectives from a large number of nouns : e.g.foam-i/, 
 dirt-y, dust-y, thirst-y. An-y is O.E. sen-iy, from an, " one,^' the i 
 causing mutation. In M.E. this became shortened to eny, any. Mod. 
 English has preserved the spelling of the latter and the pronunciation 
 of the former (cp. many, § 146, e). For every see § 148, b. 
 
 t The O.E. form is -iy, as in Jiinig, above; cognate Ger. -iy (fre- 
 quently causing mutation), as in cin-iy, yiit-iy. 
 
 (/) -ish. forms adjectives from nouns and adjectives generally with 
 pejorative or diminutive force : e.g. childish, womanish, mannish 
 ("like a, child, ^^ &c., in bad sense; contrast childlike, &c.), yreenish 
 ("rather green"). It appears in national names, as English ($ 1 : 
 mutation from * Any Use), French (from Frank, with mutation and con- 
 traction < Frankish), Scotch (cp. fuller form, Scottish), &c. 
 
 t The O.E. form is -isc : e.g. Enylisc ; in Ger, it is -isch, used much 
 aa in English : e.g. kindisch, hofisch, enylisch. 
 
 (y) -ed, -d, -t, the past participial suffix of weak verbs (§ 168), 
 occurs in many adjectives formed on a similar model : good-natured.
 
 1'26 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 150, g 
 
 irell-meaiif, housed, dead (vb. die), learned, provisioned, hooted and 
 spurred (where it is obvious that these are formed directly from the 
 nouns boot, spur). 
 
 {h) -ing is merely the present participial suffix : loving, charming, 
 &c. [^ 166 (iii.)]. 
 
 (») -ther appears as a comparative suffix in whether, and its 
 compounds either, neither (§ 148), and in o-ther (which has lost an 
 n: cp. Ger. ander), further (but noi farther, § 145), &c.. Whether 
 (O.E. hvx^er) is from the root of who (O.E. hivd) and means 
 originally " which of two"; co2;nate with L. u-ter, Gk. nS-r^p-os, 
 Ger. tve-der (which now means "neither," conjunction). Rather 
 does not belong here : it is the regular comparative of archaic rathe, 
 " early," and is now only used as an adverb. 
 
 § 151. Among obscurer Tentonic suffixe.s, those shown 
 in the following words are noticeable : — 
 
 hitt-er, fick-le, yell-ovr, east-em. 
 
 («) -er, as in hitt-er (root of bite), in contracted form in fair (O.E. 
 fxffcr) ; cp. Gk. -ros in niKpSs, &c. 
 
 {h) -le, as mfel{-le, micMe, little, idle, evil, and (contracted) in foul ; 
 cp. Gk. -los in rvcpxSs, &c. 
 
 (c) -ow (Lat. -vus) in yelloiv (L. helrus), sallozv, fallow. 
 
 (d) -ern in eastern, western, northern, southern. 
 
 B. Romance Suffixes. 
 
 § 152. Our vocabulary contains adjectives showing 
 a large number of suffixes of Romance origin (many of 
 which we have already seen in treating of nouns, § 127). 
 The chief of these appear in 
 
 respect - able, sens-ihle, iniagin -nry, famil -ia.r, 
 /i?«?i-an, div-ine, loy-al, cnt-el, gent-le, pner-ile, ctv-il, 
 t'ft/i-ant, priid-ent, odl-OTXS, mor-ose, rapaci-ous, 
 capt-ive, splend-id, orn-a.te, fin-ite, Vienn-ese, puhl-ic. 
 
 («) See§ 127 for -ary, -iar, -an, -ian, -ain, -ate, -ese, ic (as in 
 
 puhl-ic), and other forms of these.
 
 § 152, (/] TMK ADJKCTIVi:. 127 
 
 {!>) L. -bills (ill -ii/'i/is, -t/tilis, -ii/iilis) h:i8 the force ol " udapl'-'l 
 for," " givi n to," and appears as -bh' in French and English (many 
 of such words being new coinages in these languages) ; capable 
 (L. capere, "take"), sociable (h. Kociu.s, "companion"), soluble (L. 
 solvere, "solve"), lovable (hybrid, Eng. love). Able is L. hnbilU, 
 from habere, "have" (for dropped //, see § 81) ; so ability, L. 
 habilitate))!. 
 
 (c) L. -inns, cognate with E. -en (§ 150, b),Y. -in, appears in div-ine 
 (L. diviniLs, " god-like," from divus, " god"), can-ine (dog-like, from 
 L. cants, "dog"), feline, sanguine, crystalline, infantine. Pilgr-im 
 has the suffix in somewhat altered form; cp. F. piler-in (for 
 pelegr-in) from Late L. jjelegrJniis < L. per/gr-inus (from pereger, 
 "traveller," from per, "through" f ager, "land"); peregr-ination 
 shows the L'ltin form clearly. 
 
 (d) L. -alia, -elis, -ills are very common in English, especially 
 in the form -al (wliich is often added to other adjectival sufTixes : 
 e.g. adject -iv-al, log-ic-al). Examples: mor-al, soci-al, nonn-al, nrti- 
 fci-al; cru-cl ; frag-ile, sen-iU, infant -He ; civ-il ; gent-He, gent-le. 
 In gentle, -le is merely the modern form of older -il, -He; words 
 which now show the -He are consequently as u rule of learned forma- 
 tion {cp. fragile, frail, § 74). 
 
 {e) L. -ent-em, -aut-em, the pres. participial forms, both passed 
 into French as -ant, and thence into English in the same form ; but -ent 
 from -eut-em is common, both through the action of pseudo- 
 etymological spelling and the formation of new words direct from 
 Latin. Examples: prudent (L. adj. prud-ent-e)n) and provident (L. 
 p>-ovident-e))i), potent, absent, present; valiant (L. valor), puissant 
 (doublet of potent, L. potent-em, through French), distant, elegant. 
 Notice pairs such as dependent and dependant, where the -ent form is 
 used as adjective, and the -ant as noun. 
 
 (/) In -esc-ent we have the above termination in words derived 
 from Latin inceptive verbs in -sco ; adol-esc-ent, efferv-esc-ent. 
 
 (g) L. -OBUS (" full of ") passes in words of learned formation into 
 Eng. -ose, as in /><ilic-ose (L. bellinn, "war"), (rri-o.tc (" word-y " ; 
 L. verbu)n, "word"), grandi-ose (L. grandis, "great"), mor-ose (L. 
 mor-os-its, "self-willed," from nior-es, "behaviour"). In words of 
 popular formation in French the Latin suffix became -eux (r formerly 
 pron. .", fem. -ense), whence English -ous, as in monstr-otts, ndioti.t,
 
 128 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 162, g 
 
 envious (F. envieux <lj. invidia, "hate" + -osus), spacious, glorious, 
 copious. 
 
 There are some cases, however, in which our -ous merely corresponds 
 to the Latin adjective termination -us, the words being formed 
 directly from Latin, and having their termination altered in accord- 
 ance with the one common in English : tremendous (L. tremend-us : 
 gerundival adjective of tremere), stupendous (L. stup-ere) ; so also in 
 conscious, carnivorous (carni-, stem of caro, " iiesh " + -vorwi " eating," 
 from vor-are, " devour ''), omnivorous (omni-, "all"), fructiferous (L. 
 -fer, stem oifer-re, " bear "), auriferous, &c. 
 
 (//) L. -ax, -aci-s [denoting "propensity," "abiUty," as in c«yO-«^ 
 (L. capcre), tenax (L. tenere), whence F. tenace'] appears in English in 
 the compound suffix -aci-ous, where the -ous is the suffix discussed 
 above. Examples : capacious, tenacious, rapacious, loquacious, menda- 
 cious (L. mend-ax, "given to lying"), fallacious. In. farin-ace-ous 
 and a few more coined words the suffix is L. -ace-us [farinaceus, from 
 'L. farina, " flour") denoting material. 
 
 (i) L. -iv-us appears in many adjectives, e.g. active, pensive 
 (L. pens-arc, " think," from stem of sup. oi pendere, " weigh ^^), fest- 
 ive (L. fcstuiU; "feast"), captive (L. captivus, from capt-um, sup. stem 
 of cap-ere, "take"), decisive, adjective, infinitive, nominative, &c. 
 Many of these words are used commonly as nouns, and the suffix 
 has so far lost its adjective-forming force that -al is frequently 
 added to it, as in adjectival (cp. sto-ic-al, § 128, c). 
 
 A few -words with this suffix used in Norman-French have re- 
 tained the French final / (as in F. pensif) : these are plaintiff (a law 
 term : cp. its doublet the adjective jwZaJMiliw.- the stem ia plaint-, as in 
 F. plaint, L. planct-um-, supine of planff-ere, " strike the breast," 
 "bewail," which is seen in complain, &c.), baili^ {law term : from 
 F. bailif< L. bajulus, " one who bears a burden "), and caitif (doublet 
 of captive). Fontiff does, not belong here, being a mere shortening of 
 "L. pontifex ; nor sheriff, which is a native compound = shire -^ reeve, 
 the " reeve" being a king's officer. 
 
 I iji) L. -idus (originally forming adjectives of qualitj^ from a 
 verbal root) is found in various adjectives of "learned" formation: 
 acid [ac-uere, "sharpen"), frigid, stupid, rigid, splendid, tepid. 
 Words of popular origin in French lost this suffix entirely as a rule : 
 thus we have such doublets as pale and pallid, from L. pallidus.) 
 
 (?) L. -atuS; past participle suffix, is discussed in § 194, a; notice
 
 155] TIIK AD.IKi TrVK. lli'.J 
 
 such doublets as joz-i'i'-rt/i' (L. privatus) and pyir-;/ {F. past part, prire, 
 from L. piivatHs). L. -it-"' is another past participle suffix soon in 
 definite, Sec. ; in recondite, opposite, &c., it is -It-M». In disHol-iife wo 
 have -nt-'^v (past participle stem of solv-ere, " solve," " loosen "). 
 
 § 153. The sufRx -esque (a French spelling) appears 
 in a>T//)esqTie, hin-Iesqyie, picliiresqxie. &c. 
 
 (a) The Greek sulHx -iV/c-oj and L. -isc-ii.s are sparingly found : the 
 latter becomes in Italian -esco, and this is the origin {via French) 
 of our -efqiie words. 
 
 § 154. The Gx'eek .siiffix -ic is common in certain (;las.ses 
 of words : it has been discussed under noun suffixes 
 (§128,r). 
 
 § 155. For the prefixes (native and foreign) see 
 §§ 196-199. 
 
 E. L.
 
 130 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 The Verb. 
 
 I. CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 § 156. The Verb makes an assertion (see § 87, 4) ; it 
 expresses state or action : e.g. 
 
 " He ivas being beaten." " Why do you come ? " 
 " I saw her." 
 
 (a) The presence of a verb is absohitely necessary in a sentence 
 (see § 91): hence the Latins called it vcrb-nm, i.e. '^ the word"; 
 •whence French rerhe, English verb. 
 
 (h) Certain forms and combinations closely connected with verbs 
 have not the power of making an assertion : these are the verb-nouns 
 and verb-adjectives (Infinitives, Participles, &c. ), grouped together 
 as the "Verb Infinite"; the true verbal forms constitute the Verb 
 Finite. 
 
 § 157. Every Verb is either 
 
 (i.) Transitive, that is to say, it indicates an action 
 which is exercised directly upon some object: e.g. 
 
 " He loves his father " ; " I saiv him " ; 
 
 where loves, saiv are transitive, and father, Mm are the 
 direct objects ; or 
 
 (ii.) Intransitive, that is to say, it indicates an action 
 (state, &c.) which is not so exercised : e.g. 
 
 " The man falls " ; " The dog harks " ; "We live." 
 
 («) Transitive is from F. transitif, L. <raw6i^iv-?<s = " capable of 
 passing over," irova. tramire, "to go across": the prefix i«- means 
 "not."
 
 § 158] THE VERB. 131 
 
 (h) By tho help of tho verb to he wc can write a sentonco containing 
 a transitive verb in such a way that what was formerly the grammati- 
 cal object becomes the grammatical subject : thus we may say " John 
 beats her," or " Sfie is beaten" (by John). 
 
 In tho former sentence the construction is called active ; in the latter 
 the words is beaten are taken together as forming a passive construction 
 of tho verb heat. 
 
 {c) Transitive verbs often take an indirect object as well as a direct 
 one (§ 228). 
 
 ((f) Many intransitive verbs are verbs of incomplete predication (see 
 § 231) ; every passive construction furnishes an example of this, as it 
 consists of some form of the verb be (of incomplete predication) + a pre- 
 dicative participle. 
 
 (<?) Many transitive verbs are also used as verbs of incomplete predi- 
 cation: they require in the active construction, besides their regular 
 direct object, a complementary or "factitive" predicate, which is either 
 noun or adjective ; they retain this complementary predicate in the 
 passive (see § 230). 
 
 (/) Several verba are used in conjunction with the non-assertive 
 parts (§ 156, b) of other verba to form compound expressions which 
 are regarded as one verb : e.g. " Ke tv ill go," "I «V7« hoping," &c. 
 Verbs so iised are called Auxiliaries (L. auxilUim, "help"). 
 
 (y) The name neuter is applied by some grammarians to intrans- 
 itive verbs of incomplete predication ; others use it as merely equivalent 
 to intransitive. 
 
 (/() The terra reflexive is applied to some verbs when the gram- 
 matical object and subject denote the same person or thing : e.g. " He 
 washes himself " ; " JTe sat him down." 
 
 (i) The term impersonal is given to those verbs whose subject is 
 the pronoun U used in an indefinite sense : e.g. "/< seems to me." 
 This use is common with all the natural phenomena of weather: "It 
 snows, rains, hails, lightens, thaws, freezes, ^^ &c. 
 
 The forms met h inks, meseems are impersonal verbs, the me being 
 dative (§ 130, g). 
 
 II. INFLEXION: CONJUGATION. 
 
 § 158. The Finite Verb may be inflertcfl to mark 
 person aud number, tense, mood ; the Verb Infinite has 
 inflexions to mark noun and adjective forms.
 
 132 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 159 
 
 § 159. (i.) Number. — When the subject of tlie finite 
 verb is in the singular, the verb is said to be singular ; when 
 plural, plural. 
 
 (ii.) Person. — When the subject of the verb is J or xve 
 or the equivalent of either, the verb is said to be in the 
 first person: e.g. 
 
 " I love " ; " I, who am rich, can afford it " ; " We 
 eatr 
 
 When the subject is tliou or you or the equivalent of 
 either, the verb is in the second person : e.g. 
 
 " Thou Jiast delivered " ; " You have loved " ; " You, 
 who are free, may rejoice " ; " Go away " (subject you 
 or thou understood). 
 
 In other cases — i.e. when the subject is he, she, it, they, 
 or their equivalents — the third person is used : e.g. 
 
 " He loves money " ; " To eat is necessary " ; " Those 
 who love money are sometimes avaricious." 
 
 (a) Notice that in commands, &c., the subject {you, thou) is generally 
 not named : it is the person spoken to. 
 
 (b) You being a plural form, we must always use the plural form 
 of the verb with it, though it is often used to denote one individual 
 only (see § 130). 
 
 § 160. The only inflexion of person in use with most 
 verbs is the suffix s seen in the third person singular pre- 
 sent indicative : e.g. he wants. 
 
 {a) The true second person singular form has the inflexion -est, -st : 
 e.g. thou want-est, wanied-st ; but the form is rarely used now, 
 except as an archaism (in tlie language of poetry, of prayer), and in 
 some dialects. The third person singular has an archaic form in -eth : 
 "he think-ethy 
 
 (b) We shall see traces of other forms of personal inflexion in some 
 of the "anomalous" verbs (§ 176). 
 
 (c) The inflexions of person and number have sufi'ered the usual 
 gradual weakening and levelling in M.E., and decay in modern 
 times (§ 6) : thus the uninflected (/) fall is the descendant of M.E. 
 fall-e (final e sounded), and O.E. feall-e, which stands for still older 
 fall-u, fall-o.
 
 § 162, f] THE VERB. I'S.i 
 
 t {d) The modem fall comes from the Mercian or Midland dialect 
 of O.E. and M.E. In M.E. three chief dialects are recoj^nised: the 
 Southern formed its pros, indie, plur. in -tlh, being the child of tho 
 West Siixon (the " classic") diuloct of O.E. ; the Midland gencmlly 
 had the same part in -cu, often shortened to -e ; tho Northern hud -k, 
 -», but not infrequently dropped the inflexion entirely. Sec § 162, c. 
 
 t (c) The inflexions of persons are believed to have originated in 
 demonstrative or pronominal roots, but tho matter is very obscure ; 
 thus in love-th, ama-t, ia-T{i), the flexion is (probably) the same as the 
 root oi th-f [that, &c.), -te (in hte), t6, &c. 
 
 t (/) In the second person singular, -est (as in bind-est, &c.) is a 
 compound which originated in early Anglo-Saxon times ; the earlier 
 form is -is, -es {cp. ama-s, recj-is, &c.), as in hind-is, bi)id-es ; this 
 became bi)ides-\>u by the conjunction of hiudts and \>u (= "thou"), 
 whence Inndtf]^ and then bindest ; cp. Ger. (c)st (bindist, litbst, &c.), 
 which similarly stands for -is + dn. The -st in a few preterite- 
 present verbs is, however, of different origin (see § 177, b). 
 
 § 161. Tense denotes primarily the time to whicli the 
 action, &c., denoted by the verb is refeiTed. 
 
 (i.) Tlie Present tense is the simple form of the verb, 
 without flexion ; it represents the action (or condition) as 
 now going on or existing : I love, you sing. 
 
 (ii.) The Past (or Preterite) is foi-med by inflexion ; 
 it shows that the action or condition is a past one : com- 
 pare I sing and I sang ; I love and I loved. 
 
 § 162. The only inflexional suffix of tense is the -ed 
 {-d, -t) of the preterite ; us we .see, huwevei-, from the above 
 example (sing, sang), inflected preterites may be foi'med 
 by vowel-change (" strong" verbs, § 167). 
 
 {a) Tense < F. temps, L. tempus, " time." 
 
 {b) The preterite (weak or strong) has no longer any inflexions of 
 person or number, save in the rarely used second person singular, 
 which in weak verbs has preserved the O.E, -est [-es, -is, § 160, /), 
 and in strong verbs has adopted the same ending. In strong verbs in 
 O.E. the second singular preterite and the preterite plural frequently 
 had a vowel which differed from the first and third singular preterite, 
 but Mod.E. has retained only one stem throughout (J 169, c). The 
 plural preterite (both strong and weak) ended in O.E. in -on, reduced 
 to -en and e in M.E., and banished entirely from Mod.E. 
 
 t {e) The O.E. forms of the present and past indicative and sub-
 
 134 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 [§162,C 
 
 junctive of a strong verb {beran, to bear) and a weak verb {hleran, 
 to hear) are : 
 
 ' 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 Sing. 1 binde 
 
 
 hlere 
 
 bond 
 
 hierde 
 
 2 bindest (bintst) 
 
 hter[e)st 
 
 bunde 
 
 hlerdest 
 
 3 binders [b 
 
 int) 
 
 hter{c)'^ 
 
 bond 
 
 hierde 
 
 Plural binda^ 
 
 
 Jnera^ 
 
 bundojt 
 
 hlerdon 
 
 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 
 Sing. 1, 2, 3 binde 
 
 
 Mere 
 
 bunde 
 
 hierde 
 
 Plural binden 
 
 
 hleren 
 
 bundcn, -on 
 
 hierden, -on 
 
 The corresponding 
 
 M.E. 
 
 (Chaucer) 
 
 forms are : 
 
 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 Sing. 1 bynde 
 
 
 here 
 
 bond 
 
 herde 
 
 2 byndest 
 
 
 herest 
 
 {bounds) bond 
 
 herdest 
 
 3 byndeth 
 
 
 hereth 
 
 bond 
 
 herde 
 
 Plural bynde{n) 
 
 
 here{n) 
 
 boimde{n) 
 
 herde {n) 
 
 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 
 Sing. 1, 2, 3 bynde 
 
 
 here 
 
 bounde 
 
 1, 3 herde 
 2 herde{st) 
 
 Plural bynde{n) 
 
 
 here(n) 
 
 boiinde{n) 
 
 herde[n) 
 
 § 163. Mood. — The way in which the assertion 
 conveyed by the verb is conceived may be indicated by 
 the form of the verb. 
 
 (a) The Indicative Mood is used for mere statement 
 direct question, &c. : e.g. 
 
 " I was not happy." " Are you coming ? " 
 
 (6) The Subjunctive Mood is sometimes used for possi- 
 bility, contingency, &c. ; it is rarely found except in 
 dependent clauses : e.g. 
 
 " I would do it, if I were you." 
 
 The use of the distinctive subjunctive forna is very limited, its place 
 having been taken by the indicative, and its function performed by 
 combination with auxiliaries ; see further in 5§ 232-5. 
 
 § 164. The only distinction between subjunctive form 
 
 and indicative in Mod.B. is to be found in the third person 
 singular present [Jie loves (indie), if he love (subj.)], and 
 in the pret. of the verb to be.
 
 § 166] THE VER15. 1H5 
 
 {(i) The subjunctive (or optative) and indicfttive forms became 
 confused early in the history of the language. The subjunctive pro- 
 sent and preterite of all verbs in O.E. ended in -e throughout the 
 singular, and -en throughout the plural, but the latter in the preterite 
 often gave way to the -on of the indicative. In M.E. weak preterites 
 indicative and subjunctive are practically identical, the -it of the 
 second person singular often invading the subjunctive. See $ 162, c. 
 
 § 165. Tlie Imperative Mood has the same form as 
 the simple verb : e.g. 
 
 " Go ! " " Bun away." " Let me alone." 
 It expresses command, entreaty, and the like. 
 
 t [a) The history of its form may bo easily seen from the 
 following : — 
 
 O.E. M.E. (Chaucer) Mod.E. 
 
 bind h'ltr bijnd her{e) unin- 
 
 ,. , , ,. .V (bundeUh) hereth fleeted 
 
 yhijitd her[e) bind, hear 
 
 § 166. The Verb Infinite includes 
 
 (i.) The Infinitive, w hich is the simple form of tlie 
 verb, very often preceded by to ; it is a noun, but partakes 
 of the nature of a verb, inasmuch as it may have a direct 
 object, and may be limited by an adverb : e.g. 
 
 " I like to see my friends often." " I will fetch 
 him." 
 
 (rt) The infinitive without to (the simple infinitive) and the 
 infinitive with to (gerundial infinitive) represent distinct forms in O.E. 
 The simple form is the O.E. infinitive : e.g. bindan, " the act of bind- 
 ing" ; to bind represents the dative of the above governed by the 
 preposition : e.g. to bindanne, " to bind," in such a phrase as " Here 
 is a book to bind." The levelling of inflexions in M.E. reduced 
 these two forms to one and the same {bindcn, binde), and to then came 
 to be used as the mere sign of the infinitive. But the gerundial force 
 of the dative form remains clearl}' in such expressions as " a house to 
 let," "knives to grind," " not the right thing to do" &c. 
 
 (ii.) The Verb-Noun in -ing, similarly used : e.g. 
 " 1 like seeing my friends." " Driving rapidly is healthy."
 
 136 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 [§166 
 
 (iii.) The Present Participle, wliicli is a verb- 
 adjective : e.g. 
 
 " He is dying." " He is helping his mother." 
 
 It is formed just as the verb-noun is, by adding -ing to 
 the verb, but it must not be confused with it. 
 
 ip) The forms in -ing are, as we see, (i.) verbal noun (gerund), 
 (ii.) verb-adjective (present participle). The former was represented 
 in O.E. by abstract nouns in -loig and -hicj formed from verbal roots ; 
 the number of these increased in M.E. — the termination was then -ing 
 only — especially when the present participial form in -bide (older -endc) 
 had become altered by the influence of the abstract noun ending into 
 -inge, and then (with decay of flexion) -ing; when once these two 
 originally distinct forms, the verb-noun and the present participle, fell 
 together, there was nothing to hinder the formation of the verb-noun 
 from any verb as a regular part of conjugation. 
 
 (c) Hence, in such a phrase as " I kept him /row breaking his word,'"' 
 the last four words originate from a construction such as " from 
 the breaking of his word," where breaking is an ordinary abstract 
 noun. 
 
 {d) Phrases such as "to go a-Jishing,^^ " a- hunting," &c., preserve 
 this -ing noun governed by a preposition, «- standing for on. 
 
 (iv.) The Past Participle, also a verb-adjective: e.g. 
 
 " This is hroTcen.'' " He has broken it." 
 
 " This is wanted." " He has not wanted this." 
 
 t ('') The various forms discussed in this section are in their older 
 stages : — 
 
 O.E. 
 
 M.E. (Chaucer) 
 
 Infin. 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 Pres. Part. 
 Past Part. 
 Verb-Noun 
 
 bindan 
 
 to bindanne 
 
 bindende 
 gebunden 
 \biiidung) 
 
 hleran 
 
 to Jileranne 
 
 hierende 
 gehlered 
 (hlerung) 
 
 binde{n) 
 1 binde{n) 
 \ bindene 
 
 binding (e) 
 
 {i)bounde{n) 
 
 binding 
 
 herein) 
 
 here[n) 
 
 herene 
 
 heringe 
 
 {i)hered 
 
 hering 
 
 § 167. The follovping are all the simple forms of the 
 English verb, uninflected as well as inflected : —
 
 \ 
 
 §167] 
 
 TmC VKUIi. 
 
 l;{7 
 
 
 
 Verb Finite. 
 
 
 
 ruESENT tea.se. 
 
 Siny. 
 
 Plural 
 (all persons). 
 
 1. 
 
 3. 
 
 } 
 
 Indicative. Siiujunctivb, 
 I lean/, break- ifluant, break 
 thou want-ist, brcak-ist if thou want, break 
 he tvant-s, breaks if he want, break 
 
 Willi t, break icant, break 
 
 ImI'EUATIVE. 
 
 Plur. } """"'' ^''^"^'''' 
 FAST TEASE. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plural 
 (all persons). 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 1. IwiiHt-ed, broke 
 
 2. thou want-ed-st, brok-cst 
 
 3. he tvant-ed, broke 
 
 if I u anted, 
 if thou wanted, 
 if he tcanted, 
 
 broke 
 
 wanted, 
 
 \ want-ed, 
 
 Verb Infinite. 
 
 [to) want, break. PiiESENT Pauticiple 
 
 broke 
 broke 
 broke 
 
 broke 
 
 want- 
 
 breaking. 
 
 Past Participle 
 brok-en. 
 
 wanting, 
 tvant-ed. 
 
 Geiiund or Verb-Noun 
 inff, breaking. 
 
 Observe that strong and weak verbs are conjugated exactly alike, 
 except as far as the formation of preterite and past participle are 
 concerned. 
 
 (a) Certain spelling' cliangfes which take place in inflexion should 
 be noticed : — 
 
 (i.) A mute c terminating the simple form of the verb disappears 
 before another vowel : e.g. lov-ed, hv-ing. It is, however, retained in 
 order to preserve the j sound oi g : e.g. singe-ing. 
 
 (ii.) After sibilants the 3rd sing. pres. has the full inflexion -es, 
 
 sounded as a distinct syllabic : " he iosn-cs, brmh-es, touch-es.^' 
 
 (iii.) g after a consonant is written -ie- before -d, -s : den-y, den-ied, 
 den-ies ; but plugs, play-ed. 
 
 (iv.) The combination -aged is written -aid in some verbs : e.g. lag, 
 laid ; pag, paid. 
 
 (v.) Final consonant preceded by an accented short vowel is 
 doubled before the c or i in an inflexion : e.g. forgot-t-en, pet-t-ing, 
 expel-l-ed. The same rule is generally, although wrongly, observed 
 with a single -I, even after an unaccented vowel : e.g. level-l-ed.
 
 138 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 [§168 
 
 § 168. The past participle and the preterite are formed 
 in one of two ways, according as the verb is weak or 
 strong. 
 
 (i.) A Weak Verb is one which forms its preterite by 
 adding -ed {-d, -t) ; its past participle is identical with the 
 preterite. 
 
 " (I) ivanti (I) want-ed, (I have) want-edy 
 
 (ii.) A Strong Yerb is one which forms its preterite 
 without snffix, but with vowel-change (called " gradation," 
 § 62) ; its past participle has either the suffix -en or no 
 suffix at all. There is often a further vowel-change in 
 the past participle : e.g. 
 
 " (I) speak, (I) spohe, (I have) spoJc-en.'' 
 
 " (I) sing, (I) sang, (I have) sung." 
 
 § 169. The following is a fairly complete list of the 
 Strong Verbs. It must be noticed that new verbs are 
 now always conjugated as weak, and new formations on 
 the strong model have long ceased to be made. Many 
 verbs once strong have also taken weak forms : such 
 verbs are called Mixed Verbs. 
 
 the 
 
 (Weak forms 
 
 are printed in this list in 
 
 italics. The order is alp 
 
 betical, except 
 
 that compounds, where 
 
 given, are put under 
 
 simple verb. A few archaic forms are given, marked f . ) 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Pret. 
 
 Past Part. 
 
 abide 
 
 abode 
 
 abode 
 
 bear 
 
 bore 
 
 born, borne 
 
 forbear 
 
 forbore 
 
 forborne 
 
 beat 
 
 beat 
 
 beaten 
 
 begin 
 
 began 
 
 begun 
 
 bid 
 
 bade, bid 
 
 bidden 
 
 forbid 
 
 forbade 
 
 forbidden 
 
 bind 
 
 bound 
 
 bound, boundenj 
 
 bite 
 
 bit 
 
 bitten 
 
 blow 
 
 blew 
 
 blown 
 
 break 
 
 broke 
 
 broken 
 
 carve 
 
 
 carven| 
 
 carved 
 
 carved
 
 §169] 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 lyi 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Prct. 
 
 Past Part. 
 
 chide 
 
 cliid 
 
 chidden 
 
 choose 
 
 chose 
 
 chosen 
 
 cleave ("' divide ' 
 
 ") clove 
 
 cloven 
 
 
 cleft 
 
 cleft 
 
 cling 
 
 clung 
 
 clung 
 
 come 
 
 came 
 
 comtj 
 
 crow 
 
 crew 
 
 
 
 crcnoed 
 
 crowed 
 
 dig 
 
 diig 
 
 dug 
 
 
 digged . 
 
 digged 
 
 do 
 
 did 
 
 done 
 
 draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn 
 
 drink 
 
 drank 
 
 clrunk, drunken 
 (adj.) 
 
 drive 
 
 drove 
 
 driven 
 
 eat 
 
 ate, eat 
 
 eaten 
 
 fall 
 
 fell 
 
 fallen 
 
 fight 
 
 fought 
 
 fought 
 
 find 
 
 found 
 
 foil 1 id 
 
 fling 
 
 flung 
 
 Hung 
 
 fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 forsake 
 
 forsook 
 
 forsaken 
 
 freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen 
 
 get 
 
 got 
 
 got 
 
 forget 
 
 foi'got 
 
 forgotten 
 
 give 
 
 gave 
 
 given 
 
 go 
 
 {;ii-eni) 
 
 gone 
 
 grind 
 
 ground 
 
 ground 
 
 groAV 
 
 grew 
 
 grown 
 
 hang- 
 
 hung 
 
 hung 
 
 
 hanged 
 
 hanged 
 
 hew 
 
 hewed 
 
 hewn 
 
 hide 
 
 hid 
 
 hidden, hid 
 
 hold 
 
 held 
 
 held 
 
 behold 
 
 beheld 
 
 beheld 
 
 know 
 
 knew 
 
 known 
 
 load 
 
 
 laden 
 
 
 loaded 
 
 loaded 
 
 lie 
 
 lay 
 
 lain
 
 140 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 [§169 
 
 Pres. 
 melt 
 
 mow 
 
 ride 
 
 ring 
 
 rise 
 
 I'ive 
 
 run 
 
 saw 
 
 see 
 seethe 
 
 sew 
 
 shake 
 shape 
 
 shave 
 
 shear 
 
 shine 
 shoot 
 
 show, shew 
 shrink 
 sing 
 sink 
 sit 
 slay- 
 slide 
 sling 
 slink 
 smite 
 sow 
 
 speak 
 bespeak 
 
 Pret. 
 
 Past Part, 
 molten t 
 
 melted 
 
 melted 
 
 
 mown 
 
 mowed 
 
 mowed 
 
 rode 
 
 ridden 
 
 rang 
 
 rung 
 
 rose 
 
 risen 
 
 rived 
 
 riven 
 
 ran 
 
 run 
 
 
 sawn 
 
 sawed 
 
 sawed 
 
 saw 
 
 seen 
 
 seethed 
 
 sodden (adj.) 
 seethed 
 
 
 sewn 
 
 sewed 
 
 sewed 
 
 shook 
 
 shaken 
 
 shaped 
 
 shapen + 
 shaped 
 shaven + 
 
 shaved 
 
 shaved 
 
 shore 
 
 shorn 
 
 sheared 
 
 sheared 
 
 shone 
 
 shone 
 
 shot 
 
 shot 
 
 showed, shewed 
 
 shown, shewn 
 
 shrank 
 
 shrunk, shrunken + 
 
 sang 
 sank 
 
 sung 
 sunk 
 
 sat 
 
 sat 
 
 slew 
 
 slain 
 
 slid 
 
 slid 
 
 slung 
 slunk 
 
 slung 
 slunk 
 
 smote 
 
 smitten 
 
 
 sown 
 
 sowed 
 
 solved 
 
 spoke 
 bespoke 
 
 spoken 
 bespoken, bespoke
 
 §169J 
 
 THK VKRfl. 
 
 in 
 
 Pros. 
 
 Pret. 
 
 Paat Part. 
 
 spin 
 
 span,;}; spun 
 
 spun 
 
 sprino; 
 
 sprang 
 
 sprung 
 
 staiul 
 
 st ( X )(-l 
 
 stood 
 
 steal 
 
 stole 
 
 stolen 
 
 stick 
 
 stuck 
 
 stuck 
 
 sting 
 
 stung 
 
 stung 
 
 stink 
 
 stank 
 
 stunk 
 
 stride 
 
 strode 
 
 strode, stridden J 
 
 strike 
 
 struck 
 
 struck, stricken 
 
 (adj.) 
 
 string 
 
 strung 
 
 strung 
 
 strive 
 
 strove 
 
 striven 
 
 strew 
 
 
 sti'ewn 
 
 
 stretved 
 
 strewed 
 
 swear 
 
 swore 
 
 sworn 
 
 swell 
 
 
 swollen 
 
 
 swelled 
 
 sw'elled 
 
 swim 
 
 swam 
 
 swum 
 
 swing 
 
 swung 
 
 swung 
 
 take 
 
 took 
 
 taken 
 
 tear 
 
 tore 
 
 torn 
 
 thrive 
 
 throve 
 
 thriven 
 
 throw 
 
 threw 
 
 thrown 
 
 tread 
 
 trod 
 
 trodden 
 
 wake (awake) 
 
 woke 
 
 woke 
 
 
 ivahed 
 
 waked 
 
 wear 
 
 wore 
 
 worn 
 
 weave 
 
 wove 
 
 woven 
 
 
 weaved 
 
 weaved 
 
 win 
 
 won 
 
 won 
 
 wind 
 
 wound 
 
 wound 
 
 wring 
 
 A\T.'Ung 
 
 wrung 
 
 write 
 
 vn'ote 
 
 written 
 
 We may add here 
 
 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 let 
 
 let 
 
 let 
 
 classed as strong by their origin, though now all trace of
 
 142 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 169 
 
 vowel-change has disappeared, thus levelling the forms 
 with such as those of thrust, hit: see § 174 (iv.). 
 
 Eemarlcs on the Strong Verbs. 
 
 (a) From the oldest stage of the language and the cognate 
 languages we see that a niunher of these verbs formed their preterite 
 by reduplication ; but there is nothing to distinguish these now from 
 the ordinary strong verbs, except in the case of higlit ( = " was 
 called "), O.E. hcht, where the reduplicated h is seen. Among 
 other verbs originally of this class (some of which are now weak) are 
 bloiv,Jloiv, grow, know, roiv, sow; sleep, sweep, iveep ; fall, hold, leap, 
 hew, let ("permit"). 
 
 t Such a word as O.E. haldmn, healdan (" hold ") is typical of 
 this class. "We find its preterite in O.E. as Mold; but the 
 Gothic haihald shows the reduplication clearly : so hight, O.E. het 
 and heht (from hdtan) = Gothic hai-hdit ; while examples preserving 
 traces of reduplication fairly clearly in O.E. are leolc [Mean, "jump "), 
 reord {rWdan, "counsel," "rede"). 
 
 {b) In the other strong verbs six different vowel- gradations 
 were originally to be distinguished. Verbs, however, passed from 
 one class into another, and, moreover, many stems have quita 
 disappeared : hence the distinctions between these six classes (or 
 seven, if we include the reduplicated verbs above) are no longer 
 clear. Typical examples in Modern English are given under Grada- 
 tion in § 62. 
 
 (c) In the older stages of the language all strong verbs, except 
 the sixth ("fare") class and the reduplicating verbs, exhibited a 
 difference of stem between the first singular preterite and the 
 plural ; so that many of them had four different stems (§ 61) : 
 IModern English has always levelled this distinction, generally (but 
 not always) retaining the singular form throughout the preterite. 
 The use (especially by uneducated persons) of such preterites as 
 hegun, drunk, sung, shrunk is due to the combined influence of the 
 old past plural and of the past participle. Book-language allows 
 only began, drank, sang, shrank. Further, there is a tendency to 
 reduce the stems to two (as may be seen in the alphabetical list above), 
 and this is aided by the process described above, and by the levelling 
 of the preterite and past participial stems through the adoption of 
 the one or the other for both.
 
 §171] 
 
 THK VERB. 
 
 143 
 
 (rf) The O.E. equivalents of typical verbs of each class are given in 
 §62,i. By comparing them with the modem verhs in § G'2, wo Heo 
 that in classes (i.) and (iii.) the three stems are still kept, but 
 singular and plural preterite are levelled under singular ; in the others 
 the same levelling has taken place. In (ii.), (iv.), and (v.) four stems 
 have been reduced to two. 51. E. occupies a position midway between 
 Mod.E. and O.E. in this respect. 
 
 § 170. Strong verbs which have become weak frequently 
 preserve some form of their older conjugation which is 
 restricted to special purpo.=;es. 
 
 In the following instances the strong past pai-ticiple 
 is used as a mere adjective (and that generally in certain 
 phrases only), while the weak form is ordinarily employed 
 for the past participle : — 
 
 cloven, as in '^ dorm hoof": usual past pait. of cleave being cfe/i' 
 
 {&a)grave ,, graved 
 hew , , hewed 
 
 , loaded 
 
 graven, 
 hetcn, 
 
 >> 
 
 " graven image 
 " rough-//<;(t« " 
 
 laden, 
 
 )» 
 
 " heavy-laden " 
 
 -lorn, 
 molten. 
 
 
 "forlorn " 
 
 " molten metal" 
 
 sodden. 
 
 ) > 
 
 ' ' sodden turf ' ' 
 
 shaven, 
 
 ) > 
 
 " smouth-*//rttr« " 
 
 shapen. 
 
 5> 
 
 " mis-.shapcn " 
 
 ( lade \ 
 
 load] 
 
 lose 
 
 melt 
 
 seethe 
 
 shave 
 
 shape 
 
 >> 
 
 >> 
 
 lost 
 
 melted 
 
 seethed 
 
 shaved 
 
 shaped 
 
 [a) Between mown and mowed, shorn and sheared, sowed and sown, 
 swollen and swelled there is a somewhat similar, but perhaps not so 
 clearly marked, diiference of usage, 
 
 {h) In a few cases a similar distinction is preserved between variant 
 forms of a strong past participle, the longer (and older) one being 
 restricted to specific phrases and generally used merely as an 
 .adjective. Examples are — 
 
 " A drunken man " ; " he is (or has) drunk.^^ 
 
 " I am beholden to you " ; "I have beheld him." 
 
 " It is your bonnden duty " ; "I am bound to do it." 
 
 " His sunken (or sunli) eyes " ; "a sunken rock " ; "he has sunk." 
 
 '* His shrunken (or shrunk) frame " ; " his frame was shrunk." 
 
 " He was conscience-«('ricn.r« " ; "he was struck." 
 
 "A down-trodden people " ; " he has trod (or trodden) it down." 
 
 § 171. Of strong verbs which have become weak, 
 
 there are several, Ijeside;; tliose already mentioned in
 
 144 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 171 
 
 § 170, wliicli preserve traces of tlieir origin, either by 
 a mixture of the two conjugations, or by keeping 
 parallel strong and weak forms : thus croiv (O.E. crd- 
 wan, redupl. verb) makes pret. crew or croioed, past part. 
 crowed ; others may be seen in the italicised words in 
 the alphabetical list. Some other verbs originally sti'ong 
 retain strong forms only as archaisms, or show us 
 that they were once strong verbs by giving us deri- 
 vatives from gradational stems : thus help, archaic 
 past part, holpen ; hake, haken ; lose, lorn (as in forlorn ; 
 cp. § 45, a) ; wax, waxen ; wash, (yiQ.)tvaslien ; climb, 
 archaic preterite clonib. 
 
 {a) The verb hang has weak forms derived from an O.E. weak verb 
 hangian, and qiiasi-sirong forms which are really new formations 
 from O.E. lieuff, preterite of a strong verb hon, "to hang." This 
 preterite lieng became shortened in M.B. to heng, whence hing (cp. 
 pronunciation of English). Then hing was looked upon as an in- 
 finitive like sing, and a past part, hung coined after the analogy 
 of sung. Finally hung became used also as a preterite, and hing 
 was lost as infinitive. The weak forms [hanged) are scarcely used 
 except for the action of suspending by the neck, and not always then. 
 There was originally a similar grammatical distinction between the 
 two verbs which have given us ivake, woke, and tvake, xoaked ; a 
 tendency to similar confusion is heard in the speech of uneducated 
 people with regard to sit and set, though here the distinct forms are 
 clearly marked (§ 188). 
 
 {h) Other forms once strong have now been supplanted by weak 
 ones without leaving any trace of the old conjugation in the modern 
 language : such are how, brew, burn, creep, dread, delve, fare, flow, 
 fret (by origin a compound of eat), latigh, leap, lie (to " tell a false- 
 hood"), n)efe, rue, row, shove, slit, sleep, wade, weigh, wreak, writhe. 
 
 § 172. A few verbs once weak have taken strong 
 forms. Wear is one of these : it possibly owes loore and 
 worn (for weared) to analogy with bear, bore, born and tear, 
 tore, torn. Others are chide, hide, ring, dig, stick, spit. 
 
 (a) Spit, pret. S2)at, which appears to be a strong formation like sit, 
 sat, is really derived, regularly, from two weak verbs, O.E. s^nttan 
 (pret. spitte), whence spit, and O.E. splettan (pret. spsette), whence M.E. 
 spatte, Mod.E. spat.
 
 § 174] Tin: vi:rii. 145 
 
 § 173. The verbs in the alpliabetieal list terminating 
 with a dental (-d, -/), and having no past participial -en, 
 should be carefully learned, because there is often little 
 in their form, to distinguish them from the contracted 
 weak verbs enuinerated below ; they are respectively 
 classed as stiong and weak owing to their etymology. 
 Thus, burst, let (" allow ") are strong ; but thrus-t, let 
 (" hinder," a legal term) are weak. 
 
 t (a) burst ia in O.E. berstan, baerst,bi(rst<yn, borsten ; let ("allow") 
 is in O.E, lietaii, let, lcto)i, Ixten : cp. Ger. bersten and lansen. But 
 </l>•(^«< stands for 'ill.^. thriisten, pret. thruste ; and let (''hinder"), 
 for letten, letle. 
 
 § 174. In the Weak Verbs the departures fi"om the 
 regular type (e.g. ircjit. irauted) are : 
 
 (i.) Merely orthographic changes : e.g. pet, pet-t-ed, 
 &c. ; these have been pointed out in § 167, a. 
 
 (ii.) After 1, n, the sound d easily became t, and is 
 often so written : e.g. 
 
 Pros. Pret. and Past Part, 
 
 dwell dwelt 
 
 smell smelt or smelled 
 
 spell spelt or spelled 
 
 spill spilt or spilled 
 
 burn burnt or burned 
 
 learn leaint or learned 
 
 pen (to " confine ") pent or penned 
 biit pen (to " use a pen," " write ") penned 
 
 (iii.) Some verbs ending in -Id, -nd have contracted 
 forms in -It, -nt instead of (or as well as) -hied, -nd<.'d : 
 
 e.g. 
 
 Pres. Pret. and Past Part. 
 
 {bended is archaic, but 
 
 , , 1 i ^ is found as adi. in 
 
 bend bent < , , . **, . 
 
 poetry and in certain 
 
 phrases) 
 
 E. L.
 
 146 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Pret. and Past P 
 
 blend 
 
 blent or blended 
 
 lend 
 
 lent 
 
 rend 
 
 rent 
 
 send 
 
 sent 
 
 spend 
 
 spent 
 
 wend 
 
 went or wended 
 
 build 
 
 built 
 
 gild 
 
 gilt or gilded 
 
 so also gird 
 
 girt or girded 
 
 [§m 
 
 went is used to supply a past tense for the verb go. 
 
 (iv.) Some verbs ending in -d, -t exhibit no change of 
 foi'm owing to a similar contraction {-d for -ded^ -t for 
 ted) : such are 
 
 Pres. 
 cast 
 
 cost 
 
 cut 
 
 hit 
 
 hurt 
 
 knit 
 
 let 
 
 put 
 
 set 
 
 shut 
 
 slit 
 
 split 
 
 sweat 
 
 thrust 
 
 wet 
 
 whet 
 
 rid 
 
 shed 
 
 shred 
 
 spread 
 
 Pret. and Past Part, 
 cast 
 cost 
 cut 
 hit 
 hurt 
 knitted (part.), knit (adj. in 
 
 well-knit) 
 let 
 put 
 set 
 shut 
 slit 
 split 
 
 sweat and sweated 
 thrust 
 
 wetted, sometimes wet 
 whetted, sometimes whet 
 rid 
 shed 
 shred 
 spread 
 
 We may group with these others ending in d, -t which
 
 §174] 
 
 THE VKRB. 
 
 U7 
 
 contract the suffix in a similar way, at the same time 
 shortening the vowel of the stem : — 
 
 Pros, 
 bleed 
 breed 
 feed 
 
 k'!ul 
 
 light 
 meet 
 read 
 speed 
 
 Pret. and Past Part, 
 bled 
 bred 
 fed 
 led 
 
 lit and lighted 
 met 
 read 
 sped 
 
 (v.) Some have not the same vowel sound in pres. as 
 they have in pret. and past pai^t. (ep. the last group). 
 They are, however, easily distinguished from strong verbs 
 by the inflexive -d, -t. 
 
 (1) Long vowel in present : shortened in px'et. and 
 past part., with contracted suffix : — 
 
 Pres. 
 bereave 
 creep 
 deal 
 dream 
 feel 
 flee 
 keep 
 kneel 
 lean 
 leap 
 leave 
 mean 
 say 
 shoe 
 sleep 
 sweep 
 weep 
 
 Pret. and Past Part, 
 bereft and bereaved 
 crept 
 dealt 
 
 dreamt and dreamed 
 felt 
 fled 
 kept 
 knelt 
 leant 
 leapt 
 left 
 meant 
 said 
 shod 
 slept 
 swept 
 wept 
 
 (2) Verbs which even in the prehistoric (Teiitonic)
 
 148 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 174 
 
 period added the termination for the pret. and part, with- 
 out any connecting vowel which would have caused muta- 
 tion (see § 175, a) : — 
 
 Pres. Pret. and Past Part. 
 
 beseech besought 
 
 bring brought 
 
 buy bought 
 
 seek sought 
 
 sell sold 
 
 teach taught 
 
 tell told 
 
 think thouo-ht 
 
 (vi.) Some other irregularities are these : — 
 
 have has its pret. tense and past part, contracted 
 to had. 
 
 («) The indie, pres. of have is / have, thou hast, he lias, plur. have ; 
 8ubj. pres. sing, and plur., have. 
 
 Similarly ftiake has fnade contracted for pret. makede, 
 part, maked. (In the part, the final -e serves merely 
 to denote the length of the a.) 
 
 clothe makes clothed and clad. 
 
 ifork has loorhed and lorought (§ 65). 
 
 {b) In the older stages of the language there was a clear distinction 
 of conjugation between verbs which added the suffix of inflexion 
 directly to the root and those which inserted a connective vowel 
 before it, thus making another syllable: e.g. hert [hear) has in M.E. 
 pret. hcr-d'i (2 syll.), while love has pret. lov-e-de (3 syll.) ; Mod.E. 
 has levelled these by dropping (to the ear, not always in spelling) the 
 connecting vowel wherever possible : thus heard, loved have each one 
 syllable only. Where the -ed is a separate syllable, as in ivant-ed, it is 
 because no elision is possible without the disappearance of the inflexive 
 d; this, however, often happens (cp. hlend-ed and blent, spent, &c., 
 above). It is to be observed, therefore, that blent, heard have not 
 elided a medial syllable, while loved, made, &c., have : where we find
 
 § 175] THE VEun. 149 
 
 11 loDgtr and a shorter form ending in u dontal {blended, bimt), tho 
 former, contrary to tho usual rulo in such matters, is tho newer 
 
 formation. 
 
 t (<•) Tho O.E. weak conjugations exhibit three clearly marked 
 types (busidL'S § 175 below) : 
 
 (1) Mer-an, hier-de, hler-ed ("hear"), 
 
 (2) uen-nan, tven-ede, weii-ed{" wean "), 
 
 (3) luf-ian, luf-ode, hif-od ("love"), 
 
 of which ('2) and (3) fall together in M.E., and all three are levelled 
 (where possible) in JIod.E. ; and, further, the distinction between pret. 
 and past part, disappears with the dropping of tho final e from tho 
 former. 
 
 § 175. The difference of vowel in verbs such as sell 
 sold ; teach, taught (and tlie others in § 174, v. 2, aliove) 
 is not tlue to gnulutiou. These verbs are, therefore, not 
 classed as strong, but as weak. 
 
 t («) In the present of each of these verbs, with the exception of 
 hnn'j and catch, there was originally an i or j following the root- 
 syllable, which in consequence had its vowel mutated in the earliest 
 English period. After causing mutation the i fell out ; similarly the 
 ./, which was found after an originally short syllable, fell out after 
 producing gemination of the final consonant of the root as well as 
 mutation of the root-vowel. Hence the original mc, hnrj, sul, tdc, tnl, 
 \>a»c became in O.E. sec, hjcg, sell, five, tcU, i>e)ic, and these have 
 yielded ^lod.'E.seek, buy, sell, teach, tell, think. The root-syllable has 
 also suffered some modification in the preterite through the termination 
 which, in the case of these verbs, was added immediately to it. Thus 
 in O.E. we find sohte, buhte, salde (in Anglian), tdhtc (Anglian), talde 
 (Anglian), \mltti\ These became in early M.E. sohte, bnhtc, sdhlc, tdhte, 
 tdldc, \>6hte ; and then (by development of u before // after a and o, and 
 by change of a to the vowel-sound in law, which may be expressed 
 by oo) sonhte, houhte, sbblde, tauhte, tboldc, \>ouhte, whence Mod.E. souyht, 
 bought, sold, taught, told, thought. The g in sought, &c., is merely an 
 orthographical addition, intended to reinforce the h in representing 
 the earlier guttural pronunciation of these words. 
 
 The verb bri)ig is peculiar. The present is borrowed from a strong 
 verb, like sing. Brought, O.E. briihtc, is properly the pret. of O.E. 
 brengean (< *brangian), a weak verb. The development of the Modem 
 from the Old English form has been the same as in the case of thought. 
 
 Finally, catch, IM.E. caccheu, from O.F. cachier, Low L. *captiarc, 
 should by rights have eatched in the pret., a form which does occur in 
 early M.E. writers, and even in Shakespeare (see Coriolanus, i. iii. 66,
 
 150 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 175 
 
 68, where "caught" and "catched" are used by the same speaker). 
 Caught was, however, commonly used as the preterite of cacchen as 
 early as Chaucer. It is formed on the analogy of M.E. Jaughte, the 
 regularly formed preterite of M.E. lacchev, "to catch" (cp. Mod.E. 
 latch, noun). 
 
 Minor Conjugations. 
 
 § 176. The verb to be is conjugated as follows : — • 
 
 Indie. Pres. : sing, am, art, is ; plur. are. 
 Indie. Pret. : sing, was, nasi, was ; plur. were. 
 Subj. Pres. : he (tl^ro^^gl^out). 
 Subj. Pret. : were (tlirougliout). 
 
 Imper. : he. Infin. : (to) he. Pres. Part. : heing. Past 
 Part : heen. 
 
 Tlie form he is sometimes found as an archaic pres. 
 indie, and u'ert as 2nd sing. pret. 
 
 t {(() -mi verhs. The Indo-Germanic verb had its 1st pers. sing, 
 pres. indie, in -o or -mi ; the latter has left no manifest trace in 
 Mod.E. except in the word a-m (cp. L. am-o and su-ni, Gk. Xv-oi and 
 el-jjii ; and see § 160). The verbs do and go are also by origin -mi 
 verbs, and in the case of the former the O.E. (Anglian) dom preserves 
 a trace of this. 
 
 {h) The four roots in the conjugation of this verb are : 
 
 (1) es : hence 
 
 am, O.E. com for hypothetical cn-mi, in which the vi is probably 
 the remnant of first personal pronoun (i.e. of root seen in Eng. me) ; 
 cp. L. s-um [= hypothetical cs^u^m], Gk. el-fii. 
 
 is shows a weakened form of the same stem, without any suffix of 
 flexion; cp. Gk. ia-.-ri, L. cs-t, and Mod. Ger. is-f, in each of which 
 the dental represents the ending of the third person (see § 160). 
 
 The usual O.E. plur. form is sindon = es-ind-on, in which the -on is 
 an O.E. addition (§ 162, b), the forms sind, sint being also found. 
 Cp. with these L. s-unt and Gk. ea-ov-rai, and the Mod. Ger. s-ind. 
 
 (2) or : hence 
 
 art, from O.E. eart, which in M.E. became art in the Midland and 
 Northern districts. 
 
 are, O.E. ar-on, a Northumbrian plur. form.
 
 § 177, «j TiiK vKRi!. i:. I 
 
 (3) bheu : lienco 
 
 he, heiny, hccn (strong contracted past part. : cp. blown, Sec). Tho 
 root is cognate with that of h./to (i.o. *f'Ji-[<>), Cik. <pu-fiv, and ilod. 
 Ger. bi-n. Be was conjugated throughout tho present indicative 
 and subjunctive in O.E. : hence tho subjunctive forms in Mod.E. 
 and the dialectic / be, thou beesf, Sec. 
 
 (4) wes : hence 
 
 u'as, uere. Was is tho representative of a strong preterite 
 (O.E. xcazs), regularly formed by gradation from the infinitive tvemn : 
 hence it showed a different stem in the second person singular u-iete 
 and throughout the plural ivxmn (§ 1G9, d). The second singular 
 icas-t is a M.E. formation ; so also is tcer-t, the inflexion -< in each of 
 these words being probably due to the influence of the preterite-present 
 verbs (see § 177). (For the change of s to r in icas, were see § \o.) 
 
 § 177. Strong-weak Verbs (Preterite-Prksent). 
 
 Can, may, .shall, ii'ill have no final s in the third person 
 singular present indicative, so that in form they resemble 
 strong preterites, which is what, in fact, they (wdth the 
 exception of will) originally were ; but they acquired the 
 sense of presents, and so new ?rcal' preterites were formed. 
 May, shall, tvill are commonly used as auxiliaries of mood 
 and tense, and are defective in infinitive and participles. 
 The forms they have are : 
 
 PUESENT. 
 
 Sing. 1. can may shall will 
 
 2. canst may(e)st shal-t wil-t 
 
 3. can may shall will 
 Plur. 1,2, 3. can may shall will 
 
 Pketeuite. 
 
 Sing. 1, 3 and 1 ^^^^^ ^.^^ ^^^^^^ 
 
 Plur. 1, 2, 3. J 
 
 2nd. Sing. could(c)st might(e)st should(e)st would(e)st 
 
 would 
 
 («) For the use of preterites with present signification, cp, the 
 L. memini, iiovi, coepi, odi ; the Gk. ol5a, 5(5oiKa, (oiku; and the Ger. 
 words cognate with the Eng. preterite-presents, viz. kanti, ma(f, 
 
 son.
 
 152 THK ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 177, b 
 
 (b) The f- in slml-t is the old strong second person preterite in- 
 flexion : cp. Ger. soll-( (beside aoW-s/). May-s-t, can-s-t have taken 
 the compound suffix in conformity with the bulk of English verbs 
 (§160,/). 
 
 f (c) Shall [a strong preterite of the same class as hear (§ G2)] seems 
 to have meant originally "I have incurred a liability," "1 have 
 owed " : cp. the employment of cognate Ger. soil and the meaning of 
 Sclndd ("debt," "duty"), schuU-uj. The O.E. form is sceal (< 
 seal), whence weak pi-eterite sccolde (or scoldc), whence should. 
 
 t {d) Will is an old subjunctive (cp. L. vel-lm) , early used in- 
 dicatively, of a -mi verb with root meaning " desire." The preterite 
 tvoiild, O.E. n'ol-de, was probably formed from the weak grade of the 
 root, (cp. Tri-TTT-co with ireT-Oyuot), and the termination -de, the 
 vowel being afterwards developed (cp. O.'E. folde, "earth," with 
 Gk. irXarvs), 
 
 There is a pres. part, {ivillende) in O.E. to which the modern 
 ivill-ing, now only used as an adjective, corresponds. There was a 
 negative form nillan, mjllan in O.E., made by prefixing ne \ cp. 
 L. nolo = ne + volo ; from this we have our phrase ^cilhj-inlly = icill 
 ye, nill ye, i.e. "whether you will or not." O.E. also possessed a 
 weak verb, unllian, pret. willode, whence comes the Mod.E. verb I will, 
 he wills, &c. 
 
 t {e) Can [a strong pret. of the same class as drink (§ 62)] comes 
 from a root akin to that in hww. The O.E. pret. was cu:\>e, from a 
 prehistoric cun\>e, the lengthening of the vowel in cfi\>e being due to 
 the disappearance of the nasal after it. The infinitive in O.E. 
 ajDpears as cunnan, whence the Mod.E. adjective (originally a pres. 
 part.) cnnn-xng, which appears first in M.E. On the other hand, a 
 nonn eioinuny or cunning, meamng " trial," "testing," is found in O.E. , 
 and this has probably given the Mod.E. noun cunmng, which appears 
 with its present signification in the fourteenth century. The past 
 part, was r«5 (= " known "), whence our tin-couth, " unknown," and 
 so " odd." The M.E. pret. was at first kouthe, which differed only 
 in spelling from the O.E. word, and is made by Chaucer to rhyme 
 with -monthe in Bertemouthe. The analogy of other weak preterites, 
 however, had already begun in Chaucer's time to substitute konde for 
 it (cp. Prologue, 1. 713, where it rhymes with loude). Lack of sentence- 
 stress ultimately produced shortening of the vowel ; hence onr 
 modern pronunciation. Finally an I crept into the written word 
 through the analogy of should and would, and this was actually 
 pronounced from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, but is 
 now again mute, though still occasionally heard from uneducated 
 persons. 
 
 t (/) May (O.E. rnxg) [a strong preterite of the same conjugation 
 as tread (§ 62)] meant originally " I have power" ; its original final
 
 § 179] Tin; vi:i;n. lo8 
 
 guttural boi-amo vocali/.od in M.E. ;«ni. Thi^ nriit. v/uh ineahte {i.e. 
 mag + tc) and inififc, whence M.E. in'Kjhtc and Mou.pj. miyht, in which 
 (as in 80 many other cases) the guttural is jireBerved in the spelling, 
 but not in the sound (cp. Gcr. minj, iwichli). 
 
 The root (its Tout. f)rm is dkkj) appears in L. machina, from Gk. 
 fn]Xavf\, and in many English words : e.g. mi<//it and main ; tho 
 former is O.E. noun ini/it, iiua/if, cognate with Ger. Macht, and the 
 latter comes from f).E. mxg-en. 
 
 § 178. Dare is also an old strong' pret. treated as a 
 pres., from wliicli a later weak pret. has been formed; 
 Mod.E., however, often treats the verb as entirely weak 
 and regular, thus : — 
 
 Pres. : I dare, thou darest and durst, he dares or dare, 
 
 pi. dare. 
 Pret. : durst (throughout) or dared. 
 
 The tendency seems to be to discard durst entirely, and 
 to use dare in the 3rd sing. pres. only (but not always) 
 before an infinitive without " to " (i.e. in a semi-auxiliary 
 manner) : thus "He dare not do it" or "He dares not do 
 it," but " Since he dares to behave so." In the sense of " to 
 challenge " the regular weak forms ai-e always used : " He 
 dares (not dare) or dared (not durst) him to do it." 
 
 t (a) Dare [by origin a strong pret. of tho same class as dnnk 
 (§62)] is in O.E. dear {< *chrr) and in M.E. dar ; the weak 
 pret. in O.E. is dors-te, whence durst ; the -.« is part of the stem 
 which has disappeared in the pret. -pres. The same root appears 
 in Gk. dpaa-vs, "bold," edp<r-fi, "be bold." [Aryan root d/iers, 
 corresponding to Teutonic root dars, darz (j 52). N.B. — ilod. Ger. 
 darf has no etymological connection with this, as the identity of the 
 initial letter proves]. The original meaning of " I dare " seems thus 
 to be " I have emboldened myself," and so '" I venture." 
 
 §179. Must, ought are double preterite - presents, 
 corresponding in formation to might, durst, etc. ; that is to 
 say, they are new weak preterites (cp. § 177) to O.E. 
 preterite-presents, mot and ah, which had in theii* turn 
 lost the preterite signification and become used as 
 presents ; thus they have only one form apiece for all 
 persons and both'numbers (except archaic thou ought-est, 
 2nd sing.).
 
 154 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 179, a 
 
 (ff) Ought represents etymologically the weak pret. of owe, itself 
 an old strong pret, used as a pres. ; but owe is conjugated regularly 
 now as an ordinary weak verb [he owes, oivcd, Sec), and the two words 
 are separated by specialisation of meanings. 
 
 f {h) Oxce [by origin a strong pret. of the "drive " class (§ 62)] 
 is in O.E. ugan (infin.), with pret. used as pres. ah, " I possess " (hence 
 *' I possess another's goods," " I am in debt," &c.) ; the weak pret. was 
 ah-te, whence ouyh-t. The old past part, (strong) agen gives the adj. 
 own (§ 190, a), and also the verb own, through intermediate O.E. 
 dgnian, M.E. ahnen, 
 
 t {c) Must represents O.E. wuste, a weak pret. formed from the 
 old pret. -pres. mot [class vi. (§62)], meaning "lam able," "I 
 can," " I may." (N.B. — iVo< etymologically connected with may.) 
 The M.E. form tmt, moot, gives us the archaic mote in such a 
 phrase as " So mote I die " ( = " So may I die ") : cp. Ger. muss 
 ( = mot) and mnss-te ( = moste), for the former of which alone our 
 must does duty. 
 
 [d) Owing to the defective conjugation oi must, ought, we are often 
 obliged to indicate the tense by the use of a perfect infinitive depend- 
 ing on one of these words : thus we say, " He ought to have done it." 
 For similar reasons Hie uneducated say : 
 
 (i.) " He hadnU ought to do it^^ ; using " ought " as a past participle 
 in a logical but ungrammatical way. 
 
 (ii.) " He didn't ought to do it " ; using as an infinitive the only form 
 of the verb now employed, in defiance of etymology and standard 
 speech. 
 
 Need is iised like the preterite-present verbs in the 3rd 
 sing. pres. (though there is no reason for this beyond 
 analogy with them) in semi-anxiliary combinations : e.g. 
 " He need not do this "; but " He needs tJiis'" ; " He 7ieeds 
 to he better informed." 
 
 t {c) Need is a weak verb derived from the noun; in O.E. the 
 pret.-pres. \>corf (Ger. darf) was used in the same sense, but has been 
 now entirely supplanted by it ; possibly it is to analogy with this 
 old strong pret., at the time when the forms tharf and need (M.H. nede) 
 were used indifferently, that we owe the pseudo-strong 3rd sing. pres. 
 he need. 
 
 § 180. Do. 
 
 The verb do is conjugated as a strong verb ; O.E. 2nd, 3rd sing.
 
 § 182] THE vRicn. 1 
 
 ).> 
 
 (test, d^S, giivo place early in M.E. to dost, doth, the vowels of which 
 became in pronunciation, though not in spelling, changed to u in early 
 Mod.E., and afterwards shortened to u, whence our present pronun- 
 ciation of these words. The past part, done (in which the final <• is 
 purely a trick of orthography, as in borne, one) exhibits the usual -en 
 of strong verhs reduced to u after a vowel : cp. alai-n, drau-n. 
 
 t It is originally a -mi verb (§ 17G, « : cp. its cognate ti-Otj-;h), and 
 is found in Ist pcrs. sing. pres. in O.E. (rarely) as dum ; ?/«/ repre- 
 sents O.E. dyde. 
 
 Conjugation tcifh Auxiliaries, Compound Forms of the 
 
 Verb, .fc. 
 
 § 181. W(.' liave not eiiougli tenses fonued by inflexion 
 to enable us to express all distinctions of time, &c.,by that 
 means ; we therefore resort to combinations of the verb we 
 wish to conjugate with othei- verbs known as auxiliaries 
 (§ 157,/) ; the name " tense " is then given to the whole 
 combination thus formed. We thus get the following 
 scheme of tenses : — 
 
 Present- 
 
 -Simple 
 
 Hove 
 
 )) 
 
 Continuous 
 
 I am loving 
 
 ?j 
 
 Perfect 
 
 I have loved 
 
 J5 
 
 Perfect Continuous 
 
 I have been loving 
 
 Past - 
 
 —Simple (Preterite) 
 
 I loved 
 
 )) 
 
 Continuous 
 
 I was loving 
 
 ij 
 
 Perfect 
 
 I had loved 
 
 5> 
 
 Pei-fect Continuous 
 
 T had been loving 
 
 Future - 
 
 —Simple 
 
 I shall love 
 
 >) 
 
 Continuous 
 
 I shall he loving 
 
 ly 
 
 Perfect 
 
 I shall have loved 
 
 »> 
 
 Pei-fect Continuous 
 
 I shall have been loving 
 
 § 182. Auxiliaries are similai-ly used to fomi the Passive 
 construction (§157, b) or " voice," and they may also be 
 used to indicate mood. The conjugation of a verb in the 
 simple and chief compound forms is as follows (the ^rd 
 pers. sing, alone is given in the finite verb, except in the 
 imperative, which has only second persons) : —
 
 o 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 la 
 
 « 
 
 P 
 o 
 o 
 
 >; 
 O 
 
 h-t 
 ft 
 
 n 
 
 00 
 
 too 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Si 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 |J 
 
 
 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ . 
 
 
 
 
 -4^ 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 Jo 
 
 
 
 1 i 
 
 
 Pi 
 • 1— 1 
 
 
 
 eg 
 
 C> ^ <D 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 > 
 
 
 ptl 
 
 Qi q:) ^ 
 
 rO l-O r-S£ 
 
 
 8 -« 
 
 
 -I-H 
 -P 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Qi 
 
 CO 
 
 
 • >-« 
 
 o 
 
 S g C>J 
 
 S CD e e 
 
 CJ5 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 ■pi 
 
 
 pi 
 =5 
 
 
 > 
 
 • ■-1 
 
 '-^ rO r-^ r-^ 
 
 
 5- -TS "^3 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 <j 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 2^ e e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <S> 
 
 § r<r< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ r,^ 
 
 &J 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 ^ — V 
 
 ^-v >>* 
 
 
 Hi -a 
 
 s 
 
 <c 
 
 
 
 <X) 
 
 ^ k^ 
 
 
 S 
 
 F^^ '^ 
 
 "U 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 !» S? 
 
 
 » 
 
 'T3 ta 
 
 r-O 
 
 
 
 *o 
 
 ^ r^ 
 
 
 ■■o 
 
 <a rO 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ® 
 
 
 
 
 1-0 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 CO 
 
 (a S tij 
 
 
 
 
 ^-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n "^ 
 
 
 §^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 •5^ -^ r-s: 
 
 5 t^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 &> s 
 
 9i 
 
 Qi 
 
 
 qi &s 
 
 's" 
 
 =^^ § 
 
 &s 
 
 •5 CD ^ &^ <» 
 
 
 
 S 8 
 e "^ 
 
 o 
 
 s g-^ 
 
 S 
 
 S> S rO g 
 
 5^ 
 
 .S i-sS 
 
 '^ 
 
 ^J 
 
 "o 
 
 •c* 
 
 '•s* 
 
 -r^ 
 
 
 
 
 !» 
 
 ^ 
 
 ?3 ^2 CC CO 
 
 
 i 11- 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 k1 
 
 .> 
 
 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 ■8 
 
 -si 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 i) 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 PJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 • r-t 
 
 
 
 
 
 -rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (^ 
 
 
 P^ 
 
 1=1 
 
 
 
 
 
 -P 
 Pt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OQ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /— N -p 
 
 
 
 
 cc 
 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^'^ ^ 
 
 QJ d (B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 00 
 
 (3 
 
 H 
 
 9 C '^ CL, 
 
 cc 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 P! "-^ 
 
 rt CD 
 
 s 3 «==^ C 
 
 ■V in 
 CD 
 
 MO 
 
 -P 
 
 c 
 
 a; 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 -P 
 
 
 
 fl Pi CB 0) 
 
 <o a X w 
 
 CO _J 
 
 0^1 = 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 CD 03 
 
 
 OO 03 0) (D 
 
 -P -|j Oi -fj c 
 
 ^ pi 
 
 r- 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 CD QJ ^H Sh 
 
 to 02 p^ CO p 
 
 -p -p 
 
 -C 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 
 p. 
 
 P^^ 
 
 ^v^ 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 P- 
 
 Ph 
 
 Ph 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 fe 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1
 
 § 188, h] THK VKUl!. 157 
 
 Imperative Mood — Present (Act.) love. (Pass.) be loved. 
 
 Infixitive. 
 Active. 
 
 Present (fo) love 
 
 „ Continuous „ be loving 
 
 Perfect „ have loved 
 
 ,, Continuous „ have been loving 
 
 Passive, 
 (/o) be loved 
 „ (be being loved) 
 ,, have been loved 
 
 Present 
 Perfect 
 
 Pakttctples. 
 
 loving 
 having loved 
 
 being loved 
 loved 
 
 Continuous having been loving having been loved 
 
 (rt) Other auxiliaries are sometimes employed: may sometimes 
 assists to form a present subjunctive ; might, should, would past sub- 
 junctive; should, would conditional or secondary future. The verb 
 do is used (1) with the negative, (2) for forming questions, 
 (3) for emphasis: e.g. '"lie didn't take it" {did . . . take = look, 
 pret.) ; " Did he take it ? " (did he ta/cc ? = took he ?) ; " he did take 
 it" (more emphatic than "he took"). The simple forms (except 
 of verbs which may be used as auxiliaries, and of preterite-presents) 
 are now not used in direct questions : thus we may say " It rains 
 heavily " ; but, as a question, " Does it rain r " or "Is it raining ? " 
 
 (b) The use of the auxiliaries of futurity is peculiar: we use shall 
 in the first person, but will in the second and third ; in interroga- 
 tions, however, shall is employed in the second person. Thus : 
 
 " I shall 
 "(Thou wilt) 
 "He will 
 " We shall 
 "You will 
 "They will 
 
 -see her to-morrow,- 
 
 fsha'n't I ? " i.e. " shall I not ?" 
 (shalt thou not r") 
 won't he? "i.e. "will he not?" 
 sha'n't we? " i.e. "shall we not ? " 
 sha'ntyou?" i.e. "shall you not?" 
 
 ^won't they r" i.e. " will they not?" 
 
 But, of course, icill and shall can be employed notionally, not only 
 as mere auxiliaries of tense. We may say : 
 
 " I will "j ri.c. " I intend,! have made up my mind," &c. 
 
 " You shall -see her "-^ " You must, you are obliged to." 
 "He J (^ " He must, he is obliged to."
 
 158 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 183, b 
 
 Observe the shade of difference in 
 
 l'(l) sha'n't you?" i.e. in the natural 
 course of things, mere futurity, 
 (2) won't you?" i.e. "You'll take steps 
 to see her," " You won't avoid seeing 
 her." 
 
 "You'll see her to-morrow, 
 
 The following quatrain (given in various grammars) expresses 
 some of the main differences of usage : — 
 
 In the first person simply shall foretells ; 
 In will a threat or else a promise dwells ; 
 Shall in the second and the third doth threat ; 
 Will simply then foretells a future feat. 
 The distinction between the past tenses should, would is very 
 similar. 
 
 {c) We must distinguish carefully between mere auxiliaries of 
 tense, voice, mood (i.e. symbolic words) and the same words with 
 fuller (or presentive) meaning: e.g. "I have some money" [have, a 
 transitive verb, meaning "possess") and "I hare lost it" {have 
 auxiliary and symbolic.) 
 
 t [d) We can easily see why have has come to be used as an 
 auxiliary of tense with transitive verbs. When we say " I have the 
 letters," have is an ordinary transitive verb; when we say "I have 
 written the letters," ivritten is in its origin the passive participle 
 (i.e. an adjective) used as a factitive predicate (§ 230) of have, ex- 
 plaining the state in which I possess the letters (cp. " I hold him 
 guilty,''^ "I strike him dead''^), whence the combination easily passes 
 from denoting merely state produced by the result of a previous 
 action into the description of the whole action, each element 
 losing its full presentive force and becoming partly symbolical : 
 in German the usage is precisely similar, ' ' Ich habe die Briefe 
 geschrieben." The Latin Habeo epistolas acriptas, where each de- 
 mentis clearly full or presentive ( = " I possess written letters "), the 
 participial adjective agreeing with the noun it qualifies (ace. fern, 
 plur.) — a construction that in post-classical and popular Latin re- 
 placed the classical Scripsi epistolas — is developed in French into J^ai 
 dcrit les lettres (where ccrit is uninflected, though lettres is fem. plur.), 
 but the separate force of each word is retained more clearly than in 
 English in such a construction as les lettres quej^ai ecrites. Similarly 
 in an O.E. sentence such as hxfde hine Penda ddrifenne [Chron. 658), 
 "P. had driven him away," the participle is in the accusative case 
 singular, agreeing with hine. 
 
 t {e) The usage of have with intransitive verbs (e.g. / have come, 
 
 I have been, j^ai ete) is then only to be explained by the fact that the
 
 § 184, <•] THE VKKIi. \h'J 
 
 construction is burrowud I'roin tho usjigo abovo disciiSHed ; h<To hate 
 is entirely symbolical, and merely marks completion of action. 
 
 t (/) The use of be to form a quasi-passive is analogous with that of 
 hare in transitive verbs, and easier to understand: in "she is good," 
 ffood describes the condition in which she is or exists (elk v$t fxiiine, 
 ilia est buna); in " she is loved," loveil performs precisely the s^imo 
 office, and hence as it denotes state — action completed — is much 
 more often perfect (present-perfect) in signification than (simple) 
 present (cp. tile est niinee, a ma fa est). The use of the same auxiliary 
 with present (i.e. active) participles to form " continuous " tenses is 
 similar (cp. stiiJd>i(/ as adj. and part, in s/ie is strikiui/). 
 
 t {(/) Hence it is evident that / am arrived, and similar construc- 
 tions of past participles of intransitive verbs, show the logical way of 
 forming the perfect with these verbs ; in English (less in German) it 
 has ))eon largely discarded in favour of the Jtavc method. Where we 
 use be in such cases it is to lay stress on the fact that the action is 
 completely finished, and the subject continues in the state denoted by 
 the participle, which is then a mere adjective : e.g. she is arrived 
 implies that she is still here, still in a state of having arrived ; 
 hence, when the verb is limited by an adjunct in such a way that 
 stress is laid on the action, we always use tho " have" form : e.g. 
 Our friends have rapidly dispersed ; but we say also Our friends are 
 dispersed. 
 
 III. FORMATION. 
 
 § 184. We may regard as primitive nearly all verbs of 
 tlie sti'ong conjugation, and many of the weak coujugatiou 
 which cannot be shown to be dei^ivative. 
 
 (rt) Further, as far as we are concerned here, we have nothing to 
 remark on the formation of such verbs as hvi, which, though not 
 primitive, inasmuch as their original derivation from other words is 
 traceable, now exhibit no signs of formative elements. 
 
 Thus the verb love is Jt.E. loven, liifen, from O.E. liijran, which 
 contains the same root as the noun Infn ; in other words, the verb 
 " love" is derived from the noun "love." 
 
 (J) Of course every verb exhibited in O.E. a flexion of conjugation : 
 e.g. siny (inf.), O.E. sing-an ; we may, however, disregard these 
 merely grammatical suffixes here, especially as they have disappeared 
 entirely from Mod.E. 
 
 (f) Other verbs not primitive show some trace of their origin by 
 preserving a consonantal sound which has been aflfectcd (generally 
 softened by the neighbouring vowels): e.g. house (noun) and home 
 (where s = z, verb) ; life and live. [O.E. has, whence M.E. hom ; 
 M.E. verb housen. So O.E. /F/and verb lijiau (pron. livuni).']
 
 160 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 185 
 
 § 185. Owing to the general disappearance of verbal 
 flexions we can use any noun as a verb withont change of 
 form : e.g. nouns : iron, yacht, chair ; verbs : to iron, 
 he yachts, they chaired him. There is nothing further to 
 remark on such formations. They are, of course, all weak 
 (§ 169). 
 
 (ff) In O.E. such verbs usually bore traces of their secondary- 
 nature : e.g. luf-i-an (where the -i- shows that the verb is a deriva- 
 tive). 
 
 [b) Frequently the modern form of the root-vowel shows the effect 
 of the vowel of the suffix, this having caused mutation : e.g. to set, 
 sell, fell (§§ 175, 188). But, of course, new formations have no 
 mutation. 
 
 § 186. A number of verbs are identical in form with 
 nouns or adjectives, but are distinguished fi'om them by a 
 diif erence of accent : e.g. present, to preshit. 
 
 («) Other instances are : — 
 absent, to absent ; 
 decent, to accent ; 
 compound, to compound ; 
 
 export, to export ; 
 frequent, to frequent; 
 subject, to subject. 
 
 (J) In O.E. the accent generally fell on the first syllable, whence 
 we retain the practice of throwing back the stress as far as possible ; 
 but such verbs as began with an unimportant prefix were not 
 accented on this : e.g. arise, become, forgive. French words, on the 
 other hand, retained the Latin accent, so that through loss of a final 
 unaccented syllable the stress frequently fell on the last syllable 
 (§§ 73, 74), or the last but one. This accentuation of French words 
 when they passed into English early began to give way to the English' 
 system, the result in some cases being the retention of the accent on 
 the final syllable for the verb-form by analogy with similarly accented 
 native verbs (cp. accent, arise) and the throwing back of the accent, 
 in accordance with native usage, in the noun and adjective forms, 
 as seen in the instances given above. See Sweet's Neiv English 
 Grammar, §§ 879-888, from which the following lines are quoted: 
 "When a foreign word is used in different senses, it often happens 
 that in its more familiar meaning it throws the stress back, keeping
 
 § 1*^8, r] Tin; vi:i;i;. 101 
 
 the original Btrcss in tho leas familiar meaning. Thus wo keep the 
 original Latin stress in the adjective uitymt and tho numo Auyiltlua 
 = Latin auijihtus, but throw it back iu tho month-namo Awjii.^t. So 
 also tho adjective tnimite keeps its Latin stress, which is thrown back 
 in tho more familiar noun mtnutc." 
 
 § 187. A large number of verbs formed fi-om ikhiils 
 preserve an ellect of this formation in the mutated vowel : 
 e.g. blood, bleed; doom, deem. 
 
 t (a) O.E. bldd, bledan ; dom, dcmau. 
 
 § 188. A certain number of weak verbs show that 
 they have been derived from strong ones by mutation 
 of stem-vowel. Such pairs ai'e 
 
 Strong. 
 
 Weak. 
 
 sit 
 
 set 
 
 fall 
 
 fell 
 
 drink 
 
 drench 
 
 lie 
 
 lay 
 
 fare (now weak) 
 
 ferry 
 
 In such pairs the strong form is originally intransitive ; 
 the weak is transitive and causative. Thus fell is " to 
 make to fall," &c. The double forms of hang and wake 
 properly belong here also : see § 171, r?. 
 
 (a) Tho number of such pairs is much less now than iu O.E., 
 because tho secondary and weak form has often usurped the functions 
 of its parent while retaining its own. 
 
 t {b) The causative form has generally the same root-vowel, but 
 mutated, as the preterite of the intransitive verb. Thus O.E. sittan 
 has preterite sict (' ' sat"), from Teutonic s<if, whence settan ( < sat +jan), 
 our set. In the case of rise we have two corresponding causiitives, 
 vaz. rear (O.E. rJera/i) and raise (from O.Norse reisa). O.E. rlcran 
 shows the same " grammatical change" that we tind in lose, [for)lorii, 
 which proves that in the causative verb the chief accent originally 
 fell on the termination. (See § 45.) 
 
 t (c) Fare (now weak), ferry are in O.E. faran and feriaii. The 
 final syllable in ferri/ seems to be an example of the survival of the 
 formative i in -iaii. 
 
 E. L. M
 
 X62 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§188,(1 
 
 t {d) Cp. the numerous verbs of this class in German, such as 
 falloi, fallen; trinJcen (pret. frank), trmiken ; saugen, sdugenj fahren, 
 (pret. fi(hr), fuhren, in which the process of derivation is a little 
 more obvious. 
 
 § 189. Compound verbs rarely present formations 
 whicli are not easily understood. A large class consists 
 of tliose in wliicli the first element is an adverb, which is 
 scarcely to be regai'ded as more than a prefix (§§ 196-7) : 
 e.o-. over-throw. Other methods of combination are seen in 
 (i) breakfast, (ii) ivMtewash, (iii) doff (do + off). 
 
 (ff) So don = do + on ; archaic diip, dout = do + up, do + out. 
 
 (i.) Suffixes. 
 
 A. Teutonic. 
 
 § 190. The chief Teutonic suffixes seen in English 
 verbs appear in snch words as sadd-eji, such-le, and 
 chatt-er ; rarer ones appear in har-'k, cleanse. 
 
 (a) The suffix -en is found in a large number of verbs, being used 
 as a rule to make a factitive verb from an adjective: e.g. sadd-en 
 = "to make sad'" ; so hlach-en, cheap-en, giadd-en, Uk-en, madd-en, 
 sharp-en, u-hit-en, &c. Many of these verbs are intransitive : e.g. 
 rcdd-en, "become red," as well as transitive "make red", and 
 many others may be used in both ways : e.g. bright-en, dark-en, 
 deep-en, fresh-en, less-en, quick-en, short-en, sick-en, thick-en, iveak-en. 
 A few are formed from nouns and are all causative : fright-en, 
 heart-en, length-en, strength-en. 
 
 Glisten contains this suffix, and can only be used intransitively. 
 The root is the same as that of glitter, glister. 
 
 Op-en (verb) was formed by merely adding a verbal inflexion 
 (now vanished) to the adjective op-en, in which the -en is an adjectival 
 (past part.) suffix (see § 150, b). Similarly own (verb) is from own 
 (adjective), the strong past participle of (old form of) verb owe 
 (§179,5). 
 
 i^rtw-w is from O.'E. fiegn-ian, where fsegn = "fain," "rejoiced."
 
 § 191, r/] THE VERH. \C,:i 
 
 t (f>) The suffix is in O.E. -n-ian, as in the above example. It« 
 use in iForming factitivos from adjectives, &c., is comparatively modem ; 
 but it is, however, now generally so employed, and is to bo looked 
 on as still living. It is practically the only iia/ivf suffix (but see 
 § 19.')) that we have which now serves to impart a distinctively verbal 
 shape to a word. German, wliich retains its verb flexions, uses it 
 rarely, as it serves the same end by simply adding these : e.g. rot, 
 rot-en (where of course the -en is not cognate with that of redd-en); 
 cp., however, lehr-cn and ler-n-en. In ojT-n-en, eig-n-cn (for ojen-en, 
 cig-e»-e>i) the first -n is cognate with that of ope-n, ow-n (i.e. is past 
 participial). 
 
 (c) -le, -er are suffixes used chiefly in frequentative verbs, especially 
 such as seem to be of imitative origin : habb-lr, ratt-le, ^jmr/c-le, ritxt-le, 
 cnanb-lc, whist-Ic; chalt-cr, clatt-cr, patt-cr, glimm-cr. Cp. Ger. 
 Idch-el-n, glimm-er-n. 
 
 {d) -k, which appears in a few verbs, has an intensive or iterative 
 force. An example is har-k (allied to hear) and hear-k-en (the same 
 word with suffix -ot above discussed : cp. Ger. hor-ch-en and Jwr-en). 
 This -/.• appears in stal-k (connected with O.E. stiellan, "to leap"), 
 ical-k (root ical, meaning " roll," as in rolv-ere), liir-k (cp. " to lower," 
 Ger. lauer-n), and smir-k (connected with smile). 
 
 (e) -s, -se appears in cleanse, " to make clean," and in hlc-*.s (from 
 blood) : so grasp (grap-sc) . 
 
 Grasp is a metathesis form (} 65) oi grap-se (Ger. grapsen), from the 
 same root as grip. 
 
 Ble.ts is 51. E. blessen, O.E. bletsian, bladsian, formed by mutation 
 from blod, "blood," with this suffix; the original meaning was, 
 perhaps, " to sprinkle with blood." 
 
 B. Foreign. 
 
 § 191. ^lauy Latin verbs have no trace of verbal suffixes 
 beyond those of mere flexion, and these latter vanish when 
 the words reach lis in English. Thus L. judic-are, part- 
 ire, recip-ere, vend-ere, become F. jug-er, pnrt-ir, reccv-nir 
 (formerly recev-er), vend-re, whence oui* judge, depart, 
 receive, vend ; so aedific-are becomes F. edifi-er, and 
 appears in English as edify. 
 
 [a) Such words in M.E. received the usual termination of the 
 English verb, e.g. juggen,jiigen (" judge "), which, of course, has dis-
 
 164 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 191, a 
 
 appeared in the usual way in Mod. E. Others have since been formed 
 (often directly from Latin) on the same model, thus presenting the 
 bare stem : e.g. act (L. act-nm), dilate (L. dilat-are). 
 
 (b) Edi-fy and others in -fy. These words are compounds in Latin, 
 or are formed in English and French on the model of those derived 
 from such compounds, so that the -fy (F. -fier, L. -ficare, from 
 facere, "make ") is used as a factitive verbal suffix (cp. English -en, 
 5 190) in a certain class of words of learned construction : examples 
 are forti-fy (cp. stre»gth-en), hcauti-fy, petri-fy (L. petriim, from 
 Gk. Trerpos, "stone," -petre in. salt-petre), morti-fy, solidi-fy. So in 
 contemptuous, semi-humorous formations, such as Frenchi-fy. 
 
 § 192. The Latin infinitive flexion has occasionallj 
 been partially preserved by its being treated as part of 
 the stem. Thus render is M.E. rend-r-en, from F. rend-re, 
 from L. redd-ere ; so in sur-rend-er (where sur = L. super, 
 § 198). 
 
 {a) The nouns Uis-ure, pleas-nre (M.E. leiser, early Mod. E. plesur) 
 are also derived from old Romance infinitives : F. lois-ir, plais-ir ; 
 L. Jic-ere, plac-ere ; but owe their suffix to the influence of the many 
 abstract nouns in -ure formed from verb-roots : e.g. rapture, exposure^ 
 &c. So dev-oir (archaic in English), F. dev-oir (older dever), L. deb-ere, 
 "owe." 
 
 § 193. -ish appears in many verbs of Romance origin, 
 as in pun-ish, fiour-isli, fin-ish. 
 
 (r>) Its origin is seen more plainly in the corresponding French 
 words, which have the steins pun-iss- , Jfor-iss- , Ji>/-iss- (as shown, e.g. 
 in pun-iss-ais, Jlor-iss-ant, Jin-iss-c) . This -iss- is the Latin inceptive 
 verbal suffix -esc- [nsmflor-esc-erc), which was freely used in popular 
 Latin. Thus French infinitive fieurir represents L. Jiorere ; but 
 fiorissant < \i.Jlor-esc-entem. 
 
 § 194. Various other sufilxes which appear in Romance 
 verbs are not themselves verbal formatives. These have 
 been already discussed in their place. Examples are seen 
 in adjudic-ate, trem-h-le, pre-s-ent, aug-ment, &c. 
 
 {a) The past part, stem -ate (§ 127, c) is very freely used in English 
 verbs where French employs the mere infinitive stem: e.g. contrast
 
 § 197] TIIK VKKIl. 165 
 
 English nUu-ate, perpetti^ate with French situ-er, perpitu-er. Henco 
 we see such words are coined in English from Latin, and have not 
 reached us through French. Thus, adjudic-ate is an English forma- 
 tion (L. ud-judk-utta), but [&<1)-Jiidge is F. juyer, from judic-are ; so 
 vindicate and {Te)venge. In many other cases the stem of the Latin 
 supine gives the English verb where French preserves the infinitive ; 
 op. neglect, act, with nvgliger, agir. 
 
 {b) tremble is the French trmn-b-ler (where the b is intrusive, §83), 
 from L. trem-ul-are ; but this is from the adj. trem-ul-iis, so that the 
 suffix is adjectival in its origin, not verbal. In granulate, the / is 
 L. diminutive (§ 127 : gran-id-um from gran-um). 
 
 § 195. The verbal suffix -ise or -ize (ciril-ise, civil-izc) 
 is conuuou in EngHsli i'oriuations, and is still living, so 
 that it often appears in hybrids : it is Greek by origin. 
 
 (rt) The Greek form is -i^-etv (as in iro\efJLi(eti>, " make war," from 
 ■tt6Kffj.os, " war"), which in popular Latin was freely used as -iz-are, 
 and in French as -i.scr, whence our -ise, -ize (the spellings are both 
 used : on etymological grounds -ise is preferable, as showing that 
 the suffix passed through French ; but for phonetic reasons -ize is 
 obviously preferable). Examples of English verbs derived from 
 Greek originals with this suffix nve philosoph-ise, critic-ise, hai-mon-ise ; 
 hybrids are moral-ise, civil-ise, italic-ise, xitil-ise, central-ise (Gk. Ktvrp- 
 + -«/, L. adj. suffix, § 153, d), terror-ise, &c. 
 
 (ii.) Prefixes (Verbs, Nouns, Adjectives, &c.). 
 
 § 196. The prefixes in the following sections are given 
 in alphabetical order in each of three divisions, Teu- 
 tonic, Latin, Gi-eek, without regaid to the part of sjjeech 
 where they most commonly a^ipear. As a rule (perhaps 
 always) they were originally adverbs, and therefore used 
 (at first) freely to form what were, in reality, compound 
 verbs. 
 
 A. Teutonic. 
 § 197. Teutonic Prefixes: — 
 
 a- (i.) verbal; "forth," "away " : a-riae, a-hide, a-icake. 
 (ii.) "ever," disguised in aught (§ 208), either 
 (§ 148).
 
 1^6 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 197 
 
 (iii.) for various prepositions, " of," " on," " at " : 
 a-down, a-Uve, a-do. 
 
 (iv.) for various other O.E. prefixes: a-hout (§ 214, fc), 
 a-long (§ 214, a), a-ware. 
 
 be-, same in origin as prep, by : he-reave, beset, 
 he-smear, he-take. 
 
 for- has intensive force in for-bear, for-gwe ; privative 
 and pejorative in forswear ("swear falsely"), for-get, 
 for-go (" go without," often missipeU forego) . 
 
 fore-, as in " be-/ore " : fore-hade, fore-gone, foresee, 
 foresight, foreshorten. 
 
 gain-, as in " a-gains-t " : gainsay (op. "contradict"). 
 
 mis-, pejorative, " a-miss " : mis-deed, mis-understand, 
 mis-take. 
 
 or-: only in or-deal [see (e) below]. 
 
 to-, " asunder " : to-brake (obsolete pret. : used in 
 Bible, A.V. Judges ix. 53, but misprinted as two words). 
 
 un-\ merely privative with nouns and adjectives, 
 "not": un-ahle, un-helief, un-kind. 
 
 un-^ verbal prefix; (i.) denoting the reversal of an 
 action : un-do, un-har, un-bind, un-lock, 
 unsay. 
 
 (ii.) intensive in un-loose (§214). 
 
 wan-: only in ivan-ton [see (h) below]. 
 
 with-, " against," " back " : in with-draw, loith-hold, 
 ivithstand. 
 
 Add to these the first element in after-izoow, forth- 
 coming, in-lay, onset, outside, ovev-do, to-day, under-f/o, 
 \ij^-hold, where the adverb (or preposition) is clearly 
 shown in its modern form and signification, so that these 
 and such words may be regarded as compounds.
 
 § 197, e] TiiK VKiU!. IC? 
 
 (rt) a- (i.) as ill a-wake, Sec, is the weakened form of or- [seo (e) 
 below] and is cognate with Ger. et-, as in er-wachen ; 
 originally meant "out," "away," "forth," as in 
 O.E. a-farau, " fare away." 
 
 a- (iii.) a-doH-H = O.E. of-dfoie, where of is prep, of ; a-live = 
 on - life ; so a-hcd, a-foot, a-back, &c. A-do — at + do, a 
 Northern combination, at being used in the North aa 
 we use to, with the gorundial infinitive : cp, such a 
 phrase as *• Here's a to-do about nothing." 
 
 a- (iv.) aware represents O.E. ge-uxr, which became in iI.E. 
 ytcar, iwar. The prefix ffe, very common in O.E. (as 
 in Ger. gcwahr, genehm, &c.), had a sort of collective 
 force, and was generally prefixed to past participles 
 (as always in German). It appears in the archaic 
 y-clept ("called"), and y- wis (" surely" : QQX.gewm), 
 and in e-7ioHgh (O.E. ye-uoh : cp. Ger. fje-nug). 
 
 {b) be- (" by," " around ") : (i.) modifies the meaning of a transitive 
 verb: e.g. he- set ; or(ii.) turns an intransitive verb into a transitive 
 one, as be-speak. Arising out of the latter usage it often has a sort of 
 intensive force, as in be-dabble, bespatter. It forms verbs from nouns : 
 e.g. be-frieiid, he-dew, be-xc\tvh ; it has privative force in be-head. [It 
 is the O.E. prefix unchanged, but loss freely used. Used in German 
 much as in English: e.g. hc-freunden ("befriend"), be-nehmen 
 ("takeaway")]. 
 
 The same prefix (= hy) appears in he-lotc, he-sides, h-iit (§ 214, b). 
 
 {c) for- (same in origin as prep, for) is cognate with Ger. ver-. 
 N.B. — In for-feit, for-close, the first clement is of Romance origin 
 (J 198). 
 
 {d) mis- is probably not allied to vb. miss. The German cognate 
 miss- (e.g. miss-versteheu, ^' misundeisfaud ") is similarly used. 
 N.B. — In mis-chance, mis-chief, and some others, the suflix is of 
 Romance origin (§ 198). 
 
 {e) or-, fairly common in O.E. adjectives with privative force (e.g. 
 or-sory, " without sorroiv"), is now kept only in or-deal, properly " a 
 deal-ing out," and so "judgment," "test." The prefix originally 
 denotes origin, " out of," and hence the privative force noted above. 
 In German it is more freely employed, e.g. Ur-ted ("judgment," 
 cognate with or-deal), Vr-sachc, Ur-sprtoiy, &c. 0>7 (archaic ; used
 
 168 THE ENGLISH LAKGUAGE. [§ 197, e 
 
 in pi. orts, "leavings"; see Julius Caesar iv. i. 37) contains this 
 prefix; O.E. or + etan, "to <>«<"; hence oris = "uneaten things," 
 " refuse." 
 
 (/) to-, "asunder," not now used; cognate with Ger. ze7'- in 
 zer-reisen (" tear into hits "), zer-hrechen (" break up "), &c. 
 
 ig) un-i, privative, is used like its cognates, L. in- (§ 198), 
 Ger. ?(«-. 
 
 Tin--, "back," is cognate with Ger. ent- (as in cnt-binden, "un- 
 bind"), L. ant-e (§ 198), and Gk. avr-i (§ 199). The same prefix in 
 another form appears in a-lovg [\ 214), and in ff«-swe/-, which is O.E. 
 and-swerian (vb.), where siverian = "to speak, swear" (cp. the form 
 of the prefix in Ger. Ant-wort, Ant-litz). 
 
 {h) -wan- in O.E. had much the same force as un- privative. 
 Wan-ton is M.E. ivan-towen, where the second element represents O.E. 
 togen, past part, of teon, "draw," "educate." Thus wan-ton is 
 literally " un-trained," "ill-bred" — the sense of the Ger. un-ge-zogen, 
 where zogen is the cognate of the -ton above. JFan-t, u'an-e are from 
 the same root. 
 
 («) with- (same origin as the preposition, but retaining only the 
 meaning "against " in compounds) is cognate with Ger. tvieder, wider, 
 "again" and "against" ; wieder-holen, wider-stelien. 
 
 (j) It is to be noticed that on and in also enter into combinations 
 in somewhat altered forms ; for on-, see a- (iii.) above. In- some- 
 times becomes im- before p, b (^ 68) : e.g. im-hed, which is sometimes 
 spelt cm-bed by influence of Romance en- (§ 198). 
 
 B. Latin. 
 
 § 198. Prefixes of Latin Origin (the syllables in heavy 
 type are the Latin forms) :— 
 
 ab-, abs-, a- ("from"): ah-negation, ab-rupt ; abs-tain, 
 ahs-cond; a-bridge (doublet of ab-breviate), a-vert. 
 
 ad- (" to ") : ad-here, ad-jecHve ; witli various assimi- 
 lations, as in a-cJneve, ag-gravate, al-low, as-seni, &c. 
 
 {a) Advance, advantage have inserted a <? by mistaken etymology ; 
 the prefix is really a-, not ad : French avancer from avant, from Latin 
 ah + ante ; Fr. avantage. 
 
 ambi- (" aj'ound ") : amb-itious, amb-tent, ambi-dexterous, 
 amb-iguous.
 
 §198J Tin.; VKiut. 
 
 i(;i> 
 
 ante- ("before"): aw/e-cetZcn/, ante-nuptial, antc-diluvian ; 
 anfi-cipafe. 
 
 bi-, bis- ("double," "twice") : bl-ci/ch; h{-Un<jHal, bi-pnl, 
 hi-s)ilf)}iiite ; his-cnit. 
 
 circum- (" around ") : circum-ference, circum-fler, rircuvi- 
 vent ; circu-it, circii-itfnis. 
 
 com- ("witb," L. prep. r?»u) : com-mit, rom-mnn, com- 
 pose ; ;is CO- in co-here, co-operate, &c. ; tmd witli various 
 assimilations in col-lect, con-nect, cor-rupt. 
 
 contra- ("against"): contra-diet, contra- distinction ; 
 contvo-vert ; counter-mand, counter-march. 
 
 de- (" down," " away " — often expresses negation) : dc- 
 cai/, de-cUne, de-pend, de-pose (not de-feat, see dis- below). 
 
 denii- (" half ") : demi-f/od. 
 
 dis-, di- ("apart," "un-"): dis-appear, dis-cover, dis- 
 credit, dis-gnst ; di-verc/e, di-vide ; dif-fnse, des-cant, &c. It 
 appears as de- in defeat, defy, &c. 
 
 ex-, e- (" out of ") : ex-amine, ex-ercise, ex-treme ; e-licit, 
 e-liminate, e-vasion ; essay (L. exagium, through F. essai). 
 
 extra- (" beyond ") : extra-ordinary, extra-vagant. 
 
 foris ("outside ") h\ for-feif, for-close. 
 
 (i) FurJYU, from O.F. forfa'd, from L. foris +fact-uin. Furvlost, 
 from Ij. foris + claus -urn (through French). 
 
 in-' ("in"): in-cite,in-culcate,in-dent,in-ject ; illustrate, 
 im-pel, ir-ritable ; en-noble, en-rol, en-title ; em-bellish, em-play. 
 
 in-^ ("not"): in-competent, in-nocent, in-sensible; im- 
 patience, ir-rational, il-liberal ; en-emy. 
 
 inter- ("within," "between"): inter-sect, inter-rnpt ; 
 intel-lect ; enter-prise, enter-tain. 
 
 intro- ("within," "between"): intro-duce, introspection. 
 
 juxta- ("near") appears \w jnxta-posHion. 
 
 minus, which became in O.F. mes-, appears as mis- in 
 ')nis-adventure, mis-cliief, mis-nomer, with much the same 
 meaning as the Englisli prefix mis- (§ 197). with which, 
 however, it is not etymologically connected. 
 
 ne-, neg- ("not"): nc-fariotis, neg-lect ; n-ull.
 
 170 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 198 
 
 non- (" uot ") : non-combatant, non-conformist, non-age, 
 iion-scnse. 
 
 ob-, obs- (" opposite " and " upon ") : obstacle, ob-lige, 
 ob-long ; o-mit ; oc-casion ; of -fence ; op-posite ; os-tentatious. 
 
 per- (" throngli ") : per-amhulate,per-ceive,peT-so7i ; pel- 
 lucid; par-son, par-don ; pil-grim (h. per-egrinus). 
 por- ("forth ") : pal-lute, por-tend, possess. 
 
 pro- ("instead of," "before") : pro-ceed, pro-duce, pro- 
 noun; prof-fer ; por-tray, por-trait, pur-cJiase ; prod-igal. 
 
 post- ("after"): post-pone, post-nuptial ; pu-ny (Jj. post 
 -\- natus} . 
 
 prae- ("before"): pre-fer, pre-liminary , prescience; 
 pr-ison (L. pre-liensioneni) . 
 
 praeter- (" beyond ") : preter-ite, preter-mit. 
 
 re-, red- (" again," " back ") : re-cede, re-cur, re-solve, 
 re-tain; red-eem, red-olent, ren-der (from L. reddere throngli 
 F. rendre) ; r-ally. 
 
 retro- (" back ") : retro-grade, retrospect ; rear-guard, 
 rere-dos. 
 
 se- ("apart"): se-cret, se-lect, se-parate, se-cure ; s-ure ; 
 probably as sed- in sed-ition. 
 
 semi- (" half ") : semi-circle, semi-colon, semi-tone, semi- 
 quaver. 
 
 sine- ("without"): sine-cure; san-s-culotte. 
 
 sub- ("under"): sub -lieutenant, sub-m,it, substantive; 
 sus-tain ; suspect, suc-cumb, suf-fix, sug-gest, sum,-mon, sup- 
 pose, sur-reptitious. 
 
 subter- (" under ") : subter-fuge. 
 
 super- (" over ") : super -cilious, super-fine, super-lative, 
 super-natural, superstition ; sur-face, sur-mount, sur-name, 
 sur-render, stw-vive ; sir-loin. 
 
 trans-, tran-, tra- (" beyond ") : trans-fer, trans-gress, 
 trans-late ; transcend, transcript ; tra-dition, tra-duce, 
 tra-verse ; tres-pass. 
 
 ultra- ("beyond"): tdtra-marine, ultra-vtontane, ultra- 
 ridicidous.
 
 §199] THE VKRB. 171 
 
 vice- ("in place of"): vice-chancellor, vice-president, 
 vice-roy ; vis- count. 
 
 C. GreeJc. 
 
 § 199. Prefixes of Greek Ori«rin : — 
 
 amphi- (" around, " " un both sides ") : (unphi-hioH«, 
 amjjhi -theatre. 
 
 an-, a- (privative): nn-archy, an-aemia, an-aesthetics ; 
 a-byss, a-orist, a-pathy, asylum, a-theism, a-mbrosia. 
 
 ana- (" back ") : ana-gram, ana-lyse, ana-thema. 
 
 anti- ("against"): anti-climax, ariti-path;/. anti-thesis : 
 ant-aijonist {not the preKx of anti-cipate ; see ante-, above). 
 
 apo- (" from," " off ") : apo-calypse, apo-logy, apo-slle ; 
 ap-honsm, ap-haeresis. 
 
 archi- ("cliief "): archi-episcopal, archi-tect ; arche-type ; 
 arch-bishop, arch-dttke. 
 
 auto- (" self ") : auto-crat, a7cto-biographer, auto-maton, 
 atit-hentic. 
 
 cata- (" down," intensive) : cata-lepsy, cata-logue, 
 cata-rrh, catastrophe ; cat-echise, cat-egory ; cat-hedral, 
 cat-holic. 
 
 di- ("double," "bi-") : di-lemma, di-phthong. 
 
 dia- ("through") : dia-bolical, dia-gonal, dia-logue, dia- 
 tribe ; dea-con ; de-vil. 
 
 dys- (" badly," " evil ") : dys-entery, dys-pepsia, 
 
 ek-, ex- ("out of"): e.i'-odns, ex-orcise ; ec-clesiastic, 
 ec-logue. 
 
 en- ("in"): en-ergy ; em-phasis, em-piric. 
 
 epi- ("upon"): epi-demic, epi-gram, epi-taph ; ep-och ; 
 ep-hemcral. 
 
 en- ("well"): eu-Iogy, eu-phemism; ev-angelist. 
 
 henii- ("half"): hemispJiere, hemistich ; mc-grims. 
 
 (a) Megrim, "headache on one sideof the akull," is ultimately from 
 Gk. riixiKpaviov (from 7)ni-, " hemi-" ^ Kpavlov, "skull"). 
 
 hetero- ("other") : hetero-dox, hetero-geneous.
 
 172 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§199 
 
 homo- ("same") : homo-geneous, hom-onym; homeo-pathy. 
 
 hyper- (" over ") : hyper-critical, hyper-hole, hyper-oxide. 
 
 hypo- (" under ") : hypo-chondria, hypo-crisy ; hyp-hen ; 
 hyp-allage. 
 
 meta- (" witli," denotes change) : meta-phor, meta- 
 physics, meta-thesis ; met-hod. 
 
 mono- (" single ") : mono-logue, mono-polise ; mon-arch 
 mon-ody. 
 
 palin- ("again"): palin-genesis, palin-ode ; palim-psest. 
 
 pan-, panto- (" all ") : pan-acea, pan-demonium, pan- 
 egyric ; pardo-mitne. 
 
 para- (" beside," " amiss ") : para-hola, para-dox, para- 
 graph, para-lysis (a,\id pa-lsy) ; par-enthesis, par-oxysm. 
 peri- (" around ") : peri-od, peri-patetic. 
 pro- (" before," " for ") : pro-logue, pro-phet. 
 
 syn- ("with"): syn-agogue, syn-od, syn-onym ; system; 
 syl-lahle ; sym-hol, syni-ptotn.
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 The Adverb. 
 
 I. CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 § 200. An Adverb is a word used with a verl), an 
 adjective, or another adverb, to qualify it, i.e. to limit its 
 application by adding some qualification. 
 
 (rt) Advei'h = L. ffrf, " to " + verb-iim, " word." 
 
 (b) Many words which are adverbs according to the definition are 
 also conjunctions (ch. xvi.), inasmuch as they serve to join sentences. 
 Where a word stands in such a position as to admit of its being re- 
 garded as conjunction or connective adverb, it may be classified as 
 either, but its adverbial force has to be brought out in parsing and 
 in analysis : e.g. 
 
 " When is he coming?" adverb (of time, § 201). " I saw 
 him when he was here" (adverbial conjunction or connective 
 adverb). 
 
 § 201. Adverbs are classified as 
 
 (i.) Adverbs of Manner : hoiv f and words which 
 answer this : e.g. tlius., happily, fast. 
 
 (ii.) Place: ivhere ? whither? lohence? and words 
 answering these : e.g. here, there, upstairs. 
 
 (iii.) Time : tchen ? and its answers : e.g. then, yester- 
 day, to-mnrmw, formerly. 
 
 (iv.) Quantity and Degree : e.g. much, very, little, 
 more, enough. 
 
 (v.) Affirmation and Negation : e.g. yes, no, indeed, 
 trtdy.
 
 174 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 202 
 
 II. INFLEXION. 
 
 § 202. The comparative and superlative of adverbs 
 whose meaning admits of comparison are generally formed 
 with more and most ; but adverbs identical in form with 
 the corresponding adjectives (e.g. fast) may be compared 
 by adding -er, -est : " This is a faster horse " ; " He runs 
 faster." 
 
 («) These forms are only such as are monosyllabic in the positive ; 
 the identity of the adjective and adverb in such cases is not the result 
 of the adjective being used for the adverb, but of the originally 
 dissyllabic adverb having been reduced to a monosyllable by the loss 
 of a flexional -e : thus O.E. fiest (adj.), fies/e (adv.) become alike fast 
 in Mod. E. 
 
 § 203. The adjectives irregularly compared given in 
 § 146 above have corresponding adverbs which share their 
 comparative and superlative forms. 
 
 III. FORMATION. 
 
 § 204. Some monosyllabic adverbs of manner are 
 identical in form with the cori^esponding adjectives (see 
 § 202, a) : e.g. " He runs fast " (adv.) ; " this train is 
 /as^"(adj.). 
 
 § 205. Other adverbs of manner are generally formed by 
 adding -ly to the corresponding adjective : e.g. fooUsh-ly, 
 happi-ly. 
 
 (a) This -hj is of the same origin as O.E. He-e, the adverbial form 
 of O.E. lie, "like," seen in the formation of adjectives and dis- 
 cussed in § 149. 
 
 {b) If the adjective ends in -ly, it is somewhat awkward to add 
 another -hj, though this is sometimes done: e.g. friendli-hj (adv. of 
 frimd-ly) . An adverb phrase is generally used instead: e.g. for 
 Jcindli-ly, manli-ly, we use "in a kindly, manly way, fashion, 
 style, manner, &c." 
 
 § 206. The oblique cases of nouns were used in various
 
 § 206, e] THK ADVERR. 175 
 
 ways to form adverbs. Examples of this usage i"emaiii in 
 such expressions as 
 
 Alioay 01(1 Accusative 
 
 Needs (" of necessity ") ,, Genitive 
 
 Whilom „ Dative 
 
 Why ,1 Instrumental. 
 
 These and similar forms are further discussed in the 
 following- paragraphs : — 
 
 (rt) Most oblique cases (and the combinations used to supply their 
 place) are in function either adjectives or adverbs: e.g. "the boy's 
 book" (adj.); "he slew him irUh a sword"' (L. gladin, adv.). 
 Hence it is that adverbial formations have sometimes preserved case 
 endings which have otherwise disappeared (see xchy, whilom, below). 
 
 (i) Accusative. — This has no distinctive sufiBx in Mod. E. words, 
 the distinction between "nominative" and "objective" in nouns 
 being now purely a grammatical or syntactical one not marked by 
 inflexion. In accordance with the old use of the accusative case 
 for adverbial relations of duration, extent, «S:c., English grammarians 
 consider all uninflocted forms of nouns used adverbially to be in the 
 objective case: e.g. " He danced all the nigJit.^^ 
 
 {c) The genitival -« — the mark of the possessive in Mod. E. 
 nouns — is seen in various adverbs, though sometimes disguised by 
 spelling. Examples are once (= ones), twice (for licics, from two), 
 thrice (for thriex, from three), ahvay-s, and whil-s-t (where the t has 
 been added after the s as in ayain-s-t, amony-s-t, amid-s-t, &c.) ; cp. 
 such expressions as of an eveniny : the Ger. cognate -s is similarly 
 used; cp. Xacht-s, ein-n-t. 
 
 (d) A dative plural suffix -ion survives as -om in whil-om (O.E. 
 hwil-um, "at times," "formerly," from hwV, "time," "whUe"), 
 but not in seld-om, which should be scld-en, from O.E. seld-an, the 
 case of which is doubtful ; cp. Ger. selt-cn. 
 
 (<•) The instrumental singular survives in why (O.E. hwj}\. from 
 O.E. hwd, " who" ; how, O.E. hil, is apparently another form of the 
 same word : thus hoiv, why, mean originally " by what means," " for 
 ivhat" ; cp. the formation of F. potir-qiioi, L. qua-re, Ger. war-iim 
 and wie.
 
 176 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 [§ 206, / 
 
 (/) The before a comparative adverb (e.g. " Me more she smiles, 
 the less I like her ") is also an instrumental : O.E. ^y (ep. -to in Ger. 
 des-to = des gen. ■^- -to for din, instrumental) = " by tbat (amount) " ; 
 cp. Jj. eo . . . {quo). 
 
 (ff) The adverbs formed from pronominal roots are noteworthy ; 
 they may be conveniently tabulated as follows : — 
 
 
 Rest at. 
 
 Motion to. 
 
 Time. 
 
 Motion from. 
 
 Instrumental. 
 
 he 
 
 the 
 
 ■who 
 
 here 
 
 there 
 
 where 
 
 hither 
 
 thither 
 
 xohither 
 
 then 
 tvhen 
 
 hence 
 
 thence 
 
 ivhcnce 
 
 the (/above) 
 ivhij, hoiv 
 
 He-re, the-re. whe-re (in all of which the final e is unetymological : 
 O.E, her, 'iSwr, htvser) may possibly be remains of old fo«((;ife cases : e.g. 
 there = " at that place," like L. dom-i, " at home " ; cp. Ger. hier, 
 dar, tvor{in). 
 
 Hi-ther, thi-ther, whi-ther are perhaps old instrumentals. 
 
 The-n, whe-n, and M.E. henne (which should have given a 
 modern "/(<;«") represent O.E. ^V««e, htctenne, heon-an. Thau 
 (conj.) is simply another form of then; cp. Ger. wenn and wann, 
 denn and dann. The formation of these words is obscure. 
 
 Hen-ce, then-ce, when-ce contain the -ce for adverbial (genitival) 
 -.V discussed above : thus lience stands for hcnnc-s, fiom M.E. henne, 
 "from this place," " from this time," mentioned above ; so tvhence, 
 thence. 
 
 The, ivhy, hoiv are discussed above {e,f). Thus (O.E. ■S««s) 
 contains the root of the + root sa, surviving as demonstrative in she, 
 and in O.E. se, " he." 
 
 § 207. In a few^ adverbs other elements appear which 
 may be regarded as adverbial suffixes. Examples are seen 
 in dark-ling and head-long, piece-meal, down-ivards, lerigth- 
 ways or length-ivise. 
 
 {a) 1-ingf, 1-ong is a compound suffix (-^+0.E. -unga, -inga, also 
 O.E. -liny a : e.g. neadunga, "of necessity" ; weninga, "perhaps"; 
 bseclinga, " backwards ") preserved in head-long, dark-ling, side-long, 
 sid-ling, grovel-ling. These last two are remarkable as having been
 
 §209] TIIF AI.VKUI!. 1 
 
 / / 
 
 taken for pros, parts., and thus given rise to the verba grorrl, nidle. 
 The sullix has perhaps in some instances an ablaut connection with 
 the adj. lung ; but in head-long (M.E. /ledlingc.s), &c., the form is duo 
 to modern confusion with the adjective : cp. Gcr. blind-lings, nchritt- 
 ling-s. 
 
 (b) -meal, from O.E. -nml-um (" by bits "), dat. pi. oimTvl, " mark," 
 " time"), is only found in piece-meal and some archaic formations : 
 cp. Ger. ciii-ni"! (" once"), iS:c. 
 
 (c) -wards is suffi.v: -ward (§ 119) + adverbial -.» ($ 206) : cp. Ger. 
 ror-icd)(-s. 
 
 (rf) -wise, -ways are suffixes of quite different origin, but confused 
 in several words. U'aij-s is the substantive jcrt)/ with adverbial -« : 
 thus al-ways (and archaic al-xcatj ; so ■straight-udy) represents O.E. 
 ealne-neg, with later suffix -.s. But -ivise is the noun fme'meaning 
 "manner," " f;ishion," " guise" (which last is the French form of 
 the word) : thus no-wise (i.e. " in no manner "), other-u-ise, like-tcise. 
 Cp. Ger. keines-ivegs (lit. " in no way "), kreuz-weise (" cross-wise ") ; 
 O.E. on ndne wisan, on oUre iiisan, accusative constructions. 
 
 § 208. The formation of otliev compounds which arc 
 used as adverbs is for the most part obvious, or they are 
 treated under the other parts of speech to Avhich they 
 strictly belong. 
 
 (a) Not is a doublet of naught = nc + aiighl, not anything" ; aiighl 
 is the O.E. dwiht, where d- = " ever" and iviht = " creature," the 
 parent of our wight, tchit. For fi-, " ever," in some other compounds, 
 see Either, Neither, § 148. 
 
 {/)) In mean- time the first element is French moyen (M.E. meien), 
 from Latin niedi-aiius, from medi-uni ; it is thus a doublet of 
 medium. The noun means is the same word with English plural 
 suffix, and is therefore not connected with vb. mean (Ger. mein-eu) 
 or adj. mean, "base" (Ger. wjcih). 
 
 § 209. The prefixes which appear in adverbs are dis- 
 cussed in ch. XV. under px-epositions. Examples ai'e 
 
 a-foot ( = 011+ foot), besides ( = by + side + adyevh\n\ s), 
 to-morrow. 
 
 E. L. N
 
 178 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Prepositions. 
 
 § 210. A preposition is used to join a noan or pronoun 
 to a (usually pi-eceding) noun or other part of speecli in 
 order to indicate some relationship between them. The 
 noun and preposition together perform the function of 
 an adverb or adjective. 
 
 (a) li.pra^-, " before " + position-em, from stem oi posit-um, supine 
 oi pan -ere, " put." 
 
 (b) Both prepositions and conjunctions appear to be later develop- 
 ments of adverbs ; hence many adverbs belong to two of these classes 
 (e.g. hij,for, along), and some to all three (e.g. hut). 
 
 § 211. A preposition is said to govern the noun or 
 pi-onoun with which it is joined in the formation of 
 adverbial or adjectival phraseh. therefoi-e the objective- 
 case forms are employed. 
 
 («) The distinction is, of course, of no practical importance in Mod.E., 
 except as regards those pronouns which have distinct forms for nomina- 
 tive and objective ; but in O.E. the accusative or dative (or less freely 
 the genitive) form was used after prepositions. 
 
 FORMATION AND STBUGTUBE. 
 
 § 212. Simple monosyllabic forms (all Teutonic) are 
 at, by, for, from, in, oj and of, on, through, till, to, up, tvith. 
 
 («) Off and of are merely variant forms. 
 
 (h) Till is a Scandinavian form. 
 
 {(■) The cognate forms of some of these prepositions (most of which 
 appear as prefixes in English, Latin, Greek, German, J$ 197-9) should 
 be noticed ; — 
 
 At: L. ad. By: Ger. bci ; Gk. (o/i)-,^/. For: Ger. fiir. In:
 
 § 214J PREPOSITIONS. 17'J 
 
 Ger. in {ein- in compounds) ; L. in ; Gk. iv. Of, of: Gor. ab- ; 
 L. ah ; Gk. iir-(i. On : Ger. an ; Gk. oiz-o. Through : Gor. durch. 
 To: Gqv.zu; Gk. -5f (as in olf/coSe). T'/; .• Ger. ««/. With: Ger. 
 tvi-der ("against "). 
 
 § 213. After, near, over, under. 
 
 t (rt) Af-ter has probably the same root as of (sec \ 21_', <i, ;iiid 
 is cognate with tik. atro-rep-u, " further off," comparative corre- 
 sponding to air6. The O.E. forms arc uff-t-an and :rf-ter, the former 
 only surviving in adv. aft and in ab-aft (^ 214, b)\ cognate Ger. in 
 After -welt, " after -world. ^^ 
 
 Near (see § 145, «). Under, cognate Ger. untcr. Ov-cr is cog- 
 nate with Ger. iib-er, L. {s)itper, Gk. virtp ; it is allied with up ; the 
 same root, but not comparative, appears in a-b-ove (see § 214, a). 
 
 § 214. Compound prepositions are ufeuerally formed 
 by i)i-t'ti.\ing a particle (preposition or adverb) to (i.) a 
 proposition or adverb, (ii.) a noun. 
 
 Examples are — 
 
 (i.) in-to, h-ut (= " by " + " out "), with-out ; 
 (ii.) a-board, out-side. 
 
 (a) a- = on- in a-h-aft, a-board, a-b-ove, a-cross, a-gainst, a-midst, 
 a-loft, a-hunting, a-mongst, a-icay, &c. ; so in an-ent, which represents 
 O.E. an-efen, i.e. " on " + " even," with excrescent t. 
 
 (For the -s-t in again-s-t, among-s-t, &c., see 20G, c). 
 
 a — of-, off- in a-down (= O.E. of-dune, from dun, " a hill "). 
 
 9, = and-, "against" (see answer, § 197), in a-long (O.E. and- 
 long, cognate Ger. ent-lang). 
 
 {b) be-, b- = by in be-fore, be-hind, be-low, he-ni^th, bc-side, 
 be-tiveen, be-tivixt ; b-ut ; a-b-aft, a-b-out, a-b-ore. 
 
 -out is the O.E. ut (Ger. aus) and nt-an. It has a compound in 
 O.'E.butan = be-, "by," + ?<<««, "out," whence but, of which the 
 first meaning is thus much the sameasthatof with-out, i.e. "except"; 
 about stands for O.E. on-butan, i.e. " on-by-out," " surrounding." 
 
 In a-b-aft, a-b-ove (see § 213), the a-b- in each case is "o/i " + " 4y," 
 as in a-b-out. 
 
 (c) un- in unto, until is not an O.E. prefix, though of Teutonic 
 origin (the O.E. cognate is o5).
 
 ISO THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 215 
 
 § 215. Verbal forms used as prepositions are concern- 
 ing, during, notivithstanding , pending, except, past. 
 
 {a) The -ing forms are all pres. parts.: concern, dure, "last," 
 (L. diir-are), pcncl&xQ of Romance origin, as ia this use of the pres. 
 part. Such a phrase as " during his life " stands originally for " his 
 life during" (i.e. "lasting"), L. vitadnrantc, in F. sa vie duranf,a.n 
 absolute participial construction. We may still use notivithstanding 
 after the word it governs : e.g. ^'Anything to the contrary wo^wi^A- 
 standing." Touch -ing (F. touch-er) is somewhat antiquated in the 
 sense of concern-ing. 
 
 (h) Except is similarly a past part. (L. except-us : ex + capere). 
 Thus, '-except this" = "this (being) except-'edy The French use 
 exeept-e where the past part, origin is plainly shown. So past 
 = " pass-ed ". 
 
 § 216. Save, as preposition, is by origin an adjective. 
 («) F. sanf, L. salv-us : a doublet of safe. The origin of the usage 
 is an absolute construction much like that of except above.
 
 181 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Conjunctions, 
 
 I. CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 § 217. Conjunctions join sentences together; they 
 also join words (or groups of words) wliich are fri-am- 
 matically equivalent. 
 
 (a) E.g. "I saw the boy and the girl": and joins two direct 
 objects. 
 
 "Come quickly, but not with too great haste": but joins two 
 adverbs. 
 
 (i) Conjunction = L. con-, i.e. cum, " with," and junction-em from 
 tmct-um, supine of jung-ei-e, "join." 
 
 § 218. Conjunctions are divided into two classes : 
 
 (i.) Those tliat join sentences (or words) whicli are not 
 dependent on one another are called co-ordinating con- 
 junctions ; these merely act as connectives. Such are 
 and, hut, or, either . . . or, neither . . . nor. 
 
 {a) Among these and is merely copixlative ; but is generally 
 adversative ; either, or are disjunctive-adversative. 
 
 (ii.) Those that join a dependent sentence (uoun-clanse, 
 adjective-clause, adverbial chiuse) with the sentence to 
 Avhich it belongs are called subordinating conjunctions. 
 Such are 
 
 that, because, lohen, although, &c. 
 
 {h) Subordinating conjunctions are sometimes grouped according to 
 the kind of sentence they introduce : — 
 
 (i.) Temporal (time) : when, aftei-, before, since. 
 (ii.) Local (place) : whence, where.
 
 182 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 218, 6 
 
 (iii.) Final (purpose) : (in order) that. 
 (iv.) Consecutive (consequence) : (so) that. 
 (v.) Conditional (condition) : (/", (provided) that, provided, sup- 
 posinff, unless. 
 
 (vi.) Concessive (concession) : tJiough, althowjh. 
 (vii.) Causal (cause) : because, since, (seeing) that, 
 (viii.) Comparative : as, than. 
 
 (c) As the above instances show, a conjunction may fall into more 
 than one class or division. In deciding how to classify it in parsing, 
 we must be guided, of course, solely by the function it performs in the 
 sentence we are considering. 
 
 II. FORMATION. 
 
 § 219. The formation of the conjunctions has for the 
 raost part been already discussed under the other particles 
 (see chaps, xiv., xv., ivhen, after, before, because, but, either, 
 that, &c.). 
 
 (ff) No word was in its origin a mere conjunction : a large number 
 of them are still adverbial (see § 200, b). 
 
 [b) These forms, used only as conjunctions in Mod.E., are notice- 
 able : — 
 
 And is cognate with Ger. mid. It was also used in M.E. to intro- 
 duce a conditional sentence : e.g. " And myghte kisse the kyng and 
 [= if] she wolde" {Fiers Ploivman), and with this meaning survives 
 in archaic phrases as an : e.g. " An it please you." Both and and an 
 could be strengthened by if: e.g. ^^ An j/ thou seest my boy bid 
 him make haste " {Shakespeare) : op. the modern expression " ifs and 
 ««r7,y." 
 
 Or is short for M.E. other, which is not the modern word " other " 
 (O.E. o^cr), but the M.E. form of O.E. r7&r, contracted from 
 (ihwse'^er. Closely akin is either, from O.E. wghwse'^er, originally 
 d-ffihinv'-^er. So nor is a doublet of neither, being short for M.E. 
 nother. 
 
 {c) For -whether (also used archaically as pronoun =" which of 
 
 two") see § 150, i.
 
 IRM 
 
 CHAPTER XVIT. 
 
 Interjections. 
 
 § 220. Intei'jections, heing- mere exclamations (ex- 
 pressive of joy, sorrow, disgiist, etc.), ilo not enter into 
 the graminatical structure of sentences. 
 
 (a) L. interjection-em, from interject-um, from supine stem of 
 interjiC'ere, from inter, '^ avaong^* +jaccre, "throw." 
 
 § 221. Any word or combination of words may be used 
 in an interjectional fashion ; certain apparently unmean- 
 ing monosyllables are commonlj" used as semi-articulate 
 expressions of feeling : e.g. oh, ah, eh, pooh, bosh, alas, &e. 
 
 {a) They arc generally written with a note of exclamation following 
 them, e.g. ah ! Eh ? is often used interrogatively. 
 
 {b) Alas! (archaic) is Fr. hcla.t : the first element = ah (Eng., 
 F., L.) ; the second is F. /«.«, Trom L. lassiis, " tired." Bosh is from 
 a Turkish word meaning " empty." 
 
 (c) Certain expletives are intentional corruptions used to avoid 
 naming the Deity: thus F. parbleu for par Dieu. The (archaic) 
 English zoiimh, 'xdeafh, marry stand for God's icoiiiids, God's death, 
 Mary : a similar process gives us expressions such as " Great Ser-tl .'"
 
 184 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Syntax. 
 
 § 222. Some of tlie chief syntactical rules have ali-eady 
 been stated in the course of this work. In the following 
 sections these are briefly summarised, and such othei'S are 
 given as are necessary to make the account of the subject 
 fairly complete. 
 
 THE CONCORDS. 
 
 § 223. The finite verb agrees with its subject in 
 number and person. 
 
 (a) Collective nouns in the singular may take either a singular or 
 a plural verb, according as the collection is considered hy the speaker 
 as a whole or as items. Thus we say 
 
 " The crotvd gradually disperse " or " disperses." 
 
 (b) Two (or more) words in the singular combining to form a subject 
 require a plural verb : 
 
 " The hoi/ and girl are here." 
 
 "Man, tvoman, child toil in vain." 
 But or, nor, separating singular subjects, take a singular verb : 
 
 "The boy or the girl is here " (i.e. one of them is). 
 
 '* Neither man nor woman survives." 
 Occasionally the plural is found with neither, nor, especially in poetry : 
 
 " Nor ynv nor cypress spread their gloom." (Campbell.) 
 
 [e) A common error is heard in such a sentence as this : — 
 " The King with the Lords and Commons form the Legislature." 
 Here the subject is King (sing.), and therefore the verb should be 
 forms ; the use of the plural is due to the failure to distinguish 
 between preposition {ivith) and conjunction [and).
 
 § 226] SYNTAX. 185 
 
 § 224. TIk' adjectives this, that can only be used with 
 a singular nonn ; these, those with a plural. 
 
 (rt) The adjective is sometimes said to "agree " with the noun it 
 qualifies in gender, number, case ; but this has no force in the case 
 of modern flexionless forms. 
 
 (J) Rather frequent errors with these, those, are heard before sort, 
 
 hind, especially when followed by of and a plural or a collective 
 
 noun : e.g. 
 
 " I don't like those sort of persons." 
 
 " These kind of people say so." 
 
 This construction is found in Shakespeare and also in eighteenth 
 
 century writers. It seems due to the M.E. use of kind as an adjectival 
 
 termination: e.g. this kijn tciss, "this kind of manner"; all kyn 
 
 thyng, "all kinds of things." It has also probably been influenced 
 
 by the common use of collective nouns with a plural verb, as in 
 
 " There are another xort of people who are designed for solitude." 
 
 (Pope.) 
 
 § 225. A noun may serve to limit or qualify another 
 noun witliout an inflexion or preposition being employed 
 to indicate the connection, as Eihcard, the King. The 
 qualifying noun is then said to be in apposition, and is in 
 the same case and number as the noun it qualities. 
 
 (rt) Examples are : 
 
 " Senry, the schoolmaster's younger soi, met me." 
 Here Henry is nominative as subject; son is nominative in appo- 
 sition to Henry. 
 
 "I met Henry, the schoolmaster's younger son " (both obj.). 
 The appositional inflected possessive is clumsy, and therefore to be 
 avoided : e.g. 
 
 " I saw Broivn's (the butcher's) cart." 
 We are more apt to make a sort of compound of "Brown, the butcher," 
 and say: " J^rown the butcher's cart"; cp. Kiny Henry the First'$ 
 actions. 
 
 §226. The relative pronoun agrees with its ante- 
 cedent in gender, number, and person ; in case it belongs 
 
 to its own clause.
 
 186 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 226, a 
 
 {(t) That is to say : (i.) a relative only used for persons (e.g. wJio) 
 must not be used with an inanimate antecedent, and conversely ; 
 (ii.) the number and person of the verb agreeing with the relative, 
 when this is the subject, must be the same as that of the antecedent ; 
 and (iii.) the case of the relative depends wholly upon the clause it 
 belongs to, and has nothing to do with its antecedent ; e.g. 
 
 " He declares that he must see me, tcJio, as it happens, am absolutely 
 unable to move." 
 
 Here (i.) U'ho, not ivhich, must be used as relative, since the ante- 
 cedent »«e is masc. or fern.; (ii.) am is sing, and 1st person because 
 it agrees with who, of which the antecedent is me, sing, and 1st pers. ; 
 and (iii.) who is nominative because it is the subject to am. 
 
 [b) A not uncommon form of error is seen in such a sentence as 
 this : 
 
 " He is one of the wisest that has ever lived. " 
 
 Here the relative [that) refers to wisest (plur.) ; hence is itself plur. ; 
 therefore the verb should be have. The mistake arises through the 
 attraction of one. 
 
 GASES (Nouns, Pronouns). 
 
 § 227. The nominative is used 
 
 (i.) as subject (see § 90). 
 
 (ii.) to name tlie person addressed : e.g. 
 " Come here, Timothy.'" 
 
 [a) The latter is called the Nominative of Address, or " Vocative " 
 (L. voc-are, " call"). 
 
 (iii.) in apposition (see § 225). 
 
 (iv.) to complete the predicate after verb of incom- 
 plete predication : e.g. 
 " He is a man " ; "he hecame king '"' 
 (see § 231). 
 
 {h) The use of the objective form, instead of the nominative, in the 
 only words where these differ (i.e. the pronouns), is a common source 
 of error : thus we hear 
 
 "Itiswifi" for "It is /," 
 
 " Was it him " for " Was it he,"
 
 § 228, fe] SYNTAX. 187 
 
 and the like. The usage is capable of defence on the ground of its 
 
 being widely spread among the educated classes. The original 
 
 English construction was / rtm »<, where it is predicative. Such^ 
 
 expression as 
 
 '• Whom do you think 1 am 'f " 
 
 contains a similar error (tvhom for tvfio), but this is probably duo to 
 the whom being taken as the direct object of think. 
 
 (v.) as factitive predicate in passive constructions : 
 e.g. " He 2oas made king " 
 (see § 230). 
 (vi.) in absolute constructions : e.g. 
 " This being so, he departed " 
 (see § 238). 
 (c) By an " absolute construction" we mean the use of a noun with 
 some attribute to perform the function of an adverbial clause. In 
 Latin the case employed in this method is the ablative ; in Greek the 
 genitive ; in O.E. the dative, whence the modern usage by the decay 
 of inflexions (see § 238). This dative continued down to "Wiclif ; cp. 
 " 11 VM spEKYNGE "Sts ^itiffts maiii/c bileueden into him.^^ 
 
 § 228. The objective is used 
 
 (i.) as direct object of a transitive vei-b (see § 95). 
 (ii.) in apposition (see § 225). 
 (iii.) as factitive predicate in active constiiictions : 
 
 e.g. " Th6y made him kiiig.'" 
 (iv.) adverbially (see § 206, b). 
 
 {a) Perhaps we may include here rather than under (i.) above the 
 objective case of kindred meaning with the intransitive verb which it 
 accompanies : thus " he lives " is an intransitive verb whose meaning 
 we extend without altering its function when we say "he lives a 
 virtuous life " (cognate object) ; cp. " he lives tcell" (adv.), " ho lives 
 many years " (adverbial objective). 
 
 {b) The so-called "retained object" in passive constructions may 
 be classed under this heading : thus, if we turn " He gave me [indir. 
 obj., see viii. below] a book'' (dir. obj.) into "I was given a book,'' we 
 may call a book either "adverbial objective" or "retained object": 
 the latter name is to be preferred. The constrtiction is to be avoided.
 
 188 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 228, C 
 
 {(■) An adverbial objective is found again in absolute constructions 
 (cp. ^ 227, vi.), as in "He fell down stairs head foremost "; " The boy 
 came swimming hand over hand.''' There is one instance of this con- 
 struction in O.E. : hig \>a Judeas ahengon ]>afct up and )pset heafod adun 
 " They crucified the Jews feet up and heads down." M.E. has many 
 such examples, and the same construction is fouud in Old French and 
 Old Norse. 
 
 (d) Here also the " objective of quality " should be placed, of which 
 we have an instance in Julius Ccesar i. i. 9: "You, sir, tvhat trade 
 are you?" Cp. also the expressions " "We were the same height,'" 
 " He is just yo?«r ffr/^," &c. Sweet (New English Grammar, Part ii., 
 § 1987) describes this objective as purely adjectival in function, and 
 sujDposes it to have arisen from the dropping of a preposition, inas- 
 much as we can still say, for example, it is of no tcse in place of it is 
 no use. 
 
 (v.) when governed by prepositions (see § 211). 
 
 (e) A common error is the use of tvho for whom when the prepo- 
 sition governing the relative or interrogative does not precede it : e.g. 
 
 " "Who is it written by ? " 
 
 " The man who, as it happened, there had been such a fuss about, 
 was quite innocent. ' ' 
 
 (vi.) after a few adjectives ; e.g. tvorth, like, near. 
 (vii.) an indirect object after a transitive verb : e.g. 
 
 " He gave me [indir. obj.] a look''' (dir. obj.); 
 
 " He got me [indir. obj.'] a cab " (dir. obj.). 
 
 (/) "While the direct object is the thing upon which the action of 
 the transitive verb is directly exercised, the indirect object may be 
 connected with the verb in various more or less remote ways, includ- 
 ing most of the functions of the Latin dative. 
 
 § 229. The possessive is chiefly used attributively 
 (§ 112). 
 
 («) Other relations formerly denoted by the genitive case are now 
 generally expressed by the preposition of and the objective : thus 
 " of a morning " (cp. Ger. Morgens), " worthy of death," &c. The 
 main functions of the genitive are generally classified as either 
 subjective or objective, the genitive in the latter case denoting the
 
 § 231] SYNTAX. 189 
 
 object of some action or feeling expressed by the word on whifh 
 it depends : thus 
 
 amor dci = (i.) "the love of god," i.o. love felt towards God 
 (objective) ; 
 
 or (ii.) " God's love," the love felt by God (subjective). 
 Except in a few instances the Mod. E. inflected form is always sub- 
 jective. Byron, however, has " T/ii/ sire's maker and the earths,''' 
 and Scott "7?// Enylond's hiiifj and Scotland's queen." This genitive 
 is also found with pronouns : cp. " The deep damnation of his taking- 
 oflE " {Macbeth, i. vii. 20) ; " Revenge his foul and most unnatural 
 murder" [Tlamlet, i. v. 25). Similarly wc can say '■'Its removal 
 would be a great advantage " ; " My election was duo to his influ- 
 ence," &c. 
 
 § 230. Many transitive verbs are usetl with another 
 ■word (noun, adjective) to point out the result attained by 
 the action of the verb. The word used for this purpose is 
 called a factitive complement of the predicate : e.g. 
 
 "They made l](hvai'd [ilir. obj.] A-twj/ " (factitive com- 
 plement : objective case). 
 
 "They made Edward [dir. obj.] drunk" (fact, comple- 
 ment : adj.). 
 
 " Me [subj.] was made Jciiig" (fact, complement : nom.). 
 
 " He [subj.] was vaade drunk'' (fact, complement: adj.). 
 
 § 231. INlany intransitive verbs require the help of some 
 other word (noun, adj.) to make the sense complete. Such 
 a verb is called a verb of incomplete predication,' and 
 the word which completes the sense is called the c<?mple- 
 inent of the predicate : e.g. 
 
 " He is [incomplete pred.] a king " (complement : 
 nominative) . 
 
 "She seems [incomp. pred.] happ7j" (complement: adj.).^ 
 
 1 A'b^e.— This term would, however, by some be extended to inchulo tlie verbs 
 spoken of in § 230, and is in a certain sense applicable to all transitive verbs in 
 the active voice. 
 
 » iVo^e.— This predicative use of the adjective must be distinguished from the 
 ordinarv attrihutive use in which the adjective quiililios the noun immediately. 
 In German this dillerence of function is marked by tlie adjective used as a 
 predicate remaining invariable, whereas wlien it is used attributively it is 
 inflected for gender," number, and case to agi-ee with the noun it qualifies.
 
 190 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 232 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 § 232. The subjunctive present is very rarely used in 
 Modern Englisli. It sometimes appears in subordinate 
 sentences introduced by if, unless, loliether, (al) though, and 
 some other particles, with perhaps the idea of insisting on 
 the notion of doubt or futurity more strongly than is 
 already done by the conjunction : e.g. 
 
 " I shall not come, if it rain " [uncertainty emphasized ; 
 but rains (indie.) is more common]. 
 
 § 233. The subjunctive present is used in inverted con- 
 ditional sentences, but the construction is not common, 
 and is consciously archaic : 
 
 " Be it wet or fine, I shall go." 
 
 § 234. The past subjunctive (to he is the only verb 
 which has a fonn distinct from the indicative) is used in 
 sentences (generally introduced by if) expressing con- 
 dition : e.g. 
 
 " I would not do it, if I were you." 
 
 But if in a concessive sense (= " granting that," where the 
 
 fact is admitted) is followed by the indicative : e.g. 
 
 " Well, if I was angry, you must admit you provoked me." 
 
 § 235. The past subjunctive is not uncommon in 
 inverted conditional clauses : 
 
 " Were this so, he would have told me." 
 
 THE VERB INFINITE (§ 166). 
 
 § 236. The infinitive, without to, is used after let, 
 make, see, feel, and some other transitive verbs, as well as 
 after the auxiliaries do, can, may, must, shall : e.g. 
 
 ^ " Let [imperative] me see [inf. depending on let] 
 him do [inf. dep. on see] this." 
 After other verbs the proposition to (which has come to
 
 § 238] SYNTAX. 191 
 
 be regarded as a mere sign of tlie intiiiitive) is prefixed 
 to the governed verb : e.g. 
 
 " I u'unt to go " (where to-t/o is practically a noun, 
 direct obj. of want). 
 
 (a) Hence we see that, if we wish to put such a sentence as the last 
 into the past tense, we should write " I wanted to go " (just as " I 
 wanted a horse"), and not "I wanted to have gone"; hut this 
 erroneous use of the perfect infinitive is very common. "Witli ought, 
 must, however, if used of the past, the tense, owing to their lack of 
 flexions, must he indicated by a perfect infinitive (see { 179). 
 
 § 237. The foiin of the infinitive Avith to is used as a 
 verbal adjective, like the gerundive in Latin, and is often 
 called the gerundive by English grammarians : e.g. 
 
 "I have a horse to sell " (= for sale, for selling). 
 
 This gerundive infinitive is by origin the dative (governed 
 by to) of the simple infinitive treated as a suljstantive 
 (§ 166). 
 
 {a) Observe the difference of construction and meaning in 
 
 (i.) "I want to eat something " (to eat, infinitive, direct object 
 after tcant ; something, direct object of eat) ; and 
 
 (ii.) " I want something to eat" {something, direct object after 
 want ; to-eat, gerundive infinitive). 
 
 § 238. The present participle, besides being used as 
 (i.) simple adjective, and (ii.) vei'bal adjective governing 
 nouns (§ 166), is also freely used in the absolute con- 
 struction ; that is to say, the nominative (noun, pronoun) 
 combines with the participle without a finite verb to form 
 an adverbial phrase : e.g. 
 
 '•'' All else failing [= if all else fails], I shall ask her 
 help." 
 
 Often the participle heing is omitted : 
 
 "Hi's tcorh [heing] finished, he went home." 
 
 " She [being] once happy, it does not matter what 
 becomes of him."
 
 192 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 238, a 
 
 {a) A common error, connected with the foregoing use of the pres. 
 part, and called the "unrelated participle," is exemplified in such 
 sentences as these : 
 
 " Coming to the town very late, the gates were barred and 
 bolted." 
 
 "The road seemed very long, walking in thin shoes." 
 Here coming appears to qualify gates : what is meant might be ex- 
 pressed by writing "Coming . . . late, we found the gates barred." 
 So walking apparently refers to road. The construction is, however, 
 found in good writers, and has been defended on the ground that the 
 subject of the participle can be easily supplied from the context. 
 Thus Shakespeare has " And talking of the AJps, ... It draws 
 towards supper " {King John i. i. 202 ff.) and Milton : 
 
 " The way he came not having marked, return 
 Was difficult." {Par. Regd. i. 297.) 
 
 The gerundial infinitive is used in much the same absolute 
 way: e.g. "During the century and a half which followed the 
 Conquest there is, to speak strictlg, no English history" (Macaulay), 
 where we might also say, "There is, strictly speaking, ^^ «fec. It is but 
 a step from this construction to the prepositional use of the part. : 
 e.g. "Concerning spiritual gifts I would not have you ignorant" 
 (A.V. of Bible). 
 
 § 239. The verb-noun in -ing or " gerund " (§ 166) is 
 u.sed now precisely as any other noun, save that it may 
 govera a noun, and be modified by an adverb : e.g. 
 
 " I see no use in taking [objective after in] matters 
 [objective after taking^ so seriously " (modifies 
 taking). 
 
 But cp. § 166, iii., c.
 
 193 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Parsing and Analysis. 
 
 § 240. In parsing we state the pai-t of speech to which 
 each word of a j^iven phrase or sentence belongs, together 
 with certain other details as set out below, and add its 
 syntactical relations with other words in the sentence. 
 
 [In parsing the student may omit at his discretion the 
 items in square brackets.] 
 
 Noun or Prononn : Class, [person, of pronoun,] gender, 
 number, case, synta'x. 
 
 Adjective : Class, [degree, if adj. of quality,] syntax. 
 
 Verb : Class, voice, mood, tense, number, person, con- 
 jugation, [principal parts,] s;y^ltax. 
 
 Adverb : Class, [degree, if adv. of quality,] syntax. 
 
 Conjunction : Class, syntax. 
 
 § 241. Example of parsing : — 
 
 " Bear with me ; I am hungry for revenge, 
 And now I cloy me with beholding it." 
 
 Bear — verb intransitive, active, imperative, pi-esent. 
 2nd plural, agreeing with you understood. _ Strong: 
 heai\ bore, home. 
 
 with — preposition, governing vie. 
 
 me — pronoun, personal, tirst, masculine oi- feminine^ 
 singular, objective, governed by icitli. 
 
 I — pronoun, personal, first, masculine or feminine, 
 singular, nominative, subject to am. 
 E. L.
 
 194 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 24-1 
 
 «7)i— verb, intransitive, indicative, present, 1st sing., 
 agreeing with /. Irregular : am, ivas, been. 
 
 hungry — adjective of quality, positive, agreeing 
 with /, used predicatively. (See § 231, note 2.) 
 
 for — preposition, governing revenge. 
 
 revenge — noun, abstract, neuter, singular, objec- 
 tive, governed by for. 
 
 and — conjunction, copulative, joining the two sen- 
 tences I . . . revenge and now . . . it. 
 
 nmv — adverb of time, modifying cloy. 
 
 I — same as / above, except that it is subject to 
 cloy. 
 
 cloy — verb, transitive, active, indicative, present, 
 1st sing., agreeing with /. Weak : cloy, cloyed, 
 cloyed. 
 
 me — pronoun, reflexive, first, masculine or feminine 
 (same gender as J), singular, objective, direct object 
 of cloy. 
 
 ivith — preposition, governing beholding. 
 
 beholding — gertind of the ti-ansitive verb behold, 
 governing it in the objective case, and itself neuter, 
 singular, objective, governed by tci^/i. Strong: behold, 
 beheld, beheld. 
 
 it — pi'onoun, personal, third, neuter, singular, ob- 
 jective, direct object of gerund beholding. 
 
 § 242. In analysing a simple sentence (i.e. one which 
 contains no dependent clause, § 92), we divide it into 
 logical subject and predicate (§ 93) ; and farther sub- 
 divide these 
 
 (i.) in the case of the subject by indicating any ele- 
 ments besides the grammatical subject (§ 93) ; 
 
 (ii.) in the case of the predicate by separating object, 
 advei-bial adjuncts, &c., from the grammatical predicate 
 (§ 93). 
 
 An example will make the method clear.
 
 § 244] 
 
 PARSING AM) AN'ALYt;iS. 
 
 105 
 
 § 243. Examples of analysis of simple sentences : 
 
 (i.) "Homer knew nothing of it.'" 
 
 (ii.) " Tliey demanded of them from time to time the 
 most precious things." 
 
 (iii.) The best and the worst of tliem were the prey of 
 accidents. 
 
 (i.) 1. Homer 
 
 2. kneio 
 
 3. iiothiiKj 
 
 4. of it 
 
 (ii.) 1. They 
 
 2. demand ed 
 
 3. (o/) them 
 
 4. from time to time 
 
 5. things 
 
 6. the most precious 
 
 subject. 
 
 ]iredicate. 
 
 direct object of 2. 
 
 adverbial adjunct to 2. 
 
 snbject. 
 
 predicate. 
 
 advei'bial adjunct to 2. 
 
 advei'bial adjunct to 2. 
 
 dii-ect object of 2. 
 
 enlaro-ement of 5. 
 
 (iii.) 1. Thehestandtheivorst\ -,- 
 
 /» ,7 c suoiect. 
 
 of them ) •' 
 
 2. ivere incom])lete predicate 
 
 3. the prey of accidents completion of predicate. 
 
 § 244. Or the analysis may be done in tabular form :- 
 
 Subject (and 
 Enlargement). 
 
 Predicate (and 
 
 Completion). 
 
 fi.) Homer knew 
 
 Object (and 
 Enlargement). 
 
 iiotlntui 
 
 Extension of 
 Predicate. 
 
 of\t 
 
 (ii.) Then 
 
 demanded 
 
 the most precious of them 
 things ; jfrom tinu to 
 
 time 
 
 (iii.) The best and ' were the prey of 
 the worst accidents 
 of thetn
 
 196 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 245 
 
 § 245. Complex sentences — i.e. sentences made up of 
 a principal sentence + one or more dependent clauses 
 (§ 92) — are first analysed as wholes, the dependent 
 clauses being regarded merely as if they were ordinary 
 nouns, adjectives, or adverbs, and then the dependent 
 clauses ai^e analysed separately. The treatment in each 
 case is the same as in principal sentences, as the follow- 
 ing examples will show. 
 
 § 246. lilxamples of analysis of complex sen- 
 tences : 
 
 (i.) " Homer knew nothing of it when he wrote." 
 
 Complex sentence (A) containing one subordinate ad- 
 verbial clause (6), when he ivrote. 
 
 Analysis of A : 
 
 1. Homer 2. hneio 3. nothing 4. of it, as in § 243 
 above. 
 
 4. Clause h adverbial adjunct to 2. 
 
 Analysis of h : 
 
 1. ivhen adverbial adjunct to 3. below. 
 
 2. he subject. 
 
 3. UTote predicate. 
 
 (ii.) " They demanded of them from time to time the 
 most precious things they had." 
 
 Complex sentence (A) containing one subordinate adjec- 
 tival clause (?)), [that] they had. 
 
 Analysis of A : 
 
 1. — 6. As in § 243 above. 
 
 7. Clause h enlargement of 5.
 
 §247] PARSING AM> ANALYSIS. U>7 
 
 Analysis of b : 
 
 1. [_that'\ direct object of 3 below. 
 
 2. they subject. 
 
 3. had predicate. 
 
 (iii.) " He declared that the best and the woi-st of them 
 were the piej of accidents." 
 
 Complex sentence (A) containing one subordinate nouu- 
 clause (6), the best . . . accidents. 
 
 Analysis of A : 
 
 1. He subject. 
 
 2. declared predicate. 
 
 3. Clause b direct object of 2. 
 
 Analysis of b : 
 
 that connective joining A 
 
 and b. 
 
 the best, &c., as in § 243 above. 
 § 247. Or, in tabular form :
 
 198 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 [§247 
 
 
 
 Qj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Qi 
 
 s -S 
 
 
 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 GC 
 
 ?• -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3^ 
 
 >o 1 
 
 1 ><--i 
 
 
 
 
 «(5 
 
 /— V/-^ 
 
 ^— N^^ O 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 I— 1 !>! 
 
 i-H 'M ■*- 
 
 
 
 
 -*^ 
 
 
 -« ><= 
 
 
 
 
 'd el 
 
 OS a 
 
 CJ5 
 
 - s 1 1 
 
 1 — 1 
 
 
 
 ^ CD 
 
 >;> 
 
 
 e 
 
 W 
 
 
 c 6C 
 
 o 
 
 
 pi 
 
 
 rO >— I 
 
 S 
 
 S-i ^ <?» 
 
 
 
 
 O,"^ 
 
 ,^ a,.-^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 r-i CM 
 
 
 
 
 '« . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 'Ji 
 
 rt 5 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ "^ 
 
 cate 
 pleti 
 
 to ^ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1^8 
 
 ^ a 
 
 -^ § 
 
 § 
 
 P^ 
 
 o 
 
 £3 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 § SiHiS 
 
 Oh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Subject and 
 Enlargement. 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^ -^ 
 
 5* 
 
 
 
 
 e best an 
 the Ivors 
 of them 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 (D 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 cc 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 on 
 
 -2 <c 
 
 ^ S 
 
 cS ^ 
 
 "^ 
 
 pi 
 
 c3 
 
 1— ( 
 
 cc 
 
 pi 
 
 d) s 
 
 
 
 <B o 
 
 _Ph 
 
 ^ 
 
 CZi ^ 
 
 2 -^ 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 'S 
 
 Q 
 
 ndof 
 orC 
 
 
 tin 
 
 "-3 
 o 
 
 0) 
 
 •'"7 
 
 • f— i 
 
 pi 
 o 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 < 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ g «) <* 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 Oj 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 Qi 
 
 o 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -4^ 
 
 CO ^ ?<1 
 
 "^ s - 
 
 
 o 
 
 ..:S' f^ 
 
 Sen 
 
 III 
 
 5>.^ -^ CO 
 
 < 
 
 1 — 1 
 
 < 
 
 (b) that 
 and fi 
 of then 
 prey of
 
 §240] I'ARSlNfi AND ANALYSrS. 1!>1» 
 
 § 248. Sentences grammatically independent of (jne 
 another, but joined by a conjunction, are called co- 
 ordinate, and till- whole strncture into which thev entei- 
 is called a compound sentence ; it is dividetl for the 
 purpose of analysis into separate sentences, and then 
 treated as shown above. 
 
 § 249. Exam})le of analysis of compound sentence : 
 
 " Homer knew nothiu"* of it, and (U'claretl llml lliu Ijt-.-t 
 of them were not free from accidents.' 
 
 Compound .sentence, consisting of 
 
 A. Homer . . . it 
 joined by and to 
 
 B. [/ie] declared . . . accidents. 
 
 The rest of the analysis is as shown in §§ 2-^-1 above.
 
 200 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Accentuation. 
 
 § 250. The general tendency in English is to throw 
 the accent as near the beginning of the word as possible. 
 That the position of the accent is of great moment will be 
 seen by a consideration of the following inductive "rules," 
 which summarise conveniently the effects of the presence 
 and absence of syllabic stress. 
 
 § 251. Rule 1. When a word is increased in length an 
 ■original long vowel is often shortened. 
 
 Compare wild with wilderness 
 
 „ child ,, children 
 
 ,, break ,, breakfast 
 
 „ white „ Whitby 
 
 „ bleed „ (bledde > ) bled. 
 
 § 252. Rule 2. In compounds of two syllables, accented 
 on the first syllable, a long vowel in the latter syllable 
 
 is often shortened by the lack of stress upon it. Thus : 
 
 O.E. scip (" ship ")+tun (" enclosure ") > Shipton 
 O.E. Dun + Stan >I)unstan 
 
 0.^. eorl + ddm > earldom. 
 
 § 253. Rule 3. The unaccented vowel, or even a whole 
 syllable, often disappears in words of two or more 
 .syllables. Thus : — 
 
 O.E. fugol > foivl 
 
 M.E. fourtenight > fortnight 
 
 M.E. laverock > lark 
 
 Mod. E. luncheon > lunch 
 
 Hunstanton is pronounced Hunston 
 Worcester „ Wooster 
 
 This rule is also illustrated in the general disinflexion 
 of the language.
 
 201 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 Metre. 
 
 § 254. Prosody treats of the mechanism of verses and 
 
 stanzas. 
 
 By a verse (more often called a line) is meant a com- 
 bination of syllables falling into a rhythm suflBciently 
 regular to be recognisable when it reverts or i-ecurs. It 
 is this regularity which distinguishes the rhythm or flow 
 of verse from the rhythm or flow of prose. 
 
 A stanza, or strophe, is, in like manner, a combination of 
 verses, according to some regular plan : the number of 
 verses in a strophe cannot be less than two and rarely 
 exceeds twelve. 
 
 The rh.3rthni of a combination of syllables is based chiefly 
 upon two properties Avhich they possess, quantity and 
 accent. According as quantity or accent foiTns the chief 
 foundation of the rhythm, the verse is said to be quantita- 
 tive or accentual. Classical verses are believed to have 
 been built in the main on quantity. The poetry of modern 
 Europe depends chiefly upon accent. In Anglo-Saxon 
 and ancient Teutonic vei'se generally, there was a very 
 remarkable balance between the two chief constituents 
 of rhythm. It should be noted that tlie rhythm or flow 
 of a verse is also in part detei'mined by the quality of the 
 vowels and consonants of which the syllables ai'e composed 
 and by the manner in which tliese sounds blend and har- 
 monise Avith each other. But, inasmuch as the cum])ositiou 
 of the rhythm in regard to these matters has not been 
 reduced to law, it does not fall within the scope of 
 Prosody.
 
 202 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 255 
 
 § 255. The arrangement of accents or quantities in a 
 verse is called metre. 
 
 § 256. The metrical line, or verse, is divided into feet, 
 each foot containing one, and not more than one, accented 
 syllable. If consisting of more than three feet, it is 
 usually further divided into two portions by a pause or 
 ccicsura. 
 
 § 257. The following names are given to the feet most 
 commonly used in English verse : — 
 
 Iamb, an unaccented syllable followed by an accented 
 
 one — aiody. 
 Trochee, an accented syllable followed by an unaccented 
 
 one — father. 
 Anapaest, two unaccented syllables followed by an 
 
 accented one — referee. 
 Dactyl, an accented syllable followed by two unaccented 
 
 ones — fatherly. 
 
 {(() Each example given above shows a foot formed by a single 
 word ; but of course this is not a necessary condition. 
 
 [h) The names of the feet are retained from the classic system of 
 scansion, which depended on quantity (i.e. syllable-length) : e.g. a 
 dactyl was a long syllable followed by two short ones. Among the 
 names of oth'^r classic feet sometimes applied to English verse, we 
 should notice the Spondee, consisting of two accented syllables. 
 
 § 258. Accent: Arsis, Thesis. — A metrical foot is 
 made up of two parts : the arsis, which consists of the 
 accented syllable ; and the thesis, consisting of the unac- 
 cented syllable or syllables. 
 
 There are two kinds of accent, both of which are em- 
 ployed in verse making : viz. word-accent and sentence - 
 accent. The former emphasises one syllable above others 
 in a word ; the latter one word above others in a sentence. 
 
 § 259. Word-accent. — A word of more than two syl- 
 lables can have two accents, a primary and a secondary
 
 § 260] METKK. 203 
 
 accent: e.g. jasfij]/. Tlic secondiuily (iis well as the 
 primarily) accented syllable can he used to form the arsis 
 of a foot : e.g". 
 
 And justify the ways of God to men. 
 
 {Puradhe Li».t i. 20.) 
 
 A compound word of two .syllables has al.so a primary 
 and a secondaiy accent ; hut in this case the secondary 
 accent cannot be used in the arsis except at the expense of 
 the primary ; that is to say, Avithout for the time becoming 
 the primary accent. Thus ^lilton accents hiankhul .some- 
 times on the first, sometimes on the second, syllable : e.g. 
 
 Above mankind or aught than mdnlcind higher. 
 
 The same transference of sti*ess in a compound word 
 may be bi-ought about by the prefixing of an adjective : 
 thus sea-mew ; but 
 
 And shrieks the wild sea-mew, (Byron). 
 
 § 260. Sentence-accent. — The laws of sentence-accent 
 have not vet l)L'eu t'lillv investigated, but it may be said 
 generally that the "'presentive" words (nouns, verbs, adjec- 
 tives) have stronger sentence stress than the " symbolic" or 
 relational words (cp. § 18). Thus, if two monosyllables, 
 one a preposition, the other a noun, stand in juxtaposition 
 in a verse, the former will be in thesis, the latter probably 
 in ar.sis. Thus the feet of God and to men in the line cpioted 
 above are both iambic ; so again is the u-ihj.'?, the article 
 being of weaker sti"ess than the noun. 
 
 Words -which in this way lose their accent to a following 
 word are said to 1)e " proclitic '" ; those which lose their ac- 
 cent to a preceding word ai'e called " enclitic." Frequently 
 a pronoun following a transitive verb is enclitic : e.g. 
 Take her up tenderly; note that in this line the .slight 
 sentence-stress on tip and the secondary accent on -l]/ are 
 both ignoi'ed. 
 
 Again, a monosyllabic adjective can lose its accent when 
 it precedes a strongly accented word, especially when it is 
 itself preceded by an adjective : cp. 
 
 The plain, i-oii;//i Hero turn a crafty knave. (Pope.)
 
 204 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 260 
 
 This case is similar to tliat mentioned above (Jtlie wild sea- 
 metv). Where two monosyllabic words, both of weak 
 sentence-stress, occur together, it would not always be 
 easy to know which was in arsis without referring to the 
 rest of the verse. Thus to it is clearly an iambus in 
 
 Thou art a scholar, speak to if, Hor&tio 
 
 [Hamlet i. i. 42), 
 whereas to me is a trochee in 
 
 That could do no vengeance to me 
 
 [As Yon Like It iv. ii. 48), 
 
 where it rhymes with looo me in the previous line. 
 
 From these considerations it is clear that " arsis " and 
 "thesis," "accented" and "unaccented," are relative terms, 
 and that, metri causa, a word of weak sentence-stress may 
 be in arsis in one foot of a verse, whilst a word of natur- 
 ally stronger stress is in thesis in another foot of the same 
 verse. But the poet's licence stops here : in the same foot 
 the word of distinctly stronger stress must be in the arsis. 
 Only in a comic poem could such a combination as to man 
 be used as a trochee. 
 
 § 261. Pause-accent. — The natural accent of a word 
 is heightened by a preceding pause : thus the beginning of 
 the line and the first ^Dlace after the "caesura" (§256) 
 are positions of strong metrical accent. Hence it is that 
 even in iambic metre it is common to find trochees in 
 these positions. Hence also we are able to decide which 
 word has the accent in such combinations as and to, or the 
 in the line 
 
 And to the stack | or the barn-door. 
 
 Finally, it is clear that all the accents of aline of verse 
 need not be equally strong. Such regularity as Ave 
 have in the line 
 
 To wage by force or guile eternal war 
 
 (Paradise Lost i. 121) 
 
 would be intolei-ably monotonous if continued through 
 many verses. It is, however, a mistake to say, as some 
 have done, that an accent can be omitted from a verse of
 
 § 263] METRE. 20i 
 
 this kind without destroying the metre. For example, in 
 the lines 
 
 Infinite wn'ith and tiifinite despriir 
 find 
 
 How nvercome this dire calamity, 
 
 which have been said to contain onl}- foni- accent.s each, 
 the secondary accents in infinite and cahhaity supply the 
 necessary arses. 
 
 § 262. Accoi'ding- to the number of accents in :i lino 
 (one, two, three, (tc), tlie verse is ssiid to lu* monometer, 
 dimeter, trimeter, tetram.eter, pentam.eter, hexa- 
 meter, nr heptameter. In theory each of the.se measures 
 niitiht be formed witii any one of the four kind.s of feet 
 mentioned in § 257. In practice the iambic measures are 
 far the most common in English poetiy, although ana- 
 paestic and troeliaic verses are also not uncommon, ^fr. 
 Swinburne says that to English " all variations and com- 
 binations of anapaestic, iambic, or trochaic metre are as 
 natural and pliable as all dactylic and spondaic forms of 
 verse are iinnatui-al and abhorrent " (see his Studies in 
 Song, p. 6S). Sometimes anapaestic and iambic feet are 
 found together in the same verse, as in Campbell's 
 Our b6- I gles sang truce, | for the night | cloud had low- | ered. 
 
 § 263. Examples of Iambic Metres : 
 
 Monometer : 
 
 Thus I 
 
 Pass by. (Herrick.) 
 
 Dimeter and Trimeter : 
 
 For in my mind 
 Of ill! mankind 
 I love but y6u alone. 
 Tetrameter : 
 
 The wiiy was long, the wind was cold, (scoit.j 
 
 Pentameter : 
 
 Of that forbidden tree whose mortal t'lste. (Milton.)
 
 206 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 263 
 
 Hexametei' : 
 
 That like a wounded sn^ke drags its slow length along. 
 
 (Pope.) 
 Heptameter : 
 
 Attend all ye who list to hear our noble England's priiise. 
 
 (Macaulay.) 
 
 To tliese may be added " common metre," wliicli is a 
 combination of iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter 
 usually aiTanged as a couplet. Coleridge's Ancient 
 Manner furnishes the finest example of a poem in this 
 
 metre : 
 
 O sleep it is a gentle thing 
 Beloved from pole to pole. 
 
 It is common in moral and religious poetry : 
 
 How doth the little busy bee 
 Improve each shining hour. 
 
 Special names for some of tbe measures mentioned 
 above are " octosyllabic verse "' for iambic tetrameter, 
 " Alexandrine " for iambic hexameter, " septenarius " and 
 also " fourteener "' for iambic beptametei\ 
 
 § 264. Iambic pentametei", which is by far the most im- 
 portant of English metises, is known as blank verse when 
 unrhymed, as heroic verse when rhymed in couplets. 
 Chaucer's Ganterhury Tales, Dryden's Absalom and Achito- 
 phel, and Pope's Dunciad are famous examples of heroic 
 couplet. Shakespeai'e and Milton both employ blank 
 verse, the former in dramatic, the latter in epic, poetry. 
 
 § 265. Trocliaic Measures : 
 
 Monometer : 
 
 Thy 
 My 
 
 Beauty 
 
 Duty. (Herbert.) 
 Dimeter : ^ 
 
 Autumn closes 
 Round the roses.
 
 § 267] METKK. 207 
 
 Trimeter : 
 
 Go where glory waits thee. (Moore.) 
 
 Tetrameter: 
 
 Once upun a midnight dn'ary, 
 
 While I pondered wi'ak rmd wc'ary. (E. A. Poe.) 
 
 § 266. A common anapaestic measure is the tetm- 
 meter : e.g. 
 
 There's a hower of roses by Benderneer's stream. (Moore.) 
 
 The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold. (Byron. j 
 
 Other anapaestic metres are less common. Browning's Saul gives 
 an example of anapaestic pentameter : 
 
 "And grow one in the sense of this world's life, and then the last 
 song." 
 
 We have anapaestic dimeter lines in Shelley's Fugitives : e.g. 
 
 " A bold pilot I trow 
 Who should follow us now," 
 
 and trimeter in Cowper's AkxitiuJer ScUdrl; : 
 
 " From the centre all round to the sea." 
 
 It will be seen that the anapaestic measure is apt to ride rough- 
 shod over the natural sentence-accent of words ; so that even nouns 
 and adjectives are occasionally thrust into the thesis. It is only by 
 referring to the context that we can tell how to scan the combination 
 life and then in the line from Browning. It may be urged, how- 
 ever, that life is really the second element of a compound, xoyhV-^ 
 life. 
 
 § 267. Dactylic Measures : 
 
 Monometer : 
 
 Solemnly, 
 
 SlournfuUy. (Longfellow.) 
 
 Dimeter : 
 
 Ta^ke her up tenderly. (Hood.)
 
 208 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 267 
 
 Trimeter : 
 
 Up with me, up with me, into the | clouds,' 
 
 (Wordsworth.) 
 Tetrameter : 
 
 Cold on his cradle the dew-drops are shining. (Heber.) 
 
 § 268. The attempt to introduce classic metres in English has 
 given us hexameters in which the accent takes the place of the long 
 syllable. An example (from Longfellow's Evangeline) is : 
 
 "This is the | forest prim- | aeval, the | mlirmuring | pines and the | 
 hemlocks." 
 
 Sometimes elegiac couplets, consisting of a hexameter followed by 
 a pentameter, have been successfully written : 
 
 " 'Tis but to I change idle | fancies for | memories | wilfully | falser, 
 'Tis but to I go and have | been. | Come, little | b^rk, let us | g6." 
 
 § 269. Metrical Auxiliaries : Assonance, Allitera- 
 tion, Rhyme. — Unessential to verse, but at the same time 
 of great use for indicating the structure and defining the 
 rhythm of successive verses, as well as for uniting them 
 together, are rhyme, alliteration, assonance. Of these, 
 assonance has played but a small part in English verse ; 
 alliteration, which was once an invariable accompani- 
 ment of metrical composition, now survives chiefly as an 
 element in the harmony of verse ; rhyme, in spite of some 
 opposition, notably on the part of Milton, is in full vogue 
 at the present time, and seems likely to keep its place 
 permanently. 
 
 § 270. Assonance is heard when two or more words in 
 corresponding metrical positions contain the same accented 
 vowel, biit have different consonants following it : e.g. 
 pane . . . fate. 
 
 1 Cloiid.i^ is here hypermetric. Such additional syllables are 
 frequent in other measures, e.g. in anapaestic tetrameter : 
 
 " Thou art gone to the grave, but we will not deplore | thee." 
 
 (Heber.)
 
 § 27;l] MKTRK. 209 
 
 § 271. Alliteration occurs when two or more wonls. 
 either close to, or not far apart from, each other, hcLriii their 
 accented syllable with the same consonant or vowel 
 sound : e.g. 
 
 The /air ireezc /;lew, the white /oam /low, 
 The furrow followed free. 
 
 Here the alliterations are much more powerful in the 
 second line than in the first, inasmuch as tlie meti-ical 
 accent falls oji each of the allitci-atini,' syll:il»lcs. Indeed, 
 according to the principles of the earliest English vei-se, 
 there is no alliteration in the first line at all, or ralhei- none 
 sufficient for metrical purposes. So, again, in a line which 
 is frequently quoted as an example of alliteration. 
 
 An Anstriiin f/rmy awfully ffrc'iycil, 
 
 the only really alliterating words are "Austrian" and 
 "awfully," which begin with the s;nne vowd sound in an 
 accented position. 
 
 Alliteration is sometimes spoken of as initial rhj-me, in 
 contrast to ordinary, or end, rhyme. 
 
 § 272. Hhyme, if spelt in accordance with its derivation 
 from O.E. rhn, " number," would be written ri'mp, an 
 orthography sometimes employed. It is, in effect, a double 
 assonance, the agreement in sound of the following con- 
 sonants, as well as of the accented vowels, of two woi-ds in 
 corresponding metrical positions : e.g. pane . . . fane. 
 In English rhyme it is necessaiy that the consonants ]»rc- 
 ceding the rhyming vowels shall be dilferent. 
 
 Rhymes may be either single (" ma^sculine "), as in wref, 
 seat; or double ("feminine"), as in meeting, seatinrf ; or 
 even triple, as in steadily, readily. 
 
 Stanzas or Strophes. 
 
 § 273. A stanza is a group of verses combined accordincj 
 to some regul.ir plan, so as to be easily recognisable when- 
 ever it occurs (see § 254-). 
 
 B. L. P
 
 210 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 273 
 
 Generally speaking', the feet wliicli are found in a stanza 
 will all l)e of the same kind, although iambic or anapaestic 
 feet, and similiarlj trochaic and dactylic feet, combine 
 freely together. 
 
 Again, as a rule, the same metre will prevail through- 
 out a stanza ; but this is by no means always the case. 
 
 The four most famous strophes are the rhyme royal, 
 the Spenserian stanza, the ottava rima, and the sonnet. 
 
 § 274. The rhyme royal has been supposed, with small 
 probability, to take its name fi'om tlie fact of its having beeri 
 employed by James I. of Scotland in a poem entitled TJie 
 Kingis QuJiair, attributed to him. It consists of seven 
 iambic pentameter lines, the rhymes of which are arranged 
 as follows : ab ahh c c (cp. the Spenserian stanza ])elo\v). 
 Chaucer uses this stanza in his Troilus and Cressida, and in 
 some of the Canterbury Tales. 
 
 § 275. The Spenserian stanza closely resembles this, 
 but insei^ts a pentameter line rhyming witli the second 
 of the stanza in the seventh place, and adds an Alex- 
 andrine or iambic hexameter at the close, the f.rr mgement 
 of the rhymes being « b a b b c b cc. Example : 
 
 A litltj lowly Hermitage it was a 
 
 Downe in a dale, hard by a forests side, b 
 
 Far from resort of people that did pas a 
 
 In traveill to and froe : a litle wyde /' 
 
 There was an holy chappell edifyde, b 
 
 Wlierein the He rmite dcwly wont to say c 
 
 His holy thinges each morn and eventyde : b 
 
 Thereby a christall stroame did gently play, c 
 
 Which from a sacred f ountaine welled forth alway. c 
 
 § 276. The ottava rima is an eight-lined stanza of 
 iambic pentameter lines, which was introduced from the 
 Italian by Sir Thomas Wyatt. The arrangement of
 
 §277] METRK. 211 
 
 rliyniOR is a h a hnhr c. Longfol low's Hi ids of I<ilUtifjic(»rlh 
 furnisliL's a good cxiuuple : 
 
 fi 
 
 It was the season when throujj' all the hmd 
 
 The merlu and mavis build, and biiildiiiy siii;^ i 
 
 Thnse lovely lyrics, written by His hand a 
 
 Whom Saxon Ca'dmon calls the lUitli-i-lKail Kiiifj, b 
 
 When on the boughs the purple buds expand, a 
 
 Tho banners of the vanguard of the Spring, b 
 
 And rivulets, rt-joicing, rush and leap, e 
 
 And wave tlieir lluttering signals fr(jm the steep. c 
 
 § 277. 'I'lic sonnet is a stanza of fourteen lines, usually 
 in iambic pentameter, that forms a complete poem in itself. 
 It was inti'oduccd into I'higland from Italy l>y Wyatt 
 early in the sixteenth century, and soon became a 
 favourite stanza with English poets, many of whom 
 have, however, somewhat deviated fi-om the moilel of 
 Petrarch, the great Italian writer of sonnets. 
 
 (a) As regards treatin<'nt of subject, Petrarch interrupts tlie course 
 of thouglit at the end of the octave, or first eight lines, so as to bring 
 a fresh idea into the ncstcttc, or final six line^. In the earlier English 
 sonnets, in Milton's, and in many of Wordsworth's, the sense runs 
 continuously on, rising often to a climax at the ch^se. 
 
 (b) In regard to the arr.mgoment of the rhymes there lias been a 
 ehjser imitation of the Italian sonnels since the time of Shaki'sptaro. 
 Shakespeare's scheme divides the sonnet into llnic stan/as i.f (our 
 lines each and r. final couplet, the rhymes being 
 
 a h II li . c (f c il . c f V f . ij <j. 
 
 Pelrarrh's, on tho oth(>r hand, allows hut four or five iliymes, tho 
 first two being confined to tlie octave : thus 
 
 a h h a . n h h a || c d c . d c d or v d e . e d c . 
 
 This scheme has been generally fulhnvi d as far as the octavo is con- 
 cerned, but there has been somj freedom in distributing tlie rhymes 
 of tho sestctte. 
 
 (e) Wordsworth's sonnet on the sonnet and its writers may be
 
 212 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [§ 277 
 
 quoted in illuslration for its interest, though it is unusually irregular 
 in its rhymes : 
 
 Scorn not the sonnet, critic ; you have frowned a 
 
 llindless of its just honours ; with this key b 
 
 Shakespeare unlocked his heart ; the melody b 
 
 Of this small lute gave ease to Petrarch's wound, a 
 
 A thousand times this pipe did Tasso sound, a 
 
 Camoens soothed with it an exile's grief ; c 
 
 The sonnet glittered a gay myrtle leaf c 
 
 Amid the cypress with which Dante crowned a 
 
 His visionary hrow : a glow-worm lamp, d 
 
 It cheered mild Spenser, called from faery land e 
 
 To struggle through dark ways ; and when a damp d 
 
 Fell round the path of Milton, in his hand e 
 
 The thing hecame a trumpet, whence he hlew / 
 
 Soul -animating strains — alas ! too few. / 
 
 Other sonnets of Wordsworth's — e.g. the famous one on Westmin.iicr 
 Bridfje — will he found to follow the Petrarchan model exactly in 
 regard to the rhymes. 
 
 § 278. Two other stanzas may be mentioned. 
 
 The stanza used hy Gray consists of four decasyllabic 
 iambic lines rhyming alternately ; see the specimen quoted 
 on p. 18. It is known as the heroic quatrain, or the 
 elegiac stanza. 
 
 A four-line stanza of octosyllabic lines, in which the first 
 and fourth lines rhyme together and the second and third 
 rhyme together, has been familiarized by Tennyson's use 
 of it in In Mevioriam : 
 
 Our little systems have their day, 
 They have their day and cease to he ; 
 They are hut broken lights of Thee, 
 
 And Thou, Lord, art more than they. 
 
 § 279. Example of scansion: 
 
 Forthwith | upright || he rears | from off | the pool 
 
 His might- | y stat- | ure || ; on | each hand | the flames 
 
 Driven back- | ward slope | their point- | ing spires, || and, rolled
 
 § 283J METRK. n-.i 
 
 In bill- I 0W8, II Iti'ivo | i' tho midst | a horr- | id \;iIo. 
 Tlicii with I cxpiin- | ded wings || ho steers | his flight 
 Aloft, II iiKi'im- I bent <>i\ \ the du.'-k- | y iiir, 
 That lelt | una- | sual wiight. || 
 
 [I'ltradise Lost, i. 221-227.) 
 
 Notice : (i.) tho very varied positions of the caesura ; 
 
 (li.) the initial troehee in tho fifth line ; 
 
 (iii ) tho use of i' t/ic as an equivalent for one syllable ; 
 
 (iv.) the way in which tho sense is several times continued into 
 tho next line without any deliuite pause. This is some- 
 times called cnjambement. 
 
 Styles of Foctry. 
 
 §280. Tlie Hvu })rincipal stylus of poetry are: (i.) lyrir, 
 (ii.) epic, (iii.) dramatic, (iv.) didactic, and (v.) past- 
 oral. 
 
 § 281. Lyric poetry was oiigiually, as its name implies, 
 intended to be sung to the accompaniment of the harp. 
 Tn character it is essentially sponi:uieous and eiiiotioiial. 
 Thus Tennyson speaks of sorrow loosening I'roui the lip 
 
 and again 
 
 Short swallow-llights of song ; 
 
 I do but sing because I must, 
 And pipe 1 ut ad the linnets sing. 
 
 § 282. Epic poetry is concerned with some action or 
 circumstance of a great and memorable nature, such as 
 the wrath of Achilles, which is the subject of the lliml, 
 or the first disobedience of man, wliich is that of runulise 
 Lost. 
 
 § 283. Dramatic poetry brings the action itself befoi-e 
 us, and does not merely describe it. It is mox-e complex 
 than either lyric or epic poetry, uniting in some degree 
 the elements of both. The plays of Shakespeare tuv 
 universally acknowledged to be the crowning ellort of 
 the human mind in this field of literatui'e.
 
 214- THE ENGLISH LANCiUAGE. [§ 284 
 
 § 284. Didactic poetry deals with i-eligion and 
 morals as well as with arts and sciences ; in English 
 literature it includes such poems as Dryden's Reliyio 
 Laid, Pope's Essay on Man, Cowper's Task, &c. 
 
 § 285. Pastoral poetry deals with country life ; its 
 personages are shei)herds and shepherdesses, who, in 
 their actions and conversation, exhibit sim})le and un- 
 aifected human nature as contrasted with the artiticiality 
 which is the result of life in cities. The most famous 
 example of this kind of composition in English is the 
 tShephei-d'' s Calendar oi Spenser. Pastoral poetry is of ten 
 allegorical, as in the case of Milton's Lycidas.
 
 TEST QUESTIONS. 
 
 CHAFrKR T. 
 
 1. Name tlie present languages of the IJritish Lsles, and 
 ali-o any otlieis that were formerly spoken within them. 
 
 2. Express, in tabular form, the relationship of English 
 to the other European languages. 
 
 3. What languages had aire ady been spoken in this island 
 or were being spoken when the Anglo-Saxon Conrpiest took 
 place ? Were they in any way akin to the dialects spoken 
 by the Angles and the Saxons ? 
 
 4. Show, by a table, the relationship of Anglo-Saxon 
 and Modrrn English to the other Teutonic languages of 
 Europe. 
 
 5. Explain carefully the following terms : — philoloijij, 
 Aryan, Anglo-Saxon, Indo-Europea^i,, Teutonic, Seinitio, 
 Romance, High German. 
 
 6. Explain carefully the following terms : — Scandinaviau, 
 Celtic, Classical, synthetic, analytic. Low German, Gothic, 
 Erse. 
 
 7. What European languages are most closely related 
 to English ? Give reasons for your answer. 
 
 8. Why is our language called " English " rather than 
 " West-Soxon " or " ]\lercian " ? 
 
 9. Give a table of the Indo-European family of 
 languages. 
 
 10. Give a detailed table of the Teutonic group of 
 languages.
 
 216 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 11. Into what periods may the English language be 
 divided with regard to inflexional changes 1 
 
 12. English is now an analytic language. What do you 
 understand by this 1 
 
 13. Explain, with illustrations, the dilFerence between 
 a synthetic and an analytic language. 
 
 14. What do you understand by ^^ the levelling of in- 
 flexions " ? How was this levelling brought about ? 
 
 15. Distinguish between Old English, Middle English, 
 and Modern Eni:clish. 
 
 16. Estimate the effect of the Scandinavian invasions 
 upon our language. 
 
 17. In which parts of England was flexional decay most 
 rapid ? Endeavour to account for your facts. 
 
 18. Explain, with illustrations, the effect of the Norman 
 Conquest upon ovir flexional system. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 19. What do you know of the origins of the English 
 language ? 
 
 20. Explain, as carefully as you can, how our language 
 comes to contain so many words of Latin descent. Mention 
 some that we might very well do without, or might well 
 have done without. 
 
 21. From what other sources besides Latin have we 
 borrowed words 1 Show that our vocabulary is constantly 
 being enlarged. 
 
 22. On what occasions, and in what ways, have Classical 
 and Romance words entei-ed the English language ? 
 
 23. Mention six words that English has borrowed 
 from other Teutonic languages, twelve borrowed from the
 
 QUKSTI0N8. Iil7 
 
 lioiiiance liinguageH, uml twelve froui uny non-Aryan 
 languages. 
 
 24. Show how the languages of the Celts, tlio Konians, 
 the Danes, and tlie Normans have, at (liHi-nnt timts, 
 affected the English tongue. 
 
 25. 8how how, at difFerent times, foreign words have 
 become part of the English tongue. What is meant \>y an 
 acclimatized foreign word in English? 
 
 26. Briefly show how largely l']ngli.sh has borrowed 
 words from other languages. Do you con.-ider this an 
 advantage or a disadvantage ? 
 
 27. Give as large a list as you can of the Classical words 
 which found their way into our language before the 
 Norman Conquest, and point out how tliey were probably 
 introduced. 
 
 28. Mention teti words which have come to us from the 
 Italian, yjve from the Dutch, five from the Hebrew, and ten 
 from the modern French. 
 
 29. Mention te7i words which have come to us from 
 Asiatic languages, five from the Scandinavian, and fee 
 each from Hebrew and from modern German. 
 
 30. Whence have we obtained the following words, and 
 at what period in our history : — million, veal, yacht, baijonet, 
 dclf odd, ivaltz, bajjtize, tehphone, hoycoti ? 
 
 31. Whence have we obtained the following word.s ;uid 
 at what period in our history : — galvanize, aljiJuihel, loom, 
 Camhridfje, cowl, Imsting, suffer, barbarous, kiss, coffee ? 
 
 32. Whence have we obtained the following words, antl 
 at what period in our history: — locomotive, licije, busk, 
 zareba, caiulle, forlorn-hope, p)oodle, stevedrnx, macaroni ? 
 
 33. Whence have we obtained the following words, and 
 at what period in our history : — blame, Thames, chutnee, 
 sabbath, admiral, clieroot, gypsy, pemmican, hurricane, polkal 
 
 34. Whence have we obtained the following words, and 
 at what period in our history : — car, glen, amen, jloe, hoisf^ 
 psychology, father, are, icas, s/tovy ?
 
 218 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 35. Divide the words of L;itin origin in English into 
 chist^es according to the periods at which they have been 
 adopted, and give three examples of each class. 
 
 36. Discuss fully the Greek element in English. 
 
 37. Give an account, with dates, of the introduction of 
 the Latin element into the English language. Wi-ite down 
 any ten lines of ICnglish poetry, and underline the words 
 of non-Teutonic oi-igin. 
 
 38. Underline the non-Teutonic words in the following 
 passage : — 
 
 " Underneath tins sable hearse 
 Lies the subject of all verse ; 
 Sidney's sister, Pembroke's mother. 
 Death ! Ere thou hast slain another, 
 Learned, fair and good as she, 
 Time shall throw a dart at thee." 
 
 39. Underline the non-Teutonic words in the following 
 passage : — 
 
 " Not once nor twice in our rough island-stoiy 
 The path of duty was the road to glory ; 
 He who walks it, only thirsting 
 For the riglit, and learns to deaden 
 Love of self, before his journey closes, 
 He shall iind the stubl>orn thislle bursting 
 Into glossy purples that outredden 
 All voluptuous garden roses." 
 
 40. Underline the non-Teutonic words in the following 
 passage : — 
 
 " My good blade carves the casque of men ; 
 
 My tough lance thrusteth sure; 
 My faith is as the faith of ten 
 Because my heart is pure." 
 
 41. Underline the non-Teutonic words in the following 
 passage : — 
 
 " Take a toad within a stone 
 Seated while time crumbles on 
 Ever since when at the first 
 For man's transgression earth was cursed." 
 
 42. Underline the non-Teutonic words in the following 
 passage: —
 
 QUESTIONS. '210 
 
 •* I'trliaiis in lliis neglected !<|„,t is laid 
 
 Soiiie lii'iirt onco jirof,Mi:iiiL with celestial tire ; 
 }f:ui(ls Unit (lie rud of omiiire tiii^'ht liavc swiiyai 
 Or waked to ecstasy the living Ijrc." 
 
 •t.">. IJiiilorliiiu the non-Teutonic words in tliu following 
 passage : — 
 
 " Si. me murmur when their sky is clear 
 And wholly brij^ht to view, 
 If one (lark spot of cloud ai)|)car 
 In tlieir great heaven of blue." 
 
 44. ^Iciition ten words that have come into our language 
 during the last fifty ycais. 
 
 45. ITow do Avo find names for such things as new 
 games, new inventions, new jiolitical or social ideas? Clivo 
 instances. 
 
 4G. State what you know of the history of every word in 
 the in\ sent question, noting any peculiarities in the form or 
 significance of each. 
 
 47. On what grounds is English said to bo a Teutonic 
 language? 
 
 48. Why Ls our language called English ? Do you 
 consider the name an appropriate one? . 
 
 49. Point out anv classes of English words wliiih are 
 purely Teutonic. 
 
 CHAPTEll IV. 
 
 50. Whence have we received the litters of our alphahet ? 
 Arrange them according to their sound. 
 
 51. Exemplify the facts that in English the same letter 
 represents difl'erent sounds, and that difiierent letters 
 represent the same sound. Is there any remedy for such 
 confusion ? 
 
 52. Classify the sounds of the English language, and 
 show in what way they are represented by the letters of 
 our alphabet.
 
 220 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 53. How many sounds has the symbol a in English ? 
 Also, in what other ways can the vowel sound heard in 
 hate be expressed ? 
 
 54. Show how frequently in English the pronunciation 
 of a word does not correspond with its orthography. How 
 would you account for such discrepancies ? 
 
 55. Define and explain the terms letter, vowel, accent, 
 guttural, sibilant. What two different pronunciations has 
 the combination thi How many has the combination 
 oitgh 1 
 
 56. Give as good an account as you can of the letter a 
 and its various sounds in Englif^h, with examples. How 
 does it come to have so many various sounds 1 
 
 57. What other permi.ssible spellirgs are there current of 
 these words: — inflection, j)vogramme, rhyme, era, medicevall 
 What is to bo said for or against them ] 
 
 58. Enumerate and account for the chief anomalies of 
 modern English spelling. 
 
 59. Give examples of : — 
 
 (rt) a single letter standing for a double sound ; 
 
 (b) a letter standing for two or more different 
 
 sounds ; 
 
 (c) two or more letters standing for a single sound ; 
 {d) difleient letters representing the same sound. 
 
 60. Enumerate, with examples, the different sounds 
 represented by the letter e. What is the use of a final e 
 mute, in snch words as viine, dive ? 
 
 61. Explain, as clearly as possible, the difference between 
 soft (\oiced) and hard (voiceless) consonants. When is the 
 letter r trilk d in Engli.-h 1 
 
 62. What letters, formerly in use, have disappeared from 
 our alphabet ? Which of them do you think we ought to 
 have kept 1 
 
 63. In what respect is our alphabet unequal to its work ? 
 How would you propose to remedy matters 1
 
 QI'E'^TTOXS. 221 
 
 G4. What are tlie requiremonts of a perfect alphal)et? 
 Briefly criticize our own from this point of view. 
 
 G5. Wliat do you understand by tho term ohscure vowel ? 
 
 G6. WJiat is meant hy a letter? Give some account of 
 tho letter c and its uses. What various sounds are repre- 
 sented in English by the letter u 1 
 
 67. What is meant by tho oi'gans of speech 1 How would 
 you define a voweH How many more vowel sounds are 
 there in English than vowel symbols ? 
 
 GS. Comment on tho spelling of the following words: — 
 frontispiece, cranfish, fancy, phantom, handlv.'orh, livelihood, 
 posthumous, victuals. 
 
 69. Comment on the spelling of the following words : — 
 debt, island, isle, eyry, honour, scent, scytlie, esquire. 
 
 70. Comment on the spelling of the following words : — 
 landscape, thunder, hawk, newt, apron, gospel, tyrant, Nmfolk. 
 
 71. Which letters do yoii consider redundant in our 
 alphabet ? In what other ways can we represent the 
 sounds of ch,j, c, and x1 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 72. Give some account of what is known as Grimm's Law. 
 
 73. State Grimm's Law, and give some illustrations of it. 
 
 7t. Give the cognate in Classical language of a Teutonic 
 initial aspirate, and explnin how it is that there is here an 
 apparent exception to Giimni's Law. 
 
 75. Why is Grimm's Law so callid? State biiefly on 
 what facts the law is based. 
 
 76. Give a mnemonic for Grimm's Law. Point out any 
 weak points in the ordinary statement of Grimm's Jjiw. 
 
 77. Give the Classical cognates of the following words, 
 and show how you arrive at them : — brot/ier, daughter, fell 
 (skin), beech, dooi', ten.
 
 222 THE ENGLISH LANGUAOE. 
 
 78. Give the Classical cognates of the following words, 
 and show how you arrive at them : — guest, nail, slip, wit, 
 tame, fare. 
 
 79. Give the Classical cognates of the following words, 
 and show how you arrive at them : — fee, heal, hound, child, 
 knoio, three. 
 
 80. How do you account for the t in German Vaterl 
 What should it be according to Giimm's Law ? 
 
 81. Point out the difference in time between the first and 
 second sound-shiftings. 
 
 82. Distinguish between cognate and derived words. 
 Fully explain, with examples, the term cognate. 
 
 83. In which series of consonantal sounds is Grimm's 
 Law most consistently carried oat? Can it bo said to be 
 carried out at all in the other series ? 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 
 84. Define a root, an English root. What are hybrids ? 
 Mention any hybrids that are generally recognized as good 
 English. 
 
 85. How is it that hyhrids are so frequently met with in 
 English? Illustrate your answer by examples. 
 
 8G. Distinguish between cognate and derived, as applied 
 to words. Mention some words cognate with hea,r (verb), 
 and some derived from it. 
 
 87. What do you understand by the term Umlaut 1 How 
 is it caused ? Give examples. 
 
 88. How would you attempt to find the root of an 
 ordinary English word, e.g., comjirehension ? Give a few 
 illustrativ'e examples. 
 
 89. Distinguish between root and stem in English. Are 
 they ever identical ? 
 
 90. Explain the terms snffi.r, prefix, affix. Illustrate their 
 use in word-formation.
 
 QUESTIONS, 223 
 
 91. What do you luulorstand by Afilaul (_^nulation)? 
 Where do we find the best examples of it ? 
 
 92. State briefly, with exaiu[)les, how from a few roots 
 many words are built up. Give the roots of the folhnviiig 
 words : — slatioiiary, reduction, illaviiuatio)i. 
 
 CITAPTKR VTI. 
 
 93. Explain what is meant by: — metal/icftif}, aphire-^is, 
 syncope, prostJicsis. 
 
 94. Explain the terms : — injlexion, assimilatiuu, eli/nwlor/i/, 
 jy/ioneiics, accidence. 
 
 95. Account for the facts that : — 
 
 (1) The s in roads and robes is sounded as z ; 
 
 (2) The d in hoped and missed is sounded as t] 
 
 (3) The ]} ill Campbell and cupboard is not sounded at 
 all. 
 
 90. Point out the changes or additions that have taken 
 place in the letters in the following words : — gossip, number, 
 esquire, master, and cite other words in illustration. 
 
 97. Point out the letter changes or additions of letters 
 that have taken place in the following words: — amidst, 
 Jdndrcd, bathe.^ hiives, thimble, sugar, ichence, loud. 
 
 98. Comment on the form of the words rain, fowl, sail, 
 adder, apron, umpire, nickname, neivt. 
 
 CHAPTER VTII. 
 
 99. How and when did we acquire the Romance words 
 which are to be found in our language f 
 
 100. Give half-a-dozen examples of French words and 
 phrases that haVc come into our language during recent 
 years. Do you consider thcii- adoption an advantage or 
 a disadvantage ?
 
 224 THE ENGLISH LANOUACR. 
 
 101. "There are two dLstinct classes of Eomance words 
 in our language: (1) those of learned formation; (2) 
 those of popular origin." Explain briefly the meaning of 
 this. 
 
 102. Why is it that the surviving forms of Romance 
 words are usually shorter than the original Latin ones? 
 Give a few illustrative examples. 
 
 10.3. Mention some ten Latin words that appear in 
 English in two forms, one derived directly, the other in- 
 directly. Give both En<^lish forms as well as the Latin 
 one. What are such pairs of words called ] 
 
 Trace the following E,omance words to their original 
 forms, and account for the changes that have taken place : — 
 
 104. Sure, frail, poison, trouble, story, impatient, count, 
 alloy}. 
 
 105. Ostler, diamond, strange, estate, establish, howl, 
 chamber, envy. 
 
 106. Season, treason, ransom, maugre, essay, chattel, spouse. 
 
 107. State, with illustrations, anything you know about 
 the effects of accent in English. 
 
 108. " In the passage of words from Latin to English 
 (usually through French) the accented syllable survives, 
 the following unaccented ones disappear or are reduced to 
 e mute." Illustrate this by means of examples. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 109. How are words groiiped with reference to their 
 grammatical usage? In which group or groups do you 
 place than, but, divine, single, that, lohtle ? 
 
 110. Define the several parts of speech. 
 
 111. Give the arguments for and against the recognition 
 of the English article as a distinct part of speech. Define a 
 part of speech.
 
 QUESTIONS. 225 
 
 llU. Doliiie tlio U'lin ijrainmar. What is lueaut \>y 
 calling a mode of expression uvtjraminaliculX 
 
 113. Define inflexion, and account for its partial dis:ij.pear- 
 ance fiom our language. 
 
 114. What parts of spee.h in English have to .some 
 extent retained their inflexions? Endeavour to expl.iin 
 your facts. 
 
 115. Define the terms accidence, si/iUax, suhjecl, predicate^ 
 sentence. Why is a sentence spoken of as the nnit uj 
 speech ? 
 
 116. How are sentences classed? lllu.strate your answer 
 by examples. 
 
 117. Define the terms transitive and inlra)mtive as 
 applied to verbs. Derive these terjns. 
 
 CIIAPTEil X. 
 
 118. Define the term nomi. Tnio what elas.ses are nouns 
 divided ? Give definitions and ill u.strat ions in each ca.se. 
 
 119. What English nouns have no change of form, either 
 in the singular or in the plural number 1 Account for 
 this. 
 
 120. Describe, giving examples, the various ways of dis- 
 tinguishing the plural number of English nouns l)y sufli.v. 
 
 121. Show that the addition of the plural sign s al- 
 together alters the meaning of many English words. 
 
 122. Write down the plural of gallows, topaz, solo, echo, 
 Mary. Mention some ^\•ord in whose plural form theie is 
 variety of usage, and some that have been wrongly taken 
 for pluraLs, though really singular. 
 
 123. How would you describe the number of the following 
 words : — alms, banns, hermiries, optics, puidtry, jmde, salmon, 
 scissors, sheep, sixj^ences, thanks, loheat 1 
 
 124. Give a list of double plurals of English nouns, iu 
 
 K. L. li
 
 226 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 which one form has the collective idea and the other the 
 
 distributive idea. 
 
 125. Describe carefully the different ways of forming the 
 plural of nouns in English, stating what you know of the 
 history of each. 
 
 126. Are the following words strictly of the singular 
 or the plural number : — eaves, tidings, alms, news, riches, 
 means 1 Are there any words that have only a singular 
 form, and any that have only a plural form ? 
 
 127. Discuss the plural form children. Write down six 
 nouns that have no special form to express plurality. Is it 
 correct to speak of " a two-foot rule " ? 
 
 128. Mention any English nouns which form their plurals 
 by processes generally obsolete. Which of the following 
 are genuine plurals, and how do you account for the forms 
 which are not such : — alms, summons, hanns, costs, sessions, 
 weeds, dice 1 
 
 129. Discuss each of these plural forms : — leaves, oxen, 
 kine, men, hretltren ; also the forms news, p«z7is, riclies, 
 eaves. 
 
 130. Explain how it is that s has become practically the 
 only suffix used to form the plural of nouns. Do you think 
 that any foreign influence is traceable here? 
 
 131. Explain clearly why roof and brief take simply s in 
 the plural, while calf and fe^/" change the j/" into ves. 
 
 132. What is the rule for the formation of the plural of 
 nouns ending in 3/ ? Give the plural forms of ladi/, chimneij, 
 Nancy, soliloquy. 
 
 133. Give examples of m,utation ]3lurals and plurals in en 
 that are still in use. Mention any plurals in ewthat occur in 
 the Authorised Version of the Bible, but are now obsolete. 
 
 134. Write brief notes on the following plural forms: — 
 kine, brethren, children, loomen. 
 
 135. Give ten examples of foreign words which retain 
 their original plural forms.
 
 i 
 
 QUESTIONS. 227 
 
 130. l)i.stilll,Mli^ll bctweoii the two pluials (>f i/nlcj; 
 foi'niida,J\in(jus, cherub, t/eiiius. 
 
 137. Which of tho following do you ci^nsider to bo 
 gemiine plurals : — amends, riches, cdins, means, banns, eaves, 
 politics, summonsl 
 
 138. Give rules for forming the plurals of compound 
 nouns. Give tl.e plurals of tho following words, with com- 
 ments where you think fit : — spoonful, Lcn'd Chancelloi', 
 farewell, heir-aj^parent, mother-in-law, turnkey. 
 
 139. Give the plurals of the following compound nouns, 
 adding any comment you think fit : — Good Templar, looker- 
 on, Lord- Lieutenant, Coi)i7)iander-in-Clbief, Judje Advocate 
 General, court-martial, ]Vill-o-the-ioisp, lady's-maid. 
 
 Give the plurals of the following nouns, adding such com- 
 ment as you think necessary : — 
 
 140. Euclid, pain, ember, h'eech, rhinoceros, monsieur, .Ur., 
 toage, Miss Brown, copper, compass, draught, beef, cluip, scale, 
 light, shot, ground. 
 
 141. lioohsellcr, good, spectacle, ivater, liippopolumus, crisis, 
 radius, seraph, vortex, lee. 
 
 112. Die, hose, cow, stratum, flag-lieuteiutnt, iron, altoiviey- 
 general, arvi, beau, focus. 
 
 143. What is meant by tho case of a noun? How did 
 the word come to be used in such a sense 1 
 
 144. Trace, with illustrations, the decline of inflexion in 
 English, 
 
 145. Explain clearly the method of forming the pos.scs.sive 
 case in English. 
 
 146. Discuss these phrases: — next Lady-day, for con- 
 science' sake, a friend of mine, the Emperor of Germany s 
 accession, the Queen's rebels, for John his sake. 
 
 147. Form the possssive case of the following : —6o//s, 
 princess, princeases, Wednesday, St. James, Mr. Junes, fcct^ 
 child.
 
 228 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 148. In what various ways can difference of sex be 
 denoted liy English nouns? Exphiin the forms loidower, 
 mistress, gandei', bridegroom. 
 
 149. Make a list of the different ways of expressing 
 gender in English nouns, adding a few notes on the history 
 of each. 
 
 150. Explain the following words : — woman, lady, vixen, 
 semj^stress, widower, drake. 
 
 151. What is meant hy gender in grammar? Enumerate 
 the vaiious ways of indicating gender in English. Comment 
 on the forms : — songster, tajjster, he-goat, 2^u7ister, songstress. 
 
 152. Comment on the following forms : — marchioness, 
 miss, heroine, landgravine, abbess, goddess, nurse, testatrix, 
 infanta, sow. 
 
 153. Give the feminine forms of the following: — he?'o, 
 bachelor, earl, monk, nepheio, lord, lad, bull, stag, miller. Add 
 any comments you think fit. 
 
 154. Give ten instances in which distinction of sex is 
 denoted l)y words of quite separate origin, and explain in 
 some, at least, of them why it is so. 
 
 155. What do you understand by the expressions:— 
 neuter gender, common gender 1 To what extent may gender 
 be said to exist in Englisli grammar? 
 
 15G. Enumerate the chief ways of forming compound 
 nouns in EnglLsh. Give ten examples. 
 
 157. Comment briefly on tlie following compound nouns : 
 — he-goat, passer-by, spendthrift, loitchcraft, handicraft, 
 haiidiirork, inanldnd, houseioife, j>otsIierd, nickname. 
 
 158. Comment briefly on the formation of the following 
 words : - Gaelic, ban-dog, bridal, gospiel, nostril, orchard, ham, 
 harbour. 
 
 153. Comment briefly on the formation of the following 
 words: — steward, lady, huzzy, brimstone, stirrup, lammas, 
 tad])ole, neighbour. 
 
 IGO. Comment briefly on the formation of the following
 
 QUESTIONS. 229 
 
 words: — lord, forlnhjld, s]i(niicj'aced, luindkerchicf, contitahle, 
 niyhtinrjale, husband, ivalnut. 
 
 161. Comment briefly on the formation of the follouinfj 
 words : — good-bye, mandrake, pickaxe, vjomnvood, j/v<,swu7, 
 frontisjnece, landscape, twilight. 
 
 1G2. Cive a list of the chief suffixes used to form abstract 
 nouns in English. 
 
 163. What is the original meaning of the suilixes : -dom, 
 -hood, -shipl Comment on the forms Godhead, livelihoiid. 
 
 164. What do you know of the suffixes in tlio following 
 words: — barley, ivedlock, hemlock, hillock, hatred, bishajn-icl 
 
 165. Give a list of the chief agent suffixes to be found in 
 English nouns. Oommiiit on the forms : — maltster, spinJiter, 
 rhymester, widoicer, sailor. 
 
 166. Give a list of the chief diiuiiuitive suilixes in English, 
 with examples. 
 
 1G7. What is the force of llic sutiix in each of the 
 following noinis : — Browning, riding, width, gentleness, 
 gentility, gosling, loelkin, chickeal 
 
 168. What is the force of the suilix in each of the 
 following nouns : — heailien, darling, tailor, chemist, singer, 
 livelihood, husband, orchards 
 
 1G9. What is the force of the sutiix in ench of (he 
 following nomis : — steward, butler, deemster, knowledge, 
 maidenhood, firkin, faith, paddock ? 
 
 170. What is the force of the suilix in each of the 
 idllowing nouns : — fish)}>ov{/er,skij)jtrr, kindred, drake, damsel, 
 
 fashion, venison, cabinetl 
 
 171. What is the force of the siillix in each of the 
 following noinis : — sentiment^ ticket, voyage., passenger, danger, 
 closure, civility, stevedore ? 
 
 172. What is the foi(o of the suflix in e.ach of the 
 following nouns: — catei-hism, Jacobite, agony, eiulurance, 
 mathematics, vtagislrate, circus, donkey i
 
 230 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 173. How would you define a pronoun? And how 
 classify the words so called ? 
 
 174. Decline the three personal pronouns, and comment 
 on their history. 
 
 175. Discuss the etymology and usage of mc, thee, my 
 and viine, our and ours, their and theirs, who and what, 
 why and which. 
 
 176. Name the adjectival pronouns, discus.sing the 
 etymology and usage of each. 
 
 177. Notice any difleienees in usage between the relatives 
 that, who, which. 
 
 178. What do you understand by a pronoun? What by 
 a reflexive pronoun ? Point out the inconsistency of saying 
 / myself, and yet he himself. 
 
 179. Decline the fir.st and second personal prononns, 
 and discuss the variations in usage of them at different 
 times. 
 
 180. Discuss the etymology and usage of the masculine 
 possessive his; and the neuter possessive its. 
 
 181. Write a short history of the second personal 
 pronoun. 
 
 1 82. Trace, as fully as you can, the history of the inflexions 
 of the third personal pronoun, singular and plural. 
 
 _ 183. Discuss the origin of the relative pronoims, and 
 distinguish their n.se in modern English. What equivalents 
 are there in English for the relative pronoun? Give 
 illustrative senteneas. 
 
 184. Why is it that we have oidy one form hivi, her, 
 whom, for accusative and dative? 
 
 185. Discuss briefly, with regard to origin, the forms 
 sAe, its. What is meant by a reflexive pronoun ?
 
 Ql'KSTKlNS. J,;! 
 
 18G. Give n list of (ho iiuli'liiiiti; [H'onouiis. Wli.-it i'h h 
 relative pronoun 1 
 
 187. C()iiinioi\t on tho dilVrrout usiifjcs of tlio word l/ml. 
 What do \ou iiiidt'r.vtaiiil by tho toi-in jiouscssirn jn'ouonn ? 
 
 CH AFTER Xir. 
 
 188. Defiiio .111 adjective. What kinds of adjectives admit 
 of comparison ? 
 
 189. Give examples of adjectives used as nouns. Derive 
 the term adjei tivo. 
 
 190. Kxplain, with examples, the difler. nt methods of 
 comparing adjeetives. 
 
 191. Comment, on the tullowing forms :_////•/// cr, furtlirr, 
 rather, nearer, later, latter. 
 
 192. What are our commonest adj( etival sullixos ] What 
 adjectives have we corresponding to the nouns, parish, cat, 
 Juyrse, alms, church, bishop 1 
 
 193. Discuss the adjectives ^)e?yec^, ^oWcti, Z?mar, French. 
 Do tliey admit of compaiison 1 
 
 19-1:. Explain tlie words : fourteen, tircnti/, /I'iiling (as in 
 Nartlb Riihnij), Jortmjht, J'artlunrj, do'^en, htnnlred, score, 
 million, eleven. 
 
 195. Discuss the forms aught, naught, none, for the nonce, 
 willy nilhj, each, sumlnj. 
 
 19G. Compare dry, complete, old, unhappy, near, late, far. 
 What kinds of adjectives do not admit of compaiison ? 
 
 197. Tn wliat various ways lias the roniparativc of adjec- 
 tives been at any time foruu d in Engli.-ii ? Explain tho forms 
 elder, inferim', icorse, lesser. State wiiieh, if any, of them 
 are comparatives according to present n.sage. 
 
 198. Wliieh of onr numerals are non-Teutonic? Com- 
 Oient on the forms: drain, elcrcn, hundred, tirenty.
 
 232 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 199. Mention some of the chief Teutonic suflBxes used in 
 forming adjectives. Comment on the forms : — righteous^ 
 either, heartless, godly. 
 
 200. Comment on the adjectival forms : — beloved, loving, 
 hidden, backward, forward, froward, other, rather, brazen. 
 
 201. Comment on the adjectival forms : — dusty, second, 
 third, childish, sensible, respectable, crystalline, social. 
 
 202. Comment on the adjectival forms : — prudent, senile, 
 tremendous, captive, yellow, stupid, dissolute, jncturesque, 
 choleric. 
 
 203. Point out the relics of any other method of forming 
 the sviperlative than the addition of -est. 
 
 204. Give examples of double comparative and double 
 superlative forms, and of forms combining both signs. 
 
 205. Comment on the forms : — inmost, uttermost, former, 
 foremost, first, upp)ermost, furtJiermost. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 20G. Define a verb. How far ai^e we justified in regard- 
 ing the verb as the most important of the parts of speech ? 
 
 207. Distinguish between strong and weak verbs. On 
 what principle are .strong verl;)s classified 1 
 
 208. Show that think, teach, loill, do not belong to the 
 strong conjugation, in spite of their change of vowel, and 
 state exactly what are the marks of tho strong conjugation. 
 
 209. Define infinitive, strong iierh, umik verb, present par- 
 ticij)le, verbal noun, auxiliary verb. 
 
 210. Define, giving examples, tra^isitive verb, intransitive 
 verb, impersonal verb, verb of incomplete predicatio7i. 
 
 211. To which conjugation do these verbs belong : — bring, 
 fight, read, hang, beseech, go 1 
 
 212. Show that the weak is our living conjugation. Why 
 is it called weak ? What other names for it are suggested 1
 
 QUESTIONS. 233 
 
 213. What ilu you in an by conjugation? Explain briefly 
 the use of each of the clifTorent uiootls in English. 
 
 214. Give instances of voi*bsthat can be used both transi 
 tively and intransitively ; also of some thut can bo used lx)th 
 as comjilete predicates and as incomplete ; also of some that 
 can be used both as auxiUaries and as ordinary verbs. 
 
 215. Mention some strong verbs in ^vhich the n of the 
 past participle has di-opped off; some in which the preterite 
 has come to be used as the past participle ; and .some ^vhich 
 have two forms of the preterite. 
 
 216. Show from still familiar forms that vielt, mow, slucve, 
 sivell, were once of the strong conjugation : and \vrito down 
 the past participles of shoe, light, wwk, knit, speed. 
 
 217. Explain fully how the loss of inflexions is supplied in 
 English verbs. 
 
 218. Explain the correct usage of sludl and will. 
 
 219. What part of .speech is the infinitive? Distinguish 
 between the simple inlinitive and tlio dative infinitive. 
 
 220. Show how tlie present conjugation of s/«'t/^ and will 
 illustrates their origin, and mention any phra.ses or deriva- 
 tives in A\hich the primary meaning of either appaai-s to 
 survive. 
 
 221 To which conjugation do the following verbs be- 
 long :—Ji(jht, teach, hide, do,Jlow,Jlee,Jli/, tell, toWi 
 
 222. How are weak verbs classified ? 
 
 223. Distinguish between the infinitive and the gerund 
 in modern English : and discu.ss the forms in -iinj in the 
 following sentence : — "John and two Jishiinj friends started 
 off early this morning, with tin ir /i.shiiKj i-ods, to thi; river ; 
 hut fishintj was bad to-day, so they have come back empty- 
 handed." 
 
 224. (a) The hanging pictures, (h) The hanging of the 
 pictures. Explain the ditrerence between the two words in 
 italics. What is the originul form of the sullix -ing in each 
 case?
 
 234 THE ENCLTsn language. 
 
 225. Discuss the following verbal forms in italics : — 
 (a) ITow do you do ? (h) I do you to vnt. (c) Woo loorlh 
 the day. (d) He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 
 
 226. Mention some strong verbs that have become 
 weak. Have any originally weak verbs taken strong 
 forms ? 
 
 227. Account for the following forms : — told, soucjht, 
 caught, coidd, must, vnt, are, went, ought, bright. 
 
 228. What do you understand by the expression strong - 
 vieak verb ? Discuss the forms, must, could, should, durst. 
 
 229. Explain the difference in usnge between melted and 
 molten, shaved and shorn, engraved and graven, mowed and 
 nunnU'. 
 
 230. How do you acct>nnt for the marked differences in 
 the forms of tl.e verb to bel 
 
 231. What traces of I'odnplicatlon are there in the 
 language? Account for the I in coidd. 
 
 232. Jye^xwc tense. Give examples of the following tenses : 
 — present coniiwaous, j)ast perfect, imperfect, future perfect. 
 
 233. Explain and account for the difference in accent 
 between present (noun), present (verb), compound (adj.), 
 compound {yevh), frequent [tid].), freq^ient (verb). 
 
 234. Cite six derived words with English,, six with Latin, 
 .'^ix with Gnek, and six with Fi-ench suffixes. 
 
 235. Give a list of the chief Teutonic verbal suffixes, and 
 explnin the force of each. 
 
 236. Explain the foi^ce of the suffix in each of the 
 following vei-bs : — edify, gladden, glimmer, busk, claftp, 
 moralize, pmiish, tremble. 
 
 237. Explain the force of the pi-efix in each of the 
 following :—yo?'6iVZ, ti.ndo, besmear, abstract, contradict, with- 
 draw, jn'ocecd, analyze. 
 
 238. Explain the force of the prefix in each of the 
 following : — mistake, arise, loanton, disgust, survive, translate.^ 
 empliasize, monopolize, neglect.
 
 QUESTIONS, 235 
 
 239. Give tho verbs corrosponilinf:^ to the following nouns 
 and adjectives : — tohite, material, (/old, clieap, mule, st/slcni, 
 Jeiv'i/, deemster. 
 
 240. Cive the voib.«! corros]>onding to tho following' iinnna 
 and adjectives: — liquid, bridf/e, lujlitniiuj, glorij, dd'dij, 
 station, sodden, shot, fwloni. 
 
 241. Give tho transitive forms of the following verbs: — 
 sit, fall, drink, fare, siooop, lie. 
 
 242. Give a list of the chief Teutonic verbal prefixes. 
 
 243. Explain the force of the prefix in oach of these 
 verbs: — besmear, be/iead, bethink, foresee, gainsay, withstand. 
 
 244. Explain the force of tlie prefix in each of tliese 
 verbs : — mistake, to-brake, unbitul, forget, frrbcar, vmnton, 
 arise. 
 
 245. Comment on tho forms: — don, sparkle, bespatter, 
 grasp, bless, dout. 
 
 240. Give exam2)los of d(Toc(i\e verbs. Write down the 
 second i^orson singular preterite of am. What alternative 
 foi-ni is found ? 
 
 247. Show that there is no future tense in the Engli.sh 
 language; and indica'co how we express tlie ideas of .simple 
 futurity, of intention and of compidsion. 
 
 248. Wh.at is the force of the prefix in each of the 
 following verbs: — abstain, indent, dilfuse, conntermand, 
 circnmve/iit, omit, suggest 1 
 
 249. What is the force of tlio j^ofix in each of tho following 
 verbs : — sinnmnint, ivtcrrnjd, neglect, pardon, select, assent, 
 
 forfeit, trespass ?
 
 236 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 250. What is an adverb ? lu what ways are adverbs 
 formed ? 
 
 251. From what other parts of speech are adverbs formed 
 and what is their function 1 Can you cast any light on the 
 forms darkling, whilom, piecemeal, aftei-wards 1 
 
 252. Classify adverbs according to their meaning. 
 
 253. What are the adverbs answering to the adjectives 
 shy, far, fust, kindly, lowly ? Explain the forms betimes, 
 ivhilom, ereiohile, ashore. 
 
 254. Give a concise account of the formation of adverbs. 
 
 255. Give a list of adverbs that are derived from pro- 
 nouns, with comments on theii- forms. 
 
 256. Discuss the forms : — about, betwixt, nntil, duriyig, ex- 
 cept, amongst, save, beside, aboard, abaft, till, notunlJtstandhig. 
 
 257. Give examples of adverbs formed fi*om the oblique 
 cases of nouns. 
 
 258. Classify the adverbial forms based on the pronouns 
 he, thee, who. 
 
 259. Discuss the terminations of the forms : — always, 
 twice, seldom, why, then, here, hither, 
 
 260. Comment on the forms : — grovelling, sidling, no-wise, 
 not, lo-moiTow, ajar, aught. 
 
 261. What do you understand by an adverbial conjunc- 
 tion? What other term is there for it? Give a list of 
 adverbial conjunctions. 
 
 262. To what extent are adverbs inflected? Give 
 examples of adjectives or other parts of speech being 
 used as adverbs.
 
 QUESTIONS. 237 
 
 CllArTKll XV. 
 
 2G3. Pefino a preposition. How are prepositions usually 
 classilii d 1 
 
 2G4. Why are pre})()sitions so Ciilkd ? Discuss tlic use of 
 past in " lie wnnt past the house"; of of in " Tlio Islaml of 
 Great Britain " ; of bi/ in " Do your duty b>/ the University." 
 
 265. Give the origin and meaning of: — save, but, between, 
 notwitJistaiuling , during, 
 
 266. Give examples of the diflerent senses in which by, to, 
 with, ai-e used. 
 
 267. How are prepositions formed ? Give examples of 
 prepositions formed fiom nouns, adverbs, other prcpo.sitions. 
 
 268. What are verl)al prepositions 1 Give a list of them 
 explaining fully their history and usage. 
 
 269. Comment on the forms : — till, off, near, over, aboard, 
 beside, during, notwit/mtanding, save. 
 
 CHAPTERS XVI. <t XVIT. 
 
 270. What is a conjunction 1 How are conjunctions 
 usually classified ? 
 
 271. What do you mean by subordinating conjunctions ? 
 How are they classified 1 Give an example of each class. 
 
 272. Explain clearly the office of the conjunction in our 
 langimge, and comment on the following forms: — alas, tcell- 
 U'dai/, and, marry, hist, laivk-a-mussy.
 
 238 I'liii ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 ClIAPTEll XVIII. 
 
 273. Point out aijy six grammatical errors that are 
 common in ordinary colloquial speech. 
 
 274. Correct or justify : — 
 
 (a) " It is me." 
 
 {[)) " I intended to have written to you." 
 
 (c) " The people is one ; they have all one 
 
 language." 
 (c^) "And when they arose, early in the morning, 
 
 behold they were all dead corpses." 
 
 275. Correct or justify : — 
 
 ((/,) " I love you more than him." 
 
 (b) "The wages of sin is death." 
 
 (c) " I often lay down of a morning." 
 
 (d) " Being very hungry, tlie hotel was a welcome 
 
 refuge to the party." 
 
 276. Correct or justify : — 
 
 (a) " I A\i!l be drowned ; nobody shall help me." 
 (/;) " England's Mediterranean power was in 
 
 danger." 
 (c) " They attacked Northumberland's house, 
 
 whom they put to death." 
 (fZ) " Have you heard of your son's robbery ? " 
 
 277. Correct or justify : — 
 
 («) " "When I got there, he ivas gone out of the 
 
 house." 
 (i) " He leaned his head on his hands, and in a 
 moment was gone." 
 " I shall detain you no longer, but tvill i)oint 
 ou.t the road to you at once." 
 {d) " Kor not to have been dipped in Lethe's stream 
 Coidd .'■ave the son of Thetis from to die."
 
 QUESTIONS. 'i39 
 
 278. Corn ct or justify : — 
 
 (a) " Tiiu mob is cruel ; thfy are i;^norant." 
 
 (b) " A feeble, harsh, or oUscuro .styli; are serious 
 
 faults." 
 
 (c) " Each of them were ri atly to die." 
 (c^) " Homer as well as Vergil were road." 
 
 279. Coriet-t or justify : — 
 
 {(i) " Full many a ilower is born to blu.sh unseen." 
 {!>) " Oh ! I am the cook and the captain bold, 
 
 And the mate of the Nancy brig." 
 (c) " He h.id lost his wile while he w;is Governor 
 
 of Jamaica." 
 (cZ) " You may do what you have done a century 
 ago." 
 
 280. Quote six examples of incorrect English you have 
 noticed in conversatioii, and point out the oiror in each case. 
 
 281. Parse jjlease in "Please write dearly"; thank in 
 " Tliank you " ; like in " If you like " ; bad in " Erom Ijad 
 to worse " ; you in " Get you gone." 
 
 282. Correct or justify : — 
 
 (ft) " I don't like those sort of peoi)lo." 
 
 (b) " Jle aggravated me." 
 
 (c) "Was it' him r' 
 
 283. Give a list of verbs after which the infinitive should 
 b»i used.
 
 240 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Analyse the following, and parse the words in italics : — 
 
 284. 
 
 " Good unexpected, evil unforesceu, 
 Appear by turns, as fortune shifts the scene : 
 Some, praised aloft, come Uimhling down amain, 
 Then fall so hard, they bound and rise again." 
 
 285. 
 
 286. 
 
 " To a huntsman 
 His toil is Ms delight, and to complain 
 Of weariness would show as poorly in him 
 As if a general should grieve for a wound 
 Received upon his forehead, or his Irrast, 
 After a glorious victory." 
 
 "The aged man, that coffers up his gold. 
 Is plagued with crami)s, and gouts, and painful fits, 
 And .scarce hath eyes his treasure to behold ; 
 But still like jnning Tantalus he sits. 
 And useless bans tiie harvest, of his wits, 
 Having no other pleasure of his gain 
 But torment, tliat it cannot cure his pain." 
 
 287. 
 
 "Sloth makes all things difficult, but industry all easy; and he 
 
 that riseth late must trot all day, and shall scarce overtake his I 
 
 business at night ; while laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon I 
 overtakes him." 
 
 288. ' 
 
 " Circles are prais'd, not that abound I 
 
 In largeness, hut tK exactly round : \ 
 
 So life we praise that docs excel -i 
 
 Not in much time, but acting well." I
 
 289. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 241 
 
 W/icre luve roi;_Mis, disturbing joalou-sy 
 
 Until c;ill /uw,\v7/alliictioii'3 scutinel, 
 O'ive false alarms ; sui,'ycstoth mutiny, 
 And, in a peaceful hour, doth cry kill, kill." 
 
 290. 
 
 " The bride kissed the goblet. The knight took it vp, 
 He quaffed uU the wine, and he threw down the cup. 
 yhe hxjked down to Jiliiah, and she looked up to sigh, 
 With a smile on her lii>, and a tear in her eye. 
 lie took her soft hand ere her mother could bar ; 
 ' Now tread we a measure ! ' said young Lochinva:." 
 
 291. 
 
 " Though a soldier, in time of peace, is like a chimney in summer, 
 yet what wise man would pluck down his chimney btOiUoC iiis 
 almanack tells him 'tis the middle of June I " 
 
 292. 
 
 293. 
 
 * Thcrifore at Pentecost, which l)ring8 
 The spring, clothed like a bride, 
 When III atling buds unfold their wii g.4, 
 And bishop's-caps have goklen rings, 
 Musing upon many things, 
 1 sou (//it the woodlands wide." 
 
 "Pleasant it was, when woods were green, 
 And winds were soft and low, 
 To lie amid some sylvan scene. 
 Where, the long drooi)iug boughs between, 
 Shadows dark and sunlight sheen 
 Alternate come and go." 
 
 294. 
 
 " There is not a man in the world, but desires to be, or to be thought 
 to be, a wise man ; and yet if he considered how little he contributes 
 himself thereunto, he might wonder to find himself in any tolerable 
 degree of undemtanding," 
 
 " Up with it high ; unfurl it wide ; that all the host may know 
 How God hath humbled the proud house which nrought His 
 Church such woe." 
 
 E. L. 1'
 
 242 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 29G. 
 
 " JTavinfi heard that the cadi of one of his twelve tribes adminis- 
 tered iustice in an admirable manner, and pronounced decisions in 
 a style worlhy of King Solomon himself, Bou-Akas determined to 
 judge for hims'elf as to the truth of the report." 
 
 297. 
 
 298. 
 
 299 
 
 300. 
 
 301. 
 
 302. 
 
 «' Oh, it was a i\.m& forlorn. 
 When the fatherless was born I 
 Give her wings that she may fly 
 Or she sees her infant die ! " 
 
 •' Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
 Of that forbidden tree, ivhosc mortal taste 
 Brought death into the world, and all our woe 
 With loss of Eden, till one greater Man 
 Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
 Sing, heavefily muse/". 
 
 " Thammuz came next behind. 
 Whose annual wound in Lebanon allured 
 The Syrian damsels to lament his fate, 
 In am'rous ditties all a snmmer''s day ; 
 While smooth Adonis from his native rock 
 Man purple to the sea, supposed with blood 
 Of Thammuz yearly loownded." 
 
 •* So let it rest : and time loill come 
 When here the tender-hearted 
 May heave a gentle sigh for him. 
 As one of the departed." 
 
 " Beside yon straggling fence that skirts the way, 
 With blossomed furze unprofitably gay, 
 There, in his noisy mansion, slilled to rule. 
 The village master taught his little school." 
 
 " The way of fortune is like the milky way in the sky ; which is a 
 
 meeting or knot of a number of small stars, not seen asunder, but 
 
 giving light together ; so are there a number of little and scarce 
 
 discerned virtues, or rather faculties and customs, that make men 
 
 fortunate." 
 
 i
 
 QUESTIONS. 24^ 
 
 303. 
 
 " In that same hour and hall, the finj^crs of a hand 
 Came forth afj;ainst the wall, and wrote as if on sand : 
 The finj,'crs of a man ; — a solitary hand 
 AloJUj the letters ran, and traced them like a wand," 
 
 304. 
 
 305. 
 
 30G. 
 
 307. 
 
 308. 
 
 309. 
 
 " Three poets in three distant ages horn, 
 Greece, Italy, and England did adorn. 
 The first in loftiness of thouj^'ht surpassed, 
 The next in ninjesty ; in hotk the laxt. 
 The force of nature could no further go ; 
 To make a third sJie joined the other two." 
 
 " To-morrow, ere fresh morning streak the east 
 With first approach of light, we must be risen, 
 And at our pleasant labour, to reform 
 Yon flowery arbours." 
 
 '* 77/«.9 Satan, talking to his nearest mate, 
 AVith head vj)lift above the wave, antl eyes 
 That sjHirklinf/ blazed ; his other parts beside 
 Prone on the Hood, rxti ndcd long and large, 
 Lay floating many a rood." 
 
 " Then when he saw it eoi/ld hold no more, 
 Bishop Hatto he made fast the door ; 
 And while for mercy on Christ they call, 
 He set fire to the barn and burned them all. 
 
 " Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled, 
 And still where many a garden flower grows iv^ild ; 
 There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose. 
 The village preacher's modest inansion rose," 
 
 " You saw the greatest warrior of the age — conqueror of Italy, 
 humbler of Germany, teiTor of the North, — you saw him account all 
 his matchless victories poor compared with the triumph which jou 
 are now in a condition to win I "
 
 244 THE KNGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 310. 
 
 " From every clime theij come 
 To see thy leauty, and to share thy joy, 
 O Sion 1 an assembly such as earth 
 Saw 7iever, such as heaven stoops down to sec." 
 
 311. 
 
 Ho I Philip, send, for charity, thy Mexican pistoles, 
 
 'J'hat Antwerp monks may sing a mass for thy 2)0 or spearmen's souls." 
 
 312 
 
 " Love had he found in huts where poor men lie / 
 Ilis daily teachers had been woods and rills. 
 The silence that is in the starry sky, 
 The sleep that is among the lonely hills." 
 
 313. 
 
 " For swift to cast and swift to locst the ghastly war-Jlame spread ; 
 High on St. Michael's Mount it shone ; it shone on Beachy Head. 
 Far on the deep the Spaniard saw, along each southern shire, 
 Cape beyond cajic, in endless range, those twinhling i)oints of fire.'' 
 
 314. 
 
 " The castled crag of Drachenfels 
 
 Frowns o'er the wide and winding Rhine, 
 Whose breast of waters broadly swells 
 
 Between the banks that bear the vine ; 
 And hills all rich with blossomed trees. 
 
 And fields which promise corn and wine 
 And scattered cities crowning these. 
 
 Whose far white walls along them shine, 
 Have strewed a scene which I should see 
 With douVjle joy ivert thou with me." 
 
 315. 
 
 " If the government of any other country contains an insurrection- 
 ary principle, as France did when she offered to aid the insurrection 
 of her neighbours, your interference is warranted ; if the government 
 of another country contains the principle of universal empire, aa 
 France did, and provmlgated, your interference is justifiable."
 
 QUESTIONS. 245 
 
 316. 
 
 "With thy clear keen joyance 
 L.inf;iior cannot be : 
 Shadow of annoyance 
 Never came near thoe : 
 TJum lovext ; hut nevr knew hwe'x sad satiety* 
 
 317. 
 
 " He now preparcil 
 To speak ; whereat their douhled ranks they bend 
 From winp; to win?, and half enclose him round 
 Witli all his peers: attention held them mnte. 
 Thrice he essayed, and thrice, in spite of scorn, 
 Tears, svch as angeh tveejj, lurst forth." 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 318. "Wliat do you understand by : — rhi/rne, rhythm, 
 alliteration, metre, assonance ? Give examples in each 
 case. 
 
 319. Which spelling do you prefer, rhyme or rime ? 
 Give reasons for your preference. 
 
 320. Give an account of three or four metres that you 
 have met with in Englisli poetry. What do you under 
 stand by hlanh verse ?
 
 INDEX 
 
 Tlie viimhcrs refer to ihe sections of the hoolc. 
 
 I.— GRAMMATICAL TERMS, ETC. 
 
 Ablaut, 61. 
 
 Absolute construction, 227, 2"S. 
 
 Accent, 2.)9-6L 
 
 Accent distinguishing between 
 ■words similarly spelt, ISO. 
 
 Accentuation, 2.')0-3. 
 
 Accidence, Province of, 89. 
 
 Active : see Verbs. 
 
 Additions to words, GS. 
 
 Adjectives: definition, 139 ; 
 classification (quality, qur.n- 
 tity, etc.), 140 ; inflexion, 
 141 ; comparison (normal), 
 142-3 ; irregular, 144-6 ; for- 
 mation, 148-55. 
 
 Adverbs : definition, 200 ; classi- 
 fication (mmner, place, etc.), 
 201 ; comparison, 202 ; for- 
 mation, 204-9. 
 
 Aflix, 53, 60. 
 
 Albanian. 4. 
 
 Alexandrine, 263. 
 
 Alliteration, 271. 
 
 Alphabet, 28. 
 
 Analysis, 242-9. 
 
 Analytic language, 5. 
 
 Anapaest, 257. 
 
 Anapaestic Metres, 266. 
 
 Angles, 1. 
 
 Anglo-French, 14. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon : see Old English. 
 
 Aphaeresis, 67, 81. 
 
 Apocope, 67, 79. 
 Apposition, 225. 
 Arabic, 27. 
 Armenian, 4. 
 Arsis, 258. 
 
 Aryan ; see Indo-European. 
 Asiatic Languages, 4. 
 Assimilation, 66, 78. 
 Aspirates, 43. 
 Assonance, 270. 
 
 Baltic-Slavonic Languages, 4. 
 Blank verse, 264. 
 Breton, 4. 
 
 Caesura, 256. 
 
 Case : Formation of possessive, 
 
 112-3; O.E. case flexion, 
 
 114; ti-accs of case flexion. 
 
 other than the possessive in 
 
 modern English, 130, 206. 
 Celtic languages, 4 ; element in 
 
 English, 12, 25. 
 Checks,'32. 
 Chinese, 27. 
 Clauses : see Sentences. 
 Cognate, IMeaningof thetei-m, 42. 
 Common ]\Ietre, 263. 
 Comparative : i^ee Adjectives. 
 Compounds, Formation of : 
 
 nouns, 120; adjectives, 148; 
 
 verbs. 189. 
 
 240
 
 IXDKX I. 
 
 2r 
 
 Conrortls, 223-6. 
 Conjiii^ation : see Vc'rl)s. 
 Coiijiiiiclions, 217-0. 
 ConsoTianls, Dcfiiiiliuu (if, 20; 
 
 clii.ssilicatioii, 30-4. 
 Continunnts, 30. 
 Cymric, 4. 
 
 Dactyl, 257. 
 
 Dactylic SIctrcs, 2G7. 
 
 Declension, 21.'i. 
 
 Dentals, 33-1. 
 
 Derivatives, ')S. 
 
 Dialects of Old Eni^'lish 1. 
 
 Diphthong, 20, 38. 
 
 Disiippearancos from words, G7. 
 
 Douldets, 74. 
 
 Dutch Element in En',';ish, 22. 
 
 English, 1. 
 Epenthesis, GS, 83. 
 Epithesis, G8, 84. 
 Erse, 4. 
 
 Factitive predicate : see Verhs. 
 
 Feet (metrical), 2.')6. 
 
 Finite : see Verbs. 
 
 Flexions, Decay of, in Englisli, ."i ; 
 
 all native, in English, 17; 
 
 definition. 88. 
 French, 4. 
 French element in English : see 
 
 Romance. 
 PVench words, tin ir formation, 
 
 GO-6 
 Fricatives, 30. 
 
 Gaelic, 4. 
 Gender, 11'). 119. 
 Gerund, gerundive : see Yerhs. 
 Gothic, 4. 
 Gradation, Gl. 
 Grammar, Definition of, 8.5. 
 Greek woi'ds in English, 24. 
 Grimm'a law (Chapter V.) : se- 
 lected examples, 52. 
 Gutturals, 33, 3t. 
 
 Hard consonants, 32. 
 Ilehrew, 27. 
 
 Hellenic, 4. 
 Heroic verse, 2G4. 
 Hexameter, 2G3. 
 
 High CJerman element in Eng- 
 lish, 22. 
 Himloo, 4, 2G. 
 Hungarian, 27. 
 Hybrid, 17. 
 
 Iamb, 257. 
 
 Iambic metres, 263. 
 
 Indian group of languages, 4. 
 
 Indirect object, 228. 
 
 Indo-European languages. 3 ; 
 
 Table of, 1. 
 Infinite, infinitive : see Verbs. 
 Tnllexion, 88. 
 Interjections, 220-1. 
 Intransitive : nee V( rbs. 
 Iranian group of languages, 4. 
 Italian, 4, 23. 
 
 Jutes, 1. 
 
 I/ibials, 33-34. 
 
 i^atin element in English: see 
 
 Romance. 
 Letter, 28. 
 Liquids, 30. 
 Low German group, 2, 4. 
 
 Manx, 4. 
 
 l\Ietathcsis, 65, 77. 
 
 iletre, 255. 
 
 Middle English, Meaning of the 
 
 term, 6. 
 IMood, 163. 
 JIutation, 62. 
 Mutes, 32. 
 
 Nasals, 30. 
 
 Nominative, 93, 227. 
 
 Norman influence, 14. 
 
 Nouns: di'finition, 96 ; common, 
 proper, 97 ; collective, ab- 
 stract, verbal, 98. 
 Plurals, 100-111 ; in -s, 100-2: 
 nouns entling in -v, 101 ; in 
 -f, 101; -en^ -n pliu-ds, 102 : 
 mutation plurals, 103; doub!i' 
 plural forms, 102; imchanged
 
 248 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGT7AGE. 
 
 plurals, 105 ; nouns with 
 two plurals, 106 ; foreign 
 words in the plural, 106 ; 
 plurals treated as singulars, 
 107 ; singulars treated as 
 plurals, 108 ; nouns which 
 have no phiral form, 109 ; 
 nouns which liavo no singu- 
 lar form, 110; plural of 
 compounds, 111 ; formation, 
 120-8. 
 Numerals, 147. ^ 
 
 Ohjoctive, 93, 228. 
 
 Old English, IMcaning of the 
 
 term, G. 
 Onomatopccia, 19. 
 Open consonants, 30. 
 
 Parsing, 240-1. 
 
 Parts of speech. Definitions of, 
 87. 
 
 Passive : see Verhs. 
 
 Pentameter, 262-3. 
 
 Persian, 4, 26. 
 
 Plural of nouns : see Nouns. 
 
 Poetry: lyric, 281; ejuc, 282; 
 dramatic, 283 ; didactic, 284 ; 
 pastoral, 285. 
 
 Portuguese, 4, 23. 
 
 Positive degree : see Adjectives. 
 
 Possessivo,"ir2-3, 229. 
 
 Predicate, 90-1, 227, 230-1. 
 
 Prefix, Explanation of the term, 
 53, 60 ; lists, 196-9. 
 
 Preposititms, 210-6. 
 
 l*rescntive words, 18. 
 
 Primitive words, 123, 147, 184. 
 
 Pronouns, Definition of, 129 ; 
 classification (personal, pos- 
 sessive, reflexive, etc.), 129A ; 
 inflexion, 130-4; double pos- 
 sessive forms, 130; O.E. 
 forms, 131-2, 134; relative, 
 136, 226. 
 
 Prosody, 254. 
 
 Prosthesis, 68, 82. 
 
 "Retained ohject, 228. 
 
 Ehyme, 272. 
 
 Khyme Eoyal, 274. 
 
 Rhythm, 254. 
 
 Romance element in English, 14- 
 
 19; Latin of the "First" 
 
 and "Second" periods, 12, 
 
 23; French, 14, 15, 23; 
 
 Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, 
 
 23. 
 Romance languages. Origin of, 3 ; 
 
 Table, 4. 
 Roumanian, 4. 
 Root, Explanation of the term, 
 
 53, 54, 56-60. 
 Root, English, 54 ; Teutonic, 60. 
 
 Sanskrit, 4, 26. 
 
 Saxons, 1. 
 
 Scandinavian element in English, 
 13, 22. 
 
 Scandinavian languages, Talde 4. 
 
 Scansion, 279. 
 
 Sclavonic, 4, 26. 
 
 Semi-vowels, 34. 
 
 Sentences : definition, 86 ; classi- 
 fication, 92, 245, 248. 
 
 Sex, how indicated, 115-S. 
 
 Shall and Will, 177. 
 
 Sibilants, 34. 
 
 Sonants, 30. 
 
 Soft consonants, 32. 
 
 Sonnet, 277. 
 
 Spanish^ 4, 23. 
 
 Speech, Organs of, 29. 
 
 Spelling, Inconsistencies of, 40-1 ; 
 etymological, 41. 
 
 Spenseiian stanza, 275. 
 
 Spirants, 30, 43-46. 
 
 Spondee, 257. 
 
 Stanza, 254, 273-8. 
 
 Stem, 56. 
 
 Stops, 32. 
 
 Strong declension, 113. 
 
 Strong verbs, 168-9. 
 
 Subject, 90-1. 
 
 Subjunctive, Use of , 232-5. 
 
 Snifixes, Explanation of the 
 term, 50, 56, 00 ; of nouns, 
 121-8; of adjectives, 150-4.
 
 INDEX T. 
 
 249 
 
 Superlative degree : .lee Adjee- 
 
 lives. 
 Symbolic words, 18. 
 Syncope, 67, 80. 
 Syntax, Province of, 89. 
 Synthetic Inngunge, 5. 
 
 Tense, 161. 
 
 Teutonic element in English, 
 
 17-19, 22. 
 Teutonic Innnuagos, Description 
 
 of, 2; ta'hle.'-t. 
 ITicsi.s, 2r)8. 
 Transitive : sec Verbs. 
 Trocliaic Metres, 265. 
 Trochee, 2r)7. 
 Turkish, 27. 
 
 Umlaut, 62. 
 Unvoicing, 70. 
 
 Verbs: definition, ir)6; finite, 
 infinite, ir)6; transitive, in- 
 transitive, 157 ; active, pas- 
 sive, l.>7 ; auxiliary, neuter 
 reflexive, imper.sonal, 157 
 incomplete predication, 231 
 factitive prcilicato, 230 
 
 number, person, 159, 160 ; 
 tense, mood, 161-6 ; gerund- 
 ial infinitive, 160, 237 ; 
 verb-noun (or gerund), 166, 
 239 ; verb-adjective (parti- 
 ciples), 106, 238; definition 
 of "weak" and '"stHmg" 
 conjugation, 168 ; list of 
 strong verbs, 169 ; strong 
 verbs -which ha\e become 
 weak, 171 ; weak verl)3 
 become strong, 172 ; irregu- 
 larities in the weak verbs, 
 17-1-5; strong-weak verbs 
 and other minor conjuga- 
 tions, 176-80; conjugation 
 in full, 181-3. 
 Formation of verbs, IS 1-99, 
 
 Verncr's law, 45-7. 
 
 Vocative, 227. 
 
 Voiced and Voiceless, 32. 
 
 Voicing, 69. 
 
 Vowel, (3bscuro, 37. 
 
 Vowels, Difinilion of, 29 ; chief 
 varieties, 36, 37. 
 
 Weak conjugation, 168. 
 W(':ik declension, 113.
 
 II.— SELECTED WORDS AND AFFIXES. 
 
 A, H7. 
 a-, 197-9, 214, 
 ab-, abs-, 198. 
 Abbess, 116. 
 Able, 152. 
 -able, 152. 
 About, 214. 
 -ace, 127. 
 -acle, 127. 
 Acre, 51. 
 -ad, 127. 
 ad-, 198. 
 Adamant, 81. 
 -ade, 127. 
 Ado, 197. 
 Advance, 198. 
 After, 213. 
 Against,68, 200,214, 
 -age, 127. 
 Aggressive, 78. 
 Agree, 79. 
 -ain, 127, 152. 
 al-, 27. 
 -al, 152. 
 Ahis, 221. 
 Alderman, 121. 
 Allow, 80. 
 Alone, 67. 
 Along, 214. 
 Alms, 24, 108. 
 Am, 17G. 
 ambi-, 199. 
 amphi-, 199. 
 An, 147. 
 an-, a-, 199. 
 ana-, 199. 
 -ance, 127. 
 Ancient, 127. 
 
 And, 219. 
 -and, 127. 
 Anent, 214. 
 Angel, 24. 
 Answer, 197. 
 -ant, 152. 
 ante-, 193. 
 Anthem, 24. 
 anti-, 198-9. 
 Antic, 74. 
 Anticipate, 198. 
 Antique, 74. 
 arch-, 199. 
 -ard, 127. 
 Are, 176. 
 Art, 17G. 
 -ary, 127, 152. 
 Assimilate, 78. 
 -ate, 127, 151, 194. 
 Aught, 208. 
 Aunt, 19. 
 fluto-, 199. 
 Awake, 197. 
 Aware, 197. 
 
 BailifP, 152. 
 Balloon, 127. 
 Balm, 73. 
 Balsam, 78. 
 Barbarous, 19. 
 Barley, 122. 
 Barn, 122. 
 Baxter, 117. 
 Be, 176. 
 be-, 197, 214. 
 Bear (vb), 44, 51. 
 Bedlam, 26. 
 Beef, 19. 
 
 2J0 
 
 Best, 146. 
 Better, 146. 
 bi-, bis-, 198. 
 Birth, 126. 
 Bishop, 24. 
 Blame, 74. 
 Blaspheme, 74. 
 -bio, 152. 
 Bleed, 187. 
 Bless, 190. 
 Bodkin, 126. 
 Bosh, 221. 
 Bough, 51. 
 Bounty, 73. 
 Bow (vb), 51. 
 Bramble, 68, 126. 
 Brand, 65, 126. 
 Breadth, 120. 
 Brethren, 103, 106. 
 Bridal, 12G. 
 -bridge, 22. 
 Brilliant, 26. 
 Brother, 47,51. 
 Brought, 175. 
 Bullock, 126. 
 Bundle, 126. 
 Burial, 126. 
 Bus, 67. 
 But, 214. 
 Buxom, 150. 
 -by, 22. 
 
 Cadence, 74. 
 Caitiff, 78. 
 Camera, 74. 
 Can, 177. 
 Cannon, 127. 
 Canon, 24, 127.
 
 -caster, 23. 
 
 catu-, 199. 
 
 Caught, 175. 
 
 -ccstor, 23. 
 
 Chaffer, 121. 
 
 Chamber, 74, 83. 
 
 Chance, 74. 
 
 Charm, 127. 
 
 Chancellor, 127. 
 
 Chandler, 19. 
 
 C liajiler, 127. 
 
 Cliaritv, 127. 
 
 Chattels. 78. 
 
 CheiTV, lOG. 
 
 -Chester, 23. 
 
 Ciiiclcen, 126. 
 
 Children, 102. 
 Cliurch, 24. 
 circiim-, 198. 
 Civic, 128. 
 Clad, 174. 
 Claret, 127. 
 Clasp, 65. 
 Clerk, 24. 
 Culd, 51. 
 Collect, 78, 198. 
 -coin, 23. 
 com-, 198. 
 Comh, 51, 
 Compute, 74, 78. 
 Conduit, 78. 
 Connect, 198. 
 Constable, 122. 
 contra-, 198. 
 Copper, 23. 
 Com, 50, 51. 
 CoiTupt, 198. 
 Costemionger, 121. 
 Could, 41. 
 Count, 74. 
 counter-, 198. 
 Cousin, 19. 
 Coward, 127. 
 Cowl, 23. 
 Coy, 74. 
 -craft, 121. 
 Crayfish, 122. 
 Creed, 23. 
 Cripple, 126. 
 
 IXDEX ir. 
 
 25] 
 
 Crus.ade, 127. 
 
 Each, 148. 
 
 Cunning, 177. 
 
 Earth, 12G. 
 
 Cznr, 26, 118. 
 
 Eat, 51. 
 
 
 Eaves, 108. 
 
 -dale, 22. 
 
 Egotist, 128. 
 
 Damask, 26. 
 
 Eight, 147. 
 
 Dam.son, 26. 
 
 Either, 148. 
 
 Damsel, 127. 
 
 ek-, 199. 
 
 Dare, 178. 
 
 Eke, 51. 
 
 Darling, 126. 
 
 -el, 126. 
 
 Daughter, 51. 
 
 Elder, 145. 
 
 de-, 198. 
 
 Eleyen, 117. 
 
 Deacon, 24. 
 
 em-, 198-9. 
 
 Dean, 127. 
 
 Ember-days, 122 
 
 Debit, 74. 
 
 Empress, 118. 
 
 Debt, 41, 74. 
 
 Empty, 68. 
 
 Deed, 126. 
 
 -on, 102, 117, 150. 
 
 1 Deem, 187. 
 
 -en (vb. suffi.x), 190 
 
 Deer, 104. 
 
 en-, 198-9. 
 
 Degrade, 79. 
 
 -ence, 127. 
 
 Degree, 79. 
 
 -end, 127. 
 
 Delay, 74. 
 
 Enemy, 127. 
 
 demi-, 198. 
 
 Enough, 197. 
 
 Devil. -24. 
 
 enter-, 198. 
 
 di-, 198-9. 
 
 -ent, 152. 
 
 dia-, 199. 
 
 Envious, 152. 
 
 Diamond, 80. 
 
 epi-, 199. 
 
 Dilate, 74. 
 
 -er, -est (comparative 
 
 dis-, di-, 198. 
 
 suffixes), 142-3. 
 
 Do, 51, 180. 
 
 -er, 117, 126-7, 151. 
 
 Doff, 189. 
 
 -er (vb. suffix;, 154. 
 
 -dom, 124. 
 
 -cm, 150. 
 
 Door, 51. 
 
 -es, 100. 
 
 Doubt, 41. 
 
 -esque, 153. 
 
 Dough, 51. 
 
 -ess, 116, 127. 
 
 Dozen, 147. 
 
 Essay, 78, 198. 
 
 Draft, 126. 
 
 Estate, 82. 
 
 Drake, 23. V22. 
 
 Etheling, 126. 
 
 Drench, 1S8. 
 
 Every, 148. 
 
 Dropsy, 24. 
 
 ex-, e-, 198-9. 
 
 Drought, 126. 
 
 Examine, 78. 
 
 Duchess, 116. 
 
 extra-, 198. 
 
 Duchy, 127. [ 
 
 ey-ne, 102. 
 
 Duo, 79. 1 
 
 Eyry,41. 
 
 During, 215. 
 
 
 Dutcli, 2. 
 
 Faction, 74. 
 
 dys-, 109. 
 
 larther, 145. 
 
 
 Ea.shion, 74. 
 
 -0, 6. 1 
 
 -fast, 149.
 
 252 
 
 THE EXGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Father, 42, 47, 51. 
 Tawn, 190. 
 
 Feat, 78. 
 Fee, 51. 
 Feet, 103. 
 Fell (sb.), 51. 
 FeU (vb.). ISS. 
 Ferrv, 18S. 
 Fever, 23. 
 Few, 51. 
 Filth, 126. 
 First, 144. 
 -firth, 20. 
 Fish, 51. 
 Five, 147. 
 -fold, 149. 
 Foot, 51, 63. 
 for-, 197. 
 -ford, 22. 
 fore-, 197. 
 Foreclose, 198. 
 Foremost, 144. 
 Forfeit, 198. 
 Forlorn, 47, 170. 
 Former. 144. 
 Four, 147. 
 Fragile, 74. 
 Frail, 74. 
 Frenzy, 24. 
 Fridav, 113. 
 -frith; 22 
 Frontispiece, 41. 
 Fuchsia, 22. 
 -ful, 149. 
 Further, 14.5. 
 -fy, 191. 
 
 gain-, 197. 
 Gall, 51. 
 Garden, 51. 
 (rarlic, 122. 
 Gauntlet, 127. 
 Geese, 103. 
 Gin, 67. 
 Glede, 126. 
 Godhead, 124. 
 Good-bye, 122. 
 Goose, 51, 103. 
 Gosling, 126. 
 
 Gospel, 122. 
 Gossip. 70, 122. 
 Govern, 24. 
 -gram, 128. 
 -graphy, 128. 
 Grasp, 65, 190. 
 Grimalkin , 126. 
 Grocer, 19. 
 Groom, 51. 
 Grovelling, 207. 
 Guest, 51. 
 
 Had, 174. 
 Halidome, 124. 
 -ham, 22. 
 Handicraft, 121. 
 Handiwork, 121. 
 Hang. 170. 
 Hatred. 125. 
 Haughty, 82. 
 Head, 51. 
 -head. 124. 
 Health, 126. 
 Heart, 51. 
 Heave, 51. 
 hemi-, 199. 
 Hemp, 27. 
 Hen, 51. 
 Hence, 206. 
 Her, hers, 130-1. 
 -herd, 121. 
 Here, 206. 
 hetero-, 199. 
 Hide. 172. 
 Hight, 169. 
 Him, 130-1. 
 HLs. 130-1. 
 History, 74. 
 Hither, 20C. 
 homo-, 199. 
 -hood, 124. 
 Horn, 47, 51. 
 Hospital, 74. 
 Hosen. 102. 
 Host, 78. 
 Hostel, 74-8. 
 Hotel, 74-8. 
 Hoyel, 126. 
 Hound, 51. 
 
 How, 206. 
 HoAvl, 82. 
 Huckster, 117. 
 Humble, 83. 
 Hundred, 51, 147. 
 Husband, 122. 
 Hussy, 122. 
 hyper-, 199. 
 hypo-, 199. 
 
 I, 51. 
 
 -ian, 127. 
 
 -iar, 152. 
 
 -ible, 152. 
 
 -ic, 128. 
 
 -ice, 127. 
 
 -id, 152. 
 
 -ier, 127. 
 
 -iff, 152. 
 
 -11, -ile, 152. 
 
 Impatient, 78. 
 
 in-, 198. 
 
 Inch, 23. 
 
 -ine (Lat.), 152. 
 
 -ine (Gk.), 118. 
 
 -ing, 126, 166. 
 
 Ink, 24. 
 
 Innermost, 144. 
 
 inter-, 198. 
 
 -ion, 127. 
 
 -iour, 127. 
 
 Is, 176. 
 
 -ise, 195. 
 
 -ish (ad j . suffix . ) , 1 5 . 
 
 -ish (vb. suffix). 193. 
 
 Island, 41. 
 
 -ism, 128. 
 
 -ist, 128. 
 
 It, its. 130-1. 
 
 -ite, 152. 
 
 -ity, 127. 
 
 -iye, 152. 
 
 -ize, 195. 
 
 Jot, 26. 
 Journal, 74. 
 Journey, 127. 
 Jury, 127.
 
 INDEX II. 
 
 253 
 
 -k (verb suftLx), 190. 
 Kerchief, 122. 
 Kernel, 126. 
 Kin, 51. 
 -kin. 126. 
 -kind. 121. 
 Kindred, 125. 
 Kine, 103. 
 King, 126. 
 Kitchen, 23. 
 Kitten, 126. 
 Knee, 51. 
 Know, 51. 
 Ivnowltdye, 125. 
 
 Lady, 122. 
 
 Lady day, 113. 
 
 Lammas, 66. 
 
 Lark, 126. 
 
 Ijatter, 145. 
 
 Lay, 153. 
 
 -le, 126. 
 
 -le (vb. suflBs), 154. 
 
 liCast, 146. 
 
 liecral, 74. 
 
 Leisure, l'J2. 
 
 Less, 146. 
 
 -less, 149. 
 
 Lesson, 74. 
 
 -let, 127. 
 
 Let, 173. 
 
 Lewd, 23. 
 
 Lie, 51. 
 
 -like, 142. 
 
 -ling, 126. 
 
 -lingi'adv. suffix), 207. 
 
 Lissom, 150. 
 
 Livelihood, 124. 
 
 -lo-v, 128. 
 
 -long, 207. 
 
 Lord, 122. 
 
 Loud, 51. 
 
 Loval, 74. 
 
 -ly, 149, 204. 
 
 -m(snperlatives),144. 
 -m (verbs), 176. 
 Made, 174. 
 Major, 7-i. 
 
 -ruan, 121. 
 Man. 63. 
 .Alandrake, 122. 
 Mankind, 121. 
 ^larchioness, 116. 
 Marshal, 122. 
 Mass, 23. 
 Master, 73. 
 Maudlin, 26. 
 Maugre. 79. 
 May, 177. 
 Mavor. 74. 
 Me; 130-1. 
 Mead, 126. 
 -meal, 207. 
 ilegrims, 199. 
 Men, 102. 
 -men, -ment, 127 
 meta-, 199. 
 ilickle, 146. 
 Mile, 23. 
 :Million, 147. 
 Mine, 130. 
 Minster, 24. 
 ilint, 23. 
 mis-, 197-8. 
 ilistress, 116. 
 Mitten, 126. 
 Monday, 113. 
 -mong-, 121. 
 Mongrel, 126. 
 Monk, 24. 
 More, 146. 
 -most, 144. 
 Most, 146. 
 i Mote, 179. 
 Much, 146. 
 Must, 179. 
 My, 130. 
 
 Naught, 16 'J. 
 . Near, 145. 
 I Need, 179. 
 
 Neglect, 19S. 
 
 Neighbour. 122. 
 
 Neither, 14 S. 
 
 -ness, 126. 
 
 Next, 145. 
 I Newt, 68. 
 
 Nickname, 122. 
 Nightingale, 122. 
 Nine, 147. 
 Nonce. 68. 
 Nor, 219. 
 Nostril. 122. 
 Not, 208. 
 Noon, 23, 
 Noun, 96. 
 Number, 83. 
 Nurse, 118. 
 
 ob-, obs-, 198. 
 
 -ock, 126. 
 
 Of, 47, 212. 
 
 OS, 47, 212. 
 
 Ufful. 67. 
 
 < >ffer, 78. 
 
 -ola, 127. 
 
 -on, 127. 
 
 Once, 206. 
 
 One, 147. 
 
 -oon, 127. 
 
 Open. 190. 
 
 -or, 127. 
 
 Or, 219. 
 
 or-, 197. 
 
 Orchard, 122. 
 
 Ordeal, 197. 
 
 Ort. 197. 
 
 -ory, 127. 
 
 -ose, 152. 
 
 Ostentatious, 19>. 
 
 Ostler, 84. 
 
 -ot. 127. 
 I Ought, 179. 
 \ -our, 127. 
 [ Our, ours, 130, 131. 
 
 -ous, 71, 152. 
 
 Over, 213. 
 , Owe, 179. 
 
 Own. 190. 
 
 Uxen, 102. 
 
 Palsy, 74. 
 pin-, panto-, 199. 
 p;ira-, 199. 
 Paralysis. 74. 
 Parlour, 127.
 
 254 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Tar son, 198. 
 Past, 215. 
 Pauper, 74. 
 Pea, 23, 106. 
 Pear, 23. 
 Penance, 74. 
 Penitence, 71. 
 Penny, 126. 
 Pepper, 23, 2G. 
 per-, 198. 
 peri-, 199. 
 Phantom, 41. 
 I'henomenon, 41- 
 Pifkaxe, 122. 
 I'ilgrim, 152. 
 Pine, 23. 
 Pit, 23. 
 
 Place, 24, 127. 
 Plaintive, 152. 
 Plate, 24. 
 Pleasure, 192. 
 Poison, 74, 75. 
 Pontiff, 152. 
 Poor, 74. 
 por-, 198. 
 Pork, 19. 
 Posthumous, 41. 
 Potent, 74. 
 Potion, 74-5. 
 Potsherd, 121. 
 Poimd, 23. 
 pKC-, 198. 
 Priest, 24. 
 Prison, 19S. 
 pro- (Lat.), 198. 
 pro- (Gk.), 109. 
 I'roj^er, 97. 
 Provost, 23. 
 Prudent, 152. 
 Public, 128 
 Puissant, 74, 152. 
 Puny, 198. 
 
 Quick, 43. 
 
 Raise, 188. 
 Random, 124. 
 Uansom, 74. 
 Rather, 150. 
 
 Raw, 51. 
 re-, red-, 198. 
 Rear, 188. 
 Receipt, 41. 
 Recipe, 41. 
 Red, 125. 
 Regal, 74. 
 Render, 98. 
 -ric, 125. 
 Riches, 108, 127. 
 Riddle, 12G. 
 Riding, 126. 
 Righteous, 148. 
 Round, 73. 
 Royal, 74. 
 
 -s (adv.), 206. 
 Saturday, 23, 113. 
 Savage, 127. 
 Save, 215. 
 Saviour, 127. 
 Scandal, 24. 
 -scape, 124. 
 Scent, 41. 
 Scholar, 127. 
 Scion, 41. 
 Scythe, 41. 
 se-, 198. 
 
 -se (vb. suffix), 190. 
 Second, 147. 
 Seed, 126. 
 Seldom, 124, 208. 
 Self, -self, 137. 
 Semblance, 83. 
 semi-, 198. 
 Sempstress, 117. 
 Set, 188. 
 Seven, 51, 147. 
 Shall, 177. 
 Shamefaced, 149. 
 She, 130. 
 Sheep, 104. 
 Sheriff, 152. 
 Shilling, 126. 
 -ship, 124. 
 Shoon, 102. 
 Shrift, 126. 
 Sight, 126. 
 Simony, 26. 
 
 Sirloin, 198. 
 Six, 147. 
 -sk, 22. 
 Slander, 24. 
 Sleep, 51. 
 Slip, 51. 
 Sloth, 126. 
 Slumber, 68. 
 Sodden, 47, 170. 
 Sold, 175. 
 -some, 150. 
 Somersault, 12 2. 
 -son, 22. 
 Songstress, 117- 
 Sought, 175. 
 Sovereign, 41. 
 Space, 82. 
 Spend, 23. 
 Spindle, 68, 126. 
 Spinster, 117. 
 Spit, 170. 
 Spital, 74. 
 Spouse, 82. 
 Squire, 82, 127. 
 Steeple, 126. 
 -ster, 117. 
 Sterling, 126. 
 Steward, 122. 
 Stile, 126. 
 Stirrup, 122. 
 Strange, 81. 
 Street, 23. 
 Strength, 126. 
 Story, 74. 
 Stupendous, 152. 
 sub-, 198. 
 Such, 148. 
 Summons, 108. 
 Sunday, 113. 
 super-, 198. 
 Sure, 73. 
 Surface, 74, 198. 
 Surgeon, 24. 
 Swine, 104. 
 Sycophant, 41. 
 syn-, 199. 
 
 Taught, 175. 
 Ten, 51, 114.
 
 IXDEX II. 
 
 255 
 
 Tender, 83. 
 Teutonic, 2. 
 -Ih, 120, loO. 
 That, 51, lo2, 131, 
 
 13G. 
 The (adv.), 206. 
 Thee, 130-1. 
 Tlu'ir, theirs, 130. 
 Th.Mu, 130-1. 
 Then, 206. 
 Thence, 206. 
 -ther, 150. 
 There, 20G. 
 Thev, 130. 
 Thimhle, 126. 
 Thine, 130. 
 Third, 150. 
 Thirteen, 147. 
 This, these, 132. 
 Thither, 206. 
 Thorp, 51. 
 Those, 132. 
 Thou, 51, 130. 
 Thousand, 147. 
 Three, 42, 147. 
 Thrice, 206. 
 Thrust, 173. 
 Thumb, 68. 
 Thunder, 68. 
 Thursday, 113. 
 Thus, 206. 
 -thwaite, 22. 
 Thv, 130. 
 Till, 212. 
 -tion, 127. 
 to-, 197. 
 -ton, 22. 
 Tooth, 51. 
 tra-, 198. 
 trans-, 198. 
 Treason, 74. 
 Tremendous, 152. 
 Trespass, 198. 
 Tribe, 51. 
 
 -Irix, lis. 
 Troth, 126. 
 Trouble, 77. 
 -tude, 127. 
 Tuesday, 113. 
 Twain, 147. 
 Twelve, 147. 
 Twenty, 147. 
 Twice, 206. 
 Two, 147. 
 -ty, 127. 
 TjTant, 84. 
 
 un-, 197. 
 Uncle, 19. 
 Under, 213. 
 Until, 214. 
 Unto, 214. 
 -ure, 127. 
 Us, 130-1. 
 Utter, 144. 
 
 Vanguard, 67- 
 Veal, 19. 
 Viands, 127. 
 vice, 198. 
 Victuals, 41. 
 Viscount, 198. 
 Vixen, 63, 117. 
 Vowel, 74. 
 Voyage, 127. 
 
 Walnut, 122. 
 Walrus, 122. 
 Wanton, 197. 
 -ward, 149. 
 -wards, 207. 
 Warfare, 121. 
 Was, 176. 
 Wassail, 122. 
 -ways, 207. 
 Webster, 117. 
 Wedlock, 12.). 
 Wedncsdav, 113. 
 
 Welkin, 126. 
 Were, 47, 176. 
 What, 51, 133. 
 When, 206. 
 Whence, 206. 
 Where, 206. 
 Whether, 150. 
 Which, 134-6. 
 AVhilom, 206. 
 Whilst, 68, 206. 
 Whither, 206. 
 "Who, whom, 133, 
 
 134, 136. 
 Whose, 133, 136. 
 Why, 206. 
 -wich, 22. 
 -wick, 22. 
 Widower, 126. 
 -wife, 121. 
 Will, 177. 
 -^^^se, 207. 
 Witenageraote, 113. 
 with-, i97. 
 Woman, 66. 
 Women, 102. 
 Work, 51. 
 ^ Vorm wood , 122. 
 Worse, 146. 
 Worship, 124. 
 Worst, 146. 
 Wot, 51. 
 -Wright, 121. 
 Wrousrht, 174. 
 
 y-, 197. 
 -y, 127, 150. 
 Ye, 130-1. 
 Yoke, 51. 
 Yoii, 130-1. 
 Your, 130. 
 Yours, 130. 
 
 Zounds, 221. 
 
 rill.NTKU AT THE lirilLl.VGTO.N I'HKJ-S, CAMUKIUUK.
 
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 Xatin aub (Brcck Clai?5ici?. 
 
 {See also page 4.) 
 
 The editions of Latin and Gkeek Classics contained in the Uni- 
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 lEuGUsb Olancjuaoc anb literature, 
 
 Tte English Language : Its History and Structiue. By W. H. Low, 
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 i£iu3Ut5b Clae^ice. 
 
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 merchant of Venice 
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 10 THE TINirERSITT TUTORIAL SERIES. 
 
 riDeutal anb flDoral Science. 
 
 Ethics, Manual of. By J. S. Mackenzie, M.A., Professor of Logic 
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 12 TEE UNIVERSITY TUTORIAL SERIES. 
 
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 THK UNIVERSITY TUTORIAL SERIES. 13 
 
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