UC-NRLF B 3 D57 M23 > > >> >> JVo.l. i Division Range Shelf Received >P_2*>J >TS :>:>: ^ >;>^s&^*w .* > >> ; ->0 > ^X> ^> f^c&^S <JK>^3ift "vsv*rr ^> > ^ _^^ > .;> ^^^1S>.J > > ^ -^ g> > ^ > ^> ^> > > ] 9 t> THE AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA VOL. I. A -A SHER. THE AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA: OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE EDITED BY . GEORGE RIPLEY AND CHARLES A. DANA. VOLUME I. A-A S H E R. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 549 AXD 551 BROADWAY. LONDON: 16 LITTLE BPJTAIN 1873. L.VTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1857, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in the Clerk s Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. PREFACE. THE work originally published under the title of THE NEW AMERICAN CYCLO PAEDIA was completed in 1863, since which time the wide circulation which it has attained in all parts of the United States, and the signal developments which have .taken place in every branch of science, literature, and art, have induced the editors and publishers to submit it to an exact and thorough revision, and to issue a new edition entitled THE AMERICAN CYCLOPAEDIA. Within the last ten years the progress of discovery in every department of knowledge has made a new work of reference an imperative want. The physi cal sciences have revealed unexpected and important relations in the material world. Chemistry and physiology have been well nigh reconstructed. Light, heat, and force are now subjected to new processes of study, with results truly astonishing. The elements of matter have undergone a fresh analysis, and are arranged in new classifications ; the spectroscope has made known the intimate composition of the stars, and opened the secular history of the sun ; while the researches of the physiologist and the microscopist have won brilliant victories in the field of animated nature. Xo less remarkable advances have been made in ethnology, archaeology, and history. The records of antiquity, have received a new interpretation, and a wonderful light has been thrown upon the annals of our race. The movement of political affairs has kept pace with the discoveries of science, and their fruitful application to the industrial and useful arts and the convenience and refinement of social life. Great wars and consequent revolu tions have occurred, involving national changes of peculiar moment. The civil war of our own country, which was at its height when our last volume appeared, has happily been ended, and a new course of commercial and industrial activity has been commenced. The second French empire has perished, and the third French republic has been proclaimed amid the perturbations of one of the greatest conflicts described in history. A new German empire has been created by the same mighty convulsion ; the Spanish monarchy has fallen, and a repub lic for the first time has been founded on Spanish soil. Austria, defeated by Prussia, has been reconstructed on a new basis, Italy has been united in one kingdom, with Home for its capital, and the temporal power of the Pope completely overthrown. Japan has experienced one of the most remarkable of revolutions, and significant changes have occurred in China and in other parts of Asia. Large accessions to our geographical knowledge have been made v j PREFACE by the indefatigable explorers of Africa, and a new impulse lias been given to human activity on that continent by the discovery of gold and diamonds. The great political revolutions of the last decade, with the natural result of the lapse of time, have brought into public view a multitude of new men, whose names are in every one s mouth, and of whose lives every one is curious to know the particulars. Great battles have been fought and important sieges maintained, of which the details are as yet preserved only in the newspapers or in the transient publications of the day, but which ought now to take their place in permanent and authentic history. Since the completion of our first edition, the decennial censuses of the United States and of Great Britain have been taken, as well as many other censuses throughout the world, and the statistics of population, commerce, manufactures, and other branches of indus try, that were correct at that time, have. been superseded by new material. In preparing the present edition for the press, it has accordingly been the aim of the editors to bring down the information to the latest possible dates, and to furnish an accurate account of the most recent discoveries in science, of every fresh production in literature, and of the newest inventions in the prac tical arts, as well as to give a succinct and original record of the progress of political and historical events. The work has been begun after long and careful preliminary labor, and witli the most ample resources for carrying it on to a successful termination. Several of the most experienced and competent of the writers of the original work have been employed as revisers, and the assistance of new contributors of eminent distinction in their respective departments has been secured, in addi tion to that of members of the former corps. Only such portions of the original matter have been retained as were found to be in accordance with the existing state of knowledge ; every statement has been compared with the latest authori ties ; every error that could be discovered by the most careful scrutiny has been corrected ; many emendations in arrangement and style have been introduced ; all apparent superfluities in subject and treatment have been retrenched ; a multiplicity of new titles, most of which have sprung up since the issue of the first edition, have been added ; while those which have become obsolete, or which were found to have lost most of their former importance, have been made to give place to others of fresher interest and unquestionable value. None o p the original stereotype plates have been used, but every page has been printed on new type, forming in fact a new Cyclopaedia, with the same plan and compass as its predecessor, but with a far greater pecuniary expenditure, and with such improvements in its composition as have been suggested by longer experience and enlarged knowledge. The illustrations which are introduced for the first time in the present edition have been added not for the sake of pictorial effect, but to give greater lucidity and force to the explanations in the text. They embrace all branches of science and of natural history, and depict the most famous and remarkable features of scenery, architecture, and art, as w^ell as the various processes of mechanics and manufactures. Although intended for instruction rather than PREFACE vii f embellishment, no pains have been spared to insure their artistic excellence ; the cost of their execution is enormous, and it is believed they will find a welcome reception as an admirable feature of the Cyclopaedia, and worthy of its high character. The design of THE AMERICAN CYCLOPAEDIA, then, as it was that of the origi nal work on which it is founded, is to furnish a condensed exhibition of the present state of human knowledge on the most important subjects of inquiry. The discussion of the controverted points of science, philosophy, religion, or politics does not enter within its plan ; but it aims exclusively at an accurate and impartial account of the development of opinion in the exercise of thought, of the results of investigation in every department of science, of the prominent events in the history of the world, of the most significant productions of litera ture and art, and of the celebrated individuals whose names are associated with the phenomena of their age. In preparing the materials of the work, neither the editors nor their collab orators have attempted to make it a vehicle for the expression of personal notions. As far as was consistent with the nature of the case, they have con fined themselves to the historical relation of facts, without assuming the function of advocates or judges. In instances which seemed to demand a positive verdict, they have endeavored to present an illustration of evidence rather than an exhibition of argument. Each subject has been treated in the point of view of those with whom it is a specialty, and not in that of indifferent or hostile observers. In order to secure the most complete justice in this respect, the various articles in the work have been intrusted, as far as possible, to writers whose studies, position, opinions, and tastes were a guarantee of their thorough information, and furnished a presumption of their fairness and impartiality. In a work primarily intended for popular instruction and entertainment, it is obvious that elaborate treatises on the subjects which are brought forward in its pages would be inappropriate. Hence no attempt has been made to furnish the masters of literature and science with new facts or principles in their peculiar branches of study. On the contrary, the editors have only sought to present such selections from the universal treasury of knowledge as w r ill place the cultivators of one department of research in possession of the achievements of other departments, and especially to spread before the great mass of intelli gent readers a faithful report of the opinions, systems, discoveries, events, actions, and characters that make up the history of the world. A popular method, however, has not been pursued at the expense of thoroughness of research and copiousness of statement in regard to topics which seemed to demand a more extended treatment. Ample space has been nllotted to articles of this character, especially on subjects connected with modern scientific discoveries, mechanical and industrial inventions, the princi ples of physiology and hygiene, and American and European history, biography, and geography. Several of our titles in those divisions are treated with a ful ness of detail, and present a variety as well as an exactness of information, which it is believed will entitle them to the rank of standard authorities. viii PREFACE While the brevity that has been observed on points of secondary interest has enabled the editors to give a greater number of titles than is usual in pro ductions of similar intent, they have rigidly excluded those which would increase the size of the work without enhancing its value. The terms which require only the common dictionary definitions, and the proper names which iill an unimportant place in gazetteers and biographical dictionaries, have been rejected on system. The materials which have served as a foundation for the work have been derived from a great variety of sources. Besides the standard works on special subjects, scientific, literary, or historical, the numerous encyclopaedias, dictionaries of the various branches of study, and popular conversations- lexicons, in which the literature of the last quarter of a century is so singularly rich, have been diligently consulted and compared. Their contributions to the common stock of knowledge have furnished many valuable facts, statements, and suggestions ; while recent biographies, histories^ books of travel, scientific treatises, statistical reports, and the current journals and periodical literature of the day have been put in constant requisition, and their contents carefully digested and utilized. A great mass of important information has been derived from consultation with practical men in different branches of manufactures and other industrial processes; public officials have liberally supplied us with data from their archives ; the representatives of science have imparted to us the results of their experience; the constructors of great works of internal improvement now in progress have favored us with the explanation of their methods and plans ; the journalists throughout the country have promptly responded to our request for facts in their respective localities ; while many of the writers employed upon the work have enriched it with the fruit of their personal researches, observations, and discoveries in the branches of learning in which their names have attained an honorable distinction. The editors of this Cyclopedia are unwilling that the first volume of the new edition should pass from their hands without a distinct expression of their obligations to their staff of revisers, to their corps of regular contributors, and to the numerous men of eminence in science, literature, and official position, whose effective cooperation has lightened their own labors, and laid the founda tion for the utility and value of the publication. The volume now presented to the public may be regarded as an earnest of the literary and typographical execution of the Avhole work. It will be com pleted mainly by the same writers whose contributions are contained in the first edition, together with many ethers of equal ability (whose names will be hereafter announced), and will be made to pass through the press as rapidly as is consistent with mechanical accuracy. YORK, July 4, 1873. THE AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA, REVISED EDITION, 1873. EDITORS-IN-CHIEF. GEORGE RIPLEY. CHARLES A. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS. ROBERT CARTER.. M. HEILPRIN. ALFRED H. GUERNSEY. FRANCIS A. TEALL. STAFF OF REVISERS. WILLAED BAETLETT. JULIUS BING. WILLIAM T. BEIGIIAM, ESQ., Boston. EDWAED L. BUELINGAME, PH. D. JOHN D. CIIAMPLIN, JR. PROFESSOR EDWAED II. CLAEKE, M. D, Harvard University. HON. T. M. COOLEY, LL D., Michigan University, Ann Arbor. PROFESSOR JOHN C. D ALTON, M. D. EATON S. DEONE. W. M. FEERISS. B. A. FINKELSTEIN. AMOS K. FISKE. PROFKSSOR AUSTIN FLINT, M. D. CHAELES S. GAGE. JOHN E. G. HASSAED. JAMES W. II AWES. CHAELES L. HOGEBOOM, M. D. PROFESSOR T. STEEEY HUNT, LL. D., Mass. Tech. Inst., Boston. PROFESSOR CHAELES A. JOY, Pn. D., Columbia College, New York. PROFESSOR SAMUEL KNEELAND, M. D., Mass. Tech. Inst., Boston. JAMES F. LYMAN. EEV. FEANKLIN NOBLE. EEV. BEENAED O EEILLY, D. D. EICHAED A. PEOCTOE, A. M., London, Eng. PROFESSOR EOBEET II. EICIIAEDS, Mass. Tech. Inst., Boston. PROFESSOR ALEXANDEE J. SCIIEM. JOHN G. SHEA, LL.D. PROFESSOR J. A. SPENCEE, D. D., College of the City of New York. P. II. YANDEE WEYDE, M. D. PROFESSOR G. A. F. VAN EHYN, Pn. D. I. DE YEITELLE. WOOD ENGRAVER. JOHN FILMER. SECRETARY AND LIBRARIAN JOHN MILXER. CORPS OF CONTRIBUTORS. HENEY CAEEY BATED, Philadelphia. Hon. HENRY BARNARD, LL. D., Hartford, Conn. WILLAED BARTLETT. Prof. C. W. BENNETT, D. D., Syracuse Uni versity. JULIUS BING. DELAYAN BLOODGOOD, M. D., U. S. N. FRANCIS C. BOWMAN. T. S. BRADFORD, U. S. Coast Survey. Rev. CHARLES II. BBIGIIAM, Ann Arbor, Mich. WILLIAM T. BRIGUAM, Esq., Boston. EDWARD L. BURLINGAME, Ph. D. J. C. CAEPENTEE, Baltimore. ROBERT CAETEE. JOHN R. CHAMBEELIN, Cincinnati. JOHN D. CIIAMPLIN, Jr. Prof. E. II. CLAEKE, M. D., Harvard University. ELIAS COLBEET, Chicago. Hon. T. M. COOLEY, LL. D., Ann Arbor, Mich. EDWARD COOPEE. Prof. S. S. CUTTING, D. D. S. II. DADDOW, St. Clair, Pa. Prof. J. C. DALTON, M. D. EATON S. DEONE. Col. II. A. Du PONT, U. S. A. ISAAC W. ENGLAND. W. M. FEEEISS. B. A. FlNKELSTEIN. Prof. AUSTIN FLINT, M. D. ALFEED II. GUEENSEY. JAMES W. HAWES. Hon. GEORGE S. HILLARD, Boston. ClIAELES L. HOGEBOOM, M. D. Prof^ T. STEEEY HUNT, LL. D., Mass. Tech. Inst., Boston. GEOEGE HUSSMANN, Bluffton, Mo. B. F. ISHERWOOD, late Chief Engineer U. S. Navy. Prof. C. A. JOY, Ph. D., Columbia College. Prof. S. KNEELAND, M. D., Mass. Tech. Inst., Boston. J. N. LARNED, Buffalo, N. Y. CIIAELES LINDSEY, Toronto. E. T. MAGAUEAM. Prof. F. A. MARCH, D. D., Lafayette College. Easton, Pa. W. MATTHEWS. JOHN MITCIIEL. Lady BLANCHE MURPHY. fcev. FEANKLIN NOBLE. A. T. NOETON. Rev. BEENAED O REILLY, D. D. Prof. J. OETON, Vassar College. J. C. PETERS, M. D. Count L. F. DE POURTALES, U. S. Coast Survey. V. PEECHT. | R. A. PROCTOR, A. M., London. |- Prof R. H. RICHARDS, Mass. Tech. Inst., Boston. J BEENAED ROELKEE, Ph. D. Prof. T. T. SABINE, M. D. Prof. A. J. SCHEM. G. F. SEWAED, U. S. Consul General in China. JOHN G. SHEA, LL. D. G. W. SOREN, Esq. Prof. J. A. SPENCEE, D. D., College of the City of New York. Hon. E. G. SQUIER. EMERICH SZABAD., G. M. TOWLE, Boston. P. H. VANDEE WEYDE, M. D. Prof. A. VAN NAME, Yale College. Prof. G. A. F. VAN RIIYN, Ph. D. 1. DE VEITELLE. | W. S. WARD. CHARLES S. WEYMAN. Prof. W. D. WHITNEY, LL. P., Yale College. I Gen. JAMES GRANT WILSON. | Gen. JAMES HARRISON WILSON. < Prof. ELIZUR WEIGHT. Boston. : A. WYLIE, D.D., Shanghai, China. i Prof. E. L. YOUMANS. Among the Contributors of New Articles to the First Volume of the Revised Edition are the following : WILLARD BARTLETT. ABYSSINIA, AFRICA. ALASKA. Prof. C. W. BEXXETT, D. D., Syracuse Uni versity. AMES, EDWARD K., D.D. ANDREW, JAMES OSGOOD, D. D. ASBURY, FRANCIS. JULIUS BIXG. ALEXANDER II. OF ErssiA, and other articles in history and geography. DELAVAX BLOODGOOD, M. D., U. S. X. ADMIRAL. FRAXCIS C. BOWMAX. AMATI FAMILY, and other musical articles. Rev. CHARLES H. BRIGHAM, Ann Arbor, Mich. ADRIAN, MICH. ANN ARBOR, MICH. W. T. BRIGIIAM, Esq., Boston. APPLE, and other botanical articles. EDWARD L. BURLIXGAME, PH.D. ANGLO-SAXONS, and articles in modern history and geography. ANTONY, MARK, and articles in Greek and Roman history. Prof. E. H. CLARKE, M. D., Harvard Uni versity. ACONITE, ANTISEPTICS, ANTISPASMODICS, and other articles of materia medica. Hon. T. M. COOLEY, LL. D., Ann Arbor, Mich. ANGLO-SAXON JURISPRUDENCE. S. H. DADDOW, St. Glair, Pa. ANTHRACITE. Prof. J. C. DALTOX, M. D. ACCLIMATION, ALIMENT and ALIMENTARY CANAL, ANIMAL HEAT, and other medical and physiological articles. EATOX S. DROXE. ALABAMA, ANDERSONVILLE, ARIZONA, ARKANSAS, and other articles in American geography. Col. IT. A. Du POXT, U. S. A. ARTILLERY. B. A. FlXKELSTEIX. ARABIA. ALFRED IT. GUERXSEY. AMERICA. J. W. HAWES. ALEXANDRIA, LA. AND VA X ALLEGHENY. PA, AMHERST. MASS. and other articles in American geography. Hon. GEO. S. HILLARD, Boston. ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS. ADAMS, HENRY. ADAMS, JOIIN QUINCY, JR. GEORGE HUSSMAXX, Bluffton, Mo. AMERICAN WINES. Prof. C. A. JOY, Ph.D., Columbia College, New York. ALIZARINE, ALUM, ALUMINA, ALUMINUM, and other chemical articles. Prof. S. KXEELAXD, M. D., Mass. Tech. Inst., Boston. ARCHEOLOGY, and articles in natural history. I CHARLES LIXDSEY, Toronto. ALGOMA, ARCHIBALD, A. G., and other Canadian articles. ; Prof. F. A. MARCH, LL. D., Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. j Prof. J. ORTOX, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie. AMAZON. ANDES. Prof. T. T. SATUXE, M. D. * AMPUTATION. ANCHYLOSIS. Prof. A. J. SCHEM. ALGEPJA. APOCALYPSE. APOCRYPHA. ARIANISM and ARIUS. J. G. SHEA, LL. D. AMERICAN INDIANS AND THEIR LANGUAGES. G. W. SOREX. ACTION. ADMIRALTY, AMNESTY, and other legal articles. Hon. E. G. SQUIER. AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES. P. H. YAXDER WEYDE, M. D. AEROLITE. ALCHEMY. ARITHMETIC. Prof. A. VAX NAME, Yale College. ARABIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. I. DE VEITELLE. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. W. S. WARD. ANCHOR. AQUARIUM. ARTESIAN WELLS. C. S. WEYMAX. AERONAUTICS. ALFIERI. YITTORIO. ARNOLD, BENEDICT. Prof. W. D. WHITXEY, LL. D., Yale College. AFRICAN LANGUAGES. ALPHABET. ARYAN RACE AND LANGUAGE. Gen. JAMES H. WILSOX. ANTIETAM, BATTLE OF. Prof. ELIZUR WRIGHT. ANNUITIES. THE NEW AMERICAN CYCLOPAEDIA, FIRST EDITION, 1858-1863. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. lion. CHARLES ALLEN, Boston. A. ARNOLD, Esq., New York. Hon. S. 0. ARNOLD, Providence, R. I. PAUL ARPIN, Esq., late Editor of the " Cour- rier des fitats Unis," New York. Prof. A. T). BACIIE, LL. D., Washington. JACOB B. BACON, New York. JOHN A. BAGLEY, C. E., New York. HENRY CAREY BAIRD, Philadelphia. Hon. GEORGE BANCROFT, LL.D,, New York. B. FORDYCE BARKER, M. D., New York. Hon. JOHN R. BARTLETT, late Secretary of State of Rhode Island, Providence. VICTOR BEAUMONT, C. E., New York. Prof. GUNNING S. BEDFORD, M. D., University Medical College, New York. A. M. BELL, M.D., Brooklyn. Rev. IF. W. BELLOWS, D. 1)., New York. Rev. THOMAS IT. BEVEPJDGE, Philadelphia. C. J. BIDDLE, Esq., Philadelphia. JULIUS BING, late U. S. Consul in Smyrna. Rev. II. BISHOP, Oxford, Ohio. Hon. JEREMIAH S. BLACK, late U. S. Attorney General, Washington. Commodore GEORGE S. BLAKE, U. S. N. LORIN BLODGET, Esq., Philadelphia. EDMUND BLUNT, Esq., New York. ! JOSEPH BLUNT, Esq., New York. j JOHN BONNER, New York. j DION BOUCICAULT, London, Eng. Rev. C. L. BRACE, New York. Rev. WILLIAM BRADFORD, New York. THOMAS M. BREWER, M. D., Boston. CHARLES F. BRIGGS, New York. Rev. CHARLES II. BRIGIIAM, Ann Arbor, Mich. Rev. EDWARD BRIGHT, I). D., New York. L. P. BROCKETT, M. D., New York. Hon. ERASTUS BROOKS, New York. lion. WILLIAM BROSS, Chicago. lion. B. GRATZ BROWN, St. Louis. Rev. JOHN N. BROWN, 1). D., Philadelphia. EDWARD BROWN-SEQUARD, M. D., London, Eng. ORESTES A. BROWNSON, LL. D., New York. T. A. BURKE, Esq., Savannah, Ga. Rev. GEORGE W. BURNAP, D. D., Baltimore. SAMUEL BURNHAM, Boston. Rev. GEORGE BUSH, D. D., New York. ; Col. CARLOS BUTTERFIELD, Mexico. CHARLES CAMPBELL, Esq., Petersburg, Va. ROBERT CARTER, New York. J. F. II. CLAIBORNE, Esq., Burlington, Miss. Rev. JAMES F. CLARKE, D. D., Boston. J. CLEMENT, Esq., Dubnque, Iowa. JOHN F. CLEVELAND, New York. CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FIRST EDITION xiu T. G. CLEWELL, Es ]., Cleveland, O. J. B. COCIIRAN, Esq., Shelbyville, Ky. C. 0. COFFIX, Boston. J. P. COMEGYS, Esq., Wilmington, Del. CHARLES T. COXGDOX, New York. I rot . GEORGE II. COOK, New Brunswick, N. J. JOHN ESTEX COOKE, Richmond, Va. EDWARD COOPER, New York. FREDERICK S. COZZEXS, New York. Rev. J. W. CUMMIXGS, D. D., New York. Rev. DANIEL CURRY, D. D., New York. GEORGE TICKXOR CURTIS, Esq., Boston. GEORGE W. CURTIS, New York. Prof. E. G. CUTLER, Harvard University. Rev. S. S. CUTTING, D. D., Rochester Univer sity, N. Y. D. L. DALTON, Esq., Washington. 4. Prof. J. C. DALTOX, M. D., New York. Hon. CHARLES P. DALY, Chief Justice of the Court of Common Pleas, New York. ALEXANDER H. DANA, Esq., New York. CHARLES A. DANA, New York. Prof. JAMES D. DANA, LL. D., Yale College, New Haven. RICHARD H. DANA, Jr., Esq., Boston. Rev. J. S. DAVENPORT, New York. Hon. CHARLES S. DAVIES, LL. D., Portland, Me. Admiral CHARLES H. DAVIS, U. S. N. Rev. GARDNER DEAN, New York. WILLIAM DEERING, Esq., Albany. JOHN D. DEFREES, Esq., Superintendent of the Government Printing Office, Washington. EDWARD F. DE LAXCEY, Esq., New York. Rev. DAVID D. DEMAREST, D. D., Hudson, N. Y. Rev. II. M. DEXTER, D. D., Boston. Rev. JAMES T. DICKIXSON, Middlefield, Conn. Rev. GEORGE W. DOANE, D. D., Newark, N. J. HUGH DOHERTY, M. D., London, Eng. JAMES II. DORR, New York. Hon. WILLIAM DORSIIEIMER, Buffalo. ADOLF DOUAI, Ph. D., Hoboken, N. J. JOHN W. DRAPER, M. D., LL. D., President of the University Medical College, New York. LYMAN C. DRAPER, Esq., Madison, Wis. W. II. DRAPER, M. D., New York. A. H. DUNLEVY, Esq., Lebanon, O. GEORGE F. DUXXING, New York. E. A. DUYCKIXCK, New York. Rev. TRYOX EDWARDS, D. D., New London, Rev. GEORGE E. ELLIS, D. D., Charlestown, Mass. RALPH WALDO EMERSON, Concord, Mass. ISAAC W. ENGLAND, New York. THOMAS EVANS, Philadelphia. Hon. EDWARD EVERETT, LL. D., Boston. C. B. FAIRBANKS, Boston. C. C. FELTOX, LL. D., late President of Har vard University, Cambridge. Rev. WILLIAM FISHBOUGH, Brooklyn. Prof. D. W. FISKE, Cornell University. CHARLES L. FLINT, Esq., Secretary of the Mas sachusetts Board of Agriculture, Boston. WILLIAM C. FOWLER, LL. D., late Professor in Amherst College, Mass. S. P. FOWLER, Westfield, Mass. JOHN W. FRANCIS, M. D., New Y T ork. Major General WILLIAM B. FRANKLIN, U. S. A. J. II. FRENCH, Esq., Syracuse. Rev. OCTAVIUS B. FROTHINGHAM, New York. WILLIAM II. FRY, New York. ALFRED GARXEAU, Quebec. SYDXEY HOWARD GAY, New York. Rev. J. M. W. GEIST, Lancaster, Pa. Prof. JOSIAH W. GIBBS, LL. D., New Haven. Capt. WALTER M. GIBSOX, Salt Lake City. Prof. CHAXDLER R. GILMAX, M. D., College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. D. C. GILMAN, Librarian of Yale College, New Haven. Rev. E. W. GILMAN, Bangor, Me. Prof. HENRY GOADBY, M. D., State Agricul tural College of Michigan, Ann Arbor. PARKE GODWIN, LL. D., New York. AUGUSTUS A. GOULD, M. D., Boston. B. A. GOULD, Cambridge, Mass. Hon. HORACE GREELEY, New York. Prof. GEORGE W. GREENE, Providence, R. I. WILLIAM L. G. GREENE, Boston. L. GROSVENOR, Esq., Pomfret, Conn. R. A. GUILD, Librarian of Brown University, Providence, R. I. Count ADAM DE GUROWSKI, Washington. Prof. CHARLES C. HACKLEY, D. D., Columbia College, N. Y. NATHAN HALE, Jr., Esq., Boston. | B. H. HALL, Esq., Troy. Prof. JAMES HALL, LL. D., Albany. JAMES HALL, Esq., Cincinnati. Rev. HENRY HARBAUGH, D. D., Lebanon, Pa. Prof. A. W. HARKNESS, Brown University, Providence, R. I. JOHN R. G. HASSARD, New York. I A. A. HAYES, M. D., Boston. I Hon. CHARLES C. HAZEWELL, Boston. I Rev. FREDERICK II. HEDGE, D. D., Harvard University. CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FIRST EDITION Prof. BENJAMIN F. HEDRICK, Washington. M. HEILPRIN, New York. Prof. JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary of the Smith sonian Institution, Washington. HENRY W. HERBERT (" Frank Forrester "). E. 0. HERRICK, late Librarian of Yale College, New Haven. THOMAS HICKS, N. A., New York. RICHARD HILDRETH, Esq., late U. S. Consul at Trieste. ADAMS S. HILL, Esq., Boston. Rev. THOMAS HILL, I). D., late President of Harvard University. lion. GEORGE S. HILLARD, Boston. JOHN S. HITTELL, San Francisco. Prof. JAMES TIIACHER HODGE, New York. Prof. O. W. HOLMES, M. D., Boston. GEORGE F. HOUGHTON, Esq., St. Albans, Vt. EDWARD II. HOUSE, New York. Prof. F. M. HUBBARD, D. D., University of North Carolma, Chapel Hill. Prof. J. S. HUBBARD, National Observatory, Washington. Rev. HENRY N. HUDSON, Litchfield, Conn. WILLIAM HUMPHREYS, Esq., New York. CHARLES II. HUNT, Esq., New York. RICHARD M. HUNT, New York. JOHN HUNTER, Prince Edward Island. W. II. HUNTINGTON, Paris, France. WILLIAM II. HURLBUT, New York. J. A. JACOBS, Esq., Danville, Ky. A. G. JOHNSON, Esq., Troy. OLIVER JOHNSON, New York. Prof. S. W. JOHNSON, Yale College. Prof. A. C. KENDRICK, Rochester University, N. Y. J. C. G. KENNEDY, late Superintendent of the Census Bureau, Washington. Most Rev. FRANCIS PATRICK KENRICK, D. D., late Archbishop of Baltimore. lion. WILLIAM KENT, New York. lion. JOHN B. KERR, late U. S. Minister to Central America, Baltimore. CHARLES KING, LL. D., late President of Co lumbia College, New York. Rev. T. STARR KING, San Francisco. THOMAS T. KINNEY, Newark, N. J. JAMES KIRBY, Esq., Montreal. Prof. S. KNEELAND, M. D., Mass. Tech. Inst., Boston. CH-ARLES KRAITSIR, M. D., New York. Rev. C. PHILIP KRAITTH, D. IX, Philadelphia. CHARLES LANMAN, Washington. ! I. A. LAPHAM, Esq., Milwaukee. EUGENE LAWRENCE, New York. ISAAC LEA, Philadelphia. Rev. LUTHER LEE, Chagrin Falls, 0. CHARLES G. LELAND, New York. J. P. LESLEY, late of the Pennsylvania Geo logical Survey, Philadelphia. CHARLES LINDSEY, Esq., Toronto. Rev. A. A. LIVERMOEE, New York. JOHN LOCKWOOD, Brooklyn. Prof. THOMAS R. LOUNSBURY, Yale College. Prof. JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL, Harvard Uni versity. Prof. BENJAMIN W. MCCREADY, M.D., Belle- vue Hospital Medical College, New York. R. SIIELTON MACKENZIE, D. C. L., Philadel phia. Major MARTIN T. McMAnoN. JOHN McMuLLEN, New York. Rev. II. N. MCTYEIRE, D. D., Nashville, Tenn. EDWARD MAGAURAM, New York. Prof. ACIIILLE MAGNI, Brooklyn. EDWARD D. MANSFIELD, Esq., State Commis sioner of Statistics, Morrow, O. KARL MARX, Ph. D., London, Eng. JOHN T. MASON, Esq., Baltimore. E. MASSERAS, Editor of the " Courrieh de,s tats Unis," New York. Hon. A. B. MEEK, Mobile, Ala. JOHN MEIGS, Esq., Nashville, Tenn. DAVID B. MELLISII, New York. ANDREW MERWIN, New York. Col. JAMES MONROE, New York. FRANK MOORE, New York. JOSEPH N. MOREAU, Philadelphia. D. MORRISON, Toronto. Rev. ANDREW B. MORSE, Danbury, Conn. Rev. JOHN N. MURDOCK, D. D., Boston. JAMES P. NESMITH, New York. CHARLES NORDHOFF, New York. Rev. B. G. NORTHROP, Saxonville, Mass. FRANK II. NORTON, New York. E. B. O CALLAGHAN, M. D., Albany. II. S. OLCOTT, New York. FREDERICK LAW OLMSTED, Architect and Chief Engineer of the Central Park, New York. Rev. SAMUEL OSGOOD, D. D., New York. FRANKLIN J. OTTARSON, New York. Prof. MARTYN PAINE, M. D., University Medi cal College, New York. J. W. PALMER, M. D., Baltimore. Prof. THEOPHILUS PARSONS, LL. D., Dane Pro fessor, Harvard University. CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FIRST EDITION Rev. ANDREW P. PEABODY, D. D., Harvard University. Prof. E. R. PEASLEE, M. D., New York Medi cal College, New York. Rev. W. N. PENDLETON, D. D., Lexington, Va. GEORGE PERRY, New York. JOHN L. PEYTON, Staunton, Va. OCTAVIUS PICKERING, Esq., Cambridge, Mass. Hon. JAMES S. PIKE, late U. S. Minister Resi dent at the Hague. Don RAFAEL POMBO, Charge d Affaires of New Granada, New York. Col. P. A. PORTER, U. S. A., Niagara Falls, N. Y. W. S. PORTER, New- Haven. Rev. THOMAS S. PRESTON, D. D., New York. WILLIAM C. PRIME, Editor of the Journal of Commerce," Author of "Coins, Medals, and Seals, 1 New York. EDMUND QUINCY, Dedham, Mass. HERMANN RASTER, Edijtor of the "Abend Zei- tung," New York. J. II. RAYMOND, LL. D., Principal of the Poly technic Institute, Brooklyn. SAMPSON REED, Boston. Prof. JAMES RENWICK, LL. D., Columbia Col lege, New York. LEVI REUBEN, M. D., New York. N. P. RICE, M. D., New York. CHARLES R. RODE, Editor of the "American Publishers Circular," New York. Rev. JOHN L. RUSSELL, Curator of the Boston Society of Natural History, Salem, Mass. HORACE ST. JOHN, Esq., London, Eng. JAMES M. SANDERSON, New York. JOHN 0. SARGENT, New York. JOHN SAVAGE, New York. Prof. PHILIP SCIIAFF, D. D., late of the Theo logical Seminary, Mercersburg, Pa. GEORGE SCHEDEL, Esq., late II. B. M. Consular Agent for Costa Rica. Prof. ALEXANDER J. SCHEM, New York. Hon. FRANCIS SCHROEDER, late U. S. Minister Resident at Stockholm, New York. Rev. EDMUND DE SCHWEINITZ, D. D., Litiz, Pa. S. H. SCUDDER, Boston. E. C. SEAMAN, Esq., Ann Arbor, Mich. Rev. BARNAS SEARS, D. D., late President of Brown University, Providence, R. I. HENRY D. SEDGWICK, Esq., New York. Hon. WILLIAM H. SEWARD, late U. S. Secretary of State. JOHN GILMARY SHEA, LL. D., New York. Prof. B. SILLIMAN, Jr., New Haven. i WILLIAM GILMORE SIMMS, LL. D., Charleston. ! D. D. SLADE, M. D., Boston. Prof. HENRY B. SMITH, D. D., Union Theologi cal Seminary, New York. Prof. J. L. SMITH, Kenyon College, Gambier, O. RICHARD SMITH, New York. Rev. J. A. SPENCER, D. D., New York. CHARLES J. SPRAGUE, Boston. E. C. SPRAGUE, Esq., Buffalo. Rev. WILLIAM B. SPRAGUE, D. D., Albany. Hon. E. G. SQUIER, late U. S. Minister to Peru, New York. Hon. HENRY B. STANTON, New York. L. D. STICKNEY, Esq., Memphis, Tenn. FRANK II. STORER, Boston. Rev. JOSEPH B. STRATTON, Natchez, Miss. Rev. W. P. STRICKLAND, D. D., New York. WILLIAM STUART, New York. Rev. THOMAS 0. SUMMERS,. D. D., Nashville, Tenn. Rev. WILLIAM L. SYMONDS, Portland, Me. FRANCIS A. TEALL, New York. Miss ROSE TERRY, Hartford. Hon. ALEXANDER W. THAYER, U. S. Consul at Trieste. Rev. T. B. THAYER, D. D., Boston. WILLIAM S. THAYER, Esq., U. S. Consul at Alexandria, Egypt. JOHN R. THOMPSON, Richmond, late Editor of the " Southern Literary Messenger." Rev. JOSEPH P. THOMPSON, D. D., New York. Rev. JOHN THOMSON, D. D., New York. Col. T. B. THORPE, New York. T. II. THRASHER, Esq., late U. S. Consul at Havana. GEORGE TICKNOR, LL. D., Boston. Rev. FRANCIS TIFFANY, Springfield, Mass. OSMOND TIFFANY, Baltimore. JOHN B. TILESTON, Boston. W. C. TODD, Newburyport, Mass. ROBERT TOMES, M. D., New York. R. T. TEALL, M. D., Author of "Hydropathic Encyclopedia," New York. Baron R. DE TROBRIAND, Col. U. S. A., New York. W. P. TROWBRIDGE, Esq., U. S. Coast Survey, Washington. HENRY T. TUCKERMAX, New York, lion. SAMUEL TYLER, LL. D., Frederick City, Md. Prof. W. S. TYLER, D.D., Amherst. HENRY C. VAIL, late of the Westchester Farm School, N. Y. XVI CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FIRST EDITION GEORGE VAN SANTVOORD, Esq., Troy. Hon. E. WAKELY, Omaha City. Hon. ALEXANDER WALKER, New Orleans. C. J. WALKER, Esq., Detroit. Rev. J. F. WALKER, Rupert, Vt. JAMES S. WALLACE, Esq., Louisville. W. T. WALTIIALL, Spriijg Hill, Ala. HENRY WARE, Boston. EDWARD WARREN, M. D., Newton Lower Falls, Mass. SAMUEL WEBBER, M. D., Charlestown, 1ST. II. Rev. JOHN WEISS, Milton, Mass. DAVID A. WELLS, Esq., Washington, D. C. Hon. JOHN WENT WORTH, Chicago. CHARLES S. WEYMAN, New York. E. P. WHIPPLE, Boston. J. C. WHITE, M. I)., Boston. RICHARD GRANT WHITE, Author of "Shake speare s Scholar," &c., New York. R. LYLE WHITE, Meadville, Pa. W. M. WIIITEIIEAD, M. D., Elizabeth, N. J. W. II. WHITTEMORE, Boston. Prof. W. D. WHITNEY, LL. D., Yale College. Pres. W. M. WIGHTMAN, D. D., Greenborough, Ala. II. WILLEY, New Bedford, Mass. Major SIDNEY WILLARD, Boston. Gen. JAMES GRANT WILSON, New York. Rev. W. D. WILSON, D. D., Ilobart Free Col lege, Geneva, N. Y. WILLIAM E. WORTHEN, Author of a "Cyclo paedia of Drawing," New York. F. D. WRIGHT, Esq., Milwaukee. JAMES WYNNE, M. D., New York. Prof. E. L. YOUMANS, Editor of the "Popular Science Monthly," New York. WILLIAM YOUNG, Editor of the " Albion," New York. THE AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA. A THE first of the vowels, and the first j letter of all written alphabets except ; the Amharic or Abyssinian, of which it is the thirteenth, and the Runic, of which it is the j tenth. This almost universal precedence ap pears to be due to the fact that its typical and probably only original sound (all) is the most easily uttered of all sounds, being produced by , a simple expulsion of the breath through the freely opened throat and mouth. In English, A has at least four distinct sounds, as heard in mate, mat, mart, ball ; and that heard in mare is usually reckoned a fifth. In the words any, many, it has exceptionally the sound of short e. In combination with other vowels, it is sometimes heard alone, as in maid, aunt, pear ; and is sometimes silent, as in boat, head, beauty. The historical features of A are interesting. Its sound (probably that which we now have in mart) was disliked by Cicero, and in the | treatise De Orator e, c. xlix., he terms it in- suavissima littcra. By the ancients, A was employed as a numeral, and stood for 500, and when a dash was placed over it, thus, A, for , ten times that number, or 5,000. It is the first of the seven Dominical letters in the Julian calendar an imitation of the littercB nundinales, which were in use among the Ro mans long before the introduction of Christian ity. In logic, the letter A denotes a universal ; affirmative. In the comitia of the Romans, it was used in giving suffrages. In criminal trials it represented Absolve, I acquit; hence Cicero, in his speech for Milo, terms it littera salutaris. In ancient inscriptions, A stands for Augustus, Augmtalis, ager, agit, aiunt, all- i quando, antique, asaolet, aut; AA for Augusti, \ Augusta, Aulus Agerius, ces alienum, ante audita, apud agrum, aurum argentum ; AAA for August i when three in number, and for aurum, argentum, ces. On the reverse of an- I cient medals, it indicates the city in which they were issued, as Argos or Athens ; on modern coins it is the mark of the city of Paris, doubtless taken anagraminatically from VOL. i. 1 AALBORG the last letter of the name Lutetia. A is also a frequent abbreviation, as in A. D. for Anno Domini, A. M. for Artium Magister or Anno Mundi, &c. In medical prescriptions it is used thus, a, or da, for ana, of each. In bills of exchange it is in England and France an ab breviation for accepted. AAA is the chemical abbreviation for amalgama. A, in music, is the nominal of the sixth diatonic interval of the first octave of the modern scale. It cor responds to the La of Guido. A was the low est note of the ancient Greek scale, and for many centuries represented the deepest tone used in music. Alterations in the scale were made, however, in the 10th century by Guido, and subsequently by others, so that at present C is the first note of the natural scale, and A the sixth diatonic interval ; a marks the same interval in the second octave. A is also the nominal of one of the two natural modes. AA, the name of a number of small rivers in central and northern Europe, derived from the Celtic ach, or Teutonic aa, flowing water. The most important are : I. A river of the Nether lands, province of North Brabant, which joins the Dommel at Bois-le-Duc. II. A river of Russia, government of Livonia, flowing into the gulf of Riga. III. A river of France, de partment of Le Nord, flowing into the North sea near Gravelines. IV. A river of Switzer land, canton of Aargau, which forms the lakes of Baldegg and Hallwyl, and flows into the Aar. V. A river of Switzerland, canton of Unterwalden, which flows through the lake of Sarnen, and empties into the lake of Lucerne. AACHEN. See AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. AALBORG (Eel Town), a seaport and city of Denmark, in Jutland, capital of a district of the same name, on the S. shore of the Lym- fiord, 15 m. from its outlet in the Cattegat ; pop. in 1870, 11,721. It has a school of navi gation, manufactories, and a large herring fish ery. It was a celebrated seaport as early a= 1070, and for a long time the most important mart of Jutland for all native products. AALEN AARAU AALEN, a town of Wiirtemberg, capital of a bailiwick in the circle of Jaxt, on the Kocher, 45 m. E. N. E. of Stuttgart; pop. in 1871, 5,552. It has woollen factories, tanneries, and several iron works. AALI PASHA, a Turkish statesman, born in Constantinople in 1815, died there, Sept. 7, 1871. The son of a priest and a functionary, he entered the public service at an early age as a protege of Keshid Pasha. From 1834 to 1836 he oiliciated as secretary of legation in Vienna, and previous to his return to Turkey visited Russia. In 1838 he was attached to the legation at London, and subsequently be came charge d affaires, lie was undersecre tary of foreign affairs in 1840, and ambas sador to England from 1841 to 1844. After his return from England he was a member of the supreme council of state and of justice, foreign minister, and chancellor of the im perial divan. Under the administration of Reshid Pasha he continued to be minister of foreign affairs from 1846 to 1852. His ability in settling the controversy with Greece caused his promotion to the rank of mushir (field mar shal) and pasha. Toward the end of 1852 he was for a short time grand vizier or prime minister; but disagreeing with his associates in the cabinet on important questions, and be ing held in a measure responsible for the failure of the first Turkish loan, he retired, and was appointed governor general of Smyrna (1853), and afterward of Brusa (1854). Toward the end of 1854, however, during the Crimean war, he was restored to power as president of the newly established board of reforms (Tanzi- mat\ and as minister of foreign affairs. In 1855 he attended the conference of Vienna, and while absent was appointed grand vizier. He took a leading part in the convention which framed the Ilatti-IIumayum of Feb. 18, 1850, confirming all the guarantees previous ly given to the Christian powers for the equal rights and religious liberty of Christians in Turkey. As minister plenipotentiary he signed in 1856 the treaty of Paris, though he did not fully approve of its terms. Indeed, he found so many difficulties in regard to the ar rangements of that treaty for the settlement of the Roumanian question that he relinquished his post of grand vizier to Reshid Pasha, Nov. 1, 1856, but the sultan induced him to remain a member of the cabinet without portfolio, and an active member of the supreme council. On Reshid Pasha s death he resumed the office of grand vizier, Jan. 11, 1858, but retired again in 1859, on account of dissatisfaction with the demands of the foreign powers and the reformatory measures of Abdul-Medjid. But he subsequently returned to his old post in the Tanzimat, and acted as grand vizier dur ing the temporary absence of, Rushdi Pasha, and as minister of foreign affairs during Fuad Pasha s visit to Syria, on occasion of the mas sacres of Damascus. After the accession of the present sultan, Aali Pasha was once more called to the head of the cabinet as grand vizier, June 7, 1861, but in November yielded that post to Fuad Pasha, becoming again min ister of foreign affairs. In 1864 he attended the conference at Paris to settle the Rouma nian question, and continued to preside over foreign relations till 1867, when he once more exchanged offices with Fuad. In June, 1867, the sultan appointed him regent of the empire during his visit to European courts. In Sep tember he went to Crete to finish the insur rection in that island, which however continued till 1868 ; but it was due chiefly to his mod eration that a war with Greece was then avoided. After the death of Fuad Pasha (Feb. 11, 1869) Aali discharged the duties both of minister of foreign affairs and grand vizier. In the recent complications with Egypt, as well as in the precarious relations with Rou- mania, Albania, Bulgaria, Servia, and Mon tenegro, he displayed his characteristic mod eration, and prevented an outbreak, while pre serving the integrity of the Ottoman empire. In the London conference of 1870 for the con sideration of the Russian demand for the de- neutralization of the Black sea, and the modi fication to that effect of the treaty of Paris of 1856, he bore a conspicuous part, insuring the safety of Turkey. Before he died he had re stored good relations with Russia and Greece, and checked the ambition of the khedive. His interest in reforms made him unpopular with the Turks of the old school, though with all his appreciation of Christian civilization he never ceased to be a zealous Moslem. He was small in stature, unseemly in appearance, diffident in manner, and distinguished for offi cial honesty. His biographer, Fatin Eftendi, ascribes to him poetical talent. AALST. See AELST. AALTE1V, a town of the Netherlands, province of Gelderland, district of Zutphen, situated On the Aa; pop. in 1867, 6,160, and increasing rapidly. It has many tanneries and factories. AAR, or Aarc, the largest river of Switzer land after the Rhine and the Rhone. It rises in the glaciers of the Grimsel in the Bernese mountains, forms at Handed: a magnificent waterfall above 290 feet high, flows N". W., N. E., and N. about 120 miles through the lakes of Brienz and Thun, and through the cantons of Bern, Soleure, and Aargau, and falls into the Rhine between the village of Coblenz, in Aargau, and Waldshut, in Baden. Its chief affluents are the Saane, Thiele, Emmen, Wigger, Reuss, and Limmat. Aar is also the name of several small rivers in Germany. AARAU, a town of Switzerland, capital of the canton of Aargau, on the Aar; pop. in 1870, 5,449. The town is well built, and is celebra ted for its manufactories of mathematical in struments. In August, 1712, a peace was con cluded at Aarau between the cantons of Bern and Unterwalden. During the time of the Hel vetic republic (1798) Aarau was the seat of the central government. AARD-VARK AARGAU AARD-VARK (orycteropus capensis\ a planti grade animal of the class mammalia, order sdentata, peculiar to Africa, and extremely common in the southern part of that conti nent, especially in the Cape Colony, where it is called aard-rark or earth pig. It was for merly classed Avith the myrmecophaga, or ant- eaters. The aard-vark is more closely allied in anatomical structure and in its dental sys tem to the armadillos than to any other class of animals, although it has not their defensive armor. It has neither incisors nor canine teeth, and its molars are different in structure from those of any other quadruped ; they have no roots, and, like the tusks of the elephant and the incisors of the gnawing animals, are constantly increased by the deposit of new bony matter at the base to compensate for the continual wear at the extremity. It has large, flat feet, hollow on the under side, with powerful claws, the toes, four in front and five behind, gradu ally diminishing outward from the interior and second, corresponding to the fore and index fingers of the human hand. This structure gives it great facilities for digging the burrows in which it lives, and for excavating the hills of the great ants, on which it feeds exclusively, as do the pangolins of Asia, the myrmecopliaga of America, and the echidna of Australia. At first sight, the aard-vark resembles a small, short-legged pig. Its length, when full-grown, exclusive of the tail, is about 3 feet 5 inches, its head 11 inches, its ears 6 inches, and its tail 1 foot 9 inches. Its head is long and at tenuated, its upper jaw projecting beyond the lower ; its mouth small ; its tongue long, slen der, and flat, unlike the cylindrical organ of the myrmecophaga, nor capable of so great protrusion, but, like theirs, covered with gluti nous saliva, which firmly retains the ants with which it comes in contact. Its ears are long, erect, and pointed ; its eyes of moderate size, two thirds nearer to the brow than to the snout. Its body is thick and corpulent, the limbs short and very strong. The skin is gen erally bare, but thinly scattered with a few stiff, reddish-brown hairs, which are more nu merous on the hips and thighs than on the other parts of the body. The tail is nearly naked, very thick at the base, but tapering to a sharp point at the end. The aard-vark is a very timid, inoffensive animal, burrowing in the ground, if pursued, so rapidly as to get wholly out of sight in the space of a few min utes, and working inward with such power and quickness that it is impracticable to dig him out. It is nocturnal in its habits and in its hours of feeding, and becomes exceedingly fat. Its flesh is wholesome, and its hams, salted and dried, are good eating. AARD-WOLF (earth wolf; proteles Lalan- dii, viverra cristata\ a singular quadruped, of the digitigrade carnivorous mammalia, first brought from Caffraria by the traveller Dela- lande. To the external appearance and osteo- logical structure of the hyena it unites the head and feet of the fox, and the intestines of the civet. It has five toes on the fore feet, the interior one of which is situated high above the others, and does not touch the ground, and but four behind. Its fore legs are much longer than the hind ones, which makes it compara tively slow in its motions. In size it is about equal to a full-grown fox, which it also resem bles in its pointed muzzle ; but it stands much higher on its legs, while its ears are larger and more naked, and its tail shorter and not so bushy. It has a coarse, stiff mane, which runs along the whole of its neck and back, and is erectile when the animal is enraged. Its gen eral color is pale ash, with a slight tinge of yellowish brown; the muzzle is black, and nearly naked, with the exception of a few stiff moustaches, Around its eyes, and on each side of the neck, are dark brown transverse marks, and on the body are eight or ten simi lar bands, the arms and thighs being barred with the same color. Its legs and feet are dark brown behind, and gray on the inner sur face. The long hairs of the mane are gray, with two bands of black, the latter occupying the tips ; those of the tail, which are equally stiff, are of the same color. The ears are brown without, and gray internally. In habits it resembles the fox, constructing burrows, in which it sleeps during the day, going abroad and feeding only by night. It is timid, inof fensive, and shy in its habits, but many individ uals are ordinarily found residents of the same burrow, which has always several apertures for escape. It is said to run very fast, in spite of the excessive length of its fore legs. AARGAl" (Fr. Argovie), a Swiss canton, bound ed by Zurich, Zug, Lucerne, Bern, Soleure, Basel, and the Rhine, which separates it from Baden; area, 542 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 198,873, AARIIUUS ABACO of whom 107,T03 were Protestants, 89,180 Roman Catholics, and 1,542 Jews. The coun try is diversified by hills, mountains, and valleys, the soil well cultivated, and extensive vineyards abound. It is watered by the rivers Aar, Reuss, and Limmat, the two latter being navigable. Cottons, silks, and linens, woven by hand, are the principal manufactures, and, with straw hats, cheese, corn, wine, and cat tle, form the chief exports. The canton is divided into the following eleven districts: Aarau (pop. 19,247), Baden (23,462), Brem- garten (18,751), Brugg (17,102), Kulm (20,790), Laufenburg (14,407), Lensburg (18,497), Muri (14,297), Rheinfelden (11,417), Zofingen (20,- 980), and Zurzach (13,861). Capital, Aarau. The canton was organized in 1803. Each of the 50 electoral districts elects a member of the grand council for every 200 voters and for a fraction of over 130 ; state officers and teach ers of state schools are ineligible. The grand council elects from its number a governing council (RegierungsratJi) of eleven members, three of whom at least must be Protestants and three Catholics. On Feb. 13, 1841, all the convents of the canton were abolished and their property confiscated. The protest of several Catholic cantons against this measure was so vigorously supported by the Austrian government, that the government of the can ton in 1843 reestablished four female convents. Most of the cantons were satisfied with this, but the minority were induced by it to organ ize the Sonderbund. In 1802 the grand coun cil declared in favor of the emancipation of the Jews, but the people voted it down. AARHUUS, a seaport of Denmark, in East Jutland, capital of Aarhuus bailiwick, on the Cattegat, 37 m. S. E. of Viborg; pop. in 1870, 15,025. It contains one of the finest and larg est cathedrals in Denmark, a library, and a museum. Its commerce is considerable, and it has a regular steam communication with Copenhagen. AARO\. I. Son of Amram, of the tribe of Levi, elder brother of Moses, his spokesman in the embassy to the court of Pharaoh, and sub sequently the first high priest. He was recre ant to his trust in the absence of Moses upon Mount Sinai, and made the golden calf for the people to worship. He died on Mount Hor at the age of 123 years, and his office descended to Eleazar, his son. II. A physician of Alex andria, Egypt, who flourished in the 7th cen tury. He wrote on medicines, and is the first author who mentions the small-pox. AARSEXS, Frans van, a Dutch diplomatist, born at the Hague in 1572, died in 1041. In 1599 lie was appointed ambassador at the French court, and concluded (1009) the truce of 12 years between the United Provinces and Spain. He was afterward ambassador to Ven ice, and sent on numerous special missions, and in 1040 went to England to negotiate the mar riage between William prince of Orange and the princess Mary. He was originally a pro- | tege and partisan of Barneveldt, but turned ; against him and was the chief instrument in ! his destruction. AASEtf, Ivar Andreas, a Norwegian philol- ogist, born at Oersten, Aug. 5, 1813. The son ; of a poor farmer, he became well educated ! through his own efforts. He first devoted him self to botany, and then studied the different local dialects of his country, producing Det \ norsl-e Folkcsprogs Grammatik (Christiania, j 1848) and Ordbog over det norslce Folkesprog (1850). Among his more recent works is one on Norwegian proverbs (1850). An annuity has been conferred upon him by Norway. AASVAR, a group of small islands, below the arctic polar circle, about 12 m. from the Nor wegian coast, forming part of the prefecture of Nordre Helgoland and of the parish of Don- naes, in the province of Nordland. They have recently acquired importance as a station for herring fisheries, giving employment to over 10,000 fishermen. The annual value of the exports is estimated at about $1,000,000, and the fish is known as the great Nordland herring. They are caught from December to January, and sometimes in quantities exceeding 200,000 tons. During the rest of the year the islands are almost deserted. AB, the eleventh month of the Jewish civil year and the fifth of the ecclesiastical, corre sponding to a part of July and a part of August. The ninth of the month is one of the principal Jewish fast days, commemorating both the de- j struction of the temple of Jerusalem by Nebu chadnezzar and that by Titus. ABABDEH, or Ababdie, tribes of N. E. Afri- | ca, tributary to Egypt, under the jurisdiction | of a resident sheik, spread over the N. part of j the desert between the Nile and the Red Sea 7 I from Kenneh to Asswan and Dera, and, ac- j cording to Belzoni, as- far as Suez. They are divided into three principal tribes the Fokara, Ashabat, and Melaykab and number about 120,000. Their armed force consists of about 20,000 men. They are often erroneously con founded with the Bedouin Arabs, but differ from them in appearance, habits, and language. Some of them are agriculturists, but they lead generally a nomadic life, and act as guides to the Sennaar caravans, which start from Daraweh, 40 m. N. of Asswan. They have few horses, but many camels and dromedaries, the latter being especially celebrated in the East. They fight mounted on camels, naked to the waist. Burckhardt, in his " Travels in Nubia," regards them as of Arab stock, but is not supported in this view by other authorities. However, they have intermarried with Arabs, and adopted their religion. To the Romans they are believed to have been known under the name of Blemyes ; but after the Arab con quest of Egypt they appear under the collective name of Bega, as traders on the Red sea. Nearly on a line with Asswan, in the Ababdeh territory, are the ruins of Berenice. ABACO, Great, a long and crooked island, the ABACUS ABASCAL largest of the Bahama group, 150 m. E. of Flori da, 80 in. long by an average of 15 wide. Its N". point is in lat. 26 30 N., Ion. 70 57 W. Pop. about 2,000, including Little Abaco, ad joining, 28 by 4 to 5 m. Many of the inhabit ants are white Creoles. They work at ship building, turtling, and wrecking. ABACI S. I. In architecture, the upper part of the capital of a column, supporting the en- Corinthian Abacus. Doric Abacus. tablature, said to have been designed from a square tile laid over a basket. The shape of the abacus differs in different orders. II. Among the ancients, a cupboard. III. The mystic staff carried by the grand master of the Templars. Its head was of silver, marked with the peculiar cross of the order; but it was supposed to bear another secret device, concealed or disguised, and revealed only to the initiated, being no other than the ortho- phallic symbol of heathen antiquity, indicating the worship of the generative power as dis tinct from the cre ative attribute of God. IV. A cal culating machine to facilitate arith metical computa tions. In China it Counting Abacus. is much employed. The Chinese call it sh wan- pan. A man who uses the shwanpan can tell the amount of a column of figures the moment they are read off to him. It is also found in Russian shops and counting houses. Improved forms of this machine are known in the Uni ted States as the "adder." ABAD I. (ABU AMRU IBX HABED), first Moorish king of Seville, and founder of the Abadite dy nasty, born in the hitter half of the 10th cen tury, died about 1041. His ancestors, from Emesa in Syria, had settled at Tocina, on the Guadalquivir. He was brought up at Seville, where by his munificence and amiability he became so popular that the people, wearied by i the bad administration of the Ommiyade rulers, \ chose him in 1015 as their king. After con- \ solidating his power at Seville, he added Cor- ! dovato his dominions, and reigned 26 years. Abad II. (MOHAMMED IBX HABED), son of the preceding, born in 1012, died in 1069. He added the territory of Carmona to Seville, gra dually acquired all Andalusia, and aimed at the subjugation of entire Spain. He was cruel and relentless.- Abad III. (MOHAMMED IBX HABED), son of the preceding, born in 1039, died in 1095. lie was celebrated for love of art and letters and | for poetical talent. He continued the conquests \ of his father and grandfather, added a part of Portugal to his dominions, and threatened Cas tile. At the same time he was tolerant and kindly. Alfonso VI. of Castile, after having j been his enemy, married his daughter. This ! I alliance with a Christian king excited the jeal- | ousy of the petty Moorish rulers. Aided by | the king of Morocco, they attacked Alfonso | and Abad, and the latter only avoided the sack ing of Seville by surrendering (1091). He was imprisoned four years in Morocco, where his j four daughters were compelled to spin wool for their subsistence. His poems, composed during his captivity, were admired. The Abadite dy nasty ended with him. ABADDON. See APOLLYOX. ABAKA KHAN, second Mongol king of Persia, of the family of Genghis Khan, succeeded his father, Hulaku Khan, in 1265, and died about 1280. He completed the conquests of his father, restored Bagdad, and consolidated the Mongol sway over western Asia. ABANA, mentioned in Scripture in connection with Pharpar as a river of Damascus, is now generally identified with the Barada, the Chry- sorrhoas of the Greeks, while the Awaj is con sidered identical with Pharpar. ABANCOIRT, Charles Xavier Joseph d>, min ister of Louis XVI. of France, born at Donay, July 4, 1758, died Sept. 10, 1792. At the commencement of the revolution he was captain in the cavalry,- but was made minister of war in consequence of the occurrences of June 20, 1792. During the proceedings of the 10th of August he was accused of being a foe to freedom, and was imprisoned. With many others he was dragged before the tribunal at Orleans, whence he was to be reconducted to Paris ; but the transport was mobbed on the way at Versailles, and Abancourt and his fellow prisoners were butchered. ABANO, Pietro d> (Lat. Petrm de Apono), an Italian philosopher, born at Abano in 1250, died in 1316. He studied at Constantinople and Paris, became professor of medicine at Padua, and wrote several works on philosophy and medicine. Like other men of his age, he practised astrology, and was accused of magic and sentenced to be burnt, but died in prison. ABARBANEL. See ABRAVAXEL. ABARCA, Joaquin, a Spanish bishop, born in Aragon about 1780, died at Lanza, near Turin, June 21, 1844. Having been promoted in 1823 from a village priest to be bishop of Leon, for supporting the absolute rule of Ferdinand VII., he accompanied the pretender Don Carlos to Portugal and England, and acted as his agent, and in 1836 as. his prime minister in the Basque provinces, but finally forfeited his regard. Being banished from Spain after various political in trigues and adventures, he retired in 1839 to a monastery at Lanza, where he remained until his death. ABARDI, a mountain or range of highlands in eastern Palestine, facing Jericho. Its most elevated spot was Xebo, on which Moses died. ABASCAL, Jose Fernando, a Spanish states man, born at Oviedo in 1743, died in Madrid, June 13, 1821. He entered the Spanish army in 1762, and distinguished himself as colonel in the war against the French republic. In 1796 ABAUZIT ABBAS MIRZA he became governor of Cuba, and defended Havana against the British. Thence trans ferred to be governor of New Galicia, he was in 1804 appointed viceroy of Peru. On his journey thither he was captured by the Eng lish, but escaped and reached Lima. His ad ministration was successful, and for some time he checked the movement for independence in Peru, the Plata states, and Chili. On return ing home, in 1816, lie Avas greeted as a na tional benefactor and made a marquis. ABAUZIT, Firmin, a French theologian and antiquary, born at Uzes, Nov. 11, 1679, died in Geneva, March 20, 1767. The revocation of the edict of Nantes banished his mother to Geneva while he was yet a boy, and her devo tion to the reformed church incited the young Firmin to study theology and the exact sciences. At the age of 19, while travelling in Holland, lie won the friendship of Bayle and Basnage. In England he became the friend of Newton, and was distinguished by William III. Voltaire and Rousseau spoke highly of his genius and wisdom. His writings include "An Essay on the Apocalypse," " Reflections on the Eucha rist, 1 and "The Mysteries of Religion." ABBADIE. I. Jacques, a French Protestant divine, born at Nay, in Be"arn, in 1658, died in London, Oct. 6, 1727. After completing his studies at Sedan lie went to Germany and Hol land, and became pastor of the French church of Berlin. In 1690 he went to England, and, after preaching some time in London, was made dean of Killaloe in Ireland. He was a warm partisan of William III., and wrote a de fence of the revolution and a history of the assassination plot. II is most important works are : Traite de la divinite de Jesus Christ, and Traite de la xerite de la religion chretienne. II. Antoine Thomson and Arnand Michel d , French explorers, brothers, born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1810 and 1815. Their father, a Frenchman temporarily residing in Dublin, returned with them to France in their early childhood. In 1835 Antoine explored Brazil on a mission from the academy of sciences, while Arnaud trav elled in Algeria. The two brothers happening to meet at Alexandria in 1837, they set out on an exploring expedition to Abyssinia, which lasted till 1845, and afterward passed three years in the Galla country. A rumor of their death caused a third brother, Charles, to pro ceed to that country, where he found them ; and in 1848 they returned to France. A joint work of the two brothers appeared in 1860- 63, under the title of Geodesic (FlUthiopie. Many of their writings are contained in tlie Bulletin of the Paris geographical society, including Notes sur le Jiaut fleuve Blanc, published sep arately in 1849. The English expedition to Abyssinia led Arnaud d Abbadie to publish in 1868 Dome am dans la Haute- fithiopie. The two brothers reside, when in France, at TJr- rugne, a village in the Basses-Pyrenees. ABBAS I., the Great, fifth shah of Persia of the dynasty of the Sofis, born in 1557, died Jan. 27, 1628. Pie succeeded to the throne on the murder of his two elder brothers in 1587. He conquered Gilan, Mazanderan, Khorassan, and a great part of Afghanistan ; and by the victory of Bassorah in 1605 over the Turks, and in many successive campaigns, he gained extensive accessions of territory all along the western frontier. Shah Abbas constructed the great highroad of Mazanderan, 300 miles long and 40 feet wide, of which parts still remain. He suppressed the Kurghis, a body similar to the Turkish janizaries ; he fomented the sec tarian differences of the Shiahs and the Sunnis, and reduced the dogmas of the Shiahs into the form of a creed. His fame extended to Europe, and ambassadors were sent to him from every court. He was not exempt from the vices of oriental despotism. Among other crimes, he put to death his eldest son, leaving his throne to his grandson, Sefy Mirza. ABBAS BEN ABD-EL-MOTTALIB, paternal uncle of Mohammed, born at Mecca in 566, died in 652. He was the progenitor of the Abbasside dynasty, but not know r n as such until an ad venturer, requiring a title to his usurpations, traced his descent to him. He was only four years the senior of Mohammed, and was yet a pagan when the prophet commenced his reli gious career, and long hesitated to espouse his nephew s cause. In the battle at the well of Bedr Abbas fought against his nephew, and was taken prisoner. So soon, however, as Mohammed s career seemed prosperous, the uncle gave in his adhesion, and became one of the most zealous supporters of the new faith. His influence and mediation brought over the family of the Koreishites ; for when Moham med, at the head of a powerful force, was about laying siege to Mecca, Abbas went for ward, and not only demonstrated to Abu Sotian the inutility of resistance, but induced him to come to Mohammed s camp and to have a per sonal interview, which ended in Abu Sofian s making the profession of faith on behalf of himself and his kinsmen. When Mecca sur rendered to Mohammed, the holy well Zemzem was retained, in deference to Abbas, its keeper, though other pagan rites and superstitions were swept away. At the battle of Honem Abbas rallied the fugitives and recovered the fortune of the day. At Mohammed s funeral he was chief mourner. Caliph Omar, on occasion of a terrible drought, took his hand, and prayed to Allah by the virtues of Abbas to have pity on the perishing people. Caliph Othman also, when he met the patriarch, dismounted. ABBAS MIRZA, a Persian prince and warrior, born in 1783, died in 1833. He was the second and favorite son of Feth Ali, shah of Persia. He was the declared enemy of Russia, and commanded the armies of his father in the wars with that power in 1811- 13 and 1826- 8, but his campaigns proved unsuccessful. In 1829 the populace of Teheran murdered the Russian embassy, and Abbas Mirza voluntarily went to St. Petersburg to give satisfaction, but was dis- ABBAS PASHA ABBEOKUTA missed honorably. He was amiable and chival rous. He was nominated by his father heir to the throne, excluding his elder brother; but the father survived both. ABBAS PASHA, viceroy of Egypt, grandson of Mehemet Ali, and nephew of Ibrahim Pasha, born in 1813, died July 12, 1854. He took an active part in the Syrian wars of his grandfather, but without distinguishing him self. After the brief reign of Ibrahim Pasha, Mehemet All s eldest son, Abbas ascended the viceregal throne, as hereditary successor, in 1848. He undid in many respects the work of Mehemet Ali, dismissed his European offi cials, and manifested an arbitrary, capricious, and cruel disposition. He succeeded, how ever, in disarming his adversaries at Constan tinople, who endeavored to cripple him and reduce Egypt to a more inferior condition. In the Crimean war he aided the sultan. His death was sudden, and probably violent. ABBASSIDES, caliphs of Bagdad, the third Mo hammedan dynasty, founded by Abul Abbas as-Saffeh (the Bloody), who claimed the caliph ate as lineal descendant of Mohammed s uncle Abbas, whence the name. He was proclaim ed by his adherents at Cufah in 749, and after ward defeated and put to death the last Ommi- yade caliph, Merwan IL, all but two of whose family were treacherously slaughtered. He died in 754, and his descendants to the num ber of 36 reigned till 1258, when the last, Mostasem, was expelled from the throne by Hulaku Khan. The line includes the illustrious names of Al-Mansour, Haroun al-Eashid. and Al-Mamoun; but from the 10th century they had sunk to the position of mere spiritual chiefs of Islam, all political power being wield ed by the emir el-omra, or commander-m- chief. After their deposition at Bagdad, Ahmed, a member of the family, fled to Egypt, where he was recognized as caliph, and his descen dants nominally reigned there, under the pro tection of the Mamelukes, till 1517, when Egypt was conquered by the Turks. Motawakkel, the last caliph, was carried to Constantinople, but allowed to return to Cairo, where he died in 1538. ABBATUCCI. I. Jacques Pierre, a French general, born in Corsica in 1726, died in 1812. He was a rival and political opponent of Paoli, but submitted to his control in the war with the Genoese. After the French conquest, which he resisted at first, he accepted a com mission in the royal army, and was subse quently appointed to protect Corsica against the attempts of Paoli and the English. After the capture of Toulon he resigned and re turned to France, where he was made general of division. He remained there till 1796, when, the English leaving Corsica, he went home. II. Charles, son of the preceding, born in 1771, died Dec, 3, 1796. He served in the early part of the revolution as artillery of ficer on the Rhine, and in 1794 was Pichegru s adjutant. He was made general of brigade for bravery in 1796, and afterward general of division for defeating the corps of the prince of Conde. He died from a wound received in an engagement with the Austrians at Hiinin- gen, where Moreau caused a monument to bo ; erected to his memory. III. Jacques Pierre Charles, a diplomatist, nephew of the pre ceding, born in Corsica, Dec. 22, 1791, died j Nov. 11, 1857. Under the restoration he was 1 a law officer in Corsica. After the revolution | of 1830 he was appointed presiding judge at Orleans, and from 1839 was its representative in the chamber of deputies. lie was a leader of the opposition to Guizot s ministry, and af terward of the reform banquets. After 1848 i he was conspicuous in the national assembly by his opposition to the social-democratic , movement. He subsequently became a zeal ous supporter of Louis Napoleon, and after the coup d etat was appointed by him minister of justice and keeper of the seals, Jan. 22, 1852. His sons, CHAELES (born March 25, 1816), AN- ; TOIXE DOMINIQUE, and SEVEEIX, all figured un der the second empire as active Bonapartists, the last chiefly as representative from Corsica. ABBE, the French word for abbot. Before ; the revolution of 1789, any Frenchman who chose to devote himself to divinity, or even to finish a brief course of study in a theological j seminary, became an abbe, waiting hopefully | for the king to confer on him the benefice of an abbey that is, a certain portion of the rev- | enues of a monastery. In the mean time he engaged in any and every kind of literary labor, exerted an important influence upon society, and was to be met with everywhere at the i court of the monarch, the public tribunals, the ; salon of the fashionable lady, the opera, the playhouse, and the cafe. An abbe was to be found in almost every wealthy family, either ; as the friend of the house or the private tutor of the children. There were many good and noble abbe s, who acquired distinction as theo logians, poets, and savants ; but as a class they , subjected themselves to popular suspicion and i literary satire ; and with the revolution they disappeared, though the title is still sometimes ! used as a phrase of politeness. ABBES COM- i MEXDATAIEES was the title of the 225 abbots appointed by the king of France. Each re- | ceived one third of the revenues of a monas- j tery, but he could not interfere with the prieur \ clamtral, who had exclusive control. The i cibbayes des savants were less important sine- ; cures, applied as pensions for scholars and un- titled scions of aristocracy. ABBEOKUTA, or Abeakntah, an independent city of central Africa, in the Egba district of Yoruba, with a small territory containing several minor towns, on the Ogoon, which separates it on the TV. from Dahomey, about ! 50 m. N. of Lagos, and 110 m. E. S. E. of Abomey; pop. of the city estimated by Major | Burton in 1861 at 150,000, and of the whole state at 200,000. The city stands on a granite formation 567 feet above the sea level, and is ABBESS ABBOT surrounded by a mud wall six feet high thatched with palm leaves, 20 m. in circumference and enclosing much farming land. The name is derived from a flat rock 600 feet long covering the top of a high hill and projecting at the sides. The streets are generally narrow and very irregular and dirty. The houses are built o dried mud and thatched, with 10 to 20 rooms, surrounding an inner court where sheep and goats are kept. Several trades are carried on in a primitive way, and there are unions of smiths, carpenters, weavers, dyers, and potters, the last two composed of women. Regular markets are held, with very active traffic, chiefly by women, in cooked and un cooked food, vegetable oils, shea or tree but ter, raw cotton, grass and other cloths, manu factures of excellent leather, cutlery and other European manufactures, and many other arti cles. The currency is cowry shells, but in 18(37 it was proposed to introduce copper coins. Caravans go from Abbeokuta to Lake Tchad and Timbuctoo, respectively 800 m. (direct) X. E. and 850 m. N. N. W. The town is at the head of navigation on the Ogoon, which is ascended by light steamers during eight months in the year. The principal ex ports are palm oil and shea butter. The na tive cotton plant is perennial and the fibre good, and great efforts have been made to stimulate its cultivation. In 1859- 60 the quantity sent to England was about 2,800,000 ! Ibs., but it soon fell off to about 400,000 on ac- j count of local war and indolence. The gov- j eminent of Abbeokuta is entirely elective. I There is a king, whose function? are chiefly j judicial. The army is commanded by an al- | most independent general (baloguri), with j elected war captains. There is a sort of le gislature composed of the so-called Ogboni | lodges (of which there is one in each town) and the war captains, which controls the reve- nue and taxation, and is said to possess un- j limited power. The income of the state con- j sists of. taxes on products collected at the gates, amounting to about 1 per cent. The ! religion of most of the people is fetishism, but i missions have been established by the Wes- leyans, Episcopalians, and Baptists, whose con verts in 1801 numbered about 1,500. They publish a newspaper in the Egba tongue, and there is a church built of wood with a mud steeple and a bell. The missionaries were temporarily expelled by a mob in 1867. Ab beokuta was founded in 1825 by refugees from numerous Egba towns which had been de stroyed in war and many of their inhabitants carried off as slaves. Its people opposed the slave trade, established commerce with the English at Badagry and Lagos, and have suc cessfully withstood many attacks from neigh boring states, especially Dahomey and Ibadan. The king of Dahomey suffered disastrous de feats under its walls in 1851 and 1864. ABBESS, the female superior of a convent of nuns ranking as an abbey, in some of the | more ancient orders. An abbess is solemnly I blessed and inducted into office by a bishop, ; and uses the ring, cross, and crozier. ABBEVILLE, a well built, fortified town of France, in the department of Somme, on the ! river Somme and the Northern railway, 25 m. \ N. N. W. of Amiens; pop. in 1866, 19,385. i The town contains a fine but unfinished Gothic I cathedral, with other public edifices, and ! among its manufactories is one of cloth founded by Colbert in 1669. Vessels of 800 ; tons burden sail up the Somme to Abbeville. In 1259 peace was here concluded between ! Louis IX. of France and Henry III. of England. ABBEVILLE, a W. N. W. county of South | Carolina, bounded S. W. by the Savannah river, and N". E. by the Saluda; area, 960 sq. : m. ; pop. in 1870, 31,129, of whom 20,213 were | colored. The soil is generally fertile, well I watered, and well cultivated. The Greenville | and Columbia railroad runs through the county. j The productions in 1868 were 4,044,713 Ibs. of j cotton, 324,850 bushels of corn, 52,686 of | wheat, 51,374 of oats, and 23,471 of sweet | potatoes. The total value of property in 1870 was $7,165,354. Capital, Abbeville. ABBO CERNUSTS, or Abbon the Crooked, a French monk of St. Germain des Pre"s, died in 923. He was the author of an epic poem of | some historical value, in Latin, descriptive of j the siege of Paris by the Northmen in 885- 7, I at which he was present. A French transla- | tion of it has been published by Guizot. ABBO FLORIAEI\S1S, or Abbon of Henry, a French monk, abbot of Fleury, and author of " Lives of the Popes," born near Orleans about 945, slain Aug. 13, 1004, while striving to quell a fray. He was several times engaged in con troversies with the bishops as champion of the rights of his order. In 986, and again in 996, Abbo was sent to Rome by King Robert, to persuade the pope to abandon his intention of placing the kingdom under interdict, and was successful in each case. ABBOT (from the Semitic al or alia, fa ther), a prelate of high rank in the Roman Catholic church, who governs a principal mon astery of one of the old religious orders, which may also have minor convents depending on it. An abbot is solemnly consecrated by a bishop, though this is regarded as a merely ec clesiastical and not a sacramental rite. Abbots are allowed to use the mitre, pastoral cross, ring, and crozier, and to celebrate pontifical mass, and are styled right reverend. Some of them in former times exercised a quasi-episco pal jurisdiction over a small district, and were allowed to confer tonsure and minor orders. During the middle ages many abbots, especial ly in England, were powerful feudal barons. In modern times they are simply superiors of religious houses. In ecclesiastical councils an abbot can speak, but not vote. ABBOT, Abiel, I). I)., an American clergyman, born in Andover, Mass., Aug. 17, 177, died on the return voyage from Havana, June 7, ABBOT ABBOTSFORD 1828. lie graduated at Harvard university, and in 1794 became minister of the Congrega tional society in Haverhill, where he remained eight years. In 1802 he took charge of a par ish in Beverly, and passed the remainder of his life as pastor in that place. He was en tirely free from sectarian bitterness. He was the author of a series of " Letters from Cuba " (8vo, Boston, 1829), and a number of sermons. ABBOT, Benjamin, LLt D., an American teach er, for 50 years principal of Phillips acad emy at Exeter, N. H., born about 1763, died at Exeter, Oct. 25, 1849. He graduated at Harvard college, and took charge of the acad emy, which he conducted till 1838. ABBOT, Charles, Lord Colchester, from 1802 till 1817 speaker of the British house of com mons, born Oct. 14, 1757, died May 8, 1829. He served through a long and useful career in parliament, occupying at different times offices of honor and emolument. He was the author of one or two treatises on juridical reform. In 1817 he retired from the speakersjiip, and was raised to the peerage as Baron Colchester. ABBOT, George, archbishop of Canterbury, born at Guildford, Oct. 29, 1562, died at Croy- don, Aug. 5, 1633. In 1597 he was appointed master of University college, Oxford, and was three times vice chancellor. In 1604, when by order of King James the translation of the | Bible was commenced, Abbot was one of the eight divines to whom the whole of the New ; Testament except the Epistles was intrusted. In 1609 he was made bishop of Lichfield and Coventry; in January, 1610, bishop of Lon- ! don; in November following, archbishop of } Canterbury. He steadfastly opposed King James s project of a divorce between Lady Frances Howard and the earl of Essex, and i combated the royal decree permitting Sunday sports. Laud was his bitter enemy. While visiting Hampshire for the restoration of his health, he accidentally shot a gamekeeper with the arrow aimed at a deer ; and this mis fortune, which was made the subject of a judi cial inquiry and a royal pardon, preyed on his health and spirits during the rest of his days. ABBOT, Gorhain Dummer, LL. D., an Ameri can teacher and author, brother of Jacob and | J. S. C. Abbott, born in Brunswick, Me., Sept. 3, ! 1807. After studying theology at Andover he i made the tour of the United States and several voyages to Europe, in order to examine the systems and state of public education, as well as the variety, extent, and character of the is sues of the press. In 1837 he became pastor I of the Presbyterian church at New Rochelle, i N. Y. ; in 1841- 3 was travelling agent of the ! " American Society for the Diffusion of Useful 1 Knowledge"; and in 1843 commenced the I " Abbot Collegiate Institute " for young ladies ! in New York, afterward called the " Spingler Institute." He retired from teaching in 1866. i He has written " Pleasure and Profit," " Prayer Book for the Young," " Mexico and the United i States, their Mutual Relations and Common In- | terests" (8vo, 1869), and edited several educa tional and periodical works. (See ABBOTT.) ABBOT, Samuel, a wealthy Boston merchant, ! one of the founders of the Andover theologi cal seminary, born at Andover in 1732, died April 30, 1812. In 1807 he made a donation of $20,000 toward establishing the seminary, and at his death left it $100,000 in addition. He also gave away large sums for various charitable objects. ABBOTSFORD, the seat of Sir Walter Scott, from which his baronet s title was taken. It Abbotsford. 10 ABBOTS-LANGLEY ABBOTT is situated in the parish of Melrose, in Rox burghshire and Selkirkshire, on the right hank of the Tweed, and in the neighborhood of the abbeys of Melrose, Jcdburgh, and Dryburgh, and the towns of Selkirk and Galashiels. Sir Walter bought the estate in 1811, built the mansion, and gave it its present name, adopted from an adjoining ford in the Tweed. The house is irregular, and after the pattern of the old English manor houses ; flourishing planta tions hem it round, and a beautiful haugh or meadow on the opposite side of the Tweed forms its immediate prospect. The external walls of the house and garden are interca lated with antique carved stones taken from old castles and abbeys. The inside was decorated with beautiful paintings, the work of D. B. Hay of Edinburgh, and a library of curious works and British antiquities. Ab- botsford was occupied by James Hope Scott, Esq., and his wife, the sole surviving grand daughter of Sir Walter Scott, until that lady s death, Oct. 26, 1858. Since that period, pend ing the minority of Miss Scott, the only sur viving child, the mansion has been let for the use of a Roman Catholic seminary for girls. ABBOTS-LAMLEY, a parish in Hertfordshire, England, 21 m. N. of London, noted as the birthplace of Nicholas Breakspear (Pope Adrian IV.), the only Englishman who ever oc cupied the holy see. "The Booksellers Re- treat " in this place is an institution founded by English booksellers as a home for decayed members of the trade. ABBOTT, a family of American writers, whose name was originally spelled Abbot. I. Jaeob, born at Ilallowell, Me., Nov. 14, 1803. He graduated at Bowdoin college, Brunswick, Me., in 1820, and studied divinity at the theological seminary in Andover, Mass. From 1825 to 1829 he was professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in Amherst college, and afterward took charge of the newly founded Mount Vernon school for girls in Bos ton. In 1834 he engaged in organizing a new Congregational church in Roxbury (the Eliot church); and about 1838, relinquishing the pastoral charge to his brother John S. C., he removed to Farmington, Me., and has since de voted himself almost exclusively to literary la bor, chiefly in the production of books for the young. For several years he has resided in New York. A complete catalogue of his works would considerably exceed 200 titles. Many of them have been serial, each series comprising from 3 to 36 volumes. Among them are the "Young Christian" series (4 vols.), the "Rollo Books" (28 vols.), the "Lucy Books" (6 vols.), the "Jonas Books" (6 vols.), the "Franconia Stories" (10 vols.), the "Harper s Story Books" (36 vols.), the "Marco Paul Series" (6 vols.), the "Gay Family" series (12 vols.), the "Juno Books " (6 vols.), "Rainbow and Lucky" series (5 vols.), and 4 or 5 other series of 5 or 6 vol umes each; "Science for the Young" (4 vols. | issued, "Heat," "Light," "Water and Land," ! and "Force"); "A Summer in Scotland"; " The Teacher " ; more than 20 of the series of illustrated histories to which his brother John S. C. contributed, and a separate series of his tories of America in 4 volumes. lie has also edited, with additions, several historical text I books, and compiled a series of school readers. II, John Stephens Cabot, brother of the preced ing, born in Brunswick, Me., Sept. 18, 1805. He was also educated at Bowdoin college and Andover theological seminary, graduating from the former in 1825. He was ordained to the ministry in the Congregational church in 1830, and was settled successively at Worces ter, Roxbury, and Nantucket, Mass. His first published work, "The Mother at Home," ap peared in 1833, and was followed not long af ter by "The Child at Home." In 1844 he re linquished the pastorate, and devoted himself exclusively to literature, but has since occa sionally resumed his ministerial labors for brief periods, and. in 1866- 8 acted as stated sup ply in New Llaven. With few exceptions his works have been professedly historical. The principal of them are: "Practical Christian ity"; "Kings and Qr.eens, or Life in the Palace " ; " The French Revolution of 1789 " ; " The History of Napoleon Bonaparte " (2 vols.) ; " Napoleon at St. Helena " ; " The His tory of Napoleon III." (1868); 10 vols. of illustrated histories; "A History of the Civil War in America" (2 vols., 1863- 6); "Ro mance of Spanish History" (1870); and "The History of Frederick the Second, called Fred erick the Great" (1871). Most of Mr. Ab bott s books have had a large sale, and several of them have been translated into many lan guages. III. Gorham D, See ABBOT. IV. Ben jamin Yanghan, son of Jacob, a lawyer, born in Boston, June 4, 1830. lie was educated in New York, and admitted to the bar in 1851. He has produced many volumes of reports and digests of state and United States laws and de cisions of the higher courts of New York. He is now (1872) a member of the national com mission for revising the laws of the United States, and is also preparing a National Digest. V. Austin, brother of the preceding, also a law yer, born in Boston, Dec. 18, 1831. He was admitted to the New York bar about 1852, en tered into partnership with his brother, and has cooperated with him in the preparation of legal treatises, compilations, and digests. He has also occasionally contributed to lighter literature, his earliest ventures being two joint novels entitled " Conecut Corners " and "Mat thew Caraby," in which his brothers Benjamin and Lyman" participated. YL Lyman, brother of the preceding, born in Roxbury, Mass., Dec. 18, 1835. He graduated from the university of the city of New York in 1853, studied law, and went into partnership with his brothers in 1856; but he afterward studied theology with his uncle, the Rev. J. S. C. Abbott, and was ordained to the ministry in the Congrega- ABBOTT ABBREVIATIONS 11 tional church at Farmington, Me., in 1860. lie was settled as pastor of the first Congre gational church in Torre Haute, Ind., the same year, and remained there till 1865, when he was chosen secretary of the American union (freedmen s) commission, and held that office till 1868. He was also pastor of the New England church in New York city from 1866 to 1869, when he resigned, to devote himself to literature. He was associated with his bro thers in the production of two novels, and has also published " The Results of Emancipation in the United States" (1867), "Jesus of Naza reth: His Life and Teachings" (1869), and ! " Old Testament Shadows of New Testament i Truths " (1870). He has edited two volumes of j "Sermons by Rev. Henry Ward Beecher," and I "Morning and Evening Exercises," selected | from the writings of the same author. He is | now (1872) the editor of the " Literary Record " of "Harper s Monthly Magazine," and editor- in-chief of " The Illustrated Christian Week- j ly," published by the American, tract society, j VII. Edward, brother of the preceding, born in [ Farmington, Me., July lo, 1841. He was edu- } cated in New York, has contributed to period- \ ical and other literature, and is one of the \ editors of "The Congregationalist," a leading j Congregational newspaper published in Boston. , ABBOTT, Charles, Lord Tenterden, an English j lawyer, born Oct. 7, 1762, died Nov. 4, 1832, | He was appointed lord chief justice of the ; king s bench in 1818, and in 1827 was created \ a peer as Baron Tenterden. His treatise on ( maritime law is a standard work. ABBREVIATIONS, certain contractions of va- | rious words and phrases, effected by omitting some of the letters or syllables. The object j in view is the saving of time and space. They I are found in every written language, but since j the art of printing was discovered are much j less used. The Romans called them nota, and Lucius Annasus Seneca made a list of them, ; embracing upward of 5,000. The abbrevia- j tions in most ordinary use are those of names I and titles. Physicians and lawyers use them largely for the sake of despatch. The Jewish j writers not only throw out letters and sylla bles, but often omit everything except the i initial letter. They even take the initials of a ! continuous series of words, and, uniting them with the aid of vowels, make new words standing in the place of all those thus abridged, i The monks of the middle ages used so many abbreviations in copying the works of the \ Greek and Latin writers, that only experienced i persons can decipher them. The Germans use them to -a greater extent than any other nation, for words in common use. Many words in modern languages originated in Latin al>- ! breviations, which illiterate persons mistook for the words themselves. The following are the principal abbreviations in common use : A. B. Artium Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Arts. Abi>. Archbishop. A. C. Ante Christum, before Christ. Acct. Account. A. D. Anno Domini, in the year of our Lord. Adjt. Adjutant. Ad lib. Ad libitum, at pleas ure. Adtn. Admiral. Adinr. Administrator. Admx. Administratrix. vEt. or jEtat. Jitatis, of age. A. G. Adjutant General. A. H. Anno Hegirse, in the year of the Hegira. Ala. Alabama. A. M. Anno mundi, in the year of the world ; Ante me ridiem, before noon ; Artium Magister, Master of Arts. A. R. A. Associate of the Royal Academy. Ark. Arkansas. A. U. C. Anno urbiscondi tee, or Ab urbe condita, in the year from the building of the city (Rome). B. A. Bachelor of Arts. Bart, or Bt. Baronet. Bbl. Barrel. B.C. Before Christ. B. D. Bachelor of Divinity. B. I. British India. B. L. Bachelor of Law. Bp. Bishop Brig. Gen. Brigadier General. Bush. Bushel. B. V. Blessed Virgin. B.V.M. Blessed Virgin Mary. C. Centigrade (thermometer). Cal. California. Cap. Capitulum, chapter. Capt. Captain. C. B. Companion of the Bath ; Cape Breton. C. E. Civil Engineer. Cent. Centum, hundred. Cf. Cont erre, compare. Chap. Chapter. Chron. Chronicles. C. J. Chief Justice. C. O. D. Collect (or cash) on delivery. C. G. H. Cape of Good Hope. Col. Colonel ; Colossiaus ; Col orado. Conn, or Ct. Connecticut. Cor. Corinthians. Cor. Sec. Corresponding Sec retary. Coss. Cpnsules, consuls. C. R. Civis Romanus. a Ro man citizen. Cr. Creditor. C. T. Colorado Territory. Ct. or Conn. Connecticut. Cwt. Hundred weight. D. (r7.). Denarius, denarii, a penny, ponce. D. C. District of Columbia. D. C. L. Doctor of Civil Law. D. D. Doctor of Divinity. Del. Delaware ; delineavit, drew it. Deut. Deuteronomy. D. F. Defensor fide i. defend er of the faith. D. G. Dei gratia, by the grace of God. Do. Ditto (Ital., said), the same. Dr. Doctor; debtor. D. T. Dakota Territory. D. V. Deo volente, God will ing. Dwt. Pennyweight. E. East. Eccl. or Eocles. Ecclesiastes. Ecclus. Ecclesiasticus. E. E. Errors excepted. E. g.. or Ex. gr. Exempli gratia, for example. E. I. East India, or East In dies. Eph. Ephosians. Eatd, Esuras. Esq. Esquire. Et al. Et alii, or alios, and others. Etc. Etcetera, and so forth. Et seq. Et sequentes, or se- quentia, and the succeeding. Ex. or Exod. Exodus. Exr. Executor. Ezek. Exekiel. F., or Fahr. Fahrenheit. F. and A. M. Free and Ac cepted Masons. F. A. S. Fellow of the Anti quarian Society. F. D. Fidei defensor, defend er of the faith. F. G. S. Fellow of the Geo logical Society. Fla. orFlor. Florida. F. R. G. S. Fellow of the Roy al Geographical Society. F. R. A. S. Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society. F. R. S. Fellow of the Royal Society ; L.. of London ; E_, of Edinburgh ; D., of Dublin. F. S. A. Fellow of the Soci ety of Antiquaries. Ga. Georgia. Gal. Galatians. G. C. B. Grand Cross of tho Bath. Gen. General; Genesis, G. M. Grand Master. Gov. Governor. Hab. Habakkuk. Hag. Haggai. H. B. M. His or Her Britan nic Majesty. Heb. Hebrews. Hhd. Hogshead. H. I. H. His or Her Imperial Highness. H. M. S. His or Her Majesty s ship. Hon. Honorable. Hos. Hosea. H. R. House of Representa tives. H. R. H. His or Her Royal Highness. la, Iowa. (This should not be used for Indiana, but Ind.) Ib. or Ibid. Ibidem, in tha same place. Id. Idem, the same. Id. T. Idaho Territory. I. e. Id est. that is. I. H. S. Jesus Hoininnm Saf- vator. Jesus (lesns) the Sa viour of men. (Saidtohave originated from a misread ing of the Greek 1H2 for IH2OY2, Jesus.) 111. Illinois. Incog. Incognito, unknown. Ind. Indiana. Ind. T. Indian Territory. Inst. Instant, of the present month. I. O. O. F. Independent Or der of Odd Fellows. I. O. U. I owe you. Isa. Isaiah. I. T. Idaho Territory : Indian Territory. (Better, Id. T. and Ind. T.) Jam. Jamaica. JIT. Jeremiah. J.T. Justices. Josh. Joshua. J. P. Justice of the Peace. J. U. D. Juris utriusque doc tor, doctor of both canon and civil law. Jud. Judith. Judg. Judges. Kan. Kansas. K. B. Knight of the Bath. K. C. B. Knight Commander of the Hath. K. G. Knight of the Garter. ABBREVIATIONS ABDALLAH BEN ZOBAIB K G. C. Knight Grand Cross. K. G. C. B. Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath. Ks. Kansas. Kt. Knight. Ky. Kentucky. L. (L ). Libra, a pound (money). La. Louisiana, Lb. Libra, a pound (weight). L. C. Lower Canada. Lev. Leviticus. L. I. Long Island. Lib. Liber, book. Lieut, or Lt. Lieutenant. LL. B. Legum Baccalaui eus, Bachelor of Laws. LL. D. Legum Doctor, Doc tor of Laws. L. S. Locus sigilli, place of the seal. L. S. D. Pounds, shillings, and pence. M. Monsieur. M. A. Master of Arts. Mace. Maceabees. Maj. Gen. Major General Mai. Malachi. Mass. Massachusetts. Matt. Matthew. M. C. Member of Congress. M.D. Mediciriai Doctor, Doc tor of Medicine. Md. Mar viand. M. E. Methodist Episcopal. Me. Maine. Messrs. Messieurs, gentle men, sirs. Mic. Micah. Mich. Michigan. Minn. Minnesota. Miss. Mississippi Mile. Mademoiselle. MM. Messieurs. Mine. Madame. Mo. Missouri. Moas. Monsieur. M. P. Member of Parliament. MS., MSS. Manuscript, man uscripts. M. T. Montana Territory. Mt. Mount. Mus. D. or Mus. Doc. Doctor of Music. N. North. N. A. National Academician; North America. N. B. Nota bone, mark well ; New Brunswick ; North Britain. N. C. North Carolina. N. E. Northeast,- New Eng land. Neb. Nebraska. Neh. Nehemhh. Nem. con. Nemine contra- dicente. no one- contradict ing, unanimously. Nev. Nevada. N. P. Newfoundland. N. G. New Granada, N. H. New Hampshire. N. J. New Jersey. N. M. New Mexico. N. 0. New Orleans. No. Numero. number. N. P. New Providence. N. S. New style ; Nova Sco tia. N. T. New Testament. Num. Numbers. N. W. Northwest. N. Y. New York. N. Z. New Zealand O. Ohio. Oh. Obiit. died. Obad. Obn.liah. Or. Oregon. O. S. Old style. O. T. Old Testament. Oxon Oxoniensis, of Oxford. Oz. Ounce. Pa. Pennsylvania. P. E. Protestant Episcopal. P. E. I. Prince Edward Island. Penn. Pennsylvania. Per cent, or per ct. Per cen tum, by the hundred. Ph. D. Philosophic Doctor, Doctor of Philosophy. Phil. Philippians. Phila. Philadelphia. P.M. Postmaster; Post me ridiem, alter noon. P. O. Post office. P. P. Parish priest. P. P. C. Pour prendre conge, to take leave. P. K. Porto Rico. Prof. Professor. Pro tern. Pro ternporc, for the time, temporarily. Prov. Proverbs. Prox. Proximo, next, of the next month. P. S. Postscript. Ps. Psalm. Pxt Pinxit, painted it. Q. Quadrans. farthing. Q. C. Queen s counsel. Q. d. Quasi dicat, as if he should say. Q. E. D. Quod erat demon strandum, which was to be demonstrated. Q. M. Quarter-master. Qr. Quarter; farthing. Q. S. Quantum sufficit, as much as is necessary. Qu., Qy. Quaere, query. Q. v. Quod vide, which see. E. Bex or Kegina, king or queen. E. A. Royal Academician ; Royal Artillery. E. E. Koyal Engineers. Eec. Sec. Eecording Secre tary. Eef. Ch. Eeformed Church. Eev. Revelation ; Reverend. K. I. Rhode Island. R. M. S. Eoyal mail steamer. R. N. Royal Navy. Rom. Romans. E. S. D. Royal Society of Dublin. R. S. E. Royal Society of Edinburgh. R. S. V. P. Repondez s il vous plait, Answer if you please. Rt. Hon. Right Honorable. Rt. Rev. Right Reverend. 8.(.). Solidus. shilling; south. S. A. South America. Sam. Samuel. S. C. South Carolina. Sc. or Sculp. Sculpsit, en graved it. Scan. Mag. Scandalnm mag- natum. defamation of the gri-at, or of officials. Sec. Secretary. S. J. Society of Jesus. Jesuit. S. P. Q. R. Senatus Popu- lusqne Romanus. the senate and people of Rome. Ss. Scilicet, namely. St. Saint. S. T. D. Sacra? Theologte Doctor. Doctor of Sacred Theology. Tenn. Tennessee. Thess. Thessalonians. Tit. Titus. T. T. L. To take leave. U C. Upper Cannda: Urbis condita 1 . year of Rome. Ult. Ultimo, last, of the last month. U. P. United Presbyterian. U. S. United States ; United Service. U. S. A. United States of America ; United States Ar my. U. S. N. United States Navy. U. T. Utah Territory. V. or vs. Versus, against. V. A. Vicar Apostolic. Va. Virginia. V. D. M. Verbi Dei Minister, Minister of the Word of God. Ven. Venerable. V. G. Vicar General. Viz. Videlicet, namely. V. P. Vice President. Vs. Versus, against. Vt. Vermont. W. West. W. I. West Indies. W r is. Wisconsin. W. S. Writer to the Signet. W. T. Washington Territory. W. Va. West Virginia. Wy. T. Wyoming Territory. X. XpicrTos, Christ. Xmas. Christmas. Zech. Zechariah. Zeph. Zephaniah. &c. Et cetera, and so forth. ABD, an initial word in proper names com mon to the Semitic languages. It signifies "servant," and is usually coupled with the name of the Divinity or of a moral attribute ; thus, Abd-allah, " the servant of Allah ; " Abd- er-Rahman, "servant of the Merciful." ABDALLAH BEN ABD-EL-MOTTALIB, an Arab merchant, father of Mohammed, born at Mecca about 545, died in 570. In youth, according to the Moslem legend, he narrowly escaped sacrifice at his father s hands, who, having but this one child, had made a vow to the gods that if they would grant him ten children, he would sacrifice one to them. The children came, and the lot, being taken, fell on Ab- dallah, then 24 years old. The father was on the point of fulfilling his vow, when by the advice of his friends he stayed his hand, and consulted a wise woman, who directed him to place ten camels, the price of blood among the Arabs, on one side, and his son on the other, I and to cast lots between them ; and as often as | the lots should be against the youth, he was to | add ten more camels. The experiment was tried, and the lot was against Abdallah ten times; the father sacrificed one hundred camels and saved his son. Immediately after this escape, Abdallah married Amina, daughter of Wahb, chief of the tribe of Benu Zahra. On the evacuation of Mecca by the Abyssinians, who had invaded the country, he was sent by his father to Medina, then called Yathreb, to buy provisions for the famished Meccaites, who had been obliged to fly to the mountain fast- I nesses. Abdallah died on the journey, leaving | his wife pregnant with her first child. That I child was Mohammed. ABDALLAH BEN ZOBAIR, ruler of Mecca, born about 622, died in 692. He was the first born 1 of the disciples of Mohammed after the hegira, ! and his advent was a matter of great rejoicing. ! He was the son of Zobair, a friend and com- ! panion of Mohammed, and of Asina, the sister ! of Ayesha, the prophet s favorite wife. He was thus Mohammed s nephew by marriage, and ! was brought up under his immediate tutelage. | After Mohammed s death, the question of suc- I cession was one of great moment. On the I death of the prophet s immediate successors, | and the election of Ali, Mohammed s nephew ! and son-in-law, to whom Ayesha was decidedly opposed, Abdallah sided with his aunt and re sisted All s claims. He was, however, severely wounded in a contest with the rival faction ; i but on the assassination of Ali he boldly re- j newed his opposition to Moawiyah, and on his ABD-EL-HALIM ABD-EL-KADER 13 death raised the standard of revolt ngainst Yezid, his successor. He seized upon the holy city, an.d maintained himself against both the remonstrances and the arms of the caliph. At this early period there were three distinct governments in the territories conquered by the Arabs, in Persia, Syria, and Arabia. Ab- dallah s chief opponent was Yezid, caliph of Damascus. In the siege which he sustained at Mecca, the temple of the holy Caaba was de stroyed by the assailants, and the death of Yezid alone saved the city from capture. Ab- dallah was now acknowledged sultan and ca liph of Mecca by the Arabs, and rebuilt the city and temple, not without opposition from his superstitious subjects, who considered it sacrilege to touch the stones of the sacred edi fice. He completed the restoration in 685. Yezid s son, Moawiyah II., abdicated in favor of Menvan, on whose death his son Abd-el- Malek ben Menvan succeeded him, and pushed the war vigorously against Abdallah, by whose anathemas Abd-el-Malek s subjects, when they made the pilgrimage to Mecca, were greatly in fluenced or scandalized. Abd-el-Malek van quished Abdullah s brother and lieutenant Mo- zab ben Zobair in the plains of Persia, added Irak to the caliphate of Damascus, and de spatched an army against Abdallah at Mecca. The holy city was a second time besieged, and resisted for several months. Abdallah, at the age of 70, defended himself to the last, and when the city was taken by storm retired to the Caaba, where he was killed by a blow on the head from a tile. He is described as brave to rashness and crafty to perfidy. ABD-EL-HALIM, known as HALIM PASHA, an Egyptian prince, son of Mehemet Ali and a white slave woman, born at Cairo in 1826. He was educated at Paris, and of late resides near Cairo, in a magnificent palace celebrated for its beautiful pleasure grounds. The sultan has often taken his part in his family quarrels with his relatives Abbas and Sa id, the late viceroys, and Ismail Pasha, the present khedive. Abbas (1848- ? 54) endeavored even to appropriate Halim s property, but restored it to him at the request of the sultan, who also conferred upon Halim the rank of pasha and mushir (field marshal). Under Snid he was for a short time a member of the family council, until that viceroy was form-illy recognized by the sultan (July, 1854). In 1855- 6 he officiated for a brief period as governor general at Khartoom. Since the accession of his nephew Ismail (1863), Halim has been more persecuted than in the reign of Abbas Pasha. In 1866, when the sultan consented to modify the organic Mo hammedan laws of succession in favor of a direct line of hereditary rulers in Egypt, it was hoped that this would do away with the jeal ousy of Ismail Pasha against his uncle, but the khedive remains unfriendly. ABD-EL-HAMID, the Arabic name adopted by Du COUEET, a French traveller, on his becoming a Mohammedan. He was born in 1812 at Hu- ningen, in Alsace, travelled from 1834 to 1847 in the East, was sent in 1848 on a mission to Timbuctoo, a report of which appeared in 1853 (Memoire d Napoleon ///.), and published in 1855 the story of his Arabic pilgrimages (Me- dine et la MeJcke, 3 vols.), which was worked up by Alexandre Dumas in his Pelerinage de Hadji AM-el-Hamid Bey (2 vols., 1855). ABD-EL-KADER, an Arab emir in Algeria, born near Mascara in 1806 or 1807. He was the descendant of an ancient family of Mara bouts, and the son of Mahiddin, an influential emir, who, suspected of plotting the subversion of Turkish rule, was compelled to retire with his son to Cairo in 1827. When Abd-el-Kader returned from this exile Algiers had been cap tured by the French. A man of remarkable powers and accomplishments, and of the greatest bravery, the young emir soon became the leader of his countrymen, and organized among them a system of resistance to the French invaders, whom he began to harass at the head of his own and the neighboring tribes. Encouraged by the failure of an attack which Gen. Boyer, commandant of Gran, made in the spring of 1832 upon his stronghold at Tlemcen, Abd-el-Kader conducted his attacks upon the French on a larger scale, and with such skill and bravery that the admiring Arabs proclaim ed him chief of the believers. For two years he continued operations, but in 1834 Gen. Des- michels, Boyer s successor, by causing a defec tion of the native tribes, obliged him to make peace, France acknowledging his sway over the tribes west of the Shelliff . Abd-el-Kader now spent a short period of quiet in introducing European discipline and tactics among his fol lowers. But he soon crossed the ShellitFduring a successful war with a native chief; and the French, alarmed by his growing power, again began hostilities under Gen. Trezel, who was sent to replace. Desmichels. Trezel, marching to\vard Mascara, was surprised and utterly de feated by Abd-el-Kader in the defile of Muley Ismail. Marshal Clauzel was now made gov ernor of Algiers. In December and January, 1835- 6, he succeeded in reaching and destroy ing Mascara, and in capturing Tlemcen, where he left a garrison ; but this accomplished, he was obliged at once to make a disastrous re- treat to *Oran. In April, 1830, Abd-el-Kader utterly defeated Gen. d Arlangcs near Tlemcen, and obliged him to fall back on a fortified camp he had established on the Tafna to keep open the communication between the French garri son of Tlemcen and their base of supplies. In this camp the general was shut up by Abd-el- Kader s troops, and compelled to remain until relieved by Gen. Bugeaud. This officer was now appointed to the command in Algiers, and conducted the war with great success, first de feating Abd-el-Kader July 7, 1836, and finally compelling him in May, 1837, to conclude a peace by which he acknowledged French sov ereignty, though himself confirmed as emir of Oran, Titteri, and part of xUgiers. But he was ABD-EL-WAHAB ABDIAS not content, and in 1839 war was renewed. After desperate fighting, Abd-el-Kader was defeated everywhere; and in 1842 he was driven from Algeria and took refuge in Moroc co, where he induced the emperor to aid him against the French. But the Moorish ruler, being utterly defeated by the French army at Isly, Aug. 14, 1844, was obliged, in order to save himself from the vengeance of France, to turn against the emir ; and Abd-el-Kader, who now defied both the French and the Moors, soon found himself deserted by all but his own tribe, and beaten at every point. After continuing the contest as long as possible, he was finally captured and sent to Paris in 1848, although he had surrendered only on condition that he should be sent to Egypt or St. Jean d Acre. He was kept in France until released by Louis Napoleon in 1852, with a pension of 100,000 francs, on condition that he should not return to Algeria or again take up arms against France. He went to Broussa in Asia Minor, and when that town Avas destroyed by an earthquake in 1855, lie removed to Constantinople. He has been since 1852 on the best terms with the French government, and in 1855 visited Paris during the industrial exposition. lie subsequently took up his residence in Damascus, where he distinguished himself by generously aiding the Christians during the bloody riots in the sum mer of 1860. In 1 864 he went to Egypt, where he was presented with a piece of land by M. de Lesseps, projector of the Suez canal. During this journey he was also made a member of the order of Freemasons. In 1865 he went to England, and in 1867 attended the great ex position in Paris. In 1870 he offered his sword to the French against the Germans, but the offer was declined. In October, 1871, he ad dressed a lettei to M. Triers declining to visit France on the ground of ill health, but making suggestions relative to the condition and gov ernment of Algeria. Of his 24 children most have died. One of his daughters has become a convert to Christianity. Abd-el-Kader is the author of a book of philosophico-religious medi tations, written in exile, in Arabic, and trans lated into French under the title of Eappel d V intelligent, Aris d V indifferent (Paris, 1858). ABD-EL-WAHAB, founder of the Mohammedan sect of Wahabees or "Wahabites, born of poor parents, in the Arabian province of Nedjed, about 1691. After long travels through vari ous parts of Arabia, Syria, and Mesopotamia, he finally taught his new religious doctrines in his native region, and died in 1787. (See WAHABITES.) ABDERA (now Polystild), an ancient city of Thrace, on the S. coast, at or E. of the mouth of the river Nestus. It was a flourishing town in the times of the Persian wars with Greece, and preserved its importance under the Ro mans. Its inhabitants were proverbial for their ignorance and stupidity, from which ill repute they were not saved by the lustre that Demo- critus, Protagoras, Anaxarchus, and Hecateeus threw around the name of the town as their birthplace. Lucian, La Fontaine, and Wieland have made them subjects of their satire. Coins of this city are numerous. ABDERRAHMAN I., surnamed the Wise, the first ruler of the family of the Ommiyades in Spain, born at Damascus in 731, died in 787. After the massacre of his family in the East he retired to Mauritania, where he re mained in privacy until he was called to Spain by a deputation of friends, who were tired of anarchy. Abderrahman with a handful of rel atives landed at Almunecar on the coast of Andalusia in 755, and soon found himself at the head of a large army. He entered Seville, and was acknowledged as sovereign. Next he advanced against Yusuf el-Feri, the most pow erful of the rival emirs, whose army, though of greatly superior numbers, he entirely de feated, firmly establishing himself on the throne of Cordova., It was during these in ternal dissensions in Spain that the Moham medans were finally driven out of France, and forced to recross the Pyrenees. The eastern caliphs, who always kept up the idea of main taining the right of spiritual and temporal rule over the Spanish Moors, anathematized Abder rahman, and despatched two expeditions against him, but in vain. The kingdom of Cordova was at peace when Charlemagne fruitlessly crossed the Pyrenees. Abderrah man built the magnificent mosque of Cordova, designed by himself, at which he is said to have labored an hour a day with his own hands. He planted the first palm tree in Cor dova, the stock from which all those now in Spain are descended. ABDERRAHMAN, sultan cf Morocco, born in 1778, died in August, 1859. He succeeded to the throne in 1823, on the death of his "vncle, Muley Suleiman. At his succession the prac tice of paying tribute to the Barbary states and Morocco by independent Christian states, as a guarantee against piracy, had not ceased ; but Abderrahman was compelled by the Aus- trians in 1828 to abandon the claim. In 1844 the prolonged resistance of Abd-el-Kader to the French invasion in Algeria involved Mo rocco in war with France, and Mogadore and Tangier were bombarded by a French fleet. The contest was terminated by the battle of Isly, Aug. 14, 1844, in which only Abd-el- Kader s Arabs fought well on the Moslem side. Abderrahman was now compelled to turn his arms upon the Algerian emir, and, having col lected a large army, finally drove him beyond the frontiers of Morocco into French captivity. Abderrahman was succeeded by his eldest son, Sidi Mohammed, born in 1803. ABDIAS, of Babylon, the supposititious au thor of a hook called Historia Certaminis Apostolici (published at Basel in 1551), in which he asserted that he had seen Christ, that he was one of the 70 disciples, that he had witnessed the deaths of several of the apostles, and that he accompanied St. Simon ABDICATION ABDOMEN 15 and St. Jucte into Persia, by whom he was made the first bishop of Babylon. ABDICATION, the abandonment of a throne by a crowned head, was rare and generally compulsory in ancient times. The abdication of Diocletian and Maximian is the best known case in antiquity. Among modern princes who have more or less voluntarily laid down their crowns, we find Charles V. of Spain and Ger many (1556); Christina of Sweden (1654); in Poland, John Casimir (1660); in Spain, Philip -V. (1724) and Charles IV. (1808); in Savoy and Sardinia, Amadous VIII. (1434), Victor Amadeus II. (1730), Victor Emanuel I. (1821), and Charles Albert (1849); in France, Napoleon I. (1814 and 1815), Charles X. (1830), and Louis Philippe (1848) ; in Hol land, Louis Bonaparte (1810) and William I. (1840); in Bavaria, Louis I. (1848); in Aus tria, Ferdinand (1848). The most recent and one of the most remarkable of royal abdications is that of King Amadeus of Spain, who after a reign of two years became disgusted with the difficulties of his position, and on Feb. 11, 1873, resigned the crown for himself and heirs, and returned to his native Italy. Abdication, vol untary or compulsory, is considered by jurists as a personal act, which in no wise affects the right of succession. ABDOMEN (Lat., of undetermined etymology), the lower part of the body, included between the level of the diaphragm and that of the pelvis. The abdomen consists of its walls or boundaries, the cavity embraced by them, and the organs or viscera included therein. The walls are con stituted below by the pelvis, a strong basin- shaped bone with wide flaring edges, upon the upper surface of which the weight of the ab dominal organs is sustained ; behind by a part of the spinal column and the strong muscles attached to its sides ; above by the diaphragm, a vaulted muscular sheet, which forms the par tition between the cavity of the abdomen and that of the chest ; and in front by the abdomi nal muscles and their integuments, extending from the lower part of the chest to the pelvis. In front and laterally, the abdominal walls are soft and flexible, being composed only of the skin, fatty tissue, fibrous membranes, and mus cles ; behind they are more solid and unyield ing, owing to the bony framework of the spinal column, which here forms so large a part of their substance. For convenience of anatomi cal examination and reference, the abdomen is divided externally into three nearly equal transverse bands or zones, an upper, middle, and lower; thess zones being again divided into three nearly equal parts or "regions," namely, one middle and two lateral regions in each zone. In the upper zone the middle re gion is the epigastrium (Gr. -/, over, and yaffTijp, the stomach), because a portion of the stomach is situated immediately beneath it; the two lateral regions of the saine zone being the right and left hypochondria (VTTO, under, and xovdpoe, a cartilage), because these two re gions are beneath the cartilages of the lower ribs. In the middle zone, the median portion is the umbilical region, so called because it contains the umbilicus or navel ; the two lat eral portions are the right and left lumbar re gions, or the loins. In the lowermost zone, the middle region forms the hypogastrium (v-o and yaaTrip), and the two lateral portions the right and left iliac regions, which are oc cupied on each side by the ilium, or flaring portion of the pelvis. The cavity of the abdo men is lined by a very extensive and delicate membrane, the peritoneum (Gr. KepiTetveiv, to extend around), which is also reflected over the surfaces of the abdominal organs, as the covering of a chair or sofa may be reflected or extended over its cushion. In the case of those abdominal organs which remain fixed in their places, like the pancreas and the kidneys, the peritoneum simply passes over their ante rior surfaces ; but those which are movable, like the liver, stomach, and intestines, are more or less completely invested by it, some of them being attached to the posterior abdomi nal walls only by the double layer of perito neum, returning upon itself after having cov ered their exterior. Thus these organs are covered, and the abdominal walls are lined, by opposite surfaces of the same continuous peri toneal membrane; and these surfaces are moistened by a minute quantity of serous fluid, which enables them to move gently to and fro upon each other, without causing friction or irritation of the parts. The organs con tained in the abdomen are as follows: In the upper zone ; the liver, stomach, spleen, pancreas, and the commencement of the small intestine; in the middle zone, the mass of the small intestine, with portions of the large intestine, the kidneys, and the supra renal capsules ; and in the lowermost zone, the remainder of the small and large intestines. The very last portion of the large intestine oc cupies the deeper parts of the cavity of the pelvis, together with fhe urinary bladder and the uterine organs. Owing to the flexible character of the abdominal walls, much infor mation may be obtained regarding the condi tion of the internal organs by external manual examination. If an organ be enlarged, indu rated, or displaced, these changes may be de tected by careful manipulation, and their in crease or diminution may be determined from day to day. If one or more of them be in flamed, this condition is indicated by an un natural tenderness on pressure ; and the exact situation and character of the inflammation may often be fixed by observing whether the tenderness be superficial or deep-seated. Un natural growths and tumors may be detected in the same way, and their origin ascertained in many cases with considerable approach to certainty. Penetrating wounds of the abdo men are very dangerous, because the contents of the stomach and intestines, if allowed to es cape into the cavity of the peritoneum, pro- 16 ABDUL- AZIZ ABDUL-MEDJID duce an irritation and subsequent inflammation | of the membrane; and this inflammation, | spreading in every direction over the contigu- j ous surfaces of the peritoneum, becomes so ex- | tensive and violent as almost invariably to pro duce fatal consequences. Nevertheless, surgi- | cal operations in which the cavity of the abdomen is opened, but in which care is taken to prevent the escape or dissemination of irri tating substances, have often been performed with a successful result. Sudden and power ful blows upon the abdomen, especially in the region of the epigastrium, are also sometimes fatal, even when none of the internal organs are lacerated, owing to the depressing influ ence of the shock upon the nervous system. ABDIL-A/I/, sultan of Turkey, second son of Mahmoud II., born Feb. 9, 1830. He succeed ed his brother Abdul-Medjid, June 25, 1801. Like all heirs to the Turkish throne, his life until his accession was passed in seclusion, and little is known of him during that period ex cept that he was fond of agricultural studies, and established a model farm at Scutari. On mounting the throne he was prodigal with promises of reform, dismissed the corrupt minister of finance, Eiza Pasha, reduced his civil list, got rid of the seraglio, declared that he would not indulge in polygamy, and seemed to take a lively interest in ameliorating the condition of the people, and in purging public affairs from fraud and corruption. His inten tions were excellent, and he was determined to give to his empire the benefits of European civilization. Hence his journey to France, England, and Austria in 1867, which tended to make him popular in those countries, but alienated from him the sympathies of ortho dox Mussulmans. Disregarding the fanatical spirit of the opposition, he allowed foreigners, for the first time in Turkey, to hold real estate, established a public high school after a French model, enriched the capital with various scien tific institutions,, and endeavored to place the administration of justice upon a more solid basis by ordering the supreme court (1869) to draw nj) a civil code. In many respects, how ever, his good intentions were soon overborne by opposition, the power of ancient usages, and his own weakness. He recognized the in dependence and unity of Italy, negotiated treaties of commerce with England and France, crushed rebellion in Montenegro (1862) and in Crete (1868), and signed in 1871 the treaty of London deneutralizing the Black sea. lie tol erated the accession to the Roumanian throne of Prince Charles of Ilohenzollern as a mat- I ter of policy, but found much trouble in his I relations with Egypt. In 1866, in considera tion of a vast sum of money, he had, contrary to the Mohammedan law, granted to Ismail Pasha .the right of succession to the viceregal throne in a direct line from father to son, while, instead of the title of viceroy, that of khedive was conferred upon him. A similar change was proposed for Turkey, so as to ena ble Yusuf, the eldest son of Abdul-Aziz, born in 1857 before his accession to the throne, to succeed him, contrary to the ancient institu tions of the empire ; but it was found imprac ticable, and the presumptive heir is conse quently the sultan s eldest nephew, Mehemet Murad, born in 1840. Besides Yusuf, the sul tan has four recognized children : Sultana Sa- likhe, born in 1862; Mahmoud Jemil, born in the same year; Mehmed Selim, 1866; and Abdul-Medjid, 1868. ABDtL-MEDJID, sultan of Turkey, born April 23, 1823, died June 25, 1861. He succeeded to the throne on the death of his father Mah moud II., July 1, 1839. Educated in the seclu sion of the seraglio, his weak and almost femi nine character, his kind disposition, his love of pleasure, his inexperience and want of knowledge, seemed to render him utterly unfit to rule. Mehemet Ali having a second time rebelled, his son Ibrahim had routed the Turk ish army near Nizib, June 24, 1839, and was on his march against Constantinople, where a strong party was secretly conspiring to elevate him to the throne. At the same time the capu- dan pasha or grand admiral betrayed his trust by surrendering the entire fleet to Mehemet Ali. The intervention of England and the German powers checked the Egyptian designs, and by the treaties of July 15, 1840, and July 13, 1841, Turkey was formally admitted into the political system of Europe. The personal share of Abdul-Medjid in all these proceedings was very small indeed. During the earlier years of his reign he was scarcely more than a puppet in the hands of others ; but he be came keen enough to discern the purposes of his advisers, while his benevolent disposition made him anxious to do justice and to pro mote the welfare of his subjects. On Nov. 3, 1839, acting under the advice of Reshid Pasha, he convoked all the grand officers of the em pire, the sheiks of the derviscs, the three patri archs of the Christian sects, the three high rabbis of the Jews, the foreign diplomats, the ulemas and mollahs, the trustees of all corpo rations at Constantinople, and citizens gene rally, around the pavilion of Gulhane in the imperial park, and there promulgated the Hatti-STierif or fundamental law, the bill of rights, intended to be the basis of a political reconstruction. Equality before the law was guaranteed to all subjects of the sultan, with out distinction of creed or nationality; an equitable mode of taxation was to be intro duced ; a just system of conscription was also promised. More than once the Hatti-Sherif was confirmed and repeated in new decrees; and in 1845 the sultan went so far as to call a kind of congress, consisting of representatives from different provinces of the empire. A board of education was instituted in 1845, and a system of free public schools established in 1846. On Feb. 18, 1856, the Hatti-Humayum was published, being the draught of a liberal constitution. "While from 1840 to 1853 almost ABECEDARIANS ABfiLAED 17 every year of Abdul-Medjid s reign was marked by insurrections in one province or another, the court was the theatre of incessant in trigues, amid which the position of the sultan was scarcely more honorable or important than that of a nominally sovereign king in the East Indies. For several years he led a dissolute life, but afterward he appeared to mend his ways in some degree, and improved his education by studying French, mathemat ics, history, and music. European customs and fashions became more and more prevalent at court, concerts and Italian opera were estab lished permanently, and in 1854 the sultan, "the supreme father of the faithful," even went to a ball. When in 1849 the defeated Hungarian patriots sought refuge on Turkish soil, Abdul-Medjid preferred running the risk of a formidable war to betraying those who had confided in the sacredness of hospitality as taught by Mohammed. He had seven sons and two daughters, but was succeeded, accord ing to law, by his brother Abdul- Aziz. ABECEDARIANS, a sect which appeared among the Anabaptists of Germany in the 16th century, led by one Storck, previously a disciple of Luther. They held that without the aid of study the Holy Spirit would convey directly to the understanding a knowledge of the Scriptures, and that therefore it was bet ter not to know how to read. Carlstadt, a Wittenberg divine, and at one period of his life a bitter antagonist of Luther, is said to have countenanced the Abecedarians by tear ing off his doctor s gown and burning it. A BECKET, Gilbert Abbott, an English humor ous author, born in London in 1810, died in Boulogne, April 28, 1856. He was called to the English bar in 1841. He was a contributor to both the London "Times" and "Daily News," and was special correspondent of the "Times" in a celebrated poor law inquiry, in which he displayed great judgment. He was one of the earliest contributors to "Punch," and wrote the " Corriic Blackstone," comic histories of England and Rome, and a great number of burlesque plays. He was appointed one of the police magistrates of London. On his death the queen, on the recommendation of Lord Palmerston, granted his widow a pen sion of 100 a year. ABEEL, David, D. D., an American clergy man, born in New Brunswick, N. J., June 12, 1804, died in Albany, N. Y., Sept. 4, 1846. He studied theology at the seminary in New Brunswick, and after preaching for more than two years at the village of Athens, N. Y., his health gave way, and in October, 1829, he sailed for Canton as a chaplain of the seaman s friend society, but at the end of a year s labor placed himself under the direction of the American board. He visited Java, Singapore, and Siam, studying the Chinese tongue, when his health failed him entirely, and he returned home in .1833 by way of England, visiting Holland, France, and Switzerland, and every- VOL. i. 2 where urging the claims of the heathen. He also assisted in England in forming the society for promoting female education in the East. In America he published a description of his life in China and the adjacent countries, and a work entitled " The Claims of the World to the Gospel." In 1838 he returned to Asia, and visited Malacca, Borneo, and other places, set tling at Kolingsu. Once more his health gave way, and he returned home in 1845. ABEGG, Julius Friedrieh Heinrich, a German jurist, born in Erlangen, March 27, 1796, died in Breslau, May 29, 1868. In 1818 he received his legal doctorate, and in 1820 commenced delivering lectures at Konigsberg. In 1826 he became professor of law at Breslau, and in 1846 was delegate of the legal faculty at Bres lau to the Prussian national synod. He was a very influential writer upon criminal adminis tration. One of his last works was Entwurf einer Stra/f processordnung fur den preussischen Staat (Leipsic, 1865). ABEL, the second son of Adam. He was a shepherd, and was slain by his brother Cain, from envy. It has been maintained by some fathers of the church that Abel never married; hence the sect of Abelites. ABEL DE PUJOL. I. Alexandre Denis, a French painter, born in Valenciennes, Jan. 30, 1785, died in Paris, Sept. 28, 1861. He was a pupil of David, and achieved distinction as a histo rical painter of the older classical school. Many of his works may be found in French churches. II. Adrienue Marie Louise Grandpierre Deycrzy, wife of the preceding, to whom she was married in 1856, born at Tonnerre, in the department of Yonne, in 1798. She was a pupil of her future husband, and made her debut in 1836 by a picture representing a painter s stu dio. She afterward painted portraits, a scene from Gil Bias, &c. A son of Abel de Pujol, born about 1815, is also a painter. ABELARD, or Abailard, Pierre, a French scho lastic philosopher, born near Nantes, in Brit tany, in 1079, died April 21, 1142. Having made early and rapid progress in the learning of the age, he relinquished his family inheritance in favor of his brothers, that he might be free from the cares of property, and have no im pediment to the gratification of his thirst for knowledge. At the age of sixteen he betook himself to Paris, and inscribed himself among the pupils of William de Champeaux, a famous professor. In the public disputations which were the fashion of the day, Abelard had no superior. In a discussion on the origin and nature of ideas, he made such a brilliant dis play of ability, learning, and logical acuteness, that he endangered the supremacy of De Champeaux in the seat of learning where he had so long held sway ; and his jealousy was at a high pitch when Abelard, though only 22 years old, opened a school of philosophy at Melun, near Paris, a favorite retreat of the court, which was well attended by students who deserted the other teachers. Abelard s- 18 ABELARD failing health compelled him for a time to re tire to his native air; but so soon as he had recruited his strength, he returned to the scene of his triumphs, and resumed his place as pupil at the feet of his old master. De Cham- peaux became a monk, but still continued his secular pursuits, and the fiery debates were renewed, in which Abelard again came off victor. De Champeaux was made bishop of Chalons, and his new power was exercised to crush his adversary with other weapons than those of argument. The canon Fulbert had a niece of whose intellectual and personal accomplishments he was justly proud. Ad miring the talents and distinction of Abelard, lie invited him to complete the education of his beautiful niece. Abelard boasted that he taught to lleloi se the three languages neces sary for the understanding of the Scriptures. The relation of master and pupil was not long preserved ; a warmer sentiment than esteem seized their hearts, and the unlimited oppor tunities of intercourse which were afforded them by the canon, who confided in Abelard s age (he was now almost 40) and in his public character, were fatal to the peace of both. The condition of lleloi se was on the point of betraying their intimacy. They fled. Fulbert pursued, and Abelard having proposed mar riage, the enraged uncle consented. On ac count of AbehmTs ecclesiastical ambition, this marriage was to be kept secret ; but Fulbert divulged the fact, which IIe"lo ise, from a spirit of devotion to her lover, denied. Exasperated at his niece s perverseness, Fulbert punished her, and she then fled to Abelard, who placed her in the nunnery of Argenteuil. Fulbert now abandoned himself to a transport of sav age vindictiveness, and, watching his oppor tunity, burst into Abelard s chamber with a band of ruffians, and gratified his revenge by inflicting on him an atrocious mutilation. Ful bert was deprived of his benefice, his goods were confiscated, and his accomplices punished by undergoing the treatment they had inflicted on AbC lard. In this affair, Abelard, in his memoirs, admits his own excessive culpability; he states that he was under evil influence, that he abused the confiding trust of his friend Fulbert, and that he deliberately plotted the seduction of lleloi se, who, on her part, was far less blarnable than he. The unhappy man, on his recovery from the outrage, sought an asylum in the monastery of St. Denis, and be came a monk, Ilelo ise took the veil at Argen teuil. But Abelard s .spirit was not crushed ; he continued his public lectures. Ilis great popularity soon drew a crowd of eager stu dents from all parts, and this roused the mal ice of his old opponents, lie abandoned the field of profane philosophy, and addressed himself to theology. His writings on the Trinity, maintaining doctrines to which some of the tenets of the modern Unitarians bear a close resemblance, were made the point of at tack. In 1121 he was accused of heresy, and a council being called at Soissons, in which he j was not allowed to defend his doctrines, his j works were adjudged heretical, and ordered j to be burned. The monks of St. Denis, who j were desirous of relieving themselves of a. I brother whose strict life was a rebuke to their j own, now took offence at his opinion that Di- i onysius the Areopagite was not the founder of I their abbey. For this impiety they followed | him up so fiercely that he was compelled to I flee, and in a desert place between Nogerit : and Troves he built himself a rude hermitage, j after the fashion of an anchoret. Many of his I pupils followed him into this retreat, and with I their assistance he founded the Paraclete. lie ! was now elected abbot of the monastery of St. I Gildas de Kuys, in the see of Vannes, but this i Avas a source of further trouble. The feudal ! lord of the monastery had deprived the monks of their territory for their irregular life, which Abelard himself was no less desirous of re forming, and thereby ran the risk of assassi nation within the walls, while, in his desire to | maintain the temporal rights of the convent, he was in little less danger without. lie re gretted the seclusion and independence of the Paraclete. Heloise had been elected abbess of Argenteuil. The demesne of the convent had been claimed by the monks of St. Denis, and the nunnery suppressed. Heloise and her nuns were without home or shelter. In this emergency Abelard ottered them the Paraclete to found an institution, and went to assist per sonally in their establishment there, which was confirmed by a bull of Innocent II. This reunion, after a separation of eleven years, was precious to both ; and he afterward made frequent visits to the Paraclete. His doctrines once more brought persecution upon him. This time St. Bernard was his opponent. Abe lard was charged with dogmatizing on the power and nature of the divine essence, there by attempting to reduce to human comprehen sion that which Bernard affirmed was, and ought to be, held incomprehensible by all Christians. In 1140 a council was held at Sens, in which Louis VII. in person presided. Abelard s opinions were again adjudged heret ical, and he was sentenced to perpetual silence. To escape this decree, he appealed to the pope and set out for Rome, and on his road thither he was able to interest Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny, in his case. This friend used his efforts on his behalf, and procured an ab solution from the holy father. Abelard died at St. Marcel, near Chalon, whither he had gone from Cluny for his health. Ilis body was delivered to lleloi se, and by her interred at the Paraclete, where she herself was afterward buried by his side. In 1792 the Paraclete was sold, and the remains of the two lovers were removed to the church of Nogent-sur-Seine. They were exhumed in 1800 and placed in the garden of the Muse Frangais in Paris, and in 1817 were deposited beneath a mausoleum in j the cemetery of Pere la Chaise. The position ABELARD ABENAQUIS 19 of Abelard in the philosophical movement of his age is well described by M. Cousin: "A hero of romance within the church, a refined spirit in a barbarous age, a founder of a school, and almost a martyr to an opinion, everything conspired to make Abelard an extraordinary personage. But of all his titles, that which gives him a separate place in the history of the human mind is his invention of a new philosophical system, and his application of this system and of philosophy in general to theology. Doubtless before Abelard might be found some rare examples of this dangerous process, although a useful one, even in its errors, to the progress of reason ; but it is Abelard who established it as a principle ; who contributed more than any other to found scholasticism, for scholasticism is nothing else. After Charlemagne, and even before, there was taught in several places a little of gram mar and logic ; religious instruction, too, was not wanting, but this instruction was limited to a more or less regular exposition of sacred dogmas ; it might suffice for faith, but did not nurture intelligence. The introduction of dia lectics into theology could alone produce that spirit of controversy which is the vice and the honor of scholasticism. Abelard is the chief author of this introduction ; he is, then, the principal founder of the mediaeval philosophy, so that France has not only given to Europe, through Abelard, the scholasticism of the 12th century, but also at the beginning of the 17th century has given, in Descartes, the destroyer of this same scholasticism, and the father of modern philosophy. And there is no incon sistency in this ; for the same spirit which had raised the ordinary religious instruction to that systematic and rational form which we call scholasticism, would alone be able to rise above that form, and to produce philosophy properly so called. Thus the same country was able to support, with an interval of a few centuries, Abelard and Descartes. We dis cover also, through the many differences of these two men, some striking resemblances. Abelard sought to gire an account of the only thing which could be studied in his time the ology; Descartes has given account of what it was permitted to study in his time man and nature. The latter recognized no authority but that of reason ; the former undertook to introduce reason into authority. Both doubt, both investigate ; they seek to understand all that is possible to man, and to rest only in cer tainty. This is their spirit in common, which they borrow from the French spirit, and this fundamental feature of resemblance causes many others; as, for example, that clearness of language which springs spontaneously from definite and precise ideas. It may be added that Abelard and Descartes are not only both Frenchmen, but that they belong to the same province, to that Brittany whose inhabitants are distinguished by so lively a sense of inde pendence and so strong a personality. Thence, in these two illustrious compatriots, with their native originality, with dispositions to admire moderately what was done before their time and in their time, came the love of indepen dence, pushed often into a quarrelsome spirit ; confidence in their own strength and contempt of their adversaries ; more of logical connec tion than of solidity in their opinions ; more sagacity than comprehensiveness; more of vigor in the temper of their mind and charac ter than of elevation and profoundness in their thought ; more of ingenuity than of common sense, satisfied with the perfection of their own views rather than rising to universal reason." The works of Abelard were collected by Frangois Amboise and Andre Duchesne, and first published at Paris in 1(516. The best edition of his works is that of Cousin (Paris, 1850), who has accompanied the principal writings of the author with admirable critical and expository notices. The narrative of his life is contained in his autobiography entitled Hwtoria Galamitatum suarum. Pope has ver sified some of the supposed letters between the lovers. The most important modern works on the biography of Abelard are by Fessler, Alialard und Heloise (2 vols., Berlin, 1806); Mine. Guizot, Essai sur la vie et les ecrits d Abailard et cVffelo ise (Paris, 1839) ; Remu- sat, Abelard (2 vols., Paris, 1845) ; Bohringer, Kirchcngeschickte (vol. iv., 1854j; Wilkens, Peter AMlard (Gottingen, 1855). ABELITES, Abelians, Abelonians, or Abelontos, a sect of Christians, probably of Gnostic origin, j who, though practising marriage, denounced ! sexual intercourse as a service of Satan, main- 1 taining that thereby original sin was perpetu- 1 ated. As Abel had not been married, they took their name from him. Their numbers were recruited by children whom they brought | up in pairs of each sex under one roof. They ; existed about the 4th century, and are men tioned by St. Augustine.. They lived near the city of Hippo in Africa. The name ABELITES was given in the 18th century to the members of a secret society, whose professed object was to cultivate the honesty and candor of Abel, whom they took for their model and patron. ABEN, Aven, Ebn, Ibn, Arabic patronymic prefixes to proper names, corresponding to the Hebrew Tien, son of. (See BEX.) ABEAAQIIS, or Abnakis (Men of the Eastern Land), a group of Indian tribes of the Algon quin family, originally occupying the present state of Maine, and comprising the Canibas or Abenaquis proper on the Kennebec, the Etechemins or Malecites as for as the river St. i John, and, according to some, the Pennacooks 1 on the Merrimack and the Sokokis west to the 1 Connecticut. They were approached early in the 17th century by the English and French, i but adhered to the latter, whose missionaries converted most of them to Christianity. They figure constantly in the New England border I wars under the name of Tarranseens, but were finally overthrown and their missionary Rale 20 ABENCERRAGES ABERCROMBY killed at Norridgewock in 1724. Many had emigrated to Canada, where two villages still remain, bearing the name Abenaquis, at St. Francis and Becancour. The remnants in Maine are called Penobscots and Passama- quoddies, from the rivers on which they reside. Another remnant is in New Brunswick, near Fredericton. During the American revolution they embraced the cause of the colonies under their chief Orono. Their language was thor oughly studied by Father Sebastian Rale, whose dictionary is still highly important. Their his tory has been written by the Rev. E. Vetro- mile (New York, I860), and more fully by the Kev. J. A. Maurault (Sorel, 1806). ABENCERRAGES (Arabic, Iln Serraj or Zer- ragli), the name of a distinguished Moorish family, whose mortal feud with the Zegris, another noble family of Granada, contributed to the fall of the Granadian monarchy. The quarrel originated in the varying fortunes of Mohammed VII. of Granada, in the earlier part of the 15th century, who was alternately a monarch and an exile, and whose cause the Abencerrages espoused with unswerving fidel ity. It is told that one of the youths of the Abencerrages, having loved a lady of the royal house, was climbing to her window when he was discovered and betrayed, and the king, in revenge for the outrage on the sanctity of his harem, shut up the whole family in a tower or court of the Alhainbra, and, letting loose the fury of their hereditary enemies, had them butchered in cold blood. This tragical tale has been the foundation of many poetical produc tions. The inexorable criticism of our century has, however, demonstrated the fictitious char acter of the romantic story. (See Conde s .Historia de la domination de los Arabes en EspaHa, Madrid, 1829.) ABENDBERG, one of the secondary elevations of the Bernese Alps, rising from the plateau of Interlachen or Bernese Oberland, in the canton of Bern, Switzerland, S. W. of the vil lage of Interlachen, its northern base abutting on the lake of Thun. It rises about 8,500 feet above the plateau, and 5,300 above the sea level. Its southern slope is very fertile, and the lower portion heavily wooded. It is re garded as one of the most salubrious regions of the Alps. In 1842 Dr. Louis Guggenbtihl selected a site on the southern slope, several hundred feet below the summit, for an asylum for cretins, whom he hoped by careful treat ment and the health-giving influences of the climate to restore to reason and healthful de velopment. The institution did not accomplish all that was expected from it, and, after being maintained for 18 or 20 years, was on the death of its founder given up. (See GUGGEN- BUIIL, Louis.) ABEN EZRA, properly Abraham ben Mcir ben Ezra, one of the most esteemed biblical com mentators among the Jews of the 12th century, born in Toledo, Spain, in 1093, died in Rome in 1167 or 1168. He was also distinguished as a physician, mathematician, astronomer, poet, and grammarian. He was poor, and travelled extensively, lecturing before large audiences. His writings, some of which have been trans lated into Latin, are numerous, and evince originality, boldness, and independence. His style is pithy and often epigrammatic. ABEXSBERG, a small town of Lower Bavaria, 18 in. S. W. of Ratisbon; pop. about 1,600. It is believed to have been the Abasinum of the Romans. It has a thermal spring, and contains the ruins of a fine castle. On April 20, 1809, Napoleon fought and defeated the Austrians near Abensberg, who lost 12 guns and 20,000 men, including the prisoners made on the following day. This was the precursor of the victories of Landshut and Eckmuhl. ABERBROTHWICK. See AEBEOATII. ABERCROMBIE, James, a British general, born in Scotland in 1706, died April 28, 1781. He was commander-in-chief in America in 1756, and again in 1758, on the retirement of Lou- doun. He attacked Ticonderoga July 8, at the head of 15,000 men, and was repulsed with a loss of nearly 2,000 killed and wounded. He then retreated to his fortified camp on the south side of Lake George. lie was superseded by Sir Jeflery Amherst, who retook Ticonde roga and Crown Point. In 1759 he returned to England, and was afterward a member of par liament and deputy governor of Stirling castle. ABERCROMBIE, John, M. I)., a Scottish phy sician, born in Aberdeen, Nov. 11, 1781, died in Edinburgh, Nov. 14, 1844. He contributed valuable papers to the u Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal." His principal works are : " Pathological and Practical Researches on Diseases of the Brain and Spinal Cord " (Edin burgh, 1828, 1830); u Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers of Man and the Investiga tion of Truth" (1830); "Philosophy of the Moral Feelings" (1833). The university of Oxford conferred on him the honorary degree of doctor of medicine, and in 1835 Marischal college elected him its lord rector. He was considered the first physician in Scotland. ABERCROMBY, Sir Ralph, a British general, born in 1738, died March 28, 1801. He was descended from a good Scottish family, entered the army, and became major general in 1787. In 1793 he went to Holland in the unsuccess ful Walcheren expedition, and gained universal esteem by his humanity and soldierlike quali ties. He was now made commander-in-chief in the West Indies, and took several of the French West India islands. After his recall he was made lieutenant governor of the Isle of Wight, and showed his judgment and pres ence of mind in suppressing a mutiny of the Highland regiments, who had revolted because they were required to serve as marines. On the breaking out of the rebellion of 1798 in Ireland, he Avas sent there as commander-in- chief, but his distaste for the service was so decided that he Avas removed to Scotland. In 1799 he again served in Holland. In 1800 he ABERDARE ABERDEEN 21 was sent to Egypt to act against the French invasion of that country, and on March 8, 1801, lie made good his landing at Aboukir in the face of a hostile force, but with considerable loss. He encamped near Alexandria, and was at tacked by the French, and on the 21st the bat tle of Alexandria was fought. Sir Ralph was severely wounded early in the action, but con cealing his wound, he continued on the field, giving his orders, until after the action was over, and the French had been entirely defeat ed. His dangerous condition was then made known. He died a week afterward, and his remains were conveyed to Malta and there in terred. His widow was created a peeress as Baroness Abercromby, with succession. ABKUUARK, a town and parish of Glamor ganshire, S. Wales, at the junction of the river Dare with the Cynon, 20 in. N. N. W. of Car diff, and 4 m. S. W. of Merthyr Tydvil ; pop. of the parish (25 sq. m.) in 1861, 32,299; in 1871, about 40,000. In 1841 the population was but 6,471. The increase is due to the great extension of coal and iron mining. The coal is largely consumed in the iron mills of the town, and a considerable amount is export ed. There are many fine public and private buildings, good water works, and a public park. ABERDEEN. I. New, the capital of the county of Aberdeen, Scotland, situated between the rivers Don and Dee, and near the mouth of the latter, 512 m. from London, and 114 m. X. by E. from Edinburgh; pop. in 1871, 88,125. It was styled New Aberdeen after its restora tion in 1336, having been burned by Edward III. It is incorporated by royal charter grant ed by William the Lion in 1179. The public edifices, chiefly of granite, are the East and Aberdeen from the Cross. West church, the Marischal college, the royal infirmary, the town house and tolbooth or jail, the post office, mechanics hall, and several oth ers erected within the last few years. There is a fine one-arch bridge of 132 feet span over the river Dee, opening into Union street, which is 70 feet wide and a mile long, and is the chief thoroughfare of the city. Over the Don, at the N. end of the town, is a bridge of five arches and 75 feet span. There are about 50 religious edifices of all denominations, the largest number being Presbyterian. The East and West church is a noble pile 170 feet long, with a spire 150 feet high. The town house and tolbooth are situated in Castle street, and have a spire 120 feet high. Marischal col lege, founded by George Keith, earl of Maris chal, in 1593, has an observatory and good col lection of instruments, a museum, and a fine library. Since 1858 it has been incorporated with King s college as the university of Aber deen, which has now 21 professors and over 600 students. Gordon s hospital, founded in 1729 by Robert Gordon, is a school for boys, who are admitted from 8 to 11, and kept until 15 years of age, and on quitting the foundation are entitled to receive an apprentice fee of 10 or 7. The other charitable institutions are the royal infirmary and lunatic asylum, the general dispensary, two ophthalmic institu tions, the Cruickshank asylum for the blind, Dr. Carnegie s hospital for destitute female children, the Midbellie fund for granting pen sions of 5 to 15 to widows, and the female orphan asylum, which is supported by volun tary contributions, and whose inmates are trained for domestic service. The cross on the east of Castle street is a monumental structure of remarkable beauty. The market is com- i modious, built in two floors, with galleries ABERDEEN ABERDEENSIIIRE running around the whole. The commerce and manufactures of Aberdeen are extensive. Ships of 1,000 to 1,500 tons are built here. Cotton manufactures employ 4,000 hands, linens and woollens each as many more. The Aberdeen granite is used all over Great Brit ain, and largely exported. Aberdeen is ac tively engaged in the northern whale fishery. Tiie Victoria dock has a water area of 40 acres. There are water works which supply the town from the river Dee. There is rail way communication direct with London. The town is governed by a provost, four bailies, a dean of guild, and a treasurer, with 12 other members of council. II. Old, a town of great antiquity, situated one mile N. of the new town, near the mouth of the Don ; pop. about 2,000. King s college, founded in 1494, is situated here. ABERDEEN, Earls of, viscounts of Formartin and barons of Haddo, Methlic, Tarvis, and Kel- lie in the Scottish peerage, and Viscounts Gor don in that of the United Kingdom. The family is an offshoot of the ancient Scotch family of the Gordons. Sir Jonx GOEDON of Haddo was created a baronet in 1642 by Charles I., as a reward for his services in the battle of Turriff between that monarch and the par liamentary forces. Being taken prisoner after a desperate defence of the house of Kellie, he was long imprisoned in the nave of the ancient cathedral of St. Giles at Edinburgh, which from him took the familiar name of " Iladdo s Hole," and was at length beheaded in 1645. His estates remained under seques tration till the restoration of Charles II., when they were restored to his eldest son, Sir John Gordon, who died in 1665. Sir GEORGE GOR DON* of Haddo, lord high chancellor of Scotland, was in 1682 elevated to the Scottish peerage, by the titles above mentioned. On the revo lution the new earl resigned office, and de clined taking* the oaths of allegiance to Wil liam of Orange, but he appeared again at court in the reign of Queen Anne. He opposed the union of Scotland and England from his seat in parliament, and died in 1720, aged 83. GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON, 4th earl, born in Edinburgh, Jan. 28, 1784, died Dec. 14, 1860. He was educated at Harrow, and at St. John s college, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1804. While still a young man he founded a club, the members of which must have made a journey to Greece. In 1806, though only 22, he was elected as one of the 16 Scottish representative peers, and so remained until he was created a peer of the realm in his own right in 1814, as Viscount Gordon of Aberdeen. In 1813 he was sent to the court of Vienna as a secret envoy to detach Austria from her enforced alliance with Napoleon. He succeeded, and was soon afterward again sent to Vienna, and arranged ! the preliminaries between the emperor Francis and Joachim Murat, king of Naples, for the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne of Naples. During Canning s ministry he was in opposition. In 1828, the duke of Wellington having formed a ministry on high tory princi ples, Aberdeen became secretary of state for foreign affairs, remaining in office till Novem ber, 1830, and opposing the Greek war of in dependence, but favoring the abolition of the test and corporation acts, and the Catholic emancipation act, while resisting the movement for parliamentary reform. On the death of George IV. Aberdeen resigned with his col leagues, lie afterward took a conspicuous part in endeavoring to reunite the Scottish na tional church. From 1841 to 1846 he was again secretary for foreign affairs, in the min istry of Sir Robert Peel, and participated in settling the northeastern and Oregon bound ary questions with the United States. On Dec. 28, 1852, he became prime minister, but was compromised in public opinion by his attempt to evade the Crimean war, and by its blunders after it was begun, and was compelled to re sign Oct. 7, 1855, when he was made a knight of the Garter. He had been president of the society of antiquaries, and in 1822 published " An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Architecture." GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON, 6th earl, born Dec. 10, 1841, lost at sea Jan. 27, 1870. He succeeded to the title in 1864. In 1866 he embarked in a sailing vessel from Aberdeen for St. Johns, N. B., and dur ing the voyage volunteered to fill the place of a disabled seaman. This occupation he re sumed after some time spent in travel, made several short voyages under the name of George Henry Osborne, acted as a commercial agent at Pensacola, and was licensed as a mate in New York in 1867, and as a captain in 1868. In January, 1870, he shipped as mate of the three-masted schooner Hera, bound from Bos ton to Melbourne, and on the fourth day out was swept overboard in a storm. He had for some time kept his family advised of his wan derings, but as all replies to his letters miscar ried, he ceased writing. An agent sent out in search of him succeeded with great difficulty in tracing his subsequent career. 1BERDEENSH1RE, a county of Scotland, on the N. E. coast, between lat. 56 52 and 57 42 N., and Ion. 1 49 and 3 48 W. ; length, 87 m. ; greatest breadth, 36 m. ; area, 1,985 sq. m., or 1,270,740 acres, being about one sixteenth of all Scotland ; pop. in 1871, 244,607. It contains 83 parishes and parts of six others, and is divided into the districts of Mar, Formartin, Buchan, Garioch, and Strath- bogie. On the S. and S. W. borders of the county are the Grampian hills. The High lands of this district include some of the high est mountains in Scotland, Ben Macdhui, Cairntoul, Ben Avon, and Cairngorm, from which last the fine yellow pebble so much used in Highland dress and ornaments takes its name. The Scottish kings used to hold for midable gatherings to hunt the red deer in the wilds of Braemar ; and the abundance of care fully preserved game makes the district still a ABERDEVINE ABERRATION favorite rendezvous of sportsmen. The Bullers of Buchan, near Peterhead, are also an at tractive object to the tourist. The chief rivers are the Dee and the Don. The climate, ex cept in the mountain districts, is mild, and wheat prospers. Cattle, sheep, pigs, eggs, and butter are transported by steam from Aber deen to London, to the value of about 1,000,- 000 annually. Granite is the most important mineral production. Besides the queen s es tate of Balmoral, Aboyne castle, belonging to the earl of Aboyne, Iladdo house, seat of the earl of Aberdeen, Huntly lodge, of the duke of Richmond, and Forbes castle are noteworthy. ABERDEVINE (cardmlis spinux), also called the siskin, a small European song bird, which breeds in the north of Europe, and visits Eng land, France, and Germany during the winter season only. It somewhat resembles the green variety of the canary bird, with which it is so far connected that it will interbreed with it in confinement, when the produce is what are known by bird fanciers as mules. Its length is about 4f inches, its tail short and forked. Its upper parts are variegated with olive brown, yellow, and pale green, the feath ers being edged with yellow ; its bill and legs are light horn brown. Its note is soft and pleasant. It builds in the topmost branches of pine trees, and lays four or five bluish white eggs, speckled with purplish red. Its Latin name carduelis expresses its fondness for the seeds of the thistle. ABERNETIIY, John, an English surgeon, born either in Scotland or Ireland in 1764, died at Enfield, April 18, 1831. He was a pupil of Sir Charles Blick, surgeon to St. Bar tholomew s hospital, London, and afterward of the celebrated John Hunter. Early in his career, in a work entitled " The Constitutional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases," he established the fundamental principles upon which surgical operations have since been con ducted. His bold and successful operations of tying the carotid and external iliac arteries established his reputation, and almost revolu tionized surgery. He acquired great distinc tion as an anatomist and physiologist, suc ceeded Sir Charles Blick at St. Bartholomew s, was appointed surgeon to Christ s hospital in 1813, and in 1814 professor of anatomy and sur gery to the royal college of surgeons. His works became text books in nearly all the medical colleges in Europe and America. He contributed the anatomical and physiological articles to Dr. Rees s " Cyclopaedia " from A to C, and published numerous tracts, treatises, and surgical and physiological essays. One of the most popular and well known of his works was his " Surgical Observations," the pe rusal of which he almost invariably recom mended to his patients. His last production (issued a few months prior to his death) was a collected and revised edition of his " Lectures on the Theory and Practice of Surgery." His writings are remarkable for clearness, concise- j ness, and simplicity. Ilis simple and inipres- I sive style of lecturing never failed to enchain j his audience, despite his dogmatism and con- I tempt of others opinions. His private charac- i ter was admirable, but in public his manners I were uncouth, churlish, and capricious. Many anecdotes of his eccentricities are current. ABERRATION. I. Aberration of Light, the al- j teration of apparent position in a heavenly j body, due to the fact that the observer is car- j ried along by the earth s motion, the velocity | of which is a measurable quantity in relation to the velocity of light. The aberration of light is therefore due to the combined effect of the transmission of light and of the earth s motion. The solution of all problems to which it gives rise is due to the astronomers of the last century ; their calculations are in perfect accord with the minutest practical observa tions, made with the most elaborate and largest astronomical instruments constructed in some observatories chiefly for the purpose of measur ing this amount of aberration. If, at a time when rain drops were falling in a perfect calm per pendicular to the earth s surface, we were standing on a platform car on a railroad track, and rapidly moving forward or backward, the drops would strike us under an angle deviating from the perpendicular in proportion to the swiftness of our motion. The direction of this deviation would in either case be toward the side we are moving to, and this is exactly the case with the light coming to us from the heavenly bodies. This is evident when we compare the direction of the rain drops with that of the light, and that of the car with the motion of the earth in its yearly orbit. If now the direc tion in which light reaches us be changed, the apparent position of the body from which the light proceeds must be changed also. Let A B s 1 s * * T T 1 * I I A B C D Aberration of Light. represent a small portion of the earth s orbit, and S M the ray of light from a fixed star S ; the motion of the earth from B toward A will cause the light to come in the direction S A, and the star will appear to stand in S . If C D represents a small portion of the earth s orbit half a year later, thus moving in an opposite direction, the star T will for the same rea- ABERRATION ABEYANCE son appear to stand in T . If the velocity of our earth was so much slower as to be for our most delicate instruments incompara ble to the velocity of light, no apparent in fluence would be exerted on the apparent direction, and there would be no appreciable aberration; but the relation happens to be within the pale of actual measurement. Tak ing the length of the earth s yearly orbit in round numbers at 000,000,000 miles and the length of the year at 31,556,931 seconds, the velocity of our earth is nearly 19 2 miles per second ; and light being transmitted at the rate of 192,000 miles per second, it is clear that it travels about 10,000 times faster than the earth. If now we consider that an equal ve locity would change tbe direction of the per pendicular, or 1)0, into its half, or 45, we see that a velocity of only TOYO-Q-O WO11 ^ deviate the angle approximately T o,Vo-o of 45, or about 16 seconds. This, however, is a rough esti mate ; trigonometrically calculated, we obtain more, namely, 20 seconds. This now must be the maximum aberration produced by the yearly motion of the earth on the position of all stars observed at right angles to the direc tion of that motion. They must all appear displaced to an amount of 20" forward, and this is in fact observed in all heavenly bodies at right angles to the plane of the ecliptic. As after six months the earth moves in an oppo site direction at the other side of the sun, this displacement must be observed in an opposite direction after the lapse of every half year, making a total displacement of 40" in the position of all the stars situated near the poles of the ecliptic ; therefore they appear to have a yearly movement in small ellipses of 40" mean diameter, or about one fortieth the di ameter of the moon. II. Aberration in Optical Instruments. As white light is composed of colored rays of different refrangibility, any kind of refraction must split it up into rays of different colors. This is called dispersion. As the convex lenses used in telescopes, micro- scopes, and other optical instruments refract the light to focal points, this dispersion causes an infinite number of foci. Those consisting of the most refrangible rays, the violet, are the nearest to the lens, and they follow in the order of their refrangibility blue, green, yel low, orange, and red ; the focus of the last is the furthest distant from the lens. This grand defect, called chromatic aberration, is correct ed by the construction of achromatic lenses. sented in the adjoined figure, in which A B is the lens, V the focus of the most refrangible or violet, and R that of the least refrangible or red rays. Another defect, called spherical aberra tion, arises from the nature of the curve used in making lenses and reflectors. Geometry proves that parallel rays can only be refracted and re flected to a single focus by a parabolic curve ; however, lenses and reflectors are ordinarily ground as parts of a sphere, which differs from a parabola in the fact that in the latter the j amount of curvature increases toward the cen- | tre or axis. The consequence is that a sec tion of a sphere, not having curvature enough toward this point, has an infinite number of foci at different distances ; those formed by parts nearest to the axis will be the furthest off, while those formed by the refractions or reflections near the circumference of the lens or mirror will be the nearest. The two figures Chromatic Aberration. (See ACHEOMATIC LENS.) The course of the rays producing chromatic aberration is repre- Spherical Aberration. given here represent the case of this aberration | by refraction and reflection : C I) is the lens, of I which the rays passing near the centre P are united in F, while the rays passing near the circumference D C unite nearer to the lens in E. G H is the curved mirror or reflector which reflects the rays U I and W K falling on it near its centre in 1ST, while the rays S G and T II, falling on it near the circumference, are brought together much nearer in M. When the aper ture of the lens or mirror is small, for instance only 5 or about T V p ar t o f the circumference, these differences are practically inappreciable ; but when the aperture must be large, as is the case with astronomical telescopes, peculiar ar rangements are contrived, so that in making the lenses or reflectors a curve is obtained as nearly as possible of the parabolic form. ABERYSTWITH, a seaport town of Cardigan shire, Wales, near the outlet of the Ystwith and Rheidiol, 39 m. N. E. of Cardigan ; pop. in 1871, 6,896. It is a bathing place, and has considerable commerce and extensive fisheries. In the vicinity are many lead mines. ABEYANCE (law Fr. abbayer, to expect, wait for ; Fr. ~bayer, to gape), a law term im plying expectation, suspense, though by the signification preferred by the best authors the thing in abeyance is conceived to be in the j remembrance or consideration of the law. , The title to a ship captured in war is said to ABIAD ABINGTOST 25 be in abeyance until condemnation to the cap tor by the prize court. So an estate of inher itance or the fee was said to be in abeyance when there was no one in being in whom it could vest, as in the case of a grant to A for life, remainder in fee to the heirs of B, who was then living : as there can be no heir of a living man, the fee was said to be in abeyance untilB s death. Mr. Fearne, an acute writer upon the law of real property, denounced the theory of an abeyance as an absurd fiction ; and he contended with great ability that in the case just supposed the estate of inheritance was not in abeyance during B s life, but re mained in the grantor of the life estate until the happening of the condition on which it might pass to B s heirs devested him of it. The principle of abeyance, however, has always stood last in the la\v, and has carried with it very practical results. The plan of the feudal system, which required that there should al ways be some one ready to render the military and other feudal services to the lord, fixed the rule of the feudal, and later of the common law, that there must al \vays be a tenant of the freehold, and that that must never be in abeyance. It was difficult for a long time, however, to get rid of the abeyance of the fee, that is, of the absolute ownership of the estate, distinguished from mere portions of it like a freehold life estate. But the recognition of the rule caused great embarrassments ; for dur ing the suspension of the fee there was no one to defend the title, or take any of those remedies in respect to the property which depended on the absolute ownership. The doctrine, there fore, came to be regarded with more and more disfavor, and its inconveniences inspired from time to time some of the most important re forms of the law. Blackstone says in one of his arguments, that the famous rule in Shel ley s case owed its origin and adoption to the aversion of the common law to the suspension of estates through the operation of abeyance ; and the same spirit of the law helped to break down the limitation or creation of remote and contingent remainders. ABIAD, Balir el. See NILE. ABIATHAR, a Hebrew high priest, the son of Ahimelech, who was slain by Saul for receiving David when a fugitive. He was for a long time faithful to David, especially during Absalom s rebellion, when he accompanied the king. He afterward, however, took part in the rebellion of Adontjah, and was in consequence deprived of the priesthood and banished from the capi tal by Solomon. ABIB (properly, Jlodcsh Jia-abib, the month of the ears of com), the first month of the Mosaic Hebrew year, corresponding nearly to our April. After the Babylonish captivity this month was called Nisan, month of blos soms or flowers. (See XISAX.) ABH II. WUhelm Hermann, a German-Russian naturalist, born in Berlin, Dec. 11, 1806. He graduated in 1831 at the university of Berlin, visited Italy and Sicily, and published Erlau- ternde Abbildungeri ion geologisclien ErscJici- nungen, beobachtct am Vesuv und Aetna 1833 und 1834 (Berlin, 1837), and Ucber die Natar und den Zusammcnhang dcr viLlkanixcken Bildungen (Brunswick, 1841). In 1842 he became professor of mineralogy in the univer sity of Dorpat, and in 1853 a member of the St. Petersburg academy of sciences. He has explored the mountain ranges of the Caucasus, Russian Armenia, northern Persia, and Daghes- tan, and published in the German and French languages many works relating to the palaeon tology, geology, <tc., of those regions, besides his contributions to the bulletins and memoirs of the St. Petersburg academy since 1843. ABIMELECII. I. A Philistine king of Gerar, into whose dominions Abraham removed after the destruction of Sodom. The latter, from motives of prudence, pretended that Sarah, his wife, was his sister, whereupon Abimelech took her from him, intending to make her his concubine. By divine command, however, he restored her, rebuking Abraham for his fraud. Another Philistine king of Gerar of the same name was similarly deceived by Isaac in regard to Rebekah, and also rebuked him. II. A son of Gideon by a Shechemite concubine, who made himself king after murdering all his TO brethren except Jotham, and was killed after a reign of three years while besieging the tower of Thebez. (See HEBREWS.) ABINGER, James, Lord, an English lawyer, born in Jamaica about 1769, died in London, April 7, 1844. He is better known and re membered as Sir James Scarlett, lie was a member of parliament for Peterborough from 1818 to 1830, afterward for Maldon, Cocker- mouth, and Norwich. lie was at first a mod erate whig, but gradually became a stanch tory. As an advocate he was one of the most popular men of his day. and his practice was immensely lucrative. His oratorical powers were of the most persuasive character ; his speech usually assumed almost a conversa tional tone with the jury, and he had the art of appea ring to address himself to each of his auditors- individually. He was attorney-gen eral from April, 1827, to January, 1828, and again from May, 1829, to November, 1830. In December, 1834, he was appointed lord chief baron of the exchequer, and on Jan. 12, 1835, he was raised to the peerage as Baron Abinger. ABINGTOX, Frances, an English actress, bora about 1731, died in London, March 4, 1815. Her father was a common soldier named Bar ton. She was employed as a child in running errands, and afterward as a flower girl. Her first appearance as an actress was on the boards of the Haymarket in the character of Miranda in "The Busybody," 1755. She had previously married Mr. Abington, her music master, from whom she separated in a few months. At Dublin she was a great favorite, and when Garrick in 1765 invited her to London, she soon became the first comic ABIPOXES ABNER actress of the day. She bade adieu to the stage April 12, 1709, and left at her death a legacy to each of the theatrical funds. ABIPOXKS, a tribe of South American Indians who inhabited the district ol Chaco in Paraguay, but now occupy the territory lying between San ta Fe and St. Jago, east of the Parana river. Our accounts of this singular people are mainly derived from Dobrizholi er, who lived among them se\en years at the end of the last centu ry. His volumes were translated from the Latin by Miss Coleridge (3 vols. 8vo, 1822). The whole tribe at that time did not number above 5,000. They practise tattooing. The men are of tall stature, good swimmers, and expert horsemen. The women practise infan ticide to a great extent, but suckle those in fants they permit to live for the space of two years. In counting they can go no further than three. See A. d Orbigny, Vllomme Ame- ricain, vol. ii. ABJURATION, Oath of, usually, an oath by which one renounces allegiance. But ancient ly in England, and before 21 James I., ch. 28, 17, one who had been guilty of a felony, and who had iled for safety to the sanctuary of a church or churchyard, might upon confession of his crime take an oath before a coroner that lie would abandon or renounce the country for ever, and thereupon he was permitted to leave it in safety. The statute just named took away the privilege of sanctuary, and with it this privilege of abjuration. Formerly too, in England for example, under the statute of 35 Elizabeth, ch. 1 any person above the age of 16 years who refused to hear divine service or incited others to abstain from attending it, and by speech or in writing denied her majes ty s authority in causes ecclesiastical, was re quired to conform and make submission to the church, or else to abjure the realm forthwith and for ever, before the justices at the assizes or in sessions. The oath of abjuration in respect to the sovereign came into use in Eng land after the restoration, and was changed from time to time until in the 6 George III. it took the form which it retained till 1858. All clergymen and public officers were re quired to take it on coming to their places, to gether with the separate oaths of allegiance and supremacy. The statute of 21 and 22 Victoria, ch. 48 (1858), displaced these three oaths by a single one which embraced the elements of all of them. It ended with the words, " and I make this declaration on the true faith of a Christian. 1 In ordinary cases Jews had been excused from adding these words, but until 1858 no statute authorized their omission from the parliamentary oath ; so that when in 1850 Baron de Rothschild, and in 1851 Mr. Salomons, had come into the house and refused to take the oath in its full form, they were declared incapable of sitting as members. The statute of 21 and 22 Victoria, ch. 49, however, author ized the houses to dispense with the obnox ious words in the case of Jews, and this au thority was thereupon exercised in favor of Baron de Rothschild ; and in I860 a standing order on the subject was made to avoid the in convenience of special resolutions in separate instances. But the statute of 29 and CO Victoria, ch. 19 (1800), removed all difficulty by dropping the embarrassing clause altogether from the parliamentary oath. Under the United States statute relating to naturalization, the subject of a foreign state who seeks to become an Ameri can citizen is required to declare on oath or affirmation, before the court to which he ap plies, that he absolutely and for ever renounces and abjures all allegiance and fidelity to every foreign power, authority, or sovereignty what ever, and particularly, and by name, to the foreign prince or potentate, state, or sover eignty of which he has been hitherto a subject. ABKHASIA, or Abchasia, the country of the Abkhasians, a warlike tribe between the Black sea and the Caucasus, which has been con quered by the Russians. It is bounded N. and N. E. by the land of the Circassians, E. by I Suanethi, S. E. by Mingrelia, and S. and W. by the Black sea. Its area, vaguely limited, is about 10,000 sq. m. Under the Roman empe ror Justinian the Abkhasians became Chris tians, but subsequently they adopted Moham medanism, to which religion they still nomi nally belong, though their religion in fact consists of a barbarous mixture of Christian, Moslem, and heathen notions and usages. The country was formerly divided into ten commu nities, the most important of which were Ab- khasia proper (with 80,000 inhabitants), the Tziebelda (8,000), Samurzakan (9,800), and the country of the Jigets or Zadzes (10,000). Ab- khasia proper has again had since 1771 an he reditary dynasty of its own, that of the Sher- vashidze, which since 1824 has been under Russian sovereignty. The residence of the prince is at Soyuk-Su (pop. about 5,000). On the coast the Russians have fortified several places, the most important of which is Sukhum Ivaleh, or Baglata (pop. SOO), supposed to be the site of the ancient Dioscurias, where ac cording to Pliny 800 different tribes used to trade. About 15,000 Abkhasians have of late emigrated from Russia to Turkey. ABLUTION, a religious ceremony in many por tions of the world. In the Catholic church it means the cleansing of the cup after the Lord s supper, and is applied to the wine and water with which the priest who consecrates the host washes his hands. ABNER, the son of Ner, cousin of Saul and the general of his troops. He was greatly loved by Saul, and faithful to him until his death, and then transferred his allegiance to Ishbosheth, Saul s son, to whom he preserved the throne of Israel for seven years against the rival claims of David. At length, Ishbosheth having accused him of improprieties with one of his father s concubines, he went over to the cause of David. But the aid he might have ren dered to that king was cut off by his sudden ABO ABORTION 27 death at the hand of Joab, David s captain, who was probably moved with jealousy at the influence of so powerful a rival for the kind s favor, though Joab alleged that the object of the assassination was to avenge the death of his brother Asahel. David was, or, as inti mated by Joseplms, pretended to be, deeply afflicted at the death of Abner, and lamented him in a sort of funeral dirge. ABO (S\ved. Alo), a city of Russia, in Fin land, capital of the government of Abo-Bjor- neborg, built on both sides of the Aurajoki, not far from where it flows into the gulf of Bothnia, 260 m. W. by X. of St. Petersburg; pop. in 1870, 21,830. It was founded in 1157 by the Swedes, and was the capital of Finland till 1819. A bishopric was established here in the 13th century. In 1827 the greater part of the city was destroyed by fire, including the university buildings and the library, contain ing 40,000 volumes. The university was re built in Helsingfors, the new capital of the pro vince. Abo is still the seat of considerable trade. The peace of Abo, concluded Aug. 17, 1743, between Sweden and Russia, terminated the struggle between those countries com menced in 1741, at the instigation of France, in order to prevent Russia s participation in the war of the Austrian succession. During this contest, the blunders of the Swedish gen erals enabled the Russians to take poss3ssion of Finland. The empress Elizabeth offered to restore the greater part of the province, on condition that Sweden should elect Prince Adolphus Frederick of Holstein-Eutin succes sor to the throne. This demand Sweden com plied with July 4, 1743. ABO-BJORXEBORG, one of the governments of the grand duchy of Finland, situated on the Finnish and Bothnian gulfs; area, 9,869 sq. m. ; j pop. in 1867, 319,784, nearly all Lutherans. Capital, Abo. ABOMEY, the capital of the kingdom of Da homey, Africa, in lat. 7 59 N"., Ion. 1 20 E., 100 m. X. N. W. of Badagry ; pop. about 50,- 000. It is about eight miles in circumference, surrounded by a ditch, and entered by six gates, all of which are ornamented with human skulls. It contains three royal palaces of two stories each. Within the palaces are barracks, in which the 5,000 Amazons of the king s army live in celibacy, guarded by eunuchs. ABORIGINES. See AMERICAN INDIANS. ABORTION (Lat. abortus, a miscarriage), the premature expulsion of the fetus or embryo, at so early a period that it is incapable" of living, and the pregnancy is consequently un fruitful. In the human species, a child may often continue to live and be reared if born as early as the seventh month of pregnancy ; and these accordingly are said to be cases of u pre- j mature birth." Nevertheless, if a child born | after the seventh month and before the natural 1 term of parturition should at once die in con- j sequence of such premature birth, this would I also be a case of abortion. In the earlier and middle periods of pregnancy, the death of the foetus sometimes takes place from internal causes, and it is soon afterward discharged from the uterus, to which it has become a source of irritation. Thus, whether the foetus die in consequence of premature delivery, or whether the premature delivery be a conse quence of the death of the foetus, all such cases are generally included umler the term abor tion. Abortion is sometimes produced, by various means, with the criminal intent of getting rid of the product of conception, and thus preventing the birth of a living child. All such means are dangerous to the mother, and may readily lead to a fatal- result. The pro duction of abortion for this purpose is there fore doubly criminal, since its first object is the destruction of the life of the foetus or child ; and this object is furthermore accomplished at the risk of death to the mother. The legal and medical sciences are not quite in accord upon the matter. The increasing frequency of this practice of abortion in the most en lightened communities at the present day has attracted to it the particular attention of phy sicians ; and they urge that the evil cannot be suppressed without the enactment of laws not only more severe but of a different character from those which have hitherto existed. They insist that, as the first and most essential step in the course of a reform of the law, the legis lature must not only abandon the old idea that the quickening of the child is the commence ment of its life, but must proceed directly upon the fact, especially emphasized by modern medical science, that the life of the future human being begins at the very instant of con ception ; that not only therefore must the old criteria of criminality which depended upon quickening be abandoned, but the protection of the foetal life must be the direct object of the law, no less than the protection of the life or well-being of the mother, or the genera*! conservation of public morality and decency. It will be seen on an examination of the later statutes that a substantial advance toward these positions has been made by legislation during the last 20 years. For the purpose of an intelligent view of the existing law, and in anticipation of still further legislation, some facts upon the physical side of the subject may be well kept in mind. The foetus cannot be properly regarded at any period of its existence as merely pars viscerum matru, as the phrase is; that is to say, as an essential constituent part of the mother. The ovum does not origi nate in the uterus, but after impregnation is lodged there, being totally disconnected from the organism of the mother during the transi tion ; and it is attached to the uterus for the simple purposes of shelter and nutrition. The human form is developed and is visible in the foetus even before the period of its quickening. This term quickening is the name given^to those phenomena of different sorts by which action in the foetus is manifested to the mother. ABORTION This mere incident of progressive development appears at no absolutely certain time, but usu ally between the 115th and 130th days after con ception. Viability of the fetus does not depend necessarily on its age, though it is usually not viable, or capable of living, before the lapse of seven months after conception ; yet it may be at undeterminable periods before that time. Though the legal offences relating to abortion depend almost entirely upon positive statutes, yet it, is sometimes material to determine whether an act of this character is criminal at common law, as the phrase is ; or, in other words, by the general, customary, and un written law. It is said by some of the best writers that there can be no doubt that at common la\v the wrongful destruction of an unborn child was a high misdemeanor, and that at an early period in England it was deemed murder. There are no reported cases confirming this view, but two passages of Brae- ton and Fleta ought not to be overlooked. Though they are in some respects of obscure meaning, yet they are noteworthy, not only as being the earliest declarations on the subject contained in English law books, but because the rules they lay down are so far advanced be yond those- of the English law even of to-day. Both books were written in Latin, the former in the reign of Henry III. (121(5-1272), the lat ter in that of Edward I. (1272-1307). Bract on says: "If any one shall have given blows or drugs to a pregnant woman, in consequence of which she shall have aborted, if the child were already formed and animate, and especially if animate, he is guilty of homicide. 1 The author of Fleta says: "Whoever shall have done vio lence to a pregnant woman, or shall have given her drugs or blows so as to produce an abor tion, or to prevent conception (ut non conci- piat\ if the fcetus was already formed and animate, is a homicide ; and likewise, whoever shall have given or taken drugs with the in tent to prevent generation or conception (con- ceptio). So, too, the woman is guilty of a homicide who has destroyed her animate child in her womb, by potions or things of that sort." These passages, it will be noticed, pro nounce the mother s destruction of her unborn quick child a homicide. The present law of England declares that any woman being with child, and whether quick or not is indifferent, who uses drugs or any other means to procure her miscarriage, is guilty of a felony, and is punishable by imprisonment only. Coke, who lived in the 16th century, says in his third In stitute that "if a woman be quick with child, and by a potion or otherwise killeth it in her womb, or if a man beat her whereby the child dieth in her body and she is delivered of a dead child, this is a great misprision and no murder." In this passage occurs the reference to the quickening of the child, which has always down to a very recent period been made an essential element in the degree of criminality in English acts relating to abortion. With reference to the common law on the subject, it has been held in Massachusetts, Maine, and New Jersey, that it is not, apart from statutes, i an indictable offence to use means upon a preg- ; nant woman, with her consent, for the purpose and with the effect of procuring an abortion, ! unless the mother were quick with child. It | is not to be understood, however, from this \ that very grave and even capital offences j may not be involved in such an act as that referred to even at common law ; for in such ! a case, as Chief Justice Shaw remarked, if ! the woman s death ensued, the party making the attempt would be guilty of murder, and i this whether the woman consented or not ; ! for the act is done without lawful purpose, is | dangerous to life, and the consent of the wo man no more annuls the legal imputation of i malice than it does in the case of a duel. And ! furthermore, as to the child produced by a I criminal abortion, if it fairly live after birth ! and then die from injuries received in the body of the mother before its birth, it is clearly a case of homicide. In Pennsylvania the courts dissent from the view as to the common law I which is taken in the states first mentioned. It was there declared that miscarriage, both in law and in physiology, means the bringing j forth of the fcetus before it is perfectly formed and capable of living, and that it was of itself a flagrant crime at common law to attempt to | procure the miscarriage or abortion of a wo- j man; that it was a crime against nature which I obstructed the fountain of life, and therefore it was punishable. To the objection on the part of the prisoner that the indictment was de fective, because it ought to and did not allege i that the woman was quick with child, it was I answered by the court that that was not the 1 law in Pennsylvania, and ought not to have ; been anywhere ; that it was not the murder of a living child which constituted the offence, but the destruction of gestation by wicked means and against nature ; and that the mo ment the womb is instinct with embryo life and gestation has begun, the crime may be committed. But practically the actual law on the subject exists only in the statutes. The I principal English acts of modern times are I those of 43 George III., ch. 58, 2 ; 9 George ! IV., ch. 31, 14; 7 William IV. ; and 1 Vic toria, ch. 85, 6 ; all of which are displaced by the present law of 24 and 25 Victoria, ch. j 100, 58, 59. The first of these acts, known j as Lord Ellenborough s act, provided that any | person who should wilfully, maliciously, and unlawfully use means . . . with intent to j cause and procure the miscarriage of any wo man being quick with child was a felon, and should suffer death ; and the act further pro vided that in any such case, if the woman was not found to be quick with child at the time of the commission of the act, the offender should be guilty of a felony and liable to tine, impris onment, pillory, transportation, &c. The stat ute of 9 George IV., ch. 31, known as Lord ABORTION" 29 Lansdowne s act, did not differ substantially from the former, but farther provided against the use of instruments. The next statute pro vided that whosoever, with intent to procure the miscarriage of any woman, should use un lawful means^ &c., should be guilty of felony and liable to transportation for life or not less than 15 years. The present statute provides that every woman being with child who, with intent to procure her own miscarriage, shall unlawfully administer to herself drugs, or use instruments, and whosoever with similar in tent, whether the woman be or be not with child, shall use the like unlawful means, shall be guilty of felony, and liable on conviction to penal servitude for life or not less than three years, or to imprisonment. Supplying or pro curing anything knowing that it is to be used with intent to procure the miscarriage of any woman, whether she be or be not with child, is a misdemeanor. Of the more recent statutes in the United States, that of Maine (revision of 1871) provides that whoever administers, &c., to any woman pregnant with child, whether such child be quick or not, &c., if the act is done with intent to destroy the child, and the child is destroyed before birth, shall be pun ished by imprisonment not more than five years or by fine not excaeding $1,000 ; and if done with intent to produce the miscarriage of such woman, by imprisonment not more than ono year and by fine of not more than $1,000. The statute of Illinois of 1869 enacts that any person who by any means shall cause any pregnant woman to miscarry, or shall attempt to procure or produce such miscarriage, shall be liable to imprisonment not less than two nor more than ten years ; and if by any such attempt the death of the woman shall be caused, the party offending shall be guilty of murder, and be punished as the law requires for that offence. But this crime may be com mitted, as has already l>een shown by the opinion of Chief Justice Shaw, independently of any statutory provision to that effect. In Missouri (revision of 1870) the wilful killing of an unborn quick child by any injury to the mother which would be murder if it resulted in the death of the mother, is manslaughter in the first degree ; and every person who shall use means, &c., on a woman pregnant with a quick child, with intent thereby to destroy such child, unless the act is necessary to pre serve life, &c., shall, if the death of such child or mother ensue from the means so employed, be guilty of manslaughter in the second de gree; and every person who shall wilfully ad minister to or use means on any pregnant woman with intent thereby to procure an abor tion, unless necessary to save life, or advised by physicians to be so necessary, is guilty of a misdemeanor, and is punishable by imprison ment for one year or by fine of $500, or by both. In Pennsylvania the statute (1860) pro vides that if any person shall unlawfully use means on any woman pregnant or quick with child, or supposed to be so, with intent to pro cure the miscarriage of the woman, and she, or any child of which she may be quick, shall die in consequence of such unlawful acts, the offender is guilty of a felony, and is liable to fine not exceeding $500 or to be imprisoned not exceeding seven years ; and it is further provided that if any person, with intent to procure the miscarriage of any woman, shall use unlawful means uponjier, he shall also be guilty of felony and subject to a fine not ex ceeding $500 and to imprisonment for not more than three years. The latest statutes for example, those of New Jersey, Illinois (1869), Kansas (1868), and New York (1869) do not require that the woman be quick with child, but only that she be "pregnant" or "with child." The Ohio statute of 1867 is to the same effect, but differs in its phraseology from the statutes of any of the other States. It pro vides that any person who shall administer or advise to be administered to any woman preg nant with a vitalized embryo or foetus, at any stage of utero-gestation, any medicine or sub stance, or employ any other means, with intent thereby to destroy such vitalized embryo or foetus, unless necessary or advised by physi cians to be necessary to save the life of the mother, shall, in case of the death of such embryo or foetus or mother in consequence thereof, be guilty of a high misdemeanor, and punishable by imprisonment from one to seven years. In Massachusetts, by the present statute, the offender is guilty of felony if the mother die in consequence of the act, and is liable to imprisonment from five to twenty years ; and if she does not die, is guilty of a misdemeanor and punishable by fine and im prisonment not more than seven years. The present statute of New York was enacted in 1869, superseding that of 1846. This earlier act declared that every person who should ad minister to any woman pregnant with a quick child any drug, or use any instrument or o-ther means, with intent thereby to destroy such child, should in case of the death of such child or of such mother be guilty of manslaughter in the second degree. The act of 1869 omits the word "quick," saying "with child," and with regard to he intent substitutes the words " with intent thereby to produce the miscar riage of any such womnn ;" and it preserves the provision that in case the death of such child or of such woman be thereby produced, the offender shall be guilty of manslaughter in the second degree. It will be observed that the omission of any criterion of quickening, and the provision respecting the death of the child, make the crime possible from the very earliest stage of gestation. Under the former statutes it was also an essential element of the crime that there should be an intent to destroy the child ; now that intent is immaterial, and if there was the mere intent to procure the mis carriage, and the death of the child is pro duced, the crime is committed. The statutes ;o ABORTION ABRACADABRA here selected represent fairly the present state of the statutory law, and especially the more recent legislation on the topic. In a late case in Massachusetts the court was inclined to hold that an indictment could not be maintained there if the foetus had lost its vitality at the time of the commission of the act, so that it could never mature into a living child. In a similar case in Vermont it was held not essen tial that the foetus^ should be alive when the attempt was made. Where the language is general, as for example, " with intent to pro cure the miscarriage of any woman," it is im material whether the woman was or was not pregnant at the time. The "administering" or "causing to be taken," usually mentioned in the statutes, does not require an actual de livery by the hand of the defendant. Thus it lias been held that one administered poison to another by mixing it in her coffee and putting it in her way. And these words have been held to be answered by proof that one gave the drug to the woman with directions how to use it, and she did use it, though not in the de fendant s presence. In New Jersey, under a statute which provided that if any person mali ciously or without lawful justification, with in tent to cause the miscarriage of a pregnant woman, should advise or direct her to take any drug, it was held that the actual taking or swallowing of the drug by the woman was no element of the crime ; the defendant was guilty within the statute if only he gave the advice with the intent there declared. In this case the court added that the design of the statute was not to prevent the procuring of abortions so much as to guard the health and life of the mother against the consequences of such at tempts. The word "malicious" in these stat utes does not require proof of cruelty or wan tonness or revenge. It is enough that there is no legal justification; and there is no such justification in the consent of the woman, nor though the real motive was to screen one or both of the parties from public exposure and dis grace. The patient in cases of abortion is not technically an accomplice in the offence so as to be disqualified from testifying ; but as she is in almost all cases, by virtue of her consent, implicated in the moral wrong, this circum stance would fairly affect her credibility. Where the statute simply requires, as in Mas sachusetts, that the act shall have been done "unlawfully," the indictment need not charge that it was malicious and without, lawful justi fication; and the word unlawfully precludes any possibility of inference that the act was done for the purpose of saving the life of the woman, or under any other circumstance which would afford a legal justification. The present statute of Ohio (1867) makes it a misdemeanor to print or publish advertisements of drugs for the exclusive use of women, or of any means for preventing conception or producing miscar riage, or to keep any such articles for sale or gratuitous distribution. A similar statute was passed in New York in 1869, and in Pennsyl vania in 1870. 11*01 K IK, an Egyptian port about 12 m. N. E. of Alexandria, In the bay of Aboukir was fought, Aug. 1, 1798, the famous battle of the Nile or of Aboukir, between the French fleet sent out from Toulon under Brueys with Bonaparte and an army on board, and the English fleet sent in pursuit under Admiral Nelson. Though the French fought desperately, the engagement, which was begun at dusk, ended at daybreak in a great victory for the English. Only four French vessels escaped ; the French lost more than 5,000 men ; the English killed and wounded were but 895. Nelson was slightly, Brueys mortally wounded. The story of the battle is filled with examples of individual bravery on both sides. At Abou kir, on July 23, 1799, Bonaparte, with a com paratively small force, almost annihilated the Turkish army under Mustapha Pasha, ABOIT, Edmond, a French author, born at Dieuze, Meurthe, Feb. 14, 1828. He was edu cated at Paris, and in the French school at Athens. His literary talents had already be come noted when in 1855 he published La Grece contcmporaine, which made him cele brated both at home and abroad. He next produced in the Rcmie des Dcux-Mondcs a novel entitled Tolla, which became the occa sion of a controversy, in which he was accused of publishing private papers. After this he brought out novels and plays very rapidly, and contributed much to the press. His Roi des montagnes (1856) increased his reputation as a witty, pungent writer. Though not generally successful as a playwright, he made a hit by his play entitled Risctte, ou Ics millions de la mansarde (afterward called Gaetana], in which sharp political and religious allusions abound. His most popular novels are Ger- maine (1857) and Madclon (1863). He has also published Rome contemporaine (1863), Le Progres (1864), V Assurance (1806), VA B C du tramilleur (1868), and Le Fellah (1870). As a contributor to the Gaulois newspaper I (1867-"70) he criticised the ministers of Napo- i Icon III., while he paid court to the emperor I himself, who made him an officer of the legion of honor in 1867, and in February, 1870, ap- i pointed him member of the council of state-. On the outbreak of the war in July, 1870, he accompanied MacMahon s army to Alsace, as correspondent of the Soir newspaper; but after the battle of Worth he barely escaped falling into the hands of the Germans. He continues (1872) his connection with the Soir. His marriage in 1864 with Mile, de Gnillerville, of Roncherolles, near Rouen, made him affluent. ABRACADABRA, a magical word with the ancients, supposed to possess some talismanic I properties when inscribed and partially re- i peated in a triangular form, so as to be read in j different directions, upon a square piece of paper or linen, folded and worn as an amulet or variously used in incantations. ABRAHAM ABRANTfcS 31 ABRAHAM (originally ABEAM), the first patri arch of the Hebrews. " See HEBREWS. ABRAHAM A SAMTA CLARA, a German preach er, whose proper name was ULRICH vox ME- OERLE, born at Krahenheimstetten in Swabia in 1642, died in Vienna, Dec. 1, 1709. He was mi Augustinian monk, and preached such witty and powerful sermons that the German empe ror appriited him court chaplain. He wrote u HotcHFPotch," "Judas the Arch Knave," "Fie and Shame on the World," &c. ABRAATES, a town in Portuguese Estrema- | dura, at the head of navigation on the Tagus, j 80 m. N. E. of Lisbon; pop. in 1863, 5,590. It is surrounded by a very fertile and highly cul tivated plain, dotted with villages and villas, but is chiefly important as a military position, commanding one of the frontier roads from Spain into Portugal. ABRAMfcS. I. Andoche Junot, duke of, a French soldier, born at Bussy-le-Grand, Bur- j gundy, Oct. 23, 1771, died in Montbard, July | 29, 1813. He w r as educated for the law, but | in 1792 enlisted in the army as a volunteer, and i by his courage won the sobriquet of u the Tem pest." He attracted Bonaparte s attention at ; the siege of Toulon, and a close intimacy i sprang up between the two, Junot s devotion to his superior amounting almost to fanaticism. I He accompanied Bonaparte to Italy as his aide- j de-camp, and won the rank of colonel in the j campaign of 1797. He distinguished himself j in Egypt, and was made brigadier general. A j wound received in a duel with a brother officer, j who was not as enthusiastic a Bonapartist as j himself, delayed his return to France, and he landed at Marseilles on the day of the battle of Marengo. He was forthwith appointed to the command of Paris, and a few months later married Mile. Laure de Permon, and was made general of division. But his own as well as his wife s indiscretions were so distasteful to Napoleon, that in 1803 he removed Junot to the command of one of the corps of the u army of England." On the establishment of the em pire Junot was promoted to the rank of colonel- general of the hussars, received a pension of 30,000 francs, and a little later the grand cross of the legion of honor ; but he could not con ceal his disappointment at not having been placed among the first marshals of the empire. His dissatisfaction, his improper behavior and lavish expenditures, coupled with his wife s eccentricities, caused the emperor to send them for a while into honorable exile ; and Junot was in 1805 appointed ambassador to Lisbon, where he distinguished himself only by osten tation. In the same year he w r ent to Germany without permission, and arrived in time to par ticipate in the battle of Austerlitz. Iii 1800 he was again appointed governor of Paris and commander of the first military division ; but his follies again compromised him, and in 1807 he was sent to Spain to take command of the army that was to invade Portugal. At the Lead of 25,000 mc-n, hastily collected and ill provided, he marched from Salamanca Nov. 12 ; reached the frontier at Alcantara amid extreme privation and suffering ; gained the town of Abrantes, whence his title of duke, Xov. 23 ; and, without pausing a moment, seized Lisbon (Dec. 1), at the head of only 1,500 grenadiers, most of whom were so worn out that they seemed to be only walking skeletons. Display ing enormous activity, he got possession of the principal fortresses of the kingdom, and reor ganized and strengthened his exhausted forces ; but his success was soon checked by the arrival of Sir Arthur Wellesley with an English army. Junot was defeated at Vimieira, and constrained by the convention of Cintra, Aug. 22, 1808, to evacuate Portugal. Landed at La Rochelle with his troops by the English fieet, he imme diately joined Napoleon, who took him back to Spain, where he was placed in command of the third corps, then besieging Saragossa. He par ticipated in the campaign of 1809 in Germany, and in 1810 was sent back to Spain, where he was severely wounded in the face by a bullet. In 1812 he commanded a corps of the invading army in Russia; but his slow operations did not satisfy the emperor, who, instead of em ploying him actively the next year in Saxony, appointed him commander of Venice and gov ernor general of the Illyrian provinces. This kind of disgrace, combined with other troubles and the suffering from his old wounds, preyed so much upon him that he became insane, and was taken to his father s house at Montbard, where he threw himself from a window and died from the effects of the fall. II. Laure Permon .In not, duchess of, wife of the preceding, born in Montpellier, Nov. 6, 1784, died at Chaillot, near Paris, June 7, 1838. Her mother, a Corsican, claimed descent from the Comnenus family. Her father, M. Permon, made a fortune by provisioning Rochambeau s American troops, but lost it before his death (October, 1 793). The mother lived in good style at Paris, and her house was frequented by Bonaparte, Junot, and other distinguished per sons. Bonaparte, according to her daugh ter s Memoires, wished to marry her, though she was old enough to be his mother. Mile. Pennon became the wife of Junot in 1800, the first consul giving her rich presents, both then and many times afterward. This munificence encouraged Mme. Junot in a course of extrava gance which, as well as her other indiscre tions, eventually proved disastrous to her for tunes. Napoleon s friendship for her was also said to have excited the jealousy of Josephine, while her excessive love of finery and her sharp tongue made him call her petite peste. While in Madrid and Lisbon with her husband, her lavish expenditure and her regal pretensions caused astonishment. At Neuilly she hired a palace known as the Folie St. James, where she performed in private theatricals, in which she excelled. Even while following her hus band in the Spanish campaign, she kept up^hcr Parisian style of entertainments in the various ABRAXAS encampments of the army. At the same time she bore all the fatigues of the war with great fortitude. While at Lyons she paid a visit to | Mine. Eecamier, and, courting the society of | other persons who were not liked by Napoleon, j she incurred his displeasure, and was not per mitted to resiile in Paris. Her husband, too, j having forfeited the good will of the emperor, \ was banished from Paris, though he was in a dying condition; and the duchess, while at- j tempting to see him at Montbard, where he died, was taken ill. In spite of Napoleon s j orders she went to Paris in September, 1813, and her house became once more the centre of distinguished persons, especially after the res toration of the Bourbons, toward which she had contributed. Jn 1817 she took up her res idence at Koine. Having sold the magnifi cent library and the other valuable legacies of her husband, and being at the end of her re sources, she entered into a contract for the publication of her Avritings. At the time of , the July revolution, 1830, she lived in retire- j ment at the Abbaye-aux-Bois, near Paris, arid j in 1831 began the publication of the Memoircs ou Souvenirs historiques sur Napoleon, la Revo lution, le Dircctoire, le Consulat, V Empire et la Eestauration (18 vols. 18mo, Paris, 1831- 34). She also wrote memoirs of her expe rience in France, Spain, and Portugal, and many novels and stories, besides contributing to periodicals; but her literary fame rests chiefly on her brilliant gossip and overflowing anecdotes relating to the court of Napoleon. Notwithstanding her incessant literary ac tivity, she remained very poor, and died at Chaillot two days after her removal to a pri vate hospital in that place. Louis Philippe sent some money for her relief, but she died before it reached her. Ignazio Cantu. published 1 in 1837 Rclazione della duchessa d 1 Alrantes, and A. D. Roosmalen in 1838 Lcs derniers moments de la duchesse d Air antes. III. Napo- j Icon Andoche Jnnot, duke of, son of the preced ing, born in Paris in 1807, died there in March, 1851. Obliged to leave the diplomatic service on account of his scandalous private life, he became known in light literature by a variety of works of ephemeral reputation, the principal among them being Lcs boudoirs de Paris (6 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1844- 5). IV. Adolphe Alfred Mi chel .In not, duke of, brother and heir of the preceding, born at Ciudad Rodrigo, Spain, Nov. 25, 1810, died in July, 1859. He was aide-de-camp of (Jen. MacMahon in Algeria (1848), and of Prince Napoleon in the Cri mea (1854), served with a high rank in the Italian war, and died from a wound received at the battle of Solferino. V. Josephine Jnnot d , sister of the preceding, born in Paris, Jan. 5, 1802, married in 1841 M. James Araet, after having been previously a sister of charity and canoness. She is the author of a number of stories and novels published under her maiden name. The best known of them are : Histoires morales et edifiantes (1837); La duchesse de Valombray (2 vols., 1838); and Etienne Saul- nier (2 vols., 1850). VI. Constance Junot d , sister of the preceding, born in Paris, May 12, 1803, is the wife of M. Louis Aubert, for some time editor of the National newspaper, and in 1848 prefect in Corsica. Under the name of Constance Aubert she has been connected with periodical literature as a writer on fash ions, manners, and customs. In 1859 she pub lished a Manuel d" 1 economic elega i^j^ and in 1865 a little volume on the luxury of women (Encore le luxe des femmes : Les femmes sages et les femmes folles). ABRAYANEL, Abrabanel, or Abarbanel, Isaac ben Jndali, a Jewish author, born in Lisbon in 1437, died in Venice in 1508. His family boasted a lineal descent from the kings of Judah. He re ceived an excellent education, and was equally successful in the pursuit of knowledge, wealth, and influence. Alfonso V. of Portugal em ployed him in state affairs; but his son and successor, John II., not only withdrew all favor from him, but, unjustly suspecting him of intrigues with Spain, caused him to fly to that country, and confiscated his property. lie sought consolation in study, but after a time entered the service of King Ferdinand of Ara- gon. The expulsion of the Jews from Spain, decreed in 1492 by Ferdinand and Isabella, again made him an exile. Repairing to Na ples, he was well received by Ferdinand I., and by his son Alfonso II. ; but the invasion of the French in 1495 drove him with the Nea politan court to Messina, whence he repaired to Corfu. In 1496 he established himself at Monopoli in Apulia, where he remained till 1503. The last years of his life he spent in Venice, where he once more engaged in state affairs. His works, the principal of which are commentaries on various books of the Scrip tures, partly of a critical and partly of a doc trinal character, and a number of philosophical treatises, are marked by a glowing enthusiasm for Judaism, a comparative independence of spirit, vast research, and elegant Hebrew dic tion. One of his three sons, LEONE (originally Judah) was the author of a philosophical work in Italian, entitled Dialoglii di Amore, which passed through several editions. ABRAXAS (Gr. a/3pa^ or a/tym<r<zf), a mystical word employed by the Egyptian Gnostic Basil- ides to signify the Supreme Being as ruler of the 365 heavens of his system, which number is represented by its letters according to Greek numeration ; probably in imitation of the sig nificance attached to the name of the Persian god Mithras (M0/oaf), the letters of which have the same numerical value. Some authorities, however, give the word other derivations and different significations as a designation of the Supreme Being. Many ancient stones or me tallic tablets called Abraxas gems or images, or Basilidian stones, have been found, chiefly in Egypt, Syria, and Spain. They are generally inscribed with the word Abraxas or Abrasax, and sometimes with others, and bear a great ABRUZZO ABSCESS 33 variety of Gnostic and other mystical symbols, ! occasionally perhaps merely natural markings. They were used as amulets, and supposed to be | endued with miraculous qualities. ABRl ZZO, or the Abrnzzi, the northernmost j division of the former kingdom of the Two j Sicilies, now forming part of the kingdom of . Italy, embracing the highest and wildest por tion of the Apennines. The mountains are the home of a race of shepherds, who are j clothed primitively in untanned sheepskins, I and the valleys and lowlands are very fertile. ] The inhabitants live in dirty huts, shared by I the donkey and the pig ; their chief food is In- j dian meal, boiled in water and milk ; wheaten j bread is a luxury. They are musical, hospita- j ble, superstitious, and revengeful. Physically j they are a fine race of men, and make excel- [ lent soldiers, like their predecessors in Roman j times, the Samnites. Fierce brigandage has long found an almost impregnable foothold in this j wild region. It is divided into the following ] three provinces : I. Abruzzo Citeriorc, bounded X. i E. by the Adriatic; area, 1,105 sq. m. ; pop. in ! 1871, 339,961. The mountains of La Majella j are the roughest part of the province. The j chief productions are grain, oil, and rice. The greatest abundance of wine is furnished by Ortona ; the best by Chieti and Vasto. Fruit and kitchen vegetables are chiefly grown at Chieti; swine are reared in the oak forests, and the sea on the coast is rich in fish. The culture of silkworms and of mulberry trees has of late made great progress. The province is divided into the districts of Chieti, Lanciano, and Vasto. Capital, Chieti. IJ. Abruzzo llte- riore I., bounded S. by the preceding, and also j lying on the Adriatic; area, 1,283 sq. in. ; | pop. 245,617. The Pizzo di Sevo, 7,860 feet high, is the chief summit. The province grows and exports a large quantity of grain. There i are numerous plantations of olives, but the product is of an inferior quality. The culture of wine is rapidly increasing. The province is divided into the districts of Teramo and Penne. | Capital, Teramo. III. Abruzzo I ltcriore II., bounded X. E. by the two preceding, X. by j Umbria, and S. W. partly by the former Papal States; area, 2,126 sq. m. ; pop. 333,791. Three fourths of the area consists of sterile rocks and mountains. The number of large mountain peaks is no less than 176. In the middle of j the northern frontier is the highest mount of the peninsula, the Gran Sasso <T Italia, 9,392 feet high. Among the productions are grain, rice, wine, saffron, olives, and many kinds of fruits. The mountains are covered with ex tensive forests of oaks, beeches, and elms, | which harbor bears, wolves, and boars. On ! the Gran Sasso chamois are still said to be j found. Madder grows wild on the Alpine heights, and is cultivated in sandy places, j Hams, salted beef, and sausages are exported. The province is divided into the districts of : Aquila degli Abruzzi, Avezzano, Cittaducale, ; and Solmona. Capital, Aquila. VOL. i. 3 ABSALOM, the third son of David, his only one by Maachah, and especially distinguished for beauty. Instigated possibly by ambition, but ostensibly by the rape of his sister Tamar, he slew Amnon, his eldest half-brother, and subsequently raised a rebellion and obtained a momentary possession of the throne. By thu adroit management of Joab he was overthrown and slain. With all his want of filial affection, David loved him, and mourned his death. ABSALON, or Axel, a Danish statesman, sol dier, and ecclesiastic, born in 1128, died in 1201. He was educated at the university of Paris. He was related to the royal family, and was the chief minister and general of W aide- mar I. (1157- 82) and Canute VI. ; was elected bishop of Roeskilde in 1158, and archbishop of Lund and primate of Scandinavia in 1178 ; and was equally distinguished for piety, statesman ship, and military skill and valor. He put down the Wendish pirates who infested the Baltic, followed them up to their island home of Rtigen, destroyed the temple of their god Svantevit at Arkona, and forced them to re ceive Christianity. The code of Waldemar was partly his work, as also the ecclesiastical code of Seeland. On his encouragement, Saxo Grammaticus composed his history of Den mark, the first continuous Scandinavian his tory ever written. Later he overcame the Pomeranian prince Bogislas, and made him do homage to the Danish king. He constructed a little fort, named after him Axelhuus, for de fence against pirates, around which Copen hagen was gradually reared. ABSCESS (Lat. alacedere, to separate), a col lection of pus in a circumscribed cavity. (See Pus.) This cavity is usually of new formation, produced by the separation and destruction of the parts by the matter effused, the wall con sisting of a layer of thickened tissue. The name is given, however, to collections of pus in some of the naturally existing cavities ; e. f/., that in the upper jaw. An abscess may be acute or chronic according to the character of the inflammation which produces it. The for mation of an acute abscess is indicated by pain, often of a throbbing character ; redness, if it be not too deeply seated ; swelling ; and an in crease in the temperature of the part. The patient also suffers from fever. When matter has formed and is sufficiently near the surface, its presence is made known by the feeling of "fluctuation," produced by placing the fingers of one hand upon one side of the swelling and with those of the other giving a smart tap upon the opposite side. The pus usually tends toward the surface, which it reaches by a grad ual thinning of the intervening tissues ; but if these be very resisting, it may travel in other directions. It is in these latter cases that an early incision by the surgeon is especially called for, before "pointing" has taken place. If an abscess be threatened, its formation may sometimes be prevented by appropriate treat ment, such as rest, the local abstraction of ABSINTH ABSOLUTE blood, and cold or warm applications, as the case may demand. Should these means fail, poultices must be used to promote suppuration. The matter may be evacuated by incision, or in certain cases be allowed to make an exit for itself. In a chronic abscess the pain, redness, increased temperature, and fever are often ab sent, and hence it is also known as cold abscess. In most cases its progress is slow, and it may remain for a long time without increase in size, or any tendency to open through the skin. Indeed, in some instances it may disappear by a process of absorption. Usually, however, it is necessary to open it, which may be done by cutting directly into the cavity, or by what is known as subcutaneous incision, the. knife be ing passed for some distance beneath the skin before it enters the abscess. This latter pro cedure is made use of in order to prevent the admission of air, which in some cases excites an amount of suppuration sufficient to exhaust the patient. Besides acute and chronic, ab scesses are spoken of as being " by congestion " when the matter, usually dependent on caries, makes its appearance at some distance from the diseased part; as "idiopathic," when the cause is not known, &c. ABSLXTH, or Wormwood, the tops and leaves of artemisia absinthium, a plant of the order composite and tribe senecionidcce. It contains a volatile oil and a very bitter, resinous sub stance called absinthine. It has been used as an aromatic, bitter tonic, and anthelmintic. It derives its chief importance from being a con stituent of the French liqueur called absinthe. This consists of alcohol holding in solution the active principles, mostly volatile oils, of seve ral aromatic plants besides wormwood. The precipitation of these oils, when the liqueur is added to water, produces whitening or cloud ing. The continued use of absinthe has been found to give rise in man to symptoms of an epileptic character, riot altogether attributable to the alcohol it contains. Experiments have shown that the essence of absinth, in a single large dose, may cause epileptiform convulsions in animals. The brain disease produced by this drug is considered incurable, though tem porary respites may occur. ABSOLON, John, an English painter, born in London, May G, 1815. lie is a member of the "New Water Color Society," to the annual exhibitions of which he is still a steady con tributor. He paints history and genre with equal facility, and is known as an accomplished draughtsman and colorist. He has attempted oil painting with success, but his special field is water-color drawing. ABSOLUTE (Lat. abstolutus, absolved, freed from all extrinsic conditions, complete in itself, and dependent on no other cause), a term much used in modern philosophy, especially by Schelling, Hegel, Cousin, and their follow ers. As used by them it stands opposed to the relative, for independent, unconditioned, self-existent being, or being in itself, which they contend is the primitive in all thought, and the ultimate in all science, and the object of immediate intuition. In their language the absolute means, or is intended to mean, the Infinite, God himself, regarded simply as pure being, Das reine Seyn. Sir "William Hamilton denies that absolute and infinite are identical, and that in the sense of the infinite the un conditioned the absolute is an object of intui tion. He confines all philosophy, therefore, to the finite, the relative, the conditioned. To think, he says, is to condition, and there is no intuition without thought. The absolute and relative can be thought only as correlatives, each connoting the other, and, therefore, only as conditioned. He is answered by those who profess the philosophy of the absolute, that, although the term may be used to express an idea different from that of the unconditioned, or the infinite, and although to think is, in a cer tain sense, to condition, yet the condition is, in the thought itself, always apprehended as the condition of the subject, never as the con dition of the object. Certainly the finite can apprehend the infinite only in a finite mode or manner, but to apprehend it even in a finite mode or manner is still to apprehend the infinite. It is not necessary to the reality of human knowl edge that it should be adequate to the object, for if it were there could be no human knowl edge at all. They reply further, that the rel ative is inconceivable without the absolute. What is not, is not intelligible ; and since the relative is not and cannot be without the abso lute, the conditioned without the uncondi tioned, there can be no intuition of the former without a simultaneous intuition of the latter, nor are they intuitively apprehended precisely as correlatives, each as conditioned by the other ; for in the intuition itself the absolute is apprehended as the cause or creator of the relative, the unconditioned as conditioning the conditioned. There is another controversy even among those who are termed ontologists, and who profess to find in the intuition of un conditioned being the principle of philosophy whether the pure being, the absolute, the un conditioned being, asserted by Cousin and the German school, and which they identify, or at tempt to identify, with God, is real living be ing, real living God, or after all only a logical abstraction. A class of modern philosophers, among whom may be mentioned Vincenzo Gioberti as the most distinguished, maintain that, as the terms the absolute, the infinite, the unconditioned are evidently abstract terms, the idea they express is and can be only a logi cal abstraction, formed by the mind operating upon its own conception, and eliminating from them all conception of space, time, bounds, conditions, or relativity. In this case, they say, it is no real being, but a simple generaliza tion of psychological phenomena, and as far removed from the ens necessarium et reale, the real and necessary being of the schoolmen, the real living God, in whom the human race be- ABSOLUTION ABSORPTION 35 lieve, as zero is from being something. Hence, though for another reason, they refuse to con cede with Sir William Hamilton that we have intuition of the absolute, the infinite, or the unconditioned, but assert, in opposition to him, that we have immediate intuition of that which in reality is absolute, infinite, and uncondi tioned. To suppose that we have intuition of being, or God as the absolute, would be to suppose that we know the abstract before the concrete, the possible before the real, and therefore that reflection or reasoning precedes instead of following intuition. They dissent, therefore, from Schelling, Hegel, and Cousin, and deny that we have immediate intuition of the absolute, that is of God, real and necessary being, as the absolute ; and maintain that while we have immediate intuition of that which is absolute, infinite, unconditioned, we conceive the intuitive object as such only by a process of reflective reason the process by which the human mind demonstrates that the object of its intuition is God. ABSOLUTION, in the Roman Catholic church, the act of the priest in pronouncing the pardon and remission of the sins of a penitent. Abso lution in foro inter no is a part of the sacra ment of penance, in which the guilt of mortal and venial sin is remitted. Absolution in foro cxterno is the remission of certain ecclesiasti cal penalties, for example, excommunication. There are also precatory forms of absolution, which are used during the divine service. Short prayers at the end of each nocturn in the office of matins are also called absolution. In the morning and evening prayers of the English and American Episcopal churches, ab solution is a formula of publicly praying for or declaring the remission of the sins of the penitent, used only by a priest; also, in the Office for the Visitation of the Sick" of the church of England, an authoritative declaration of the pardon of sin, pronounced over a peni tent after private confession. Similar forms of absolution are used in the Lutheran church. ABSORPTION (Lat. dbsorlere, to suck up). I. The process by which nutritious and other fluids are imbibed by animal and vege table tissues, to be appropriated for their growth, activity, or modification. All the or ganized membranes and tissues of the living body have the property of absorbing, to a cer tain extent and under favorable circumstances, the fluids which are brought in contact with them. This property continues to belong to the tissues in question even after the death of the body, or after they have been separated from all connection with the neighboring parts, until their natural structure and composition have begun to be altered by the effects of de composition. Thus a dried ox bladder will absorb water in which it is immersed, and again become moist and supple ; and even mi croscopic cells and fibres will absorb coloring matters with which the vessels of the tissue have been injected. This shows that the power of absorption resides in the substance of the animal tissue or membrane itself, and not in any property communicated to it from the rest of the system. Nevertheless, al though the capacity for absorption still exists in a separated membrane, it is much less ac tive than in the same tissue during life, for the reason that after death it soon comes to an end by the saturation of the membrane by the ab sorbed fluid ; while during life it is kept in a constant state of activity by the incessant re newal of the fluids and the movement of the circulating blood. In the process of absorp tion, as it takes place in animal organizations, the fluid does not penetrate the tissues me chanically, by openings or orifices, however minute. The existence of such orifices, or open absorbent mouths, was formerly taken for granted, as the most convenient way of ex plaining the phenomenon ; but later and more complete microscopic examination has failed to show their existence, and takes away all reasonable grounds for the assumption. So far as we can decide upon a question of such delicacy, absorption consists in the imbibition of a fluid by the solid tissue in such a manner that the fluid and its ingredients unite, or com bine directly with the substance of the tissue ; so that the union which results is not simply a mechanical entanglement, but rather an inti mate and complete molecular combination of the two. It is found that different animal sub stances have the power of absorbing different liquids in different proportions. Thus an ani mal membrane which will absorb in a given time 100 parts by weight of pure water, will absorb only 65 parts of a saline solution ; and this difference will be greater, within certain limits, the stronger the saline solution is made. A tissue which will absorb 100 parts of a sa line solution will take up under the same cir cumstances only 24 parts of an oily liquid. Thus the activity of absorption varies with the same membrane for different liquids, and with the same liquid for different membranes. Chevreul found the following results by measuring the exact quantities of different liquids absorbed by different membranes and tissues in the same time : 100 PAKTS OF Cartilage Tendon Elastic ligament. Cartilaginous do. Cornea Dried fibrine WATER. SALIXE SOLU X. OIL. 231 parts. 125 parts. absorb I ITS " 114 - ; 8-6 parts. in ! 14S " 30 " 7-2 " 24 j 319 " 3-2 " hours 4G1 " 370 " 9-1 " 301 154 Thus, if the same membrane be brought in contact with a liquid containing at the same time a variety of different substances in solu tion, some of these substances will be taken up in greater abundance than the others ; and the membrane accordingly will appear to exercise a kind of discriminative power or selection be tween these different substances. This power of selection, however, is simply the property, dependent on the natural structure and con stitution of the membrane, of absorbing par- ABSORPTION ticnlar substances in certain fixed proportions, \ which proportions vary for different materials. The activity of absorption varies also with other conditions. One of these is the fresh ness of the animal membrane. While still connected with the neighboring: parts, or but recently separated from them, the activity of absorption is great, and a comparatively large quantity of fluid is taken up in a short time. Afterward, when the natural constitution of the membrane is already impaired by com- ! mencing decomposition, this activity diinin- | ishes, and at last disappears altogether. An- 1 other condition of some importance is that of pressure. An increased pressure upon the li- j quid will enable the membrane to absorb it ! more rapidly. Pressure arid motion combined j are still more effective. Thus a medicinal j ointment or lotion acts more rapidly and powerfully upon the parts if it be made to penetrate the integuments by brisk rubbing than if it be simply laid in contact with the surface of the skin. Temperature also is of considerable importance. A low temperature is unfavorable to absorption ; a high tempera ture, at least within moderate limits, is favor able to it, and increases its activity. A state of complete liquefaction or solution of the ma terial to be absorbed is essential. A substance j which is in the solid form cannot be absorbed ; | it must first be dissolved either in water or j some other appropriate menstruum, after which the solvent fluid and the substance dis- | solved may both be absorbed, though in differ ent proportions. Even the gaseous ingredients of the atmosphere, which are absorbed in the ! lungs, are first dissolved in the animal fluids which bathe the respiratory passages, and are then absorbed in the liquid form by the pulmo nary membrane. The last and most important condition of the continued activity of absorp- j tion is that by which the materials already ab sorbed by the animal membrane are constantly | removed from it, so that it is always ready to j take up a fresh supply. If an animal mem- ! brane have on one side of it a liquid rich in absorbable materials, and on the other a li quid which is poor in these materials or desti tute of them, it will take up these substances j from the first liquid, and the second liquid will aga;n absorb them from it. Thus the mem brane will not become saturated, but will re tain its activity of absorption until the second liquid has approximated in composition to the j first. In this way a large quantity of material may pass through the membrane, from the first ; to the second liquid, combining with the sub- ! stance of the membrane in its passage, but be ing constantly taken up by it on one side and discharged on the other. This process will be [ more active and long continued, the larger the j quantity of the two liquids and the greater the difference in composition between them. It will also be more active, the greater is the ex tent of surface over which the liquids recipro cally come in contact with the membrane, since it is the absorptive power of the mem brane itself which is the primary condition of the interchange of substances between them. The most favorable condition for continued and active absorption would be that in which the two liquids were kept in constant mo tion and incessantly renewed, so that the first one should never be exhausted of its materials, nor the second saturated with the substances- transmitted to it. If, at the same time, the in tervening membrane maintained its freshness, unaltered by the changes of decomposition, the process of absorption would go on with the most continuous and uniform activity. These are precisely the conditions, in fact, which are present in the living body. In the alimentary canal, for instance, during digestion, there are constantly passing over the lining membrane of the intestine the nutritious fluids which have been extracted from the food. A portion of these are absorbed by the lining membrane ; but, on the other hand, they are immediately taken up from it by the blood in its minute vessels. This blood, in the incessant move ment of the circulation, is instantly carried away to another part of the body, its place be ing taken by other portions of the current fol lowing each other without intermission. The living membranes themselves are maintained at the same time in their natural condition by the nutritive process, the temperature of the whole is constantly at or about 100 F., the superflu ous materials are decomposed elsewhere, or discharged from the body by the excretory passages, and new supplies are incessantly furnished as the gradual digestion of the food is accomplished. Experiments have shown that absorption will take place in the living body with considerable rapidity even in non- vascular tissues, or where it is not directly as sisted by the circulation of the blood. It has been shown by M. Gosselin that if a watery solution of iodide of potassium be dropped upon the cornea of a rabbit s eye, the iodine passes into the cornea, aqueous humor, iris, lens, sclerotic coat, and vitreous body, in the course of eleven minutes; that it will pene trate through the cornea into the aqueous hu mor in three minutes, and into the substance of the cornea in a minute and a half. In the vascular tissues, however, the rapidity of ab sorption is often much greater than this. Thus the absorption of oxygen by the blood in the lungs is apparently instantaneous; the change of its color from blue to red, as soon as it ar rives in the pulmonary vessels, showing the action of the gas which it has taken up from the atmosphere. This rapidity of absorption in the vascular tissues is due to the dissemina tion of the blood in a vast number of minute channels, by which the vascular and absorbing surfaces are brought into intimate contact over a large surface ; and to the incessant motion of the fluid, by which its effect becomes per ceptible at the earliest possible time. It is in some of the glandular organs that t lis absorp- ABSORPTION 37 tion and reciprocal interchange of fluids has been shown to take place with the greatest ac tivity; for the capillary hlood vessels here form an exceedingly intricate and abundant network embracing the adjacent follicles and ducts of the glandular tissue, while these ducts and follicles themselves are arranged in a sys tem of minute ramifying tubes and cavities, penetrating everywhere through the glandular substance. Thus the union and interlacement of the glandular membrane on the one hand and of the blood vessels on the other becomes exceedingly extensive ; and the ingredients of the blood are instantly subjected, over a very large surface, to the influence of the glandular membrane, or the fluids which it has absorbed. The rapidity of transudation under these condi tions has been shown by the experiments of Claude Bernard and other observers. If a solu tion of iodide of potassium be injected into the duct of the parotid gland on one side, in a liv ing animal, the saliva discharged by the cor responding gland on the opposite side is im mediately afterward found to contain iodine. During the few instants required to perform this operation, therefore, the iodine in solution must have been taken up by the glandular membrane on one side, absorbed from it by the blood, carried by the blood to the heart, again distributed over the body, absorbed from the blood by the glandular membrane of the second gland, and thence discharged with the saliva. It is by this process that all the nutri tious elements of the food and drink are taken up from the intestine and finally reach the tis sues which they are to nourish. They are ab- > sorbed from the cavity of the intestine first by ! its lining membrane ; thence by the blood ves sels arid the blood contained in them; then transported by the circulation to the distant organs and tissues; and finally absorbed by these tissues from the blood, and united with their own substance. But as each tissue has a special power of its own of absorbing certain materials in preference to others, the same j blood will supply its materials to each in dif- I ferent quantities. Thus the bones absorb from the blood a large proportion of calcareous mat- | ter, the cartilages a smaller quantity, and the : muscles still less. The brain, on the other j hand, takes up more water than the muscles, j and the muscles more than the bones. Thus every tissue is enabled to maintain its own pe culiar constitution, though all are supplied with the necessary ingredients from the same nntri- : tious fluid. It is now universally acknowl edged that the action of drugs, medicines, and : poisons takes place in the same way. This ac- ; tion is sometimes said to be local, as where the ingredients of a blister are absorbed by the skin and produce an inflammation of the in tegument at that spot only; or general, as where opium when introduced into the stom ach produces drowsiness or insensibility over the whole body. But in both cases the pro cess is essentially similar. The opium is dis solved by the liquids of the stomach, absorbed by its lining membrane, taken up by the blood, and distributed by the circulation all over the body. In this way reaching the brain, it is absorbed by the cerebral substance, and by its action upon the nervous matter causes the narcotism and insensibility which I are manifested throughout the system. Thus the general action of an opiate is undoubtedly due to its local action upon the brain, and to the fact that the brain itself, through the ner- 1 vous ramifications, influences the condition of the whole body. II. Absorption of Gases by Solids and Liquids. There are not only porous substances, as earth, charcoal, and animal mem branes, which will absorb gases, but solid metals ; will in many instances do the same. Thus re cent experiments have demonstrated the exist ence of gaseous hydrogen in meteorites falling on the earth, absorbed by them in their wan derings through space, perhaps while passing through some nebula, which the spectroscope has shown to consist of incandescent hydrogen ; [ they bring thence this nebular hydrogen to our earth. The power to absorb hydrogen is espe cially possessed in a high degree by palladium, which takes up nearly 643 times its own vol- : nine of this gas, as proved by Graham, while silver and platinum absorb oxygen, titanium nitrogen, &c. This absorption of gas by metals is called occlusion. Deville and Troost have proved the remarkable fact that red-hot iron and platinum have such a great capacity of absorbing hydrogen, that it passes through these metals as it were through a sieve. The absorption of gases by liquids is still more strik ing. Water absorbs different gases and holds them in solution, in quantities varying in pro portion to the nature of the gas. Thus, at a temperature of a few degrees above the freez ing point, it contains when exposed to the air 4 per cent, in volume of oxygen and 2 per -cent, of nitrogen ; so that the air contained in water is much richer in oxygen than our atmosphere, having in six parts four of oxygen, while the atmosphere contains only one part of oxygen in five of air. The solubility of hydrogen in water is equal to that of nitrogen; while in regard to other gases, one part of water in bulk dissolves under the same circumstances 1-3 parts of laughing gas, 1-8 carbonic acid, 3 of chlorine, 4*4 of sulphide of hydrogen, 54 of sulphurous acid, 505 of hydrochloric acid, and not less than 1,180 of ammonia. A rise of temperature of some 70 diminishes this power of absorption to about one half, while at the temperature of the boiling point of water most ; absorbed gases are expelled. With a dimin ished pressure of say half an atmosphere, about half the gas is expelled ; while at an increased ! pressure of say two atmospheres, more gas can be absorbed. Thus in respect of carbonic acid, for instance, every atmosphere pressure aug ments the capacity of water to absorb this gas by 1 -8 volumes, so that at five atmospheres it ab sorbs nine times its own volume of the same. 38 ABSORPTION The absorption of gases by other liquids than water is a subject still open for investigation, and has thus far only been determined for a few gases. So Dr. Vander Weyde of Ne w York found in regard to laughing gas, that alkaline solutions absorb more than pure water, and alcoholic liquors most, strong alcohol over five times its volume ; solutions of neutral salts in general absorb the same amount as water, ex cept the sulphates, which absorb much less of the gas, while acids absorb the least, especially diluted sulphuric acid, which absorbs only 8 to 05 of its volume, according to its strength. III. Absorption of Heat. The capacity of bodies to absorb heat is in direct proportion to their capacity to emit heat. Light-colored, polished, or smooth surfaces possess this capacity in the least degree, while dark-colored and rough sur faces absorb heat very readily. However, ac cording to the late researches of Melloni, this effect depends less upon the apparent color than upon the nature of the coloring material. He also finds that when the heat-giving body is not luminous, the color is without influence ; but when it is luminous, the color has great influence. Melloni has also determined the capacity of absorption of heat by different transparent substances. He found that while transparent rock salt absorbed only 8 per cent, of the heat passing through with the, light, fluor spar absorbed from 25 to 50, Iceland spar and glass 60, alum 90, and ice 94 per cent. ; while for heat emitted from a non-luminous body, the latter substances were totally opaque, absorbing all the heat and transmitting none. Recently Tyndall and Magnus have made re searches on the absorbent power of gases, and found that under the pressure of one atmos phere, the source of heat being a copper ball heated to 518 F., the absorption by dry air being accepted as the unit, hydrogen was also 1, chlorine 89, carbonic acid 90, nitrous acid 355, marsh gas 403, sulphurous oxide 710, olefiant gas 970, and ammonia 1,195 ; which means that the latter two gases absorb respectively 970 and 1,195 times more of the heat transmitted through them than is the case with dry air. IV. Absorption of Light. The apparent color of all objects is caused by the elective absorption of certain colored rays in the white light, while the remaining are reflected and determine the color of the object. Even the purest white and the most perfectly polished surfaces absorb some of the light. It is the same with the most transparent substances; they all absorb light more or less. In many of these an elec tive absorption also takes place ; colored gems and glass or liquid solutions absorb certain colored rays and let others pass ; those which pass determine the color of the substance. Sometimes, besides the absorption of several colors, a color is reflected complementary to that transmitted; in a thin layer of aniline red, red rays are transmitted, while green rays are reflected; a similar action takes place in a solution of litmus and several other sub stances. Some crystals possess the power of absorbing different colors when light passes- through them in different directions ; this is called dichroism and polychroism. Thus the mineral iolite, a gem consisting of alumina, magnesia, and iron, shows different colors ac cording as the light falls along the axis of crystallization or in a transverse direction. Many artificial crystals exhibit the same re markable property ; for instance, the double chloride of platinum and potassium, which ap pears either deep red or bright green. The investigation of this peculiar kind of absorp tion of light has recently given rise to the in vention of a new modification of the micro scope by Ilaidinger, by which this property may be examined in the minutest crystals; this invention is called the dichroscope and dichroic microscope. V. Absorption Spectrum. The elective absorption of transparent gases, liquids, and solids is determined by means of the spectroscope. This instrument proves in deed that the cause of this absorption is simply the incapacity of the transparent substance to transmit luminous waves of a certain length, and thus that it is opaque for such waves. The result of such partial opacity is the for mation of the so-called absorption bands, in case such a substance is placed between the light and the slit of the spectroscope. The Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum are in fact nothing but absorption bands produced by the passage of the light through the solar atmosphere ; our own atmosphere also pro duces such bands, which spectroscopists call the atmospheric lines. The absorption spec trum differs in each substance which Ave may submit to examination. Thus iodine vapor and nitrous, acid vapor produce very characteristic absorption spectra when placed before the slit of the spectroscope (figs. 1 and 2), while differ- II 1 1! i 1 1 j ; FIG. 1. Absorption Spectrum of Iodine Vapor. ent solutions of apparently the same color may be unmistakably distinguished from each other by the difference in the absorption spectra FIG. 2. Absorption Spectrum of Nitrous Acid Gas. which they produce. The most striking illus tration is given by the black absorption bands produced by a perfectly clear and colorless so lution of any salt of the rare metal didymiurn, so that in this way the merest traces of this metal in any solution may be detected, as lately ABSTINENCE 39 found by Gladstone and Bunsen. Water, faint ly colored yellow with a few drops of blood, may be distinguished from all other solutions of the same color, by showing in the spectro scope two characteristic absorption bands (fig. 3) in the green portion of the spectrum, not FIG. 3. Absorption Spectrum of Blood. shown by any other substance ; and it is even possible to recognize them in a single blood disk, by means of a microscope with spectro- scopic eye piece. We add in fig. 4 the absorp- B C D E F G FIG. 4. Solar Absorption Lines. tion bands of the solar atmosphere for com parison ; they are used as landmarks to local ize the absorption bands of other substances. They were first noticed by Wollaston, but afterward examined with such philosophical refinement by Fraunhofer, that they were named after him, and according to his propo sition designated by A, B, C, D, &c. (See SPECTEOSCOPE.) 1BSTIAEME, the partial or total deprivation of food. The phenomena which characterize life are connected with chemical changes oc curring in portions of the blood or tissue s of the body itself; the presence of the substances resulting from these changes being hurtful to the body, they are eliminated from it by the various organs of excretion. This constant loss demands an equivalent supply. If the supply be withheld, the chemical changes still continue and the body wastes ; the organism feeds upon itself, and when this is no longer pos sible, death ensues. The period during which a human being previously in good health can sustain life under a total deprivation of food and drink, is generally stated to be from eight to ten days. This varies, however, under dif ferent circumstances. Persons of mature age support abstinence better than those who are younger; women, from the greater develop ment of the fatty tissues, and the less activity of the muscular and nervous, systems, better than men ; children, in whom all the organic functions are exceedingly active, worst of all. A damp atmosphere which checks exhalation, a moderate temperature, and quiet of body are favorable to the prolongation of life ; while muscular exertion, a hot dry air, and a low tem perature tend to shorten the period during which it can be preserved. Fodere (Hcdecine legale) states that some workmen buried in a damp quarry were extricated alive after a period of 14 days ; while after the wreck of I the Medusa, the sufferers on the raft, exposed to a high temperature and constant exertion, at the end of three days, although they still had a small quantity of wine, were so famished that they commenced devouring the dead bodies of their companions. Water alone tends materially to prolong life. Dr. Sloane ("Medical Gazette," vol. xvii., p. 389) gives an account of a man 05 years of age, who was rescued from a coal mine after he had been immured 23 days, during the first 10 of which I he had a little muddy water. He was so much I reduced that he died three days after. The I cases of starvation which have been best and most accurately observed, have been those in which the oesophagus has been gradually but at last completely obstructed by cancerous dis ease. In these cases the deprivation of ali ment has been but partial, the patient having been still imperfectly nourished by nutritive injections, which have supported life for a period of five or six weeks. Mental alienation has a marked influence in prolonging the period during which life can be sustained without food. Dr. Willan has recorded a case in which, under the influence of religious delusion, a young man lived 60 days, taking during that time nothing but a little water flavored with 1 orange juice. Dr. M Xaughton of Albany ; ("American Journal of Medical Science," vol. I vi., p. 543) gives a similar instance, during which a young man lived 54 days on water alone. And in a case read in the French acad- j emy (Archives generales de medecine, torn. I xxvii., p. 130), a suicide lived GO days on I nothing but a few mouthfuls of orgeat syrup, | before death put an end to his sufferings. Hys- [ terical women often support abstinence in a i wonderful manner ; but there is in hysteria so | much moral perversion, so great a tendency to i deceit for the sake of exciting interest and j sympathy, that all such cases require to be I carefully and closely scrutinized. Most of the I instances reported by the old authors, in which j total abstinence was endured for months or even years, belong to this category, and are untrustworthy. The first effect of prolonged abstinence from food and drink under ordinary | circumstances, apart from the sensations of i hunger and thirst, is pain and distress in tbe | epigastrium, which is relieved by pressure. I This subsides after a day or two, and is suc- | ceeded by a sense of sinking and weakness in the same region ; the thirst at the same time becomes more intense, and is thenceforth the principal source of suffering. Emaciation soon | begins to make rapid progress, the eye has a | wild glistening stare, the senses are dulled, and I the intellect enfeebled ; the excretions become | rare, scanty, and fetid; the urine is high-color- I ed, often causing a burning pain when passed ; ! often toward the end diarrhoea comes on. j The sufferer becomes exceedingly weak, the i voice is low and hoarse, the gait slow and tot- 40 ABSTINENCE tering, and at length all exertion is impossible ; the breath is offensive; the skin is covered with a dirty-looking secretion and exhales a putrid odor. Maniacal delirium often super venes, and death is sometimes preceded by con vulsions. When persons are immured by the falling in of a mine, quarry, &c., they seem subdued by the darkness; but in cases of star vation after shipwreck, or in travelling through an uncultivated country, the worst passions are aroused, and suspicion and ferocity add to the torments of hunger. A high temperature seems to aggravate these passions. "It is im possible to imagine," says M. Savigny, in speak ing of the wreck of the Medusa, "to what a degree the circulation is quickened under ex posure to the burning sun of the equator. The pain of my head was intolerable ; I could scarcely master the impetuosity of my move ment ; to use a well-known phrase, the blood boiled in my veins ; all my companions suffered from the same excitement;" and the terrible scenes of blood and crime which passed upon the raft were doubtless owing largely to this cause. On examination after death the bodies of those dying of starvation are found to be almost bloodless, except the brain which con tains its usual quantity, and completely desti tute of fat. The various organs, with the ex ception of the brain, are all reduced in bulk, and the coats of the intestinal canal especially are rendered thinner. M. Chossat (RecliercJies cxperimentales sur V inanition) deprived a num ber of animals (birds and small mammals) of all sustenance, and carefully observed the phe nomena that followed, and his experiments throw much light upon the subject of starva tion. The temperature in all the animals w T as maintained at nearly the normal standard until the hist day of life, when it began rapidly to fall. The animals, previously restless, now became quiet, as if stupefied; they fell over on their side, unable to stand; the breathing became slower and slower, the pupils dilated, the insensibility grew more profound, and death took place either quietly or attended with con vulsions. If, when these phenomena were fully developed, external warmth was applied, the animals revived, their muscular force returned, they moved or flew about the room, and took greedily the food that was presented to them. If now they were again left to themselves, they speedily perished ; but if the external tem perature was maintained until the food taken was digested (and from the feeble condition of their digestive organs this often took many hours), they recovered. The immediate cause of death seemed to be cold rather than starvation. The average loss of weight in the animals experimented upon was 40 per cent,, varying considerably in different cases, the variation depending chiefly on the relative amount of fat. Weighing the different tissues separately, and arranging them in two parallel columns, according as they lost more or less than 40 per cent., gave the following results : Parts losing more than Parts losing less than 40 per cent. 40 per cent. ( Fat 93-3 Muscular coat of stomach 39 -T Blood 75 Pharynx and oesophagus. 84 2 i Spleen 71 4 Skin 33 -3 Pancreas C4 l Kidneys 31-9 i Liver 52 Respiratory organs 22 2 Heart 44 8 Bones 16 7 Intestines 42-4 Eyes 10 Muscles of voluntary mo- Nervous system. .. . 1-9 tion 42-3 Among the most noteworthy phenomena 1 caused by starvation are the offensive effluvia exhaled from the sufferers, the fetor of their I discharges, and the rapidity with which the j body passes into a state of putrescence. Such a condition of things is peculiarly favorable to the reception of fever and other contagious diseases, and they acquire in such cases an intensity and virulence rarely seen under other circumstances. Thus, as was fearfully seen in Ireland in 1847, pestilence follows in the train of famine. The effects of the prolonged em ployment of an insufficient diet alone are rarely seen ; they are commonly complicated with those of unwholesome air and over-exertion. Of such complication, prisons, work-houses, and charitable institutions have afforded abun dant examples on a large scale. One of the most noted of these occurred at the Milbank penitentiary, near London, in 1828. The prison is situated on marshy ground, which is below the level of the adjacent river, but it had pre viously been reputed healthy. A few months before the outbreak of the epidemic, the amount of dry nutriment allowed each prisoner daily had been reduced from between 31 and 33 oz. to 21 oz., and animal food was almost wholly withheld. The prisoners were at the same time subjected to a low temperature, and to considerable muscular exertion. In a short time they became paler, weaker, and thinner ; subsequently, scurvy, diarrhoea, and dysentery made their appearance, and finally low fevers, or headache, vertigo, convulsions, maniacal delirium, and apoplexy. The smallest loss of blood caused fainting. Of 860 prisoners, 437, or 52 per cent., were attacked. Those who had been longest confined suffered in the greatest proportion. The prisoners who were employed in the kitchen, who had an addition of 8 oz. of bread to their daily allowance, were not af fected. Another well-marked epidemic, owing to a similar cause, occurred in the establish ment for the destitute children of New York, at what was termed the Long Island farms, in ! the winter of 1839-MO. The diet of the chil dren consisted of bread of an inferior quality, with tea sweetened with molasses, night and morning, and soup made from coarse beef, alternately with the beef itself at noon ; in acl- I dition the dormitories of the children were | crowded and ill ventilated, and they had scarce- ! ly any outdoor exercise. "About the middle 1 of December, 1839," says Dr. Morrell, the at tending physician of the asylum (New York "Journal of Medicine and Surgery," vol. hi.), "evidences of a constitutional change in many of the children were apparent ; they were dull ABSTINENCE ABYDOS and inactive, their eyes lacked lustre, and their skins exhaled an offensive odor." Next, many of them were attacked with slight cholera mor- I bus, and afterward an incurable diarrhrea set j in, attended with gangrene about the cheeks, the anus, or vagina. In most of these cases sloughing of the cornea took place and the eye was destroyed. When for a length of time the allowance of food, either from its indigestibility or from its limited amount, has been insuffi cient for the wants of the system, the digestive organs are weakened ; the appetite is lost, and the person often loathes food while he is suf- j feriug from starvation. In the experiments of j Chossat, when turtle doves were placed upon a | limited allowance of corn, but with access to water, part of the corn was either rejected by vomiting, accumulated in the crop, or passed unchanged through the bowels. ABSTINENCE, Total. See TOTAL ABSTINENCE, j ABT, Franz, a German composer, born at j Eilenburg, Saxony, Dec. 22, 1819. His early studies were theological, but he abandoned ! divinity for music, and at the age of 22 became musical director at Zurich. He remained there eleven years, when he became second musical director at the Brunswick court theatre, and was promoted to be first by the grand duke in 1855. He has composed for orchestra, | piano, and voice ; but it is mainly as a song writer that he has attained his reputation, having composed a great number of songs that have become well known throughout the j world. He has also been very successful as a j composer of two-part songs, and of four-part | songs for male voices. He visited the United j States in 1872. ABl BEKR, the first caliph, born at Mecca about 573, died in 634. Abubekr means father of the virgin," and this name was given to him when his daughter Ayesha be came the favorite wife of Mohammed. His real name was Abd-el-Caaba. He was Mo- I hammed s most trusted adherent, and in 632 i succeeded his master in the supreme authority, to the exclusion of the prophet s son-in-law I Ali. At the commencement his reign was ! troubled, first by the relapse of several tribes ! to idolatry, and then by the springing up of a new sect under Mosseilama. Assisted by the hero Khaled, Abubekr compelled the backsli- j ders to return, and suppressed the rival creed, : Mosseilama himself being slain in a battle. He now led his followers to conquest. His gen erals fell upon the frontiers of the Roman and Persian empires, and their easy success excited the warrior population of Arabia to pour forth. The emperor Heraclius vainly opposed them. Syria and the provinces of the Euphrates were soon overrun and Damascus besieged. Abu- j bekr died in the full tide of conquest, after ! a brief reign of two years and three months. ! His tomb is shown by the side of that of the prophet at Mecca. Abubekr was surnamed the Just. His charity was unbounded, while his manner of living was so strict that he pos sessed at his death only the one robe he wore, one camel, and an Ethiopian slave. These he bequeathed to Omar, his successor. Abubekr collected the scattered writings and the oral doctrines of Mohammed forming the Koran. ABUL-CASIM. See ALBUCASIS. ABULFARAGUS, or Abnlfaraj, Mar Grejrorins, surnamed, on account of his Jewish descent, Bar-Hebrreus, a Syriac and Arabic writer, born in 1226, died in 1286. He was a native of Armenia, and the son of a converted Jew. By his knowledge and virtues he rose to the dig nity of bishop of Aleppo, and in 1266 to that of primate of the Jacobite Christians. His best known work is the " History of the Dynasties," treating of the different kingdoms of the world, Jewish, Chaldean, Persian, Greek, Roman, Mohammedan, and Mongol. An edition in Arabic and Latin was published by Edward Pococke at Oxford, 1663, and one in Syriac and Latin at Leipsic, 1789. ABILFEDA, Ismail ibn Ali, a Moslem prince and writer, born at Damascus about 1273, died in October, 1331. He was a descendant of Eyub (or Ayub), the founder of the Kurdish dynasty in Egypt ; fought in the campaigns of Sultan Nasir, of Egypt and Syria, against the Tartars ; was by him appointed governor of Ham ah in Syria, which his ancestors had held in fief, and subsequently acknowledged as sultan of that principality. He was a man of eminent tal ents as a warrior, a ruler, and a writer. lie is chiefly renowned as the author of an exten sive historical compilation, in Arabic, embra cing both ancient history and the annals of the Moslems, from the time of Mohammed to the year 1328 ; and of a geographical work, mainly descriptive of Egypt, Syria, Arabia, and Persia, considered the best of its kind in eastern litera ture. Both have appeared in various editions, in the original as well as in Latin and other occidental translations. Abulfeda also wrote scientific treatises, which have been lost. ABU SAMBUL. See IPSAMBUL. ABU SHEHR. See BUSHIEE. ABU TEMAM, one of the greatest Arabic poets, born in Syria about 806, died at Mosul in 845 or 846. His poems are said to have procured him the favor of the Moslem courts and many thousand pieces of gold, and the Arabs say of I him that "no one could ever die whose name had been praised in the verses of Abu Ternain." I He was also the compiler of three collections of j select pieces of eastern poetry, the most es teemed of which, called the Hamasa, is praised I by Sir William Jones. ABYDOS. I. An ancient city of Asia Minor, I on the narrowest part of the Hellespont, oppo- ; site Sestos, originally the possession of the Trojan prince Asius, and later occupied by the Thracians and Milesians. It is celebrated in connection with the army of Xerxes and the immense bridge built by him at this spot. 480 B. C. Here the tragedy of Hero and Leander took place, according to the poetical legend, and here Lord Bvron swam across in imitation ABYLA ABYSSINIA Bass-Belief at Abydos, Egypt. (From a Photograph.) of that luckless lover. II. An ancient city (originally This, now Ararat el-Matfoon) of Upper Egypt, on the canal called the Bahr Yusuf, G in. AV. of the Nile and about GO m. below Thebes. It was anciently the second city of the Thebaid, the birthplace of Menes, and the reputed burial place of Osiris, and hence a great necropolis. There are numerous very ancient tombs cut in the adjacent hills, but its most remarkable remains are the palace of Memnon and the temple of Osiris. In the latter was discovered in 1818 the celebrated "tablet of Abydos," or Ramses table, at pres ent in the British museum, upon which is in scribed in hieroglyphics a genealogy of the 18th dynasty of the Pharaohs. Diimichen, in his explorations (18G4- 5) of the interior of the temple of Osiris, found a new Egyptian table, which Lepsius calls the Sethos fable. It is more complete than that of Ramses, contains 65 shields and an uninterrupted record of the kings of the first three dynasties, beginning with Menes, corresponding with the account of Manetho, and is regarded as more perfect than the table of Sakkarah. This discovery is believed to be important in respect to the re searches into the most remote eras of Egypt. ^ ABYLA, one of the pillars of Hercules, at the N. W. extremity of Africa, opposite Calpe (now Gibraltar) in Spain, the other pillar. It was believed by the ancients to have been for merly joined with Calpe, but separated by Hercules, giving entrance to the Mediterranean. ABYSSINIA (Arab. Hdbesh, signifying a mix ture of peoples), a country of eastern Africa, lying S. W. of the Red sea, Its boundaries are not very accurately denned, especially as the name is frequently applied to a much greater extent of territory than that included in Abyssinia proper, which was formerly said to comprise the three important states of Tigre, Amhara, and Shoa, but from which Shoa ha s been excluded by some modern geographers. According to Keith Johnston, however, it ex tends from lat, 7 40 to 16 40 1ST., and from Ion. 34 20 to 43 20 E. On the N. and N. "W. it is bordered by Nubia and Sennaar, while southward and eastward lie the Galla and So mali countries and Adal. The Samhara land separates Abyssinia proper from the Red sea, which is nowhere less than 90 m. distant from the frontier. According to M. d Abbadie, the country is called Ethiopia by the natives, who properly employ the word Abyssinia to denote that portion of the population, for the most I part professedly Christian, who have lost all idea of tribal differences. Its maximum length is upward of 600 m. and maximum breadth nearly as much ; but these estimates are prob ably approximate, and as the area of the coun try depends upon them, it cannot be accurately stated. The population is believed to be from j 3,000,000 to 5,000,000. Considered with ref- I erence to its physical geography, Abyssinia is j an extensive, elevated, and irregular table land, ! consisting of a series of plateaux of various altitudes, which rise into isolated groups and ranges of flat-topped mountains. This table land runs nearly due N. and S., and slopes from its highest ridge toward the Red sea on one side and the interior of the continent on the other, so as to form an eastern and a western watershed. Toward the swamps and plains of Sennaar and Nubia the descent from this ! high region is gradual, but it is very abrupt on the east, the seaward slope being about twelve times greater than the opposite slope toward the Nile. The average elevation of the pla teaux, which rise terrace-like and with grad ually increasing elevation from N. to S., is ABYSSINIA between 7,000 and 8,000 ft. Among them, forming river beds sometimes thousands of feet below the general surface of the surrounding territory, wind ravines and gorges of extreme depth, which are among the most striking natural features of the country. Mr. Clements R. Markham, who accompanied the British military expedition to Magdala, classifies the Abyssinian highlands as follows: 1, the region drained by the affluents of the river Mareb ; 2, the region drained by those of the Tacazze and Atbara ; 3, the region drained by those of the Abai. The first of these is in Tigre, and in cludes a considerable portion of northern Abys sinia. Here the average altitude of the plateaux is 9,000 ft. above the level of the sea. They enclose numerous extensive valleys, which, al though many hundred feet lower, are none of them at an elevation of less than 7,000 ft. A peculiarity of the valleys here is that valley hills rise from their level tracts, just as mountains rise from the plateaux above. The principal summits of this region are Mt. Sowayra, 10,328 ft., and Arabi Tereeki, near Senate, 8,560 ft. The next great physical division of the table land comprises the drainage basin of the Ta cazze and Atbara rivers. The loftiest dis trict of this region is the rich agricultural plain of Haramat, 8,000 ft. above the ocean level. In the N. W. part, of Amhara, which is included in this division of the highlands, the country is lower, not exceeding 6,000 ft. of average elevation; but the province of Sem- yen contains the highest mountains in Abys sinia, of which the most important peaks are the Abba Jarrat, in lat, 13 10 X., 15,088 ft., and Mt. Buahat, in lat. 13 12 N., 14,362 ft. E. of these are the Harat hills and Wadjerat range. The third clearly defined region is that watered by the tributaries of the Blue Nile, comprising View in the Mountains near Magdala. the greater portion of Amhara or the former kingdom of Gondar, with an altitude varying in different districts from 5,000 to 7,000 ft. on the plateaux, and attaining a height of 11,000 ft. in the Talba-Waha mountains. The Wadela and Dalanta plateaux, near Magdala, with an elevation exceeding 9,000 ft., are in the "W. portion of this region, the river bed of the Jitta, 3,500 ft. deep, running between them. The steep scarped rock of Magdala itself rises to a height of 9,050 ft., its summit being a flat plain 2 m. long and half a mile wide. The only important rivers of the country which flow toward the Red sea are the Ragolay, in the north, a perennial stream which loses itself in the sand before reaching the coast, and the Hawash in the south, which forms a portion of the boundary between Abyssinia and Adal, and is likewise absorbed in the swamps or deserts on its path to the ocean. All the great Abyssinian rivers belong to the Nile basin. Of these the Mareb is the most northern. It rises in the district of Hamasen, flows S. and "W. around Serawe, and thence in a N. W. di rection through the Nubian province of Taka. In the rainy season its waters reach the At bara, but during the remainder of the year they disappear in the sand. The Tacazze rises in Lasta from a spring which was first caused to gush forth from the rock, according to tradition, by a blow from the hand of Menilek, son of the queen of Sheba. Its name signifies "the terri ble." Flowing northwesterly, it enters, or prop erly receives, the Atbara at Tomat, in Nubian territory. It is a rapid and impetuous stream, dashing down rocky falls and between lofty pre- 4:4: ABYSSINIA cipices with a turbulence well denoted by its name. Further S. is the Abai, the celebrated Nile of Bruce, although the Bahr-el-Azrek or true Blue river rises in the Galla country under the name of the Dedhesa, and the Abai is in reality only its largest tributary. The latter rises S. of the Tzana lake, and making a north ward circle through it, turns southward and joins the Bahr-el-Azrek near lat. 11 N. This lake, also called the Dembea, is situated in a grain-producing region of great fertility, at a height of 6,110 ft. above the level of the sea. It is about 50 in. long by 25 m. wide, and its depth in some places is said to be 600 ft. There are many other lakes, among which Ashangi, 4 m. long and 3 m. broad, in the country of the Azebo-Gallas, is the most noteworthy as being a fresh- water lake without any visible outlet. Thermal springs occur in many districts. The characteristic feature of the climate of the Abyssinian highlands including Tigre, Am- hara, and Shoa is the occurrence of a tropical monsoon or rainy season from the middle of June to the end of September. Otherwise, the climate is strictly temperate. There is a cold season extending from October to February, with an estimated mean temperature of 58-3, during which the days are pleasant and the nights cold with heavy falls of dew. The hot weather begins about March 1, and lasts until the monsoon sets in, April being the warmest month. The mean temperature of this season at Magdala is 65*5, and of the wet season about 5 lower. The rainfall of the monsoon extends over all of Abyssinia proper, but is greater in the south and west than in the north and east. The prevailing winds during the rainy season are easterly and southeasterly. Thunder storms are of frequent occurrence. The chief agricultural productions are barley and oats on the elevated plains, and wheat, maize, millet, rice, cotton, coffee, and a small native grain called teff, in the lower districts. Sugar cane, flax, and beans are raised in small quantities, and lemons, oranges, and figs are oc casionally produced. The grape thrives in some parts of Tigre, but no good wine is made. Volcanic rocks constitute the principal for mation in the geological structure of Abys sinia, and cover almost the entire table land. The trapnean series appears to be divisible into at least two distinct groups. The lower of these is largely composed of red basalts, on which the disintegrating effects of atmospheric action are plainly marked. Blanford names this the Ashangi group, and that above it the Magdala group; which last comprises trachytic rocks containing many feldspar crystals, and is distinguished by the scarped and precipitous forms which it assumes under the influence of the weather. These forms are characteristic of Abyssinian scenery, and the ambas or hill forts, the great strongholds of the country,, are rendered almost inaccessible to an enemy by their situation on the horizontal beds of this rock which surmount the summits usually se lected for military stations. In the N. E. prov inces, however, metamorphic rocks occupy the whole surface, except in several districts of Hill Fort between Mai and Abaca. limited extent where they are overlaid by sand stones, limestones, or igneous formations. They extend 150 m. along the meridian of 39 SO 7 , between lat. 15 55 and 13 50 N. At Tchelga coal deposits are found, which geologists are disposed to group with these sandstones of Adigerat. Further S., in the Antalo district, a considerable number of fossils have been ob tained from the limestones which predominate there, whereby it has been ascertained that the formation belongs to the oolitic period. The present geological aspect of Abyssinia, with its weather-worn battlements of rock and its deeply scored river beds, must be attributed to fresh-water denudation. There is no evidence of marine action anywhere in the interior, although it is believed that at an early epoch the waters of the Red sea and the Indian ocean may have washed the foot hills of the eastern slope. The volcanic formations along the coast belong to an age much more recent than that which gave rise to those of the table land which have already been described. There are no volcanoes in the country. The only metallic products are gold, which occurs rarely and is of an inferior quality, and iron, of which the yield is consumed at home. Exten sive deposits of salt occur on several plains in Tigre. The distribution of Abyssinian animals seems to be regulated by the altitude of the ABYSSINIA various portions of the table land above the sea, each zone of elevation being characterized to some extent by its own particular fauna. It is a noteworthy fact that many of the mammals common to other countries are here distinguished by a much bolder demeanor | toward man than that which they exhibit elsewhere. Elephants are numerous near the j coast, and go up to the highlands, even 8,000 ft. above the sea, in the summer months; though the rhinoceros, only one variety of which (P. keitloa) is met with, does not range higher than 5,000 ft. Many of the elephants are tuskless, but they are all active and sav age. The rhinoceros is the black, two-horned species, and feeds on foliage, seldom eating j grass. Of the cat tribe, there are at least three species in addition to the Abyssinian lion. The spotted hyaana (H. crocuta) and two spe cies of jackal are exceedingly common. Of the quadrumana, the great dog-faced baboon (cynocephalus hamadryas) is found almost everywhere. That peculiar little pachyderm, the hyrax, inhabits its favorite haunts among the rocks at almost every elevation in Abys sinia from 2,000 ft. above the sea upward. The ornithology of Abyssinia is rich in species, no fewer than 293 having been described by Blanford. Among the birds of prey are found the eagle, the vulture, and the handsome Abys sinian lammergeyer, as well as numerous fal cons and kestrels. Honey birds, starlings of beautiful plumage, crows, pigeons, several varieties of the cuckoo, swallows, larks, par tridges, geese, ducks, and guinea fowls abound. With the exception of lizards, there do not seem to be many reptiles in the highlands. A tree snake, a viper, and several other species of ser pent occur ; two species of tortoise, and frogs , and toads in large numbers, are also met with, j The crocodile and python inhabit the trop ical districts. The agricultural products of the country have already been enumerated. The vegetation of the coast lowlands consists prin cipally of acacias, which are replaced by syca mores, dahros (Jicus religiosa), and mimosa, in ascending toward the interior. In the pass es, the beautiful candelabra tree (euphorbia Abyssimca) is found. At an elevation of 6,000 ft. occur juniper trees, which here grow tall and large, the jujube, wild olives, and sev eral trees of the tig tribe. This vegetation is sub-alpine, and common to the plateaux. The flora of the higher regions is characteristic of the temperate zone, the only tree being the juniper, which grows merely as a bush on the loftier mountain sides and summits, together with lavender, thyme, gentian, and the wild rose. Large dahro trees are generally found about the villages, and a variety of willow oc - curs near streams and in damp places ; but though there are some trees on the plains be low the plateaux, low bushes form the greater proportion of their vegetation. In fact, the only thickly wooded localities are the gorges arid ravines. Each of the three principal polit ical divisions of Abyssinia, Tigre, Amhara, and Shoa, is subdivided into numerous smaller provinces. Formerly the rulers of these three sovereignties were subject to the monarch of the country, but on the decline of the central power in the last century they became practi cally independent. The town of Adowa, with about 8,000 inhabitants, is the metropolis of Tigre. Gondar, the seat of government in Am hara, and formerly the residence of the Abys sinian kings, is situated in the district of Dem- bea, N. of the Tzana lake, and has a population estimated at 50,000. Ankobar, a town con taining about 12,000 people, is the present capital of Shoa. The inhabitants of Abyssinia are usually classed into : 1, the Ethiopia people of Tigre, speaking a corrupt form of the ancient Geez language ; 2, the Amharic tribes, living in Amhara and Shoa ; 3, the Agows, of Wag, Lasta, and other provinces, who are by some conjectured to be of Phoenician origin. Be sides these are the Gallas who have settled in Amhara and Shoa. Coptic Christianity is the prevailing faith, but there are many Moham medan and Jewish communities. (See ABYS SINIAN CHURCH.) In point of morality, the latter are generally superior to the Christians. Education is confined almost solely to those intended for the church. Superstition is widely prevalent, and the people are strongly addicted to sensuality and bloodshed. Many peculiar customs prevail, and something of a literature once existed ; but the effect of the long series of civil wars has been to render Abyssinian civ ilization unworthy of the name. Latterly the rule of the lesser chiefs throughout the country has been the only government of any stability. The history of Abyssinia surpasses in inter est that of any other country of Africa except Egypt. Its earliest traditions concern the queen of Sheba, who is said to have ruled over the powerful kingdom of Axiim, holding her court at the town of that name, whence she proceeded on her celebrated visit to Solomon. All subsequent legitimate rulers of the nation or of the larger states have claimed to be de scended from her. About A. D. 320 the pa triarch of Alexandria consecrated Frumentius bishop of Abyssinia. Through his efforts and those of his successors, all of whom bore the title of abuna salamah (our father of peace), the Coptic church was firmly established. In 522 Caleb, then the reigning sovereign of Axum, led an army into Arabia and subjugated the kingdom of Yemen. The reign of Caleb is described as the golden age of Abyssinian his tory, during which a high degree of internal and commercial prosperity was attained ; but i the Mohammedan invasion of Egypt in the 7th century checked the inflow of civilization from the outer world, and brought the progress of the country to a standstill. For nearly 1,000 years Ethiopia was isolated by the surrounding I barriers of Islam. About 1492 Pedro do Covil- ham, who had been sent to the East by King i JoLu II. of Portugal in search of the land of 46 ABYSSINIA Prester John, arrived at the court of Alexan der, who then occupied the throne under the title of negus (king). On the death of Alexan der, his successor, Negus David, was so young that his grandmother Helena acted for a while as regent, and through a mission to Portugal she secured the visit of an embassy from Lisbon to Abyssinia about 1520, an event which led to the subsequent active interference of the Portu guese in the affairs of the country. Estevan da Gama, the Portuguese viceroy in India and a grandson of the celebrated navigator, was or dered to aid the Abyssinians with a small armed force in their war against the Mohammedans of Adal, which had broken out about 1528, and had already lasted 12 years. Accordingly, in 1541, the first European military expedition into Abyssinia, numbering only 450 soldiers, with six cannon, landed at Massowa under the com mand of Cristoforo da Gama, the viceroy s broth er. He defeated the Turkish forces under Mo-, hammed Gran in many engagements, but finally Abyssinian Warriors. his army was routed and he was killed in an important battle fought in 1542, probably near the Senafe pass. At this period began the barbarian incursions of the Galla tribes from the south, which occasioned a long series of wars between the Abyssinians and the more savage but fairer invaders, who finally suc ceeded in establishing themselves on a strip of territory, which they still occupy, separat ing Shoa from the rest of the country. The Jesuits never wielded a paramount influence in the state except in the early part of the 17th century. The authority of the negus ap pears to have been maintained unimpaired until about the middle of the last century. The Gallas had by this time become of im portance as prospective allies in intestinal quarrels; and to propitiate them, Yasous II. married a Galla woman. This act so incensed the native Christians that they practically withdrew their allegiance from the negus, who lived but a few years after his marriage, and. gave it to Kas Michael Suhul, the hereditary chief of Salowa in Tigre, who then became in fact the ruler of the country and governed it as long as he lived, although a nominal negus was placed upon the throne after the death of Yasous. It was during the administration of Has Michael that the English traveller Bruce visited Gondar, in 17TO. The authority of the negus had already become a nullity, the ras, who was ostensibly his minister, being in real ity the ruler of the state. Soon the indepen dent chiefs of the other provinces refused to acknowledge his sway. Shoa, Tigre, and God- jam, the S. W. province of Amhara, were vir tually separate sovereignties for many years. A line of chiefs descended from a female rep resentative of the ancient royal house ruled over Shoa; while Tigre was governed from 1790 to 1816 by Ras Walda Selassye, who was visited at Antalo, his capital, in 1804, by Mr. Salt, the first Englishman to enter Abyssinia in an official character. Ras Ali of Amhara was I the de facto governor of central Abyssinia from j 1831 to 1855, although two princes, to whom I he was minister, nominally ruled the country j during this period. Between these dates the I visits of numerous explorers made extensive I additions to European knowledge of Abys- 1 sinia. In 1848 Mr. Walter Plowden, who j had previously visited the court of Ras Ali at Debra Tabor in Tigre, was appointed British consul to Abyssinia. Li] Kasa, subsequently so famous as King Theodore, now appeared as an important character in Abyssinian poli tics. Born in 1818, he had been educated in a convent, as a scribe, whence a chance foray turned his thoughts to military affairs, and he became the leader of a predatory band of dis contented soldiery, which grew to such dimen sions as soon to be a power in the state. He then attacked the army of the mother of Ras Ali, who governed the district of Dembea for her son, and being successful was himself ap pointed to rule over it by the ras, who also bestowed upon the young chieftain the hand of his daughter in marriage. But this friend ship was short-lived. Kasa recommenced war against his father-in-law, drove him from his dominions, subjugated the chief of Godjam and Dadjatch Ubye of Tigre, and in 1855 found himself master of Abyssinia. He now caused the abuna to crown him king of the kings of Ethiopia under the name of Theodore. Plow- den entered into official relations with the new government, and both he and his friend Bell, an Englishman in the emperor s service, resided in the country till 1860, when they were killed by insurgents. Up to this time Theodore had reigned tolerantly and with dis cretion; but the death of Bell and Plowden, to whom he was devotedly attached, together with the loss of his first wife, the daughter of -Ras Ali, whose influence over him had always been excellent, wrought a great change in his character. His new wife, the daughter of a hos- ABYSSINIA tile chief, in reality hated him, and henceforth he became morose, bloodthirsty, and tyrannical. Capt. Cameron, Plowden s successor in the con sulate, arrived at Massowa in 1862 with pres ents from the queen for Theodore, which he de livered in October of that year. Theodore re sponded in a letter to the queen, proposing to send an embassy to England, which he trans mitted through Capt. Cameron. To this the foreign office paid no attention, and the arrival of a messenger from England in 1864, with de spatches for the consul but no answer to his letter, greatly incensed the king, who was al ready indignant at the refusal of the French government to recognize one M. Bardel, whom he had sent to Paris with a similar message to the emperor. In November, 1863, the Ger man Scripture readers residing near the court and the missionaries in Dembea were thrown into prison, heavily ironed; and on Jan. 4, 1864, Capt. Cameron and his suite were seized and placed in close confinement at Gondar, whence, after having been subjected to brutal tortures, all the captives were removed to Magdala. News of their imprisonment reached England in the spring, and a communication in response to his letter was at once despatched to Theodore in charge of Mr. Hormuzd Ras- sam, a Mesopotamian holding the office of as sistant to the British political resident at Aden. He landed at Massowa on July 23, 1864, but owing to various obstacles did not succeed in de livering the letter to the king till Jan. 25, 1866. It induced Theodore to set the prisoners at liberty and to promise that they should meet Mr. Rassarn near the N. "W. extremity of Lake Tzana and travel with him to the coast. He was anxious, however, that Mr. Rassam should The Burning of Magdala during the Attack by the British. write to England for workmen and await their : arrival in Abyssinia ; and this desire not being acceded to, he remanded the captives to pris- j on, accompanied by Mr. Rassam and his com- < rades, who were violently taken into custody at an audience held in the king s tent just prior to their intended departure. Theodore then dictat- j ed a letter to Lord Clarendon asking for military | stores, workmen, and an instructor in artillery, I and sent it to London by Mr. Flad, who reached ; that city on July 10, 1866. The other Euro- ; peans remained captives in Abyssinia. As a communication from the queen, forwarded by ; Mr. Flad, and demanding the release of the ! prisoners, met with no response, the British : government determined to attempt their rescue ! by force. A military expedition was organized : at Bombay, under the command of Sir Robert j Napier, consisting of 4,000 British and 8,000 ! sepoy troops. Annesley bay having been cho sen as a landing place, the army was debarked there, and in January, 1868, commenced the march to the interior through the Senate pass, and proceeded southward toward Magdala, about 400 m. from the coast, whither Theo dore had retreated, and where the European prisoners were confined. On April 9 the English force arrived in front of the fortress, and on the following day were attacked by the Abyssinians, whom they repulsed with a loss of 700 killed and 1,200 wounded, hav ing themselves but 20 wounded. This en gagement is known as the action at Arogi, and its result so discouraged the king that he immediately released all the captives. Mag dala was stormed on April 13, and captured with a loss of 15 British wounded. As soon as the outer gate fell, Theodore, determined ABYSSINIAN CHURCH not to be taken prisoner, placed the muzzle of his pistol in his mouth, fired, and fell in stantly dead. The complete success of the un dertaking led the government to raise Gen. Napier to the peerage, with the title of Lord Napier of Magdala. The departure of the ex pedition left the country in a state of anarchy. At the latest accounts a chief of Tigre named Kasa had succeeded in establishing his suprem acy over a considerable region. He is said to be a weak man. A tolerably complete bibli ography of works relating to Abyssinia is given in Hotten s "Abyssinia and its People" (Lon don, 1808). The more accessible English books on the subject comprise "Bruce s Travels," of which many editions have been published since the first in 1790 ; "The Highlands of Ethiopia," by Major W. C. Harris (London, 1844); "Life in Abyssinia," by Mansfield Parkyns (London, 1853); Hozier s "British Expedition to Abys sinia" andMarkham s "Abyssinian Expedition" (London, 1869) ; and W. T. Blanford s " Geolo gy and Zoology of Abyssinia " (London, 1870). ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. According to the Chronicles of Axum, a work probably written by a Christian Abyssinian in the 4th century, the first apostle of Christianity in Abyssinia was the chamberlain of the Queen Candace of Ethiopia whose baptism is recorded in Acts vii. 27. But the actual origin of the Abys sinian church dates from about 316, when there landed on the coast of Abyssinia an ex ploring expedition sent out by Meropius of Tyre. Its members were all murdered except the two nephews of Meropius, Frumentius and ^Edesius, who were presented to the king as slaves. After the death of the king, Frumen tius became the instructor of the hereditary prince and actually regent of the country. When the prince became of age, ^desius re turned to Tyre ; but Frumentius, who had previously organized the Roman and Greek merchants residing in Abyssinia into a Chris tian church, went to Alexandria and was con secrated by Athanasius bishop of Abyssinia. As the king himself with a large portion of the people was baptized, Axum soon became the see of a metropolitan (abuna), with seven suf fragans. The emperor Constantino vainly en deavored to prevail upon Frumentius and the Abyssinian prince to adopt Arianism. When in the 5th and 6th centuries the Monophysites obtained control of the patriarchal see of Alex andria, the whole Abyssinian church joined this sect. In the 6th century the Mono- physite priest Julianus spread Christianity in Nubia, which for several centuries was a wholly Christian country, until in the 16th century Mohammedanism became predomi nant. Others of the sect gradually Chris tianized large tracts of the country. When the Portuguese in the 16th century opened a passage into the country, an attempt was made to bring about a union of the Abyssin ian church with Rome. A Roman Catholic patriarch of Ethiopia was appointed, but his efforts were unsuccessful. The Jesuit mission aries, who first established themselves in the country in 1555, succeeded in 1624 in inducing the heads of the church to submit to the pope ; but the union lasted only a few years, and the subsequent labors of the Jesuits and the prop aganda in this direction were equally fruit less. Since 1841 Roman Catholic missionaries of the order of Lazarists have renewed the effort to establish a union between the Abys sinian and the Roman churches, and in 1859 King Uby6 of Tigre sent an embassy to make his submission to the pope ; but the hopes raised by this event were disappointed, though several villages have been gained for the Cath olic church, and placed under a vicar apos tolic. In 1830 the first Protestant missiona ries, Gobat (subsequently Anglican bishop of Jerusalem) and Kugler, arrived in Abyssinia ; they were soon followed by others, among whom Isenberg and Krapf have become best known. They obtained political influence, and in 1841 a pupil of the English Protestant mission school in Cairo, Andraos, was conse crated, under the name of Abba Salama, abu- na of Abyssinia by the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria. Through him they hoped to gain the Abyssinian church for an evangelical refor mation, and the hope was strengthened when a prince apparently devoted to them became, under the name of Theodore, ruler over all Abyssinia. But Theodore, when his power was fully established, banished or imprisoned the missionaries ; and the abuna, who remained friendly to the Protestants, though he did not like to hear of conversions, died a prisoner in 1867. Having always been Monophysitic, dis putes about the nature of Christ have not torn the Abyssinian church into factions ; but it is agitated by discussions on what are termed the several nativities of Christ, of which the lead ing party at present reckons three. Recently controversies have arisen as to whether Christ possessed consciousness and a knowledge of good and evil while yet in the Avomb of the Virgin, and whether Christ is now equal or inferior to the Father in authority and power. But the most virulent dispute is whether the Virgin Mary is the mother of God, or only the mother of Jesus, and therefore whether she is entitled to equal honors with her Son. Cir cumcision is used in the Abyssinian church for both sexes, and precedes baptism. The Jew ish sabbath is still observed as well as the Chris tian Sunday, and dancing still forms part of the ritual, as it did in the Jewish temple. Children are baptized by immersion and adults by copious affusion. The Nicene creed is used, the Apostles being unknown. Communion is administered daily to the laity in both kinds. Confession is rigidly practised. Candidates for the priesthood must be able to read, to sing, and grow a beard, and they pay two pieces of rock salt as the price of being breathed upon by the abuna, and having the sign of the cross made over them. The orders ACACIA ACADEMY in church government are abuna, bishops (Ico- mur), alaka, who has charge of the revenues, and priests arid deacons, who prepare the com munion bread. The bishops now have only the duty of keeping the churches and church utensils sacred ; the seven dioceses into which the church was formerly divided have become extinct. Priests and monks are very abun dant. It requires 20 priests and deacons to do the full duties of one church. The nu merous monks are all placed under the jurisdic tion of the etshege, the superior of the convent Debra Libanos in Shoa. He ranks next to the abuna, and his authority is greatly respected in all matters of faith. He governs not only the numerous convents of his own order, but also those of the second order of the country, that of St. Eustathius. The most celebrated convents are Debra Libanos in Shoa, St. Stephen on Lake Haik in the Yesbu country, Debra Damo and Axum Thion in Tigre, and Lalibela in Lasta. The secular priests are, as in the other oriental churches, allowed to be once married, but the monks, take the vow of celibacy. The churches are small, and their walls are covered with hideous pictures of the Virgin Mary, the saints, the angels, and the devil. Each church has a tabot or ark of the covenant, on which its sanctity wholly depends ; it contains a parchment bearing the name of the patron saint, and stands behind a curtain in the holy of holies, which only the alaka and the priest who consecrates the elements are allowed to enter. If a man has had four wives and outlives them all, he must go into a monastery or be excommunicated. The husband can break the marriage tie at any time by becoming a monk, and leave his wife to take care of the children. The priests have the power of granting divorces. There is a version of the Bible in the ancient language of the empire of Axum, usually called the Ethio- pjan, but by the natives the Geez language. It was probably made from the Greek in the 4th or 5th century, and is still the only one used in the church services, though the an cient Ethiopian language is no longer spoken. The Ethiopian Bible contains all the books of the Roman Catholic canon, with several others, the best known of which is the book of Enoch. The total number of books is 81. A translation of the Old and New Testaments in the living Amharic language was made by Meeka, an Abyssinian, the companion of Bruce. See Gobat, " Three Years Residence in Abyssinia " ; Isenberg s and Krapf s mission ary journals in Abyssinia; Volz, Die Chrut- liche KircJic Aethiopiem (in Studien und Kritilcen, 1809, giving a review of all the information to be obtained from the recent literature on Abyssinia) ; Stanley, "The East ern Church," pp. 96-99. ACACIA, a genus of plants of the order legu- minosce, widely diffused over the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the earth ; most abun dant in Africa and Australia. They are trees VOL. i 4 j or shrubs, rarely herbs, with small, usually j inconspicuous petals and sepals, but with many j (10-400) long stamens, which give to the : heads or spikes of flowers great beauty. The pods are two-valved, jointless and woody, i containing seeds of which some species are ! edible. The leaves are either pinnate in vari- I ous degrees, or simply distended leaf stalks | (phyllodid). In nearly all the species the j leaves are pinnate at first, and as the plant i grows gradually give place to the phyllodia, j often showing all gradations between the two forms. The stems and branches are often | armed with spines. The acacias are not only ! most ornamental trees, with slender branches, ! delicate foliage, and attractive flowers, but the I timber is often of great value, as that of A, Ara- j lica, which is much used in India for wheels ; i and the A. Koa has a line, hard, and varie- ! gated grain. The bark contains much tannin. j A. Verek yields gum Senegal, and A. Nilotica, \ and Seyal gum arabic. Other valuable gums j of a similar nature are obtained from other I species. The flowers of A. Farnesiana yield I by distillation a delicious perfume, much prized I in the East. Many species are easily culti- ! vated under glass. Little is known of the uses | of most of the 420 species that have been de- I scribed. ACADEMY (Gr. AKadq/isia), originally the i name of a public pleasure ground situate ; in the Ceramicus (tile field), a suburb of I Athens, on the Cephissus, said to have be- j longed in the time of the Trojan war to Acade- | mus, a local hero. In the 5th century B. 0. this land belonged to Cimon the son of Miltia- des, who beautified the grounds, gave free ad mission to the public, and at his death be queathed them to his fellow citizens. They naturally became a favorite resort for all the loungers of the city, and Socrates was wont to hold forth in this delightful place. Plato taught his philosophy in its groves, and his school was hence named the Academic. As the Platonists ! were also called academists, so wherever an \ acadernist started a school, he called that school an academy. The word academy is used in English in two senses. In its unam bitious acceptation it means a place of higher instruction for youths, ranking with the gym nasia of Germany. The name is also given to national military and naval high schools in England and America. But the word acad emy, in its larger acceptation, is employed to designate a society of learned men, established for the improvement of science, literature, or ! the arts. The first association of this sort re- j corded in history was called Musaeon or Mu- j seurn, and was founded in Alexandria by Ptolemy Soter, one of the generals and succes sors of Alexander the Great. This soldier, af ter he had got possession of Egypt, restricted his energies to maintaining a defensive balance of power and to the cultivation of letters and science. Gathering around him scholars of various attainments, he sought to attach them. 50 ACADEMY permanently to his court by collecting books and treasures of art. Rome had no academies. | The Alexandrian example, if lost upon the Ro- | mans, was imitated by the Jews in Palestine and | Babylonia, and to a degree also by the Nes- | torian Christians. The Arabian caliphs profit- j ed by the lessons taught them by their Jewish and Christian subjects, and improved upon them by founding establishments for the preservation and increase of learning from Cordova to Samar- j cand. Charlemagne, following the suggestion j of the learned Alcuin, encouraged men of cul- | ture to assemble in his palace ; but after his i death nothing w T as heard of academies until to- j ward the end of the 13th and beginning of the j 14th century, when institutions of the kind were established at Florence, Palermo, and Toulouse, chiefly devoted to the cultivation of poetry. It was not till after the downfall of , the Byzantine empire in the 15th century, and the revival of classical culture in western Eu rope, that academies of a more comprehensive kind were established in Italy. The Accademia Pontaniana, so called after its principal bene factor Pontano, was founded at Palermo in 1433 by Antonio Bcccadella. The Accademia Platonic a, founded by Lorenzo de Medici in 1474, lasted till 1521, counting among its mem bers Machiavelli and other illustrious men, who j devoted themselves to the study of Plato and | of Dante, and to the improvement of the Ital- t ian language and letters. This institution be- | came the model of many others. Rome had its Lincei, Naples its Ardenti, Parma its In- scnsati, and Genoa its Addormentati. In other towns were the academies of the Con fused, of the Unstable, of the Drowsy, the Dead, the Nocturnal, the Thunderers, the Smoky, and the Vagabonds. Most of these \ academies were endowed by the state or by some wealthy patron of learning. All those learned associations which are in point of fact academies, but which bear the name of soci- I eties, will be treated under that title. We j shall now proceed to notice some of the most celebrated academies of the world, ranged according to their nationalities. I. Italian Academies. Italy is the mother country of modern academies. Jakeius, who in 1725 published at Leipsic an account of them, enu merates nearly 600 as then existing. We have already mentioned the first two ; they did not \ live long. The most enduring and influential \ of all was the Accademia della Crusca (liter- I ally, academy of bran or chaff), so called in al- lusion to its chief object of purifying and win nowing the national tongue. It was founded in 1582 at Florence by the poet Grazzini. The ! dictionary of the Academy della Crusca was first published in 1612, and in its augmented form (Florence, 1729- 38) is considered the standard authority for the Italian language. The Delia Crusca is now incorporated with two still older societies,, and thus united they j are called the royal Florentine academy. The i Academia Secretorum Nature was established ; at Naples in 1560 for the cultivation of physical science, but was speedily abolished. This was succeeded by the Accademia de" 1 Lin ed (of the Lynx-eyed) at Rome, founded by Prince Federico Cesi in 1609, and dissolved af ter his death in 1632; but the name was re vived in 1847 by Pius IX. in the Accademia Pontificia de? nuovi Lincei, a scientific associa tion of resident and foreign members, which publishes its transactions. The Accademia del Cimento, or of experiment, was also insti tuted for the prosecution of inquiries in physical science, under the protection of Prince Leopold, brother of the grand duke of Tus cany. A collection of experiments was pub lished in Italian by this academy in 1667, of which a Latin translation was made with valu able notes. The Accademia degli Arcadi, or of the Arcadians, at Rome, originated in 1690 from the social gatherings at the palace of Queen Christina of Sweden, and met in the open air, poets and poetesses only being ad mitted, and each member assuming the name of a shepherd. Its scope was afterward en larged, and since 1726 it has met in sum mer in the Posco Parrasio of Mount Jani- culurn, in winter in the Serbatojo. It pub lishes a monthly collection of pieces, called the Giornale Arcadico, which frequently contains curious archaeological information. Pope Leo XII. was elected a member in 1824, and Louis Napoleon, then president of the French repub lic, in 1850. At Naples the Reale Accademia delle Scicnze e Belle Lettere was established in 1749, and the Accademia Ercolanea in 1755. The purpose of the latter was to explain the remains which were exhumed at Herculaneum and Pompeii. Its first volume appeared in 1775. Further volumes have since been pub lished under the title of Antichita di Ercolano. Another existing academy is the Accademia Etrusca at Cortona, founded in 1726. The royal academy of Turin, in whose volumes of transactions Lagrange first made himself known, is chiefly remarkable on that account. Padua, Milan, Siena, "Verona, Genoa, all have academies which publish transactions from time to time. The earliest academies of fine arts are also Italian. That of San Luc a at Rome was established in 1593 by Federico Zucchero, who erected a building for it at his own expense. Academies of fine arts also ex ist in the principal cities of Italy. II. French Academies. The earliest and greatest of the French academies, the AcademAe franfaise, was instituted in 1635 by Cardinal Richelieu, for the improvement and regulation of the na tional tongue. The number of its members was limited to 40. They met three times a week at the Louvre. The most remarkable claim of this academy to fame is the dictionary of the French language published in 1694, after 50 years consumed in debate upon the words to be inserted as good French. Many addi tions have been made to this in successive edi tions, the 6th and latest of which was published ACADEMY in 1835. Tliis academy was ridiculed by the French wits on account of its subserviency to the court and its personal jealousies against rising men of genius. Moliere, for instance, was passed over. Boileau and Labruyere were only elected on the absolute command of Louis XIV. The witty Piron wrote his epitaph thus: Ci-frft Piron, qui no ftit rien, Pas rncroe acadcmicieo. The Academic frangaise survived until it was abolished by the republican convention in 1793. The next of the French academies in date is the Academie de peinture et de sculpture, which was founded in 1648, received letters patent from Mazarin in 1055, and was abol ished by the convention in 1793. The Aca demie royale des inscriptions et belles-lettres was instituted by Colbert under the patron age of Louis XIV. in 1 663. At first it was called the Academie des inscriptions et me- dailles, consisted of four members of the Academie francaise, and was charged with drawing up inscriptions for the monuments erected by Louis XIV. and for the medals struck in his honor. It was remodelled and enlarged under its present name in 1701, and temporarily suppressed an 1793. The Acade mie royale des sciences was the last in date. It was organized in 1666 and entirely remod elled in 1699. In 1795 all these academies were revived in a new form by the directory, under the name of Institut national. Napo leon gave it a new organization in 1803, and called it the imperial institute of France. Louis XVIIL, at the restoration, maintained the name Institut de France, but revived the old title academy for the component parts of the institute. The institute consisted then of four academies: 1, V Academie franchise; 2, r Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres; 3, V Academie des sciences; 4, r Academie des beaux arts. A fifth academy, V Academie des sciences morales et politiques, founded in 1795, was suppressed at this time, but re established in 1832. As these five academies are the most important of the kind in the world at present, we add a particular descrip tion of their constitution. The institute num bers 233 fall members, together with 7 secre taries ; each of the members has a yearly sal ary of 1,500 francs, and the secretaries have 6,000 francs each. There arc also 43 honorary academicians, who receive no pay, 32 associates, and 215 correspondents. The five academies bear the same relation to the institute that col leges do to a university. The Academie fran- faise consists of 40 members, elected after per sonal application, and submission of their nomi nation to the head of the state. It meets twice a week, and is the highest authority on every thing appertaining to the niceties of the French language, to grammar, rhetoric, and poetry, and the publication of the French classics. It distributes two annual prizes of 10,000 francs on the foundation of Count de Monthyon, one to the author of the best work on public morals, the other to the individual of the work ing classes who in the course of the year has performed the most virtuous action ; an an nual prize of 2,000 francs on the foundation of Baron Gobert, for the most eloquent work on the history of France ; and every second year a present of 1,500 francs to a poor rising genius who needs encouragement. This last is a bequest of the marquis Maille-Latour Lan- dry. The Academie des inscriptions et belles- lettres consists of 40 members, 10 honor ary academicians, and 8 foreign associates; it has 50 corresponding members at home and abroad. It meets once a week. Its con cern is with general history, the condition of peoples, laws, and manners, religious and philosophical systems ; the study of chro nology and geography, medals, inscriptions, and monuments of all sorts ; and comparative philology, and explanation of ancient docu ments. This academy bestows a yearly prize of 2,000 francs for the best memoir contributed to its transactions, and another yearly prize for numismatics. It superintends the publication of the following works : Memoir e-s de V academic des inscriptions et belles-lettres, the collection of the papers which have been sent to it by learned investigators ; Collection de notices et extraits des manuscrits de la bibliothegue royale et autres bibliotheques publiques ; Memoir es sur les antiquites de la France ; the continua tion of the Histoire litter air e de France begun by the Benedictines of St. Maur; the Collection des Jiistoires de France ; the collection of the Histoires des croisades orientales, grecques et If dines ; edition of the Ordonnances des rois de France, also begun by the Benedictines ; col lection of the charters and documents relating to the history of France, the letters of the kings of France, and the catalogue of the charters. The conduct of the Journal des savants devolves chiefly upon this academy, although every member of all the academies can contribute. The Academie des sciences numbers 63 mem bers, 8 foreign associates, and 100 correspond ing members. It bestows an annual prize of 3,000 francs for productions on natural science; three yearly prizes on Monthyon s foundation, for statistics, mechanics, and experimental physiology; a prize of 10,000 francs, founded by Lalande, for the most important astronom ical discovery or observation, and another by the widow of the astronomer Laplace, for the best scholar of the polytechnic school. Many other rewards are in its gift, for scientific and industrial inventions, discoveries, and improve ments. This academy publishes three series of Memoires, and, what is peculiar, holds its ses sions in public, which are much frequented by the residents of Paris. The Academie des beaux arts consists of 40 members, 10 honor ary academicians, and 10 foreign associates. It meets once a week. It superintends the competitive examinations for the yearly prizes^ in reward of the best achievements in paint- 52 ACADEMY ing, sculpture, architecture, engraving in cop per, and musical composition. It has its memoirs and transactions, and is busied in the discussion of the Dictionnaire general dcs beaux arts. The Academic dcs sciences morales et politiques numbers 50 members, 5 foreign associates, and 40 corresponding members. Its five sections are : philosophy ; moral philoso phy ; legislation, public law, and jurisprudence; political economy and statistics; and general history and philosophy. The whole institute has one regular session in common, on the 2d of May of each year. By an imperial decree of April, 1855, an annual prize of 10,000 francs is placed by the government at the disposal of the institute, for the most useful invention of the last five years. Academies also exist in many of the provincial cities of France, as at Soissons since 1075, Ximes (1082), Angers (1G85), Lyons (1700), Bordeaux (1703), Caen (1705), Marseilles (1726), Rouen (1736), Dijon (1740), Montauban (1744), Amiens (1750), Toulouse (the first volume of whoso transac tions is dated 1782), and so on. There was also at Paris the Academie celtique, founded in 1807, for the elucidation of the history, cus toms, antiquities, manners, and monuments of the Celts, particularly in France; also for phi lological researches by means of the Breton, Welsh, and Erse dialects, and for investigation into Druidism. This is now merged in the Societe des antiquaires de France, and has published several volumes of interesting me moirs. The French Opera is styled the Academie de musique. III. Spanish Academics. A society for the cultivation of physical science, called the Academia Natures Curiosorum, was established at Madrid in 1652, on the model of the Neapolitan Academia Secretorum Natu res, before described. Of those now existing, three are specially noteworthy, viz. : 1. The royal academy at Madrid, founded in 1714, on the model of the Delia Crusca and the Academie francaise. It published the first edition of its dictionary in l726- 39. 2. The royal academy of Spanish history. This com menced as a private association at Madrid, but was taken under royal protection in 1738. 3. The academy of painting and sculpture, at Madrid, dates from 1753. An academy of sciences was founded in 1847. IV. Portn- gnesc Academics. An academy of Portuguese history was established at Lisbon in 1720, by King John V. A still more flourishing though more recent institution is the academy of science, agriculture, arts, commerce, and gen eral economy, founded by Queen Maria in 1779. It is liberally endowed by the state, and is divided into three sections : 1, natural science ; 2, mathematics ; 3, Portuguese litera ture. The geographical academy at Lisbon has published a map of Portugal since the beginning of this century. V. German Acad emics. The royal academy of sciences and belles-lettres at Berlin was founded in 1700, by the elector Frederick, partly on the model of the royal society of England, but not opened till 1711. Leibnitz was its first president. In 1744 Frederick the Great gave it a new organ ization; the king invited to Berlin many dis tinguished foreigners, and placed Maupertuis at the head of the institution. Formerly the transactions were published in French, but since the revolution they have appeared in German. A yearly medal worth 50 Prussian ducats is distributed. The other noteworthy German associations of the kind are the acade mies of Gottingen (founded in 1750), Munich (1759), Leipsic (1846), and Vienna (1846), chiefly devoted to historical studies and gen eral scholarship. Prague, Cracow, and Pesth also possess creditable academies. VI. In Switzerland, there is an academy of medicine at Geneva, founded in 1715. VII. In Belgium, the academy of sciences and belles-lettres at Brussels was founded by Maria Theresa in 1772, suspended during the French revolution, re vived in 1816, and reorganized in 1845 as the Academie royale des sciences, des lettrcs et des leaux arts. VIII. Holland. The Academia, Lugduno-Batava, at Leyden, was founded June 18, 1766, and publishes Annales. The academy of Amsterdam, founded in 1808, was devoted to fine arts only, but was converted in 1852 into an academy of sciences, literature, and fine arts. Rotterdam, Haarlem, Utrecht, and Middelburg have also learned associa tions. IX. Scandinavian Academics. The royal academy of sciences at Stockholm was in stituted by six men of science, among whom was Linnreus. Their first meeting was on June 2, 1739; in that year the first volume of memoirs appeared. On March 31, 1741, they were incorporated under the name of the royal Swedish academy. It is not supported by public patronage like the academies of France, Spain, Italy, and Germany. It has, however, a large fund, the fruit of legacies by private individuals. The transactions are written in the Swedish language, but have also been translated into German. Annual premiums for the encouragement of agriculture and inland trade are distributed by the academy. The prize fund is indebted for its existence to volun tary contributions. Stockholm contains also an academy of belles-lettres, established in 1753 ; and the literary academy of Sweden, founded in 1786, whose object is the cultivation of the national language. There is an academy of northern antiquities at Upsal, whose researches have done much toward elucidating the early condition and creeds of the Gothic race. The royal academy of sciences at Copenhagen owes its origin to six individuals. The count of Hoi- stein was its first president, and the king of Denmark extended to it his patronage in 1743. It has published 15 volumes in the Danish language, which have been in part translated into Latin. The academy of the fine arts was established in 1733 at Stockholm, by the exer tions of Charles Gustavus, count of Tessin; and that of Copenhagen, founded in 1738, ACADEMY 53 was incorporated in 1754. X. Russian Acadc- ! rnics. The imperial academy of sciences at j St. Petersburg was projected by Peter the Great. He took the advice of Wolf and Leib nitz. Learned foreigners were invited to be come members. The death of Peter left the execution of this project to his successor, Catharine I. The academy held its first ses sions in December, 1725. A large annual sum was appropriated for the support of the mem bers. The most distinguished of the professors were Bulfinger, a German naturalist, Nicolas and Daniel Bernoulli, Wolf, and the two De Lisles. " The academy suffered many vicissi tudes until the accession of the empress Eliza beth in 1741, when new life was infused into it. The first transactions of this academy were published in 1728, and entitled Commentarii Academics Scientiarum Imperial-is Petropoli- tance ad Annum 1726, with a dedication to Peter II. Until 1777 the papers were pub lished in the Latin language only ; they are now written sometimes in French and some times in German. Several volumes are published every year. Each professor has a house and an annual stipend of from $1,000 to $3,000. The celebrated mathematician Euler contrib uted largely to the mathematical papers of this body. In 1783 an institution on the model of the Academie francaise was established at St. Petersburg, for the cultivation of the national language, but it was soon amalgamated with the imperial academy. The Academie imperiale des beaux arts of St. Petersburg was founded in 1765 by Catharine II., who endowed it richly. It now sends out pupils to Germany and Italy for education in the fine arts, and supports them during their studies. Mr. Al bert Bierstadt, chosen in 1871, was the first American honorary member of this acad emy. XI. British and Irish Academies. In Britain proper, the term society or association is the designation in use for bodies of learned men united in pursuit of some common object. They will be found enumerated under the head of SOCIETIES. The word academy in Britain is reserved for institutions devoted to the cultiva tion of the fine arts. In Ireland the conti nental name has been adopted. The royal Irish academy, founded in 1782, at Dublin, has published transactions from time to time since 1788. The present royal academy of arts in London originated in a society of painters, who obtained a charter in 1765, under the title of the " Incorporated Society of Artists of Great Britain." This society took a new form in 1768, and became the royal academy of arts. ! It consists of 40 artists, bearing the title of royal academicians, of 18 associates, 6 associate engravers, and 3 or 4 honorary members. There is an annual exhibition of paintings, sculptures, and designs, open to all artists. This exhibition is so well frequented that the royal academy draws almost all its funds from the money paid by the public for tickets of entry. The Edinburgh royal academy of paint ing was founded in 1754. A similar institution, called the royal Hibernian academy, was estab lished in Dublin about 1832. An academy of ancient music was established in London so early as the year 1710; but a disagreement among its members finally broke it up. Soon afterward the royal academy of music was formed for the performance of operas com posed by Handel. Another disagreement broke this up in 1729. The present royal academy of music was established in 1822. It is of great utility as a school of vocal and instrumental music. XII. Turkish Empire. The academy established in 1851 at Constantinople is still feeble. That founded at Alexandria in 1859 has published memoirs and bulletins since 1862. XIII. The principal Australian acad emy is located at Victoria. XIV. Asia. There are learned associations in all the impor tant British colonies of Asia, and an acad emy at Batavia (Java), devoted to sciences. XV. American Academies. In America, as in Britain, the term academy is not generally used for learned societies. The American academy of arts and sciences, at Boston, founded in 1780, has published several volumes of transactions. The Connecticut academy of arts and sciences was founded in 1799. The academy of natural science, at Philadelphia, founded in 1818, is a flourishing institution, and has splendid collections of fossils, stuffed animals, birds, and Dr. Morton s collection of skulls, the finest on the American continent. The national academy of sciences was incor porated by congress March 3, 1863. It is provided that " the academy shall consist of not more than 50 ordinary members, shall have power to make its own organization, in cluding its constitution, by-laws, and rules and regulations ; to provide for the election of for eign and domestic members, the division into classes, and all other matters needful or useful in such institution, and to report the same to congress." Fifty members were named in the original act, a majority of whom met for or ganization in New York, April 22, 1863. The academy receives no support from the govern ment, and, being destitute of funds beyond a legacy left by the late Alexander Dallas Bache, is not in condition to publish its proceedings ; hence the public hear very little of its activity. The Pennsylvania academy of fine arts, estab lished in 1807, holds annual exhibitions at Phil adelphia. The national academy of design, at New York, was founded in 1828^ chiefly by the exertions of Mr. S. F. B. Morse, its first presi dent. It is composed exclusively of artists, has one of the most conspicuous buildings in the city, maintains a flourishing school of design, and has annual exhibitions. The medical acad emy of New York is in a flourishing condition; its meetings are well attended, and attract much public interest. New York, following the -Parisian example, called her principal opera house the academy of music. This spacious building, erected by an incorporated ACADIA AOAPULCO society, and capable of containing 4,500 persons, was opened in the autumn of 1854; it was burned in 1807, and replaced by one of con siderably smaller dimensions. Philadelphia followed with a similar construction for similar purposes ; it was inaugurated as the American academy of music in the winter of 185 6- 7. Other opera houses with the same designation have since been erected in Brooklyn, Chicago (burned in 1871), and other cities. XVI. At Rio Janeiro and in other South American capitals are also academies of learning and of fine arts. ACADIA, or Acadic, the name of the peninsula now called Nova Scotia, from its first settle ment by the French in 1604 till its final cession to the English in 1718. In the original com mission of the king of France, New Brunswick and a part of Maine were included in Cadie, but practically the colony was restricted to the peninsula. The English claimed the territory by right of discovery. In 1621 it was granted by royal charter under the name of Nova Scotia, and its possession was obstinately dis puted. (See NOVA SCOTIA.) The quarrels be tween the two nations were embittered by the desire for exclusive possession of the fisheries. After the final cession the Acadians generally remained in Nova Scotia, though they had the privilege of leaving within two years, and, refusing to take the oath of allegiance, took the oath of fidelity to the British king. They were exempted from bearing arms against their countrymen, whence they were known in the colonies as the neutral French. They were allowed to enjoy their religion, and to have magistrates of their own selection. The French, having lost Acadia, settled the island of Cape Breton and built Louisburg. There they carried on intrigues with the Indians, who kept up an irregular warfare with the English, the blame whereof was thrown upon the neutral French, who in 1755, a few years after the English turned their attention to the colonization of Nova Scotia, suffered for the offences of their countrymen, of which they were doubtless innocent, since they were a simple agricultural people. Because they still refused to take the oath of allegiance, or to bear arms against the French or their Indian allies, to whom they were suspected of lending aid, and because by their peculiar position they embarrassed the local government, it was determined at a consultation of the governor and his council to remove this whole people, 18,000 souls, and disperse them among the other British provinces. For this harsh meas ure itself there may have been some excuse ; for the manner in which it was carried out there was none. The inhabitants were com pelled to give up all their property, their nouses and crops were burned before their eyes, and themselves shipped in such haste that few families or friends remained together. In a few towns the Acadians discovered and escaped the plot, but most of them were scat tered over the continent. ACALEPILE (Gr. aKatyfa nettle), a class of animals living in sea water, some species of which possess the nettle-like property of irri tating and inflaming the skin. The "animals are invertebrate, gelatinous, of circular form, I often shaped like an umbrella, and all included in the division of radiata. (See JELLY FISH.) ACANTHI S. Under this name have been described by the classical writers three differ ent plants: 1. A prickly tree, with smooth evergreen leaves and saffron -colored berries, believed to be the common holly. 2. A prick ly Egyptian tree, with a pod like a bean, sup posed to be the acacia Arabica, or gum arabic tree. 3. An herb with broad prickly leaves, which dies in the winter, but shoots out afresh ! in the spring. The idea of the beautiful Co- j rinthian capitals of the Greek columns is said to have been derived from a basket filled with the roots of this plant, set down carelessly by a girl, and covered with a tile ; when the leaves, forcing their way through the crevices, j and rising toward the light, until met by the under side of the cover, presented the effect of the foliage and volutes simulated by the Grecian chisel. In modern botany acanthus Acanthus mollis. is a genus of herbaceous plants found in the south of Europe, Asia Minor, and India, the commonest species of which is the acanthus mollis, a native of moist, shady places in the south of Europe. It has pretty foliage and large white flowers tinged with pale yellow. This was long supposed to be the classic plant of antiquity ; but it has been shown that it does not exist either in the Peloponnesus or in the isles of Greece, and the honor of having furnished the idea of the Corinthian capital is now attributed to the acanthus spinosus, which has deeply cleft prickly leaves, and flowers tinged with pink instead of yellow. In Eng land they are both half-hardy perennials, need ing protection from frost, and propagated by subdivision of the roots. In America they would probably endure the winter south of Maryland; northward they would be green house plants. The word acanthus also signifies thorn, as in acanihopterygious, thorny-finned, applied to an order of fishes. ACAPULCO, a seaport town of Mexico, on the Pacific, in the state of Guerrero, 180 m. S. by W. of Mexico; lat. 16 50 N., Ion. 99 48 W. ; pop. about 4,000. It has one of the best ACARXAXIA ACCELERATION 55 harbors on the W. coast, and during the Span ish dominion in Mexico was the focus of the trade from China and the East Indies, and a place of considerable importance. It has since relapsed into insignificance, although previous to the opening of the Pacific railroad the Cali fornia trade imbued it with a transitory com mercial life, in consequence of its having been made the coaling station for the steamers be tween Panama and San Francisco. ACAR\A\IA, a province of ancient Greece, bounded X. by the Ambracian gulf and Am- philochia, which is by some included in Acar- nania, E. by JStolia, and S. W. and W. by the Ionian sea. It is mountainous, with nu merous lakes and tracts of pasture, and its hills are still well wooded. Among its earliest inhabitants were Leleges, Curetes, and colo nists from Argos. The Acarnanians were more akin in character and manners to their savage neighbors of Epirus than to the Greeks proper. Up to the time of the Peloponnesian war they were a race of shepherds, continually fighting, but faithful and steadfast. They also figure as pirates. Though possessing several good har bors, the Acarnanians paid little attention to commercial pursuits. At the present day it forms with ^Etolia a nomarchy or province of the kingdom of Greece; area, 3,024 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 121,693. .The country is thin ly inhabited, and little cultivated, notwith standing its fertile soil and treasures of sul phur and coal. Besides the Greek popula tion, there are bands of nomadic Kutzo- \Val- lachs, here called Karagunis (black cloaks), who in the winter descend from the north ern mountains of Agraphi and encamp with their herds at the edge of the woods. They speak a dialect akin to the Latin. Different from them are the nomadic Sarakatzanes, who are of Greek origin. A band of the Karagunis embraces from 50 to 100 families, constituting a stani, and is commanded by the most wealthy member as chief (tcheliiiga), who farms the pastures and fixes the time of departure. They are skilled in making cotton goods. Capital, Missolonghi. ACARUS, the name of a genus of insects, commonly called mites. They belong to the spider family. They are all extremely minute, and mostly microscopic insects. Some are parasitic, as the itch insect, acarus scabiei. The different species infest brown sugars, meal, cheese, &c. To collections of insects and stuffed birds they do much injury. Cam phor tends to keep them off, and corrosive sublimate is a still more effectual protection. (See EPIZOA, and ITCH.) ACASTUS, in mythology, son of Pelias, king of lolcus. lie took part in the Calydonian hunt and the expedition of the Argonauts. He revenged the murder of his father, in which his sisters were the instruments of Medea, by driving Jason and Medea out of lolcus, and instituted funeral games in honor of Pelias. ACCAD, one of the four cities in the " land of Shinar or Babylonia, which, according to Geri. x. 10, were the beginning of Nimrod s king dom. Among other places, it has been iden tified with Nisibis. Rawlinson sees in Accad the name of " the great primitive Hamite race " in Babylonia. ACCELERATION, an increase in velocity of a moving body, either constant and uniform or variable. When the velocity receives equal increments in equal times, it is uniform. This is the case with bodies falling in a vacuum, the increase of which is in every second about 32i feet, but varies with the latitude of the place and the height above the ocean, or the depth under the surface of the earth. As gravitation is the cause of this acceleration, scientists have accepted the letter g for it as a symbol, meaning 31 or 32 or any other number of feet, as the case may be. At the distance of the moon the acceleration is 3,600 times smaller, and g is thus equal to about \ inch ; while at the surface of the sun and large planets it is much greater by reason of the greater attraction of large masses. Acceleration is variable when its velocity increases at one instant in a greater or lesser ratio than in an other. This is the case with a body falling from a great height toward the earth through the air ; the resistance of the latter increasing with the velocity, the ratio of increase must diminish till the accelerating force, that is, gravitation (g\ balances the resistance of the air, wheri the body will continue to fall with uniform motion, which motion may then be come retarded if the body in its downward course enters strata of air of greater density and thus at greater resistance. The motions of the planets, and especially of the comets, in their orbits around the sun, offer other illus trations of variable acceleration. Acceleration of the Moon. Halley noticed that the compar ison of ancient eclipses with modern shows that the moon moves faster now than formerly, and the solution of the problem as to the cause of this acceleration was first given by Laplace, who showed that the slow diminution of the eccentricity of the earth s orbit must produce an acceleration of the moon s motion and a decrease in the period of its revolution. Adams has recently shown that Laplace over estimated the effect of the change of the earth s orbit on the moon by one half, and that his demonstration therefore only accounts for half of the moon s acceleration. The cause of the other half remains to be found out. De- launy ascribes it to a retardation in the earth s motion of rotation by the influence of the tidal wave raised by the moon, and reacting on the latter. The earth s daily rotation, however, ap pears to undergo neither acceleration nor re tardation ; therefore others ascribe it to a resisting medium, filling the interplanetary space and revolving round the sun with the planets, and which thus only can affect their moons, which at every half revolution move ACCEPTANCE in opposite direction to the general motion, and thus having their centrifugal force checked are drawn nearer to the planet, hy which their apparent or angular velocity is increased. Ac celeration of the Stars. The so-called stellar ac celeration is no acceleration in the true sense, but means only the amount that the apparent daily revolution of the stars gains on that of the sun. It is easily calculated by considering the fact that the starry heavens make per year one revolution more than the sun ; therefore the daily gain must be yfa part of 24 hours, which is very near 3 minutes and 56 seconds. ACCEPTANCE, an agreement to pay a bill when due according to the tenor of the obli gation assumed. A bill of exchange or draft is a written instrument by which A requests B to pay C a sum of money at a certain time, un conditionally. A is the drawer, C the payee, and B the drawee ; and if B assents to the re quest, or in other words accepts the bill, he is the acceptor, and his agreement is the accept ance. The bill is usually drawn on the drawee B because he has funds of A in his hands, or is indebted to hjm to the amount covered by the bill. But the bill does not ordinarily of itself work an assignment of the fund or the debt so that C can claim that specifically of B. An order drawn on B for the payment to C of any particular fund amounts to an assignment of that fund, and B is .bound by mere notice of the order to make the payment, and his ac ceptance or assent to the arrangement is not essential. But a bill of exchange is not an as signment of nor an order on any special fund, but is intended to raise a contract by the drawee which he may satisfy out of any money which he has. This contract, however, does not arise, and the drawee owes no duty to the payee of the bill, until he accepts it. It is therefore the duty of the holder to present the bill for acceptance. This is fairly implied from the form of the instrument ; and if the acceptor is not called upon, as the bill directs that he shall be, and then fails, the drawer will be dis charged. In some countries, as for example in France, acceptance must be demanded within limits defined by positive laws. But by our law, Chough there is no fixed time prescribed within which the presentation for acceptance must be made, it ought obviously to be within a reasonable time, considering all the circum stances. What is or is not such a reasonable time is a question of law, and depends, for ex ample, upon the character of the bill, whether payable a certain time after sight, or at a pre cise date, or whether domestic or foreign; upon the place where it is drawn regarded in connection with the place on which it is drawn ; or upon the legitimate commercial ne gotiation or use which may be made of the bill. If the bill is payable at sight, or so many days or months after sight or after demand, the presentation is necessary in order to fix the time of payment, and it ought to be made with diligence ; though if it is payable at a | ! fixed period after its date, or at a day certain, j the holder need not offer it for acceptance until its maturity. Again, what is reasonable time for presentation in the case of a bill drawn in Boston on New York would not be reasonable time in case of one drawn in New York on Calcutta. So delay to present the bill may be excused when an inevitable accident prevents the holder from doing it, such as his illness, or the outbreak of a war which forbids commer cial intercourse. The usual course of negotia tion of the bill may also justifiably delay its presentation for acceptance, so that what would be reasonable time in the case of a ne gotiated bill would be unreasonable in the case of one which had never been yet transferred. The principle of the rules respecting presen tation for acceptance being that the drawer and other parties may be injured by delaying it, an entire, omission to present the bill to the acceptor may be excused when it appears that the drawer had no funds in his hands and had no right to Suppose that he had, or when for any other reason it is certain that the omission was not prejudicial to the drawer or other par ties. In certain cases no acceptance and there fore no presentation is necessary to charge the drawee ; as where a bill is drawn by a person upon himself, or by a partner upon his firm, or by one officer of a corporation on another offi cer of it or on the corporation itself. When the bill is addressed to the drawee at a particular place, the demand for acceptance should be made at that place ; and if the drawee, though not at the very place named, is within the same town, and perhaps within the same state, he should be sought out. But if he never lived in the place named, or has removed to a distant place, especially if it is out of the state, or his house is shut up and no one is there to answer for him, presentation is excused and the bill may be treated as dishonored. When the bill is drawn on a firm, it is enough to pre sent it to one of the partners. If the presen tation is required by the bill to be made at a bank, it must be made within the usual bank hours ; or if at the drawee s place of business, then within the usual hours of business ; but if it is to be made at his home, it may be made within any reasonable hours of the day ; and in all cases the drawee is entitled to have pos session of the bill for a day if he require it, in order to decide, on examining his accounts with the drawer, whether to accept or not. The acceptance may be absolute or qualified or conditional, though the holder is not bound to receive anything but an absolute acceptance. It may be written, or, if no statute interferes, it may be oral. It may be before the drawing of the bill or after it is drawn, or even after its maturity; and it may be by the drawee, or by some one else, for honor of the drawer or other parties to the paper. But the acceptance is usually absolute, in writing, and on the bill itself; and any form is sufficient which in dicates the purpose of the drawee to honor the ACCEPTANCE 57 draft. The usual forms are, "Accepted" or "Honored," or the mere signature of the ac ceptor written across the face of the bill. In New York, by special statute, the holder may require that the acceptance be written on the bill, and a refusal to comply with such request may be regarded as a refusal to accept, and the bill may be protested for non-acceptance. By the same statute, if the drawee receives the bill and then destroys it, or refuses to re turn it within 24 hours, accepted or not ac cepted, he is deemed to have accepted it. This is only a positive enactment of a rule, the principle at least of which is pretty firmly es tablished in the general commercial law. For, though the detention of a bill is not essentially an acceptance of it, yet when it takes place under such circumstances as fairly justify the holder in supposing that an acceptance is in tended,, or if any other construction of the drawee s act would prejudice the holder with out any fault on his part, it is fair enough to fix upon the former the same liability which he would have incurred by an actual accept ance. The acceptance may be qualified or con ditional ; as for a part of the amount which the draft calls for ; or to pay at a different time or place, or in a different manner from that re quired ; or when the drawee is in funds, or when certain goods in h\s hands are sold. If the holder accepts any of these variations from the tenor of the bill, he is bound by them. But, as already said, he cannot safely assent to them if they are at all substantial variations, unless he has the consent of the other parties ; for their liability is founded on the very terms of the instrument, and they are not bound by any new conditions which the acceptor may propose, unless they expressly agree to them. The acceptance need not be in writing unless positive statutes require it. But for the pur pose of preventing the inconveniences which result from an opposite rule, there are in many of the states positive statutes to that effect, and the best illustration of them is furnished by the statute of New York. It is provided there that no person shall be charged as an ac ceptor on a bill unless his acceptance is in writ ing and signed by himself or his lawful agent. But it is also provided for the benefit of a draw er, that this and the other provisions of the act shall not impair any of his rights against a drawee, on the faith of whose promise to accept the bill the drawer drew and negotiated it. By the same statute it is declared, as indeed it is well established by the general commer cial law, that any unconditional promise in writing to accept a bill, though made before it is drawn, amounts to an actual acceptance of the bill in favor of any person who took the bill for valuable consideration on the faith of such promise in writing. Neither of these last rules of the statute, it will be seen, takes away or affects at all a drawer s undoubted right to damages against a drawee for breach of an agreement, made on good consideration with the drawer, to accept his bills. Under the last cited provision of the statute it has been held in New York that an unqualified authority in writing or by telegraph to draw on one is equivalent to his unconditional promise to ac cept the bill drawn ; and that a letter of credit which confers an absolute authority on the holder to draw bills upon the author of the letter is also an unconditional promise in writing to accept the bills drawn, within the same section of the statute; and in both cases the liability is enforced in favor of the persons who took the bills on the faith of the written authority. With the qualification, per haps necessary, that the written promise to accept, or authority to draw be given within a reasonable time before or after the date of the bill, or contemplate or in some way fairly include the bills actually drawn, the rule or principle just stated is the general rule of the law. If the original drawee refuses to accept or cannot be found, and the bill has been duly protested, any other person may accept for honor, or, as it is sometimes said, supnt, pro test. It may be for the honor of the drawer or an indorser, or for the honor of the bill generally ; and if it is intended to be for the benefit of any one especially, the acceptance ought to point him out. It is a conditional agreement by a volunteer to pay the bill at maturity if the original drawee does not. When one has paid a bill for the honor of the drawer, for example, he may recover against him after proving presentation to the original drawee, non-acceptance or non-payment by him, and notice to the drawer; in short, by doing just what the payee must have done to sustain an action. This rule of the commercial law is well established, though it is utterly anomalous, and forms perhaps the only excep tion to the principle that no one can make another his debtor without his consent. The holder of a bill is of course not bound to re ceive such an acceptance ; but if he does, he is bound to conform to the new condition of things, so that in order to hold the acceptor for honor he must call on the original drawee before applying to him ; and if he wishes to hold the drawee or other party, to whose ben efit the acceptance for honor accrues in case of non-payment by the acceptor for honor, he must not only call on the original drawee, but also on the acceptor for honor, protest in both cases, and notify the prior parties. Every ac ceptance admits the signature of the drawer; so that an acceptor is liable to an innocent holder for value even though the drawer s sig nature is forged. So also the acceptor admits the authority of one who has drawn as the agent of another. In case of non-acceptance of a bill, the holder is bound to give notice of the fact to the drawer or iridorsers if he wishes to hold them. Mere failure to notify them will not be fatal to the holder s action against them, if he can show that they have sustained no in jury from his omission; but the presumption 5S ACCESSORY of injury is in their favor, and the burden of proof is on him to overset it. The mere fact that the drawer had no funds in the hands of the drawee is probably not sufficient excuse for failure to give him notice of the dishonor of the paper. Perhaps he ought to have had funds if the drawee had kept his account prop erly, or at all events he may be prejudiced in some way by want of notice, and it is not safe to assume anything 1 against his right to have it, in case of non-acceptance. Foreign bills should be protested in full form. It is cus tomary to protest as to inland bills also, but it is not necessary, unless positive statutes re quire it. Indeed, where they do not require or authorize it, protest of inland bills is an empty form, of no use whatever. ACCESSORY, properly, with reference to a felony, one who takes part in the act, but not such part as to be a principal. The law rec ognizes no accessory in treason, the highest of crimes, nor in misdemeanors, the lowest class of offences; in the former case, because the crime is so great that it will hold all partici pants equally guilty ; and in the latter case, because the crime is comparatively so small that it will not trouble itself to distinguish be tween the degrees of guilt. In offences of these degrees all are principals. Accessories are familiarly designated as those before the fact and those after the fact. An accessory before the fact is one who participates in the very criminal act of the principal; but an ac cessory after the fact is guilty of a crime of his own, which is independent of that of the principal, and in which the latter properly has no share. To call him an accessory, therefore, is not quite accurate ; at least the word has not the same propriety of meaning that it has when applied to the accessory before the fact. But the description is fixed in the law and cannot be disturbed. When a crime is com mitted, he who actually does the specified act is the principal, and, as it is said sometimes, lie is the principal in the first degree ; and he who is present, and aids and abets the princi pal in doing the act, is called the principal in the second degree. But he who, though not present at the commission of the act of the principal, yet commands, counsels, or pro cures it to be done by him, is an accessory before the fact. Here absence is essential; for the same act of instigation and procure ment, if done in the presence of the actual offender, and at his perpetration of the of fence, would make the participant a principal. Thus in the case of a murder, those who are present, and intelligently aid and abet the killing, are all principals. But if two men meet in the presence of others and fall to blows, and either have a deliberate, malicious intent to kill the other, but the by-standers, being ignorant of this, aid and abet the fight ing merely, they are not guilty of murder if one be killed. But again, as to presence, there may be a constructive presence as well as an actual presence ; so that mere physical ab- ! sence from the scene of the offence will riot ne- : cessarily save the participant from the guilt of I a principal and make him a mere accessory. | Thus he is a principal who conspires with" a murderer for the doing of the act, but stands i at a distance and is absent from it in order to I watch against surprise or discovery, or to pre vent the escape of the victim. But if A sim ply command B to beat C, and he does beat l him so that he dies, B is the principal in the murder and A is the accessory before the fact. If A, however, command B to commit a cer tain crime, and B, of his own will and design, commit a different one, A is riot an accessory to the offence committed, because he is not guilty of setting in motion the criminal intent which executed the act. But it will be other wise if B, in attempting to execute A s design, execute it on the wrong person ; for in that case A is guilty of setting in motion the very criminal intent which resulted in the crime actually committed. In an old phrase of the law the accessory is said to attend and follow the principal, as the shadow does the sub stance; and at common law, and where no statutes have intervened to change the rules on this subject, the accessory cannot be guilty of any other, and at all events of no higher of fence than his principal ; nor is he guilty at all if his principal is not guilty ; if the prin cipal is acquitted, so is the accessory ; he can not be convicted, except jointly with the prin cipal, or after his conviction; and formerly, and until a remedial statute to the contrary, if after conviction of the principal sentence upon him was stayed for any reason, the accessory could not be held. But recent statutes in England and in almost all of the United States have very materially changed the law in these respects. For example, the statutes of Massa chusetts and New York provide that any per son who, by counselling, hiring, or otherwise procuring the commission of a felony, becomes an accessory before the fact, shall be punished in the same manner as the principal felon. In New York it is also provided that the accessory before or after the fact may be in dicted, tried, convicted, and punished, not withstanding that the principal felon has been pardoned or otherwise discharged before con viction ; and in Massachusetts, if for any rea son the principal is not amenable to justice. In that state, too, the aider and abettor, who at common law would have been but a mere accessory, may be indicted and convicted of a substantive felony, without any regard to the indictment or conviction of the principal. There are similar statutory provisions in Penn sylvania; and, indeed, proba-bly all the states have statutes of the same character. An ac cessory after the fact is one who, knowing the guilt of the felon, whether principal or acces sory before the fact, receives or assists him, but, it should probably be added, with intent to hinder his trial, conviction, or punishment ; ACCLIMATION 59 as, for example, by concealing him or shutting out the officers of the law, or resisting them, or attempting to take him or rescuing him from their custody, or providing him with money or other means of flight, or bribing a jailer to permit his escape from prison. But merely suffering the felon to escape, or simply ministering to his physical necessities, will not make one an accessory after the fact. At common law the guilt of assisting the felon in these unlawful ways was not excused even to those of his own family, so that a father might not thus protect his son, nor the son ins father, nor a brother his brother, nor a hus band his wife. The single exception was in ! favor of the wife who sought thus to save ; her husband, and probably this was on the ground, in part at least, that she was supposed to be under the control of her husband, and to have no choice to do otherwise. But in J this respect the modern statutory law has in- ! terposed benignantly. In Massachusetts, for j example, it exempts those who stand in the re- ] lation of parent or grandparent, child or grand- child, brother or sister to the offender; and there are similar statutes in other states. ACCLDIATIOA, or Acclimatization, the pro cess by which an individual or a species, on | being removed to a different climate, becomes ; modified in constitution and adapted to the changed conditions. The two words, how- i ever, are not strictly synonymous. Acclima- | tion is generally used in speaking of particular ! individuals, and more especially of those be longing to the human species, and refers to ; the alterations which the system undergoes , spontaneously in a foreign climate, by which ; it at last becomes no longer subject to the \ maladies peculiar to new-comers. Acclimati zation, on the contrary, expresses the artificial care by which man succeeds in naturalizing, : under his own supervision, a species of animals ; or vegetables of exotic origin. Acclimation, i Man inhabits all the zones and nearly every i region of the earth, and has been enabled in i repeated migrations to change the place of | his habitation and to occupy new countries, j The human species is therefore regarded as i cosmopolitan ; and yet two facts are impor- I tant to notice in this respect : First, most of the j great migrations, historic or traditional, have j been made in the direction of longitude and I not in that of latitude ; the migrating tribes I instinctively or intentionally keeping nearly ! within the same parallels of latitude, and con- i sequently not suffering very great alterations ! of temperature, nor meeting in their new j homes with a flora and fauna very dissimilar | to those of their native country. Secondly, at I the present day, although an individual may migrate either westward or eastward, as a gen eral rule, without suffering from the chanee, a removal into a different latitude is almost al ways accompanied with peculiar dangers dur- I ing the first few years of his residence in the | new locality. The most marked instance of ! this kind is when a person from the temperate zone visits for the first time a tropical or sub tropical region. The dangers that first beset him are fevers, which are so marked in type and so ready to attack newly arrived immigrants, that they are sometimes called the a strangers fever. "" The yellow fever of the West Indies and the southern United States, and the coast fever of western Africa, are well known examples of these aifections. They are not absolutely re stricted to new-comers, the natives being also subject to them ; but the recent immigrant is so much more likely to be affected, and is attacked by the disease in so much larger proportion, it is evident that his system has in it something which offers a peculiar attraction for the fe brile poison, and which does not exist, at least to the same extent, in that of the native or the old resident. After passing through a period of general ill health and debility, extending over some years, and perhaps one or more severe at tacks of illness, the immigrant approximates in his appearance and habit of body to the older denizens of the place, and is no longer peculiar ly liable to the disorders which affected him on his arrival. He is then said to be acclimated. No doubt, part of the immunity enjoyed by old settlers in a tropical or sub-tropical cli mate is due to the fact that they have learned prudence in regard to exposure, and have come to regulate habitually their mode of life to cor respond with the climate of the country. Re cent immigrants often neglect these essential precautions, because they have not found them necessary in a temperate climate ; and it is only after repeated experience of their value that they come to adopt them habitually and as a constant protection. Acclimatization. Many of the useful animals and plants have been successfully transferred from their original lo cality and made to thrive in new and unaccus tomed places. The horse, the ass, the ox, the sheep, the goat, and the cat have accompanied man nearly everywhere within the temperate and tropical regions, and the dog is his com panion even within the arctic circle. This fact has given rise to the hope that acclimati zation might be successfully extended to still other species, and the societe (Facclimata- tion at Paris has been established with a view of experimental investigation in this di rection. Their endeavors have in many in stances proved successful, at least in so far that tropical animals are found, when well cared for, to support the cold of a European winter without injury or even inconvenience. The zebra from Africa may be seen quietly resting upon the snow, and the tapir from Guiana swimming for his amusement in the stream which runs through his enclosure, when the temperature of the water is hardly above the freezing point. This, however, by no means indicates a completely successful ac climatization. It is successful so far as the individual is concerned; but acclimatization means the survival and prosperity of the spe- GO ACCOLTI ACCUSATION cies. In order to secure this result, the ani mals which have been imported must them selves thrive and reach their usual term of existence, and produce offspring; the parent must willingly take the natural care of her young; the young animals must themselves have sufficient vigor to arrive at maturity and again reproduce their kind. Either one of these conditions may fail, and in certain in stances have done so, notwithstanding that all the preceding ones had fully succeeded. Finally, in order that acclimatization may be in any case practically useful, the animals of the naturalized species must, in addition, be able in their new habitation to bear the labors or produce the material for the sake of which man has taken them under his care. Plants may be acclimatized to a certain extent, and if slowly accustomed to a change of climate, and well cared for, they will in their offspring undergo changes which will fit them for the new conditions under which they live. Ex periments in this direction have in some in stances met with unexpected success ; and on the ground of this, societies have been formed in some of the principal European cities to accomplish the acclimatization of sub-tropical and some tropical plants to their latitude, and also of those belonging to colder regions. ACCOLTI, Benedetto, an Italian lawyer, born at Arezzo in 1415, died in 1466. He became secretary of the Florentine republic in 1459. He is said to have had so fine a memory that, having heard an ambassador of Hungary de liver a Latin speech before the senate of Flor ence, he repeated it afterward, word for word. He wrote a work on the first crusade, from which Tasso drew the materials for his Geru- salemme liberata. ACCOMACK, an E. county of Virginia, border ing on Maryland, and forming with Northamp ton county, from which it was set off in 1672, the peninsula on the E. side of Chesapeake bay ; area, 480 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 20,409, of whom 7,842 were colored. The surface is level and the soil light and moderately fertile. In 1870 the productions were 530,560 bushels of corn, 336,860 of oats, 97,730 of Irish and 212,507 of sweet potatoes, 7,991 Ibs. of wool, and 40,284 of butter. Capital, Accomack Court House, or Drumrnond Town. ACCORDION, a musical instrument, invented by Damian at Vienna in 1829, the sounds of which are produced by the action of the wind from bellows upon metallic reeds. It is played altogether by the hands, in which it is held. ACC11A, a country in western Africa, on the Gold Coast, over which England and Denmark exercise jurisdiction. The British division consists of Fort St. James, in lat. 5 32 N., Ion. 12 W., and a very small terri tory, with a negro population of about 3,000. Crevecoeur, situated about one mile E. of Fort St. James, is an ancient Dutch settlement, which was destroyed by the English in 1782, partially rebuilt in 1839, an*d ceded to Eng land in 1872. Accra is said to be one of the most salubrious localities on the coast. ACCRIKGTON, a town of Lancashire, Eng land, 19 m. N. of Manchester, divided into Old and New, the latter the larger and of recent growth; pop. in 1861, 19,688; in 1851, 9,747. It is situated in a deep valley, is the centre of the Manchester cotton-printing business, and has besides several cotton factories, dyeing, bleaching, and chemical works, and coal mines. The streets are well paved and lighted. ACCCBATION, a table posture, between sit ting and lying, invented by the Greeks and adopted by the Romans and Jews. About the low dining table were placed two or three long couches, furnished with more or less Accubation. sumptuous draperies, on each of which lay usu ally three persons, on their left side, resting either their heads or elbows upon pillows, the feet of the first being behind the back of the seccnd, and those of the second behind that of the third. The middle place was considered the most honorable. Though this posture was at first considered immodest for Roman ladies, they soon indulged in it ; but it was never per mitted to children or persons of mean condition. ACCUM ACETIC ACID 61 ACCUM, Friedrich, a German chemist, born in Biickeburg, March 29, 1709, died in Berlin, June 28, 1838. In 1793 he went to London, where he was appointed in 1801 professor of chemistry and mineralogy in the Surrey insti tute. Being accused of purloining books and engravings from the library of the royal insti tution, he returned to Germany, and in 1822 was appointed professor in the school of indus try and the academy of architecture in Berlin. He is known in connection with the introduc tion of gas lights in London. He wrote "A System of Chemistry " (2 vols., London, 1803), "A Practical Treatise on Gas Lights" (1815), and "On the Adulteration of Food." ACELDAMA (Chaldaic, hakal dema, field of blood), the name given to the potter s field which was purchased with the money for which Judas betrayed Christ. It was after ward used as a place of burial for strangers. ACEPHALOCYST (Gr. a privative, Keya^Ji, head, and KvoTtc, bladder; literally, a cyst without a head), a vesicular or hydatid growth, some times found in the substance of the liver, kid ney, or other of the abdominal organs, in man and some of the lower animals. It is a globu lar bag or sac, having its walls composed of a condensed albuminous substance, of a lami nated texture, and containing in its cavity a clear, colorless fluid, with albuminous or gelat inous ingredients. The main cyst produces smaller secondary cysts by a process of bud ding or outgrowth from its walls, and these secondary cysts are sometimes very numerous. They are developed between the layers of the principal cyst wall, and project sometimes in ternally and sometimes externally. Those species in which the young cysts project in ternally, and are thrown off into the central cavity, are called endogenous, and are found principally in the human subject; those in which they project externally are called ex ogenous, and are found in the ox and other ruminating animals. Acephalocysts are usu ally regarded as of a parasitic nature, and be longing to the class of cestoid worms, of which the ordinary tapeworm is the familiar repre sentative. The embryo of these cestoid worms presents at one period a globular body armed with six calcareous hooks, which afterward becomes developed into a tapeworm head, enclosed in an inverted globular membrane. When one of these partially developed tape worm heads is found by itself, surrounded by a cyst and imbedded in one of the internal organs, it is called a cysticercus. When the principal cyst enlarges and throws off a number of secondary cysts containing tapeworm heads, it is called an ecliinococcm. The acephalocyst is believed to be a growth having the same ori gin as the above, but in which for some reason the tapeworm heads either have not been de veloped at all, or have become disintegrated and disappeared. Hence its name, indicating the absence of the head, which, if present, would be decisive proof of its parasitic origin. ACETATES, compounds of which acetic acid is one of the principal constituents. They are generally soluble in water and alcohol, and some of them are deliquescent ; those that aro least soluble are acetates of mercury, silver, molybdenum, and tungsten. There are three classes of salts, neutral, acid, and basic, all of them destroyed at a red heat or by sulphuric acid, which latter liberates acetic acid, easily recognized by its pungent odor. Heated with a mixture of sulphuric acid and alcohol, they give rise to acetic ether ; with lime they fur nish acetone, which has a peculiar character istic odor; and distilled with caustic potash, they ( yield marsh gas. Their solutions yield a deep yellow color with ferric chloride (ses- quichloride of iron), not given by free acetic acid. There are numerous acetates, some largely used in medicine and others in the arts. Among the former may be mentioned the fol lowing: p.otassic acetate, employed as a diu retic ; ammoniac acetate, used as a diaphoretic ; plumbic acetate (sugar of lead), used as an astringent. Of the acetates employed in the arts the most important are : acetates of alumina, manganese, iron, and zinc, largely used as mordants in calico printing; acetate of copper, verdigris, and a mixture of acetate and arsenite of copper called Schweinfurt green, employed in paints and for wall paper ; acetate of lime, prepared as a crude material in the manufacture of acetic acid from the distilla tion of wood. Many modern chemists divide the acetates into tAvo classes: 1. Metallic ace tates, in which the basic hydrogen of the acetic acid is replaced by a metal or group ; 2. Acetic ethers or organic acetates, in which the hydrogen is replaced by an alcoholic radical. ACETIC ACID (Lat. acetum, vinegar, of which it constitutes about 6 per cent.) has been known in a dilute form from the remotest antiquity. It can be prepared in two conditions: acetic anhydride, or anhydrous acetic acid, and acetic acid. Anhydrous acetic acid, as obtained by Gerhardt, is a colorless, very mobile liquid, of high refracting power, having a very pungent smell and emitting a vapor which is extremely irritating to the eyes. It gradually absorbs moisture from the air, and becomes converted into the common acid. Acetic acid can be made in a great number of ways : by treating aldehyde, alcohol, and ethylic ethers with oxi dizing agents ; by fusing sugar, starch, oxalic acid, tartaric acid, or citric acid with potash ; by submitting wood, sugar, and gums to dry distillation ; by distilling gelatine, caseine, or fibrine with a mixture of sulphuric acid and manganese dioxide. It has been made syn thetically by "Wanklyn, by passing a current of carbonic acid into a solution of sodium methyl, and appears to exist ready formed in the juices of certain plants, such as tbe sap of the oak, and in some animal fluids. The pro- duet of the fermentation of wine and other spirituous liquids is vinegar, formed essentially of acetic acid diluted with water. (See VINE- ACETIC ACID ACILEAN LEAGUE GAR.) The acetic acid employed in commerce is chiefly derived from the dry distillation of wood. The process, as described by the late William Allen Miller, is substantially as fol lows : Harder kinds of wood, particularly the oak, beech, birch, and ash, are subjected to destructive distillation in iron retorts by means of a heat gradually raised to low redness. The wood is usually placed in these retorts in loose iron cases, by which means the charge can be rapidly introduced without loss while the re tort is still hot, and the charcoal can be with drawn when the distillation is complete. The quantity of acid obtained varies from 1 to 3|- per cent,, and in the crude state is called pyro- ligneons acid, in allusion to the mode of its formation (Gr. irvp, fire, and Lat. lignum, wood). During the operation a large quan tity of tarry matter comes over, accompanied also by volatile and inflammable bodies, among which wood spirit, methyl acetate, and acetone predominate. These bodies are condensed in suitable receivers, while, in addition to car bonic anhydride, a considerable quantity of combustible gases, composed chiefly of hydro gen and carbonic oxide, is directed into the furnace, where they serve as fuel, and aid in heating the retorts. In about 24 hours, or as soon as the gases cease to escape, the loose iron cylinders containing the wood are with drawn, and immediately closed with an air tight cover, so as to allow the charcoal to cool excluded from the atmosphere. The crude acid liquid which has been collected in the condenser is decanted from the tar, and, when submitted to distillation, furnishes wood naph tha, which constitutes the more volatile por tions; afterward the acetic acid is collected. The latter, h owever, is always accompanied by tarry matters. In order to get rid of these, the liquid is neutralized by the addition of the milk of lime or of sodic carbonate ; a quantity of tar rises to the surface of the liquid on standing ; this is skimmed off, and the solution of crude acid thus obtained is evaporated, and the dry residue, if the sodium salt be used, cautiously roasted at a temperature of about 500 F. (260 C.) to expel the tarry matters. It is afterward redissolved in water, decanted from the carbonaceous particles, which are allowed to subside, then recrystallized, and submitted to distillation with sulphuric or with hydrochloric acid, the sulphuric being prefer able when sodic acetate is employed, while hy drochloric acid answers best when calcic ace tate is used. Properties of Acetic Acid. Nor mal acetic acid, C 2 H 4 0. 2 , is liquid at temper atures above 62-6 F. (17 C.) ; below this point it crystallizes in radiating tufts of plates, and is called glacial acetic acid. The concentrated acid has a sharp aromatic taste and a peculiar pungent odor ; it blisters the skin if applied to it for a sufficient length of time. It boils at 242 F. (117 C.),_ and may he distilled un changed. Its maximum density is 1 073, cor responding to a mixture of 77 2 per cent, acid and 22-8 per cent, water. The vapor of acetic acid is inflammable, burning with a blue flame and producing by its combustion water and carbonic acid. ACETYLENE, a transparent colorless gas, of a peculiar disagreeable odor, perceptible when coal gas is imperfectly burned in the air. It burns with a bright smoky flame. Berthelot formed it by transmitting olefiant gas or marsh gas through red-hot tubes. When copper ser vice pipes are used for distributing coal gas, a dark-red copper compound is sometimes de posited which detonates powerfully on the ap plication of heat or on receiving a sudden blow. Some serious cases of explosions in New York, where the pipes were undergoing repairs, were traced by Dr. John Torrey to this cause. When mixed with chlorine, acetylene explodes spon taneously ; it has not yet been liquefied by cold or pressure. ACH.EAN LEAGUE. The inhabitants of Achai a were a very inconsiderable member of the Hellenic family until about 251 B. C. They formed 12 separate self-governing communi ties, united together only by the religious bond of a common temple, common festivals, j and common ancestry. In the repulse of the i Persian invaders, in the Peloponnesian war, j and in the resistance to Macedonian conquest, i they took little part ; and it was not until j Athens, Thebes, and Laceda3inon had been I subdued or humbled by Macedonian suprem- ; acy, that the insignificant Achaeans became illustrious. WTien the Macedonian monarchy I was reeling beneath the invasion of the Gauls, I four Achaean towns formed a league for mutual I protection in 281. Soon afterward ^Egium I ejected its garrison, and some others forced I their tyrants, who governed in the Macedonian i interest, to lay down their authority. In 251 Aratus, the Sicyonian, brought round his native town to the Achaean league, and got himself elected head of the confederacy. Corinth was I freed from its garrison in 243 by the aid of the i league, and was admitted a member. Megara, Epidaurus, Troezen, and the Arcadian cities joined soon after. In 208 Philipoemen, of Megalopolis, succeeded Aratus as general of the league. At this time, and especially after the total defeat of the Macedonian monarch at Cynoscephalae, it was the only powerful state left in Greece, and the only possible bulwark against Eoman power. When Sparta joined I the league in 191 it included almost all the i cities of the Peloponnesus, together with i Athens, and several cities of northern Greece. For 50 years the Achaean confederation main tained the cause of Hellenic independence, and delayed the day of submission to Rome. (See GEEECE.) At last the Roman senate succeeded ! in getting grounds of quarrel with the league, and sent Mummius over to complete the sub jugation of Hellas. This was done in 146 by the defeat of Diseus, the general of the con federates, before the walls of Corinth. All Greece was then made into a Roman province, ACILEAXS ACIIEEX 63 under the name of Achaia. The Achaean league is the best example of the federative system bequeathed to the world by the Greeks. Each state or citv, whether large or small, had but one vote, and retained its power of inter nal legislation, as well as its separate coins, weights, and measures, though the federal | government had also its coins, weights, and measures, which were uniform. The right of intermarriage without loss of the children s : citizenship, and the right of holding property and of importing and exporting on favorable terms, existed between the several cities of the federation, until taken away by the Romans, by way of punishment for resistance to their I policy. The general assembly was held twice : a year, but extraordinary assemblies w r ere sometimes called. At the spring meeting the strategus or Commander-in-chief, the hippar- ( chus or master of the horse, and ten other functionaries called demiurgi, were elected. \ Although every citizen who could afford it- might attend these assemblies, all the citizens of any one city could only throw one vote, a i fact which made the larger cities, such as Corinth, discontented. Such a confederation in the age of Philip would probably have pre- i vented the Macedonian conquest. ACH/EAXS, in ancient history, the name of one of the main divisions of the Hellenic race. Originally they dwelt in Thessaly, whence they migrated to the Peloponnesus, of which they were the ruling nation in the heroic period. | Their name is therefore mentioned in the Iliad as a generic term for the Greeks. The well- j greaved Achseans, the long-haired Achasans, are terms employed to designate the whole Hellenic host before Troy. Their mythological \ ancestor was Achaeus, son of Xuthus, and grandson of Ilellen. ACH.EMENES. I. The ancestor and founder of the Achaemenidae, the noblest family of the Pasargadne, and from the time of Cyrus (third in descent from him, according to Herodotus) ; the royal family of Persia. In Latin poetry, Achcemenius is often used as a svnonyme for Persicus, Persian. II. Son of Darius I., and brother of Xerxes, was made by the latter satrap of Egypt in 484 B. C., and accompanied , him in his expedition against Greece in 480, when he commanded the Egyptian fleet. He fell in Egypt in 460, in an unsuccessful attempt to quell the revolt of Inarus, a Libyan chief. ACHAIA, one of the ancient divisions of the Peloponnesus, extending along the coast of the gulf of Corinth; greatest length from E. to W. about 65 m. ; breadth, 12 to 20 m. . Patras, for- j merly Patrae, is the only Achaean town that lias ; preserved any importance. The country was originally called JEgialea, that is, the coastland, and inhabited by lonians, who were dispos sessed by the Achaeans on the conquest of the Peloponnesus by the Dorians. After the Roman conquest of Greece and Macedonia, the province of Achaia included all Peloponnesus, with X. Greece S. of Thessaly. In the present kingdom of Greece it forms a nomarchy or province with Elis; area, 3,090 sq. m. ; pop. in 18YO, 140,561. Capital, Patras. (See AOII.I:- AN LEAGUE, and ACII.EAXS.) A(IIAIll), Franz Karl, a Prussian natural phi losopher and chemist, born in Berlin, April 28, 1753, died April 20, 1821. He devoted himself to the development of the beet sugar manufac ture, repeating and improving upon the experi ments of Marggraf. The results of his investi gations were published in 1799 and 1800, but found neither encouragement nor imitation, upon which account the king of Prussia pre sented him with a farm in Silesia where he could continue his studies. In connection with Neubeck, he spent six years of laborious endea vor before he discovered the true method of making the sugar. AHARD, Louis Amedee Eugene, a French novelist, born at Marseilles in April, 1814. The first part of his life was employed in com merce and provincial administration, and he afterward became a journalist in Paris. In 1846 he accompanied the duke of Montpensier to Spain as a reporter. In 1847 he published Belle-Rose, a successful novel (5 vols. 8vo.), since which he has produced many others, besides a number of plays. ACHATES. I. The companion of u^Eneas in his flight from Troy, and in his subsequent wanderings, according to the account given by Virgil. He is always termed fidus Achates (the faithful Achates), whence the phrase has passed into a proverb, applied to any faithful confidant in a subordinate position. II. In ancient geography, a river in the south of Sicily, between Camarina and Gela, now called Dirillo. According to Pliny, it was the place where the first agate was found ; hence the derivation of the word agate. ACHEEN, an independent sovereignty, com prising the N. "W. portion of Sumatra ; area, 25,500 sq. m. As early as 1509 the Portuguese visited this country, and in 1602 the English, in order to obtain a continuous supply of pep per, entered into a commercial treaty with the king. The East India company in 1659 estab lished a factory at the capital ; but it was eventually removed to Bencoolen, on the S. coast of Sumatra. Sir Stamford Raffles in 1819 secured to the East India company and the British government, by treaty, the right of freely trading to all the ports of Acheen. The government of Acheen is an hereditary monarchy, the power of the king or sultan being limited only by the power of his greater vassals. The kingdom is divided into 190 small districts. This part of Sumatra is com paratively healthy, but the interior is almost entirely unknown. The people are taller, stouter, and darker than the other Sumatrans. They are strict Mohammedans, and write in Malay characters. They manufacture a few silk goods, and a good deal of thick cotton cloth and striped and checkered stuffs. Acheen, the capital, stands about a league ACHELOUS ACHILLES from the sea, on a river that empties at Acheen head, the extreme N. W. point of Su matra. The roadstead is good, being safely sheltered by several small islands. A bar at the mouth of the river prevents all but vessels of three or four feet draught from entering it. Most of the houses are built of bamboos and rough timber raised on piles, to escape inunda tion. The city contains many line buildings, among which are numerous mosques and other public edifices, and the fortified palace of the king. It had formerly about 86,000 in habitants, but is now on the decline. ACHELOUS (now Aspropotamo}, a river of Greece, which rises in Mount Pindus, flows S., separates /Etolia from Acarnania, and falls into the Ionian sea, Homer calls it the "king of rivers." It is the largest stream in Greece, its length being 130 miles. ACIIEi\BACEI. I. Andreas, a German land scape painter, born in Cassel, Sept. 29, 1815. He studied at Dusseldorf, under Schirrner and Schadow, and at the age of 18 produced land scapes of merit. He afterward travelled over many parts of Europe in search of subjects, and took particular delight in reproducing the scenery of Norway, the Alps, and the Tyrol. His Italian landscapes are also impressed with a fine feeling for the picturesque. As a painter of the grand and savage aspects of nature, he holds a high rank. His works are widety scattered over Europe, and a number are owned in the United States. II. Oswald, brother of the preceding, also a painter of the Dusseldorf school, born in that city, Feb. 2, 1827. Since 1803 he has been professor of landscape painting at the Dusseldorf academy. His best pictures are of Italian scenery. His " Funeral of Palestrina " was rewarded with a medal at the Paris exposition of 1861. ACHERON, in antiquity, the name of several rivers, all believed to be connected with the lower world. I. A river in Epirus, which flowed through Acherusia lake into the Ionian sea. II. A river in El is, an affluent of the Alpheus. III. A river in Bruttium, S. Italy. IV. The river of the lower world, around which the shades were believed to hover. The name was also used for the lower world in general. ACHERUSIA, in antiquity, the name of several lakes believed to be connected with the lower world. The principal ones were those in Epi rus and Campania, the latter between Cumse and Cape Misenum. Acherusia was also the name of a chasm in Bithynia, into which Her cules descended to bring up Cerberus. ACIIERY, Doin Jean Lnc d , a French savant, born in 1609, died April 24, 1685. He was a Benedictine monk, librarian of the abbey of St. Germain des Pres at Paris, and devoted his life chiefly to collecting and editing documents relating to mediaeval ecclesiastical history. His principal work was Veterum aliquot Scripto- rum qui in Gallim Biltlwthecis maxime Bene- dictinorum latuerant Spicilegium (13 vols. 4to, 1655- 77; afterward reedited by Barre, 3 vols. fol., 1723). He also assisted in the Acta Sanctorum Ordinis S. Benedicti (9 vols. fol.). ACHILLES, properly Achilleus, the hero of the Iliad, was the son of Peleus, king of the Myr midons in Phthiotis in Thessaly, grandson of ^Eacus, and thus third in descent from Zeus. His mother was the sea goddess Thetis, daughter of Nereus ; hence he is often called Pelides, Pelei ades, and ./Eacides. The story of his early life is told in different ways. One account is, that his mother, foreseeing his early death, endeavored to save him by dipping him in the river Styx, whose waters had the prop erty of rendering the human frame invulner able. The heel by which she held the babe was not wetted, and remained the sole vulner able point of the hero. He was educated by Phoenix, who taught him war and eloquence, and by Chiron the centaur, who taught him the healing art. To keep him out of danger, Thetis disguised him as a maiden, and sent him to the court of Lycomedes, king of Scyros. Here his real character was soon discovered by the birth of a son to him, named Neoptolemus or Pyrrhus, by Deidamia, the daughter of Lycomedes. The prophecy was that Troy would never be taken in the absence of Achilles, and the crafty Ulysses was sent to discover him. Disguised as a peddler, he offered the Scyrian maidens female trinkets and wea pons of war ; all of them chose ornaments, but the disguised hero clutched the sword and shield. He went to Troy, accompanied by his tutor Phoenix and his friend Patroclus, and at the head of his Myrmidons, in 50 ships of war. Previous to his dispute with Agamemnon he ravaged the country round Troy, and took and destroyed 12 towns on the coast and 11 in the interior. Brisei s was his favorite female slave and concubine, whom he had captured at the sack of Lyrnessus. The commander-in-chief, Agamemnon, claimed her as indemnity for his slave Chrysei s. Achilles obeys on the entreaty of Minerva, but retires to his tent in wrath and resentment, refusing to take further part in the campaign. The Greeks suffer a myriad of woes in his absence, but no calamity will change his decision. At last his bosom friend Patroclus gains his permission to put on the armor of Achilles, and show himself to the Trojans. Believing that Achilles has come, they flee in panic. Patroclus presses on, and is slain by Hector. Then Achilles, in the desire to avenge his friend, reconciles himself with Agamemnon, receives Brisei s again, gets a new suit of armor from Vulcan, including the far-famed shield, which is brought to him by his mother, and rushes into the fight. He slaughters a great number of Trojans, contends with the river god Xanthus, whose course he has heaped with corpses and defiled with blood, and drives all the Trojans within the walls of their city. Hector alone dares to withstand his course. Achilles chases him three times around the walls of Troy, slays him, and, tying the body to his chariot, drags it into the camp of the ACHILLES TATIUS ACHROMATIC LENS C5 Greeks. He institutes games in honor of his friend, and slays 12 captive Trojan youths on the funeral pyre, to satisfy the manes of Patro- clus. Priam, led by Mercury, penetrates to his tent, and prevails upon him to allow the body of Hector to be ransomed. We hear no more of Achilles in the Iliad. The accounts of his death are various. One represents him as falling by the arrow of Paris, directed by Apollo at the vulnerable heel, when he was in the temple of that god, about to espouse at the altar Polyxena, the daughter of Priam. His remains were collected in a golden urn, and a cenotaph was erected to him on the promontory of Sigeum. This monument was always an object of veneration to the Greeks ; Alexander the Great performed a pilgrimage to it, and ran naked three times around it. ACIIILLES TATIUS. I. A Greek astronomer, supposed to have flourished in the 4th century of our era 1 , and to be the author of a treatise on the sphere, a fragment of which is extant. II. A native of Alexandria, who wrote a Greek romance entitled " The Story of Leucippe and Clitophon," which has come down to us. He probably wrote near the close of the 5th cen tury. By some biographers these two writers are considered identical. ACHMET. See AHMED. ACHMIM. See EKHMIN. ACHROMATIC LENS (Gr. a, without, and ^pwua, color). When light is refracted by any transparent medium, dispersion always takes place ; that is, the rays of different color con tained in white light are not equally refracted or deviated from their path. It would seem that the amount of this dispersion must always be proportional to the amount of refraction, but experiments have shown that diverse refracting substances differ considerably in ttiis respect. Their dispersing and refracting properties are determined by passing a ray of light through solid prisms of different material, or liquid prisms enclosed between glass plates.- The refracting power is then measured by the amount of deviation of the ray, and the dispersive power by the length of the colored spectrum produced. So it has been found that if the relative amounts of refraction of water, crown glass, flint glass, and oil of cassia are ex pressed by the numbers 133, 152, 162, and 159, the amounts of dispersion or the lengths of their spectra are in ratio of 145, 203, 433, and 1,080. If the angle of a prism is increased, the refract ing and dispersing power both increase in the same ratio ; and it is evident that two prisms of different material may be made at such an gles that they produce the same length of spec trum, or possess the same dispersion, but that then their refracting powers will not be the same. In figs. 1 and 2 two such prisms are represented, the first refracting more than the second, but giving equal lengths of spectra. If now two such prisms are joined in opposite directions, as represented in fig. 3, they will cause a neutralization of the equal spectra, but VOL. i. 5 not of the unequal refraction, and therefore they will produce a deviation or refraction of FIG. 1. i: Kefraction and Dispersion by Prisms. | the rays without dispersion of the light ; no ; colored spectrum will be produced, but only j a pure white spot will be the result of such i a combination, which is called an achromatic rism. This is the principle on which the enses in all our modern telescopes, micro- ! scopes, photographic and other optical appara- I tus are constructed. A convex lens of crown ; glass brings the rays together to a number of i differently colored foci, of which the red rays I will be the furthest from the lens, fig. 4. (See | ABERRATION, CHROMATIC.) A concave lens | will throw the red rays nearer to the axis, fig. i 5 ; but if this concave lens is made of flint glass I (a material having a slightly greater refracting CROWN GLASS ACHROMATIC COMBINATION . Refraction and Dispersion by Lenses. j but a much greater dispersive power), and ground to such a curve as completely to neu tralize the dispersion or coloring of the first lens, while it affects its refraction only so far as to lengthen its focal distance, the combina- G6 ACID ACLAND tion will bring the rays to a focus without sep arating the luminous rays into their colored con stituents ; see fig. 6. Such a lens is said to be corrected for chromatic aberration. Sometimes the concave correcting lens of flint glass does not quite accomplish the purpose, and then the combination is said to be under-corrected ; but sometimes the opposite is the case, when the combination is said to be over-corrected. In this case the chromatic aberration will be the reverse of what it is with a single convex lens. As the different parts of the colored spectra produced by different media have not an exact proportionality toward one another, an abso lute achromatism is impossible ; but successful attempts have been made to cure it in some degree by the addition of a third lens of plate glass. Attempts to make achromatic lenses by enclosing fluids of different diffractive powers between glass lenses have all failed, by reason of the variability in such fluids ; in the course of time portions of higher refractive power will accumulate at the lower sides, and by changes of temperature currents will be set up which disturb the images seen. As the manufacture of flint glass for large achromatic lenses is a very difficult and uncertain operation, and therefore very expensive, their size has been re duced by placing an over-corrected combination of half the size in the middle of the telescope ; such an instrument is called a dialitic tele scope. Recently the plan of the elder Her- schel has been revived, namely, to use no large achromatic objective lenses at all, but reflec tors, which of course can have no chromatic aberration, which is the result of refraction. ACID, a compound of hydrogen, in which that element is united to an electro-negative radical. In common language the term is equivalent to the Latin word acidus, meaning anything sour. Oxygen was formerly con sidered to be the element upon which the existence of the acid character mainly de pended, as its name (signifying generator of acids) implies; but later researches have brought to light a number of compounds containing hydrogen possessed of acid proper ties in which oxygen is not present. Hence hydrogen is now regarded as more truly the generator of acids than oxygen. The usual test for the presence of an acid is its prop erty of changing blue vegetable colors to red. We are already acquainted with several hnn- dred acids, most of them belonging to the organic kingdom, and new ones are con stantly discovered by chemists. The juices of plants and the constituents of animal bod ies furnish their peculiar acids ; and with the changes these undergo new acids are gen erated by different modes of combination, which processes are now imitated by art so as to reproduce by synthesis a number of organic acids. Some acids, when uncom- bined, are gaseous, others fluid, and others solid. Their properties also are as various as the conditions in which they exist. | ACILIUS GLABRIO, Manins, a Roman general, who became consul in 191 B. C. He was of | plebeian origin, but rose by regular gradation. He supported Cornelius Scipio; commanded as consul against Antiochus the Great of Syria, and defeated him at Thermopylae); and sub sequently carried on the war against the ./Etolians with equal success. On his return he had a triumph. But this elevation and success of a plebeian gave offence to the pa tricians of Rome, who stirred up annoyances and accused him of keeping back the public spoils ; but he was not condemned. He was the first to whom a statue of gold was erected in Italy. He wrote the annals of Rome in Greek, a narrative full of fables. ACI REALE, a seaport town on the E. coast of Sicily, in the province of Catania, cel ebrated for its mineral waters; pop. in 1871, 35,787. It is situated on a hill of lava with a precipice over 650 feet high facing the- sea, in the highly picturesque region between Mount Etna and Catania, llm. N. N. E. of the latter, at the mouth of the small river Aci ; is well built, principally of lava, and has many churches, convents, and towers. Great quan tities of diaper are made. Near the town are the famous cave of Polyphemus and the grotto of Galatea. ACIS, in Ovid, son of Faumis and Symsethis, beloved by the nereid Galatea, and through jealousy crushed to death under a huge rock by Polyphemus. Galatea changed his blood into the river Acis, on which now stands the town of Aci Reale, where the scenes of the legend are still shown. ACKERMAM. I. Ronrad Ernst, a German comedian, regarded as one of the founders of the German stage, born in Schwerin in 1710, died in Hamburg, Nov. 13, 1771. In 1740 he made his debut as an actor under the auspices of Schonemann, and afterward organized a travelling company, with which he performed in many places. He is celebrated as the founder of the Hamburg theatre (1765), whose performances inspired Lessing j s famous com ments on dramatic art. II. Sophie Charlotte, wife of the preceding (1749), previously widow of the organist Schroder, born in Berlin in 1714, died Oct. 14, 1792. She was not only distinguished as an accomplished actress both in tragedy and comedy, and teacher of the histrionic art, but also as the mother by her first marriage of Friedrich Ludwig Schroder (see SCHEODER), and of two daughters by her second marriage, also very distinguished : DO ROTHEA, who retired from the stage in 1778 on marrying Prof. Unzer, and CHARLOTTE, whose death in 1775, in her 18th year, was generally deplored at Hamburg. ACLMD. I. John Dyke, a British major, son of a baronet, commander of the grenadiers in the battle of Stillwater in the American revo lution, Oct. 7, 1777, died in 1778. When overpowered by numbers the British retreated to their camp, which was furiously stormed by ACLIXIC LIXE ACONCAGUA Arnold. Major Aoland was shot through the legs and taken prisoner. When Gen. Fraser was brought mortally wounded to the quarters of the baroness de Riedesel, a report reached Lady Harriet Acland (daughter of the earl of Ilchester), in a tent near by, that her husband was also mortally wounded. She determined to seek him in the American camp, although she was at the time much debilitated by want of food and rest, and by anguish of mind. She was received with kindness; her atten tions restored her husband to health, and the bearing of the Americans toward both made a profound impression on the mind of Major Acland. After his return to England the next year, he was provoked to give the lie direct at a dinner party to Lieut. Lloyd for some foul aspersions on the American name. A duel ensued, and Major Acland was shot through the head, a circumstance which caused Tiis devoted wife the loss of her senses for two years. She afterward married the Rev. Mr. Brudenell, a chaplain in the British army, who had accompanied her in her perilous pursuit of her husband, and died in 1815. She wrote a narrative of the campaigns of lT7G- 7. II. Henry Wcntworth, M. D., F. R. S., grand- nephew of the preceding, born in 1815, phy sician to the Radcliffe infirmary, and Lee s reader in anatomy at Oxford, is distinguished as a promoter of sanitary reform. He accom panied the prince of Wales to the United States in 18GO as his medical attendant. ACLINIC LINE (Gr. a, without, and i&iveiv, to incline), an imaginary line on the earth s surface between the tropics, where the compass needle has no inclination ; that is, where the dipping needle is horizontal. This line is also called the magnetic equator, being about 90 distant from the magnetic poles; it is variable and runs quite irregularly. At present it inter sects the geographical equator near the W. coast of Africa, and some 160 E. of that point in the Pacific ocean. In the western hemi sphere it is S. and in the eastern X. of the equator. ACCEMETjE (Gr. a/co^rof, sleepless), an order of Greek monks who chanted the divine service day and night, without ceasing. This they accomplished by dividing themselves into three reliefs, succeeding one another alter nately. Their centre was the cloister of Irenarion, near Constantinople. They flour ished in the 5th century; in the succeeding century they were put under the ban of the church, on account of their leanings toward the Xestorian Christians and their doctrines. ACOLYTE (Gr. a/coAoutfoc:, attending), a clergy man in the Roman Catholic church, and in the churches of the East, next in rank to the sub-deacon, whose principal office is to light the candles on the altar, and attend on the priest or other sacred ministers during mass and vespers. The youths who serve at the altar are also called acolytes, though not or dained. ACOMA, a village of X"ew Mexico, in lat. 35 24 X., Ion. 106 10 W., supposed by the abbe" Domenech to be the Acuco of the ancient Spanish historians, and the oldest Indian town in the territory. It is built upon the horizontal summit of an isolated and almost perpendicular rock 394 feet in height. The greater part of the ascent to it is made by means of a road cut like a spiral staircase in the rock. The village consists of large blocks of houses, 60 or 70 in each block. It is said the Spaniards took the town from the Indians in 1599. ACONCAGUA. I. A central province of Chili ; area, about 6,000 sq. m. ; pop. in 1868, 130,672. The entire eastern portion is occupied by rugged spurs of the Andes and very fertile valleys, watered by several rivers flowing through the province to the Pacific. This region abounds in copper, silver, and gold mines ; the last were at one time very famous. In 1862 there were in working order 8 gold, 9 silver, and 228 copper mines. The western part is irrigated by innumerable artificial water courses, supplied from the rivers, by means of which large crops are produced of excellent wheat and other cereals, as well as of hemp of a very superior quality. Such irrigation is rendered indispensable by the extraordinary scarcity of rain. The province is divided into the five departments of Andes, Ligua, Petorca, Patacudo, and San Felipe. Capital, San Felipe de Aconcagua, situated at the foot of the Andes, in a fertile valley 2,000 feet above the Pacific, 55 m. X. E. of Valpa raiso; pop. about 7,000. II. A peak of the Andes in the preceding province, X. E. of San Felipe, in lat, 32 39 S., Ion. 70 W., believed to be the highest in this hemisphere. According to the measurement of M. Pissis, to the results of whose labors more credit is given than to those of any other scientific investigator of the Andes, Aconcagua reaches a height of 6,834 metres, or 22,422 feet, above the level of the ocean, being 997 feet higher than Chimborazo and 1,138 feet higher than Sorata, which were formerly considered the most elevated peaks of the Andean chain. Aconcagua has been described as the cone of an extinguished volcano, and the error prob ably arises from a widely published statement of Darwin, who asserts that when in the Beagle expedition in 1835 it was reported to him that the volcano of Aconcairua was in eruption. Xeither its shape nor its external features would indicate an extinguished vol- 68 ACONITE ACONITE, WINTER cano; it is a colossal, angular, and serrated mass, without any lava or other vestiges of volcanic action, and can only be seen in all its grandeur from the east, because the mountains which surround it on the west impede the view. From Valparaiso a view of the peak only, rising far above the summits of even that gigantic chain of mountains, is obtained. ACOMTE (Or. anovirov, probably from aKovy, a stone, because it grows in stony places), a genus of plants of the order ranunculacecB, one of the distinguishing marks of which, the hooded form of the upper sepal, gives the name monkshood to a cultivated species. A plant of this name was known to the ancients, and may have been one of the species now belonging to the genus. The species at present in use as a medicament is the aco- nitum napcllus, cultivated in our gardens under the name of monkshood ; but several other species possess similar properties in at least an equal degree. Among these are A. lycoc- tonum and A. fcrox. Probably the latter, from which the l>ish root of Nepaul in India is obtained, possesses the most deadly qual ities. This was used by the natives to poison their wells on the advance of the British Aconitum napellus ("Monkshood). army into thoir territories. Some of the cultivated varieties of A. napellus, Laving leaves of a lighter shade of green, with blue and white flowers, have less acridity than the darker vai?ety, and would probably, if used, be found to possess less medicinal power. From the roo^s and leaves of the officinal species are prepared extracts and tinctures. Those from the root are the most powerful, and are larcrely used in medicine. The phys iological action of this drug depends chiefly, and probably entirely, npon the alkaloid aconitia, though two other alkaloids, aconella and napellina, besides aconitic acid, are ^mong its constituents. Aconitia is a white sub stance, not volatile at ordinary temperatures, slightly- soluble in water, and readily so in aJcohol ether v and chloroform. It is probably not crystallizable, and the crystallized speci mens exhibited as such consist partly of aconella, which is crystallizable and inert in doses in which aconitia would be fatally poisonous. This statement derives support from the fact that the French and German aconitia, which is partially crystallizable, is much weaker than the English. This alkaloid is one of the most powerful known poisons. One fiftieth of a grain has repeatedly proved fatal to dogs, and nearly so to man. Its effects, which may be considered equivalent to those of a corresponding dose of aconite or its tincture, are a burning and swelled feeling of lips, tongue, and pharynx, nausea and sometimes vomiting, headache, shooting pains of the face, difficult respiration, general prostration, and, after a plight preliminary rise, a marked diminution of the frequency and force of the heart s pulsations. As the fatal dose is approached the pulse again becomes rapid and feeble. The mind is clea*r, and there is but little somnolence ; the pupil is dilated, but less so than by atropia. Fatal poisoning has taken place, not only from the use of the medicinal preparations of the drug, but from its being mistaken for horseradish or other edible plants, from which with care it can be readily distinguished. The therapeutic action of aconite is obtained by doses much smaller than those which give rise to the effects just described. A slight tingling of the lips and tongue may be regarded as a sign that the dose is not to be increased. Since its action, after a primary slight stimulant effect, is essentially to diminish the activity of the nervous system, and secondarily that of the heart, it is used in medicine for two objects: first, to diminish pain, as in neuralgia; and secondly, to diminish the activity of the heart in inflammatory diseases. According to some observers, aconite possesses a greater power in the reduction of certain kinds of inflam matory fever than can be accounted for by the effects upon the heart described above ; but it is to be remembered that some of the diseases in which aconite is supposed to display peculiar power, tonsillitis for instance, have naturally a very limited duration. It is ad mitted by most observers that the curative effect of aconite is displayed chiefly in the early stages of inflammations. The list of diseases in which aconite has been used is very large, embracing those in which inflam matory or neuralgic symptoms are prominent. In poisoning by this drug, alter evacuation of the stomach, stimulant remedies, such as alcohol, wine, and brandy, and dry heat to the surface, should be used. ACONITE, Winter (er nut his hycmalis), a small tuberous and herbaceous plant, growing with out stem, and bearing in early spring bright yellow flowers of cup form. Its leaves are smooth, pale green, many-cut, and peltate; and its scape, only a few inches high, is single- flowered. ACONITIA ACOUSTICS 69 ACONITIA. See ACOXITK. ACOSTA. I. Jose dc, a Spanish writer, born about 1530, died Feb. 15, 1(500. He entered the society of Jesuits at 14, and on completing his course of study was appointed professor of theology at Ocaila. In 1571 he was sent as a missionary to South America, of which, after his return to Spain, he published a history (Hixtoria natural y moral de las India*, Madrid, 1500). This work has been translated into several languages. He also wrote De Natura Nov.i Orb is, and some other works, chiefly of a polemical character. II. Uriel, a Jewish writer, born in Oporto, Portugal, about 1590, died by his own hand in Holland in April, 1047, or, according to some accounts, in 1040. He belonged to a family converted to Christianity at the time of the expulsion of the Jews from Portugal, and was educated by Catholic teachers, but soon con ceived doubts concerning the Christian doc trines. He finally fled, with his mother and a brother, to Amsterdam, embraced the faith of his ancestors, and exchanged his original name Gabriel for Uriel. He failed, however, to recognize in the rabbinical Judaism of his time the ideal of his independent specula tions, and became involved in a passionate controversy with the religious heads of the Jewish congregation of Amsterdam, in the course of which, having suffered excommu nication, he published in Portuguese a " Criti cism of the Pharisaic Traditions, compared with the Written Law," in which he repu diated the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. He was now arraigned before the magistrates and heavily fined. After many years of exclusion from the synagogue he signed a recantation of his views, but sub sequently again provoked the ire of the orthodox, among whom were his own rela tives, was a second time excommunicated, and finally submitted to an ignominious public chastisement. Maddened by persecution, he put an end to his life by a pistol shot, leaving an autobiography, which was published in Latin and German in 1G87. III. Joaqmn, a South American historian, colonel of engineers in the Colombian service, died about 1862. In 1834 he explored the valleys of the So- corro and Magdalena rivers with the bota nist Cespedes, and in 1841 made researches relative to the Chibchas and other aboriginal tribes. He continued these investigations in the archives of Spain and France, and in 1848 published in Paris Compendia historico del descubrimiento y colonization de la Nueva Granada, en el siglo decimo sexto. In 1849, in conjunction with M. A. Laserre, he pub lished a new and enlarged edition of the celebrated Semenario de la Nueva Granada, with a biographical notice of the author, the learned Caldas, who was shot in 1810. A series of archaeological essays were furnished by Acosta, for publication, to the Paris geographical society, 1854 et seq. ACOUSTICS (Gr. aKobeiv, to hear), that branch of physical science which explains the phe nomena and laws of sound. For the produc- I tion of these phenomena three conditions are I required : 1, a sonorous body ; 2, a medium to ! propagate, and 3, an organism to perceive I the sound. From these conditions the science I of acoustics is naturally divided into three branches, of which the last belongs entirely to the field of physiology, or rather biology, while in the first two the most intricate and at the same time most successful application of mathematics to mechanical science is to be found. A superficial examination into the cause of sound shows that it originates in vibrations of the sounding body, and is thus a result of its elasticity. The air, being very elastic, is ordinarily the medium by which sound is transmitted to our ears ; but most other bodies, solid as well as liquid, transmit sound as well and even better than air, while in a vacuum transmission ceases, as is proved by the well-known experiment of exhausting by means of an air pump the air from around a continuously ringing bell. The phases of the sonorous vibrations are appropriately called un dulations or waves; they are communicated to the body transmitting the sound by one or more impulses from the sonorous body, and are transmitted by alternate compressions and expansions of the parts. The velocity of this transmission for air at the freezing point of Fahrenheit is 1,090 feet per second, and about one foot more for every degree above. Very violent sounds, however, travel faster, as proved by Boyden in Boston and Earnshaw in Shef field, England ; the cause of this is the heat developed by strong compression of the air by a powerful wave of sound. Heavy gases transmit sound slower and light gases faster than air: carbonic acid 858 feet, hydrogen 4,164 feet per second. Water transmits sound with about the same velocity as the latter, while alcohol, ether, and turpentine transmit it slower (3,800 feet), and saline solutions in water faster (from 5,000 to 6,500 feet per sec ond). Through metals the transmission is in round numbers as follows: lead, 4,000 feet per second; copper, 11,000; iron and steel, 16,000. If a wave is violent enough to pro duce a shock against the drum of the ear, a sound is always heard even if there be but a single wave; such is the case with a clap of thunder, the explosion of a gun, or the crack of a whip. But if the waves are weak, such as those produced by the vibration of a string, there must be a succession of them at a cer tain rate of rapidity, in order to make the sound audible. If these waves succeed one another at regular intervals and thus have equal lengths, we have a musical tone ; if irregular, they produce merely a noise. The lowest tone used in music is produced by an organ pipe nearly 32 feet long, in which the tone is pro duced on the same principle as in the flute, by blowing a current of air against a sharp edge ; TO ACOUSTICS the friction causing a vibration of the air column in the pipe, on the same principle as the friction of a violin bow causes the vibra tion of a string. The length of the wave pro duced in an organ pipe is equal to the length of the pipe ; and as sound travels through air with a velocity of about 1,090 feet per second, it must pass through a pipe 32 feet long in nearly the 32d part of a second, and thus produce 32 waves per second. If the pipe is 10 feet long, we must have, 64 waves per second; for an 8-feet pipe, 128 waves; 4 feet, 250; 2 feet, 512; 1 foot, 1,024; 6 inches, 2,048; 3 inches, 4,090; and 1^ inch, 8,192 waves. These are the correct velocities of vibrations of the tones represented by the note called C, L T t, or Do, from octave to octave, according to the so- called theoretical pitch. In Handel s time the lower C corresponded to 31 vibrations per sec ond, and the Italian opera in London had it in 1859 at 34 vibrations ; while the pitch re cently established by the French conservatory of music and by a congress of musicians in London agreed to nearly 33 vibrations, corre sponding to the Stuttgart pitch. Only the eight octaves mentioned above are used in mu sic. The capacity of the ear, ho\vever, extends an octave below the lowest and more than two above the highest of these figures, being be tween 16 and 38,000 vibrations per second; but there is a difference in this regard between individuals, some persons being perfectly deaf for very low or very high tones distinctly heard by others. The seven different tones of the so- called diatonic scale are interpolated between the octaves given above, and expressed by the customary notes and staff of five lines with clef, or by the letters C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C. They correspond for the lower octave with the ve locity of vibrations 32, 30, 40, 42f, 48, 54, 60, and 04 vibrations per second respectively ; by multiplying either of these numbers by 2, 4, 8, 16, &c., we obtain the velocities of any other octave. It is seen that some of these numbers bear simple ratios to one another, as C : C 1:2, C:G = 2:3, C : F = 3 : 4, C:E = 4:5, E : G = 5 : 6 ; these tones harmonize, the others are discordant. The further comparison of the numbers shows that the differences between the 3d and 4th and between the 7th and 8th of the scale are less than those preceding or following. This has given reason for the in terpolation of five other tones between those of which the differences are greater, so as ap proximately to equalize these differences; in this way 12 tones in each octave have been obtained, forming a scale called chromatic. These interpolated tones are inappropriately called semitones, and designated with the same sign as the next note, but preceded by a % (sharp) or [, (fiat). This scale is represented in the velocity of vibrations and in name as follows : 34 33 45 51 57 82 36 40 42% 48 54 60 64 Ci| D# Fj| G|f Ajf C D EF G ABC The keyed instruments give a material repre sentation of this scale. The relation of pro gression between its tones, when tuned accord ing to the proportions given here, is so irregu lar, that when transposing the diatonic scale, that is, when commencing it at another tone than C, very impure harmonies are obtained. This is corrected, or rather compromised, by making the mutual proportions of the 12 num bers representing the chromatic scale such as to obtain a regular geometrical series ; this is the so-called equal temperament. In order to accomplish this with strict mathematical accu racy, we have only to interpolate 11 terms of such a series between the numbers 1 and 2, which express the relations between a tone and its octave ; this is mathematically ex pressed by the series 2, 2 T X 2 T X 2 T X 2 T X &c., to 2^; or by logarithms : log. jf , log. ||, log. |-|, &c., to log. ff, which by calculation gives the" series 1-000, 1-0594, 1-1225, M892, 1-2599, 1-3348, 1-4142, 1-4983, 1-5874, 1-0818, 1-7818, 1-8877, 2 000. Multiplying each of these numbers by 32, we obtain the velocity of vibration for the low er octave, for the absolute equal temperament : 33-8903 38-0544 32-000 85-9200 40-3168 42-718G C 45-2544 D E F 50-7963 57 0176 47-9456 53-8176 60-4064 64-000 G B C It is seen, by comparison with the numbers .mentioned before, that this series gives Cif, D, G, and G$ too low, while the other eighth tones are too high. However, this is only the case when considering the interpolated semitones as sharps; but as we must use C$ for D\,, D$ for Ejj, &c., and the calculation for the tones | corresponding with these fiats gives us differ- ! ent figures, between which and the former the equal temperament is a compromise, the ad vantages are acknowledged to be with the lat ter, and it is now therefore universally adopted. (See Music.) A column of air in a pipe will not necessarily vibrate in such a way that each wave will be equal to the length of the pipe. By modi fying the manner of admitting the air, either by increased pressure or changing the aperture, the waves may be made one half, one third, one fourth, one fifth, &c., of the length of the | pipe. In this way the so-called harmonics j and the tones of the French horn are pro duced. They are called over-tones, if the fundamental vibration producing the lowest tone is still heard at the same time. In order to produce all kinds of shorter waves by means of the same pipe, holes may be made in its sides, closed by the fingers or by proper valves. The opening of these holes is nearly equivalent to a shortening of the pipe. Thus the different tones of the flute, clarinet, haut- : bois, bassoon, and several other wind instru- ACOUSTICS 71 ments, are produced. In the trombone, the length of the tube is increased and diminished by a sliding arrangement ; while in the cornet a piston and similar brass instruments, the same elongation and shortening is produced by piston valves admitting or shutting off the air from side channels of greater or lesser length. In stringed instruments the same results are accomplished by different length of strings. As in the organ every pipe produces only a single tone, so in the pianoforte every string is intended for one tone; while in the harp, by a slight shortening, the pitch of each string may be raised a so-called semitone. In all the other stringed instruments, as the violin, violoncello, and guitar, the different tones are produced by the use of very few strings only, which, however, by proper manipulation with the fingers, may be shortened so as to produce tones of which the vibrations become faster in proportion as the sounding portion of the string is shortened. In regard to the law governing their vibration, it is the same for strings as for pipes. Other circumstances being equal, their velocity is inversely proportional to the length of the pipe or string. The tone of strings also changes by change of tension, and the velocity of their vibration is in the ratio of the square root of the weights which pro duce this tension. Further, the tone depends upon the thickness of the string, its rigidity, weight, and nature of material. When a string is subdivided into a number of equal parts, these parts will vibrate simultaneously, leaving the points of division at rest, and produce the harmonic tones, after the same law as in the case of a column of air in the French horn. The subjoined five figures give the manner of vibration of a string as a whole, half, third, fourth, and fifth parts, producing different | On the violin these subdivisions may be effect- j ed by slightly touching the string on one of j the points dividing it into equal parts, and tho j harmonic upper tones thus produced are called i the flageolet tones. In the ^Eolian harp, in I which the strings are put into vibration by the friction of a current of air, these divisions are incidentally and continually changing, and thus a variety of harmonic tones is produced. The division points, where the string happens to be at rest, are called nodal points. An elastic plate of glass, brass, steel, or other suitable material, may also be made to vibrate and emit tones ; and when fixed at one point and excited at one of its edges by a violin bow, it may be made to produce a considerable variety of tones, by the fact that it may be subdivided into various systems of nodal lines ; the spaces between these lines are the sounding portions, and the vibrations are more rapid or the tones sharper in proportion as these spaces are small er. These nodal lines may be made visible by scattering dry sand over the plate, and when it is put into vibration with the violin bow, the grains of the sand which are not on the nodal lines will be thrown aside, and not come to rest until they are accumulated upon the nodal lines. Thus many kinds of regular and almost geometrical figures may be formed, which are called, after the inventor of this method, Chladni s nodal sound figures. With different forms of plates, many hundreds of such figures have been obtained. Our figures illus trate only a few of the most remarkable. The first and most simple is produced by the lowest FUND A MENTAL TOME, OCT A V E. DOUBLE OCTAVE. Harmonic Sound Waves of a String. TT1 j ICXX) 1 Chladni s Nodal Sound Figures. tone which can be obtained from the disk ; the others belong to higher and higher tones, while the last and most complicated is produced by , the highest tone ; in this case the smallest tones, the harmonics of the fundamental tone, ! parts of the glass disk vibrate for themselves, its octave, fifth above or twelfth, its double , and produce then the most rapid vibrations, octave, and third above that, or seventeenth. It is thus seen that every tone which may be ACOUSTICS ACRE drawn out of a disk produces its own charac teristic nodal lines or figures. (See Chlad- ni s "Acoustics.") Tones may differ not only in the velocity of their succeeding waves, but also in the form of these waves; this deter mines the character of the tone which the French call timbre. By it we distinguish the sounds of different instruments, the voices of different persons, &c. Comparative physiology has determined which special portions of the interior structure of the ear are intended for the different functions in the act of hearing, by finding some parts more or less developed in proportion as the animal possesses the ca pacity of distinguishing variations of sound. So the dog, with no musical ear, distinguishes the voice of his master better than those sing ing birds which can learn a tune and thus have a musical ear. (See EAE.) Recently experi menters have succeeded in causing sounds to draw waving lines on slips of moving paper, these waves representing not only the pitch or velocity of vibrations, but by their different forms also the nature of the sounds. In our figures are represented a few illustrations of Bound Lines traced on Paper by the Phonautograpk. the waved lines produced by this method of registering the nature of diverse vibrations of the same length and pitch. The apparatus with which this is performed is called a phonauto- graph. In regard to the application of acoustics to architecture, and the construction of build ings intended for music or public speaking, much learning has been erroneously applied. The elliptical and parabolic forms given to walls or ceilings have not answered expectation, for the simple reason that they concentrate the sound at single points at the expense of others. Experience has however taught a few facts, of which the most important is that an echo is the greatest disturbing influence, and that large smooth walls and ceilings at a distance from the speaker make this disturbance a maximum. Speakers, singers, or musical in struments must therefore be placed as near to such a wall as practicable ; and when a high flat or arched ceiling causes reflection or re verberation of sound, as is often the case in large churches, a horizontal sounding board of some 20 or more feet in diameter, thus pro jecting far beyond the pulpit, and placed as low as p ossible, only a few feet above the speaker s head, has been found the only effec tive remedy. It is seen in most of the cathe drals and large churches on the European con tinent. Among the earlier writers and inves tigators must be mentioned Euler, Newton, La place, Chladni, and Savart; and among the later, Helmholtz, Weber, Konig, Herschel, Wulner, and Tyndall. See especially Helm holtz, Die Lelire von den Tonempfindungen (Brunswick, 2d ed., 1865); Tyndall, * u Lectures on Sound;" Peirce, " On Sound," prepared from Herschel s writings; and Wulner, Ex- perimentalphysik (Leipsic, 1871, vol. i.). ACQIAVIVA, Claudio de, a general of the Jes uits, born in Italy in 1542, died in 1615. He regulated the studies of the order of Jesuits in an ordinance promulgated at Rome in 1580, which became famous under the title of Ratio Studio-rum. He prohibited discussions on the subject of tyrannicide, and his opinions are still regarded as authoritative bv the order. ACQUAVIVA DELLE FOMTI, a town of S. Italy, province of Terra di Bari, 18 m. S. of Bari; pop. in 1861, 6,517. It is surrounded by walls, and has a handsome parish church. ACQUI (anc. Aqua Statiella>), a town of Italy, capital of a district of the same name, in the Piedmontese province of Alessandria, on the left bank of the Bormida, 18 m. S. of Alessan dria; pop. about 9,000. It is much frequented by invalids for its famous hot sulphur springs, which were well known to the ancient Ro mans. The remains of a Roman aqueduct are among its curiosities. It contains many hand some buildings, among them a cathedral, con vents, a college, and a theological seminary. ACRE (Lat. agcr, Ger. acker, a cultiva ted field), a standard measure of land, con sisting in England and the United States of 4,840 square yards, or 48,564 square feet. In surveying, it is composed of 10 square chains, the measuring chain being 66 feet long. There are 640 acres in an English statute square mile. The Scotch acre is 1-27 of the English, and the Irish 1-62; the French and Belgian hectare, 2-47, and the arpent 0*99 (Geneva, 1-27); the Swiss faux, 1-62; the Spanish fanegada, 1-06; the Portuguese gueira, 1 43; the Aus trian joch, 1*42; the Danish toende, 5*50; the Swedish tunn eland, 1 13; the Russian desia- tina, 2*70. The morgen of Germany is gen erally about 0-65 of an acre, but it has hereto fore varied in the different states from 0*63 to 2-40 ; in Holland it is 2-10, and in Poland 1-38. The moggia of Naples is 83 of an acre ; the giornate of Sardinia, 93 ; the saccata of Tus cany, 1*22. The ancient Roman jugerum was 0-66 of an acre, and the Greek plethron 0*23. ACRE, or St. Jean d Acre (called Acca by the Turks, Acelw in Scripture, and Ace and Ptole- mais by the Greeks), a seaport town of Syria, ACRELIUS AOTA DIURNA 73 St. Jean d Acre. N. of Mt. Oarmel, 64 m. S. of Beyront, in lat. 32 54 K, Ion. 35 4 E. ; pop. about 5,000. It is on an almost triangular peninsula, and on the land side is surrounded with beautiful new forti fications ; remains of the old fortifications still project from the sea. Its harbor is the best on that part of the coast, although very shal low. The place is of the highest antiquity, mentioned in the history of the Jews, Per sians, and Ptolemies, and is renowned for its desperate sieges and defences. In 1104 it was taken by the Genoese, from whom Saladin re took it in 1187. The assault upon it by Rich ard Co3ur de Lion in 1191 was one of the most daring feats in the crusades. After its cap ture by the Christians in that year, it remained in the custody of the knights of St. John, who fortified it strongly, till 1291, when they were compelled to evacuate it by the sultan of Egypt. The Turks occupied it early in the 16th century. In 1799, supported by Sidney Smith and a few British sailors, they kept Bona parte and the French army at bay for 60 days, when he raised the siege and retreated. In 1832, when Mehemet Ali revolted from the Porte and seized upon Syria, Ibrahim Pasha, after a long siege, took Acre by storm. In 1839 Syria was restored to Turkey, but Ibrahim refused to evacuate Acre till after a bombard ment by the combined British, Austrian, and Turkish squadrons, Xov. 4, 1840. ACRELIUS, Israel, a Swedish clergyman, born Dec. 25, 1714, died April 25, 1800. He studied in Upsal, and was ordained in 1743. In 1749 he was appointed provost of the Swedish con gregations on the Delaware, and pastor of Rac coon and Pensneck, and subsequently of Chris tiana. He managed the ecclesiastical affairs of the Swedish colonists, which he found in great disorder, with zeal and prudence. Ill health, however, compelled him to resign his situation in 1756, and return to Sweden. The king bestowed upon him a large pension, and the lucrative living of Fellingsbro. Be sides some articles on American affairs in the Swedish journals, and numerous religious works, Acrelius published a description of the Swedish colonies in America (4to, 1759). ACROCERAUNIA (Gr. anpov, peak, and nepawde, thunderbolt), in ancient geography, the N. W. extremity (now Cape Linguetta) of the Cerau- nian mountains in E pirns, so called from its being often struck by lightning. The name is sometimes improperly applied to the whole* range. (See CERAUNIAN MOUNTAINS.) ACROPOLIS (Gr.), the highest point of a city, or its citadel, usually on a rock or hill. The ruins of the most celebrated, that of Athens, still exist for the delight of travellers. It had five gates, the principal a splendid structure of Pentelican marble, and within its bounds still stands the Parthenon or temple of Minerva. ACT. See BILL. ACTA DIURNA (Lat., daily doings), the name of daily reports issued in ancient Rome, chiefly under the empire. They were published by authority, and contained a brief chronicle of the proceedings at public assemblies, and in the tribunals both civil and criminal, together with a register of births, deaths, marriages, and some other interesting matter. Divorces, being matter of scandal, were a staple item of domestic intelligence in an age when printing was unknown. The circulation must have been very limited, and the transcripts chiefly for the use of the patricians. Reporters (actuarU) were employed to procure interesting news not to be found in official registers. 74: ACTION ACTINIA ACT/EON, in Greek mythology, a hunter, grandson of Cadmus, who, for the crime of watching Diana while bathing 1 , was trans formed into a stag, and devoured by his own hounds. ACT! ERUDITORUM (the transactions of the learned), the title of the first literary journal of Germany, founded in 1682 by Otto Mencke, professor in the university of Leipsic, and sev eral associates, and published monthly in Latin. It remained in the hands of the Mencke family and preserved its reputation until, in 1754, it fell under the charge of Professor Bel, who man aged it so negligently that it lost character arid circulation. The calamities of the seven years war also operated against it, and it languished till 1782, when the last volume appeared, which, however, only brought up the review to 1776. The whole collection is contained in 117 vols. 4to. In 1732 the title was changed to Nora Acta Eruditorum. The work having met the approbation of the critics of foreign countries, and its convenience being undenia ble, a numerous race of imitators soon sprung up in France, Germany, and England. ACTA SAACTORUM, Acta Martyrum, Martyrology. The ancient church gave the name Acta Mar tyrum, or "Acts of the Martyrs," to the records of the lives and sufferings of the martyrs which were kept for the edification of the faithful. The oldest acts extant are those referring to the death of St. Ignatius of Antioch (107). When to the lives of the martyrs those of other pious men were added, the collections re ceived the name Acta Sanctorum, " Acts of the Saints." The deaths of pious men, and the cir cumstances attending their death, being com municated by the various Christian congrega tions to each other, an alphabetical list was oc casionally hung up in the churches to keep their names fresh in the recollection of the brethren. These lists grew into brief biogra phies, and at length the institution of canoniza tion and the dedication of particular days to the memory of the saints introduced their names and histories into the breviary and missal. The oldest collection of the acts of the martyrs was compiled by the church historian Eusebius in his two works De MartyrHbus Palestine and Synagoge Marty riorum. Collections of the most important lives were made in the 6th cen tury by Gregory of Tours, and in the 10th by Simeon Metaphrastes. A more critical treat ment is found in the Sanctuarium of Boninus Mombritius, and particularly in Ruinart s Acta Martyrum Sincera (fol., Paris, 1689). By far the most celebrated collection of the lives of saints is that commenced by the Jesuit Bolland (died 1665), and still continued by a society of Jesuits, called Bollandists. In fact, this collection is so much more important than any other work of the kind, that in the history of literature it alone is understood by the name Acta Sanctorum. (See BOLLAXD.) ACTIAIV GAMES, in Itornan antiquity, solemn games instituted by Augustus in memory of his victory over Mark Antony at Actium, 31 B. C., held every fifth year, and celebrated in honor of Apollo, surnamed Actius. ACTINIA (Gr. a/cri f, ray), a genus of marine radiated animals, commonly called sea anem ones, from their resemblance to flowers. They are fleshy polyps, termed zoanthoria by De Blainville, and zoophyta helianthoidca by Dr. Johnston. The body is regular and some what like a flower in form, more or less elon gated and very contractile, enabling it to as sume a great variety ot shapes. It has a sac- shaped digestive apparatus, with an oval ori fice, surrounded by tubular tentacles of vari ous forms. In many species the base of the body acts as a sucker, by means of which they adhere to rocks, stones, &c., while the opposite Metridium marginatum (Fringed Actinia), expanded. Metridium marginaturn, closed. extremity presents a disk with a central ori fice. This is surrounded by tentacles either in a single row or in several rows, which act as so many arms by which the animal seizes its prey and drags it into his mouth. Its only or gan, the stomach, performs almost all the functions of animal life; this has, besides its opening from the mouth, one at the bottom communicating with the general cavity of the body, which may be shut at will, making a closed sac where digestion is rapidly perform ed by means of active secretions. The lower cavity is divided by folds running from the cir cumference toward the centre, from top to bottom of the animal, the food circulating freely among these partitions by the action of vibratory cilia on their walls. Digestion is ACTINIA ACTINISM 75 here combined with a kind of circulation ; they have no blood, no vessels, no respiration other than that effected by the currents of water in the interior, doubtless accompanied by a change of substance. The surface of the ten tacles is thickly studded with microscopic vi- bratile cilia in constant motion, causing cur rents which bring to them their microscopic food, sweeping a space of several inches. Each tentacle is a tube, with longitudinal and circular fibres, by which it can be shortened, lengthened, and moved in all directions. Upon the tentacles are great numbers of microscopic so-called "lasso cells," each containing a long hollow thread coiled spirally within it, which can be suddenly thrust out, benumbing and arresting shrimps and small fish incautiously venturing too near these innumerable and in visible threads, and enabling the tentacles to seize and convey them to the central mouth. Similarly armed threads may also be projected from the sides of the body. The eggs are very numerous, being in bunches on the inside of the partitions until ready to be hatched, when they escape through the stomach and mouth, or through the tentacles, into the water, giving Anthea Cereus (Opelet). rise to creatures like themselves, only with fewer tentacles, which are in multiples of five. The young one has only five, one in the line of the mouth and the others in two pairs later ally ; so that even here there is an indication of bilateral symmetry, with definition of an terior and posterior regions. The actinia is the type of the single polyp, as distinguished from the compound coral polyps. It preys voraciously on small crabs and mollusks, and when waiting for its victims these arms are expanded like the petals of a flower, and, being tinted with very brilliant colors, they present an elegant appearance. The actinia seizes animals apparently superior in strength and bulk, engulfs them in its sac or stomach, and distending itself to a great degree, digests them rapidly, disgorging the shells and harder parts of the victim when the softer parts have been consumed. Some actiniae are fixed, and others are free. The external tunic of the body pre sents both longitudinal and transverse muscular fibres, covered by a layer of skin or mucous membrane. Nervous fibres have also been de tected, and the sensibility of the animal is ex treme ; they contract even when a dark cloud passes over them. They may be seen at low water, clustered upon rocks and masses of stone, which they cover, as with flowers. There they remain tenaciously adhering by their base. They are, however, capable of moving from one spot to another ; and in win ter they seek deeper water, where the changes of temperature do not affect them. The sea anemone is very common on the southern shores of England and on the New England coasts ; and one species (actinia Jordaica), on the shores of the Mediterranean, is esteemed a j great delicacy by the Italians. The fringed actinia (metndium\ the most common on the N. E. coast of North America, is, in large specimens, about 4 inches high and 3 inches across the expanded disk. They are found of va rious colors, pink, brown, purple, whitish, and orange, in pools among the rocks, flooded at high tide, and overhung by seaweeds. In an- thea cereus, of the British coast, there is no power of retracting the long tentacles within the body ; the body is of a light chestnut color, and the numerous tentacles usually sea-green tipped with red. It is of about the size of our fringed actinia. See " British Sea Anem ones," by Philip Henry Gosse (London, 1860), and u Coral and Coral Islands," by James D. Dana (New York, 1872). ACTINISM (Gr. burls, a ray of light), the pe^ culiar property or force of that portion of the sun s rays which produces the chemical effects shown in photography. That the actinic rays are different from those which produce heat and light was shown as far back as 1842 by Prof. J. W. Draper of New York, who recognized in them a new principle or force, for which he proposed the name of tithonicity, and for the rays that of tithonic. The name now adopted was given by Mr. K. Hunt of England. It is found that actinism does not exist in the most luminous rays of light, and that these rays ac tually tend to prevent the peculiar effects of this force upon inorganic matter. The quan tity of actinism in the sun s rays varies with the time of day and with the seasons. It is intercepted by red, orange, and yellow glass ; hence photographers now use glass of these colors to admit light to their so-called dark rooms. Such glass transmits the solar heat, while blue and violet glass, which transmit lit tle or nothing of this heat, transmit the actinic rays. The reason of this has been explained by experiments in taking photographs of the solar spectrum ; they proved that no actinism exists in the red, orange, and yellow rays, that it commences feebly in the green, becomes stronger in the blue, and is strongest in the violet ; but what is remarkable, it is also found to extend far beyond the latter color, in the dark space entirely outside the visible spec trum. In photographing the spectroscopic lines, it is found that this dark space contains scores of them as well as the visible part of the spectrum, and it appears that the only rea son that we do not see these ultra-actinic rays 76 ACTINISM ACTION" is that the liquids in our eyes cannot transmit waves of such great velocity ; when this velo city is decreased by throwing the spectrum on some fluorescent substance, as paper, painted with a solution of quinine, or on uranium glass, the lines may be rendered visible. The so- called fluorescent substances reduce the ve locity* of the luminous waves falling on them; in fact, they emit luminous waves of a less ve locity than those by which they arc illuminated. Mr. Rutherfurd of New York has made the most elaborate photographs of all the lines in the actinic portion of the solar spectrum, the invisible as well as the visible, to the number of several thousand. A few of these lines are represented in the spectrum given here, of VISIBLE LINES I N V t S I 13 1. E LIMES l| I ABCD EF G HIKLMNOP BED. GREEN". VIOLET. DARK SPACE. Prismatic Spectrum of Solar Light M LUMINOUS RAYS ACTINIC RAYS Curves representing the comparative intensity of the luminous and actinic rays in different parts of the solar spectrum. which only the portion from A to H is visible, while that from II to P is invisible, but may be photographed, even to a further extent than is here represented. The height of the un shaded curve below represents the intensity of the light in the corresponding portion above, while the height of the shaded curve represents the intensity of the actinic action. It is seen that while the strongest light is in the yellow between the lines I) and E, there is a total ab sence of actinism here ; the strongest actinism is founTl near the lines H, where there is scarcely any light left, so that the spectrum dwindles down in darkness at that spot, while this ac tinism extends about twice the length of the visible spectrum. In regard to the asserted action of the actinic rays on germination and the growth of plants, the most conscientious experiments have proved that only darkness promotes germination, and that plants want for their growth not that light alone from which the heated rays have been eliminated by pass ing it through blue or violet glass. Such glass cannot increase the actinic power, but only de crease the light and heat, and experience has shown that most plants suffer decidedly by such treatment ; that the green coloring matter of the leaves, of which the chlorophyline is the most important, needs the red rays for its pro motion ; and that all plants must, in order to prosper, have the benefit of the full unadulte rated solar light. ACTINOMETER, the name generally but im properly applied to a thermometer intended to measure the heat of the solar rays. The first so-called actinometer was made by Sir John Ilerschel in 1825, and consisted of a thermom eter with a large bulb filled with the blue solution of the ammonia sulphate of copper, enclosed in a box with plate glass on top. When exposed to the sun s rays the expansion of the liquid indicates their intensity. The instrument is nearly identical in its results with that of Pouillet, which he calls pyrheli- ometer. Recently an ordinary mercurial ther mometer enclosed in a box, and used alter nately in the shade and in sunshine, was de scribed by the Rev. Mr. Ilodgkinson under the name of actinometer. A true actinometer is an instrument to measure the actinic or chemi cal power of the solar rays. The first contri vance to effect this object was the darkening of a surface sensitized by chloride of silver. The difficulty here was to make a preparation which was always uniformly sensitive. Dr. John W. Draper of New York discovered the important fact that of a mixture of equal vol umes of chlorine and hydrogen, the amount combining to form chlorhydric acid is directly proportional to the actinic intensity of the light and the time of exposure. lie made use of this property for the purpose of practical actinornetry; while recently Bunsen and Ros- coe have devised an actinometer based on the very same principle, and giving results of the most absolute scientific accuracy. There are, however, many other actions of this kind known in chemistry which may be more con veniently employed. A solution of chloride of gold and oxalic acid will remain clear in the dark, while gold is precipitated by exposure to actinic rays, the amount of gold being propor tional to the intensity of the rays and the time of exposure. See " Philosophical Transactions," 1859, p. 879; 1852, p. 139. ACTION, the formal demand of one s right from another in a court. In the Roman law action is defined to be either the right which one has of seeking in a judicial tribunal that which is his due, or the pursuit itself, or the exercise of the right. In our law the pursuit of the remedy is properly the action, and the right on which it rests is the cause of action. In its usual sense the word describes all the proceedings incident to the demand of the right, including the adjudication of the court upon it. As actions are appeals to the supreme power of the state, to decide upon the matters in controversy between the parties, they are, except where recent reforms in procedure have changed the practice, commenced by writs is sued out of courts, in the name of the sov ereign, or of the judges as his representatives, calling upon the defendant to come into court and answer. Such writs still remain in many of the states and in most of the courts of the ACTION ACTON 77 United States. But in New York, and other states which have imitated its procedure, the action is commenced by a simple notice or sum mons signed by the plaintiff or his attorneys; though it is not to be understood that the theory of the action, as invoking or setting in motion the sovereign power of the state, is in any re spect changed. The Xew York code defines an action as an ordinary proceeding in a court of justice, by which one party prosecutes another party for the enforcement or protection of a right, the redress or prevention of a wrong, or the punishment of a public offence. This def inition suggests the chief division of actions, namely, into civil and criminal actions. A civil action may be brought by a private per son; but in criminal actions in the proper sense, namely, proceedings for the punishment of crimes, the state or the people, that is, the sovereign power, is the plaintiff or prosecutor. An individual can sustain an action which re lates to a criminal offence only when he has suffered from it some injury peculiar to him self. Thus no private person, but only the people, can bring an action for a public nui sance ; but if the public wrong inflicts a special injury on the individual, he may have his pri vate action for that. In respect to the higher grades of criminal offences, it is the general principle at least of the law, though no very certain rule about the matter can be given, es pecially with reference to the American law, that the private remedy for the especial injury must be postponed until after the individual has done his duty to the public by setting afoot a public prosecution of the crime. It is said, in general terms, that for every wrong the law provides a remedy by action ; and, rightly un derstood, this is true. But there is not a remedy or action for every injury. It is only for those acts which are injuries in the es timation of the law, or, in other words, which are wrongs in a legal sense, that the law gives redress by actions. As the Latin phrase is, there may be damnum absque injuria, that is to say, damage or injury, hut yet no legal wrong. So where the harmful act is done by one in the exercise of a function or authority conferred by the sovereign power, and within its limits^ and without any fault on his part or for his personal benefit, no action lies against him for the injury. Thus no action will lie against a judge of a court of record for an act done by him in the exercise of his judicial of-, fice; and this is true even if he acts without jurisdiction in fact, unless he knew, or had the means of knowing and so ought to have known, the defect of jurisdiction; and it lies upon the plaintiff in any such case to prove these es sential facts. This principle applies to the case of all persons intrusted with the performance of public duties or functions, and exercising them without any personal emolument, who, without malice, negligence, or other fault in the exercise of such duties, inflict injury upon individuals. No action can be maintained by a citizen against a sovereign without its ex press consent ; therefore, as a rule, no suit can be brought by an individual against the state or the United States. Causes of action against these must be presented by petition or some proceeding of that character. The United States receives demands of this charac ter in its court of claims. Nor will the courts of a state ordinarily entertain actions against foreign states or sovereigns, for anything done or omitted by them in their public character. Claims of this sort are properly the province of diplomatic negotiation. As injuries are nu merous and various, so the character and forms of actions ar-e manifold. Many of the old- fashioned forms, which made certain technical tests essential to their maintenance, have been wisely abolished. It has been attempted in New York to get rid of all distinctive forms. There, every other than a criminal action is a civil action. There is no other or specific name for it, and the design of the code is to give by this single action every kind of remed) or relief which can be sought in civil causes But the characteristics of the old forms of ac tions remain, nevertheless, and as they must, they still determine the forms of the one ac tion ; so that its characteristic shapes are almost as numerous as the old forms of which it has extinguished the names. ACTIOI (now La Punta), a promontory and village in Acarnania, at the entrance of the Ambracian gulf, near which Octavius, afterward Augustus, vanquished Mark Antony, Sept. 2, 31 B. C., in a great naval engagement which decided the question of universal dominion, and made the victor emperor. The generals had nearly equal armies on opposite sides of the bay, but these took no part in the combat. Octavius had 200 ships, Antony 220. Cleo patra reinforced Antony with GO ships, and he imprudently offered a naval battle to Octavius. Agrippa, the admiral of Octavius, by a rapid manoevre, soon put to flight Cleopatra with her galleys. The voluptuous Antony followed her with a few ships. His fleet, deserted by its leader, surrendered, and his army did the like after waiting seven days for his return. ACTON, Sir John Frauds Edward, Neapolitan prime minister, born in 1736, died in Palermo, Aug. 12, 1811. Ho has been often erroneously called Joseph, the name of his brother. His immediate ancestors were London merchants, descendants of an English country gentleman, Edward Acton, who was created a baronet on account of his fidelity to Charles I. Sir John, who inherited the title in 1791, was in the naval service successively of France, Tuscany, and Naples, where he became a favorite of Queen Caroline, and rose rapidly to the post of pre mier of King Ferdinand. lie had intimate relations with the English ambassador and his wife, Sir William and Lady Hamilton, and was an inveterate enemy of the French revolution. His administration was despotic and cruel. In 1798 he accompanied King Ferdiniiud in 78 ACTON BURNELL ACTS OF THE APOSTLES the expedition of the Austrian General Mack against the French. He lost his prestige after the disastrous result of the campaign, and was finally in 1806 ousted from power. His second son, CHAELES JAXUARIUS EDWAKD (1803- 47), became a cardinal in 1842. Sir John s brother, JOSEPH EDWAKD, was a lieutenant general in the Neapolitan service, and became the pro genitor of several distinguished naval officers; and the Italian minister of marine in 1869- 70, Rear Admiral GEORGE ACTON, and several other officers of the present day, residents of Naples, are members of the same family. Sir John Francis Edward Acton was succeeded as 7th baronet by his son FERDINAND RICHAKD EDWARD (1801- 37), who married in Paris in 1832 the only child of the duke of Dalberg, and assumed the name of Dalberg-Acton. His widow be came in 1840 the wife of the present Earl Granville, and died in I860. Sir JOHN EME- RIO EDWAKD DALBERG- ACTON, born Jan. 10, 1834, studied from 1850 to 1854 at the univer sity of Munich, made then with his stepfather Lord Granville a tour through the United States, and married in 1865 a daughter of Count Arco-Valley of Munich, lie founded in 1861 the "Home and Foreign Review," an organ of the liberal Catholics, and edited in 1863 Matinees royales, a work ascribed to Frederick the Great, in regard to which there has been much controversy in Germany. In 1870 he took an active part in the Old Catholic movement, and has published in its support, in the German language, Zur GescliicJite des vaticanischen Concils (Munich, 1871). He was in 1860 elected member of parliament for Car- low, Ireland ; and again, as candidate of the liberal party, in 1865 for Bridgnorth, England. In 1869 he w^as made a peer as Baron Acton. ACTON BIRKELL, an English statute, so named because the parliament at which it was passed was held at Acton Burnell, a little vil lage in Shropshire. The date of the statute is Oct. 12, 1283. It is the first statute passed in England enabling merchants to recover debts due to them, and is therefore often called Statutum Mcrca-torum, or statute of the mer chants. By it the mayor or the sheriff might seize and sell the chattels and lands of the debtor, or, if he had no effects, might detain him in prison until the debt was paid, feeding him meanwhile on bread and water if he was too poor to support himself, maintenance money to be added to the original debt. The statute of Acton Burnell met with much oppo sition from the sheriffs. The Jews were ex cluded from the benefits of this liberal statute, which was passed to encourage the settlement of foreign merchants in England. Barrington states that a similar ordinance was not passed in France till 1536, in the reign of Francis I. The statute of merchants is considered an epoch in the social history of the middle class of England, and indicated their growing power. ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, the fifth book of the New Testament, and the last of those prop erly historical. It is recognized on all sides that the Acts were written by the same author as the third Gospel, and the early tradition of the church was firm and constant in ascribing them to Luke. Schleiermacher regarded the book as an aggregate of various reports by dif ferent writers, and ascribed the most important of these works, the writer of which is charac terized by the use of the word we, to Timo thy. This view was supported by De Wette, Bleek, and other critics. Mayrhoff (1835) as cribed the whole book to Timothy, while Schwanbeck ( Ueber die QueUen der Schriften des Lukas, 1847) assumed Silas to be the au thor. The authenticity and canonical charac ter of the book was in the ancient church only denied by a few heretical sects, such as the Ebionites and Manichseans, whose objections were entirely of a dogmatical, not of an histor ical character. Chrysostom, however, com plains that even in his time the book was not so much as known. In modern times the crit ics of the Tubingen school, in particular Baur, Zeller, and Schwegler, assumed the book to have been written in the course of the 2d cen tury. Those who assert the authorship of Luke, including Renan, variously fix the time of writ ing between 58 and 80. The author clearly indicates that for the materials of the lat ter part of the book (xvi. 11 to xxviii. 31) he has drawn upon his own recollection or upon that of the apostle Paul. For the first part the author is believed by some writers of the critical school to have made use of older writ ings, and in particular of the apocryphal book entitled "Preaching of Peter." As regards the design of the Acts, it has long been a prev alent opinion that Luke intended to follow up his history of the life of Christ by a narrative of the establishment and early progress of the Christian religion. The opinion of Hugo Gro- tius that this book was intended to trace the lives of the two chief apostles, Peter and Paul, has found many supporters among the theolo gians. According to Schneckenburger, whose Ueber den Zweck der Apostelgcscliiclite (1841) is the first important work on the subject from the standpoint of the critical German school, the author wished to write an apology of Paul against his Judaizing opponents, and to prove that he was in no point interior to any of the other apostles, and in particular to Peter. This theory was somewhat modified by Baur, the chief of the Tubingen school, who under took to show that the Acts had been compiled in the 2d century for the purpose of effecting a reconciliation of Petrine and Pauline Christi anity. The most important work of the Tu bingen school on the subject is that of Zeller, Die Apostelgeschichte nacli ihrem InJialt und Ursprung kritisch untersiiclit (1854), which regards the Acts as a book proceeding from the Pagan-Christian party, and intended to purchase the peace of the church by some con cessions to tho Judaizing Christians. The in spired character of the book has been defended ACUNA ADAL TO against the Tubingen school by Lange, Thiersch, Ebrard, Schatf, and others ; and even writers like Bleek, Do Wette, and Renan defend the trustworthy character of the Acts as a work of history. The style is purer than that of most other books of the New Testament ; the first part, however, contains a considerable number of Hebraisms. The Acts include the history of the Christian church from the day of Pentecost to the imprisonment of Paul at Rome. With regard to the dates of the principal events recorded, there is a wide difference of opinion. (See PAUL.) Besides the works on the Acts already mentioned, those by Leke- busch (Die Composition und EntateJmng der Apostelgeschichte, 1854) and by Trip (Paulus nach der ApostelgescTiichte, 1866) are of special importance. ACUXA, Cristobal dc, a Spanish Jesuit mission ary in Chili and Peru, born at Burgos in 1597. He was one of the early explorers of the Ama zons, being attached to Texeira s expedition to that river (1639- 41), with the special object of reporting the incidents of the explora tion. Acuna returned to Spain with an inter esting narrative of it. which he published at Madrid ; but the distraction of the country prevented the government from taking any in terest in the colonization of the region to which so much energy and talent had been devoted. He once more went to South America, and died on a journey from Panama to Lima. ACUPUNCTURE (Lat. acw, a needle, &n(\.pun- gere, to prick), an operation introduced by the Chinese, who imagine that it gives vent to acrid vapors. The needles employed by them are of gold or silver, manufactured under spe cial license from the emperor, and their use forms a distinct branch of medical practice. Introduced into Europe in the early part of this century, the operation is now but seldom performed except to give issue to fluids in dropsy, &c. It is advocated by some in the treatment of neuralgia, especially sciatic, and in muscular rheumatism, acting in these cases as a counter-irritant. The needles used are of steel, 2 to 4 inches long. Usually but one is inserted, though sometimes as many as 20 or 30. They are introduced to a depth of one to two inches by simple pressure, by pressure with rotation, or by percussion. The length of time during which they are allowed to re main varies from a minute to several days. Instances are known where they have been passed with impunity through vital organs. Infanticide by acupuncture of the brain or spi nal cord is a well recognized crime. ADA, a S. W. county of Idaho, separated from Oregon by the Snake river (here also called the Saptin) ; area, about 2,800 sq. in.; pop. in 1870, 2,075. The county was organ ized in 1864. Mining is the principal occupa tion of the people. The total value of prop erty in 1869 was $1,014,185. There are three newspapers. Capital, Boise" City, which is also the capital of the territory. AD AIR. I. A S. county of Kentucky, inter sected by Green river; area, 450 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 11,065, of whom 1,836 wore colored. The surface is hilly and abounds in good tim ber, and the soil is moderately fertile. The productions in I860 were 29,513 bushels of wheat, 413,205 of corn, 24,195 of oats, and 767,395 Ibs. of tobacco. Water power is abun dant and several manufactories are in oper ation. Capital, Columbia. II. A N". N. E. county of Missouri, intersected by Chariton river; area, 570 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 11,448, of whom 143 were colored. The land is undu lating prairie, suited to the production of grass and grain. In 1860, 554,835 bushels of corn and 84,353 Ibs. of tobacco were produced. Capital, Kirksville. III. A S. W. county of Iowa; area, 576 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 3.982. Middle river, an affluent of the Des Moines, and the head streams of Nodaway river, run through it. The state road from Fort Des Moines to Council Bluffs also traverses the county. Capital, Fontanelle. ADAIR, Sir Robert, a British diplomatist, born in London, May 24, 1763, died Oct. 3, 1855. His father, Robert Adair, was sergeant-surgeon to George III. He was distantly related to Charles James Fox, and was early destined for a political career. He entered parliament in 1802, and w^as a strenuous supporter of whig politics. In 1806 Mr. Fox sent him as ambas sador to Vienna, and in 1808 Mr. Canning, although opposed to him in politics, sent him on a special mission to Turkey, where he nego tiated the treaty of the Dardanelles, concluded in 1809. He remained at Constantinople till 1811, having been appointed ambassador in 1809. . Sir Robert Adair afterward remained out of office till 1831, when Lord Grey sent him to Belgium, soon after the erection of that country into a kingdom, and he was prominent in negotiating peace. He retired from this mis sion with the rank of privy councillor in 1835. He left memoirs of his residence at St. Peters burg and Vienna, written at the age of 82. ADAL, or Adel, a portion of the E. coast of Africa, between the Abyssinian highlands and the Red sea, and extending from the bay of Tajurra to Cape Bab-el-Mandeb, and from thence 300 m. along the shore of the Red sea to the town and harbor of Massowah; lat. 11 30 to 15 40 N". It is inhabited by the Dana- kil or Affar, a Mohammedan nation, from the most famous tribe of which, Ad Alii or Adaiel, its name is derived. The territory of Ada! varies from 120 m. wide at the bay of Tajurra, to only 40 m. opposite Annesley bay. There is a low tract along the coast, which rises gradually to a height of 2,000 feet above the sea in a distance of 25 or 30 m., and then the ascent is very rapid to the table land of Tigre. On the highest terraces durra and barley are cultivated in small patches. Camels, mules, asses, goats, and sheep abound, the pasturage is generally good, and large quantities of but ter are annually sent to Massowah, and thence 80 ADALBERT ADAM to Arabia. Wild animals are numerous, and even the lion and elephant are occasionally seen. A largo plain, called Ilarho, is covered with salt three feet thick, which is not only used for culinary purposes, but in Abyssinia as a currency. Adal is peopled by many tribes, which appear to belong to the same stock. They are of a dark brown color, muscular and full in body, with roundish face, thick crisp black hair, lively eyes, lips thinner than those of the negroes, and short straight nose, di vided from the forehead by an indentation. They all live a nomadic life, travelling with their flocks and herds from pasture to pasture. The sultan of the Adaicl resides at Tajurra, and the sultan of the Mudaito Danakil at Aussa, near the Ilawash, 80 m. W. by S. of Tajurra. Salt is the onlv commodity exported. ADALBERT. * I. Or Aldcbert, a Frankish bishop and missionary to the German pagans before the middle of the 8th century. He was ac cused of heresy by St. Boniface, who charged him among other things with collecting his o\vn hair and nails as relics. He was con demned by a synod held in 745, and died in prison. His disciples were styled Adalbertines, or Aldcbertines. II. Saint, of Prague, " the apostle of the Prussians," died in 997. He was educated by the celebrated Otherich at Magdeburg. In 983 he was chosen bishop of Prague. Discouraged at his failure to convert the Bohemians, he repaired to the monastery of St. Alexius at Koine. In 993 he was recalled to his bishopric, but after two years became again disgusted and left. In 995 he baptized the future St. Stephen and first king of the Hungarians at Gran. He subsequently went to Poland, and thence to Prussia, to concert the heathen, by whom he was murdered. III. Archbishop of Bremen and Hamburg, died at Goslar, March 17, 1072. He received his office in 1043 from Henry III., whom in 1046 he ac companied to Rome. There he was a candi date for the papal throne, and barely failed in the election. Pope Leo IX., in whose behalf he had spoken in the synod at Mayence in 1049, made him in 1050 his legate in the north. During the minority of the emperor Henry IV. he usurped, together with Archbishop llanno of Cologne, the administration of the empire. He became so obnoxious to the German princes, that in 1006 they forcibly separated him from the emperor; but in 1069 he re gained his power, and kept it till his death. ADALBERT, Hoinrieh Wilhclm, a Prussian prince, first cousin of the emperor William, commander-in-chief of the German navy, born Oct. 29, 1811. He travelled in Europe, the East, and Brazil, and printed privately Ans meinem Peisetafjelmch (Berlin, 1847), which lias been translated and published in English (London, 1848). He holds high military rank, but has devoted himself to naval affairs, and in 1854 was made admiral. In 1856 he com manded the Prussian corvette Danzig on the expedition against the Riff pirates ; but as the Prussians numbered only 90 and the pirates 500, he was obliged to retire, losing 24 killed and wounded, and being himself shot through the thigh. In 1864, during the Danish war, he cruised with his fleet in the Baltic, and at its close he was appointed commander-in-chief of the national navy. In 1870 he visited the English seaports with a squadron. During the Franco-German war his ships took refuge in Wilhelmshaven, and he observed the war at the German headquarters. His wife, TIIEEESA ELSSLEK, sister of the celebrated Fanny, and herself a skilful dancer, received the title of baroness von Barnim on his morganatic mar riage with her in 1850. The only offspring of this union, Baron ADALBERT VON BAENIM, born in 1841, died July 12, 1860, in Egypt. The scientific observations made during his journey to that country were published after his death by Dr. Hartrnann, his physician (Iieise des Freinerrn A. Ton Barnim durch NOT dost- Afrika, Berlin, 1863). ADALIA, or Sattalieh (anc. Attalia in Pam- phylia), a seaport and the largest town on the S. coast of Asia Minor, on the gulf of Adalia, 250 m. S. E. of Smyrna; pop. about 12,000, of whom 3,000 are Greeks. It is the capital of a pashalic. The town is built in the form of an amphitheatre, the ground rising to the height of about 70 feet above the sea, and is surrounded by a double w r all with square tow ers about 50 yards apart. The chief trade is in wool, cotton, and opium. There are some important ancient remains. ADAM, the first man, the husband of Eve, and father of Cain, Abel, and Seth, and of unnamed "sons and daughters." Various meanings have been ascribed to the name ; the most generally recognized is earth-born. The history of Adam, in common with that of the whole antediluvian world, as contained in Genesis, is by some treated as an allegory, intended to convey to an uncultured people an intelligible idea of the world s creation, and to explain some of the momentous questions in volved in this earthly being. Others contend for a literal interpretation of the narrative. For Swedenborg s doctrine on the subject, see XEW JERUSALEM CHUECII. ADAM, Adolphc Charles, a French composer, born in Paris, July 24, 1803, died May 3, 1856. In 1817 he entered the conservatory in Paris, became a skilful pianist, and studied compo sition under Reicha and Boieldicu. His earli est compositions were fantasias and variations for the pianoforte. He wrote the opera of Pierre et Catherine (1829), and in 1832 com posed a ballet for London. His most impor tant work is the opera Le Postilion dc Long- jumeciu (1836). His Souvenirs cPun musicicn, with his autobiography, was published in 1857. ADAM, Albrecht, a German painter of battle pieces, born at Nordlingen, April 16, 1786, died in Munich, Aug. 28, 1862. He studied painting at Nuremberg under Conrad Zweiger. ! lie was engaged in the Austrian campaigns ADAM ADAMS 81 against Napoleon, and subsequently entered ! the service of Eugene Beauharnais, viceroy of ; Italy, and painted the battle scene of Lobau. | lie accompanied Eugene in the campaign of j 1812 as far as Moscow. After the peace he pre- j pared a series of drawings illustrative of Eu- ; gene s military career, now in the Leuchten- j berg gallery, St. Petersburg. He also painted \ several grand battle pieces, besides his Voyage \ pittoresque militaire in 120 lithographs, illus- j trating*the Russian campaign. He finally set- j tied in Munich, under King Louis, for whom j he painted the battle of the Moskva. ADAM, Alexander, a Scottish teacher and gram- , marian, born in Murray shire in June, 1741, died Dec. 18, 1809. He acquired learning amid difficulties, and in 1768 was appointed rector of the high school of Edinburgh, which office he filled for 40 years. H* wrote "Principles of Latin and English Grammar," "Roman An- } tiquities," "Summary of Geography and His tory, both Ancient and Modern," and "Clas sical Biography," all of which were long in j general use in Europe and America. ADAM OF BREMEN, a German missionary and j chronicler, from 1007 canon and schoolmaster ! it Bremen, died there about 1076. He is the j .utlior of Historia Eeclcsiastica, which is the | principal literary authority respecting the north ern nations of that period. It is also called j Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesice Pontificum, \ from containing a chronological record of the episcopal see of Hamburg from 788 to 1072. j A part of his materials was furnished by King j Sweyn Estrithson (1047- 76) of Denmark. ; His MS. was first discovered in a Danish mon astery, and published at Copenhagen in 1579. An improved and enlarged edition forms the 9th volume of Pertz s Monumenta Germanics \ Historica, and this became the basis of Lau- | rent s German translation (Berlin, 1850). Adam | also wrote De Situ Danice (Stockholm, 1615; j Hamburg, 1706; German, Bremen, 1825). As- j mussen published at Kiel, in 1834, De Fontibus Adami Breinemis. ADAM DE LA HALLE, a trouvere of the 13th century, died at Naples about 1286. He was j born at Arras, a town celebrated for its poets and minstrels, and was surnamed the Hunch- I back of Arras. He went to Naples in the suite i of Robert II., count of Artois, in 1282. His \ pieces were not merely songs, but of a dramatic character, and he may be considered one of the founders of the French drama. His works have been published in various collections. ADAMAWA, the Mohammedan name, while Fumbina is the pagan one, of a country of cen tral Africa visited and described for the first time by Dr. Barth in the summer of 1851. It lies between lat. 6 30 and 11 30 N., and Ion. 11 and 16 E. It is about 200 m. long from S.W. to N. E. ; its breadth seldom exceeds 70 m. Its capital is Yola, near the N.W. bor der, a city of about 12,000 inhabitants, where the governor, who owes allegiance to the Foo- lah sultan of Sackatoo, resides. It is a Moham- VOL. i. 6 medan sub-kingdom engrafted upon a mixed stock of pagan tribes, the conquest of the valorous and fanatic Foolah chieftain Adama (whence the name Adamawa) over the great pagan kingdom of Fumbina. The governor at the time of Barth s visit was Adama s son. The native inhabitants were, however, far from being wholly subdued, several districts (espe cially that about Mount Alantika, 40 m. S. of Yola) being still quite independent and con stantly at war. It is one of the finest countries of central Africa, irrigated by numerous rivers, such as the Benuwe, or left branch of the Quorra or Niger, and the Faro, and diversified with hill and dale. In general it is flat, rising gradually toward the south to 1,500 feet or more, and broken by separate hills or extensive groups of mountains. The grain commonly grown in the country is the holcus sorghum. Meat is so dear that a goat will often bring the price of a female slave. Ground nuts are plentiful. The elephant is exceedingly frequent. The most singular animal is the ayu, a mammal resembling a seal, living in the river, and feed ing by night on the fresh grass on the river banks. There is an indigenous variety of ox, but quite a distinct species, not three feet high, of a dark gray color, called muturu. Excel lent iron is found. The standard of value is the native cotton, woven in narrow strips called leppi, of about 2^ inches in width. Soap is a very important article in any country inhab ited by the Foolahs, and it is prepared in every household. The Mohammedan population dress both well and decently. The pagans wear simply a narrow leathern strap between their legs and fastened on their loins. There are several Arab colonies, and Arab architects are employed by the governor. Slavery exists on an immense scale, and many private individu als own more than 1,000 slaves. The governor of Yola, who calls himself a sultan, receives every year in tribute, besides horses and cattle, 5,000 slaves. (See FOOLAHS.) ADAMITES, a sect of the second century, who held that the merits of Christ restored them to Adamic innocence. Consequently, they ap- | peared naked in their assemblies, and rejected marriage. They soon disappeared, but were i revived in the 12th century by Tanchelin at ! Antwerp, who taught that fornication and adultery were meritorious, and indulged in the ! most disgusting brutalities in open day. One Picard also revived the sect in Germany at the i beginning of the 15th century. It took root i in Bohemia, where, in spite of many persecu- 1 tions, it has from time to time reappeared. ADAMS, the name of eight counties in the United States. I. A S. county of Pennsyl vania, on the Maryland border ; area, 530 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 30,315. The head waters of Monocacy river take their rise in this county, ; and small creeks abound. Along the S. bor der a ridge called South Mountain extends, : and the general surface of the county is un- j even. In the South Mountain, copper and 82 ADAMS Potomac marble are found, and the copper mines have been worked with some success. In 1870 the personal property was valued at $1,287,541. The crops in 1870 amounted to 494,346 bushels of wheat, 757,019 of corn, 636,828 of oats, 33,425 of rye, and 1,005,303 of potatoes. The value of animals slaughtered was $498,545. The county has numerous man ufacturing establishments. Capital, Gettys burg. II. A S. W. county of Mississippi, bound ed W. by the Mississippi river, which separates it from Louisiana, and S. by the river Homo- chitto; area, 440 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 19,084, of whom 14,287 were colored. Tlie land is highly productive. The productions in 1870 were 177,307 bushels of corn, 26,469 of sweet potatoes, 20,140 bales of cotton, and 3,144 tons of hay. Capital, Natchez. III. A S. W. county of Ohio, separated from Kentucky by the Ohio river; area, 500 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 20,750. The surface is hilly and well timbered, and the soil is fertile, and especially adapted to fruit culture. The productions in 1870 were 162,677 bushels of wheat, 156,073 of oats, 4,376 of barley, 2,123 of rye, 772,899 of corn, 39,542 of potatoes, 54,208 Ibs. of wool, 434,664 of butter, and $100,828 worth of orchard prod ucts. There were 16,333 sheep and 20,352 hogs, and the value of animals slaughtered was $308,181). In the S. E. part of the county, near the river, are valuable quarries and iron mines. Capital, West Union. IV. An E. county of Indiana, bordering on Ohio ; area, 324 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 11,382. It is drained by the Wabash and St. Mary s rivers. Forests of oak, beech, ash, hickory, and elm cover a large portion of the county. The soil is pro ductive and the surface nearly level. The pro ductions in 1870 were 172,331 bushels of wheat, 96,168of corn, 88,697of oats, 12,408 tons of hay, 227,303 Ibs. of butter, 32,847 of cheese, and 62,- 957 of wool. Capital, Decatur. V. A W. county of Illinois, separated from Missouri by the Mis sissippi river; area, 760 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 56,862. The Quincy and Eastern and the Quincy and Chicago railroads run through the county, and the Illinois and Southern Iowa railroad forms a junction with the Quincy and Eastern within its limits. Bear creek, an afflu ent of the Mississippi, drains the N. W. part. The surface is undulating and covered with forests, the soil rich and to a great extent cul tivated. The products in 1870 were 1,452,905 .bushels of corn, 963,807 of wheat, 759,074 of .oats, and 104,855 Ibs. of wool. There were 26,949 sheep and 56,442 hogs. Value of animals slaughtered, $1,103,518. there are many manu facturing establishments. Capital, Quincy. VI. A S. W. county of Iowa ; area, 432 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 4,614. It is drained by the Nodaway river and several of its head "streams. The Burlington and Missouri River railroad runs through it. In 1870 the county produced 60,716 bushels of wheat, 253,261 of corn, 40,- 327 of oats, and 16,905 Ibs. of wool. Capital, Quincy. VII. A S. central county of Wiscon sin, bounded W. and S. W. by the Wisconsin river, and drained by its affluents; area, 050 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 6,601. Large forests cover the county, and large quantities of lum ber are cut and rafted down the Wisconsin. Water power is abundant. The products in 1870 were 123,454 bushels of wheat, 114,320 of corn, 88,831 of oats, and 60,701 of rye. Capital, Quincy. VIII. A new county in S. Nebraska, bounded 1ST. by the Platte river and drained by the Little Blue; pop. in 1870, 19. ADAMS, a township of Berkshire county, Mass., on both sides of the Hoosac river ; pop. in 1870, 12,090. There are four villages in the town : North Adams, South Adams, Maple Grove, and Blackington. In its vicinity are a notable natural bridge across Hudson s brook, and Saddle mountain or Mt. Greylock, which has an elevation of 3,600 feet, and is the highest point in Massachusetts. The west ern terminus of the Iloosac tunnel is at North Adams, and the Troy and Boston and Pitts- field and North Adams railroads terminate here. Manufactures form the leading interest. In 1865 there were in the town 11 cotton mills, with 45,072 spindles, employing 332 males and 429 females; 6 woollen mills, with 44 sets of machinery, employing 440 males and 392 females; 2 print works, printing 8,925,- 000 yards of calico yearly, and employing 150 males and 21 females; 4 balmoral-skirt facto ries, and 2 paper mills. Two weekly news papers and a semi-monthly are published in North Adams. The experiment of Chinese labor has recently been successfully made in North Adams. In 1870 there were 75 China men employed in that village in the manufac ture of boots and shoes. By the contract made in San Francisco, the Chinamen were engaged for three years. They are represented as being of quiet habits, industrious, skilful, and eager to learn in the evening schools pro vided for them. The town contains 35 schools, of which two are high schools. ADAMS, Charles Baker, an American chem ist and zoologist, born in Dorchester, Mass., Jan. 11, 1814, died in St. Thomas, Jan. 19, 1853. He graduated at Amherst college, and was associated with Professor Edward Hitchcock in a geological survey of New York. In 1837 he became tutor in Amherst college, and in 1838 was chosen professor of chemistry and natural history in Middlebury college, Yt., but in 1847 returned to be a professor at Am herst. In 1845, 1846, and 1847 he was en gaged in a geological survey of Vermont. Be tween 1844 and 1851 he made journeys to Ja maica and other parts of the West Indies, for scientific purposes. He wrote " Contributions to Conchology," "Monograpbs of Several Spe cies of Shells," and other treatises. Not long | before his death he published a useful work OD | elementary geology, in which he was assisted I by Professor Gray of Brooklyn. ADAMS, Charles Francis, an American states- : man, the only child of John Quincy Adams CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS 83 who survived him, born in Boston, Aug. 18, 1807. At the age of two years he was taken by his father to St. Petersburg, where he passed the next six years and learned to speak Russian, German, and French. In February, 1815, he made the journey with his mother in a private carriage from St. Petersburg to Paris, to meet his father there in the then disturbed state of Europe no slight under taking. He accompanied his father on his mission to England, and being placed at a boarding school, according to the fisticuff usages then if not still in vogue in English schools, he was obliged to fight his English schoolfellows in defence of the honor of Amer ica. In 1817 he returned with his father to America, and was placed in the Boston Latin school, whence he entered Harvard college, where he graduated in 1825. The next two years he passed at Washington with his father, who was then president, but in 1827 returned to Massachusetts and pursued the study of the law in the office of Daniel Webster. In 1828 he was admitted to the Boston bar, but never has engaged actively in practice. In 1829 he married the youngest daughter of Peter C. Brooks, a Boston merchant a connection which also made him a brother-in-law of Ed ward Everett. The next year he was nomi nated a representative from Boston to the Massachusetts legislature, but declined. This did not please his father, in consequence of which he accepted the nomination the next year, and served in the house for the succeed ing three years, when he was transferred to the senate, in which he served two years. By this time Mr. Adams began to differ on several points with the leaders of the whig party, with which he had hitherto acted. In 1848 he was selected by the newly organized free-soil party as their candidate for the vice-presidency, along with ex-president Van Buren as candi date for the presidency. In the autumn of 1858 he was chosen a representative to Con gress by the third district of Massachusetts, and took his seat in December, 1859. He was a member of the joint committee on the li brary, and chairman of the house committee on manufactures, which latter had but little to do, the time and thoughts of members being occupied with more exciting subjects. Mr. Adams watched with careful attention the course of events, and on the last day of May, 1860, addressed the house in a forcible speech, vindicating the policy of the republican party. In the interval between the two sessions of his congressional service, Mr. Adams, in company with Mr. Seward, made a journey in some of the northwestern states, and made several speeches in support of Mr. Lincoln for the presidency. On the day after the meeting of the second session of the thirty-sixth congress, so much of the president s message as related to the condition of the country was referred to a special committee of one from each state. Mr. Adams was the member for Massachu setts. This committee finally reported a scries of resolves disavowing on the part of the free states any right to interfere with slavery in the slave states; a bill for the admission of New Mexico, leaving it to the inhabitants to allow or exclude slavery as they might decide ; and an amendment to the constitution forbid ding all interference on the part of congress with slavery in these states. The bill for the admission of New Mexico was rejected, but the other two measures were passed in the house by large majorities. Mr. Adams sup ported them all, and gave his reasons for so doing in a speech delivered Jan. 31, 1861. In 1861 he was appointed by President Lincoln minister to England, in place of Mr. Dallas. Mr. Adams arrived in London and assumed his duties about the middle of May. These duties were most arduous. With a few exceptions, the feeling alike of the ruling and the commer cial classes of England was either unfriendly to us or indifferent. Mr. Adams had to maintain the rights of his country with unbending firm ness, and at the same time to keep his spirit under perfect rule, as any explosion of ill temper or any expression of irritation would have been turned to the disadvantage alike of himself and his country. In the many discus sions he had with the British ministry he showed a complete knowledge alike of inter national law and of the history of his own country, as well as discretion, tact, and good temper. His influence as a public man was in creased by his social qualities, his agreeable conversation, and his familiarity with the whole range of English literature. When in 1868, after an absence of seven years, he re turned home, Mr. Adams left England with the respect of every man who had been brought into official relations with him, and with a large amount of warm personal regard. In December. 1870, he pronounced before the New York historical society a discourse on American neutrality, which has been printed. Upon the ratification by England and America of the treaty of Washington for the settlement of the claims of each country against the other growing out of the civil war, Mr. Adams was selected by the president as the American ar bitrator, and upon that duty sailed for Europe in November, 1S71. Mr. Adams has been a contributor to the "North American Review" and the "Christian Examiner, 7 and between 1845 and 1848 vras the editor of a political daily paper at Boston, by which he contributed to prepare the way for the present republican party. He is principally known, however, as the editor of his grandfather s collected writ ings, published in ten volumes, the ilrst volume containing a life of "John Adams written by him. The same duty which Mr. Adams has performed for his grandfather, he intends to perform for his father, for the execution of which he possesses abundant and most val uable materials. Jo in Qnincy, eldest son of the preceding, a lawyer and politician, born in 84: EDWIN ADAMS JOHN ADAMS Boston, Sept. 22, 1833. He was fitted for col- | lege at the Latin school, and graduated at liar- j vard college in 1853. In 1855 he was admitted j to the bar, and has ever since had a moderate j professional practice, principally in Quincy, his El ace of residence. lie was an earnest repub- can during the civil war, and served on Gov. Andrews s staff. In 1866 he was chosen repre sentative to the legislature from the town of Quincy. In 1867, having avowed his adhesion to the policy of President Johnson, he was nominated for reelection by the democrats and defeated. The same year he was also the demo cratic candidate for governor of Massachusetts, with the same result. In 1869 he was again chosen to the legislature, and for the third time in 1870. In the autumn of 1871 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the offices of governor and representative. In the course of his public career Mr. Adams has had occa sion to make many speeches, which were re markable for manly independence and vigorous statement. In the Massachusetts house of representatives, as leader of a hopeless minor ity, he secured in a high degree the respect of his political opponents. Charles Francis, Jr., brother of the preceding, born in Boston, May 27, 1835, graduated at Harvard college in 1856, studied law, and was admitted to practice in 1858. At the breaking out of the war of secession he obtained a commission in the first regiment of Massachusetts cavalry, and served throughout the war. He was suc cessively promoted to the rank of captain, lieu tenant colonel, and colonel, and led his regi ment, the fifth Massachusetts cavalry (colored), into Richmond, April 3, 1865, when that city was occupied by the United States troops. In July, 1865, he was mustered out of service with the brevet rank of brigadier general. Upon his return to civil life he became an ac tive contributor to the " North American Re view," writing chiefly on topics connected with the development of the railroad system. In 1869 he was appointed a member of the board of railroad commissioners of Massachusetts. In 1871, in connection with his brother, Prof. Henry Brooks Adams, he published a collected volume of writings under the title of " Chap ters of Erie, and other Essays. 1 Henry Brooks, brother of the preceding, and third son of Charles Francis Adams, born in Boston, Feb. 16, 1838, graduated at Harvard college in 1858. He resided in London as his father s private secretary during the latter s term of service as minister to England. In 1870 he was appointed assistant professor of history in Harvard college and became editor of the "North American Review." ADAMS, Edwin, an American actor, born in Medford, Mass., Feb. 3, 1834. Since 1853, when he made his first appearance upon the stage in Boston, he has acted in many parts of the United States, acquiring a consid erable reputation both as a light comedian and a personator of serious characters. Dur ing the season of 1869- 70 he acted in con junction with Edwin Booth in New York in several of Shakespeare s plays. ADAMS, Hannah, one of the earliest female writers in America, born at Medfield, near Boston, in 1755, died at Brookline, Mass., Nov. 15, 1832. She showed at an early age a fondness for study, and acquired a knowledge of Greek and Latin from some divinity stu dents boarding with her father. During the revolutionary war she supported herself by making lace, and afterward by teaching. Her "View of Religious Opinions " (1784) and her " History of New England" (1799) were both successful. Her next work was u Evidences of Christianity " (1801). Her writings brought her little pecuniary profit; yet they secured her many friends, among them the Abbe Gre- goire, with whom she carried on a correspon dence, through which he aided Her in prepar ing her "History of the Jews" (1812). Dur ing the closing years of her life she enjoyed an annuity provided by some friends in Boston. She was the first person whose remains were interred in Mt. Auburn cemetery. ADAMS, John, second president of the United States, born Oct. 19, 1735 (O. S.), in that part of the town of Braintree, Mass., on the S. shore of Boston harbor, and some ten miles distant from Boston, which has since been erected into the town of Quincy, where he died, July 4, 1826. He was great-grandson of Henry Adams, who emigrated from England about 1640, with a family of eight sons, becoming one of the early settlers in Braintree, where he had a grant of 40 acres of land. The father of John Adams, a deacon of the church and se lectman, was a farmer of limited means, to which he added the business of shoemaking. He was enabled, however, to give a classical education to his eldest son John, who gradu ated at Harvard college in 1755, and at once took charge of the grammar school in Worces ter, Mass. The war with France for the pos session of the western country was then at its height ; and in a remarkable letter to a young friend, which contains some curious prognos tications as to what would be in a hundred years the relative population and commerce of England and her colonies, young Adams describes himself as having turned politician. His school he found but "a school of afflic tion," from which he endeavored to gain re lief by devoting himself, in addition, to the study of the law. For this purpose he placed himself under the tuition of the only lawyer of whom Worcester, though the shire town of the county, could then boast. He had thought seriously of the clerical profession, but, according to his own expressions in a contem porary letter, " the frightful engines of eccle siastical councils, of diabolical malice, and Calvinistic good nature," of the operation of which he had been a witness in some church controversies in his native town of Braintree, had "terrified him out of it." Already he JOHN ADAMS 85 had longings for distinction. Nothing but want of interest and patronage prevented him from enlisting in the army. Could he have obtained a troop of horse, or a company of foot, he would, so one of his published letters declares, infallibly have been a soldier. After two years study at Worcester he returned to his father s house in Braintree, and in 1758 commenced life in Suffolk county, of which Boston was the shire town. He gradually in troduced himself into practice, and in 1764 married Abigail Smith, a daughter of the min- ; ister of the neighboring town of Weymouth, and whose connections occupied a social posi- ! tion superior to that of Mr. Adams s own fam ily. What was still more to the purpose, she was a lady of superior abilities and good sense, ; and admirably adapted to make him happy. ! Very shortly after his marriage, the attempt at parliamentary taxation diverted him from law to politics. He promoted the call of a to\vn meeting in Braintree, to instruct the I representatives of the town on the subject of the stamp act ; and the resolutions which he presented at this meeting were not only voted by the town, but attracted great attention throughout the province, and were adopted i word for word by more than forty different towns. Yet Adam^, as appears by his pub- | lished diary, was somewhat alarmed at the \ violence of the mob in destroying the furniture of Oliver, the stamp distributor, and of Gov- ernor Hutchinson, and not a little vexed, as well as alarmed, at the interruption to his own business caused by the refusal of the judges to ; go on without stamps. He was somewhat con soled, however, by an unexpected appoint ment on the part of the town of Boston to be \ one of their counsel along with Jeremiah Grid- | ley, the king s attorney and head of the bar, ! and James Otis, the celebrated orator, to sup- I port a memorial addressed to the governor ; and council that the courts might proceed | with business, though no stamps were to be had. It fell to Adams, as junior counsel, to | open the case for the petitioners, and he bold ly took the ground in which his two seniors, ! the one from his position, the other from his committals in his recently published book on ! the "Rights of the Colonies," were prevented from following him that the stamp act was ! absolutely void, parliament having no right to j tax the colonies. Nothing, however, came of this application ; the governor and council de- j clined to act, on the ground that it belonged to the judges, not to them, to decide. The repeal of the stamp act soon put an end to the suspension of business, which indeed had only extended to the superior court, the inferior courts going on without stamps. It was on this same occasion that Mr. Adams first made his appearance as a writer in the " Boston Ga zette." Among other papers of his was a se ries of four articles, which were republished in a London newspaper, and subsequently in a collection of documents relating to the taxa tion controversy, printed together in a vol ume. The papers as originally published had no title; in the printed volume they were called an "Essay on the Canon and Feudal Law." They began indeed with some refer ence to these subjects, but might with much more propriety have been entitled an "Essay on the Government and Rights of New Eng land." Mr. Adams s style was formed, as is evident from these pieces, from the moment he began to write. They may be found in his collected works, edited by his grandson. Mr. Adams s law business continued gradually to increase, and in 1768 he removed to Boston. In that and the next year he was one of the committee to draft instructions to the repre sentatives of the town a duty which the com mittee intrusted to him, though he refused to attend and speak at town meetings. In 1770 he was chosen a representative to the general court, notwithstanding he had just before ac cepted a retainer to defend Captain Preston and his soldiers for their share in what was known as the "Boston Massacre" a defence conducted with success, in spite of the strong prejudices which it had to encounter. Adams s duties as representative interfered greatly with his business as a lawyer, on which he depended for support, and which by this time had grown to be greater than that of any other lawyer in the province. But he entered with his cus tomary energy upon his new office, becoming the chief legal adviser of the patriot party, and now for the first time an active and conspicu ous leader among them. Partly perhaps to escape this leadership, and the loss of time, the labor, and responsibilities which it imposed, as well as to regain his health, which began to suffer, Mr. Adams removed his residence back to Braintree, resigning his seat in the legisla ture, but still retaining his law office in Boston. A comparative lull in politics for two or three years made his presence in the legislature less indispensable, but still as to all the most im portant matters of controversy with Governor Hutchinson he was consulted and gave his aid. Indeed, it was not long before he again moved back to Boston, though still resolving to avoid politics and to devote himself to his profession. He wrote soon after a series of letters in a newspaper (republished in his collected works, vol. iii.) on the then mooted question of the independence of the judiciary, and the payment by the crown of the salaries of the judges. Soon afterward he was elected by the general court to the provincial council, but was nega- tived by Governor Hutchinson. The destruc tion of the tea and the Boston port bill, that followed, soon brought matters to a crisis. These events produced tjie congress of 1774. Mr. Adams was chosen one of the five dele- : gates from Massachusetts, and his visit to Phil- | adelphia on this business was the first occasion : of his going beyond the limits of New England. ; In the discussions in the committee on the dec- ! laration of colonial rights, he took an acti ve part 8G JOUST ADAMS in favor of resting those rights upon the law of nature as well as the law of England ; and after the substance of the resolutions had been agreed upon, he was appointed to put them into shape. In his diary, published in the second volume of his collected works, and his contemporaneous letters written to his wife and published by his grandson, the most trust worthy and graphic descriptions are to be found of the members and doings of that famous but little known body. The session concluded, Mr. Adams left Philadelphia with no expec tation, as he said at the time, of ever seeing it again. Immediately on his return to Mas sachusetts he was chosen by the town of Braintree a member of the provincial con gress then in session. That congress had already appointed a committee of safety, vest ed with general executive powers; had seized the provincial revenues; had appointed gen eral officers, collected military stores, and taken steps toward organizing an army of vol unteer minutemen. Governor Gage had issued a proclamation denouncing these proceedings, but no attention was paid to it. Gage had no support except in the live or six regiments which formed the garrison of Boston, a few trembling officials, and a small minority of timid adherents; while the recommendations of the provincial congress had, by the common consent of the people, all the force of law. Shortly after the adjournment of this congress, Adams applied himself to answering through the newspapers a champion of the mother country s claim, who, under the nom de plume of "Massachusettensis," had commenced a se ries of able and effective papers in a Boston journal, and to whom Adams replied under the signature of "Novanglus." These essays ap peared weekly during the winter of 1774- o, but were cut short by the battle of Lexington. An abridgment of them was published in Almon s "Remembrancer" for 1775, under the title of " A History of the Dispute with America," and afterward in a separate pamphlet. They have also been twice reprinted entire in America, and are given in the 4th volume of Adams s collected works. Their value consists in the strong contemporaneous view which they pre sent of the origin of the struggle between the colonies and the mother country, and of the policy of Bernard and Ilutchinsoii as. governors of Massachusetts, which did so much to bring that struggle on. Like all Mr. Adams s writ ings, they are distinguished by a bold tone of investigation, a resort to first principles, and a pointed style ; but, like all his other writings, having been produced piecemeal and on the spur of the moment, they lack order, system, polish, and precision. . In the midst of the ex citement produced by the battle of Lexington which at once brought up the spirit even of the most hesitating patriots to the fighting pitch, and which was speedily followed by the seizure of the fortresses of ticonderoga and Crown Point, and bj other similar seizures in other colonies Adams set out for Philadelphia to attend the continental congress of 1775, of which he had been appointed a member. This second congress, though made up for the most part of the same men, was a wholly different body from its predecessor. That was a mere consulting convention. The new congress speedily assumed, or rather had thrust upon it by the unanimous consent of the patriots, the exercise of a comprehensive authority, in which supreme executive, legislative, and in some cases judicial functions were united. In this busy scene the active and untiring Adams, one of whose distinguishing characteristics was his capacity and fondness for business, found am ple employment, while his bold and pugnacious spirit was not a little excited by the hazards and dignity of the great game in which he had come to hold so deep a stake. Adams had made up his mind that any reconciliation with the mother country was hopeless. The ma jority of congress were not yet of that opinion. Under the lead of John Dickinson, though against the strenuous resistance of Adams and others, that body voted still another and final petition to the king. Adams succeeded, how ever, in joining with this vote one to put the colonies into a state of defence, though with protestations that the war on their part was defensive only, and without any intention to throw off their allegiance. Not long alter, con gress was brought up to the point of assuming the responsibility and control of the military operations which New England had commenced by laying siege to Boston, in which town Gage and his troops were shut up, and before which lay encamped an impromptu New England army of 15,000 men, drawn together immedi ately after the battle of Lexington. Urged by the New England delegates, congress agreed to assume the expense and control of this army. Adams, in his autobiography, claims the honor of having first proposed Washington for the chief command, a concession intended to secure the good will and firm cooperation of Virginia and the southern colonies. Those colonies urged Gen. Lee for the second place in the army, but Adams insisted on giving that to Artemas Ward, then commanding the New England army belore Boston, lie supported Lee, however, for the third place. Having assumed the direction of this army, provided for its reorganization, and issued bills of credit to support it, congress took a short recess. Adams, returning home, sat in the interval as a member of the Massachusetts council, which, treating the office of governor as vacant, had, under a clause of the provincial charter in tended to meet such cases, assumed the ex ecutive authority. On returning to Phila delphia in September, Adams found himself in hot water. Two confidential letters of his, written during the previous session, had been intercepted by the British in crossing Hudson river, and had been published in the Boston papers. Not only did these letters JOHN ADAMS 87 evince a zeal for decisive measures which made ! the writer an object of suspicion to the more j conservative of his fellow members of con- j gress, but his reference in one of them to u the whims, the caprice, the vanity, the superstition, i the irritability " of some of his colleagues, and j in particular to John Dickinson as a certain great fortune but piddling genius," made him j personal enemies who never forgave him. But j though for the moment an object of distrust to j some of his colleagues, this did not save him j from hard work. k I am engaged in constant j business," so he wrote about this time, " from j seven to ten in the morning in committee, from j ten to four in congress, and from six to ten again | in committee. Our assembly is scarcely numer ous enough for the business ; everybody is en- i gaged all day in congress, and all the morning I and evening in committees." The committee ! which chiefly engaged Mr. Adams s attention at j this time was one on fitting out cruisers, and ! on naval affairs generally. This committee i laid the first foundation of an American navy, j a body of rules and regulations for which the j basis of our existing naval code was drawn i up by Adams. Governor Wentworth having i fled from New Hampshire, the people of that i province applied to congress for advice as to ; the method of administration they should adopt. Adams seized the opportunity to urge j the necessity of advising all the provinces to j proceed at once to institute governments of j their own. Tiie news which soon arrived of j the supercilious treatment of the petition of j congress to the king added strength to his | views, and the matter being referred to a com- j mittee on which Adams was placed, a report ; in partial conformity to his ideas was made and j adopted. Having been offered the post of chief j justice of Massachusetts, Adams toward the j end of the year returned home to consult on | that and other important subjects. He took i his seat in the council, of which he had been ! chosen a member immediately on his arrival, j and was consulted by Washington both as to i sending Gen. Lee to New York, and as to the i expedition against Canada. It was finally ar ranged that while Adams should accept the appointment of chief justice, he should still ! remain a delegate in congress, and till more ! quiet times should be excused from acting as ; judge. Under this arrangement he returned to i Philadelphia early in 1776. He never took his ; seat as chief justice, but resigned that office i the next year. Advice similar to that to New i Hampshire, on the subject of assuming govern- < ment, as it was called, had been shortly after ! given upon similar applications to congress ! from South Carolina and Virginia. Adams was j much consulted by members of the southern j delegation (as being better versed than them- j selves in the subject of republicanism, both by | study and experience, coming as he did from I the most thoroughly republican section of the i country) concerning the form of government ! which they should adopt. Of several letters i which he w r rote on this subject, one more elab orate than the others was printed, under the title of u Thoughts on Government applicable to the Present State of the American Colo nies." This pamphlet, largely circulated in Virginia, as a preliminary to the adoption of a form of government by that State, was to a certain extent a rejoinder to that part of Paine s famous pamphlet of ik Common Sense" which advocated government by a single assembly. It was also intended to controvert the aristo cratic views, somewhat prevalent in Virginia, of those who advocated a governor and senate for life. Adams s system of policy embraced the adoption of self-government by each of the colonies, a confederation, and treaties with foreign powers. This system he continued to urge with zeal and increasing success, till finally, on May 13, he carried a resolution through congress, by which so much of his plan was indorsed by that body as related to the as sumption of self-government by the several colonies. The first step thus taken, the others soon followed. A resolution that the United States "are and ought to be free and indepen dent," introduced by R. H. Lee, under instruc tions from the Virginia convention, was very warmly supported by Adams, and carried, seven states to six. Three committees, one on a dec laration of independence, another on confed eration, and a third on foreign relations, were shortly after appointed. Of the first and third of these committees Adams was a member. The declaration of independence was drawn up by Jefferson, but on Adams devolved the task of battling it through congress in a three days debate, during which it underwent some curtailment. The plan of a treaty reported by the third committee, and adopted by congress, was drawn up by Adams. His views did not extend beyond merely commercial treaties. He was opposed to seeking any political connection with France, or any military or even naval as sistance from her or any foreign power. On June 12 congress had established a board of war and ordnance, to consist of five members, with a secretary, clerk, &c. in fact, a war de partment. As originally constituted, the mem bers of this board were taken from congress, and John Adams was made its chairman or president. This position, which was one of great labor and responsibility, as the chief bur den of the duties fell upon him, he continued to hold for the next eighteen months, with the exception of a necessary absence at the close of the year 1776, to recruit his health. The busi ness of preparing articles of war for the govern ment of the army was deputed to a committee composed of Adams and Jefferson ; but Jeffer son, according to Adams s account, threw upon him the whole burden, not only of drawing up the articles which he borrowed mostly from those of Great Britain but of arguing them through congress, which was no small task. Adams strongly opposed Lord Howe s invita tion to a conference, sent to congress after the 88 JOHN" ADAMS battle of Long Island, through his prisoner, Gen. Sullivan, lie was, however, appointed one of the committee for that purpose, along with Franklin and Rutledge, and his autobiog raphy contains some curious anecdotes of the visit. Besides his presidency of the board of war, Adams was also chairman of the commit tee upon which devolved the decision of appeals in admiralty cases from the state courts. Having thus occupied for nearly two years a position which gained him the reputation among at least a portion of his colleagues of having "the clearest head and firmest heart of any man in congress, 1 he was appointed near the end of the year 1777 a commissioner to France to supersede Deane, whom congress had determined to recall. He embarked at Boston, in the frigate Boston, on Feb. 12, 1778, reached Bordeaux after a stormy passage, and arrived on April 8 at Paris. Already before his arrival the alliance with France had been completed, and his stay was not long. He found that a very great antagonism of views and feeling had arisen between the three commissioners, Frank lin, Deane, and Arthur Lee, of whom the em bassy to France had been originally composed ; and as the recall of Deane had not reconciled the other two, Adams advised, as the only means of giving unity and energy to the mis sion, that it should be intrusted to a single person. This suggestion was adopted, and in consequence of it, Franklin having been ap pointed sole ambassador in France, Adams returned home in the same French frigate which took out the new French minister, the chevalier de la Luzerne. He arrived at Boston just as a convention was about to meet to form a state constitution for Massachusetts; and being chosen a delegate from Braintree, he took a leading part in its formation. Before this convention had finished its business, he was appointed by congress minister to treat with Great Britain for peace and commerce, under which appointment lie sailed again for France in 1779, in the same French frigate in which he had returned. Very contrary to his own in clinations, Mr. Adams was prevented by Ver- gennes, the French minister of foreign affairs, from making to Great Britain any communi cation of his powers. In fact, Vergennes and Adams already were and continued to be to each other objects of serious distrust, in both cases quite unfounded. Vergennes feared lest advances toward treating with England might lead to some sort of reconciliation with her short of the independence of the colo nies, which was contrary to his ideas of the in terest of France. The communications made to him by Gerard, the first French minister in America, and Adams s connection with the Lees, whom Vergennes suspected, though un justly, of a secret communication through Ar thur Lee with the British ministry, led him to regard Mr. Adams as the representative of a party in congress desirous of such a reconcilia tion ; nor did he rest till he had obtained from ! congress, some two years after, the recall of I Mr. Adams s powers to negotiate a treaty of commerce, and the conjunction with him of several colleagues to treat for peace, of whom ! Franklin, who enjoyed his entire confidence, j was one. Adams, on the other hand, not en tirely free from hereditary English prejudices against the French, vehemently suspected Ver- i gennes of a design to sacrifice the interests of the United States, especially the fisheries and the western lands, to the advancement of the 1 Spanish house of Bourbon. While lingering at i Paris, with nothing to do except to nurse these ! suspicions, Adams busied himself in furnishing I communications on American affairs to a semi official gazette, the Ncrcure de France, con ducted by M. Genet, chief secretary in the for eign bureau, and father of the French minis ter in America, who subsequently rendered that name so notorious. Finding his position at Paris not very comfortable, he proceeded to Holland in July, 1780, his object being to form an opinion as to the probability of bor rowing money there. Just about the same time he was appointed by congress to nego tiate a Dutch loan, Laurens, who had been se lected for that purpose, being not yet ready to leave home. By way of enlightening the Dutch as to American affairs, Adams published in the " Gazette " of Leyden, and in a mag azine called Politique hollandaise, a number of papers and extracts, including several which, through a friend, he procured to be first pub lished in a London journal, to give to them an English character. To these he added a direct publication of his own, afterward many times reprinted, and to be found in the 7th volume of his collected works, under the title of "Twenty-six Letters upon Interesting Sub jects, respecting the Revolution in America." He had commenced negotiations for a loan, when his labors in that direction were inter rupted by the sudden breach between England and Holland, consequent upon the capture of Laurens, and the discovery of the secret nego tiation carried on between him and Van Ber- kel of Amsterdam, which, though it had been entered upon without authority from the Dutch states, the British made the pretence for a speedy declaration of war. Adams was soon after appointed minister to Holland in place of the captured Laurens, and at the same time was commissioned to sign the articles of armed neutrality, which had just made their appear ance on the political scene. Adams presented memorials to the Dutch government, setting forth his powers in both respects ; but before he could procure any recognition, he was re called in July, 1781, to Paris, by a notice that he was needed there in his character of minis ter, to treat of peace. Adams s suspicions of Vergennes had, meanwhile, been not a little increased by the neglect of France to second his applications to Holland. With Vergennes the great object was peace. The finances of France were sadly embarrassed. Vergennes JOHN ADAMS 89 wished no further complications to the war, and, provided tha English colonies should be definitely separated from the mother country, which he considered indispensable to the in terest of France, he was not disposed to insist on anything else. It was for this reason that he had urged upon congress, through the French minister at Philadelphia, and just about this time had succeeded in obtaining from congress though the information had not yet reached Paris not only the with drawal of Adams s commission to treat of commerce, and the enlargement to five of the number of commissioners to treat of peace, but an absolute discretion intrusted to the nego tiators as to everything except independence and the additional* direction that in the last re sort they were to be governed by Vergennes s advice. The cause of sending for Adams, who still occupied, so tar as was known at Paris, the position of sole negotiator for peace, was the offer of a mediation on the part of Russia and the German empire. But this offer led to nothing. Great Britain haughtily rejected it on the ground that she would not allow France to stand between her and her colonies. Re turning to Holland, Mr. Adams, though still unsupported by Vergennes, pushed with great energy his reception as ambassador by the states general, which at length, April 19, 1782, h3 succeeded in accomplishing. Following up this success with his customary perseverance, he succeeded before the end of the year in ne gotiating a Dutch loan of two millions of dol- 1 irs, the first of a series which proved a chief financial resource of the continental congress i.i its later days. He also succeeded in nego tiating a treaty of amity and commerce. His success in these negotiations, considering the obstacles he had to encounter, and the want of support from Vergennes, he was accustomed to regard as the greatest triumph of his life. Before this business was completed, Mr. Adams received urgent calls to come to Paris, where Jay and Franklin, two of the new commission ers, were already treating for peace, and where hs arrived Oct. 28. Though Mr. Jay had been put into ths diplomatic service by the procure ment of the party in congress in the French interest, his diplomatic experience in Spain had led him to entertain doubts also as to the sincere good will of Vergennes. A confiden tial despatch from M. Marbois, French secre tary of legation in America, intercepted by the British, and which Oswald, the British nego tiator at Paris, communicated to Franklin and Jay, with a view to make bad feeling between them and the French minister, had, along with other circumstances, induced Franklin and Jay to disregard their instructions, and to proceed to treat with Oswald without communicating that fact to Vergennes, or taking his advice as to the terms of the treaty a procedure in which Adams, after his arrival, fully con curred. It was chiefly through his energy and persistence that the participation of America in the fisheries was secured by the treaty, not as a favor or privilege, but as a right a matter of much greater importance then than now, the fisheries being at that time a more important branch than now of American maritime indus try. Immediately upon the signature of the preliminary articles of peace, Adams asked leave to resign all his commissions and to re turn home, to which congress responded by appointing him a commissioner jointly with Franklin and Jay to negotiate a treaty of com merce with Great Britain. His first visit to England was, however, in a private character, to recruit his health, after a violent fever with which he had been attacked, shortly after sign ing the treaty of peace. He spent some time first at London, and afterward at Bath ; but while still an invalid he was recalled, in the dead of winter, to Holland, which he reached only after a very stormy and uncom fortable passage, there to negotiate a new loan, as the means of meeting government bills drawn in America, which were in danger of protest from want of funds a business in which he succeeded, though not without pay ing a pretty high premium. Adams was in cluded, along with Franklin and Jefferson, the latter sent out to take the place of Jay, in a new commission to form treaties with foreign powers; and his being joined by Mrs. Adams and their only daughter and youngest son, his other two sons being already with him, recon ciled him to the idea of remaining abroad. With his family about him he fixed his resi dence at Auteuil, near Paris, where he had an interval of comparative leisure and enjoy ment. The chief business of the new commis sion was the negotiation of a treaty with Prussia, advances toward which had first been been made to Adams while at the Hague, ne gotiating the Dutch loan. But before that treaty was ready for signature, Adams was appointed by congress minister to the court of St. James s, where he arrived in May, 1785. The English government, of which the feel ings were well represented by those of the king, had neither the magnanimity nor the policy to treat the new American states with generosity, nor hardly with justice. Adams was received with civility, but no commercial arrangements could be made, and his chief employment was that of complaining of the non-execution of the treaty . of peace, es pecially in relation to the non-surrender of the western posts, and in attempting to meet similar complaints urged not without strong grounds on the part of the British, more par ticularly as to the obstacles put in the way of the collection of British debts, which were made an excuse for the detention of the west ern posts. Made sensible in many ways of the aggravation of British feelings toward the new republic, whose condition immediately after the peace was somewhat embarrassing, and not so flattering as it might have been to the advocates and promoters of the revolution, 90 JOHX ADAMS the situation of Adams was rather mortifying J than agreeable. Meanwhile he was obliged to j pay a new visit to Holland to negotiate a new loan as a means of paying the interest on the j Dutch debt. He was also engaged in a corre- ! spondence with his fellow commissioner, Mr. j Jefferson, then at Paris, on the subject of a j treaty with the Barbary powers and the return i of the Americans held captive by them. But his most engrossing occupation at this time was the preparation of his "Defence of the American Constitutions," of which the object j was the justification of balanced governments i and a division of powers, especially the legis lative, against the idea of a single assembly and a pure democracy, which had begun to find many ardent advocates, especially on the continent. The greater part, however, of this book the most voluminous of his publications consists of summaries of the histories of the Italian republics, by no means essential to the argument, and rather an excrescence. Though it afterward subjected the author to charges of monarchical and anti-republican tendencies, this book was not without its influence on the adoption of the federal constitution, during the discussion upon which the first volume of it appeared. Great Britain not having recipro cated the compliment by appointing a minister to the United States, and there being no prospect of his being able to accomplish any of the objects of his mission, Adams had solicited a recall, which was sent out to him in February, 1788, accompanied by a resolution of congress conveying the thanks of that body for "the patriotism, perseverance, integrity, and diligence " which he had displayed in his ten years service abroad. Immediately on his arrival home, Mr. Adams was reappointed a delegate from Massachusetts to the continental congress; but he never resumed his seat in that body, which was now just about to expire. When the new government came to be organized under the newly adopted federal constitution, as all were agreed to make Wash ington president, attention was turned to ISTew England for a vice president. This office was then regarded as of much higher consequence than now. In fact, as the constitution originally stood, the candidates for the presi dency and vice presidency were voted for without any distinct specification, the second office falling to the person who had the second highest vote. Out of 69 electors, John. Adams had the votes of 34 ; and this being the second highest number, he was declared vice presi dent. The other 35 votes were scattered upon no less than 10 candidates. By virtue of his new office he became president of the senate, a position not very agreeable to his active and leading temperament, better fitted for debate, but one in which the close division in the senate, resulting often in a tie between the supporters and the opponents of the new system, gave him many times a controlling voice. In the first congress he gave no few- er than 20 casting votes, always upon im portant organic laws, and always in support of Washington s policy. Down to this period Adarns had sympathized in political feeling and sentiment with Jefferson, with whom he had served both in the continental congress and abroad. On the question of the French revolution, which now burst upon the world, a difference of opinion arose between them. From the very beginning Adams, then almost alone, had augured no good from that move ment. As the revolution went on and began to break out in excesses, others began to be of this opinion. Adams then gave public ex pression to some of his ideas on that subject in a series of u Discourses on Davila," fur nished to a Philadelphia newspaper and after ward collected into a volume. Taking the history of nations, particularly Davila s account of the French civil wars, and the general aspects of human society as his text, Adams pointed out as the great springs of human activity, at least in all that related to politics, the love of superiority, the desire of distinction, admiration, and applause ; nor in his opinion could any government be perma nent or secure which did not provide as well for the reasonable gratification as for the due restraint of this powerful passion. Repudi ating that democracy pure and simple then coming into vogue, and of which Jefferson was the advocate, he insisted that a certain mixture of aristocracy and monarchy was necessary to that balance of interests and sentiments without which, as lie maintained, free governments could not exist. This work, which reproduced more at length and in a more obnoxious form the fundamental ideas of his " Defence of the American Constitutions," made Adams a great bugbear to the ultra- democratic supporters of the principles and policy of the French revolutionists; and at the second presidential election in 1792, they set up as a candidate against him George Clinton of New York. But Mr. Adams was reflected by a decided vote. The wise policy of neu trality adopted by Washington received the hearty concurrence of Adams. While Jeffer son left the cabinet to become in nominal retirement the leader of the opposition, Adams continued as vice president to give Wash ing- ton s administration the benefit of his casting vote. It was only by this means that a neu trality act was carried through the senate, and that the progress was stopped of certain resolutions which had previously passed in the house of representatives, embodying restrictive measures against Great Britain, intended or at least calculated to counterwork the mission to England on which Mr. Jay had already been sent. Washington being firmly resolved to retire at the close of his second presidential term, the question of the successorship now presented itself. Jefferson was the leader of the opposition, who called themselves repub licans, the name democrat being yet in bad JOHN ADAMS 91 odor, and, though often imposed as a term of reproach, not yet voluntarily assumed except by a few more ultra partisans. Hamilton was the leader of the federal party, as the sup porters of Washington s administration had christened themselves. But thougli Ham ilton s zeal and energy had made him, even while like Jefferson in nominal retirement, the leader of the federalists, he could hardly be said to hold the same place with them that Jefferson did with the republicans, whose presidential candidate he was, a position among the federalists which belonged less to Hamilton than to Adams or Jay, whose greater age and longer public service placed them more conspicuously in the public eye. Ham ilton, though he had always spoken of Adams as a man of unconquerable intrepidity and incorruptible integrity, and as such had al ready twice supported him for vice president, would yet have much preferred Jay. The po sition of Adams was, however, such as to render his election more probable than that of Jay, and to determine bis selection as the candidate of the federalists. Jay, by his nego tiation of the 4 famous treaty which bore his name, had for the moment drawn down upon himself a strong feeling of hostility on the part of its numerous and bitter opponents. Adams stood, moreover, as vice president in the line of promotion, and was more sure of the New England vote, which was absolutely indispensable to the success of either. One of the candidates being taken from the North, it seemed politic to select the other from the South, and the federalist leaders pitched for that purpose upon Thomas Pinckney of South Carolina. Indeed, there were some, and Hamilton was among the num ber, who secretly wished that Pinckney might receive the larger vote, and so be chosen presi dent over Adams s head a result, from the likelihood of Pinckney *s obtaining more votes than Adams at the South (as he really did), al most sure to happen could the northern federal electors be persuaded to vote equally for Adams and for Pinckney, which Hamilton la bored to effect. The fear, however, that Pinck ney might be chosen over Adams, led to the withholding from Pinckney of eighteen New England votes, so that the result was not only to make Jefferson vice president, as having more votes than Pinckney, but also to excite prejudices and suspicions in the mind of Adams against Hamilton, which, being reciprocated by him, led speedily to the disruption and final overthrow of the federal party. It had almost happened, such was the equal division of par ties, that Jefferson had this time been chosen president, the election of Adams, who had 71 votes to Jefferson s 69, being only secured by two stray votes cast for him, one in Vir ginia and the other in North Carolina, trib utes of revolutionary reminiscences and per sonal esteem. Chosen by this slender major ity, Mr. Adams succeeded to office (March 4, 1797) at a very dangerous and exciting crisis of affairs. The progress of the French revolu tion had superinduced upon previous party di visions a new and very vehement one. Jef ferson s supporters, who sympathized very warmly with the French republic, gave their moral if not their positive support to tho claim set up by its rulers, but which Wash ington had refused to admit, that under the provisions of the French treaty of alliance the United States were bound to support France against Great Britain, at least in the defence of her West India possessions. The other party, the supporters of Adams, upheld the policy of neutrality adopted by Washing ton. At the same time that Washington had sent Jay to England to arrange, if possible, the pending difficulties with that country, wishing also to keep on good terms with the French republic, he had recalled Gouverneur Morris, who as minister to France had made himself obnoxious to the now predominant party there, and had appointed James Mon roe in his place. Monroe, instead of conforming to his instructions and attempting to reconcile the French to Jay s mission, had given them assurances on the subject quite in contradiction with the treaty as made, both the formation and ratification of which Monroe had done hi.-; best to defeat. He had in consequence been recalled by Washington shortly before tho close of his term of office, and C. C. Pinckney, a brother of Thomas Pinckney, had been appoint ed in his place. The French authorities, of fended at this change and at the ratification of Jay s treaty in spite of their remonstrances, while they dismissed Monroe with great ova tions, refused to receive the new ambassador sent in his place, at the same time issuing de crees and orders highly injurious to American commerce. Almost the first act of Mr. Adams as president was to call an extra session of congress to consider what should be dene. Not only was a war with France greatly to be dreaded and deprecated on account of her great military and naval power, but still more so on account of the very formidable party which, among the ultra republicans, she could muster within the states themselves. Under these cir cumstances, the measure resolved upon by Adams and his cabinet was the appointment of a new and more solemn commission to France, composed of Pinckney and two colleagues, for which purpose the president selected John Marshall of Virginia and Elbridge Gerry of Mas sachusetts. But instead of receiving and open ly treating with those commissioners, Talley rand, lately an exile in America, but now sec retary of foreign affairs to the French directory, entered into an intrigue with them through several unaccredited and unofficial agents, of which the object was to induce them to promise a round bribe to the directors and a large sum of money to the exhausted French treasury, by way of purchasing forbearance. As Pinckney and Marshall appeared less pliable than Gerry, JOHN ADAMS Talleyrand finally obliged them to leave, after which he attempted, though still without suc cess, to extract money or promises of it from Gerry alone. The publication of the despatches in which these discreditable intrigues were disclosed (an event on which Talleyrand had not calculated) produced a great excitement botli in Europe and America. Tal eyrand at tempted to escape by disavowing his agents, and pretending that the American ministers had been imposed upon by adventurers. Gerry left France, and the violation of American commercial and maritime rights was pushed to new extremes. In America the effect of all this was greatly to strengthen for the moment the federal party. The grand jury of the fed eral circuit court for Pennsylvania set the ex ample of an address to the president, applaud ing his manly stand for the rights and dignity of the nation. Philadelphia, which, under the lead of Mifflin, McKean, and others, had gone over to the opposition, was suddenly converted once more, as during Washington s first term, to the support of the federal government. That city was then the headquarters of the American newspaper press. All the hitherto neutral papers published there, as well as several others which had more or less deci dedly leaned to the opposition, came out now in behalf of Adams. Besides an address from five thousand citizens, the young men got up a separate address of their own. This ex ample was speedily imitated all over the coun try, and the spirited replies of the president, who was now in his element, served in their turn to blow up and sustain the blaze of patri otic indignation. These addresses, circulated everywhere in the newspapers, were collected at the time in a volume, and they reappear in Adams s works, of which they form a charac teristic portion. A navy was set on foot, the old continental navy having become extinct, and an army was voted and partly levied, of Avhich Washington accepted the chief com mand. Merchant ships were authorized to pro tect themselves. The treaty with France was declared to be at an end, and a quasi war with France ensued. It was not, however, the policy of France to drive the United States into the arms of Great Britain. Even before Gerry s departure Talleyrand had made some advances toward reconciliation, Avhich were afterward renewed by communications opened with Vans Murray, the American minister to Holland. The effect of the French outrages and of the progress of the French revolution had been to create, in a part at least of the federal party, the desire for an absolute breach with France a desire felt by Hamilton, and by three at least out of the four cabinet offi cers whom Adams had found and had kept in office. In his message to congress announc ing the expulsion of Pinckney and Marshall, Adams had declared "that he would never send another minister to France without as surances that he would be received." This was on the 21st of July, 1798. When, there fore, on the 18th of February following, with out CUD suiting his cabinet or giving them any intimation of his intentions, he sent into the senate the nomination of Vans Murray as min ister to France, this act took the country by surprise, and hastened the downfall of the federal party. Some previous acts of Adams, such as the appointment of Gerry, which his cabinet officers had striven to prevent, and his disinclination to make Hamilton second in command of the army till forced into it by Washington, had strengthened the distrust en tertained of Adams by Hamilton and many of his friends ; and Adams was now accused of seeking, in his attempt to reopen diplomatic intercourse with France, to reconcile his polit ical opponents of the republican party, and to secure by unworthy and impolitic concessions his own reelection as president. The opposition to Murray s nomination so far prevailed that Murray received two colleagues, Ellsworth of Connecticut and Davie of North Carolina; but the president would not authorize the departure of Ellsworth and Davie till he had received explicit assurances from Talleyrand that they would be duly received as ministers. On arriving in France they found the directory superseded and Napoleon Bonaparte first con sul, w T ith whom they managed to arrange the matters in dispute. But, however beneficial to the country, this mission proved very disastrous to Adams personally, and to the political party to which he belonged. He justified its appoint ment on the ground of assurances conveyed to him through a variety of channels that France desired peace, and he excused himself for not having consulted his cabinet by the fact that he knew what their opinion wr.s without asking them decidedly hostile, that is, to any such attempt as he had determined to make. The masses of the federalists, fully confident of Adams s patriotism, were well enough disposed to acquiesce in his judgment ; but many of the leaders were implacable. The quarrel w r as fur ther aggravated by Adams s dismissal at this time of his cabinet officers and the construction of anew cabinet, The pardon of Fries, convicted of treason for armed resistance in Pennsylvania to the levy of certain direct taxes, was also re garded by many at the time as a piece of mis placed lenity on the part of Adams, dictated, it was said, by a mean desire of popularity in a case in which severe example was needed. But Adams will hardly suffer with posterity from his unwillingness to be the first president to sign a death warrant for treason, especially as there was room for grave doubts whether the doings of this person amounted to treason as defined by the constitution of the United States. In this divided condition of the fed eral party the presidential election came on. Adams was still too popular with the mass of the party to encourage any attempt to drop him altogether, and the malcontents were reduced to the old expedient of attempting by secret JOHN ADAMS 93 understand ing and arrangement to reduce his vote in the electoral college below that of C. 0. Pinckney, the other of the two candidates voted for by the federalists. The republicans, on the other hand, under the prospect of an ar rangement with France, rapidly recovered from the blow inflicted upon them by the violence and mercenary rapacity lately charged upon their French friends, but which they now in sisted was a charge without foundation. Taking advantage of the dissatisfaction at the heavy taxes necessarily imposed to meet the expenses of warlike preparations, and especially of the unpopularity of the alien law and the sedition law two acts of congress to which the pros pect of war had led they pushed the canvass with great energy ; while in Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr they had two leaders unsur passed for skill in party tactics, and in Burr, at least, one little scrupulous as to the means which he employed. Not only was the whole blame of the alien and sedition acts, to which he had merely assented without ever having recommended them, laid on Adams s shoulders, but he was the object of most vehement and bitter attacks for having surrendered up, under one of the provisions of Jay s treaty, one Thomas Nash, an English sailor, charged with mutiny and murder. Having been recognized and arrested in Charleston, S. C., Nasli had endeavored to save himself by assuming the name and character of Jonathan Bobbins, an American citizen, in the light of which assumed character the greater part of Adams s political opponents insisted upon exclusively regarding him, and Adams himself as having basely yielded up an American citizen, who, it was argued, even if guilty of mutiny as charged, had been justified in it by the fact of having been, as it was alleged, previously pressed into the British naval service. Nor was it against his public acts alone, nor even to his political opponents, that these assaults upon Mr. Adams were confined. With strong feeling and busy imagination, loving both to talk and write, Adams had been betrayed into many confidences and into free expression of feelings, opinions, and even conjectures and suspicions a weak ness very unsuited to the character of a politi cian, and which he had frequent occasion to rue. During Washington s first term of office he had thus been led into a confidential corre spondence with Tench Coxe, who held at that time the place of assistant secretary of the treasury, and had afterward been appointed supervisor of the internal revenue, but who since Adams s accession had been dismissed from this place .on the charge of being a spy upon the treasury department in the service of the "Aurora," the principal newspaper organ of the opposition, with which party Coxe sym pathized, and since his recent dismissal from office had acted. In this state of mind Coxe betrayed a private confidential letter of Adams, which, after having been handed about in manu script for some time, to the great damage of Adams with his own party, was finally printed in the "Aurora," of which Coxe had become one of the principal contributors. The purport of this letter, written as long ago as May, 1792, was to give countenance to the favorite charge of the opposition that Washington s cabinet, and of course Adams s, which followed the same policy, was under British influence, and that Thomas Pinckney and his brother C. C. Pinck ney, candidates with Adams on the federal presidential ticket, were especially obnoxious to this suspicion. The publication of this letter was followed up by a still more deadly blow in the shape of a pamphlet written and printed and signed by Hamilton, and probably intended by him for private distribution among the federal leaders, but which was made public by Aaron Burr, who had succeeded in possessing himself of some of the proof sheets. This pamphlet had its origin in the same charge against Hamil ton of being under British influence, thrown out by Adams in private conversation, and as to which, when written to by Hamilton, he had refused to give any explanation, though when a similar request was made by C. C. Pinckney in consequence of the publication of the letter to Coxe, Adams fully exonerated both him and his brother in a published letter from any sus picion which his letter to Coxe might seem cal culated to convey. Hamilton declared in the conclusion of his pamphlet, that as things then stood he did not recommend the withholding from Adams of a single vote. Yet it was the leading object of his pamphlet to show, without denying Adams s patriotism and integrity, or even his talents, that he had great and intrinsic defects of character which disqualified him for the place of chief magistrate, and the effect which he desired it to have must have been to gjve C. C. Pinckney the presidency, by causing a certain number of votes to be withheld from Adams. The result, however, of the election was to throw out both the federal candidates. Adams received 65 votes and Pinckney 61, while Jefferson and Burr had 73 each. In the ensuing struggle between Jefferson and Burr Adams took no part. Immediately on the expira tion of his term of office (1801) he left Wash ington, to which shortly before the seat of gov ernment had been removed, without even stop ping to be present at the inauguration of Jef ferson, against whom he felt a sense of personal wrong, probably thinking he had been deluded by false professions as to Jefferson s views on the presidential chair. This state of feeling on the part of Adams led to a strict non-intercourse for the next 13 years, though both were much given to letter-writing, and had previously, at least till within a short time before, been on terms of friendly correspondence. The only acknowledgment for his 25 years services to the nation which Mr. Adams carried with him in this unwelcome and mortifying retirement, was the privilege which had been granted to Washington on his withdrawal from the presi dency, and after his death to his widow, 94: JOHN ADAMS and bestowed likewise upon all subsequent ex- presidents and their widows, of receiving his letters free of postage for the remainder of his life. Fortunately for Adarns, his thrifty hab its and love of independence, sustained during his absence from home by the economical and managing talents of his wife, had enabled him to add to the savings from his pro fession before entering public life, savings from his salaries enough to make up a suf ficient property to support him for the rest of his life in a style of decent propriety and solid comfort, in conformity to his ideas. Almost all his savings he had invested in the farming lands about him. Jn his vocabulary, property meant land. With all the rapid wealth then being acquired by trade and navigation, he had no confidence in the permanency of any property but land, views in which he was con firmed by the commercial revulsions of which he lived to be a witness. lie was the possessor, partly by inheritance and partly by purchase, of his father s farm, including the house in which he was himself born ; but he had trans ferred his own residence to a larger and hand somer dwelling near by, forfeited by one of the refugee tones of the revolution, and of which he had become the purchaser, where he spent the next quarter of a century. In this comfortable home, acquired by himself, he sought consolation for his troubled spirit in the cultivation of his lands, in books, and in the bosom of his family. Mrs. Adams, to her capacities as a housekeeper, steward, and farm manager, added a brightness and activity of mind and a range of reading, such as fully qualified her to sympathize with her husband in his public as well as his private career. She shared his taste for books, and, as his published letters to her are unsurpassed by any American letters ever yet printed, so hers to him as well as to others, from which a selection has also been published, show her, though with less of nature and more of formality than his letters exhibit, yet worthy of the admiration and re spect as well as of the tenderness with which he always regarded her. To affections strong enough to respond to his, a sympathy equal to his highest aspirations, a proud feeling of su periority and an enjoyment of it equal to his own, she added what is not always found in such company, a flexibility sufficient to yield to his stronger will, without disturbance to her serenity or his. and without the least compro mise of her own dignity or her husband s re spect and deference for her. While she was not ignorant of the foibles of his character, and knew how to avail herself of them when a good purpose was to be served by it, yet her admiration of his abilities, her reliance upon his judgment, her confidence in his goodness, and her pride in his achievements, made her always ready to yield and to conform. His happiness and honor were always her leading object. This union was blessed with children well calculated to add to its happiness. Mr. Adams indeed had the misfortune to lose by death, just at the moment of his retirement from office, private grief being thus added to po litical disappointment, his second son, Charles. He had grown to manhood, had been married and had settled in New York with flattering prospects, but had died under painful circum stances, which his father speaks of in a con temporary letter as the deepest affliction of his life, leaving a wife and two infant children de pendent on him. Col. Smith, an officer of the revolution, who had been Adams s secretary of legation at London, and who had married his only daughter, did not prove in all respects such a son-in-law as he could have wished. His pecuniary affairs becoming embarrassed, his father-in-law had provided for him by sev eral public appointments, the last of which was that of surveyor of the port of New York, which position he was allowed to hold till 1807, when he was removed from it in conse quence of his implication in Miranda s expedi tion. Nor did Thomas Boylston Adams, the third son, though a person of accomplishments and talents, fully answer the hopes of his parents. But all these disappointments were more than made good by the oldest son, John Quincy Adams, who subsequently to his recall from the diplomatic service abroad, into which Washington had introduced him, and in which his father (urged to it by a letter from Wash ington) had promoted him, was chosen one of the senators in congress from Massachusetts. All consolations, domestic or otherwise, at Mr. Adams s command, were fully needed. Never did a statesman sink more suddenly, at a time too when his powers of action and inclination for it seemed wholly unimpaired, from a lead ing position to more absolute political insig nificance. His grandson tells us that while the letters addressed to him in the year prior to March 1, 1801, may be counted by thou sands, those of the next year scarcely number a hundred, while he wrote even fewer than he received. Nor was mere neglect the worst of it. He sank, loaded with the jibes, the sneers, the execrations even of both political parties into which the nation was divided. It is easy to see now that hardly any degree of union or skill on the part of the federalists, a minority from the beginning and only sustained from the first by the name of Washington and the talent and activity of the inferior leaders, could have prevented the ultimate triumph of the other party. But, as is usual with con temporaries, the disposition then was to ex plain everything by the skill or luck of indi vidual movements, and a large portion of the most active leaders of the federal party were inclined to hold Adams personally answerable both for the breach in their ranks and for their subsequent overthrow. At the same time, the other party, identifying him with all the meas ures most obnoxious to them, especially the alien and sedition laws, long continued to use his name as a sort of synonyme for aristocracy, JOHN" ADAMS 95 longing after monarchy, bigotry, tyranny, and oppression in general. Especially were they enraged at the passage by the last congress, just before the clo^e of his and their term of office, of a new judiciary act, or rather at Adams s presuming to till up with federalists the twenty-three new judicial offices, besides attorneys, marshals, and clerks, created by this act. These nominations, stigmatized as mid night appointments," were assailed, as well as he who made them, by every term of party re proach ; nor did the now triumphant republi cans rest until, unable to reach these appointees in any other way, they had stripped them of their offices by repealing the act. Though Adams was far more of a speculative philoso pher tli an any of his contemporaries in the field of American politics, except Jefferson, he was by no means philosopher enough to sub mit with patience to the obloquy with which he was new visited. In the agony of his heart he sat down to defend himself with his pen, at least before the tribunal of posterity. He had been in the habit of keeping, during intervals of his life, a diary or journal, large and very valuable extracts from which appear in the 2d and 3d volumes of his collected works. He now set himself to writing an " Autobiogra phy " and a reply to Hamilton s pamphlet. But though he wrote with great facility and force, neither his eyes, which were weak, his hand* which trembled so as to make the me chanical labor of writing disagreeable, nor yet his habits or his temperament, were favorable to the labor of correction, condensation, and arrangement ; and he presently abandoned both those works, though some selections from the " Autobiography " have been published by his grandson by way of filling gaps in his diary. Eight years later, when time had somewhat healed over these wounds, they broke out with new malignancy by reason of renewed attacks upon him by the federalists on account of his son John Quincy Adams having abandoned the federal party, and the disposition evinced by the father to sustain the policy of the admin istration, rather than that of the federalists, in the disputes which finally terminated in war with Great Britain. Hitherto the Jeffersonian or democratic party had possessed in Boston as its sole newspaper organ "The Chronicle," a very violent paper, of which the staple in times past had been abuse of John Adams as an aristocrat and a monarchist, and the author of the alien and sedition laws. To represent and express the sentiments of a new cohort, which with the years 1806 and 1807 came in Massachusetts to the support of Jefferson, under the leadership of John Q. Adams, a new paper was established called the Boston Pa triot," to which both John Q. Adams and his father became contributors. In the earliest numbers of this paper, John Adams printed (and it may be found in the 9th volume of his collected works) "The inadmissible Principles of the King of England s Proclamation of Oct. 10, 1807, considered," being an examination and refutation of the English doctrine of im pressment as applied to British subjects. Very soon, however, he dropped these topics of the day, and reverted to the past. The old charge having been anew brought up against him by some of the federalist papers, of personal mo tives in setting on foot the mission to Franco in 1799, he took up that subject in a series of letters to the " Patriot " also printed in his collected works, vol. ix. into which he incor porated much of the material collected for his answer to Hamilton. These letters are a valu able contribution to the history of that inter esting period, and can hardly fail to be re garded as a complete vindication of Adams s policy and conduct on that occasion at least if we allow that the immediate welfare of the nation was to be consulted, rather than any supposed prospective interest of any political party. From this beginning Mr. Adams went on to a history especially of his diplomatic ca reer, into which he introduced many valuable documents in his possession. These publications, interrupted and again commenced from time to time, extended over a space of three years. A portion, embracing perhaps two thirds of the whole, was collected and published in pam phlets, which, bound together, made an octavo volume, entitled " Correspondence of the late President Adams, originally published in the Boston Patriot in a series of letters." Thus disjointed, and written, as parts of it evince, and as his published correspondence of this pe riod more clearly shows, under great exasper ation of feeling, and coming forth, too, at a period when the events of the day engrossed all thoughts, and during which the history of the revolution was less generalh r known and less a subject of public interest than at any time before or since, these letters failed to at tract the public attention or to satisfy Mr. Ad ams s ideal of an historical vindication of himself. Seeing how, amid the ignorance and careless ness of the times, the true history of the revo lution was in danger of total oblivion or of be ing transformed into a sort of legend, he aban doned his task with expressions to his private correspondents of contempt for history, and of utter despair of ever having justice done to him. But with the establishment of peace in Europe, and the apparent fulfilment, at least for the moment, of all Mr. Adams s prophecies as to the result of the French revolution, the bitter political obloquy of which he had been the mark an obloquy directed against him from two opposite quarters at once began sensibly to relax ; and as those who had been contemporaries with his active life one after another dropped off, he himself began to fill, while yet alive, the position in general estima tion of a hero of the past. After Mr. Jefferson s withdrawal from political life, through the agency of Dr. Rush, who had all along re mained the personal friend of both, correspon dence by letter was renewed between Adams 96 ADAMS and Jefferson and kept up for the remainder | of their lives. About the same time also Ad- | ams opened a correspondence with McKean, I his friend and cooperator in revolutionary times, but separated from him in the whirl- | pool of subsequent politics ; and he thus drew I out from McKean some valuable historical \ reminiscences. Mr. Adams indeed gave great attention to the subject of American history. His letters to Mr. Tudor (which led to the pub lication by that gentleman of tbe u Life of James Otis ") shed great light upon the early history of the revolution in Massachusetts. They contributed not a little to give the first impulse to that study of American history, revolutionary and colonial, which, commenc- | ing about that time, has rescued those subjects from the hands of rhetoricians and fabulists, and has produced so many valuable and au thentic historical works. In his correspon dence, which appears to have gradually in creased and extended itself, Mr. Adams loved to recall and to reexplain his theoretical ideas of government, on some points of which he pushed Jefferson rather hard, and which the result of the French revolution so far as then developed seemed to confirm. Another sub ject in which he continued to feel a great in terest was that of theology. He had begun as an Arminian, and the more he had read and thought and the older he grew, the freer views he took. Though clinging with tenacity to the religious institutions of New England, it would seem from his correspondence that he had finally curtailed his theology to the ten commandments and the sermon on the mount. Of his views on tins point he gave evidence in his last public act, to which we now approach. Mrs. Adams had died in 1818, but even that shock, severe as it was, did not unsettle the firm grasp of her husband on life, its enjoy ments and its duties. When, in consequence of the erection of the district of Maine into a separate state, a convention was to meet in 1820 to revise the constitution of Massachu setts, in the framing of which Mr. Adams had taken so leading a part, though in his 86th year, he was chosen a delegate by his towns men. Upon his first appearance, with a form yet erect, though tremulous with age, in this convention, which included almost everybody I in the state of distinguished intelligence or rep utation, Mr. Adams was received by the mem bers standing, and with every demonstration of affection and regard ; and a series of resolu tions was forthwith offered and passed, con taining an enumeration and warm acknowl edgment of some of his principal public ser vices, and calling upon him to preside. But this, while duly acknowledging the compli ment, he declined on the score of his age and infirmities. The same cause also prevented his | taking any very active part in the proceedings. Yet he labored to produce a modification of the third article of the bill of rights, on the subject of public worship and its support, an i article which, when originally drawing the rest of that instrument, he had passed over to other hands. But the time had not yet come for such changes as he wished. The old pu ritan feeling was still in too great force to ac knowledge the equal rights, political and reli gious, of others than Christians. Yet, however it might be with his colleagues or his fellow citizens, Mr. Adams in this movement ex pressed his own ideas. One of his latest let- .ters, written in 1825 and addressed to Jefi er- son, is a remarkable protest against the blas phemy laws, so called, of Massachusetts and the rest of the Union, as being utterly incon sistent with the rights of free inquiry and pri vate judgment. It is in the letters of Mr. Ad ams, of which but a small part have yet been published, that his genius as a writer and thinker, and no less distinctly his character as a man, most clearly appear. Down even to the last year of his protracted life, his letters exhibit a wonderful degree of vitality, energy, acuteness, wit, playfulness, and command of language. As a writer of English, little as he ever troubled himself with revision and correc tion, and we may add as a speculative philos opher, he must be placed first among Ameri cans of all the several generations to which he belonged, except only Franklin ; and if Frank lin excelled him in humor and geniality, he far surpassed Franklin in compass, wit, and viva city. Indeed, it is only by the recent partial publication of his letters that his gifts in this respect are beginning to become known. The first collection of his private letters, published in his lifetime and much against his will, though not deficient in the characteristics above pointed out, yet, having been written under feelings of great aggravation and in a spirit of extreme bitterness toward his politi cal opponents, was rather damaging to him. This publication was one of the incidents of his becoming for a third time, in his extreme age, an object of hostility, confined now, how ever, to a few of the more tenacious of his old federalist opponents, in consequence of the coalition of all parties in New England to sup port his son, J. Q. Adams, for the presidency. In the interval from 1804 to 1812, Mr. Cunningham, a maternal relative, Lad drawn him into a confidential correspondence, in which, still smarting under a sense of injury, he had expressed himself with perfect unreserve and entire freedom as to the chief events of his presidential administration and the character and motives of the parties con cerned in them. By a gross breach of confi dence, of which, like other impulsive and confiding persons, Mr. Adams had been often the victim, those letters were sold by Cun ningham s heir in 1824, while the writer and many of the parties referred to were still alive, and were published as a part of the electioneering machinery against J. Q. Adams. They called out a violent retort from Col. Pickering, who had been secretary of state to JOIIX ADAMS Washington and Adams, till dismissed from office by the latter ; but though Mr. Jefferson was also severely handled in them, they occa sioned no new interruption to the friendly correspondence for some years reestablished between him and Adams. Those two leading actors in American politics^ at first so coop erative and afterward so hostile, again reunited in friendly intercourse, having outlived almost all their fellow actors, continued to descend hand- in hand to the grave. Adams lived to see his son president and to receive Jefferson s congratulations upon it. By a remarkable coincidence, they both expired on the 50th anniversary of that declaration of indepen dence in which they had both taken so active a part, Adams, however, being the survivor by a few hours. Of Adams s personal appear ance and domestic character in his old age, his grandson gives the following account : " In figure John Adams was not tall, scarcely exceeding middle height, but of a stout, well knit frame, denoting vigor and long life, yet as he grew old inclining more and more to corpulence. His head was large and round, with a wide forehead and expanded brows. His eye was mild and benignant, perhaps even humorous when he was free from emotion, but when excited it fully expressed the vehe mence of the spirit that stirred within. His presence was grave and imposing on serious occasions, but not unbending. He delighted in social conversation, in which he was some times tempted to what he called rhodomon- tade. But he seldom fatigued those who heard him ; for he mixed so much of natural vigor of fancy and illustration with the store of his acquired knowledge, as to keep alive their interest for a long time. His affections were warm, though not habitually demon strated toward his relatives. His anger, when thoroughly aroused, was for a time extremely violent, but when it subsided it left no trace of malevolence behind. Xobody could see him intimately without admiring the sim plicity and truth which shone in his actions, and standing in some awe of the power and energy of his will. It was in these moments that he impressed those around him with a sense of his greatness. Even the men em ployed on his farm were in the habit of citing instances, some of which have been remem bered down to the present day. At times his vehemence would become so great as to make him overbearing and unjust. This was most apt to happen in cases of pretension and any kind of wrong-doing. Mr. Adams was very impatient of cant, or of opposition to any of his deeply established convictions. Neither was his indignation at all graduated to the character of the individuals who might happen to excite it. It had little respect of persons, and would hold an illiterate man or a raw boy to as heavy a responsibility for uttering a crude heresy as the strongest thinker or the most profound scholar. 1 The same writer VOL. i. 7 makes the following remarks on his general i character : " His nature was too susceptible to emotions of sympathy and kindness, for it tempted him to trust more than was prudent in the professions of some who proved un- i worthy of his confidence. Ambitious in one j sense he certainly was, but it was not the , mere aspiration for place or power. It was a I desire to excel in the minds of men by the i development of high qualities, the love, in ! short, of an honorable fame, that stirred him : to exult in the rewards of popular favor. Yet i this passion never tempted him to change a ; course of action or to suppress a serious con- I viction, to bend to a prevailing error or to I disavow one odious truth." This last assertion j involves some controverted points of history ; yet this at least must be granted, that it may I be made with far more plausibility of Mr. i Adams than of the greater portion of political men. The pecuniary independence which j previous to his retirement Mr. Adams had j secured by a judicious adaptation of his ex- i penditures to his income, more fortunate than ! Mr. Jefferson, he maintained till the end of I his life. Although he had a large family, in- I eluding grandchildren and great-grandchil- 1 dren, dependent upon him, he yet died in the | possession of a valuable landed estate. See | k Life and Works of John Adams," by Charles i Francis Adams (10 vols. 8vo, Boston, 1850- ! 56), and "Life of John Adams," by J. Q. and I C. F. Adams (2 vols. 8vo, 1871). AD1MS, John, the assumed name of ALEX- i AXDER SMITH, one of the mutineers of the ; British ship Bounty, born in London in 1764, I died on Pitcairn island, March 29, 1829. In j 1787 he joined the Bounty as a common sailor, and was one of those who revolted I against Lieut. Bligh on April 28, 1789. (See i BLIGH, WILLIAM.) On Jan. 23, 1790, after i various adventures, Adams landed with the j other mutineers and a number of Tahitian i men and women on Pitcairn island, where he | spent the rest of his life. In 1800 ho found himself the sole surviving Englishman, and i the only guardian and teacher of a community , of women and children. He organized divine service according to the forms of the church I of England, and acted also as a schoolmaster. i In 1808, when Capt. Mayhew Folger, of the I American ship Topaz, landed on the island, i Adams gave him an account of the feuds : among his companions and the Tahitian men I and women, ending in the violent death of all | except himself and Young. Capt. Folger, in i return, gave him a rapid sketch of the great , events of the preceding 20 years, all of which were entirely new to him. The captain s , report of this extraordinary meeting with Adams bore testimony to the excellent moral , and religious training of the little community, and was accompanied by the chronometer and I azimuth compass of the Bounty, presented to i him by Adams. It was nfter the visit of Capt. i Folger that he changed his real name of 98 ADAMS Alexander Smith to John Adams, to avoid recognition and conviction for mutiny in England. The island was visited only two or three times afterward during Adams s life. In 1825 a man named Buftett was permitted to settle there, and, being well educated, re lieved Adams of the business of teaching. Lady Belcher, in her work on the "Mutineers of the Bounty" (London, 1871), says: "By the mercy of God and by the aid of his Bible and prayer book, which he had so earnestly studied, John Adams succeeded in establish ing such a community as has been the dream of poets and the aspiration of philosophers." (See PITCAIEN ISLAND.) ADAMS, John, LL. D., an American teacher and philanthropist, born in Canterbury, Conn., in 1772, died in Jacksonville, 111., April 24, 1863. He was a son of John Adams, an officer in the revolutionary army from Con necticut, and graduated at Yale college in 1795. Until 1798 he taught the academy in his native town; from 1800 to 1803 he was rector of Plainiield academy; from 1803 to 1810 principal of Bacon academy, Colchester, Conn. ; and from 1810 to 1833 principal of Phillips academy, Andqver, Mass. He was during this period also one of the founders of several of the national benevolent societies. After being thus engaged in teaching for 36 years, he resigned and removed to Illinois, where he was instrumental in introducing some valuable modifications into the school laws; and when past 70 years of age he organized several hundred Sunday schools in different parts of the state. He published several essays on the training of the young, and left others in manuscript. ADAMS, John Conch, an English astronomer, born of humble parentage near Bodmin, June 5, 1819. lie is a fellow of Pembroke college, Cambridge, England, and shares with Lever- rier the honor of having calculated the place of the planet Neptune before it had been rec ognized by sight. He early showed great powers, and in 1841, while in St. John s col lege, made his first computation of Neptune s place. In 1844 6 he renewed his calcula tions, and communicated the results to Profes sors Challis and Airy ; but he did not publish them, and therefore Leverrier, who soon after attained and published similar results, has reaped the larger share of glory. The calcula tions of both mathematicians were formed on the motions of the planet Uranus, which was drawn aside from its expected course by the attraction of Neptune. In 1858 Adams was appointed Lowndean professor of astronomy at Cambridge. ADAMS, John Qniney, sixth president of the United States, eldest son of President John Adams, born in Braintree, July 11, 1767, died in Washington, Feb. 23, 1848. The origin of his name was thus stated by himself: "My great-grandfather, John Quincy, was dying .when I was baptized, and his daughter, my grandmother, requested I might receive his name. This fact, recorded by my father, has connected with my name a charm of mingled sensibility and devotion. It was filial tender ness that gave the name it was the name of one passing from earth to immortality. These have been through life perpetual admonitions to do nothing unworthy of it." John Adams, having been appointed minister to France, took with him as companion his son John Quincy, then in his llth year. The voyage from Bos ton to Bordeaux was tempestuous ; the travel by land from Bordeaux to Paris was rapid and fatiguing; but the young Adams, as appears from his father s published diary, conducted and sustained himself through both voyage and travels, and also during their residence at Paris, to his father s entire satisfaction. Placed at a school near Paris, he made rapid progress both in the French language and in his general studies. His health was perfect, and his father wrote to his mother that he at tracted general attention wherever he went by his vigor of body, his vivacity of mind, and his constant good humor. After a stay in France of near a year and a half several months of which were spent at Nantes waiting for a passage home John Quincy Adams came back with his father in a French frigate. While at sea he taught English to his fellow passengers, the French ambassador to the United States, De la Luzerne, and his secre tary, M. Marbois. The following is an extract from his father s diary, under date of June 20, 1779: "The chevalier de la Luzerne and M. Marbois are in raptures with my son. They get him to teach them the language. I found this morning the ambassador seated on the cushion in our stateroom, M. Marbois in his cot, at his left hand, and my son stretched out in his at his right, the ambassador reading out loud in Blackstone s Discourse at his en trance on his professorship of the common law at the university, and my son correcting the pronunciation of every word and syllable and letter. The ambassador said he was astonished at my son s knowledge ; that he was a master of his own language like a professor. M. Mar bois said, Your son teaches us more than you; he has point de grace, point cTeloges. He shows us no mercy, and makes us no com pliments. We must have Mr. John. " Char acter is very early developed, and John Q. Adams retained much of this same style of teaching to the end of his life. After remain- I ing at home three months and a half, John Q. Adams, now in his 13th year, sailed again in the same French frigate, as his father s com- J panion on his second diplomatic mission to I Europe. Arriving at Paris in February, 1780, he I was again placed at school, where he remained | till August. He then went with his father to Holland, where, after some months tuition at a school in Amsterdam, he was sent about the end of the year to the university of Leyden. His father s secretary of legation, Francis JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 99 Dana (afterward chief justice of Massachu setts), having been appointed minister to Rus sia, he took with him as his private secretary John Q. Adams, then in his 15th year. Hav ing discharged the duties of this position for 14 months to Dana s entire satisfaction, the latter not having succeeded in getting recog nized as minister, young Adams left St. Peters burg, and, travelling back alone, returned lei surely through Sweden and Denmark, and by Hamburg and Bremen, to the Hague, where he resumed his studies. In October, 1783, the treaty of peace having been signed, John Q. Adams attended his father on his first visit to England. Returning with him, he spent the year 1784 in Paris, where the whole family was now collected. His father having been appointed minister to Great Britain, he ac companied the family to London, but soon after, with a view to the completion of his education, returned home to Massachusetts. In 1786 he entered the junior class at Harvard college. He graduated in 1788, and imme diately after entered the office of Theophilus Parsons, afterward well known as chief justice of Massachusetts. Here he remained for three years. In 1791 he was admitted to the bar, when he opened a law office in Boston, and in the course of four years he gradually attained practice enough to pay his expenses. He did not, however, confine himself entirely to the law. A series of articles which he published in the "Boston Centinel," with the signature of Publicola a reply to some portions of Thomas Paine s " Rights of Man " attracted a good deal of attention not only at home but in England, where these papers were repub- lished and ascribed to his father. In another series of articles in the same journal, signed Marcellus, published in 1793, he defended Washington s policy of neutrality. In a third series, signed Columbus, published the same year, he reviewed the conduct of Genet, the French ambassador, in relation to the same subject. These writings drew attention to ward him, and in May, 1794, Washington ap pointed him minister to the Hague. Upon his arrival there he found things in such confusion, owing to the French invasion, that after a few months residence he thought of returning; but, by the remonstrances of Washington, who predicted for him a distinguished diplomatic career, he was induced to remain. In 1795 he had occasion to visit London to transact some business with Thomas Pinckney, who after Mr. Jay s departure had resumed the embassy at that court. The American consul at London was Joshua Johnson of Maryland, brother of Thomas Johnson, one of the signers of the declaration of independence, and a judge of the United States supreme court. Mr. Joshua Johnson had formerly been a merchant at Nantes, where in 1779 the Adamses had made his acquaintance. He had by this time a grown up daughter, with whom young Adams now formed an intimacy, which resulted in mar riage on July 27, 1797. Previously to this event, and shortly before the close of Washing ton s administration, John Q. Adams hud been appointed minister to Portugal ; but his father, on becoming president, changed his destination to Berlin. In thus promoting his own son- John Adams acted by the written advice or Washington, who expressed his decided opin ion that young Adams was the ablest person in the American diplomatic service, and that j merited promotion ought not to be withheld ! from him merely because he was the president s ! son. He arrived at Berlin shortly after his marriage, in the autumn of 1797. In 1798 he received an additional commission to negotiate a treaty of commerce with Sweden. While residing at Berlin, with a view to perfecting himself in the German language, he made a translation into English of Wieland s " Oberon," and would have published it but for the ap pearance about that time of a translation by Sotheby. In 1800 he travelled through Silesia, of which tour he wrote an account in a series of letters to his brother which were published, though without the writer s knowledge, in the "Port Folio," a weekly paper at Philadelphia. These letters were collected and published in a volume in London, and, being translated into French and German, had a wide circulation. On the accession of Mr. Jefferson .to the presi dency, John Q. Adams was recalled ; but he had previously succeeded in negotiating a treaty of commerce with Prussia. Returning to Bos ton, he again opened a law office there. In 1802 he was elected from Suffolk county (which in cludes Boston) to the Massachusetts senate, and the next year was chosen by the legisla ture a senator in congress from Massachusetts. He owed this position to the federal part} r of Massachusetts, and for four years he continued to sustain their views ; but on the question of the embargo recommended by Jefferson he separated from them. The Massachusetts elec tion in the preceding spring had resulted in the success of the Jeffersonian party, who elected their candidates for governor and lieutenant governor, and a majority in both branches of the legislature. At the time when the embargo was proposed by the president to congress, it seemed probable that the question of Adams s reelection to the senate would have to be de cided by a legislature favorable to the views of the national administration ; and the support which Adams gave to that measure was charg ed by the federalists to the hope of securing his reelection and the favor of a party whose predominance seemed at length established, not merely in the nation, but in Massachusetts also. This course on his part led to a warm controversy between him and his colleague in the senate, Timothy Pickering, who now made the same charges of treacherous selfish ness against the son which he had formerly brought against the father. Pickering address ed a letter to Governor Sullivan of Massa chusetts, in which he forcibly stated his ob- 100 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS jections to the embargo, which he represented | as the first step toward a war with Great Brit- j ain, a step into which the administration had been led, as he maintained, by French threats . or French seduction. This letter Pickering requested the governor to lay before the legis lature, which Sullivan refused to do, on the ground that it was " seditious and disorgan izing." It found its way, however, into the newspapers, and Adams replied to it through the same medium. In this reply he expressed his conviction that the whole of the difficul ties in which the United States were involved on the question of neutral rights, including the issue of Bonaparte s Berlin and Milan de crees, had originated in the unwarrantable maritime pretensions of Great Britain. He even went so far as to represent the late British orders in council, issued nominally in retaliation for the Berlin decree, as a first step on the part of Great Britain toward bringing back the United States to colonial subjection. Giving emphatic expression to suspicions and to an an tipathy which, as to the Hamiltonian or Essex junto section of the federalists, he had imbibed from his father, he broadly hinted that Pick ering and his special party friends were quite ready to side with Great Britain in the new enterprise which he ascribed to her of re- subjecting America. Although Sullivan had been reflected governor, the embargo had op erated to give the federalists a small majority in both branches of the Massachusetts legisla ture ; and when the question of the choice of senator came up, Adams was dropped, and Lloyd, a Boston merchant, chosen in his place. Adams thereupon declined to sit for the remain ing short session of his term, resigned his sena- torship, and retired to private life. He had previously, however, secured, in addition to his practice as a lawyer, a new resource and em ployment, in the post of professor of rhetoric and belles-lettres at Harvard college. He en tered upon this professorship in 1806, upon condition of not being obliged to reside at Cambridge, and for three years following dis charged the duties of it, delivering lectures, the first, it is said, ever read in any American college, and conducting exercises in declama tion. His lectures, which were printed in 181 0, once possessed a considerable reputation, but are now entirely neglected. The winter subse quent to his resignation he visited Washington, nominally for the purpose of attending the su preme court. During this visit he sought and obtained a confidential interview with Jeffer son, in which he distinctly brought against a portion of the federal leaders the charge of a treasonable design of dissolving the Union and forming a separate northern confederacy. The same charge, thus privately made, he not long after repeated in print, in a review of the writ ings of Fisher Ames, which he published in numbers in the "Boston Patriot." Such was the origin of a charge which for the next ten or fifteen years strongly affected the admin istration of the government, and which, pen etrating deeply into the popular mind, made the leading statesmen of New England ob jects at once of dread and hatred, deprived New England for a considerable period of its natural weight in public affairs, and had a decisive influence in curtailing to a single term the presidential office, to which John Q. Adams himself afterward attained. That he was sincere in bringing this charge there is little room for doubt. The proof, however, which he presented at the time or afterward of the truth of this plot, was sufficiently slen der. It was said to have originated with a few federal members of congress, in conse quence of the annexation of Louisiana a meas ure which Adams had himself opposed, being one of the six senators who voted against it and the threatened destruction, by the addition of so much new western and southern territory, of the political influence of the northern and eastern states. These dissatisfied members of congress, so Adams alleged, had proposed to have a meeting at Boston, at which Hamilton was to have been present. It was admitted that Hamilton disapproved of the scheme, and yet his reasons for accepting Burr s challenge were cited as proof that he anticipated a civil war and the being called upon to take a leading part in it. Such seems to have been about the whole of this alleged plot, carefully concealed, as Adams admitted, from the great body of the federalists, and unknown even to the greater part of their leaders, including one so conspicu ous as Ames. We shall have occasion at a subsequent period of Mr. Adams s life to refer again to this subject. It should be added now, however, that this revelation was among the reasons by which Adams pressed Jefferson to consent to the repeal of the embargo, for which he had himself voted, but which had provoked in all the maritime parts of the country, and especially in New England, a very violent hos tility, and which could not be persisted in, as Adams thought, without leading to open and violent resistance, and so affording opportunity to the plotters against the integrity of the Union. Immediately after Madison s accession to the presidency, he nominated Mr. Adams as minis ter to Russia. Since the time that Adams, while yet a boy, had visited St. Petersburg as private secretary to an unrecognized minister, the United States had had no ambassador at that court. The senate, not yet satisfied of the expediency of opening diplomatic relations in that quarter, though the same thing had been recommended by Jefferson, refused to confirm the nomination. However, a few months after, the nomination was renewed, and with bet ter success. John Adams, who did not like being thus separated from his son, saw in this appointment only a sort of political banishment intended on the part of the Virginia politicians to remove a dreaded competitor out of the \vay. Yet in fact, by removing John Q. Adams from the immediate theatre of contention at home, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 101 it contributed not a little to his subsequent po litical promotion. lie was himself, as we may judge, well satisfied to escape from the political commotion which he had raised ; for when, after various unsuccessful attempts to fill a vacancy on the supreme bench of the United States, he was nominated and confirmed as a judge (for the New England circuit), in spite of the wishes of his father he declined the nomination, preferring to remain as ambassador at St. Petersburg, where he was now established with his family. He was well received in Russia. His official duties were not very arduous. Part of his leisure he employed in writing a series of " Let ters," since published, addressed to his sons, on " The Bible and its Teachings " ; a pious work, but not otherwise of particular value or merit. The disputes and collisions between Great Britain and the United States having finally terminated in war, through the influence of Mr. Adams the emperor of Russia was induced to offer himself as mediator, and in July, 1813, Adams was joined by Mr. Bayard, and after ward by Mr. Gallatin, those gentlemen having been appointed in conjunction with himself to negotiate a peace. Great Britain, however, re fused to treat under the mediation of Russia. She proposed instead an independent negotia tion at London or Gothenburg, for which Ghent was afterward substituted. This proposition having been accepted on the part of the United States government, Mr. Adams arrived at Ghent in June, 1814, and after a protracted ne gotiation of six months, in which Jonathan Rus sell and Henry Clay were associated, peace was finally concluded Dec. 24, 1814. No attempt whatever was made to limit the maritime pre tensions of Great Britain, in resistance to which the war had originated, and against which Mr. Adams, in joining the administra tion party, had so decidedly pronounced. The skill and eloquence of the American commis sioners found ample scope in warding off the pretensions of Great Britain to portions of ter ritory occupied by her, or at least to act as pro tector to the Indian tribes within the limits of the United States. Some attempt was also made to limit our fishing rights, and Mr. Adams was now instrumental, as his father had been before him, in maintaining unimpaired our enjoyment of the ocean fisheries. Previous to proceeding to London to execute a new com mission to negotiate in conjunction with Clay and Gallatin a treaty of commerce, Adams visited Paris, where he witnessed the return of Napoleon from Elba and the brief empire of the hundred days. Here his family joined him after a long and perilous journey from St. Petersburg, and on the 25th of May he joined Clay and Gallatin in London; in conjunction with whom, on July 13, 1815, he signed a com mercial convention with Great Britain. This business finished, Adams still remained at Lon don as resident minister. Upon the accession of Monroe to the presidency (1817) he offered Mr. Adams the post of secretary of state, to fill which he returned home, after an absence of eight years. The reestablishment of peace in Europe having removed former grounds of con tention, a political lull had succeeded, and a new organization of parties now began to take place, especially on the subjects of protection to American manufactures and expenditures from the United States treasury for internal improve ments. There still remained, however, to be disposed of, some questions of moment more immediately connected with Mr. Adams s posi tion as secretary of state. Gen. Jackson, hav ing been consulted on the subject by Monroe, had heartily approved of the appointment of . Mr. Adams to that department. Adams no less warmly supported in the cabinet, against Mr. Calhoun s proposition of censure, the con duct of Gen. Jackson in invading Florida, hanging Arbuthnot and Ambrister, and taking military possession of St. Mark s and Pensacola. Those proceedings he also sustained with no less zeal in his diplomatic correspondence with the Spanish minister an important correspon dence, having reference to the boundaries of Florida and Louisiana, and the claims of Amer ica on Spain for commercial depredations. Though as a senator Adams had voted against the Louisiana treaty, on the ground that the federal constitution gave no power to acquire territory, he now as secretary of state pushed American claims under that treaty to the ex- tremest lengths, insisting that this cession in cluded not merely Florida to the Perdido, but Texas to the Rio Grande. Finally, in consid eration of the cession of Florida, the United States agreeing to pay $5,000,000 for it, to be applied to the extinction of American mercan tile claims against Spain, Adams compromised matters by agreeing to the Sabine, the Red river, the upper Arkansas, the crest of the Rocky mountains, and the parallel of 42 N". lat., as the boundary of Louisiana ; and upon this basis a treaty was arranged. This treaty was his principal achievement as secretary of state. After some hesitation, Mr. Adams finally yielded to the policy warmly urged by Henry Clay of recognizing the independence of the late Spanish American colonies. An elab orate report which he made in his official ca pacity on weights and measures secured him the credit of extensive scientific acquirements. Toward the close of Monroe s first term came up the great question of the admission of Mis souri as a slave state, and the extension of slavery or its prohibition throughout the un settled territory north and west of Missouri. The Missouri compromise having at length, after violent agitations at Washington and throughout the country, received the sanction of congress, Monroe, upon being called upon to sign the bill, submitted two questions to his cabinet: First,- had congress the constitutional power to prohibit slavery in a territory ? and second, was the term "for ever," used in the prohibitive clause of the Missouri bill, to be un- 102 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS derstood as referring only to the territorial con dition of the district embraced in it, or must it be understood to extend to such states as might be erected out of it? These questions grew out of the circumstance that the southern members of congress had denied any power in congress to prohibit slavery in a state, and therefore any right to refuse to admit Mis souri into the Union on the ground that her con stitution established slavery. Those of them who supported the compromise admitted, how ever, a power of imposing conditions on territo ries, as necessarily implied in the power to erect them. On the first of these questions all the cab inet declared themselves in the affirmative. As to the second question, Adams thought that the term "for ever" must be understood to mean for ever, and that the prohibition of slavery, in stead of ceasing with the territorial condition of the district, would under the act of congress extend to any states that might at any time be erected out of it. The other members of the cabinet, including Thompson of New York (ex cept Adams, the only other northern man in it, and soon after made judge of the supreme federal court), were all of opinion that the "for ever" in question was only a territorial for ever, and that it did not and would not op erate to prevent any states that might be or ganized out of this territory from establishing or prohibiting slavery as they chose. But to prevent this delicate point from being mooted, and to give to the cabinet an appearance of una nimity, at Mr. Calhoun s suggestion the second question was modified so as to read, " Is the proviso as it stands in the bill constitutional?" To this question all the members returned the brief answer "Yes," and on the strength of their apparently unanimous opinion (ordered to be de posited in the archives of the state department, whence, like some other valuable historical pa pers, it has since disappeared), Monroe signed the bill. We owe this piece of secret history to an extract which has been published from Mr. Adams s diary, from which it also appears that he still strongly entertained the same sen timent of opposition to southern ideas, institu tions, and predominancy, which had led him to vote against the annexation of Louisiana. But the time was not yet come for the open avowal of his opinions or for acting upon them. Least of all were the present crisis and Adams s position favorable to such a course. No sooner had Monroe entered upon his second term of office (1821) than the question of who should be his successor began to be vehemently agitated. Of the five members of his cabinet, no fewer than three, Adams, Crawford, and Oalhoun, were brought forward as candidates, as were also, out side the cabinet, Gen. Jackson and Henry Clay. Crawford obtained the congressional caucus nomination, according to the usage which then prevailed ; but this nomination had no weight with the partisans of the other candidates. To support Adams, the federal party of Massachu setts the only state in which that party could be said to maintain an organized existence, and even there it had lately lost the control of the state government amalgamated with the dem ocratic party of that state ; and the same union took place throughout New England, and par tially in New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland. All the federalists, however, did not come into this arrangement. Some of the more persistent among them refused to sup port Adams. The aged Timothy Pickering, his former senatorial colleague, made a violent at tack upon him in a printed pamphlet, founded on his former separation from the federal party. As a general thing, however, the greater part of the old federalists throughout the country gave in their adhesion to Adams a circumstance urged by his opponents as going to show that he was still but a federalist in a democratic disguise, and not entitled to the support of the democratic party. From the earliest history of the United States as an independent nation, Virginia and New England ideas had contended for predominancy and control. Notwithstand ing his former abandonment of New England at the time of the embargo, in the present con test Mr. Adams represented the New England which was in fact synonymous with the federal idea. Of course he suft ered greatly from that bitter dislike of New England, which in the preceding quarter of a century had been labo riously and assiduously instilled into the people not merely of the southern but of the western states, and which lie had himself, as we have seen, contributed to aggravate. The election resulted in giving to Adams all the votes of New England, 20 votes from New York, 1 from Delaware, 3 from Maryland, 2 from Louisiana, and 1 from Illinois 84 in all ; while Jackson had 99 those of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Indiana, and 2 of the 3 votes of Illinois among the number. Crawford had 41, and Clay had 37", including the votes of Kentucky and Ohio. Calhoun, wlio had previously withdrawn from the contest, was chosen vice president almost unanimously. There being no choice by the people, the election came into the house, where, by the influence of Clay, Adams was chosen at the first ballot 13 states voting for him, 7 for Jackson, and 4 for Crawford. Jefferson, in a letter a few days before to John Adams, had characterized the decision between John Quincy Adams and Jackson the only two candidates really before the house as involving the ques tion whether he and his correspondent were to end their days " under a civil or military gov ernment." It is probable that Jefferson s fa vorite candidate had been Crawford, who received the vote of Virginia ; but by nobody had Jackson been more vehemently opposed as the backwoods, uncivilized, and military candi date than by the supporters of Crawford, who had painted in very strong colors the probable barbarizing consequences of Jackson s election. Crawford himself, in a subsequent letter to Clay, most decidedly approved of Clay s pref erence of Adams to Jackson. No sooner, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 103 however, head Adams entered upon the presi dency (March 4, 1825), with Clay as his secre tary of state, than a coalition was formed between the late supporters of Crawford and Jackson, with the understanding that Jackson should be their candidate, and with the resolute determination to break down the administration of Mr. Adams, and to prevent his reelection. For this purpose no effort was spared. The Crawford presses, which had abused Jackson, now began to sing praises to him. Adams, considering himself the successor to Monroe in the regular democratic line, and wishing to impress that fact on the public, made few or no removals from office, and when vacancies oc curred hardly ventured to appoint a single federalist a proscription under which that party had labored now for a quarter of a cen tury, and to which Adams s own charges and denunciations had in fact contributed. It was well known that as to this subject Jackson en tertained very liberal views ; in fact, that he had advised Monroe upon his accession to a much more liberal course in appointing federal ists to office than Monroe had seen fit to adopt. Hence, especially in all those states where the opposition was predominant, many enterprising young federalists mustered to the side of Jack son, some of them even joining loudly in those charges of secret federalism against Adams, and in appeals to the long cherished prejudices against New England, which. were conspicuous weapons in the party warfare of that day. The new party, assuming to themselves the title of democrats, refused to accord it to Adams and his supporters, to many of whom, indeed, it was not very agreeable, and who invented for themselves the new name of " National Repub licans." Some of these young federalists, transformed so suddenly into democrats and Jackson men, hit upon another party expedient no less effective. Even before the election they had gone to Jackson with the story of a secret bargain between Adams and Clay, to result in Adams s election and Clay s appointment as secretary of state ; and the charge of bargain and corruption thus originated, and taken up even by Jackson himself, was loudly reechoed after the election, to the damage of both Clay and Adams. The new administration endeav ored to strengthen itself by assuming the championship of internal improvements, which had hitherto been Calhoun s specialty, and of protection to domestic industry, of which Clay had been a leading advocate, and which just before Adams s accession had carried the enact ment of the tariff of 1824. Although the tobacco and cotton growing states were strongly opposed to protection, yet that idea was at this time far too popular in the middle states to be repudiated. The supporters of Gen. Jackson, at least in the northern and middle states, rep resented him and themselves as in favor of a "moderate" and "judicious" tariff, as opposed to the high tariff policy which they ascribed to Adams and Clay. In this position of parties, all ! the free-traders north and south joined the op- I position, including for the most part the power ful navigating interest of New England and the importing interest of New York, thus carrying over to that side a large additional section of | the old federal party. Upon the internal im- j provement question, the opposition, notwith- ! standing that Calhoun was one of their princi pal leaders, took more decisive ground, going so far as to deny, as Crawford formerly had I done in opposition to Calhoun, the constitu- | tional authority of congress to vote money for ! that purpose. As additional means of affect- | ing popular opinion, loud charges of extrava- | gance were brought against the government, j whose expenses, exclusive of, the public debt, I scarcely amounted to thirteen millions a year, and retrenchment and reform were loudly promised in case the opposition should triumph. This was for the people. To the politicians an other more inviting lure was held out. From Adams s peculiar position in relation to thoso whom he found in office, he had, as we have seen, nothing in that way to promise his sup porters. He did not even dare to remove men apparently hostile to him, while the opposition held out the prospect, in case of their triumph, of a general sweep of the present officeholders at least of such as were not strongly on their side and the distribution of their places as I spoils to the victors rewards, that is, for elec- I tioneering services. The debates of congress at this period were largely made up of elec tioneering harangues ; and to give free scope to the remarks of John Randolph and other opposition senators, Mr. Calhoun started and acted upon the idea that as presiding officer of the senate he had no authority to call any sen ator to order. It was in vain to struggle against this combination, which, in the latter part of Mr. Adams s presidential term, had a majority against him in both houses of congress. Nor was his administration any more fortunate in its exterior relations. The congress of Panama, from which much had been hoped in the way of placing the United States at the head of a great American confederacy, was substantially defeated, as to any participation of the United States in it, by the delays induced by the oppo sition, while an unlucky quarrel with Great Britain as to trade with the West Indies ended in the entire suspension of that traffic. It ap pears also that an attempt was made by Clay | and Adams to purchase Cuba a measure which might have proved very acceptable at the south, but Spain totally refused to listen to their offers. As against the solid combination of the opposition, supported by the name and prestige of the old democratic party, the game had been a desperate one from the beginning. In the eastern states Mr. Adams was pretty well able to hold his own, and in those states, at the second election, he obtained about as many votes as before. But Kentucky and Ohio, in which the popular feeling against 1 New England was greatly embittered, alto- 104 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS gether failed him. Mr. Clay was unable to help him to a single vote. In this desperate emergency, finding his office slipping from un der him, Mr. Adams made a most unfortunate effort to retrieve his falling fortunes, in the shape of a letter addressed to the electors of Viginia, in which he claimed their votes on the ground of his services twenty years before in exposing and frustrating the alleged New Eng land plot, which we have already referred to, to dissolve the Union. This ill-judged letter, while it did not gain him a single vote, left him to retire to Quincy (1829) where he had now become possessor of his father s estate, largely augmented by his own shrewd management with a new personal and political quarrel on his hands, and with hard feelings and personal antipathies against him, which for a long time had been in abeyance, thus unseasonably re vived by himself. Shortly after his return to Massachusetts a correspondence ensued between him and a number of the old federalists and their representatives, which did not tend to mollify matters. No new light was thrown on the alleged plot, though Mr. Adams is under stood to have written a book or pamphlet on the subject, which however he refrained from publishing, on the judgment of some friends to whom he submitted it, that it would not better his case. After having successfully kept the political seas for nearly forty years, and that in very stormy times, Mr. Adams was at last stranded, as it seemed, high and dry on a po litical lee shore. He addressed himself for the moment to arranging the papers and preparing a life of his father; but the fragment of this work which his son has.incorporated in his life of his grandfather does not make us regret that he soon abandoned it. He had been a versifier from his youth, and he now published a rhymed performance of some length, founded on the story of the conquest of Ireland ("Der- mot McMorrogh," Boston, 1832) ; but this pal pably was not a field in which he was likely to gather laurels. Though Mr. Adams had now reached an age at which many politicians have voluntarily retired, he had in his temperament too much of innate vigor and indefatigable ac tivity, and too much of the stormy petrel in his character, to make him willing to leave that political vocation to which, both by na ture and habit, he was so specially adapted. In fact, the great work of his life remained to be performed. The anti-masonic excitement consequent on the disappearance and alleged murder of William Morgan had, about tlds time, introduced a new element into the poli tics of western New York, whence it had spread into Vermont, Massachusetts, Pennsyl vania, and in a less degree into other states. This excitement had taken a strong hold of the congressional district in which Mr. Adams lived, and he himself exhibited a deep interest in it. He signalized his zeal against secret so cieties by exerting himself to procure the abo lition of some passwords and secret signs which formed a part of the ceremonial of the Phi Beta Kappa, a literary society of which branches existed in Harvard and other colleges; and un der these circumstances the anti-masons of his district brought him forward as a candidate for congress. He accepted the nomination, and was chosen without opposition, and continued to represent the district till his death, 17 years after. The mass of those who had been his supporters for the presidency had looked, since his failure of a reelection, to Mr. Clay as their head and leader. Mr. Adams entered congress in December, 1831, without party or followers, but in a more independent position than he had ever yet occupied. Shortly after his return to public life he was nominated by the anti- masons as their candidate for governor of Mas- f sachusetts. The politics of Massachusetts were at that time in a very disorganized state, and a strong effort was made by the Everetts and other personal friends of Mr. Adams, and was favored by Mr. Webster, to induce the so-called national republican party to accept the nomi nation of Mr. Adams thus made. But for the feeling against him which his Virginia letter had aroused among the old federalists, this effort would probably have been successful. As it was, the national republicans as well as the supporters of the administration each nominated a separate candidate for governor. There Avas no choice by the people, but as the national republicans carried a majority in the legislature, their candidate, John Davis, was elected over Adams s head (1834) a disap pointment which tended to place him in a still more independent political position. He gave, however, a general support in congress to that party which had sustained his own administra tion. He strongly opposed the nullifiers ; yet, as chairman of the committee on manufactures, he strove to discover some middle ground on which the vexed question of the tariff might be satisfactorily sejttled. On the question of the removal of the deposits he went with the party which now began to take the name of whigs including in that denomination not merely the old national republicans, but a certain number, especially at the south, of deserters from the Jackson ranks. In the affair of the dispute with France in 1835, about the delay in paying the indemnity, which had been stipulated by treaty, for maritime spoliations in Bonaparte s time," true to his pugnacious temperament, he supported Jackson s proposition for issuing let ters of marque and reprisal, no less energeti cally than he had formerly supported Jefferson s embargo ; and by a very singular coincidence, this course, like that, cost him a seat in the United States senate. At this very time the Massachusetts legislature were employed in filling an approaching vacancy in that body. Mr. Adams s friends had brought him forward as a candidate, and he was more than once chosen by the state senate. The house, how ever, did not concur, but proposed John Davis instead. This question was still pending, with JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 105 a fair prospect of a decision in Adams s favor, when his speech in favor of reprisals on France, which did not correspond with the sentiment of Massachusetts, caused him to be abandoned | by his supporters in the state senate, and led to j the election of Davis, who had before beaten | him as governor. Thus again forcibly cut loose j from all party connections, Mr. Adams was left j at liberty to follow the bent of his own daring and energetic spirit. The abolitionists had | now begun to appear on the political stage, but \ in the prevailing anxiety to avoid giving of- j fence to the South, reference was seldom made j to them on the floor of congress except with ; disclaimers of sympathy, if not with expres- | sions of detestation. The measure principally | employed by the abolitionists at that time was j the presentation of petitions for the abolition j of slavery in the District of Columbia and the territories. To get rid of this importunity, con- | gress had adopted rules which were maintain ed by Mr. Adams to be inconsistent with the right of petition itself. In this emergency he stepped forward as the champion and guardian ! of that right. Though he had taken the posi- i tion of being opposed to the legislation asked j for by the abolitionists, as not seasonable or i expedient for the moment, he still insisted on | their right to be heard. Upon this point he j fought for years a battle which drew all eyes j upon him as the representative of a principle \ which found in him an unflinching advocate j and indefatigable champion. This new and | eminent position was one which Mr. Adams | was perfectly adapted to fill. With an iron constitution, strengthened by an active and ab- j stemious life, there was, during his long term | of service in congress, not a single member who equalled him, notwithstanding his great age, in capacity for application and powers of endur ance ; certainly not one whose attendance upon the business of the house was so exact and un remitting. In acquired knowledge, whether by books or personal experience, he far surpassed any of his fellow members ; and what was of greater consequence, his stores of knowledge were always at hand and ready for use. Though his voice was weak, in consequence of which the members usually crowded about him when he spoke, he never became exhausted with fa tigue ; and though his manner was not pleasing and had little variety, yet the peculiar views which he took, and the copiousness and nov elty of his illustrations, always held his au dience in profound attention. Though he had the appearance often, especially to strangers, of speaking in a passion, at least in ill humor, and of laboring under a degree of excitement, he was in fact perfectly self-possessed, and in the midst of the storms and tumults which he raised about him never lost in the slightest degree his own self-control. We have no space to dwell on the history of his congressional career, which would fill a volume ; but we must not omit to notice his defeat, in February, 1837, of his opponents on the question of a censure upon him for sending up to the speaker a petition purporting to come from slaves, as one of the most signal instances of his triumph. His un daunted bearing, his courage and determina tion, which no threats and no tumults could suppress, soon drew around him, as a moral aid and support, a body of external applauders and admirers ; so that from this time forward he became the representative not merely of one of the districts of Massachusetts, but of a great embryo party, the party in fact of northern sentiments and ideas, a party which he him self had contributed his share toward burying under ground, but which he now labored night and day to help emerge again into life. Nor did Mr. Adams confine his labors on this ques tion to congress. In the famous Amistad case the case of certain newly imported Africans, who, while being transported from one port of Cuba to another, had made themselves masters of the vessel and had escaped to the coast of the United States he appeared in the federal supreme court as counsel for the Africans, in opposition to the claim set up by their Spanish purchasers from whom they had escaped ; a claim zealously urged not merely by the Span ish government, but covertly also by Mr. Van Buren, then president of the United States. Indeed, he seldom declined any occasion in his power of addressing an audience. The follow ing may serve as a specimen : He left Boston one Monday morning to attend the opening of congress. That same evening he delivered an address before the young men s institute in Hartford, and the next evening a similar lec ture before a similar institute in New Haven. On Wednesday evening he lectured before the New York lyceum ; on Thursday evening he delivered an address in Brooklyn, and on Fri day evening another lecture in New York, whence he proceeded next day to Washington to be present at the opening of congress on the following Monday. Though greatly engrossed by the subject of slavery, he did not confine his attention to it. Few leading topics came before the house on which he did not speak. In the organization of the house in December, 1839, which had been delayed for four days by the persistency of the clerk in undertaking to reject certain members from New Jersey who had certificates of election, but as the clerk thought improperly granted, Mr. Adams finally intervened with great energy and effect, and to general satisfaction. It was chiefly through his activity and perseverance that the Smith sonian institution was organized. In 1845 the obnoxious "gag rule," originally enacted in 1836, was rescinded, and from that moment Mr. Adams somewhat relaxed his zeal and labors. He began, indeed, to feel at last the effects of age. His health had been somewhat shaken by a heavy fall in the house of representatives, caused by his foot catching in the floor mat ting, by which his shoulder was dislocated and a severe contusion inflicted on his fore liead. It rendered him for the moment insensible, and 106 ADAMS though it did not prevent his appearance the next day in his seat, he suffered permanently from it. On Nov. 26, 1846, just as he was about to leave Boston for Washington, he expe rienced a shock of paralysis which kept him from his seat for the next four months. After this he attended congress regularly, but seldom spoke. On Feb. 21, 1848, he had a second at tack while occupying his seat in the house. He was taken to the speaker s private room, where he remained in a state seemingly of uncon sciousness, though with occasional incoherent utterances, till the 23d, when he expired. His last words are said to have been, " This is the last of earth ; I -am content." In addition to his voluminous speeches in congress, many of which were written out by himself, on various subjects, a great number of his ac knowledged publications appeared in his life time. He left behind him a very voluminous diary, extending from his early youth to his death, one or two valuable fragments from which have already appeared. His journal, which is in the hands of his son, is regarded as a great political treasure. He wrote with great fluency, his manuscript seldom presenting an erasure, but he lacked altogether that idiomatic elegance, force, and simplicity so conspicuous in his father, instead of which his style is swell ing, verbose, inflated, and rhetorical. He lack ed also, though not without powers of sar casm, the wit and fancy which sparkled in his father s writings, and still more that spirit of philosophical generalization into which John Adams constantly fell, but which was totally foreign to the intellectual constitution and hab its of the son. John Quincy Adams had more learning perhaps, but John Adams had much more genius. In energy, spirit, firmness, and indomitable courage, John Q. Adams was his father s equal; in self-command, in political prudence, and even perhaps in capacity for hard work, his superior. Both will live for ever as representatives and embodiments of the spirit and ideas of New England during the periods in which they figured. In some re spects John Q. Adams was far more fortu nate than his father. The brilliant period of his career was toward its close. The longer he lived the higher he rose, and he died as such men prefer to die, still an admired and trust ed champion, with harness on his back and spear in hand. Yet his whole political career, taken together, hardly presents to the close ob server a character so uniformly brilliant and unspotted, and so free from the taint of selfish ness, as that of his father. In personal appear ance, and in general temperament and charac ter, the resemblance between the father and the son was close. Both had very strong feel ings and warm prejudices, though of the two John Quincy appears to have been the less ve hement by nature, and also the better under control. Like his father, he was an economical housekeeper and judicious financier, and he died in possession of a handsome estate. See "Life and Public Services of J. Q. Adams, 1 by William H. Seward (12mo, Auburn, 1849), and "Life of J. Q. Adams," by Josiah Quincy (Boston, 1858). ADAMS, Nehemiah, D. D., an American clergy man, born in Salem, Mass., Feb. 19, 1806. He graduated at Harvard college in 1826, studied divinity at Andover, settled as colleague pastor with the Rev. Dr. Holmes over the first Con- j gregational church in Cambridge, Dec. 17, 1829, resigned March 17, 1834, and was in stalled over the Essex street church in Boston, March 26, 1834. He took an active part in the controversy with the Unitarians, and pub lished several works of a polemic and devo tional character. The principal of these are : "Remarks on the Unitarian Belief," "The Friends of Christ in the New Testament" (Boston, 1853), and "Life of John Eliot." He was also a frequent contributor to the " Spirit of the Pilgrims," a religious periodical (Bos ton, 1826- 33), devoted to the defence of the puritan faith against the encroachments of modern liberalism. He has also published " Christ a Friend," "Agnes and the Key of her Little Obftin," "Bertha and her Baptism, or the Early Saved," works of religious consola tion for the afflicted. In 1853 Dr. Adams spent a winter, for the benefit of his health, in Savannah, Georgia, on the plantation of a wealthy slaveholder; and on his return he wrote " A South Side View of Slavery " (1854), in which he gave a highly favorable description of the institution, and especially of its influence on the religious character of the slave. He also published a correspondence on the same subject with Governor Wise of Virginia. After 35 years of pastoral labor with the Essex street church, in 1809, in consequence of failing health, he resigned his pastorate. His people refused to accept his resignation, but procured an associate minister, and gave him a long leave of absence, which he employed in making a voyage round the world, spending much time in the Sandwich Islands. He returned in 1871 with improved health. ADAMS, Samuel, a leading actor in the Ameri can revolution, born in Boston, Sept. 27, 1722, died Oct. 2, 1803. His grandfather was a grandson of Henry Adams, the same emigrant from England to Massachusetts from whom John Adams, second president of the United States, traced his descent. These two illus trious cooperators in the American revolution had both the same great-grandfather, a son of Henry Adams. He was prepared for college at the Boston Latin school, then taught by the elder Lovell, and entered at Cambridge in 1736. Previous to the revolution the names of the graduates of Harvard college are arranged in the college catalogue, not alphabetically, but in an order of precedence according to the es timated rank of their families. In a class of 24, John Adams held the 14th place; Sam uel Adams, in a class of 22, the 5th. The Boston branch of the Adams family would seem SAMUEL ADAMS 107 to have attained to a somewhat higher colo nial position than the branch which remained at Braintree. He was graduated A. B. in 1740. His father, Capt. Samuel Adams, had urged his entering the ministry ; but he had no taste for this calling, and on leaving college began the study of la\v. This he relinquished to take a place in the counting house of Mr. Thomas Gushing, where, though active and industrious enough, he displayed conspicuous inaptitude for trade. He began business for himself, and failed. Subsequently he became a partner with his father in a brewery, and after Capt. Adams s death in 1748 he carried on the concern himself. About 1740 Capt. Adams became involved in pecuniary misfor tunes through his connection with a banking speculation known as the land bank or manu factory scheme. In efforts on behalf of the unfortunate speculators in this scheme, Samuel Adams found an early introduction to politics, which ultimately became the chief interest and principal employment of his life. Fully to un derstand the first connection of Samuel Adams with politics, a brief retrospect becomes neces sary. The use of paper money, first introduced into Massachusetts in 1690, and which had speedily driven coin out of circulatidn, had, in consequence of over-issues, been attended with great depreciation and fluctuations of prices. These issues were made for limited periods, and in consequence of the remonstranoes of the English merchants trading to America, orders had been sent to Governor Belcher to agree to no ne\v ones. The circulating paper being grad ually absorbed, and the year 1741 being fixed for its complete withdrawal, the effect of this operation was much like that of a bank con traction of our day. The Boston merchants, and indeed the body of the people, complained bit terly of the scarcity of money, and an attempt was made to force Governor Belcher, by with holding his salary, to consent to new issues, or to extend the period of the old. As he proved inflexible, t\vo joint-stook banking compa nies had been got up : one, called the " silver scheme," proposed to issue 110,000 in notes, ( redeemable in silver at the end of 10 years; the other, called the land bank or " manufactory scheme" (that in which Adams s father was concerned), undertook to circulate 150,000, which was to be redeemed at the end of 20 years in colonial produce. The " silver scheme" was patronized by the merchants and traders, the land bank by the farmers and mechanics. Belcher zealously opposed both. In spite, how ever, of the governor s proclamation, notes were ssued by both companies, and those of the land bank especially were largely pushed into circulation. That company had 800 stock holders, and held complete control of the Massa chusetts house of representatives. Belcher even apprehended an insurrection to compel him to give his consent to the scheme, and his opponents did succeed in obtaining his removal. But this did not avail them, for the operation of these two Massachusetts banks was cut short by an act of parliament extending to the colonies an act of the previous reign, occasioned by the j South sea and other bubble schemes, which pro- [ hibited the formation of unincorporated joint- j stock companies with more than six partners. The two banking companies were thus com pelled to wind up ; the partners were held in- i dividually liable for the notes, and the u manu- | factory scheme " especially, the affairs of which ! remained unsettled for several years, proved ru- j inous to the few partners who had anything to | lose, of whom Adams s father was one. This I act of parliament was denounced by the friends J of the banks as a violation of the chartered j rights of Massachusetts. The young Adams I thus entered upon politics as the opponent of parliamentary authority, and as a champion for the body of the citizens a position which, to a certain extent, his father seems to have occu pied before him. How strongly his mind was turned in this direction, appears from the sub ject he chose for his thesis upon taking his de gree of A. M. He proposed as a question, "Whether it be lawful to resist the supreme magistrate, if the commonwealth cannot other wise be preserved? " as to which he supported the affirmative. Not succeeding in business, he obtained the post of tax collector for the town of Boston, an office which brought him into j contact and acquaintance with all the inhab- ! itants, and which obtained for him from his political opponents the cognomen of Samuel the Publican. During the administration of Governor Shirley he was steadily in the oppo sition. Against Bernard his influence increas ing with his age he took a still more decided part. From an entry in John Adams s journal, under date of February, 1763, it seems that at that time there were in Boston two clubs one the u Merchants Club," the other the " Caucus Club" accustomed to meet and agree upon persons to be supported for town officers, and that the caucus club used to send committees to consult and agree with the merchants club as to men and measures. Of this caucus club a corruption probably of caulkers club, as having been originally composed of ship-build ing mechanics Samuel Adams was then and long had been an active member. Gordon, indeed, traces back the existence and influ ence of this club to the time of Adams s father. Adams took an active part in all town meetings, at which his energy and courage made him a leader. The instructions given by the town of Boston, in May, 1764, to their newly chosen representatives the first deci ded protests from any part of America against Grenville s scheme of parliamentary taxation were drawn up by him; and he was chosen the next year as one of the three representa tives in the freneral court of the town of Bos ton, a position which he held for nine years following. Upon his entry into the house he accepted the office of clerk, which not only produced him a small addition to his limited 108 SAMUEL ADAMS income, but enabled him also to exercise a certain influence over the course of pro ceedings. The Massachusetts house of repre sentatives consisted at this time of upward of a hundred members, the most numerous assem bly in the colonies. Its debate s had begun to attract attention, and a gallery was now iirst erected for spectators. Besides taking a lead ing part in the debates, it devolved upon Adams to draw the larger part of the papers put forth by the house in its controversies with Bernard and Hutchinson an office for which his fluent and eloquent pen, and the mixture in his char acter of caution with fire, courage, and de cision, admirably fitted him. The following account of Samuel Adams, sketched from the life at the period of his entering the house, is found in the diary of John Adams, under date of Dec. 23, 1765: "Adams is zealous, ardent, and keen in the cause ; is always for softness, delicacy, and prudence when they will do, but is stanch and stiff and strict and rigid and in flexible in the cause." A previous paragraph had sketched Gray, who afterward joined the tory party, and Thomas Gushing. A fter a sketch of James Otis, the diary adds: "Adams, I be lieve, has the most thorough understanding of liberty and her resources in the temper and character of the people, though not in the law and constitution, as well as the most habitual radical love of it, of any of them ; also the most correct, genteel, and artful pen. He is a man of refined policy, steadfast integrity, exquisite humanity, fair erudition, and obliging, engaging manners, real as well as professed piety, and a universal good character, unless it should be admitted that he is too attentive to the public and not enough so to himself and his family." Governor Hutchinson a no less competent ob server, but who looked at Adams from an en tirely opposite point of view gives in the 3d volume of his "History of Massachusetts " sub stantially the same account. He sets down Samuel Adams as the most artful and insinu ating politician he had ever known, and the most successful "in robbing men of their char acters and calumniating the servants of the crown." He accuses Mr. Adams of "defalca tion" as collector of taxes, the only foundation for the charge being that in a period of gen eral commercial distress he had failed to col lect the full amounts levied upon the citizens ; and Hutchinson adds, by way of comment, "The benefit to the town from his defence of their liberties he supposed an equivalent to his arrears as their collector." While Adams thus devoted himself to politics, it was chiefly the industry and economy of his wife that sup ported the family. lie had married in 1749 Elizabeth, daughter of the Rev. Samuel Check- ley of Boston. She died in 1757, and in 1764 he married Elizabeth Wells, daughter of an English merchant who had settled in Boston in 1723. Though poor, Adams was incorruptible. It had been proposed to silence him by the gift of some place under government; but Ilutchinson in a letter to England declared that such was his " ob stinacy and inflexible disposition," that no gift nor office would ever conciliate him. The pas sage of Townsend s act in 1767, and other acts of parliament which evinced a determination to raise a parliamentary revenue in America by taxes on trade, brought the colonists in a body to the ground that taxes on trade, if de signed to raise a revenue, were just as much a violation of their rights as any other tax. Adams took a leading part in urging these views, and the petition of the Massachusetts general court to the k-ing agreed to on this oc casion, their letter of instruction to their agent in England, and a circular letter addressed to the speakers of the popular branch of the sev eral colonial assemblies, inviting consultation and mutual cooperation for the defence of co lonial rights, were all from his pen. Ilutchin son states that as early as 1769, some objec tions having been made to a motion pending in a Boston town meeting that it savoretf of independence, Adams wound up a speech in defence of it with this bold declaration: "In dependent we are, and independent we will be." Upon the occasion of the so-called Bos ton massacre in March, 1770, Samuel Adams was appointed chairman of a committee to wait upon the governor and council with the vote of a town meeting, to the effect that nothing could restore order and prevent blood and car nage but the immediate removal of the regular troops, who, instead of encamping, as had for merly been usual, on the fortified island in the harbor, known as Castle island, had for the last 18 months, to the great annoyance of the in habitants, been stationed in the town. Adams entered the council chamber at the head of the committee and delivered his message. Col. Dalrymple, the commander of the troops, was present, as was the commander of the ships of war in the harbor. In reply to the vote of the town presented by the committee, Lieutenant Governor Ilutchinson disclaimed any authority over the soldiers ; to which Adams replied by referring him to that clause in the provincial charter which declared the governor, or in his absence the lieutenant governor, commander- in-chief of all the military and naval forces in the province. After a consultation with Dal rymple, Ilutchinson replied that the colonel was willing to remove one of the regiments if that would satisfy the people. "Sir," said Adams, "if the lieutenant governor, or Col. Dalrymple, or both together, have authority to remove one regiment, they have authority to remove two ; and nothing short of the de parture of the troops will satisfy the public mind or restore the peace of the province." The energy of Adams prevailed, and both regi ments were sent to the castle. The destruc tion of the tea attempted to be forced on the colonies, the passage of the Boston port bill and of the bill modifying the Massachusetts charter, and the appointment of Gen. Gage SAMUEL ADAMS 109 as governor at the head of an army, brought things to a crisis. As (rage entered the har bor of Boston, May 13, 1774, a town meeting at which Adams presided was in session, as sembled to take the port bill into considera tion, news of which had just arrived. At the June meeting of the general court a continen tal congress was proposed to assemble at Phila delphia, to which the representatives appointed five delegates, of whom Adams was one ; and Gage having thereupon suddenly dissolved the court, the patriots immediately began to organ ize a distinct government of their own. Trans ferred thus to Philadelphia, and from the Mas sachusetts general court to a continental con gress, Adams began now to act on a broader scene. His first act was one of conciliation. He was himself a strict Congregationalist, and the recent attempts to extend Episcopacy in America, and the controversy thence arising, had produced a good deal of feeling. A motion by one of the Massachusetts delegates to open the proceedings of the congress with prayer was opposed by Mr. Jay, one of the delegates from New York, on the ground that as there were in that body Episcopalians, Quakers, Ana baptists, Presbyterians, and Congregationalists, they would hardly be able to join in the same act of worship. Thereupon "Mr. Samuel Adams arose " so wrote John Adams in a letter to his wife describing the scene " and said he was no bigot, and could hear a prayer from a gentleman of piety and virtue who was at the same time a friend to his country. He was a stranger in Philadelphia, but he had heard that Mr. Duche deserved that character, and there fore he moved that Mr. Duche, an- Episcopal clergyman, might be desired to read prayers to the congress." The motion passed, and Duche, at that time the most popular preacher in Philadelphia, appeared the next morning and officiated with great unction. He acted as chaplain to congress for several sessions, but when the British occupied Philadelphia he abandoned the cause of his country, and even had the impudence to write Washington a let ter exhorting him to the like piece of treachery. Adams s motion, however, was very well timed. It not only pleased the Episcopalians, a power ful body in New York and predominant at the south, but it also secured for the moment Duche himself, whose example was not without its effect upon others. In this congress and those which followed, Adams, who continued a mem ber for eight years, took an active, decided, and influential part. No one man, perhaps, did so much as he to put the revolution in motion, and to bring about the separation from the mother country, to which, indeed, Gen. Gage bore testimony in excepting him, along with Hancock, from his offer of pardon in case of submission. In administrative talents, how ever, he was not so conspicuous ; and the line of policy which he supported in congress was rather graduated to accord with the feelings, sentiments, and sometimes the prejudices of the people, than always calculated to meet the actual exigencies of affairs. Together with John Adams he took an active part in the for mation of the state constitution of Massachu setts, adopted in 1780. He was a very influ ential member of the Massachusetts convention called in 1788, to consider the federal consti tution; and though opposed to many of its features, he was finally persuaded, along with Hancock, to give it his support, in considera tion of certain proposed amendments, of which several were afterward adopted. This decision of the question, so far as Massachusetts was concerned, was of the greatest moment, in volving in it the action of other states, and in fact the fate of the new government. The next year Adams was chosen lieutenant gov ernor of Massachusetts, which office he held till 1794, when he was chosen governor as Hancock s successor. He was a warm ad mirer of the French revolution, and in national politics leaned decidedly to the republican or Jeffersonian party. It was this circumstance, no less than his increasing age and infirmities, that induced him in 1797, the federal party being predominant in Massachusetts, to decline serving longer as governor, and to retire to private life. A highly characteristic portrait by Copley, which hangs appropriately in Fan- euil Hall, has transmitted his features to us. Memorials of his life and service are to be found scattered through the writings of John Adams, who in his old age exerted himself to recall public attention to his colleagues of the revolutionary times. Sullivan, in his "Familiar Letters on Public Characters," de scribes Samuel Adams as "of common size, muscular form, light blue eyes, fair complexion, and erect in person. He wore a tie wig, cocked hat, and red cloak. His manner was very serious. At the close of his life, and even from early times, he had a tremulous motion of the head, which probably added to the solemnity of his eloquence, as this was in some measure associated with his voice. Having in herited no fortune, and being without a pro fession, he was, almost down to the close of his life, without resource except in the salaries and emoluments of office, never large, and only eked out by the industry and economy of his wife. Yet those who visited his house found nothing mean or unbecoming his station, since he knew how to combine decency, dignity, and propriety with a small expenditure. At a late period of his life he obtained a competency, but only by a very afflicting event the death of his only son, of the same name with himself, who, having graduated at Harvard college in 1771, had studied medicine with Dr. Joseph Warren (the famous general), had served as a surgeon through the revolutionary war, and re turning home with a broken constitution, had died in 1788. The avails of his claims for ser vices in the army gave his father a competency in his declining years. In one respect in deed in many, but we can here refer only to 110 ADAMS AD ANA one there was a remarkable contrast between Samuel and John Adams. Both, true to their New England origin, were theologians; but John Adams, while to a certain extent a con servative in politics, was quite a neologist in religion. The Arminian heresies of his youth ful days had prevented him from studying di vinity, and in the correspondence of his ex treme old age he appears almost as much a free thinker as Jefferson himself. Samuel Adams, on the other hand, though to his last days a progressive in politics, was always a decided conservative in religion, adhering with sincere persuasion and firm tenacity to the five points of Calvinism. Nor did this strictness limit itself to doctrine. "At a time," says Edward Everett, "when the new order of things was inducing laxity of manners and a departure from the ancient strictness, Samuel x\dams clung with greater tenacity to the whole some discipline-* of the fathers." But Mr. Everett scarcely does justice to Mr. Adams s spirit of sociality when he adds, "His only relaxation from business and the cares of life was in the indulgence of a taste for sa cred music, for which he was qualified by the possession of a most angelic voice and a soul solemnly impressed with religious sentiment." He was, on the other hand, fond of conversa tion, and possessed himself a large fund of anecdote. Besides the state papers of which Adams was either wholly or mainly the author, and his numerous political contributions to the newspapers, of which, however, but few have been identified, there have appeared in print a number of his letters. An oration on Ameri can independence, purporting to have been de livered by him in Philadelphia Aug. 1, 1776, and printed in London, is probably spurious, though it is a very favorable imitation of his style, neat, forcible, and pointed, without the least inflation or appearance of effort. In this oration the writer gives the English the title of a "nation of shopkeepers," and it is not impossible that it was hence that Bonaparte borrowed this appellation, which was a favor ite one with him, since it is known that the oration was translated into French and pub lished at Paris. Adams s life has been writ ten by W. V. Wells (" Life and Public Ser vices of Samuel Adams," 3 vols. 8vo, Bos ton, 1805). He left only female descendants, and the name of Adams is no longer borne by any of his blood. ADAMS, William, D. D., an American cler gyman, born in Colchester, Conn., Jan. 25, 1807. He received his early education from his father (see ADAMS, JOHN, LL. D.), when principal of Phillips academy, Andover, Mass., and graduated at Yale college in 1827. He studied theology at Andover, and in February, 1831, was ordained as a Congregational minister and pastor at Brighton, Mass. In 1834 he was called to the charge of the Central Presbyterian church, New York city. He has since that time been identified with the Presbyterian church, and has been (1872) for 38 years the pastor of the same congregation, which since 1853 has been known as the " Madison Square Presbyterian Church." He early attained rep utation as a pulpit orator, and has been very prominent in the national benevolent societies. He was moderator of the New School general assembly of 1852, and was active in promoting the reunion between the Old and New School churches in 1870- 71. Besides occasional ser mons, addresses, orations, and articles in the reviews, he has published " The Three Gar dens : Eden, Gethsemane, and Paradise" (1859) ; an edition of Isaac Taylor s "Spirit of Hebrew Poetry," with a biographical introduc tion (1801) ; "Thanksgiving: Memories of the Day, and Helps to the Habit" (1805); and "Conversations of Jesus Christ with Represen tative Men" (1868). In 1871 Dr. Adams was elected professor of sacred rhetoric and pastoral theology in the Union theological seminary, New York, but declined the appointment. ADAMS, William T. (pseudonyme, OLIVER OP TIC), an American writer of juvenile books, born in Medway, Mass., July 30, 1822. He was for many years a public school teacher in Bos ton, and now edits "Oliver Optic s Magazine for Boys and Girls." His principal works are "The Boat Club," "Woodville," "Army and Navy," "Young America Abroad," "Starry Flag," and "Lake Shore" series of stories, the " Riverdale Story Books," and "In Doors and Out," a volume of domestic tales. ADAM S PEAR, or Hamazel, a conical mountain in S. Ceylon, 45 m. S. S. E. of Colombo, 7,420 ft. high, and, with the exception of Pedrotalla- galla (which exceeds it by 860 ft.), the highest in the island. The ascent is made by means of a chain fixed to its summit. It is considered sacred by both Buddhists and Mohammedans, who make frequent pilgrimages there during the dry season (January, February, and March). On the summit, which is surrounded by a wall 5 ft. high, with two openings for the admission of pilgrims, there is the impression of a gigantic foot in the rock, said by the natives to be that of Buddha when he stepped from this peak to the adjacent kingdom of Siam ; but ascribed by the Mohammedans to Adam after his expulsion from paradise (placed in the vicinity of Cey lon), whence the peak derives its name. ADMA, a town of Turkey, in S. E. Asia Minor, capital of a sanjak, on the river Sihun (anc. Sarus), 25 m. N. E. of Tarsus and 60 m. N. W. of Alexandretta ; pop. about 30,000. It commands the Cilician passes of the Taurus chain, is well built, and contains interesting ancient remains. The bridge across the Sihun at this point is reported to have been con structed by Justinian, and the castle is also notable. Wool, cotton, corn, wine, and fruit are the staples of its commerce. Pompey colonized the town with conquered Cilician pirates. From 1833 to 1839, in consequence of Ibrahim Pasha s victory at Konieh, the san jak was in the hands of the Egyptians. ADANSON ADDISON 111 ADANSON, Michel, a French naturalist, of Scotch descent, born at Aix, April 7, 1727, died in Paris, Aug. 3, 1806. At the age of 21 he went at his own cost, though of very limited fortune, to the French colony of Senegal to study nature. After five years he returned to France with a fine collection. He first at tacked the Linnosan method, and his writings paved the way for the acceptance by the scientific world of Jussieu s system. The generic name Adansonia was given in his honor to the baobab tree, of which he gave the first scientific account. He was also dis tinguished for philanthropy, and proposed to found a colony with free negroes in Senegal, which was not, however, favored by the min istry of Louis XV. His name is associated with a plan for a vast cyclopaedia of natural history, which the academy had not the cour age to take up. He, however, persisted in his ideas, devoting many years to the collection of immense masses of manuscript material. By the revolution he was stripped of everything, and reduced to such abject poverty, that when he was invited in 1798 to take his seat as a member of the reorganized institute (having been a member of the academy since 1759), he was obliged to decline for want of shoes. He afterward received a small pension, in the en joyment of which he died in his 80th year. His principal works are : Histoire naturelle du Senegal (1 vol. 4to, 1757, including IS Histoire des coquillages, the earliest attempt at a scien tific classification of shells according to their inhabitants), and Methode naturelle pour ap- prendre a connaUre les differentes families des plantes (2 vols. 8vo, 1764, written with a phonetic orthography of his own invention). He also contributed many valuable memoirs to the publications of the academy of sciences. ADAR, the name of the 6th month in the civil year of the Jews, and of the 12th in their ecclesiastical year, answering to parts of Feb ruary and March. A fast for the death of Moses is observed on the 7th, the fast of Esther on the 13th, and on the 14th and 15th the feast of Purim. A second Adar is intercalated seven times in every nineteen years, in order to harmonize the lunar and solar periods. ADDA (anc. Addua), a river of N. Italy, a tributary of the Po. It rises in the Rhaatian Alps, flows S. W., S., and S. E. through the Valtellina and Lombardy, and the lakes of Como and Lecce, and enters the Po about 8 m. W. of Cremona. Its course is about 80 m. Lodi, the scene of one of Bonaparte s early triumphs, and Cassano, at which Moreau was defeated in 1799, are on its banks. ADDER. See VIPER. ADDINGTON, a S. county of the province of Ontario, Canada, bordering on the bay of Quinte, near the E. end of Lake Ontario ; area about 2,000 sq. m. ; pop. in 1871, 21,312. The county is about 122 m. long, and from 7 to 18 wide. It has between 20 and 30 lakes, the longest of which, Massanogo, is about 50 m. long. The northern townships are new and thinly settled. The clwef occupations are agri culture and lumbering. Chief town, Bath. ADDIXGTON. I. Henry, Lord Sidmouth, an English statesman, born May 30, 1757, died Feb. 15, 1844. He was the son of Dr. Anthony Addington of Reading, known as the author of treatises on scurvy and on the mortality of beasts, and for his attempt in 1778 to establish a political alliance between the earl of Bute and the earl of Chatham, whose physician he was. This connection with Lord Chatham led to an intimacy between Henry Addington and the younger William Pitt, who induced him to enter parliament in 1784. He was called to the bar in the same year, but never practised. In 1789 he was elected speaker, and continued to support Pitt, but voted against him on the slave question, favoring a gradual emancipa tion. In 1801 Pitt resigned and Addington took his place as chancellor of the exchequer and first lord of the treasury, and formed a new ministry. He aided in forming the treaty of Amiens in 1802, the objectionable clauses in which were vigorously attacked by Wind- ham and Grenville. But in 1803, when peace was considered dishonorable, he supported a war policy. The prince of Wales, afterward George IV., had a personal dislike to Addington, who was regarded as the chief of the special friends of George III., and the illness of the latter gave the prince opportunity to show his animosity. In 1804 Addington resigned, and the king created him a peer by the title of Viscount Sidmouth (Jan. 12, 1805), and ap pointed him president of the council, which office he resigned in July. After Pitt s death, Lord Sidmouth entered the ministry of Gren ville and Fox (Feb., 1806, to March, 1807), first as lord privy seal and afterward as president of the council. In 1812 Lord Sidmouth was appointed secretary for the home department in Lord Liverpool s ministry. In 1822, on the death of Lord Castlereagh, he resigned his office, but at Lord Liverpool s request retained his seat in the cabinet two years longer. II. Henry Unwin, an English diplomatist, a rela tive of the preceding, born March 24, 1790, died in London, March 6, 1870. He entered the foreign office after leaving Winchester col lege, and was fcr upward of 30 years in the diplomatic service in various countries, includ ing the United States, whither he was sent in 1822, and again in 1826. He was under-secre- tary of state from 1842 to 1854, when on his retirement he was made privy councillor. ADDISON, a W. county of Vermont, bound ed W. by Lake Champlain and drained by Otter creek and its tributaries, which afford excellent water power ; area, 750 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 23,484. Near the lake the surface is almost level, but it becomes rugged and moun tainous toward the east. The soil is fertile. The productions in 1870 were 57,725 bushels of wheat, 144,257 of corn, 334,446 of oats, 28,211 of buckwheat, 317,043 of potatoes, 112 JOSEPH ADDISON" 495,771 Ibs. of wool, 201,855 of maple sugar, 1,723,437 of butter, 546,047 of cheese, and 114,298 tons of hay. The value of farms was $16,001,548, and of productions $3,055,768. The manufacture of cotton, wool, paper, &c., is carried on, and quarries of white and veined marbles are extensively worked. The Rut land and Burlington railroad runs through the county. Capital, Middlebury. ADDISOX, Joseph, an English author, born at Milton, Wiltshire, May 1, 1672, died in Hol land house, Kensington, June 17, 1719. He was educated at the Charter House school and at Queen s and Magdalen colleges, Oxford, and was early noted for elegant scholarship, and particularly for his proficiency in Latin versifi cation, which elicited the praise of Boileau. His own tastes would probably have led him to take orders, which his father, the Rev. Launcelot Addison, dean of Lichfield, urged him to do, or to follow an exclusively literary career. But the age was one of too earnest political warfare to permit a young man of talent to keep aloof from party strife, and Ad dison began to pay court to prominent states men in complimentary verses and other offer ings to their vanity. He thus secured the friendship and patronage of Lords Somers and Halifax, the former of whom in 1699 obtained for him a travelling pension of 300, by means of which he was enabled to visit France, Ger many, and Italy. The death of William III. having removed his friends from power, he lost his pension, was forced to become a travelling tutor, and in 1703 returned to England. In the succeeding year, at the suggestion of Lord Halifax, he commemorated the victory of Blen heim in an indifferent poem entitled "The Campaign," containing, however, one fine sim ile, which so pleased the lord treasurer Godol- phin that he appointed Addison a commissioner of appeal of the excise. From this time until the close of his career, except during the tory administration of Oxford and Bolingbroke, he was scarcely ever without office of some kind. In 1705 he accompanied Halifax to Hanover as secretary of legation. In the succeeding year he was appointed under-secretary of state, and in 1709 secretary to the marquis of Wharton, the lord lieutenant of Ireland, although he re mained in London during the greater part of his term of office. He also represented Lost- withiel in parliament from 1708 to 1710, and Malmesbury during the remainder of his life. His career as a legislator was not brilliant, his only attempt to address the house having proved a total failure through loss of self-pos session. Previous to his 87th year Addison s literary productions were few and fragmentary. A book of "Travels" which attracted little attention, the "Dialogues on Medals," some oc casional poems and English versions from Vir gil and Ovid, and his Latin verses comprised nearly all that he had given to the public. His reputation as a wit and man of letters was nevertheless very great in the London clubs and coffee houses, then the usual resorts of lit erary characters ; and his sudden. appearance in the "Tatler," started by his school friend Steele in 1709, and its successor the "Spectator," as the most brilliant essayist of his time, was by no means a surprise to his friends. Upon his contributions to the " Spectator " his fame now chiefly rests. Commenced on March 1, 1711, it was continued daily till December 6, 1712, when Steele retired and the publication ceased. A year and a half later it was recommenced by Addison, who for a considerable period was its sole contributor. Eighty papers were then added to the 555 already published, and the " Spectator " was finally discontinued on Dec. 20, 1714. Of the 635 essays included in both series, Addison was the author of 274, his con tributions being generally identified by some letter in the name of the muse Clio appended to them. He also wrote- occasionally for the " Guardian," a successor of the "Spectator." He found this style of composition singularly adapted to his talents and disposition ; and in an age artificial and frivolous almost beyond prece dent, his essays are natural, decent, and instruc tive, infused with a serene and cheerful philoso phy, and often with an artless gayety, and writ ten in a diction of almost faultless purity. His papers on Milton, on Sir Roger de Coverley and his friends, and that entitled "The Vision of Mirza," are to this day among the masterpieces of English literature. In the spring of 1713 was produced his tragedy of "Cato," the im mediate success of which, owing to the political significance attached to it, to the zeal of friend ship, and to the existent standard of dramatic taste, was far beyond its merits as an acting play. Pope wrote the prologue and Dr. Garth the epilogue, and it had a run of 35 nights, and was translated into various European languages. It is now remembered chiefly by the soliloquy of the hero and a few passages which have be come standard quotations. The death of Queen Anne having restored his political friends to power, he again held office, first as secretary to the lords justices, then for a while as secre tary to the lord lieutenant of Ireland, and in 1715 as one of the lords of trade. In 1716, being then in his 45th year, he married the countess of Warwick and took up his resi dence with her in Holland house. The union proved an unhappy one to Addison. The countess was proud and high-tempered, and made his home so uncomfortable that he was fain to take refuge at the clubs and taverns, w r here it is said he often drank immoderately. I In 1717 he reached his highest political eleva- I tion, being made one of the principal seereta- ries of state. But his inability to grapple with details and to take rank as a parliamentary leader unfitted him for the office, and he re signed it in the following year. Thenceforth until his death he applied himself to the com pletion of a treatise on the evidences of Chris tianity which had been projected some years before. His principal writings in addition to ADEL ADELAIDE 113 those already mentioned were the " Drummer," a comedy, an opera entitled "Rosamond," and the "Freeholder," a sort of political "Specta tor." Scattered among his essays are also sev eral devotional poems, exalted in tone and feli citous in diction, which are still included in every considerable collection of sacred poetry. Addison was a man of integrity and sincere piety, and by his amiability, his pleasant hu mor, and his varied conversational powers greatly endeared himself to his friends. To those not intimate with him, a natural shyness of manner, which he was never able to shake off, made him seem cold and reserved. lie has been accused of slighting and even of depreci ating the merits of men of equal ability with himself. His treatment, when at the height of political power, of his old friend and literary coadjutor Steele, was not generous, and he in curred the resentment of Pope, who attacked him in some memorably bitter lines. But the uniform tendency of his writings precludes the idea that he was to any considerable degree insincere or unjust to his contemporaries. ADEL. See ADAL. ADELAAR, Adelaer, or Adder (the Eagle), a surname given, on account of his gallantry, to COET SIVEETSEX, born in Brevig, Norway, Dec. 16, 1622 v died in Copenhagen, Nov. 5, 1675. He rose from the position of a common sailor, in which capacity he served from 1637 to 1642 in the Dutch navy, to the rank of admiral, first in the Venetian and afterward in the Danish ser vice. During the wars of Venice against the Turks, Adelaar gave e vidence of his daring spirit by fighting his way in 1654, with the ship to the command of which he had risen by his skill, through 67 Turkish galleys, sinking 15 of them with about 5,000 Turks on board, all of whom are said to have perished. For this exploit Venice conferred upon him the order of St. Mark, the title of lieutenant general of the admiralty, and a pension. In 1663, after returning for a short time to the Dutch navy, Adelaar accepted employment under the Danish government, and in 1675 became com- mander-in-chief of the ileet just about to act against Sweden. He died before it sailed. ADELAIDE, a city and the capital of South Australia, about 6 m. from the E. shore of St. Vincent s gulf, and 515 m. N.W. of Melbourne; pop. (with Port Adelaide and Albert Town) about 30,000. It is divided by the river Tor- rens into N. and S. Adelaide, and surrounded by a semicircle of hills. The city was founded in 1836, and incorporated in 1842. It pos sesses several fine squares, streets, and churches, a chamber of commerce, an assay office, and a botanical garden with a Conser vatory. King William street is the central thoroughfare and Ilindlcy street the chief business locality. It is united by railway with Port Adelaide, 6 m. N. W. of the city, through which passes most of the commerce of South j Australia. There is a large export trade in cereals, wool, and minerals, especially copper. ! VOL. i. 8 A considerable amount of gold obtained from the mines discovered in 1852 is assayed at Adelaide. The export of wool exceeds 7,000,000 pounds annually. The annual ship ment of fine copper is nearly 100,000 cwt. Since 1862 the greater part of the ore has been smelted in the colony. Adelaide has fiouring mills, breweries, machine shops, brass and iron founderies, and manufactories of to bacco, soap, candles, earthenware, leather, and barilla. The total value of South Aus tralian imports (including 93,892 bullion and specie) in 1869 was 2,754,770; of exports, 2,993,035 ; total tonnage of vessels, exclusive of coastwise, nearly 350,000. Most of this trade centres in Port Adelaide. Albert Town is a small village about 1 m. from the port. The public revenue of the city in 1869 was 773,351, and the expenditure 653,107. It is the seat of an Anglican and a Pioman Catholic bishop. ADELAIDE, Eugenie Lonisc, princess of Or leans, daughter of Louis Philippe Joseph, duke of Orleans, surnamed galite, born in Paris, Aug. 25, 1777, died there, Dec. 31, 1847. In 1791 she went to England. On her return, in November, 1792, she found herself proscribed as an emiyree, and fled into the Austrian Neth erlands, then invaded by the French army of the north, putting herself under the protection of her brother, the young duke of Chartres, afterward King Louis Philippe, who com manded a division of that army. Her brother being soon compelled to take flight himself to escape the guillotine, she was conducted over to the Austrian advanced posts. She rejoined her brother after many perils in Sehaff liausen, Switzerland, May 26, 1793, accompanied by her former governess, Mine, de Genlis. They next took refuge in a convent, but their money ran short, and she threw herself upon the protection of her aunt, the princess Oonti, at Fribourg. Her aunt dared not receive her in her own house, as the prejudice against the name of Orleans was so strong among the royal family of France, but she put her and Mme. de Genlis to board in a Swiss convent. After a separation of 10 years she saw her brother once more at Figueras in Spain ; and after some further removals she at length re joined him at Portsmouth, England, Avhence she followed him to Palermo, where in 1809 he married the daughter of the king of the Two Sicilies. From that time till the restora tion she lived with him in Sicily. When Louis XVIII. had to quit France once more, she again followed her brother abroad. After the revolution of July, 1830, she persuaded him to accept the throne. Madame Adelaide, as she was now called, exercised considerable influence on the decisions of the king of the French, and was popularly regarded as his guardian angel. She died two months before his overthrow in February, 1848. ADELAIDE, Saint, queen of Italy and empress of Germany, born in France in 933, died at 114: ADELSBERG ADEN Seltz, Alsace, Dec. 10, 009. She was a daughter of Rudolph II., kins? of Burgundy, whose contest with King Hugo of Italy was peaceably ended by her marrying in 947 the latter s son, Lothaire II., after whose violent death in 050 she was imprisoned by his suc cessor Berenger II. for declining to marry his deformed son Adalbert. She escaped to the castle of a relative and solicited the protection of Otho I., the Great, who, captivated by her beauty and character, married her in 051. She was crowned empress of the West in 002, and exerted much influence in Germany during a part of the reign of her son Otho II. and as regent during the minority of her grandson Otho III. She was called the "mother of kingdoms." The latter part of her life was consecrated to works of piety and charity at Seltz, where she founded a Benedictine monas tery ; and she is honored as a saint on Dec. 10. Her biography has been written by St. Odilon and others in Latin, French, and German, and by G. B. Semeria in Italian (Vita politwo-religiosa di Santa Adelaide, regina d? Italia ed imperatrice del sacro Ro mano impcrio, Turin, 1842). ADELSBERG, a small market town of Carniola, Austria, on the Semmering railroad, midway between Laybach and Trieste, near a cele brated cavern, which has five main divisions. The first, called Neptune or Great Dome grotto, traversed for the length of 400 feet by the Poik river, and rich in stalactites, consti tutes the old part of the cavern, which has been known for upward of 000 years. The entrance to the new parts of the cavern was accidentally discovered in 1810. This leads in the first instance to the second main division, called the emperor Ferdinand s chamber, with large corridors called the ball-room and the circus, where annual festivals take place, and that of Calvary, a mound formed by the ruined columns of rocks more than 200 feet high. The third main division consists of two basins of water called the dropping well and Tartarus. The fourth main division, the arch duke John grotto, opens behind a curtain of transparent spar, and contains other shapes called Little Curtain and Gothic Hall. The fifth main division, the Francis Joseph and Elizabeth grotto, explored for the first time in | 185T, discloses a range of chambers with brilliant and fantastic shapes, and a pictur esque elevation called Little Calvary. About ! three miles from Adelsberg is the Black or Magdalen grotto, through which runs a river. Here was first discovered the protects anguinus, an animal half fish, half lizard, and eyeless. The Poik cavern, a mile from the last-named grotto, is only accessible by the aid of a rope, and remarkable chiefly for the dashing of the river over the rocks. ADELOG. I. Joliaim Christoph, a German j lexicographer, born at Spantekow, Pomerania, j Aug. 8, 1782, died in Dresden, Sept, 10, 1800. j He finished his studies at the university of I \ Halle, and went to Leipsic, supporting him- j self by translations of valuable foreign works. < His Glossarium mamiale ad Scriptorcs mediae, ct infimcs Latinitatis (Halle, 1772- 84) is his most important achievement in this depart ment. His great work, for which he took Johnson s English dictionary as a pattern, is his Grammatisch-lcritisches Worterbuch dcr lioclideuUclien Mundart (Leipsic, 1774 80). He also produced Deutsche Spraclilehre fur Schulen (Berlin, 1781), and Umstandlichc* Lehrgebiiude dcr deutschen SpracJie (Berlin. 1782). In 1787 Adelung was called to Dres den, and appointed head librarian to the electoral library in that city, where he con ceived the plan of his Hithridates, a work which was to contain an account of all the known languages of the earth, with a transla tion of the Lord s prayer given as a specimen of each. lie only lived to finish the first volume, which gave an account of the Asiatic languages. The work was afterward taken up | by Johann Severin Vater, and his own nephew j Friedrich Adelung, and finished in 4 vols. It is said that he devoted 14 hours a day to study. II. Friedrich von, nephew of the preceding, born in Stettin, Feb. 25, 1708, died in St. Peters burg, Jan. 30, 1843. He began his career as a private tutor, and spent several years in Rome, but subsequently went to St. Peters burg, where he was appointed by the emperor Alexander preceptor of his brothers Nicholas (afterward czar) and Michael. His principal works are : u The Relations between the San scrit and Russian Languages" (1815), an "Es say on the Sanscrit Literature and Language " (1830), and Billiotfieca Sanscrita (1837). ADEN (anc. Adane, Attancp, or AraMa Felix), a fortified British seaport town on the S. coast of Arabia and on the gulf of Aden, about 120 m. E. of the entrance to the Red sea at Bab-el- Mandeb, hit, 12 47 K, Ion. 45 E. ; pop. about 50,000. It is built on the N. E. end of the peninsula of Aden, and connected with the mainland by a low, sandy isthmus. The lat ter, united with another peninsula called Jebel Hassan, forms the t\vo extensive harbors of Aden, the best on the Arabian coast. The town stands at the E. base of a volcanic moun tain range from 1,000 to 1,800 feet high. It is a place of considerable strength and is well garrisoned, its situation between Asia and Africa resembling that of Gibraltar between Europe and Africa. The superiority of the port and abundant supply of water render Aden a valuable and important station on the way from India to Europe. The inhabitants are Asiatic and African, with a few Europeans, chiefly English. The English political resident is the governing authority. The town is sur rounded with gardens and fruit trees. The climate, though dry and hot, is not insalubri ous. In ancient times, Aden was the great centre of trade between Arabia, Egypt, and India. It was destroyed by the Romans in the time of Augustus, but soon revived. Marco ADERXO ADHESION 115 Polo speaks of its wealth and splendor in the j middle ages. At the beginning of the 16th century if was so strongly fortified that the Portuguese failed to capture it ; but the Turk- j ish domination, from about 1540 to 1630, was \ injurious ; and the imam of Sana and the sultan of Yemen, who successively ruled Aden for the next three generations, completed the work of the Turks, and left the place a heap of ruins in 1705, when it became independent. In 1838 | Capt. Ilaynes proposed to the sultan of Aden j to cede the town to Great Britain, and on his j declining the English took forcible possession, j Jan. 11, 1839. Since that time the town j has gained commercial importance. In 1870 the imports from Great Britain amounted to 110,403, and the exports to 2,633. ADERXO (anc. Adranum), a town of Sicily, in the government and 17 m. X. W. of Catania; pop. in 1801, 12,877. It is situated on a plateau at the S. W. foot of Mt. Etna, and is approached by a steep winding road of 4 m. A large pro portion of the inhabitants are monks and nuns. There are many remains of the ancienl town and ruins of medieval buildings; and in the piazza is a Norman castle, now used as a prison. ADET, Pierre Angnste, a French chemist and politician, born at Severs in 1763, died about 1832. He was sent by the directory in 1795 to the United States as minister plenipotentiary, \ and presented to congress a tricolor flag on be half of the French nation. On Oct. 27, 1796, he delivered to the secretary of state the cele brated decree of the directory complaining that the American government, in its treaty with England, had violated its neutrality and broken the treaty of 1778, and authorizing French ships of war to treat neutral vessels in the same manner that they allowed themselves to be treated by the English. After the delivery of this note Adct announced that he should suspend his functions, and he accordingly re turned to France, after issuing an inflammatory address to the people of the United States. He subsequently adhered to Napoleon, but his political career remained unimportant. He composed a new system of chemical signs, but it found no favor. ADHESION (Lat. ad, to, and harerc, to stick), the force by which the particles of different bodies stick together, distinguished from cohe sion, which is the force that holds the molecules of the same body together. There are six kinds of adhesion : solids to solids, liquids to solids, liquids to liquids, gases to solids, gases to liquids, and gases to gases. 1. Solids to solids. Two glass or metal plates with well ground surfaces, when pressed together, will adhere ! with such force that the upper one will not j only support the lower, but an additional weight will be required to separate them. The amount of this adhesive force has been meas- nred by recording the weights necessary for | their separation. The records of the old ex perimenters on this subject are worthless, be- ! cause they placed a lubricating fluid, oil or fat, between the plates; they found thus the cohesion of the oil or i at, and not the adhesion of the plates. In later times Prechtl in Ger many has made the most careful experiments in this line ; he took polished metal plates of 1^- inch diameter, suspended the upper one to a balance, brought it to an equilibrium in a hori zontal position, and attached the lower plate to a support underneath it. Soth plates were then brought in contact, so that the flat pol ished surfaces covered one another perfectly, and the weights required in the scale at the other end of the balance beam to separate the plates were the measures of the adhesion. Prechtrs Adhesion Balance. He found thus the following remarkable law: The adhesion between two plates of the same material is the same as that between one of the plates and any material which possesses a less adhesive force. For instance, to separate two copper plates required a weight of 21 grains; but the same weight was required to separate one of the copper plates from a plate of bismuth, zinc, tin, lead, &c., notwithstanding the adhe sive force of bismuth to bismuth, zinc to zinc, &c., was found to be smaller than that of cop per to copper. Prechtl found also that an at traction of the plates manifested itself at an appreciable distance before actual contact, and he even measured the amount of this attraction at the distance of - f of an inch by means of weights in fractions of grains. The suspended plate when brought within this distance was attracted with an accelerated motion till the contact took place with a slight concussion. The idea that the pressure of the air was the chief cause of the adhesion of two such plates, as it is in the case of the well known experi ment with the Magdeburg hemispheres, was set at rest by Boyle, who suspended the adhe sive plates charged with weight in the vacuum of an air pump ; the plates were not separated, while the hemispheres held together by the vacuum alone fell apart. The adhesion of solids to solids is also seen in the dust, which will not only adhere to perpendicular but even to inverted surfaces. Granite consists of feld spar, quartz, and mica, kept together by adhe sion. A portion of such apparently adhesive force is, however, cohesion. For instance, 116 ADHESION brick and mortar adhere chiefly by the cohe sion of the mortar, which penetrates the pores of the brick ; stones without sensible pores do not adhere so well to mortar. 2. Liquids to solids. Taylor was the first who investigated this subject in a scientific manner. He sus pended a polished plate on the balance as above described, and brought it carefully down on the surface of a liquid, when it adhered, and the adhesion was measured by the weight re quired to separate the plate. After this method Guy ton de Morveau in Paris found that plates of a French inch in diameter had the following adhesive power to mercury : gold, 446 grains ; silver, 429; tin, 418; lead, 897 ; bismuth, 372 ; zinc, 204 ; copper, 142 ; antimony, 120 ; iron, 115; cobalt, 8 ; cold platinum, 108; red-hot platinum, 10 grains. Taylor also believed that the pressure of the air was the main cause, but Guyton found nearly the same results in the vacuum of the air pump. Link took a polished plate of agate of nearly one inch diameter, and tested its adhesion to different liquids ; he found for water, 25 grains ; sulphuric acid, 29 ; hy drochloric acid, 25; solution of saltpetre, 23; of lime, 21; almond oil, 10; petroleum, 10; turpentine and alcohol, 15; ether, 10. Where in many of these experiments drops of the liquid adhere to the plate used, it proves that the ad hesion of the liquid to the solid is stronger than the cohesion of the liquid itself, and that the numbers obtained express rather the cohesion of particles of the liquid which were separated by the weight, than the adhesion of the plate to the liquid. The ascent of liquids in capillary tubes is also a result of adhesion, as well as the spreading out of liquids between two surfaces kept in close proximity. The chain pump, in which the water is carried up by a simple chain in a tube, is a practical application of adhesion. Pre"vost made interesting experiments on elec tive adhesion, showing how one fiuid will drive another away from a surface for which it has more adhesion. He found that they displace one another in the following order : ether, alco hol, oil of bergamot, poppy oil, olive oil, nut oil, and other oils, water. Pure water dis places in its turn solutions of salts and alkaline earths. Camphor drives a film of water away from a surface, and pieces of camphor placed on water will show a peculiar motion ; the same is seen with camphor or phosphorus placed on pure mercury. These phenomena are due to the evaporation of the solid and the cohesion of its vapor. We see practical applications of the adhesion of liquids to solids in writing, paint ing, printing, dyeing, washing, and elutriation, or separation of coarse from fine powders by suspension and settling in a large quantity of water. 3. Liquids to liquids. If a drop of water is placed on mercury, or a drop of oil placed on water, it does not keep its round form, but spreads out at once, because its adhe sion to the liquid surface is greater than the cohesion of its particles. A drop of water on an oily surface, however, will not spread out, as the cohesion of its particles is greater than its adhesion to the oil. The manner of dis placement of one liquid by another having greater adhesive force to the liquid they float on, gives rise to a series of phenomena, for the study and exhibition of which Prof. Morton of the Stevens institute at Hoboken has recently contrived an apparatus in the style of a magic lantern. 4. Gases to solids. Many solids have the property of condensing gases on their sur face (see ABSORPTION OF GASES), and polished | metallic surfaces, even when long exposed to I the air, will be covered with such a gaseous | film, which is the first manifestation of chemi cal affinity. In the process of dagucrreotyping, the polished silver plate will be inert unless this I film of air has been removed by a polishing process just before the operation. Such re- I moval of air may be made visible on the surface of a glass mirror which has not been rubbed for some time, by drawing a few figures or let ters on it with a clean finger; the invisible change^of surface will become visible by breath ing on the glass, when the appearance of the deposit of watery vapor will show where the air film has been removed by friction. The adhesion of gases to solids is further illustrated by the small air bubbles which are often visi ble in mineral waters and effervescent drinks, sticking to the sides of the glass vessel in which they are contained, and not rising to the sur face notwithstanding they are some 600 times lighter than the liquid. This adhesion is also illustrated by heavy powders and even sewing needles floating on water ; the air adhering around the needle prevents the adhesion of the water, and the latter by its own cohesion forms a hollow depression in which the needle floats. The same adhesion of air around a piece of solid iron causes it to float on melted iron, notwith standing it has not a less specific gravity than the fluid material. The mutual adhesion of solids and gases is also illustrated by the float ing of particles of dust in the air ; subdivision of matter increasing the surface, a continued subdivision will at last cause a point to be reached where the surface adhesion overcomes | gravitation. In the vacuum of the air pump i the dust falls down like a heavy body. It is the same with smoke, as this consists of solid particles carried upward by a current of heat ed air; the white smoke evolved by the burn ing of magnesium, zinc, or phosphorus illustrates | this point very plainly. 5. Gases to liquids. \ The adhesion of gases to the surface of liquids is i stronger in proportion to their solubility or ab sorption by the liquid. So carbonic acid ad heres to water with greater force than air ; but air possesses very strong adhesion to water, as shown by the currents of air carried down by any considerable cataract. Use is made of this adhesion in the so-called water bellows, in which a stream of water falling through a wide tube carries far downward and produces a blast so strong that this principle was used for driv ing the drills during the boring of the Mont ADHESION ADIPOCERE 117 Cenis tunnel. In the so-called atomizer a cur rent of air is used to divide water into a fine spray. In the Giffard injector a blast of steam is used to carry water by its adhesion to it into the boiler against its own pressure. The adhe sion of air to water is further illustrated by the friction of a strong wind on its surface, which not only pushes it forward, but creates the waves. If oil is spread over the water, the air finds a surface for which it has little adhesion, and glides easily over it. This is the cause of the quieting influence of oil upon ocean waves, of which advantage has occasionally been taken in a storm by vessels having oil on board ; the oil will spread at once over a large surface. The peculiar motions of camphor on water, phosphorus on mercury, &c., belong to the same class of phenomena; it is the elective affinity of the vapors of these volatile sub stances for the liquid on which they float, which is the cause of a strong and unequal evaporation at the points in contact, the evolv ing gas or vapor pushing the floating solid on ward by its mechanical reaction. When the water is touched with a substance containing the merest trace of oil or grease, the motion of the camphor stops at once, as the water be comes then at once covered with a very thin but strongly adhering oil film, which has no affinity for the vapor of the camphor. A similar action is seen as soon as mercury is covered with a film of phosphorus ; removing this film with the edge of a knife, the motion recommences at once, and is visible in the dark. The mutual adhesion of liquids and gases is also illustrated by the floating of watery particles in the atmosphere, as is seen in clouds and fogs. AVatery vapor, present in the air in an invisible condition, becomes visible as soon as condensation commences, when a kind of fine water dust is formed, identical with the spray of large cataracts, where it originates by fnechanical means. These watery particles are kept floating simply by their adhesion to the air, the total surface being very large com pared with the total weight; but when the particles, by contact and mutual adhesion, form larger bodies, the total surface diminishes in proportion to the weight, while finally their gravitation becomes greater than their adhe sion, and they fall down like rain. This fall ing down of water dust not only takes place in a vacuum, but even a trifling diminution in the atmospheric pressure will cause it when the amount of watery vapor in the air is large, as seen in the fact that rain is usually preceded by a descent of the mercurial column of the barometer. A descent of temperature is also a cause of this condensation of watery vapor, as it diminishes the capacity of the air for holding it. This adhesion theory makes the hypothesis of De Saussure quite unnecessary. This savant imagined that the particles of watery vapor were supported in the clouds by being hollow, with a vacuum inside, and thus, being -lighter than the same volume of air, they were sup ported like a balloon. He was strengthened in this notion by the microscopic illusion which often causes solid small spheres to ap pear as if hollow. Still such hollow spheres are occasionally seen like microscopic soap bubbles, but they have air inside, are heavier than the air, and are only supported by adhe sion. 6. Gases to gases. The interpenetration of gases being very great, it is impossible to keep their surfaces distinct ; there must con sequently be much adhesion and friction be tween them. Direct experiment with two gases cannot well be made, but observation demonstrates this great adhesion and friction. So one small jet of air in a wide tube will cause a rush of air to follow ; the exhaust steam blown upward in the locomotive flue causes the air to rush out with it, and so creates the draft , necessary to keep up a sufficient heat. This adhesion of gases plays no doubt a most important part in the actions of the atmosphere in the economy of nature. ADIOE (anc. Athesis ; Ger. Etscli}, a river of the Tyrol and 1ST. Italy, rises in the Swiss Alps, and flows E., S., S. E., and again E. about 220 m. to the Adriatic, S. of Chioggia. On its banks are the towns of Trent and Hoveredo in the Tyrol, and the fortresses of Verona and Legnago in Venetia. ADIPOCERE (Lat, adeps, fat, and cera, wax, from its fatty origin and waxy consistency), a white, solid, non-putrescible substance, into which human bodies are sometimes converted after burial. If the dead body be left exposed to the air at a moderate temperature, it under goes the process of putrefaction, and is rapidly decomposed with the evolution of offensive and putrefactive gases. If buried in closed coffins with a limited supply of air, or in a tolerably dry soil, the process is somewhat modified ; the putrescent character of the changes is less marked, the offensive effiuvia are much .less abundantly developed or are absorbed by the soil, and the body slowly decomposes, losing its original form and structure, and finally crumbling away to powder, leaving only the bones, which remain for a long time after the remainder of the body has become unrecog nizable. But occasionally it has been found that bodies disinterred after the lapse of many years have not undergone either of these changes, but on the contrary have been con verted into a white, solid, and very heavy sub stance, of firm consistency, retaining the ori ginal size and contour of the frame, so that the features may still be distinguishable, and even the natural markings and texture of the skin distinctly apparent. This substance is adipo- cere. It does not putrefy, but has evidently remained unchanged for a long time while buried, and after disinterment continues with but slight alteration. After exposure to the air it simply becomes lighter in weight, drier and more granular, owing to the evaporation of the water which it contained ; so that a body which has undergone this conversion may be 118 ADIPOCERE ADIPOSE SUBSTANCES afterward preserved for an indefinite time with out changing materially in form or appearance. It is this change, or conversion of the soft parts into adipocere, which gives rise to the instances occasionally reported of human bodies being found after some years in a state of so-called petrifaction. The white color, soMdity, and weight of the bodies thus found naturally sug gest to the popular mind the idea of their having become petrified ; but the change which they have" undergone is in reality a very dif ferent one, and has little or nothing in common with a true petrifaction. It is found that, for a body to become changed into adipocere, two principal conditions are mainly requisite. First, the body at the time of its burial must be fat. Lean bodies, as a rule, do not undergo the change in question, but only those which are abundantly supplied with adipose tissue. And yet it is not the adipose tissue itself which is converted into adipocere; it merely supplies some of the necessary elements, which are em ployed in effecting the alteration in other tis sues. The second necessary condition is that j the body should be buried in a moist place, and j one in which the water collects in considerable quantity and remains standing at or about the level of the coffin, without being rapidly changed. Thus a single body, buried in marshy ground, or even deposited in a tomb which is j undrained and collects standing water, will ; sometimes be found to have undergone the al- j teration. A collection of many bodies in or i near the same spot seems also to favor the | change. The first notable instance in which it | was observed was on the removal in 1787 of the bodies deposited in the Cimetiere des Inno cents in Paris, where they had been accumulat ing for eight or nine centuries, many of them being found -in the condition of adipocere. In 1849, in the city of I^ew York, an old pot ter s field burying ground, situated at the junc tion of Forty-ninth street and Fourth avenue, I was demolished and the bodies removed. Many 1 of them had been buried in trenches or pits, in | which the coffins were piled one upon the j other, sometimes six or seven deep. This was said to have been done during the cholera epi demic of 1832. On removal of the bodies, those occupying the upper and middle tiers : were found to be nearly or altogether decom- j posed ; those forming the one or two lowermost | tiers, beneath the level of the water retained by the soil, had apparently been converted into adipocere, but had been subsequently in great j part dissolved and disintegrated by the water; while those situated between the two were in many instances also converted into adipocere, | but completely preserved, retaining, with but j a few changes, their natural form and size. The process of the conversion of a human body | into adipocere under such circumstances ap pears to be the following : The tatty substance j of the adipose tissue first undergoes a change, by which it becomes rancid and produces two fatty acids, the oleic and the margaric acids. These acids are liquid, and, being in large quan tity, penetrate the neighboring tissues, so that the skin, muscles, &c., become permeated and saturated with them. At the same time, the albuminous matter of these tissues, beginning to undergo decomposition, produces a small quantity of ammonia, which unites with the fatty acids, making an ammoniacal soap. The greater part of these acids, however, is taken up by combinations of lime, forming an oleate or margarate of lime, substances comparatively insoluble and non-putrescible. The lime is de rived partly from the soil, being brought down in solution by the rain water as it filters through successive layers of superincumbent earth. If other bodies are piled above, the water which filters through also brings the products of their decomposition and partial solution, among which are ammonia and lime, until the whole of the fatty acids of the bodies lying at the re quisite level have combined with these bases, and have become in this way converted into adipocere. Thus the tissues, already permeated by the fatty acids, are now saturated with their ammoniacal and calcareous combinations, and especially with the oleate and margarate of lime, which protects them from further de composition, and causes even their minute ana tomical structure to be indefinitely preserved. These bodies when first taken out are, as we have said, dense and heavy, owing to the abun dant moisture which they contain ; but this soon evaporates after exposure to the air, leav ing them comparatively light and dry. It is not by any means all the tissues and organs of the body which are converted into adipocere, even under favorable circumstances. The adi pose tissue itself disappears more or less com pletely, since its principal ingredient is used up in accomplishing the alteration of other parts. The internal organs generally, such as the heart, lungs, brain, liver, spleen, kidneys, &c., become shrivelled and disintegrated and finally undistin- guishable. But the skin, fascia, tendons, fibrous membranes generally, and especially the muscles of the head, limbs, and trunk, are all more or less completely preserved. The muscular texture is easily recognizable by the naked eye, and the natural folds of the skin, or accidental impressions made upon the surface by portions of the dress or ligatures, may be plainly dis cernible after the lapse of many years. The bones, teeth, hair, and other less destructible parts of the body, do not seem to be particu larly influenced by the change, but undergo only the usual very slow and almost impercep tible alterations which they would present in ordinary cases. ADIPOSE SUBSTANCES (Lat, adcps, fat), a class of substances of a fatty nature, which are present in greater or smaller quantity in most animal and vegetable organisms. Adipose sub stances are all composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, to the exclusion of other chemical elements. They are all crystal! izable at a IOAV temperature and fluid at a high temperature, ADIPOSE SUBSTANCES ADIPOSE TISSUE 119 combustible, and insoluble in water, but solu ble in ether and in each other. They differ from each other in the exact proportion of the dif ferent chemical elements which they contain, and particularly in the precise degree of tem perature at which they crystallize or assume the solid form ; some of them, such as stearine when pure, remaining solid above 140 F., while others, such as oleine, continue fluid until near the freezing point of water. The three special kinds of adipose substance with which we are most familiar are stearine, mar garine, and oleine ; stearine and margarine being the principal constituents of the more solid fats, while oleine is abundant in the more fluid fats, or oils. In the animal body, these different substances are usually mingled with each other in various proportions, thus form ing fats or oleaginous ingredients of different degrees of consistency. They are found in the adipose tissue, of which they form by far the largest part; in the minute cells of the liver and of some cartilages, where they are depos ited in the form of microscopic globules; in the brain and nervous matter, where they are found in the proportion of from 5 to 15 per cent. ; in the marrow of the bones ; in the chyle, to which fluid they impart its opacity and white milky color ; and in the milk itself they exist under the form of the milk globules, which are minute particles of butter, formed of a mixture of various fatty substances, and suspended in the serous fluids of the secretion. There is also a sebaceous matter secreted by the skin, especially in the parts covered with hair, which is a semi-solid or lardaceous se cretion, consisting largely of adipose mate rials. Fatty substances also exist in consider able abundance in the food, since they enter so largely into the composition of animal and ve getable tissues. The fat of meat, the liver and the brain of animals, when used as food, of course supply a large quantity of adipose sub stances. Milk and butter and the yolk of eggs are especially rich in these materials ; and many articles of vegetable food, such as nuts, olives, Indian corn, <fcc., also contain them in large proportion. Although fatty substances by themselves are not capable of sustaining life when used exclusively as articles of food, yet they are extremely useful and perhaps indis pensable as part of the regimen. This is shown by the instinctive desire, which is nearly uni versal among healthy persons, to have some kinds of adipose materials as a portion of the food ; butter, fat, and olive oil being the kinds most highly valued and abundantly used. It has also been proved directly by the experi ments on the fattening of animals by Boussin- gault (Chimie agricole), who found that, how ever abundant and appropriate the other ele ments of the food might be, the addition of a small quantity of tatty substance improved greatly the condition of the animals, and caused the formation in their own bodies of a much larger amount of fat than that which had been introduced. Thus the fat which exists in the interior of the body of a living animal has not all been derived from similar materials taken with the food. On the contrary, there is every reason to believe that fatty substances are pro duced in some way, in the process of digestion and assimilation, from the starchy and saccha rine elements of the food. It is a matter of common observation that food containing an abundance of starch and sugar is especially fa vorable to the deposit of fat ; and Boussingault also found that the most effective diet for the fat tening of pigs was one consisting very largely of cooked starchy materials, with the addition of a small proportion of fatty substances. The adi pose substances found in the body are thus part ly introduced w 7 ith the food, and partly gener ated from the transformation of its starchy and saccharine ingredients. They are then depos ited in the various tissues, or form for the time a part of the fluids or secretions, like the chyle, the milk, and the sebaceous matter of the skin. Of all the fatty material thus taken with the food, or generated in the system, but a small , part is again discharged in its own form. It is only the fat of the sebaceous matter and that of the milk which is thus discharged. The re mainder is decomposed or transformed in some way in the daily process of nutrition, so that it is no longer recognizable as fat. In the opin ion of some writers, it is directly oxidized by the air taken in by respiration ; thus produ cing animal heat and the evolution of carbonic acid, as it would do if burned, as in the case of ordinary combustion. But this must be con sidered as doubtful, since we cannot yet follow all the details of the chemical changes which take place in the living body. It is certain, however, that the fat which is taken up from the intestine during the digestion of food is absorbed by the vessels, partly deposited in the adipose and other solid tissues, and for the most part rapidly decomposed or transformed, so that it disappears and is used up, so to speak, in the nutrition of the body. ADIPOSE TISSUE, the tissue in animal bodies containing the largest proportion of adipose substance, known in ordinary language as the fat of the animal, in distinction from the lean or muscular flesh. The adipose tissue is situ ated principally beneath the skin and over the muscles, particularly those of the abdomen, about the cheeks, in the orbit of the eye, over the buttocks, on the outside of the heart about the origin of the great vessels, over the intestines, where it forms a special layer or dis tinct curtain called the on/cut urn. around the kidneys, and in various places about the inner side of the abdominal walls, it consists of a number of distinct masses or lobules, which are connected with each other by thin layers of areolar tissue, containing the few blood vessels and nerves with which the adipose tissue is supplied, Each lobule in its turn consists of a number of transparent vesicles, or closed sacs, about T \-Q of an inch in diameter, which are 120 ADIPOSE TISSUE ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS peculiar to the tissue and are called the adipose vesicles. Each vesicle consists of a thin, color- and structureless animal membrane, em bracing a closed cavity, and filled with fluid or semi-fluid fat. The vesicles generally approx imate a globular or ovoid form, but with some flattening and angularity of surface produced by mutual compression. The albuminoid ele ments entering into the composition of the adi pose tissue, such as those composing the wall of the vesicles, the intermediate areolar tissue, &c., are much less abundant than its fatty con tents. The blood vessels and nerves are partic ularly scanty, as compared with those of the neighboring skin and muscles ; so that a wound of the adipose tissue produces but slight pain and very little bleeding. The functions of the adipose tissue are for the most part physical in their character. It acts as a cushion to pro tect delicate parts from pressure or injury. Particularly, wherever the skin is exposed to frequent pressure over a bony prominence, as over the buttocks or beneath the heel, it is defended by an elastic layer of fat. The eye ball rests in its socket upon such a cushion of adipose tissue, and the abdominal organs are protected from injurious pressure by that of the omentum and the abdominal walls. The en tire layer of adipose tissue beneath the skin and elsewhere also acts as a protection to the animal warmth. Being to a great extent a non-conductor, it is a kind of natural blanket, which prevents the dissipation of the heat of the internal organs, and thus serves to maintain their temperature. An abundant layer of adi pose tissue is accordingly an effective protec tion against external cold, while animals which are in an emaciated condition more readily suffer from its effects. Adipose tissue is some times deposited in an excessive degree, form ing morbid growths or tumors. These tumors, however, are usually not dangerous, but only inconvenient from their size or situation. ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS, the principal group of mountains in New York, extending from the extreme N. E. corner of the state in a S. S. W. direction toward its centre, occupy ing portions of Clinton, Essex, Franklin, and Hamilton counties. The Catskills, S. of the Mohawk river, may be regarded as their exten sion in this direction. In the western part of Essex county these mountains have their great est development, and present the highest peaks of any of the northern spurs of the Appala chian chain, Mount Washington in New llam- shire alone excepted. They rise from an ele vated plateau, which extends over this portion of the country for 150 miles in latitude and Longitude, ast 3 from- WashingtoTv ADIRONDACK REGION NEW YORK WILDERNESS ^S^iml Longitude West 74 troui Greenwich ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS 121 100 in longitude, and is itself nearly 2,000 feet above the level of the sea. The highest sum mits are those of Mounts Marcy, St. Anthony, McMartin, Seward, Ernmons, and Mclntyre. The first of these reaches the height of 5,337 feet above the level of the sea. St. Anthony, McMartin, and Seward are supposed to be about 5,000 feet high, and the other two sum mits about 4,000 feet each. These mountains are in ranges, which have a general N. N. E. and S. S. W. direction ; but being formed not of stratified, but of granitic rocks, they lack that precision of outline which characterizes the mountains of the same Appalachian sys tem in the middle and southern states. For the same reason the peaks assume more of the conical form, the slopes of the mountains are more abrupt, and the scenery wilder and grander than among the mountains of the sedi mentary rocks. The Saranac and the Ausable, whose sources are among these mountains, run in nearly parallel lines toward the northeast, discharging their waters into Lake Champlain. They define upon the map the position of the valleys, which have the same general arrange ment throughout the whole chain, and to some extent the position of the ranges of mountains also. In the other direction, the Boreas, the Hudson, and the Cedar rivers, which all unite I below into the Hudson, define the extension of the valleys of the Ausable and its branches on the S. declivity of the great plateau ; and further west the chain of lakes, including Long lake, Raquette lake, and the Fulton lakes, lie in the same line with the valley of the Saranac, and mark its extension from the central eleva tion of the plateau toward the southwest. The drainage of this table land is toward Lake . The Adirondacks from Placid Lake. Champlain on the east, the St. Lawrence on the northwest, and the Hudson on the south. The sources of many of the streams which flow in these different directions often interlock with each other ; and the numerous lakes and ponds with which they connect lie almost upon the same horizontal plane. The eleva tions of many of these sheets of water are given by Prof. Benedict, and nearly all of them are included between 1,500 and 1,731 feet above the level of the sea, the latter being the elevation of Raquetto lake. The great numbers of these lakes and rivers easily navigable to the light canoe of the Indian, with occasional portages past the rapids and falls, gave to this district in former times features of great interest. The deer, moose, caribou, bear, beaver, and otter were abundant throughout this region, and, with the numerous varieties of fish, among them the salmon trout and the pike, of those excellent qualities only met with in our northern inland waters, gave to that ancient race nearly all they required for sus tenance. The game, excepting the caribou, still linger about the Adirondacks. The moun tains are covered with forests, groves of birch, beech, maple, and ash succeeding to the ever greens, among which the most common are the hemlock, spruce, fir, and cedar, with the valu able white pine intermixed with and overtop ping the rest. In the lower lands along the streams a denser growth of the evergreens is more common, forming almost impenetrable swamps of cedar, tamarack or hackmatack, and hemlock. The white pine is the most val uable product of this region ; and the numer- | ous rivers, which served as roads for reaching 1 every part of it, now answer the same purpose 122 ADIT ADJUTANT for conveying this valuable timber to market. So important has the pine upon these moun tains become, that large sums have been ex pended in removing the obstructions of the streams, and in opening new outlets to the lakes, by which in the spring freshets the logs could be run down. As may well be supposed, this mountain region offers little inducement to the permanent settler. Only along the wider bottoms of the Saranac and the Ausable, the fertile alluvial soil, the wash of the mountains, tempts to cultivation. About 40 years ago the discovery of enormous masses of magnetic iron ore in the very heart of the mountains led to the establishment of the village of Adirondack, in the township of Macomb, on the western border of Essex county, about 50 m. W. of Lake Champlain. Iron works were erected on a scale of considerable magnitude ; but the final result was that the distance from market, the scarcity of labor, and the difficulties of trans portation made the enterprise unprofitable in spite of the excellence and abundance of the iron, and the works are now wholly aban doned. Of late years the whole northern wil derness of New York has come to be popu larly known as the Adirondacks, and is much resorted to, not only by sportsmen, but by tourists of both sexes, for whose accommoda tion taverns have been established at conve nient distances. All travelling there is done by means of boats of small size and slight build, rowed by a single guide, and made so light that the craft can be lifted from the water and car ried on the guide s shoulders from pond to pond or from stream to stream. Competent guides, steady, intelligent, and experienced men, can be hired at all the taverns, who will pro vide boats, tents, and everything requisite for a trip. Each traveller should have a guide and a boat to himself, and the cost of their maintenance in the woods is not more than a dollar a week for each man of the party. The fare is chiefly trout and venison, of which there is generally an abundance to be procured. A good-sized valise or carpet-bag will hold all the clothes that one person needs for a two months trip. There are several routes by which the Adirondacks can be reached, but the best and easiest from New York is that by Lake Champlain. The steamer from Whitehall will land the traveller at Port Kent, nearly opposite Burlington, Vt., where coaches are always waiting to take passengers, six miles, to Keeseville. Here conveyances for the wil derness can always be had. ADIT (Lat. adi.tus, entrance), a horizontal passage made into mines for the purpose of draining them, and also for the extraction of their products at the lowest convenient level. In very mountainous regions adits often pre sent the readiest means of access to the min eral veins known to exist in the interior of precipitous hills. Enormous sums have been expended in the silver region of Mexico in these exploring adits. One of the most fa- j mous adits in the world is that of Klausthal, in the Ilartz, which is (> miles long, and passes upward of 300 yards below the church of Klausthal. Its excavation lasted from the ! year 1777 till 1800, and cost about $330,000. ! The adit which drains the district of Gwenap, ! in Cornwall, is estimated with its branches to I extend a distance of 30 miles; its mouth is in a I valley near the sea, and from it are discharged j the superficial waters of numerous mines, as I also all the water pumped up in them to its level. ! One of the most extensive adits in the world was ; commenced in the beginning of the present cen- ! tury by the Austrian government, and is called j by the name of Joseph II. Its. mouth is in ! the banks of the river Gran, in Hungary, and | it passes by the mines of Hodritz toward those ! of Schernnitz, about 10 miles. The object of : its construction is partly to explore for new i veins, and in part to drain mines already in j operation. A work of similar magnitude has I been undertaken in the Washoe mining district j of Nevada, for the purpose of developing the Comstock lode. It is known as the Sutro tun nel, and the plan was to commence at the Carson river, 150 feet above the stream, and to excavate a space of 12 by 14 feet to a dis- | tance of 19,790 feet, when the lode would be ! cut at a depth of 1,898 feet below the outcrop. j A cross tunnel was to be constructed along the ! ledge about 12,000 feet, to connect with all the i mines, and four shafts were to be sunk for ven- i tilation. A company for its construction re- | ceived large privileges from congress in 1860, | and afterward application was made for a gov ernment subsidy. A commission was appoint ed to examine the project, which early in 1872 reported unfavorably, estimating the cost at $4,418,329. The work was not then far ad- vanced, but has since been vigorously prosecu- I ted both upon the main tunnel and the shafts. ADJUTANT, a staff officer attached to the commander or to the headquarters of larger or smaller bodies of troops. Generally, the commander of every military post, battalion, regiment, brigade, division, corps, army, or military department has an adjutant, or an adjutant general, with such assistants as the importance of the command may require. The duty of the adjutant is to assist his chief in the performance of his military duties, to make known his orders, to see to their execution, to receive reports, and to take care of the records and returns pertaining to the troops. He has therefore under his charge, to a great extent, the internal economy of the command to which he is attached. By authority of the com mander, he regulates the rotation of duty among its component parts, and gives out the daily orders ; at the same time, he is a sort of clerk to his chief, carries on the correspondence with detachments and with the superior au thorities, arranges the daily reports and returns into tabular form, and keeps the journal and statistical books of his body of troops. Larger bodies of troops now generally have a regular ADJUTANT BIRD ADMETUS 123 staff attached, taken from the general staff of j the army, and under a "chief of the staff," who takes to himself the higher functions of adjutant, and leaves him merely the transmis- j sion of orders and the regulation of the in- j ternal routine duty of the corps. Owing to j the difference of regulations and military sys- | terns, as well as to the peculiarities of com- ! manders, there is practically a great variety in | the functions of adjutants. In the army of ; the United States there is one adjutant, or ; adjutant general, attached to the war depart- j ment, who issues the orders of the secretary of war and the general-in-chief, and has charge I of the military record of the government. He I is also head of the adjutant general s depart- j ment, composed of a fixed number of colonels, lieutenant colonels, and majors, promoted by selection from the officers of the army, and assigned to duty in the bureaus of the adju tant general s office or with the headquarters of armies, corps, divisions, brigades, or military divisions and departments ; they are called as- j sistant adjutants general. Besides these, the governor of each state has an adjutant general, while the requirements of monarchical institu tions have created in almost all European states hosts of titular adjutants general to the mon- ! arch, whose functions are imaginary, except when called upon to do duty with their mas- ! ter; and even then these functions are of a purely formal kind. ADJITAXT BIRD. See MAEABOU. ADLERBERG. I. Vladimir Fedorovitch, count, j a Russian statesman, born in St. Petersburg in 1793. His mother, the widow of a colonel, and superior of a seminary for the daughters of the j nobility, was much befriended by the empress j Maria Feodorovna, through whose influence j the son became a favorite at court, and in 1817 j adjutant to the grand duke Nicholas. After j the latter s accession to the throne, Adlerberg became his constant companion, and was made ! general of infantry in 1843 and count in 1847. j In 1852 he was appointed minister of the court, the most influential office in the person- ! al service of the imperial family, and which requires constant attendance on the emperor. | After the death of Nicholas (1855), and at that i emperor s urgent recommendation, lie retained his post under Alexander II., whoso full confi dence he also enjoyed. In 1869 he retired on j account of old age. For many years he had also officiated as postmaster general, and con- j tributed much toward postal reform. His sister, widow of the councillor of state Bara- j noff, brought up the daughters of the emperor Nicholas, and w r as made a countess in 1840. ! I!, Adlerberg II., Alexander, count, eldest son of i the preceding, succeeded him in 1809 as minis- I ter of the court and chancellor of imperial dec- orations, and holds the rank of general of in- ! fantry and chief aide-de-camp of the czar. He is inseparable from the emperor, of whom he had been a schoolmate, and whom he accom panied on his journey to Germany and the Caucasus in 1871. III. Adlerberg III., Nicholas, brother of the preceding, was active in the Hungarian campaign of 1849, published in 1852 a narrative of his journey to the Holy Land (Ot Rima Yerwalem, "From Rome to Je rusalem "), was governor of the province of Taurida in 1854- 5, and from 1857 was for some time military commissioner in connection with the Russian embassy at Berlin. He holds the rank of adjutant general of the emperor, and since 1861 also that of lieutenant general. He has been for several years governor general of Finland. ADLERCREUTZ, Karl Johan, count, a Swedish soldier, born April 27, 1757, died Aug. 21, 1815. He distinguished himself in the Finnish war against Russia in 1808, as adjutant general of Field Marshal Klingsporr, and on March 13, 1809, joined that officer in arresting Gusta- vus IV. in his own palace. The king was deposed, and the diet on May 1 thanked Adler- creutz and his fellow conspirators for having saved Sweden from ruin by their daring. He was made lieutenant general in 1809 and count in 1814. ADLERSPARRE. I. Georg, count, a Swedish soldier and statesman, born March 28, 1760, died Sept. 23, 1835. He enjoyed the confi dence of Gustavus III., after whose death (1792) he retired from the army, and edited from 1797 to 1801 a periodical, Loaning i ~blan- dade Amnen, the liberal politics of which gave umbrage to the government. In 1809 he joined in the campaign against Russia, as well as in the conspiracy which culminated on March 13 in the arrest and deposition of Gustavus IV. -He had insisted upon the con summation of this event without bloodshed and revolutionary commotion. On May 1, 1809, he received the public thanks of the diet, and was promoted to various high dignities, eventu ally including that of count and provincial gov ernor general, which latter post he resigned in 1824. He was fined in 1831 for having pub lished secret state papers and his private per sonal correspondence with Swedish princes, but protested against the injustice of the pun ishment and persisted in the publication (Handlingar rorande Sreriges dldre ock nyare historic*, 9 vols., Stockholm, 1830- 33). II. Karl Angnst, count, an author, eldest son of the preceding, born in 1810, died in 1862. Like his father, he possessed poetical talent, and published various novels and lyrical effu sions under the name of Albano. His reputa tion rests on his historical works, entitled 1809 Ars Revolution, and 1809 ock 1810 Tidstaflor (respectively 2 and 3 vols., Stockholm, 1849), and Anteclcningar om Itortgdngna Samtida (3 i vols., 1860- 62). ADMETIS, in Greek mythology, a king of Phene, in Thessaly, who took part in the Caly- donian hunt arid the Argonautic expedition, i He is said to have obtained, through the inter- ; cession of Apollo, deliverance from death, on condition that his father, mother, or wife 124 ADMINISTRATOR ADMIRALTY should voluntarily die for him. This was cheerfully complied with by his wife Alcestis, daughter of Peiias, who was subsequently res cued from the hands of Pluto by Ilercules and restored to Admetus. ADMINISTRATOR. See EXECUTOR. ADMIRAL, a naval officer of the highest rank. The title was introduced by the Genoese and other Italians into Europe, and was probably derived from the Arabic word amir, which was also used in reference to shipping by the Greeks of the lower empire. The office of admiral was not created for the navy of the United States until during the second year of the civil war. Previously the grade of captain was the highest in the service, al though the title of commodore had been ac corded to commanders of squadrons and naval stations, and they had assumed the commo dore s distinguishing broad pennant. By act of congress, Jan. 16, 1857, captains in com mand of squadrons were denominated flag officers, and by subsequent and progressive de partmental orders and regulations they sub stituted for the broad pennant a square blue flag worn at the mizzen ; next the same at the fore for those over 20 years commissioned as captain, and the senior captain s was carried at the main; finally they came to arrogate all of the functions of admirals. Congress established the grade of rear admiral July 16, 1862, and commissioned therein on account of eminent individual services David G. Farragut and three other captains from the active list, and Charles Stewart and ten other distinguished veterans from the retired list. The grade of vice admiral was constituted by act of Dec. 21, 1864, and Farragut promoted thereto as a reward for .Mobile ; and as a further token of gratitude and honor the grade of admiral was created for him July 25, 1866. The rank of admiral is relatively equivalent to that of gen eral in the army, vice admiral to lieutenant general, and rear admiral to major general. The pay per annum of admiral is $13,000; the sea pay of vice admiral $9,000, and of rear admiral $6.000. There have been bestowed 2 commissions of admiral, 3 of vice admiral, and 55 of rear admiral ; and there are now in the service 1 admiral, 1 vice admiral, and 88 rear admirals ; of the latter, 12 are on the ac tive and 26 on the retired list. In Great Brit ain there were until 1864 three classes of ad mirals, red, white, and blue. The distinction of flags was then abolished, and only the white flag retained in the royal navy. The manage ment and superintendence of the navy of Eng land was formerly vested in a lord high admiral. James II. when duke of York held this office, and when king, on account of his predilection for the naval service, kept it in his own hands. Prince George of Denmark, husband of Queen Anne, was also lord high admiral. The last in cumbent of the office was the duke of Clarence, afterward William IV., who held it from May, 1827, till September, 1828, since which time I the office has been put in commission, the du ties being performed by the lords of the ad miralty, who are six in number, the first lord having a seat in the cabinet. His pay is 4,- 500 per annum. The highest officer in the Russian navy bears the title of general admiral. ADMIRALTY. In England at a very early period the administration of the navy, and of all affairs pertaining to commerce, ships, and navigation, or connected in any way with the high seas or the navigable waters of the realm, seems to have been delegated to a naval offi cer of high dignity called the lord high admiral, deriving his authority directly from the sov ereign, and invested with powers over some of the sovereign s most important prerogative rights. His functions, covering originally all j maritime affairs, extended also to the private ! concerns of the subject in commercial trade. | All of his powers which required judicial action were delegated to a court of admiralty, and they still remain its characteristic function. That part of the jurisdiction which was purely executive, and which related especially to the navy and the royal privilege, was at a very early date transferred to other departments or tribunals. Originally, then, the high court of admiralty in England was the court of the lord high admiral, and its judge was his lieutenant. The admiral also appointed vice admirals, and their lieutenants in turn were the judges of the vice admiralty courts in different parts of the kingdom. The commission usually issued to the admiral of England in the 16th and 17th centuries gave him cognizance of " debts, bills of exchange, policies of insurance, accounts, charter parties, contractions, bills of lading, and all other contracts which any ways con- | ccrn moneys due for freight of ships, moneys lent to be paid beyond the sea at the hazard of the lender, and also of any cause, business, or injury whatsoever had or done on or upon or through the seas or public rivers, or fresh waters, streams, havens, and places subject to overflowing, within the flowing and ebbing of the sea, upon their shores or banks, fre>m the first bridges toward the sea, throughout our kingdom or dominions aforesaid, or else where beyond the seas, or in any parts be- yonel the seas whatsoever," &c. A commis sion of the time of Henry VIII. gives to the admiral authority in cases of treasons, rob beries, and other crimes on the seas or other waters within the king s maritime jurisdic tion. But these commissions, though full and large, are, it mnyt be remembered, of a comparatively recent date ; for the admi ralty jurisdiction is very ancient, and the " Black Book of the Admiralty," a sort of code of the admiralty law of England, com piled probably about the beginning of the 14th century, contains constitutions of John (1199), Richard I. (1189), and Henry I. (1100), relat ing to the admiralty. The jurisdiction of the court was modelled after that of the consular courts of the Mediterranean. Its decisions ADMIRALTY 125 were governed by the practice of those and the like courts on the continent by the ancient customary laws of /he sea and commerce, and by those collections such as the laws of Rhodes and Oleron, the Water richt of Wisby, the Hanseatic ordinances, and the Consolato del Mare which from time to time shaped the admiralty law of Europe. From the course of the administration of the law in those con tinental courts from which the English admi ralty borrowed its procedure, and from the tact that its characteristic jurisdiction related so largely to commercial dealings with the states of continental Europe where the Roman law prevailed, the law and practice of the English court adopted and followed also the principles and rules of that system of jurisprudence. .But the Roman law was regarded in those early periods with great jealousy and suspicion in England, and many efforts were made to re strain the jurisdiction of the admiralty with in the narrowest possible limit. It was charged in the reign of Edward III. that now the admiralty claimed jurisdiction of tres passes on land and within the bodies of coun ties, and undertook to regulate the wages of labor and the prices of provisions. As a result of the complaint it was enacted in the 13th year of Richard II. (1390), that " the admirals and their deputies shall not meddle henceforth of anything done within the realm, but only of a thing done upon the sea ; " and in the loth year of the same reign (1392), that "all man ner of contracts, pleas, and quereles, and all other tilings rising within the bodies of coun ties, as well by land as by water, as afore, and also wrecks of the sea, shall be determined and remedied by the laws of the land, and not be fore nor by the admiral nor his lieutenant in any wise." The admonitions of these statutes were still further emphasized by a law of Henry IV. (1411), which not only inflicted fines on persons proceeding in the admiralty courts in the forbidden causes, but also fined the admiralty judges who entertained their suits. About the same time the common law courts began to issue their prohibitions to the courts of admiralty, forbidding their interfer ence in certain disputed cases. This matter of prohibitions became the subject of a sort of convention between the judges of the rival courts early in the reign of Elizabeth (1575), which quelled the discord until the next reign. Coke (1551-1033) repudiated the agreement just referred to, though it had been observed for a quarter of a century, on the ground that it was not signed, and that the justices of the queen s bench had never assented to it ; and he accordingly sent out prohibitions from his court more fierce than had ever issued yet. There was never much peace with the admiral ty courts during his time, and the common law courts had their own way. In 1632 cer tain ordinances were drawn up by the king and his council and the judges of the two courts, which were again favorable to the ad miralty. But these were set aside by the com monwealth, and in turn a new ordinance of that period (1648), still more favorable to the admiralty, was annulled at the restoration, and the common law judges began anew with their prohibitions. The jurisdiction of the court was now very much narrowed, and among the more important branches of it which were lost were cases of seamen s wages, freight, charter parties, claims for the building, repairing, or supplying of ships, and questions involving disputes of title to ships. The stat ute 3 and 4 Victoria began to repair r>nd re store the damaged capacity of the admiralty. That act extends the power of the court to all cases of salvage or damage, though arising within the body of a county ; to questions of title in causes for possession ; to cases of damages, bottomry, and wages ; to suits tor sup plies furnished to foreign ships; and to the claims of mortgagees when the ship or her pro ceeds are under the control of the court. The so-called admiralty court act of 1854, the elab orate merchant shipping act of the same year, and especially and notably the admiralty court act of 1861, "to extend the jurisdiction and improve the practice" of the court, have in creased very materially its power, and bear strong testimony to its usefulness in all matters of a maritime character. The criminal juris diction of the English admiralty was anciently very extensive, and included all crimes and in juries committed on the high seas, and the general government of the navy. In later times, however, this branch of its jurisdiction was withdrawn. Cases arising in the public ships of the realm were transferred to naval courts martial by acts of Charles II. and George II. ; and cases arising on ships of commerce or in foreign ports were assigned to certain commis sioners and courts created by acts of 28 Henry VIIL, 39 and 46 George III., and 4 and 5 Wil liam IV., in which tribunals the acts provide that the lord high admiral, or as now the judge of the admiralty, shall be included ; and by the operation of still more recent statutes the criminal jurisdiction of the court is almost en tirely annulled. Apart from the general, or as it is called the instance side of the court, it has exercised ve v y important functions in time of war as a court of prize. This court is called into being by the special w arrants of the crown at the outbreak of each var, and takes cogni zance of all seizures of prizes and their con demnation, and all other matters relating to capture. (See PEIZE.) In France admiralty courts existed prior to the revolution of 1790, and there as in England denved their authority from a lord high admiral. Their jurisdiction was even more extensive than that of the Eng lish courts, and included all questions of prize, salvage, bottomry, charter parties, average, wages of seamen, fisheries, and the building, fitting, manning, and sale of ships; and also all crimes or misdemeanors committed ^ on the high seas, except those connected w"th the 126 ADMIRALTY navy. These courts were abolished in 1791, and their functions distributed to other tribu nals. All commercial questions were assigned to the tribunals of commerce, matters of prizes to a special court called the council of prizes, and the criminal jurisdiction was transferred | partly to courts of assize and partly to the cor- j rectional police. In Ireland there also exists, unless very recent changes have been made, a high court of admiralty which is independent of that of England, and has a jurisdiction of the same character and quite as extensive. Such a court also existed in Scotland until it ] was abolished by statute of 1 William IV., ch. 09. Its jurisdiction on the instance side was I transferred to other courts. Its authority in | cases of prize and capture had been already, by | 6 George IV., ch. 120, vested in the high court j Of admiralty of England. The American admi- ralty exists under the clause of the constitution j which declares that the judicial power shall ex- j tend to "all causes of admiralty and maritime j jurisdiction," and the statute vesting that pow- j er, which gives to the district courts exclusive | original cognizance of all civil causes of that de- j scription. The interpretation of this clause of the | constitution has brought out conflicting opinions j as to its proper meaning. For upon the principles j and rules of construction which are familiarly i applied in determining what is the law of the j United States in civil or criminal or equity ! cases, in the absence of specific legislation, the j question fairly arises whether the admiralty | and maritime jurisdiction contemplated by the | constitution was the jurisdiction as it existed | in England when the colonies declared their j independence, or as it existed in the colonial I courts at the time of the revolution, or as it ! was exercised by the states when the constitu tion was adopted ; whether it was not rather that characteristic and proper jurisdiction of i the English admiralty before it was taken a\vay from it by prohibitions or encroachments ; or j whether finally the clause was not, in a still I more liberal spirit, designed to embrace all j causes relating to shipping and maritime com- , merce which, in the broadest sense and within | the traditional functions of admiralty courts of j full powers, are regarded as maritime and ad- j miralty cases. Though no very definite test by which the extent of the jurisdiction is to be de- | termined has been laid down, yet it is certain that the American jurisdiction does not depend absolutely on any of the criteria suggested by the propositions just recited, and that the clear \ tendency at least of our decisions is to extend the authority of the court over its ancient do- j main, without confining it within limits pre- scribed by any particular historical precedent. ! Our greatest judges, and eminently Marshall j and Story, linve construed the constitutional grant with the utmost liberality, and with the i purpose of embracing within its scope the j largest powers ; and especially within the last 20 years the disposition of the supreme court | has been to regard all causes of which foreign i admiralty courts have usually and characteris tically taken cognizance, and which are histor ically known as admiralty and maritime causes, as being cases within the constitutional provi sion. The first statute which drew upon the constitutional grant, and first actually vested its power in our courts, was the act of 1789, by which "exclusive original jurisdiction of civil causes of maritime and admiralty jurisdiction " was assigned to the district courts. This stat ute, it will be observed, repeats the language of the constitution, and therefore gives no aid to the definition of the power. But the extent of it has been illustrated by a multitude of ad judicated cases, and from these the general character and range of the authority can be easily gathered. The jurisdiction can be most conveniently considered under two aspects : first, as it is determined by the subject mat ter ; and second, as it is determined by the locality. Upon what is probably the right ground of construction, the first of these is the proper criterion ; for, as has already been inti mated, the reason of the thing depends proba bly only upon the consideration whether the subject is of a maritime character or not. The early contests which arose in England upon the competency of the admiralty to interfere with in the bodies of counties or other land lines have, however, fixed the criterion of locality so firmly that it has been constantly appealed to here ; but it has been found singularly embar rassing in this country from the fact that so much of our commerce is carried on on great inland seas, and on great rivers which are navigable through the whole extent of our ter ritory. The European states afford no parallel to these, and to adopt literally the limits of the jurisdiction fixed by the practice of their ad miralty courts was to exclude the ships and commerce of all these waters. Nevertheless, the precedents of the foreign admiralty law in these respects were closely followed for fully half a century after the foundation of the gov ernment ; and though our courts did not sub mit to the limited jurisdiction by which the English courts were restrained within head lands or the bodies of counties, yet they did hold regularly that no cause came within their power unless it arose within the movement of the tides. At last a case arose in the harbor of New Orleans. There the waters of the Mississippi flow always outward and never backward with the ocean tide ; but upon proof that there was nevertheless a perceptible rise and fall of the water, caused by the tides be low, it was held that this was sufficient and that the jurisdiction attached. The decision was admitted to be a forced one, and the tide OR which it rested was afterward spoken of in the supreme court rather contemptuously as "an occult tide without ebb or flow." But there was good sense at the bottom of the decision, and the inconvenience of making tide waters the limit of the jurisdiction led to the enact ment in 1845 of the famous act " extending the ADMIRALTY 127 jurisdiction of the district courts to certain ! cases upon the hikes and the navigable waters | connecting the same." This act did not cover j the great rivers which do not connect the lakes, nor did it profess to extend a real admi ralty jurisdiction even over the waters to which it referred. It created rather a sort of imita tion jurisdiction, modelled all the way after j the real. The act caused more embarrassment than it relieved, and in fact it has been prac tically annulled by the supreme court by deci sions which declared subsequent to its enact ment that the admiralty and maritime jurisdic tion given by the constitution was not in fact limited to the high seas and tide waters, but, by its own proper force, covered as well the great interior lakes and rivers wherever they were navigable, so that the act of 1845 was un necessary and inoperative. As to the subject matter, it may be said generally that the American admiralty exercises a jurisdiction based largely upon that of the English court in the time of Edward III., and embraces all maritime causes of action, as well matters of contract as matters of tort, and under the lat ter covers all injuries and damage done upon j the seas, even though done in a port or har bor or within the body of a county. With ; reference to the contracts which are within the reach of the court, the distinction must be first made between those which directly j and of themselves touch maritime affairs,, and ! those which are only preliminary or subordi- : nate to such agreements ; for the former the j court will pass upon, but it will not upon ! the latter. Thus a charter party or, as j within a year or two it has been decided, a j policy of marine insurance is a maritime con- | tract which the court will aid in enforcing ; but it has no power in respect to an agreement to make a charter party or a policy. The dis- | tinction in these cases is rather obvious and rea- ! sonable, but it is not so clear as to some other cases. For example, the earlier maritime law, PS it was administered in those periods and courts to which our court appeals for tests of . jurisdiction, covered all contracts which con cern the ship, and thus included all contracts ! for building, repairing, supplying, or equipping her. But as to a contract for building a ship, our supreme court has held that it was not within its jurisdiction. It may be observed, however, that the court in Massachusetts has since decided the contrary, and also that the iecent English admiralty court acts expressly confer jurisdiction in such cases upon the court. The court does without hesitation entertain suits by material men for repairing and supply ing the ship and for towing her, and even claims for shipping a crew and procuring a cargo ; but it has declined to hear actions by stevedores and ship keepers, or claims for ad vertising the vessel for sea or preparing her car go for stowage, or for the wages of lightermen, and even claims for scraping the ship s bottom preparatory to coppering her. The jurisdiction also includes what aro called possessory and petitory actions respecting a ship that is to say, cases in which the title to possession of the ship is involved, and cases of dispute be tween part owners as to their interests in the employment of the vessel ; contracts of af freightment, either at the instance of the own ers for their freight, or of the shippers for dam ages for the non-fulfilment of the contract of carriage, and also contracts for the carriage of passengers; cases of jettison and average, bot tomry and respondentia bonds, and all hypoth ecations of ship or cargo; of salvage, collision, surveys, and sales of condemned vessels; de murrage, pilotage, and wharfage, and seamen s wages and all persons stand on the footing of seamen who serve or are useful in the nav igation of the ship, including cooks and car penters, coopers on whaling voyages, and fire men and engineers and deck hands on steam boats. The court has also jurisdiction of all assaults and batteries, imprisonment or im proper treatment of sailors or of passengers, and all other damages and injuries done on the high seas and navigable waters, and also of questions of prize and of seizure under the rev enue and navigation laws. (Hee PRIZE.) With respect to the relations of the federal and the state courts, it is now settled, but it was not until very lately, that the jurisdiction of the former in admiralty suits in rem is exclusive, and consequently none of the states can give their local courts power, under statutes, to en force liens in rem which are of a purely mari time and admiralty nature. Though the court of admiralty exercises its jurisdiction upon prin ciples of equity arid natural justice, and may ad minister equitable relief upon a subject which is fairly within its characteristic powers, yet it is not in the ordinary sense a court of equity, and cannot intervene in that class of cases which are peculiaily passed upon in such a court; and though it construes the contracts and obligations of parties before it less strictly than the courts of common law, and will miti gate the severity of contracts or moderate ex orbitant demands, yet it will not assume to go further and grant purely equitable relief. Thus it cannot entertain a bill for the specific performance of a contract for the sale of a ship, for the execution of a trust, for the cor rection of a mistake, or the reformation of an instrument, on that ground, or grant relief against fraud ; and it was even expressly held that it cannot in general order an account ing between part owners, or aid in cases of mortgage of a ship so as to decree foreclosure, or vest title in the mortgagee upon a sale. The court in its equitable spirit will also disregard technicalities in procedure, and looks at the matter rather than the form, to the end that the party entitled to it shall receive substantial justice without regard to formal irregularities or defects. In the United States there are no courts which possess an admiralty jurisdiction solely. It is exercised in all cases by the fed- ADMIRALTY ADOLPIIUS oral courts, as a branch and part of the full powers delegated to them. The original juris diction is vested exclusively in the district courts. From these appeals lie to the cir cuit courts in admiralty and maritime causes, when the matter in dispute exceeds the value of $50, and from these to the supreme court when it exceeds the value of $2,000. Upon an appeal in admiralty to the circuit court, unlike the course in such proceedings in other courts, the parties may have the whole cause heard de noro, and the cause is not in fact res adjndicata- or finally decided until such appeal is waived or sentence is reached in the appellate court. The case may therefore go before the circuit court upon the same testi mony taken below, or the parties may intro duce new evidence there and have all the pro ceedings as well of fact as of law in the court below reviewed. And even the supreme court, sitting on an admiralty appeal, is very liberal in permitting amendments and additions; and if justice require that the pleadings be reformed or A new claim brought into the case, that court will refer the cause back to the circuit court for this purpose. But in regard to appeals brought up on the same testimony presented below, the supreme court has lately declined to reverse decisions as to matters of fact in which the district and circuit courts have agreed. The practice of the admiralty courts is simple, and their procedure direct and expe ditious, and intolerant of technicalities ; their administration of tho law is liberal and equi table, trusting rather to the matter than to the form, and seeking always to insure quick rem edies and to give relief upon the actual merits of the case. The practice is regulated in some of its details by rules framed by the district courts. They differ somewhat in the different districts, but not materially. The forms of proceedings are modelled upon those of the Roman civil law as it has been fashioned in European courts, and especially in European courts of admiralty. Tho suit is instituted by the filing of a libel, which is a mere statement in the simplest narrative form of the libellant s cause of action. Upon this the court issues its process directing the marshal, in an action in personam, either simply to call the defendant into court to answer, or, if such process be prayed for, to arrest him or attach his goods; or if the suit is in rcm, it directs the marshal to take the thing into his custody, and to give due notice to all persons claiming it to come and show cause why it should not be con demned ; the theory of the proceeding in rcm being that the thing proceeded against, rather than any person, is to satisfy the libellant s ac tion. The defendant puts in an answer, and if he is the owner of the thing proceeded against in an action in rem, he puts in also a claim to the property, and may remove the hold of the court upon it by giving a bond for its value. In matters of contract, the cause is brought to a hearing before the judge ; and previous to the j final hearing by the court the evidence of wit nesses about to leave the district, as -Jfor ex ample of sailors or officers of ships, may be taken out of court before its commissioners. ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a group in the S. Pacif ic, N. E. of New Guinea, between lat. 2 and 3 S., and Ion. 146 and 148 E. They consist of one large island, Admiralty or Basko, in the centre of the group, between 50 and GO in. long, one (Matthew) of about 117 sq. m., 150 in. N. E., and 20 or 30 much smaller ones. They are gen erally low and fertile, though Basko has high mountains, and abound in cocoanut trees. The inhabitants are nearly black, well formed, and of good features, and go almost naked. The islands were discovered in 101G by a Dutch navigator, Cornelius Schooten (hence some times called Schooten s islands), rediscovered in 17G7 by Carteret, who gave them the present name, and have been very seldom visited since, access being difficult on account of the coral reefs which surround thorn. ADMONITION, a part of ancient church dis cipline. If the offence was of a private nature, the warning was given in private ; otherwise before the assembled church. If the person censured did not amend his ways, excommuni cation followed. ADOBE HOUSES, dwellings built of unburnt brick, in common use in Mexico, Texas, and Central America. Adobe bricks are made of loamy earth, containing about two thirds fine sand and one third clayey dust, which under the action of the sun becomes a hard, compact mass, without a crack. Four men generally work at the making of these bricks, one to mix the mass, two to carry it in a hand-barrow, which is sprinkled with finely powdered dry manure or dust to prevent adhesion, and one to mould the prepared substance into bricks. The moulds are double, each 1G to 18 inches long, 9 to 12 inches wide, and 4 inches thick, and have projecting handles at each end, but no bottom, the brick being deposited on the surface of the ground, which has been pre viously levelled ; and the adobes are carefully turned on the edge, and left to harden in the sun. They are laid with mud mortar, made from the earth at the foot of the wall ; and on the completion of every two feet of the struc ture, an interval of one week is allowed for drying, and a similar space of time between the completion of the walls and fixing of the roof. The houses are usually one story high, and the inside plastered before the roof is put on, so that it may dry With the walls. An adobe house costs little ; it is warmer in winter and cooler in summer than cither wood or brick, and its duration is extraordinary, adobe houses 50 feet high being in existence which have stood for more than a century. ADOLPHUS. I. John, an English advocate and author, born in London in 1760, died July j 1G, 1845. He studied in London, was admitted attorney and solicitor in 1790, and was called to the bar in 1807. He soon obtained the ADOLPIIUS FREDERICK ADONIS 129 character of an adroit, skilful counsellor, and practised chiefly at the Old Bailey in criminal cases. His forensic reputation was not fully established till 18:20, when, on the trial of the " Cato street conspirators," he defended Ar- * thur Thistlewood, charged with high treason, with marked ability, though his client was convicted. From that time his practice at the bar was large and lucrative, but his warmth of temper frequently led him into undignified squabbles. His reports are referred to as authority. His principal works are : " The History of England from the Accession of George III." (3 vols., 1805, of which a new edi tion enlarged to 7- vols., but still unfinished, appeared shortly before his death), and " Bio graphical Memoirs of the French Revolution." See "Recollections of John Adolphus," by his daughter (1871). II. John Leyccster, a barrister, son of the preceding, highly distinguished him self at the university of Oxford, and published in July, 1821, a work which Lockhart says " was read with eager curiosity and delight by the public, with much diversion, besides, by his [Sir W. Scott s] friends, and which Scott himself must have gone through with a very odd mixture of emotions." This book is en titled "Letters to Richard Heber, Esq., con taining critical remarks on the series of novels beginning with Waverley, and an at tempt to ascertain their author." The purpose of this book was to prove, from Scott s ac knowledged writings, and from other known circumstances connected with his personal his tory and position, that he and none other could be the author, sole and unassisted, of the Wa verley novels. ADOLPIIUS FREDERICK, of IIolstein-Eutin, king of Sweden, born May 14, 1710, died Feb. 12, 1771. In 1727 he was elected prince-bishop of Liibeck as successor of his father. On the death of his cousin Charles Frederick, duke of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1739, Adolphus Frederick became the administrator of his possessions during the minority of his son, afterward Peter III. of Russia. The king of Sweden, Frederick of the house of Ilesse-Cassel, being childless, and the young duke of Holstein- Gottorp having declined to become heir appa rent at a time when he hoped to succeed to the throne of Russia, it was decided in 1743, by virtue of the treaty of Abo between Russia and Sweden, that Adolphus Frederick should occu py the position, so that it might be at all events vested in the Holstein family. The grand mother of Adolphus having been a daughter of Charles XI. of Sweden, this circumstance was also regarded as favorable to his election, which was ratified by the Swedish diet on July 3, 1743. In 1744 he married Louise Ulrike, a sis ter of Frederick the Great, and he ascended the Swedish throne April 5, 1751, on the death of King Frederick. The aristocracy being favor able to France, Sweden was dragged into the seven years war against Prussia ; and the at tempts of the queen to oppose this policy VOL. i. 9 ! resulted only in bringing the ringleaders against j the aristocracy to the scaffold (175(5). The council of state sided with the aristocracy I against the crown, and it was only after the | king s threatening to abdicate that the Swedish I diet consented to sustain his rights and protect him against the aggressions of the nobles. He | was an upright prince, but by his meekness ho ! encouraged the schemes of France and her al- I lies among the nobility. He was succeeded on | the throne by his son Gustavus III. ADOLPHIS OF NASSAU, a German sovereign, | born about 1250, fell in battle near Worms, July j 2, 1298. He was the second son of Walram i IV., count of Nassau, and was distinguished I for valor in the service of Rudolph of Hapsburg. I On the death of the latter he was, at the sug gestion of the archbishop of Mentz, unani- ; mously elected as his successor (May 10, 1292), : in place of Rudolph s son and heir Albert. He | was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle as king of : Germany, June 24, 1292, but not in Rome as emperor. Adolphus disgraced himself by ac- cepting an English subsidy of 100,000 for joining in the war against France, and by back- I ing out of the bargain without restoring the I money. He further lost caste by his mercenary i but fruitless transactions with the landgrave ! Albrecht of Thuringia for the acquisition of his | territory. The archbishop of Mentz, in con cert with Albert of Austria, caused Adolphus to be arraigned before the college of electoral princes. On his declining to comply with the I summons, his deposition was proclaimed, June 23, 1298. But Adolphus appealed to the ar- ! bitrament of arms. The rivals met, with ! their respective armies, between the villages , of Gollheim and Rosenthal, near Worms. Adol- I phus fell, hit in the face, as was reported at i the time, by the lance of Albert, whose com- ! panions gave him the death blow. Under ; Henry VII. his remains were placed beside ! those of his successor Albert I., in the vault of German sovereigns at Spire. ADONAI, one of the appellations of the Su preme Being in the Hebrew Scriptures, signi fying Lord, or my Lord. The Jews, who ! refrain from uttering the name of Jehovah, I pronounce Adonai in its place where it occurs i in the Hebrew text in which they have also ! substituted the vowels of Adonai for those j of the name, thus rendering the right pronun- | ciation of the latter doubtful. ADOMA, feasts anciently held in honor of \ Venus and Adonis. They lasted two days ; ; the first was spent in tears and lamentations. | the second in mirth and feasting. The festival \ typified the dying and resurrection of nature. ADOMS, in Greek mythology, a beautiful youth beloved by Venus. According to the ; account received from the cyclic poet Panyasis, i he was the son of Theias, king of Assyria, and his daughter Smyrna. Venus, discovering the beauty of the child, hid him in a chest, which I she intrusted to Proserpine. Hence resulted the dispute between these goddesses as to 130 ADOPTIANI ADOWA which of them Adonis should belong to, which was settled by the judgment of Jupiter that he should remain with each of them an equal part of each year. Adonis died of a wound received from a wild boar in the Idalian woods, and the sorrow of Venus for his loss was so great that the gods allowed his return to earth for six months of every year to console her. ADOPTIAM, a Christian sect in Spain, found ed by Elipandus. archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, bishop of Urgel, near the close of the 8th century. They affirmed that Jesus was really the son of God only in his divine nature, and the son of God by adoption merely in his human nature. So long as they confined their efforts to spreading their views in the Moham medan territory, no notice was taken of the new sect. But when, through the efforts of Felix, whose diocese belonged to the Frankish empire, adoptianism began to spread in the dominion of Charlemagne, the subject was brought to the notice of that emperor, and the synod of Ratisbon (792) condemned it as a re newal of the Nestorian heresy. Felix recanted, and confirmed his recantation before Pope Adrian in Rome. But after his return to Urgel he reaffirmed his adoptian views. At the re quest of Charlemagne Alcuin wrote an epistle to Felix against adoptianism. This step, how ever, had no results ; on the contrary, a num ber of the Spanish bishops declared their agree ment with Felix. A new synod convened at Frankfort (79-4) ratified the decrees of Ratis bon against adoptianism. Finally, Archbishop Leidrad of Lyons prevailed upon Felix in 799 to appear before a synod at Aix-la-Chapelle, when, after a protracted discussion of the sub ject with Alcuin, he once more recanted. Felix was now committed to the charge of Leidrad at Lyons, where he died in 816. Elipandus never retracted his opinions, but soon after his death the sect became extinct. Adoptianism was the first important theological controversy concern ing the person of Christ originating in the western church. ADOPTION, the taking of another s child as one s own, still regulated by law in Germany and France, as it was in Rome. Where the party adopted is under age, and actually under the parents power, it is called adoption proper ; but where it is of age, sui juris, ad- rogation. The abstract rule that adoption must imitate nature, though derivable from regulations of the Roman law, such as that forbidding eunuchs to adopt, and that re quiring the adopter to be at least 18 years older than the adopted, is not fully carried out, since by the same law those incapable of procreation may adopt. In Germany, while the child is more completely absorbed into the family of the adopter than he was in Rome, numerous subtle distinctions have been en grafted upon this title of the law ; while the Code Napoleon admits adoption only to a limited extent. A prerequisite to adoption in .Rome was leave from ;the college of priests ; 1 in Germany the sanction of the prince or judge is required. In Texas, a person may adopt another to be his legal heir by filing a statement, authenticated like a deed, express ing his intention so to do, with the county | clerk, thereby entitling him to all the rights and privileges of a legal heir, except that if the adopter have a legitimate child or children, the adopted shall in no case inherit more than a fourth part of the testamentary estate of the adopter. In several of the states adoption has been made the subject of recent statutes; lor example, in Illinois (1867) and Kansas (1868). The proceeding under these acts is in general similar to that which has existed for a long time in Massachusetts. In that state, any person may present a petition to the probate court for the adoption of a child not his own, I and, if desired, for a change of the child s ; name. If the petitioner has a husband or | wife, the application will not be entertained i by the court unless such husband or wife join I in it. The consent of the child s parents, or of the survivor of them, must be procured in writing; or if it has no parent, its guardian or next of kin or some person appointed by the court must give the requisite consent. And the adoption will not be sanctioned with out the child s consent, if it is more than 14 years old. The child thus adopted, for all purposes of inheritance, and in respect to all I the other legal consequences and incidents of ! the natural relationship of parent and child, is deemed the child, born in lawful wedlock, of the person who adopts it, except that it shall not take property limited to the heirs of the j body of the new parents, nor coming from j their collateral kindred. An appeal from the decision of the probate court upon the petition lies in favor of either the petitioner or the child to the supreme court ; and any person interested who had not actual notice of the proceeding may apply w r ithin a year for a reversal of the order of the probate court. In Louisiana the proceedings are more like those of the civil law. The person adopting must be at least 40 years old, and at least 15 years older than the person adopted. Married per sons must concur about the adoption. ADOIR (anc. Atcrmi8\ a river in the S. "W. of France, about 180 m. in length, 70 of which are navigable. Its course is nearly semi circular. It rises in the Pyrenees, fiows | through the departments of Ilautcs-Pyrenees, Gers, and Landes, and empties into the bay of ; Biscay, a little below Bayonne. Though many streams unite with it, its volume of water is : small, except during the melting of the snows I in the Pyrenees, when it often inundates the ! surrounding country. ADOWA, one of the chief towns of Abys sinia, capital of Tigre, about 145 m. N. E. of | Gondar; pop. about 8,000. It is the great i depot of the trade in cattle, corn, salt, and ! slaves, between the coast and the interior. The chief manufactures are of cotton. ADRASTEA ADRIAN 131 ADRASTEA (Gr. Arf/odore/a, she whom none can escape), in Greek mythology, a goddess of just retribution, like Nemesis, or, according to , some of the poets, identical with her. ADRASTIS, a legendary king of Argos, in the : history of ancient Greece. His father was Talaiis, king of Argos. Being expelled from Argos, he took refuge in Sicyon, and there succeeded to the throne, and instituted the Nemean games. He was subsequently re stored to his native city, and married one of his daughters to Polynices, son of (Edipus and brother of Eteocles, who had .been deprived by the latter of his share in the reign over Thebes. He now formed a union of Greek ; heroes to restore his son-in-law to his throne, | and led the famed expedition of the " seven against Thebes, 1 the abundant theme of later tragedy. Adrastus alone survived, saved by the fleetness of his horse Arion. Ten years later he prompted the seven sons of the de- feated heroes to renew the war. Their expe- ! dition, known as that of the epigoni or descendants, set out with promises of success from the oracle, and ended with the capture ; and complete demolition of Thebes. The son of Adrastus was the only Argive that fell, and Adrastus himself soon alter died of grief. ADRIA, a town of Italy, in the Venetian ! province of Rovigo, on the canale Bianco, be- ! tween the mouths of the Adige and Po, 30 m. ! S. by W. of Venice; pop. 13,000. The inun dation of these rivers gradually rendered the country uninhabitable, and their deposit of ; soil caused the sea to recede until the town, anciently a seaport, is now 14 m. inland. It is a bishop s see, and has a celebrated museum j of Etruscan and Roman antiquities. The \ ruins of ancient Adria, or Hadria, founded by ! the Etruscans, lie S. of the modern town. The ! name of the Adriatic sea is derived from it. AttRIAX, a city and the capital of Lenawee j co., Mich., on the S. branch of the Raisin river, and on the Michigan Southern railway, ! 74 m. W. S. W. of Detroit; pop. in 1870, ! 8,438; in 1860, 0,213. The city is well built ; and paved, and lighted with gas. It com- ! mands the trade of an extensive grain-growing region. The stream on which it is situated furnishes good water power. The principal I industrial establishments are: a car factory ; employing 250 men, a brass foundery employ- : ing 100, two iron founderies, two sash factories, : two planing mills, two organ factories, and i three flour mills. The city possesses a fine j monument to the memory of 77 citizens of Adrian who fell in the civil war. There are eleven churches and live public school houses. Adrian college, founded in 1859 by the Protest- 1 ant Methodists, admits both sexes, and has an j average attendance of about 1GO students. I The central union school building is one of the i finest in the West. Three papers are published | here, one monthly (educational), one weekly, ; and one daily and weekly. The first house in ! Adrian, a log dwelling, was built in 1826. The [ village was laid out in 1828, and it was incor- porated as a city in 1853. ADRIAN, a Roman emperor. See HADRIAN. ADRIAN, the name of several popes. I. Born ; at Rome, succeeded Stephen IV. in 772, died Dec. 25, 795. Desiderius, king of the Lom bards, having invaded the provinces which Pepin had presented to the Roman see, Adrian solicited the assistance of Charlemagne, who entered Italy, and overthrew the power of the Lombards in 774. In return the Frankish conqueror received from Adrian the title of king of Italy and patrician of Rome. In 791 Rome was inundated by the Tiber, when Adrian distributed provisions in boats. He also rebuilt the fortifications of Rome. II. Born at Rome, succeeded Nicholas I. in 867, and died in 872. He had been married, but left his wife to live in celibacy. During his pontificate the schism between the Greek and Latin churches was begun by the secession of Photius, patriarch of Constantinople. IH. Born at Rome, was made pope in 884, and died in 885, on his way to the diet at Worms. IV. NICHO LAS BREAKSPEAE, the only Englishman who ever filled the papal chair, became pope in 1154, and died in September, 1159. He is said to have left England as a beggar, became a rnonk and afterward abbot of St. Rufus in Rome, and was made cardinal bishop of Albano by Eugenius III., who sent him as his apostle or legate to Norway and Denmark. On the death of Anastasius IV. he was, much against his will, elected pope. Rome was at this time in a state of great confusion, resulting from the reformatory preaching of Arnold of Brescia. Immediately after his election he placed Rome under interdict, prohibited all religious ser vices, and banished Arnold, who was subse quently surrendered on Adrian s demand by Frederick Barbarossa, and tried and executed at Rome. Shortly afterward Adrian crowned Frederick emperor of Germany ; but some trifling dispute occurring as to the forms to be observed in the ceremony, a general conflict took place between the Roman and German troops, in which many lives were lost. Adrian afterward became involved in numerous quar- "rels with Frederick, which was the origin of that bitter enmity between the papal see and the Hohenstaufens, which ended only with the fall of the latter. V. A Genoese, succeeded Innocent V. in 1276, and died five weeks after his election. VI. Son of an obscure mechanic of Utrecht named Boeijens, born in 1459, died Sept. 24, 1523. He was known only by the name of Adrian, was educated at Louvain. and became professor of theology there and vice- chancellor of the university. Maximilian I. chose him as preceptor of his grandson (Charles V.), and subsequently sent him as ambassador to Spain, where he became bishop of Tortosa. After the death of King Ferdi nand (1516) he shared the regency with Cardi nal Ximenes, and in 1517 was made cardinal. On the departure of Charles V. for Germany 132 ADKIANOPLE ADULTERATION in 1519 Adrian was left sole governor, and showed remarkable feebleness in his treatment of a powerful insurrection (war of the com munities, or of the holy league) caused by oppressive taxes, and especially by the ex cessive favors showered upon the Flemings, but which was finally suppressed by a council appointed by Charles V. He was elected pope in 1522, as successor of Leo X., and entered Rome Aug. 31. The simplicity which he in troduced at the papal court, contrasted with the magniticence of his predecessor, excited contempt and discontent among the people ; while his ecclesiastical reforms, and his hu mility in acknowledging the errors of the papacy while dealing with the schism of Luther, were very distasteful to the clergy. He was the author of several pious works, in one of which, published after his accession, though written previously, he held that a pope might err even in matters of faith. ADRIAXOPLE (anc. JIadrianopolis ; Turk. Edirnch ; Fr. Andrinople), a city of Euro pean Turkey, capital of the vilayet of Edirneh, situated on the Maritza (the ancient llebrus), in ancient Thrace, about 180 m. N. W. of Con stantinople. The population is variously esti mated from 100,000 to 150,000, at least one third of whom are Greeks, and the rest Turks, Armenians, Jews, Franks, &c. The scenery of the city is beautiful; the gardens on the banks of the Maritza and the neighboring vil lage of Ilisekel, inhabited by the wealthy mer chants, are delightful ; but the interior of the straggling city is, like that of most Turkish towns, dirty and desolate. Even the pictur esque effect of the 40 mosques, among which is the famous one of Selim II., built of ma terials furnished by the ruins of Famagosta in Cyprus, is impaired by the wretched surround ings. The most capacious bazaar, named after Ali Pasha, is the centre of trade, which is con siderable, the city being the focus of the whole of Thrace. It is also the residence of a gov ernor general, a Greek archbishop, foreign consuls, and missionaries. Wool, silks, cot ton, dyestuffs, carpets, opium, and attar of roses are the principal articles of commerce. Quince preserve is one of the special products of Adrianople. The town was founded by the emperor Hadrian, and soon attained great com mercial and military importance. It was the scene of famous encounters in the times of the Romans, the Byzantine empire, and the cru sades. Frederick Barbarossa concluded a treaty there in 1190 with the Greeks, and Baldwin I. was defeated and captured in the city in 1205 by the Bulgarians. Taken by the sultan Mu- rad I. in 1361, it remained the Turkish capital until the taking of Constantinople in 1453. Charles XII. spent some time in 1713 in the neighboring castle of Timurtash, previous to his residing at Demotika. In 1829 Adrianople was captured by the Russian general Diebitsch, and a treaty of peace was signed there on Sept. 14, 1829, between Russia and Turkey, in virtue _ of which the Danubian principalities were re stored to the Porte. The Pruth, and from its mouth the Danube, were made the dividing line between the t\vo countries, and the boundaries of their respective Asiatic possessions were agreed upon. Russia obtained the privilege of trading with all parts of the Turkish empire, the navigation of the Danube, the Black sea, and the Mediterranean, and the passage of the Dardanelles, upon the same terms with the most favored nations, besides a full indemnity for her war expenses. ADRIATIC SEA, the portion of the Mediter ranean lying between Italy on the W. and Turkey and Austria on the E., takes its name from the city of Adria. Its length from the strait of Otranto (which connects it with the Ionian sea) to the head of the gulf of Trieste is about 500 m. ; its average width about 130 m., which, northward from the mouth of the Po, is reduced to about CO m. by the peninsula of Istria. The Adriatic receives few rivers of im portance, except the Adige and the Po. The western coast is generally fiat and swampy ; its harbors are few and poor. The eastern shores are steep and rocky, and the numerous islands along the Dalmatian coast furnish ves sels a safe shelter from storms. The north- Avestern part of the Adriatic is known as the gulf of Venice, the northeastern as the gulf of Trieste. On the Neapolitan coast lies the gulf of Manfredonia, on the Dalmatian the gulf of Cattaro, and on the Albanian that of Drino. During summer the navigation of the Adriatic is usually free from danger, but the S. E. winds that blow in winter produce disastrous ship wrecks. Its depth betAveen Dalmatia and the outlets of the Po is 22 fathoms ; but opposite Venice, and in a considerable portion of the gulf of Trieste, it is less than 12 fathoms. To the southward it deepens rapidly. Its Avaters are more salt than those of the Atlantic. -The tides are almost imperceptible. There can be little doubt that the dimensions of the Adri atic Avere formerly much greater than at pres ent, and that they have been contracted by the deposits of mud made by the streams that empty into it. On the western coast several lagoons produced by sand bars are being rapidly transformed into meadoAvs by this process. The original depth of the Adriatic has likewise been diminished by the accumulations of sandy marl and testaceous incrustations at the bottom. ADI LLAM, a toAvn of ancient Palestine, in the lowland of Judah, the scat of a Canaanitish king before the HebreAV conquest. It Avas fortified by King Rehoboam. Its location, like that of the "cave of Adullam," Avhere David hid Avhen pursued by the Philistines, has not yet been sufficiently identified. ADI ITERATION, a term applied to the de terioration of different articles of food, drugs, &c., by mixing them with cheap and inferior substances. The microscope has become ft very important instrument in detecting fraudulent mixtures. In Avheat flour it detects the mix- ADULTERATION 133 ture of rice flour, and in the maranta arrow root it exposes the peculiar structure of the cheap potato flour and sago. In mustard and coft ee it brings out the peculiar forms of chic- cory root ; and in the former turmeric has been detected by it, when this was added only in the proportion of -^ part. Poisonous ingre dients, being mostly of a mineral nature, are subjects rather of chemical analysis than of microscopic examination. There is an instance, however, of cattle having been poisoned by eating rape or oil cake, in which were detected by Dr. llassall the ground seeds of the mustard. Chemical analysis in such a case could discover nothing. It is to Dr. llassall, the author of scientific papers in the London "Lancet," and of several works on food and its adulterations, that the credit is principally due for the prog ress made in this department of science, at least in its applications to this subject. In some vegetable powders, Dr. llassall has suc ceeded in detecting nine different vegetable productions. The mineral poisons that are made use of to give light colors to confection ery, and the fine green shades to pickles and to tea, are only brought to view by chemical analysis. By these, however, they are sepa rated quantitatively, and in forms that are recognized by every one. The mistaken taste of the public for very white bread leads the baker to select the flour from which the more nutritious portion of the grain has been sepa rated by the miller, and to make this flour still more white he adds to it a quantity of alum. Though the use of this substance in bread is forbidden by law in England, it was found in every one of 53 samples that were examined for it. Cheaper and less nutritious kinds of flour, as of rice, potatoes, corn, beans, rye, &c., are mixed with wheaten flour, some of which, besides their direct effect in lessening the value of the article, also cause the bread to absorb much more water, and thus add to its weight by substituting water for flour. Carbonate and sulphate of lime, silicate of magnesia in the form of soapstone, white clay, carbonate of magnesia, bone dust, and bone ashes, have all been detected in flour in England. In the adulterations of tea, especially green tea, the ingenuity of the Chinese is taxed before it leaves their country, and that of the English on receiving it in their own. The list of other plants which furnish leaves for the tea chests, and which are recognized by the microscope, is too long for repetition here, and so of the poisonous mineral ingredients, including arsen- ite of copper, which are skilfully used to make good green teas of unsalable black teas. Cof fee fares somewhat better, its adulterating mix tures being of a more harmless nature, such as chiccory, acorns, mangel-wurtzel, peas, and beans, and for the use of the poor in London roasted horse liver. In an analysis made in 1872, under the direction of the Massachusetts board of health, a pound package of a mixture sold as ground coffee was found to contain no coffee whatever ; but coffee sold in bulk was nearly always found pure. Sugars are more decidedly i ree from adulteration, but the brown sugars, as usually imported, are found from the acci dental impurities present, and from the im mense numbers of live animalcules, to be in a state unfit for human consumption. The white lump sugars are very pure, and any insol uble substance like sand can be easily detected. No articles, however, have been the subjects of such a reckless system of adulterations as the colored sugar confectionery. Though ex pected to be used principally by children, the colors painted upon the candies and sweet meats are the product of virulent mineral poi sons ; and it is wonderful what a variety of these have been made applicable to this pur pose. Their use, however, is not now nearly so great as it was in former times, and is dis countenanced by reputable dealers in these articles. Wines and spirits, from their high value and general use, as also from the diffi culty of detecting the cheap mixtures added to them, are almost universally adulterated to some extent; while many are made up en tirely of ingredients wholly foreign to the country which produces the genuine wine. The substances added with a view of preserv ing wines are sometimes poisons, lead and cop per both being used, the former in the state of litharge. In England the favorite port wine is thus most shamefully treated, besides being manufactured on a very large scale, after a va riety of curious recipes, from thousands of pipes of spoiled cider imported for the purpose, bad brandy, and infusions of logwood and other dyestuffs. The champagnes, which are more in demand in this country, find here as ingenious imitators ; and from our native ciders, with a due mixture of cheap French wine, sugar, brandy, and a little lemon or tartaric acid, more champagne is bottled than ever crosses the Atlantic. If gooseberry wine is easily ob tained, it is used instead of cider for making good champagne. The impossibility of supply ing the demand for French brandy, and the consequent high price of the article, have led to its extensive manufacture in France from very cheap materials. These materials are water and spirits obtained from molasses, beet root, and potatoes, and more particularly cheap whiskey, which is sent from this country in large quantities to come back brandy. Burnt sugar gives the desired color, and the fine fla vor is made to suit the taste by skilful admix tures of essential oils and distilled murk, which is the refuse skins and pips of the grape left after the wine is expressed. This stuff is im ported into England, to be distilled with mo lasses for making brandy. Gin is largely adul terated with water, and as the efl ect of this is to make the liquor whitish and turbid, other substances must be added to correct this and " fine " the gin. These are alum, carbonate of potash, and the poisonous acetate of lead. To restore its strength and pungency, cayenne ADULTERATION ADULTERY in the form of tincture of capsicum, or grains of paradise, are employed ; and its peculiar aroma is preserved by compounds called " gin flavorings," the ingredients of which are juni per berries, coriander seeds, almond cake, an gelica root, licorice powder, calamus root, and sulphuric acid. The common whiskey of the country is largely diluted in the distilleries with water, and then to restore the strength the lye of ashes, which is prepared for the purpose, is added in sufficient quantity to give the liquor the character which is expressed by the slang name by which it is called of " rot- gut." The report of the Massachusetts board of health, already referred to, shows that the adulteration of vinegar with sulphuric acid is ex tensively practised, especially in wine vinegars. Lead is also found in vinegar, often coming from lead faucets. It has been supposed that the adulteration of drugs was very generally prac tised, and almost without check. Were this the case, medicine would indeed be in bad repute ; for in no department would this prac tice be followed by more disastrous conse quences. That it is largely adopted, the analy ses of our most respectable druggists prove ; but these also show that the system may be exposed, and in a great measure checked, by those disposed to do so ; and further, that the articles used for sophistication are generally of a very harmless nature. In July, 1848, a law went into effect in this country, forbidding the importation of these dangerous mixtures. But while the effect of this has been to exclude for eign adulterations, the manufacture of them at home has been greatly increased. In the first year after its establishment, it appears by the report of Dr. J. M. Bailey to the New York academy of medicine that over 90,000 pounds of drugs, comprising Peruvian bark, rhubarb, jalap, senna, and various other kinds, had been rejected and condemned in the ports of the United States. It is very questionable, how ever, among druggists, whether after all the sale of spurious medicines has been seriously diminished. The adulteration of Turkey opi um is carried on as a regular business at Mar seilles. It is there literally made over again. The greatest variety of impurities are intro duced into it ; besides extracts of the poppy and other plants, sand, ashes, gums, aloes, small stones, pieces of lead and iron, seeds and stems of plants, are freely used. In England the same practice has been so successfully pursued, that what appeared to be the best Turkey opium has proved entirely destitute of the active prin ciple of the drug. The essential oils, used more particularly for perfumery, are especial objects of adulteration. Oil of wormwood, we notice upon the test book of one of our most respectable druggists, warranted pure from Boston," contained about 40 per cent, of a mixture of chloroform and alcohol, besides some resin or fixed oil. Such adulterations may be detected by the greatly reduced boil ing point of the fluid. Scammony, which is extensively used as a drastic purgative, was before the passage of the law always very im pure. At Smyrna its adulteration is still a regularly established business. The article called cake scammony, bought and sold in this country, is considered good if it is found to contain 20 per cent, of the genuine material ; and virgin scammony passes if it contains no more than 20 per cent, of foreign matter. This is usually starch. Chalk and flour are also used. ADILTERY, the voluntary sexual intercourse of a married person with another than the hus band or wife. As a topic of the law, adultery | may be considered, first, as a ground of di- I vorce; second, as a criminal offence. I. In civil cases. The adultery of either party to the marriage contract is now a ground for absolute divorce in almost all Protestant states. It was not so, however, either in Scotland or England until the reformation ; and after that, though in the former country divorces a vinculo were allowed for adultery, the law remained un changed in England for a long time, and as it had been administered in the spiritual courts ever since the Catholic period ; and by the ec clesiastical law marriage was held to be an in dissoluble contract, and divorces from it were prohibited. The consequence was, that though divorces a mensa et tlioro, or rather separations from bed and board, were granted, the only absolute divorces to be had in England were those procured from parliament upon petition. Proceedings of this character were very ex pensive and cumbrous ; and besides, it was the almost uniform practice of parliament to grant divorces to husbands only, and to refuse them to wives. The divorce act of 20 and 21 Vic toria, ch. 85, has partly removed this invidious distinction ; but not even now have husband and wife in England equal legal rights and remedies in this respect. Under this statute the husband may have a dissolution of the mar riage when the wife has since its celebration been guilty of adultery ; but the wife may have such relief only when the husband since the marriage has been guilty of incestuous adul tery ; or of adultery with bigamy ; or of rape, sodomy, or bestiality; or of adultery coupled with such cruelty as, without adultery, would have entitled the wife to a divorce from bed and board before the statute ; or of adultery coupled with desertion without reasonable ex cuse for two years and upward. The incestu ous adultery of this statute is declared to mean adultery with a woman with whom the hus band could not have contracted a valid mar riage, on account of her relationship to him within the prohibited degrees of affinity or con sanguinity ; and the bigamy of the statute means marriage of the husband with another woman during the life of his lawful wife, whether within or beyond the realm. It has been shown that by the common law of Eng land, at the time of the settlement of this country, adultery was ground only for a divorce a mensa ; and as our law followed that of the ADULTERY 135 parent state, the common law of the United States -was to the same effect. But as the power to grant such divorces was vested in England in the ecclesiastical courts, and no such tribunals were ever erected here, the jurisdic tion over divorces was granted to our common law courts by special statutes. But these stat utes did not limit the relief, as in England, to mere separation, but have almost universally made adultery the cause for absolute divorce ; also, here as in Scotland, the law makes no dis tinction in favor of the husband, but adminis ters the remedy in favor of either party to the marriage, and for the same grounds. In refer ence to divorce, it is immaterial whether the paramour of the adulterous husband or wife be married or single. It is essential to the action for divorce that the adultery be voluntary. Thus a woman is not guilty of it in having in tercourse with a man whom she innocently supposed to be her husband, nor if she commit ted the act in a state of insanity, or was forced to it by a ravish er. It has been held other wise in Pennsylvania in regard to insanity, Chief Justice Gibson declaring that insanity so great as to efface from the mind of the wife the first lines of conjugal fidelity will be no de fence to the husband s action for adultery. But this seems hardly sound, and it is probably not law in any other state. Adultery may be committed by the contraction of a new mar riage under the belief that the former husband or wife is dead, when that is not the fact ; for unless the period of absence is the full term prescribed by statute for founding the presump tion of death, the mere belief of it is not deemed innocent. But in such a case, if the new marriage is by law not totally void, but only voidable, the essential adultery is not com mitted unless the parties continue to cohabit after the passing of a decree against them ; and even when a divorce regular in form has been procured, if it was invalid in fact, either be cause the party defendant was not within the jurisdiction or power of the court which granted it, or for any other reason, the plaintiff in the divorce suit may be guilty of adultery in con tracting a new marriage. The bill or com plaint for divorce on the ground of adultery must in general allege the time and place of the commission of the act, and the name of the person with whom it was committed. The principle which requires these specifications is that the defendant is entitled to be informed with reasonable certainty of the nature of the charge made against him, so that he may have an opportunity to prepare his defence intelli gently. If, however, the name of the para mour is not known to the complainant, the allegation on this point may be to the effect that the act was done with some person unknown, and this will suffice if the bill is m other respects specific enough to make the charge definite and certain on the whole. But if the allegation of adultery is based on circumstantial evidence of its commission, as | for example on the fact that the defendant is | infected with a venereal disease, or that a wife I is found pregnant after such an absence of the husband as precludes the presumption of ac cess on his part, the complaint or libel will be good if, besides charging adultery generally, it suggests such reasonable circumstances as fairly support the allegation. The charge of adultery is made out by proof of a single act ; but it is not necessary that the court or jury which de cides upon the case should be furnished with de monstrative proof that the act was committed, or be absolutely convinced of the very time and place when or where it was committed. From the nature of the act, the evidence of it is and must be in the mass of cases only circumstan tial. Sometimes the circumstantial evidence is very simple, but of a very convincing charac ter ; and sometimes the nature of the case re quires the scrutiny, comparison, and interpre tation of trains of circumstances which re garded separately are insufficiently criminating. As an illustration of the former sort of evidence, Lord Stow ell s remark may be quoted, that "as people, according to the old saying, do not go to bawdy houses to say their paternosters, it is impossible that one can have gone to such a place for any but improper purposes;" and to have done so is universally held to be good proof of adultery. Accordingly, it has been held to be sufficient evidence of adultery, pri- ma facie at least, that a man has gone to a brothel and shut himself into a room with a prostitute ; and the same is true if a married woman goes to such a house with another man than her husband, or even alone. Of course, in both cases proof of innocence, or better of an innocent purpose, is admissible, though such evidence would not have much weight in most cases. The mere fact that a man and woman live together in the same house, even with the common reputation of being married, while they are not so in fact, would probably not, without other suspicious circumstances, be held sufficient proof of adultery ; though it would be otherwise if the parties gave themselves out to be husband and wife. With reference to cases where the intent of the defendant is less clear, and where the approaches to the act have been less bold and open, the courts have used such language as this : that it is impossible to lay down in the form of a rule what circum stances shall or shall not constitute satisfactory proof of the fact of adultery, because the same facts may constitute such proof or not, as they are modified or influenced by different circum stances. But there must be on the whole sat isfactory proof that a criminal attachment or purpose existed between the parties, and that opportunities occurred when the intercourse in which it is clear that the parties intended to indulge might have taken place. If, for ex- | ample, a married woman were shown by un- 1 doubted proof to have been in an equivocal position with a man not her husband, leading to a suspicion of her adultery ; if it were proved 136 ADULTERY that she had shown an improper fondness for the man; if they had been detected in clan destine correspondence, had had private meet ings, or made passionate declarations; if her affection had been alienated from her hus band, or it appeared that her mind and heart were already depraved, and nothing was want ing but an opportunity to consummate the guilty purpose; then proof that such oppor tunity had occurred in connection with some or all of these other circumstances, according to the nature of the case, would lead to the satisfactory conclusion that the act had been committed. The guilty consummation, in short, may be fairly and conclusively presumed from such circumstances of conduct as, on grounds of common experience and common sense, would lead the discreet and careful judgment of a reasonable and just man to that conclusion. But, on the same principles, the conclusion may not be fairly or justly deduced, even when a witness testifies to the actual fact of adultery ; for his testimony may be un worthy of credit, either because he is mistaken or because he does not speak the truth. On this ground the direct but uncorroborated evidence of two prostitutes as to the very act has been held insufficient proof of it; and on the same principle, the testimony even of the paramour of the defendant may require con firmation. Such a person, it has been said, is an accomplice, and all the legal considerations applicable to such a witness must be applied to him or her. Upon the same principles and within the same spirit of construction already suggested, acts in themselves rather innocent and indifferent may take the color of guilt from proof of other circumstances attending them. Thus the mere visit of a married woman to the lodgings of a single man has been held insufficient, alone, to establish criminality ; but the act receives a different complexion when there is also proof of correspondence or other im proper conduct between the parties. So, though a mere correspondence or intimacy with the al leged paramour would not be by itself sufficient, proof that there had been falsehood or conceal ment in respect to these things might justify the inference of guilt. Again, the difference between the higher and lower classes of society in their habits of life and social manners must be taken into the account in passing upon the behavior of parties in certain instances. -For indelicate acts and demeanor, which among the vulgar may be consistent with innocence, may deserve no such favorable significance when observed among those whose breeding is finer. (See DIVORCE.) II. The, criminal offence. Adul tery, by which is here meant the mere private act, is not a crime nor indictable at common law; Before the famous adultery act of 1050, in the time of the commonwealth, there was no law in England against adultery and the kindred acts as criminal offences. This statute intro duced at once the utmost severity, ordaining death for incest and adultery, and three months imprisonment for simple fornication, and making a second offence felony without cler gy. The act was repealed at the restoration, aiid nothing was substituted in its place. Adul tery, however, has been, theoretically at least, punishable in England by virtue of unwritten law in the ecclesiastical courts, though the of fence has never been pursued with any great or systematic vigor ; and it may be remembered that Blackstone charges the framers of the canon law with an improper levity in respect to this sort of offences from their own aptitude to commit them. In Scotland there is still, or until very recently there was, on its statute book a law making adultery and incest capital offences. The statute, as to adultery at all events, has been long in disuse. In many of the United States adultery is made criminal by special statutes, but in as many more it is not criminal. But though the simple act is not a crime in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Lou isiana, and other states, yet in many of them open and notorious adultery is criminal. The nature of the offence of adultery, created by statutes, is sometimes clearly defined by their provisions; but many of the statutes on this head simply declare the punishment of adul tery, using the word as if it had a precisely as certained meaning. In such cases it has been necessary for the courts to determine what acts were intended to be covered by the word ; and upon this point has arisen an extreme diversity of opinion on account of the different views which have been taken of the policy of the law on the subject. Thus it has been sometimes said that an unmarried man s illicit intercourse with a married woman is adultery on his part, because he may impose a spurious issue upon the husband ; and, upon the same ground, that a man, though married, does not commit adul tery in having intercourse with an unmarried woman, because in that case there is no possi bility of that result. It has also been said that when either of the parties to the act is married, though the other is not, both commit adultery. In Massachusetts the statute expressly provides that when the crime is committed between a married woman and an unmarried man, the latter shall be deemed guilty of criminal adul tery, and be liable to the punishment prescribed for that offence. The statute of Minnesota is to the same effect. In the absence of such pro visions, it has been held in New Jersey, for ex ample, that in such a case the man does not commit the crime, and in Virginia that his act is only fornication. In Connecticut the statute provides that "every man and every married woman who shall commit the crime of adul tery with each other shall be punished with imprisonment." The statute of Iowa declares that when the crime is committed between persons only one of whom is married, both are guilty of adultery, and shall be punished ac cordingly. It seems on the whole to be the prevailing and better rule, when positive enact ments do not forbid it, that when one of the ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE ADVERTISEMENT 137 parties to the act is married and the other is not, it is adultery in the married one, whether man or woman, and only fornication in the other. From this rule results as the best defi nition that can he Driven of the offence, that criminal adultery is the voluntary sexual inter course of a married person with another than the husband or wife ; and this is the position taken by Mr. Bishop, the highest American au thority on this and the cognate topics of the law. Even though the single private act of adultery is not criminal or indictable at com mon law, yet within the principle that the gen eral law will punish all acts which offend against public morality, adultery may take so gross and openly indecent a form as to be regarded as criminal at common law. But offences of this character are in general made the subject of special statutes. Such crimes, especially the living together in adultery, are not ordinarily regarded by the law as having been committed by mere occasional acts of private intercourse, but there must be proof of a general course of misbehavior, an habitual living or lodging to gether, though it is not impossible that the complete offence may be committed in a single day. In several of the states it is provided that no criminal prosecution for adultery shall be commenced except on the complaint of the husband or wife of a guilty party. ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, "Associations for the. The British association for the advance ment of science was formed in 1831, principally through the energy of Sir David Brewster, sup ported by Sir Humphry Davy, Sir John F. W. Herschel, Mr. Charles Babbage, Messrs. Forbes, Johnston, and Robison of Edinburgh, and Mr. Murchison of London. The main feature which distinguishes it is an annual gathering of its members, at which each one who has made what he supposes a real advance reads his pa per for the criticism of laborers in the same de partment of science. The association also pro cures reports upon the state of each particular science, its progress, and its needs, as a guide to inquiry. The effect of the formation of this society upon the state of science in England has been very marked. The first meeting, in September, 1831, consisted of about 200 mem bers; the second, June, 1832, numbered 700; the third, 900 ; and the fourth, in September, 1834, 1,390. The transactions are annually pub lished in octavo volumes of about 500 pages, and these contain a record of nearly every im portant step taken in British science during the past 40 years. In the reports included in these transactions are also found the discoveries of continental and American men of science. The American association for the advancement of science was formed in September, 1847, by the association of American geologists and natural ists. The first meeting of the new association was held in Philadelphia in September, 1848, and although the original association of geolo gists consisted of only 21 members, 461 names were enrolled in the first list of members of the new society, which now embraces nearly every scientific man in the United States. The 2d meeting was held at Cambridge in Au gust, 1849; the 3d at Charleston, March, 1850; the 4th at New Haven, August, 1850; the 5th at Cincinnati, May, 1851 ; the 6th at Albany, August, 1851 ; the 7th at Cleveland, July, 1853; the 8th at "Washington, April, 1854; the 9th at Providence, August, 1855 ; the 10th at Albany, August, 1856; the llth at Montreal, August, 1857; the 12th at Baltimore, May, 1858; the 13th at Springfield, Mass., August, 1859; the 14th at Newport, R. I., August, 1860. The 15th was appointed for April 17, 1861, at Nashville, Tenn., but was postponed in consequence of the civil war, and after an inter val of several years was finally held at Buffalo in August, 1866. The 1 6th was held at Burling ton, Vt., in August, 1867; the 17th at Chicago, August, 1868 ; the 18th at Salem, Mass., August, | 1869; the 19th at Troy, N. Y., August, 1870; the 20th at Indianapolis, August, 1871 ; the 21st at Dubuque, Iowa (substituted for San Fran cisco), August, 1872. The objects and methods i of the association are identical with those of the British society. The proceedings of each meeting form an octavo volume of about 300 pages, and this series of volumes contains the most valuable results of American scientific in quiry during the last 25 years. The mathe matical papers are not usually published in de tail, but the titles of all papers offered at the meeting are published, and thus the volumes furnish at least a record of the growth of American science, a growth partly due, as it is well known, to the influence of this association. The usual number of members is about 700. ADVENT, the period of four weeks preced ing Christmas, appointed by several Christian churches to be observed in honor of the ap proach of the anniversary of Christ s nativity. It formerly occupied" six weeks, and that is still the case in the Greek church. It commences 1 with the Sunday nearest to St. Andrew s day (Nov. 30). In England and some parts of the | European continent, marriages can be performed only by special license during this period. ADVERTISEMENT, a public notification. An nouncements in the public journals known as advertisements appeared while journalism was in its infancy. The Acta Diurna of the Ro mans, the Gazzetta of the Venetians, and the affixes of the French belong rather to the crude devices which led to the creation of journalism than to the history of advertising ; while the stamping and bill-posting processes of ancient times, and the fence and rock deco rations of to-day, sometimes considered in connection with advertising, are little else than ingenious sign-painting. The advertisement proper arose with periodical literature, and must be considered in connection with its de- I velopment. The first regular newspaper, " The Certain Newes of this Present Week," pub lished in England in 1622, did not contain any advertisements; but they appeared in some- 138 ADVERTISEMENT thing like a resemblance to the present form in 1652, in a paper called the "Mercurius Po- ; liticus." It needed but a short time to pop- | ularize the idea, and those notices which are still called "hue and cry advertisements "- for thieves and runaway apprentices soon j became prominent features in the papers, i Books were the earliest articles advertised, | and were followed by groceries tea (or, as it I was then called, "tcha") being the first article j of merchandise announced. By 1688 Eng- j land had added a sufficient number of news- ! papers to her meagre list to cause advertise- I ments, especially those of popular amusements, j to be eagerly looked for. The plague brought j the first medical advertisements. Under Wil- | liam and Mary a gratuitous journal was started devoted solely to advertisements. It lived but two years. A similar enterprise a few years afterward succeeded. In 1700 advertising had become very general, and in 1710 we find Addison reviewing the advertisements of his time, " printed with little cuts and figures "- this being the first we hear of pictorial adver tisements. In 1800 a crude system of classify ing and arranging advertisements was adopted. The further progress of advertising up to the time when the enterprise of the United States pushed it onward may be followed out in the history of the London "Times," which was established in 1788. The "Times "did little to reduce advertising to a system, but it demon strated its value to the public, and its impor tance in the economy of newspapers. In 1865 a single number is said to have contained 2,575 advertisements, and other numbers are cited containing still more. The first printing press was brought to America in 1629. In 1704 the first regular newspaper, " The Boston News Letter," was established. This was often without a single advertisement, and had been published 40 years before its circulation reached 300. It needed 15 years after the establishment of the first paper to add a second and third. "With the increase of ship ping interests newspapers appeared in larger numbers, and advertisements began to multi ply. In 1725 the first newspaper in New York, the "Gazette," was commenced; and in 1728 Philadelphia founded the journal which at its 40th number passed into the hands of Benjamin Franklin. At this time the country contained but seven newspapers. In 1775 there were 34. Then came the war of independence, which put journalism back again ; but after its close the country steadily advanced in periodical literature. In 1787 the first daily journal, the "Independent Gazette," was commenced in New York, and in the following year (the same in which the Lon don " Times " was established) it contained 34 advertisements. It seems from these facts that England and America made advertis ing a serious business more nearly at the same time than is usually supposed. England had largely the advantage, however, in population and in developed resources. Some of the larger tradesmen in London soon learned that those who advertised most liberally received the most custom. Competition among dealers created a large advertising business, which certain special advertisers carried so far as to astonish the world, until the growth of Ameri can advertising enterprise developed the fact that heavy advertising was not so much a bold as a strictly legitimate operation on the part of business men. Various food and medicinal preparations and many fancy articles were advertised in England until the yearly amounts paid the newspapers on account of a single article sometimes reached $100,000 to $150,000. Cuts became almost innumerable, and, with crests and monograms, appeared in every paper which would admit them. The advance of journalism in America can, up to a certain time, be best given in its statistics, it being understood that advertising fully kept pace with it and to a considerable extent made it possible. In 1794 the "Commercial Adver tiser" was commenced in New York, and in 1801 the "Evening Post." Both journals had considerable influence and grew rapidly. The year 1810 found 32 papers in the state of Massachusetts, and 10 years afterward there were 690 in the United States. In 1830 there were 1,000, and in 1840, 1,401. The New York "Sun," founded in 1833, the "Herald," in 1835, and the "Tribune," in 1841, had in troduced some new ideas, which not only enlarged the power and influence of journal ism, but greatly popularized advertising. Transient advertising was encouraged, it being discovered that a regular run of small adver tisements, at fair rates, continued the year round, paid better than contracts for the same space devoted to long advertisements at low rates, and which lasted only during the busi ness season. A variety in the classes of adver tisements was also introduced, and is almost peculiar to American newspapers. For in stance, the advertiser could insert, if he chose, amusing "reading" or "local" notices, in which matters interesting the public mind were ingeniously joined with the goods for sale. "Business Notices" and "Special Notices" are other varieties of early adoption, for which higher prices are obtained than for the ordi nary advertisement. In 1860 the United I States contained the surprising number of j 5,253 newspapers. The art of advertising | was growing into something like system. Ex pedients of all kinds were used. Odd and startling cuts were adopted in spite of the newspaper rule (not always enforced) of double prices for such figures; while the old-fash ioned, simple style of advertising grew to very large proportions, and enabled almost every village in the country to have its newspaper. As the business became so extensive and the territory to be covered so large, advertising agencies became necessary. These exist to-day in England and continental Europe, but have ADVERTISEMENT ADVOCATUS DIABOLI. 139 by no means the importance which from the nature of the case they have attained in the United States. A few large houses one of which situated in New York has transactions to the amount of nearly one million dollars per annum do most of the agency business. It requires a high reputation for responsibility either to obtain the advertising or secure favor able contracts with the newspapers. The method pursued by the better class of agents is simple in principle, but the details require great labor and attention. The largest house in the United States employs about 40 men permanently, and occupies one of the best offices in New York. It has its own printing establishment, and keeps tiles of nearly 6,000 periodicals. The advertiser gives in his "copy," chooses the papers in which it is to appear, and receives an estimate of the cost. The copy is printed, forwarded to publishers, and inserted in the space contracted for. The agent receives his commission entirely from the : paper, though it will be understood that he saves the advertiser large sums in postage or travelling expenses and much time and trouble. The papers, as fast as returned with the adver tisements, are entered, checked, and verified, after which they are filed away for the inspec- tion of the advertiser if he desires to examine them. The first advertising agency in America was established in 1828 by Mr. Orlando Bourne, and was followed in 1840 by the founding of similar agencies in Philadelphia, Boston, and New York, by Mr. V. B. Palmer. It was not until about 1860 that anything like full lists of newspapers appeared and the busi ness was systematized. A complete "Amer ican Newspaper Directory " is now published by a New York advertising agency, and an nually revised ; and the same firm publish a weekly "Newspaper Reporter," which fully j records the occurrences in the newspaper and i advertising world. The number of large cities ! in the United States having a powerful and ! thoroughly organized press would naturally give rise to the supposition that advertising was cheaper here than in England, where the very large papers are few in number. But ; such is not the case. "Harper s Weekly," for example, considered an important medium for i "scattered" advertising, receives from $1.50 i to $2.50 per line, and "Frank Leslie s Illus- ; trated Newspaper" from $1 to $1.50. The | " New York Weekly Tribune " receives from $2 to $5 per line, the latter price being for notices inserted among the news. The " New York Weekly," a story paper, receives $3 per line. The " Fireside Companion," " Harper s Bazar," "The Scientific American," and others, charge $1 per line, although the last-named paper, to protect its smaller advertisers against being overshadowed, has adopted the peculiar rule j of charging 25 cents per line additional for I advertisements over four lines in a certain part \ of the sheet devoted to this purpose. The j larger dailies in New York receive from 20 to i | 40 cents per line for ordinary advertisements, | and $1 to $2.50 per line for notices insert ed among the general reading matter. The amounts expended by certain advertisers, though often exaggerated, have been very large. Ten years ago, when boldness was less a habit than to-day, $150,000 was spent by one firm in New York for a year s advertising. Since that time the same sum has been ex pended repeatedly. A patent medicine dealer in New York has several times advertised to the extent of $250,000 a year. To advertise to the amount of $100,000 a year now excites little surprise in the United States, and many names might be given of those who do not use less than $50,000 or $25,000 for their ! yearly advertising. Some of the larger incor porated companies are also heavy advertisers. 1 This is a peculiar feature in this country, as ; most of these interests are advertised in Europe by a brief card, if at all. The " Union Pacific Railway Company," and also the "Northern Pacific," are stated to have adver tised to the extent of between $400,000 and $500,000 in a little over two years. Insurance companies expend large amounts in this way, and banking houses, brokers, and those con nected with shipping interests, all find adver tising advantageous. Nor are their advertise ments confined to any single class of news papers. When Jay Cooke advertised the bonds of the United States, his announcements were seen throughout the country. The bank er s orders to his manager were, "Give the advertisement to all those newspapers that are alive enough to apply for it." The faith of Americans in advertising may best be shown in the fact that newspaper publishers and the largest advertising agents are often liberal ad vertisers. The sum of $3,500 has been paid by " The Sun " for an advertisement in one number of a publication. The weekly paper which is supposed to have the largest circulation in the country, the "New York Ledger," gained it almost exclusively by advertising. In 1867 the government tax was collected on nearly $10,000,000 worth of advertisements. New York state paid nearly $100,000 tax, at 3 per cent, (of which the city alone paid over $80,- 000), Philadelphia $30,000, Boston $23,000, Cincinnati $16,000, Chicago $15,000, and New Orleans and St. Louis each over $13,000. In the five years 1867- 72 the amount paid by the public for their advertising must have reached $15,000,000 annually. The use of pictures in the advertising columns of news papers is gaining constantly in popularity, and less and less resistance is made to it by pub lishers. Of the 150 religious newspapers, most of which refused cuts two or three years ago, all but 16 now accept them. ADVOCATE. See LAWYER. ADVOCATUS DIABOLI, in the Catholic church, the speaker or writer who shows cause against the canonization of a person proposed for saint hood. The advocate who defends the proposed 140 ADVOWSON saint is called advocatm Dei. The advocatus diaboli insists upon the weak points of the good man s or woman s life. Hence the name is sometimes popularly applied to those who detract from the characters of good men. ADVOWSON, in English law, the right of pre senting to a vacant living in the church. Ad- vowson, according to Blackstone, signifies tak ing into protection or patronage. When the lord of a manor built a church and endowed it, he acquired a right of nominating the minis ters, provided they were canonically qualified. Advowsons are property, and as such purchas able, provided that certain laws for the pre vention of simony are not infringed in the pur chase. These laws are, however, more fre quently evaded than obeyed. The most ordi nary form of advowson is the presentation of a duly qualified clergyman to the bishop for insti tution into the living. The bishop has the right to reject the candidate presented ; but in a few rare cases the patron has a right of presenting a person without the bishop s interference. The benefices of the church of England are in every case subjects of presentation. They are nearly 12,000 in number ; the advowson of more than half of them belongs to private persons, and of the remainder to the crown, bishops, deans and chapters, universities, and colleges. The in cumbents are maintained by tithes, or since the tithes commutation act by taxes in lieu of tithes. The elective right of the congregation is unknown in the church of England, except in regard to those clergymen who perform du ties in excess of the regular duties of the rec tor or vicar ; such for instance as lecturers, who are paid by voluntary contributions. JSACUS, in Greek mythology, son of Jupiter and /Egina, and first king of the island of /Egi- na. lie was renowned for his justice, so that he was called upon to settle disputes not only among men, but even among the gods. His reputation was such that, on the occasion of an excessive drought in Greece, he was ap pointed by the oracle of Delphi to intercede with the gods for rain, and his prayers were successful. After his death, Pluto made him one of the three judges of Hades. ^EDILES (Lat. cedes, a building, temple), Ro man magistrates charged with the supervision of public buildings, archives, streets, roads, aqueducts, markets, baths, eating houses, places of amusement, and public games ; with the reg ulation of prices of provisions, and of weights and measures; with the sanitary superinten dence, and various other functions of a similar character. The fediles were originally of the plebeian order, and served as assistants to the tribunes of the people. Subsequently they be came independent magistrates. In the earlier part of the 4th century B. 0. two patrician eediles were added, who enjoyed the double privilege of wearing the toga prcetexta and sit ting on curule chairs (cediles curules). These privileges were soon after extended to their plebeian colleagues. In the latter periods of j the republic the office of redile became an i object of great ambition to wealthy politicians, who sought to win the favor of the multitude | by lavish expenditures on the public games. JDUI, or llnlni, a powerful people of Celtic I Gaul, between the Saone and the upper Loire, | which rivers separated their territory from the j countries of the Sequani and Biturrges. They I were the first Gallic tribes which concluded an 1 alliance with the Romans, and having, after a struggle with the Sequani, fallen under the power of Ariovistus, the German ally of the i latter, were restored to power by Julius Cassar, shortly after the opening of his Gallic cam paigns (58 B. 0.). They joined, however, in the great rising against that conqueror under | Vercingetorix (52), on whose fall they were len iently treated by the victor. Their chief town was Bibracte, subsequently called Augustodu- 1 num, now Autun, in Burgundy. JSGJilOXi See BEIAEEL T S. jEC^lS, a legendary king of Athens, father of Theseus. Misled by a false signal to be lieve that his son had been killed in a contest with the Minotaur, he cast himself into the sea, which, according to some, was called after him the ./Egean. J&EAN SEA. See ARCHIPELAGO. 2EGI1VA, or Egina (Turk. Engici), a Greek island in the Saronic gulf (now gulf of ./Egina), 12 m. S. S. W. of the Piraeus, about 9 m. long , from 1ST. E. to S. "W., and about 7 in. wide. Its ; western side consists of stony but fertile plains, which are well cultivated and produce luxuriant crops. The rest of the island is mountainous. The climate is the most healthy in Greece. From its hills a magnificent prospect unfolds itself. Its chief interest depends on its past history and its antiquities, it having been one : of the most celebrated islands of Greece, both ; in the mythological and historical periods, and i also in the sphere of art. It was a Dorian settlement, and was one of the first places in Greece noted for its maritime ascendancy. As early as 563 B. C. yEgina had a factory in Egypt, It was a great rendezvous for pirates and slave traders, fugitive criminals and in- 1 solvent debtors. The people of /Egina, with I their contingent of 80 ships, played a brilliant | part in the great sea fight off Sal amis. Its earliest enemy was Athens, which state event- i ually, in 429 B. C., took possession of the island and expelled its inhabitants. ^Egina, though often mentioned in the Greek authors, j never recovered any political or commercial importance. Sulpicius, in one of his letters to Cicero, in which he alludes to a cruise in the Saronic gulf, speaks of /Egina as a monument ; of departed greatness. Its chief temple was I that of Zeus Panhellenius, or, in the opinion of I some archaeologists, that of Minerva, mentioned i by Herodotus. Cicero speaks of it as in ruins. i In 1811 a company of German and British j scholars cleared away the rubbish which had | accumulated in the course of 2,000 years at the i base of the temple, and after 20 days excav&t- X HARP ing were rewarded by the discovery of 10 statues of an early type of Greek sculpture. These statues are now in the Glyptothek of Munich, and have been restored by Thor- waldsen. The subject is supposed to be the expedition of the JEacidre or yEginetan heroes against Troy, under the guidance of Minerva. The present population of the island is about 6,000, and that of its chief town, of the same name, on the W. side, near the ruins of the ancient town, 3,000. The products are wine, oil, fruits, and grain. The ./Egina almonds are the best in Greece. The water works on the neighboring Mount Elias, famous for its mag- niricent views, save the island from drought. A bishop resides on the island, and schools and churches abound. Since the decay of the By zantine empire, ^Egina has been successively in the hands of the Venetians, Turks, and Greeks. Under Capodistria it was from 1828 to 1831 the seat of the government. Edmond About has published Vile d Egine (1854). /EGIS (Gr. al%, she goat), the appellation of the shield of Jupiter, which was covered with the skin of the goat Amalthea, by which that god was nourished in infancy. Minerva also bore an ffigis, which, at least according to post- Homeric mythology, was of different origin. jEGISTHlS, king of Mycense, son of Thyes- tes and cousin to Agamemnon. He formed an adulterous connection with Agamemnon s wife Clytemnestra during his absence at Troy, and contrived his murder on his return. Eight years later he was slain by Orestes, the son of Agamemnon. Writers later than Homer tell a frightful story of incest and crime about ^Egisthus and his family. (See ATEEFS.) JELIA. I APITOLOA, a" name given to Jerusa lem by the emperor Hadrian (^-Elius Hadri- anus), who, after a rebellion of the Jews in his reign, drove them from the destroyed city and its environs, and repeopled it with Roman colonists. It went by this title until the time of the Christian emperors. jELIAXUS, i landins, a writer of the early part of the 3d century, born at Prfeneste in Italy. His compilation, generally known under the Latin title Varia Historia, is still extant, as well as an original treatise De Animalium Natura. These works are written in Greek, of which the author, though an Italian by birth, was a perfect master. AELST, or Aalst, a town of Belgium. See ALOST. AELST, or Aalst. I. Evert Tan, a Dutch paint er, born in Delft in 1602, died in 1608. He- was distinguished for painting flowers, dead birds, and game, and other inanimate objects. Few of his works are to be found in picture galleries. II. Willeni van, nephew and pupil of the preceding, born in Delft in 1620, died in Amsterdam in 1679. His works in the same line were more admired than those of his uncle, and are to be found in the galleries of Berlin, Munich, and Dresden, as well as in France and Italy, in which countries he spent many years, particularly in Florence. In the coloring, fin ish, delicacy, and naturalness of his flowers and fruits painted on vases, he had no superior. J3IIL1CS PAILIS. I. See PAULUS, L. yE.Mi- LIUS. II. (PAOLO EMILIO), an Italian historian, born in Verona, died in Paris, May 5, 1529. In consequence of his celebrity as a writer in Italy, Louis XII. made him a canon of the cathedral of Paris, and employed him to write a history of the kings of France in Latin. jENEAS, son of Anchises and Venus, a Tro jan prince, with whom tradition connects the origin of the Roman empire. Having fought for Troy till it fell, he quitted the burning city with his followers, accompanied by his father and son. After visiting various countries, they landed on the shores of Latium, where they met with a friendly reception from King Lati- nus. They settled there, and soon became in volved in hostilities with the people of the country, in the course of which Latin us was slain. ^Eneas was finally victorious. He mar ried Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus. His son by Creusa, Ascanius or lulus, founded Alba Longa, one of the last kings of which, Xumitor, was the grandfather of Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome. yEneus is the hero of Virgil s ^Eneid. JENEAS SYLVIUS. See Pius II. (pope). JLXEID. See VIRGIL. NIA\ES, an ancient tribe of upper Greece, of remote and uncertain origin, whose fre quent migrations in early times are spoken of by many writers of antiquity, especially by Plutarch, in his "Greek Questions." Accord ing to this author, they occupied in the first instance the Dotian plains, on the confines of Thessaly and Macedonia, moved thence into Epirus, and in their last migration went from Crissa, on the gulf of the same name, to the valley of the northern Inachus, on which they finally settled. Their chief town was Ilypata, at the foot of Mt. (Eta, of which considerable remains exist at the village of Xcopatra. The antiquity and early importance of this people are attested by the fact of their belonging to the Amphictyonic council. At a later period they joined the confederation of the other Hel lenic states against Macedonia, which gave rise to the Lamian war ; but according to Strabo, in his time they had no longer a national ex istence, having been nearly exterminated by the yEtolians and Alhamanians. JEOLIAX HARP, a musical instrument, the tones of which are produced by the sweeping of the wind over its strings. Its invention is ascribed to Athanasius Kircher. It is com posed of a rectangular box made of very thin boards, about 5 inches deep and 6 inches wide, and long enough to fit across the window in which it is to be placed. At the top of each end of the box is glued a strip of wood about half an inch in height; these strips serve as a bridge for the strings, which are stretched lengthwise across the top of the box, and are made of catgut or wire. These strings should 142 .EOLIAN ISLES be tuned in unison by means of pegs construct ed to control their tension, as in the violin. When the instrument is exposed in a window ^Eolian Harp. partly open, so as to allow a current of air to pass over the strings, a most agreeable com bination of tones is produced, constantly vary ing in pitch and intensity with the force of the wind, and forming harmonies of a wild and melancholy character. JEOLIAN ISLES. See LIP ART ISLANDS. J20LIANS, the name of one of the primitive divisions of the Hellenic race. They are said to have dwelt originally in the S. W. part of the plain of Thessaly, and thence to have spread over other regions of Greece, and after the Doric invasion of the Peloponnesus to have occupied the N. W. coast region of Asia Minor, from them called yEolis, and the islands of Lesbos and Tenedos. Of the JEolic dialect of the Greek, which was chiefly developed in Lesbos, only scanty specimens have been pre served ; these bring it nearer to the Doric than the Attic. Mythologically, the JEolians were descended from ^Eolus, the son of Hellen. MJLIPYLE, or vEolipile (Ai6?.ov-~ vlai, the gate of ^Eolus; or, more probably, Alolipila, the ball of JEolus), a hollow metallic ball, contain ing a curved tube connected with a small ori fice, and sometimes two such tubes turning in opposite directions. Water or alcohol being introduced in it and boiled, it was used in old times to exemplify the force of steam, or as a blowpipe. when adjusted to a lamp. In 1(>15 Salomon de Caus noticed in using it the effect of steam in causing water, by the assistance of heat, to mount above its level. This machine was intended to discover the cause of the winds. JEOLIS, in ancient geography, a district in Asia Minor, originally settled by colonies of ^Eolian Greeks. It was properly the coast land of Mysia, extending from Troas to the south bank of the river Hermus. In its broad est signification it included Troas to the shores of the Hellespont. In the southern part were situated the twelve cities which formed the ^Eolian league. Of these, Cyme, where the an nual Panreolium was celebrated, and Smyrna, which in later times became a member of the Ionian confederation, were the most celebrated. JEOLUS* I. In Greek mythological history, a son of II ell en, who, in the division by the j latter of the government of the Hellenes or Greeks between him and his brothers Dorus and Xuthus, received the throne of Thessaly I and named his subjects the ^Eoliaris. He was \ the progenitor of a great race of heroes, the ^Eolids, from whom in turn sprang many of the most famous personages of the Greek i legends. Other genealogies were also given I by the Greeks to JEolus, but the above, that I of the Hesiodic catalogue, is that which Grote j believes to have been generally received. II. | An inferior god or demigod, ruler of the winds. There seems no good reason to connect this ./Eolus with the preceding, but a few Greek authors endeavored to prove even the identity of the two, while others made the demigod the son of Jupiter and Acasta, daughter of Ilippotas. yEolus was supposed to have his home in the island now called Stromboli, of the Lipari group, anciently known as the ^Eolian islands. According to tradition, he kept the several winds confined in bags, releasing them at the command of Neptune. J20JV, a Greek term signifying age. In Gnostic speculations, reons are embodiments of divine attributes. (See GNOSTICS.) JEPDTS. I. Joliann (the Greek translation of his real name, IIocli or Nock, high), a Ger man theologian, born at Ziegesar, Branden burg, in 1499, died in Hamburg, May 13, 1553. He studied at Wittenberg, was arrested on ac count of his zeal for the cause of Luther, and exerted himself after his release in England and Germany on behalf of the reformation, lie Avas afterward for some time teacher at Stralsund, and organized the new educational and ecclesiastical system there, and in Ham burg (1522), in which latter city he was pas tor, and afterward superintendent of St. Peter s church from 1529 till his death. He was one of the signers of the Sinalcald articles in 1537, shared in the theological controversies regard ing the Interim, the Adiaphora, and the doc trines of Osiander, and was supported by Fla- cius and others, and to a moderate extent also by Melanchthon. II. Franz llrieli Thcodor, a German physicist, a descendant of the pre ceding, born at Rostock in December, 1724, died in Dorpat in 1802. He became professor of physics and member of the academy of ! sciences at St. Petersburg in 1757. Catharine II. appointed him teacher of her son Paul, di- rector of the nobility corps of cadets, and in- ! spector general of the normal schools which i she projected. lie is honored as the inventor I of the electrophus and of electric condensation, an improver of the microscope, and the dis coverer of the electrical polarity of tourmaline. lie contributed extensively to the publications of the Berlin and St. Petersburg academies. His principal work is Tentamcn Theories Elec- tricitatis et Magnetismi (St. Petersburg, 1759; French translation, abridged by Haiiy. 1787). One of his other works, written in German, j was translated in 1762 into French by M. Raoult, under the title of Reflexions sur la AEROLITE distribution de la chaleur stir la surface de la terre. lie wrote in French Description dcs noureaxx microscopes imentes par M. sEpinus (St. Petersburg, 1786). jCQUI, also called liqniculi and iiqiiiriilani. an ancient warlike people of central Italy, dwell ing in the mountainous region of X. E. Latium, between Lake Fucinus (Lago di Celano) and the Anio (Tevcrone), surrounded by the Sa- bines, Marsi, Hernici, and Latins. They were among the most obstinate enemies of the early Romans, fighting them chiefly in alliance with the Volsci, a kindred people, and together with the latter were badly defeated by Camillus in 389 13. C. They suffered still more crushing defeats shortly before the close of the same century, when they were finally subdued. Mount Algidus, in the western part of their territory, was one of their natural strongholds, from which they made their incursions into the^country around Rome. AERIAXS, a semi-Arian sect of the 4th cen tury, named from Aerius. a monk of Pontus, and holding middle ground between the Arians and the Xicceans. The Xicaeans were Homo- ousians, and the high Arians were Heterousians, while the Aerians were Ilomoiousians. The Aerians in church government denied the dis tinction between a bishop and a presbyter. They were opposed by a small counter faction called Aetians. (See AETIUS.) AEROE, or Arroc, an island belonging to the Prussian province of Schleswig-Ilolstein, in the Baltic, E. side of the entrance to the Little Belt, 10 m. S. of Filnen; pop. 12,400. It is about 10 m. long by 5 broad, and is fertile and well cultivated. The capital, Aeroeskjobing, has considerable shipping; pop. 1,700. AEROKLIXOSCOPE, an instrument recently introduced on the continent of Europe, in con nection with the weather signal departments. It is intended to give public information of the condition or rather differences of barometric pressure at the different stations, so that every one at a glance may see in what quarter the maximum and minimum barometric pressure is, and consequently what direction of wind and what kind of weather are to be expected. The apparatus as no\v in practical use consists of a vertical axis some 30 feet high, turning on a pivot, and carrying on its t >p a horizontal arm <>f which the inclination can be varied accord ing to the difference of barometrical pressure at different sides of the station. If the pres sure is the same north an I south, for instance, the horizontal arm is placed horizontal ; but if the pressure is less in the nortu, the north ern end of the arm is caused to dip downward, and more so in proportion as the barometer is lower north as compared with its position south. The amount of dip is regulated by a sliding rod, held in position by different notch es at the lower part of the axis, each notch corresponding with one millimetre in baro- nietric pressure. This most useful apparatus is the invention of Buvs-Ballot in Holland. ! The government of the Netherlands introduced j storm signals there in 1860; England followed in 1861, and France in 18G3. AEROLITE (Gr. atjp, air, and M&oe, stone), a ! stone or mineral mass of ultra-terrestrial ori- ! gin which has fallen to the earth. The differ- 1 ent bodies constituting our planetary system vary considerably in size. Jupiter, the largest, has in round numbers a diameter of 80,000 | miles, while Clio, the smallest of the so-called j asteroids thus far known, has a diameter of | scarcely 16 miles, and is thus 125, 000, 000 times smaller in bulk. There is no ground whatso ever to assert that Clio is the smallest body ! which revolves around the sun; most likely i there are bodies as much smaller than Clio ! as the latter is smaller than Jupiter. Such ! bodies would have a diameter of scarcely 16 feet ; and if we descend another step in the i same ratio, we come to bodies of a diameter of ! -5*5- of an inch, constituting mere dust. Such bodies may revolve in myriads in the planetary I space, without our ever being able to obtain any knowledge of their existence, except where i they come so near to our planet as to be acted I on by its gravitation and drawn to its surface. 1 It has been proved by the statistics of obser- | vation that every year 600 or 700 meteoric | showers take place over the surface of our i earth, bringing down at least 5,000 separate I aerolites ; the unequal distribution over differ- i ent portions of the earth s surface is only appa rent, a.s the two zones in America and Europe in which, according to Prof. Shepard the ; greatest numbers of meteoric showers have been observed, are simply those zones which ; are the most thickly peopled, and where the I press and telegraph diffuse rapidly every ob- | servation. Sometimes one or two single mass- j es fall, and sometimes a shower of 2,000, 3,000, or more stones is distributed over a surface of ! several acres or even miles ; sometimes dust I accompanies the shower, and sometimes dust ; falls alone. The theory here propounded is i due to Chladni, who toward the end of the ! last century defended the idea originated by : Kepler, that there were more comets and smaller bodies flying about in space than fishes | in the ocean. Before Chladni s time the most absurd ideas prevailed in regard to the origin I of aerolites. Some supposed that they were i formed in the upper strata of our atmosphere ! by the condensation of vapors of solids, as hail- stones are formed by the condensation and congelation of watery vapors. Laplace sought their origin at a greater distance, and conclu ded that as gravitation on the moon is about I four times less than it is on the earth, it might be possible that the volcanoes there project ; stones with such force as to go beyond the limits of lunar attraction, and to reach that of ; the earth ; and indeed a velocity two or three times greater than that which we are able to give to a cannon ball would accomplish this i result. These theories prevailed for a time, although chemists proved that aerolites are AEROLITE not of volcanic origin, and astronomers proved that their velocity in approaching the earth is far too great to be accounted for by terrestrial attraction. Mechanical science indeed proves that a body falling from an infinite distance will arrive at the earth with a velocity of only 6 to 7 miles per second, while aerolites pass tangentially through our atmosphere with more than double or triple that rate, in fact, with a planetary velocity ; some of them even overtake the earth in its course, as is the case with those falling about sunset. By the com bined rotation and revolution of the terrestrial globe, that portion of the earth where it is sunset moves from its zenith, while that por tion where it is sunrise moves toward its zenith, or at least toward that portion of the zodiac nearest to its zenith, and thus has more chance of coming in contact with isolated flying masses ; this accounts for the fact that the greatest number of aerolites fall in the forenoon. Of the cases recorded in history, the most re markable are as follows : An aerolite is men tioned by Pliny, which fell in 467 B. C. in Thrace, and was still extant in his time ; he states that it had the size of a wagon. The Chinese chronicle a large aerolite which fell during a thunderstorm long before our era. The Annalcs Fuldenscs report a great shower of aerolites in Saxony in 823, by which men and cattle were killed and 35 villages were set on fire. Among the other cases, the most remarkable are the falls of aerolites in 921, 1010, 1104, and 1304, all in Europe. In Alsace there fell in 1492 an aerolite of 2 GO Ibs., which is still pre served in the church of Ensisheim. In Grema a shower of many hundreds of stones took place Sept. 14,1511 ; 1,200 pieces were collected, of which one weighed 200 Ibs., and another 120 Ibs. Records of later date become more and more complete and authentic, and all doubts in regard to the accuracy of their statements, existing till the end of the last century, were removed when, on April 26, 1803, at Aigle in France, a small immovable cloud was seen, out of which, during explosions lasting five to six minutes, a number of stones fell on a surface two miles long. The largest weighed 20 Ibs., the smallest ounce. On March 13, 1807, an aerolite of 140 Ibs. fell in Smolensk, Russia; and on May 22, 1808, at Stannern in Moravia, between 200 and 300 stones fell, from half an ounce to 11 Ibs. in weight. An Amer ican vessel 240 miles S. of Java experienced on Xov. 14, 1856, a shower of stones of the size of shot, which were afterward proved not to be the product of the eruption of a distant volcano, carried along with the winds, as at first suggested, but of true cosmical origin a question easily settled by the microscope and chemical analysis, as will be seen later. Klein published in his Sonncmystem (Brunswick, 1869) a record of more than 300 well authen ticated cases, of which 8 were in the 15th cen tury, 15 in the 16th, 23 in the 17th, 40 in the 18th, and 216 in the first 69 years of the 19th century. It is certain that such falls were just as frequent in former centuries as they are now, only the records are lacking. In regard to the ancient geological eras, there is no doubt | that the falls of meteoric masses were even I more frequent ; it is highly probable even that | a portion of the earth s and moon s mass is | largely made up of such aerolites, which are i not now found in the lower strata of the earth for the simple reason that they are very oxid- izable, and have been disintegrated by air and water and mixed with the original terrestrial matter, by the immense changes through which our earth s crust has passed ; they may there fore exist in a better state of preservation on j the moon s surface. Olbers supposes that the i earth has during countless ages hollowed ! out for itself a kind of comparatively empty i rut among those living aerolites, attracting all within the reach of its gravitation, and that ! now, by the periodical inequalities and pertur bations of its orbit, it occasionally appropriates some masses which had before escaped its I attractive power, or that the earth occasionally comes in the neighborhood of masses baving an orbit which intersects its own. (See METEOE.) In regard to the sizes, the largest masses on record were heard of by Capt. Ross in 1818, when the Esquimaux of Baffin bay informed him of their existence on the W. coast of Green- ! land. They were found in 1870 by the Swe- [ dish Arctic expedition, which brought some of I them to Stockholm, where they excited so much interest that in 1871 20 more specimens I were collected, now in the royal academy of | Stockholm, the largest weighing 25 tons, with : a maximum sectional area of 42 square feet. i The next in size weighs 10 tons, and has been ; presented to the museum of Copenhagen. In ! Mexico and Brazil similar masses have been i found. The British museum possesses one of | more than five tons. In the museum in St. Petersburg is a mass of 1,680 Ibs. found in Si beria in 1772. Yale college, New Haven, pos- j sesses, among more than 100 specimens, one I aerolite of 1,635 Ibs., which fell in Texas in 1808. The Smithsonian institution possesses a very remarkable annular specimen discovered about 1700 in Mexico, which, according to an : Indian tradition, fell there about 200 years be fore during a shower of stones ; its weight is 1,400 Ibs. Aerolites of a weight of 200 to 400 Ibs. are not uncommon in collections, and those of 100 Ibs. and less are very common. In re- i gard to the chemical composition of these stones, it must be observed that in passing through our atmosphere they undergo some change, as they always take fire in the upper regions, and arrive at the ground quite hot, sometimes making a deep hole. Combustible substances in their composition, and perhaps an atmosphere of combustible gases surrounding them, combined with the immense velocity with which they enter our atmosphere, cause on the sudden diminution of that motion a most intense rise of temperature, ignition. AEROLITE AERONAUTICS 145 ruul very often one or more exceedingly violent | explosions. It is therefore not surprising that they all present the appearance of having been subjected to great heat. Chemical analysis ;!ias shown that there are two principal kinds, j r the stony and the metallic aerolites, which by further investigation have been divided into several groups, in accordance with the elements contained and the character of their combina tions. Stony aerolites resemble the peridot, a universal scoria from the earth s deep interior, underlying the aluminous basic rocks, the granite and gneiss; the latter, being stratified rocks, are never found among aerolites. The specific gravity of stony aerolites is 3 5 to 3 8, while that of stratified formations, gneiss and granite, and of lava, is only 2 -6 to 2 9. Metal lic aerolites have a specific gravity of from 6*5 j to 8, and consist chiefly of iron, always com bined with nickel, usually containing 60 per cent, or more of iron and 5 to 25 of nickel, a compound never found on earth ; the other ele ments are chiefly phosphorus, silicon, alumi- j num, cobalt, and manganese. Other substances j which have been found in different specimens are : magnesium, titanium, tin, copper, chro- I mium, arsenic, calcium, potassium, sodium, sul- J plmr, carbon, chlorine, nitrogen, and hydrogen in occlusion (see ABSORPTION OF GASES BY SOL IDS), making 22 elements, one third of those of which the earth is composed. Some aerolites are of a mixed stony and metallic character, but they are never homogeneous; even the metallic ones, which appear to be an alloy, are very heterogeneous. This is manifested by grinding and polishing a face and then acting on it with nitric acid, when some portions will dissolve, and more resistant small crystals will become prominent, showing a decided crystal line structure. The figures thus formed are called, after their discoverer, Widmanstaett s figures, and they may be made so prominent as to allow the surface to be used as an engraved plate and printed. Our figure represents an aerolite found in Wisconsin, preserved in the Widmannataett s Figures. cabinet of I. A. Lapham of Milwaukee, and engraved after the photograph of a section prepared by Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, show ing the Widmannstaettian figures. The idea suggested by Sir William Thompson before the British association for the advancement of science in 1871, that the existence of vege- YOL. i. 10 table and animal life on our planet may be accounted for by aerolites having brought the first organized germs hither, substitutes for the difficult question as to the terrestrial origin of organisms, the still more perplexing one of how they originated on the aerolites. See further Phipson s "Treatise on Meteors, Aerolites, and Falling Stars " (London, 1866); Daubree, Rap port sur Ics progres cle la geologic experimentale (Paris, 1867). The latter is very exhaustive, and contains accounts of experiments in imitating the different kinds of aerolites. AEROMETER (Gr. aijp, air, and fjLirpov, meas ure), an instrument invented by Dr. Marcus Hunt for ascertaining the mean bulk of gases and the density or rarity of air. It is now little used, and the whole doctrine of air, considered as a fluid, its pressure, elasticity, rarefaction, and condensation, belongs in that department of natural philosophy termed pneumatics. AERONAITKS (Gr. afo, air, and vauw/oJ?, of or belonging to ships), or Aerostation (Gr. arjp, and araaiG, standing), the art of sailing in and navigating the air, and of raising and sustaining substances by means of gases specifically lighter than the atmosphere, contained in a spheroidal bag called a balloon. The former term is the more comprehensive of the two, and includes the whole science of aerial navigation, while the latter is generally confined to ballooning. The myths of Dasdalus and Icarus show that the attempts of man to soar above the earth commenced in prehistoric times. Flying ma chines were expected to effect this object. Archytas of Tarentum is said to have manufac tured, 400 years B. C., a wooden pigeon which sustained itself in the air a few minutes. Simon Magus, according to Suetonius, met his death in Rome in the reign of the emperor Xero in an attempt to fly from one house to another. Roger Bacon had some notion of a flying ma chine to be propelled by a system of wings; and in the latter part of the 15th century Dante, a mathematician of Perugia, rose above Lake Thrasimene by means of artificial wings attached to his body. Many similar attempts have been made since then by persons imper fectly acquainted with the principles of me chanical philosophy, which have invariably re sulted in failure, and the problem is as far from solution as ever. The discovery of the proper ties of hydrogen gas by Cavendish in 1760 gave the first hint of a practical method of aerial navigation. This is the lightest of the gases, being a little more than 14 times rarer than at mospheric air; and as early as 1767 Professor Black of Edinburgh announced to his class that a vessel filled with it would naturally rise into the air. A few years later (1782) Cavallo made a series of experiments on the subject, but did not succeed in raising anything heavier than a soap bubble. The honor of preparing and sending up the first balloon belongs to the brothers Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier, pa per manufacturers at Annonay, near Lyons, who, however, at the outset of their experi- 146 AERONAUTICS ments, knew nothing of hydrogen gas, and em ployed heated air to inflate their machine, without apparently being aware of its superior buoyancy to the atmosphere. Their balloon was constructed of linen cloth lined with paper, under which a lire was kindled, fed with bundles of chopped straw. By this means dense volumes of smoke were produced, which filled the balloon ; and it would seem that they actually expected the latter to be raised by the ascending power of the smoke, instead of its true cause, the rarefaction of the heated air. First Balloons made by Montgolfier. On June 5, ITS;], their balloon, weighing 500 pounds, first rose into the atmosphere. It reached an altitude of nearly a mile, remained suspended a few minutes, and, as the air es caped, gradually returned to the earth. The event singularly impressed all classes of society, and the most extravagant notions were enter tained of the uses to which balloons might be applied. Several successful ascents were made within the next few months from Paris, and on Nov. 21, 1783, Pilatre de Rozier and the marquis d Arlandes, the first adventurers who durst ascend in an unconfined balloon, as tonished the world by rising to the height of 3,000 feet, descending in safety not far from Paris. These experiments were mostly made with the Montgolfier balloon, or mont- golfiere, which was inflated with heated air, and the early aeronauts were obliged to carry with them a supply of fuel to renew the rarefied air as fast as it escaped. This clumsy and dangerous expedient subsequently led to disastrous results. On Dec. 1 of the same year Messrs. Charles and Robert left Paris in a hydrogen balloon, in the presence of 600,000 spectators, and after a trip of two hours de scended in safety near Nesle, 25 m. distant. M. Charles immediately reascended alone, and had the satisfaction of seeing the sun, which had set when he left the earth, rise and set .again. He descended in safety in 35 minutes, 9 m. from his starting point. In this expedition the fall of the barometer and thermometer was first noticed. The first, sinking to 20*05 inches, indicated an ascent of about 9,700 feet. The thermometer sank to 21 F. In 1784 upward of 52 balloon ascents are recorded, the most remarkable being those of Messrs. Charles and Robert, who reached an altitude of 13,000 feet; of Blanchard, the first aerial voyager by profession ; and of Prince Charles de Lignes. In January, 1785, Blanchard and Dr. John Jeffries, of Boston, accomplished the daring feat of crossing the channel from Dover to France, narrowly escaping being wrecked in the sea. In the same year occurred the first fatal acci dent connected with ballooning. Pilatre de Ro zier attempted, with a young man named Ro- maine Laine, to cross from France to England in a hydrogen balloon, under which was suspended a small montgolfi&re for the purpose of increasing or diminishing the ascensional power at pleas ure. The hydrogen, -by its expansion in the rarer upper strata of the atmosphere, pressed down through the tubular neck of the balloon, and reaching the fire of the montgolfi&re was at once ignited. Both balloons were quickly consumed, and the voyagers were precipitated from a height of 3,000 feet upon the rocks near the French coast. As this calamitous occur rence was occasioned by the neglect of proper precautions, aeronauts were not deterred by it. Ascents to the number of many thousands have since been made in Europe and America, both in montgolfieres and gas balloons, and it is be lieved that not more than 25 persons have lost their lives in consequence. Of this number of ascents, however, few only have been under taken for scientific purposes, most having been made merely as a popular spectacle or for the sake of amusement. In this regard both hemispheres have furnished skilful and daring aeronauts. Among the earlier French voyagers was Blanchard, who died in 1809, having made more than 66 ascents, one of which took place in New York in 1796. Mme. Blanchard some times accompanied him, and after his death she occasionally ascended alone. In 1819, hav ing ascended from Tivoli garden in Paris with some fireworks, her balloon became accident ally ignited and she was precipitated to the earth and dashed to pieces in the rue de Pro vence. In later times Eugene and Louis Godard have been the most famous of the French pro fessional aeronauts. Green, the English aero naut, had probably more experience in the management of balloons than any person who has given attention to the subject. During his professional career of 36 years, ending in 1857, he made nearly 1,400 ascents, crossing the sea three times and falling into it twice. His most interesting voyage was undertaken in 1836, when in company with Messrs. Holland and Mason he journeyed, in a balloon of great dimensions and provisioned for a fortnight, from London to Weilburg, in the duchy of Nassau, a distance of 500 m., in 18 hours. This feat of aerial travelling was however surpassed by Mr. John Wise, the American aeronaut, who with Mr. John La Mountain and two others passed in July, 1859, from St. Louis, Mo., to Henderson in Jefferson co., N. Y., a distance of 1,150 m., in 19 h. 50 m., or at an average speed of nearly a mile per minute. In Septem ber of the same year Messrs. La Mountain and Lowe made a voyage of 300 m. in about 4 AERONAUTICS 147 hours. The first ascent for the purposes of sci ence was made from Hamburg on July 18, 1803, by Messrs. Robertson and Lhoest, under the direction of the Russian academy of sci ences. A second voyage followed in the suc ceeding month, and a third from St. Peters burg on June 30, 1804. But although the ex plorers reached on one occasion an altitude of 23,526 feet, no important results were obtained. In 1804 Laplace proposed to the French acad emy the solution, by means of observations from a balloon, of certain physical problems, and notably that of magnetic intensity at great heights. Gay-Lussac and Biot undertook to make the observations, and on Aug. 23 as cended from Paris to the height of 13,000 feet. Their experiments in magnetism, electricity, and galvanism gave results identical with those made on the earth. The rotatory motion of the balloon having presented an unexpected obstacle to careful obervations, Gay-Lussac supplied his balloon with long hanging ropes destined to counteract this movement, and on Sept. 15 reascended alone to a height of 23,000 feet, and found a decline of temperature from 82 to 15, which almost confirmed the theory of a fall of 1 in every 300 feet of elevation. The sky was very blue and the air was found to be very dry. A magnet took a longer time to vibrate than on the earth. He was the first to bring down air collected at this enormous height, which on being analyzed was found to be in its component parts the same as the lower air. In the highest strata of air reached by the balloon he suffered severely from cold. Breathing was difficult, the pulse and respira tion were much quickened, and the throat be came parched. In 1806 Carlo Brioschi, the astronomer royal of Naples, in company with Andreani, the first Italian aeronaut, attempted to rise from Naples to a greater height than that attained by Gay-Lussac; but in conse quence of the bursting of the balloon the ex plorers were precipitated to the earth, which they fortunately reached without material in jury. No subsequent scientific aerial expe ditions took place till 1850, when Messrs. Bixio and Barral ascended from the garden of the observatory in Paris in a balloon filled with pure hydrogen gas. They reached a height of 19,000 feet, when an accident to their balloon compelled them to descend without having had the opportunity to make observations of much value. In a second ascent in July of the same year, they reached a height nearly equal to that gained by Gay-Lussac in his second expedition in 1804, but, owing to a tear in their balloon, were unable to rise above a bank of cloud es timated to be 15,000 feet in thickness, and reach the blue sky beyond. The most ex traordinary phenomenon noted by them was the sudden variation of temperature during the last few thousand feet of their ascent. At the height of 19,000 feet the thermometer marked 15, but in the next 2,000 feet it fell to 39 be low zero, thus showing a temperature lower by 54 than that noted by Gay-Lussac at a similar elevation. In 1852 Mr. Welsh, of the Kew ob servatory, in company with Mr. Green, made four ascents from London in the great "Nas sau" balloon, with results tending to confirm those already recorded by Gay-Lussac. The most remarkable and successful ascents ever made for scientific purposes were those of Mr. James Glaisher, F. R. S., from various parts of England in 1862- 6, and of Messrs. Camille Flammarion, W. de Fonvieille, and Gaston Tis- sandier from Paris and other parts of France in 1867- 9. On Sept. 5, 1862, Mr. Glaisher, accom panied by Mr. Coxwell, an experienced aeronaut who had already made 400 ascents, reached the astounding height of 37,000 feet, or 7 m. above the earth s surface. At the height of 5^ m. Mr. Glaisher gradually lost the use of his limbs, and finally became totally insensible. Mr. Coxwell had meanwhile climbed up to the ring of the balloon in order to free the valve rope, which had become entangled ; while doing this his hands became frozen and powerless, and he was compelled to drop down into the car and pour brandy over them to restore the circulation, lie then perceived the critical condition of Mr. Glaisher, and endeavored to approach him ; but finding himself also in danger of lapsing into insensibility, and being^at the same time with out the power to move his hands, he seized the valve rope with his teeth, dipped his head downward several times, and found to his re lief that the escape of gas caused the balloon to descend rapidly into a warmer temperature. Mr. Glaisher soon after revived, and they re turned without further adventure to the earth. The results of Mr. Glaisher s observations in duced him to abandon the theory of a decline of 1 of temperature for every increase of 300 feet of elevation. M. Flammarion calculated a mean abatement of 1 for every 345 feet when the sky is clear, and of 1 for every 354 feet when the heavens are overcast ; but Mr. Glaisher s midday experiments show that with in the first 1,000 feet from the earth the aver age space passed through for a decline of 1 was 223 feet with a cloudy sky, and 1 62 feet with a clear sky. Above 10,000 feet the space passed through for a like decline was 455 feet for the former, and 417 feet for the latter; and above 20,000 feet the space with both states of the sky was nearly 1,000 feet for a decline of 1. In an ascent made by him on July 17, 1862, the temperature was 59 at the surface; at 10,000 feet it had fallen to 26, and at 20,000 feet it had risen to 42, which shows a difference of 81 from the temperature record ed by Bixio and Barral at the same altitude in their second ascent in 1850. Notwithstanding the difficulty of extracting any definite law from such capricious data, the results of Mr. Glaisher s observations above quoted afford a much nearer approach to a solution of the problem than the old rule of a uniform rate of decrease. All aeronauts have been aware of the existence of atmospheric currents, often 148 AERONAUTICS moving in opposite directions, to which they are obliged to trust themselves, if desirous of travelling in a horizontal direction. M. Flam- inarion made the curious discovery that the traces of his various voyages are all represented by lines tending to curve in one and the same general direction; whence he concluded that above the soil of France the currents of the atmosphere are constantly deviated circularly, and in a south-west-north-east-south direction. Still more curious was the discovery by Mr. Glai- sher of what may be called an aerial gulf stream. In his ascent of Jan. 12, 18(54, he reached a warm current at a height of 1,800 feet. At 3,000 feet the temperature was 45, being 34- warmer than at the surface, and for the next 3,000 feet it was higher than on the earth. It then gradually fell to 11 at 11,500 feet. This warm stratum of atmosphere was a current moving from the S. W. in the direction of the gulf stream. Fine granular snow was falling into it. The existence of this warm S. W. current goes far, Mr. Glaisher thinks, to ex plain why England possesses a winter temper ature so much higher than her latitude would indicate. The same observer found that the time of the vibration of a magnet was greater than on the earth ; that the number of pulsa tions and inspirations increased considerably at the higher elevations, although the same indi viduals were differently affected at different times ; that the velocity of the wind was much greater at a high elevation than near the sur face; and that sounds from the earth were more or less audible according to the amount of moisture in the air. When in the clouds at 4 m. high lie heard a railway train ; but when clouds were below, no sound ever reach ed the car at this elevation. The barking of a little dog was heard at the height of 2 m., while a multitude of people sLuouting was not heard at 4,000 feet. At the greatest heights to which. Mr. Glaisher ascended he found that the color of the unclouded sky deepened to an intense prussian blue when the air was free from moisture. He rejects the theory which ascribes this to reflection from vesicles of water, and concludes that it must be caused by reflection from the air, whose polar izing angle is 45. Soon after the invention of balloons the idea was entertained that they might be used to advantage in war for pur poses of observation and reconnoissance. An aerostatic school was established at Meudon in France, and a number of balloons were dis tributed among the French army. At the sieges of Maubeuge, Charleroi, Mannheim, and Ehrenbreitstein they proved to be of some value. It is said that the battle of Fleurus j was gained by Gen. Jourdan in 1794 mainly j through information of the Austrian positions ! and movements communicated by French officers stationed in a balloon. The machine was held by a cable, but its tether was easily extended by means of a windlass, so that the observers could soar above the enemy s fire. | This is the last we hear for many years of the | use of balloons in warfare. In the Italian cam- i paign of 1859 they were again employed by I the French, and one is reported to have aided them effectually at the battle of Solferino. Early in the American civil war (18Gl- 5) a I balloon corps was organized by the United j States war department, in the management of which Messrs. La Mountain, Lowe, and other experienced aeronauts were associated. Mr. Lowe first performed the feat of telegraphing from an aerial station GOO feet above the earth. In the summer and autumn of 18G1 many bal loon reconnoissances were made along the Po tomac and in the neighborhood of Fortress Monroe. The balloon corps formed a part of. Gen. McClellan s expedition to the peninsula in the spring of 18G2, and when his army in May and June occupied the lines in front of Richmond, the balloons were brought into daily use for purposes of observation. On one j occasion, while Gen. Fitz-Jolm Porter was watching the movements of the enemy from a captive balloon, the cable broke, and he was carried over the confederate lines. By pulling the valve string he caused the machine to de scend, when it struck a current of air going in | the opposite direction, and he landed safely within the Union 1 nes. During the two days of the battle of Fair Oaks Mr. Lowe watched the conflict from an elevation of 2,000 feet, and was the first to announce the enemy s retreat to Richmond. After the retreat of McClellan to Harrison s Landing the balloon corps seems to have been disbanded, and no subsequent employment of the balloon for military purposes is recorded during the war. At the commencement of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870- 71 a proposal was made to ! Marshal Lebocuf that the French army should be supplied with balloons, but he rejected it. A similar proposal was made to the German war department, which was accepted, but failed because the balloons were placed in un skilful hands. The siege of Paris by the Ger mans in 1870- 71 gave a new and unexpected impulse to the science of aerostatics. Toward the close of September, 1870, the city was com pletely invested, and the balloon, rejected by the French government as of no practical use a few months previous, was gladly employed by the besieged as a means of communicating with those parts of the country not under the con trol of the enemy. As no machine in the city was at that time considered sufficiently trust worthy to pass over the besieging lines in safe ty, balloon factories were established in two of the principal railway stations, which pre vious to the capitulation turned out nearly 70 machines. The material of- the envelope was calico varnished on the exterior with a mix ture of linseed oil and oxide of lead, and the network, car, and other appurtenances were of the customary pattern. The balloons were of an average capacity of 70,000 cubic feet. The first left Paris Sept, 23 with 227 pounds AERONAUTICS U9 of letters, and descended at Evreux. From that date to the end of the siege, Jan. 28, 1871, 61 others were despatched. Of these, 54 were sent by the post office department, carrying about 2,500,000 letters, which represented a total weight of nearly 10 tons. Most of them also took carrier pigeons intended to bring back news and replies to the outgoing letters. Comparatively few of the pigeons returned to Paris. In order to adapt the weight of the return document to the capacity of the bird, long messages and letters were reduced by photography to within an area not exceeding one or two square inches on paper of the thin nest texture. These slips were generally en closed in a quill, which was fastened to the central tail feather, and when received they were submitted to the microscope and copied. Most of the balloons were under the manage ment of sailors, whose nautical training, it was supposed, would peculiarly fit them for navi gating the air. Several fell into the hands of the enemy, dropping within the hostile lines ; and one, the Washington, which left Paris on Oct. 12, was subjected, while crossing the Prussian outposts at an elevation of 2,500 to 3,000 feet, to so severe a fire that the travel lers were obliged to ascend rapidly several hundred feet. Some were carried to consider able distances beyond the French frontier, and the Ville d Orleans was swept into Norway, and came to anchor 000 m. N. of Christiania. Three have never been heard from since they left Paris. To r void the enemy s fusillade, it was determined in the latter part of November to despatch the balloons at night ; but as no lights were permitted in them by the govern ment, the subsequent journeys were attended by unusual perils, the aeronauts being unable to determine their rate or direction of travel ling or their distance from the earth. To this unwise provision was doubtless owing the loss of the balloons above mentioned, and the ec centric courses which others took. Gambetta, the leader of the provisional government, was one of the first to leave the city by this means of conveyance, in order to take the control of affairs at Tours. On the night of Dec. 2 Dr. Janssen departed m the balloon Volta for the purpose of observing the total eclipse of the sun on Dec. 22. He noticed that the balloon fell at sunrise and rose again when the sun was several degrees above the horizon, and ac counted for this effect by the fact that the en velope upon receiving the first beams of the sun began to radiate heat into space and be came rapidly cooler, deriving less heat from the rising sun than it parted with by radiation. This process being finished, it became again susceptible to the sun s rays and reascended. Since the termination of the war it has been announced that the German government have determined to take active steps to effect im provements in military ballooning, and to make it a part of their system. Notwithstanding nearly a century has elapsed since the inven tion of the balloon, little or no improvement has been made upon its original form. It con sists now, as in the time of Montgolfier, of a spheroidal bag of gas enclosed within a net work, attached by ropes to a ring or hoop, from which is suspended a car for the convey ance of the aeronaut. In place of heated air The Modern Balloon. or hydrogen, the latter of which is expensive and requires an elaborate apparatus for its production, it has for many years been cus tomary to use carburetted hydrogen or com mon coal gas. the mean density of which is about one half that of the air. This improve ment in aerostatics was first introduced by Mr. Green, the English aeronaut. The height to which a balloon will rise is determined from the law according to which the density of the atmospheric strata diminishes as the distance from the earth is increased. The buoyant force diminishes with the density, and when it is reduced to a quantity only equal to the weight of the balloon and its appendages, no further ascension can take place. As the pressure of the external air is diminished the expansive force of the confined gas becomes greater ; and a balloon quite filled at the sur face of the earth would inevitably be torn to shreds at the height of a few miles, unless a portion of the confined gas were allowed to es cape. For this purpose the neck of the bal loon, into which the gas is introduced, is com monly left open, and the machine is also fur nished with a safety valve at the top, which can be opened or shut at pleasure. The valve shown on the next page, invented by M. Giffard, a well known manufacturer of balloons, is considered by M. Tissandier and other high authorities to be perhaps the best thus far made. It consists of a, metallic disk four feet in diameter, which is pressed against a wood en hoop by sixteen steel springs ; by means of the rope attached to its centre it may be held open, but on this being released it springs back to its place. A good precaution, besides 150 AERONAUTICS the opening of the valve, and one generally adopted, is to inflate the balloon only partially at the surface of the earth. Mr. Glaisher is Balloon Valve Invented by M. Giifard. of the opinion that in order to reach great al titudes the balloon must have a capacity of at least 90,000 cubic feet, of which not more than one third need be inflated with gas, and must carry upward of GOO pounds of ballast. "With such a machine he reached a height of seven miles, at which elevation, as we have seen, he became insensible and his companion nearly so. The question of the extreme altitude to which a balloon can ascend can therefore only be theoretically determined, since the vital powers, however strongly organized, must at 37,000 to 40,000 feet of elevation succumb to the intense cold and the attenuated atmosphere which there prevail. The balloon usually rises in an oblique direction under the com bined influence of the vertical ascensional force and the direction of the wind. As soon as it mounts into a stratum of air having the same density as itself, it ceases to ascend unless more ballast be thrown out, and follows the course of the aerial current. As regards the particles of air which surround it, it is quite motionless, and the aeronaut may be swept along with the swiftness of a tornado, with nothing to indicate to him, if enveloped in clouds, that he is not in the quiet of a calm. M. Flammarion states that in an aerial journey of 120 m. he never felt himself in motion, and that from a glass of water tilled to the brim, which was placed within the car, not a drop was shaken out, although the balloon was con stantly rising and falling hundreds of feet. Not the least remarkable phenomenon which presents itself to the aeronaut is the concave appearance of the earth, which arches beneath him as the dome of the sky does above, so that lie may be said to float between two vast con cavities. In descending, the aeronaut reduces the buoyancy of the balloon by a skilful man agement of the rope which controls the safety valve, and when the descent becomes too rapid he lightens the machine by throwing over bal last. This is an operation which should be committed only to a practised hand. So deli cately does the balloon respond -to any altera tion in its weight that, as M. Tissandier re lates, the throwing out of a chicken bone once caused him to rise from 20 to 80 yards. In descending through a heavy bank of clouds the weight of the balloon may also be considerably increased by the deposited moisture, and the most rapid discharge of ballast will sometimes scarcely prevent a violent collision with the earth. Under such circumstances the guide rope suspended from the car, first adopted by Green, proves of great advantage by acting as a sort of substitute for ballast, as every inch of it which rests upon the ground relieves the balloon of an equivalent portion of its weight. Of the innumerable schemes which have been propounded for the guidance and propulsion of balloons, not one has proved available, and the machine is still manageable only for ver tical motions. It is within the power of the aeronaut to ascend to the utmost height at which human existence is possible, but when he desires to move in a horizontal direction he is for the most part like a rudderless ship at the mercy of the winds and waves. Start ing from a given point, he may traverse the segment of a circle, or describe the most ec^ centric course, and after hours of aerial navi gation be as far as ever from his proposed goal. He can rise or fall at pleasure into a current of air seeming to waft him in the desired di- rection ; but so capricious and infinitely vari ous are the atmospheric streams, and so im perfectly defined are their courses, that ho will be most likely to find himself only baffled and confused by them. In spite of the results which aerostatics offered in connection with the siege of Paris, Mr. Glaisher seriously doubts the practical use of the balloon. He sees no probability that any method of steer ing it will be invented, and even intimates that this is not necessarily the first step in aerial navigation, and may possibly have no share in the solution of the problem. He would em ploy it simply as an aerial observatory, whence an infinite variety of phenomena affecting the laws which control the universe can be noted with a precision not attainable on the surface j of the earth. Messrs . Fonvielle and Tissan dier, on the other hand, believe that the guid ance of balloons has nothing impossible in it, and lay particular stress upon the use to be made by the aeronaut of the natural currents of air flowing at various heights in the atmos phere. But information with regard to these is at present entirely too vague to justify their confidence. Various plans of aerial ships to be propelled and steered by fans, paddles, sails, or other mechanical contrivances, have been projected in Europe and America, all of which, having been designed in ignorance of or in difference to the most rudimentary atmospher ic laws, have proved failures. Under the con viction that the balloon can never solve the problem of aerial navigation, the "Aeronauti cal Society " was established in England a few .-ESCHINES vESCIIYLUS 151 years ago, under the presidency of the duke of Argyll. Absolutely nothing has been ac complished by it yet except to organize a series of experiments on the relation be tween the pressure and the velocity of air. See "Travels in the Air by James Glaisher, F. R. S., Camille Flammarion, W. de Fonvielle, and Gaston Tissandier, edited by James Glai sher, F. R. S." (London, 1871). JCSCHIXES. I. An Athenian orator, rival of Demosthenes, born at Athens in 389 B. C., died at Samos in 314. He was the son of Atro- metus and Glaucothea. Demosthenes says Atrometus was a freedman and Glaucothea a prostitute. /Eschines, on the contrary, says his father was a true-born Athenian. Demos thenes upbraided him with the fact that his father was a schoolmaster, as though it were a low and sordid occupation. ^Eschmes was afterward clerk to a magistrate, and thus ob tained some insight into the laws of his coun try. He subsequently tried his fortune on the stage, served with distinction in the army, and finally appeared as an orator on the public arena. He was public clerk for two years, and a satellite of the orators Aristophon and Eubulus. In 347 he was sent, along with De mosthenes, as one of the ten ambassadors to negotiate a peace with Philip of Macedon. From this time forth he favored the Macedo nian alliance, and opposed the patriotic par ty of Athens, headed by Demosthenes. lie formed one of the embassy who went to receive Philip s oath to the treaty. Timarchus and Demosthenes accused him on his return of malversation. Pie evaded the danger by a counter prosecution against Timarchus, on ac count of his bad moral character, which suc ceeded. Shortly after the battle of Chreronea, in 338, Ctesiphon, an Athenian, proposed that Demosthenes should receive from the state a golden crown. ^Eschines indicted Ctesiphon for bringing forward an illegal arid inappropri ate resolution. The cause was not tried until 330, six years after the death of Philip, and when Alexander was in Asia. Ctesiphon was acquitted, and as ^Eschines had not gained one fifth of the aggregate votes cast, he was liable to pay the penalty inflicted by the Athenian law on him who brought forward a factious resolution. Being unable to pay this penalty, he retired to the island of Rhodes, where he taught elocution for a livelihood, and became the founder of the Rhodian school of oratory. Three speeches of his are extant, showing great narrative and descriptive power, and freer from personal abuse than those of Demos thenes, who reluctantly acknowledged the mer its of ^Esohines. The first is on malversation in his embassy, the second is against Timar chus, and the third against Ctesiphon. II. An Athenian philosopher, a follower of -Socrates, and the son of Charinus, a sausage maker. So crates used to say that the sausage maker s son was the only man who knew how to honor him. Poverty obliged him to go to the court of the younger Dionysius, the Syracusan tyrant, where Plato, then in the ascendant there, treated him with contempt, but Aristippus gave him a large reward for his dialogues. On his return from Sicily, he taught philosophy for a living at Athens. He wrote orations for the forum for hire. Several dialogues on ethical subjects have been with doubtful jus tice ascribed to him. ^SCHYLUS, the eldest of the great Attic trage dians, the son of Euphorion, born at Eleusis in 525 B. C. (4th year of the 63d Olympiad), died in 456. He was of a noble family of the class of the Eupatridas, and it is probable that he traced his origin to Codrus, the last king of Athens; for among the life archons, who succeeded the kings, was an ^Eschylus, in whose reign the Olympiads commenced. It is believed that his father was connected with the worship of Ceres; and he was probably himself accus tomed from his youth to the spectacles of the Eleusinian mysteries, into which he was after ward initiated. A portion of these he seems to have described in a strange fragment from his drama of the Edoni, the remainder being lost, and he was accused of divulging their se crets in his tragedy of the Eumenides. Pau- sanias relates of him that Bacchus, of whose worship tragic and dithyrambic odes and spec tacles formed a part, appeared to him in a vis ion as he himself asserted when he had fallen asleep in the fields one day, while he should have been watching the vines, and commanded him to write tragedy. At the age of 25 he made his first attempt as a tragic poet; but the next shape in which we find him mentioned is that of a warrior, when, with his two brothers, Cy- ntegirus and Aminias, he received public honors for distinguished valor in the famous field of Marathon. Six years after that battle he gained his first tragic victory, and four years afterward again fought at Salamis, where his brother Aminias received the prize for the greatest courage, being the trierarch who sank the first Pho?nician ship, as the poet himself has related in his PersoB, although modestly re fraining from mention of this hero s name. He again fought at Platrea, and eight years after this gained the prize for a trilogy, or series of three dramas presented at a single representa tion, of which the " Persians," the earliest of his extant works, was one. In the latter part of his life he was defeated by Simonides in an elegiac contest for the prize offered for the best elegy to the honor of those who fell at Mara thon ; but for many years he was esteemed the greatest of tragic poets, having composed, it is said, 70 dramas, 5 of which were satyric, the rest tragedies of the loftiest tone, and gained 13 tragic prizes before he was at length defeated by Sophocles, in 468. Soon after this, whether in disgust at this loss of his poet ic laurels, or at a trial to which he is said to have been subjected on an accusation of impi ety for the disclosure of the Eleusinian myste ries, as related above, he retired to Sicily, 152 JESCHYLUS JSSCULAPIUS where lie was hospitably received by Iliero, in whose honor he composed a drama styled the " Women of Etna " ; and he died at Gela, in the 09th year of his age. The real circum stances of his accusation and trial are unknown. Clemens Alexandrinus states that he was tried by the court of the Areopagus and acquitted ; while ./Elian relates that he \vould have been stoned to death by the Athenians, had not his brother Aminias awakened the sympathies of his would-be executioners by baring his mu tilated arm, from which the hand had been hewn by a Persian scimitar as he was strug gling to prevent the launch of a galley from the beach at Marathon. It is, moreover, doubtful whether he ever revisited his native country between the period of his expatriation and that of his death, although many of his pieces, among others the celebrated Oresteian trilogy, com posed of the Agamemnon, the Choephori, and the Eumenides, which gained the tragic prize in 458, were performed during this period. The latter fact seems to disprove the whole story of the accusation of impiety as the cause of his taking umbrage toward Athens, as it cer tainly disposes of its connection with his re moval to Sicily. Most doubtful of all is the received account of his death, which was occa sioned, says the legend, by an eagle flying over head with a tortoise in his claws, and dropping the reptile on the bald head of the poet, which he mistook for a stone. ./Eschylus was a great improver of the Attic tragedy ; in fact, it is he who gave to it first, the tragic form, by intro ducing a second performer, with dialogue, emo tion, and action. He also abridged the length of the dithyrambic odes, caused a regular stage to be erected, and was the first to pro duce his dramas with appropriate scenery and clothe his heroes in befitting costumes. Of his 70 dramas, but 7 have come down to us entire the Seven against Thebes, the Suppliants, the Persians, the Prometheus Bound, the Aga memnon, the Choephori, and the Eumenides; with but a few fragments of the others. ^Eschylus is undoubtedly the grandest, the stateliest, and the most solemn of the Attic tragedians ; and his style, though difficult and at times rugged, is magnificently sonorous with its many-syllabled compounds. His creed is that of a blind, overruling, ever-present, inevi table necessity, against which it is vain to con tend, from which it is hopeless to escape, yet which it is alike the duty and the glory of the great, good man to resist to the end undaunted ; of ancestral guilt continually reproduced and punished by the successive guilt of generation after generation ; of hapless kindred criminals, who would not be criminals could they avoid it, but are goaded on to the commission of ever new atrocities by the hereditary curse of the doomed race. Such are the legends of the Theban Labdacidre and the Mycenian Atriche, predestined murderers, adulterers, and parri cides, inextricably involved in the dark net of necessity. It is objected to ^Eschylus that he deals with horrors only ; that his lyre has but one chord of dark and disastrous terror ; that he is all iron, and has no key with which to at tune the tenderer strings of human sympathies. But it is doubtful whether there is to be found in the whole range of Greek letters deeper pathos than that of the woe of Prome theus, crucified on his Scythian crags for his love to mortals ; than that of the choruses in the Agamemnon, descriptive of the disconsolate sorrow of Menelaus deserted by his faithless Helen ; and of the sacrifice at the father s bid ding of the devoted Iphigenia. Less polished, he is grander than both Sophocles and Euripi des. The tragedies of /Eschylus have been rendered into English verse by Dean Potter. A more poetical version is that of the Prome theus Bound, by Mrs. Elizabeth Barrett Brown ing. The great trilogy, the Agamemnon, Choe phori, and Eumenides, was translated (London, 1865) by Miss A. Swanwick, assisted by Mr. Francis Newman. In 1800 appeared Dean Hilman s translation of the Agamemnon. The most esteemed editions of ^Eschylus are by Schiltz (Halle, 1808- 21), Dindorf (Leipsic, 1827, and Oxford, 1832), and Scholelicld (Cam bridge, 1830). Blomtield s edition is excellent as far as it is completed, but it contains only five of the seven tragedies that are still extant. JESCILAPHS (Gr. AaK/.^t6c\ in Greek my thology, the god of medicine and the patron of physicians. In the Homeric poems he is only spoken of as the u blameless physician," whose sons were serving in the Greek army before Troy. The most common story makes him the son of Apollo. He went about healing diseases and raising the dead to life. Pluto, god of Hades, took alarm at the latter exploit, and complained to Zeus, who struck yEsculapius dead with a flash of lightning. The most re nowned seat of ^Esculapius s worship in Greece was Epidaurus, in Argolis. He had a splendid temple there, with a statue half as large as that of Zeus Olympius at Athens. The cock was commonly sacrified to him, but the serpent was his favorite type. At Epidaurus a peculiar breed of holy serpents were kept about the temple, and into them the god was supposed to insinuate himself. When a city was afflicted with a pestilence, it used to send to Epidaurus for one of these vEsculapian snakes, out of the sale of which the Epidaurian priests reaped large profits. The presence of the god in the pest-stricken city, in the form of a yellowish- brown snake, was held to be pjopitious, and likely to allay the rage of the pest. About 400 B. C. the Romans, under the pressure of ca lamity, sent a solemn embassy to request the presence of one of these representatives of vEsculapius. On a later occasion of the same nature (293 B. C.) the worship of ^rEsculapius was introduced into Rome. There were also famous temples erected in his honor at Cos, Cnidos, and Rhodes. In all these temples were tablets commemorating wonderful cures, on which were recorded the name and genealogy AESTHETICS 153 of the patient, his disease, and the mode of re covery. The priests of these temples formed the race of Asclepiadae, or children of yEscu- lapius. They were the only regular physicians j of .antiquity. Formerly the priesthood of ^Es- cnlapius was hereditary, but in later times the priests took pupils and* initiated them into the mysteries of medicine. *J2SOP (Or. AZmjrrof), the fabulist, born about the year 620 B. 0., was convicted of the crime j of sacrilege while ambassador of Croesus at ; Delphi, and thrown from a precipice, about 5(54. I His birthplace is not certainly known, though Phrygia is generally mentioned. While young he was brought to Athens and sold as a slave, i but finally received his freedom from his mas- | ter, ladmon the Saraian. So high was his j reputation as a writer that Croesus, king of j Lydia, invited him to reside at his court. He I visited Athens during the reign of Pisistratus, | where he wrote the fable of "Jupiter and the j Frogs. 1 His genuine works have perished, the excellent collection going by his name being j either imitations or entirely spurious. The j current stories concerning him are taken from j a life written by Maximus Planudes, a monk of the 14th century, and prefixed to a volume of fables ascribed to his pen. In this work he is described as hideously ugly and misshapen, which statement is doubtless entirely false, as no personal defects of the kind are mentioned j by any classical author. It is rendered still ! more improbable by the circumstance that his j statue was executed for the city of Athens by the famous sculptor Lysippus. JCSOPrS, (bdins, a famous tragic actor at Rome, died at a great age about 50 B. C. lie was the contemporary of Eoscius, and with him the instructor of Cicero in oratory. He was accustomed to identify himself so com pletely with his part, that once while enacting the character of Atreus, and plotting how to avenge himself on Thyestes, he struck dead I with hi 4 truncheon one of the stage attendants. I He realized a large fortune by his acting, which | his son squandered in extravagance and luxury. .ESTHETICS (Gr. 01067/7^6^ perceptive, from aiaddvoftat, I feel, or perceive by the senses), the science of the beautiful, first recognized as an in dependent branch of philosophy about the mid dle of the last century. Even the ancient phi losophers had speculated upon the beautiful. Pythagoras tried to express its form in numeri cal proportion-; ; Socrates and Plato united it | with the good, and called the highest ideal by the compound name " kalokagathon " ; Aris totle strove to give its laws in formulas ; and later metaphysicians, down to the recent schools, continued these attempts to define its conditions and effect. But Baumgarten, a dis ciple of the German philosopher Wolf, and in 1740 professor of philosophy at Frankfort-on- the-Oder, first established its claims to the dig nity of a separate science. He held that be sides the divisions adopted by Wolf s system, namely, the capacity of knowing (intellect), the ultimate ideal and aim of which is the true, and the capacity of acting (will), the ul timate aim of which is the good, there exists also in the human mind a capacity of feeling, or perceiving by the senses (sensibility), the ultimate ideal and aim of which is the beau tiful. As logic determines the laws of intellect, and ethics those of will or action, so there should be a branch of philosophy, which he called aesthetics, to determine the laws of sensibility. He made the mistake of consider ing this faculty, by which men perceive the beautiful, a lower capacity founded in the mere exercise of sense (cognitio sensitive^ ; but Kant, who in his Kritik der Urtheihlcraft accepted the general division given above, cor rected this, and showed that the aesthetic per ception, for which the senses form only a means, really falls within the province of the high power of judgment. After 1742 Baum garten lectured regularly on aesthetics, and its place as a philosophical science was almost universally recognized. In this purely abstract psychological consideration of the subject he followed Kant, who held that the beautiful was the harmony between the understanding and the imagination; and, after him several other German philosophers of much less note. He gel s great work (Aesthetik) also treats the subject from this point of view ; and Fichte belonged entirely to the ideal school of writ ers on the aisthetic perception. But the name esthetics soon began to be received in a more practical acceptation, and to be especially ap plied to that part of the science of the beauti ful which relates to the expression and em bodiment of beauty by art. Schiller first turned speculation in this direction ; and Schelling, though devoting much study to the abstract, still contributed largely to the useful endeavor to bring the beautiful to the actual knowledge of men, rather than to analyze its psychological effects; and from their time this approach to the identification of the ideal and real has formed the chief and ultimate aim of the study of aesthetics. Two widely different theories as to the realization of the beautiful in art have been adopted by the different schools. One, the method n priori, strives by abstract reasoning to determine the laws of the beautiful, with which artists must comply ; the other, the method a posteriori, seeks ten th e beautiful in existing works of art, and from the results of such investigation makes practical rules for future guidance. The for mer has among its adherents most of the Ger man, and the latter nearly all the English and French writers on aesthetics. Those German authors whose works best deserve study are as follows: A. G. Baumgarten, d&tlietica (Frank fort -on -the -Oder, 1750); Georg Friedrich Meier, Anfangsgrunde aller sclioncn Wissen- schaften (1748); Hegel, Aesthetik (Berlin, ed. 1842- 3); Weisse, System der Acsthctik (Leip- sie, 1830); Schiller, Aesthctixclte Brief e, in Cotta s editions of his works; Zimmermann, 154 ^ETHRIOSCOPE AETIUS Geschichte der Aesthetik (Vienna, 1858) ; Vi- scher, Aesthetik, oder Wissenschaft des Schonen (Reutlingen, 1846- 57); Zeising, Aesthetische Forschungen (Frankfort, 1855) ; Kostlin, Aes thetik (Tubingen, 1863); Gottfried Semper, Der Stil in den tcchnischen und tektonischen Kunsten, oder praktische Acsthetik (Frankfort, 1860- 63) ; J. Dippel, Handbuch der ^Esthetik, &c. (Regensburg, 1871). Among Englishmen, Dugald Stewart, Hutch eson, Alison, Jeffrey, and Payne Knight have written on aesthetics ; Burke wrote "A Philosophical Inquiry into the Ori gin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beauti ful," but the work has little depth. The op posing theories of these older writers have long ceased to attract attention ; and, as in Germany, later works on the subject have fol lowed the method a posteriori. Sir William Hamilton, it is true, in his " Lectures on Meta physics," considers in the abstract the philoso phy of the beautiful ; but other recent writers, like Ruskin, whose sBsthetical works are the most voluminous, treat of beauty in form and color. Two recent American works may be also noticed: "The Science of ./Esthetics," by Henry N. Day (New Haven, 1872), and " Lec tures on ^Esthetics," by Professor John Bascom (New York, 1872). One of the best modern writers on aesthetics is the French critic Ilippo- lyte Adolphe Taine, whose principal works on art form a series of essays on the productions of almost every school. See his Philosophic de Tart (Paris, 1865), Philosophic de Vart en Italic (1866), Voyage en Italie (1866), IS Ideal dam Tart (1867), Philosophic de Vart dans les Pays-Bas (1868), &c., translated into Eng lish by J. Durand (New York, 1866- 70). Among older French writers on assthetical subjects are Cousin (Le Krai, le ~beau et le bon) and Jouffroy (Cours tfesthetiqiie, Paris, 1842). JiTHRIOSCOPE (Gr. alQpioq, clear, and anone iv, to observe), an instrument invented by Sir John Leslie for measuring the relative degrees of cold produced by the radiation toward a clear sky. In a metallic cup standing upon a tall hollow pedestal, a differential thermometer is placed in such a manner that one of its bulbs is in the focus of the paraboloid formed by the cavity of the cup, and the other bulb is beyond the hol low of the cup. The interior of the cup is highly poKshed, and is kept covered by a plate of metal, and only opened when an observation is to be made. As the second bulb is out of the cup, it is not affected by the radiation, the ac tion of which is concentrated upon the first bulb. The contraction of the air in this bulb by its sudden exposure to a clear sky causes the liquid in the stem to rise. The figure rep resents a vertical section of the a?thrioscope. A B C D is the parabolic cup, of which the inside is plated with silver and well polished ; in its focus one of the bulbs F of the differential ther mometer F H T is placed ; the other bulb T is outside the cup. Any difference of expansion between the air in the two bulbs is made visible by tire motion of a short column of fluid in the tube, and read off" on the scale in II. The sup port E K, with a hinge in I, connects it with the heavy footpiece G, so that it may be inclined in different positions, and directed toward differ ent portions of the sky. Its inclination should never be made such as to expose the tliermo- metric bulb in the focus F to terrestrial ob jects above the horizontal line H II, as these would either reflect or radiate terrestrial heat, and so entirely or partially annul the cooling of the bulb F by its own radiation. The pol ished surface of the cup, like all such surfaces, cannot radiate its own heat, but only reflect that of the bulb F ; it forms thus a barrier be tween the earth and the cup, impenetrable to terrestrial heat. Leslie could not interpret the indications of this instrument satisfactorily. Not only a passing cloud checked the loss of heat, but, he says, "sometimes under a fine blue sky the asthrioscope will indicate a cold of 50 mil lesimal degrees, while on other days, when the air seems equally bright, the effect is scarcely 30." It has only recently become known that such differences are due to the presence of aqueous vapors in the air, totally invisible to the eye, but which, being more or less opaque to the feeble rays of radiant heat, screen the bulb and reflecting cup of the sethrioscope against loss of heat by radiation, while a dry atmos phere admits this radiation to pass, and more freely in proportion as the air is more dry. The rethrioscope is therefore at the present day used as a hydrometer to determine the amount of invisible moisture present in the upper inac- cessjjble strata of our atmosphere. AETIOJV, a famous Greek painter, supposed to have lived in the first half of the 2d century. He was distinguished for the beauty of his coloring, and esteemed the first painter of his time. Lucian gives a description of a very fine painting by him, representing the nuptials of Alexander and Roxana, which was played at the plympic games. AETIUS, sur named the Atheist, from his sup posed denial of the God of revelation, an orien tal heresiarch, born in Antioch, died in Con stantinople, A. D. 367. In early life he was AETIUS 155 successively the slave of a vine-dresser s wife, a travelling tinker or a goldsmith, and a quack doctor, lie then studied medicine and theology at Antioch, and became prominent as a dispu tant. Ills theories (the chief of which were the Anomoean doctrines that the Son is of a nature unlike and inferior to that of the Father, and that the Holy Spirit is hut a crea ture made by the Father and Son before all other creatures) incensed the Arians, and he was thrice compelled to seek safety in flight ; but at length he was ordained deacon by Leontius, bishop of Antioch. He now devel oped, in connection with Eunomius, his pupil and amanuensis, a new schism known as the Aetian or Eunomian heresy, and made many disciples. He was condemned by the coun cil of Seleucia in 359, and banished by Con- stantius to- Amblada, in Pisidia. After the death of Constantius he was recalled to Con stantinople by Julian, and made a bishop. He adopted every means of spreading his heresy, but, having by his intrigues and immorality alienated all his friends, died unpitied by any but^Eunomius, who buried him. AETHS, a general of the western empire, born in Mcesia about A. D. 396, murdered in 454. He was brought up, owing to the influence of his high-bred Italian mother, in the imperial body guard of llonorius, and after the death of his father Gaudentius, an illustrious Scythian and master general of cavalry, who lost his life in a mutiny, he was given as a hostage to the king of the Huns. On his return to Rome he was made count on occasion of his marriage with the daughter of Carpileo, and became at tached to the household of Joannes. After an ineffectual support of this usurper in 425 with an army of 60,000 Huns, whom Aetius con ducted into Italy under the guidance, it is said, of the then youthful Attila, he turned traitor against the treacherous cause he had espoused, and after the death of Joannes he succeeded in obtaining from Placidia, mother of Valentinian III., the chief command over the army of Gaul, as the condition of his procuring the peaceful retreat of the Huns. In this post he displayed great military skill, delivering Aries from the Visigoths, recovering from Chlodio, king of the Franks, the parts of Gaul bordering on the Rhine, overpowering the Juthungi in Bava ria, bringing to an end the Vindelician war, and in the following spring crushing the con federated forces of the Burgundians, Huns, Heruli, Franks, Sanuatians, Salians, and *Ge- loni, in one terrible encounter. In 432 his rival Boniface, who had been urged to treason and then betrayed by himself, returning from the province of Africa, which his treason had thrown into the hands of the Vandals, and ob taining the dignity of master of the horse, they fought a duel at Ravenna on the chal lenge of Ae tius, of the wounds received in which Boniface soon afterward died. But Aetius, fearing for his life, which was threat ened by his late rival s adherents, fled into Pan- nonia, and led a second army of Huns into Italy, threatened the throne of Valentinian, and, although the feeble emperor called in the j aid of the Visigoths, forced the empress and her son, without an engagement, to submit to his terms, and returned as before with accumu lated honors, to resume command of the army of Gaul. Here he once more displayed genius I as a general, routing the Burgundians with ex- ! ceeding slaughter, and forcing their king to I throw himself on his mercy. In the mean ! time, Roas, king of the Huns, died, and was j succeeded by Attila and his brother Bleda, the latter of whom being soon murdered, Attila assumed the sole dominion, and was speedily involved in hostilities with both the Roman empires. For several years his arms were di rected chiefly against the eastern empire, but in 451 he set in motion his vast army of a thousand nations, debouched from the deflles I of the Hercynian forest, crossed the Rhine on ! rafts, and fell like a torrent on the rich plains of Gaul. Here for a time all fell before him, j till, when he was in the very act of storming I the walls of Orleans, while his Huns were ! mounting the breaches, the spears of Aetius I and Theodoric the Visigoth appeared on the i horizon, and, amid cries of "The aid of I God " from the beleaguered citizens, the siege 1 was raised, and the Hurmish hordes were I forced to retreat. Some days later a tre- mendous pitched battle was fought on the field of Chalons, in Champagne, in which 162,000, or, i according to other accounts, 300,000 men fell I on both sides. The Huns were so completely I defeated, that Attila prepared a funeral pile ; and contemplated burning himself alive, with I his treasures, his women, and his baggage i wagons, had the Romans renewed the battle I on the following day. But Theodoric lay dead, i and Aetius suffered the Huns to escape. After I this he purposely remained inactive during the I remainder of the war, took no measures to op- ! pose the invasion of Italy, and even advised | Valentinian to evacuate that country and take i refuge in Gaul, which would have left himself master of Rome, where by his great abilities he would speedily have rid himself of the Huns and assumed the imperial purple. Aetius is believed, according to Marcellinus, to have been implicated in the sudden death of Attila (453) ; but there is no evidence to support this, excepting that Aetius always had his emissa ries, in the shape of confidential Greek secreta ries, about the person of Attila, who had never ceased to intrigue with him. In the end he fell by a crime and a treason as base as his own, stabbed by Valentinian with his own hand, during a friendly interview. The cir cumstances of this murder are not clearly known, although a coin which has been pre served, bearing the inscription Aetius Iiujtera- tor Ccesar, proves that he had assumed the imperial purple, and actually declared himself emperor, before he was killed. Nominally a Roman, he invariably betrayed Rome to the 156 ^ETOLIA AFER barbarians except when it was for his own in terest to defend her, and then the ease with which he conquered them showed what he might have done had he been honest. Nomi nally a Christian, he brought up one of his sons, Carpileo, in a heathen court, as a heathen, and destined him to wear the crown of a hea then nation ; while the other, Gaudentius, he proposed to invest, after himself, with the pur ple of the western empire. Gibbon says that during the decay of the military spirit, the Roman armies were commanded by two gene rals, Ae tius and Boniface, who may be de servedly called the last of the Romans. JETOLIA, a western division of the main land of Greece, on the N. shore of the gulf of Corinth or of Lepanto, W. of Doris and Lo- cris, and E. of Acarnania, and divided by the narrow strait between Rhium and Anti- Rhium from Achaia. It is bounded W. by the Achelous, now the Aspropotamo, and N. by Thessaly and Epirus. Its chief city in antiquity was Thermus, in the interior, on the river Evenus, now Fidhari. ./Etolia is said to have been originally settled in the ante-heroic times by the Curetes, who were conquered by the hero /Etolus, son of Endymion, with a band of followers from Elis, in the Peloponnesus. During the mythic and heroic ages /Etolia was distinguished as the seat of many of the richest and most poetical of the legends of early Greece. In the days of Thucydides, however, the /Etolians were still a barbarous and un couth tribe. During the Peloponnesian war they played no considerable part, nor do they appear prominently in Greek history until nearly a century later. On the death of Philip of Macedon and the accession of Alex ander (336 B. C.), the /Etolians displayed such hostility to the latter as drew down his signal vengeance. According to Pausa- nias, Greece owed much to the /Etolians for their energy in beating back the Gallic hordes. With this exception, the /Etolians seem to have fought on any side to which the hope of plun der allured them. With Alexander of Epirus, the son of Pyrrhus, they formed a coalition for the sake of dismembering Acarnania for their own advantage; and again they banded themselves with Cleomenes III. of Sparta, hoping to overthrow the Achnean league. After tlie death of Antigorms Doson of Mace don (220), they carried their arms into the Peloponnesus in a series of predatory incur sions, for which they were severely chastised by Philip V., the successor of Antigonus, who sacked and destroyed their capital, Thermus. In the latter years of the second Punic war the Romans were hard set to avert the conse quences of the alliance between Hannibal and Philip V. of Macedon ; the /Etolians, with their allies, attached themselves to the Romans, and enabled them, by the employment of a small naval squadron, and a trifling body of forces un der the pru?tor Lrevinus, to neutralize all the preparations of Philip, until they had rid them selves of their principal opponent on the field I of Zama (202). At the battle of CynoscephalflB I (197) their cavalry greatly distinguished itself, charging home ten times against the Mace- i donians, who were at first victorious, and giv- | ing the consul Flamininus time to bring up his reserves and convert a half-lost day into a com plete victory. For this they expected to reap their reward in the dismemberment of Philip s dominions ; but it was denied to them by the Romans. The /Etolians now attempted an al liance against their late allies with Antiochus the Great of Syria, who had been prompted to hostilities against Rome by Hannibal ; but after I a single defeat by the Roman consul Glabrio in j the pass of Thermopylae (191), the latter re treated into Asia, leaving his Greek confederates to the mercy of the enemy. The polity of the /Etolians from this time, and indeed before, consisted of a federal government similar to the Achaean league, at one time embracing a num ber of neighboring territories; but being swal lowed up with the rest of Greece in the univer sal empire of Rome (146), ./Etolia followed her fortunes, and afterward shared the reverses of the eastern empire. Possessed on the irrup tion of the barbarians by Slavic hordes, /Etolia was reconquered and partially civilized, together with the Illyrians and Dalmatians, by the Venetians during the middle ages, and sub sequently became, like the Morea, the scene of deadly conflict against the victorious Turks. In later times it fell under the power of Ali Pasha of Albania, and it was the scene of some of the most important events of the Greek rev olution. The principal seaport town of modern /Etolia is Missolonghi. The climate is deli cious, but along the seacoast and the swampy river shores the autumnal season is marked by fevers. The plains are rich and fertile in maize, wine, silk, and fruits ; the mountain scenery is magnificent, (See ACARXANIA.) AFAAASIEFF, Alexander Mkolaievitch, a Russian author, born in Moscow in 1826, died in Oc tober, 1871. He studied at the university of Moscow, and was secretary to the council of ma gistrates in that city. lie is the author of Narodniya llmldya skazld, (" Russian Pop ular Tales," 4 vols., completed in 1803), a series of stories taken down from the mouths of Rus sian peasants, with critical notes. His other great work, PoetitcJicskiya rozzrycniya Slav- yan na prirodu (" Poetic Views of Nature entertained by the ancient Slavs,". 3 vols., completed in 1869), is a mine of wealth on the subject of Slavic legends and popular con ceptions in respect to the spiritual and material world. He was also a frequent contributor to the Russian press of articles bearing on Slavic ! history, literature, and archaeology. AFER, Domitins, a celebrated orator, the j teacher of Quintilian, born at Nimes in the I reign of Tiberius, died in the reign of Nero, I A. D. 60. His pupil speaks highly of his plead ings, and mentions several of his works, none of which have come down to us. AFFIDAVIT 4 AFFIDAVIT (Lat., he has sworn or deposed), a statement in writing, signed by the depo nent and verified by his oath or affirmation made before a person authorized to take it. The affidavit is the instrument by which the action of courts is invoked in proceedings taken in the first instance ex parte, either with refer ence to existing actions or in special proceed ings independent of such causes. Thus it is used in actions for the purpose of procuring attachments or injunctions, or in support of motions of any sort incidental to the suit in its ordinary course ; or to obtain a writ of mandamus or of habeas corpus, or a warrant for the arrest of a criminal ; or upon an applica tion to oppose or vacate any of these or the like proceedings. As affidavits are in such cases ex parte, that is to say, when they are presented by the applicant for the relief, there is no final adjudication upon the matter in volved until the other party interested has had an opportunity to be heard. But the sworn allegations of the first party are ordinarily suf ficient to set the power of the court in motion in his favor. For the reason, too, that an affi davit is ex parte or one-sided, it is the general rule that the testimony of witnesses in causes tried in courts cannot be received in this form. A party to an action has the right to cross-ex amine witnesses offered against him, and this right would be annulled by admitting affidavits against him. No particular form of an affida vit is prescribed by our law ; but in England very lately the courts have made some very ex pedient rules on the subject .which are intended to cure some of the most frequent abuses and defects of these instruments. They require that the affidavit shall be framed in the first person, j and be divided into paragraphs consecutively j numbered, and each of them containing as far as possible a distinct portion of the subject. The occupation an 1 residence of the deponent must be inserted. When the paper is sworn to by an illiterate person, the jurat, or certificate of the officer who administers the oath, must state that the affidavit was read over to the party, and that he seemed to understand its contents. The jurat must also certify that the signature or mark of the deponent was made | in the officer s presence. The affidavit cannot be read in court if there are any interlineations or erasures in the jurat, or if there are any in the body of the affidavit, unless they are noted with the initials of the officer. As to the form and nature of the instrument generally : If the affidavit is made with reference to* any pend ing action, it should be headed with the title of that action and the name of the court. It must specify the state and county in which it is made, in order that it may appear on the face of the paper that the officer who took the oath had capacity to do so; for the power of the officer in tins respect is confined to certain limits, and an oath administered outside of his jurisdiction is a nullity. Then follows the statement of facts, and this, according to a practice much followed now in New York, should be a simple narrative in the first person ! and confined to facts which are within the ac- j tual knowledge of the deponent. Facts corn- j municated by third persons are not proper, un- i less the affidavits of those persons cannot be obtained ; and in that case the sources of infor mation should be given, and also the reason why the parties who have actual knowledge do not themselves testify. The statement must be signed by the deponent, or marked if he cannot write, though the omission of the sig nature or mark will not be fatal if the jurat shows that the affiant actually swore to the statement. The jurat is the clause which is appended by the officer taking the affidavit, in | which he certifies the time when and the fact I that the deponent made oath to the instru- I ment before him. The persons who may take j affidavits are designated by law. In England j they are the judges and certain commissioners and authorized attorneys and solicitors. The authority of these last must be entered in a book kept for public reference. Conveyancers who are not attorneys or solicitors of the courts at Westminster cannot be qualified. In the United States, judges, justices of the peace, commissioners of deeds, notaries public, and other and similar officers have authority by statute to take affidavits. All the states also appoint commissioners residing in other states and territories, and give them the same power as to such instruments to be used in the states which appoint them. The certificates of these officers are ordinarily further verified by the secretaries of state of the appointing states, who keep a record of all qualified commission ers. By recent statutes of New York (1863 and 1809), affidavits to be used there may be taken in foreign countries c^nd an other states by any person who is authorized there to exer cise a like power. Judges of the higher courts in other states are also vested by most of the states with the same powers given to their com missioners. Generally, the authority of all for eign officials to administer oaths must be veri fied by some court or higher officer of the for eign state ; or when a judge takes the affidavit, his signature must be authenticated by the clerk and seal of -his court. Certain officers of the United States residing abroad, the consuls at London and Paris for example, may also take affidavits, and their consular seals suffi ciently authenticate their acts. British am bassadors and consuls have similar powers by the English law. In 1802 a law was passed in New York authorizing colonels of the state regiments and certain other military officers to take affidavits of persons in actual service out of the state. An affidavit of merits is one I made by a defendant which sets forth that he | has stated the case to his counsel, and that he I is advised by him that he has a good defence I to the action upon its merits. This affidavit j is required by law, in order that a defendant I may not delay a plaintiffs remedy by making 158 AFFINITY groundless defence to his suit ; but the require ment of it does not always accomplish the de signed object. AFFINITY, the imputed relationship which exists in consequence of marriage between the husband or wife and the kindred by blood of the other. Thus, for example, the wife s kin dred bear the same relation by affinity to the husband that they bear to her by consanguinity. Affinity also exists between the husband and one who is connected by marriage with the blood relations of the wife. Two men, for in stance, who are married to sisters are related by affinity, but there is no such relationship between the blood relations of the husband and those of the wife, and it ceases properly when the husband or wife dies without leav ing issue. Affinity is significant in the law because it constitutes a disqualification of judges or jurors, equally with consanguinity. When such a disqualification exists, the judge cannot act even with the consent of both par ties; and if he does, the "judgment may be va cated. Thus it has been held in New York that there was a disabling affinity between a judge and the defendant in a cause before him, because the defendant s deceased husband was a first cousin of the judge, and the son of de fendant by that husband was still living. This living son preserved the affinity, which other wise would have ceased on the husband s death. Affinity is also significant in the laws of mar riage. The ecclesiastical law made certain marriages unlawful though they were con tracted between persons whose relationship to each other was very remote. Though the statute of 32 Henry VIII., which has virtually furnished the rules of the English law on the subject ever since, forbade the ecclesiastical court to impeach the validity of any marriage between parties who were without the Leviti- cal degrees, yet it was always held under it in England that affinity was an impediment to the same extent as consanguinity ; and out of this interpretation of the statute came that rule of the law which has been so much discussed and assailed in England, that a man may not marry his deceased wife s sister. The reason given was that the marriage made the wife s sister the husband s sister; and although in the other branches of the law, with respect to ju dicial officers for example, the death of either party destroys the affinity and the disqualifi cation, yet the same result has not been con ceded in matrimonial cases. AFFINITY, Chemical, the name given to the force which combines together chemical ele ments so as to form compounds. Of its real nature or essence w T e are entirely ignorant, as we are of the essential nature of other material forces. The term chemical attraction has also been applied to this force, on the hypothesis that it draws together chemical atoms. In many cases there can be no doubt that the chemical particles come nearer together when they combine : thus if two volumes of hydro gen and one volume of oxygen be caused to unite, we do not get three volumes of steam, but only two ; that is, the particles have ap proached so much closer in combining as to occupy but two thirds of their former space. In other cases, however, compounds are found to occupy exactly the same space that their ele ments did before combination, and sometimes they fill even a greater space. Hence the term chemical attraction has been thought objection able. Chemical affinity is that link or tie which binds together unlike kinds of matter, in such an intimate manner that the properties of the elements are lost, and a compound with new properties is produced. It is in this that it differs from cohesion, which only unites or aggregates similar particles without altering properties. The particles in a piece of iron or sulphur are held in union by cohesion ; but when sulphur and iron combine chemically, both elements disappear, lose their properties and identity, and a new compound is formed the sulphuret of iron. Newness of properties in the com pounds formed is the distinguishing peculiarity of chemical affinity. It obliterates the char acteristics of the elements, and generates new properties in the product. Cohesion is usually said to act between homogeneous particles, as in the cases just cited of sulphur and iron ; but it may also act between dissimilar substances, as where silver is inlaid with steel, or copper metal united to tin, or iron coated with zinc, or \vood joined to glue, or paper to paste, or pitch to the fingers. These, however, are mechanical com binations ; there is no destruction of the prop erties of the combined substances, and those of the combination are not new, but are the same as the properties of the constituent substances, each of which retains its individuality. The force of gravitation is brought into play be tween masses of matter at all distances ; chem ical affinity acts only when the elements are in contact or at insensible distances. For this reason affinity is most energetic when one or both of the elements are in a state of solu tion, the approach of the atoms being then most perfect. It was once thought that chem ical affinity could not take effect without the intervention of solution; and although the statement is generally true, yet there are some substances whose affinities are so intense that they will unite even in the solid state when made to touch each other. The action of affin ity is heightened, modified, and suspended by various other causes. Among these heat is most potent, and most easily available in the laboratory and chemical manufactory. Thus carbonic acid and lime unite strongly at com mon temperatures, forming marble or lime stone, but at a red heat their affinity is annihi lated and they separate. On the other hand, potash and sand will not actively combine at ordinary temperatures, while at a red or white heat, at which they are melted, combination takes place and glass is formed. Light also in fluences affinity, promoting combination and AFFIRMATION AFFRE 159 decomposition. If chlorine and hydrogen gases j be mixed in the dark they will not unite, j but exposed to light they combine at once ; j while in every green vegetable leaf carbonic acid is decomposed every day under the influ ence of solar light. The recent investigations in photography have greatly multiplied the | number of substances over which light is ; known to exert a chemical influence. Elec- tricity also has a governing action over affinity, j An electric spark, shot through a mixture of j oxygen and hydrogen gases, causes them to ! combine instantaneously and explosively, pro ducing water; while a steady electric stream sent through the water annuls the affinity of its elements and sets them free again. Other causes also, known and unknown, affect in va rious ways and degrees the play of affinity ; indeed, a fall statement of them would involve almost the whole science of chemistry. The changes in the properties of substances pro duced by affinity are numberless and surpris ing. When solid charcoal and sulphur com bine, the compound formed is colorless as water, and highly volatile. If yellow sulphur and bluish white quicksilver be heated together, they form the bright red vermilion. Waxy phosphorus and colorless invisible oxygen unite to form a white body resembling snow. Ni trogen and oxygen are tasteless, separate or mixed ; yet one of their compounds, laughing gas, is sweet, and another, nitric acid, in tensely sour ; they are both transparent and invisible, yet they form a cherry-red compound gas. Charcoal and hydrogen are odorless ; nevertheless, many of our choicest perfumes, such as oils of roses and bergamot, as well as the less agreeable spirits of turpentine and il luminating gas, contain only these elements. The mild and scentless nitrogen and hydrogen give rise to one of the most odorous and pun gent compounds, ammonia ; while suffocating and poisonous chlorine, united to a bright metal, sodium, yields common salt. Charcoal, hydro gen, and nitrogen, which singly or mixed are not injurious to life, yet combine to form the terrible poison prussic acid ; while charcoal, hydrogen, and oxygen, variously united, pro duce sweet sugar, poisonous oxalic acid, and intoxicating alcohol. The strength of affinity among different elements is various. Thus the chemical energies of sulphuric acid are supe rior to those of carbonic acid ; if the former be united to carbonate of lime, it takes the lime away from the carbonic acid that is, produces decomposition and a new compound. It has been attempted to establish a scale of affinities among various chemical substances to form the basis of an order of decomposition ; but af finity is disturbed and overcome by so many circumstances that such tables are of but j little value. For the laws of affinity or chemi- i cal combination, see ATOMIC THEORY. AFFIRMATION, a mode of solemn verification permitted by the law, in the place of an oath, to persons who are unwilling from conscien tious motives to be sworn. This departure from the usual rule of exacting an oath was first introduced into the English law in favor of Quakers ; but by the present law there, and ever since 17 and 18 Victoria, ch. 125 (1854), any person called as a witness or desiring to make an affidavit or deposition, who will solemnly declare that the taking of an oath is, according to his religious belief, unlawful, may affirm or declare to the truth of his statement ; and the statute requires that the officer taking the affirmation shall recite in his certificate that the affirmant declared that an oath was unlawful according to his religious belief. By the statute of 24 and 25 Victoria, ch. 66 (1861), all persons refusing to be sworn in criminal proceedings may make their solemn affirmation instead. In the United States an affirmation, even without the suggestion of any reason for preferring it, is probably everywhere received in place of an oath. The legal effect of both is the same, and perjury is committed by affirming as well as by swearing falsely, wilfully, and corruptly. AFFRE, Denis Angnste, archbishop of Paris, born at St. Rome-de-Tarn, Sept. 27, 1793, died in Paris, June 27, 1848. He was educated in the seminary of St. Sulpice, and was made teacher of philosophy in that of Xantes before he had attained the age required for the priest hood. After his ordination he was attached successively to the seminary of St. Sulpice and to the foundling hospital, and subsequently as grand vicar assisted the bishops of Lugon and Amiens. In 1834 he was attached to the diocese of Paris as canon and honorary vicar general. In 1839 he was appointed coadjutor to the bishop of Strasburg, but never took possession of this office ; for the archbishop s see of Paris having become vacant, he was appointed to it, and consecrated Aug. 6, 1840. In this office he distinguished himself by zeal for ecclesiastical education, and for the allevia tion of poverty and misfortune. While the insurrection of June, 1848, was raging in the streets of Paris, he determined to make a per sonal attempt to stop bloodshed. On the 25th he called upon Gen. Cavaignac, and, although warned by him of the great danger of his undertaking, repaired to the faubourg St. Antoine, the stronghold of the insurgents. On his appearance between the two hostile parties at the place de la Bastille, the firing was sus pended, and he calmly and steadily proceeded toward the barricades without any protection except the gold cross on his breast and a green branch carried before him, in token of peace, by a young attendant. He was admitted be hind the barricades, and had just begun to address the insurgents, when the report of a musket was immediately followed by a renewal of hostilities, and in the confusion the arch bishop fell, shot by some unknown hand, and was transported to the hospital of the Quinze- Vingts. He expired two days later, a martyr of charity, as was proclaimed by the national ICO AFGHANISTAN assembly. He was the author of several re ligions and educational works. AFGHANISTAN, an extensive country of Asia, between lat, 28 30 and 36 N., and Ion. 00 and 71 30 E., bounded K by Turkistan, E. by the Punjaub and Sinde, S. by Beloochistan, and W. l>y the Persian highlands of Khorasan. Area estimated at upward of 215,000 sq. m. ; pop. upward of 5,000,000, and estimated even as high as 9,000,000. The surface of Af ghanistan is very irregular lofty table lands, vast mountains, deep valleys, and ravines. Like all mountainous tropical countries, it presents every variety of climate. In the Hindoo Koosh the snow lies all the year on the lofty summits, while in the valleys the thermometer ranges np to 130. The heat is greater in the eastern than in the western parts, but the climate is generally cooler than that of India; and although the alternations of temperature between summer and winter, or day and night, are very great, the country is generally healthy. The soil, where not too rocky, is very fertile. Date palms flourish in the oases of the sandy wastes ; the sugar cane and cotton in the hot regions ; and European fruits and vegetables on the hillside terraces up to a level of 6,000 or 7,000 feet. The mulberry tree flourishes in the cool valleys. The moun tains are clothed with noble forests, which are frequented by bears, wolves, and foxes, while the lion, the leopard, and the tiger are found in districts congenial to their habits. There is a fine variety of sheep of the Persian or large- tailed breed. The horses are of good size and blood. The camel and ass are used as beasts of burden. The country is rich in lead, plumbago, saltpetre, sulphur, salt, and alum. The iron is believed to be equal to any in the world, while the copper ore yields in some localities nearly 80 per cent, of the metal. Besides the Hindoo Koosh on the northeast, there is a chain called the Solyman mountains on the east and southeast ; and between north western Afghanistan and Balkh there is a mountain labyrinth known as the Paropamisan range, which has as yet been little explored. Several minor ranges traverse the interior. The rivers are few in number; the Helmund and the Cabool are the most important. These take their rise in the Hindoo Koosh, the Ca bool flowing east and falling into the Indus near Attock, the Helmund flowing southwest through the centre of the country and fall ing into the lake of Ilamoon. The Helmund overflows its banks annually like the Nile, bringing fertility to the soil, which, beyond the limit of -the inundation, is sandy desert. The four principal cities, Cabool, the capital, Ghuz- ni, Candahar, and Herat, are important sta tions on the highway of commerce from India to central and western Asia. Cabool and Jelalabad protect the passage to India on the north, Candahar on the south, and Herat, in the extreme west, guards the Persian frontier. The geographical position of Afghanistan, and the peculiar character of the people, invest the country with a strategical and political im portance that can scarcely be overestimated in the affairs of central Asia. The government is a monarchy, but the king s authority over his high-spirited and turbulent subjects is personal and very uncertain. The kingdom is divided into provinces, each superintended by a royal officer who collects the taxes. The Afghans are a brave, hardy, and independent race; they follow pastoral or agricultural occupations only, eschewing trade and commerce. They are divided into clans, over which the various chiefs exercise a sort of feudal supremacy. The two principal tribes are the Durranis and Ghiljies or Ghilzais, who are frequently at feud with each other. The Durranis are the more powerful, and the military contingents are chiefly furnished by them. Justice in the towns is administered by cadis, but the Afghans rarely resort to law. Avenging of blood is a family duty ; and the rights of hospitality are sa cred. In religion they are, with the exception of some not purely national portions of the pop ulation, Sunnite Mohammedans, and are conse quently opposed to the Persians, who are Shiahs ; but they are not bigoted, and alliances between Shiahs and Sunnis are by no means uncom mon ; and they are tolerant toward Christians and Hindoos.-r-Afghanistan was subjected for centuries alternately to Mongol and Persian dominion. Previous to the advent of the Brit ish on the shores of India, the foreign invasions which swept the plains of Ilimlostan always proceeded from Afghanistan. Sultan Mahmoud the Great of Ghuzni, Genghis Khan, Tamer lane, and Nadir Shah all took this road. After the death of Nadir in 1747, Ahmed Khan, who had served under him, liberated his country from Persia and made himself king. Under him Afghanistan reached its highest point of greatness and prosperity in modern times. He belonged to the Durranis, and his first act AFGHANISTAN 161 was to seize upon the booty which his late >hief had gathered in India. His kingdom extended from Khorasan to Delhi, and he even measured swords with the Mahratta pow ers. He died in 1773, and left his crown to his son Timour, who was unequal to the weighty charge. lie abandoned the city of Candahar, and removed the seat of government back to Cabool. During his reign the internal dissensions of the tribes, which had been re pressed by Ahmed, were revived. In 1793 Timour died, and Zemaun succeeded him. This prince conceived the idea of consolidating the Mohammedan power of India, and this plan was thought so important by the English that Sir John Malcolm was sent to the frontier to keep the Afghans in check in case of their making any movement, and at the same time negotiations were opened with Persia, by whose assistance the Afghans might be placed between two fires. Zemamrs plans were, however, frus trated by a contest between him and his bro thers, which ended in Mahmoud s accession to the throne. The latter was compelled to abdi cate in 1823, and died in 1829, the last of the Durrani dynasty. Afghanistan was now ruled by three brothers, the eldest of whom, Dost Mohammed, was in possession of Cabool, the most important of the three divisions of the country. He was soon involved in war with Lahore on the east, and on the west with the Persian invaders of Herat, who were be lieved to be abetted by Russia. In 1838 Eng land declared war against Afghanistan, upon the ground that Dost Mohammed had attacked her ally Runjeet Singh, who had established an in dependent kingdom in the Punjaub, and that Shujah, whom the English regarded as the lawful heir to the throne of Afghanistan, had placed himself under British protection. In December, 1838, the Anglo-Indian army, under Sir John Keane, marched toward Sinde, which country was coerced into submission and the payment of a contribution for the benefit of the Sikhs and Shujah. On Feb. 20, 1839, the Brit ish army passed the Indus. It was about 12,000 strong, with 40,000 camp followers, besides the new levies of Shujah, and suffered severely on the march. They penetrated through the Bo- Ian pass, and on April 25 entered Candahar, which the brothers of Dost Mohammed had abandoned. After a rest of two months, Ghuzni, the impregnable stronghold of Afghanistan, was taken, July 22, by blowing open the only gate which had not been walled up. After this dis aster the army which Dost Mohammed had collected at once disbanded, and Cabool opened its gates Aug. 6. Shah Shujah was installed in due form, but the real direction of government remained in the hands of the British envoy, Sir William McXaghten, who also paid all Shujah s expenses out of the Indian treasury, as well as those of the principal chiefs. Dost Mohammed surrendered in October, 1840, and was sent to india. The conquest of Afghanistan seemed accomplished, and a considerable portion of the VOL. i. 11 troops were sent back. But during the whole of 1840 and 1841 insurrection followed insur rection in every part of the country. The Anglo-Indian troops had to be constantly on the move. The occupation of Afghanistan cost the Indian treasury 1,250,000 per annum. McNaghten was informed of the impossibility of going on at this rate of expenditure. He attempted retrenchment, but the only possible way to enforce it was to cut down the allow ances of the chiefs. The very day he attempted this, the chiefs formed a conspiracy for the ex termination of the British. The English in Cabool were commanded by Gen. Elphinstone, who had been sent as English envoy in 1835 to counteract the alleged anti-English Perso-Rus- sian intrigues. He was a gouty, irresolute, helpless old man, whose orders constantly con tradicted each other. The defences and com missariat were neglected, and everything was I in confusion. On Nov. 2, 1841, the insurrec- I tion broke out in Cabool. The house of the { British resident, Sir Alexander Burnes, was j attacked, and he himself murdered. On Nov. I 3 the forts near the camp were occupied by the insurgents. On the 9th the commissariat fort, garrisoned by only 80 men, was taken, and the British were thus reduced to starvation. In the middle of November negotiations began, during which McNaghten was murdered in a conference with Afghan chiefs. On Jan. 1, 1.842, a capitulation was concluded, the Brit ish agreeing to evacuate the country, paying a large amount of money, and surrendering nearly all their artillery and ammunition. The chiefs, on the other hand, promised a safe conduct, provisions, and baggage cattle. On Jan. 5 the British marched out, 4,500 combatants and 12,000 camp-followers. The march, through cold and snow, and with scanty food, soon be came completely disorganized, while they were harassed by infuriated Afghan marksmen, arm ed with long-range matchlocks, occupying every height. The chiefs who signed the capitulation neither could nor would restrain the moun tain tribes. The Kurd-Cabool pass became the grave of nearly all the army, and the remnant, less than 200 Europeans, fell at the entrance of the Jugduluk pass. Only one Englishman, Dr. Brydon, reached Jelalabad to tell the tale. Many officers, however, had been seized by the Afghans, and kept in captivity. Jelalabad was I held by Sale s brigade. He was summoned to surrender, but refused, and made a most gal- I lant defence ; so did Nott at Candahar. Ghuzni I had fallen ; there was not a man in the place I that understood anything about artillery, and I the sepoys of the garrison had succumbed to the climate. In the mean time, the British authorities on the frontier, at the first news of the disaster of Cabool, had concentrated at | Peshawer the troops destined for the relief of i the regiments in Afghanistan, which were long ! detained by lack of transportation. Gen. Pol- j lock received the command, and at the end of | March, 1842, forced the Khyber pass, and ad- 162 AFGHANISTAN vanced to the relief of Sale at Jelalabad ; but Sale had a few days before completely defeated the investing Afghan army. It was not till July that Lord Ellenborough, now governor general of India, authorized an advance on Cabool, both from Candahar and Jelalabad; and on Sept. 15 Gen. Pollock, after several battles, encamped under the walls of Cabool. On the 17th he was joined by Nott, who had also fought several battles, and had taken and r destroyed Ghuzni. Shah Shujah had long before been murdered by some of the chiefs, and since then no regular government had existed in Afghanistan ; nominally, Futteh Jung, his son, was king. Pollock despatched a body of cav alry after the Cabool prisoners, but these had succeeded in bribing their guard, and met him on the road. As a mark of vengeance, the bazaar of Cabool was destroyed, on which oc casion the soldiers plundered part of the town and massacred many inhabitants. Oct. 12, the British left Cabool and marched by Jelalabad and Peshavver to India. Futteh Jung, despair ing of his position, followed them. Dost Mo hammed was now dismissed from captivity, and returned to his kingdom. Thus ended the at tempt of the British to set up a prince of their own making in Afghanistan. Dost Mohammed on his return to Cabool was received with ova tions as the liberator of Afghanistan both from English and Perso-Russian hostility. As early as 1846 he availed himself of the experience he had gained during his captivity in British India to revive hostilities. Entering into an alliance with his former enemies the Sikhs, he set on foot disturbances in the Punjaub, which were not quelled without much hard lighting. After the battle of Guzerat, however (Feb. 21, 1849), the Sikhs, defeated by the English, were for saken by the Afghans, and Dost Mohammed with 16,000 of his warriors fled over the Indus. He was not disturbed by the English govern ment, and after having conquered Balkh (1850) and thus consolidated his forces in the north, he even succeeded in 1854 in subduing Canda har, and gaining the supremacy in the southern part of the country. He now concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with England, March 30, 1855 ; and goaded on by that power, .as well as encouraged in his ambition by the death of Yar Mohammed, the ruler of Herat, he became involved in war with Persia (1856), which ended in the evacuation of Herat (July, 1857) by the Persians, and the appointment of Ahmed as sultan of that country. In January, 1857, Dost Mohammed concluded a new treaty with England. In 1860 the sultan of Herat quar relled with Dost Mohammed s son ; but on this occasion, as in the following year, in the com plications with the emir of Bokhara, Dost over came all difficulties by the exercise of his wont ed tact and moderation. A new Persian war .broke out in 1862 ; but, supported by his Brit ish allies, Dost Mohammed defeated the sultan ,of Herat and took possession of that city after ; a protracted struggle, May 26, 1863.. Ahmed, the sultan of Herat, and the tool of Persia and Russia, died shortly before the capture of his capital, and Dost himself survived his victory only a few days, his death occurring May 29, 1863. He bequeathed the throne to his son Shere Ali, who was soon embroiled in a bitter contest for the succession with his brothers and nephews, and Afghanistan was plunged again into anarchy. Helpless against the many pre tenders to the throne, Shere Ali appealed to the English, but he was regarded by them as an unsafe ally, and Afzul Khan, Shere s half brother, was recognized by Sir John Lawrence, the governor of British India, as the lawful sovereign. Yacub Khan, Shere s son, had suc ceeded in retaining power at Herat, and sent as sistance to his father, who, however, was disap pointed in his hope of making the Persians his allies against his antagonists. In October, 1867, however, he succeeded in gathering an army of 17,000 men, chiefly through the mone tary assistance accorded to him by the widow of Feis Mohammed of Balkh. On April 1, 1868, he took possession of Candahar, and in January, 1869, he achieved a decided victory at Ghuzni over his half brother Azim and his nephew Abd-ul-Rahman. In July, 1869, the pretenders rose anew on the boundaries of Turkistan ; but Azim Khan, the most mis chievous of them, died in October, 1869, and the Anglo-Indian government, afraid of Russia, which was all the time accused of a design to use Persian supremacy over Herat for her own designs on India, now came over to the side of Shere Ali. Earl Mayo, the new gover nor general of India, entered into a formal alli ance with him, recognizing him as the legitimate sovereign of Afghanistan. At the instigation of England, the upper Oxus was at the same time fixed upon as the boundary line between Afghanistan and Bokhara (a country virtually ruled by Russian influence), and a treaty to that effect was concluded and signed in Januaiy, 1871. By bringing the difficulties between these countries to a close, Great Britain hoped to ar rest the progress of Russia. Shere Ali, how ever, was still distrusted by his kinsmen, the pretenders to his throne. On Sept. 21, 1870, his own son Yacub rose in revolt against his father, because the latter, owing to a palace intrigue, resolved to appoint his second son Abdullah Jaw successor to the throne, in the place of Yacub. In March, 1871, the fortress of Gurian fell into the hands of Yacub, and in May he even took possession of Herat. A protracted war between father and son was now expected, but through British diploma cy a reconciliation took place in June, in con- seqence of which Yacub was appointed gov ernor of Herat. Afghan Language and Litera ture. Afghan is a Persian word. The term Vilayet is applied by the people themselves to their country, and signifies the original land of ancestors. They also designate it as Cabulistan, and by other appellations. The in habitants call themselves Pushtaneh or Pukh- AFIUM KARA-IIISSAR AFRICA 163 taneh, according to the two main dialects of their language, the Pukhtu and Pushtu, which are spoken in different parts of the country. The Afghani, notwithstanding its peculiar sounds, retains the essential characteristics of the Iranic group of the Indo-European languages. Mixed with various oriental tongues and written in Persian characters, it reveals the defective cul tivation of the people. There is a tradition that Mohammed described the Pukhtu as the language of hell. Previous to the 15th century there does not seem to have existed any litera ture at all ; but since that period there have been several poets, who took the high-flown Persian lyrical writers as their models. Abder- rahman of Peshawer was one of the earliest poets. In the 17th century Mirza Khan An- sari and Khushhal Shah Abdali distinguished themselves as Afghan poets; and Ahmed, the founder of the Durrani dynasty, was remark able for his literary efforts. Writings on his torical and religious subjects are extant among the Afghans, but none earlier than within the last four centuries. Raverty published a gram mar of the Pukhtu language (London, 1860- 68), and a selection from the poetry of the Af ghans (1862). Among valuable works on Afghanistan are Elphinstone s " Account of the Kingdom of Caubul" (London, 1815); Caye, "History of the War in Afghanistan" (1851); Belly, "Journal of his Political Mission to Af ghanistan " (1862) ; and the travels of Connolly, Burnes, Ferrier, and Belle w. AFU3I KARA-HISSAR (Black Castle of Opium, so called from its extensive trade in opium, which grows in its vicinity), or simply Kara- hissar, a city in the Turkish eyalet of Khu- davendikiar, in Asia Minor, capital of a sanjak or district, 50 m. S. S. E. of Kutaieh ; pop. about 50,000. It is neatly built upon a moun tain side, protected by a fortress, which is perched upon a high rock above it. Manufac tories of carpets, felts, arms, stirrups, and sad dlery are carried on by the inhabitants. AFRAGOLA, a town of Italy, 5 m. X. E. of Xaples, on the railroad to Rome; pop. in 1861, 16,129. It has manufactures of straw hats, and a great annual fair commencing on the second Sunday of May. AFRAMIS, Lucius, a Roman orator and writer of comedies, who flourished about 100 B. C. His genius and fluent style are praised by Cicero and Quintilian. In his plays he depicted Roman life, and chiefly its lower features, with admirable accuracy, and was therefore regarded as a worthy imitator of Menander. Only some fragments of his works remain. AFRICA, one of the great continental divis ions of the globe, situated in the eastern hem isphere, S. of Europe, from which it is sepa rated by the Mediterranean sea, and S. W. of Asia, with which it was formerly connected by the isthmus of Suez. Since the opening of the canal between the Mediterranean and the Red sea, Africa may be described as an insular con tinent. It lies between lat. 37 20 N. and 34 I 50 S., and Ion. 17 30 W. and 51 30 E., being ; thus almost wholly within the tropics. Its figure resembles that of an irregular triangle. ; Its greatest length, measured from Cape Agul- i has, E. of the Cape of Good Hope, to Cape I Bianco, near Bizerta in Tunis, is 4,330 geo- ; graphical miles ; and its greatest width, from I Cape Verd on the Atlantic to Cape Guarda- I fui, on the Indian ocean, is 4,000 geographical miles. The entire area of the continent, ex clusive of Madagascar and the other African I islands, is estimated at 11,360,000 statute square I miles. The derivation of the name, which was I originally applied only to the country around i Carthage, is uncertain. Within the last 25 years ! our knowledge of African geography has been i so largely increased that the leading physi- j cal features of the country are now pretty i well known. Southern Africa is a vast table land, not of great elevation, which on its N. edge slopes down to the rich equatorial plain I of Soodan, and thence to the lowland region I which constitutes the greater part of northern Africa. The mountain ridges of Senegambia on the west, and the lofty plateau of Abyssinia I on the east, are outlying offshoots of the south- | ern table land, stretching forth from it like i rocky promontories into a sea of level country. The Atlas range in the northwest is the only other elevated region of importance. The coast line of Africa is remarkable for its continuity, as well as for its lack of good harbors. It is about 16,000 m. in length, so that for every 710 sq. m. of continental area, according to the estimate above given, there is only one linear mile of coast, a smaller proportion of seashore to surface than in America, Asia, or Europe. The surrounding seas comprise the Mediterra nean on the north, the Red sea and Indian ocean on the east, the Southern ocean on the south, and the Atlantic on the west. The island of Madagascar is separated from the S. E. portion of the mainland by the Mozam bique channel, 250 m, wide. Just above the equator the breadth of the continent is consid erably narrowed by the westward trend of the Atlantic coast through about 15 degrees of longitude, from Cape Palmas to the head of the bight of Biafra, where it resumes its southerly course. The seaboard of this region is washed j by the waters of the gulf of Guinea. The most | prominent points on the Mediterranean coast j are Cape Bon, in Tunis, opposite Sicily, and Cape Spartel, the extremity of a spur from the Atlas mountains forming the African side of the straits of Gibraltar. At the gulf of Sidra, the Syrtis Major of the ancients, in Tripoli, the sands of the Sahara reach the shore ; and E. of this locality to the delta of the Nile the coast country is flat and unproductive. In Algeria the Atlas foot hills approach the sea, and the contiguous district is well adapted for cultiva tion. The Sahara desert again borders the shore on the Atlantic coast of northern Africa; and further S. lie the luxuriant but unhealthy lowland delta districts of Senegambia, whence AFRICA projects Cape Verd, so named from its rich green covering of gigantic baobab trees. Ap proaching the equator, these are succeeded by a country still more fatal to man, in the man grove swamps and reedy shore growths of the Guinea coast. On the Red sea, a range of mountains originating in Abyssinia skirts the W. shore and descends on the north to the lower hills of Egypt, which are geologically connected with the Sinaitic peninsula. The maritime edge of the great South African plateau is bounded for the most part by moun tain chains of various altitude, with shelving plains on their seaward slope. Between the E. and W. coasts which border the table land there is a marked difference. Along the At lantic a series of terraces rises into the interior, intersected in some localities by low, level plains and fever-breeding swamps, and in others by grassy tracts and extensive forests. The highest of these terraces does not exceed 2,000 feet above the sea. From Cape Negro, in Ben- guela, to the mouth of the Orange river, the coast is a low desert backed by a sandstone ridge, beyond which extends the lofty but no less arid inland region. Along this 900 m. of seaboard there is not a single drop of fresh water, and not a spot of fertility except at Walvisch bay. The coast of Cape Colony is bold and rocky; in Natal the surface rises grad ually from the sea to the Drakenberg range, and thence northward to the Zambesi ; the shore consists of highlands which in some lo calities attain the elevation of lofty mountains. Well watered and fertile plains occur opposite Zanzibar, but further N. the country becomes more sterile, and a desert occupies that portion of the continent comprised between lat. 4 N. and Cape Guardafui, its E. extremity. The strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, 20 m. broad, separates Africa from Asia, at the entrance to the Red sea. On the African side the coast is rugged, and rises abruptly from the sea, though only to the height of 380 feet. Considered with refer ence to continental location, the mountains of Africa may be classed in five systems, as fol lows : 1, the mountains of the Mediterranean basin, comprising the three ranges of the Atlas ; 2, the mountains of the W. coast ; 3, the parallel chains of the Cape region ; 4, the mountains of the E. coast; and 5, the Abyssinian group. Isolated from the other parts of the continent by the Great Desert, the Atlas mountains extend across the N. W. portion, from the Mediterra nean shores of Tunis to Agadir on the Atlantic coast of Morocco. The Lesser Atlas is the low est range of this system and nearest the Medi terranean; a little further inland the broad table land known as the Middle Atlas rises still higher ; and above this towers the jagged ridge of the Greater Atlas, in many points attaining an elevation of 12,500 ft. It has commonly been represented that these loftier peaks were above the line of perpetual snow ; but according to Dr. J. D. Hooker, the English botanist, who succeeded in ascending to the crest of the range near the city of Morocco in 1871, all the snow that falls on fairly exposed surfaces melts in the same year. Several spurs are thrown out from the main chain toward the Sahara, and one trends northward to the straits of Gibraltar. Little is known about the mountains of western Africa, except those in close proximity to the coast. Senegambia includes an elevated region which forms the watershed whence flow the Niger and the Senegal ; while in Guinea, N. of the gulf, are the Kong mountains, nowhere exceeding 3,500 ft. in height. The Cameroons rise from the shores of the bight of Biafra, and extend eastward to an unknown distance, with many lofty summits, some of which are esti mated at 13,000 ft., though others do not ex ceed 4,000 ft. We possess but little information as to the mountains which rise back of the ter raced W. coast S. of the gulf of Guinea, but there are believed to be extensive ranges of very considerable height. The mountain sys tem of the Cape country is peculiar. The con tinent is here 700 m. in width, and partly across it stretch three crescent-shaped ranges parallel to the S. coast, and increasing in elevation with their distance from it. The innermost of these ranges borders upon the great interior table land, and between them are narrow tier-like flats, called karroos, forming three gigantic steps ascending from the ocean respectively 2,000, 4,000 and 6,000 ft. above its level. The karroos are connected by defiles known as kloofs, there being no other means of commu nication between them. The names applied to the different sections of the intervening ranges are numerous. In the southernmost is the Zwellendam group, of which the most promi nent height is Table mountain, 3,582 ft. high; to the middle range belong the ZAvarteberge, with an average elevation of 4,000 ft. ; and on the N. the Roggeveld, Nieuwveld, Sneeuwveld, and others make up the third barrier on the southern edge of the great S. African plateau. The Compass Berg, in the Sneeuwveld, is 10,000 ft. high. The mountains of the E. coast begin with the Quatlamba range, a continuous chain extending between the 27th parallel and the beginning of the delta of the Zambesi, 300 m. from the Mozambique channel, with an eleva tion varying from 4,000 to 10,000 ft. . The Drakenberg is that portion of this range which borders the colony of Natal. At the head of the delta it widens into a belt of fertile high lands, and from this spot other mountain chains branch forth in various directions ; one west ward, one northward toward Lake Nyassa, and the Lupata mountains southward along the coast of Sofala at a distance of 100 m. from the sea. The northward range is distinguished by no important peak S. of the 4th parallel ; but between lat. 3 and 4 S., some 200 m. from the Indian ocean, rises the beautiful snow capped summit of Mt. Kilimanjaro, 20,065 ft. high, and believed to be the loftiest mountain in Africa. It has lately been partially ascended by the Rev. Charles New, an Englishman, who <HW I^M s .2 ^vf , ^WTflufr^^! ifi i^4^OTVMilLjiJ_M-| ?TYVi7 * ^ fe^ A1 J - " y^ 1W /fl AFRICA 165 reached the snow line, and who describes its lower slopes as covered with forests of gigantic trees, above which are rich growths of heath and pasture. About 200 m. further N. Mt. j Kenia also rises into the region of perpetual" snow, its altitude being estimated at 17,000 ft. j A continuous chain is believed to connect this | range with Abyssinia. The Abyssinian system ! of mountains comprises numerous lofty summits j clustered in groups on the elevated plateau I which separates the Nile basin from the E. I African coast. This table land sinks abruptly ; to the lowlands on the edg of the Red sea, but \ descends by much gentler gradations on its "W. j slope. The dividing ridge of the watershed \ averages 8,000 ft. in height; on the north it is j considerably lower, while it ascends to 11,000 j ft. on the south. There are said to be peaks over 15,000 ft. high in the Simen range, and in other parts of the country there are known to be many higher than 12,000 ft. Africa has long been regarded as distinctively and pre eminently the country of deserts. The Sahara extends over almost all the northern portion of the continent between lat. 15 and 30 N. With an average width of 1,000 m., and an ex treme length of 3,000 m., it stretches from the Nile to the Atlantic, and from the southern slopes j of the Atlas to Soodan, covering an area which exceeds that of the Mediterranean, and with a surface in some places below the level of that sea. The southern limits of this vast land of desolation have never been continuously traced by Europeans, and our knowledge of its track less wastes is confined to the ancient lines of caravan travel across them.. The surface, is made up of shifting sand, rough gravel, and barren rock, variously distributed, and occa sionally traversed by low chains of bare hills. Extensive plains of salt also occur. Through out this sterile region rain is almost unknown, and the heat is terrific. At the equinoctial seasons the easterly wind, which blows during three fourths of the year, rises at times to a gale, and causes the terrific sand storms by which caravans have so frequently been over whelmed. The western portion of the Sahara, called Sahel, is the wildest and most desolate ; in the eastern portion, to a part of which the name Libyan desert is applied, are numerous oases. These differ greatly in extent, but all contain springs, rich grass, and date palms. Many of them are depressions below the sur face of the surrounding desert. Some consist of little more than a well of fresh water, a clump of trees, and a spot of verdure ; others cover many miles of fertile country. The more important are : the Great Oasis, or oasis of Thebes, 120 m. long and about 5 m. wide; the Lesser Oasis, smaller but similar in outline ; the oasis of Darfoor, constituting the monarchy of a sultan ; the oasis of Siwah, in which are the ruins of the famous temple of Jupiter Ammon ; and the oasis of Fezzan, with the town of Moorzook as its capital. All of these except the last are situated in a furrow-like depression, parallel to the Nile, intersecting the Libyan desert in its gradual descent toward the Med iterranean. The dreaded wind known as the simoom is a terrible scourge of the desert and the neighboring countries. It is due to the high temperature, sometimes 200 F., attained by the surface sand of the desert under the in fluence of the vertical rays of the sun pouring down upon it through an intensely dry atmos phere. The furnace-like wind to which this gives rise is rendered still more terrible by the particles of burning sand with which it is im pregnated and which tinge the atmosphere with the reddish hue characteristic of the si moom. Burkhardt in 1813 recorded 122 F. in the shade during the prevalence of this pes tilential blast, and 114 was observed in 1881 by Sir Samuel Baker. Many other winds of the same class blow from the desert; among them the parching sirocco, which sweeps from northern Africa over Sicily, southern Italy, and Syria ; the khamsin, which blows in Egypt for 50 days between the end of April and the sum mer solstice; the harmattan, which prevails at regular intervals between November and February throughout Senegambia and Guinea, coming from the western Sahara; and the withering N. "W. wind which occasionally visits Natal and the Cape. The great desert of south ern Africa is the Kalahari, extending from the Orange river on the south to the 20th parallel of S. latitude, and from the pastoral Namaqua district on the west to a strip of pasture land which is believed to border the inland slope of the Quatlamba mountains. Its average eleva tion above the sea level is only 600 ft. Al though termed a desert, the Kalahari is not. wholly destitute of vegetation ; indeed, light grass, an abundance of tuberous plants, and extensive patches of bushes are found in many localities. Rain seldom refreshes any of these j arid tracts ; but when it does, they are at once I carpeted with the richest verdure. Before the I explorations of Dr. Livingstone, southern Africa | was believed to be a sterile wilderness, in the equatorial climate of which the existence of an j abundant animal or vegetable life was impossi- ; ble. In 1852, however, Sir Roderick Murchi- I son, in an address to the royal geographical so- | ciety of London, advanced the hypothesis that : the whole African interior would prove to be a vast watery plateau of some elevation above the sea, but subtended on the east and west by I much higher grounds. This view was based I purely on geological reasoning, for at that time | absolutely nothing was known of the interior N. of Lake Ngami ; it was a blank on the map. Livingstone was then engaged in his first expe dition on the Zambesi, and its results triumph antly confirmed the correctness of Murchi son s speculations. A labyrinthine network of rivers extends over the whole table land between the 10th and 20th parallels, so that the natives call the region Linoka-noka, or " rivers upon riv ers." "S. of the Kalahari desert the Gariep or Orange river is the only considerable stream. 16G AFRICA It flows along the northern boundary of the Cape region westward into the Atlantic ocean, but is not navigable in any part of its course, being an impetuous torrent during the rains, and in the dry season little more than a nar row, slow, and shallow current. Of the rivers j which flow into the Indian ocean, the Zambesi j or Leambye exceeds all others in magnitude and importance ; its name signifies " the river," and indicates its preeminence in the native mind. From its origin among the Gilolo hills to its junction with the Chobe river, in lat. 18 17 S. and Ion. 23 50 E., the general course of the Zambesi is from N. to S., but below this point it flows eastward, making a semicircular bend to the N. on its way to the sea. The area of its drainage basin extends through 10 of latitude and more than 21 of longitude. At the Victoria falls, in lat. 17 57 S., Ion. 26 6 E., the river narrows from a width of 1,000 yards to a gorge-like channel in the rock about 75 ft. broad, and leaps down a distance of 300 ft., forming one of the most magnificent and beautiful cascades in the world. The rising spray forms a constant cloud above the cata ract. On the upper portion of the Zambesi the adjacent country is low, and villages are built on raised ground to protect the inhabit ant against the annual overflow. Further down, the river is a mile wide in many places. It be- I comes less rapid after descending the falls, and at the commencement of its delta, 300 m. from the Mozambique channel, it is wide and tranquil, j The extreme length of the delta and its shal- lowness except in the main branch render ac- j cess from the Indian ocean rather difficult, j .The Limpopo, which reaches the E. coast about [ midway between Delagoa bay and the tropic of Capricorn, is a river famed among sports men for the gigantic game which haunts its banks, but worthless as an avenue to the inte rior on account of its deficient depth and the shoals at its mouth. The Congo is the south ernmost of the great rivers of Africa which de scend from the plateau on the Atlantic side. Of its course or character in the interior we have but little authentic information, although it is j supposed to be connected with the Kasai, which is said to traverse a country of alternate forest and pasture land. It is navigable in its lower course, where it is 5 m. wide and of great depth ; but at the distance of 160 m. from the sea there is a cataract. The only notable river between this and the delta of the Niger is the Ogowai, which crosses the equator, and enters the sea by the same outlet as the Fernan Vaz. j The remarkable facilities which it is altogether j probable are furnished by the Niger for direct j water communication with the most populous j regions of central Africa, render it by far the most important river of the western coast. Pre cisely where it rises is unknown, but the Bam- } barra country, among the Kong mountains in Senegambia, about 1,300 ft. above the sea, has been fixed upon as the most probable locality. Its course from its source to the gulf of Guinea is very tortuous, traversing some 15 degrees of longitude, and an estimated distance of 2,500 m., and making a great bend to the north in the vicinity of Timbuctoo. It is variously known as the Niger, the Quorra, and the Joliba. The river Tchadda, from the heart of Soodan, is the largest tributary ; below its embouchure the Niger expands to a great width, the distance from bank to bank sometimes exceeding 6 m. The delta through the innumerable streams of which its waters flow into the bights of Benin and Biafra, is equally famous for its luxuri ant vegetation and its deadly climate. Rising like the Niger in Senegambia, but draining the western declivity of the watershed of that country, the Rio Grande, the Gambia, and the Senega] find their way to the Atlantic through a wall of coast mountains which forms an ob stacle to extended inland navigation on these rivers. The Senegal is the largest, and is more than 800 m. in length. Of all African rivers, however, the Nile is at once the most famous and the most wonderful. It is remarkable physically for the unfailing inundation by which a rainless country is annually fertilized ; it is remarkable politically for the early and elabo rate civilization which has left imperishable monuments along its valley ; and it is remark able geographically for its vast length, which probably exceeds that of any other river, and for the problem concerning its sources, which remained unsolved until the third quarter of the 19th century. The explorations of Baker have fixed the great Albert lake, which lies directly under the equator, as a proximate source, at least ; whether a more remote origin exists can only be determined by future geo graphical research. The Bahr-el-Abiad, or White river, as the main stream of the Nile is called, issues from the northern extremity of this lake, between lat. 2 and 3 N., at an alti tude of 2,720 ft., and flows northward through a mountainous and rocky region, over four cataracts, to Gondokoro, in lat. 5 54 N. Here it emerges into a plain and becomes navigable without serious interruption as far as the upper Nubian cataract. Near lat. 9 30 N. it receives the tributary Bahr-el-Gazal from the west an important river, not yet fully explored. The Blue Nile, or Bahr-el-Azrek, from the lofty plateau of Abyssinia, joins the White river at Khartoom; and still further N. it receives the Atbara from the same country. Below this point tropical rains are unknown, and not a single tributary, not even a rivulet, enters the Nile. For more than 1,000 rn. it alone irrigates the long green valley which without it would be as barren as the bordering desert. In Nu bia it descends over three successive falls, each of which is in reality merely a series of rapids, and which are known respectively as the first, second, and third cataracts, the first named and northernmost being at Syene, on the boun dary between Egypt and Nubia, about 700 m. from the Mediterranean and GOO ft. above its surface. The delta begins 90 m. from the sea, AFRICA 167 by the separation of the river into the Rosetta i aiid Damietta branches. The width of the j Nile differs greatly in different sections ; there are many places where it is several miles broad. The average velocity of its current is 2|- m. an hour. In Egypt the maximum height of the annual Hood is between 30 and 35 ft., and is attained between the middle of September and the middle of October, the river being lowest in April and May. The lakes of Africa are closely associated with the continental river systems, especially in the case of the Nile. That river proceeds from a region of fresh-water lakes ; unrivalled except by the great lakes of N. j America. Three of these lakes have been visited j by Europeans, but no one of them has been completely explored. In 1858 Lake Tanganyi- I ka (so called from a native word meaning the | meeting place of waters) was discovered by R. F. Burton and J. H. Speke, captains in the British army, whose names have since become j famous in the history of African exploration. | It is a long and narrow sheet of water, situated i between lat. 3 10 and 7 50 S., with its cen- ! tre in about Ion. 30 E. according to most, of ; the authorities, although Kiepert places it con- j siderably W. of that meridian. Burton esti- | mates its total length at 250 m., its mean j breadth at 20m., and its altitude above the sea I at 1,850 ft. Its waters are pure and deep. The Victoria N yanza, which was seen by Speke ! in 1858, and subsequently visited by him in j company with Oapt. Grant, lies some 200 m. j N. E. of Lake Tanganyika, with a lofty moun- [ tain district intervening. Among its native ! names are Nyanja, Ukere, and Ukerewe. Ac- | cording to Speke s observations in 18G2, its ! height above the ocean is 3,308 ft. Its north- j ern outlet, which flows over a picturesque cat- ! aract called Ripon Falls, in the immediate vicin- j ity of the lake, was believed by Speke to be the | veritable White Nile, although he was told by ] the natives that this stream passed into another I vast inland sea, which they called the Luta j Nzige. This statement was confirmed by the dis- j coveries of Sir Samuel Baker and his wife in 1 864, when they traversed the eastern shores of the ! Luta Nzige on which they bestowed the name ; Albert N yanza traced its connection with the I Victoria lake on the east, and beheld the Nile | emerging from it on the north. This vast ex- j panse is embosomed amid noble mountains of j great beauty, and is 2,720 ft. above the level of i the sea much lower than the Victoria N yanza. | Its area is unknown, though Baker estimated ; its width near the northern end at 60 m. Still another lake belonging to this aggregation and ; called Bahari Xgo, or Baringo, is supposed to lie ! E. of the Victoria N yanza. Capt. Burton per sistently asserts a belief that the latter will ul timately be ascertained to be. not a single lake, \ but a vast marshy region of many lakes. Far removed from this system, in lat. 20 19 S. ! and Ion. 22 E., is Lake Ngami, about midway between the respective coasts of the continent. It is 3,713 ft. above the ocean, from 50 to 70 m. long, quite shallow, and supposed to b gradually contracting its shores. Livingstone discovered it in 1849, and followed its outlet, the river Zooga, some distance toward the dis trict now known to be watered by the Limpopo. Ten years later Livingstone also discovered the more important Lake N yassa, which is sit uated about 300 m. from the E. coast and N. of the Zambesi delta, with which it is connect ed by the river Shire. It lies in a valley sur rounded by eminences, at a height above the sea of about 1,500 ft. Its width is from 20 to 60 m., and its entire length is estimated at not less than 200 m., although the northern ex tremity has never yet been visited by white men. Its waters are very deep. In the clear, dry season their surface is ruffled by boisterous southeasterly gales, which render navigation perilous. Shirwa, a much smaller lake than N yassa, but exceeding it in elevation by about 500 ft., is situated among the mountains on the S. E., 30 m. distant. The principal lake of Abyssinia is Tsana or Dembea, covering an area of 1,400 sq. m. in the centre of a plain over 6,000 ft. in altitude, on which the climate is that of perpetual spring. In the same coun try is also the beautiful little lake of Ashangi, enclosed on all sides by mountains towering above the plateau on which it rests. The chief body of water in central Africa is Lake Tchad, which is extremely shallow, being only from 8 to 15 ft. in depth. Its area appears to vary somewhat in different seasons. Its eleva tion above the sea is 840 ft. The geology of Abyssinia is better known than that of any other single region of Africa, The foundation of the plateau is metamorphic rock extending to a height of some 8,000 ft. above the sea, and surmounted principally by bedded traps, although in a few instances limestones and sandstones are enclosed between these forma tions. A line of rocks of volcanic origin skirts the Red sea coast, along which there is also a fringe of coral, embracing Massowa and the neighboring islands. The precipitous gor ges through which so many of the Abyssinian rivers flow have probably been worn down through the solid rock to their present depth by tlie ceaseless action of water exerted through enormous periods of time. The ra vine of the Tacazze. one of the streams which unite to form the Blue Nile, is 3,000 ft. deep. A firm clay underlies the deserts of N. Africa. On the W. boundary of Egypt limestones oc cur, and granite, sandstone, and argillaceous slates are found in Nubia, The deltas of all the great rivers are alluvial deposits. The geological structure of the S. African table land, according to Murchison, is unique in having maintained the same terrestrial and lacustrine conditions since the secondary epoch. No fos sil bones have been found in this territory ex cept such as belong to species of animals which still inhabit it. There are tertiary rocks at the Mombas mission in Zanzibar, near the mouth of the Zambesi, and at the Cape ; but these 168 AFRICA are coast formations distinct from those of the interior, in which marine fossils have been sought in vain. Every known fact connected with the geology or paleontology of this re gion indicates that it has remained practically unchanged through ages which have witnessed the rise and fall of other continents. Within its borders all traces of glacial drift are ab sent ; and there are no volcanic mountains ex cept the Gamer oons near the W. coast, and Mt. Kilimanjaro, which has probably been in active since prehistoric times. The precious metals do not seem to be very generally dis tributed throughout Africa, and, so far as at present known, the mineral productions are neither abundant nor varied. Until the dis covery of gold in Australia and California, however, the gold fields of Guinea, in the Kong mountains, were esteemed as among the most important sources of the world s supply. Iron and copper occur in many parts of inter- tropical Africa, and Livingstone found seams of coal cropping out along the banks of the Zambesi. Salt is said to be plentiful in al most every country on the continent. Exten sive diamond fields, producing many stones of fine quality and great size, were discovered in 1867 in the districts N. of the Orange river and near its continence with the Vaal. Some controversy arose between the authorities of Cape Colony and the government of the neigh boring Orange Free State as to which was en titled to exercise jurisdiction over this territory, and was finally settled in favor of the British claim. The diamond called " the Star of South Africa," which was found shortly after the opening of the diggings, was sold in its rough state for 11,500 sterling. Among the distinguishing features of the fauna of Africa may be noted the numerical preponderance of terrestrial over aquatic species of mammals ; the large proportion of quadrupeds exclusively African in their origin or habitat; and the number of gigantic pachyderms. Considered with reference to the geographical distribution of animals, Africa is partially included in each of two great provinces recognized by natural ists : the paheo-arctic region, which comprises nearly all northern Asia and the African con tinent X. of the Sahara, and the Ethiopian re gion, containing the remainder of Africa and the whole of Madagascar. The affinities be tween the existing arid fossil animals of S. Af rica and India strongly indicate that these now widely sundered countries must once have been connected witli each other more intimate ly than at present. Two of the three known genera of anthropoid apes, the chimpanzee and the gorilla, are found only in Africa. The habitat of the chimpanzee comprehends the whole western region between the Sahara and the Congo river, but that of the gorilla is lim ited to the tropical delta districts on the At lantic seaboard near the equator. Baboons, with one or two exceptions about which there is some doubt, are also confined to Africa. Everywhere in Abyssinia is found the great dog-faced baboon (cynocephalus hamadryas), remarkable for its long hair. These monkeys traverse the country in bands numbering from 200 to 300, with a venerable male at the head of the line of march. The galagos of Senegal, Gambia, S. Africa, and Sennaar are the conti nental representatives of the lemurs of Mada gascar. Of the rhinoceros there are five Afri can species, all with two horns, and all re stricted to the region S. of the Great Desert, the two white species never having been en countered N. of the equator. The range of the elephant (elephas Africunus), which differs from its Asiatic congener, and has never been domesticated like him, is similarly limited. Multitudes of hippopotami are met with on the Nile, the Niger, the Senegal, and in nearly all the equatorial rivers and lakes, the animal being peculiar to the continent. Sir Samuel Baker saw immense herds of them in the Al bert N yanza. Among the pachydermata are also the hyrax and the wart hog. In Bornoo, Abyssinia, and the Galla country, the ox is re markable for the extraordinary size and length of his horns. Buffaloes are numerous, and the Cape variety is quite fierce and formidable. The giraffe or camelopard, perhaps the most singular of African ruminants, and found in no I other land on the globe except as a fossil, is a | timorous creature of gregarious habits, which roams over the interior beyond the Orange river, in flocks seldom amounting to 100 in number. The zebra and quagga abound in S. Africa. Five sixths of the known species of antelopes are said to be natives of Africa ; of these, the most noteworthy are the eland, the springbok, the klipspringer, and the Abyssin ian Beni Israel (A. saltiana\ one of the small est of antelopes, a specimen measured by Blan- ford being only 1 ft. 4 in. high at the shoulder. ! The more ferocious carnivora abound. The lion, although somewhat circumscribed in his range, is still found in the Atlas mountains on the north, and throughout a great portion of the table land. According to Dr. Kirk, every tribe has a name for him. The tiger is not found in any part of Africa, but leopards, pan thers, and the smaller cats are common, as also are hyenas, jackals, and foxes. It is wor thy of note that the domestic cat is exceeding ly rare in Africa. The single-humped camel is the most useful of the domesticated animals, ! being almost indispensable for the perform ance of the long desert journeys to which it is so perfectly adapted. Tame goats and several varieties of coarse-wooled sheep are numerous in certain districts. The birds of N. Africa are almost identical with those of Europe, but the ornithology of the ton-id section is represented by some forms of uncommon interest, such as the ostrich, the guinea fowl, and the serpent- slaying secretary bird. The ostrich inhabits the deserts and adjacent plains throughout the interior, and is also met with in Arabia, which i is the only country of Asia where it occurs. AFRICA 109 Innumerable flocks of guinea fowls haunt the underbrush on the river banks within the tropics and on the island of Madagascar. Among the smaller birds are the little honey bird of Cape Colony, several peculiar species of parrots, many magnificently colored kingfishers, and the indicator family, so called from the as sertion of the natives that the birds belonging to it invariably lead the follower of their flight to bees nests. In Egypt is found the sacred ibis of the ancients, and many other water birds frequent the streams and lake basins. Reptiles are everywhere abundant. The pro portion of venomous serpents to those which are harmless is greater than elsewhere, and the enormous python of the tropics, corresponding to the American boa, is sometimes 25 ft. long. The true crocodile is found all along the Nile up to an elevation of 4,000 ft. above the sea; lizards and chameleons are also very plentiful. Africa is richer in tortoises than all the other regions of the globe combined. The celebrated tsetse fly of S. Africa, which fortunately is re stricted to limited districts, is one of the most noxious of known insects, its bite being inevi tably fatal to horses, cattle, and dogs, but, singularly enough, productive of no injury to the mule, the ass, wild animals, or man. The locust from time immemorial has been the scourge of the agricultural territories. The termites, commonly but erroneously called white ants, dwell in dome-like hills of clay, which they raise to a height of ten feet and upward, on the W. coast, being careful to build them above the high-water mark of the yearly floods. The flora of the northern part of the continent appears to differ essentially from that of the Niger, and the Cape may be regarded as a botanical province differing from them both. A considerable majority of the plants found in the territories bordering the Mediterranean are common to Europe. In all the green places of the desert grows the date palm, with its abun dance of rich fruit and grateful shelter. Egypt produces the famous lotus, Senegal the mighty baobab and curious pandanus candelabrum, Guinea the valuable oil-yielding palm, and Cape Colony many species of finely colored aloes. Immense tracts of thorny thicket cover the E. frontier of the latter country, and from them is derived the name Bosjesmans or Bush men, applied by the Dutch boers to the na tives who dwell there. Xearly every attempt to introduce the cereals of other zones and re gions into tropical Africa has been rewarded with success. Maize, coffee, indigo, rice, and tobacco flourish, and excellent cotton has been raised on artificially irrigated soil in Egypt. The character of the vegetation varies of course with the elevation above the sea and the dis tance from the equator. The entire absence of trustworthy statistics is a serious obstacle to a correct estimate of the aggregate popula tion, which has been placed by some authori ties as high as 200,000,000, and by others as low as 100,000,000. The ethnological classifi cation of the native races also presents many difficulties, especially since the scientific accu racy of the old division of the human family into the Caucasian, the Mongol Tartar, and kindred groups, has been impeached. Under that system the inhabitants of Africa N. of the 20th parallel of N. latitude were regarded as belonging to the Caucasian variety, which included therefore the Moors, the Arabs, the Berbers, the Copts, and the Egyptians. Ex cept the Abyssinians, who are also said to be of Caucasian origin, all the nations and tribes S. of the same parallel belong to the Ethiopian stock, and exhibit the black color, high cheek bones, thick lips, and woolly hair which dis tinguish it. They comprise the negroes proper, who occupy Soodan, Senegambia, the Guinea coast, and the interior; the degraded Hotten tots and Bushmen; and the tall and warlike Caffres and Gallas. There are many other sub divisions. Of the political divisions of Africa, Egypt is certainly the oldest. It embraces an area of about 200,000 sq. m., situated on both sides of the Kile X. of lat. 24 N., and since 1517 has been a dependency of the Ottoman empire under the sway of a viceroy, now known as the khedive, who is virtually an in dependent monarch. The population of the country, including the dominant Turks, is over 5,000,000 according to the Egyptian officials, but in reality is probably much smaller. Alex andria is the chief seaport, and contains 238,000 inhabitants. The Suez ship canal, from Port Sa id on the Mediterranean to the gulf of Suez on the Red sea, was opened in 18G9. Cairo, the capital, has a population of 300,000. Mo hammedanism is the prevailing religion. The whole northern coast W. of Egypt is denomi nated Barbary, and comprehends Tripoli, Tu nis. Algeria, and Morocco. Tripoli is a tribu tary province to Turkey, under the rule of a governor general appointed by the sultan, and is situated between Egypt and Tunis, having an area variously estimated at from 61,7(50 to 105,000 sq. m., and a population of 1,500,000. The capital, bearing the same name, is a seaport town of 30, 000 inhabitants. Barca and the oasis of Fezzan are subject to the Tripoli tan govern ment. Tunis, the adjoining state on the west, is likewise a Turkish dependency, also with a capital of the same name. It covers 50.000 sq. m., and the population numbers 2,000,000. The city of Tunis is about 13 m. S. E. of the ruins of Carthage. The ruler bears the title of bey. Algeria, formerly called Algiers, is a French colonial province, having been con quered from the Turks in 1830. There are 2,900,000 inhabitants, 200,000 of whom are Europeans. The estimated area is 170,000 sq. m. Morocco, the westernmost and largest of the Barbary states, is an empire under the in dependent and absolute rule of a sultan, who resides sometimes in the city of Morocco and sometimes in Fez. His dominions extend over more than 200,000 sq. m., with a population of from 3,000,000 to 5,000,000, composed mainly 170 AFRICA of Moors. Tangier is the leading seaport, and in European wars has frequently been resorted to as a convenient and secure naval station. The W. coast of Africa, from the Sahara to Cape Negro, comprises three divisions known as Senegambia, Upper Guinea, and Lower Guinea, each of which contains a number of native states and various European colonial es tablishments. Thus the English have Gambia on the river of the same name, with the main settlement at Bathurst ; Sierra Leone, a penin sula 18 in. long and 12 m. broad, with a white population in 1807 of 129 persons; Gold Coast, a territory of 0,000 sq. m. in Upper Guinea, with its principal fort at Cape Coast Castle ; and Lagos, 250 m. from the Niger, a station es tablished to secure the more complete suppres sion of the slave trade. The French colonies are : Fort St. Louis, at the mouth of the Sen egal river; Goree, just S. of Cape Yerd ; Grand Bassam, on the Ivory Coast ; and As- sinie, on the Gold Coast. There are also sev eral Danish and Dutch settlements in Guinea ; but by a treaty completed in 1872 the latter were transferred by the government of the Netherlands to the British crown. Liberia, a republic founded for emancipated negroes from the United States, occupies a portion of the coast N. W. of Cape Palmas. The most promi nent and powerful native states of Upper Guinea are the Ashantee territory and the kingdom of Dahomey. In Lower Guinea the Portuguese, who occupy many important towns, exercise supremacy over about 300,000 of the inhabitants, and there are also four in dependent negro sovereignties, Loango, Con go, Angola, and Benguela. Cape Colony is the largest of Great Britain s possessions in Africa, and since 18GG has included British Calfraria, which was formerly under a separate govern ment. It was conquered from the Dutch in 1800, and now extends over an area of about 200,000 sq. m., having a population in 1809 of 500, 158 souls, among whom there were 187,- .439 Europeans. A short railway runs from Cape Town into the interior as far as Welling ton. Natal, also an English colony, owes its name to the fact that land was discovered here on Christmas day in 1497 by Vasco da Gama. Its seacoast of 170 m. is penetrated by only one good harbor, which is at D Urban or Port Natal, and even this will not admit the largest vessels. The Orange Free State and Trans vaal Republic are two democratic governments organized by malcontent boers and others who were dissatisfied with the British colonial rule. N. of the Cape countries the E. coast is di vided into three parts : Mozambique, under Portuguese dominion ; Zanguebar, in which the principal town is Zanzibar, governed by the sultan or imam of Muscat ; and Ajan, a wild tract extending to Cape Guardafui and inhabited by the Somauli. Far to the north and west lies Abyssinia, where a debased form of Christianity is generally professed, and has been to some extent the established religion for many centuries. Nubia, which connects Abyssinia with Egypt, has been subject to the viceroy of the latter country since 1822. The population is Mohammedan. Comparatively little is known concerning Soodan, a name which is applied to the vast land of central Africa bounded N. by the Sahara, W. by Sen- egambia, S. by Upper Guinea and the table land, and E. by Darfoor. Among its king- | doms are Bornoo, Ilaussa, and Wadai ; and the celebrated cities of Sackatoo and Timbuc- too are within its boundaries. To the ancients all of Africa except Egypt and the northern coast was known as Libya. Herodotus says that an expedition circumnavigated the conti nent in the reign of Pharaoh Necho, and there are traditions of Carthaginian exploration far inland ; but whatever knowledge was gained by these efforts had been lost to the world long before the voyages of those Portuguese navigators of the 15th century who followed the entire coast from Egypt to the Indian ocean, and led the way for the numerous col onies of Portugal afterward established upon it. Vasco da Gama was the most distinguished of these discoverers, and was the first to double the Cape of Good Hope, which he did on Nov. 20, 1497. lie continued his voyage in African waters as far as Mombas, and then proceeded to India. Many of the expeditions of the earlier epoch were sent out under vari ous commanders by Prince Henry the Naviga tor. The French colonization of the W. coast dates from the 17th century; the Dutch East India company founded its first post at the Cape in 1050; and the African company, in corporated by the English parliament in 1750, did not long delay the establishment of trading stations in Guinea. In 1772 Bruce, the Scotch traveller, visited the sources of the Blue Nile, and after exposure to the utmost hardship and greatest danger returned to England to find his plain and truthful narrative discredited on every hand. Mungo Park, also a Scotchman, was killed on his second trip to the Niger in 180(5, after reaching Timbuctoo. The impor tant expedition of Denhani and Clapperton to Bornoo set out from Tripoli in 1822, and re sulted in numerous discoveries. They were the first white men who ever saw Lake Tchad. In a subsequent attempt to trace the course of j the Niger up from the coast Capt. Clapperton died at Sackatoo in 1827, having in his two jour neys travelled over the entire distance between Tripoli and Cape Coast Castle. Soodan has since been much more thoroughly explored by Barth, Yogel, and Overweg, and the Niger by the brothers Lander, one of whom had been Clapperton s servant. Our earliest knowledge of the S. African interior came from adventu rous native merchants who were bold enough to cross from Loanda on the Atlantic to the shore of the Mozambique channel ; and since 1849 the almost uninterrupted journeys of Dr. Livingstone ov?r the great plateau have copi ously increased our information in regard to it AFRICA, LANGUAGES OF AGADEZ 171 by such discoveries as those of Lake Ngami, Lake N yassa, and the Victoria falls of the Zambesi. The explorations of Speke, Baker, and Barton have already been mentioned in connection with the sources of the Nile ; and the travels of Petherick on the Bahr-el-Gazal, and of Du Chaillu in equatorial Africa, should not be forgotten. Sir Samuel Baker has re cently been commissioned by the khedive to destroy the slave trade and extend the author ity of Egypt on the upper Nile, and furnished with a military force for that purpose. AFllIfA, Languages of. The languages of Africa fall into five groups: 1. The Semitic idioms of Abyssinia, exhibiting special rela tions with the Himyaritic of southwestern Arabia, from which region the Abyssinians are unquestionably immigrants, across the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. One of these idioms, the Ethi- opic or Geez, was long a language of literary cultivation, under Christian influence, and pos sesses a considerable body of literature. More recently, the Amharic, a kindred dialect, has been the official and learned language of the country. 2. The Egyptian and the dialects related with it. Between these and the Semit ic there are generally held to exist evidences of an ultimate but exceedingly distant connec tion. The Berber language (descendant of the ancient Libyan), occupying, except so far as it has been displaced by the Arabic, the whole north of the continent, and a group of dialects south of Abyssinia, of which the Galla is the most prominent member, are the other rela tives of the Egyptian. 3. The Hottentot and Bushman dialects, in the extreme south. Bleek has within a few years declared that these are branches of the Egyptian group, and that those degraded communities, almost the lowest and most savage of men, are therefore a fragment from the same stock which produced the cul ture of Egypt ; and many linguistic and ethno logical writers have accepted his view, but the most recent authorities reject it. 4. The South African group or family, sometimes called the Catfre, or Zingian, or Bantu. This fills the whole southern part of the continent (except the territory of the preceding group), and is made up of a considerable number and variety of dialects tke Zulu, Sechuana, Suaheli, Mpongwe, &c. all plainly and closely related. Its most striking peculiarity is its prevailing use of prefixes instead of suffixes ; a word without a formative prefix is as rare here as in the older languages of our own family one with out a suffix ; and the grammatical agreement of words is in their prefixes, or alliterative, in stead of in their suffixes, or rhyming. A pho netic peculiarity shared by some of the dialects of this group with those of the preceding is their use of clicks, or sounds made with the tongue by suction, as consonants composing words. 5. There remains a broad band across the middle of the continent, filled with a large number of widely diverse languages so diverse that between them, for the most part, no con- i nections can be clearly traced; although, as I sharing to a certain degree the peculiarity of formation by prefixes with the South African family, they are probably ultimately related 1 with the latter and with one another. Con- ! spicuous among them are the Bornoo, Haussa, Mandingo, Grebo, Yoruban, and Foolah. AFRICAXUS, Sextus Julius, a Christian writer of the 3d century. Though of African birth or | descent, he lived in the city of Emmaus, Pales- i tine, of which, in a mission to Rome about 220, he procured the rebuilding after it had been | burned. The new city was called Nicopolis. He is said to have been afterward a bishop. I He composed a Chronicon in five books, com- i mencing with the creation and closing with the ; year 221 of the present era, fragments of which j have been preserved by Eusebius, Syncellus, and i others. Two letters by him are also extant. AFZELIUS. I. Adam, a Swedish naturalist, born in West Gothland, Oct. 18, 1750, died Jan. ! 30, 1836. He was a pupil of Linnaeus. In 1792 ! he visited the English colony of Sierra Leone, | and made some valuable collections illustrating the botany of the west coast of Africa. After his return in 1794 he was secretary of the Swedish embassy at London, and in 1812 be- | came professor of materia medica at Upsal. ! He wrote several works on botany, and pub lished the autobiography of Linnneus. II. | Arvid August, a Swedish author, born at Brod- detorp, May G, 1785, died in Enkjoping, Sept. 25, 1871, where he was pastor for 49 years. With Geijer he published Svcnska | Folkmsor ("Swedish Folk Songs," 3 vols., Stockholm, 1814- lo), of which a selection ap peared in German (Berlin, 1830). lie is also the author of a collection of original poems in the style of the ancient ballads, wrote a | tragedy, translated into Swedish the Ilervarar Saga and the Samundar Edda, and prepared with the assistance of Rask an Icelandic edi tion of the latter. His principal work is Sven- sl-a Folkets SagaJiafder (1839-"70), ending with Charles XII. Ludwig Tieck wrote a preface to Ungewitter s German translation of the first 3 vols. of this work (Volkssagcn mid Voll^lie- der aus Schwedens dlterer und neuerer Zeit, Leipsic, 1842). AGA, originally the appellation of an elder j brother, no\v a title of distinction, among the I Turks and Tartars. The aga of the janissaries w r as the commandant of that corps. The title is also given to wealthy men of leisure. AGA!)EZ, the capital of the sultanate of Ai r i or Asben, Africa, in lat. 16 40 N., Ion. 7 30 | E., about 400 m. N. W. of Lake Tchad ; pop. j about 8,000. It is believed to have been ; founded at the end of the loth century by | Berbers, as an entrepot for their commercial i intercourse with the capital of the Songhay empire. The principal article of trade was gold, the town having its own standard weight, which still regulates the circulating medium. But the commerce of the present day is incon siderable, and its chief importance to the world 172 AGADIR AGAPEMONE consists in its lying on the most direct road to Sackatoo and contiguous parts of Soodan. AGADIR, the southernmost seaport town of Morocco, on the Atlantic, in the province of Sus, 23 m. S. E. of Cape Ghir, in lat. 30 26 35" N., Ion. 9 35 56" W. ; pop. about 600. It has the best harbor in Morocco, and was for merly a large and strongly fortified city ; but in a revolt against Sidi Mohammed in 1773 it was captured and nearly destroyed, and the in habitants were transferred to Mogador. In the 16th century it was held by the Portuguese and called iSanta Cruz. AGAMEMAOX, king of Mycenae, one of the foremost figures in the Iliad, was the son of Atreus according to Homer, but his grandson according to others. He commanded the com bined forces of Greece at the siege of Troy. He married Clytemnestra, half sister of Helen, the wife of his brother Menelaus. The Grecian fleet being detained at Aulis, its sailing place, by unfavorable winds, the priest Calchas de clared that the gods must be propitiated by the sacrifice of the king s daughter Iphigenia, on account of his having offended l)iana by killing her favorite stag. Agamemnon yielded to the will of the gods, but his daughter was saved by Diana. His quarrel with Achilles forms one of the most interesting portions of the Iliad, which opens with an account of it. On his return from Troy he was murdered by his wife, who had formed an adulterous rela tion with xEgisthus during his absence, and avenged by his son Orestes. AGAMI (psophia crepitans), a bird of tropical America, also termed the gold-breasted trum peter. It has been classed among the cranes, Agami, or Gold-breasted Trumpeter. but subsequently among the pheasants. By Temminck it is classed as the first genus in the order ahctorides. Its body is about the size of the pheasant, to which it bears some resem blance in its plumage ; but it is much higher on its legs, which resemble those of the gral- latores or wading birds, being naked far above the knee. It has also a long neck, and in all respects, at first sight, has the appear ance of a water fowl ; but it never visits fens or water margins, frequenting rather the uplands and dry mountains. Its breast is of a beautiful iridescent green and gold, in which, as in the bare space of scarlet skin which surrounds its eye, it resembles the pheasant. Its tail, how ever, is short, and partially covered by the loose silky plumes of its light-colored scapula- ries. It is easily domesticated, and becomes attached to its master, whom it will follow about like a dog. Its name of trumpeter ( pso phia) is given on account of its remarkable cry, performed, with the bill closed, by aid of a pe- I culiar conformation of the larynx. The agarui, I like the rest of the (tlcctorides, makes no nest, but deposits its eggs, which are of a light green color, to the number of 10 up to 16, in a hollow place scratched at the foot of a tree. The down remains very long on the young bird, and then changes into long, close, silky plumes. AGANIPPE, in ancient geography, a, fountain of Boeotia, near Mount Helicon, flowing into the river Permessus. It was believed to have the power of inspiring those who drank of it, and was sacred to the muses, who hence de rived their name Aganippides. In mythology, Aganippe was a nymph, the daughter of the river god Permessus. AGAPJE (Gr. ayairrj, plur. hyairai, love; gene rally used in the plural), feasts of love, originally a simple meal, taken by the primitive Chris tians, at first in their places of worship and in connection with the eucharist. It usually followed the sacrament, but there is reason to suppose that it sometimes preceded it, espe cially in the earliest times. Extravagance and disorder seem to have been early introduced at these feasts in some places, and were re buked by St. Paul in 1 Cor. xi. In the 2d cen tury the eucharist came to be commonly cele brated alone. The agapro were suspected by the Roman government as scenes of secret intrigue. They were regulated by various councils down to the 9th century, and gradu ally disappeared. In modern times they have been revived, under the name of love feasts, by the Moravians and Methodists. "AGAPEMOAE, or Abode of Love (Gr. ayfafy love, and //ozv/, abode), an establishment at Charlynch, Somersetshire, England, about 9 m. from Taunton, where a number of persons as sociated themselves together in 18-10 under the name of "Family of Love," and under the guidance of several clergymen, the principal of whom are Henry James Prince and a Mr. Starkey, the former allowing himself to be ad dressed as "the Lord." The prevailing idea of the sect is that perpetual enjoyment is the sole aim of spiritual and material existence. The relations between the sexes, however, are said to be governed by mutual affinities and at tractions, but members of the family of love maintain matrimonial unions while the attrac- AGAPET.E AGASSIZ 173 tion lasts, and polygamy is forbidden. The life at the Agapemone soon became a matter of public notoriety in consequence of a law suit for the custody of a child between a Mr. and Mrs. Thomas, two of Prince s converts. In 1859 Prince published his "Journal," in which he states that he considers himself per fect and incapable of further improvement. AGAPETK (Gr. aya^rai, beloved), in the early church, virgins and widows who, from pious motives, devoted their time to waiting upon ecclesiastics. Men holding the same re lations to societies of women were called aga- peti. For some time the relation was main tained pure and blameless; but it resulted in immorality, and was condemned and prohibit ed by several councils. AGARD, Arthur, an English antiquary, born about 1540, died in London, Aug. 22, 1615. He held the office of deputy chamberlain 45 years. His name headed the list of mem bers of the society of antiquaries formed by Archbishop Parker in 1572, and six impor tant papers by him are included in Hearne s collection (Oxford, 1720). They treat largely of the early organization and manners of Eng land. Agard bequeathed all his manuscripts to his friend Robert Cotton. AGARDH. I. Karl Adolf, a Swedish naturalist, born at Bastad, Jan. 22, 1785, died in Carlstad, Jan. 28, 1859. In 1807 he was appointed teacher of mathematics in the university of Lund, and in 1812 professor of botany and nat ural sciences. He was admitted to holy orders in 1816, and was made bishop of Carlstad in 1834. lie devoted considerable attention to political economy, and also wrote on theologi cal and other subjects, but his reputation chiefly rests on his botanical works, especially Systema, Species, and Icones Algarum (1824, 1820- 28, and 1828- 3o). The greatest part of his "Man ual of Botany " (2 vols., Malmoe, 1829- 32) has been translated into German. II. Jacob Gcorg, son of the preceding, born at Lund in 1813, has been since 1854 professor of botany there. His principal work, Species, Genera et Ordines Algarum (4 vols., Lund, 1848- 63), is regarded as a standard authority. AGARIC, Mineral, a marly earth, akin in color and texture to the vegetable of that name. AGARICTS, the genus of fungi which com prises the common mushroom, A. campestris (see MUSHROOM), many of the toadstools, and a few poisonous species. The genus is dis tinguished by the radiating gills bearing the spores on the under side of the pileus or cap. Several hundred species have been described, most of them edible, some easily cultivated. The name is often applied to the more solid portions of fungi of other families, as the birch agaric, polyporus letulmiis, which is cut in strips and used to sharpen delicate instruments. From P. formentarius amadou is prepared by cutting the fungus into slices and steeping in a solution of saltpetre ; it then makes excellent tinder. In medicine several species of polypo- rits were formerly much used as cathartics un der the name of agaric, but have given place to better remedies. The powdered pileus of P. igniarius is mixed with snuff by the Ostiaks of the river Obi to improve its narcotic proper ties. Both in the pulverized form and when beaten into thin sheets it is used as lint. When old the polypori often attain a diameter of two or three feet, and become quite hard and woody. An approximate analysis shows much resinous matter and a peculiar substance called fungine (see FUNGI), but less nitrogenous mat ter than is usual in this order of vegetables. As they grow on the stems of many trees valued for their timber, and as their presence indicates decay, which they hasten by penetrating the wood with their mycelium, the portion answer ing to roots, it is desirable, in order to stop the progress of decay, to remove the external fun gus and destroy the mycelium by a strong solu tion of sulphate of copper. AGASIAS, a Greek sculptor of Ephesus, who is presumed to have lived at or before the time of Alexander the Great. The statue now at Rome, known as the u Borghese Gladiator," is his work. It represents a warrior on foot contend ing with a mounted combatant. AGASSIZ, Louis John Rudolph, an American naturalist, of French descent, born in Metiers, canton of Fribourg, Switzerland, on the lake of Morat, May 28, 1807. His family was among the Huguenots who were driven from France by the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and took refuge in the Pays de Vaud. For six generations the lineal ancestors of Agassiz have been clergymen. His father was pastor of St. Imier, a Protestant parish in the ancient bish opric of Basel, and removed to Metiers on ac count of the severity of the climate at the former place ; his mother was Mile. Rose Mayor, the daughter of a physician in the can ton of Vaud. She superintended the education of her son Louis until he reached the age of 11, when he was sent to the gymnasium of Bienne, a small town in the canton of Bern. In the mean time his father had removed from Metiers to the little town of Orbe, at the foot of the Jura. Here, during the vacations, the student s attention was drawn to the natural sciences, under the influence of a young clergyman named Fivaz. His studies were first directed to plants. Having studied four years at Bienne, Louis entered the college of Lausanne, where he passed two years, and then went to Zurich in 1824, where he remained two years in the medical school. He continued his medical studies at the university of Heidelberg, de voting himself chiefly to anatomy and physi ology under Tiedemann, zoology under Leuck- art, and botany under Bischoff. In the autumn of 1827 he entered the university of Munich, which had recently been reorganized. Among the eminent men assembled there Agassiz formed intimate friendships. He studied the organization of plants and their geographical distribution with Martius ; he lived in the 174 AGASSIZ house of Dollinger, with whom he studied the embryonic development of animals ; he was in- ; tirnate with Wagler ; with Okeri he discussed the principles of classification; with Fuchs he studied mineralogy ; and for four successive j years he attended all the lectures of Schelling on philosophy. He was the leading spirit in a ; select circle of young men who met to discuss scientific subjects. This society was called the little academy, and so interesting were the lee- tures and discussions that the professors were j glad to take part in them. When Dom Pedro i of Brazil married an Austrian princess, the j Austrian and Bavarian governments seized the opportunity of sending to that country a scien tific exploring expedition. The naturalists of j the expedition were Martins, Spix, Natterer, j and Pohl. Agassiz, still a student, had already i published a few special papers. On the return , of the scientific corps, Martins occupied him- ! self with the publication of his great work on > Brazil. The zoological portion was intrusted to Spix, but he had not completed it at the time of his death. Martius immediately selected young Agassiz to elaborate the ichthyological department, upon which very little had been done, and the manner in which he accomplished the task placed him at once in the foremost rank of naturalists. These studies and labors divert ed him from the profession of medicine, to which he had been destined by his parents. The allowance he had hitherto received from his father, on which, moderate as it was, he had not only subsisted, but had employed a distinguished young artist, Dinkel, was now withdrawn. Agassiz then applied to Cotta, the publisher, who, struck by the value of the ma terials Agassiz had collected for a "Natural History of the Fresh-water Fishes of Europe," and no doubt impressed with the genius of the young naturalist, enabled him by a timely sup ply of funds to complete the work. This was his second great undertaking. Meantime he presented himself as a candidate for the degree of doctor of philosophy, which he took at Er- langen, after passing a very severe examination with distinction. In the same year he took at Munich the degree of doctor of medicine, on which occasion he maintained the superiority of woman in a Latin dissertation upon the thesis, Femina humana superior mari. The great work on the fresh-water fishes was ad vancing. After the double examination for degrees, Agassiz visited Vienna, where he prosecuted his studies in the museum, and de voted himself especially to the study of the fishes of the Danube. In that city he became acquainted with the leading naturalists, and particularly Fitzinger, While studying living fishes, his attention was drawn to the fossil species found in the fresh-water deposits of Oeningen and Glarus in Switzerland, and of Solenhofen in Bavaria. Immediately after the completion of the work on the fishes of Brazil, he commenced his researches upon the fossil fishes, and devoted seven years to the study be- fore beginning the publication. This was con tinued through ten years, and was brought to a close in 1 844. In the course of his preparation for this work, Agassiz visited the principal muse ums of Europe, accompanied by a skilful artist ; and so great was the interest felt universally in these researches, and the confidence which the author inspired, that he was allowed to take with him for examination and comparison the most valuable specimens of more than 80 pub lic and private museums, some of which he was permitted to retain from five to ten years. He was enabled to visit Paris and to prosecute his researches in the collections of that capital, by a most disinterested act on the part of a clergyman and friend of his father, Mr. Chris- tinat, who at a later period visited Agassiz in America, and passed some years in his house. This gentleman had just come into possession of a small sum of money, which he offered in aid of his young friend s pursuits. Agassiz at once became acquainted with Humboldt, who was then residing in Paris, and with Cuvier, the eminent naturalist, who had just commenced his work on fishes. The drawings of Agassiz so delighted Cuvier, that he offered to relin quish to the young man all the materials he had himself collected; and from that time to his death he cherished a warm friendship for the Swiss naturalist, and received him in his family on the most intimate terms. In his in vestigations of the fresh-water fishes, the rivers and lakes of Europe were thoroughly explored by Agassiz, in order to compare those of the different water basins, especially the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Danube, with their tributaries. These investigations had mostly been made while he was still a student in Heidelberg and Munich, during the vacations, when he trav elled on foot over the whole of southern Ger many and Switzerland. Some time after the death of Cuvier, 1882, Agassiz returned to Switzerland, on the invitation of citizens of Neufchfitel, where preparations were making to reorganize the college. lie received the ap pointment of professor of natural history in that establishment, and began preparations for the publication of the work on which he had been occupied so long. He also extended his researches to other departments of zoology. In 1833 he was enabled by the liberality of Humboldt, who had been his devoted friend since the commencement of their acquaintance in Paris, to begin the publication of the great work on the fossil fishes. This is in 5 volumes, with a folio atlas containing about 400 plates. About 1,000 species are described and figured in the natural size, with the colors of their beds, and there are short indications of about 700 more. The discovery and description of so many new species led to the recognition of new types, and an entirely new classification, based chiefly on the characters of importance in the fossils. The great generalizations to which these researches led have stood the test of time, and have been strengthened and ex- AGASSIZ 175 tended by lat^r investigations. The geological results of those researches were remarkable. The relative ages of the formations in which the fossil fishes were found were more clearly established by comparisons of their structures. Moreover, the fossil species differ from those now living, and differ in different stages of the same formation, as well as in different forma tions, leading to the conclusion that our globe has been peopled by a series of creative acts; and, as peculiar species occur in certain regions and not elsewhere, that these creations were not only successive but local, each having assigned to it a natural limit man alone, and the animals associated with him, forming the exceptions to this last general law. From this general survey Agassiz drew several very im portant conclusions respecting the relation of the Creator to the universe. The existence of a superior intelligence, whose power alone could establish and sustain such an order of things, he considers to have been established by rigid demonstration, and on a truly scientific foundation. He believes that species do not insensibly pass into each other, but each has its appointed period, and is not connected, except in the order of time, with its predecessor. " An invisible thread, in all ages, runs through this immense diversity, exhibiting as a general result the fact that there is a continual progress in development, ending in man, the four classes of vertebrates presenting the intermediate steps, and the invertebrates the constant accessory accompaniment. Have we not here the manifestations of a mind as powerful as prolific ? the acts of an intelligence as sublime as provident ? the marks of goodness as infinite as wise? the most palpable demonstration of the existence of a personal God, author of all things, ruler of the universe, and dispenser of all good ? This, at least, is what I read in the works of creation." Such is the tone of the closing part of the chapter on classification. Prof. Agassiz visited England several times, and was everywhere received with respect and enthusiasm. The universities of Edinburgh and Dublin conferred on him the degree of LL.D., and the corporations enrolled him among their citizens. He was the guest of Sir Robert Peel, and Lord Egerton, afterward Lord Ellesmere, and Sir Philip Egerton, hon ored him with a lifelong friendship. Of the eminent naturalists, Buckland, Owen, and Sir Roderick Murchlson should be enumerated as among his friends. In 1834 his "Prodromus of the Echinoderms" appeared, which was soon followed by his monographs on that class of animals, in the preparation of which he was aided by Prof. Valentin and Mr. Desor. During this period he continued to collect materials for his History of the Fresh-water Fishes." lie formed a lithographic establish ment at Xeufchatel, where the plates for the atlas of this work were executed, and the prints struck off under his own eye. The great expense, however, exhausted his pecu niary resources, and he not only found it im possible to continue it on the original plan, but it entailed upon him a heavy debt, which cost him the labors of many subsequent years to pay off. In the elaboration of some portions of the subject he was assisted by Karl Vogt, a Swiss naturalist, distinguished for his zeal and attainments in zoology. The publication of the " Fresh-water Fishes," in 1839- 40, was followed by the Nomenclator Zoologicus, con taining an enumeration of all the genera in the animal kingdom, with the etymology of their names, the names of those who first proposed them, the date of their publications, &c. This work was founded upon registers, in which Agassiz entered the names of the animals as they occurred in his studies. They were then methodically arranged, the nomenclature of each class being submitted to the revision of naturalists distinguished for their investigations in each special branch. This was accompanied by another extensive and important work, the Bibliotheca Zoologies et Geologice, containing a list of the authors mentioned in the former, with notices of their writings. This work, published at the expense of the Ray society in England, has appeared since the author s resi dence in the United States, with emendations and additions by II . Strickland and Sir TV. Jardine, in 4 large octavo volumes. From 1836 to 1845 Agassiz spent his summer vaca tions among the Alps, chiefly engaged in the study of the glaciers and the geological phe nomena they produce. The indications of their greater extension in a former period, and the traces they have left upon the surface of the earth, were carefully followed through the countries adjoining Switzerland, as well as England, Scotland, and Ireland. Before him, De Saussure, Venetz, Charpentier, and others, had written upon the glaciers, and the distri bution of bowlders over the valley of Switzer land. De Saussure s theory of their distribution referred it to the action of water. The idea of glacial agency in transporting bowlders appears to have originated among the chamois hunters, who had noticed the fact that every year huge masses of rock were moved by glaciers from their original position. This idea was adopted by Venetz, and extended by Charpentier, who explained the distribution of the bowlders throughout the valley of Switzer land, and on the slopes of the Jura, by the extension of glaciers beyond their present limits in a former period. In 1836 Agassiz visited Charpentier, and accompanied him to the glacier of the Diablerets, where he saw the actual- transportation of the bow r lders by the glacier, and the rounding and polishing of the rocks at its sides. These observations removed his former doubts. It was obvious that such an accumulation of ice as would extend the glaciers from the Alps to the Jura, covering the valley of Switzerland to the depth of more than 2,500 feet, would require a depression of temperature which must have 176 AGASSIZ been widely felt, producing similar phenomena over other portions of the earth s surface ; that , the north of Europe must have been at the j same time covered with a similar sheet of ice. j Agassiz first announced his glacial theory in a discourse delivered before the Helvetic society in 1837; but in order to investigate the facts ! more thoroughly, he first visited most of the , Alpine glaciers, and then established his head- quarters on the glacier of the Aar, where for i eight consecutive summers he continued the researches which formed so large a part of his scientific labors in Europe. These researches j are embodied in two works. The first, entitled j Etudes sur leu glaciers, published in 1840, with i plates, contains a description of the glacial j phenomena and a statement of the author s views of their former extent. The second, i published at Paris in 1847, under the title of j Systeme glaciaire, contains an account of the ! investigations made during his last five visits, 1841- 45, upon the mode of progress of the glaciers, and is accompanied by plates and a | topographical chart. An excellent and graphic account of these visits and researches is given in a little work by his companion, Mr. Edward Desor, Excursions et sejours de M. Agassiz etde ses compagnons de voyage dans les glaciers et les hautes regions des Alpes. Since his resi dence in the United States, Professor Agassiz has occupied himself with investigations of the distribution of the bowlders and the smooth surface of beds of rock over the North Amer ican continent, which he also attributes to the action of glaciers, extending from the north. The results of these investigations are chiefly recorded in the volume containing an account of an excursion to Lake Superior. From j 1846 the biography of Mr. Agassiz belongs to the scientific history of the United States. In the autumn of that year he arrived in Boston, from Paris. The object of his visit was, in the first place, to make himself familiar with the natural history and geology of this country, in fulfilment of a mission suggested to the king of Prussia by Alexander von Humboldt, and in the second place to meet an invitation from Mr. John Amory Lowell to deliver a course of lectures in Boston. Eighteen months or two years had been allotted to the first task, and ample means were provided by the Prussian government for that purpose. Soon after his | arrival in Boston Prof. Agassiz delivered his ! first course of Lowell lectures, consisting of a j general review of the animal kingdom. These ! lectures were listened to by audiences of 1,500 to I 2,000 hearers, embracing all that was most j cultivated in science and letters in the society i of Boston and the vicinity. Immediately after ward, by special request, he delivered another ! course upon the glaciers and the phenomena j connected with their former greater extension. | Having completed these labors, he visited New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, to com- j pare the animals of the northern shores with | those of the more southern latitudes of this continent. On his return to the north early in the summer of 1847, he met with Prof. A. D. Bache, superintendent of the United States coast survey. Mr. Bache invited him to avail himself of the facilities presented by the oper ations of the coast survey for the further pros ecution of his researches. The offer was so liberal and of such importance in a scientific point of view, that Agassiz could hardly credit his good fortune ; and upon being assured that he might without difficulty visit at will every point of the coast in the well-equipped coast survey vessels, he exclaimed that this would decide him to remain to the end of his days in the United States. He spent part of the sum mer of 1847 on board the Bibb, commanded by Capt. C. II. Davis, on the coast of Nantuck- et and Martha s Vineyard. The immediate re sult of this, and a second cruise along the same coast, was several papers upon the medusa of Massachusetts, and upon a coral found near Ilolrnes s Hole. In the same summer he vis ited, in company with Mr. J. A. Lowell, Niag ara falls and the White Mountains. During the next three winters he delivered courses of lectures before the Lowell institute upon com parative embryology and the successive devel opment of the animal kingdom. At the close of 1847 Mr. Abbot Lawrence founded the scientific school in Cambridge, and a professor ship of zoology and geology was offered Mr. Agassiz, which he accepted, after having ob tained from his government an honorable dis charge. He entered upon his duties in Cam bridge in the spring of 1848, and at the close of the academic year started with 12 of his pupils upon a scientific exploration of the shores of Lake Superior. The results of this journey are contained in the volume entitled " Lake Superior," the narrative part of which was written by Mr. J. Eliot Cabot, together with the reports of the lectures the professor delivered at the close of each day. Dr. J. Le Conte contributed the account of the coleop- tera. In 1848, in conjunction with Dr. A. A. Gould, he published "Principles of Zoology," for the use of schools and colleges. From that period Prof. Agassiz has devoted his time alter nately to teaching and making original investi gations. Besides his university lectures he has delivered in the winters courses of lectures in different parts of the country, while exploring its natural history. In these excursions he has been accompanied by assistants, and the col lections he has made are the most complete ex tant, embracing the whole range of the animal kingdom. In this manner he has traversed the country from Lake Superior to the gulf of Mex ico, and from the Atlantic coast to the valley of the Mississippi, delivering courses of lectures in Savannah, Mobile, New Orleans, St. Louis, Cincinnati, and many other places, besides those already mentioned. In 1850 he spent the winter upon the reef of Florida, in the service of the coast survey, ascertaining the mode of growth and the direction of the in- AGASSIZ AGATE ITT crease of the reef. In the following summer he explored the state of New York with Prof. I James Hall, and afterward he visited again the most important localities with his pupils. In 1852 he accepted a professorship of compara tive anatomy in the medical college of Charles ton, S. C., which he retained for two successive i winters, making at the same time a thorough j study of the marine animals of that coast, and i extending his excursions to Georgia and North I Carolina; but finding the climate injurious to | his constitution, he resigned the situation, and j returned to reside permanently at the north. | In 1808 he was appointed a non-resident pro- j fessor in Cornell university, at Ithaca, N. Y. Since 1855 his attention has been largely de- ! voted to the arrangement of the materials col- | lected in these explorations. To form an ade- j quate idea of the extent of his collections, it [ ought to be known that besides his own efforts, j and the assistance he has derived from the young men accompanying him everywhere, he has been much assisted by the friends he has ; made in every state during his excursions. The collections embrace also the western coast ; he has regularly received large contributions from California through his brother-in-law, Mr. Thomas G. Cary, Jr., who has collected for him extensively there. The results of all these explorations and investigations are now publishing in the work entitled "Contributions to the Natural History of the United States." Four volumes out of ten of this extensive work have already passed through the press. The subscription list extends to the unexampled ; number of 2,500 names, in all parts of the i United States ; a magnificent support of a purely scientific undertaking, executed on a i grand and expensive scale, and an appreciation j of the labors of a great original investigator, such as has never before been exhibited to the world. Prof. Agassiz 1 s eminence as a scientific ! man was early recognized in Europe. In 1836 ; he was elected into the academy of sciences in j Paris and the royal society of London, and soon > after received similar honors from all the other ! great learned societies in Europe and America, j He has received from the academy of sciences ] in Paris the Monthyon prize for experimental j physiology, and the Cuvier prize ; the Wollas- ton medal from the geological society of Lon don ; and the medal of merit from the king of Prussia. He has been a copious contributor to the leading scientific journals of Europe and America, and has made numerous communica tions to the learned societies of which he is an | active member. In the United States, his ac- : tivity has been most beneficial in the American i scientific association, the American academy of ! arts and sciences, and the Boston natural history < society, the proceedings and transactions of all ! of Avhich have been constantly enriched from j his boundless resources. He is a man of great I physical vigor, but his constant labors have | more than once been followed by imperative ] calls for rest. The vacations of a naturalist VOL. i. 12 are often more productive than the term time of most men, and science lost nothing when in the winter of 1805 he accepted the liberal offer of a Boston merchant, who undertook to pro vide for the entire expenses of six assistants ?md the transportation of specimens, if the va cation journey should be to Brazil. The labors of his youth on the great Brazilian collections of Spix had created in him a strong desire to study the fauna of this region, and on the 1st of April, 1805, he started on an expedition whose results are seen in the immense collections now stored in the Cambridge museum. At liio de Janeiro he was cordially welcomed by the em peror and received all possible assistance from the Brazilian government, a river steamer be ing assigned for his especial use. After some time devoted to excursions in the environs, during which he settled the disputed question of the existence of drift phenomena in the southern hemisphere, he sailed for Para, and thence ascended the Amazon to Tabatinga on the Peruvian frontier. Here the party divided, and while Agassiz went down the river again, stopping at Ega or Teffe, Manaos, and other points, to pursue his researches into the ichthyology of the region, some of his assistants continued the exploration of the upper waters. Returning to Rio after a year s absence, he made some interesting excursions among the Oreran mountains, and in July, 1866, sailed for the United States. The narra tive of this journey, written mainly by Mrs. Agassiz, was published in 1808; and one of his assistants two years later published the geolo gical report of the survey. Since his return from Brazil Agassiz has made a short excur sion to the Rocky mountains. His arduous labors in extending the museum of compara tive zoology at Cambridge have again shown him the need of rest; and early in December, 1871, he started on a voyage around Cape Horn in the coast survey steamer Ilassler, in company with several other men of science. The results of this voyage, undertaken for deep- sea dredging, have already proved to be of great importance in the study of oceanic fauna). The influence of Agassiz upon the scien tific development of the United States has been profound and far-reaching. lie has called into energetic action the minds of a large body of young men of science, who are laboring in every field of investigation with the enthusiasm he has inspired in the methods ho has taught, and whose faithful study lias con tributed largely to the works since published by the master. AGATE (from the river Achates, nowDirillo, ir. Sicily, near which it was found), one of the mod ifications in which silica presents itself nearly in a state of purity, deposited, not crystalline, but massive and. slightly transparent. Agate, onyx, chalcedony, carnclian, sard, chrysoprase, and many others are but varieties, differing only in external form and appearance from each other, of the one family, quartz. When ITS AGATE other ingredients, as alumina or oxide of iron, are found associated with the silica, it appears that their presence is never in any fixed pro portion, and is therefore regarded as acciden tal. Agates are distinguished from the other varieties by the veins of different shades of color which traverse the stone in parallel, con centric layers, often so thin as to number 50 or more in an inch. When these stripes alter nated, an opaque band with one transparent, the stone was called onyx, from a fancied re semblance to the alternating lines upon the finger nail, from the Greek bw^. The modern distinction between agate and onyx refers to the direction in which the stone may be cut; when vertical to the stratification, so as to show stripes or bands, it is called agate ; and the same stone, if cut parallel with the strata, is termed onyx, and forms the material of the true cameo. The veins of the agate are no doubt produced by successive deposition of one layer of silicious matter upon another, intro duced in a sublimated or soluble form into the cavities of the rocks, where the agates are now found. These rocks are mostly amygdaloids, the cavities of which are filled by a variety of minerals. As the rock disintegrates, or wears away by the action of atmospheric agencies, the hard nodules of agate drop out, and are then found upon the surface, or, as is frequently the case, strewn along a sea beach or in the beds of mountain streams. Externally they are rough, and exhibit no appearance of their beautiful veined structure, which is exposed on breaking them, and still more perfectly after polishing. The largest nodules seldom exceed a foot in diameter. Various processes arc adopted for increasing the lustre and height ening or darkening the colors of agates. They are boiled in oil, or kept in warm honey, and then dropped into sulphuric acid. The lay ers being unequally porous, the absorbed car bonaceous matter becomes charred and black ened by the acid, and the white stripes, impen etrable to the oil, appear clearer and brighter by the contrast. Agates are thus made to as sume the onyx character, which is desired by the lapidary for the production of cameos and intaglios, in imitation of the antique sculptured gems. In these the figures, whether in relief or intaglio, are of a different color from the ground. Digestion for a few weeks in hydrochlo ric acid, kept at a moderate heat, gives a beau tiful clear yellow color to the streaks that were before a dirty brown. Stones of a reddish hue are greatly improved in brilliancy of color by first thoroughly drying them for weeks in ovens, then dipping in sulphuric acid, heating to full red heat, and afterward slowly cooling. The changes that take place in both these processes are upon the oxide of iron, which is the color ing matter. They may suggest other modes of producing other analogous effects. Though the varieties of agate are mostly very common min erals in this country, as well as in the old world, those localities onlv are of interest which have long been famous for their production, and Avhich still furnish all the agates required by commerce. The value of the stones depends upon the work put upon them, which from their extreme hardness is very laborious, and in the sculptured gems requires the greatest patience and skill. Such operations are not yet introduced into the United States, and the agates found everywhere accompanying the trap rocks meet no demand except from speci men hunters. The principal works for cut ting and polishing agates are at Oberstein, a small town not far from Mayence, in south Germany. Here are numerous water mills running the coarse stones for grinding down the surface of the agates, and the wheels of soft wood on which they are polished with the powder of tripoli, found in the neighborhood. They are made into trinkets, cups, seals, rings, handles for swords, knives and forks, and small mortars for grinding very hard substances used by chemists. Moss agate, or Mocha stone, is grayish white or brownish yellow, with pe culiar markings of dark metallic oxide, assum ing varied fanciful forms. Landscapes, trees, mosses, and animals have been traced in the lines formed by the arborescent deposit of the foreign mineral, chiefiy oxides of iron or man ganese. The numerous silicious springs of our western territory, at no distant date, have produced these, now generally known as Rocky mountain agates, some of which are of ex traordinary beauty and wonderful resemblance, rivalling those in the museums of Europe that for ages have excited the admiration of the curi ous. Many of the latter, however, are such re markable likenesses, that they must be regarded as exceedingly ingenious works of art. One in the British museum presents a likeness of the poet Chaucer; another in the church of St. Mark in Venice represents a king s head with a diadem. De Boot, in his treatise De Gem- mis, describes one which represents the figure of a bishop with his mitre, placed in the centre of a perfect circle. By turning the stone a little another figure appears, and turned still further the figures of a man and woman are seen. Pliny mentions one belonging to Pyr- rhus, in which were pictured the nine muses, with their proper attributes, and Apollo in the middle of the figure playing on the harp. While nature has formed remarkable coinci dences of resemblance, yet the credulous have been imposed upon by stone engravers, from the loth century to our own day, by engrav ing a device on a soft chalcedony, with a uni form depth of cutting, and staining the stone as before described ; then grinding off the sur face to the depth of their cutting, leaving the stone smooth, but showing stain where the en- graved lines had been. The same means were used to heighten natural marks, as well as the more legitimate mode of curving or waving the surface, so as to erase or bring out desired fea tures. Agate frequently occurs as a geode, or hollow nodule, explained by the theory of gas AGATHA AGAVE 179 entering a silieions solution. Change of tem perature and pressure account for the crys talline interior, and the various strata are evi dently aggregations, usually concentric. The veins of color are sometimes polygonal, when, from resemblance to the angles of a fortress, it is called fortification agate. AGATHA, Saint, a Christian martyr of Paler mo. Her beauty attracting the attention of Quintianus, the pagan governor of Sicily, he made overtures to her. Enraged at their re jection, he subjected her to the most cruel tor tures, and she died in prison, Feb. 5, 251. AGATIIARCHIDES, or A?atiiardms, a Greek ge ographical writer, a native of Cnidos in Asia Minor, who flourished about 130 B. C., and was guardian to one of the kings of Egypt dur ing his minority. Of his numerous works, frag ments of a description of the Erythraean sea alone remain. AGATHARCHUS, an Athenian artist of the early part of the 5th century B. C., said to have in vented scene painting, and to have painted a scene for yEschylus. Scene painting was, how ever, not generally used until the time of So phocles. AGATHIAS, a Byzantine writer of the 6th cen tury, surnamed Scholasticus on account of his extensive legal knowledge, born in Myrina, in Asia Minor. He received his early education at Alexandria, and in 554 went to Constantinople, where he practised as an advocate and won re nown as a poet and historian. Of his writings, about 90 poems are extant, as well as a history of the government of Justinian, which was in tended for a continuation of Proeopins. It was first published in 1594, and afterward with Xie- bahr s amendments in 1828. AGATHOILES, a Syracusan adventurer and military despot, died in 289 B. C. He was the son of a potter in the Sicilian town of Thermco, an exile from southern Italy, and in early life worked at his father s trade, then became a leader of banditti, and afterward a soldier under Damas, a prominent Syracusan, with whom he subsequently served as a chiliarch or commander of 1,000 men, in the war with Ag- rigentum. On the death of Damas Agathocles married his widow, and thereby became one of the wealthiest citizens of Syracuse, lie obtained an ascendancy in the democratic p:irty, was twice driven into exile, but re turned, and after terrible bloodshed became autocrat of Syracuse in 317 B. C. Debts were abolished, and the property of the rich was confiscated and distributed among the peo ple. He aimed to drive the Carthaginians out of Sicily, and annex the whole island to the state of Syracuse ; but he was defeated by Hamilcar, the Carthaginian governor, near Ili- mera, and shut up in Syracuse on the land side. The sea being open to him, he carried the war into Africa in 310, burnt his ships on landing, and obtained many successes over the Cartha ginian troops and cities. The subject allies of Syracuse- in Sicily revolted, headed by the powerful city of Agrigentum, and placed them selves under command of Dinocrates, a Syra cusan Greek. Agathocles hurried home, but achieved nothing decisive in Sicily, and re turned to Africa, where he found his troops mutinous from want of pay. His eloquence saved him. Defeated by the Carthaginians, he and his sons fied to the coast, leaving the army to look out for itself (307). The sons were caught and massacred by the troops, who then made terms with the Carthaginians. Agatho cles escaped to Sicily, made peace with the Carthaginians, turned his energies against the revolters, defeated them, butchered thousands after they had laid down their arms on promise of amnesty, and took Dinocrates into his ser vice. He next set on foot an expedition against the Bruttii in Italy, laid the Lipari islands under contribution, made himself mas ter of Crotona on the peninsula, and had ad vanced far toward raising Sicily to a gre;.it naval power when he died. AGATHON, a tragic poet of Athens, a friend of Euripides, born about 447 B. C., died about 400. He won his first dramatic triumph in 416. Aristophanes ridicules his affectations, and brings him on the stage in a woman s dress. Plato and Aristotle speak well of his talents, but the latter remarks the mild, humane spirit of his tragedies as a sign that the vigor of the anci2nt drama was departing. He went with Euripides to the Macedonian court in 407, and fixed his abode in the palace of King Arche- laus. The dinner which Agathon gave to cel ebrate his dramatic victory was made by Plato tho groundwork of his Symposium. Of his writings a few fragments only are extant. Wieland made Agathon the hero of a philo sophical novel. AGAVE, a genns of plants of the order am- \ aryllidacece, known as American aloes. The plant produces a circle of stiff, erect, fleshy leaves, often 7 to 10 inches long and 5 to 7 inches thick at the base, growing on the top of a short, woody trunk, bearing flowers in a long, terminal, woody spire. There are seve ral species, but only one merits especial notice. The agave Americana, American aloe (called maguey in South America and mezcal in Mex- | ico), has a short cylindrical stem, terminating | in a circular cluster of hard, fleshy, spiny, sharp-pointed, bluish-green leaves, each of j which lives for many years, so that but few j have withered when the plant has arrived nt I its maturity. It is a popular error that this ! only occurs at the expiration of a hundred I years, when the tree flowers, and again lies I dormant, so far as its efflorescence is concern- I ed, for another century. The American aloe j varies in the period of its coming to maturity, ! according to the region in which it grows, I from 10 to 70 years. In hot climates, otherwise ! favorable to its rapid development, it grows | quickly, and early attains its perfect state. In j colder countries, where it is cultivated as an : exotic, it often requires the full period popularly 180 AGDE AGE assigned to it before it has attained its matu rity. So soon as it does so, it sends forth a stem 40 feet in height, which puts out numer ous branches, forming a cylindrical pyramid of Agave (American Aloe). perfect symmetry, each crowned with a cluster of greenish-yellow flowers, which continue in perfect bloom for several months. But at what ever period of the plant s existence this occurs, it is never repeated ; as soon as the flowers fall, the plant withers and dies. The natural habi tat of the American aloe is the whole inter- tropical region of America, in which it flour ishes from the sandy plains on the level of the sea to the table lands of the mountains, at a height of 9,000 to 10,000 feet. In England, the United States, and France, it is a tender greenhouse plant; but in Spain, Italy, Sicily, and the Barbary states, it is perfectly natural ized. The American aloe is applied to many uses. From its sap, drawn from incisions in its stem, is made pulque, a fermented liquor highly esteemed by the Mexicans; and from that, again, is distilled an ardent and not dis agreeable, although singularly deleterious spirit, known as vino mescal. A coarse sort of thread is made from the fibres of the leaves, known as the pita flax. The dried flower steins consti- | tute a thatch which is perfectly impervious to the heaviest rain. From an extract of the I leaves balls are manufactured which can be made to lather with water like soap; and from the centre of the stem, split longitudinally, a j substitute is obtained for a hone or razor strop, ! which, owing to the particles of silica which I form one of its constituents, has the property j of speedily bringing steel to a fine edge. AGDE fane, Agatha), a city of southern France, department of Ilerault, 95 m. W. of | Marseilles; pop. in 1866, 9,586. It lies a short distance from the Mediterranean, on the left ! bank of the river Ilerault, into which the Lan- ; guedoc canal (canal du Midi) flows at this point. ! The town is entirely built of basaltic lava from a neighboring mountain. It is the seat of con siderable trade with Italy, Spain, and Africa. It was founded by the Greeks of Massilia (Mar seilles) about 590 B. C. Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, held a council here in 506. AGE, any particular period in the existence of organic beings, of collective humanity, of nations, or of the globe. The age of the world has been variously computed by geologists, but nothing positive is known of the real length of time allotted to each period, so strongly marked by changes in the structure of its crust, and in the forms of animals and plants which have left fossil traces of their existence. Many periods of inorganic change, and numerous mutations of animal and vegetable forms of life, are known to have occurred upon our globe before the slightest trace of man appears upon its crust ; and hence it is inferred that human life, com pared with the inferior forms of animal and vegetable life, is of comparatively recent date. The age of the world, then, has two distinct bearings, one referring to the origin and growth of the earth in its cosmological and geological existence, the other to the origin and history of man and of society upon its surface. Certain periods remarkable for some particular devel opment in the life and progress of the race, or of a nation, are distinguished by particular names, such as the golden age, the silver age, the copper or the brazen age, and the iron age of heathen mythology, the Augustan age of the Roman empire, the Elizabethan age of English history, and the age of steam and iron in the pro gress of our own time. (See AGES.) The life of man has been divided into seven ages by Shake> speare, and into four, five, six, seven, or eight, by men of science. Some make four distinct periods only, such as infancy, youth, maturity^ decline ; others follow more closely each physi ological transition, and divide existence into infancy, childhood, boyhood or girlhood, ado lescence, virility, maturity, decline, and old age or second childhood. The most natural divis ions are those which distinguish the ascending^ the culminating, and the declining periods of life. Each of these may be further subdivided, according to physiological changes which mark the transitions from one period to another. Infancy, childhood, and boyhood or girlhood mark the first stage of ascending progress from birth to puberty ; youth, adolescence, and man hood or womanhood mark the second stage of ascent in the growth and evolution of the powers of life ; virility may be applied to tho culminating period ; and the descending stages of maturity and decline might well be subdi vided into lesser and marked periods of transi tion, as are the two ascending stages. Infancy applies to the first two years of life, during which the first complete set of teeth is devel oped ; childhood to the age, between 2 and 7 or 8, when the first teeth are shed, and a more complete set replaces them ; boyhood and girl hood from 7 to 14 or 15, the average time of AGE 181 puberty, which forms a marked transition, closing the first general phase of ascending progress. Here youth, properly defined, begins, and lasts until the age of 20 or 21, when the physical development becomes complete ; the bones are firmly set in all their parts ; the mind is also more or less developed ; and the sexes have attained " majority " in social life. Ado lescence is applied to the first period of adult life, from 21 to 28, and manhood to the riper period, from 28 to 35 or 30. The culminating period of physical and mental force combined is termed virility, and this may vary in differ ent individuals, some waxing feebler soon, while others retain all their vigor from 36 to 48. The body then begins to lose its energy, and gradually declines through the descending periods of maturity and old age. The mind may still retain its power, and even acquire more knowledge and experience, but the body will not maintain so vigorous an exercise of thought and nervous action as in former years. The subdivisions of descending life are not so strongly marked, apparently, as those of the ascending phases ; but in woman s life there is a critical period called "the change of life," which corresponds inversely to that of puberty. The capability of child-bearing begins with one and ends with the other. The " critical period, 1 however, is not so fixed as that of puberty. "With some it occurs at 40 or 42, while with others it extends exceptionally to 50, 55, or 60, and in some rare instances still later, the aver age being 45. This period of sterility is less marked and regular in man than in woman. Whatever be the length of the descending phase of life in different individuals, the ascend ing periods are nearly uniform in their average duration. The female sex is usually more precocious than the male, and women average longer lives than men; but that is probably because they are less exposed to accident and danger in the common course of things, for the extreme cases of old age recorded are more nu merous in males than females. Individuals be come legally qualified for certain acts at given ages, and these vary in different countries ac cording to the laws and institutions. A child under 10|- years of age is not amenable to the laws of England for serious olfcnces ; the pa rents are responsible for its actions in minor cases. Above that age the offender is respon sible, when deemed competent to distinguish between right and wrong. The age of 14 is fixed by the civil law as the age of criminal responsibility ; capital punishment, however, was inflicted for murder in 1629 on a boy of 8 years of age, who had most artfully concealed tli3 body of his victim. The oath of allegiance may be taken after 12, and youths of either HSX may chooso a guardian at the age of 14; but no person under 21 can execute a valid will. The nubile age was fixed by the Roman law at 14 for males and 12 for females, and at these respective ages either sex may in Eng land consent to marriage, with the appro val of guardians. By the Code Napoleon, the nubile age in France is 18 for males and 15 for fe males, with the approval of guardians; at IT a person of either sex may be an executor or ! an executrix; and at 16 a minor may devise | one half of his property. In the United States either sex may choose a guardian at 14; the nubile age is 14 for males and 12 for females. The age of majority, which gives both sexes the free disposal of themselves and their prop erty, and the enjoyment of all civil rights be longing to their sex and condition, is 21 in the United States, Great Britain, and modern European countries generally ; but in ancient Rome minority continued till the age of 25. Some philosophers believe that, under well j devised rules of conduct and favorable exter- | nal conditions, the natural period of human j life might be extended to 100 years, in lieu of the " threescore years and ten " of the Bible; and M. Flourens, a French physiologist of high standing, has published a work in which he treats of u human longevity " as dependent upon human prudence mainly, and easily prolonged by care to the limit of 100 years. The ages of the patriarchs before the flood have been a subject of critical dispute. "With the exception I of Enoch, whom i. God took " at the age of j 365, they are all represented in the Bible to ! have lived seven or eight centuries. Methuse- j lab s age was 969, which is the greatest on j record. After the deluge life gradually grew shorter. Shem died at 600, Abraham at 175, Isaac at 180, Jacob at 147, Joseph at i 110. Commentators who reject the literal I interpretation of the statements concerning the j earlier patriarchs suppose either that the name I of each patriarch denotes a clan or family in- \ stead of an individual, or that the sacred biographies are allegorical. History shows that the natural term of life has varied little during some 4,000 years, and the propor- ] tion of extraordinary cases of longevity contin- | ues much the same at present as it was in ! former times. The average duration of exist ence is, however, quite another question ; and ! this varies with the favorable or unfavorable habits of the people with regard to industry, morality, and civilized culture. Xor has lati tude or longitude much to do with the dura tion of life, either with regard to average, or natural, or extraordinary periods; for in all i latitudes and longitudes, where natural condi tions are otherwise equally favorable, natural, ! exceptional, and average periods maintain re spectively a similar ratio. The average dura tion of life in Europe, according to statistical calculations, lies somewhere between 26 and i 33 years ; the highest average occurs in coun tries where wealth, commerce, and civilization i are most generally diffused ; the lowest where poverty and ignorance and despotism prevail. ! These facts have been carefully observed in our i times by life insurance companies, as the basis i of commercial calculations. In England the | rate of mortality is said to be 2 per cent, per AGE annum; while in Russia the returns of 1842 gave 3^- per cent, for the mortality of the whole empire, and considerably more than this for certain provinces, including the basins of the Volga, the Dnieper, and the Don. The aver age duration of life is therefore higher in Eng land than in Russia; but we might probably find as many cases of exceptional longevity in Russia as in England, if statistical returns were made with equal care in the two countries. Comparative longevity has not received as much attention as the averages of mortality and the mean duration of existence in civilized states, but numerous authentic records of indi vidual cases may be found in every nation. Pliny gives some instances of longevity taken exclusively from the region between the Apen nines and the Po, as found on the record of the census instituted by Vespasian ; and within these narrow limits he enumerates 54 persons who had reached the age of 100 years ; 14, the age of 110; 20, 125; 40, 130; 40, 135; and GO, 140 years. In the single town of Valcia- tium near Placentia, he mentions G persons of 110, 4 of 120, and 1 of 150 years of age, Among the ancient philosophers and men of note, not to mention women, we find some cases of comparative longevity. Sophocles is said to have lived 90 years ; Zeno, 98 ; De- mocritus, 99; Pyrrho, 90; Diogenes, 90; Isoc- rates, 98 ; Gorgias and Hippocrates, upward of 100 ; and numerous other instances of com parative longevity are recorded of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as of modern times and nations. Dr. Van Oven gives 17 examples of age exceeding 150 years; and Mr. Bailey, in his records of longevity, gives a catalogue of 8,000 or 4,000 cases of old age, verging closely on 100 or exceeding it, and not a few of them reaching as high as 150 years. Many of these cases may be more or less satisfactorily authen ticated, but there can be no doubt of the occa sional prolongation of human life beyond the age of 100, even up to 170, and in at least one instance to 185, the age of Peter Czartan, a peasant of Hungary, who was born in 1539 and died in 1724. But these cases are always ex ceptional in comparison with the average du ration of life, and therefore, as judicious writ ers have observed, "no fit exponents of the universal natural capacity for life in man." The average, which falls below the natural term, might certainly be raised by due atten tion to the laws of nature and the known re quirements of healthy life in states and cities, families and individuals. The natural term of life differs to some extent, no doubt, in differ ent persons, though not as the natural stature differs in different families; for all men attain to virility about 35 or 40, however slowly they decline into old age. To this extent we may regard the natural term of human development as normal or constant ; but some maintain their vigor many years, and then decline most rapid ly and die, while others decline slowly and enjoy a long evening of life. This view of the fact might give some plausibility to the theory of continuing for all by artificial means that slow decline which nature, unassisted, mani fests in some rare instances ; but nothing being known of the causes of such exceptional lon gevity, nothing can be logically predicated of the possible results of any human scheme for lengthening the descending period of human life. Little is known of the age of animals, es pecially the non-domesticated tribes. Some isolated facts, however, have been noted with regard to the age attained by certain birds, fishes, reptiles, elephants, &c. The East In dians believe that the elephant lives about 300 years, and instances are on record of the ani mals having been kept in captivity as long as 130 years, their age being unknown when they were first taken wild from the forest. Camels live from 40 to 50 years ; horses average from 25 to 30, oxen about 20, sheep 8 or 9, and dogs from 12 to 14 years. As a general rule, the larger types of animals live longer than the smaller, in the vertebrated classes, quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and fishes. Some kinds of birds attain to a great age ; the swan has been known to live 100 years; and there are in stances on record of the raven having exceeded that age. Birds of prey attain to great lon gevity ; the eagle has survived a century. Par rots have been known to live GO, and as long as 80 years. The gallinaceous tribes live not so long. Pheasants and domestic poultry rare ly exceed 12 or 15 years. Reptiles of some kinds live very long. A tortoise was placed in the garden of the arcliiepiscopal palace of Lambeth in 1633, during the life of Archbishop Laud, and lived till 1753, when it perished by accident. Nothing is known of the age oif large serpents, such as the boa, but small batra- chians, as the toad, are known to live about 15 years. Fishes, and animals that live in the water, attain in many instances to a great age. The carp has been known to live 200 years. Common river trout have been confined in a well 30 and even 50 years. A pike has been known to live in a pond 90 years \ and Gesner relates that in 1497 an enormous pike was caught in a lake near Ileilbronn, in Swabia, with a brass ring attached to it, recording that it was put into the lake in 1230. The pike must have lived, therefore, at least 267 years. The ring is still preserved at Mannheim. The age of the whale is known by the size and number of Iamina3 of certain organs in the mouth, formed of a horny substance, commonly called whalebone. These lamimx) increase yearly, and if the mode of computation be cor rect, they indicate in certain cases that the an imal attains to an age of 400 years. Little is known of the age attained by animals of the lower types, such as articulata, mollusca, and radiata. That of insects has received some at tention, and it has been remarked that though the first period of life, passed in the grub or caterpillar state, extends to several months or even years, the great majority live but a few AGE days or weeks after the metamorphosis by which they attain to a more perfect form. The ephemera, when it leaves its grub-life in the water, and assumes a higher form and an aerial existence, liv^s but a few hours, and dies the very day on which it was born into its new life ; whence its name, ephemera, passing in a day. The age of the hors^ in his ascending phase of life is known chiefly by the growth and appearance of the teeth, and more espe cially of the incisors, commonly called nippers. In each jaw of the horse there are six of these nippers, broad, thin, and trenchant in the foal ; while in the adult animal the crowns become flat, and marked in the centre with a hollow disk. The foal or milk teeth appear about 15 days after birth. At 2^ years of age the mid dle pair drop, and are replaced by the corre sponding pair of permanent teeth. At 3-J- years the two next, one on each side, are likewise replaced. At 4 years the two external nip pers or excisors drop and make room for the corresponding pair of permanent teeth. All these permanent nippers are flattened on the crown or upper surface, and marked in the centre with a circular hollow pit; this pit is gradually effaced, as the tooth wears slowly down to a level with the bottom. By the de gree of this detrition, or wearing of the teeth, the age of the animal is determined up to the 8th year, when the marks are generally quite effaced. The external pair of nippers, how ever, appearing a year or two after the inter mediate pair, preserve their original form pro portionately later. The age of a horse may still be determined for a few years, after the 8th year, by the appearance and comparative length of the canine teeth, or tushes; these, however, are sometimes wanting, particularly in the lower jaw, and in mares they are rarely developed at all. The tushes of the under jaw appear at the age of 3^ years, those of the up per jaw at 4. They are sharp-pointed until the age of 6, and at 10 become blunt and long, be cause the gums begin about that time to recede from the roots of the teeth, leaving them naked and exposed. After this period there are no certain means of determining the age of a horse, but some conjecture may be made from the comparative size, bluntness, and discolored appearance of the tushes. The age of horned cattle is more readily determined by the growth of the horns than by the growth, succession, and detrition of the teeth." But the horns of oxen, sheep, goats, and antelopes, being hollow and permanent, differ widely in form, struc ture, and manner of growth from those of the deer tribe. The deer kind shed their horns an nually, and, with the single exception of the reindeer, the males alone have horns. At first they have them in the form of simple prickets, without any branches or antlers ; but each suc ceeding year adds one or more branches, ac cording to the species, up to a certain fixed period, beyond which the age of the animal can only be conjectured from the size of the I horns and the thickness of the burr or knob at I their roots, which burr connects them with the ( skull. The prickets or first horns of the com mon stag fall during the 2d year of the ani- I mal s life, each one being replaced by one with I a single antler, and thence called the fork. This | falls during the 3d year, and is replaced by the. I 3d kind, which has commonly 3 or 4, and some- j times 5 branches. The 4th and following pair j have a like number of branches, and the num- | her of antlers goes on increasing in the same | manner till the 8th year of the animal s life; | after which they follow no fixed rule, but con tinue to increase in number, particularly near the summit of the horn, where they arc some times grouped in the form of a coronet, and thence called " royal antlers." The fallow deer, the roebuck, and other species of this genus, present similar examples of development ; the number of the antlers increasing in a fixed ratio up to a certain time, beyond which the age, as in the stag, can only be determined by the comparative size of the burr and that part of the shaft or horn from which the antlers grow. In the fallow deer, the prickets of the 2d year are replaced by horns bearing two antlers already indicating the p almated form which afterward distinguishes them from the antlers of other deer. This palm increases in breadth, and assumes an indented form on the superior and posterior borders, and the 4th pair of horns, shed in the 5th year of the ani mal s life, are replaced by others in which the palm is cloven or subdivided irregularly into distinct parts, assuming in old animals a great diversity and singularity of form. Finally, the horns begin to shrink in size, and are said to end in becoming simple prickets as in the 1st year. The horns of oxen, sheep, goats, and an telopes are hollow and permanent. They con sist of a sheath of horn covering a bony core or process of the skull, and growing from the root, where an additional knob or ring is formed each year ; and thus the number of these rings is a sure indication of the animal s age. The growth of the horns is not uniform throughout the year, but varies with the seasons. The in crease takes place in the spring, and there is no further addition until the following year. In the cow kind, the horns appear to grow uni formly during the first 3 years, and up to that period they are smooth and without wrinkles ; but after the age of 3 years, each succeeding year adds a ring to the root of the horn. The age is determined, therefore, in this species, by allowing 3 years for the smooth part of tho horn, and 1 for each of the rings, where they exist. In sheep and goats the horns show their first knob or ring in the 2d year, whence tho top or smooth part counts for only 1. Theso peculiarities have not been sufficiently ob served in antelopes to give us a rule for deter mining the age of the animal by the growth and appearance of the horn. Some plants and trees run their whole career in a year or two, as the families of annual and biennial plants, 184 AGE while a few species of the larger growth of trees live centuries, and even tens of centuries. The oriental plane, the baobab, the chestnut tree, the great sequoia of California, and the deciduous cypress are said to furnish individual specimens, the age of which attains to several thousand years; as much, in fact, as 4,000 or 5,000 years or more. Yew trees are reported to flourish in certain cases after a life of 1,500 or 2,000 years. Adanson found trees of the baobab species in Africa which he computed to be 5,150 years of age; and the younger De Oandolle reports the deciduous cypress of Cha- pultepec, in Mexico, to be still older. The baobab of Senegal, measuring 90 feet in girth, and the gigantic dracaena draco at Orotava in Tenerifie, which Humboldt classes with the baobab, are supposed to be among the oldest inhabitants of the earth. The famous sweet chestnut trees on Mount Etna, one of which measures 160 feet in circumference, another 70, and another 64, are said to be as old as the baobabs just mentioned ; and the oriental plane tree in the valley of Buyukdere, near Constan tinople, having a girth of 150 feet and an in ternal cavity 80 feet in circumference, is deemed as old as any other tree existing. The great sequoia gigantea of the Mariposa and Calave- ras groves of California, measuring 90 feet in circumference, and attaining a height of over 300 feet, without doubt lives over 2,000 years. Eight olive trees are still to be seen on the mount of Olives, at Jerusalem, which historical documents prove to have existed before the Seljuk Turks took possession of that city, 800 years ago ; and the yew trees at Fountain abbey, in Yorkshire, were reported to be old when the abbey was erected, in 1132. They are probably more than 1,000 years of age now ; and the old yew tree formerly in Foth- eringhill churchyard in Perthshire, and meas uring 56^ feet in circumference, was believed to have existed more than 20 centuries. At Ankerwyke house, near Staines, is a celebrated yew tree, older than the meeting of the English barons at Runnymede, in June, 1215, the date of Magna Gharta ; and many other cases of extreme antiquity are well authenticated with regard to the trees of the yew species. The trunk of the Ankerwyke house yew tree meas ures 9 feet 3 inches in diameter at 3 feet from the ground, and its branches overshadow an. area of 207 feet in circumference. Many oaks have been cut down in the Xew Forest which presented as many as 300 or 400 concentric rings, each of which denotes a year s growth ; and oaks exist much larger in dimensions and of greater age, some exceeding probably 1,200 years. Dr. Plott mentions an oak felled at Norbury which measured 45 feet in circum ference. The Broddington oak, in the vale of Gloucester, was 54 feet in girth, and Damory s oak in .Dorsetshire 68 feet. The age of the lat ter was computed to be about 2,000 years. Wallace s oak at Ellersley, near Paisley, in Scotland, is believed to be more than 700 years of age, and is still flourishing. At Trons, in the Grisons, a lime tree measuring 51 feet in girth, planted in 1284, was still existing in 1792, and was therefore known to be nearly 508 years of age; and in 1776 some famous cypresses called cuprcsos de la sultana, in the palace garden of Granada, were reputed to be 800 or 900 years old. An elm tree planted by Henry IV. was standing in the garden of the Luxembourg pal ace, in Paris, at the commencement of the French revolution, 1789 ; and others are known to be of more than a century s growth ; but it is not well ascertained that they sometimes, as af firmed, attain to the age of 300 years. Bacon s elms, in Gray s Inn walk, London, planted in 1600, decayed prematurely in 1720; and the elms of the long walk at Windsor, planjted early in the last century, though still line trees, are evidently past their prime. The way in which the age of some of these trees has been com puted is twofold: first, by comparison with other very old trees, the rate of growth of which was known ; and secondly, by cutting out a portion of the trunk from the circum ference to the centre, and counting the number of concentric rings that are visible. In exoge nous trees, the woody cylinder of one year s growth is divided from the succeeding and pre ceding by a denser substance, which marks dis tinctly the lines of separation between each year. The first of these methods is sufficiently trustworthy to give an approximation to the truth, and the second would be still better if care were taken to avoid all cause of error; but Dr. Lindley states in his "Introduction to Botany," that, owing to the extreme inequality of thickness in the annual layers of wood on opposite sides of a stem or trunk, an exami nation made on the stunted or less developed side only might lead to a miscalculation of the age; the error thus induced being in some cases as much as 60 per cent, or more. There is no good reason to suppose, however, that such mistakes are common, or that the ages of celebrated specimens, authenticated as above, have been obtained by such miscalculations. The palm trees, and some tropical tribes of en dogenous plants, are said to attain to an age of 100 or 200 years, and it has been supposed that certain Brazilian cocoanut palms may be as much as 600 or 700 years old ; but the method of computing their age is hardly to be relied on. This consists in counting the number of rings externally visible upon their rind, be tween the base and the summit of the stem, or by comparing the oldest specimens, the age of which is unknown, with young trees, of a known age and like species ; but no confidence can be placed in such a method. The date palm, which is best known to Europeans, does not attain to a very great age. The Arabs do not assign to it a longevity exceeding two or three centuries. The mode of growth seems to preclude even the possibility of attaining to a great age, compared with the exogenous class. (See ENDOGENS, and EXOGENS.) AGES 185 AGEN (anc. Arjinniim, or Agennuni), the chief town of the department of Lot-et-Ga- ronne, France, on the right bank of the Garonne, 73 m. 8. E. of Bordeaux ; pop. in 1866, 18,222. The old quarter of the town is composed chiefly of narrow streets. The houses in the modern quarter are built on the slope of a hill adorned with trees and vine yards. Agen has been the see of a bishop since 347. Among the distinguished natives of the town were Sulpicius Severus, Lacepede, and the younger Sealiger, whose more emi nent father Julius removed hither from Verona. The last representative of the troubadours, the poet Jasmin, was also a native and resident of Agen. It is famous for its prunej and its man ufacture of serges. AGE\T, in law, a person appointed to perform an act for another, lie may be either special or general, or may be appointed either ex pressly or impiiedly. Xo form of appointment is required. An agent may be created either by deed, or by a simple letter, or by word of mouth. To execute legal instruments, the authority must be equal in value with the instrument to be executed ; thus a power to sign and execute deeds must be created by a power under seal. Some persons are agents by the very nature of their business, such as attorneys, auctioneers, bailiffs, brokers, ship masters, factors, and others. The agent may bind his principal by his acts. Such liability must necessarily be brought within the scope of his authority ; thus, the captain of a ship could not bind his owners in the purchase of a piece of land. The agent entering into a contract on behalf of a principal whose name he dis closes is protected from personal liability; but, if acting on behalf of a principal un known, he is himself liable, unless the third party elect to proceed against the principal. A professional agent is bound to exercise due diligence, and to bring a fair degree of skill and knowledge to the discharge of the duties he undertakes. If he be an unprofessional agent, he is still bound to exercise the ordinary judgment of a prudent man in the conduct of liis own aifairs. The circumstance of his being a gratuitous agent does not alter the liability of the agent to the principal in this respect. The limits of an agent s powers must be determined by the nature of his instruc tions. If special, ho is limited to their strict letter; if general, he must act for the best interest of his principal, and the usages of trade and commerce will have considerable weight in determining the propriety of his conduct. He is bound to give early notice of all occurrences affecting his principal s inter ests ; he is bound to account for funds imme diately on their receipt, and even for the usufruct of the same if retained or employed by him ; he may not buy from nor sell to his principal, unless by express assent; and in some cases contracts for the benefit of a person acting in a fiduciary capacity are absolutely void. The rights of an agent are to reimburse ment of all charges and expenses which he may have incurred in the proper discharge of his duties, and not caused by his own careless ness or negligence. He is also entitled to re muneration of a reasonable character for his services ; and lastly, he is entitled to indemnity against the consequences of all acts done by him on behalf of his principal within his powers, provided that such acts are not wrong ful to third parties, in which case the agent is personally liable. For the more complete pro tection of his rights in these respects, he has a lien upon all property of his principal placed in his hands. The position of third parties may be inferred from the foregoing. The agent may, in his dealings with third parties, bind his principal in all matters fairly within the scope and object of his employment. If he exceed his powers, the third party has no claim whatever on the principal ; the claim which the third party may have on the agent must depend on the nature of the case, and in particular on the fact of his principal being disclosed. Public officers, whether acting within their powers or not, are not liable for contracts entered into as such public officers. For wrongful acts and injuries (not of a crim inal character) committed by agents, such as trespasses under color of law, or accidents resulting from negligence, the principal may be made liable, provided that the agent s acts be incontestably within the line of his duty. But the perpetrator of a wrong not being entitled, by the policy of the law, to shield himself behind a principal, the agent is liable as well as the principal. AGES, a term used to designate various epochs in the civilization of the human race. Ilesiod mentions five, and Ovid four. The golden age, synchronous with the reign of Saturn, was a period of patriarchal simplicity, when the earth yielded its fruits spontaneously and spring was eternal; the silver age, governed by Jupiter, was a lawless time, in which the seasons were first divided, agriculture took its rise, and men began to hold property in land ; the brazen age, or reign of Xep- tune, was an epoch of war and violence; in the heroic age (omitted by Ovid) the world began to aspire toward better things ; and in the iron or Plutonian age, in which Ilesiod believed himself to be living, justice and piety had disappeared from the earth. Fichte divid ed human history into five ages, of which he conceived that we were in the third; while Hegel and Comte reckoned three, placing us in the last. European archaeologists have divided the prehistoric period into the age of stone, so called because men are supposed to have been at that time unacquainted with the use of metals, and to have made their rude imple ments of the chase and husbandry exclusively of stone ; and the age of bronze, when a com pound of copper and tin was employed. The recent discoveries among the remains of the 186 AGESILAUS lake dwellings of Switzerland have afforded strong confirmation of this theory, and sup ported the further opinion that the men of stone and the men of bronze were entirely distinct races. To the bronze age succeeded the men of iron. The antiquity of these ages is a matter of conjecture. The term MIDDLE AGES is applied to the period of several cen turies separating the ancient and modern epochs of European history, considered by some as ex tending from the fall of the western empire in 470 to the discovery of America in 1492 ; but other nearly synchronous events have been fixed upon for the beginning and end of the period. Properly speaking, there is no middle age in oriental history, but Hallam applies that term, for the Greeks and their eastern neighbors, to the era of Mohammed. The DAEK AGES is a term applied in its widest sense to that period of intellectual depression in the history of Europe from the establishment of the barbarian supremacy in the 5th century to the revival of learning about the beginning of the loth, thus nearly corresponding in extent with the middle ages. The last of the ancient authors was Boithius, after whose death, about 524, the decline of literature, prepared during several previous centuries, became inconceivably rapid. The darkest period for Europe generally was about the 7th century. The earliest sign of revi val, however, was seen in Ireland as far back as the Gth. In the 10th Italy and England were in a deplorable condition of barbarism, while in France and Germany there was more or less culture, which increased considerably during the llth. The comparative prosperity of scho lastic learning in the llth and 12th centuries was followed by a relapse in taste and classical knowledge which lasted through the 13th and 14th. AGESILAUS, king of Sparta, was the son of Archidamus II., and the successor of Agis II. in 898 13. 0. He was not the legitimate heir to the throne, but Leoty chides, his nephew, being suspected of illegitimacy, was set aside on the death of Agis, by the influence of Lysander, and Agesilaus substituted for him. Agesilaus, having received only the ordinary education of a Spartan citizen, was very popular with the mass of his countrymen, but he was lame and of small stature. Objection was made to him on this ground when Lysander, the conqueror of Athens, proposed him for the succession, and an augur prophesied against him. Lysan der replied that a lame-footed king was better than a man who was not of pure Heraclidan blood. Agesilaus submitted to the restraints of a constitutional king and paid court to the ephori. Soon after his accession an expedi tion against Persia was determined upon. Agesilaus, accompanied by Lysander, accepted the command, and was placed at the head of the council of war. He burst into Asia Minor, 396 B. 0., and forced Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap, to beg for a three months 1 truce, which was sworn to by both parties. It was treach erously broken by Tissaphernes, but kept by Agesilaus from considerations both of principle and policy. After many successes in Asia Minor, he inarched his army into the govern ment of the satrap Pharnabazus. In a two years campaign he brought his troops into the highest state of efficiency, and never allowed them to desecrate the temples of the foreign gods. Having overcome all the satraps in the neighborhood, Agesilaus conceived the gigantic scheme of penetrating to the heart of the Per sian empire, and meeting the king of Persia face to face, as Alexander afterward did. The money of the Persian monarch, freely used in Athens and Thebes, had meantime stirred up in Greece itself a coalition against Sparta and her allies, and the ephori sent a messenger to Agesilaus recalling him. He returned from Asia Minor by way of the Hellespont through Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, fighting his way when he was opposed, and making the inarch in 30 days. Xenophon accompanied him. He met the anti-Spartan allies at Coro- nea in Boeotia (394), and won a well contested battle, in which he was severely wounded and many of his choice body guard of Spartans were slain. He regretted the Corinthian war, because it weakened in a fratricidal struggle those forces which, in his opinion, should have been turned against Persia. His bitter ani mosity against Thebes led him to screen and support Phoebidas, the Spartan who treach erously seized the citadel of Thebes; and he also saved the life of Sphodrias, who made an equally unprincipled but less successful at tempt upon the Piraeus. This conduct to states with which Sparta was at peace united Thebes and Athens, and they jointly declared war against the Lacedemonians. Agesilaus was not present at the defeat of Leuctra (371), after which his state never regained its ancient ascendancy ; but he defended the city of Sparta with success against Epaminondas and his al lied army. His son Archidamus soon after ward gained an easy victory over the Arcadi ans, which revived the drooping courage of the Lacedemonians. The impoverished condition of Sparta after Leuctra was partly remedied by the benefactions of Agesilaus, who gave up to the state all the money and presents which he had received from various oriental poten tates. The last scene of his life was held by the Greeks to have been unworthy of his re nown. He agreed to aid Tachos, an Egyptian revolter against the Persian monarch, with a band of Laconian mercenaries. When he landed he slept on the shore on straw and under the open sky, though more than 80 years old. The Egyptians could hardly believe that the ill-clad, mean-looking little old man whom they saw before them was he who once held the destinies of Greece and Persia in his hands. Tachos would not give him the supreme con trol of the land forces, but offered him the post of second in command after himself. This dis- ; gusted the old soldier, and when Nectanabis AGGERIIUUS AGIS 1ST / revolted from Tachos he declared for the former. Xectanabis subjected him to new hu miliations, but Agesilaus rescued him from a perilous position, and seated him firmly in power. The Egyptian gave him 220 talents for his services, with which he, in the winter of 301-3(50, hastened homeward to lay them at the feet of his beloved Sparta, then engaged in war. He never reached home, but died on the coast of Africa, whither he had been driven by a tempest, at the age of about 80, after a reign of 38 years. His body was embalmed in melted wax and taken to Sparta, where he was splendidly buried. AGGERIHTS, or Akerslmns, a S. E. bailiwick of Xorway, in the diocese of Christiania ; area, 2,012 sq. m. ; pop. in 1805, 104,804. It abounds in beautiful scenery, mountains, lakes, and wa terfalls. The chief trade is in pitch and lum ber; with some iron, tallow, and hides. The whole diocese of Christiania was formerly called Aggerhuus. AGIIRDI, or Antrim, a village in the coun ty .of Gal way, Ireland, 30 m. E. of Gal way, famous for the crowning victory of William III. over James II., July 12, 1091. The marquis St. Ruth, a French general, commanded the forces of James 25,000 strong, while Ginkel led those of William, 18,000. St. Ruth had made ajble dispositions for the battle, but, jeal ous of the Irish generals, had kept his plans to himself, and when he was killed by a cannon shot early in the action there was no one to succeed him. The English troops, in spite of the well chosen position of their opponents, compelling them to advance through a deep bog, totally routed them, killing, it is said, 7,000, and taking 450 prisoners, while their own loss was only 1,700 killed and wounded. AGIXCOIRT, now Azinconrt, a village in the department of Pas de Calais, France, 7 m. X. E. of Ilesdin, on the plains near which, on Oct. 25, 1415, Henry V. of England, with only 15,000 men, defeated the French army of more than 50,000, sent against him by the dauphin (son of the insane king, Charles VI.) and com manded by D Albret, constable of France, aided by many famous captains. The battle, which lasted three or four hours, was won chieliy through the superiority of the English archers, who almost annihilated the cavalry of the enemy when these had been drawn, by the excellent strategy of the English, into a swamp that lay between the armies. In this despe rate conflict the French lost the dukes of Alen- c.on, Brabant, and Barre, the high constable, grand master, arid high admiral of France, the master of the crossbows, above 120 princes of the blood and nobles, and 8,400 belted knights, esquires, and gentlemen of birth ; of the lower ranks there fell only 1,000 men. Of the Eng lish, there fell only the duke of York, the earl of Suftblk, one knight, one esquire, and about 000 men of all ranks and arms. The dukes of Orleans and Bourbon and the high marshal of France, with 1,500 knights and nobles, were I captured, and languished for many years in English prisons. AGLMOIRT, Jeaa Baptiste Lonis George Se- i ronx d , a French arclueologist, born at Beau- I vais, April 5, 1730, died in Rome, Sept. 24, , 1814. His reputation rests on a work executed i in Rome, entitled Hixtoire de fart par Ics monuments, depids set, decadence an quatrienie \ siecle jusqiCa, son renouvellement au xeizieme (6 vols. folio, with 325 engravings, 1823), to I which are added analytical tables by M. Gence. AGIS, the name of four kings of Sparta. Agis I., who gave name to the Agid line of | the joint kings of Sparta, is of uncertain his- I tory, but is said to have reigned about 1,000 i B. C., to have deprived the conquered people : of Laconia of their equality with the Spartans, ; and to have made slaves of the revolted Helots i (citizens of Helos). The following were all of I the Proclid line. Agis II. (427-398 B. C.), son of Archidamus II., was actively engaged : in the Peloponnesian war, and repeatedly in- , vaded Attica. His son Leotychides being I considered illegitimate, he was succeeded by . his brother Agesilaus. Agis III. (338-331 \ B. C.) reigned at the time of Alexander the Great s expedition into Asia. In the absence of I that conqueror, he made an irruption into Ar- | cadia, but was defeated with great slaughter I by Antipater, the viceroy whom Alexander ! had left behind him, and fell lighting. j Agis IV. (244-240 B. C.), son of Eudamidas I II., having ccme to the throne when he was ! but 20 years of age, conceived a liberal system ! of political and social change. The privileged I class, who engrossed all the power of the state, I and almost all its wealth, and who were alone i entitled to call themselves Spartans, had dwin- I died down to 700 heads of families, of whom not more than 100 were wealthy. As by the laws of Lycurgns no Spartan citizen could pos sess more than one lot of land, three fourths of these 100 wealthy proprietors were women, who were not deemed to be affected by the Lycurgian laws, and in whose hands most of the landed estates had accumulated. Agis himself, his mother, and his grandmother were among the wealthiest proprietors. His plan was, that I the great proprietors should give up all their | estates above the limit prescribed by Lycurgus, i and that this surplusage should be divided in this way: 4,500 estates, situated in the dis tricts adjoining the city of Sparta, to be given to the poorer Spartan citizens and the most ! respectable aliens, and 15,000 estates to be cut I out from the outlying portions of Laconia, | and bestowed on as many Perioeci capable of bearing arms, who were to be admitted to Spartan citizenship ; all debts to be cancelled, | and the whole community to start with a fresh [ score. He gained over his mother Agesistrata and his grandmother Archidamia, and after- j ward his other relatives and private friends. I The senate rejected the project by a majority ! of one, but a public meeting was called, when j Agis spoke, and offered to give up his property. 188 AGLAOPHON AGXOLO Leonidas, joint king with Agis, who with a majority of the property holders was opposed to the scheme, was soon after condemned and deposed for having married a foreigner and re sided in a foreign land. A plot was laid to as sassinate him, but Agis protected him, and al lowed him to leave Sparta unhurt. The ephor Agesilaus, who was deeply in debt, procured a decree to abolish all debts, and all acknowledg ments of debt were publicly burned in the mar ket place ; but while Agis was absent in com mand of an army against the ^Etolians, Agesi laus intrigued successfully against the fulfil ment of the original design. Leonidas was recalled and reinstated, and Agis fled to a sanctuary. The conservatives, not daring to take his life in a temple, kidnapped him while he stole out to t:ike a bath, and threw him into prison. An impromptu trial was held, and he was hurried to execution. His mother and grandmother shared his fate. AGLAOPHON, a painter of the island of Thasos, flourished about 500 B. C. He was the father and instructor of Polygnotus and Aristophon. There was a later painter of the same name, probably his grandson. AGMEGUE, or Gagmegne, the proper name of the Mohawks, one of the Five Nations of the Ho- tinonsionui or Iroquois. As a tribe they called themselves Ganniagwari, " the She Bear," whence they were termed by the neighboring Algonquin tribes Mahaqua, a name corrupted by the English into Mohawk. The French joined the Canada tribes against them in 1609 ; but the Dutch made a treaty with them in 1618 at Norman s Kill, which proved lasting, and the English also secured their friendship. Yet French Catholic missionaries won many converts among them, who subsequently contributed to build up their three villages on the St. Law rence. During the French and English wars they did good service against Canada, but in the revolutionary war the tribe under Brant joined the English and committed great ravages in the American settlements. In 1784 they retired to Grand River, Upper Canada, where they now are. The "Mohawk Radicals" of Bruyas is the fullest published dictionary of their lan guage, though Marcoux s grammar and dic tionary are the most complete. Brant trans lated the " Book of Common Prayer " and a part of the Bible into Mohawk. AGNANO, a lake betAveen Naples and Poz- zuoli, about 60 feet deep. The waters are strongly impregnated with mineral matter, and the lake is probably the crater of an extinct volcano. Tradition says there was formerly a town here, which was destroyed by an earth quake ; and some antiquaries conjecture that it- was the fish pond of Lucullus, who had a villa in the neighborhood. Mosaics and ruins of baths are found. On the shores of the lake are natural sulphur baths (Stufe di San Ger- mano), useful in gout, rheumatism, &c. ; and 100 paces from there is the celebrated Grotta del Cane. (See GEOTTO.) AGNES, Saint, according to ecclesiastical tra dition, a Christian martyr, of a noble Roman | family, beheaded in the persecution of Diocle tian in 303, at the age of 16. Her uncom mon beauty had tempted a son of the praetor Symphronius, from whose brutality she was saved by a miracle. He was struck blind, and recovered his sight through her prayers. AGNES SOREL, mistress of Charles VII. of France, born at Fromenteau, Touraine, about 1409, died in 1450. She was introduced at court in 1431, soon captivated the king, though she for some time resisted his advances, and retained her influence to the last. So re markable was her life and conduct in her pe culiar position, that for some time she enjoyed the warm friendship of Charles s queen, the virtuous Marie of An] on. It has been gener ally asserted that to her was mainly attributa ble Charles VII. s recovery from the lethargic despair into which he had fallen, in the hope less state of public affairs after the English victories of Henry V. and the generals who commanded for his infant son. But her luxury and wealth excited the animosity of the court and the people ; and after her sudden death suspicions were entertained against the dauphin, afterward Louis XL, of having poi soned her. She had three daughters by the king. AGNESI, Maria Gaetana, a learned Italian lady, born in Milan, March 16, 1718, died Jan. 9, 1799. She was the daughter of a professor of mathe matics at the university of Bologna. From her childhood she spoke Latin with facility, and was also skilled in other dead and living lan guages. While still very young she was in the habit of maintaining theses at her father s house, 191 of which he collected and published under the title of Propositiones Philosophical (Milan, 1738). In 1748 she published her Imtituzioni analitiche (2 vols. 4to), an educa- ! tional work on the higher mathematics, partly | translated into French in 1775. In 1750, her father having fallen sick, she was permitted by dispensation of the pope to take his place as lecturer in the university. She ended her life in a convent. MAEIA TEEESA, sister of the preceding, composed the operas of " Sopho- nisba," "Cyrus in Armenia," and "Nitocris," besides many cantatas. AGNOETJE (Gr. ayvoeZv, to be ignorant of), a sect of heretics in the 4th century, followers of Theophronius of Cappadocia, and another in the 6th, of Tliemistius of Alexandria, The ! former denied the omniscience of God, and the j latter held that the union of Christ s human and divine natures did not make his human nature omniscient. AGNOLO, Bacdo d>, a Florentine architect, born in 1460, died in 1543. His best works are the Villa Borgherini near Florence, and the campanile of the church of the Santo Spirito in that city. He first introduced the use of frontispieces for the windows and doors of private mansions, which before his time had been confined to church architecture. AGXOXE AGOSTA AGXOXE, a town of S. Italy, province of Mo- lise, 18 m. X. X. E. of Isernia; pop. in 1861, 9,355. It has live monts deplete, which make loans of seed corn to the peasants, and is the seat of the principal copper manufactures in the kingdom. AGXTS DEI. I. In the Roman Catholic church, a cake of wax bearing the image of a lamb holding the banner of the cross, and blessed by the pope. Fragments of such cakes, enclosed in the figure of a heart, are worn around the neck by devout Catholics. II. A cloth embroidered with the figure of a lamb, with which, in the Greek church, the cup at the Lord s supper is covered. AGOBARD, Saint, a Frankish theologian, born in 779, died June 6, 840. He became arch bishop of Lyons in 816, and was deposed by the council of Thionville in 835 for the part he had taken in the revolt of Lothaire against Louis le Debonnaire (833), but was promptly restored, having become reconciled with the emperor. He wrote several controversial theo logical works against image worship, the belief in witchcraft, and duelling ; his principal oppo nent in discussing these questions was Felix of Urgel. Editions of Agobard s works were published in 1605 and in 1G66 in Paris, and a book of his against the Jews was translated into German in 1852. AGOXIC LL\E (Gr. a, without, and -yavia, an gle), a word introduced by the modern investi gators of terrestrial magnetism, and applied to a line uniting all points where the declination of the compass needle is zero, that is, where it points exactly north and south. As the mag netic poles of the earth do not coincide with the geographical poles, the magnetic meridians are different from the geographical meridians ; and as the former are determined by the decli nation of the compass needle, they are. by no means regular arcs of great circles, as is the case with the latter, the magnetic force which di rects the compass needle being very irregular over the earth s surface. Therefore the agonic line is not that geographical meridian which passes through the magnetic poles of our earth, but an irregular line at present crossing the east ern portion of South America at about 20 S. latitude and 30 of longitude E. of Washington, skirting the Antilles, entering North Carolina near Cape Lookout, passing over Virginia, Ohio, Lakes Erie and Huron, crossing through the Dominion of Canada, and reaching Hudson bay and the magnetic north pole. At the other side I of this pole it passes through the unexplored I regions of the geographical north pole till it reaches the northern coast of Siberia in about Ion. 115 E. of Washington, and lat. 75 X., I passes south through the Caspian sea and the j Persian gulf, then bends southeast through j the Indian archipelago, crosses the continent I of Australia in about Ion. 190 E., and then j takes a more southern direction to the as yet I undiscovered magnetic south pole, beyond j which it undoubtedly passes through the south S polar regions to unite again with the agonic line in the southern Atlantic ocean. A most perplexing fact is the discovery that there is I in the eastern hemisphere a second agonic line, ! independent of the main one just described. It enters China from the south in Ion. 185 E., runs north through Tartary, reaches Siberia in ! lat. 65 X., then bends toward the east, then I southeast, when it enters the ocean; it runs | southward over Japan, then southwest, and finally west, and unites with the line entering the south of China. It thus forms a .closed I elliptical ring, nearly 2,500 m. long and 1,500 | m. wide, inside of which the declination of the compass needle is eastward. If the modern theory be correct, that the earth s magnetism | is caused by electric currents running from I east to west through the earth s crust, and to I which, according to the law of Oersted, the compass needle places itself at right angles, these peculiarities would only indicate that the direction of these currents is somewhat irregu- l lar, and that they only run exactly east and I west at the localities through which the agonic I lines have been traced. The most difficult phenomenon, however, is the fact that both this agonic line and the magnetic pole have a I slow motion from east to west; in 1580 it ran ! through Sweden and Germany, in 1620 through | Holland, in 1660 through London, England, in I 1700 through the western coast of Ireland; it I arrived on the American continent about 1780, | and in Pennsylvania in 1800 ; it is now in Ohio, and constantly moves west with a velocity I which seems to indicate that, if persisted in, it j will make one revolution around the earth in ! about 600 years. Trustworthy observations, j however, extend thus far over too short a period 1 of time to warrant any legitimate conclusion. AGOXISTICI, a sect of Donatist ascetics who inhabited the northern part of Africa in the j 4th century. They were opposed to labor, and to marriage as well as to monasticism, which i was then just beginning to gain ground, i They were mostly rough, uneducated peasants, ; who begged among the inhabitants, and often ; destroyed the idols, regardless of the martyr- ; dom which was frequently their reward. They I eagerly sought a voluntary death by means of i fire or water. Upon the invasion of the A^an- i dais the sect was totally extinguished. AGOSTA, or Angnsta, a seaport town on the i E. coast of Sicily, 12 m. X. of Syracuse, and 18 m. S. of Catania; pop. in 1861, 9,223. It is built on a low peninsula in the Mediter- 190 AGOSTINO AGRA ranean, and in consequence of its liability to earthquakes, by one of which it was almost totally destroyed in 1093, the houses, with a few striking exceptions, are built low. On the west side of the peninsula it has a commodious harbor, said to be one of the best in Sicily. The knights of Malta at one time had extensive mag azines at this port. Agosta has a trade in wine, flax, olive oil, salt, honey, and sardines. The remarkable caves of Timpa are near the town. It was founded in the 13th century by the em peror Frederick II., who destroyed the town of Centuripa and removed its inhabitants hither. AGOSTINO and A-znolo or Angelo, two brothers, sculptors and architects, born at Siena about 1269. Educated in their profession by Giovan ni, a Pisan architect, they were named archi tects of their native city, where they con structed many edifices for secular and religious uses. They also executed, from the plans of Giotto, the tomb of Guido, bishop of Arezzo, one of the finest architectural monuments of the 14th century. AGOILT, Marie Catherine Sophie de FlaYigny, countess d , a French authoress, known by the pseudonyme of Daniel Stern, born in Frank- fort-on-the-Main in 1805. Her father, the vis count de Flavigny, emigrated to Frankfort dur ing the revolution. She was educated in Paris, and in 1827 married Count Hector Philippe d Agoult. She subsequently travelled much in Switzerland, Italy, and Germany, separated from her husband, and lived with Liszt, the pianist, by whom she had children. She was afterward reconciled with her husband (who died in 1850) and regained her social standing in Paris. She wrote a series of novels some what after the style of George Sand. Her principal work is IRstoire de la revolution de 1848 (2 vols., 1851; new edition, illustrated, 1800). She has also published Trois Journees de la me de Marie Stuart (1856), Florence et Turin (artistic and political essays, 1862), and Dante et Gccthe (dialogues, 1860)1 AGOUTI (dasyprocta of Illigcr ; cliloromys of Cuvier), a genus of animals belonging to the class mammalia, order rodentia, dis- Agouti (Dasyprocta aguti). tinguished principally by their feet and toes, j which are furnished with powerful claws, simi- i lar to those of the burrowing animals. The j agoutis, however, neither burrow nor climb, j roaming at large in the forests, and sheltering themselves among any casual defences they may find. They use their fore paws for the purpose of holding their food, sitting erect on their haunches while eating, and assuming the same attitude when looking about them or lis tening in alarm or surprise. The agouti is of nearly the size of a large hare, and like that animal has its hind legs longer than the fore, but not so disproportionately, for which reason it stands more erect. The common agouti, D. aguti, measures about 1 foot 8 inches in length, and stands 11 or 12 inches high at the croup. Its head resembles that of the rabbit ; its face is convex ; its nose swollen ; its upper lip cleft ; its ears round and naked; its eyes large; its upper jaw longer than the lower ; and its tail a mere naked stump. The hairs on the upper parts are annulated alternately with black, brown, and yellow, producing a speckled yel low and green appearance on the neck, head, backhand sides. The croup is golden yellow; the breast, belly, and inner part of the arms and thighs are straw color ; the moustaches and feet black. The hair on the fore parts is about an inch long; on the rump nearly four times that length, whence the generic name of dasyprocta (hairy-rumped) ; and is every where, except on the breast and belly, of a stiff and bristly character. These animals inhabit Guiana and Brazil, and are also found in the West India islands, and as far south as Para guay. On the islands, at the time of their first discovery, they were the largest known quad rupeds, and constituted the principal food of the dense Indian population. It is asserted and denied, by different authors, that they breed many times in each year, and produce many young at each birth ; but the great num bers in which they are still found in all the hotter parts of America, in spite of their de struction by the small carnivora and by the Indian races, together with their affinity to the rabbit and cavy, seem to countenance the af firmative proposition. Their flesh is white and tender, and is cooked like that of the hare or rabbit. The other varieties of this animal are the black or crested agouti, D. cristata, of Guiana and Brazil ; the acouchy, or olive agouti, D. acuchi, of the West India isles, Guiana, and the northern parts of Brazil ; the white-toothed agouti, D. croconata, of the Amazon ; the black-rnmped agouti, D. prymnoloplia ; the sooty agouti, D. fuliginosa, of northern Brazil, easily distinguished by its black color and great size; and, lastly, the Azara s agouti, D, Azarce, of Paraguay, Bolivia, and the south of Brazil. They are perfectly harmless, and appear to form a link between the families of the rabbit and cavy or Guinea pig. AGRA. I. One of the six Northwestern Prov inces of British India (which constitute one of the eight separate administrations into which India is divided), lying nearly in their centre; area, 9,479 sq m. ; pop. about 4,500,000, all Hindoos, except nearly 400,000 Mohammedans. AGRA AGRARIAN LAWS 191 It is watered by the Jumna, Ganges, and Chum- bul, is generally flat, almost treeless, and arid, but by irrigation produces good crops of millet and other grains, indigo, cotton, pulse, &. II. One of the six districts or zillahs of the province of Agra; area, 1,805 sq. m. ; pop. about 1,000,- 000. III. A city, capital of the preceding prov ince and district, and formerly of the Xorth west ern Provinces, on the S. W. bank of the Jumna, connected by railway with the principal Indian cities, 115 in. S. S. E. of Delhi and 783 in. N. W. of Calcutta ; pop., including the two sub urbs and the garrison, about 125,000. It is the centre of an extensive trade, chiefly in cotton, sugar, indigo, salt, and silks. The ancient walls embrace an area of nearly 11 sq. in., about half of which is occupied. Inside Fort Akbar are the palace of Shah Jehan and the famous pearl mosque. Near the river, about 1 m. E. of the fort, is the celebrated Taj Mahal, a mausoleum built bv Jehan for himself and his The Taj Mahal, Agra. wife Xoor Mahal, in the construction of which 20,000 men are said to have been employed 22 years ; the cost was estimated at over $4,000,000. It is of white marble, 100 feet in diameter and 200 in height, built in the form of an irregular octagon, and rising from a high marble terrace which rests upon another of red sandstone. At the corners of the marble terrace are lofty minarets, and in the centre of the main build ing rises a dome, flanked by cupolas of similar form. Both the interior and exterior are deco rated with mosaics of precious stones and the most beautiful tracery. The whole Koran is said to be written in mosaic of precious stones on the interior walls. The sarcophagi of Jehan and Xoor Mahal lie in the crypt below. Among the European public buildings is the govern ment house, the seat of the lieutenant governor of the Northwestern Provinces, who is some times called lieutenant governor of Agra, the province having been at first destined (in 1833) V? i jrm a separate presidency. In the 16th century Agra was embellished and fortified by Akbar, whose tomb is 6 m. from the city. In 1058 the capital was removed to Delhi. From that time the population, then estimated at nearly 500,000, began to decline, but it has in creased since the British occupation. In the 18th century Agra was held by various native rulers, and eventually by Madhaji Sindia, the Mahratta chief, patron of the French adven turer Pirron, who during the conflict in 1803 with the East India company employed in his turn the Dutch adventurer Ilessing. Anarchy prevailed in the garrison, and several Mahratta regiments joined the English forces under Gen. Lake, who occupied the city in September, and the fort in October, 1803. During the sepoy mutiny of 1857 most of the European houses were destroyed. The English and other for eign residents, however, shut themselves up in the fort and sustained a gallant defence until re lieved by Col. Greathed. Agra is venerated by the Hindoos as the city of the incarnation of Vishnu under the name of Parasu Rama. AGRAM (Croat. Zagreb ; II un. Zdgrdb}, a town of the Atistro-IIungarian monarchy, capital of Croatia and of a county of its own name, about a mile from the river Save, and 160 m. S. of Vienna; pop. in 1869, 20,637. It is the resi dence of the ban of Croatia, and the see of a Roman Catholic archbishop. It carries on an important trade in salt, tobacco, grain, and wines. In its vicinity is one of the finest parks ot the monarchy. AGRARIAN LAWS, enactments framed at vari ous times by the Romans to regulate the ager puljlicus, or public domain. In the first epoch of the growth of Rome, when the city had not yet extended beyond the Palatine hill, the whole soil of the state was ager puMicus, or undivided public property ; and from the state, or the pop ulvs Romanus, consisting exclusively of citizens, every citizen received a share for his private use. In principle all the land was, therefore, ager pitltUcns, and the citizen could only acquire possession as tenant at will of the state ; but in course of time the descend ants of the original founders, or the patricians, transformed these primitive concessions into an absolute right, called in the Roman law de jure qmritio. Still the principle remained, and was recognized during the whole epoch of the republic, that all lands and booty acquired by conquest were acquired for the state, and could only become the property of individuals through the cession to them of the rights of the state. As conquest increased the public possessions, and the class of plebeians was formed, the Ro man people gave them lands in the ager puh- licvs, as private property, on condition of their paying a tribute, and undertaking other pub lic services; but the patricians always pre served their ancient right of receiving in pos session and using parts of the public domain, on paying to the public treasury a tithe of its product. From the first epoch of Roman so ciety, lands thus held could pass as an inherit-- AGRARIAN LAWS AGRICOLA ance to children, and were even sold under this precarious tenure, though in principle the state could always resume their possession. These public lands were also, on their conr quest, often transformed into common pastur age. Such lands had various technical names, as occupati, oceupatorii, conccssi, areifinales, &c. ; but the general name was that of posses- siones, and the -payment or tithe given to the state for their use was called fructm or vecti- galia. The possession of all such lands by in dividuals was permissive, and differed wholly from the absolute right of property, by which each Roman citizen, whether an original pa trician or one of the plebeians who were first admitted to private and then to public rights, held landed property by the various titles and denominations known in the Roman law. But the patricians, the original shareholders in the public domain, became by long use accustomed to consider their grants as absolute property, especially as they had improved them in vari ous ways ; and accordingly they often refused to pay the tithe due to the treasury. In the early period of the republic, previous to the twelve tables, Spurius Cassius, a patrician, on becoming consul, procured a law that some parts of the public domain, long before con quered, but occupied by the patricians, should be surrendered to the state and assigned to the necessitous citizens. The patricians resisted it, and the law remained a dead letter. The pa tricians not only prevented new divisions of the public lands, but by violence or usury ac quired those of the plebeians. This led to agitation for a revival of the law of Spurius Cassius, which the celebrated decemvir Appius Claudius strongly opposed. Next, the inva sion of the Gauls under Brennus ruined the numerous small free tenants and freeholders, and obliged them to sell their landed property to the wealthy patricians. Those among the small freeholds which were not thus absorbed were overwhelmed by the surrounding large estates. The keeping of large flocks of cattle ruined the saltus publici, or common pasture lands, and in fact excluded the small farmers from them. This abuse occasioned the publi cation, in 867 B. C., of the Licinian law (roga- tiones Licinw), so called from Licinius Stolo, its originator. This law is considered as form ing the basis and containing the essence of the agrarian idea. The technical name of this law was De Modo Agri. It prescribed, under a pen alty of heavy fines, that no one should possess more than 500 jugera (about 330 acres) of the public domain ; and that no one should send to graze on the public pastures more than 100 large or 500 small animals. This law was put in force for a brief period, after which it was neg lected for nearly two centuries, when it was renewed by Tiberius Gracchus, with some addi tions and modifications in favor of the wealthy, who were mostly patricians. Any one having one or two sons could hold from 250 to 500 jugera in the public domain above his original right, as established by the Licinian law. The attempt to execute these laws occasioned the tragical end of the two Gracchi (133 and 121 B. C.). In succeeding times, an agrarian law was mooted by a certain Saturninus, having for its object the distribution of lands conquered in Cisalpine Gaul. Another was proposed by Drusus to distribute all the conquered lands i among the poor; and in the time of Cicero, I Servians Rullus proposed that the public do- j mains out of Italy conquered by Pornpey should be sold, and out of the proceeds lands bought in Italy for needy citizens. Not one of all the Roman agrarian laws was ever executed, and not one of them had that confiscatory or level ling character so frequently attributed to them. Not one of these laws aimed at the equal division of landed property owned by individuals in their own absolute right, or intended any limitation upon such ownership. AGREDA, Maria de (Coronel), a Franciscan nun, lady superior of the convent of the Immaculate Conception (founded by her mother) at Agreda, in Spain, born in that town in 1602, died there, May 24, 1665. She professed to receive reve lations direct from heaven. At the command of God, who appeared to her in a dream, as she said, she undertook to write the life of the Virgin Mary. It was first published in 1690, under the title Mistica Ciudad de Dios (4 vols.). Every word, according to her attesta tion, had been written under inspiration. The reading of it was forbidden at Rome, and the Sorbonne in Paris censured the individual who translated a portion into French. Bossuet ex posed the indecencies of the work. It has been translated into German. AGREEMENT. See CONTRACT. AGRIB, Agreed, or Gharib, Mount, a remarka ble conical mountain in central Egypt, in lat. 28 12 N., Ion. 32 42 E. It is situated about 16 miles inland from the gulf of Suez, opposite Mt. Sinai, is about 6,000 feet high, and can be seen at a distance of 100 miles. AGRICOLA, Cneins Julias, a Roman general, born at Forum Julii (now Frejus in Provence), June 13, A. D. 37, died Aug. 23, 93. He re ceived his education atMassilia (Marseilles), and his military training under Suetonius in Brit ain. On Vespasian s election by his legions (69), Agricola, then quaastor in Asia, was one of the first to acknowledge him, and that emperor in gratitude appointed him governor of Aquitania. lie was next made consul, and subsequently governor of Britain. During this governor ship he conquered Wales and the island of An- glesea, built a wall from the Clyde to the frith of Forth to keep oft the incursions of the northern barbarians, and defeated the British Galgacus in Scotland, and thus brought Britain under complete subjection. The Roman fleet now for the flrst time sailed round the whole island. He was recalled by Domitian, and lived in retirement till his death, which was attrib uted to the emperor s jealousy of his military reputation and popularity. Ilis daughter Do- AGPJCOLA AGKICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 193 mitia married Tacitus the historian, who wrote his life. AGRICOLA. I. Georjr, a German mineralo gist and physician, born at Glauchau, Saxony, March 24, 1490, died in Chemnitz, Xov. 21, 1555. II is name was originally Bauer (peas ant), of which he adopted the Latin equivalent, lie was at first rector of a school in Zwickau, afterward studied medicine at Leipsic, devoted himself to metallurgy, and in 1531, on the invi tation of Duke Maurice, settled at Chemnitz. He attempted to reduce mineralogy and metal lurgy to a science, and introduced considerable improvements in the previously rude art of mining. He first made chemical analyses of the different earths. His mind was, however, deeply tinged with the superstitions of his age. Having renounced Protestantism before his death, his body was refused burial in Chem nitz. He wrote De Re Metallica, De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum, and De Mensuris et Ponder ibus Romanorum atque Grcecorum. II. Johaim Friedrich, a German musician and com poser, born near Altenburg, Jan. 4, 1720, died in Berlin, Xov. 12, 1774. He studied music under Sebastian Bach, was chapelmaster of Frederick the Great, and wrote several operas, among them " Iphigenia in Tauris." He was husband of the vocalist Mme. Molteni. III. Johannes (originally SCHXITTEE or SCHXEIDEE), a German theologian, born in Eisleben, whence he is called Magister Islebius, April 10, 1492, died in Berlin, Sept. 22, 1566. He studied at Wittenberg and Leipsic, and acquired the friendship and esteem of Luther, who in 1525 sent him to Frankfort-on-the-Main, to institute Protestant worship there. On his return he was parish priest of Eisleben, and here he com menced that Antinomian controversy which he subsequently renewed from his professorial chair in Wittenberg (1536- 8), and for which he was dismissed from that university. He next became chaplain and general superintendent to the elector of Brandenburg. He wrote several theological works, as well as an account of the common German proverbs. IV. Rudolf, an eminent scholar, born in Groningen in 1442 or 1443, died in Heidelberg, Oct. 28, 1485. He travelled in France and Italy, and won the es teem and patronage of Ercole d Este, duke of Ferrara. On his return he was chosen profes sor of philosophy at the university of Heidel berg. He wrote various works of a miscella neous character, the most remarkable of which, perhaps, is an essay entitled Tractatm de In- ventione Dialectica, in which he devotes con siderable space to the discussion of the ability of deaf mutes to acquire such knowledge of language as to be able to converse with others by writing. He was among the first to intro duce the study of Greek into Germany, and gave lectures on Greek literature at Worms and Heidelberg. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, the study of the chemical relations "of substances concerned in agricultural production. The whole natural VOL. i. 13 science of vegetable and animal production ip usually called agricultural chemistry, although it includes much of physics, meteorology, vege- | table and animal physiology, and geology. It is impossible to separate these subjects, with out grave errors; and hence those works which give the justest view of the chemistry of agriculture are not strictly treatises on ag ricultural chemistry. The object of agricul ture is to develop from the soil as large a quan tity as possible of useful vegetable products; or indirectly, of animal products. To assist in this, agricultural chemistry must inquire into the composition of the plant and animal. It finds that all vegetable and animal substances contain a variable, usually large proportion of water, which is essential to their life, but may be separated from them by heat without other wise affecting their chemical composition. At a high temperature, dry animal or vegetable tis sues are resolved into two portions ; one passes into the air as volatile gases or vapors ; another, indestructible by heat, remains as ashes. In most vegetable and animal substances, the com bustible or organic part forms 90 to 99 per cent, of the whole dry matter ; the proportion of inorganic substances (ash) being small. The organic matter mainly consists of four elements, viz. : carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. These simple bodies are united in the plant and animal into thousands of combinations, the ex tended study of which belongs to organic chem istry. Most agricultural products, however, consist chiefly of but a few of these combina tions or proximate elements. These may be specified under four classes: 1. The oils and resins, including wax. 2. Cellulose (cell tissue, woody fibre); starch; the sugars, cane and grape; the gums, arabine, bassorine, dextrine (starch gums). 3. Pectose (the pulp of green fruits) and its derivatives. 4. The nitrogenous or sanguigenous* principles, viz. : albumen, case- ine (legumine, avenine), emulsine, and fibrine (gluten). The first three groups are com posed exclusively of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (some of the oils, of carbon and hydro gen only), while all the members of the fourth group contain 15 to 18 per cent, of nitrogen, most of them small quantities of sulphur, and phosphorus also, in addition to the three ele ments above named. The whole growing part of the plant is a porous substance, as easily penetrable by air as a sieve, and a hygroscopic substance, absorbing and retaining the vapor of water from the air or soil with great force and obstinacy. When a vegetable is destroyed by burning, it is mostly resolved into air. On the other hand, when it is formed by growth, its substance is mostly derived from air. The atmosphere which perpetually bathes and pene trates the leaves of plants supplies them with carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. The atmospheric source of carbon is carbonic acid. This gas is a constant ingredient of the atmos- * BloorJ -producing; so called from the function of these bodies in animal nutrition. 194: AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY phere to the extent of ^-sVo f tne volume of the latter. It is rapidly absorbed by the leaves of growing plants under the influence of sun light, and undergoes decomposition in the vege table cells, carbon being retained and assimi lated, while the oxygen is set free wholly or in part, and exhales from the leaves. Water, which always exists in the atmosphere in the state of vapor, is an abundant source of both oxygen and hydrogen. Ammonia, a compound of hydrogen and nitrogen, is the chief source of nitrogen to the plant. It is ever present in the atmosphere in the form of carbonate, though in exceedingly small quantity. Nitric acid, which is formed by the oxidation of am monia, is also a source of nitrogen. The plant being fixed and at rest, its food must necessa rily be in perpetual motion around the organs destined to take it up. The atmospheric food is kept in motion, not only by the winds, but more effectually by the osmotic force (exosmose and endosmose). When two or more gases of unequal density are brought in contact in a confined space, they will gradually diffuse into each other, until they form a homogeneous mixture. If into a mixture of gases any solid or liquid body be introduced, which can com bine with and remove one of the gases, it first takes up those particles of this gas which are in its immediate vicinity ; but as fast as the uniformity of the mixture is thus disturbed, the absorbable gas diffuses into the space which has become void of it ; and as new portions are removed, other new ones are presented, until the whole is absorbed. All the forms of plant food are soluble in water. In virtue of these physical laws, it is plain that the tissues of a growing plant must be constantly surrounded with water, and with carbonic acid and ammo nia dissolved in this water ; and as these are removed by the assimilating processes of the vegetable, they are restored by osmotic diffu sion, so long as the atmospheric supply suffices. The ash of agricultural plants consists of the phosphates, sulphates, silicates, and carbonates of potash, soda, lime, and magnesia, with small quantities of oxide of iron and manganese, and alkaline chlorides. Other bodies, as alumina, copper, and zinc, are found in some kinds of land plants. The living plant contains sulphur (and perhaps phosphorus) in a state of organic combination, in the various nitrogenous princi ples, or in sulphurized oils. On burning these compounds, sulphuric and phosphoric acid re sult. Portions of the potash, soda, lime, and magnesia are combined with vegetable acids (oxalic, tartaric, malic) in the living plants, but these compounds are converted into carbonates by burning. Silica exists probably in the un- combined state in many cases, as in the bam boo (tabashcer), stalks of grasses, and scouring rush ; but in burning it combines with potash, lime, &c., so that it is found as a silicate in the ash. That these ingredients of the ash are in dispensable to the development of vegetation, is proved no* only by their invariable occur rence in normally developed plants, but by direct experiment. The cereal grains, for ex ample, will not mature in a soil which is defi cient in any one of the following substances, viz. : potash, soda, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, oxide of manganese, silica, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, chlorine. These kinds of plant food are all derived from the soil, and enter the plant through its roots. The medium of their transmission into the vegetable organ ism is water, which is assisted in its solvent ac tion by carbonic acid and ammonia. The same law of osmotic diffusion, which accumulates the gaseous food of the plant in the tissues of the leaves, keeps up a supply of food from the soil. Evaporation from the surface (foliage and stems) removes from the plant a portion of the water which the cells contain. Capillary action re stores this waste of water, bringing up from the soil a fresh supply, which always contains min eral matters in solution. The vague idea of the older vegetable physiologists, according to which there is a constant circulation of sap in plants, an upward and a downward flow the sap ascending in the outer wood to the leaves, there being elaborated, and returning through the inner bark to the roots, depositing new matter on its way must be noticed here, as an exploded but still oft-repeated error. There is no evidence that there exists any but an upward and outward current a current to ward the vaporizing surfaces. The amount of ash and the proportion of its ingredients are different in different classes of plants, and in the various parts of the same plant. As a general rule, the exterior or terminal parts of plants, as the bark, leaves, and chaff or fruit envelopes, give the most ash, 7 to 28 per cent. ; while the wood of trees is poorest, yielding but T 2 ^ to 3 per cent. The same organ contains different quantities of mineral matters at differ ent stages of its growth. Doubtless, part of the substances which w r e find in the ash of a mature plant have finished their active func tions, and have been secreted as waste matters. Doubtless, too, a part of the ash is accidental, not necessary to or employed by the plant, but having entered the vegetable circulation merely from being dissolved in the w^ater which the plant has absorbed. For these reasons there is often little agreement between the numerous analyses which have been executed on the ashes of the same species or even variety of plant, its composition being to a certain extent influenced by the kind of soil in which it grows. Yet there is a general uniformity of composi tion, and it is undoubtedly true that the or ganization of the elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, into the cell tissues, and their contents, requires the cooperation of the ingredients of the ash, and that the relation between them is quantitative and definite, though we may never be able to determine it accurately. The atmosphere is invariable in composition, and furnishes supplies of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen (water, car- AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 195 bonic acid, and ammonia), beyond what the 1 natural vegetation of any country needs. The j soil 13 exceedingly variable in composition. When it can supply sufficient quantities of ash ingredients, it will produce most of the plants indigenous to its locality. It then is fertile. ! When there is a deficiency of ash ingredients in available form, or the absence of any one of them, the soil is barren. There is an | important difference between natural, spon- | taneous growth, and artificial, forced produc- i tion. Xatural growth in general is slow. Cul- | tivated growth is rapid. For the former, nat- ; ural supplies are sufficient; for the latter, \ artificial supplies must be provided. For the j former the supplies of atmospheric food are in excess compared to those of ash ingredients yielded by the soil (telluric food), so that in forests and prairies the former accumulate on the surface of the soil as dead foliage, which in its decay becomes a telluric source of atmos- j pheric food. In the latter the reverse most ! usually occurs, so that the organic matter of the soil diminishes and must be renewed by j manures. To repeat, in artificial growth (in- j tensive culture) the soil is made to perform not only its natural function of furnishing ash in- ! gradients, but also a part of the office naturally left to the atmosphere, viz. : the supply of car- | bonic acid and ammonia. Soils consist of the more or less comminuted fragments of rocks, mixed with certain products of their chemical decomposition, and with some organic matter debris of vegetation. The composition of the ; soil varies according to the rocks from which \ it originates. It is rare that large tracts of | soil are exclusively derived from the rocks that j now underlie them. Most of the soils of our northern and middle states are partly composed of materials transported from the far north during what geologists term the drift period. ! The soils of valleys are constantly enriched : from the rocks of surrounding hills, so that the composition of soils is thus more uniform in ; a general sense than it otherwise could be. We constantly meet, however, with limited areas having soils of peculiar characters. We find beds of sand, gravel, clay, marl, and peat or j muck. The mechanically coarser parts of soil, ! the gravel and sand, consist of the still unde- | composed fragments of the rocks from which it ; has been formed. A part of the finest (impal pable) portion of every productive soil is usually made up of clay, which is a product of the chemical decomposition of certain minerals, i and which possesses properties of the highest moment in agriculture. Under the general name humus is comprehended the organic mat- i ter of the soil which has resulted from the partial decay of previous generations of plants. The mechanical texture and other physical characters of the soil have a controlling influ ence on its fertility. Unless the soil be perme able by the roots of plants, and preserve the j proper degrees of warmth and moisture, vege- j tation cannot attain its maximum development, ! no matter how favorable may be its chemical composition. Assuming then that the soil is physically adapted for a cultivated vegetation, its fertility depends upon its furnishing the growing plant with continuous and abundant supplies of the different bodies that have been named as the elements of vegetable nutrition. The quantity of ash ingredients that the heavi est crop removes from a soil is small, compared with the whole weight of the soil taken to such a depth as is penetrated by the roots of plants. In average crops of the usually cultivated plants, those portions which are removed from the field as the valuable part of the crops do not carry off more than 200 to 600 Ibs. of ash in gredients per acre yearly, while the soil taken to the depth of one foot weighs three to four millions of pounds per acre. That part of the soil which is soluble in the water of rain repre sents its available plant food. Large quanti ties of water pass through the vegetation of every acre of highly cultivated grounc}. It is only needful, then, that this water should contain a few thousandths of ash ingredients in solution, in order to supply the mineral matters in an average crop, since even root crops, e. g. beets, remove but about 600 Ibs. of these substances from the acre. In culti vated soils there is a constant removal of available ash ingredients, both by the harvests that are taken off, and by the rains which soak through or run over them. In a pro ductive soil there is a constant renewal of available plant food, by the mechanical and chemical disintegration of the insoluble por tion (the pulverization of the soil by the oper ations of tillage), by the alternate contractions and expansions of water (frost), and by the affinities of oxygen and carbonic acid. In a few rare soils the disintegrating and solvent processes are so rapid (act on such finely di vided or easily decomposable materials), that they always present a surplus of food to the plant. Such are certain soils of southern Rus sia (tcJicrnozem or black earth), and of the Scioto valley, Ohio. They yield successive crops for many years without manure. In most cases, however, the removal of a few crops exhausts the store of available plant food. Soils, when reduced in fertility, may be re stored to productiveness by lying in fallow ; mechanical and atmospheric agencies thus bring into solution enough of ash ingredients for a new crop. A soil consisting entirely of coarse sand is infertile, because it is too dry, and because there can occur in it no sufficient accumulations of available plant food. A soil consisting of fine sand may be highly produc tive, especially if it originates from easily de composable rocks, because the amount of sur face that the grains expose, and the close tex ture of the soil, maintain it in a proper degree of moisture (by capillarity), and allow a suffi cient solution and accumulation of food for crops. Clay has a remarkable porosity and retentiveness for water, for ammonia, and for 196 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY most soluble salts. If dilute solutions of am- J monia, potash, soda, magnesia, &c., be agitated j for a few moments with clay, or allowed to til- j ter through it, a portion of these bodies is , removed from solution, and absorbed by the j clay. Putrid urine loses both odor and color by "such treatment. The use of salts of alu mina as mordants, and for the preparation of | lakes, is another example of the same effect. | Soils too rich in clay are heavy, and in wet climates intractable from their physical proper- | ties ; but in dry countries like Egypt, or when mixed with enough sand to render them physi cally adapted to the growth of plants, they usually possess a great and durable fertility, since they naturally abound in the aliment of vegetation, and are not liable to suffer loss of their soluble matters from the washing effects of rains or floods. . Organic matter (humus), when formed in wet places, constitutes muck and peat, which are not fertile ; but as it oc- I curs in arable soils, in quantities usually not exceeding 3 to 10 per cent., it is of great value, j not only on account of its power of absorbing ; water, &c., but also from the fact that in its | decay it is a continuous source of carbonic acid and ammonia, thus satisfying to some extent ; one condition of rapid growth, already insisted \ upon, viz. : supplies of atmospheric plant food ; by the soil. The carbonic acid formed in the ; soil by the slow oxidation of humus acts also, i according to the amount of its production, in i the chemical disintegration of the insoluble j parts of the soil, and thus indirectly furnishes j to the plant increased quantities of ash ingredi ents. Until Liebig turned his attention to the | applications of chemistry to agriculture, it was j thought by the most eminent philosophers that humus in some of its forms was the chief nu triment of plants. Liebig denied.its immediate j value as plant food, but recognized its use as an ; indirect supply of carbonic acid and ammonia. | The best soils always contain soluble organic matter, and, although it has not been proved | that cultivated plants are directly fed upon it, j yet there is evidence that some of the lower orders of vegetation do assimilate it, and there is no reason to suppose that it may not be appropriated by agricultural plants, since it is sufficiently soluble to find its way into their circulation. Analysis of Soils for Economical Purposes. When chemistry first indicated the relation between the composition of the soil and that of the plant, and showed that certain instances of barrenness and fertility in the former could be explained by the results of chemical analysis, the idea that . the farmer might profitably employ analysis in improving his soil took deep root. A few considerations will suffice to show, however, that as a general rule even the most accurate analysis can be of no practical benefit. Saying nothing of the facts that the productiveness of a soil often de pends on its physical or chemical condition irrespective of composition, that it is in most cases impracticable to get a specimen of soil ! that shall fairly represent a large field or farm, and that the expense of a thorough and faith ful analysis is considerable, it is impossible in the present state of science to distinguish from each other two soils, one of which is just fer tile and the other just barren ; for the processes tli at have been usually employed in soil analysis are not nice enough to estimate quantitatively differences of l-10th per cent, with invariable accuracy. Now, since an acre of soil, taken to the depth of only 7 or 8 inches, weighs at least 2,000,000 Ibs., and since the total amount of matter withdrawn from the soil by the heaviest crops rarely exceeds 500 Ibs., 1 -4000th of the whole, it is folly to expect that analysis can indicate any difference in the composition of a soil before and after one, two, or even three crops have been removed from it. Again, there are numerous instances of soils naturally sterile, which, after application of 400 Ibs. of guano, manifested a wonderful productiveness. Now, the largest of the active ingredients of guano never amounts to 20 per cent. ; so that to trace its action, or distinguish between two soils, one barren and the other made fertile by guano, the chemist must be able to estimate 100 parts in 2,000,000, or a fraction so small as i-ovihro. The only method of chemical ex amination that promises to be useful is the fol lowing: A large quantity of soil, say 10 or even 100 Ibs., is digested and exhausted with water saturated at ordinary temperatures with carbonic acid. In this way we dissolve all its " presently available plant food." The analysis of this dissolved portion might be expected to give insight into the value of the soil so far as dependent on chemical composition. Dr. Pe ter, chemist to the Kentucky geological sur vey, has recorded in his report some results obtained in this way, except that instead of exhausting 10 Ibs. of soil, he used but 1,000 grains. The amount of dissolved matters in his trials in no case exceeded 7 grains, while it usually fell below 2 grains, quantities too small for accurate analysis. For practical purposes there are, however, other and in general sim pler means of ascertaining the ability of a soil to supply food for remunerative crops. Thus the character and amount of vegetation which it naturally produces generally suffice to indi cate with certainty the value of a new soil in this respect. In nearly all cases of unproduc tive soils, the difficulty is less of a chemical than of a physical nature. The great deserts are sterile, not because they cannot yield the soil food required by vegetation, but because they are destitute of water. Wherever a spring arises in them, -there is formed a spot of verdure, notwithstanding the incessant sun shine and parching winds. Some soils, how ever, with every external sign of fertility, are nevertheless barren, because deficient in some one or several of the indispensable constituents of the ash of plants. To ascertain and remedy these deficiencies, it is best to proceed in a synthetical rather than in the analytical man- AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 197 ner, viz. : to make trials, on separate plots of j ground, of the effect of adding to the soil those , ingredients which are most likely to be want ing. The improvement of the soil involves numerous changes, both in its physical and chemical characters. The correction of the | physical qualities of the soil usually effects a j marked improvement in its chemical condition, j It is at any rate indispensable to the full sue- j cess ot chemical improvements (manures) that j the soil be first brought to those degrees of j division, porosity, dryness, and depth, that are most favorable to vegetable growth. Besides | rendering the soil so dry, warm, deep, and penetrable, that the plant finds a genial root- j ing place, these operations more or less facili tate the solution and elaboration of the food of j the plant, since the soil is thereby divided, and more thoroughly subjected to the action of water and air. Theory of Manuring. When the soil is deficient in those ingredients which favor the growth of the plant, the deficiencies may be supplied by manures. The principles \ on which manuring depends are the following : 1. Plants require various kinds of solid min eral matters, and derive the same exclusively from the soil. 2. Some plants which in the natural state derive the gaseous elements of their organic structure, viz., carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, from the atmosphere, must be supplied with more or less of these matters from the soil, in agricultural produc tion. 3. Different plants require different proportions of these substances in order to lux uriant growth. 4. Different plants require j different quantities of these substances to ma- j ture a full crop. 5. Different plants, from pe- I culiarities of structure, draw differently on the same stores of nutriment. 6. Different soils j abound or are deficient, to a greater or less degree, in one or many needful ingredients of the plant. 7. The same soil has a different composition in different years, caused by the j removal of matters in the crops, or by the in- ! crease of available food from weathering (till age). The substances usually classed together as manures may have three distinct functions : 1st. They may chiefly serve to improve the physical characters of the soil. Such are some manures that are applied in large quantity, as lime, marl, and organic matters. 2d. They may act partly as solvents or absorbents, and thus indirectly supply the plant with food ; e. (j., lime, gypsum, salts of ammonia. 3d. Finally, they may enter the plant as direct nu trition. If manures acted merely as direct nutrition, it would be possible to judge of the manuring value of any substance by comparing its composition with that of the ashes of culti vated plants; but since many fertilizers pro duce all the above-mentioned effects, the ques tion becomes a more complicated one. Xot- withstanding the facts which practice has ac cumulated concerning the action of a great variety of fertilizing substances, and the close scientific study of their effects, we are yet in ! the infancy of our knowledge respecting them. In agricultural periodicals are reports of thou sands of experiments on the value of manures ; we find, however, the most conflicting state ments, and a chaos of results. There are in stances of nearly every proposed fertilizer in creasing crops, and as many instances of failure. Farmers, however, continue to experiment as if there were a possibility of proving that for each kind of crop, or each variety of soil, there is a specific and unfailing fertilizer. The principles above stated, taken together with the fact that the physical adaptation of soils to crops is indefinitely varied and constantly changing, de monstrate that there can be no fertilizing pa nacea. They likewise make evident that what is this year a good application for a certain crop and soil, may have no action next year ; and that what is now inefficacious, may prove highly useful at some future time. The most generally useful manures are those which con tain the largest number of ingredients, and present them in the greatest variety of forms. Stable manure occupies the first rank among fertilizers, because it contains everything that is needful for the nutrition of plants. It is in fact the debris of a previous vegetation, and contains all the ingredients of plants, though in proportions altered from the original ones, and, indeed, advantageously altered. The hay, roots, and grain which mature cattle receive every day as food, are in part digested and assimilated ; but since full-grown animals do not increase in weight, unless fattened, they excrete daily as much as they ingest. The most combustible portions of their food are, in consequence of the respiratory process, ex haled as water and carbonic acid gas; while the ash ingredients, and the larger share of the nitrogen, are accumulated in the excreta. In this way there is a concentration of con stituents which, after they have served the nutritive function for the animal, become the proper food of the plant. Among the various ingredients of manures, two in particular have acquired a special significance in late years, viz., phosphoric acid and ammonia. These bodies are commercially the most valuable of all fertilizing substances, a necessary result of their scarcity ; and in general, phosphoric acid is a smaller ingredient of cultivated soils than any other of the components of the asli of plants. Ammonia, especially in the form of carbonate, not only powerfully stimulates vege table growth, but it probably exerts a strong solvent effect on the minerals which compose the soil. Hence, guano and other animal ma nures which contain or yield much ammonia and phosphoric acid, are in such large demand among those who practise "high farming." But the exclusive use of fertilizers which sup ply to vegetation only a small portion of its ash ingredients, must sooner or later be found inadequate to produce profitable returns ; must, in fact, reduce the soil to a minimum of fer tility. The true system of manuring is to main- 198 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY tain in excess a supply of all forms of plant food, and indeed of all materials which expe rience proves to have a good effect on vege tation, whether this effect be chemical or physical. When chemical analysis first de monstrated that different classes of plants yield an ash of different composition, the idea of special manures had its origin. By special manures were meant mixtures containing just the quantity of each ash ingredient removed from the soil by an average yield of each crop. But investigation has demonstrated that there are in general no practical advantages in these attempts to feed the plant by ration. Lawes and Gilbert, of Rothamstead, England, believed they had established by a multitude of field experiments that ammonia is specially suited to the production of wheat, and phosphoric acid to the growth of turnips ; but there are other authentic trials which as fully prove just the reverse. While on a certain soil, and under a certain set of circumstances, experience may without difficulty establish a rule, science is not yet for enough advanced to lay down a universally applicable principle concerning the special nutrition of the various classes of cul tivated plants. Rotation of Crops. The great est return from the soil is generally secured, not by continuously growing one plant, even though it command the highest market price, but by an alternation or rotation of crops. There is no difficulty in cultivating any agri cultural plant successively for any number of years on the same ground, provided enough be expended in putting the soil into the right physical and chemical condition. But such a procedure is usually more expensive than al ternating the crops. When a light virgin soil comes under the hand of the former, it yields good crops for a few years, but then foils to a low state of productiveness. At first it may have yielded wheat ; when no longer able to support that crop, it may still give fair crops of barley ; the next year, if put to turnips or potatoes, it may seem to recover its fertility somewhat, and produce a good burden of roots; but now it will not yield again a good crop of wheat, though probably clover would flourish on it. The causes of such facts lie partly in the soil, and partly in the plants themselves. As for the soil, as already stated, its compo sition and texture are perpetually changing. The quantity of organic matter, especially, rapidly diminishes when the soil is under cul tivation, and the soluble mineral matters are in most cases removed by cropping faster than they are supplied by weathering or disintegra tion. Practical men have classed cultivated plants according to their demands on the soil, as follows: Enriching crops, clover, lucern, and esparsette ; non-exhausting crops, peas and beans, also cereals when cut green ; exhaust ing crops, cereals, beets, turnips, carrots, and potatoes ; very exhausting crops, tobacco, flax, hemp, and hops. Among the causes of the different exhaustive effect of various plants are the following: 1. Different extent or structure of roots and leaves. The enriching crops expose to the air an enormous surface of foliage, and throw out very large, long, and numerous roots. The cereals have much less leaf and root sur face. 2. Different rapidity of growth. Clover and root crops continue in foliage during the whole season, while the cereals ripen in July or August. 3. Periods or crises of growth; seed production. Plants which ripen seed re quire a better soil than those which only pro duce foliage, because the rapidity of assimila tion seems to increase when the reproductive function comes into activity. Plants which ripen seed may require a richer soil, not be cause they remove more from it, but because they need more in a given time. 4. Some crops are entirely removed from the soil, as flax ; while others leave the ground filled with an enormous mass of roots, as clover, or strewn with stalks and foliage, as the potato and beet. 5. The quantity of ash ingredients removed from the soil by different plants is widely un like. In the light of the above statements, it is easy to see that when a soil refuses to yield re munerative crops of shallow-rooted and quick- growing wheat, it may still produce a luxuri ant growth of deep-rooted, large-leaved, and slow-growing clover. It is evident, too, that when a clover ley is broken up and sown to wheat, this grain may yield well, because the decaying turf and roots are a ready source of every kind of plant food. This preparation of the soil for an exhausting crop, by the inter vention of one of easy growth, is shown in the practice of green manuring, which is in fact a rotation of crops, but is also a fertilizing pro cess, because the first crop is entirely sacrificed for the sake of the succeeding ones. Green manuring consists in ploughing under clover, buckwheat, spurry, or other crops, when in blossom, so that the soil shall be enriched by their decay. As these plants (the last named especially) will grow on poor soils, it is possi ble by their help to reclaim the lightest sands, and bring them up to a fair degree of produc tiveness in the course of a few years. Compo sition of Crops, and their Value as Food. There are definite and unalterable relations between the character and habits of the animal and the composition and physical qualities of its food. In rearing and sustaining domestic animals, four distinct conditions occur, viz. : growth, I or general development ; fattening, or increase j of flesh and fat ; yielding milk ; and perform ing labor. Different species of animals possess different degrees of aptitude in turning their food into one or other of these directions. Thus, the hog fattens most readily, the cow yields most milk, and the horse performs the greatest amount of labor. All these animals might be fed alike on a certain diet, and yet manifest their characteristic tendencies in a good degree, for the functions of all animals are the same to a certain point. That food, i however, which best develops fat in the hog, AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 199 is not best adapted to sustain the labor of the horse. Where the animal s functions are re quired to differ in their essential nature, there the food must also differ ; and we cannot carry the peculiar aptitude of an animal to the high est pitch without particular attention to the quality of the food. In fact, by a careful se lection of the food we can change the charac ter of the animal ; and when at the same time other physiological circumstances, climate, &c., are suitably regulated, it is possible in the course of a few generations to impress new characters on a race. In this way the various breeds of cattle, swine, &c., have originated. A thorough understanding of the reciprocal relations between food and functional develop ment is therefore of the highest consequence to the practical agriculturist. It cannot be pretended that science in its present state fur nishes very extensive or satisfactory knowledge on these points. But physiological chemistry has developed some truths which warrant the hope of progress in this direction. The study of changes in the animal body has shown that there are two chief processes concerned in the maintenance of life, viz., nutrition and respira tion. We use the word nutrition in a some what qualified sense, understanding by it the support of the working parts of the animal the muscular, nervous, and cartilaginous tis sues. These tissues contain nitrogen as an in variable ingredient, and for their development nitrogenous food, or food containing albumen, caseine, and fibrine, is indispensable. Xo work can be done on food consisting exclusively of starch, sugar, and oil, because these bodies cannot supply the nitrogen which is required for the organization of the working tissues. In the normal growth of active animals, the non-nitrogenous principles of the food are con sumed in the respiratory process. These bodies are brought into contact with the oxygen in haled by the lungs, and are burned into car bonic acid and water, which pass off in the expired breath. The heat of the animal is sustained by this combustion. In sluggish animals which ingest large quantities of non- nitrogenous food, the excess accumulates in their bodies in the form of fat. Great activity and full respiration are incompatible with this accumulation. The application of these facts is obvious. To keep a horse or an ox in work ing condition, we give a food rich in nitrogen, as oats ; to fatten an animal, we use a food richer in starch, sugar, and oil. Experiments have been made with a view to determine what should be the relation between the nitro genous and non-nitrogenous elements of the food for working, fattening, and milk-giv ing animals, as well as for otherwise deter mining the statics of nutrition. In Saxony much attention has been devoted to these sub jects, nnd experiments in feeding, conducted in that country, have shown that breeding and dairy cattle thrive best when each animal re ceives daily for every 100 Ibs. of its live weight 2-5 to 2-8 Ibs. of food (calculated in the dry state), which contains 0-25 to 30 Ib. of ni trogenous or nutritive, and 1*25 to 1 40 Ib. of non-nitrogenous or respiratory, fat-forming material. The stomachs of cattle are adapted for a food containing a large quantity of woody fibre, which is mostly indigestible, and seems to perform a merely mechanical function in exciting the digestive apparatus. In the trials just alluded to, the best proportion of woody fibre was found to be one fifth of the whole dry matter. Years ago attempts were made to construct from chemical analyses tables of nu tritive equivalents, for exhibiting the compar ative value of different sorts of food. The first essays of this kind were very crude. Later results more nearly accord with experience, being founded on more complete analyses, and with a better knowledge of the wants of the animal; but there are many circumstances whose effect on the nourishing capacity of the different kinds of food has not yet been thor oughly studied. It has been proved that the use of nitrogenous manures increases the rela tive as well as absolute quantity of blood- forming substances in the grain. The digesti bility and consequent nutritive effect of the grasses is greatest when they are cut just after attaining full flower, or, at any rate, before the seeds have hardened, as at this period they contain the maximum of soluble matters. Af terward the quantity of woody fibre increases. The cereals yield more and better flour when cut while the berry is still in the milk, and for a similar reason. The use of cooked food for cattle depends upon the fact that the cooking of food by boiling or steaming is equivalent to the preliminary processes of digestion; as in both cases cellulose, starch, dextrine, and the gums are progressively converted into grape sugar. Toward the end of the last century the vague and ancient notions that air, water, oil, and salt formed the nutrition of plants, began to be modified with some truer ideas. In 1761 Wallerius, a S \vede, in his treatise Fundamenta Agricultures Ghemica, recognized to some extent the connection between the composition of the ash of plants and that of the soil. Bergman, the great Swedish chem ist, Palissy, and Reaumur also sought to study the chemical conditions of vegetable growth. In 1802 Sir Humphry Davy was invited to lec ture before the English board of agriculture, and thereafter made numerous important ob servations. He recognized the fertilizing effects of ammonia, and analyzed numerous manures, including guano. About the same time Sen- nebier and De Saussure laid the foundations of vegetable physiology, demonstrated the assimi lation of carbonic acid and water from the air, and indicated atmospheric ammonia as the probable source of nitrogen to the plant. De Saussure also fully recognized the nature, importance, and source of the ingredients of the ash, and studied the life of the plant in all its phases. In 1832 Sprengel made numerous 200 AGRICULTURE analyses of the ash of plants and of soils, em ploying more perfect methods than had been previously known. It was reserved for the splendid genius of Liebig to unite the frag ments of truth into an organic whole. The force of his rhetoric, not less than of his logic, excited intense interest in the chemistry of agriculture ; and being the most popular teach er that this science has ever employed, he has contributed vastly to the enlistment of laborers in this important field. While Liebig discussed only "the applications of chemistry to agri culture and physiology," his celebrated work under that title having been written at the request of the British association for the ad vancement of science, Boussingault, a French man of genius and wealth, occupied himself with the special study of the practical opera- ations of agriculture, and in 1842 issued his Economic r it rale, a mine of valuable obser vations and experimental results. From that time on, the number of those devoted to the study of agriculture has rapidly increased. AGRICULTURE, the art of cultivating the ground, and of obtaining from it the products necessary for the support of animal life. The change from a state of nature, in which the human race must have first lived, to the pasto ral, or to any higher mode of living, must have been gradual, the work perhaps of ages. The race was doomed to toil, and necessity soon sharpened the power of invention. In the course of time, during which man multiplied and wandered about from place to place, the countries watered by the Euphrates, the Tigris, and the Nile were found to be most productive, and the dwellers in their valleys engaged in tilling the soil ; while the dwellers in the hilly countries of Syria and the lands east of the Mediterranean, which were better adapted to grazing, became the owners of flocks and cattle. The chief riches of the early Jewish patriarchs consisted of cattle and fruits. Chaldea and Egypt, from the remotest recorded times, were noted as the lands of corn. The fertility of the valley of the Nile, a strip of country from 7 to 8 miles in width, gradually sloping down to the river, and extending from 400 to 500 miles, is well known. It was overflowed from about the beginning of August to the end of October, and the subsiding waters left the richest possi ble top-dressing of slime and mud. Then the cultivator had only to cast the seed, turn on a herd of swine to tread it in, and await the harvest. The agriculture of a people must be | influenced by the climate and natural features of the country. Its progress must also depend in a great degree on the density of the popula- j tion. The processes employed must have been extremely simple at first,being confined without doubt to merely preparing the ground for seed, without any attempt to stimulate its productive ness. So far as we know, Egypt, Chaldea, and j China were among the first nations which ex- j tended the limits of agricultural practice in an- cient times. In these countries, probably, ani- i | mal power was first applied to agriculture ; and I among the hieroglyphics on the ancient tombs of Egypt is found the representation of an im plement resembling a pick, which was used as a plough. From Egypt a knowledge of agri culture extended to Greece, and we find it in a tolerably flourishing state 1,000 years before Christ, if we may believe the testimony of He- si od, who describes a plough consisting of a beam, a share, and handles. We may infer that the early settlers of Sparta possessed a knowl edge of draining, since the site of the city was surrounded by swamps and marshes, and must have been well drained before it could be made even habitable. In Greece the art of farming gradually advanced, until in the days of her glory it may be said to have attained in some provinces a high degree of perfection. The Greeks had fine breeds of cattle, horses, sheep, and swine ; many of the implements of hus bandry in use among them were not very un like in principle those of modern construction ; and extensive importations were made from foreign countries of sheep, swine, and poultry, for the purpose of improving the stock. The use and value of manures were known also. The Greek farmers composted with skill, and saved the materials for the compost with care. The importance of a thorough tillage was well understood by them ; they ploughed three times with mules and oxen, and sometimes sub- soiled, and often mixed different soils, as sand and clay; they cultivated the apple, pear, cherry, plum, quince, peach, nectarine, and other varieties, together with figs, lemons, and many other fruits suited to the climate. The names of several of their agricultural writers have come down to us, though the works of only a few of them are extant, and of these the treatise of Xenophon is the most valuable. But, in comparison with many other countries, Greece was not well fitted for tillage. Agri culture was not a source of pride with the Greeks, as it afterward became with the Ro mans. One cause of this was the fact that the land was tilled mainly by a subdued and menial race, the dominant race cultivating other arts, and caring more for building up their cities than for cultivating the soil. On the contrary, a high appreciation of agriculture seems to have been a fundamental idea among the early Ro mans. A tract of land was allotted to every citizen by the state itself, and each one was carefully restricted to the quantity granted. It was said by the orator Curius, that "he was not to be counted a good citizen, but rather a dangerous man to the state, who could not content himself with seven acres of land." The Roman acre being about one third less than ours, the law actually limited the possession to about five acres. This, however, was only in the early days of Rome, and afterward, as the nation became more powerful, and extended its limits by conquest, the citizen was allowed to hold 50 acres, and still later he could be the holder of 500. The limitation of the freehold AGRICULTURE 201 in the earlier history of the nation, in con nection with the old Roman love of agriculture, led to a careful and exact mode of culture, probably with the spade, and hence large and abundant crops were obtained. No greater praise could be bestowed upon an ancient Roman than to give him the name of a good husband man. Cincinnatus was called from the plough to tight the battles of his country, and Cato the censor, distinguished as an orator, a general, and a statesman, is most loudly commended for having written a book on farming. The Roman senate ordered the 28 books of Mago, the most voluminous writer on agriculture in Carthage, to be translated into Latin for the use of the Roman people. Rome had in later times, including a century previous to the Christian era, an agricultural literature unsur passed by that of any other country, ancient or modern, with the exception perhaps of Ger many, France, and England of the present day. The works pf her best writers, or such of them at least as have been transmitted to us, abound in sound maxims. u Our ancestors," says Cato, " regarded it as a grand point of husbandry not to have too much land in one farm, for they considered that more profit came by holding little and tilling it well." And Virgil says: " The farmer may praise large estates, but let him cultivate a small one." Speaking of the planting of trees as a means of protecting fields from high winds and storms, Pliny says : "Men should plant while young, and not build till their fields are planted ; and even then they should take time to consider, and not be in too great haste. It is best, as the proverb says, to profit by the folly of others." The Roman far mers also paid much attention to the breeding of stock. Columella mentions the points of a good milch cow to be " a tall make, long, with very large belly, very broad head, eyes black and open, horns graceful, smooth, and black, ears hairy, jaws straight, dewlap and tail very large, hoofs and legs moderate." The same writer prescribes a curious treatment of work ing oxen, as follows : : After oxen get through ploughing, and come home heated and tired, they must have a little wine poured down their throats, and, after being fed a little, be led out to drink ; and if they will not drink, the boy must whistle to make them." The Roman agricul turists whose works have come down to us are Cato, Yarro, Yirgil, Columella, Pliny, and Palladius. But there were obstacles in the nature and constitution of Roman society which made it impossible for the agriculture of Rome to reach a very high development. In the earlier days of the state, as we have seen, it was honored, but then the nation was in its infancy, extremely rude, and with a small pop ulation and a small territory. It was a time, too, when commerce was looked upon as de grading, and Avar and agriculture engaged the whole attention of the Roman citizen, the far mer thinking himself able both to till and to defend his little farm. As the empire grew in power and wealth, the operations of agriculture were intrusted mainly to the hands of bondmen, who had little or no interest in the soil they tilled, and this alone was sufficient to prevent the art from reaching its most perfect condi tion. This imperfect cultivation was, without doubt, characteristic of the agriculture of Italy to some extent during the whole history of the Roman empire. We have, however, the state ments of many successful crops, which show the interest manifested by individuals in differ ent places. Thus Pliny says that 400 stalks of wheat, all grown from one seed, were sent to the emperor Augustus; and at another time 340 from one seed were sent to the emperor Xero from Byzacium in Africa, accompanied by the statement that "the soil when dry was so stiff that the strongest oxen could not plough it, but after a rain I have seen it opened by a share drawn by a wretched ass on the one side and an old woman on the other." As time passed on, improvements were made in the plough and other agricultural implements. The Roman plough, the exact model of which is still used in Italy, the south of France, and part of Spain, consisted of a beam to which the yoke was attached, a handle or cross piece by which the ploughman held a share fixed into a share beam, two mould boards or one at pleasure, a coulter, and sometimes a wheel, which could be used or not at will. There were ploughs for heavy soils and ploughs for light ones, and indeed nearly every variety, so far as the prin ciples of construction were concerned, which is known at the present day. The Romans also used spades, hoes, harrows, rakes, and some other farm implements. With all these, how ever, the farmer s work advanced but slowly. The first ploughing required two days for a jiicjerinn (f of an acre), and the second one day. The difference of soils and their adaptation to particular crops were well understood. Ma nures were saved with care. The excrements of birds were especially valued, and judicious? ly applied; composts were made in suitable places, hollows being scraped out in the form of a bowl to receive the wash from the house, and properly protected from the heat of the sun ; lupines and clover were sown to plough in green, and the grain stubbles were often burnt over for the sake of the ashes. With these appliances they raised wheat, rye, barley, oats, flax, millet, pease, beans, turnips, the grape, and the olive. But perhaps the an cients suffered more inconvenience in their agricultural operations from their failure to apply the mechanical forces of nature as a sub stitute for hard labor, than from any other cause. Even the water wheel was not known till more than 100 years after Christ, and the wind swept over the hills of Europe till the llth century without turning a single mill. With the exception of some casual allusions by Roman writers, we have no accounts of the agriculture of other nations at or before the time when the Roman empire had begun to 202 AGRICULTURE decline. But there is every reason to suppose that the art had reached a greater decree of perfection in countries east of the Mediterra nean and in Egypt, than in Italy. It is certain that the inhabitants of the East were familiar with many mechanical appliances unknown to the Romans, and probably their agricultural systems were more complete. Rome herself, in the later days of her greatness, was sup plied to a certain extent with the agricultural products of her conquered provinces. Then set in that vast tide of conquest from the north, pouring over Italy, France, and Spain a race of harharians, who gradually became absolute masters of nearly every country into which they penetrated. Agriculture was ex tremely depressed, and the condition of the serf to whom the tillage of the soil was left was in some cases even more hopeless and piti able than that of the Roman slave who had tilled the soil before him. Scarcely a gleam of sunshine in the shape of improved culture lights up the gloom of this period, with the important exception of the introduction of an extensive system of irrigation in Spain, under the Saracens. These eastern invaders from the well-watered lands of western Asia and Egypt established in the peninsula what has been termed the southern system of agricul ture, in distinction from the more peculiarly northern system of drainage, and developed the agricultural resources of Spain to an ex tent wholly unparalleled at that time in Eu rope, building reservoirs, canals, and aqueducts with immense labor and skill, and raising the annual revenues of that part of Spain under their dominion to nearly $30,000,000 "a sum," as Gibbon says, "which in the 10th century probably surpassed the united reve nues of all the Christian monarchs." The traces of these gigantic works still remain. Bruges and Ghent were important manufactur ing and commercial towns as early as the llth century, and agriculture and manufactures there grew up together, even before a large part of Europe had risen from a state of bar barism ; but the agriculture of Belgium and Holland was long in attaining the perfection to which it has now arrived. In Britain, the Romans had made many alterations for the bet ter during their 400 years of occupation, as they were accustomed to do in all their provinces ; but the agriculture of the island was extremely rude even when they left it, by far the greater part being covered with forests and marshes. Then the Saxons overran the country, subsist ing mainly by the chase and by keeping large numbers of cattle, sheep, and especially swine, which readily fattened on the mast of the oak and the beech. In general, the only grains raised were wheat, barley, and oats, and they had but small quantities of these. The results of their labor were so uncertain and insecure, on account of the inability of the government to protect property and life, that all attempts fit improved agriculture would have been in vain, even if individuals had been disposed to engage in them. The suffering among the peo ple was often intense, famines frequently oc curred, and so little was done to furnish suita ble winter food and shelter for the stock, that a large part of the cattle perished every winter, especially in the more northerly parts of the island. The proportion thus dying annually has been estimated at one fifth of the whole number in the country, while frequently the most terrible murrain swept off a far larger proportion. No hoed crops or edible vegeta bles were cultivated, and even as late as the reign of Henry VIII. Queen Catharine was obliged to send to Flanders or Holland for salad to supply her table. Neither Indian corn, nor potatoes, nor squashes, nor carrots, nor cab bages, nor turnips were known in England till after the beginning of the 16th century. The peasants subsisted chiefly upon bread made of barley, ground in the quern or hand mill, and baked by themselves. The tenant peasantry had no security for their property till after the middle of the 15th century. If the estate was sold by the landlord, they were obliged to quit all, giving up even their standing crops without compensation. They were liable for the debts of the landlord to an amount equal to their whole property, and it was not till after that time that they were held only for the amount of rent due from them. This picture of the misery and suffering which prevailed in Britain will give a fair idea of the state of things in Europe generally at the same time. Rather more attention, however, was paid to the cul ture of the soil in the religious establishments, whose tenancy was more secure. Under the direction of the monks extensive improvements were made in draining swamps and reclaiming extensive tracts from the sea. The feudal sys tem, introduced into England soon after the Norman conquest in the latter part of the llth century, checked progress in agricultural im provement. The crusades elevated the condi tion of the peasant in some degree, by increas ing the value and importance of his labor, by making the acquisition of land somewhat easier, and by withdrawing from the country many ignorant and despotic nobles, some of whom returned with a profitable recollection of the far higher culture and fertility of the East. But the agriculture of this whole period was generally as low as was possible in an age making any pretension to civilization. We may fix upon the 16th century as the time when Europe awoke from its long slumber. From that time to the present, the gradual elevation of the middle and lower classes has continued, and agriculture has steadily advanced. The first work on agriculture published in England was the "Boke of Ilusbandrie," in 1523, by Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, who styles himself "a farmer of 40 years standing." This was followed by another volume by the same au thor on land surveying. In these works Fitz herbert pomes out the prevailing practices of AGRICULTURE 203 his time, condemning some and approving oth- ! e r s. " A housebande cannot thryve," says he, "by his come without cattell, nor by his cattell without corne;" and he adds, " Shepe, in myne opinion, is the most profitablest cattell that any man can liave." From him it appears that marl was in common use in his day, as it had been in the island even when it was invaded by the Romans before the Christian era. Thomas Tusser s "Five Hundred Points of ; Good Husbandry," in a sort of doggerel verse, followed a quarter of a century later, and went through many editions. The editor of one published in 1812 says that lie found difficulty in procuring a complete copy, "a proof that what was intended for practical use had been sedulously applied to that purpose. The copies were passed from father to son, till they crum bled away in the bare shifting of the pages, and the mouldering relic only lost its value by the casual mutilation of time." Tusser mentions carrots, cabbages, and turnips, as having just been introduced as kitchen vegetables. Then appeared "The Whole Art of Husbandry," by Barnaby Googe; "The Jewel House of Art; and Xature," by Sir Hugh Platt, from whom we first hear of the introduction of white clover into cultivation in England; and in 1649 ap peared the "English Improver" of Walter Blithe (afterward revised and called the "Im- ! prover Improved"), a work full of judicious maxims and sound advice, giving us an insight into the prevailing practices of that time. Sir Richard Weston wrote about the same time on the husbandry of Brabant and Flanders, under the name of Samuel Hartlib, who him self made important contributions to agricul tural literature. But the experiments and writings of Jethro Tull, in the early part of the 18th century, are among the iirst important attempts at real progress in the agriculture of modern times. Writers before his time had confined themselves mainly to plain statements of the practical details of farming, recommend ing such new practices as appeared to them worthy of adoption, and condemning the errors of their contemporaries. Tull struck out new paths of practice, invented new modes of cul ture, and his investigations into the principles of fertility fairly entitle him to the credit of being a great original discoverer, though the errors into which he fell in his zealous enthusiasm brought more or less temporary discredit upon his whole theory. But we can excuse his mis takes when we consider that he, like all his pre decessors, was groping in the dark, before chem istry and geology had made known the ele ments of the soil and of plants, and shown how the latter derive their support and nourish ment. Tull invented and introduced the horse hoe and drill husbandry. The latter had, in- | deed, been known previously in Spain* and according to some in Germany also, but i was not known to any extent in England. He also invented the threshing machine, though the flail was almost universally used in England till the close of the last century. His doctrine that plants derive their nourishment from mi nute particles of soil, and that repeated and thorough pulverization is therefore necessary not only as a preliminary preparation, but dur ing the growth of the plant, led directly to the practice of drilling grain crops, and the awk wardness and prejudice of his workmen led to the introduction of the drilling machine and the horse hoe as substitutes for hand labor. So far Tull was right in practice, however incor rect his theory may have been. The best prac tical farmers of the present day believe in fre quent, deep, and thorough pulverization of the soil, not because the plant is supposed to live on minute particles of earth, but to admit air and moisture freely to the roots. TulFs theory of the nutrition of plants has not been without its followers, however, Duhamel himself having labored to spread it. Tull believed to some extent in the use of manures, but chiefly as di viders of the soil, as a means of improving its physical texture, and not because he supposed them to furnish any nutriment to the plants themselves. His system of husbandry found very few followers at first, and those who adopted it were in many cases obliged to return to the old methods, for want of the necessary mechanical instruments for following his direc tions ; but it has been more recently revived, mechanical skill making it practicable and com paratively easy of .application, while thorough drainage, trenching, and subsoil ploughing have gained the assent of most intelligent farmers. Even his drilling system for wheat and other grain crops has been extensively adopted in Great Britain, and is fast gaining favor. After Tull, we find little progress in agricultural lit erature till toward the close of the last cen tury. The chief gain in the art in the inter mediate time was occasioned by an active competition in cattle breeding by Bakewell and others in England, which led to the most im portant practical results. Arthur Young, to whom perhaps the world is more indebted for the spread of agricultural knowledge than to any other man, was born in 1741, and died in 1820. His journeys to obtain information on agricultural subjects, and his writings, had a powerful influence in creating a love for agri cultural pursuits among the learned. His searching inquiries and experiments on differ ent soils, to ascertain the real causes of fertility (1783- 6), laid the foundation at least for more exact researches into the principles of fertility afterward. He first established the fact that common salt is a valuable manure, though it had been recommended before his day. Previ ous to his time ammonia was thought to be in jurious to vegetation, and natural philosophers had asserted that the food of plants was con tained in acids. Young tried it in very many cases, and always with great success. He made experiments to learn the effect of the sun s rays on the soil, and came to the conclu sion "that covering the soil is beneficial to it." 04 AGRICULTURE Hence we may infer the error of the ancient practice of summer fallowing, which left the ground wholly unoccupied with crops every second or third year ; a practice which contin ued in England down to a comparatively re cent period, and even now prevails in many parts of Europe. lie found that nitrogenous manures increased the power of plants to avail themselves of mineral manures, thus showing the advantage of a proper use of both classes, a conclusion whose truth has been still more re cently established by Lawes and others. He also tried the effect of different gases on vege tation. In 1786 he says: "To imagine that we are ever to see agriculture rest on a scien tific basis, regulated by just and accurately drawn principles, without the chemical quali ties of soils and manures being well under stood, is a childish and ignorant supposi tion." Such were some of the efforts of Arthur Young ; they may be found embodied in the "Annals of Agriculture," and other useful treatises. But one of the first systematic works on the subject, which can be said to have really advanced the art of agriculture, was the " Practical Agriculture, or Complete Sys tem of Modern Husbandry," by R. W. Dick- son (1805), which Thaer, who had it translated and published in Berlin in 1807, calls the first truly scientific work of the English, not even excepting Young s writings. Dickson s chief merit, however, is his excellent collection of the many valuable experiments and statements of distinguished members of the board of ag riculture, and other farmers. In the period embracing the close of the last century and the beginning of the present, we find many important additions to the literature of agri culture. Such are the works of Mai-shall ; the admirable works of Young already alluded to ; Elkington s "Mode of Draining Land," de scribed by Johnstone ; " Davison s Phytolo- gy," " Modern Agriculture," and " Synopsis of Husbandry," by Donaldson; the "Gentle man Farmer," by Lord Kames ; "Anderson s Essays"; the "Communications to the Board of Agriculture," and numerous agricultural re ports. " The Experienced Farmer " and many others might be mentioned, all of which con tributed more or less to awaken the spirit of inquiry and improvement which has eminently characterized English agriculture for the last 50 years, and made it a model for the rest of the world. Nor has the agriculture of Scot land felt the influence of the spirit of progress in a less degree. In 1768 Lord Kames, in the " Gentleman Farmer," very forcibly described its imperfect condition at that time. He says : " Our draught horses are miserable creatures, without strength or mettle ; our oxen scarcely able to support their own weight, and two going in a plough, led on by two horses ; the ridges in the fields high and broad, in fact, enormous masses of accumulated earth, that could not admit of cross ploughing or culti vation ; shallow ploughing universal ; ribbing, by which half the land was left unfilled, a general practice over the greater part of Scot land ; a continual struggle between corn and weeds for superiority; the roller almost un known ; no harrowing before sowing, and the seed sown into rough, uneven ground, where j the half of it was buried ; no branch of hus- I bandry less understood than manure ; potatoes I generally planted in lazy beds ; swine but lit tle attended to ; and very few farms in Scotland proportioned to the skill and ability of the tenant!" "What a contrast," exclaims Sir John Sinclair, 40 years after, " to the present state of Scotch husbandry ; and it is singular that, with hardly an exception, these imperfec tions have been removed. Had it not come from so high an authority, it is hardly possible to credit, that within the memory of so many persons now living our agriculture could have been so miserably deficient as it seems to have been at that time." But in the course of these 40 years the Scotch farmers had acquired a habit of reading, and agricultural books were extensively distributed among them. Besides | this, many of them visited other countries for the purpose of obtaining information, and ob served the improved practices prevailing there, to return and introduce them at home. Sir John Sinclair was born in 1754, and died at Edinburgh in 1835. His writings were numer ous and important. Hartlib, a century and a half before, and more recently Lord Kames in the " Gentleman Farmer," had pointed out the utility of a board of agriculture, but it was left to the zeal and untiring effort of Sir John Sinclair to call into life that valuable auxiliary to agricultural progress, and the board was created in 1793. To its establishment, more than to any other movement of that day, Eng land is indebted for the present high and pros perous state of her agriculture. It brought men together from all parts of the kingdom, made them acquainted with each other s views, and with the modes of culture prevailing in sections of which they had previously been ig norant. It was through the encouragement of the board of agriculture chiefly that Sir Hum phry Davy was led to investigate the elements of the soil, and to apply the science of chemis try to the improvement of agriculture. And here begins properly the real progress of the art ; for without a knowledge of the simple substances of nature, agriculture could not be I expected to attain the rank of ,a science. The lectures of Davy before the board of agricul ture from *1802 to 1812, therefore, mark an important epoch in the history of modern agriculture. The substance of these lectures ! was embodied in his "Elements of Agricultu- | ral Chemistry," published in 1813, and trans- ! lated into German in 1814, and into French in i 1829. This work opened to the reflecting far- | mer new and interesting vieAvs of the princi ples of fertility and vegetation. Davy showed how plants, soils, and manures could be ana- i lyzed, and manures selected which would fur- AGRICULTURE 205 nish the elements needed by the different vari eties of plants. We find him in 1807 trying to ascertain the effects of various salts on barley, grass, etc., in light, sandy soils, applying twice a week diluted solutions of sulphate, acetate, bi carbonate, and muriate of potash, sulphate of soda, and nitrate, muriate, sulphate, and car bonate of ammonia; finding, as Young had found, that plants furnished with carbonate of ammonia grew most luxuriantly, a result which ! had been anticipated from the composition of carbonate of ammonia. Davy experimented j on specimens of guano sent to the board of agriculture in 1805, the existence of it in large i quantities on the South sea islands having been pointed out by Alexander von Humboldt. In 180(5 elaborate analyses of guano were published by Fourcroy and Vauquelin. Davy, writing at this time, says: "The dung of sea birds has never been used in this country." Davy re commended the use of bones as a manure, not so much because they contained phosphate of lime, as because they were filled with decom posable animal matter, as gelatine, cartilage, fat, &c. But though the results obtained by Da- ! vy were imperfect, and in some cases erroneous, they made important advances in an almost untrodden path of investigation. The facts established by his researches as to the effect of ammonia on vegetation, may be regarded as the starting point of modern scientific investi gations into the properties of this substance when used as a manure ; for, though Young first led the way in observing its practical ef fect on plants, his conclusions, from his want of chemical skill, had not the scientific cer tainty which characterized Davy s, and which was necessary to give them their highest val ue. It may indeed be said that he was the means of drawing the attention of chemists to this particular branch of their science ; for through the influence of the reputation he gained, the thoughts of other scientific men, and especially of the chemists on the conti nent, were turned in this direction. In gen eral, the literature of agriculture had advanced more rapidly on the continent than in Eng land. In Germany especially man\ writers had treated of the subject, more particularly in works on political economy. In the latter half of the last century many treatises of prac tical value appeared, such as those of Kretsch- mar, Reich art, Stisscr, and Sprenger. At the same period Duhamel wrote in France, and adopted the views of Tull in regard to the nourishment of plants. In his treatise on the cultivation of the soil he endeavors to deter mine the principles of agriculture by theories deduced from experiments, which subsequently received a more scientific form in the " Ele ments of Agriculture, published in Paris in 1771. Duhamel, Buffon, and others, by their superior genius, made the study of rural econ omy attractive to scientific men in France ; and hence there has been there more original research in agricultural chemistry, vegetable physiology, and other kindred branches, than in any other country except Germany. As early as 1730 there were 13 agricultural so cieties in France, with about 19 auxiliary so- | cieties. The survey of France by Arthur Young, in 1787 and 1789, also did much to ex- I cite an interest in the improvement of the soil, and to make the peculiarities and wants of the country more familiarly known even to i Frenchmen themselves. Merino sheep were brought into France in 1770, and kept under i charge of the government for the improvement of the stock of the country. Bonaparte great- i ly increased the number of societies, establish ed professorships, botanical gardens, &c., all of which concurred to elevate the study of agri culture in the estimation of those capable of bringing to its aid the principles of the ab stract sciences; and this tendency has influ- , enced the scientific minds of France to the present day, though the practice of the coun try has not kept pace with the development of theory. This is owing partly to the division of property since the revolution, the holdings, as a general thing, being very small. The ear liest settlers of the United States found the country a wilderness, with many varieties of climate and soil to which the knowledge they had obtained in the mother country did not apply. Thus they had to contend with innu merable obstacles, with the wilclness of nature, and their ignorance of the climate, in addition to the hostility of the Indians, the depredations of wild beasts, the difficulty and expense of procuring seeds and farming implements, &c. These various difficulties are quite sufficient to explain the slow progress they made in the way of improvement. For many years agri culture was exceedingly backward. Stock and tools were poor, and there were obstacles and prejudices against any " innovations " in the established routine of practice. This state of things continued for many years, with very little change. Jared Eliot, a clergyman of Connecticut, one of the earliest agricultural writers of America, published the first of a series of valuable essays on field husbandry in 1747; but, with this and a few other excep tions, no real efforts were made to improve farming till after the revolution, when the more settled state of the country and the gradual increase of population began to im press the intrinsic importance of the subject upon the minds of a few enlightened men. The South Carolina agricultural society was established in 1784, and still exists; and the Philadelphia society for the improvement of agriculture, established in the same year, and a similar association in Xew York in 1791. in corporated in 1798, and the Massachusetts so ciety for the promotion of agriculture estab lished in 1792, were active in their field of la bor, and all accomplished important results. The correspondence at this period between Sir John Sinclair and Washington shows how anx ious was the father of his country to promote 206 AGRICULTURE the highest interests of the people by the im provement of agriculture. Many years elapsed before the habit of reading became sufficiently common among the masses of the actual tillers of the soil to justify an expectation of imme diate profit from the annual publication of the transactions of the several societies. The im provements proposed fell dead upon the people, who rejected " book farming " as impertinent and useless, and knew as little of the chemis try of agriculture as of the problems of as tronomy. All farm practices were merely tra ditional; no county or town agricultural so cieties existed to stimulate effort by competi tion. There were no journals devoted to the spread of agricultural knowledge. The stock of the farm was such as one might expect to find under such circumstances ; the sheep were small and ill cared for in the winter, and the size of cattle generally was but little more than half the average of the present time. The value of manures was little regarded ; the rotation of crops was scarcely thought of; the introduction even of new and labor-saving ma chinery was sternly resisted and ridiculed by the American farmers of that day, as well as by the English laborers. It was long before the horse rake was brought into use in oppo sition to the prejudices it encountered. It was equally long before the horse-power threshing machine was adopted. In some parishes of Great Britain, even so late as 1 830, the labor ers went about destroying every machine they could find. AVithin the last half century, chemistry, the indispensable handmaid of agriculture, has grown with great rapidity, and in each new discovery some new truth appli cable to practical agriculture has come to light. In the time of the Saxons, in England, as we have already seen, the plough was extremely rude. It was made by the ploughman him self, under the compulsion of a law forbidding any one to hold a plough who could not make one, or to drive until he could make the har ness. The progress made previous to the time of Jethro Tull was comparatively slight, either in the manufacture of the plough, or in any other branch of agricultural mechanics. Tull, as we have seen, invented the horse hoe and the drilling machine. Both of these were then rude, but they have since been vastly improved in their details. The plough was generally made of wood till the beginning of the present century, but its form has since passed through many changes. It cannot yet be regarded as a perfect implement of its kind, but it has been fast approaching toward perfection of late years, and the mode of manufacture has im proved to an equal extent. (See PLOUGH.) ISTor has the improvement in other farm imple ments been less marked than in the plough. Spades and hoes are lighter and better con structed than formerly. The reaper and the mower have gained a firm footing even with in the last 30 years. As labor and time-saving machines are now deemed indispensable by all who raise grain and hay on a large scale, the reaper and the mower may be regarded as types of the present, as the sickle and the flail are types of the past. (See MOWING AND REAP ING MACHINES.) Among the other labor-saving implements which are now generally intro duced upon farms of any extent are the horse rake, the improved horse hoes, the seed and corn sowers, the broadcast seed sower, the improved subsoil and trenching ploughs, the- straw and root cutters, the cultivators, the threshing and winnowing machines, and many others of equal importance. It is safe to say that the improvements in the implements named, made within the last half century, have enabled the farmers of the United States to accomplish at least double the amount of labor with the same number of teams and men. This | is a grand and practical advance over all for mer periods in its history, and promises a fu ture development of the resources of agricul- \ ture almost beyond the power of language to j describe. The progress which has been made j in the application of chemistry to agriculture is ! hardly less gratifying. For though from year | to year there may seem to be little progress, j yet when we compare any two periods of five or ten years, the increase of practical knowledge i derived from the investigations of the agricul- i tural chemist, as well as its importance, is very perceptible. Since 1840, chiefly through the i labors of Prof. Liebig, animal and mineral ! phosphates, superphosphate of lime, and other artificial manures have come to be very exten sively employed ; and it is only since the same | date that guano, though known long before, j has come into general use. (See AGRICULTURAL I CHEMISTRY, BONE DUST, GUANO, &c.) An im partial survey will show that the actual pro duction of the means of supporting life has largely increased, as the true principles of cul- i tivation have become better known and under - : stood. The average yield per acre of some of ; the cultivated grains, as wheat, for instance, has nearly quadrupled in countries where these prin- ; ciples have gained the strongest hold, even with- | in the memory of men still living ; and this in crease is not merely proportionate to the great er number of producers, or the additional acres brought under tillage, but an absolute increase | per acre. It is difficult to ascertain the amount of crops, or the average yield, of very distant times past, but the average yield per acre of wheat in the llth century was estimated by i the highest authority of that day, the author I of "Fleta," at only 6 bushels. So 300 years later, in 1390, 57 acres on a farm at Haw- sted yielded only 360 bushels, and on an aver age of three years little more than that. The i actual productive power of Great Britain in the article of wheat alone increased during the half century from 1801 to 1851 to the extent of supporting an additional population of 7,000,000, an increase which can be ascribed with confidence mainly to improved cultiva tion. So in every country where agriculture AGRICULTURE AGRIGEXTUM 207 receives the attention it deserves, the produc tive power of the soil lias largely increased. | Even the Atlantic states of the Union, where ! the system of cultivating the soil without main- j taining its fertility by a proper treatment pre- | vailed for many years, are not an exception, ; since the condition of agriculture is rapidly improving in the oldest of them, where this j system was earliest begun, and the general ; average of crops, with the exception of the potato, is increasing from year to year as a more proper culture is introduced and persevered in, the farmer being led to improve his practice ! by the pressure of an increasing population and i constantly rising prices. In Xew England, for instance, one of the oldest sections, the general average yield of Indian corn per acre has risen to about 35 bushels, while crops of 50 and 60 bushels per acre arc not uncommon, and 80 and | 100 are sometimes obtained by careful tillage, j The situation and soil of Xew England are not such as to make it what is called a wheat- | growing region, and this fact, which farmers were long in understanding, has caused a great decrease in the extent of land devoted to this i crop. Indian corn, root crops, and all the va- j rieties of fruit suited to temperate latitudes, are found to be more certain and remunerative, j and attention is given mainly to them. In the mean time the system of farm management is gradually improving, new implements to facili tate labor are introduced, and much greater care and economy than formerly in regard to ; manures everywhere prevail, most farmers hav- j ing good barn cellars arranged for its preserva tion, into which peat and loam are carried in large quantities, and composted from time to time during the winter as absorbents and divi sors. Societies have been established in all , the states, and in most of the counties. In Massachusetts a department of agriculture is organized as a branch of the government, to collect, arrange, and systematize all the latest information on the subject for distribution among the people, and to superintend the de- j velopment of the established policy of the state ; i and a bureau of agriculture has more recently i boen established by the national government, in | the interior department. In the middle states j societies are equally active in efforts to raise | the standard of their agriculture, and have \ adopted a similar liberal policy, and in some, ! especially Xew York, a high degree of improve- | ment has been reached. The western states ; are more strictly and exclusively agricultural ; than any other section of the country. Most of them publish annually, at the expense of , their governments, valuable reports on practi cal agriculture for circulation among the people. ! Notwithstanding the immense amount already produced, however, the resources of the west : have but just begun to be developed as they are destined to be hereafter. The southern j states are also large producers of grain, but are j mainly devoted to the raising of cotton and : sugar, both of which are exported in large quantities. The present condition of practical agriculture in Great Britain has already been alluded to, as worthy of imitation in other coun tries of similar climate and soil. But the points in which progress is most distinctly seen are the extensive culture and use of rotft crops, the general system of thorough drainage, the intro duction and use of new and improved imple ments of husbandry, and the breeding of stock. The land, unlike that of the United States, where as a general rule the farmer is the owner as well as the cultivator, is held chiefly in large estates, concentrated in the hands of a few in dividuals, and leased to the tenant farmer, who either tills it himself or sublets it to others. But few, therefore, of the actual tillers of the soil are owners of land. Associated effort has done much to awaken a lively interest in the subject, both among the nobility and the peo ple. The royal agricultural society, established in 1839, with its ably conducted journal, the Highland agricultural society of Scotland, and the royal society of Ireland, are doing all in their power to develop the agricultural re sources of the country. Many valuable agri cultural journals are well supported and widely circulated. In France the tendency for many years has been to the division of landed estates, and comparatively few large holdings exist at the present time. Subdivision of property in the hands of small proprietors without capital prevents the development of practical agricul ture ; and in many of the departments its condition is still rude. The government has its minister of agriculture, and supports agricul tural schools and veterinary establishments, while the "Journal of Practical Agriculture" and other agricultural periodicals are doing much to improve both the science and the practice of the country. With regard to the division of landed property, the same state of things prevails also in Belgium and Holland as in France, the agriculture of those countries being characterized rather as gardening than farming. The extreme care and economy of manures, and the careful application of liquid manures in these countries, are often referred to as worthy of imitation. In Germany, as already seen, the science of agriculture has been extensively developed, many of the ablest chemists having devoted their lives to this pursuit. Thaer, Schwerz, Roller, Stockhardt, Liebig, and others, have a world-wide reputa tion. Here, also, as in most other countries, associated effort is made to advance the condi tion of agriculture. AGRIGENTOI (called by the Greeks An-ngns ; now Girgenti), an ancient Sicilian city, the rival of Syracuse, on a lofty eminence on the S. W. coast. It was settled by a Doric colony from Gela, about 580 B. C. ^During the 5th century B. 0. it attained its highest prosperity, when its population was probably above 200,- 000. The city was celebrated for the beauty of its architecture, both public and private. Its greatest public edifices were the temples of 208 AGRIONTA AGRIPPIXA Concord and of the Olympian Jupiter, of which gigantic ruins remain. Shortly after its foun dation it was ruled by the tyrant Phalaris, and in the following century by T heron (488 to 472). Temple of Concord, Agrigentum. It was repeatedly involved in hostilities with Carthage, and in 405 B. C. was razed to the ground by an army of that nation. It was re built by Timoleon, and in 210 became perma nently subject to Rome, growing to be one of the most prosperous of the cities of Sicily, with a great trade in corn, wine, and oil. The Sara cens captured it in A. D. 825, and kept posses sion of it till 1086. (See GIEGEXTI.) AGRIOSIA, a yearly festival in honor of Bac chus Agrionius, anciently held at Orchomenus, Bceotia, exclusively by women and priests. The women Avonld make a pretended search for the god, and finally desist, saying he had escaped to the muses. Then all would assemble at a repast, and amuse themselves by guessing rid dles; whence collections of riddles, charades, &c., have been called "Agrionise." But the most remarkable part of the festival was the Sursuit of a band of virgins by a priest with a rawn sword, who killed the one he caught as a sacrifice, in memory of the sacrifice of a boy by the daughters of Minyas in a Bacchic fury. In later times the killing was omitted. AGRIPPA. I. Heroclos. See HEEOD. II. Marcus Vipsanins, a Roman general and statesman, born in 63 B. C., of an obscure family, died in March, 12 B. C. He was a schoolmate of Octavius (afterward Octavianus and Augustus), at Apol- lonia in Illyria, and was his chief instrument in establishing the empire. After the murder of Julius Caesar, Agrippa accompanied Octavius to Rome, prosecuted Cassius, and received the oath of fidelity from the legions which had de clared for Octavius. In 40 he took Perusia from Lucius Antonius after a long siege, and Sipontum from Mark Antony. In 88 he aided Octavianus by his victories in Gaul. In 37, after converting the Lucrine lake into a harbor, he created a fleet, with which the next year he decisively defeated Sextus Pompey at Mylne and Xaulochus. In the subsequent war against Antony he also commanded the fleet, and I chiefly contributed to the great victory at Ac- | tinm in 31. lie accompanied Augustus to the j war against the Cantabrians in Spain in 25; I and in 19, being in command there, he entirely 1 subdued them, after having in the same year pacified the Gauls, and constructed four great roads and the aqueduct at Nimes. Agrippa was prretor in 41, consul (with Octavianus) in 37, 28, and 27, a?dile in 33, and tribune from 18 till his death. During his aedileship he made great public improvements at his own expense, constructing and restoring aqueducts, erecting splendid buildings, <fcc. ; and in his j third consulship he built the Pantheon. In 16, I after a journey to Jerusalem on the invitation of Herod the Great, he founded Berytus (Bey- i rout). He died suddenly on his return from a | successful mission to tranquillize Pannonia. Agrippa was married first to Pomponia, daugh ter of T. Pomponius Atticus; afterward (about 28) to Marcella, niece of Augustus; and in 21 to Julia, Augustus s daughter, Marcella I having been divorced at the emperor s desire. His sons Caius and Lucius by Julia were ! adopted by Augustus, but they both died young. j His posthumous son Agrippa was also adopted | by Augustus, but was afterward banished for life to the island of Planasia on account of his savage disposition, and on the accession of Ti- , berius, A. D. 14, was put to death. AGRIPPA VON IVETTESHEDI, Heinrich Corno- ! lius, a German philosopher, born at .Cologne, ! Sept. 14, 1486, died at Grenoble, Feb. 18, 1535. I He was a linguist, statesman, soldier, physician, theologian, and chemist. Having engaged in some peasant insurrections in the south of France, he retreated to Paris, where he held public discourses, and the reputation he thus acquired gained him a professorship of theology . at Dole. Accused of heresy, or more probably magic, he fled to England in 1510, whence, how- i ever, he returned to Cologne, and afterward [ became secretary of the emperor Maximilian. He fought in a campaign against the Venetians, ! and was knighted on the field. Tired of this I employment, he applied himself to the study | of physic, lectured pnhjicly at Pavia, held an | office in Metz, and then returned to Germany. 1 At the invitation of Henry VIII. and Francis I., he visited both England and France. He was I an ardent student of alchemy and the occult sciences, in reference to which he insisted that i the writings of adepts were not to be read for a literal, but for a mystical meaning. His work , De Incertitudine et Vanitate Scicntiarum (Paris, 1531) is a satire on. the state of knowl- i edge at the period in which he lived. AGRIPPINA. I, Youngest daughter of Agrippa and Julia, and wife of Germanicus, born before | 12 B. C., died A. D. 33. She was a woman of I great ability, beauty, and virtue. She accom- I panied Germanicus in his campaigns, and once, in his absence, took the command and saved the army by preventing the breaking down of j a bridge over the Rhine in a panic. After the I death of Germanicus in Asia she brought homo AGUA AGUILAR his ashes, and was met everywhere on the way with manifestations of sympathy and respect, and at Rome with unparalleled honors. But she was an object of hatred to the emperor Ti berius, and in A. T). 30 he banished her to the island of Pandataria, where she died, as is sup posed, by voluntary starvation. She was the mother of nine children, one of whom was the I emperor Caligula. Her sons Nero and Drusus j fell victims to the tyranny of Tiberius and the j jealousy of Sejanus. II. Daughter of the pre- ceding, born at Cologne (hence called Colonia Agrippina) between A. L). 13 and 17, died in 59. She was gifted and beautiful, but is } one of the vilest characters in history. She i was first married to Cn. Domitius Ahenobar- bus, and after his death to Crispus Passienus, | whom she was accused of poisoning. Her } brother Caligula banished her and her sister j Drusilla to the island of Pontia in 39, but they j were released by Claudius on his accession in | 41. After the murder of Messalina she sue- ; ceeded in inducing her uncle Claudius to marry j her (49), the act being legalized by the senate, ! and to adopt her son Nero by Ahenobarbus as j his successor, to the exclusion of his own son I Britannicus. She then proceeded to remove all rivals and enemies by poison, and finally Clau- j dius himself (54), his fate being hastened by an incautious threat uttered by him. After Nero s accession, having alienated him by domestic ! intrigues, she resorted to the most revolting means for regaining his affection; but her ! efforts failed, and she was assassinated by his . orders in her villa on the Lucrine lake, after ; the failure of an attempt to drown her in a vessel purposely contrived to break to pieces at \ sea. She left commentaries on her own and her family s history, which were used by Tacitus. AGUA (Sp., water), Volean de, a mountain in Guatemala, Central America, 25 m. S. W. of j the capital, New Guatemala. In form it is a graceful cone, its base extending over nearly all the western part of the valley of Guatemala, i The traveller Stephens estimates its altitude at j 14,450 feet above the level of the sea. Culti vated fields surround the base, and a belt of forest and verdure extends to the summit. The crater-like hollow on the top measures 140 by j 120 yards. Its name is derived from the fact that occasionally torrents of cold water flow out of its northern side. The volcanic moun tain of Pacaya lies to the S. E., and that of Guatemala to the N. AV. AGl ADO, Alexandra Marie, a Parisian banker, | born at Seville, June 29, 1784, died April 14, j 1842. In early life he joined the Napoleonic ! party in Spain, held a commission in the French ; army, and fought for Napoleon up to the battle of Leipsic, when he quitted the army, engaged j in trade and banking, and in 1823 was appoint- I ed banker for the Spanish government at Paris, j He was created a Spanish marquis by Ferdinand ; VII., and received from Otho of Greece the ! order of the Redeemer. lie lived in great voi. i. 14 splendor, and died worth $12,000,000. He had a gallery of very fine pictures, which were en graved and published as the Galerie Aguado (Paris, 1837- 42). AGUAS CALIENTES. I. The smallest state of the Mexican republic, nearly enclosed by Zaca- tecas, and bounded S. by Jalisco; area, 2,946 sq. m. ; pop. in 1808, 140,030. The eastern dis tricts consist of elevated table lands, averaging 5,000 to 6,000 feet above the sea, and the west ern of broken mountain ranges, including the sierras of Laurel and Pinal, spurs of the Sierra Madre or Cordillera. The table lands produce abundant crops of cereals and a variety of fruits, of which olives, figs, grapes, and pears are the principal. There are a few unimpor tant silver and other mines within the state. It is divided into the four districts of Aguas Calientes; Rincon de Romos, Asientos, and Cal- villo. II. The capital of the preceding state, situated upon a plain 6,000 feet above the sea, 270 N. W. of Mexico ; pop. 22,534. It takes its name from two warm mineral springs in its neighborhood. The great road from Mexico to Durango and Sonora and that from San Luis Potosi to Guadalajara meet at Aguas Calientes. It is surrounded by rich gardens, abounding in olives, figs, vines, and pears, and contains churches, convents, and a hospital. AGUE, a word denoting tremor, which has been used by medical writers in the sense of chill or rigor. Fever and ague is a popular name for intermittent fever. (See FEVERS.) Cases of intermittent fever, lacking the usual chill or cold stage, and in other respects latent, are sometimes distinguished as cases uf "dumb ague." The name "ague cake" is applied to enlargement of the spleen occurring not very infrequently in the course of intermittent fever. AGUESSEAU, Henri Francois d , a French jurist, born at Limoges, Nov. 27, 1668, died Feb. 9, 1751. In 1690, when only 22 years old, Louis XIV. appointed him advocate general, and in 1700 he became procureur general. He resisted the registration of the papal bull TInigenitus, on the ground that it encroached on the rights of the monarchy. In 1717 he was made chan cellor by the regent Orleans. Almost alone he opposed Law s schemes for making the nation suddenly rich, and was dismissed, but recalled in 1720, on the bursting of the bubble. In 1722, Cardinal Dubois being appointed presi dent of the council, D Aguesseau retired, to be reappointed in 1737, finally resigning in 1750, at the age of 82. He endeavored to reduce the incongruous laws of France to uniformity., had an extensive acquaintance with literature, and was versed in many European languages. His writings have been published in several editions, the most complete in 10 voK 8vo (Paris, 1819- 20) ; and his Lettrcs inedites appeared in 1823 (2 vols. 8vo). AGUILAR, or Agjnilar de la Frontera, a town of Spain, in the province and 22 m. S. by E. of Cordova, on the Cabra; pop. about 12,000. It has a trade in corn and wiiie, and is remarha- 210 AGUILAR AHAZIAH ble for its white houses and clean streets. It contains three handsome public squares and a dismantled Moorish castle. AGHLAR, Graee, an English authoress, born at Hackney, near London, June 2, 1816, died in Frankfort on-the-Main, Sept. 16, 1847. She was descended from a family of Jewish merchants in Spain, who fled from that country on account of religious persecution, and found a refuge in England. She w r as instructed wholly by her father and mother. At 14 she commenced the study of history, beginning with Josephus. Her first work was "The Magic Wreath," a small volume of poems, published anonymously. At a very early age she wrote a pleasing reli- j gious fiction, " The Martyr, or the Vale of Ce dars." Her other works are : "The Spirit of Judaism"; "Israel Defended," translated from the French ; " The Days of Bruce," a story from Scottish history; "Jewish Faith"; "Women of Israel " ; " Home Scenes and Heart Studies " ; "Home Influence"; "Josephine, or the Edict and Escape"; "The Mother s Recompense"; and "Woman s Friendship." In 1835 her con stitution received a severe shock from an attack of measles, which left her in a state of debility from which she never fully recovered. She died on a visit to the continent for the benefit | of her health, and was buried in the cemetery of the Jews at Frankfort. AGUIRRE. ! Jose Saenz de, a learned Spanish j Benedictine, born in Logrono, March 24, 1630, ; died in Home, Aug. 19, 1699. He was professor of theology at Salamanca, afterward secretary of the inquisition, and finally a cardinal. His princi- j pal works are: Defensio Catliedrcv Sancti Pctri, - for which he received his cardinal s hat ; Sancti \ Anselmi Tlieologia (3 vols. folio) ; and Collectio \ Consiliorum Hispanice (several editions in 4 j and 6 vols. folio). II. Lope de, a Spaniard of i the 16th century, notorious for his crimes. He i left Spain for Peru, and accompanied the expe- j dition of Orsua in quest of the imaginary El j Dorado, a history of which has been written by Southey. He prompted Orsua to assume j regal authority, and then killed him to usurp his place, and from this time murdered all who in any way displeased him. Being finally de serted, he was put to death by the Spanish au thorities in Venezuela. AGULHAS (Port., needles), a cape and bank on the southernmost point of Africa, about 100 m. E. S. E. of the Cape of Good Hope, in lat. 34 51 S., Ion. 20 2 E. Its extreme height is 455 feet above the sea. A lighthouse was erected in 1849 upon the cape, at an elevation I of 52 feet above high water. AGUSTINA, known as the maid of Saragossa, | died at Cueta, Spain, in June, 1857, at a very advanced age. She was an itinerant seller of cool drinks in Saragossa in her youth, and during the siege of that place by the French in 1808 and 1809 distinguished herself by her heroic participation in the severest encounters with the enemy. She was called la artillera, from having snatched the match from the hands of a dying artilleryman, and discharged the piece at the invaders. For her services during this siege she was made a sub-lieuten ant in the Spanish army, and received several decorations. Byron has celebrated her in "Childe Harold." AGYNIANI, or Agynii (Gr. a, without, and yvv^ woman), a sect so called from their rejection of marriage. They flourished about the close of the 7th century, belonging to the later rep resentatives of the Gnostic idea that the crea tor of the material world was an evil being, and that therefore the true Christian life con sists in a renunciation and mortification of all the physical appetites and passions. AklAli, son and successor of Omri, king of Israel, reigned from 918 to 897 B. C. " He married Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, king of the Sidonians. Through her influence the intercourse between Phoenicia and Israel, which had long been only commercial, no\v became social and religious. She introduced the wor ship of Baal and Astarte into the Hebrew cul- tus. The golden calves at Dan and Bethel had been guardedly worshipped for several years ; but idolatry became under Ahab a predominant element of religious life. For his idolatrous as well as tyrannical practices, Ahab was reproved by Elijah ; and as a result of the king s obsti nacy, the prophet proposed the trial of Carmel. Benhadad, king of Syria, twice besieged Ahal/s capital, but was defeated with great loss. Ahab came to his end by an arrow wound re ceived while fighting in disguise in the battle of Ramoth-Gilead. AHANTA, a narrow strip of the Gold Coast, in the kingdom of Ashantee, Africa, between Ion. 3 and 2 10 W. On the west it is bounded by a river called Ancobra by the Portuguese, and Seenna by the natives. It is subdivided into three districts. Its most important town is Boosooa, Great Britain has several forts along the coast, including Axim and Dixcove, all but the latter ceded by the Dutch in 1872. Toward the close of the 17th century there was also a Fort Brandenburg, belonging to the electorate of that name. AHASIERIS, the name of the Persian king whose actions are described in the book of Esther. (See ESTHER.) Two other kings of the same name are mentioned in Ezra iv. 6, and Dan. ix. 1, and supposed to be identical with Cambyses and Astyages (or Cyaxares) respec tively. AHAZ, king of Judah, 741-725 B. C. See HEBREWS. AHAZIAH. I. Son and successor of Ahab, | king of Israel, reigned 897-895 B. C. The ! most signal event of his reign was the revolt ! of the Moabites. Ahaziah, like his father Ahab, was controlled by the ambitious Jezebel, and walked in the ways of his father. lie fell from | a roof of his palace, and sent to the oracle of Baal-zebub at Ekron to inquire if he should re cover. The prophet Elijah met the messengers on the way, and sent them back to say to the AHIMELECII AHMED SIIAII 211 king that he should never rise from his bed. II. Son and successor of Jehoram, king of Ju- clah. He reigned but one year, and during that time he was under the entire control of his mother Athaliah, the daughter of Omri, and sister of Ahab, king of Israel. He was slain (884 B. C.) by Jehu, who regarded Ahaziah as coming by blood into the scope of his commis sion to destroy the house of Ahab. AHIMELECH, son of Ahitub, a Jewish high priest dwelling at Nob. David, fleeing from Saul, came to Ahimelech, and by a misrepre sentation induced him to supply his wants with the shew-bread which was kept in the taberna cle. The priest also gave him the sword of Goliath. For this Saul caused Doeg to slay Ahimelech with all the priests of Nob. AHITHOPHEL, the confederate and adviser of Absalom in his rebellion against his father Da vid. He was famed for his sagacity and almost considered infallible. The advice of Cushai having been preferred to his by Absalom, he committed suicide by hanging. AHLEFELD, Charlotte Sophie Luise Wilhelminc yon, a German novelist, born near Weimar, Dec. 6, 1781, died at Teplitz, July 27, 1849. She married Ilerr von Ahlefeld, of Schleswig-Hol- stein, in 1798, and was separated from him in 1807. Goethe expressed a high opinion of her precocious literary talent. She published a great number of sentimental novels, under the name of Elisa Selbig and under her own name (1797-1832), as well as a volume of poetry (Weimar, 1826), under the name of Natalie. AHLFELD, Johauu Friedrich, a German clergy man, born at Mehringen, Nov. 1, 1810. He has been celebrated since 1851 as a pulpit ora tor at the St. Nicholas church in Leipsic. Nearly 20 volumes of his sermons have been published since 1848, and passed through many editions. He is an orthodox Lutheran. AHLQUIST, August Engelbert, a Finnish philol ogist and poet, professor of philology and Finnish literature at Helsingfors, born at Kuo- pio, Aug. 7, 1826. He is distinguished for his philological and ethnographical investigations, especially those in respect to the dialects and races of the Uralo-Altaic family. He publish ed the results of his researches in Finland and Russia in a work entitled Muistelmia mafkoil- ta Wendjdlld ruosina 1853- 8 (Helsingfors, 1860). He is also the author of a grammar of the language of the almost extinct Wot tribe (Wotislc Grammatik}. In 1847 he founded at Helsingfors a journal entitled Suometar (Fin land). His collected poetry has been published under the title of Sdl-enia (" Sparks "). He has also made Finnish translations of several of Schiller s works. AHLWARDT, Theodor Wllhelm, a German ori entalist, born at Greifswald, July 4, 1828. He is the son of the philologist and Hellenist Christian Wilhelm Ahlwardt (1760-1830), and has been since 1861 professor of oriental lan guages at the Greifswald university. He is a high authority on Arabic literature and history. His principal original work is Ueber Poesie und Poctik der Araber (Gotha, 1856). AHMED SHAH, founder of the Afghan monar chy, born about 1724, died in 1773. Ahmed was the son of Sammaun* Khan, the amir of the great tribe of the Abdallis and of the family of the Suddosis. At his father s death he and his brother Zulfucar fell into the power of Hussein Shah, the head of the tribe of the Ghiljis, who was then master of Candahar. At this period Afghanistan was subject to Persia. On the invasion of India by Nadir Shah, the two young princes were rescued from the hands of Hus sein and sent into Persia. Ahmed s brother died in captivity, but he himself was taken into the service of the usurper, and promoted to the command of a body of horse. When Nadir was assassinated in 1747, Ahmed and his tribe at tempted to avenge his death. But finding the Persian army too powerful, he retreated into the fastnesses of his native country, changed the name of his tribe from Abdalli to Durrani, which they still retain, raised the standard of independence, proclaimed himself shah, and was soon joined by the amirs and their several tribes. His first act was to seize a convoy of treasure coming from India to Persia, and to possess himself of the famed Koh-i-noor dia mond (now in possession of the British crown), which had fallen into the hands of Nadir Shah. Aware that his power depended on finding oc cupation for his turbulent subjects, he led them at once to conquest, and rapidly subdued the provinces surrounding his realm and part of the kingdom of Persia. He then directed his arms to India, overran the Punjaub and Cash mere (1752), and penetrated (1756- 7) as far as Delhi, the capital of the Mogul emperor Alam- ghir, whither that monarch, jealous of his vizier s excessive power, is said to have earnestly sum moned him. The crafty vizier, Ghazy-ed-Deen, propitiated Ahmed, and, professing entire sub servience to his views, induced the Afghan monarch to leave him in possession of his ill- gotten power as a check upon his sovereign. Ahmed entered Delhi in triumph, sacked it, and invested his son, Timour Shah, with the government of the Punjaub and of Sirhind. In retiring from Delhi, he left a lieuten ant to hold both the vizier and the Great Mo2;ul in check. No sooner was the restraint of his presence removed than the minister rose on the Afghan commander, drove him out of Delhi, and assassinated the emperor, placing a prince of the blood royal on the throne. The Mahratta chieftains now saw their opportunity for expelling the Mohammedan rulers alto gether, and establishing Hindoo supremacy. Ahmed Shah brought a powerful army into the field (1759). More than a year was spent in manoeuvres and skirmishes, till the Mahrattas took up an intrenched position at Paniput, when Ahmed cut off their supplies, and forced them to an engagement, Jan. 6, 1761, in which the Mah rattas sustained a decisive defeat. The shah, however, saw the impossibility of maintaining 212 AHMED ABAD AI the Mogul empire, and left it to its fate. The Sikh chieftains in the Punjaub revolted against him, and he crossed the Indus for the sixth time in 1762, and coerced them to a temporary obe dience, which they finally threw off after a sev enth expedition of Ahmed in l763- 4, made unsuccessful by the desertion of part of his army. He was succeeded by his son Timour. AHMEDABAD, or Ahmadabad, a fortified town of British India, capital of a district of the same name, in the presidency of Bombay, on the Subbermutti, 50 m. N. of the bay of Cambay, and 309 m. by railway N. of Bombay ; lat. 23 1 K, Ion. 72 42 E. ; pop. about 130,000. The city is 6 m. in circumference, and is surrounded by high walls with towers. It was founded in 1426 by Ahmed, shah of Guzerat, as a cap ital. Its splendor was increased under Akbar and his successors (1572-1712); and in the 17th century it was the finest city of Hindostan. It was also noted for its commercial prosperity, having a large trade in indigo, cotton, and opium, and manufactures of gold, silver, and silk ; but it was ruined by the Mahratta rule, which was not finally extinguished by the Eng lish till 1818. The most gorgeous relics of Ahmedabad are the great mosque, the mosque of Sujat Khan, the fire temple, and the tower of silence of the Parsees. The once famous gardens are nearly destroyed ; but the environs are still remarkable for their beauty. Col. Briggs s work, "The Architecture of Ahmeda bad," beautifully illustrated, was published in London in 1866. AHMEDMGGUR, or Ahmadnagar. I. A dis trict, familiarly called Nagar, including the sub-collectorate of Nasik, in the Poona divi sion of the presidency of Bombay, British In dia; area about 10,000 sq. m. ; pop. upward of 1,000,000, including nearly 200,000 members of wild tribes and low castes, and 50,000 Mos lems. II. A town, capital of the district, 70 in. N". E. of Poona, and 125 m. E. of Bombay, on the river Seena; pop. about 30,000. The fortress, one mile in circumference, surrounded by a stone wall 30 feet high, and by a broad and deep ditch, and flanked by round towers, is one of the strongest in India. In addition to stone walls, the city is defended by an impene trable hedge of prickly pear about 20 feet high. The locality is renowned for boar hunting, and abounds in game. The malaria, formerly dead ly, was removed by draining previous to 1829, when the headquarters of the Bombay artillery was established here. The city was founded in 1493 by Ahmed Nizam Shah. It was part of the Mogul empire from 1634 to 1707, when it was captured by the Mahrattas. In 1797 it was taken by Sindia, from whom it was wrest ed by Gen. Wellesley in 1803. Soon afterward, however, it was restored to the peishwa, and it did not finally revert to English authority till 1817. AHN, .loli aim Franz, a German grammarian, born in Aix-la-Chapelle, Dec. 15, 1796, died at Keuss, Aug. 21, 1865. He was for many years a teacher in the RealscJiule at Neuss. Hi* method for the acquisition of foreign languages became very popular. His Praktischer Lehr- gang zur schnellen und leichten Erlernung der franzosiwhcn SpracJie passed through 167 edi- tions between 1834 and 1870. Besides several ; manuals of the German and other languages, and hand-books of conversation, letter- writing, I &c., he published in English a collection en titled "Poetry of Germany" (Leipsic, 1859), | and in French ISAllcmagne poetique (1861). AHRENS, Heinrich, a German jurist and psy- I chologist, born at Kniestedt, Hanover, July 14, i 1808. He studied at Gottingen, and was impli cated in the political disturbances of 1831, af terward lectured in Paris on German philoso phy and psychology, and from 1834 to 1848 was professor of philosophy at Brussels, declin ing invitations from the universities of Leyden and Utrecht. In 1848 he was a member of the Frankfort parliament and of the commit tee appointed to draw up a German constitu- tution. In 1850 he was appointed professor at Gratz, and since 1859 he has been connected with the university of Leipsic, which he represents in the first Saxon chamber. He has published in French Cours de psychologic (2 vols., Paris, 1837- 8), and Cours du droit nature! (Paris, 1838 ; 5th ed., 1860). He published a German version of the latter under the title of Die HechtspTi ilosophie, oder das NaturrecTi t attfpft i- losophisch - anthropologischer Grundlage (Vi enna, 1851). This work has also been trans lated into Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Hungarian, and is used as a basis for academi cal studies in Brazil, Peru, and Chili. It forms the first part of his great work Philosophic des Reclits. The second part contains Die orga- nische Staatslehre (Vienna, 1850) and Die ju- ristwche EncyUopadie (1855- 7). AHRIMAN, the name of the evil principle in^ the ancient Persian religion. See OEMTTZD. AHWAZ, or Ahwnz, a small town on the river Karun in Persia, province of Khuzistan, 70 m. K K E. of Bassorah, and 45 m. S. S. W. of Sinister. It is a very insignificant place, con taining about 1,600 inhabitants, but it is in the immediate neighborhood of a vast collection of I uins, the remains of a city ascribed to the pe riod of the Parthian empire, and which was very prosperous under the caliphs. It must have been a city of considerable magnitude, and the ruins extend for 12 miles along the bank of the river. Near it is a strong dam built across the bed of the river to irrigate the surrounding country; and there are remains of a fine bridge and a large palace. AI, an ancient city of Palestine, in the terri tory of Benjamin, about 12 m. 1ST. of Jerusa lem, as near as can at present be determined. It is first mentioned in Scripture as the place- where Abraham and Lot pitched their tents when journeying from Haran. It was captured and destroyed by Joshua, and became a heap of stones, but was rebuilt so as to be a place of some note in the time of Jeremiah. AIDAN, ST. AIKIN 213 AIDAN, St., an Irish missionary to the North umbrians, died Aug. 31, 651. He was sent into North umbria at the request of King Os wald about 035, and appointed bishop, with a see at Lindisfarne, where he established the monastic rule of St. Columbanus. With the assistance of the king, who acted as his inter preter, he founded the church in Northumbria. AIDIX. I. A Turkish province, one of the eyalets of Asia Minor, embracing ancient Lydia, Caria, the western part of Lycia, and southwestern Phrygia ; pop. 450,000. II. A city (surnamed Guzel Hissar, beautiful castle), capi tal of the province, about 57 m. S. E. of Smyr na; pop. upward of 40,000, chiefly Turks. It is picturesquely situated on the Meander, and built out of the ruins of ancient Tralles, which was situated on the plateau of the Messogis above the town. Its important trade in cot ton, figs, and other products has become still more active since the recent completion of the Smyrna- Aidin railway. The city is noted for its animation, and possesses many khans, ba zaars, mosques, and palaces, as well as some interesting ruins. The American missionaries at Smyrna have a sub-mission here. AIGIEBELLE, a small town of France, in Sa voy, on the left side of the river Arc, 15 m. E. of Chambery, where the Spanish and French forces gained a victory over the troops of the king of Sardinia in 1742. It is near the begin ning of the road which Napoleon built over Mont Cenis. AIGIEBELLE, Panl Alexandra Neyene d , a Franco-Chinese naval commander, born in France, Jan. 7, 1831. He entered the French navy in 1846, rose to the rank of lieutenant in 1858, and afterward entered the Chinese ser vice, distinguishing himself in 1862- 4 against the Taepings. Admiral Protet and the captains of artillery Lebreton and De Moidry having been successively killed by their own raw troops, D Aiguebelle became chief commander of the Franco-Chinese corps, compelled the in surgents to evacuate several towns, and cap tured Hangchow (1864). In 1865 he was made an officer of the legion of honor by the French government, wlrile the Chinese raised him to the rank of a mandarin of the first class. He established with the aid of M. Gic- quel the arsenal of Foo-chow-foo, and enabled the Chinese in less than three years to con struct all kinds of European vessels. The first Chinese man-of-war is said to have been launched under D Aiguebelle s auspices, June 2, 1869, on which occasion he was appointed grand admiral of the Chinese fleet. AIGUILLE (Fr., needle), a name given to cer tain narrow and sharp-pointed peaks of the Alps, some of which rise to a great height. Also the special name of a mountain in Isere, France, between Grenoble and Gap, 6,500 feet high, which is inaccessible and called one of the seven wonders of Dauphine. AIGl ILLOX, Armand Vignerot Dnplessis Richelieu, due d , minister of foreign affairs under Louis i XV., born in 1720, died in 1782. When in i 1758 the English made a descent upon the I coast of Brittany, the duke, who was governor I of the province, threw himself into a mill, | whereupon La Chalotais perpetrated his cele- ! brated witticism, that D Aiguillon had covered ! himself, not with glory, but With flour. On the accession of Louis XVI. he was replaced ; by Vergennes, and lived thenceforth in obscu- j rity. During his ministry (177l- 4), which i he owed to his accomplishments as a courtier and the favor of the king s mistress, Mme. Du- barry, the first partition of Poland took place. Louis XV., speaking of this act, so disastrous i to the interests of France, exclaimed, " If Choiseul had been here, this partition would not have taken place." AIGtES-MORTES (Lat. Aqua Mortuce, dead I waters), a town of France, department of Gard, j 3 m. from the Mediterranean and 20 in. S. S. ! W. of Nimes; pop. in 1866, 3,932. It owes its ! name to the malarious marshes which surround i it, and over which it is approached by a raised i causeway. In the middle ages it had a com- i modious port and ship canal, where Louis XII. I embarked his army for the crusades in 1248 ! and 1270; but they have long been filled up ! with sand. Several fruitless attempts have : been made to restore them, the last by Napo- j leon I. The walls and towers then built I around the town are the best preserved of any I in France. In the vicinity are the immense I salines of Peccais, and their products, as well ! as fresh and salted fish, are shipped through canals to the coast and interior. AIREX, a township and village in Aiken coun- I ty (recently formed), S. C., on the S. C. rail road, 120 m. N. W. of Charleston, and 17 m. ! E. N. E. of Augusta, Ga. ; pop. in 1870, 2,259, of whom 1,096 were colored. The surrounding i country is somewhat hilly, the ground high, and the air dry and healthful. The climate in winter is mild, and in summer salubrious. Aiken has recently been much resorted to by consumptives and other invalids. AIRIN. I. John, an English author, son of Dr. John Aikin, tutor in divinity at the dis senters academy in Warrington, born in Lei cestershire, Jan. 15, 1747, died Dec. 7, 1822. In 1798 he gave up the medical profession for literary pursuits. The best known of his works, in which he was assisted by his sister, i Mrs. Barbauld, is " Evenings at Home," a se- : lection of instructive essays and anecdotes for children (revised by Cecil Hartley, 1865). i This is still popular, and has been translated ! into every European language. He was lite- ; rary editor of the "Monthly Magazine" for the first 10 years after its establishment in 1796, and in 1811 was editor of Dodsley s j "Annual Register." His works are very nu merous. The principal are: "Biographical Memoirs of Medicine in Great Britain from the i Time of Henry VIII." ; " The Calendar of the j Year," afterward republished as "The Natural History of the Year," remarkable for its con- AIRMAN AIMARD ciseness; " England Delineated "; "A Memoir of Howard the Philanthropist," with whom he had intimate friendship ; " General Biography " (10 vols. 4to). In medicine he rewrote Lew is s "Materia Medica," and some smaller works. II. Arthur, son of the preceding, born May 19, 1773, died in Bloornsbury, April 15, 1854. In 1797 he published the "Journal of a Tour through North Wales and Shropshire." From 1803 to 1808 he was editor of the "Annual Review." In connection with his brother Charles, he published in 1807 " A Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy." In 1814 ap peared the first edition of his "Manual of Min eralogy." He was for many years resident secretary of the society of arts, and con tributed to its "Transactions." He was also one of the founders of the geological society, and for 36 years a fellow of the Linnaean so ciety. III. Lney, an English authoress, sister of the preceding, born at Warrington, Nov. 6, 1781, died at Hampstead, Jan. 29, 1864. Af ter having assisted her father and aunt (Mrs. Barbauld) in their literary work, she pub lished a poetical volume in 1810 under the title of " Epistles to Women," modelled after the style of Pope. Her most important works are her memoirs of the courts of Elizabeth (1818), James I. (1822), and Charles I. (1833), and her "Memoirs of Addison" (1843). She also wrote memoirs of her father and her aunt. She was regarded as one of the most accom plished literary women of her time, and was also celebrated for her conversational powers and her social qualities. AIKMAJV, William, a Scottish portrait painter, born Oct. 24, 1682, died in London, June 4, 1731. He spent three years in Italy, travelled in Turkey, practised his art some years in Ed inburgh, and in 1723 settled in London, where he was liberally patronized, and on intimate terms with the leading spirits in art and let ters. His works closely resemble those of Sir Godfrey Ivneller. AILAMtS (Malay, ailanto, tree of heaven, the name of one species in the Moluccas), a tree of the sub-family ailantece, which is one of the four divisions of simarubacece of Lindley. The species A. glandulosa, native of China, was introduced into England in 1751, and into North America about the beginning of this century. The tree resembles a gigantic stag s horn sumach, with very large leaves, unequally pinnate, and footstalks from one to two feet in length. It has many flowers on a terminal pedicel, whose anthers smell disagreeably, like animal effluvia containing phosphorus. It grows very fast, especially in poor calcareous soil, and lias spreading roots. There is a resi nous juice in the bark, which hardens in a short time. The wood is hard, heavy, glossy, and susceptible of a fine polish. It is propa gated by root-cuttings. It sometimes has only male flowers, but in warm countries produces both male and female, and consequently fruit. A. excelsa is found about Delhi and further [ south. There are other species in southern Asia, and on the islands of the Indian ocean. The other plants of the same order are natives of tropical America, India, and Africa. AILLY, Pierre d , or Petrns de Alliaco, a French prelate and theologian, surnamed the Hammer of Heretics and the Eagle of the Doctors of France, born in 1350, died in 1420 or 1425. He was distinguished as a preacher and philo sophical disputant (being a leader of the nom inalists), and early became a doctor of the Sor- bonne, in 1384 grand master of the college of Navarre, in 1389 chancellor of the university, and in 1398 bishop of Cambrai; he was also almoner and confessor to Charles VI. His ex ertions led to the calling of the council of Pisa in 1409, for the healing of the papal schism, and he was one of its most active members. He was made cardinal by John XXIII. and sent as papal legate to Germany. In this capacity he took a prominent part in the council of Constance, 1414- ! 8, where he promoted the condemnation of John Huss and Jerome of Prague, but zealously advocated a reform in the church, maintained the superiority of councils to the popes, and aided in the election of Martin V. in place of the three rival popes. He was afterward papal legate at Avignon till his death. His published writings are numer ous, including Concordantia Astronomic cum Thcologia, &c., written in accordance with the astrological views of the age. AILRED, Ealred, or Ethelred, an English histo rian and theologian, born in 1104, died June 12, 1166. He was educated at the Scottish court, entered the Cistercian order, and became abbot of Ilevesby in Lincolnshire, and after ward of Rievaulx in Yorkshire. His extraor dinary sanctity is said to have been attested by miracles both before and after his death. His numerous works (in Latin) include a life of Edward the Confessor, an account of the battle of the Standard, and other historical pieces, published by Sir Roger Twysden in Historic^ Anglicance Scriptores decem (2 vols. fol., 1652); " Mirror of Divine Love," " Mirror of Charity," sermons, &c., partly published at Douai in 1631, and in several collections. AILSA CRAIG, an isolated rocky islet ol Ayr shire, Scotland, 10 m. off the coast at Girvan, and 25 m. S. S. W. of Ayr; hit, 55 15 12" N., Ion. 5 7 W. It is of conical shape, about two miles in circumference at the base, and rises 1,098 feet above the surface of the ocean. Its summit can only be gained on the E. side ; the other sides are nearly perpendicular, two of them resembling in structure the columns of Fingal s cave. The top is covered with ver dure, and is the resort of great numbers of sea birds, goats, and rabbits ; and there are the i ruins of an ancient three-story tower. The island is the property of the marquis of Ailsa, who takes his title from it. AIMARD, Gnstave, a French novelist, born about 1818. Ha made a voyage as a cabin boy | to America, and spent ten adventurous years AIM-MARTIN AINOS 215 in Arkansas, Mexico, and other parts of this continent. He next figured as a traveller and soldier of fortune in Spain, Turkey, and the Caucasus, served in the mobile guard in Paris in 1848, and eventually gave the story of his experiences and adventures in a series of nov els, among which are Les trappeurs de V Arkan sas (1858), Les nuits Mexicaines (1863), and L Araucan (1864). Several of his tales have been translated into English. AIME-MARTI\, Louis, a French author, born in Lyons in 1781, died in Paris, June 22, 1847. In 1815 he was appointed editing secretary of the chamber of deputies, and soon afterward professor of belles-lettres, moral philosophy, and history in the polytechnic school, of which office he was deprived in 1831. lie then be came keeper of the library of Ste. Genevieve. His first successful production was a semi-sci entific book, called Lettres d Sophie sur la physique, la chimie et Vhistoire naturelle (2 vols. 8vo, 1810), an agreeable mixture of prose and verse, suggested by the extraordinary suc cess of the Lettres d Emilie sur la mythologie by Demoustier. He wrote a little later La vie de Bernardin de St. Pierre, in which the bi ographer happily imitated the style of his sub ject. His commentaries on Racine and Moli^re are especially interesting and tasteful. ^His most important work is a treatise entitled Edu cation des meres de famille, in which he as serts that the best, or rather the only means of improving mankind, and reforming our pres ent social organization, is to educate women in such a manner that they may be enabled to form men of character and virtue. The first part of the book is interesting, containing many practical suggestions, but the second part is much less valuable. A good translation of it has been published in the United States. His wife, born about 1782, died inXovember, 1847, was a daughter of the marquis de Belleport. At the age of 18 she had married Bernardin de St. Pierre, then a widower in his 63d year. She was a favorite with many of her celebrated contemporaries, especially Lamartine, to whom she bequeathed her fortune. AIMO\, or Ayinon, the four sons of, Alard, Pti.chard, Guiscard, and Renaud, are among the most illustrious of the warriors and heroes cel ebrated in the mediaeval romances of chivalry. Aimon is variously reported to have been duke of DordofTiia, prince of Ardennes, and provin cial governor under Charlemagne. Froissart seriously relates their eventful career, but by the moderns their existence has been trans ferred from the realm of history to that of poetry. The eldest, Renaud or Roland, is the hero of the "Orlando Furioso " of Ariosto. Their adventures with those of their single horse, famed under the name of Bayard, were probably at first oral traditions in Provence, but have been repeated in various forms in the literature of every European nation. AI\, a department of France in Bui-gundy, bounded by Saone-et-Loire, Jura, Switzerland, i Haute-Savoie, Savoie, Isere, and Rhone; area, | 2,239 sq. m. ; pop. in 1872, 336,290. The [ Rhone flows on its eastern and southern borders, i and the Saone on the western. The eastern i section of the department is traversed by I mountain ranges and deep valleys. The west- I ern division is low, level, and swampy, and dotted with numerous ponds. The river Ain, an affluent of the Rhone, flows through the centre, and has many saw and grist mills on its banks. Immense rafts of timber are floated down its rapid current to Lyons. The prod ucts of the department are chiefly agricultural. Sheep are reared in great numbers in the east ern part. It is divided into the arrondisse- ments of Bourg, Belley, Nantua, Trevoux, and Gex. Capital, Bourg-en-Bresse. AIN-MADHI, a walled town and oasis of the Algerian desert, about 200 m. S. S. W. of Al giers; pop. about 2,000. The town is built on a rocky eminence amid gardens, surrounded by an arid plain. It is a station for caravans, and possesses a considerable trade. It was the seat of an independent Arab chief till 1852. ALMIULLER, Maximilian Emanuel, a German artist, founder of the modern school of glass painting, born in Munich, Feb. 14, 1807, died there, Dec. 8, 1870. His talent as a decorative and monumental architect aided him essentially in the glass paintings which, under the patron age of King Louis I. of Bavaria, he executed or restored for many of the religious buildings of Europe. He was also employed at Westminster abbey, St. George s chapel, Windsor, and St. Peter s college, Cambridge ; and at the instance of Mr. Beresford Hope he executed 14 paintings for a cathedral in Ireland. Among his master works are the painted windows in the cathe dral of Cologne, and those in the Vatican rep resenting St. Peter and St. Paul. The most remarkable of his works, by their stupendous size, are in the cathedral of Glasgow. With the i assistance of his surviving son and pupil, HEIX- ; EICH (born 1836), he had completed up to 1864 40 windows with upward of 100 biblical and | historical paintings. He was royal inspector | of the academy of glass painting at Munich. I He also excelled as an architectural painter in | oil, and there are many of his works in the art galleries of St. Petersburg, Munich, Vienna, and other parts of Europe. AI1VOS, or Ainns (/. c., men), tribes inhabiting I Saghalien, Yesso, and the Kurile islands, and various adjacent regions, partly under Japanese 1 and partly under Russian jurisdiction, the hitter being generally called Kuril es. Tradition says that the Japanese were originally Ainos, and only became a distinct race by intermarry ing with Chinese. The Ainos are different from other Mongolian tribes, and in their more vigorous physical formation assimilate to some extent to the Caucasian type. Though armed and painted like savages, they are inoffensive i and hospitable, but shy of Japanese and Rus sians, especially on the coasts of the Saghalien islands, which they formerly occupied exclusive- 216 AINSWORTH AIR ly, and where the Gilanes tribe at present in habit the N". part. The extravagant stories of travellers caused the Ainos in the Kurile islands to be designated as the hairy Kuriles, though their bodies are not particularly hairy and their beards seldom longer than 5 or G inches. They are pagans, and sacrifice the first of the animals they kill, generally bears, to their idols. They are polygainists, groups of 10 to 12 families living together in miserable huts, with a chief for each group. They support themselves by fishing and hunting. The Aino language is di vided into several dialects, and is regarded by Siebold as somewhat connected with the Japa nese, but this opinion is not generally enter tained. It is polysyllabic, has an alphabet of 47 letters, and is written in four ditt erent sets of characters, one of them, the Katakana, being sometimes called the writing of men, and an other, the Kiragena, that of women. August Pfizmaier published a description of it (Vienna, 1852), and a vocabulary (1854). AINSWORTH, Henry, an English nonconform ist divine, the date and place of whose birth are unknown, died in Amsterdam in 1622. In 1590 he attached himself to the Brownist sect, and was afterward compelled by persecution to fiy to Holland, where, in connection with a Mr. Johnson, he established a church at Amster dam. He was a good Hebrew scholar, and published annotations on the Psalms and Pen tateuch, together with a literal translation of the latter, a translation of Solomon s Song, and other works of a somewhat similar character. AINSWORTH, Robert, an English teacher and scholar, born in Lancashire in September, 1060, died in London, April 4, 1743. He taught pri vate schools in and near London, and early re tired with a competency. His only claim to remembrance is his English-Latin and Latin- English dictionary, commenced in 1714 and first published in 1736. It was edited and re printed many times, in 2 vols. 4to or folio ; and abridgments of it were used in nearly all English and American schools till near the mid dle of the present century, when it was gene rally superseded by more accurate works. AI1VSWORTH. I. William Francis, an English traveller, geologist, and physician, born in Ex eter, ]STov. 9, 1807. After having studied med icine at Edinburgh, he made geological excur sions into Auvergne and the Pyrenees. In 1828 betook charge of the Edinburgh "Journal of Natural and Geographical Science," and deliv ered lectures on geology. He was attached to a cholera hospital in London in 1832, and after ward to various hospitals in Ireland. In 1835 he was appointed surgeon and geologist to Col. Chesney s expedition to explore the Euphrates and the route from that river to the Mediter ranean, and in 1838 he was sent with Rassam and Theodore Russell, by the geological and Bible societies of London, to trace the course of the river Kizil-Irmak (the ancient Halys), and to visit the Xestorian Christians of Kurdistan. He has published u Researches in Assyria, Baby lonia, and Chaldea" (1838) ; "Travels and Re searches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Chaldea, and Armenia" (2 vols., 1842) ; "The Claims of | the Christian Aborigines in the East" ; "Travels in the Track of the 10,000 Greeks" (1844) ; the "Illustrated Universal Gazetteer" (1861- 3), &c. II. William Harrison, an English novelist, cousin of the preceding, born in Manchester, Feb. 4, 1805. His father was an attorney, and he was intended for the law, but from an early age he exhibited a strong taste for literature. A novel, "Sir John Cheverton," which he pro duced in 1825, was shown to Sir Walter Scott, whose praises encouraged Ainsworth to pursue the course he had thus commenced. In 1834 his "Rookwood" appeared, founded on the adventures of the noted highwayman Dick Turpin; and the popularity of this novel in duced him to bring out "Jack Sheppard." The robber school of romance having fixed Mr. Ainsworth s celebrity, he turned to a more wholesome style of literature, and produced various novels of local interest, in which his torical characters are introduced and very freely dealt with. Such are his " Tower of London," "Guy Fawkes," "Old St. Paul s," "Windsor Castle," "The Constable of the Tower," and "Cardinal Pole." In 1845 he be came proprietor of Colburn s "New Monthly," which he still conducts (1872); and for a few years he also edited a second periodical called "Ainsworth s Magazine." His most recent novels are "The Miser s Daughter" (1869), "Hilary St. Ives " (1870), and " Boscobel, or the Royal Oak" (1872). AINTAB (according to some, the ancient Anti- ocJiia ad Taurum), a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of Aleppo, and about 70 m. N. by E. from Aleppo; pop. estimated at from 35,000 to 43,000, including 12,000 Armenians. It has large manufactures of silk, leather, and cotton goods, and the mountain fort which is connected with it makes it an important military point. Ain- tab is one of the centres of the American Prot estant missions, and in 1869 had 1,900 register ed Protestants. It was conquered in 1183 by Saladin, and in 1400 by Timour. Near Aintab is the village of Nizib, where Ibrahim Pasha on June 24, 1839, obtained a great victory over the Turks under Hafiz Pasha. AIR (Gr. 027/5, Lat. aer\ a term now limited to the atmospheric air. See ATMOSPHERE. AIR, or Asben, an oasis in the desert of Sahara, situated between lat, 16 and 20 N., and Ion. 5 and 10 E. It is bordered by the territory of the Kelowi Tuariks on the north, and by Soodan, or Negroland, on the south. Dr. Barth terms it the Switzerland of the desert, and the frontierland of negrodom. Its northern borders are infested by a savage race who rob and often murder strangers passing through the country. In the north is the mountain group of Gunge, 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. Vegeta tion thrives in the valleys; it is the northern limit of the doum palm ; there are groves s\v arm ing with ring doves, hoopoes, and other birds. AIR BLADDER AIR CELLS 21 and highlands abounding in asses and goats. To the south are the groups of Mt. Bunday, Eghellal, Anderas, and Baghzen. A desert plateau, with an average elevation of 2,000 feet, the home of the giraffe, wild ox, and ostrich, divides Air from Soodan. The inhabitants of Air are blacker and shorter than those of Az- kar, and, instead of the austere and regular northern features, have a rounder and more cheerful expression of countenance. The prin cipal places are Agades and Tintellust. This is probably the most southern place in central Africa where the plough is used ; for all over Soodan the hoe is the sole implement for pre paring the ground. The government of the country is presided over by the sultan of Aga des, and his chief vassal is emir of Tintellust. The inhabitants are fanatical Mohammedans. If a man marries a woman of another village, he must go and live in her village, not she in his. The hereditary power does not descend to the son, but to the sister s son. The arms, in general, are the spear, the sword, and the dagger, and an immense shield of antelope hide ; some use bows and arrows. A few only have muskets, and those few keep them for show rather than actual use. The valleys are but poorly cultivated, and every piece of clothing material has to be imported, the population being sustained in large part by the salt trade of Bilma. The tolls levied on this article, in re turn for protection afforded, constitute almost the whole source of revenue to the sheiks of Tintellust, Loosoo, and others. The name Ail- first appears in the description of Leo Africa- nus, written in 1526. It was introduced by the Berber conquerors, as Asben is the aboriginal name still used by the black and mixed popu lation. See Richardson s "Journal of a Mis sion to Central Africa " (London, 1853), and Dr. Earth s " Travels in Central Africa " (Lon don, 1857). AIR BLADDER, an organ in some kinds of fishes, commonly called by fishermen the "swim." Fishes endowed with great powers of lo-comotion, and accustomed to pass rapidly from the surface to the bottom of the ocean, and vice versa, are provided with an air blad der or a swim, by which they can modify at will the specific gravity of their bodies in the water, as birds do in the atmosphere by ad mitting air when they wish to rise, and by ex pelling it as they descend. Xot that fish draw air into their swims and expel it, as birds do in their quills, &c., but they have the power of generating gas to fill the swim like a balloon within the body when they wish to ascend in the water, and expelling it when they descend. Fishermen are well acquainted with the func tions of the blndder in the cod and other spe cies, which require to be brought fresh to mar ket at a great distance from the place where they are caught ; they perforate the air bladder with a fine needle, allowing the air to escape, and thus rendering the fish unable to rise from the bottom of the well -boats where they live for a considerable time, while brought to mar ket. Cod sounds are the salted air bladders of these fishes. The Iceland fishermen, and those of Newfoundland, prepare isinglass from cod sounds ; and the Russians make a superior kind of isinglass from the sounds or swims of the sturgeon. The swim is composed of a length ened sac, sometimes simple, as in the common perch, or divided into several compartments by transverse ligature, as in the trout and salmon ; sometimes furnished with appendices, more or less numerous in different species. It is com posed of a thick internal coat of fibrous texture, and a thin external coat, the whole being en veloped in the covering of the intestines. The swim has in many species no external opening, and the air or gas with which it is distended is supposed to be secreted in such cases by a glan- dulous organ with which it is always provided. In fresh-water fishes the air bladder communi cates sometimes with the oesophagus and some times with the stomach, by means of a small duct or tube ; and in these instances no secret ing gland is found. A very few species, among which is the common eel, have air bladders opening by an external duct, and also provided with secreting glands. Fishes deprived of their air bladders sink helpless to the bottom of the water, and there remain. All the differ ent species of flat fish, such as skates, soles, tur- bots, brills, &c., which live only on the coasts and on sand banks at the bottom of the ocean, where they find their food, have no air blad ders; their bodies are heavier than water, and their mode of life does not require them to as cend. Mackerel and other species, which find their food entirely on the surface, and remain there, have no air bladders; their bodies are comparatively light, and they need not sink low down in search of food. Some zoologists have supposed that the air bladder of fishes may be connected with the respiration, and it is now generally admitted to be a rudimentary lung. Much remains to be yet observed with regard to the relation of this organ to the general con formation of fishes ; for it is sometimes found in one species, and entirely absent in another which belongs to the same genus. AIR CELLS, hollow spaces within the cellular tissue of the stems, leaves, and other parts of plants, containing air only, the sap and other matters being contained in different receptacles. They most frequently occur in water plants, and very conspicuously in the splendid Victo ria regia of the lakes of South America, ena bling its rosy leaves to float; and in the Val- limeria spiralis, of which the male specimens, immersed in the water, rise from the bottom to meet the long-stalked females which stand over the surface. Other receptacles of air are to be found in the cambium (the layer of ge latinous cellular tissue between the wood and the bark) of trees. Here the longitudinal rows of cells become broader, and exhibit in the progress of growth small flat air bubbles be tween the walls of the contiguous cells; grad- 218 AIRDRIE AIR PLANTS ually the bubbles become globular or oval, and after the cell walls have increased in thickness, a small canal is formed within the new mass, giving rise to porous vessels. This is readily observable in limes and willows. The air bub bles obstruct the passage of the sap, and thus cause the consolidation of the wood. The dif ference between the wood of needle-leafed trees (such as the pine, fir, spruce, larch, &c.) and of broad-leafed trees chiefly depends upon the number of the cells that are converted into porous vessels. AIRDRIE, a borough town of Lanarkshire, Scotland, 11 m. E. of Glasgow; pop. in 1861, 12,922. It is well built, and has recently grown into importance from the extensive coal and iron mines in the neighborhood, and also from its proximity to Glasgow, whence many of its weavers obtain employment. The laird or proprietor of the estate of Airdrie is Mr. A. J. Alexander, a native and resident of Ken tucky, famous as a breeder of fine horses and cattle in Woodford county. A! UK, a river of Yorkshire, England, rises near Settle, flows S. E., passes Leeds, and re ceives the Calder at Oastleford ; and the two, having been widened and deepened, form one of the links in the canal system of Yorkshire and Lancashire, under the name of the Aire and Calder navigation. From Castleford, the Aire flows E. to the Ouse near Goole. AIRE. I. A. fortified city of K E. France, department of Pas-de-Calais, on the Lys, 8 m. S. S. E. of St. Omer; pop. in 1866, 8,803. It is well built, and has a highly ornamented church. There are manufactures of linen, hats, soap, Dutch tiles, &c. The surrounding district is one of the richest in French Flan ders. II. A city of S. "W. France, department of Landes, on the Adour, 80 m. S. by E. of Bordeaux; pop. in 1866, 4,885. It is a very old place, was formerly strongly fortified, and has suffered much in foreign and civil wars. It was the residence of Alaric II., and has been a bishop s see since the 5th century. AIR Gl% a pneumatic engine resembling a musket, for the purpose of discharging bullets by means of compressed air. It consists of a lock, stock, barrel, and ramrod. The stock is made hollow, and provided with proper cocks for filling it with compressed air by means of a force pump. The lock is nothing but a valve which lets into the barrel a portion of the air compressed in the stock, when the trigger is pulled. The gun is loaded with wadding and ball in the ordinary way, and the air suddenly introduced from the stock propels it with a velocity proportional to the square root of the degree of compression of the air. There is no doubt that if the discovery of powder had not been made at an early date, these in struments would have reached a point of great effectiveness. The section of the air gun given here represents one of the most practical kind. It has the general form of a musket. The stock A is hollow, and strong enough to withstand the required pressure of the air, being some 50 atmospheres, pumped into it by means of the piston E, moving in the bar rel C D ; this compressed air is confined in the Air Gun. stock by the spring check valve C. The action of the lock I is such that when pulling the trigger the valve C is for an instant lifted from its seat, which causes a small portion of the air to escape ; and as this air is confined under .a pressure of some 50 atmospheres or 750 Ibs., the impulse given to the ball at the first discharge is almost as great as that of gunpowder. One charge may fire several balls, but the effect decreases with every firing. Some air guns have, in place of a hollow stock, a separate large hollow metallic ball into which the air is com pressed, and which is attached to the side of the lock. These are generally very unsafe. Arms analogous to air guns have been con trived for producing explosion, with nearly or quite the power of an ordinary musket, by the electrical conversion in the barrel of oxygen and hydrogen, or air and street gas, into steam, and other similar means. AIR PLAJVTS, a term applied to some species of the families of Bromeliacece (Tillandsia us- neoldes, hanging in festoons from the forest trees of tropical America, moss-like, and T. wipMoideS) perfuming the balconies of houses in Buenos Ayres, &c.), and of orcMdaceM (namely, the parasitic groups of them, such as the aerides, arachnides, or flos aera of the East Indies, and many others), because of their being able to live for a considerable time, sus pended in the air, without apparently receiv ing any nutriment. The hot, damp, and shady forests of the torrid zone in Asia, Africa, and America, abound in gracefully and grotesquely shaped and deliciously scented species of or- chidece, so that in Java alone there are nearly 300 varieties. During the dry season, which is that of repose, corresponding to our winter in this respect, these parasites wither, lose their leaves, and seem to be dead ; but as soon as the gentle, preparatory rain begins to fall, they revive, and become fully developed into their glorious existence by the ceaseless show ers that transform the whole surface of the country into a magnificent hothouse. They are attached, amid gigantic grasses, ferns, and numberless climbers, to trees, rocks, &c., and are nourished by the continual warm vapors that fill the forests. Stagnant water is injuri ous to them, even by mere proximity. The roots of most fully developed air plants, by which they cling to their supports high in the air, have an outer parchment-like layer, in which the spiral cells exhibit detached fibres and simple walls ; thus in oncidium altissimum, AIR PUMP 219 epidendron elongatum, &c. In order to enjoy these beautiful plants in our houses, we must \ surround them by the natural circumstances in ! which they prosper, viz. : rotten wood, a very j little chopped moss, and fragments of flower pots for soil, with heat, damp air, light, ab sence of stagnant water and of impurities. AIR POIP, in natural philosophy, a machine for exhausting the air from a vessel. The | first machine of this kind was made in 1650 by j Otto von Guericke, burgomaster of Magde burg, shortly after Galileo had discovered that air was ponderable. Since then this instru ment has been much improved, principally by Hook, Papin, Boyle, Babinet, Richard, and Deleuil. In its most approved form it consists of a circular brass plate, on which is placed a bell-shaped glass vessel. The interior of this vessel communicates through a tube opening in the centre of the plate with the pump cylin ders. The rim of the glass vessel, called the reservoir, is ground perfectly flat, and a little lard is rubbed upon the edge before it is ap plied on the brass plate, which is likewise ground flat. Thus an air-proof joint is formed. Valves, placed either on the piston or on the cylinders, a stopcock on the pipe, and a mer cury vacuum gauge, communicating with the reservoir, complete the machine. At each j stroke of the piston, a cylinder fall of air is ex- | pelled on one side the piston, and the air of j the reservoir expands to fill the space on the j other side ; at the return stroke, this air is ex- i pelled in its turn, and so on. The air of the j reservoir becomes more and more dilated till I the moment when a full cylinder of it, com- ! pressed into the small space necessarily left between the piston and the cylinder bottom, I has not a sufficient pressure to open the valve ; ! that is to say, when this pressure is less than j 14 pounds to the square inch, which is the | pressure of the atmosphere acting on the other i side of the valve. For this reason these valves are made as light and delicate as possible, and since the beginning of this century they have been made simply of a strip of oiled silk stretched over one or more of the small holes, through which the air can thus only pass in one direction. As by every stroke of the piston the air divides itself equally between the res ervoir and the pump cylinder, it is evident that every stroke takes out of the reservoir only a certain fraction of that which is left in it ; if, for instance, the capacity of the cylinder is ^ of that of the reservoir, the 30th" stroke will by no means take out the last 30th part, but only the 30th part of the air left by the former stroke. As a consequence of this prin ciple of action, a perfect vacuum cannot be produced by any air pump, but it will be ap proximated more or less according to the per fection of its workmanship. In this workman ship an important point to be observed is, that if at the lowest portion of the piston there is any space left between it and the cylinder, this I space will of course remain filled" with some ! air after the downward stroke of the piston; at the succeeding upward stroke this air will expand, and may fill the cylinder to the same extent as the vessel to be exhausted ; this will prevent the opening of the valves, and any further motion of the purnp will become use less. It is therefore necessary to avoid this so-called " dead space "in air pumps; a pre caution not necessary in pumps for liquids, as these are solid and not elastic like air. FIG. 1. Simplast Form of Air Pump. An apparatus so extensively used for a great variety of purposes has of course undergone a great many modifications and improvements. We will only describe some of the principal types, commencing with the oldest and most simple. In fig. 1, C is the brass cylinder in which the piston is moved up and down, by means of the handle II. This cylinder is attached to a, wooden base A A, which car ries also the plate P P, on which the vessel to be exhausted is placed. The hole O in the centre of the plate connects by means of a tube with the lower part of the cylinder C. At the bottom ot this cylinder is a cock to admit the air again into the exhausted vessel ; there is a valve above this cock, and another valve in the piston, both opening upward. The first air pumps made by Von Guericke were similar, only his cylinder was horizontal and his piston solid, and in place of valves he had stopcocks which had to be turned at every stroke. It is evident that in this pump FIG. 2. Double-barrel Air Pump. only the up stroke requires labor, a portion of which is lost in the beginning of the down stroke, when the atmospheric pressure causes 220 AIR PUMP the piston forcibly to descend for a portion of its motion. To prevent this loss of labor the double-barrel air pump has been contrived, represented in our second figure. By means of a ratchet wheel moved through about 180 by the double handle II C , the pistons are alter nately raised and depressed in the cylinders C C attached to the base A, which also carries the plate P, with the so-called receiver R, which is the strong; glass vessel into which the objects to be experimented upon are placed. An im portant improvement in such air pumps was the imitation of the manner of working of the steam piston and cylinder, namely, closing the top of the cylinder hermetically, by means of a packing box surrounding the piston rod, and the placing of a valve in this upper cylinder head, so as to give a pump with a single cylin der three valves, all opening upward one in the piston, and two at the top and bottom of the cylinder. In this way the atmospheric pressure does not act on the piston during the downward stroke, as then the top valve closes, and a partial vacuum is formed over the piston, which is filled by the air under the piston passing through its valve. Such an air pump is represented in fig. 3. A is the base ; C the FIG. 3. Improved Modern Air Pump. cylinder ; P P the plate ; S the support for the handle II ; E an oil cup, attached to a cap over the_ top valve, to receive the lubricating fluid which the upward motion of the piston may throw out of the top valve ; and R is the re ceiver, containing the apparatus prepared to demonstrate that the sound of a bell is not- transmitted through a vacuum. In order to ease the labor when such a pump has to be used continuously, a fly wheel may be attached, working by means of one or more cranks one or more pistons, as in fig. 4. Babinet made such pumps, in which the air from one cylin der was thrown into a second ; and Richard in Paris makes pumps with series of barrels, say eight to each pump, all moved by one axle with cranks. These remarkable pumps pos sess some other peculiarities, described in Prof. F. A. P. Barnard s report on the Paris sition of 1867. In order to do away with the great friction of a close-fitting piston in the barrel, Deleuil made a pump in which the pid- Paris expo- FIG. 4. Large Improved Air Pump of Eitchie. ton does not touch the barrel at all, but leaves a very narrow space between. In order to guide its motion without contact, it has, be sides the upper piston rod which moves it, another piston rod with packing box below passing through the under cylinder head. To prevent the air from passing the piston, the latter is a cylinder of great height, nearly half the length of the barrel, and around its cir cumference are a great number of circular grooves, each of which has to be filled with air before this can pass to the next groove, which takes much more time than each stroke of the piston, so that the pump works as if the piston were tight fitting. But the grooves, filled with air at each stroke, act as so much dead space, and thus as a slight imperfection. Kravogel, of Tyrol, makes his air pump pistons like those of the pump of an hydraulic press, of a simple solid thick iron cylinder, passing through a stuffing box into a barrel which is wider, and in which the space between the two is filled with mercury, thus absolutely an nulling all dead space. Early attempts to pro duce a vacuum on the Toricellian principle (see BAROMETER) failed, but Geisler succeeded in constructing an air pump on this principle ; it is now one of the most valuable tools in the philosophical cabinet. (See figure 5.) The glass tube C, of which the length is about equal to the height of the barometrical tube (30 inches), contains on the top a glass vessel A, while its lower end is connected by a flexi ble tube D with the glass vessel B. The glass vessel A is connected with a tube T R, pro vided with a double-way stopcock P, which AIR PUMP 221 allows a connection between T and R or be tween T and the glass ball P; when, in the latter condition, the vessel T is. raised so high that the mercury enters the ball P, then of course all air is expelled from T. When, now, the cock O P is turned so as to establish the connec tion between T and R (R being joined to the vessel to be exhausted), and if at the same time the vessel B is low ered so that the surface of the mercury in it is 30 inches be low T, the mercury in the latter will descend and fill B, while the vacuum in T will withdraw the air from the vessel to be exhausted. The cock O P is then turned again and B raised, which will ex pel the air through P, and the operation is repeated. Ba- bo has modified this apparatus by substituting valves for the stopcock, while Poggendorf has contrived a very useful combination of this instrument with the ordinary air pump. Bun- sen uses falling water to carry the surround ing air with it (see ADHESIOX OF LIQUIDS TO GASES), and in this way produces a steady ex haustion of air or vapor from vessels requir ing such constant removal. It consists of a wide glass tube D, in which a narrower tube below with a lead tube F, which reaches 20 to 30 feet down ; and this long descending column of water acts like a powerful continuous pis ton. The amount of rarefaction is ascer tained by the difference in the height of the mercurial columns in the syphon barometer P ; Q. This apparatus is used for driving liquids through filters by atmospheric pressure, for drying in vacuo, &c. Some experimenters, in ; order to economize water, reverse the opera tions of the tubes and pass the water out of the : central narrow tube, while the suction takes place through the wide tube, in which case j the water is passed in at S, while the exhaus- | tion takes place by A ; in this case the ba- i rometer P Q is also connected with A. One Mercurial Ai FIG. 6. Eunsen s Air Suction Pump. reaches downward to X, connected at the top by a well fitting cork M. Water is carried in by a side branch C, connected by means of an india-rubber tube B, closed by a spring H, with a tube A drawing water from a reservoir. The current of this water going down in the tube D around the inner tube, will produce a suction, drawing the air from T and S, and from any vessel connected with S. To in crease the effect, the wide tube D is connected FIG. T. Doyle and Martin s Rotary Air Pump. of the most ingenious inventions of this kind is the rotary air pump of Doyle and Martin of New York. It consists of a wheel of which the rim is a hollow tube, filled in its lower portion with mercury, c c , fig. 7 ; this mer cury performs the function of a perfectly fit ting piston, with a minimum of friction. When the wheel is revolved rapidly around its axis, the heavy mercury remains of course in its lower portion. The hollow rim possesses two or more stopcocks, v w, which in one posi tion allow the mercury to pass, as represented below at 20, and in another position close the communication between the two sides, and bring each in connection with one of the hol low spokes, as seenat v in the top ; the position of these cocks is regulated by the levers m & e and n g A, worked by the stationary grooved cam Jc. If, now, the whole wheel revolves rapidly in the direction of the arrows, the up per cock, being closed, will compress the air at the left side and cause an exhaust at the right side, while the mercury remains below as the cock w is open ; the two curved spokes, marked "pressure pipe" and "suction pipe," will thus perform their respective functions, till the valve, having reached the mercury be- 222 AIR PUMP AIRY low, opens to let the latter pass, closing at the same time the pressure and suction pipes ; then the- lower cock w will become the upper, and while closing perform its func tions. The wheel turns on two hollow trun nions, the one in front being connected with the suction pipe, the one behind with the press ure pipe. During rotation the axis will thus perform a continuous . suction and pressure, which in order to be considerable requires a wheel of large dimensions ; 30 inches differ ence in the height of the mercury at the two sides corresponding with our atmosphere, a wheel of at least 5 feet diameter is required to produce a vacuum, while if pressure is also re quired, double and triple these dimensions must be given. The inventors had recently such ap paratus in operation with a wheel of 16 feet diameter and containing 2,000 Ibs. of mercury. Air pumps are used by professors of natural philosophy, to show that in a vacuum combus tion is arrested, smoke falls like lead, cold wa ter boils, warm-blooded animals die rapidly, fermentation is stopped, &c. The celebrated process of Appert for the preservation of ali mentary substances is founded on the last mentioned property ; but the necessary vacuum is produced, not by using an air pump, but by boiling the boxes of preserves, thus producing steam that expels the air, and then quickly sol dering up the hole while the steam still fills up the space, and before the air is given time to enter ; the vacuum will be produced after cool ing while the steam is condensed to water. Air pumps are at the present day also used in many manufactories. The sugar refiners use it for the rapid evaporation of the syrup at low temperatures ; and the condensation of milk is performed by means of large air pumps. The artificial manufacture of ice, and artificial cool ing by the use of power, are always accom plished by the intervention of powerful air pumps, whether air itself is alternately expand ed and compressed, or use is made of volatile liquids, as ether, ammonia, and chymogene, which by evaporating in a vacuum produced by the air pump generate the most intense arti ficial cold. Many chemical preparations also require the constant use of a vacuum, or at least of very rarefied air, for which reason the air pump is one of the most important tools in all manufactories of chemicals, as well as in the chemical laboratory. Recently the use of the air pump has been introduced for the pres ervation of wood and othej* porous material, by first exhausting the air from the pores, so as to force the preserving liquids in by atmos pheric pressure. For manufacturers of aneroid barometers, sympiesometers, Geisler s tubes, and other physical instruments, the air pump is also an indispensable tool. Finally, one of the most important applications of the air pump is that to the low-pressure steam engine ; it is used to pump out of the condenser the condensed steam, the water introduced for condensing, and the air that has come out of this water when warmed by the condensation of steam. This application of the air pump is one of the inventions of "Watt. AIR VESSELS, or properly Spiral Vessels, are supposed by some botanists to be the only for mation by which air is conveyed into the ve getable system; but air has access to many parts of the plant by means independent of the spiral vessels. Spiral vessels differ from spiral cells (or vermiform bodies) only by dimension, so that there is a constant transition from the latter into the former. Both are quite as fre quently filled with sap (in the youngest por tions of the plant) as with air (in the full-sized organs). They are first perceptible in the bud. The spiral vessels of the wood are to be dis tinguished from those of herbaceous plants, both as regards their origin and their function. The latter has not yet been fully explained, owing to the diversity of views entertained by different inquirers. Spiral formation begins when the simple cell membrane ceases to ex ist. This, as well as all other transitions from one form to another, is accompanied by modi fications and changes of the chemical constitu ents of the vegetable body. In some cases the air in the cavities of the plant contains more oxygen than the atmospheric. AIRY, George Biddell, astronomer royal of Eng land, born at Alnwick, July 27, 1801. He was a fellow of St. John s college, Cambridge, and afterward of Trinity. He was appointed Plu- merian professor of astronomy at Cambridge in 1828, and annually published the results of his investigations at the observatory there (9 vols. 4to, 1829- 38). On the retirement of Mr. John Pond in 1835, he became astronomer royal, which office he continues to hold (1872). He is president of the astronomical society, and in 1871 was elected president of the royal society. He distinguished himself by the pub lication of the long-neglected observations at Greenwich of the moon and planets from 1750 to 1830. His labors are regarded as having opened a new epoch in planetary astronomy. He has acquired high reputation by his re searches into the mode of simplifying the the ory of planetary perturbation, by his con trivance of a new instrument for observing the moon off the meridian, and substituting for the old mural circle and transit instrument another of simple construction and of great utility. In 1854 he corrected certain erroneous impres sions which prevailed touching the variations of the compass in ironclads. In 1859 his mem orable researches on the motion of the solar system in space were first announced. He prepared the formula and methods for con ducting the survey of the Maine boundary be tween Canada and the United States. Pie observed eclipses of the sun at Turin (1842), at Gothenburg (1857), and in Spain (I860). His important contributions to astronomy, magnetism, meteorology, photography, and other sciences are contained in leading English cyclopaedias and in the annals of learned socie- AISNE AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 223 ties. In his " Essays on the Invasion of Bri tain by Julius Cresar" (London, 1865), Prof. Airy questions the accuracy of D Anville s, Kennel s, and Halley s theories about the points of C<esar s sailing and landing; he re- j gards the points of departure to have been so j tar from Calais as the mouth of- the Somme, and i the place of landing so far from Deal as Pe- j vensey bay. AISXE, a department in the north of France | which takes its name from the river Aisne, an affluent of the Oise. It consists of portions of lie de France, Brie, and Picardy, and is bound ed by the departments of Le Nord, Ardennes, Marne, Seine-et-Marne, Oise, and Somme, and Belgium. Area, 2,838 sq. m. ; pop. in 1872, 552.439. It is traversed by the Oise, Aisne, Ourcq, and Marne. The surface is mostly flat, and the soil fertile. It is divided into the ar- rondissements of St. Quentin, Laon, Chateau- Thierry, Soissons, and Vervins. Capital, Laon. The quantity of farm produce and live stock exceeds that of most parts of France. A prof itable trade is carried on in pressing oil from the beech mast of the extensive forests. Sev eral of the towns are noted for their manufac tures. The mirrors of St. Gobain are known throughout France. AISSE, Mile,, a Circassian lady, born in 1694, ! died in Paris in 1733. When she was four j years old the count de Ferriol, French ambas sador at Constantinople, purchased her from a slave dealer, who stated that she was the daughter of a Circassian prince. The count had her educated at Paris, under the superin tendence of his sister-in-law, but he afterward seduced her. Though she repulsed the bril liant otfers of the dissolute regent, the duke of Orleans, she indulged a guilty passion for the chevalier d Aydie, a knight of Malta. Her letters contained interesting anecdotes relating to the court and to contemporary personages, and were thought worthy by Voltaire of being published, accompanied by annotations of his own- (1787). In 1806 they were collected, | together with those of Mines, de Villars, La Fayette. and De Tencin (Paris, 3 vols. 12mo). AITKIA, a new county of E. Minnesota; area, about 950 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 178. j Part of Lake Mille Lacs occupies its W. corner. I The route of the Northern Pacific railroad ex- | tends through the N. part of the county. AITOA, William, a Scotch gardener and bota nist, born near Hamilton in 1731, died at Kew palace, Feb. 1, 1793. He emigrated to Eng land in 1754, and in 1759 obtained the manage ment of the royal botanical garden at Kew, I and in 1783 also that of the pleasure garden. Under his care Kew gardens became the prin cipal scene of botanical culture in the kingdom. ! In 1789 he published his Hortm Kewemis (3 ! vols. 8vo), in which 5,600 species are de- i scribed. ^ The system of arrangement adopted is the Linnsean, and the author indicates the \ origin, mode of culture, and the epoch of intro duction into England, of each species. He was assisted in this task by two learned Swedes, Dr. Solander and Mr. Jonas Dryander. He was succeeded by his son, WILLIAM TOWN- BEND AITOX, who retired in 1841, and died in 1849, aged 84. AIT/EMA, Lieuwe van, a Dutch historian, born at Dokkum, Nov. 19, 1600, died at the Hague, Feb. 23, 1669. His great work is Zaaken van Staat en Oorlog in Ende omtrent de Vereenigde Nederlanden (14 vols. 4to, 1657-71 ; 7 vols., 1669-72). It is chiefly val uable on account of the numerous original doc uments, referring to the period 1621- 1 68, which it contains. Aitzema was actively engaged in political affairs, and in his latter years was agent of the Hanseatic towns at the Hague. AIX, a town of southern France, department of Bouches-du-Rhone, 15 m. N. of Marseilles; pop. in 1866, 28,152. It is the see of an arch bishop, and possesses a museum and one of the best provincial libraries of France, containing 100,000 volumes. It was the Aquae Sextire of the Romans, so called on account of its ther mal springs by Sextius Calvinus, who founded it after a victory achieved there over the Gauls, 123 B. C. Between Aix and Aries is the bat tle field on which Marius gained his great vic tory over the Teutons, 102 B. C. The counts of Provence made Aix their capital. The town is handsome, and adorned with a beautiful promenade. The cathedral, the clock tower in the market place, containing a curious clock, and the hotel de ville, are fine specimens of middle-age architecture. The mineral baths are but little frequented ; they are impregnated with sulphur, and are said to soften and im prove the skin. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Ger. Aachen), a town of Rhenish Prussia, capital of the administrative district of the same name, 43 m. by railway W. S. \V. of Cologne; pop. in 1871, 74,238. It is plej*antly situated on rising ground, is a cen tre for Rhenish industry, and is the focus of an. important net of railways connecting Belgium, Holland, and Germany. The annual export of cloth to the United States amounts to about $1,500,000. The Aachen-Munich fire insur ance company and the savings bank are the greatest enterprises of the kind in Germany. The value of mineral products furnished by one of the joint-stock companies amounted in 1869 to 2,491,000 thalers. Railroad iron is manu factured to a very large amount, and there are also flourishing manufactures of woollens, silks, hosiery, shawls, buttons, clocks, pins, railway and other carriages, tobacco, and cigars. A polytechnic school for the Rhenish provinces and for Westphalia was opened Oct. 10. 1870. The town is handsomely built, and contains a fine Gothic toAvn house, and a beautiful cathe dral, in which is the tomb of Charlemagne, who made this his favorite residence. A col lection of famous relics, presented to Charle magne by the patriarch of Jerusalem and the caliph Haroun-al-Rashid, is kept in a tower at the west end of the cathedral, and exposed to AIX-LA-CHAPELLE AJACCIO public view once in seven years. Until 1558 all the German emperors were crowned here, and their portraits, together with Charle magne s chair and many other interesting his torical memorials, are preserved either in the cathedral or in the town hall. The imperial insignia were removed to Vienna in 1*793. The burghers enjoyed rare exemptions and privileges until the reformation, which was warmly espoused by the citizens. After des perate contests, however, the Catholics, with the aid of Spanish soldiery from the Nether lands, suppressed Protestantism, and the priv ileges were taken away from the city. The population is now Catholic, excepting about 8,000 Protestants and 400 Jews. A magnifi cent monument in commemoration of the war riors of I860, by Friedrich Drake, was inaugu rated in 1872. Aix-la-Chapelle is renowned for its mineral baths, which were known to the Eomans, by whom the place was called Aquisgranum, either from an epithet of Apollo, to whom thermal springs were sacred, or from Severus Granius, a Roman commander about A. D. 125. The waters contain sulphur, and have a heat of 131 F. They are very benefi cial in skin and paralytic affections. In the suburb of Borcette (Burtscheid) there are also springs, both hot and cold, which are not im pregnated with sulphur. Treaty of, 1668. At the death of Philip IV. of Spain, 1665, Louis XIV., his son-in-law, asserting a claim to parts of the Spanish dominions in right of his wife, Maria Theresa, under the Brabant laws of de volution, commenced the war of succession and seized the province of Franche-Comte, together with several fortresses and strongholds in the Netherlands. The Spaniards were una ble to make head against such commanders as Conde and Turenne, and Holland, alarmed at the progress of the French, concluded the tri ple alliance with England and Sweden. Igyuis accepted mediation in preference to the alter native of arms, and a congress at Aix-la-Cha pelle ended in a treaty, May 2, 1668, by which Franche-Comtc was restored to Spain, but sev eral of the strong towns in the Netherlands, including Lille anil Valenciennes, were retained by France. Treaty cf, 1748. The Austrian war of succession had arisen from the claims raised by several German princes in opposition to Maria Theresa, who succeeded to the throne of her father, Charles VI., in virtue of the pragmatic sanction. The war lasted from 1740 to 1747, and almost all the powers in Europe were engaged on one side or the other Eng land and France being, as usual, opponents. The preliminaries were signed in April, 1748, and ratified in October. The pragmatic sanc tion was renewed, and the status quo ante lel- lum of most of the parties restored. Frederick the Great remained in possession of Silesia, which he had conquered. Austria ceded, be sides, to Sardinia, some portions of the Mila nese territory ; and to Philip, the brother of the king of Spain, Parma, Piacenza, and Guas- talla. The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) was held for the purpose of settling out standing questions incident to the wars conclud ed by the treaties of Vienna. It was attended by the emperors of Austria and Russia and the king of Prussia in person, and by the repre sentatives of the allied powers, Prince Metter- nich, Lord Castlereagh, the duke of Welling ton, Counts Hardenberg, Bernstorff, Nessel- rode, and Capo d lstria. France, being invited to cooperate, sent the duke de Richelieu. The conferences resulted in declarations by the powers confirmatory of the principles of the holy alliance, in a circular to that effect to all the minor courts of Europe, and in freeing France from the allied army, which had re mained in that country for nearly three years. AIX-LES-BAINS, or Aix (anc. Aqua Allolrogum, A. Gratianw, or A. Domitiance), a bathing place of S. E. France, in the department of Savoie, 8 m. N. of Chambery; pop. in 1866, 4,430. The waters are warm, impregnated with sul phur, and have a temperature of from 112 to 117 F. West of it is the lake of Bourget. AIZANI, or Azani, an ancient city of Asia Mi nor, in Phrygia, mentioned by Strabo, but his torically unknown. Its numerous remains at Tchavdyr, 30 m. S. W. of Kutaieh, have been described by several travellers since their dis covery by the earl of Ashburnham in 1824. They comprise an ancient temple of Jupiter, a theatre, stadium, and gymnasium. The thea tre is in fine preservation. Its greatest diame ter was 185 feet, and the auditorium had 15 rows of marble seats. The river Rhyndacus (now Adranas) rises near the town and passes through it, and was spanned by two bridges of white marble, each consisting of five semicircu lar arches. There are besides many tombs, and Roman coins and inscriptions have been found. See Hamilton s "Researches in Asia Minor," and Sir C. Fellows s "Asia Minor." AJACCIO, capital of the island and French department of Corsica, a seaport on the W. Birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte. AJALON AKBAR 225 coast, in hit. 41 55 N"., Ion. 8 44 E. ; pop. in 1866, 14,558. It has a cathedral, college, mu seum, library, botanical garden, naval school, 1 picture gallery presented to the town by Cardi- < nal Ees. h, and line promenades. It is much i frequented in winter by invalids on account of its genial climate, and is connected by steamers with Marseilles and Nice. The largest ships can lie along its wharves, but the harbor is danger ous during the prevalence of southwest winds. I Wine, olive oil, and fruits are the chief articles ! of trade. It is the birthplace of Napoleon i Bonaparte, and the house in which he was born is still in good preservation. AJALON, or Aijiilon, a town of ancient Pales- ! tine, about 14 in. X. E. of Jerusalem, allotted to the tribe of Dan, but also spoken of as be- ! longing to Ephraim, to Benjamin, and to Ju- dah. It was of little historical importance, and j is chieily known as the place near which, accord- ! ing to the narrative originally contained in the i book of Jasher, Joshua commanded the moon to | stand still. The modern town is called Yalo. AJAX, an extensive tract on the E. coast of ! Africa. It extends from Zanguebar to Cape ; Guardafui, about 10 degrees of latitude, the ; southern extremity being near the equator, j The S. coast is s mdy and barren ; the X. is i high, especially at Cape d Orfui (Ras Hafoon), j which is a bluff toward the sea, backed by j lofty mountains of singular shape. The inhab- ! itants belong to the Eesah or Somauli tribe. I There is no river of importance. Ajan was I known to the ancients, and called Azania. i The inhabitants traded with the Arabs in ivory, tortoise shell, &c., and were under Arab con- < trol ; and Rhaptum, the capital, was the fur thest point to the south known to the Greeks. AJAX, the name of two Greek chiefs in the j Trojan war, distinguished as the greater and ! the lesser. The greater was the son of Tela- . mon, king of Salamis, and third in direct male j descent from Jupiter. lie was second only to j Achilles in martial prowess, equal to him in i strength, but inferior in agility. He led the i forces of the Salaminians, in 12 ships. Hector j retired before the Telamonian Ajax on more than one occasion in the course of the war. At the death of Achilles, the arms of that hero were allotted to him who had deserved best of the Greeks. But two advanced claims to this honor, the greater Ajax and Ulysses. The former alleged his preeminence as a warrior, the latter as a counsellor. The arms were ad judged to Ulysses. Ajax went mad, committed many excesses, and slew himself. This catas- I trophe, which is only alluded to by Homer, | forms the subject of the tragedy of Sophocles I called the " Ajax." In the Odyssey, Ulysses is represented as descending to the infernal re gions and there making fraternal overtures to Ajax, who stalks away without reply. He was | worshipped in Salamis as its tutelary hero. The lesser, son of Oileus, king of the Locrians, whom he led in 40 ships, was remarkable for his swiftness of foot. Having excited the an- VOL. i. 15 ger of the gods, they raised a storm against his fleet as he was returning home. The Oi le- ari escaped to a rock, and defied the vengeance of the gods, whereupon Neptune cleft the rock with his trident, and threw Ajax into the sea. His fate is, however, variously told by the poets. According to some, his crime was the violation of Cassandra in the temple of Miner va, at the sack of Troy. AJMEER, or Ajmem I. A non - regulation district of Raj pootana, subject to the lieutenant governor of the Northwest Provinces of Ben gal, between hit. 25 4;) and 26 3 42 K, and Ion. 74 22 and 75 33 E. ; area, 2,020 sq. m. ; pop. 225,000, mostly Hindoos. The N". W. portion is occupied by mountains connected with the Aravulli range, and contains mines of carbonate of lead, and ores of manganese, copper, and iron. Elsewhere the country is sandy and nearly level. The only river, the Koree, is so strongly impregnated with carbo nate of soda that the water is nndrinkable. lit A city, capital of the above district, situa ted on the slope of a rockv basin in hit. 26 29 X., Ion. 74 43 E., 220 "m. S. W. of Del hi ; pop. about 30,000. It is an ancient city, with stone wails and line gateways, spacious houses, numerous temples, and a ruined palace of Shah Jehan. A large artificial lake sup plies it with water. It has an annual fair and pilgrimage in honor of a Mussulman saint called Kwajah, who is supposed on these occa sions to work extraordinary miracles. In the 16th century it was the chief place of one of Akbars richest provinces. The British took it from the Sindia family in 1817. AKABAii, a fortified village of Arabia, situated in an extensive date grove, or oasis, near the northern extremity of the gulf of Akabah. It is believed to occupy the site of either the Scriptural Elath (the /Elana of the Greeks) or Eziongeber. (See ELATIT.) Gnlf of (the ^Ela- nitic gulf of the ancients), an inlet of the Red sea, about 12 m. wide, forming its X. E. arm after its bifurcation, lat, 28 K It extends in a N". E. direction to lat. 29 32 N., bounding the mountainous peninsula of Sinai on tho E. AKBAR, or Akber, Jclal-ed-Deen Mohammed, the greatest of all the Mogul emperors of Hindo- stan, born Oct. 14, 1542, died in September, 1 605, after reigning half a century. At the time of his accession to the throne of Delhi, on the death of his father Humayun, his dominions embraced but three provinces ; in the 40th year of his reign they numbered 15, embracing the whole of Hindostan N. of the Deccan. Akbar was tolerant of all forms of religious belief, and invited Portuguese missionaries from Goa to give him an account of Christianity, which, however, he did not adopt. He dimin ished the crueJ and oppressive taxes laid on his Hindoo subjects, reformed the administration of the revenue, promoted commerce, and im proved the roads of the empire. He encour aged learning and literature, and instituted schools in all parts of his empire. His history 226 AKENSIDE AKMOLINSK was written in Persian by his vizier, Abul Fazl, under the title Aldx.ir Nameh, partly translated into English ("Ayecn Akbery, or the Institutes of Akber," 3 vols. 4to, Calcutta, 1783- 6, and London, 1800). AKENSIDE, Mark, an English physician and poet, born in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Nov. 9, 1721, died in London, June 23, 1770. lie was the son of a butcher, and was injured for life when very young by his father s cleaver falling upon him. lie was educated for a Presby terian clergyman, beginning his studies at an academy in Newcastle, and continuing them at the university of Edinburgh. While here he decided to become a physician, and devoted the last two years of his course to medical edu cation. In 1742 he went to Leyden, where he took his degree of M. D. in May, 1744. Just before this he had published in London his poem "The Pleasures of Imagination." Even at an earlier age he had written verses for magazines. The "Pleasures of Imagination" achieved immediate and marked success. It was especially praised by Pope. Akenside practised first at Northampton, but afterward went to London. He was at this time assisted by a friend, Jeremiah Dyson, a lord of the treasury, who gave him an allowance of 300 a year until his practice should support him. He was made a fellow of th-e college of surgeons and a physician to the queen, but attained no great success in the ordinary walks of his pro fession. Besides the "Pleasures of Imagina tion," his greatest work, he wrote several mi nor poems, and a large number of professional pamphlets and essays. iKERBLAD, Jolmn David, a Swedish philolo gist, especially skilled in oriental languages, born in 1760, died in Rome in 1819. When a young man he was made an attache of the Swedish embassy to Constantinople, where he found an excellent opportunity for the study of Turkish. In 1795 he was made secretary of the embassy, but in 1797 devoted himself to study for a time, and for this visited Gottingen in 1800. In 1802 he was appointed secretary of the em bassy at the Hague, and in 1803 charge d affaires at Paris. While in Paris he found some Cop tic MSS. in the nationallibrary, and discovered the key to the unknown character in which they were written. In 1804 he left the Swe dish service and went to Rome, where the duchess of Devonshire and others gave him the means of pursuing his studies during the remainder of his life. His works relate chiefly to oriental inscriptions. AkERMAN, or Akjerman (Gr. MonJcnstron ; anc. Tyras), a town in Bessarabia, on the estu ary of the Dniester, near its mouth in the Black sea, and 35 m. S. W. of Odessa ; pop. in 1869, 29,373. It is situated at the foot of a rock crowned by a citadel, has a good harbor, and carries on an extensive trade in salt. The interior, in general, has a Turkish aspect. The population, about half Europeans, is great ly mixed. Akerman is the capital of a dis- irict of the same name, which has 21 German settlements. AkERS, Benjamin Paul, an American sculptor, born in Saccarappa, near Portland, Me., July 10, 1825, died in Philadelphia, May 21, 1861. At the age of 18 he went to Portland. Ai ter working for some time in a printing office, he was induced to study sculpture. In 1849 he opened a studio in Portland, and during the next two years modelled busts of Henry W. Longfellow and others. In 1851- 2 he vk-itccl Italy, and upon returning to Portland modelled a statue of "Benjamin in Egypt," which was exhibited at the New York crystal palace in 1853. In January, 1855, he sailed again for Europe, and during a residence of three years in Rome produced the best of his works, " Una and the Lion," a statue of St. Elizabeth of Hungary (of which three repetitions in marble were executed), the " Dead Pearl Diver," ex hibited in the United States, and an ideal head of Milton. The last two works are elaborate ly described in Hawthorne s "Marble Faun." After returning to America in impaired health, in 1859 he revisited Rome, returned home in 1860, and lived in Portland and Philadelphia. AKHALTZIKII, Akhalzikb, Achalzik, or Akin skha, a strongly fortified town of Transcaucasian Russia, in the government of Kutais, on an af fluent of the Kur, about 95 m. W. of Tiflis ; pop. in 1869, 11,616, two thirds Armenians. It has a castle, a fine mosque containing a rich orien tal library, several churches, and a synagogue, and is the seat of a Greek archbishopric. It is situated in an elevated valley, in an Armenian district which was ceded by the Porte to Rus sia in the peace of Adrianople (1829). A k HiSS Alt, or Ek-Hissar (anc, Tliyatird), i\ town of Asia Minor, in the eyalet of Aidin, 58 in. N. E. of Smyrna; pop. about 12,000. It is built on somewhat elevated ground, and con tains about 1,000 Turkish, 300 Greek, and 80 Armenian dwellings. AkHLAT, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the eyalet of Van, at the base of the Sipan Dagh, on the W. shore of Lake Van; pop. about 5,000. Near it are the magnificent ruins of an ancient residence of the Armenian kings. It is the see of an Armenian bishop. AKHTYKKA, or Aehtyrka, a town of Russia, in the government and 60 m. W. N. W". of Khar kov ; pop. in 1866, 17,544. It is situated on three lakes, has many manufactures, and ten churches, one of which attracts numerous pil grims by a miraculous image of the Virgin. AkIBA BEX JOSEPH, a Jewish rabbi of the early part of the 2d century, one of the princi pal fathers of the Mishna. A native of Syria, he travelled in Arabia, Gaul, Gyrene, Egypt, and other countries, and became the most emi nent teacher of his time and people. Having warmly embraced the cause of the insurrection under Bar Cokheba against the Romans, he was captured and executed about 135. AkMOLIJVSk, a province of Siberia, organized by a ukase of Oct. 21 (Nov. 2), 1868. It is AKRON ALABAMA 227 composed of Koktchetav, Atbassar, and Akmo- linsk (three of the five districts into which the land of the Siberian Kirghiz was formerly divided), of five districts and part of a sixth of the Siberian Cossacks, and of the towns of Omsk and Petropavlovsk. Capital, Akmolinsk, oOO m. S. W. of Omsk, founded by the Rus sians in 1802; pop. in 1867, 4,800. The prov ince remains under the governor general of Western Siberia. AKRON, a city and the capital of Summit county, Ohio, 36 m. S. of Cleveland, at the junction of the Ohio and Erie and Ohio and Pennsylvania canals, and at the intersection of the Atlantic and Great Western and the Cleve land, Mt. Vernon, and Delaware railways; pop. in 1860, 3,477; in 1870, 10,006. The canals and the Little Cuyahoga river furnish ample water power for numerous mills, factories, and other mechanical establishments. The chief articles of manufacture are flour and woollen goods. There is also a steam engine factory, a blast furnace, a mineral paint mill, a card man ufactory, and an extensive stove manufactory. The town is 400 feet above the lake, being the most elevated ground on the line of the canal between Lake Erie and the Ohio river. In the vicinity of the town immense beds of Ohio mineral fire-proof paint are found, and export ed to every part of the country. Akron was first settled in 1825. AK-SIIKIIIl (the White City), a town in the eyalet of Karaman, in Asia Minor, about 5 m. S. of a lake of the same name, and 65 m. N. W. of Konieh ; pop. about 15,000. It is the seat of a pasha, and a station of considerable im- portanca on the caravan route between Con stantinople and Syria, It carries on an exten sive trade, and manufactures carpets, &c. Ak- Shehr is the Philomelium of the ancient geog rapher Strabo, and near it the German emperor Frederick I. fought a battle with the Seljuks in 1190. It was afterward called Aksiari. Here also the sultan Bajazet I., who was a prisoner in the fortified camp of Tamerlane, died in March, 1403. AKSU, or Oksu, a commercial and manufac turing town of East Turkistan, about 250 m. N. E. of Cashgar ; pop. estimated at about 50,000. It is situated in a fertile valley at the terminus of a road leading across the Thian Shan mountains to the Sungarian district of Hi, with which it has an extensive trade. Rus sian, Tartar, and Chinese caravans here effect their exchanges, and there are famous manufac tures of a sort of unglazed cotton cloth called lias, elaborate saddlery of deer skin, and jew elled and jasper ornaments. While East Tur- kistan was under Chinese rule, the city had a Chinese garrison of 2,000 or 3,000 men. The inhabitants are industrious and hospitable. Aksu was the capital of the kings of Cashgar and Yarkand. In 1716 it was nearly de stroyed by an earthquake, and at the begin ning of the present century it was swept by a freshet in which 3,000 persons perished. AKYAB, a town of British Burmah, capital of the province of Aracan, situated in lat. 20 8 N., Ion. 92 54 E., on the E. side of the island of Akyab, at the mouth of the Aracan river, 50 m. S. S. W. of the town of Aracan, the former capital; pop. in 1864, 15,512. Its origin dates from 1826. The houses are built chiefly of bamboo ; the streets are broad ; there are several public buildings and barracks, be- sides the British government house. It is a free port, opium being the only article subject to duty. The harbor is safe, and the coasting and foreign trade extremely active. It is an important Protestant missionary station. AL, il, or ill (improperly pronounced by those of other nations el), the Arabic definite article, and indeed the only article in use in the Arabic language, words indefinitely used standing alone, as yad, a hand, al or il yad, the hand. When this article stands before a lingual or dental (of which there are in Arabic 13, called shamsi), the sound of the letter I (lam)is drop ped for the sake of euphony, and the initial dental or lingual takes a double sound ; thus, il sha?ns, the sun, is pronounced ish shams. When the word preceding the article ends in a long vowel, a wasla (marked thus ~) is placed over the a (alif\ indicating that it is to be dropped in pronunciation, and the I joined to the vowel sound. Thus, Abu il Feda is pronounced Abulfeda. ALABAMA (Indian, "Here we rest"), one of the southern states of the American Union, sit uated between lat. 30 10 and 35 N., and Ion. 84 53 and 88 30 W., bounded X. by Ten nessee, E. by Georgia and Florida, S. by Flor ida and the gulf of Mexico, and W. by Missis sippi; area, 50,722 sq. m. Alabama is divided into 65 counties, viz. : Autauga, Baker, Bald win, Barbour, Bibb, Blount, Bullock, Butler, Calhoun, Chambers, Cherokee, Choctaw, Clarke, Clay, Cleburne, Coffee, Colbert, Conecuh, Coosa, Covington, Crerishaw, Dale, Dallas, De Kalb, Elmore, Escambia, Etowah, Fayette, Franklin, Geneva, Greene, Hale, Henry, Jack son, Jefferson, Lauderdale, Lawrence, Lee, Limestone, Lowndes, Macon, Madison, Ma- rengo, Marion, Marshall, Mobile, Monroe, Montgomery, Morgan, Perry, Pickens, Pike, Randolph, Russell, Sanford, Shelby, St. Clair, Sumter, TalJadega, Tallapoosa, Tuscaloosa, State Seal of Alabama. 228 ALABAMA Walker, Washington, Wileox, and Winston. There are eight cities in the state. Mobile, on the Mobile river, near its mouth in the bay of the same name, is the first in size and com mercial importance, having a population in 1870 of 32,034. It is one of the most impor tant ports on the gulf of Mexico, being the natural outlet for S. Alabama and S. E. Mis sissippi, and ranks next to New Orleans and Savannah in extent of cotton exports. The other cities are Montgomery, the capital, on the Alabama river (pop. 10,588), Selma (6,484), Huntsville (4,907), Eufaula (3,185), Talladegu (1,1)33), Tuscaloosa (1,689), and Tnscumbia (1,214). The more important towns are Green ville (pop. 2.850), Marion (2,040), Florence (2,003), Grantville (1,701), Greensboro (1,7150), Union Springs (1,455), La Fayette (1,382), Prattville (1,346), Wetumpka (1,137), Auburn (1,018), and Athens, Jacksonville, and Decatur, with populations less than 1,000. The follow ing table shows the population of the state at each census since its admission into the Union : Census. Whites. ! Fr. colored. Slaves. Total. 1820... 1830.... 1840... 1850.... I860.... 1870.... 85.451 190.406 3:35.185 4-26.514 5-20.271 521.384 571 1.572 2.039 2.265 2.690 475.510 41.879 117.549 253.536 342.844 435,080 127.901 309.527 590.753 771.6-23 964.201 996,894 In 1800 the total population was 940,244, classified as follows : whites, 522,791), of whom 257,337 were males and 205,402 females; col ored, 423,445, of whom 200.505 were males and 210,940 females. By the federal census of 1870, Alabama ranks 10th in population among the states. Of the whole number of inhabitants, 987,030 are native and 9,902 foreign born; of the former, 744,140 were born in the state. The gain in the total population during the de cade between 1800 and 1870 was 3 40 per cent. There was a gain of 8*02 per cent, in the col ored population, but a loss of 0*93 in the white. The effect of emancipation, by adding the two fifths of the slave population formerly ex cluded from the basis of representation, has been to add 23-40 per cent, to the representa tive population, of which the total gain has been 2(5-17 per cent. The whole number of male citizens 21 years of age and upward is 202,182. The number of Indians is 98. In 1800 the number of deaths resulting from un known causes was 1,008, or 10-07 per cent.; in 1870, 730, or 7 21 per cent, The Alleghany mountains exhaust themselves in N. E. Ala bama, rendering that portion of the state uneven and broken, though the elevation is nowhere very great. The range extends W. with a slight bend to the S., and forms the dividing line be tween the waters of the Tennessee and the other rivers of Alabama, all of the latter ultimately flowing southward into the gulf of Mexico. From this range the face of the country slopes to the S., and is somewhat uneven as far as the centre of the state, where we find rolling prairies, pine barrens, and very fertile alluvial bottoms. The extreme southern portion of the state is fiat, and but slightly elevated above the level of the gulf of Mexico. Alabama may be divided into five regions, viz.: the timber region, containing 11,000 sq. m. ; the cotton region, 11,5UO; the agricultural and manu facturing region, 8,700; the mineral region, 15,200; and the stock and agricultural region, 4,322. The timber region, bordering on the gulf of Mexico and Florida, extends across the S. portion of the state and 40 m. ]S r . from the Florida line. This section, covered with forests of long leaf yellow pine, yields excellent tim ber, tar, pitch, and turpentine. The state also produces in abundance different varieties of oak, bald and black cypress, the timber of which is remarkable for its durability, sweet and black gum, poplar, ash, walnut, hickory, locust, chestnut, red and white cedar, dog wood, maple, and elm. Groves of cedar of great height abound in the canebrakes of Ma- rengo and Greene counties. Below the 33d parallel commences the long moss region. This moss, which hangs in festoons from the trees so extensively as to darken the for est, is much used for mattresses. The cot ton region joins the timber region on the north, and has a width of about 102 m. on the W. and (JO m. on the E. line of the state. This belt of land, interspersed with large prairies, with an unsurpassed climate and having a stiff black soil, remarkably rich, and from 2 to 20 feet deep, is considered one of the most fertile and healthy agricultural tracts in the South. The land will produce fi mi 50 to 60 bushels of corn or 800 to 900 pounds of seed cotton per acre. Immediately N. of the cotton region lies the agricultural and manufacturing dis trict, extending E. and W. across the state, and having an average breadth of about 35 m. The soil is sandy and poor, but there are nu merous streams affording water power. The mineral region occupies the 1ST. E. corner of the state, extending S. W. about 100 in., and has an average width of about 80 m. White marble of remarkable brilliancy, soapstone, flagstones, graphite or plumbago, and granite of good quality are obtained here. In this region are three distinct coal fields, covering an area of 4,000 sq. m., and containing bitu minous coal in beds from 1 to 8 feet thick. Near these coal fields are extensive beds of limestone, sandstone, and iron ore producing from 30 to 58 per cent, of metallic iron. lied and other ochres are found ; galena and man ganese exist in the limestone formations. The stock and agricultural region occupies the N. W. portion of the state; its productions are cotton, corn, grain, grapes, and stock. Ala bama has only about 00 m. of seacoast, ex tending from Perdido to the W. line of the state, a large portion of the S. boundary being cut oft from the gulf by an intervening strip of Florida. Mobile bay, the great outlet to the navigable waters of the state, is the largest ALABAMA and finest 0:1 flic gulf, being; 30 m. in length and from 3 to 18 in. in breadth, with 22 feet of water at the main entrance at low tide; but the channel for 10 m. below Mobile is not more than 8 or 9 feet deep at low tide. Perdido bay is of slight importance. About two thirds of the counties of the state are bounded or inter sected by navigable rivers, the principal of which are the Mobile, Alabama, Tombigbee, Chattahoochce, Coosa, and Tennessee. The last named comes in at the N. E. corner of the state, and taking a circular sweep southward goes out at the N". W. corner, and empties into the Ohio at Paducah, Ky. Its continuous nav igation is interrupted by Muscle Shoals, near Florence. The great river of the state is the Mobile, formed by the confluence of the Ala bama and Tombigbee about 50 m. above Mobile bay, into which it empties at Mobile. The Tombigbee rises in N". E. Mississippi, and is navigable for light-draught steamers to Colum bus, about 300 m., and for flat-boats about 125 m. further. The Black Warrior, a branch of the Tombigbee, has its source in N". Alabama, empties near Demopolis, and is navigable for steamers to Tuscaloosa, 285 m. from Mobile. During freshets the Black Warrior at Tusca loosa rises to a height of 50 feet. The Alabama, which is the eastern branch of the Mobile, is navigable to Montgomery, about 320 m. The Coosa, a branch of the Alabama, is navigable from its mouth to Wetumpka, and from Greens- port to Rome, Ga., altogether 160 m., while its course between Wetumpka and Greensport for 180 m. is obstructed by shoals. The Chatta hoochee, a" large river rising in Georgia and smptying into Appalachicola bay, forms the eastern boundary of Alabama for more than 100 m. It is about 500 m. long, and navigable to the falls at Columbus, Ga., 300 m. above its mouth. Among the smaller rivers are the Conecuh, emptying into the Escambia ; the Perdido, emptying into Perdido bay ; the Choc- tawhatchee, emptying into the bay of the same name ; and the Cahawba and Tallapoosa, afflu ents of the Alabama. The attention of the general government and the states interested has been directed to the improvement of the Tennessee and Coosa rivers, and their connec tion by a canal, in order to form an outlet for the produce of the northwestern and southern states, which will possess advantages over that by the Mississippi river. Among the natural curiosities are : a natural bridge in Walker county; Bladen and Blount springs, which are the resorts of health and pleasure seekers ; and the sulphur springs of Talladega county. The remains of various mounds and roads have been found in different parts of the state, of which the Indians formerly occupying the country famish no traditions. A stream of water issues from a large fissure in the limestone rocks at luscumbia, which is said to discharge 125 hhds. of water per miimts, forming a considerable river which empties into the Tennessee. The N. E. corner of the state abounds in wild, grand, and picturesque scenery. The "Suck," a sort of maelstrom in the Tennessee river, and Paint Rock, a very high bluff with figures rep resenting a man s face, are objects of rnucli | curiosity. The climate of Alabama is healthy, except on the low river bottoms, where the prevailing diseases are intermittent, congestive, and bilious fevers; congestive fevers being the most fatal. According to the census of 1870, the rate of mortality was about one death to every 93 inhabitants. Mobile, in its early his tory, was several times severely ravaged by yellow fever. In the elevated portions of the country the climate is delightful, the heat of summer being materially mitigated by the gulf breezes. During summer the mercury ranges from 104 to 60 F. ; in November and the winter months, from 82 to 18 ; and in spring, from 93 to 22. The mean temperature of the state is about 03, or perhaps something less, and the mercury seldom rises above 95. July is the hottest month in the year. The fall of rain for 1870 was 48*53 inches. Very little snow falls, and the rivers are never frozen over, though stagnant water is sometimes covered with a thin coating of ice. Fruit trees blossom from the 1st of February to the 1st of March, according to the elevation. In the lower por tion of the country there is almost a total lack of good water, while that found in the higher regions is very good. In many parts of the state the inhabitants procure their water from artesian wells, which not unfrequently reach a depth of 1,000 feet, and some of them throw up water in sufficient quantity to turn mills and other machinery. The soil of the state is va rious, but mainly productive. In the southern part there are considerable tracts of sandy bar rens, but the river bottoms are remarkably fer tile. Some portions of the highlands in the north are not worth cultivating, while by far the greater portion is very excellent land, hav ing a productive soil of variable depth, resting on a limestone bed. By its great advantages of soil and climate, Alabama has always held a high rank as an agricultural state. Agriculture forms the principal occupation of the people, manufacturing being carried on only to a lim ited extent. The chief productions are cotton and Indian corn, though other grains are raised, as are also sugar cane and rice on the bottom lands in the extreme south ; and tobacco is grow r n to a small extent. According to the census of 1870, there are 4,982,340 acres of improved land in the state, and 9,491,270 of unimproved, of which 8,034,700 acres are woodland. The assessed value of real estate is $117,223,043, and of personal property $38,359,552; true value of all real and personal property, $201,855,841 ; cash value of farms, $67,502,433 ; of farming implements and machinery, $3,256,101 ; of all livestock, $26,077,267; of home manufactures, $1,083,720; of slaughtered animals^ $4,556,467; estimated value of all farm products, including betterments and additions to stock, $66,532,810 ; total amount of wages paid to agricultural 230 ALABAMA laborers during the year, including value of board, $11,791,191. The productions were 423,312 bales of cotton, 16,6(50,488 bushels of Indian corn, 1,049,960 of wheat, 18,594 of rye, 767,732 of oats, 152,456 of peas and beans, 157,446 of Irish and 1,806,264 of sweet pota toes, 222,943 Ibs. of rice, 151,557 of tobacco, 370,773 of wool, 3,178,638 of butter, 21,068 of wax, 307,706 of honey, 10,553 tons of hay, and 166,009 gallons of cane and 261,986 of sorghum molasses. There were 78,962 horses, 75,644 mules and asses, 165,663 milch cows, 57,237 working oxen, 248,943 other cattle, 234,607 sheep, and 701,346 swine. The num ber of manufacturing establishments in the state was 2,231, employing $5,713,607 capital, 291 steam engines with 7,640 horse power, 736 water wheels with 11,098 horse power, and 8,349 hands, receiving $2,211,638 wages annu ally. The value of materials used in 1870 was $7,643,784, and of products, $13,220,655. Of the manufactories, the most important are 33 for ginning cotton, 10 for the manufacture of cotton goods, 3 for cotton thread and yarn, 20 for the manufacture and working of iron in various forms, 143 for leather, 13 for machine ry, 284 lumber mills, and 613 flour and grist mills. The foreign commerce of Alabama all centres at Mobile, where cotton is the chief article of export, though considerable quanti ties of saAved lumber and staves are shipped to Cuba, and cedar railroad ties to the northern states. The exports to foreign countries from Mobile for 1870 were $22,422,631, of which $11,829,786 was taken in American, and $10,592,845 in foreign bottoms. The imports for the same period were $1,349,488, of which $161,499 came in American, and $1,187,994 in foreign vessels. The exports of cotton were 188,761 bales (94,462,212 Ibs.), valued at $22,376,498. The shipping entering Mobile from foreign ports for 1870 was 40 American vessels, 17,472 tons and 419 men, and 65 foreign vessels, 52,777 tons and 1,320 men. The clearances for foreign ports in the same time Avere 77 American vessels, 42,663 tons and 889 men, and 51 foreign vessels, 37,075 tons and 976 men. The number of merchant ves sels belonging at Mobile in 1870 was 216, with a tonnage of 19,748. During the year 11 ves sels, Avith a total tonnage of 548, were built. In 1871 there Avere 1,496 miles of railroad main and side track completed in Ala bama, with an aggregate assessed value of $25,943,052 59, as shown in the adjoined table. The Alabama and Chattanooga connects the latter city with Meridian, Miss., by Avay of Tuscaloosa, and when completed Avill afford the most direct communication between NCAV York and New Orleans, through East Tennes see. The Memphis and Charleston extends through the northern part of the state, and con nects the Mississippi river with the Atlantic. The Mobile and Montgomery extends from Tensas, near Mobile, Avith which it is connect ed by steamboats, to Montgomery, connecting NAME OF ROAD. Miles. Value. Alabama and Chattanooga 50 $6 1 905 00 Memphis and Charleston 164 2 719 800 00 Mobile and Girard 84 1 07(5 7CO 00 Mobile and Ohio Mobile and Montgomery. 84 171 1.474552 00 2 862 5SO 00 Montgomery and Eufaula 57 824 ?S9 50 Nashville and Decatur Nashville and Chattanooga Savannah and Memphis 29 26 21 886.4S5 00 480.4- i4 00 263 900 CO Sehna and Gulf Selma, Marion, and Memphis Selma and Meridian Selma, Rome, and Dalton South and North 31 48 83 177 102 425.275 00 771.000 00 1.848.981 7-3 2,464.812 69 1 6 ?5 9()0 00 Southwestern of Georgia Western 167^ 14387 08 2 5^8 700 00 Total 1,495% $25,943,052 5i> at Pollard \vith the Mobile and Girard road, Avhich is intended to secure direct communica tion betAveen Columbus, Ga., and Mobile. Run ning easterly from Montgomery is the Mont gomery and Eufaula, which will ultimately form a part of a line to Brunswick on the Georgia seaboard. The Western road, a con necting link of the Mobile, Atlanta, and Au gusta line, is completed from West Point via Montgomery to Selma, where by its junction with the Selma and Meridian a continuous line of railroads is formed from Savannah, Ga., to Monroe in Louisiana, from which point con nection can be made with the projected South ern Pacific railway. Sixty miles of the Mobile and Ohio road lie in the S. W. part of Alaba ma ; a branch of this road, the Mississippi, Gainesville, and Tuscaloosa, is completed to Gainesville. The Selma, Rome, and Dalton is completed from Dalton, Ga., to Selma, 236 m., and affords a direct outlet to Charleston for the cotton and minerals of central Alabama. The Selma and Gulf line is in process of con struction from Selma to Pollard, a distance of 100 m., Avhere connection by railway to Pen- sacola is made. The Selma, Marion, and Mem phis, and the South and North railroads are under construction. The latter connects Mont gomery with Decatur, where a junction is made with the Nashville and Decatur road ; it Avill afford an air-line communication between Nashville and the gulf, and serve as an outlet for the mineral stores of central Alabama. An important road is projected from Eufaula to Guntersville, Avhich in the absence of a canal Avill afford communication between the Coosa and Tennessee rivers. Other projected lines are the Selma and NCAV Orleans, the Mobile and Alabama, Grand Trunk (from Mobile via Marion to Elyton, 240 m.), the Savannah and Memphis, and the Vicksburg and Brunswick. The legislature has empoAvered the governor, Avhen any railway company incorporated by the state shall have completed and equipped 20 miles of road, to indorse on behalf of the state the first mortgage bonds of the company to the extent of $16,000 per mile for the portion completed, and $16,000 for each section of five miles subsequently completed. These liabili ties on Sept. 80, 1871, were as follows: ALABAMA 231 NAME CF ROAD. Mis. Ai icunt. Alabama and Chattanootra 295 $4,720,000 Alabama and Chattanooga, re ported excess issued 5SO.OOO East Alabama and Cincinnati.. . 20 3-20.000 Mobile and Ala. Grand Trunk. 20 3-20.000 Mobile and Montgomery 2.500.000 MontsromiTv and Euf aula 60 9(30.000 Selma and Gulf 30 4SO.OOO Selma. Marion, and Memphis.. 45 7-20000 fcouth and North 100 2.-200.000 Savannah and Memphis 20 3-20,000 $13,120,000 STATE BONDS FOR RAILROAD PURPOSES. Alabama and Chattanooga $2.000.000 Montgomery and Eufaula 300,000 $2.300,000 Total contingent liabilities... . $15,420,000 The present constitution of Alabama was adopted in 1868. The legislative power is vested in a general assembly, consisting of a senate and house of representatives. The lat ter is composed of not more than 100 mem bers, apportioned among the different counties according to population, but each county is entitled to at least one representative. The present number is 100. The number of sena tors cannot be more than one third nor less than one fourth that of the representatives. The present number is 33. Senators and rep resentatives are elected on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, the former for four and the latter for two years. One half of the senators are chosen every two years. Persons qualified as electors to vote for mem bers of the general assembly are eligible as representatives ; but senators -must have at tained the age of 27 years and resided for two years in the state. The general assembly meets annually on the third Monday in November, and cannot remain in session longer than 30 days except by a two-thirds vote of each house. A majority of the whole number of members in each house is sufficient to pass a bill over the governor s veto. The executive depart ment consists of a governor, lieutenant gov ernor, secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, and attorney general, who are elected on the same day as the members of the legislature for a term of two years, except the auditor, who is chosen for four years. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court of three justices, with appellate jurisdiction only, except that it may issue writs of injunction, mandamus, ha beas corpus, and quo warranto ; five courts of chancery and twelve circuit courts, each of which is held by one judge ; a probate court for each county ; and city courts for Mobile, Montgomery, Selma, and Huntsville ; in addi tion to which the legislature may establish infe rior courts of law and equity. The supreme court sits at Montgomery. The judges of the several courts are elected by the people for a term of six years, and may be removed by im peachment or for reasonable cause by the gov ernor on the address of two thirds of the legis lature. Judges of the supreme, circuit, and chancery courts cannot hold any other office of profit or trust under the state or United States during their judicial term. The salary of the governor is $4,000, and of the judges of the three higher courts $3,000 each. The right of suffrage is given to all male citizens and those who have declared their intention to be come citizens, who have attained the age of 21 years and resided in the state six months next preceding the election, and three months in the county where their votes are offered. Those who during the late war violated the rules of civilized warfare, those disqualified on account of participation in the rebellion, those convict ed of crimes punishable by imprisonment in the penitentiary, and those who are idiots or insane, are by the constitution prohibited from voting. The general assembly must provide from time to time for the registration of elec tors. Every person before registering is re quired to take an oath to support the constitu tion and laws of the United States and of the state of Alabama, and to swear that he is not disqualified by law from registering ; that he will never countenance or aid in the secession of the state ; and that he accepts the civil and political equality of all men. All able-bodied citizens between the ages of 18 and 45 are lia ble to duty in the militia. The governor is commander-in-chief of the militia, with power to call it forth to execute the laws and preserve the peace, and is required to appoint with the consent of the senate one major general and three brigadier generals of militia. The com mon schools and other educational institutions of the state are under the management of a board of education, consisting of the superin tendent of public instruction, elected by the people for two years, and two members from each of the congressional districts, chosen for four years. The board is required to establish throughout the state, in each township or school district, free schools for all children be tween the ages of 5 and 21 years. By the law of 1870 it is forbidden to unite in one school white and colored children, except by the unanimous consent of their parents and guar dians. The fund appropriated annually by constitutional provision for the support of pub lic schools consists of the proceeds of all lands granted by the United States for school pur poses, special appropriations, escheated estates, money paid for exemption from military duty, one fifth of the aggregate annual revenue of the state, and a poll" tax of $1.50. The consti tution requires a state census to be taken in 1875, and every ten years thereafter, and pro vides for the establishment of a bureau of in dustrial resources at Montgomery, under the management of a commissioner, whose duty it shall be to collect statistical information con cerning the productive industries of the state, to disseminate among the people knowledge tending to promote their agricultural, mining, and manufacturing interests, and to make an annual report to the governor, to be laid before ; the general assembly. It also provides for the 232 ALABAMA exemption from sale on execution of personal property of any resident to the value of $1,000, and a homestead not exceeding $2, 000 in value. The real and personal property of a woman, whether acquired before or after marriage, is not liable for the debts of her husband, and may be devised and bequeathed by her the same as if she were a feme sole. The crimes of treason, murder in the first degree, rape, carnal inter course with a woman by false representations of being her husband, and arson in the first degree, are punishable with death or imprison ment. Killing in a duel is murder in the second degree, and any one aiding in a duel is made incapable of holding any office under the state. Absolute divorce is granted for habitual drunk enness after marriage, physical incapacity, adul tery, abandonment for two years, two years imprisonment, or extreme cruelty. The legal rate of interest is 8 per cent. Alabama has 7 representatives and 2 senators in the federal congress. The total taxation not national for 1870 amounted to $2, 982, 932. The total receipts into the state treasury during the fiscal year were $1, 283,587, of which $1,242,886 25 was from taxation and licenses. The total disburse ments by the state treasury were $1,360,399, of which $23,843 was for the executive de partment, $112,860 for legislative expenses, $66,855 for judiciary, $674,410 for educational purposes and schools, and $251,504 for interest. The bonded debt of the state Sept. 30, 1871, was $5,442,300, with interest amounting to $321,106 annually; the total state debt was $8,761,967 37. Among the public institutions in the state are the penitentiary at Wetumpka, the insane hospital at Tuscaloosa, the asylum for deaf, dumb, and blind, and the freedman s hospital, at Talladega, and an asylum for the blind at Mobile. By the census of 1870 there were 611 blind, 401 deaf and dumb, 555 insane, and 721 idiotic ; number of homicides during the year, 100. The number of convicts in the penitentiary in 1869 was 374. The whole number of children attending school during the year 1870 was 77,139, of whom 31,098 were white males, 30,226 white females, 7,502 colored males, and 8,313 colored females. The number of persons 10 years old and upward unable to read was 349,771 ; unable to write, 383,012. Of those 21 years old and over who could not write, 17,429 were white males, 31,001 white females, 91,017 colored males, and 98,344 colored fe males. According to the state auditor s report, the number of public schools in 1869 was 3,225, and of normal schools 16. The total number of children of school age was 387,057, of whom 229,139 were white, and 157,918 colored. The state appropriates about $500,000 annually (1871, $590,605 50) for the support of common schools. By the census of 1860 there were 17 colleges. Math 116 teachers and a total endow ment of $124,894; 206 academies and private schools, with 400 teachers and 10,778 pupils; and 395 public libraries, with 155,275 volumes. The .university of Alabama, founded in 1831, is situated at Tuscaloosa, and is under the eon- t.iol of the state board of education. During the civil war this institution was converted into a military academy. The principal build ing having been burned in 1865, the legisla- | ture in the following year loaned $70,000 to the university for the erection of a new building, I which has since been completed. The univer sity owns some valuable lands and has an en dowment of $300,000, with an annual interest of $24,000. Since the war it has not been in a prosperous condition. In January, 1871, there were 4 professors and 21 students. In 1871 there were 71 newspapers and periodicals pub lished in the state, of which 58 were weekly, 2 tri-weekly, 10 daily (which also issued week ly editions), and one semi-monthly. Their ag gregate annual circulation was 8,891,432, and their average circulation 1,070. The leading religious denominations are Methodists and Baptists. The former in 1860 had 777 church es, with accommodations for 212,555 persons, and church property valued at $606, 720; the latter 810 churches, worth $495,449, with ac commodations for 245,255 persons. There i were 202 Presbyterian churches, valued at | $368,500, with accommodations for 65,004; 34 Episcopal, valued at $196,050, with seats for 13,840; and 9 Roman Catholic, with 8,000 | seats and church property worth $230,450. There are other denominations in the state of less importance as to numbers. The ter- | ritory now forming the state of Alabama ! was originally a part of Georgia. In 1798 the country now included in the states of Ala bama and Mississippi was organized as a terri tory, called Mississippi. At this time Florida, which then belonged to Spain, extended to the French possessions in Louisiana, from lat. 31 to the gulf of Mexico, cutting off Mississippi territory from the gulf coast entirely. During the war with Great Britain in 1812, as a precautionary measure, that part of Florida between the Perdido and Pearl rivers was occupied by United States troops, and finally annexed to Mississippi territory. After the removal of most of the Creek Indians from this territory as the result of a vigorous war in 1813- 14 (see CREEKS), the country was rapidly settled by the whites, and in 1817 the western portion was admitted into the Union as the state of Mississippi, while the eastern part re mained as the territory of Alabama till 1819, when it was also admitted as a state. The slave population increased much more rapidly than the free, the proportion of slave to the free population being, according to the state census of 1855, as 239 to 289. The popular vote cast by- Alabama at the presidential election of 1860, which resulted in the choice of Abraham Liu- coin, was: for Douglas, 13,651; Breckinridge, 48,831 ; and Bell, 27,875. The state had in structed her delegates to the national conven tion held at Charleston in April of the same year to withdraw from that body unless the conven tion should adopt, among others, a resolution ALABAMA 233 affirming "the unqualified right of the people of the slaveholding states to the protection of their property in the states, in the territories, and in the wilderness in which territorial gov ernments are yet unorganized." The conven tion Iiavinz refused to declare in favor of this doctrine, the Alabama delegation withdrew. Early in December commissioners were sent by Alabama to the other southern states to urge the withdrawal of these states from the federal government, and their union in a sepa rate confederacy ; and on Dec. 24 an election was held for the choice of delegates to a state convention. These delegates were classified as immediate secessionists and cooperationists, the latter being in favor of secession with the cooperation of the other southern states. The convention assembled at Montgomery Jan. 7, 18fil, and on the same day communications were received from the representatives of the state in congress, who had held a meeting in Washington, and passed resolutions advising immediate secession. On Jan. 1 1 the ordi nance of secession was adopted by a vote of ( 1 to 30. The immediate cause of this action was stated in the preamble to the ordinance to be "the election of Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal llamlin to the offices of president and vice president of the United States of America by a sectional party, avowedly hostile to the domestic institutions and to the peace and security of the people of the state of Ala bama, preceded by many and dangerous infrac tions of the constitution of the United States by many of the states and people of the north ern section. 1 The convention held secret ses sions and refused to submit its action to the people. These proceedings were followed by the withdrawal on Jan. 21 of the senators and representatives of Alabama from the federal congress, and the election of delegates to the southern congress, which assembled at Mont gomery Feb. 4, to organize the southern confede racy. Forts Morgan and Gaines at the entrance to Mobile harbor and Mt. Vernon arsenal were seized by order of the governor, and on the 9th live companies of volunteers were sent to Pen- sacola, at the request of the governor of Flori da, to assist in capturing the forts and other property there belonging to the United States. Subsequently a commissioner was sent to Wash ington to negotiate with the president for the transfer to the state authorities of the forts, arsenals, custom houses, and other United States property in the state. The president declined to receive this commissioner except as a distinguished citizen of Alabama." On March 13 the state convention, which had re assembled on the 4th, ratified by a vote of 87 to G, without submission to the people, the con stitution adopted by the confederate congress, and subsequently passed an ordinance transfer ring to the provisional government the arms and munitions of w r ar acquired from the United States, and also all authority over the forts and arsenals in the state. Laws were enacted by the legislature placing the state upon an effi cient war footing and appropriating 8300,000 to aid the cause of southern independence. On April 10 the president of the Confederate States made a requisition on the governor for 3.000 troops, and on May 1 the first battalion of the third state regiment left for Virginia. No important military operations occurred within the borders of Alabama during the first years of the war. In February, 18(12, immedi ately after the capture of Fort Henry, Com mander Phelps, with three gunboats from the fleet of Commodore Foote, proceeded up the Tennessee river and took possession of Flor ence at the foot of the Muscle Shoals. This was the first appearance of the national flag in northern Alabama since the beginning of the war, and was received with demonstrations of loyalty by many of the inhabitants who had opposed secession. On April 1) Gen. O. M. Mitchel, who had advanced from Nashville with a division of Gen. BuelFs army, took Huntsville by surprise and gained possession of 100 miles of the Memphis arid Charleston railroad between Stephcnson and Decatur. He advanced westward to Tuscumbia, and thence as far south as Russellville, capturing confederate property without loss of life. The federal forces were soon compelled to abandon the territory south of the Tennessee river, but, having burned the railroad bridges at Decatur and Bridgeport, held all of Alabama north of that river. In the spring of 18(54 a naval ex pedition was fitted out at New Orleans under Rear Admiral Farragut to operate against the fortifications guarding Mobile bay. He defeat ed the confederate fleet under Admiral Frank lin Buchanan, Aug. G, and, with the coopera tion of a land force under Gen. Granger, reduced the forts at the entrance to the harbor Fort Gaines on the 7th, and Fort Morgan on the 23d. Early in 18(35 a combined military and naval expedition against Mobile was organized at New Orleans under Maj. Gen. Can by and Rear Admiral Thatcher ; and a force of cavalry under Maj. Gen. J. II. Wilson was ordered to cooperate by a southern march from Eastport, Tenn. Wilson s command, numbering about 15,000, of whom 13,000 were mounted, ad vanced from Chickasaw March 23, and on April 3 occupied Selma, one of the most im portant military depots in the southwest. The arsenals, founderies, arms, tools, and military munitions of every kind, together with a large amount of cotton, were destroyed. From Sel ma Gen. Wilson moved eastward to Georgia, taking possession of Montgomery, the capital, on the 12th of April. On the same day Mobile was taken by Canby and Thatcher. During these operations u the last cannon," says Pol lard, " was fired for the Confederacy." On May 4, at Citronelle, Ala., the forces, munitions of war, &c., in the departments of Alabama, Mis sissippi, and East Louisiana were formally sur rendered by Gen. Taylor to Gen. Canby : and on the same dav Commodore Farrand surren- 234 ALABAMA ALABASTER dcred to Rear Admiral Thatcher all the con- federate naval forces 12 vessels then block- aded on the Tombigbee. No official statement of the number and losses of Alabama troops in the war has been made. In an official procla mation, in June, 1865, Provisional Governor Parsons stated the number of troops fur nished by the state during the war to be 122,- 000, and the losses 35,000. Montgomery was the seat of the confederate government until its removal to Richmond on the 20th of May, 1801. Immediately upon the close of the war measures were instituted by the general gov ernment for the restoration of Alabama to the Union. For this purpose Lewis E. Parsons was appointed provisional governor June 21, 1865, with instructions to call a convention for the purpose of altering and amending the constitu tion and laws of the state in conformity with the federal constitution. At the election held Aug. 31 for choice of delegates, those citizens were qualified as electors and delegates who were entitled to vote by the constitution and laws of Alabama in force immediately prior to Jan. 11, 1801, and who had taken the oath of amnesty as set forth in the president s procla mation of May 29, 1805. After assembling on Sept. 10, the convention reordained the civil and criminal laws, except those relating to slaves, as they existed previous to the adoption of the secession ordinance of 1861, declared that ordinance and the state war debt null and void, passed an ordinance against slavery, and provided for an election of state officers and members of congress to be held in November. On the assembling of the legislature, United States senators were chosen, and on Dec. 19 the newly elected governor assumed executive control. The government thus organized con tinued in force until supplanted by the military government provided by congress in pursu ance of the reconstruction act passed March 2, 1867. By this act Alabama was made subject to the military authority of the United States, and, with Georgia and Florida, constituted the third military district. On April 1, 1867, Ma jor General Pope assumed command of this district with a sufficient military force to pro tect the rights of all persons, and to preserve the public peace. In accordance with the sup plemental act of congress of March 23, 1867, a registration of qualified voters (excluding un- pardoned participants in the civil Avar) was made in August, when 165,813 persons were registered, of whom 01,295 were white and 104,518 colored. An election was held on the first three days of October to decide the ques tion of calling a convention for the purpose of forming a constitution and civil government, and also to choose delegates to the convention ; 90,283 votes were cast for the convention and 5,583 against it. The convention assembled in November and framed a constitution, which was submitted to the people in February, 1808, when 70,812 votes were cast for ratification and 1,005 for rejection. The total vote thus cast, being less than the majority of all the registered voters required by the reconstruc tion law of congress, was not sufficient for rat ification. The constitution was, however, by a subsequent act of congress, declared adopted. At the same election state officers and mem bers of congress and of the legislature were chosen. The legislature having assembled and complied with the requirements of the law of congress for the admission into the Union of certain southern states passed Jure 25, 1868, Alabama became entitled to representation in congress, and on July 14, 1808, the control of affairs passed from the military to the civil au thorities. The 15th amendment to the federal constitution was ratified by Alabama Nov. 10, 1870, the 14th amendment having been pre viously ratified as a condition of representation in congress. ALABAMA, a river of the state of Alabama, formed by the union of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers about 10 m. (direct) N. N. E. of Mont gomery. It has a westerly course as for as Selma, whence it fiows southerly until it joins the Tombigbee about 50 m. above Mobile, to form the Mobile river. It is navigable for ves sels of 6 feet draught to Claiborne, 60 m. above the junction. Small steamboats ascend it to Montgomery, 320 m. by the course of the river, the depth of water being from 3 to 5 feet, and in high water about 20 m. further to Wetuinp- ka on the Coosa. The river is very tortuous throughout its course, and on its banks are some of the largest cotton plantations in the South, and much valuable timber. The most important cities and towns on the Alabama are Montgomery, Selma, Cahawba, and Claiborne. ALABASTER, the name frequently given to two diiferent mineral substances the one a sulphate of lime, a pure variety of gypsum, and the other a carbonate of lime, of the same chemical composition as most of the marbles. It was used with the same ambiguity by the ancient Greeks and Romans. The resemblance of the two substances is in their delicate white color and fine grain. Each is easily carved and susceptible of a fine polish. They might well in ancient times have passed as varieties of the same substance : the gypsum alabaster being more delicate and softer to cut, and re quiring much more care to polish ; the calcare ous alabaster more firm, and better adapted for the sculpture of larger figures. The latter w T as frequently obtained from the drippings of the water in limestone caves, which holds car bonate of lime in solution, and deposits it in the form of stalactites and stalagmites. These by a little ingenuity were made to take the forms of the mould the waters dripped upon ; or the natural stalagmites of the purest colors were selected, and then wrought into the desired figures. The name alabaster, now properly limited to the gypseous variety, is derived from the town Alabastron, the site of which is be lieved to have been between the Red sea and the Nile in Middle Egypt. Here the stone was ALACHUA ALAMANCE 235 extensively wrought into boxes and pots for pro- cious ointments and perfumes. A white grann- | lar gypsum, pure and in sound blocks, is quarried : in Siena and in other places in Tuscany, and manufactured in Florence, Leghorn, Milan, and ! Volterra, into utensils similar to those used of old, as well as into vases, lamps, clock stands, &c. They are exported from these places in j considerable quantity to the United States. | The composition of this alabaster is 46 3 per ; cent, sulphuric acid, 32 9 lime, and 20 8 water, i Its hardness is 1-5-2 of the mineral ogical scale, j It soon tarnishes on exposure to the air, and is easily injured by dust and smoke. Articles ! made of it should be kept under a glass cover. I ALACIH A, a county of Florida, in the X. part of the peninsula, bounded N. by the Santa Fe river and AY. by the Suwanee; area, 1,000 sq. j in. ; pop. in 1870, 17,328, of whom 12,393 were I colored. Orange lake lies partly within its j limits. The surface is rolling prairie and the soil is fertile. The productions in 1870 were j 168,580 bushels of corn, 8,450 of oats, 18.264 ; of potatoes, 2,477 bales of cotton, 58 hhds. of j sugar, and 22,906 gallons of molasses. The j Florida railroad passes through the county, j Capital, Gainesville. 1LACOQUE, Margnerite Marie, a French nun, to whom the festival of the Sacred Heart of Je sus owes its origin, born at Lauthecour, dio cese of Autun, July 12, 1647, died Oct. 17, 1690. She took the veil in the Visitation con vent of Paray-le-Monial, where, according to her biographers, she displayed the gifts of mir acles, of prophecy, of revelations, and direct intercourse with God and his angels. She predicted the day of her own death, and ex perienced ineffable pleasure while engraving the name of Jesus Christ on her bosom with a I penknife. She left a treatise on La devotion an ccBur de Jesm, which she believed to em body a supernatural communication. The church gives her the title of venerable. ALA DAGHt I. A lofty mountain chain in Asiatic Turkey, on the northerly side of which the eastern Euphrates takes its Vise. Its main portion is situated on the 1ST. edge of the basin of Lake Van, between lat. 39 and 40 N"., and Ion. 42 and 44 E., and forms part of the watershed between the Caspian sea and the | Persian gulf. II. A range in Asia Minor, to ! the N". W. of Angora, extending between the i Ishik Dagh on the N. E. and the valley of the ! Sakaria on the S. and W. ALAGOAS, Dos, a province of Brazil, on the At- ! lantic coast, bounded N. and W. by Pernambu- j co, and separated from Sergipe on the S. by the i San Francisco river; area about 11,000 sq. m. ; ! pop. about 300,000, of whom 50,000 are slaves. ! A considerable portion of its surface is covered i with mountains, at the base of which the land ! is very fertile. The mountains afford large ! quantities of timber for export, and in the val- i leys cotton and sugar are cultivated. Tropical ; fruits of all kinds are grown in abundance, and ! dragon s blood, mastic, ipecacuanha, copaiba, j caoutchouc, &c., are obtained in the woods. The climate is warm and humid, and in the rainy season oppressive. The population is very un equally distributed, the lowlands being most densely peopled. Some of the native tribes still live in the mountains, and subsist by the chase. The principal occupation of the people is agri culture. Porto Calvo is the capital ; Macayo or Maceio the chief seaport. Alagoas, the former capital, is situated on a lake opening into the ocean, 150 S. S. W. of Pernambuco; pop. about 12,000. There are several convents and grammar schools. ALAL\ DE LILLE (Lat. Alarms de Insults), a Cistercian scholar, born in 1114, died about 1203. He was called the Universal Doctor, and was one of the most profound savants of the 12th century. He was a philosopher, physi cian, theologian, poet, and historian, and was appointed to the bishopric either of Auxerre or of Canterbury, which he soon resigned in order to enter the monastery of Citeaux. Five countries dispute the honor of his birth, Germany, Scotland, Spain, Sicily, and Flan ders. He himself says he came from Lille in Flanders. He wrote, principally in verse, on alchemy, natural philosophy, doctrinal and moral theology, &c. ALAIS, a city of S. France, department of Gard, on the Gardon, 25 m. N". N. W. of Nimes; pop. in 1866, 19,964. There are nu merous iron furnaces, silk mills, and glass works; and coal is mined in the vicinity to the extent of 1,000,000 tons annually. It is a great depot of the raw silk of S. France. ALAJUELA, a city of Costa Rica, Central America, 14 m. N. W. of San Jose, the capital; pop., including suburbs, about 10,000. It is a place of considerable commercial importance, and is connected with the port of Pimtas Are nas, on the gulf of Nicoya, by an excellent mule road. ALAMAN, Lucas, a Mexican statesman, born in the latter part of the 18th century, died June 2, 1855. lie was a member of the cabinet under Bustamente in 1829, and in 1853 Santa Anna appointed him minister for foreign af fairs. He induced Santa Anna to decree the abolition of the liberty of the press, with se vere punishments for the infraction of the new law on this subject, the restoration of the con fiscated property of the Jesuits, a regular re cruiting system, and a reorganization in the army. By his influence onerous taxes were im posed upon the impoverished population, and a law was passed for cashiering all Mexican offi cers who had voluntarily surrendered to the American government. He was the author of Historia de Mejico (5 vols., Mexico, 1849-Tr2). ALAMANCE, a N. county of North Carolina ; area, 500 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 11,874, of whom 3 ; 640 were colored. The river Haw, a branch of the Cape Fear, runs through the centre of the county, and through the "W. part Alamance creek flows into the Haw. The soil is fertile and the surface undulating. The productions 236 ALAMAXNT ALAN in 1870 were 80,284 bushels of wheat, 177,772 of corn, 00,274 of oats, and 155,570 Ibs. of to bacco. In 1807 there were 20 churches, 4 academies, 5 cotton factories, and 5 flour mills. The North Carolina railroad traverses the county E. and W. Capital, Graham. ALAMA\iM, or Alemanni, Luigi, an Italian-poet, born at Florence in J-105, died at Amboise, France, in 1550. His father was devoted to the party of the Medici. Suspected of con spiring against the life of Cardinal Julius, who was governing Florence in the name of the pope, he fled first to Venice, and, after the ac cession of the cardinal to the papal throne under the name of Clement VII., to France. Repeated attempts to reestablish himself in his native city failed. Francis I., who had a high opinion of him, finally took him into his ser vice, and, after the peace of Crespy in 1544, appointed him ambassador at the court of Charles V. He retained the good will of the successor of Francis, Henry II. He left many poems, satires, fables, and other light litera ture. His principal work is his didactic poem, La Coltirazione (Paris, 1540). ALAMEDA, a W. county of California, on San Francisco bay; area, 820 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 24,237, of whom 1,989 were Chinese. The San Francisco and Alameda, and the San Jose and Stockton railroads run through the county. Gold and some other minerals are found in small quantities. The principal productions in 1870 were 854,888 bushels of wheat, 608,975 of barley, 09,080 of oats, 114,053 of potatoes, 138,975 Ibs. of wool, 198,910 of butter, and 23,404 tons of hay. There were 6 newspapers published, of which 3 were dailies. The scen ery of this county is very attractive. The warm springs, in a little valley among the foot hills of the Coast range, are much frequented for their medicinal properties, the water con taining sulphur, lime, magnesia, and iron, in various proportions. Capital, San Leandro. ALAMO, a fort in Bexar county, Texas, near San Antonio, on the left bank of the San An tonio river, celebrated in the Texan war for independence. It was an oblong structure, about an acre in extent, surrounded by a wall 8 or 10 feet high and 3 feet thick. Gen. Sam Houston had caused San Antonio to be dismantled, upon which Santa Anna with a large detachment of his army invested Fort Alamo, Feb. 23, 1830. The Texans, consisting only of 140 men, commanded by Col. William Barrett Travis, retired into the fort, while the Mexicans, 4,000 strong, after taking possession of the town, erected batteries on both sides of the river, and bombarded the fort without ces sation for 24 hours. During this time over 200 shells were discharged into the fort, yet not a man was injured, while the Texan sharp shooters, standing upon the ramparts, were able to pick off man after man of the enemy. Several assaults were now made, but in every instance the Mexicans were repulsed with loss. Col. Travis repeatedly sent couriers to San Felipe asking for assistance, but only 32 men | succeeded in forcing their way through the | Mexican army and reaching the garrison. By I March 3 scarcity of provisions, combined with i constant watching, had undermined the health of the men, without, however, affecting their spirits. Before daybreak on the Oth a combin ed attack was made by the whole Mexican force. Twice assaulting, they were twice driven back, with severe loss. The Texans, unable to load in the hand-to-hand fight which now en sued, clubbed their rities and fought with des peration until but six of their band remained alive. These, including Col. Crockett, surren dered to Castrillon, under promise of protec tion; but being taken before Santa Anna, they were by his orders instantly cut to pieces. Col. Crockett fell stabbed by a dozen swords. Col. Bowie, ill in bed, was then shot, after having killed several of his assailants. Major Evans was shot while in the act of firing the powder magazine. The bodies of the slain were collected in the centre of the Alamo, and after being horribly mutilated (in which act, it is said, Santa Anna and his generals joined), they were burned. But three persons, a wo man, a child, and a servant, were spared. The Mexican loss was 1,000. The massacre of the Alamo was followed by the battle of San Jacin- to, the defeat of the whole Mexican army, and the capture of Santa Anna himself, with his best generals. At this battle the Texans, with the war cry of "Remember the Alamo! " car ried all before them. ALAMOS, Real de los (Camp of the Poplars), a town in the southern nart of Sonora, Mexico, 175 in. S. W. of Chihuahua, and about 45 in. E. of the gulf of California ; pop. about 11,000. The houses are built of stone or brick, overlaid with stucco, the streets are tolerably well paved, and the place is celebrated for the beauty of its avenues (alamedax). It was severely injured by a storm in November, 1808. The I district of Alamos, extending to the gulf of Cal- I ifornia, is famous for its rich copper and silver mines, and for its salubrious climate, its average height being several hundred feet above the gulf. The silver mines in the vicinity of the town employ about 4,000 persons. ALAN, Allen, or Allyn, William, an English the ologian, born in Lancashire in 1532, died in Rome, Oct. 0, 1594. Being a zealous Catholic, he left England soon after the accession of Elizabeth, and settled in Flanders, where he published several works in defence of the old faith. In 1508 he founded the famous ecclesi astical college of Douay for the education of English youth, Pope Gregory XIII. assisting him with a subsidy. Ten years later the magistrates ordered it to be closed, and Alan removed the establishment to Rheims, but it was restored to Douay in 1593. Dr. Alan was | concerned with other professors of this college \ in making the English translation of the Bible ! commonly known as the Douay version. He was deeply implicated in the Catholic schemes ALAND ISLANDS ALARIC 237 for dethroning Elizabeth, and when the Span ish armada was fitted out, Philip II. caused the pope to give him a cardinal s hat, the de sign being that Alan should accompany the expedition as papal legate. Instead of embark ing in person. Cardinal Alan supplied the fleet with copies of a pamphlet against Elizabeth, entitled an u Admonition to the Nobility and People of England/ lie was made archbishop of Mechlin in 1591, but at the desire of Pope Sixtus V. he continued to reside in Rome. ALAND ISLANDS, a group of about 200 rocky islets, of which 80 are inhabited, situated at the entrance of the Bothnian gulf, between hit. 59 55 and 60 32" N., and Ion. 19 and 21 E. They belong to Russia, having been ceded by Sweden in 1809, and form a part of the govern ment of Abo-Bjorneborg in Finland. The in habitants, about 16,000, are Swedes, and are excellent sailors and fishermen. They keep great numbers of cattle, and export cheese, butter, and hides; they also manufacture cloth for home use and for sails. The group takes its name from the largest island ; area, 28 sq. m. ; pop. 10,000. It has a good harbor on the W. side. Foremost among the former fortifi cations was the fort of Bomarsund, near the S. E. extremity of the main island, which was captured in 1854 by the allied fleets of England and France during their war against Russia, and blown up on their departure. By the treaty of Paris of 1856 Russia is prohibited from fortifying the islands or having there any military or naval station. ALAM, a tribe of Scythians, frequently ap pearing in connection with the various Ger man invaders of the Roman world during the great migration of the nations of the north. Their origin is uncertain, though they seem to have been of Finnish stock. They originally dwelt about the eastern part of the Caucasian mountains, whence they extended toward the Don, and also made inroads into Armenia and Asia Minor. Vologeses, king of the Parthians, invoked against them the aid of the emperor Vespasian. Arrian the historian, lieutenant of the emperor Hadrian in Cappadocia, success fully warred against them. They are men tioned as excellent horsemen and marksmen with the bow. In the time of Aurelian they united with the Goths and invaded Asia Minor, but were expelled about 280 by the emperor Probus. In the later years of the 4th century they were routed by the Huns, and, joining their conquerors, drove out the Goths from the region between the Don and the Danube, and shared in the great movement of the northern tribes toward the southwest of Europe. Con jointly with the Suevi and the Vandals, in 400, they invaded and devastated Gaul. A body of the Alani who remained south of the Loire" ap peared in 451 as allies of Aetius against Attila. Another body of them marched in 409 into Spain, but were there overpowered by the Vis igoths, and driven into Lusitania, where their name disappeared. Still other Alani invaded northern Italy half a century later, and were almost totally destroyed. The annals of the Byzantine empire also mention the Alani as devastating both the regions on the Danube and in the Caucasus. AL-ARAF, in Mohammedan theology, the wall of separation between heaven and hell, corre sponding somewhat to the purgatory of the Latin church. Sitting astride of this wall are those whose good and evil deeds so exactly balance each other that they deserve neither heaven nor hell, and those who have gone to war without their parents consent and fallen in battle. These last are martyrs, and are therefore preserved from hell, but, inasmuch as they have disobeyed their parents 1 com mands, they are not deemed worthy of heaven. ALARCON, Hernando de, a Spanish navigator of the 16th century, to whom \ve owe the first certain knowledge concerning the configura tion of the peninsula of California. This had previously been held to be an island. Alarcon set sail in the service of the Spanish court May 9, 1540. On the W. coast of America he ex pected to make a junction with the expedition commanded by Coronado ; but the two com manders missed each other. Alarcon left an inscription on a tree at the place where they should have met, which was discovered by a third Spanish navigator. The inscription was : "Alarcon came to this point; at the foot of the tree arc buried letters." These letters conveyed .the intelligence that Alarcon, after having tarried there for some time, had returned to New Spain ; that the supposed sea was a gulf; that lie had sailed round the Marquis island ; and that California was not an island, but a point of land jutting into the Pacific. Alarcon returned to New Spain in 1541, and there drew up his maps and observations. His discoveries and those of Fernando de TTlloa were applied to such good use, that an eminent geographer lias said the map of California made in 1541 differs hardly at all from that constructed in our own dav. ALARCON, or Alarcon y Mcndoza, Jnan Rniz de, a Spanish dramatist, born in Mexico of a noble Spanish family, died in Spain in 1639. In 1028 he published the first volume of his dramas, on the title page of which he styles himself prolo cutor (relator) of the royal council for the In dies. To the eight plays contained in this volume he added twelve more in 1635. His best known comedy is La verdad sospeclwsa, which served as a model for Corneille s Men- teur. Another of his comedies, L<is paredes oyen, is still popular on the Spanish stage. A new edition of his plays has been published by Hartzenbusch (Madrid, 1848- 52). ALARIC 1 . I. King of the Visigoths, born about 376, died in 41 0. Previous to his reign the Goths north of the Danube (mostly Arians), being pressed by the Huns, claimed the protection of the Roman emperors, who allowed them to cross the Danube and establish themselves on its southern side in Moesia (modern Bulgaria) as 238 ALARIC ALARM paid allies of the empire. On the death of Theodosius (395), who divided the empire be tween his two sons, Alaric, profiting by the weakness resulting from the division, invaded Thrace, Macedonia, Thessaly, and central Greece, without meeting resistance on the part of Rufinus, the lieutenant of the emperor Ar- cadius. Athens was obliged to pay a ransom. Alaric entered the Peloponnesus, where he was encountered in Elis by a powerful army under Stilicho, the lieutenant of Honoring, emperor of the West. Stilicho tried to surround the Goths on the banks of the Peneus, but Alaric broke through his army, escaped with his plunder and prisoners to Illyricum, concluded peace with Arcadius, and was made by him the commander of the eastern division of that country in 306. From Illyricum, in 402, Alaric invaded Italy. Honorius shut himself up in Ravenna, while Alaric, marching through northern Italy toward Gaul, was met and de feated by Stilicho near Pollentia on the Tanaro (403) and obliged to retreat. He sustained a second defeat in the same year near Verona, after which he returned to Illyricum, and con cluded a treaty with Honorius, undertaking to invade the eastern empire and join his army with that of Stilicho in Epirus. This project being afterward abandoned by Honorius, Ala ric claimed a compensation for the cost of his armaments and march, arid was promised 4,000 pounds of gold. Stilicho, who made the prom ise in the name of the emperor, being beheaded in 408, and the promise broken, Alaric invaded Italy, invested Rome, and received as ransom from the city 5,000 pounds of gold and 30,000 pounds of silver. Further negotiations for peace having proved unsuccessful, Alaric for the second time laid siege to Rome. Hunger obliged the city to conclude an arrangement, and in compliance with the will of the con queror the senate elected as emperor the Ro man general Attains. Shortly afterward, being dissatisfied with the incapacity of his nominee, Alaric ordered him to resign. Renewed nego tiations with Honorius were unsuccessful, pend ing which Alaric s army was treacherously attacked near Ravenna, and he undertook the siege of Rome for the third time. On August 24, 410, he took the city by assault, and it was plundered by the Goths for three days. After remaining there six days, Alaric marched out, intending to make the conquest of Sicily, but died soon after in Cosenza. The Goths, it is related, "turned from its bed the stream of the Busento, to bury their chief there, with all his treasures; and all the prisoners who performed the work of digging were killed, that the Ro mans might never be able to find the place where the remains of the king were deposited. II. King of the Visigoths, succeeded his father Euric in 484, died in 507. His dominions extended S. from the Loire and Rhone over Hispania Tarraconensis and Baatica, thus cov ering the S. W. third of the present territory of France and nearly the whole of Spain. He was peaceful and tolerant, and, though an Arian in religion, granted many privileges to the orthodox Catholics. Olovis, king of the Franks, made religion a pretext for invading Gothia, and defeated Alaric at Vougle, near Poitiers. Alaric fled, but was overtaken and killed. Theodoric, king of Italy, the father-in- law of the slain monarch, became regent during the minority of Alaric s son Amalaric, com pelled the Franks to give up their conquests, and put down a rebellion of the supporters of Alaric s bastard son Gesalic. ALARM, an instrument to give notice by sound. In its most ordinary form it consists of a bell and a hammer, combined with an escapement that lets it free at the proper time, when a descending weight or a spring makes it strike the bell. Burglar alarms are of vari ous forms. Some consist in an arrangement for firing a pistol, and are connected either with the lock or with the door. Some of them are so arranged as to shoot the thief at the same time that they wake up the inmates. An alarm for this purpose may always be put up at a moment s notice, by stretching a string across the hall, one end attached to the knob of a door and the other to the trigger of a pis tol, or to some glass or brass vessel placed on the edge of a table or at the top of a flight of stairs, which will tumble down with a noise i the moment the string is pulled by any one opening the door or crossing the hall. An alarm is easily made by arranging the wires in I the circuit ot a galvanic battery in such manner I that the circuit may be broken when a door | or window is opened ; the falling of an elec tro-magnet which was supported by the elec trical current then gives the motive power for ringing a bell or other sound-producing instru ment. An alarm clock is a clock for sleeping rooms, provided with an alarm that may be wound up to strike at any appointed time, and so awake the sleeper. It consists of an ordi nary clock with an alarm attached, which re quires to be wound up at a separate keyhole from that which winds the clock, and after each alarm requires rewinding to give it im pulse for another. The alarm is commonly set, to go off at the required hour, by means of a disk which lies under the hour hand of the clock, revolving upon the same axis and with that hand. The disk has the 12 hours printed in the same order and position as on the clock face, and when this disk is brought into the same position as the clock face, that is, having the 12 on the disk at its highest-point, the clock then by mechanism sets off the alarm. In order to cause the alarm to sound at 4 o clock, for instance, the number 4 on the disk is brought under the hour hand, which latter carries the disk forward till 4 o clock, and at this moment the 12 on the disk will be at its highest point and the alarm is set off. The fire-damp alarm is an important invention, due to M. Chuart from France, and liberally given by him to the public. It consists of a sn;all ball of glass or ALASCO ALASKA 239 of brass suspended at the end of a lever, and containing a chemical solution highly sensitive to the gas constituting fire damp. Long before the atmosphere has become sufficiently vitiated to be dangerous to life, or to be capable of ex ploding, the chemical action in the ball has altered its weight, and thus caused the lever to move and let go an escapement which sounds an alarm. An alarm whistle is a steam whistle set on a boiler to give notice when the water falls below its proper level. For this purpose the whistle-cock is connected by a lever with a float, and opens when this float goes below a certain level. The steam rushing through the whistle sounds the alarm. ALASCO, John. See LASKI. ALA-SHEIIR, a city of Turkey, in Asia Minor, in the eyalet of Aidin, at the N. E. base of the Boz Dagh (the ancient Mt. Tmolus), 75 m. E. by S. of Smyrna; pop. about 13,000, of whom 3,000 are Greeks. It is built on the site of ancient Philadelphia, is surrounded by a wall, and contains many ruins, including a large num ber of Christian churches. It is situated on the caravan route from Smyrna to the interior, and has a thriving trade. ALASKA, a territory belonging to the United States, formerly known as Russian America. It comprises all that portion of the North American continent lying "W. of the 141st par allel of W. longitude, together with a narrow strip of land between the Pacific ocean and the British dominions, separated from the latter by a line drawn as follows : beginning at the south ernmost point of Prince of Wales island, in lat. 54 40 N., running thence N. along Portland channel to the point of the mainland where it strikes lat. 50 N., and from this point along the summits of the mountain range parallel to the coast, except where the distance of such summits from the ocean exceeds 10 marine leagues, to its intersection with the 141st meridian. Wherever the peaks are situated further inland than the distance specified, the line is drawn, parallel to the winding of the coast, at that distance from it. The ter ritory also includes all the islands near the coast, and the whole of the Aleutian archipel ago except Behring island and Copper island on the coast of Kamtchatka. In the dialect of the natives first encountered by the Russian explorers, the peninsula now known as Alias- ka was called Al-ay-es-ka, the name having become changed through Alaksa and Alashka to its present form, from which last is derived the general territorial designation Alaska, which Dall asserts to be an English corruption never used by the Russians. The area of Alaska, including the islands, is 580,107 sq. in. ; pop. in 1870, 29,097, of whom 26,843 were na tives of the territory, 1,421 were half-breeds, 483 were Russians, and 350 were natives of the United States and foreigners not Russians. There are not more than 1,300 completely civ ilized inhabitants. Sitka, or New Archangel, the capital of the territory and its only consid erable town, is situated on a small but commo dious harbor on Baranov island, in lat. 57 3 N., Ion. 135 17 W. It was long the head quarters of the Russian-American fur company, 24:0 ALASKA though the natural centre of the fur trade is | the island of Kadiak, S. of the Aliaska penin- ! sula. At the time of the transfer of the terri- ; tory to the United States in 1807, Sitka, al though founded in the last century, was little better than a collection of log huts, about 100 in i number, with a few superior buildings occupied < by government officers. St. Paul, the principal : settlement on Kadiak island, is the main depot ! of the seal fisheries, and is surrounded by the finest tanning laud in the territory. Next in : importance as a settlement is Captain s liar- j bor, on the island of Unalaslika, where is found the best anchorage in the Aleutian i group. The remaining civilized places in Alas- ., ka consist for the most part of small trading j posts scattered throughout the country, the | principal of them being Fort Yukon, approxi- i niately in lat. (10 N., the most northerly sta- i tion of the Hudson Bay company, which for j some years paid the Russian- American fur com- ! pany a royalty for the privilege of thus trading j in their territory. Michaclovski, a station of the Russian company on Norton sound, in lat. 63 28 X., and Ion."l61 44 W., is of consider able importance as affording the best harbor on the coast from which to forward goods into j the Yukon valley. The interior of Alaska has been but slightly explored, and our knowledge \ of the country is confined mainly to the islands, ! the coasts, and a fe\v of the larger rivers. The . entire coast line of the territory, without taking \ into account the smaller indentations, measures j about 4,000 m. in length, and is bordered by ! three seas: the Arctic ocean on the N., Beh- i ring sea on the W., and the North Pacific on the S. The coast formation along the North Pacific differs entirely from that N. of the Ali aska peninsula. Point Barrow, a long arm of j low sandy land projecting into the Arctic i ocean, forms the most northerly cape in the j territory. Between this point and Behring strait, the only considerable indentation of the j coast is Kotzebue sound, with a maximum i depth of 14 fathoms, and the shore is low and j swampy except at Cape Lisburne, where the | limestone rock rises to the height of 850 feet above the sea. Cape Prince of Wales, the E. boundary of Behring strait, is the most west ern land on the American continent, being sit uated in lat, 05 83 N., Ion. 107 59 W., only 54 m. from East cape, the nearest part of Asia. | It is a rocky and precipitous promontory. The | nearest harbor is Port Clarence, a short dis- j tance S., where there is a safe anchorage in 10 fathoms of water, with a bottom of soft mud. Below this inlet the country becomes low and rolling, and is not very accessible from the ocean, even in the larger bays, on account of the shoals formed of alluvium brought down by the rivers, which is retained in Behring sea by the rocky barrier of the Aliaska penin sula. Norton sound is so shallow that vessels j have been known to run aground there at the j distance of a mile from the shore ; but it affords j a few harbors, as also does Bristol bay, which ; opens into the region N. of the same rugged and barren peninsula from which the name of the territory is derived. Stretching westward toward Kamtchatka lie the Aleutian islands, so called from the name Aleuts applied to their inhabitants by the Russians. Unimak is the largest of these, and Unalaslika of the greatest commercial importance. The celebrated fur seal group, named after Pribyloff, its discov erer, is situated in Behring sea, lat. 57 N., Ion. 1(59 CO W., and consists of four small islands called respectively Walrus, Beaver, St. George, and St. Paul. Below Aliaska the coast becomes mountainous, with deep sound ings close in shore. Between Ion. 151 and 158 W. lies the Kadiak archipelago, including the large island of that name. Cook s inlet and Prince William sound, or Chugach gulf, are the principal arms of the sea on the North Pacific coast of the territory, until we reach the narrow strip of mainland S. of Mt. St. Elias, which is protected from the sea by the 1,100 islands of the Alexander archipelago, situated between Cross sound and Dixon s entrance. The almost innumerable channels between the islands of this vast series atford the finest in land navigation. Prince of Wales island is the largest member of the group, which also con tains Baranov island, the site of Sitka. The great river of Alaska is the Yukon, or Kwick- pak, as it has erroneously been called by the Russians, from the name of one of its mouths. It rises in British Columbia, enters Alaska near the Arctic circle, and Hows, with a general S. W. trend, across the entire width of the terri tory into Behring sea. Its length is more than 1,800 m., and it is over a mile broad at a point GOO m. above its delta. Its current va ries in rapidity from 3 to 7 m. per hour, and in summer the river is navigable for light-draught steamers throughout three fourths of its length. Next to the Yukon in size is the Kuskoquirn, which also flows into Behring soa, somewhat further S. It has been explored by the Rus sians some 600 m. above its mouth, and is a very crooked and moderately rapid stream, navigable for a considerable distance. The principal rivers of Alaska which t!ow into the North Pacific ocean are: the Copper river, which reaches the coast in lat. 60 N., Ion. 145 W., and about which very little is known; the Chilkaht, a rapid stream, which enters Lynn channel W T . of Cross sound, and the head waters of which approach so close to a tributary of the Yukon that a short portage afibrds the Indians easy communication between the two rivers; and, still further S., the Stikine or Francis river, forming the gateway to the gold region of British Columbia. Lakes are said to be nu merous in the interior of the country. Alaska is emphatically a country of volcanoes, there being no fewer than 01 volcanic peaks already known in the territory, though but 10 of these are in activity at present. The peninsula of Aliaska, and the Aleutian islands, which really constitute a continuation of it, are of volcanic ALASKA origin, and the same is true of the islands along ; the coast of Behring sea. So far as known, \ all the mountains in the country of any consid- i erable height are situated below lat. 65 N. , There are three important mountain chains: ! the Coast or St. Elias range, the Rocky moun- j tains, and the Alaskan range. In the Coast \ range, on the North Pacific, are the loftiest peaks and principal volcanoes. Of these Mt. St. Elias is the highest; its elevation is vari- { ously stated at from 16,000 to 17,850 feet, the j latter estimate making it the highest mountain in North America, The summit of Mt. Fair- weather, in the same chain, is 14,500 feet above the sea level. E. of the Yukon, the Rocky I mountains extend along or near the 64th paral lel to the basin of the Mackenzie river. The Alaskan range in the S. W. part of the terri tory is merely an offshoot of the Rocky moun- j tains. There is a long line of low hills near | the Arctic coast. The climate of Alaska is by I no means so inhospitable as that of correspond- I ing latitudes on the eastern coast of North I America. In regard both to climate and agri- | culture, the territory is naturally divisible into three regions : the Yukon district, comprising all the country N. of the Alaskan mountains; the Aleutian district, comprising the islands of that name and the peninsula; and the Sitka i district, comprising the remainder of the terri tory. In the Yukon district the mean annual ! temperature is about 25 F., and the ground i remains frozen to within two or three feet of the surface throughout the summer. The amount of rainfall is not accurately known. In winter the ice on the Yukon averages five feet in thickness, and where there is sufficient water it has been known to freeze to a depth of nine feet. The summer is short, dry, and hot. May, June, and a part of July constitute the j pleasant season ; then the rainy weather begins, i and lasts till October. The lowest temperature ever recorded in this region was 70 F. The climate of the Aleutian district is warmer, the mean annual temperature being from 36 to 40 F. In a series of observations made at Unalashka, extending over five years, the great est cold experienced during that time was found j to be the zero of Fahrenheit, while the high- j est temperature was 77. The average annual \ rainfall is about 40 inches, distributed among j 150 rainy days in each year. January, Febru- ary, and June are the pleasantest months. A still warmer and moister climate is characteris tic of the Sitka district, The town of Sitka | is the rainiest place in the world outside of the ! tropics. From 60 to 90 inches of rain foil an- | nually, and the number of rainy days in each year varies from a mininmn of 190 to a maxi- j mim ^o f 285 The mean amuial temperature is ! 44 07 ; but the average temperature in winter l is proportionately much higher than in sum- I mer, being only a little below the freezing j point; while the excessive rains in summer ! make that season unduly cold. Ice fit for con- j sumption scarcely ever forms at Sitka. The ; VOL. i. 16 interior of Alaska is well wooded. On the Pa cific coast, dense forests of the Sitka spruce or white pine (cibies Sitkensis) clothe the moun tain sides both. of the islands and the mainland, down to the very water s edge, producing tim ber of great size and unsurpassed quality. In the same region grows the yellow cedar (C. Nutkatewia), of great value for boat-building. Hemlock and the balsam fir are also found here. The Aleutian islands are wholly destitute of trees, there being no vegetation on them larger than a shrub. In the Yukon region, the wood ed district recedes from the coast, but timber is abundant in the interior, the finest tree which occurs there being the valuable white spruce (abies alba). The birch (betula glandulosa} is also found, and furnishes the only hard wood in this part of the country. Alders, poplars, and several varieties of willow fringe the banks of all the larger streams. The agricultural re sources of Alaska are practically confined to the Aleutian and Sitka districts. The abun dant growth of rich perennial grasses in the valley of the Yukon affords excellent fodder for cattle, but no grain has ever been raised there, and the only vegetables which have suc ceeded are radishes, turnips, and lettuce. The most fertile land is found at Cook s inlet, on Kadiak island, and among the Aleutians, where good oats, barley, and root crops can be raised without much difficulty. Whether the potato can ever be cultivated successfully in Alaska is doubtful. In the most favored farming dis tricts the agricultural production can scarcely ever exceed the local demand. Alaskan geol ogy has been but imperfectly studied, and only a few of the leading facts are known. Ac cording to William H. Dall, the director of the scientific corps which explored the proposed route for the Russo-American telegraph line in 1866, the whole of the peninsular portion of Alaska W. of Ion. 150 is gradually rising. Along the Pacific coast glaciers, some of them remarkable for their extent and grandeur, fill the principal mountain gorges, and terminate at the sea in magnificent masses of overhanging ice. The fact that these glaciers are gradually decreasing in size from year to year leads to the inference that the rigor of the climate is slowly mitigating. Hot and mineral springs are found near Sitka, on the Aleutian islands and the neigh ooring coast, and in other parts of the territory. In the Alexander archipelago fossils of tho cretaceous period have been found, but the extent of the formation has not been ascertained. Clay slates and conglomerate occur near Sitka. Crystalline white marble of fine quality has been discovered on Lynn chan nel and in other portions of the archipelago. Thence northward to Mt. St. Elias granite and metamorphic rocks skirt the coast. In the Aleutian islands the tertiary formation is of considerable extent, and contains coal, lignite, and amber. The best deposit of tertiary coal, so far as known, is on Cook s inlet, where it occurs in two parallel layers, with an estimated 242 ALASKA thickness of from 18 inches to 7 feet. Gold and silver are found in Alaska in small quanti ties ; and copper is frequently brought to the settlements by Indians dwelling on the Copper river, who sedulously conceal the locality of its origin. Cinnabar and iron have been found in very limited quantities. Of sulphur the vol canic districts of the territory afford an abun dant supply. The fossils found in Alaska show that it was once the home of the elephant, the buffalo, and the horse. Bears are now the largest animals native to the country. Of these, the polar or white bear (ursus maritimus} is met with on the Arctic coast ; the black bear (17. Americanus) in the woody districts of the Yukon; and the barren-ground bear (U. RicJiardsonii} in the far northeast. The grisly bear (7. liorribilis) is also occasionally encountered. Of the other non-marine fur- bearing animals the principal are the fox, the beaver, the marten, the otter, the mink, the lynx, and the wolverene. On the coasts are found the fur seal, the main source of revenue in the territory; the sea lion, closely allied to the former ; the sea otter, an animal of solitary habits living almost exclusively in the water ; and the walrus, from \vhich the natives obtain their ivory and oil. In the adjacent seas whales are abundant, and cod, herring, and hal ibut are found in prodigious numbers, at the proper seasons. A small fish called the ulikon, upward of a foot in length and of a silvery hue, is also very abundant along some parts of the coast, and is remarkable as being the fat test of all known fish. The various species of salmon which throng the Alaskan rivers occur in numbers so great as almost to exceed belief. The weak and injured fish which die after spawning time are sometimes throw r n up along the river banks by the waves, to the depth of three or four feet. Immense quantities of salmon and other river fish are caught and dried. In summer, Alaska is the nesting place of myriads of migratory birds. Geese and ducks, swans, ospreys, eagles, and gulls arrive about the first of May from southern latitudes, and remain till early autumn, when they leave the country to the ptarmigan, the white hawk, and the arctic owl. The rich berries of the interior afford them excellent food. Here the nests of the canvas-back duck, so long sought for in vain in other regions, were first discovered. Mosquitoes abound during the summer months along the Yukon valley. Beetles and several varieties of butterfly are known to occur. The natives of Alaska may properly be classed into two divisions: the Esquimaux and kindred tribes, and the Indians. To the first belong the inhabitants of the Aleutian islands, and the Innuits, who are settled on the islands along the coast from Behring strait to Mt. St. Elias. Their intercourse with the Russians has deprived the Aleuts of all their national characteristics ; but they are as yet by no means civilized, though many of them profess the Christianity of the Greek church. Hunt- ! ing the fur seal and sea otter is their principal occupation. Of the Indians, the Co-Yukon is the largest tribe on the Yukon river. They dwell during the winter in underground huts, and are greatly feared by the surrounding na tives of other tribes, on account of their fiercer nature and superior prowess. The fisheries and the fur trade are the leading industries of the territory. In 1870 the product of the fish ery, in salted codfish alone, was 10,612,000 Ibs. The taking of fur seals, which is for the most part restricted to the Pribyloff islands, is now regulated by act of congress, the privilege being under rental to a corporation at $55,000 per annum. The yield has been much dimin ished by the unwise and indiscriminate slaugh ter permitted in past years, but under the present regulations a steady production of 100,000 skins per annum can probably be se cured. In I860, 85,901 seals were taken on St. George s and St. Paul s. The average an nual yield of the sea-otter skins is 1,300, and they are worth $100 each. In 18G7- 8 furs to the amount of $100,000 were produced by the Yukon district, and the average product is not less than $75,000 worth per annum. The total annual yield of furs from the rest of the conti nental portion of Alaska does not exceed $10,000 in value. There is a small trade in ice with California, and timber is exported in limited quantities. A large proportion of the whale oil and bone taken by the Behring sea whaling fleets is derived from Alaskan waters. Russia acquired her American possessions by virtue of the right of discovery. On July 18, 1741, Vitus Behring, the celebrated Rus sian explorer, discovered the rocky range of mountains, the crowning peak of which is Mt. St. Elias. Subsequently, and during the same voyage, he visited many of the Aleutian islands, until finally he was overtaken by death at that which bears his name. In 1778 Captain Cook, the English navigator, explored the Alaskan coast, and sailed far up into the bay now known as Cook s inlet, in hopes that it would prove the northern passage homeward to Great Britain. Numerous Russian commercial expeditions visited the new region, and in 1783 a trading establishment was opened on the island of Kadiak. Similar enterprises fol lowed in other localities; and in 1799 the Rus sian-American fur company was organized under sanction of the emperor Paul, by a con solidation of all the companies then existing in the territory. This corporation was granted the exclusive right of hunting and fishing in the American dominion of the czar. It estab lished a line of forts and trading posts along the coast from Norton sound southward, with occasional stations further inland, and after Sitka was founded the headquarters were re moved from Kadiak to that place. The country was ruled by the company, the chief director of w r hich exercised absolute sway throughout the colony till 1862, when, the charter having expired, the government declined to renew it, ALAVA ALBANIA 24:3 in consequence of the abuses which had grown up. The company, however, continued in con trol by permission of the home authorities. In 1865- 7 the territory was explored by a scien tific corps sent out from the United States to select a route for the Russo- American telegraph line, a project which was abandoned in conse quence of the successful laying of the Atlantic cables. Negotiations were begun in 1867 for the purchase of the country by the United States ; $7,200,000 was the price agreed to be paid, and the treaty was ratified by the senate on May 20 of the same year. On Oct. 18 Brig. Gen. Lovell H. Rousseau of the United States army, having been appointed commis sioner for that purpose, formally took posses sion of the territory in the name of the United States. Alaska constitutes a military and col lection district, with headquarters at Sitka. See "Travels and Adventures in Alaska," by Frederick Whymper (London, 1869), and "Alaska and its Resources," by W. H. Ball (Boston, 1870). ALAV A, one of the Basque provinces of Spain, separated from Old Castile on the S. W. by the Ebro, and from Biscay and Guipuzcoa on the N. by mountain ranges ; area, 1,203 sq. m. ; pop. in 1867 (estimated), 102,000. The mountains ramify over the whole province, and yield a great variety of minerals, stone, and timber. There are numerous mineral springs. The soil is most fertile along the Ebro, in the Rioja Alavesa, where chiefly wine and fruits are produced ; and in the other valleys abundance of maize, hemp, and garden fruits are raised. The inhabitants are almost exclusively Basques. (See BASQUES.) The chief towns are Vitoria, the capital, Orduiia, Trevino, and Salvatierra. ALB, a vestment of white linen or linen and lace, reaching to the feet, and bound around the waist by a cincture, worn by sub-deacons and all the superior orders of the clergy in the Roman Catholic church, while officiating in the more solemn functions of divine service. ALBA, a city of Italy, province of Cuneo, on the Tanaro, 33 m. S. S. E. of Turin ; pop. about 10,000. It is a bishop s see, and has an ancient cathedral. There is a large trade in cattle. ALBACETE. I. A S. E. province of Spain, forming a part of the old kingdom of Murcia ; area, 5,965 sq. m. ; pop. in 1867 (estimated), 221,000. Large portions of the province are level, and the soil is in general very fertile ; but the surface is varied, and in the west moun tainous. The principal rivers are the Segura, Mundo, and Jucar. The chief towns are Alba- cete, Almansa, Villarobledo, Caudete, Alcaraz, Tobarra, Hellin, and Segura. II. A city, capi tal of the preceding province, situated in a fer tile plain on the highway and railroad between Madrid and Cartagena, 135 m. (direct) S. E. of Madrid; pop. in 1860, 17,088. The town is well built, and has been called the Sheffield of Spain from its former large business in cut lery ; but the manufacture has greatly declined, and the chief productions now are coarse dag- ! gers and sword knives (puflales). There is a large general trade with other towns. ALBA LONGA, one of the most ancient cities of Latium, and the mother of Rome, was, ac cording to the Roman legends, built by As- canius or lulus, the son of JEneas. It is said to have been called Alba from a white sow found in its vicinity by JEneas, and Longa from its form. Its last kings of the Ascanian line were Numitor, the grandfather of Romulus, and Amulius. The Curiatii fought for its in dependence and supremacy against the Horatii of Rome. It was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius, except the temples, and its inhabitants were removed to Rome about 650 B. C. Strabo says it stood on the declivity of Mount Albanus, east of the lake of the same name. ALBAN, Saint, said to have been the first mar tyr for Christianity in Britain. He was born in the town of Verulamium, went to Rome in company with Amphibalus, a monk of Caer- leon, became a Christian, and returned after serving seven years in the Roman army. It is generally believed that he suffered martyrdom at the time of the persecution of Diocletian, but authorities differ as to the precise date. Bede fixes it at 286; Usher reckons it among the events of 303. About 400 or 500 years after his martyrdom, Offa, king of the Mercians, built a large monastery in honor of him. Around this monastery grew up the present town of St. Albans in Hertfordshire. ALBANENSES, the name given by some writers to that division of the Catharists who believed in an absolute dualism, in opposition to the Concorrezenses and Bagnolenses, who believed in one supreme principle. The name is derived from the town of Alba, on the Tanaro, in Pied mont, where the sect had one of its chief com munities. Another community was at Don- nezachum (probably Donzenac) in southern France ; after which place it was also some times called. (See CATHAEISTS.) ALBANI, or Albino, Francesco, an Italian painter, born in Bologna, March 17, 1578, died Oct. 4, 1 660. He studied under Denis Cal vaert and Ludovico Carracci. His frescos in the national church of the Spaniards in Rome brought him into notice. His fame is chief ly founded upon his smaller paintings. He loved to paint pleasant landscapes, Venus and Cupid, young girls and children, his own 12 children by his beautiful second wife serving him as models for his finest figures. ALBANIA, in ancient geography, a country of Asia, bordering on the Caspian sea, and bound ed W. by Iberia, N. by the Ceraunian branch of the Caucasus, and S. by the Cyrus (Kur) and the Araxes (Aras). It comprised por tions of modern Daghestan, Lesghistan, and Shirvan. Its inhabitants were a handsome and warlike people, of Scythic race, probably identical with the Alani. They brought a formidable army into the field against Pompey. Though often defeated, they were never sub dued by the Romans. 24A ALBANIA ALBAMA (called by the natives SJiJciperia, and by the Turks Arnautlik\ a province of Euro pean Turkey, between lat, 3 ( J and 43 N. and Ion. 19 and 21 30 E., extending for about 290 miles along the Adriatic and Ionian seas, and having a breadth in the centre and parts of the north of upward of 100 miles, and in the south, near the gulf of Arta, of not more than 40 miles. It is bounded on the N. by Mon tenegro and Bosnia, on the E. by Turkish Servia, Macedonia, and Thessaly, and on the S. by the modern kingdom of Greece. Pop. estimated at 2,000,000. Albania em braces ancient Epirus, Illyris Groeca, and the adjoining parts of ancient Dalmatia. The ridge of mountains anciently chiefly known as the Scardus and the Pindus forms its ill-defined northern and eastern boundary. The general character of the country is rugged and moun tainous. Nine ranges of hills intersect it from N. E. to S. W., with elevations of from 4,000 Albanian Costume. to 8,000 feet above the sea, and covered with snow three fourths of the year. The rivers are inconsiderable, and many of them during the summer are quite or nearly dry ; the most im portant are the Drin and the Voyutza. There are several lakes, among them those of Scu tari, Ochrida, and Janina. In the mountains and forests there are bears, wolves, wild hogs, and deer ; sheep, goats, and cows are tended in the valleys ; and there is an excel lent breed of horses. Eagles and various kinds of birds are plentiful, and hawking is the fa vorite amusement of the wealthy classes. The varied vegetation exhibits many forms similar to those of the Swiss Alps and the mountains of Scotland. The exports of Albania consist of oil, wool, maize, tobacco, horses, sheep, goats, timber, and some embroidered velvets and cloths. Merchandise is carried inland by means of pack horses, four or five of which are attached together by cords and guided by one man. The vigorous administration of Ali Pasha, by building roads and suppressing gangs of robbers, added much to the facility of inter nal traffic. Lower or southern Albania con stitutes the eyalet of Janina, and upper Alba nia comprises the greater part of the divisions of Prisrend, Monastir, and Scutari. Among the most remarkable tribes is that of the Mirdites in the north, whose territory has never been in vaded by the Turks, and who acknowledge no subjection to the Porte, except in supplying a contingent to the army in case of war. The Albanians are muscular, active, and erect. The women are tall and strong, with an air indi cating ill treatment and laborious work. The dress of the people is fantastic and complicated. The wealthy Albanian wears over a clcse-fit- j ting vest, buttoned to the throat, an open jack et, with open sleeves, richly embroidered. A frilled skirt falls to his knees from a broad gir dle, in which are stuck his silver-mounted pis tols, on the ornamentation of which he spends extravagant sums, and his yataghan. Cloth leggings, likewise embroidered, cover the legs, and he wears the fez. A peculiar garment, as sumed when travelling, is the capote, a cloak of wool or horse-hair. The Albanians are a na- ! tion of warriors, early trained to discipline, nnd constituting the best soldiers in the Turkish army. Their national name is Shkipetars ; the Turks call them Arnauts. Wallachs and Greeks live scattered among them. A rude kind of Mohammedanism has gradually supplanted the Christianity of the country. Though Albania has several times changed its name, its masters, and its boundaries, a people cherishing un changed their nationality, language, and man ners have from the earliest records of history occupied its mountains. First, the fierce tribes of Epirus and the still more savage Illyrians had possession of the country, and withstood alike the efforts of the Greeks and of the Romans to civilize them. On the conquest of Constan tinople by the Latins in 1204, one of the im perial family of Comnenus succeeded in estab lishing a dynasty in this district, and the despots of Albania continued for two centu ries only second in power to the emperors of Constantinople. Mohammed II., having con quered Constantinople, marched against the Albanians, only to experience a succession of defeats. The heroism of George Castriota, commonly known in history as Scanderbeg or Iskander, their last independent prince, re sisted for more than 20 years the Avhole force of the Ottoman empire, and it was not till his death in 1467 that Albania was annexed to the Turkish dominions. Albania was di- vided into several distinct pashalics till the close of last century, when Ali Pasha, having married the daughter of the principal chief, succeeded in establishing himself as an inde pendent sovereign over all its territory, and a wide extent beyond. After his overthrow, and during the insurrection of the Greeks, the ALBANO ALBANY 245 Albanians were inclined to make common cause with the latter ; but their attempts to cooperate in the war produced only their mas sacre and harsh treatment by the Greeks, and they were therefore thrown into the arms of the Porte, to which they have since continued nominally subject. The Albanian language belongs to the Indo-European family of lan guages, and is spoken in different dialects in the north and south. The original stock of words is believed to have been derived from the ancient Illyrians, but it is mixed up with Greek, Latin, Turkish, Italian, French, and Slavic. Many of the Albanians, particularly the Toskaris in the south, speak the modern Greek, and in that part of the country the Albanian proper is also more mixed with Greek than the Geg dialect in the north. Xylander and Bopp have written on the Al banian language. The work of the latter, Uebcr das Albanesische, was published in Berlin in 1855. Both the Latin and Greek alphabets are used in Albanian books. Latin letters have been adopted in the translation of the New Tes tament (Constantinople, 1866), and in versions from the gospel of St. Matthew by Prince Louis Lucien Bonaparte, with occasional Greek letters, and in other contemporary works. Greek letters have been used by Anas- tasio Kulurioti (Athens, 1866), by Salterio (Constantinople, 1868), and in the Alfcibeto generale Aloano-Epirotico (Leghorn, 1869), which last is also contained in A Dora d lstria gli Albanesi (Leghorn, 1870). An Albanian grammar has been lately published at Leghorn (Grammatologia Allanese). Prince Louis Lu cien Bonaparte s version of the parable of the sower in Matthew has been published under his auspices in the Siculo-Albanese, the Ca- l^ro-Albanese, and the Scutari- Albanese dia lects (London, 1868-70). Albanian literature consists chiefly of popular songs and fairy tales. The late Austrian consul at Syra, Mr. de Hahn, is a high authority on the subject in his Alba- nesische Studien (Jena, 1854), and GriecJiiscJi- Albanesische Marchen (2 vols., Leipsic, 1864). Dora d Istria, the author of the "Mussulman nnd Roumanian Albanians, has in other recent publications thrown much light upon the Alba nian language and poetry. ALBAXO (anc. Albanuni), a city of Italy, in the province of Rome, near the southern ex tremity of Lake Albano, 14 m. S. E. of Rome ; pop. 5,200. It occupies the site of Pompey s villa, and is on the opposite side of the lake to that of ancient Alba Longa, It is a favorite summer resort of the Roman nobility on ac count of its beautiful scenery and pure air. It possesses a museum of antiquities and many tine ruins. The Albano wine, which is made in the vicinity, was already famous among the ancient Romans. The lake of Albano, or Lago di Castello, is in the crater of an extinct vol cano, and is surrounded by huge basaltic rocks. ALBANY. .1. An E. county of New York, bounded E. by the Hudson river and 1ST. in part by the Mohawk ; area, 509 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 133,052. Normanskill and Catskill creeks furnish it with good water power. The land near the Hudson and some of the other streams is fertile ; but in the N. and W., where the surface is mountainous, it is less productive, and in some places sterile. The E. part is cov ered with immense beds of clay, sand, and gravel, the sand in some places being 40 feet deep. Iron, hydraulic limestone, marl, and gypsum are found, though they are not abun dant. The productions in 1870 were 14,859 bushels of wheat, 129,535 of rye, 165,350 of corn, 784, 146 of oats, 37,205 of barley, 160,594 of buckwheat, 637,058 of potatoes, 115,655 tons of hay, 137,641 Ibs. of wool, 1,142,783 of but ter, and 133,964 of hops. In 1865 the value of farms was $16,951,183, of stock $1,820,376, and of tools $797,486. There were 364 man ufacturing establishments, employing 9,292 hands, 130 churches, 18 newspapers and peri odicals, and 7 savings banks. The Erie and Champlain canals and several railroads termi nate in this county. The assessed value of real estate in 1870 was $38,557,176, and of personal property $7,535,171. Besides Albany, the capital, Cohoes and West Troy are impor tant maufacturing places. Albany county was organized in 1683, and originally extended E. of the Hudson, nnd included the whole colony N. and W. of its present limits. II. An E. county of Wyoming, occupying the whole width of the territory, about 265 m. ; area, about 12,000 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 2,021. The Union Pacific railroad passes through the S. part of the county. Capital, Laramie. ILBAjYY, a city, capital of Albany county and of the state of New York, at the head of sloop navigation and near the head of tide water, on the W. bank of tho Hudson river, in Lit. 42 39 3" N., Ion. 73 32 W., 145 m. N. of New York city, 164m. \v. of Boston, and 370 m. N. E. of Washington. According to the offi cial censuses, the population of Albany in 1 790 was 3,506; in 1800, 5,349; 1810, 10,762; 1820, 12,541; 1830, 24,238; 1840, 33,762; 1850, 50,762; 1855, 57,333; 1860, 62,367; 1865, 62,613; 1870, 69,422. But the popula tion now r (1873) is probably not far from 80,- 000, as the boundaries have been enlarged by the addition of parts of Bethlehem and Water- vliet, and the territory now comprised within the city limits had in 1870 a population of 76,- 216. At a little distance from the river the ground rises into a plateau about 200 feet above tide level, and then extends westward in a sandy plain. The slope toward the river is divided into four distinct ridges, separated by valleys, which were originally deep and diffi cult to cross ; but these have been much im proved by grading, and within a mile from the river nearly disappear. The tide rises about one foot in the river here. Notwithstanding the occasional obstruction of navigation by the "overslaugh 1 (see HUDSON RIVER), Albany is peculiarly favored as a commercial town. 246 ALBANY Yiew of Albany from Greenbush. The Erie canal terminates in a basin here, and the New York Central and Hudson River rail road passes through the northern border of the city, crossing the Hudson river upon a bridge. The Albany and Susquehanna railroad extends to Binghamton on the Erie railway ; the Al bany and Vermont railroad connects with lines to Vermont and Canada ; and the Boston and Albany railroad terminates on the opposite side of the river. The extension of the Walkill Valley railroad to Albany was permitted in 1870, and a railroad on the west shore of the Hudson southward has been proposed, but neither has yet been built. A road is also pro jected from opposite Albany to Sand Lake. The Hudson river bridge, built of timber, was opened Feb. 22, 1866. It has 21 piers, a draw which leaves an open passage 110 ft. wide on each side when turned, 4 spans of 172 ft., and 14 of 72 ft. each. It is 1,953 ft. long, and in cluding the approaches 4,253 ft., and cost with real estate, &c., about $1,100,000. The bridge company, consisting of the railroads in interest, having been authorized to construct a new bridge near the foot of Exchange street, while retaining the former, it was commenced in May, 1870, and finished Jan. 1, 1872. It is an iron truss bridge, 1,014 ft. long and 30 ft. above the water, with 11 spans and a draw of 274 ft. It is used only for foot passengers and passenger trains, while the former is used for freight. The old state capitol, a plain brown stone structure built in 1807 for $173,000, is still oc cupied, but will be demolished as soon as the costly new capitol is finished. In 1865 an act was passed authorizing the erection of a new capitol, on condition that the city of Albany should give to the state for the purpose the I ground commonly known as the Congress Hall I block, extending from State street to Washing ton avenue, immediately in the rear of the old capitol. In 1867 the first appropriation of $250,000 was made for the building, and the corner stone was laid June 24, 1871. The ma terial is Maine granite, and the edifice will be the largest and most splendid in America, ex cepting the federal capitol at Washington. The ultimate cost can only be conjectured, but up to Jan. 1, 1872, when the foundation and basement story only had been erected, the Ex penditure already amounted to $2,037,670 41. j The state library, a handsome fire-proof build ing fronting on State street, in rear of the old capitol, contains 86,000 volumes ; its law sec tion is the strongest and best. In February, 1872, congress appropriated $350,000 for a. building in Albany to accommodate the United States courts, post office, custom house officials, i &c., the city giving the site. Among the state I institutions are the geological and agricultural ! hall, and a state normal school established in | 1844 for educating teachers in common schools. The state hall on Eagle street, built of white I marble in 1843 at a cost of $350,000, contains the offices of the secretary of state, attorney general, comptroller, treasurer, canal board, superintendent of public instruction, &c. The city hall, on Eagle street, foot of Washington avenue, a beautiful structure of white marble, was finished in 1832. It is 100 ft, front by 80 I deep, three stories high, and has in front a re- i cessed porch in the second and third stories, j supported by six Ionic columns. In 1869- TO j a new city building was erected on S. Pearl I street at a cost of $200,000, and is used by the i police and civil .justices courts, fire and police ALBANY 247 departments, park commissioners, assessors, &c. Among the local institutions most worthy of note are the merchants 1 exchange, the Dud ley observatory, the Albany medical college, the law school of the university of Albany, the city hospital, the St. Peter s hospital, the Al bany and the St. Vincent orphan asylums, the city dispensary, the home of the friendless, the Albany institute, the young men s association, the young men s Christian association, the Al bany academy, the Albany female academy, the "academy of the Sacred Heart, and the academy of the Christian Brothers. The Dud ley observatory, named after Charles E. Dud ley, once mayor of Albany and United States senator, and founded by the gifts of his widow (Mrs. Blandina Dudley) and others, was incor porated in 1852 and dedicated in 1856. It has a valuable special library, a 13-inch equatorial instrument, a meridian circle, a transit instru ment, a calculating and printing engine (the only one in the country), and self-recording j meteorological instruments of many kinds. It I gives exact time by telegraph to the city and to I various railroads. The young men s associa- | tion, formed in 1833, supports a lecture course during the winter, and has a library of above 12,000 volumes, and a reading room supplied with 75 papers and 30 other periodicals. It is the oldest institution of the kind in the United The New Capitol at Albany, N. Y. States, and has about 1,100 members. There are 54 churches : Baptist, 5 ; Congregational, | 2; Protestant Episcopal, 6; Evangelical, 2; ! Friends , 1 ; Jewish, 3 ; Evangelican Lutheran, 4 ; Methodist Episcopal, 8 ; Presbyterian, 6 ; Performed Protestant Dutch, 6 ; Roman Cath olic, 10; and United Presbyterian, 1. A Re formed Protestant Dutch church was formed in 1640, and a quaint edifice of this order stood in State street at Broadway till 1806. A Lu theran church was formed in 1680, a Protes tant Episcopal in 1715, and a Roman Catholic society in 1796. The communion plate of St. Peter s church was presented by Queen Anne for the Onondaga Indians. The number of public schools is 16, of which one is for colored children ; there is also a free academy with 8 teachers and 214 pupils. The penitentiary, situated on the west of the city, about a mile from the capitol, was built in 1845- 6, and has 600 cells. At the close of 1871 there were about 500 convicts, a large number of whom were prisoners of the United States. The con tract system of labor is adopted, the men being employed in shoemaking and the women in chair-seating. The income exceeds the expen diture by a sum varying from $10,000 to $20,- 000 a year, while in all the other penitentiaries of the state there is an annual deficiency of from $50,000 to $125,000. There are no pun- 248 ALBANY isliments for refractory prisoners except con finement in a solitary cell. School is kept for those who choose to attend on two evenings of the week, and there is a library of 1,400 volumes. In 1869 the old burial grounds, penitentiary grounds, almshouse farm, and Washington parade ground, in the western part of the city, were set apart for a public park, to be known as "Washington Park." For 30 years after the revolution, Albany was the seat of the entire trade of the western part of the state, the produce being brought in by sleighs in winter ; but the growth of the city was not rapid. The first great impulse to its commercial prosperity was given by the suc cessful trip of the Clermont, the first steamboat of Fulton, in 1807, and the improvements in steam navigation which immediately followed. The steamboats now upon the Hudson river are among the largest that navigate any inland waters. The Erie canal, completed in 1825, and the various lines of railroad constructed since that time, have each essentially added to the growth and prosperity of the city. The total amount of property reaching tide water at Al bany by the Erie and Champlain canals for the year 1871 was 848,829 tons, valued at $15,806,- 259 ; the total cleared from Albany the same year by both canals was 82,079 tons, valued at $4,753,971 ; and the amount of canal tolls col lected at this place was $2,837,077. The total number of cars of grain inspected at Albany in 1871 was 2,595 ; the sales of grain at the corn exchange here the same year aggregated 3,947,- 000 bushels. Tiie lumber market of Albany is the largest in the state ; the value of the boards, shingles, timber, &c., received here in 1870 was nearly $10,000,000. There are 32 slips from the river for receiving boats, and a river dock more than a mile long for loading boats and barges. There is also in the river a pier, not connected with the shore, about 1,100 feet long. The Albany board of lumber dealers was incorporated in 1869, and in 1871 there were 57 firms engaged in this trade. The city is the seat of very important and extensive manufactories, of which the most numerous are 9 boiler and steam engine works, 13 boot and shoe factories, 18 breweries, 17 carriage builders, 10 flouring mills, 18 harness factories, 4 piano factories, 18 iron founderies, 17 machine shops, 8 sawing and planing mills., 12 stove founderies, and 11 soap and candle factories, besides extensive factories of car wheels, saws, oilcloth, agricultural implements, jewelry, sil ver ware, cabinet furniture, &c. The city has 9 banks, 6 savings banks, 6 insurance compa nies, and 7 daily, 1 tri-weekly, 2 semi-weekly, 5 weekly, and 2 monthly periodicals. Albany is the oldest settlement in the original 13 colo nies except Jamestown, Va. Henry Pludson, in the yacht Half Moon, moored in Septem ber, 1609, at a point which is now in Broad way, Albany. Several Dutch navigators as cended the river to the same place during the next three or four years, and in 1614 the Dutch | built the first fort on an island below the pres- j ent city, which is hence called Castle island. j In 1617 a fort was built at the mouth of the i Nonnanskill ; and in 1628 another was erected j near the present steamboat landing in the south I part of the city and named Fort Orange. A | quadrangular fort called Fort Frederick was I afterward built on the high ground, now State I street, between St. Peter s church and the | geological hall, with lines of palisades extend ing down Steuben and Hudson streets to the river. These fortifications were demolished | soon after the revolution, and the only evidence of their existence now remaining is the curved outlines which they have given to the streets in the -older parts of the city. The place was called by the Dutch New Orange, and retained that name until the whole province passed into possession of the English in 1664, when New Orange was changed to Albany, in honor of the duke of York and Albany, afterward James II. In 1686 Albany city was incorporated by patent. Peter Schuyler was the first mayor. I The Schuyler family possessed the good will of the Indians to such a degree that while other j settlements were desolated by Indian forays, I Albany was never attacked by them. Besides i its ancient importance as a centre of the Indian | trade, Albany afterward became the point where the great military expeditions against Canada were fitted out. It was fortified at an early period, and although often threatened | with invasion, no hostile army ever reached the city. Here assembled the first convention for the union of the colonies. It was held in 1754, and Benjamin Franklin was its leading member. I The ostensible object of this convention was the defence of the colonies against the savages, ! but the plan of union then drawn up and adopted was the first recorded in the history of the country. Albany became the state capital I in 1797. It has been visited by several disas trous fires, of which those in 1797 and 1848 were most destructive. The lower part of the town has often been inundated. ALBANY, an eastern district of Cape Colony, on the coast, traversed by the Sneeuw (snow) mountains and some other ranges, and by the Great Fish river; area, 1,792 sq. in.; pop. in 1865, 16,264, including 4,229 Caffres and 1,472 | Hottentots. The surface is undulating, and j the scenery varies from rugged heights to I pleasant plains. The climate is healthy. The ! soil produces wheat, maize, barley, oats, and ! cotton. A chief occupation of the settlers is i stock raising. Capital, Graham s Town. ALBANY, Lonise Marie Caroline HelciVe. countess of, wife of the last of the Stuarts, and cele brated for her association with the poet Alfieri, j born in Mons, Belgium, Sept. 20, 1753, died in | Florence, Jan. 29, 1824. She was a daughter | of Prince Gustavus Adolphus of Stolberg- i Gedern, who fell in the battle of Leuthen. In I 1772 she became the wife of Charles Edward I Stuart, grandson of James II., and pretender to ! the British crown, known as the count of Al- ALBATEGNIUS ALBEMARLE 24-9 bany, who was her senior by 33 years. The marriage was said to have been arranged with the hope of menacing the English sovereign with a legitimate heir to the rival Stuart dy nasty. It proved most unhappy. She was young, refined, intellectual ; he old, coarse, and intemperate. They lived at Florence, where she became acquainted with the poet Alfieri, who conceived a passionate regard for her. It was under her guidance that he began to write his tragedies. She was never charged with in fidelity to her husband, whose brutality, how ever, became so unendurable that she left him, and sought refuge in a Florentine and subse quently in a Roman convent. In 1783 she obtained a formal separation from him through the interposition of Gustavus III. of Sweden, who also procured for her a pension from the French government, which was withdrawn after the outbreak of the revolution. About a year after her husband s death (1788) the countess is said to have been secretly married to Alfieri, but they never appeared in public as husband and wife, though he was constantly in her society at Paris, London, and Florence, where she was received with distinction in the highest circles. In Florence her social and political influence was so great that Napoleon dreaded it almost as much as that of Mine, de Stael and of Mme. Recamier, especially in view of Alfieri s opposition to his rule. After the death of Alfieri (1803) the countess resided chiefly at Florence, where she is said to have formed an intimate relation with Francois Xavier Favre, a French painter. Alfieri says in his autobiography that without her inspiring influence he would have achieved nothing. She was buried in the church of Santa Croce at Florence, in the same tomb with Alfieri, which is adorned with a monument by Canova. A biographical work entitled Die Grqfin von Albany has been published by Reumont (2 vols., Berlin, 1860). ALBATEGNIUS, or Albategni (properly MOHAM MED BEN GEBEE ALBATANI), an Arabian prince and astronomer, died about A. D. 929. He is also called Muhamedes Aractsnsis. His princi pal astronomical work mainly an abridgment of the Almagest of Ptolemy, though containing many original principles and observations was translated into Latin by Plato of Tibur, and published at Nuremberg in 1537, and afterward at Bologna in 1045. In the opinion of Lalande, he was one of the 20 most eminent astrono mers that ever lived. ALBATROSS (diomedea), a genus of web-footed sea birds, which has three species the com mon albatross, D. exulans, the albatross of China, D. fidiginosa, and the yellow and black- beaked albatross, D. chlororynchos. The genus is distinguished principally by a very strong, hard, straight beak, which suddenly curves downward, with a sharp hook at the point. The feet are short; the three toes long and completely webbed ; the wings very long and narrow. The common albatross is the largest sea bird known, weighing from 12 to 28 Ibs. The usual extent of its wings is about 11 feet; but a specimen in the Leverian museum Albatross (Diomedea oxulans). measured 13 feet, and one was shot off the Cape of Good Hope of 17-i feet in extent. The top of its head is ruddy gray ; all the rest of its plumage white, with the exception of a few transverse black bands on its back, and a few of the wing feathers. It is abundant from the Southern ocean to Behring strait and the coast of Kamtchatka, frequenting 1 the inner sea about the Kurile islands and the bay of Penshinsk, in vast flocks, but scarcely visit ing at all the eastern or American coasts. Its voracity is extreme, and it is said that it will often swallow whole a salmon of four or five pounds weight. Its ordinary food is fish, fish spawn, and small shell fish; but it does not hesitate to take any animal substance found floating on the surface of the waves, and is often taken by sailors with a line and hook baited with a piece of fat pork. Its powers on the wing are extraordinary, as might be pre supposed from the extreme lightness of its im mense hollow wing bones, which are said by Edwards to be as long as the whole body, and which the Kamtchatdales use as tobacco pipes ; and from the great height, power, and contin uance of its flight, sailors, who know it gener ally as the "man-of-war bird," among other strange notions, believe that it sleeps on the wing. AL-BELADORI, Abnl Hassan Ahmed, an Arabian historian, died about 895. He was minister of religion at Bagdad, resided at the court of the caliph Motawakkel, and was intrusted with the education of one of the princes of the caliph s family. He wrote a work giving the history of the conquest of Syria, Cyprus, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Egypt, Nubia, northern Africa, Spain, and the Mediterranean islands, and an account of the spread of the Mohammedan religion over Persia, Transoxiana, and the countries on the shores of the Indus. ALBEMARLE, a central county of Virginia, bounded N. W. by the Blue Ridge mountains and S. by the James river, and watered by its branches; area, 700 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 27,544, of whom 14, 994 were colored. The sur face is undulating, soil very rich in the valleys and river bottoms, and the scenery picturesque. 250 ALBEMAKLE SOUND ALBERT The productions in 1870 were 218,545 bushels of wheat, 384,851 of corn, 180,461 of oats, and 1,781,619 Ibs. of tobacco. The Chesapeake and j Ohio and Orange, Alexandria, and Manassasrail- | roads intersect at the capital, Charlottesville. ALBE3IARLE SOUND, a large inlet of the sea on the northern part of the coast of North Carolina, extending 60 m. into the country, j and having a width of from 4 to 15 m. It is separated from the sea by a narrow island, is not affected by the tides, receives the waters of the Roanoke and Chowan rivers, and is nearly fresh. It has connection with Currituck and Pamlico sounds by inlets, and with Chesa peake bay by a canal cut through the Great Dismal swamp. This sound has not a great depth of water, and is of comparatively little value for commercial purposes. ALBERGATI-CAPACELLI, Francesco, marchese d , an Italian dramatic writer and actor, born in Bologna, April 29, 1728, died March 16, 1804. He has been called the Garrick of Italy. His youth was wasted in debauchery, but at the age of 40 he had acquired a high reputation by his dramatic compositions, and as a wit and actor. His works appeared in 12 vols. (Ven ice, 1783- 5), and 6 vols. (Bologna, 1784). ALBERIC I., a ruler of Rome in the early part of the 10 th century. He was originally a Lom bard nobleman, but obtained through the aid of Berengarius of Friuli the marquisate of Camerino, and by his marriage with Marozia, the daughter of the notorious Roman Theodora, the temporal authority over Rome. He joined Pope John X. in the expulsion of the Saracens. He also ruled the duchy of Spoleto. He was, however, banished from Rome, and finally murdered in 925. His widow wedded Guido of Tuscany, and after his death Hugo of Pro vence, king of Italy, who was afterward ex pelled by her son, ALBEEIC II., who reigned over Rome until his death in 954. ALBEIIDXI, Ciulio, a Spanish statesman, born near Piacenza, Italy, May 31, 16G4, died in Rome, June 16, 1752. He was the son of a vine dresser, and was brought up to the church. In the war of the Spanish succession he gained the favor of the duke of Vendorne, command ing the French troops in Italy, and accompa nied him to Paris in 1706, and to Spain in 1711, acting as his secretary. In 1713 he w^as ap- Eointed envoy of the duke of Parma at the panish court. He was befriended by the cel ebrated Princess Orsini ; but, having induced her to employ him in negotiating the marriage of Philip V. with Elizabeth Farnese of Parma, his first act after the queen s arrival was to urge her to apply for the dismissal of the princess, who was at once arrested and banished. He became prime minister of Spain in 1714, and in 1717 was made a cardinal by Clement XL His internal administration was distinguished for economy, the encouragement of industry, and the development of the resources of Spain. He remodelled the army, rebuilt the fleet, strengthened the defences, and increased the foreign commerce. But the ambition of restor ing Spain to her former greatness, seconded by the queen s ambition for the aggrandizement of her family, prompted him to a violent for eign policy. He seized on Sardinia in a time of peace (1717), invaded Sicily (1718), entered into adventurous schemes with Charles XII., Peter the Great, and the Stuarts against France and England, plotted a conspiracy to depose the regent Orleans, and embroiled Spain with all the other powers of Europe, bring ing about the quadruple alliance of England, France, Austria, and Holland. Alberoni s courage rose with the danger, and he bade de fiance to all his enemies at once. The foreign alliance and the hatred of the grandees at home, however, hurled him from place. Peace was concluded in 1719, one of the stipulations of which was Alberoni s dismissal, and he was ordered to quit Spain without delay. He fled to Italy, whither his foes pursued him, and in duced Clement XL to issue a warrant for his arrest. This he managed to escape, wandering about in circumstances of danger and priva tion; but on the pope s death (1721) he ap peared at Rome in the conclave, and assisted at the election of Innocent XIII. , who refused to molest him. He w T as afterward sent as le gate into the Romagna, and finally retired to his native state, where he died at the age of 88. He left a number of MSS., from which his "Political Testament" was published at Lau sanne in 1753. ALBERS, Johann Friedrich Hermann, a German physician, born at Dorsten, Nov. 14, 1805, died in Bonn, May 12, 1867. He practised sev eral years as assistant physician, afterward de livered lectures on pathology at Bonn, and in 1831 was appointed professor there. He also established at Bonn a private hospital for men tal and nervous diseases. He is the author of an "Anatomical Atlas" (287 plates, with text, 1832- 62), and works on general pathol ogy, pharmacology, diseases of the larynx, sy philitic skin diseases, &c. ALBERT, a S. E. county of the province of New Brunswick, Canada, bounded S. and S. E. by the bay of Fundy and Chignecto bay ; area, 677 sq. m. ; pop. in 1871, 10,672. The land is good, and there are extensively diked marshes, mines of bituminous and cannel coal, oil-bear ing shales, plaster beds, and quarries of free stone. The coal and plaster are taken by a horse railroad to Hillsborough, respectively 2|- and 5im., and shipped principally to the United States. Petroleum was at one time largely produced. Chief town, Hopewell. ALBERT, the pseudonyme of ALEXANDEE MAE- TIN, a member of the French provisional govern- t ment of 1848, born at Bury, department of I Oise, April 27, 1815. He was a maker of me chanical models, and continued to work at his trade after he became prominent as an agita tor, and in 1840 as founder of a revolutionary I journal entitled L ] Atelier, written by working ! men exclusively. A friend of Louis Blanc, he ALBERT 251 became a member of the provisional govern ment as a special representative of the working classes, and always signed himself " Albert, ouvrier." He was elected to the constituent assembly for the department of the Seine ; but being implicated in the uprising of May 15, he was sentenced to transportation, and remained in prison till the amnesty of 1854. Albert does not figure in the history of the Commune of 1871. ALBERT I. (Ger. Albrecht), archduke of Austria and emperor of Germany, born in 1248, died May 1, 1308. He was the son of Rudolph of Hapsburg, and succeeded to his hereditary estates, but the succession to the crown was conferred by the electors upon Adolphus of Nassau. Albert affected submis sion, and remitted to the new emperor the royal insignia. But on the coronation of Wenceslas of Bohemia he met four of the elec tors, and arranged with them a diet at Mentz, before which Adolphus was summoned to an swer charges of high crimes and misdemea nors. Adolphus of course refused the requisi tion of any such tribunal, and the diet there upon adjudged him guilty of contumacy, and deprived him of the crown. War was de clared, the two armies met, July 2, 1298, near Gellheim, between Spire and Worms, and Al bert unhorsed Adolphus in personal combat, whereupon the latter, continuing to fight, was soon despatched by the followers of his rival. Feigning a respect for the rights of the body of electors, Albert declined to exercise the supreme power until a diet had been formally convened, and he was duly elected and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle. Pope Boniface YIIL, however, stigmatized him as a mur derer, and instituted a new combination against him, which was disconcerted by Albert s son Ru dolph. Albert was now involved in hostilities with Bohemia, of which he made himself mas ter for a short time ; but the people rose, and he was obliged to retire. He attempted to subjugate part of Switzerland, but in crossing the river Reuss in a boat was murdered by his nephew John of Hapsburg, whose posses sions Albert had seized during his minority. John was assisted by three noblemen. Albert s daughter Agnes terribly avenged her father s murder, though not on John himself, who es caped to Italy, and died a monk. Albert was succeeded in Austria by hi son Frederick the Handsome, and in the empire by Henry of Lux emburg. ALBERT (Ger. Albrecht), the first duke of Prussia, son of Frederick, margrave of Anspach and Baireuth, and grandson of Albert Achilles, elector of Brandenburg, born May 17, 1490, died March 21, 1568. He was educated for the church under the elector of Cologne, but also served in the army of the emperor Maxi milian, and in 1511 was elected grand master of the Teutonic order. Refusing to take the oath of fealty to the king of Poland, he be came involved in the hostilities which had subsisted for years between the order and the Poles. Sigismund I. of Poland, whose sister was Albert s mother, began the war in earnest, but, after some successful fighting, was in 1521 in duced to grant a four years truce, during which Albert solicited aid from other German princes. He betook himself to Germany, where he was persuaded by Luther to embrace the reformation and change the domains of the order into a temporal principality. At the ex piration of the truce the grand master con sented to hold the territory of the order as a fief from Poland, and the majority of the knights agreed to hold under Albert. Al bert now threw himself heartily into the refor mation movement, established new schools, and founded the university of Konigsberg. Dissensions on doctrinal points between the professors of his new university involved him in troubles which lasted till his death. ALBERT (Francis Albert Angnstns Charles Eman- uel), prince consort of Great Britain, prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, born at Coburg, Aug. 20, 1819, died in W mdsor Castle, Dec. 14, 1861. Under the auspices of his father, Duke Ernest of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, he received a brilliant education, which he perfected by studying at the university of Bonn. In June, 1838, he vis ited England, and was introduced by King Leopold of Belgium to the young Queen Vic toria, who in November, 1839, formally an nounced to the privy council that she intended to marry Prince Albert. He was naturalized by act of parliament, Jan. 21, 1840, and the marriage was celebrated Feb. 10. An annual allowance of 50,000 was at first proposed, but only 30,000 was voted. The prince was made a field marshal, knight of the garter, and chancellor of the university of Cambridge, and invested with other high titles and functions. As president of the society of arts his aesthetic tastes found ample scope for activity. The crystal palace of 1851, the forerunner of many other expositions of industry and art, was chiefly due to his zeal and enlightened knowledge. His model farm at Windsor gave a powerful impulse toward the establishment of others all over the country. His public spirit was felt in a variety of industrial and charitable undertak ings, while in political affairs he exercised a wise influence over the queen without obtru sive intermeddling. Devoted to the education of the royal family, and warmly attached to the queen, he made the domestic life of the court synonymous with virtue and culture. The delicacy of his position as a German prince and as husband of the queen, without political authority, exposed him occasionally to misap prehensions ; and in 1855 it was necessary for the ministry to correct in parliament the im pressions which had been current in regard to his alleged partiality for alien interests in inter national questions. Nevertheless, he frequently saved the government from danger by his cool judgment and patriotism. Shortly before his- death, during the civil war in the United 252 ALBERT ALBERTUS MAGNUS States, he was generally believed to have exer cised his influence in favor of the Union. lie refused the chief command of the English army, which had been proposed to him by Wellington. The title of " his royal highness prince consort " was conferred upon him by letters patent, under the great seal, June 25, 1857, so that in case of his surviving the queen he might act as regent during the minority of the prince of Wales. Victoria mourned his death with almost unex ampled pertinacity. A publication in 1857 of Prince Albert s public addresses was succeeded in 1862 by a fuller work of the kind, prepared at the request of the queen. " The Early Years of His Royal Highness the Prince Consort, by Lieut. Gen. the Hon. C. Grey," was published 18G7- 8. Queen Victoria s " Leaves from the Journal of our Life in the Highlands, from 1848 to 1801," edited by Arthur Helps (18G8), con tains interesting allusions to the excellent prince, whoso memory has been perpetuated in England by many beautiful monuments. ALBERT, Fricdrieli August, crown prince of Saxony, a German general, son of the reigning king John, born in Dresden, April 23, 1828. As the people over whom he is destined to rule are Protestants, while the royal family are Roman Catholics, a Protestant tutor was selected for him in the person of the Saxon historian Dr. von Langenn. In 1848- 9 he took part in the Schleswig-IIolstem war. In 1854, after the accession of his father to the throne, he was called upon to pre side over the council of state, having pre viously been a member of the upper chamber. \n 1806 he commanded the Saxon army in cooperation with Benedck s Austrian forces against Prussia, and received a decoration for the excellent behavior of his troops. When Saxony was obliged to join the North German confederation and to place the armed forces under the control of Prussia, they were desig nated as the 12 th corps of the North German army under command of Prince Albert, who highly distinguished himself at the battles of Gravelotte (Aug. 18, 1870) and Sedan (Sept. 1). He was rewarded with the Prus sian iron cross, and with the rank of North German commander-in-chief over the newly formed 4th army, composed of Prussians and Saxons, at the head of which, after valuable services at the siege, he made his entry into Paris with the emperor and the other princes of Germany. He married in 1853 a princess of the Vasa family. ALBERT EDWARD, prince of Wales, duke of Saxony, and prince of Coburg-Gotha, heir ap parent to the British throne, second child of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, born in Buckingham palace, London, Nov. 9, 1841. He was created prince of Wales and earl of Chester by letters patent Dec. 8, 1841, and earl of Dublin Jan. 17, 1850. He is duke of Cornwall pursuant to the statute of Edward III., 1337, the annual revenues of the duchy being about 50,000. In conformity with an act of the Scotch parliament in 1449, he is Ingh steward of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, earl of Carrick, baron of Renfrew, and lord of the isles. He is a general in the army, colonel of the 10th hussars, captain general and colonel of the honorable artillery company, barrister at law and a bencher of the Middle Temple, president of the society of arts and of other societies, and chancellor of the university of Cambridge. In 1800 he visited the United States and Canada, accompanied by the late duke of Newcastle ; and on March 10, 1803, he married at Windsor Alexandra, eldest daugh ter of Christian IX. of Denmark. His eldest son, ALBERT VICTOE, was born at Erogmore Lodge, Jan. 8, 1864. In the autumn of 1871 he was seized with a dangerous typhoid fever, which produced much public anxiety; and his convalescence was celebrated with great pomp at St. Paul s cathedral, Feb. 27, 1872. ALBERT!, Leone Battista, an Italian architect, poet, painter, and sculptor, born in 1404, died in Rome in April, 1472. His essays on paint ing and sculpture are greatly admired. His most famous work, however, is a treatise De lie ^Edificatoria. As an architect, he was often employed by Pope Nicholas V., and he designed and superintended the erection of many edifices in Florence, Rimini, and Mantua. ALBERTOELLI, Mariotto, a Florentine painter, born about 1475, died about 1520. He was a friend and pupil of Fra Bartolommeo, and an imitator of his style. There is a beautiful painting by him in the gallery of the Uffizi at Florence, representing the visitation of Mary and Elizabeth. Fine pictures of his are found in Florence and Munich, and in the Louvre. ALBERT FIANZA. See N AKZA. ALBERTUS MAGMS (ALBERT THE GEEAT), a scholar of the 13th century. He was of a no ble Swabian family, studied at Padua, and en tered the Dominican order. He was employed as a teacher in various schools, especially at Co logne. In 1254 he was appointed provincial of his order in Germany, and in 1260 bishop of Ratisbon. In 1262 he returned to his con vent, and died there in 1280. He was perhaps the most learned man that the middle ages produced. The titles of his works fill many pages in catalogues, and all branches of human knowledge, theology, philosophy, natural his tory, physics, astronomy, and alchemy, are rep resented in them. He devoted himself espe cially to the study of Aristotle and of the Arab philosophy. Ilis contemporaries, marvelling at his learning, regarded him as a magician, and he became the subject of many legendary sto ries. But his works prove that he had more patience than genius; he accumulates citations from his immense reading almost by chance, and settles vital problems by carefully balan cing the weight of authorities. He had numer ous disciples (of whom Thomas Aquinas was the most distinguished), called Albertists, who propagated his doctrines, and confirmed the vogue of Aristotle during the middle ages. ALBI ALBINOS 253 ALBI, or Alby (anc. Albiga), a town of Franco, capital of the department of Tarn, on the Tarn, 41 m. N. E. of Toulouse; pop. in 1866, 16,596. It has a cathedral, a museum, and a library, but is one of the least attractive towns of France. The name of the sect of Albigenses was derived from this place and its district, Albigeois. A council denouncing their tenets was held near here in 1176. Albi was one of the most important Protestant towns during the reign of Louis XIV., and the revocation of the edict of Nantes drove many of its citizens into exile. ALBIGEiVSES, the collective name of various sects of heretics in the 12th and 13th centuries, who left the Catholic church and called them selves Catharists or Cathari (the pure). The word is derived from Albigeois (Albigesium), the territory of the viscount of Albi, the chief protector of the sects. The war against the Albigenses arose in consequence of the murder in 1208 of the papal legate Peter of Castelnau. Pope Innocent III. threw the blame on the he retical nobility of southern France, and in par ticular upon Raymond VI. of Toulouse, and had a crusade preached against them. Ray mond averted the blow by submitting to the most humiliating conditions, and the crusading army, under the leadership of the legates Milo and Arnold, marched first against Raymond Roger, the visoount of Albi, Beziers, Carcas sonne, and Rasez, whose land was devastated and given to Simon da Montfort. When Be ziers, the capital of Roger, was taken by storm, 20,000 of the inhabitants were massacred. The army then (1211) turned against Raymond of Toulouse, who had again been excommuni cated. His land was also conquered, and in 1215 adjudged to Simon de Montfort. Ray mond, however, supported by his subjects, continued a vigorous resistance to Sirnon, who in 1218 fell at the siege of Toulouse. A large portion of his territory was then reconquered by Raymond, and his son Raymond VII. even succeeded in forcing Amalric, the son of Si mon, to a complete surrender. Louis VIII. of France, who was now prevailed upon by Pope Honorius to take arms against the Albigenses, died in November, 1226 ; but finally Raymond was compelled in 1229 to purchase relief from excommunication by ceding part of his terri tory to France, and by making his son-in-law, the brother-in-law of Louis IX. of France, heir to the remainder. Thus the Albigenses were left without a patron, and the inquisition was organized in 1229 by the council of Toulouse to complete their extermination. The name maintained itself, however, throughout the 13th century, not only in France, but also in upper Italy, Spain, and other countries, and disap peared at the beginning of the 14th century. For the doctrine of the Albigenses see CA- TUAEISTS. ALBIXOS, individuals in whom, by some de fect in their organization, the substance which gives color to the skin, hair, and eyes is ab sent. These persons, whether Indian, negro, or white, appear of a uniformly dead, milky hue, with hair of the same shade, and eyes with the iris deficient in the black or blue or hazel pigment, which in others conceals the delicate network of blood vessels, and the intense red ness they diffuse over the surface. In the albino, both the pupil and the iris lacking this colored curtain, the former, from the concentra tion within it of fine blood vessels, is of a deep red, and the circle around it is of a pink color. It is supposed that the dark color of the eye and hair is owing to a large quantity of pig- mentum in the system, and light hair and eyes to a smaller proportion of it. The name albino was originally applied by the Portuguese to the white negroes they met with on the coast of Africa. With the features of the negro and the peculiar woolly form of the hair, the color of the skin and hair was white. The eye, in stead of the jet-black hue, which seems given to the inhabitants of the tropics to enable them to bear the intense glare of the sun, was like that of the white rabbit and ferret, and, like this, better suited for use in the moonlight and in places sheltered from the light of day. From this inability to bear the light, which, however, is said to be much exaggerated, Linrueus called the albinos nocturnal men. They generally lack the strength of other men ; and a peculiar harshness of the skin, such as is noticed in cases of leprosy, would seem to indicate that the phenomenon might result from a diseased organization. They are also deficient in men tal capacity. In the same family several chil dren are sometimes born albinos. They are most generally of -the male sex. An instance is recorded of a Welsh family, in which every alternate child was an albino. It is stated by Esquirol that two albinos married, and had two children that were not albinos, but of quite brown color. It is not understood to what ultimate cause the phenomenon is to be attrib uted. It is not limited to man ; for individuals possessing the same peculiarities are found among a great variety of the warm-blooded animals, and, according to Geoffroy St. Ililaire, in fishes and some species of molluscous ani mals as well. Examples are not very rare among the feathered tribe, the effect being seen in the color of the plumage, as in other animals in that of the hair. The white crow and the white blackbird are albinos. Albino mice are not uncommon. The white elephants of India are venerated by the natives, who be lieve them to be animated with the souls of their ancient kings. One of the kings of the Ashahtees is said to have had particular regard for albinos, and collected around him about 100 of them. According to Humboldt, albinos are more common among nations of dark skin, and inhabiting hot climates. In the copper-colored races they are more rare, and still more so among whites. The knowledge we possess of this subject is dqrived from the scientific in vestigations of Blumenbach, De Saussure, who- 254: ALBINUS ALBRECHTSBERGER describes them in his Voyage dans les Alpes, Buzzi, surgeon to the hospital at Milan, Som- mering, and others. ALBINUS (Ger. WEISS), Bernhard Siegfried, a German anatomist, born in Frankfort-on-the- Oder, Feb. 24, 1697, died in Ley den, Sept. 7, 1770. He was educated by his father, profes sor of medicine at Frankfort, and afterward at Leyden, and also studied under Winslow and Senac in Paris. At the age of 22 he was called to fill the office of demonstrator at Ley- den, then the most celebrated school of medi cine in Europe, and two years later became professor of anatomy and surgery. He pub lished De Ossibus Corporis Humani, Historia Musculorum Hominis, and lastly, Tabulce See- let i et Musculorum Corporis Humani (fol., Ley- den, 1747), illustrated with costly plates pre pared under his own inspection. He edited the works of Harvey. ALBION, the appellation by which Great Britain was originally known to the Greeks and Romans. It is a Celtic word, meaning high island or mountain land, and was probably ap plied originally to the northern part, embracing the Scottish highlands. The root of the word is thus the same as that of the word Alps. The derivation from the Latin albus, white, is now rejected by the best critics. ALBION, a village, the capital of Orleans co., 1ST. Y., about 40 m. N. E. of Buffalo ; pop. in 1870, 3,322. The Erie canal and the Niagara Falls and Suspension Bridge branch of the New York Central railroad pass through it. It has several churches, an academy, a female semi nary, two or three banks, and two weekly newspapers. ALBION, New, a name originally bestowed by Sir Francis Drake on the territory now known as California and the adjacent coast, which he visited in June, 1579, but now re stricted by Humboldt and other geographers to that part of the N. W. coast lying between lat. 43 and 48 N. ALBIRCO, a star in the head of the constella tion Cygnus. It is one of the double stars, and has lately attracted the especial attention of spectroscopists by the difference in the lines be tween its two constituents. The primary star is orange, the smaller blue. ALBOIN, king of the Lombards, succeeded his father in Pannonia about 560, and died in 574. After aiding Narses against the Ostrogoths, and defeating and slaying Cunimond, king of the Gepidae, he invaded Italy in 568, overran the peninsula as far as the Tiber, and fixed the Lombard capital at Pavia, which he captured after a three years siege. He had married his prisoner Rosamond, daughter of Cunimond, and at a feast in Verona forced her to drink out of her father s skull ; in revenge for which she caused her paramour Helmichis to assas sinate him. The guilty pair then fled to Ravenna, where Rosamond poisoned Helmichis in order that she might marry the exarch Longinus. Her victim discovered the treachery and com pelled her to die with him. Alboin, in spite of his barbarity, was a beneficent ruler, and is a favorite hero of German poetry. ALBONI, Marietta, an Italian contralto singer, born at Cesena, March 10, 1826, or, according to some authorities, at Forli in 1824. Her musical education was completed under Ros sini, in Bologna, and she made her debut at the Scala theatre in Milan. After singing at Vienna, St. Petersburg, and in various parts of Italy and Germany, she reached London and Paris in the year 1847. Her voice was a true contralto of the sweetest and most so norous quality, extending from F in the bass to C in alt of the soprano a compass of 2-|- oc taves. Her favorite parts were in Rossini s Gazza Ladra, La Donna del Lago, Semiramide, and Cenerentola, the florid music of which she executed with marvellous ease. In June, 1852, she arrived in New York on a professional tour, and for upward of a year sang in operas, con certs, and oratorios, in the principal cities of this country. In 1869 she sang in Paris in Rossini s posthumous mass, at a salary of 3,000 francs for each performance ; and in March, 1872, she reappeared there in opera. AL-BORAK, the name of the camel on which Mohammed made his imaginary journeys from the temple at Jerusalem to the celestial regions. ALBORNOZ, Gil Alvarez Carillo, a Spanish pre late and warrior, born in Cuenca, died in Viter- bo, Aug. 24, 1367. As archbishop of Toledo, he took part in the contest with the Moors ; and having saved the life of Alfonso XI. in the battle of Algeciras, he was ennobled, and in 1343 commanded in the siege of that place. Falling into disgrace with Alfonso s successor, Pedro the Cruel, he fled to Avignon, w r here Pope Clement VI. created him cardinal. In 1353 Innocent VI. sent him as legate to Italy, to regain for the papacy the control of Rome; and in the course of the years 1353- 62 he suc ceeded, under the most unfavorable circum stances, in again subjecting the ecclesiastical states to the papal power. ALBRECHT, Friedrieh Rudolph, archduke of Austria, born Aug. 3, 1817. He is the eldest son of the late archduke Charles, second son of the emperor Leopold II., and is consequent ly first cousin of the reigning emperor s father. He distinguished himself in his youth as a cav alry commander, and had an important share in the battle of Novara in 1849. , He was gov ernor general of Hungary 1851- 60. During the campaign of 1866 he commanded the Aus trian forces in Venetia, and gained the brilliant victory of Custozza over the Italians (June 24), but the defeat of Benedek at Sadowa (July 3) neutralized this success. The archduke was called to replace Benedek, but the treaty of Prague immediately put an end to the war. He is a field marshal, and inspector general of the Austrian army. His wife, daughter of King Louis I. of Bavaria, died in 1864. ALBRECHTSBERGER, Johann Georg, one of the first modern masters of counterpoint, born in ALBRET ALBUMEN C\ ^ K ZOO the neighborhood of Vienna, Feb. 3, 1736, died in that city, May 7, 1809. He was a pupil of the organist Mann. In 1772 he was made court organist, a member of the academy of music, and in 1792 organist in St. Stephen s church in Vienna. Beethoven and Seyfried were his pupils in counterpoint. ALBRET, an ancient town and castle of Gas- cony, in a district of the same name, now in cluded in the arrondissement of Mont-de-Mar- san, department of Landes. It gave the title of viscount and afterward of duke to an illus trious family, of whom the most distinguished members were JEAN D ALBRET, who became king of Navarre in 1494 by marriage with the heiress to the crown, and was dispossessed of the Spanish part of his territory by Ferdinand the Catholic in 1512; HENRI D ALBRET, his son, king of Navarre, who was taken prisoner at Pavia in 1525 ; and JEANNE D ALBRET (see ALBRET, JEANNE D ). The site of the town is now occupied by the hamlet of Labrit. ALBRET, Jeanne d>, queen of Navarre, born inPau, Jan. 7, 1528, died in Paris, June 9, 1572. She was the only daughter of Henry II. of Na varre and Margaret of Angouleme, sister of Francis I. and wife of Antoine de Bourbon, with whom she succeeded on the death of her father to the sovereignty of Lower Navarre and Beam. She was equally celebrated for her beauty, her intelligence, and her strength of mind. When Pope Paul IV. invested Phil ip II. of Spain with the sovereignty of Navarre, she formally embraced Calvinism, toward which she had already shown a leaning, while her husband, a man of weak spirit and ignoble im pulses, hastened to submit himself to the church, and accepted from Philip the lieuten ant-generalship of the kingdom. He applied to the pope to annul his marriage, but died shortly afterward (1562) ; and Jeanne, despite the intrigues and menaces of Spain and Rome, retained her possessions. In 1567 she declared Calvinism the established religion of the king dom. With her children Henry and Catharine, she joined Coligny at La Rochelle with a small band of Huguenots in 1569, and after the as sassination of the prince of Conde was regard ed as the only remaining support of the Prot estants. She is extolled by D Aubigne and other writers for her influence over the Hugue not soldiery. She reluctantly consented to the marriage arranged by Catharine de Medici and Charles IX. between her son Henry (afterward Henry IV.) and Margaret of Valois, but died before the realization of her misgivings. She wrote both prose and verse ; and some of her sonnets were published by Du Bellay. ALBICASIS, Buleasimos/ or, properly, Abul- easim, an Arabian physician, born near Cor dova, died in that city about 1106. He is known only by his medical work, Al-Tasriff, the surgical part of which has been published in Arabic and Latin (2 vols. 4to, Oxford, 1778), and constitutes the most valuable authority upon the surgical science of the Arabs. ALBUERA, a village of Spain, situated on a river of the same name, in the province and | about 12 m. S. S. E. of the town of Bada- I joz. It was the scene of a battle, May 16, 1811, between Beresford with about 30,000 British, Spanish, and Portuguese troops, who formed the reserve of the army then besieging the French in Badajoz, and Marshal Soult, with 23,000 men, who hoped by defeating the re serve to oblige the British to raise the siege. The attempt was unsuccessful, and the British gained a decisive victory. ALBUFERA, the name of a lagoon near Valen cia, on the E. coast of Spain. It is partly dried up in summer, and a resort for wild fowl, whose capture is a source of revenue. The lagoon, with an estate on its banks, was the domain of Godoy, the prince of the peace. Na poleon created Suchet duke of Albufera, on ac count of the victory obtained over Blake, and the capture of Valencia, Jan. 9, 1812 ; and the Spaniards afterward granted the revenues of this district to Wellington. ALBUMEN (from Lat. albm, white, because the albumen of the fowl s egg, on being coagu lated by cooking, turns white), an organic sub stance, more or less fluid in its natural condi tion, which is coagulated or solidified by the action of heat, alcohol, the mineral acids, and the metallic salts. The characters of albumen were first recognized in the transparent and colorless portion of the contents of the fowl s egg. When an egg is boiled and then opened, it is found to consist of two different portions ; namely, an internal portion or yolk, which is yellow, and an external portion, which is white. The external portion before boiling is transparent, semi-fluid, and nearly colorless ; and the increased consistency, opacity, and white color which it assumes on cooking, are due to its containing as its principal ingredient the substance in question, which is coagulated under the influence of heat. The composition of albumen of the white of an egg is stated by Du mas to be: carbon, 54 3; hydrogen, 7 1; nitro gen, 15 8; oxygen, 21 0; sulphur, 1-8; of the serum, or thin part of the blood of man, 0*05 less of carbon, 19 more of hydrogen, 0*07 less of nitrogen, and 07 less of oxygen. The sulphur in the white of an egg, uniting with hydrogen, forms sulphuretted hydrogen, which tarnishes silver. Albumen is found not only in the egg, but in the blood, in the chyle and lymph, in the interstitial fluid of the muscles, and in the mois ture of the serous cavities, as the pericardium and the peritoneum. In the blood, where it is most abundant, it is in the proportion of about 75 parts per thousand ; in the lymph and chyle, from 12 to 35 parts per thousand. It is coag ulated by a temperature of 160 F., and when in tolerable abundance, as in the serum of the blood, the whole fluid, on boiling, becomes solidified or gelatinous in consistency. The i presence of an alkali or an alkaline carbonate, | however, in due proportion, will prevent this ; I and after the albumen is once coagulated, the 256 ALBUMINURIA coagulum may be redissolved by the action of the alkali. In the blood, the albumen is re garded as its most nutritious ingredient, being employed for the nourishment of the various tissues, by which it is absorbed and afterward converted into materials similar to their own. It is not discharged from the body under its own form with the excretions, except in cases of disease, but is retained and employed for the maintenance of the vital operations. Albumen is regarded as the representative of a large class of organic substances, as well vegetable as animal, which are known as the albuminoid substances. (See ALIMENT.) They are distin guished by the facts that they all contain nitrogen, in addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ; that all those which are fluid or semi fluid are coagulable by various means ; that they are very ready both to excite and to un dergo indirect or catalytic transformations ; and that they are all susceptible of putrefac tion. They enter very largely into the compo sition of the food, and constitute its most val uable and nutritious ingredients. According to recent researches (1865) of Iloppe-Seyler, there is a marked difference between the albumen of eggs and that found in other parts of the ani mal economy. Vegetable albumen has never yet been prepared in a pure form, and we are unable to say whether it may not constitute a third modification. The two modifications known to chemists at the present time are the soluble and insoluble, ALBUMINUllIA, or Bright s Disease, a disease characterized by the presence of albumen in the urine, a more or less general dropsy both of the cellular tissue and the internal cavities, and an organic change in the substance of the kidneys ; so called from the name of its discoverer, Dr. Bright. The acute form of the disease some times commences with a chill, followed by more or less fever, with a dry skin, furred tongue, and frequent pulse. In other cases the atten tion of the patient is attracted by the swollen state of his countenance ; the swelling rapidly extends and becomes general ; at the same time the urine is greatly diminished in quan tity, and is of a dark color, looking as if im pregnated with smoke, or red, and evidently containing blood. There is more or less dull pain about the loins, with a dry pallid skin, thirst, disinclination for food, often nausea and vomiting. Sometimes, though happily not often, there is complete suppression of urine. In such cases, as a rule, fatal coma quickly supervenes. In the course of the disease, effu sions into the cavities of the pericardium, the pleura, or the peritoneum, with or without inflammation of those membranes, are apt to occur; or epileptic convulsions may come on, often ending in fatal coma. The urine has commonly a specific gravity of from 1 015 to 1*025 not varying much from its ordinary standard ; when tested by heat and nitric acid, it shows the presence of albumen, sometimes in such large quantity that the whole of the fluid is converted into a jelly-like mass. When examined under the microscope, the sediment deposited by the urine, on standing, is found to consist of blood corpuscles, of renal epithelium, and of small fibrinous casts of the uriniferous tubes, containing entangled in them epithelial cells and blood globules. After the disease has continued some weeks in adults, the epithelial casts, as they are termed, sometimes contain a few oil globules ; if the patient recover, these gradually disappear as convalescence comes on. On post-mortem examination the kidneys are found to be enlarged, and gorged with blood. Sometimes their exterior is pale, and this pale ness extends through the cortical substance, particularly in the cases which follow scarlet fever. Microscopic examination shows many of the convoluted tubes to be crowded with epithelium, especially in those parts of the cor tical substance which appear pale to the naked eye. Of the causes of acute albuminuria, ex posure to cold, particularly when the body is exhausted by fatigue, by recent illness, by an innutritions or unsuitable diet, or by excessive indulgence in alcoholic liquors, is undoubtedly the most important. The actions of the skin and of the kidneys are always to some extent vicarious of each other. When there is free perspiration, the quantity of urine is dimin ished ; in cold weather it is increased. In these cases, however, it is only the watery parts of the excretion which are interfered with ; and the kidneys continue to free the blood from the excrementitious matters which it is their peculiar function to separate. When disease follows exposure to cold, it is probable that the sudden checking of the function of the skin produces a vascular congestion of the kid neys, an increased pressure of the blood in their vessels, and thus the appearance of albu men in the urine. Other diseases in which the blood is in an altered condition are occasionally attended or followed by albuminuria ; thus re peated instances of its occurrence have been met with in connection with acute rheumatism, typhus fever, erysipelas, and purpura. During the desquamative process in scarlet fever, the patient is liable to acute albuminuria. Accu rate observers have found that in most cases albumen can, at some time of the later period of the disease, be discovered in the urine. If at this time the patient be incautiously and un duly exposed to the influence of cold, disease of the kidneys attended by dropsy is apt to fol low. The attack differs in no respect except its cause from the acute albuminuria which occurs under other circumstances ; it has sim ilar symptoms, and post-mortem examination reveals similar appearances. The strumous diathesis predisposes to the disease ; cases of scarlet fever in children of that diathesis have always to be watched most carefully, and from the ordinary causes of albuminuria the strumous suffer in large proportion. It is easy to under- stand the pathology of the disease, Not only is the urine diminished in quantity, but w r hat is ALBUMINURIA 257 passed is deficient in urea. The urea which should be eliminated by the urine accumulates in the blood arid poisons that fluid. The serum of the blood, of which the albumen is drained off by the kidneys, becomes deficient in that sub stance, and of lower specific gravity. The pal lor of the complexion shows that the blood is deficient in coloring matter; and where the disease has lasted a short time, this is confirmed by direct examination, the blood globules be ing diminished in proportion. The circulation of a poisoned blood throughout the body causes that liability to secondary diseases which so strikingly characterizes the complaint. AY bile acute albuminuria is always a serious disease, still in a large proportion of cases we can look forward hopefully to the recovery of the pa tient; yet it must always be borne in mind that at any time secondary disease may be lighted up, which will seriously complicate the o.ase and increase the danger. The existence of the strumous diathesis in a marked degree, | or of debility from previous illness, is likewise an exceedingly unfavorable circumstance. The more recent th-3 disease, the better is the pros pect of recovery ; while the persistent presence of albumen in the urine after a certain time leads us to fear the occurrence of chronic de- I generation. The albuminuria following scarla- j tina generally terminates favorably, and there ! is no tendency to a return of the disease, j When convalescence commences, the urine be- I comes more copious and pale, and for some time ia.discharged in large quantity, while the albumen gradually diminishes ; but the patient cannot bo considered as safe, so long as any trace of albumen can be detected in the urine, or any epithelial casts are discovered under the microscope. The hygienic treatment of acute albuminuria is sufficiently simple. The patient I should be clothed in flannel, and if possible ! confined to bed ; the room should be of a com- j fortable and equable temperature, and the | patient should be most sedulously guarded i against exposure to cold currents of air. Throughout the course of the disease, the diet should be unirritating and digestible ; any ex cess in this respect may be attended with bad consequences. When convalescence is estab lished, the preparations of iron will be found exceedingly useful, improving the condition of the blood and the general strength. Chronic A Ibuminuria. The approach of chronic albumi nuria, when not the sequel of an acute attack, is masked and insidious, rarely awaking atten- I tion until fatal progress has been made; in- j deed, persons not suspecting themselves to be | ill have in repeated instances died suddenly of | what has been supposed to be an apoplectic at tack, and post-mortem examination has shown the kidneys and not the brain to be the seat of j mischief. In general, however, the symptoms ! are sufficiently well. marked to attract the at- j tention of the observing physician. The pa tient loses flesh and strength ; the appetite i fails, or, if good, flatulence and other dyspep- j VOL. i. 17 tic symptoms are present ; after a time the color is lost, and the patient has a pallid, sal low, or waxy look ; the skin becomes dry ; in the morning, on rising, swelling beneath the eyes is noticed, aftd at night tlie ankles are cedematous. There is some pain in the back, but it is not commonly so great as to attract attention. If the patient be questioned, it will be found that there is some irritability of the bladder ; he has, contrary to his wont, to rise at night to pass urine, although there is no evi dence of disease of the bladder itself. The urine is sometimes passed in large quantities, and occasionally the amount is much below the average ; it is pale and of low specific grav ity, varying commonly from 1 004 to 1 012. Tested by heat and nitric acid for the presence of albumen, this substance is found to vary greatly in amount in different cases, occasion ally being present in large quantity, while sometimes only a trace of its existence is dis covered ; sometimes it disappears altogether, and will only be discovered after repeated ex aminations. In the course of the disease drop sy of the abdomen is apt to occur, and this often becomes so great as to be the principal source of suffering. Anasarca is also present, and the whole cellular tissue is infiltrated with serum. As in the acute form of the disease, there may be effusion, with or without inflam mation, into the cavities of ihe pericardium and pleura, as well as into that of the perito neum. A tendency to prolonged somnolence is often observed, and this may lapse into coma, or may alternate with epileptic convulsions. Bronchitis is apt to occur and to prove severe and intractable; pneumonia, too, sometimes comes on insidiously, and may run on rapidly to a fatal issue ; and rheumatism, particularly a chronic and unmanageable form of the dis ease, is not infrequent. It is to the deteri orated condition of the blood that the number, variety, and fatality of the complications of the disease of the kidneys are to be attributed. The principal alteration in that fluid would seem to be chiefly the diminished amount of the blood globules, the hematine, according to Dr. Christison, sometimes reaching only one third of its natural quantity, and the presence of the retained urea. The duration of the dis ease varies very greatly in different cases. Among the laboring classes whose avocations lead them to exposure to the inclemencies of the weather, and in whom sickness brings too often privation of comforts and mental depres sion, death commonly occurs after no very pro tracted period ; but among those whose posi tion enables them to avoid fatigue and exposure,. and who are more on their guard against the first invasion of disease, chronic albuminuria often lasts for years, leaving its victims a very fair measure of the enjoyments and labors of life ; their situation, however, is always preca rious, and serious or fatal disease may at any moment be brought on by apparently trivial circumstances. Intemperance in eating and 258 ALBUQUERQUE drinking, but especially in the use of fermented and distilled liquors, is the great cause of chronic albumimiria, in cases where it is not consequent upon the acute disease. One form of the dis ease is so commonly associated with the gouty diathesis, that it has been named by Dr. Todd the gouty kidney ; but the same form of dis ease is often found in those who have never known gout. It occurs most frequently in those of strumous habits, and, at least in hos pital cases, it is no uncommon attendant upon consumption. Exposure to cold and wet, fa tigue, want, and mental anxiety, may all be put down as occasional causes ; yet many cases occur in which we are unable to trace the ori gin of the complaint. In the so-called granular degeneration of the kidney, the organs in ad vanced stages of the disease are very much contracted, so as not to be more than one third or one fourth of their natural size. They have a granular appearance ; the capsule is denser and whiter than natural, and is peeled off with difficulty. On cutting open the kidney, the wasting is found to have taken place mainly at the expense of the cortical substance, which is contracted and atrophied, and presents the same granular appearance which is observed upon the surface. In the waxy kidney the or gan is enlarged sometimes to twice its natural size. It is of a pale buff color, and presents when cut no trace of granulations; on exami nation under the microscope the tissue of the organ is found to be filled with an unorganized fibrinous exudation, and the tubes contain a similar deposit, in the form of waxy casts iden tical with those which microscopic examina tion detects in the urine. The fatty kidney is enlarged, the surface of the organ is smooth and pale, or more commonly mottled by red vascular patches, and its texture feels softer than natural. On microscopic examination the convoluted tubes are found rilled with oil globules. In chronic albumimiria, where neither dropsy nor other formidable complica tion demands attention, the treatment consists rather in hygienic measures, in a careful direc tion of the patient s clothing, diet, and exercise, than in active medication. Flannel should always be worn next the skin, and exposure to wet and cold carefully shunned ; all inordinate exercise, whether of mind or body, and all ex cess of every kind, should be forbidden; the diet should be nutritious, but moderation and regularity must be insisted on ; all fermented liquors should be avoided, though, where long habit has rendered their use necessary, the pa tient may be left to choose the article which best agrees with him. ALBUQUERQUE, a town and fortress of Spain, in the province and 25 m. N. of Badajoz, and 9 m. from the Portuguese frontier; pop. 7,500. It is the seat of the dukes of Albuquerque, and has a large trade in wool. ALBUQUERQUE (Port. Alboquerque), Affonso d>, called the Great, and also the Portuguese Mars, one of the first Portuguese conquerors and second viceroy of India, born near Alhan- dra, in the province of Estremadura, in 1458, died at sea, in the bay of Goa, Dec. 16, 1515. He was brought up at the court of Alfonso V., where his father Goncalo occupied a distin guished position, and was afterward grand equerry of Kings John II. and Emanuel. He had already seen considerable military ser vice, and distinguished himself both by land and sea, w T hen in 1503 he sailed with his cousin Francisco, in command of a small fleet, to In dia, by the newly discovered Cape of Good Hope passage. Having rendered important services to the king of Cochin, on the S. W. coast of India, the adventurers gained permis sion to form a settlement in his dominions, which was the commencement of the Portu guese pow r er in the East. Albuquerque next (1506) accompanied Tristan da Cunha on an expedition to the E. coast of Africa. They carried on a successful warfare for some time against the Arabs and other inhabitants of that coast, until Albuquerque, being left in com mand of a portion of the fleet by Da Cunha, determined on an attempt against the island of Ormuz, the great entrepot of the commerce between Persia and India. He was at first successful (Sept. 25, 1507), but the Persian commander, rallying his forces, repulsed him and drove him back to his ships. He was now joined by three more vessels, and sailed for India, having received a secret commission to supersede the Portuguese governor, Dom Fran cisco d Almeida; but the latter refused to re cognize him, and threw him into prison. On the arrival of the grand marshal of Portugal w r ith a large fleet, he was released and installed as governor and commander-in- chief. In an attempt against Calicut the grand marshal was killed and Albuquerque wounded and forced to retreat. He now made his way to Goa, which he seized in the absence of Idal Khan, the ruling Arab prince, on an expedition into the Deccan (Feb. 17, 1510) ; but his force was too small to retain his conquest, and Idal Khan, having gathered an army, drove him out of the tow r n, and forced him to retire to his ships, which were unable to cross the bar in the face of the monsoon till Aug. 15. In November he re turned, stormed the city, and permanently es tablished himself there. The next year, Diego de Vascon cellos having been ordered to lead an expedition against Malacca, Albuquerque seized and sent him back to Portugal, took command of the expedition himself, captured the town with a force of 1,000 against 30,000 natives and 3,000 cannon, and plundered it of an enormous booty. After remaining a year at Malacca, and establishing Portuguese power there, he sailed for Goa, and was shipwrecked on his voyage ; but he escaped with life, and on reaching the city repulsed an attempt to recover the place made by Idal Khan. His success struck such terror into the natives, that they submitted and left the Portuguese in peace able enjoyment of their acquisitions. In pur- ALBURNUM ALOAMEXES 259 suance of peremptory orders from home, he now (1513) led an expedition to the Red sea for the purpose of breaking up the commerce between India and Egypt, in order that the In dian trade might be monopolized by Portugal. Repulsed in an attack upon Aden, he re turned to Ormuz in 1515, and secured it with out a blow, Portugal retaining possession until 1022, when Shah Abbas recovered it. Many attempts had been made by intriguers at home, jealous of his fame, to injure him, and more than one commander had been sent out to su persede him ; but he disregarded the orders of the court. He was, however, at length recall ed (1515), and his health having suffered in the climate of the Red sea and Persian gulf, his vexation at his disgrace so operated on his en feebled frame that he sank under it, and died in his 63d year. He was buried at Goa. His loss was deplored as a national calamity, and the king endeavored to atone for his previous ingratitude by honor to his memory after his death. In his personal habits he was mod erate, and such was his reputation for justice, that half a century afterward both Mohammed ans and Hindoos visited his tomb to pray for his protection against the extortions and oppres sions of his successors. The celebrated Com mentaries do grande Affonso d^Alboquerque was edited from his papers by his natural son Affonso, minister of finance under John III. Of the original edition there are only three copies extant, one of which is in the royal li brary of Portugal. The best edition was ex ecuted at the royal printing office, Lisbon, in 1774 (4 vols. 8vo). ALBCRNOI, that part of the stern of trees which timber merchants call sap wood, in con tradistinction to heart wood. It is the newly formed wood, lying next below the bark, and is a delicate fibrous tissue, the principal use of which is to convey the crude sap from the roots to the leaves. It is, therefore, a necessary part of all exogenous trees. But it is of a very perishable nature, and only loses that quality when, being enveloped within exterior layers of the same substance, it becomes combined with other secretions, which solidify it and con vert it into duramen, or heart wood. Most plants, and all trees valuable as timber, have the sap wood and heart wood distinct, the one forming the external layer, the other the core. Some, however, consist of alburnum only, and are known as whitewood, which are useless, or of use only for the most temporary purposes. ALCJDIS, a Greek lyric poet and warrior, a native of Mitylene in the island of Lesbos, flour ished toward the close of the 7th century B. 0. He served in the war which took place in 606 between the Athenians and Mitylenians for the possession of Sigeum, on the coast of Troas. He was a partisan of the nobles in their feuds with the people of Mitylene, and shared the exile of his faction, after a futile attempt to re establish himself in his country by force of arms. His poems, originally consisting of ten I books, are said to have exhibited the j lyric in its highest perfection, but only frag ments have come down to us. Some were I warlike or patriotic; some bacchanalian or erotic I songs; while others were hymns, or epigrams, I or poems addressed to individual friends. He ! is considered the inventor of the Alcaic metres. : Horace admired and imitated him. The best ! collection of the extant fragments of Alcaeus : will be found in Bcrgk s Poetce Lyrici Greed I (Leipsic, 2d edition, 1853.) There were two other Greek poets of the same name, of Athens and Messene, and of the 3d and 4th centuries 1 B. C., of whose writings some fragments also remain ; but they are of little importance. ALCAIDE, an executive officer among the ! Spaniards, Portuguese, and Moors, appointed to take charge of a castle or fort, or to super intend a^ prison. (See ALCALDE.) ALCALA, the name of several towns in Spain, I derived from the Moorish .7 Khalaat, the castle. I. Alcala de Henares (anc. Complutum\ a town on the river Ilenares, in New Castile, 17 m. E. N. E. of Madrid ; pop. about 9,000. ! It is celebrated for its university, instituted by : Cardinal Ximenes in 1510, which was long a i famous school of law and divinity, but in 1836 I was suppressed, and the library removed to I Madrid. The Complutensian polyglot Bible i was issued from it at the expense of its illus- I trious founder. (See POLYGLOT.) Ithasamili- ! tary school, a magnificent church, a number of I convents, and a palace of the archbishop of To- j ledo. Alcala was the birthplace of Cervantes, i the historian Antonio Solis, the naturalist Bus- I tamente de la Camera, the emperor Ferdinand I., ! and many other famous men. It was in pos- | session of the Moors until the 12th century, when it was recovered by Don Bernardo, arch bishop of Toledo. II. Alcala la Real, a small j town of Andalusia, 27 m. S. S. W. of Jaen, on a plateau 2,804 feet above the sea; pop. | about 7,000. It was the scene of a victory i by Sebastiani over the Spaniards in Jan uary, 1810, which resulted in the capture of Granada by the French. ALCALDE, in Spanish, the title of a civil dig- ! nitary, either judicial or administrative, with ! which alcaide is sometimes confounded. (See ; ALCAIDE.) Both terms are probably derived ; from the Arabic al-cadi. The alcalde mayor is a local judge who presides over the tribunals, and is distinct from the municipal alcalde or | corregidor, who is not a lawyer. The alcalde \ pedaneo is a justice of the peace, and is elected j by the people. Alcaldes de casa y corte form a bench of judges for the trial of criminal or i civil causes within certain circuits, to whom an appeal lies against the decision of any indi- | vidual of their number. ALCADIEXES, a Greek sculptor, flourished in | the latter half of the oth century B. C. He | was the most famous pupil of Phidias, and is ! said to have unsuccessfully competed with him | in a statue of Minerva. His masterpiece was ! a statue of Venus, now lost. 260 ALCAMO ALCHEMY ALCAMO, a city of Sicily, in the province of Trapani, 23 m. S. W. of Palermo ; pop. in 1872, 20,890. It was originally a Saracenic town, built on the summit of a neighboring hill. The Saracens were expelled in 1223, and the town was rebuilt at the foot of the hill. It is sur rounded by a battlemented wall of the 14th century, but the place is very poor and decayed. In the vicinity are the ruins of ancient Segesta and quarries of yellow marble. ALCANTARA (Arab., the bridge ; anc, N~orl>a Ccesareci). I. A small town in Spanish Estre- madura, near the Portuguese frontier, on the left bank of the Tagus, in the province and 34 m. Yv T . X. W. of Cuceres; pop. about 4,500. A magnificent six-arch bridge, built across the Tagus in the reign of Trajan, was blown up by the British during the Peninsular war. II. Knights of, a Spanish order deriving their origin from the knights of San Julian de Pe} T rero, a small body of valiant Christians in the 12th century who vowed continual war against the Moors. In 1215 Alcantara, which had been in possession of the Moors, was recovered by Al fonso IX., and the grand master of Calatrava being unable to undertake its defence, the duty was assigned to the brothers of San Julian, who changed their name to that of knights of Alcantara, In 1495, the grand master dying, Ferdinand the Catholic became administrator of the order, and united the office of grand master with the crown. The order as an or ganized body has since been abolished, and exists now only as a military order of merit. In addition to the usual vows of the monk- soldier, the knight of Alcantara was bound to maintain the immaculate conception of the Vir gin. After 1540 a change was made in the statutes of the order, which permitted the knights to marry. ALCAVALA, or Aleabala, a duty imposed in Spain and its colonies on all transfers of prop erty. It was originally laid in 1341 as an ad valorem tax of 10 per cent., and was afterward increased to 14 per cent. It was even levied on such movable chattels as manufactured com modities, and was- attached to all wholesale transactions. This oppressive impediment to the operations of trade continued over the greater part of the Spanish realm until swept away by Napoleon in 1808. Catalonia and Aragon purchased from Philip V. an exemp tion from the alcavala by the substitution of a tax on rents and on incomes. ALCAZAR (Arab., the royal castle). I. In Spanish, the general name for a castle or citadel applied to the castles at Seville and Segovia, and to many others. II. Alcazar de San Jnan, a town of Spain, in New Castile, in the province and 48 m. N. E. of Ciudad Real ; pop. about 8,000. It has manufactures of salt petre, soap, chocolate, &c., and is also a rail way centre, where the line from Valencia joins that from Madrid to Cordova. Near it are rich iron pits. ALCESTIS. See ADMETUS. ALCHEMY (Arab, al-lcimia, from al, the, and Gr. J7//efo, chemistry), the ancient name for the science of chemistry. It is sometimes called the hermetic art, from Hermes Trismegistus, anciently reputed its discoverer. The word alchemy is first found in the works of the Greek author Zosimus of Pannopolis, who wrote in the early part of the 5th century. During the middle ages it was a mysterious art, aiming to change inferior metals into sil ver and gold, and to find the so-called elixir of life, Avhich was to be the universal remedy for all possible diseases, rejuvenating the old, and even preventing death. From the 10th to the 17th century there was no distinction made between the words chymia or chemistry and alchemy; but since the latter period, this class of researches becoming more positive and scien tific, it has been agreed to confine the use of the word chemistry to the positive modern knowledge, and to designate by the term al chemy that imaginary science which sought impossible results from misunderstood or mis applied principles. For this reason the name alchemist has become an expression of contempt. Still the ancient alchemists, who called the sub ject of their investigation the divine art, were the precursors of our modern science, and en riched posterity with the knowledge of many valuable facts, which laid the foundation of chemistry. The first authentic account of alchemy is found in Suidas, a Byzantine author of the 10th or llth century, who mentions that the emperor Diocletian, after the conquest of the rebellious Egyptians in the year 296, ordered that all the writings on the chemistry of gold and silver should be burned, in order that the people should not grow too rich by making gold and again commence a rebellion. It appears further that the Greeks living in Egypt in the 5th century were industrious laborers in this field, as a great number of gen uine manuscripts on alchemy, dating from the 5th and 6th centuries, are now found in many of the large libraries in Europe, nearly all coming from Alexandria. The Arabs learned this art, after their great invasion of northern Africa and southern Europe, from some of the peoples they conquered. The greatest Arabian author on alchemy, Jaffar or Geber, who lived toward the end of the 8th century in Seville, was enlightened enough not to suppose that any alchemist had ever succeeded in making gold. However, it appears that he did not doubt the possibility of the transmutation of metals, as he believed that all metals were compounds of three elements. With all their errors, however, some of the ancient Arabian authors give very striking definitions of alchemy, such as the science of the balance, the science of weight, the science of combustion. Jaffar, or Geber, marked an epoch in chemical science equal to that of Lavoisier exactly 1,000 years later. In his time no stronger acid was known than concentrated vinegar, and he discovered and described nitric acid and aqua regia, and also ALCHEMY 261 discovered that a metal when oxidized (or, as he called it, calcined) increases in weight ; a fact rediscovered 1,000 years later by Europeans, and then brought to bear in the destruction of the absurd phlogiston hypothesis then prevail ing. He describes the absorption and evolution of gases by and from liquids and solids, and gives singularly clear instructions in regard to filtration, distillation, sublimation, water and sand baths, cupels of bone earth, and various other chemical operations. He made nitric acid by distilling a mixture of blue vitriol, alum, and saltpetre, and aqua regia by adding sal am moniac to nitric acid ; he could then obtain gold in solution, and so solved the great problem to which before his time all the efforts of alche mists had been vainly directed, the manufacture of gold in a potable state. No wonder that Ro ger Bacon speaks of him as the magister magis- terium. Rhazes, head physician to the hospital of Bagdad, invented about a century later the preparation of sulphuric acid by the distillation of green vitriol, as Xordhausen vitriol is now prepared. He was also the first to make abso lute alcohol by distilling spirits over quicklime. Achild Bechil distilled a mixture of urine, clay, lime, and charcoal, and obtained what he called an artificial carbuncle, as it shone in the dark like the moon ; jt was phosphorus, rediscovered by Brand in Hamburg in 1609. The taste for this class of pursuits diffused itself over Europe by two channels, the scientific Italians, Ger mans, Englishmen, and Frenchmen who visited Spain frequently, and the Greeks who fled from the Mussulman invasion. Already in the 10th century we find traces of alchemy in different European countries ; but it was most ardently pursued in the loth, 10th, and 17th centuries, in the course of which many deceptive and imaginary sciences became associated with it, such as theosophy, cabala, chiromancy, necro mancy, astrology, and magic. Besides the great number of those honest alchemists who deceived the credulous masses by their own confidence expressed in mysterious and sanguine writings, there was a class of impostors who travelled about extorting money from the credulous. Ed ward III. of England paid large amounts of money to the celebrated alchemist Raymond Lully, and Henry VI. in 1440 gave several patents for the making of gold. Rudolph II. of Germany founded in Prague a regular alchemistic university. Augustus I. of Saxony himself worked, with his wife Anna as assistant, in the pursuit of gold-making, and kept besides two alchemists on a regular salary. Duke Frederick of Wtirtemberg, who died in 1608, wasted all the revenue of his land in experi ments. Christian IV. of Denmark appointed Ilarbach, the director of the mint in Copen hagen, as his private alchemist. The emperor Ferdinand III., Duke John Philip of Mentz, and a great many others could be enumerated ; and it is strange that notwithstanding numerous glaring deceptions, and revelations of the most contemptible dishonesty, which were often pun ished by public executions, the belief in the possibility of making gold maintained itself. When Bottger escaped from Berlin in 1703, he was placed in prison in Dresden by the elector of Saxony, to compel him to make gold ; he suc ceeded, however, in discovering there the much more valuable art of making porcelain. Even the celebrated astronomer Tycho Brahe occu pied himself with attempts to make gold, but with the purpose of obtaining means to pros ecute his astronomical investigations on a larger scale. Until the end of the 17th century all chemical labors were chiefly directed to the same end, though many practised this art for medical purposes. Among the many authors on alchemy must be mentioned Albertus Mag nus, Roger Bacon, Arnold de Villanova, Ray mond Lully, Basilius Valentinus, Theophrastus Paracelsus, Libavius, Becher, Kunckel, and Glauber. During the 18th century it is difficult to distinguish between an alchemist and a true chemist, as many really scientific men were kept in error by believing Jaffar s false theory that all metals were compound bodies. Even as late as 1772, Schroder, professor in Marburg, and Wenzel, a distinguished chemist in Freiberg, defended the theory of the transmutation of metals. Guyton de Morveau firmly believed that silver could be changed into gold simply by melting with it sulphuret of antimony and arsenic ; but it was afterward discovered that all the gold thus obtained could be accounted for as being present beforehand in the materials used. In 1796 two German physicians in West phalia founded a society for the purpose of investigating the transmutation of metals ; many branch societies were formed, which were flourishing in 1804, and still in existence in 1820. In a text book of chemistry (Baudri- mont, Traite de chimie) published so lately as 1844, it is stated that a certain "Mr. Javary has obtained very surprising results by following the prescriptions of the ancient alchemists, so that there is hope of at last seeing the great work succeed." In a still later publication (1856) Fiffereau affirms that the metals are compound bodies, and that silver can be changed into gold. The alchemists articles of faith were as follows : " 1. There exists a preparation, solid in form and red of color, called the philoso pher s stone, the grand elixir (major magis- terium), the red tincture, which, when it is placed in very small doses on melted liquid silver, mercury, lead, or some other common metal, causes a transmutation of the same into gold. 2. The same preparation, used in very small doses as a medicine, cures all diseases, rejuvenates the old, and prolongs life; where fore it is called the panacea of life, and since it contains the essence of gold, aurum potalnle. 3. There is another preparation of a white color, called the stone of the second degree, the little elixir (jninor magisteriwn), the white tincture, which is equal to the first in half a degree of perfection, and changes the common rnetals into silver." 262 ALCIATI ALCIBIADES ALCIATI, GioTanni Paolo, a theologian, born in | Piedmont, died in Dantzic about 1570. He embraced Protestantism, and figured in Geneva, j but spon afterward promulgated doctrines about the Trinity which were as distasteful to the Protestants as to the Catholics. He and his fellow laborers, among whom was a physi cian named Blandrata (see BLAXDRATA), had to flee from Geneva, and chose Poland for a ref uge, where they met a hearty reception. He wrote two letters (1564 and 1565) to Gregorio Pauli, maintaining that our Saviour did not ex ist before his birth of the Virgin Mary. ALCIBIADES, an Athenian statesman and gen eral, son of Clinias and Dinomache, born in Athens in 450 B. C., died in Bithynia in 404. He boasted his descent from the Telainonian Ajax, and through him from Jupiter himself. His grandfather had been among those who -at tempted the banishment of the Pisistratidre, and had received the prize of valor at the bat tle of Artemisium ; and his father fell in the battle of Clucronea (497). Alcibiades was educated in the house of Pericles, his maternal relative, and from a child excelled in all studies and in all physical exercises. As he advanced to manhood, his birth, person, abilities, and wealth, joined to the consideration in which lie was held by Pericles, procured for him a crowd of friends and flatterers ; and he became as distinguished for the audacity of his dissipa tions as for the brilliancy of his station and abilities. Socrates, who appreciated his capaci ties, gained great influence over him, and from this time his whole life seemed a wavering be tween virtue and vice. lie gave the first proofs of his valor in the battle of Potidsea (432), where he was wounded while fighting side by side with Socrates, whose protection alone saved his life. He returned this service to his teacher in the battle of Delium (424), where his efforts saved Socrates from the sword of the conquering Boeotians. He always carried in war a shield inlaid with gold and ivory, and bearing the device of Jupiter hurling a thunderbolt, lie distinguished himself in the public festivals of the Greeks, and at the Olympic games he was not content with fur nishing one chariot, like the other wealthy young men, but equipped and sent seven, with which he bore off the first three prizes. He took little part in public affairs till the death of the demagogue Cleon, in 422, when he became the head of the new war party in op position to Nicias. Nicias had just concluded a peace of 50 years between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians, and Alcibiades, jealous of the power of Nicias, set himself to break the peace and to form a union of the Greek states against Sparta. His counsels caused the great expedi tion to Sicily (415), of which he was appointed commander together with Nicias and Lama- chus, and which he thought would be a step toward the conquest of Magna Grrecia, Car thage, and Peloponnesus. While the prepa rations for this expedition were going on, all the busts of Hermes in Athens were during one night mysteriously mutilated. The cause and the authors of this sacrilege were unknown, but the popular fears connected it in some un accountable way with an attempt to overthrow the Athenian constitution. That Alcibiades had anything to do with the offence there was no evidence, and if he was guilty of it, it was probably one of the unpremed itated results of a nocturnal debauch. Nev ertheless, suspicion was thrown upon him, and immediately produced great popular indig nation. The Sicilian fleet being nearly ready to sail under his command, he demanded an investigation before his departure from Athens. This his enemies refused to give him, thinking to increase the popular odium against him in his absence. The expedition had hardly reached Sicily when the anger of the people became so excessive that his ruin was fully de termined upon. But as he had already gained shining advantages in Sicily, and had become the favorite of the soldiers, it was deemed haz ardous to pass public sentence upon him while he was at the head of an army. lie was there fore recalled. On his voyage homeward he escaped at Thurii and fled, first to Argos, and then to Sparta. Meantime sentence of death was passed upon him at Athens, and his prop erty was confiscated. In Sparta he adapted himself skilfully to the severe manners of the country, became a favorite of the populace, and, being now the avowed enemy of his own country, he persuaded the Lacedajmonians to send help to Sicily against the Athenians. He then effected an alliance between the Spartans and the king of Persia, for the purpose of sup porting the Chians in revolt against Athens. He passed over into Asia Minor, and roused all Ionia into rebellion. Soon, however, his suc cesses and great influence excited the jealousy of the principal Spartans, and Alcibiades took refuge with Tissaphernes, a Persian satrap. He who had won the admiration of the Spar tans by adopting all their simplicity, and prac tising all their austerity, now merited the ap plauses of the orientals by vying with them in Asiatic luxury. An exile both from Athens and Sparta, he began now to look with longing toward his native country. He persuaded Tis saphernes to desert the cause of the Spartans, and to show willingness even to assist the Athenians, for which service he was recalled from banishment in 411. Though he did not return immediately to Athens, he yet used his influence to make the government aristocrati- cal, and received command of the Athenian fleet at Samos, with the determination not to see again his native land till he had rendered services commensurate with the evils which he had caused it. Defeating the Lacedaemonians both by land and sea, he was suddenly arrested by Tissaphernes, who wished to avoid suspicion of having authorized the enterprise. But finding means to escape, Alcibiades again put himself i at the head of ihe army, defeated the Lacedre- ALCHINDUS 263 monians and Persians at Cyzicus, captured that town, Ohalcedon, and Byzantium, restored to the Athenians their supremacy by sea, and after these brilliant achievements returned to Athens in 407, where he was received with general enthusiasm. His triumph was com plete when he celebrated with unusual splen dor the Eleusinian mysteries. Being appointed commander-in-chief of all the land and sea forces, he sailed with a fleet to Asia Minor, to reduce some of the Ionian islands and cities. The pay and provisions for his soldiers not ar riving, and his position becoming dangerous, he was obliged to leave his army in command of Antiochus, while he himself sought supplies in Caria. During his absence, the Spartan com mander Ly sander had the art to draw Anti ochus into an engagement, in which the Athe nians were defeated and a part of their vessels destroyed. Alcibiades now again lost favor. He went into voluntary banishment, to a castle which he had built in Pactye, Thrace. When the Athenian fleet was in 405 lying at ^Egospo- tamos, Alcibiades informed the generals of. the perilous position which they had selected, and forewarned them of the fatal result of the bat tle soon after fought there, which caused the fall of Athens in the following year, and its subjec tion to the thirty tyrants. The Spartans, who now ruled at Athens, renewed the decree of banishment against him, and Alcibiades fled toward the court of Artaxerxes II. to win over that monarch to the cause of his fallen country. He was on his way thither, in the dominions of the satrap Pharnabazus, when one night his house was surrounded by armed men, and set on fire. He rushed out, sword in hand, but fell pierced with arrows. The Spartans, feel ing their supremacy insecure while Alcibiades lived, had probably thus plotted with Pharna bazus for his destruction. ALCHINDUS. See ALKIXDI. ALCINOIS, in Greek mythology, son of Xau- sithous and grandson of Neptune. In the story of the Argonauts he is king of the island of Drepane, where he entertained Jason and his companions. In the Odyssey he rules over the Pha3aces in the island of Scheria. ALCIPHRON, a Greek writer, supposed to have been a contemporary of Lucian, flourish ing about A. D. 170. He was the author of 113 fictitious letters, in which certain representa tive characters fishermen, peasants, parasites, and courtesans are made to portray, in the purest Attic, the opinions and idiosyncrasies of the classes to which they respectively belong. These letters are mostly given as if written from Athens or its vicinity, in the age immedi ately following that of Alexander the Great. The best edition of them is that of Seiler (Leipsic, 2d eel., 185(3). ALCIRA, an old walled town of Spain, on an island in the river Jucar, in the province and 24 m. S. of Valencia; pop. about 14,000. It is irregularly built, but is adorned by several churches and bridges over the Jucar, an,d a fine railway depot belonging to the Valencia and Almansa line. It was an important town in Moorish times. ALCMJ20N. I. In ancient Greek legends, a son of Amphiaraus and Eriphyle of Argos, and brother of Amphilochus. Eriphyle hav ing been bribed by Polynices with the neck lace and robe of Harmonia to induce Amphi araus to join the expedition of the seven against Thebes, the latter, foreseeing that he should fall, charged his sons to kill her when they were grown up. Meantime, an oracle having declared that the expedition of the epigoni would be successful if commanded by Alcmseon, Polynices again bribed Eriphyle with the peplus of Harmonia to persuade him to com ply. On his return Alcmseon fulfilled his father s injunction by killing her. For this crime he was afflicted with madness and tor mented by the Furies, who drove him into ex ile, and doomed him to a life of perpetual wandering. Arriving in Psophis, he was hos pitably received and purified by its king, Phe- geus, who gave him his daughter Arsinoe in marriage. To her Alcmseon presented the necklace and robe of Harmonia. But Psophis having been visited by a famine because of Alcmseon s sojourn there, he had to depart, and, by the advice of an oracle, went to the land of the river god Achelous, where he married the nymph Calirrhoe. His new spouse coveting the magical robe and necklace which he had given to Arsinoe, Alcmason went to Psophis and obtained them from the daughter of Phegeus, under the pretence that he was going to dedicate them at Delphi. But when Phegeus heard that they had been presented to Calir rhoe, he sent his sons to slay Alcrna3on and avenge the insult offered to their sister. Alc- maaon was afterward worshipped as a hero in many parts of Greece. II. A Greek natural philosopher, born in the Hellenic city of Cro- tona in southern Italy, about the middle of the 6th century B. C. He is said to have studied under Pythagoras, and to have been the first who ventured on the practice of dis secting animals. He wrote several medical and philosophical treatises, of which a few fragments remain. ALCMMKNID/E, a noble Athenian family, de scendants of Alcma3on, the great-grandson of Nestor. The whole family were expelled from Athens about 596 B. C. by a council of 300 nobles, to whom, by the advice of Solon, they had submitted the case of the archon Megacles, one of their number. Megacles was accused of having been guilty of sacrilege in his treach ery toward Cylon and his comrades, whom he killed after promising them safety a crime which in the opinion of the council brought a stain upon all the Alcmneonids. After an exile of about 30 years they succeeded in returning to the city, and even, after a few years, in seizing the government and ex pelling Pisistratus. Although Megacles after ward restored him, and gave him his daugh- 264 ALCMAN ALCOHOL ter in marriage, new quarrels broke out, and Pisistratus was agnin banished. Collecting an army, he defeated and again expelled the Alcmceonids. During this period of renewed exile, the family magnificently re stored the temple of Apollo at Delphi, which had been burned. Aided by the popularity given them by this great work, and by the friendship of the Spartans, they were in 510 restored for the second time to Athens, where many members of the family became illustrious. Among these were Clisthenes, Pericles, and Al- cibiades. ALOIAIV, or Alcmaeon, a Spartan lyric poet, flourished about 050 B. C. He is said to have been by birth a Lydian, and originally a slave, and to have died at a very advanced age. He wrote chiefly in Spartan Doric. His poems, of which some line fragments are extant, were mostly erotic. ALOIEXA, in Greek mythology, a daughter of Electryon, king of Mycenae. She had ten brothers, who, save one, were slain by the sons of Pterclaus. Alcmena had been betrothed to Amphitryon, but she never theless declared that the man who avenged the death of her brothers should be her hus band. Amphitryon, in order to prove him self worthy of her hand, undertook the en terprise. During his absence, Jupiter visited Alcmena, and by assuming the likeness of Am- Shitryon, and pretending to have avenged the eath of her brothers, obtained her favor. She thus became the mother of Hercules, almost at the same time that she bore Iphicles to Am phitryon. After her death, Jupiter sent Mer cury to transport her body to the Elysian isles. ALCOCK, Sir Rnthorfci d, a British diplomatist, born in London in 1809. He was a surgeon in the navy in Portugal in 1833- 4, inspector of hospitals under Sir de Lacy Evans in Spain, in 1835- 7, and auditor of accounts of the English- Spanish legion in 1839-M4. He was afterward consul successively at Foo-Chow, Shanghai, and Canton, China. In 1859 he held the joint offices of consul general and minister in Japan. As a result of "his energy in resenting Japanese outrages upon Europeans, attempts were made upon his life in 18(50 and 1802. On his return to England he published "The Capital of the Tycoon, or Narrative of Three Years Resi dence in Japan " (2 vols., London, 1803). lie was made K. C. B. in 1 803. From 1 805 to 1 871 he was envoy extraordinary and minister plen ipotentiary and chief superintendent of British commerce in China. He is also the author of "Medical History of the British Lesion in Spain" (1838), "Life s Problems" (2d ed., 1802), and other works. ALCOHOL, in popular language, the intoxicat ing principle of fermented liquors. The word is of Arabic origin, and means "to paint," probably in reference to the use of this com pound to dissolve pigments which are insoluble in water. Chemists understand by alcohol the hydrate of a hydrocarbon radical, and include a numerous class of bodies under this designa tion. Ordinary vinic alcohol is formed in the decomposition of glucose (grape sugar) by fer mentation. One part of grape sugar, repre sented by the formula CcHisOe, is split up by a ferment into two parts of alcohol and two parts of carbonic acid: 2(C 2 IlGO) + 2CO 2 . Kennel so long ago as 1828 (see "Philosoph ical Transactions ) says: "By combining olefiant gas with sulphuric acid, we may form sulpho-vinic acid, from which we may obtain at pleasure, by varying the circumstances of decomposition, either alcohol or ether." This observation has since been confirmed by M. Berthelot, who has succeeded in making alco hol synthetically, by combining water with | olefiant gas: C 2 II 4 + H 2 O=C 2 H 6 O. Alcohol I for commercial purposes is obtained by dis- I tilling \vine and other liquors that have un- I dergone vinous fermentation ; carbonate of j soda is sometimes added to keep back acetic j acid, and fusel oil is removed by charcoal. The alcohol of the London Pharmacopoeia contains about 82 per cent, of alcohol and 18 of water. Its specific gravity is required to be 0*838, water being 1-000. It is thus seen that the less water it contains, the less is its specific gravity ; and this property is therefore a con- | venient test of its purity. In consequence, however, of condensation of the two fluids I when mixed, this test cannot be applied except in connection with tables of reference prepared for this purpose. To prepare absolute or anhydrous alcohol, some substance must be i placed in it which shall retain the water. ! Fused carbonate of potash is such a substance. ! It absorbs the water, and the alcohol nearly | anhydrous occupies the upper part of the ves- i sel, whence it is distilled off nearly pure. Its I specific gravity is now reduced to 815, and ; its percentage of water to about 5. Quick- I lime, well powdered, and thoroughly mixed | and shaken with the alcohol, is sometimes used instead of the carbonate of potash ; but chlo- i ride of calcium is said by some to be more : effective than either. The salt is first fused to | free it from water, and is then mixed with an | equal weight of the spirit in a well stoppered | bottle. When the solution is effected, it is j poured into a retort or still, and distilled at a I moderate heat. The product of the first half | is absolute alcohol. Its specific gravity at a tem- 1 perature of 00 is 0-704. Rectified spirit may | be deprived of a portion of water merely by I being left in a bladder, or in a wide-mouthed j bottle tied over with bladder, and kept at a i temperature of 105 to 120. By the principle of ! exosmose, the water evaporates in part through I the membrane. Alcohol has thus been brought ; from sp. gr. 8G7 to 0-817. Pure alcohol is a i colorless fluid, of an agreeable odor and strong pungent taste. It has a great affinity for water, ! absorbing it from the atmosphere, and increas ing in specific gravity with the amount it re- I ceives. Mixed with water, heat is at first ! evolved, showing that a chemical union has ALCOHOL 2G5 taken place ; another evidence of which is the condensation and diminution of hulk, and a less specific gravity. The greatest heat and con densation result from a mixture of 52 - 3 per cent, of alcohol anl 47 7 of water, the volume after condensation being equal to 96 35. The specific gravity, therefore, of such mixtures can only be determined by experiment. Diluted with water, alcohol acts as a stimulant, exciting par ticularly the nervous and vascular systems. In large doses it produces intoxication, and when taken pure acts as a narcotic poison, producing death. It is very inflammable, burning with a pale bluish flame without smoke. The pro ducts of its combustion are carbonic acid and water. Absolute alcohol boils at 173 F. The specific gravity of its vapor is 1-G133. Under the exhausted receiver of an air pump it boils at common temperatures. No degree of cold ever yet obtained has effected its congelation. Faraday exposed it to a temperature of 106 F. below zero, which caused it to thicken consid erably. It is thus well suited for thermome ters for measuring low temperatures. Alcohol is employed in medicine as a solvent in the preparation of tinctures. It is also a solvent of resins, gums, &c. With the former it makes varnishes ; with essential oil, perfumed spirits. The ethers are preparations of it in combination with an acid. It is used with spirits of turpen tine to make camphene and the various other illuminating fluids of this class. It is used to preserve anatomical preparations, its effect be ing to combine with the moisture, and so pre vent this from acting upon the animal substance to produce decay. To the chemist it is valua ble as a convenient fuel, producing in his lamp much heat with no annoyance from smoke ; and it is of frequent use as a reagent for separating salts, one of which is soluble and the other in soluble in it. The quantity of alcohol in wine, beer, and other fermented liquors, is very vari able. Prof. Brande found from 1 to 2 per cent, only in small beer ; 4 in porter ; from 6 to 9 in ales ; about 12 in the light wines of France and Germany; from 19 to 25 in port, sherry, and other strong wines ; and from 40 to 50 per cent., and occasionally more, in brandy, gin, and whiskey. The strength of these liquors is as certained by various expedients; but the pro cess is sometimes complicated by reason of the different ingredients intermixed to color, sweet en, or flavor the liquor, or fraudulently added to alter the specific gravity, or to substitute a cheaper material. Mixtures thus complicated require to be first distilled, before their strength can be ascertained by the usual process of spe cific gravity. Common modes of judging of the strength are by tasting, observing the size and appearance of the bubbles when shaken, the sinkin-j; or floating of olive oil in them, and the appearances they exhibit when burned. If cotton or gunpowder immersed in them is in flamed by their combustion, the spirit is con sidered pure. Alcohol is decomposed by pass ing through a red-hot glass or porcelain tube, [ into carbonic acid, water, hydrogen, olefiant gas, I marsh gas, naphthaline, empyreumatic oil, and i charcoal. By electrolysis, on adding potash, hydrogen is given off at the negative pole and aldehyde resin is formed at the positive pole. The product of its combustion in the air is car bonic acid and water. The vapor of alcohol mixed with air explodes by contact with flame or an electric spark. On contact with platinum black it is imperfectly oxidized, forming car bonic acid, water, aldehyde, acetic acid, formic acid, acetal, and a peculiar compound with an I excessively pungent odor. Chlorine gas con- j verts alcohol into aldehyde, chloral, chloride j of ethyl, and acetate of ethyl. One of these | products, chloral, has recently been introduced as a valuable hypnotic medicine. Concentrated 1 chloric acid ignites alcohol ; dilute, forms ! acetic acid. Alcohol unites in definite propor- j tions with several salts, forming crystallizable ! compounds in which it plays a part analogous | to the water of crystallization. The methyl ated spirit of commerce consists of a mixture j of alcohol of specific gravity 0*830 with 10 per cent, of common wood spirit. This addition of wood spirit scarcely interferes with the em ployment of the spirit as a solvent, though it renders it unfit for use afterward as a stimu lant drink. Alcohol or spirit of wine is the most important member of a group of com pounds which manifest a close analogy with each other, both in chemical composition and in the decompositions of which they are suscep tible. The general doctrine of alcohols was in troduced into science by MM. Dumas and Peli- got. These illustrious chemists, in the course I of their investigations into the properties of wood spirit, discovered that vinic alcohol was not a unique body, but that in wood spirit was to be found a compound of similar character, which they therefore called methylic alcohol. \ Subsequently a long list of bodies properly classed under the generic term of alcohols was discovered by European chemists. As these | bodies were found to be closely related to each other and to differ by a common multiple CII, they were said to be homologous, be cause a like description is applicable to each member of the series. The following table in- j eludes the most important homologous alcohols : I Methylic alcohol Ethylic Propylic Butvlic Amylic Caproic Caprylic LaurVlic Cetylic Ccrylic Melyssylic . . . CII,0 ., Co II. O or CII.O f (Clio) . C\ II S OorCII.OH- 2(CIIo) ........ C 4 ........ C, II, O or CII.O i- 4(CH;> . . . C ft II, IO or CII..O i- 5(CHo) ........ C 8 II, 8 OorCII 4 0+ 7(CIi;> ........ C, Ji;,O or CII.O + 11(011,) . . . C n;,O or CH 4 O + 15(CHo) ........ C 2 II 56 O or CII 4 O + 2fi(CII ) ........ C3 II 6 oO or CH 4 O + 29 ALCONA, a X. E. county of Michigan, on Lake Huron; area, 030 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 69fi. It is drained by the Ausable and one of its branches. Alcona lake, in the X. part, emp ties through Thunder Bay river into Thunder bay. In 1870 there were three schools attend ed" by 137 children. 266 ALCORN ALCOTT ALCORN, a N. E. county of Mississippi, bor- | dering on Tennessee; pop. in 1870, 10,431, of | whom 2,708 were colored. It was organized \ in 1870 from portions of Tippali and Tishemin- i go counties, and was named in honor of James j L. Alcorn, governor of the state. The Tus- i cumbia and Hatehie rivers intersect the county, j and the Memphis and Charleston and Mobile i and Ohio railroads run through it. The pro ductions in 1870 were 11,597 bushels of wheat, 220,057 of corn, 14,892 of sweet potatoes, and ! 2,546 bales of cotton. Capital, Corinth. ALCOTT, Amos Bronson, an American edu cator, born at Wolcott, Conn., Nov. 29, 1799. Like many farmers sons in Connecticut, while still a boy, he was intrusted by a local trader with a trunk of merchandise, with which he sailed for Norfolk, Va., and which he after ward carried about among the plantations ; and his early readings were in the planters houses, who gave him hospitality, and, observing his turn for study, lent him books. On his re turn to Connecticut he began to teach, and attracted attention by his success with an in fant school. He removed to Boston in 1828, and showed singular skill and sympathy in his methods of teaching young children of five, six, and seven years, at the "Masonic Temple." (See "Record of a School," by E. P. Peabody, 12mo, Boston, 1834; also, a transcript of the colloquies of these children with their teacher, in "Conversations on the Gospels," 2 vols. 12mo, Boston, 1836.) But the school was in advance of public opinion, and was denounced by the newspapers. Mr. Alcott gave up the enterprise and removed to Concord, Mass., where he engaged in study, interesting himself chiefly in natural theology and reform in edu cation, diet, and civil and social institutions. On the invitation of James P. Greaves of Lon don, the friend and fellow laborer of Pestalozzi in Switzerland, Mr. Alcott went to England in 1842. Mr. Greaves died before his arrival, but Alcott was cordially received by his friends, who had given the name of " Alcott House " to their school at Ham, near London. On his re turn to America, he brought with him two of his English friends, Charles Lane and H. G. Wright; and Mr. Lane having bought a farm which he called "Fruitlands," at Harvard, Mass., they all went there to found a new com- j munity. Messrs. Lane and Wright soon re turned to England, and the farm was sold. Mr. Alcott removed to Boston, and afterward re turned to Concord, and has led the life of a pe ripatetic philosopher, conversing in cities and in villages, wherever invited, on divinity, on hu man nature, on ethics, on dietetics, and a wide | range of practical questions. These conversa tions, which were at first casual, gradually as- | sumed a more formal character, the topics ! being often printed on cards, and the company meeting at a fixed time and place. Mr. Alcott j attaches great importance to diet and govern ment of the body ; still more to race and com plexion. Mr. Alcott contributed several papers entitled "Orphic Sayings" to the "Dial" (Boston, 1839- 42), and in 1868 published a volume entitled "Tablets." His latest work, entitled " Concord Days" (1872), contains his personal reminiscences of that town. Louisa May, an American authoress, daughter of the preceding, born at Germantown, Penn., in 1833. She began to write fairy tales in her teens, and her first volume, "Flower Fables." was pub lished in 1855 ; it was followed by a number of stories written for the Boston journals. Her "Hospital Sketches" (1863), which won for her a general reputation, were made up from letters written home while she was a volun teer nurse in the an ay at the south. She be came a contributor to the "Atlantic Monthly" in 1863- 4, and in 1865 published her first novel, "Moods." She wrote "Little Women," the most popular perhaps of all her works, in 1867. This was succeeded by " An Old-Fash ioned Girl" in 1869, and by "Little Men" in 1871. ALCOTT, William Alexander, M. D., an Ameri can author, cousin of the preceding, born at Wolcott, Conn., Aug. 6, 1798, died at Auburn- dale, Mass., March 29, 1859. He supported him self until he reached the age of 25 by working on the farm in summer and teaching in winter. Subsequently he studied medicine at Yale col lege, and after practising about four years he engaged with Mr. Woodbridge, the geographer, in the preparation of school geographies and atlases, and in editing the "Juvenile Rambler," the first weekly periodical for children pub lished in America, and the "Annals of Educa tion." At this time he cooperated actively with Gallaudet, Woodbridge, Hooker, and others, in striving to effect a reform in the pub lic schools of the state. He wrote many arti cles on this subject for the Hartford and New Haven papers, one of which, ".On the Construc tion of School Houses," gained a premium from the American institute of instruction. In 1832 Dr. Alcott removed to Boston, and published his "Young Man s Guide," which has exerted a great influence in spreading important physi ological principles. For more than 20 years he passed his summers in laboring at home with his pen, and his winters in lecturing in different parts of the country, upon the topics which es pecially occupied his attention, lie visited up ward of 20,000 schools, before many of which he lectured. He published above 100 books and pamphlets, among which may be specified, in addition to those already mentioned, " The House I Live In," "The Young Woman s Guide," "Young Housekeeper," the "Library of Health" (6 vols.), "Moral Reform," and "My Progress in Error." Dr. Alcott, though the advocate of many opinions which are open to the charge of singularity, was a philanthro pist of the genuine stamp, and his name is iden tified permanently with some of the most valuable reforms in education, morals, and phys ical training, which the present century has witnessed. The amount of labor which he per- ALCOY ALDEHYDE 267 formed without the expectation of any com pensation for his services, is believed to be almost unparalleled. So unintermitting and engrossing were his various avocations, that he hardly ever found time to read a book through ; and the books which he wrote probably exceed in number those which he read entirely. Dr. Alcott s views of reform did not lead him to the adoption of any violent and destructive measures. The great object of his labors was to prevent poverty, vice, and crime, by means of correct physical and moral training, and the judicious application of intelligence to the improvement of society. ALCOY, a town of Spain, in Valencia, in the province and 23 m. X. of Alicante ; pop. about 25,000. It is well built, in a picturesque site between two streams, and has extensive manufactures of paper, cloth, linen, and excel lent sugar-plums. The best paper for ciga rettes is made here. ALCTIN (Lat. Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus), an English scholar and churchman, born probably in York about 735, died May 19, 804. He was master of the school and keeper of the cathe dral library at York, until at the invitation of Charlemagne he went to France in 780 and opened a school, probably at Aix-la-Chapelle, where his lessons were attended by the empe ror and his court. This establishment is sup posed to have been the germ of the university of Paris, and had an important influence upon the revival of learning in France. In 790 he received the abbey of St. Martin of Tours, and soon afterward opened a school there, which became widely celebrated. He was the confi dant and adviser of the emperor, and one of the most learned men of the age, but so mod est that he refused to accept any higher order in the church than that of deacon. The best edition of his writings, including theological treatises, epistles to Charlemagne, and miscel laneous letters, was published by Froben (2 vols. folio, Ratisbon, 1777). ALCYONE, the brightest of the star group of the Pleiades, and the supposed centre of the arc in which our sun and planets appear to be moving through the interstellar space. ALDAN. I. A name applied by some geog raphers to the whole range of mountains in eastern Siberia, from the Altai chain to Beh- ring strait. Others limit its application to a branch of this mountain system, extending from the Yablonnoy range in a northwesterly direc tion about 900 miles. Mt. Kapitan, the high est summit of this branch, has an elevation of 4,263 feet above the sea level. II. A river, which rises in the Aldan mountains, and after a X. and W. course of about 900 miles falls in to the Lena, 100 miles X. of Yakutsk. ^ ALDBOROUGH, a market town and parish of Yorkshire, England, on the Ure, 16 m. W. N. . ?* Y f)1 k- The town is a place of great an tiquity, supposed to have been the capital of the Brigantes, known to the Romans as Isu- riain. Several remains of antiquity have been ! discovered. Three remarkable obelisks of ! rough stone are in the neighborhood, the high- I est of which is 30 feet high. ALDEBARAN, the chief star in the constellation I of Taurus, forming the eye, and one of the I group of five called the Hyades. Huggins has | lately proved by means of the spectroscope that I this star has nearly the same chemical compo- ! sition as our sun, from which other stars differ considerably. ALDEGONDE, Sainte, Philip van Marnix, baron I of, a Dutch statesman and scholar, born in Brussels in 1538, died in Leyden, Dec. 15, 1598. At Geneva, where he was educated, he imbib ed from Calvin a strong attachment to the re- | formed creed, and after his return home he was one of the signers, if not the originator, of the pact of the nobles protesting against the establishment of the inquisition in the Nether lands in 15GB. He was the especial friend of William of Orange, who confided to him several delicate missions, and sent him in 1572 to the first assembly of the Dutch states general at Dort. He was also military commandant of several towns, and in 1573- 4 was for some time a prisoner in the hands of the Spaniards. He was afterward sent by the states general as envoy successively to Paris, to London, and to the diet of Worms (1577). In 1584, being burgomaster of Antwerp, he defended the city against the duke of Parma, but was at last obliged to surrender, after which he spent sev eral years in retirement. In 1590 he was am bassador to France. He left several contro versial treatises and an excellent metrical ver sion of the Psalms, and at the time of his death was translating the Bible into Flemish. ALDEGREVER, or AlcLgraf, HeinricJi, a German painter and engraver, born at Paderborn in West phalia in 1502, died about 1500. He was a pu pil and imitator of Albert Diirer. His prints, which are very numerous, are sharp and an gular in outline, and generally small. ALDEHYDE, a liquid obtained from alcohol. Liebig was the first to study the products form ed by abstracting hydrogen from alcohol, and to give the name of alcohol dehydrogenated to the first of the series. If vinic alcohol be burn ed at a low temperature and with a limited supply of air, the vapors emitted have a pe culiar irritating effect on the eyes and nose, due to the production of a remarkable body named aldehyde. Similar compounds are furnished by the imperfect combustion of the other alco- ! hols, so that there are as many aldehydes as there j are alcohols. There are numerous ways of pre- ! paring ordinary aldehyde, among which maybe mentioned the oxidation of alcohol by platinum black, chromic acid, nitric acid, chlorine wa ter, and a mixture of sulphuric acid and black oxide of manganese. The method usu ally employed is to distil 2 parts of 80 per cent, alcohol, 3 parts oil of vitriol, and 2 parts i of w^ater into a well cooled receiver. After | about 3 parts have passed over, the distillate ! is mixed with an equal weight of chloride of 268 ALDEN ALDEENEY calcium and further distilled until 1 part has pass-ed over. It is further rectified by mixing 1 volume with 2 volumes of ether surround ed by cold water, and passing ammonia through it to saturation. Crystals of aldehyde- ammonia separate, which are washed with absolute ether and dried; by subsequently distilling these crystals with sulphuric acid and a little water, pure anhydrous aldehyde is ob tained. Aldehyde as commonly known is a thin, transparent liquid, with a strong, suffo cating odor. It boils at 69 5 F. It dissolves sulphur, iodine, and phosphorus; absorbs dry sulphurous acid; forms definite compounds with the acid sulphites of the alkali metals ; and reduces salts of silver. Upon this last property is founded the manufacture of silver mirrors by the reduction of nitrate of silver and the deposition of the metal upon glass. ALDEN, John, one of the first settlers of Ply mouth, New England, was a magistrate in that colony for more than half a century, and died in 1087, aged about 89. On behalf of Miles Standish, Alden once proposed marriage to a pilgrim lady, who replied, "Prithee, John, why do you not speak for yourself? " The query led to John s becoming the lady s husband. This incident lias been made the subject of a poem by. Longfellow. ALDENHOl EN, a town in Pvhenish Prussia, on the road from Jiilich to Aix-la-Chapclle; pop. in 1807, 3,041. It is noted for a victory of the Austrians under the prince of Coburg over a part of the French army under Dumouriez, March 1, 1793, the result of which was the oc cupation of Belgium by the allies. In October of the following year the vicinity of Alden- hoven again became the scene of considerable fighting between the Austrians and French, under Clairfait and Jourdan respectively, the result being in favor of the republican army. ALDER (alnus), a genus of plants belonging to the natural order betulacece. It has four stamens, and its fruit is without wings, by which characteristics it is distinguished from the birch, with which it was classed by the earlier botanists. The principal species are found in North America, though some of its varieties are met with on the eastern continent. The common alder (A. glutinosa) grows in moist localities, especially on the higher por tions of swampy grounds, which are free from standing water. This tree is applied to many valuable purposes of practical utility. Its wood is prized by machinists as adapted to mill wheels and other work which is mostly under water. It is also in request for certain branches of cabinet-making and turnery. The charcoal made from its wood is of an excellent quality, and is highly esteemed for the manufacture of gunpowder The bLrk, which contains an astringent juice, is used for tanning, and, with the addition of copperas and other ingredients, forms a dye for several colors. The alder is also an ornamental tree, with its abundant foliage of deep green. The Turkey alder (A. Alder Catkins and Seed. incana) is abundant in the north of Europe, and is found to the east, even beyond the Cau casus. It is a taller and more erect tree than the common alder, and possesses many of the same properties, although it grows well in situations that are comparatively free from moisture. A beautiful species, A. cordifolia, or heart-leaved alder, is a native of Italy. The alder is easily cultivated, and, although not rapid in growth, can be obtained from seed with a great degree of certainty. ALDERMAN, a title derived from the Saxon caldorman (elder man). The term ealdor was in itself a title of honor, used like the word "elder" in Scripture; but the title ealdorman implied a higher degree of honor, and was among the Saxons applied generally to the chief dignitaries of state and the nobility, and specif ically to certain national, county, and munici pal officers, whose functions appear to have been chiefly judicial, but are not clearly defin ed. In modern times the alderman is a legis lative and judicial officer of municipal corpora tions, elected or appointed according to the constitution or charter of the city in which he holds his office. ALDERNEY (Fr. Avrigny), the northernmost of the Channel islands, and the nearest to the French coast, separated from it by the race of Alderney (a strait which is very dangerous in stormy weather), about 7 m. W. of Cape La Ilogue, the N. W. extremity of Normandy, and 24 m. W. N. W. of Cherbourg. It is about 4 m. long from N. E. to S. W. and 1^ m. wide ; area, 1,962 acres; pop. in 1871, 2,718. There are picturesque cliffs on the S. E. coast, the high est of which is 281 ft. There are several bays, but none safe and capacious enough for large vessels; and the English government has re cently erected a granite breakwater off the harbor of St. Anne at a cost of 1,250,000, which, however, has not proved so useful as was anticipated. A series of forts was constructed around the island at the same time ; also a ALDERSIIOTT ALDOBRANDINI 269 railroad along the N. E. coast. St. Anne, the chief town (commonly called the Town), is in a beautiful valley nearly in the centre of the island. The inhabitants principally live by fishing and agriculture. The Alderney cow is small and graceful in form, of dun or tawny color, and remarkable for milking qualities. About 6 in. from Alderney to the west are the Caskets, a cluster of dangerous rocks, on which there are three lighthouses forming a triangle. Upon these rocks Prince William, son of Henry I., with a retinue of above 140 young noble men, of the principal families of England and Normandy, perished in 1120; and in 1744 the Victory, of 110 guns, with a crew of 1,100 men, was totally lost. Together with the other Channel islands, Alderney formed a dependency of the Xorinans, and passed to the crown of England. It is itself a dependency of Guern sey. The civil power of Alderney is, under the peculiar constitution of the Channel islands, vested in a judge appointed by the crown and six jurats chosen by the people for life. These, with 12 douzainiers, also chosen by the people and the governor, form a legislature in which the douzainiers deliberate, but neither they nor the governor may vote. The jurats, with the king s advocate and the greffier or registrar, constitute the court of justice, from which an appeal lies to the royal court at Guernsey, and in the last resort to the king in council. In criminal cases the court at Alderney is only a preliminary tribunal, the court at Guernsey having the final determination of the cause. ALDERSIIOTT, an English military camp of instruction, in Hampshire, 50 m. by rail S. W. from London, established in 1854- 5 on Alder- shott common, *a broad tract of sandy land. Near the site of the old village of Aldershott an entirely new town has sprung up, and the population of the parish has increased from about 900 in 1852 to over 20,000 in 1872, chiefly soldiers and persons connected with the military and civil services. A broad military road sepa rates the town from the camp, which consists of N. and S. sections, divided by the Basingstoke canal, extending over an area of seven square miles, with accommodation for at least 20,000 soldiers. The structures consist of long rows of wooden huts for the soldiers permanently stationed there, around which they cultivate gardens ; the headquarters, a substantial brick building; several churches, a permanent bar racks, hospitals, places of recreation, &c. The cost of establishing this national military depot has already considerably exceeded 1,000,000. During the last tive years annual reviews have taken place here between the months of June and September; two or more regi ments of ihe volunteer forces being detailed, in their turn, to cooperate with the regulars, and thus gain a practical knowledge of military duty in the camp and on the field. ALDHELM, an English divine and writer dur ing the Saxon heptarchy, born about 050, died in 709. lie was a relative of the king of the West Saxons. lie is said to have been the first Englishman who wrote Latin poetry. About 085 he became the first abbot of Malmesbury, and in 705 the first bishop of Shcrborne (after ward the bishopric of Salisbury). lie is chiefly known by his two works Ue Virginitate, in prose (published by AVharton, 1093), and De \ Laude Virginian, in verse. ALDL\E EDITIONS, works which proceeded ! from the press of the Manutii (Aldus the Elder, ! Paul us, and Aldus the Younger), a celebrated i family of printers in Venice during the 15th ; and 10th centuries. (See MANUTIUS.) The | Aldine editions comprise the ancient classics, | and the works of Petrarch, Boccaccio, Dante, I and others. Th<T editions of the senior Aldus, I who founded the business irj 1490, are the most : esteemed. Spurious works with the imprint of the Aldi are by no means uncommon, as they were counterfeited even in their own time, and very extensively at later periods. The great perfection which has been attained in the | art of printing, and the attention which has j been given, especially during the present cen- | tury, to the reprint of the classics, have con siderably diminished the real value of the Al dine editions, although rare specimens are still much sought for by collectors. The library of the late archduke of Tuscany contains, it is believed, the most perfect collection of Aldine works ; but they are met with in most of the great libraries, as the Bodleian at Oxford, the national library at Paris, and the British mu seum. A. A. Renouard made a complete col lection and published a catalogue of them in I his Annales de Vvtqprimcrie des Aides (Paris, ! 1803 and 1834). ALDINI. L Antonio, count, an Italian states man, born in Bologna in 1750, died in Pavia, ! Oct. 5, 1820. When Bologna in 1797 was wrested by General Bonaparte from the papal government, Aldini, who was then professor of jurisprudence, was sent to Paris by- his fel low citizens. lie was chosen president of the council of the ancients in the Cisalpine repub lic, and was held in much esteem by Napoleon, who in 1805 created him a count, and made him a minister of state for the kingdom of Italy. j After the fall of Napoleon and the reOstablish- j ment of the former rulers in Italy, he resided in Lombardy. II. Giovanni, brother of the preceding, and nephew of Galvani, born in Bo logna, April 10, 1702, died in Milan, Jan. 17, 18-34. lie was professor of natural philosophy ! at Bologna, Italian counsellor of state, and I knight of the order of the iron crown. He is | well known by his works (written in Italian, French, and English) on the practical applica- ! tions of galvanism, illumination, tides, means | of safety from fire, &c. He prepared a scheme | for turning to profit the rise and tall of the tide . in the lagoons of Venice in working mills ; and I is also said to have been the inventor of articles i of fire-proof clothing. ALDOBRMDLM, a noble family of Florence in ! the 16th and 17th centuries. SILVKSTRO, a cele- 270 ALDPJCII ALEANDRO brated jurist, was born at Florence in 1499, and died in Rome in 1558. Being opposed to the duke Alexander de 1 Medici, he was banished from Florence in 1530. Of his three sons, GIO VANNI was auditor rotre and cardinal, and is also known as an author; IPPOLITO became pope under the title of Clement VIII. ; and TOMMASO, born at Home about 1540, was pa pal secretary of briefs, and left a translation of the "Lives of the Philosophers" by Diogenes Laertius, and a commentary on Aristotle, De Physico Auditu. CINZIO PASSEKO, who died at the beginning of the 17th century, was the son of Silvestro s daughter, took the name of Aldobrandini, and was made cardinal. He was a friend of Tasso, who dedicated to him the Gerusalemme conguistata. His brother PIE- TRO was also a cardinal, and legate in France, where he composed the differences between Henry IV. and the duke of Savoy in 1601. The family disappeared in 1681. ALDRICH, Thomas Bailey, an American poet, born in Portsmouth, 1ST. H., in 1836. After commencing a course of study preparatory to entering college, upon the .death of his father he abandoned this purpose to enter the count ing room of an uncle, a merchant in New York. Here he remained three years; and it was during this period that he began to con tribute verses to the New York journals. A collection of his poems was published in New York in 1855, the volume taking its name from the initial piece, " The Bells." Mr. Aldrich s most successful poem, "Babie Bell," which was published in 1856, was copied and repeated all over the country ; and perhaps it was the favor with which it was received that induced him to abandon mercantile pursuits for a lit erary career. He became a frequent contribu tor to "Putnam s Magazine," the "Knicker bocker," and the weekly newspapers, for one of which he wrote " Daisy s Necklace, and What Came of It," a prose poem which was after ward issued in a volume, and attained a wide popularity. In 1856 Mr. Aldrich joined the staff of the "Home Journal," whicli was then under the charge of N. P. Willis and George P. Morris, and continued in this position for three years. His pen was always busy during this period, and many of its products became popular favorites. The volumes published by him since 1855 are: "The Ballad of Babie Bell and other Poems " (1856) ; " The Course of True Love never did Kim Smooth" (1858); " Pam- pinea and other Poems" (1861) ; " Out of his Head, a Romance in Prose " (1862) ; a collection of poems (1863) ; and a volume of poems pub lished in Boston in 1865. Among his later works is " The Story of a Bad Boy," which is to some degree autobiographical. This attract ed wide attention as a serial in " Our Young Folks," and was issued in book form in 1870. Mr. Aldrich has been chief editor of "Every Saturday " from its foundation, and has also made occasional prose contributions to the " Atlantic Monthly " and other magazines. ALDRIDGE, Ira, called the African Roscius, , an American actor, born at Bellair, near Balti- ! more, Md., about 1810, died in Poland, Aug. 7, 1867. He was a mulatto, whose real name is said i to have been Hewlett, and in his youth was i apprenticed to a ship carpenter. From asso-" elation with the German, population, which is | very large on the western shore of Maryland, j he learned to speak the German language fa miliarly, and he also picked up a fair education. I When Edmund Kean was in the United States, | after the troubles which occurred during 1826 in consequence of the Cox difficulties, Aldridge became his personal attendant, and is said to have accompanied him to England, where a natural talent for the stage was cultivated. He returned to the United States after a short ab sence, and some time subsequent to 1830 ap peared in Baltimore, at a theatre then known as the Mud theatre, which subsequently be longed to Junius Brutus Booth, the tragedian. | He appears not to have been successful. There i is no account of his having appeared in any | other city in America, whence after a short | time he returned to England. He began his career in some of the minor theatres of London, and afterward performed in Ireland (with Kean) and all over Europe, being greatly ad mired, especially in Germany, in Shakespearian characters. In 1861 he created a sensation at Versailles by his personification of Othello in English, the rest of the company speaking French. He was making a journey to Russia | when he died. He married a white woman, i but his domestic life was unhappy. ALDROYAXDUS, nysses (Ital. Ulisse Aldro- j vandi), an Italian naturalist, born at Bologna, I Sept. 11, 1522, died Nov. 10, 1607. He took | his degree in medicine in 1553, was made lec- I turer on natural history, and in 1568 persuaded the senate of Bologna to establish a botanic- garden. He investigated meanwhile the phe nomena of the external world with indefati- ; gable zeal, making journeys and employing | collectors. He published works (in Latin) on j birds, on insects, and on the lower animals. i and after his death the profusion of materials | which he had brought together was arranged | in additional volumes. ALE. See BEEE, and BREWING. ALEAXDRO, Girolamo, an Italian prelate and scholar, born Feb. 13, 1480, died Jan. 31, 1542. He was early distinguished for great and varied j learning, and was associated with Aldus Ma- nutius and Erasmus at Venice. In 1508 Louis } XII. called him to Paris, where he became j rector of the university. He was afterward | chancellor of the bishopric of Liege, in 1517 librarian of the Vatican at Rome, and in 1520 papal envoy to Germany to oppose Luther s heresy, which he did especially at the diet I of Worms in the following year. Clement ! VII. made him archbishop of Brindisi and : papal nuncio in France, and in company with Francis I. he was taken prisoner at Pavia in 1525, and ransomed. In 1531 he was again papal ALECTO ALEMJBERT 2T1 nuncio in Germany, and afterward in Venice, i arid in 1538 he was made cardinal. Of his nu merous writings none were published but a Greek-Latin lexicon, an abridged Greek gram mar, and a short Latin poem. ALECTO, in Greek mythology, one of the Eu- menides or Furies. (See EUMENIDES.) ALEGAMBE, Philippe, a Belgian Jesuit, born in Brussels, Jan. 22, 1592, died in Rome, Sept. 6, 1652. He taught philosophy at the college of Gratz, but finally settled at Rome, where he { became superior of the house of the Jesuits, i and secretary to the general of the order, j Alegambe continued and improved the BiUio- j theca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu, begun by Ri- j badeneira and completed by Nathaniel Sotwell. j He also wrote two biographical works on j Jesuit martyrs to their faith and to their zeal in works of charity, and a life of Cardan. ALEMAX, Mateo, a Spanish novelist, born in Seville about the middle of the 10th century, j died probably in Mexico. In 1508 he was com- j missioner of finance in his native land, but be- j ing falsely accused of maladministration, he was removed from public service, and suffered a long imprisonment. He then betook himself to literature. The first volume of a humorous romance, entitled La vida y hechos del p icaro \ Guzman de Alfarache, which he published in ! 1599, passed through 26 editions within the | following six years, besides being translated into the French and Italian. A continuation appeared in 1603, which Aleman repudiated; and the genuine second part was published in Valencia in 1605, but the work was never com- ! pleted. Aleman afterward went to Mexico, | but of his subsequent career nothing is known. | ALEMANM, or Alamaimi (Ger., all men), a confederacy of warlike German tribes, with j whom the Romans first came into collision in I the reign of Caracalla, They then dwelt on j the Main, and subsequently spread toward the ! Danube, the Helvetian Alps, and across the ! Rhine into eastern Gaul. The Tencteri and ; Usipetes, who previously inhabited the terri tories of modern Westphalia, are supposed to j have formed the nucleus of the confederation. Caracalla made an unsuccessful campaign against the Alemanni in 214, and boastfully assumed the surname Alemannicus. Alex"- | ander Severus and Maximin also fought against | them, without impairing their growing power. | 1 hiring the joint reign of Valerian and his son j Gallienus they crossed the Rhjetian Alps, in vaded Cisalpine Gaul, and advanced as far as Raverma, but were repulsed, and subsequently i suffered greater defeats at the hands of the em- ; perors Aurelian and Probus. In the 4th century i they made constant inroads into Gaul, but were j chastised by Constantius Chlorus, Julian, Va- lentinian I., and Gratian; in spite of which, however, their power continued to increase, j They were at that period united with the Suevi, a kindred nation, with whom they grad ually became more and more confounded, until both nations were subdued by the Franks under Clovis. The northern portions of the Aleman - nic territories remained a domain of the Frank- ish kings; the rest was afterward formed into a Germanic duchy of Alemannia, between the Alps, the Jura, the Vosges, the Neckar, and the Lech, the eastern part of which finally as sumed the name of Swabia (Suevia). The Swabian dialect of the German language is known as the Alemannic. ALEMBERT, Jean le Rond d , a French mathe matician and man of letters, born in Paris, Nov. 16, 1717, died there, Oct. 29, 1783. He was the illegitimate child of the poet Des- touches, commissary of artillery, and Madame de Tencin, a court lady, more celebrated for wit and beauty than for virtue. The infant, exposed on the steps of the church of St. Jean le Rond, Avas picked up by the police, and given to a glazier s wife, to whose affection the great philosopher responded throughout his life. lie lived with her for 40 years, and when in the days of his fame Madame de Tencin came forward and avowed her relationship, he re pudiated her, alleging that she was but a step mother, and the glazier s wife his real parent. Soon after his discovery his father acknowledged him and settled upon him a pension of 1,200 francs, which was sufficient to provide for his education. In 1721 he was sent to a boarding school. At the age of 12 he was transferred to the Mazarin college of Paris. His philosophi cal studies here were eminently successful. He was for some time restrained from the study of mathematics, and applied himself to law, which he soon abandoned for medicine; but the irrepressible bent of his mind overcame all obstacles, and he at last betook himself with renewed ardor to his favorite employ ments. A memoir and some remarks on the Analyse demontree of Reyneau procured him the membership of the academy of sciences in 1741. His celebrated Traite de dynamique appeared in 1743, and created a new branch of science. In 1744 he published his Traite de Vequilibre et du mouvement des fluides. In 1746, the Berlin academy of sciences having proposed the general causes of the winds as the subject for the prize essay, D Alembert s treatise gained him the prize and the member ship of the academy ; in this he attributed the currents to the combined influence of the sun and moon in creating an action resembling the flux and reflux of the tides. In 1754 he be came a member of the French academy, and in 1772 its perpetual secretary, and within the next three years wrote historical eulogies upon 70 members deceased since 1700, which were published in 6 vols. 12mo. He was early con nected with the freethinkers of his age in the preparation of the Encyclopedic, and his Dis- cours preliminaire was designated by his associ ate editor Condorcet as a production of which only one or two men in a century could be found capable. The progress of the work was interrupted by the government at the end of the second volume, at which time 272 ALEMBIC ALEPPO D Alembert finally withdrew from the editor ship, but continued to write the mathemati cal articles, lie was a member of most of the learned societies of Europe, and was in intimate personal communication with Fred erick the Great, who invited him to reside at the court of Berlin. This, however, he de clined. The empress Catharine offered him the post of tutor or governor to the cezarevitch, with an income of 100,000 livres, but this he also declined. He was a man of singularly independent mind and manners, without de generating into discourtesy or indifference to the feelings or necessities of others. His con nection with the Encyclopedic involved him unjustly in the general censure which attached itself to the impiety and intolerance of many of its contributors. D Alembert s means were limited and insufficient to keep pace with his benevolence ; for when only in the enjoyment of two pensions of about $000 a year, one from Frederick, and the other from his own country, he gave away more than half their amount in charity. His grief on the death of Mile, de 1 Espinasse, for whom he entertained a strong attachment, which she requited with less ar dent sentiments, is believed to have hastened his death. Among his works not already men tioned are: Rcchcrches sur different^ points important* du systeme du monde^ (3 vols. 4to, 1754- 6); Opuscules matJiematiques (8 vols. 4to, 17C1- 80), a rich mine of original materi als; Elements de musique, upon the system of Kameau ; Melanges de litterature et de philo sophic (5 vols. 12mo); Sur la destruction des Jesuites en France ; and a life of Queen Chris tina of Sweden. No single collection of his mathematical works has been published, but Bastien collected his literary and philosophi cal writings in 18 vols., with a full life of the author prefixed (Paris, 1805). A more complete edition was published by Bossange in 5 vols. 8vo (1821), containing several pieces not before published, and the correspondence of D Alembert with Voltaire and Frederick II. ALEMBIC (Arab, al, the, and Gr. a///fc a cup), one of the oldest forms of vessels used for distillation, and the type of all later kinds of apparatus for the same purpose. It consists of a vessel in the form of a flask with wide neck, on which is lilted a head con nected with a downward running tube, the whole so arranged that all vapors condensed against the in side of the head run through a surrounding gutter to the t ibe and so into a receiver. Our engraving represents a glass alembic on a stand, heated by a spirit lamp, and connected with the receiver, which is supported on a separate stand. Notwithstanding this apparatus is at present little used in its original shape, and is superseded by the retort, it must be confessed that it has its advantages, and was especially adapted for the class of researches with which the alchemists occupied themselves. These ad vantages are that the head can be separated from the body, which is very convenient for the in troduction of solid or semi-fluid substances, and also for cleaning out after the operation. In some manufacturing processes alembics are still employed, as in that of hydrocyanic acid. In France they are still more employed than elsewhere; but it must not be forgotten that the French call nearly all kinds of distilling arrangements alembics, so that many of their so-called alembics are very different from the apparatus here described. ALEMTEJO, the largest province of Portugal, bounded by Estremadura, Beira, Spain, Al- garve, and the Atlantic ocean ; area, 9,416 sq. m. ; pop. in 1808, 332,237. The surface on the E. is traversed by irregular chains and groups of hills, which in the western section almost entirely disappear. On the southern border the Algarvian chain rises to the height of 4,000. feet. The principal rivers are the Guadiana, Tagus, and Sadao. The climate on the barren plains of the S. and W. is hot and dry. In the E. it is more salubrious and the soil more fertile, yielding good crops of wheat, barley, rice, and maize. The vine is univer sally cultivated. The citron, lemon, figs, and pomegranates abound. Attention is paid to the breeding of sheep, hogs, and goats. In a few places there are manufactures of woollen cloths and of earthenware. Alemtejo is di vided into the three districts of Portalegre, Evora, and Beja, so called after their chief towns. Capital, Evora. ALEJV^ON, a town of" France, in Normandy, capital of the department of Orne, on the I Sarthe, 116 m. W. S. W. of Paris; pop. in 1866, 16,116. It has a considerable inland trade, and is known for the famous lace, point d^Alencon. The fabrication of this costly ar ticle, however, now gives employment to a comparatively small number of families, in which it is an hereditary occupation. The | trade was one of the forced productions of I Colbert, who gave a monopoly of it for ten years, and a bounty from the crown. The in- \ habitants are generally engaged in making ! muslin, embroidery, leather, glass, and iron. Alencon is mostly built of granite, and has a ca thedral, library, museum, college, theatre, and : annual horse races. Its counts were conspicu- 1 ous in the history of Normandy and of France from the 10th century. In 1219 it was made an apanage of the French crown, with lords ; of the royal family; and in the 15th century it Avas erected into a royal duchy. The second son of the duke de Nemours, born in 1844, now bears the title of duke d Alencon. ALE^OIV, Francois, duke of. See AXJOF. ALEPPO (Arab. Haleb ; anc. Chalylon, afterward Bercza}, a city of N. Syria, capital of 1 a Turkish vilayet of the same name, in lat. 3P> g ALEPPO A LESS AND El 11 N., Ion. 37 WE., on the borders of the Syro- Arabian desert, about 60 in. E. of Antioch \ and 70 m. from the Mediterranean. The popula- j tion, formerly estimated at upward of 200,000, has been reduced by earthquakes, and now j numbers about 100,000, including 10,000 Chris- | tians and -1,000 Jews; the rest being Greeks, ; Armenians, Arabs, and Turks. The city is en- : compassed by low and barren hills and ir regular mounds, intersected by fertile valleys. The gloomy aspect of the projecting chalk rocks is relieved by gardens along the rivulet Nahr Kowaik, planted with the celebrated pistachio trees and abounding in exquisite fruits 1 and flower- . Including the straggling suburb, ! the circumference of Aleppo is 5 to 6 m., but the city proper is not over 3 in. in circuit, and it is shut in by a ruinous Saracenic wall. Alep po is a city of a thoroughly oriental type, with extensive bazaars, numerous mosques, and a population remarkable for its elegant bearing. The streets are better than those of most eastern cities, though many of them are arched over. The houses are of stone, substantially built, with terraces for evening promenades. The commerce, though considerably less than formerly, is still active, the value of the imports j in 1806, chiefly English, being $6,500,000, and of the exports, $2,700,000. The trade in Alep po brocades and silks has declined since the introduction of European silks. The principal exports are wool, cotton, pistachio nuts, oil, ce reals, &c. Aleppo, being on the only safe route between Syria and eastern Asia, is the great centre of the Damascus and Bagdad caravans. The name of Haleb is traced by some Arab philologists of the 14th century to the days of Abraham, who, according to this tradition, stopped there on his way to Canaan, distribut ing milk to the poor and repeating the words Ibrahim aleb, "Abraham has milked." In 638 Aleppo was taken from the Byzantine empire I by the Arabs and made the seat of a sultanate. | It was reconquered by John Zimisces, and j afterward became the capital of the Seljuk j Turks. After being besieged by the crusaders, j desolated by the followers of Timour, op- j pressed by the Mamelukes of Egypt, and de stroyed several times by earthquakes, it be- | came, after the Turkish conquest at the begin- j ning of the 10th century, a prosperous city, ! and the seat of a branch of the Levant com- j pany. In 1850 it was the scene of massacres j of Christians, and of revolts, which were sup- ! pressed in November with the aid of Generals ! Bern and Guyon, then in Turkish service, j Prelates of the Roman Catholic, Greek, Ar- I menian, and Syriac churches, and consuls of j the principal Christian nations, reside here. I The place has been often visited by the plague j and the cholera. A disease of the skin called ! the Aleppo button (Arab, heblet), or boil, at- | tacks most of the residents, and is attributed I to the unwholesome water. The natives gen- ] orally have it in infancy, and chiefly in the ! face. The eruption makes its appearance in ; VOL. i. 18 the form of a small, hard, red tubercle, increas ing in size after several weeks, discharging pus, and eventually forming a scab, which on dis appearing leaves an indelible mark. Dogs and cats are commonly attacked by it in the nose. Strangers are attacked sometimes soon after their arrival, sometimes not until years after their departure. The malady, which usually lasts a year, prevails all along the adjacent rivers, arid along the valley of the Euphrates, as far as Bagdad. ALESI1KI (formerly Dnieprovslt), a town in S. Russia, in the government of Taurida, on an arm of the Dnieper, 5 in. S. E. of Kherson; pop. in 1870, 8,484, and rapidly increasing. ALESIA, a fortified town of the Mandubii, in Celtic Gaul, renowned for its siege by Csesar in 52 B. C. It was a very old town, built on a high hill, washed by the Lutosa and Osera (be lieved to be the Ozc and Ozeraine, in Cote d Or), near the sources of the Sequana (Seine). Its fall, and the surrender of Vercingetorix, who defended it, decided the subjugation of Gaul. It was destroyed by Caesar, but was subse quently rebuilt, and became a very consider able city under the Romans. It was ruined by the Normans in the 9th century. At the foot of the hill (Mont Auxois) now stands the vil lage of Alise Ste. Reine, 6 m. S. of Montbard. M. Delacroix, an architect of Besancon, called attention in 1855 to the village of Alaise, near Ornans, in the department of Doubs, as the site of the battlefield of Alesia. Excavations were made at Alaise and at Alise, at the latter place under the auspices of Napoleon III., and archaeological evidence was produced in sup port of the two localities, that respecting Alise Ste. Reine being regarded as conclusive in favor of this site by F. de Saulcy and other competent persons who conducted the re searches there in 1861. Many works have been written on this controversy. The most impor tant publications in behalf of Alaise are four by J. . J. Quicher.it (Paris, 1857- 02); in favor of Alise, by Rossignol (Dijon, 1850), the duke d Aumale (Paris, 1858), and F. de Saulcy (1802). The academy of inscriptions and belles- lettres conferred a prize upon Rossignol s es say. In 1802 M. Gravot published his opinion that the battle of Alesia was fought neither at Alise Ste. Reine nor at Alaise, but at Alise- Izernore, in the department of Ain. ALESSAXDRESKU, Gregory, a Roumanian poet, born at Tergovist, Wallachia, about 1812. After a short service in the army, he became conspicuous as a liberal politician, and was banished to a monastery for publishing satires and fables reflecting upon the government. In 1859 he was for a short time minister of finance. A second edition of his most impor tant work, entitled "Reminiscences, Impres sions, Letters, and Fables," was published at Bucharest in 1803. ALESSANDRI, Basil, a Roumanian poet of Ve netian origin, born in Moldavia in 1821. He was educated at Jassy and Paris, joined the 274: ALESSANDRIA ALEUTIAN ISLANDS party of young Roumania. and produced bal lads and plays which are popular in Moldo- Wallachia. His principal works have been published at Jassy, Bucharest, and Paris (1852 - 63). After the death of his father he eman cipated all his serfs, arid his example was fol lowed by nearly 1,000 other serf-holders pre vious to the act of general emancipation pro mulgated by Prince Gregory Ghika. In 1859 - GO he was minister of foreign affairs. He published in French a collection of Ballades et chants populaires de la Rowmanie (Paris, 1855). ALESSANDRIA. I. A N". W. province of Italy, in Piedmont, embracing the former duchy of Montferrat; area, 1,952 sq. m. ; pop. in 1872, 683,473. It is traversed E. and W. by the Turin and Stradella, and N". and S. by the Genoa and Lago Maggiore railroad. The principal rivers flowing through it are the Tanaro, Bormida, and Scrivia. Among the chief products are maize, wine, silk, madder, and flax. The east ern part is an extensive, fertile plain ; the centre consists partly of barren hills, and partly of excellent table land ; the western portion is hilly, and produces the best wine of Pied mont. It is divided into the districts of Tortona, Alessandria, Asti, Casale, Acqui, and Novi. II. A fortified city (Ital. Ales sandria della Paylia, of the straw, from its houses having originally been thatched), capi tal of the above province, near the confluence of the Bormida and Tanaro, a few miles from the Po, and 46 m. E. S. E. of Turin ; pop. in 1872, including suburbs, 57,079. It was founded in 1168 by the Lombard league, as a bulwark against the German emperors, and in modern times again received significance as a national Italian fortress against Austria. Though up Alessandria. to the beginning of this century its defences were indifferent, the French in vain besieged it in 1657, and Prince Eugene of Savoy in 1707 only took it after a protracted defence. Na poleon I. strengthened it, after the annexation of Piedmont to France, with casemated bat teries for the defence of the ditch, great addi tions to the citadel, and a bridge-head on the opposite side of the Bormida. It is now the strongest fortified city of Italy, after Verona. During the war of 1848- 9 it was the prin cipal arsenal of the Italians, and after the battle of Novara it was temporarily occupied by an Austrian force during the truce. It was the headquarters of Napoleon III. and Victor Emanuel in the campaign of 1859. The city has a college, a theological seminary, about 20 churches, including a cathedral, an academy of science and arts, several palaces, and manu factories of linen, silks, cloths, and wax can dles. It is an important railway centre. ALEUTIAN ISLANDS, a chain "of islands nt- uated between Alaska and Kamtchatka, and separating Behring sea from the North Pacific- ocean, between lat. 51 and 56 N., and Ion. 163 and 188 W. The origin of the name is unknown, but is believed to be Russian. Al though the Aleutian chain is usually regarded as co-extensive with the Catharine archipel ago, an appellation applied to all the islands of this region in honor of Catharine II. of Russia, some geographers do not include in it Behring island and Copper island, near the Asiatic coast. These are known as the Komandorski or Commander s islands, and are situated in about Ion. 193 W. ; the Russian explorer Behring died upon that which bears his name. Omitting them, the Aleutian islands consist of ALE WIFE four groups, as follows: 1, the Nearer (Blizh- ni) or Sasignan islands, 5 in number, which lie W. of the 185th parallel of W. longitude, and derive their name from their proximity to Karn- tchatka ; 2, the Rat (Krisi) islands, of which there are 15, situated between Ion. 185 and 180 W. ; 3, the Andreanovski group, extend ing from Ion. 180 to 172 W., and containing 30 islands, on one of which, Goreloi (Burnt) island, is a mountain 8,000 feet in height; and 4, the Fox (Lisi) islands, numbering 31, lying between Ion. 172 W. and the shore of the American continent, and including Unimak and Unalashka. The entire area of the islands is 6,391 geog. sq. m. Dall estimates the native population at 1,500, though it probably was not less than 10,000 when the Russians first occupied the country. The half-breeds and resident Russians do not exceed 800 in number. Unimak is the largest island of the chain and the most mountainous. Unalashka contains the greatest number of inhabitants and the finest land for agricultural purposes, and also pos sesses the best anchorage and principal port, Iliuliuk or Captain s Harbor. Traces of the action of subterranean igneous forces are nearly everywhere apparent, and the whole archipel ago is believed to be the result of volcanic up heaval. Hot springs are of frequent occur rence. Of the numerous mountains, several are upward of 5,000 ft. high, and many are volcanoes, some of which show slight signs of activity. A rolling country, with hills of mod erate elevation, intervenes between the moun tains and the coast, which on most of the islands is abrupt and accessible from the sea at comparatively few points. The soil in many districts is fertile, and produces turnips, car rots, parsnips, and cabbages of fair quality, as well as a few potatoes. There is a most lux uriant growth of wild grass suitable for cattle, of which, however, very few are kept, owing to the difficulty of housing them in winter from the scarcity of wood for building pur poses. The islands are entirely destitute of j timber. The climate is moist and equable, { with an average annual temperature of from j 36 to 40. The Aleuts resemble the North American Indians in color and other respects, but are variously regarded as of American and Asiatic origin. An active and formerly a cheer ful race, their character has acquired a degree of sombreness from the forced adoption of Russian manners, customs, and religion. Their principal occupations are hunting and fishing. -The Aleutian islands were discovered by Behring in 1741, and subsequently in the same century were acquired and occupied by Russia, together with her possessions on the American mainland. In 1867 they were transferred with the latter to the United States, and now form a part of the territory of Alaska. ALEWIFE, a fish of the genus alosa (A. tyrannus, Latrobe), also called spring herring, and in the British provinces gaspereau, or American alewife. It appears in great num- ALEXAXDER 275 bers in Chesapeake bay from the south in March, on the New York and New England coasts with the shad in April, and in the Brit ish provinces about May 1. Like the shad, it ascends the northern rivers to deposit its spawn. In the bay of Fundy the alewife is abundant ; in the gulf of St. Lawrence it is less common, and of smaller size ; the bay of Mira- michi appears to be its extreme northern limit. It ascends rivers generally to the head of the tide, and returns to the sea in July. The fishery is prosecuted with small meshed seines drawn across the streams, and so successfully that hardly a fish escapes ; the fishing lasta about six weeks, commencing as soon as the rivers are clear of ice. It prefers a soft, muddy bottom, and turbid water, and its favorite food is shrimps and the shad worm. The length of the alewife is 4 to 12 inches ; the body is com pressed ; the head small, with golden gill covers; the eyes large, with silvery iris and black pupil ; the mouth very large, the lower jaw slightly the longer, and the upper jaw deeply notched in its centre. The color on tlie. back is bluish purple ; the sides are light cop per color, beneath silvery ; on the sides are 4, 5, or even more indistinct greenish lines pass ing from the head to the tail ; just behind the upper angle of the gill cover is a deep black spot. The scales on the body are very large, and deciduous; the entire abdominal edge ia serrated by strong bony spines, largest between the ventrals and the vent; the dorsal fin is single, and the tail is deeply notched. Though thin, dry, and inferior to the herring and the shad, the alewife is a valuable fish. For home consumption, alewives are salted and smoked, like herring. The fishery in the British prov inces is valuable. ALEXANDER. I. A N. W. county of North Carolina, bounded S. by the Catawba river ; area, 300 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 6,868, of whom 611 were colored. The staple products are wheat, corn, and oats. There are 19 churches, and 20 manufactories. Capital, Taylorsville. II. A S. county of Illinois, at the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, the latter forming its S. and S. W. boundary and separat ing it from Missouri ; area, 245 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 10.564. The face of the county is low and level, and in some parts liable to in undation, and the soil is fertile. The staple products are corn and wheat. The southern terminus of the Illinois Central railroad is at Cairo in this county. Capital, Thebes. ALEXANDER, surnamed the Great, son of Phil ip of Macedon and of Olympias of Epirus, born in 356 B. C., died in 323. His first tutor was- a Greek, Lysimachus, and the first thing which he learned was the Iliad. At the age of 13 he received further instruction from Aristotle, and enjoyed this teaching for three years, being then warmly attached to the philosopher. During his lather s lifetime he shared in his wars, and in the government of the kingdom, early showing a strong will and an imperious 276 ALEXANDER THE GREAT temper. By his bravery he decided the issue | of the battle of Chaeronea (338), which made j Philip the master of Greece, lie ascended the throne at the age of 20, on the assassination j of his father, and put to death several of the j guilty, as well as many relations of his father s ! second wife, and soon afterward Philip s infant ! son. At the head of an army he at once en- j tered Greece, strengthened the submission of the Greek republics, and at a general Grecian assembly at Corinth was made cominander-in- chief, with full powers on land and sea to pros ecute the war against Persia. In the follow- I ing spring (335), in an armed excursion against | various tribes of Thracians and others north of Macedonia, he crossed the Danube without a bridge and in the face of an enemy. During this campaign rumors of his death arose in Greece. Demosthenes, in Athens, and the patriots of other Greek cities, and above all the Thebans, considered this to be a propitious moment to emancipate Hellas from Macedonian domination. The Thebans rose in arms. Alex ander returned with his army in 13 days from beyond the north of Macedonia to Bceotia. After a murderous assault he razed Thebes to the ground, leaving only the house of Pindar standing, and sparing only the descendants of the poet from slavery or massacre. This blow crushed the aspirations of the Greeks for free dom. Alexander now completed his prepara tions for the invasion of Asia. In March or April, 334, he crossed the Hellespont from Sestos to Abydos, with a force of 30,000 foot and 4,500 horse. This army was composed in great part of Macedonians, with Macedonian commanders. At Ilium (Troy) he performed various rites and sacrifices in honor of the ancient heroes, a manifestation of that le gendary sympathy which formed the only real relation let ween him and the Greeks. A Persian army defended the passage of the Granicus. Alexander was the first to enter the river at the head of his troops, fought fore most with great personal courage, and won a decisive victory. Nearly the whole of Asia Minor submitted to him, and the few cities that attempted to resist, among them Halicarnassus, were taken by storm. At Tarsus in Cilicia he was seized with a violent fever, after bathing in the chilly waters of the Cydnus, and owed his recovery to the skill of his physician, Philip. The king of Persia, Darius III., commanding in person an army of five or six hundred thousand I men, met him in a valley near Issus, and one | of the most important and decisive battles re corded in history was fought there (333). Da rius was defeated with immense slaughter, and the loss of his camp and treasures ; while his mother, his wife Statira, celebrated as the handsomest woman in Asia, his infant son and two daughters, fell into the hands of the victor, by whom they were treated with unexpected magnanimity. Syria and Phoenicia submitted, with the exception of Tyre, which was taken after an arduous siege of seven months. Alex ander was twice obliged to construct a mole more than 200 feet wide across the half-mile channel between the mainland and the islet on which Tyre was situated. At the final storm the carnage was terrible, and 2,000 of the defenders were hung on the walls, 30,000 inhabitants sold into slavery, and the ancient and free-spirited population wholly extirpated. Alexander now marched toward Egypt. Of the cities of Palestine, only Gaza, commanded by Batis, a eunuch, resisted him. The town had hitherto been thought impregnable, but Alexander surrounded it with artificial mounds equal in elevation to the hill on which the stronghold was situated, and, after having been beaten oif in several attacks, in one of which he was severely wounded, took the city, and slaughtered nearly the whole population (332). Batis, covered with wounds, was taken prisoner. The infuriated victor ordered his feet to be bored, and his living body to be attached to a chariot, which he drove himself in full speed through the streets. Thus he copied the igno minious treatment which, according to the le gend, was infiicted by Achilles, from whom he claimed descent, on the dead bc/dy of Hector. Egypt submitted without otfering the slightest resistance. Alexander founded the city of Alexandria, and marched through the desert into Libya to the temple of Jupiter Ammon (331). The priest addressed him as the son of the god, and the conqueror henceforth assumed such to be his parentage, to the great dissatis faction of his Macedonian army and compan ions. 4Ie was now master of the whole eastern Mediterranean coast, and of all the islands, and returned to Asia in search of Darius, who was lost in the immense dominions which still re mained to him. Alexander crossed the Euphrates and Tigris, and in the plains of Gaugamela, near Arbela, in Assyria, reached the Persian army, made up of the contingents from the Caspian sea, the rivers Oxus and Indus, the Persian gulf, and the Red sea. It is said that this army numbered 1,000,000 infantry, 40,000 cavalry, 200 chariots armed with scythes, and 15 ele phants, which then made their first appearance on a field of battle beyond their native country. Alexander commanded 40,000 foot and 7,000 horse. The battle was severely contested, but at last the Persians were utterly routed (October, 331). The Persian empire was destroyed. Its two capitals, Babylon and Susa, surrendered, with immense treasures. From Susa Alexander marched into Persia proper, the cradle of the earlier Persian conquerors, overpowering va rious barbarian mountain tribes on the march. Persepolis and Pasargada fell into his hands, with treasures surpassing those of Babylon and Susa. He set fire to Persepolis; the male inhabitants were slain, and the females dragged into servitude. Next he continued the con quest of the eastern part of the Persian empire, following Darius into Media, Ilyrcania, and Parthia, where the fugitive king was murder ed by his revolted satraps (330). Alexander ALEXANDER THE GREAT 277 278 ALEXANDER THE GREAT ordered the body to bo buried with regal pomp i i the royal sepulchres of Pcrsis. Pursuing the satraps, lie entered Aria, in the region adjoin ing the modern Herat. Thence he marched into Drangiana, the modern Sejestan. While at the chief town of this province, on the plea of a conspiracy against his life discovered among those nearest his person, he condemned ! to death Philotas, one of his first generals, and j son of Parmenio, his best captain, and the j companion in arms of his father Philip ; and j after this he ordered the murder of Parmenio himself. He had now become very intemperate, and, full of suspicion, opened the letters of his officers and soldiers to their relations in Europe, j He reduced Arachosia and the Paropamisus re gion (modern Afghanistan), founding various cities of Greeks and Macedonians. Then he overran Bactria (329), crossed the Oxus, marched through Sogdiana, entering the prin cipal city Maracanda, now Samarcand, and reached the river Jaxartes (Sir Daria), which he thought was the Tanai s (Don), then con sidered to be the boundary between Europe and Asia. On its banks he founded a city named Alexandria, as a fortress against the no madic Scythians, in whose pursuit he reached the present khanate of Khokand. This was the utmost limit of Alexander s northern pro gress. During his stay at Samarcand, on his return, in a drunken orgy, he killed with his own hand his general and friend Clitus, who had saved his life at the battle of the Granicus, and now ventured to rebuke him for his over bearing pride and infatuated belief in his di vine origin. After this bloody deed, the mur derer, seized with remorse, passed three days without food and drink. In Bactra (Balkh), the capital of Bactria, he celebrated in 327 an oriental marriage between himself and his captive Roxana, and in the festivities of this ceremony demanded prostration and worship from the Greeks as well as the Asiatics. Some Greek philosophers, Anaxarchus among them, led the way in this degradation; but Callis- thenes, the friend and correspondent of Aris totle, opposing it, was falsely accused of a con spiracy, tortured, and put to death. From Bactra Alexander marched southward, recross- ing the Paropamisus, or eastern Caucasus, now known as the Hindoo Koosh, and went into Cabool, descending along the right bank of the Indus, and reducing various mountain tribes on the way. He crossed the Indus at or near Attock, a passage now much used, and entered Taxila, whose prince, Taxiles, at once submit ted, becoming a tributary ally, and furnishing a contingent to the Macedonian army. On the further side of the Hydaspes (Jhylum, in the Punjanb), he met the Indian prince Porus, with a formidable force, which he defeated, taking Porus prisoner. The latter, however, had his possessions restored and became an ally and friend of Alexander. After conquering various Indian princes and nations, Alexander passed the river Acesines (Chenaub), and advancing across the Punjaub to the river Hydraotea (Ravee), demolished the city of Sangala, put ting to death 17,000 persons, and making 70,000 captives from various free Indian tribes. Thence he marched to the river Ilyphasis (Sut- lej). Here the Macedonians of the army, averse to plunging further into unknown des erts, refused to cross the river, and Alexander gave the order to return. To mark the limit of his eastward progress, he erected 12 altars of extraordinary height on the W. bank of the Hyphasis. Late in the autumn of 327 he em barked with a part of his army on the Ilydas- pes, and sailed down to the Indus, which he descended to its mouth, disembarking per petually to attack, subdue, and slaughter the tribes near the shore. He reached the Indian ocean in the summer of 320. Nearchus, his admiral, took the fiect from the mouth of the Indus round the Persian gulf to the Tigris, while Alexander himself inarched westward along the shores of the gulf, then through the desert of Gedrosia (Beloochistan) to the city of Pura (Bahnpoora). In this march the soldiers suffered much from thirst und hunger. To compensate for this, and in imitation of the festivals of Bacchus, Alexander and his army marched seven days in drunken bacchanalian procession through Carmania (Kerman), en tering Persis, and finally, in the beginning of 325, reaching Susa. Here he adopted the Persian costume and ceremonial, made a eunuch, Bagoas, his favorite, and contracted two addi tional Asiatic marriages. lie sailed down the river Pasitigris (Karun) to the Persian gulf, and, anxious for naval glory, projected the cir cumnavigation and conquest of Arabia. An immense fleet was built in the Phoenician ports, taken to pieces, and conveyed to Babylon, which was transformed into a harbor for the purpose. At this time he received embassies from all the nations around the Mediterranean, including the Romans, Iberians, and Gauls. Having entered Babylon in 324, he spent sev eral days in surveying the surrounding marshes, where he contracted the germs of a violent fever. This malady was developed and heightened by his daily revelries, and final ly put an end to his life after a reign of 12 years and 8 months. He appointed no succes sor, but before his death gave his ring to Per- diccas. Shortly afterward Roxana gave birth to a son, Alexander ^Egus, who was put to death with his mother by Cassander in 311, while the conqueror s great empire was divided by his generals. Alexander s reign forms one of the pivots of the world s history. By it Asia and the East were interwoven with Europe and Greece, while the free Greek communities were crushed and democratic progress and liberty entombed. His generalship, his knowledge of command, his strategic combinations, his far- reaching plans, his foresight and fertility in dif ficulties, his rapidity of movement, are almost without a parallel in history, when we consider the time, the regions where he acted, and the ALEXANDER (POPES) 279 resources at liis disposal. "With all his courage and his sanguine temperament, nothing was ever omitted in the way of systematic military precaution. Nor is his life devoid of other traits of greatness. The acquisition of univer sal dominion was the master passion of his soul. lie had no attachment for any special nationality, but looked on all mankind as on a realm to he conquered and ruled. His con quests caused an immense diffusion of Hellenic culture, and influenced for ages the condition of western Asia and of Egypt. ALEXANDER, the name of eight popes. !. Saint, a Roman by birth, according to ecclesias tical tradition, governed the church from 108 to 119, and was beheaded by order of the em peror Hadrian. A beautiful church has been erected over his tomb. II. Anselmo Badatrio. born in Milan, was bishop of Lucca, became pope through the influence of llildebrand (af terward Gregory VII.), and reigned from 1061 to 1073. Tiie first few years of his reign were troubled by a contest with an anti-pope named Cadaloiis, who took the name of Honorius II. He carried out with great vigor and ability the measures of the reforming party in the church of which llildebrand was the life and soul, against simony and concubinage among the clergy, and the intrusion of unworthy bishops into the episcopal sees through the influence of princes and nobles. By the advice of llilde brand, he pronounced in favor of the claims of William of Normandy to the crown of England, as successor to Edward the Confessor. After th e success of William s arms, in 1066, he sent as legate into England Bishop Ermenfroi, and the cardinals Peter and John, who crowned King William, and afterward held a council at Winchester, in which Stigand, the excommu nicated archbishop of Canterbury, who had in truded himself into that see during the lifetime of the archbishop Robert, was deposed. The celebrated Lanfranc, formerly the preceptor of Alexander, was placed in that see, and after ward received by the pope with great honor at Rome. Alexander maintained close relations with the Byzantine empire, and sent a legate to the Greek court. A number of his epistles are extant, among which is one addressed to the bishops of France, in which he condemns in the strongest terms the cruelties practised by some Christians on the Jews. III. Rolando Bandinclli, born in Siena, elected Sept, 7, 1159, died Aug. 1, 1181. He had to sustain a long conflict with Frederick Barbarossa and four successive anti- popes, one of whom, styling himself Calixtus III., <:ame to him at Frascati in 1178, threw himself at his feet, and demanded absolution, which Pope Alexander granted immediately, inviting him to his own table. The emperor, who had been excommunicated, submitted after a pro tracted struggle in 1177, and was absolved from his excommunication at Venice. On this occa sion he paid the ordinary homage to the pope by kissing his foot, and leading the mule on which he rode ; but the story that the pope put his foot on his neck appears to rest on no his torical foundation. Alexander entered into correspondence with the Greek emperor Man uel, with the view of inducing him to consent to a project, much favored at that time in Italy, of transferring the imperial throne to Rome, and thus effecting a permanent reconciliation of the Greeks to the Roman church. These negotiations, however, had no result. He also held at Tours in France, where lie had taken refuge in the early part of his pontificate, a council against the Albigenses. Supported by him, Thomas a Becket carried on the ecclesias tical struggle with King Henry II. of England, A Becket and St. Bernard were canonized by Alexander III., a right which he first reserved exclusively to the holy see by a decree promul gated at the council of Tours. It was this pope who instituted the ceremony of the espousal of the Adriatic by the doge of Venice. The last remarkable act of his life was the celebration of the third general council of Lateran at Rome, in 1179. IV. Rinaldo di Segni, a Roman, nephew of Gregory IX., and cardinal bishop of Ostia, elected at Naples, Dec. 12, 1254, died at Vi- terbo, May 25, 1261. During his reign the states of the church were devastated by Man fred, the natural son of the emperor Frederick II. He declared a crusade against Manfred, which proved unsuccessful, even with the aid of Hen ry III. of England, to whose second son Ed mund he gave, in quality of suzerain, the in vestiture of the kingdom of Sicily. During his reign occurred also the crusade and captivity of St. Louis of France. By request of this prince, the inquisition was established in France in 1255. This pontiff was compelled to pass the latter part of his life at Viterbo, on account of seditions among the Roman popu lace. He labored to reunite the Greek to the Roman church, and to combine the Christian nations against the Moslems. The hostility of the Venetians and Genoese prevented the suc cess of his plans, and the chagrin which he ex perienced in consequence is said to have caused his death. V. Pietro Filargo, born in Candia, elected by the general council of Pisa, June 26, 1409, died May 3, 1410. He was originally a beggar, and was educated by a charitable Fran ciscan, and sent to Oxford and Paris, where he greatly distinguished himself. On his return he became private tutor to the duke of Milan, and afterward archbishop of that city. Inno cent VII. made him cardinal and papal legate in Lombardy. After his elevation to the pon tificate, he resided at Bologna. VI. Rodrigo Lenznolo, or Borgia, born in Valencia, Spain, in 1431, elected pope Aug. 11, 1492, died Aug. 18, 1503. His mother was a Borgia and the sister of Pope Calixtus III. His father was an officer of rank, and Rodrigo passed his youth first in the study of law and in civil offices, and after ward in the profession of arms, for which he displayed considerable talent. He formed a criminal relation with a widow, and after her death took for his mistress her daughter, Rosa 280 ALEXANDER (POPES) ALEXANDER (RUSSIA) Vanozza, by whom he had five children, one of whom was Caesar Borgia, and another Lucretia, afterward duchess of Este. When his uncle became pope, Rodrigo was summoned to Rome, lie went with reluctance; hut whatever unwil lingness he may have felt to abandon his pleas ures in Spain was overcome by the generosity of the pontiff, who hastened to appoint him archbishop of Valencia, cardinal deacon, and vice chancellor of the church, and gave him a revenue of 28,000 crowns a year. Without breaking off his connection with Vanozza, he now assumed an exterior of piety and humility, visited the hospitals, gave much to the poor, and acquired a reputation for extraordinary virtue. Lender Popes Pius II. and Paul II., who wore the tiara after Calixtus, little is known of his life. He was high in the favor of Sixtus IV., who sent him as legate to Aragon and Portugal; but he is said to have caused some scandal at the court of Lisbon by his licentious behavior. After the accession of In nocent VIII. (1484) he brought his mistress secretly to Rome, and furnished her with an ostensible husband, in the person of a Spaniard who had been her majordomo. Under the protection of this pseudo count, the cardinal was enabled to visit Vanozza without suspi cion. On the death of Innocent in 1492 he- bought the suffrages of the adherents of Cardi nals Sforza, Orsino, Riario, and Colonna, and, having been thereupon elected to the pontifi cate, delivered an edifying discourse in which he urged the sacred college to reform their lives, and denounced with especial severity the crimes of avarice and simony. His eldest son, Francesco, was appointed commander of the papal troops ; his second son, Caesar, was made archbishop of Valencia, and a year later cardi nal. The Papal States were at this time in a very disturbed condition, and Alexander s first care was to strengthen the temporal power by crushing the turbulent lords of Ferrara, Bolo gna, Rimini, Faenza, Ostia, and Urbino, forming a league against Naples with Venice and Milan, and then a league with Naples against France. Unable to prevent the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII., he made his peace with the French king at an interview in the Vatican ; and after Charles had taken possession of Na ples he instigated a new confederation against him, composed of the republic of Venice, the duke of Milan, and the other princes of Italy, and succeeded at last in ridding the peninsula of the invaders. _ He allied himself with Charles s successor, Louis XII., in an attack upon Milan, granted the king a divorce, and obtained for his son Caesar a splendid position at the French court. He was a party to the treachery by which Ferdinand of Spain first betrayed the cause of his relative Frederick of Naples by partitioning that kingdom between Louis XII. and himself, and then betrayed Louis by seizing the whole conquest. Caesar had accompanied the French to Mr.in, and thence waged incessant war upon the Italian princes, the pope s purpose being not only to consolidate his own temporal power, but to elevate his family to the dignities of the dispos sessed barons. Vile as the means were by which he accumulated wealth, he spent it in such a way within his dominions, restoring order and reviving trade, that he was popular with his subjects. He carried simony to a point never before dreamed of, and a contem porary pasquinade began with the lines, Vendit Alexander claves, altnra, Christum ; Vendere jure potest, emerat ille prius. The crimes of wholesale poisoning and other murders commonly laid to his charge are not all supported by sufficient evidence, but enough is known to entitle him to remembrance as the worst of all the popes. His death is said by some historians to have been caused by poison which he intended for a large party of cardi nals whom he had invited to a banquet. VII. Fabio Chigi, born of an illustrious family at Siena, Feb. 13, 1599, elected April 7, 1655, died May 22, 1667. Before his election he filled several of the highest offices of the Ro man church with credit. During his pontifi cate he was zealous in the reformation of dis cipline. He confirmed the bull of Innocent X. against the five propositions of Jansenius, and prescribed a formulary condemning the prin ciples of Jansenism, which all persons con cerned were required to sign. He finished the college of Sapienza, commenced by Leo X. after designs of Michel Angelo, and constructed the beautiful colonnade in the piazza of . St. Peter s. VIII. Marco Ottobcni, son of the grand chancellor of Venice, where he was born, April 19, 1610, elected Oct. 6, 1089, died Feb. 1, 1691. lie studied at Padua and Rome, was successively bishop of Brescia and Frascati, and cardinal. He condemned the four articles of the Gallican assembly, and assisted the empe ror Leopold I. and the Venetians with large sums in the wars against the Turks. He pos sessed a high degree of prudence, moderation, and political sagacity, and was very benevolent to the poor, but too much inclined to favor his own relations. ALEXANDER I., PailOTitcli, emperor of Russia, eldest son of Paul I. and Maria Feodorovna, princess of W^urtemberg, born Dec. 23, 1777, died Dec. 1, 1825. His grandmother, Catharine II., designed to place him on the throne in prefer ence to his father, and intrusted the care of his education to Count Nicholas Soltikoff, drawing up the plan of his instruction with her own hand. Every possible branch was taught ex cept music and singing. In 1783 Count Solti koff selected as his tutor Frederic Cesar de la Harpe, who inculcated in the mind of his pupil the ruling liberal ideas of the 18th century. Toleration, philanthropy, and love of truth were from his childhood familiar to the future czar. Sometimes he dreaded the task before him, and wished to escape with his youthful friend Prince Czartoryski to America, and to live there as a private citizen. At the age of ALEXANDER (RUSSIA) 281 15 he was married to Louisa Maria Augusta, princess of Baden, who was somewhat younger Gtill. This marriage was not a happy one. Catharine died three years afterward, and was succeeded by her son Paul I., whoso short reign was ended by murder, March 23, 1801. Alexander stands accused of having been ac cessory t<> this crime, lie was acquainted with the conspiracy, whose chief, Count Pahlen, persuaded him" that his mother and his brother Constantino were in danger of losing their liberty, and even their lives, from the jealous suspicions of his half-insane father. Alexan der, fully believing his father incompetent to reign, gave his consent to the dethronement, which alone was represented to bo the aim of the conspirators. Once on the throne, the young czar attracted the attention of the world, and his generous qualities promised a brilliant future, lie began by releasing and indemni fying the victims of the violent injustice of his father, and recalled many who had been exiled to Siberia. lie kindled civilization among the masses, made efforts to create a public spirit among the people, and accom plished radical reforms in the administration. He abolished the secret tribunal established by Paul, suppressed the censorship, reorganized tha beard constituted by Catharine for the creation of a national code, ordered every minister to publish yearly reports, decreed the abolition of torture (which, however, contin ued to be partially applied even under him), and renewed the ukasj of Catharine in virtue of which hereditary estates could not be con fiscated, and proclaimed that henceforth the czars should not give away estates with crown peasants, but lands alone. He prohibited the public exposure of serfs in markets for sale, and allowed them to be sold only with the land to which they were attached. He chose for ministers men of large and clear minds, de voted to his reformatory ideas. Among these were Czar tory ski, Novosiltzoff, and Speranski. He was impressible, enthusiastic, and easily influenced, not steady and persistent. His mode of life was simple and unostentatious; his manners were amiable, refined, and ele gant. He concluded commercial treaties with various powers, and published new regulations for navigation. He protected the arts, and in order to stir up the intellectual powers of the people allowed his subjects of various classes, except those serfs who were private property, to select their own trades and pursuits. The raw products of Russia, and even some manu factures, now began to appear in the marts of Europe. In 1809 he erected three universities, at St. Petersburg, Kharkov, and Kazan, and added to them afterward that of Dorpat for the German Baltic provinces. lie also reor ganized that of Wilna for his Polish subjects, whom at that early epoch he treated gener ously, flattering them with hopes of the recon struction of their kingdom. He founded many gymnasia and high schools, ordering their number to be increased to 204, with 2,000 sub ordinate elementary schools; but this project was only partially executed. He was wont to travel over the country in every direction, see ing persons of all classes and receiving their memorials, lie scrupulously observed the ordinances of the national church, but later in life he became a pietist and mystic, at the same time that he turned against the liberal politics of his youth. At an early period in his career Alexander was entangled in the great events which shook Europe in the beginning of the present century. The greatness of Napoleon, then first consul, impressed his imagination. His father had commenced a friendly inter course with Napoleon, which the son contin ued. On Oct. 8, 1801, he concluded a treaty of friendship, and when next year a general peace was established by the treaty of Amiens, the new territorial organization of Germany was regulated by the two. But when Napo leon, after making himself emperor, violated the territory of Baden, announced his purpose to assume the crown of Italy, prepared to de stroy the independence of the Batavian repub lic, and occupied almost the whole coast of northern Germany, Alexander put forth a solemn protest along with a warning against a continuance in this course of usurpation. Finally, although a war was brewing between Russia and Turkey, and another actually wag ing against Persia, Alexander entered the third coalition to overthrow Napoleon formed by Sweden, England, and Austria. On Oct. 5, 1805, a Russian army debarked in Pomerania, and at the same time another traversed Prus sia, although that power was neutral. The battle of Austerlitz, Dec. 2, 1805, destroyed the coalition, and Alexander barely escaped be ing made prisoner by a French general cutting off the retreat of his escort. The czar pledged his written word of honor to this officer that an armistice had been concluded, which, how ever, was not the case. The Russian troops retreated to Silesia, and Alexander returned to St. Petersburg to prepare new armaments, when his ally Francis of Austria made peace with the enemy. The czar, however, refused to ratify the treaty made in Paris by his minister D Oubril, and formed an intimate alli ance with Prussia. He conceived a Platonic affection for Queen Louise, to whose husband, Frederick William III., he was bound by the ties of a strong friendship. This new coalition had no better luck than its predecessor. The Prus sian forces were annihilated at Jena and Auer- stadt (Oct. 14, 1800), the Russian Marshal Ben- ningsen was beaten at Eylau (Feb. 8, 1807) and Friedland (June 14), and Kamenski was defeat ed at Pultusk. The Russian armies reentered their own country, and the king of Prussia was left in possession of only the city of Memel, on the Russian frontier. At the same time, how ever, the Russian arms were more successful in the war with the Turks. The Serbs rose against the Porte, and Admiral Seniavin ALEXANDER (RUSSIA) beat the Turkish fleet in the Archipelago. Prussia being annihilated, and Napoleon at the threshold of Russia, Alexander was forced to negotiate. In June, 1807, the two emperors met on a raft on the river Niemen, the frontier between Prussia and Russia. In the course of their now almost daily intercourse, Napoleon not only bewitched Alexander by his genius and his manners, but did not disdain to flatter the foibles of the czar, whose former resent ment gave way to the most enthusiastic friend ship and admiration. By the treaty of Tilsit, Alexander got from the Prussian spoils the dis trict of Bialystok in Lithuania, lie entered warmly into all the Napoleonic schemes, and accepted the continental system, though it was pernicious at the start to the agricultural inter ests and the exporting trade of Russia. Gus- tavus IV. having rejected every plan of ac commodation with France, and refused the invitation of Russia to exclude English vessels from Swedish harbors, Alexander declared war against Sweden, invaded Finland, and con quered the long-coveted duchy. The war wr.s not yet ended when the interview of Erfurt took place, beginning Sept. 27, 1808. Here culminated the friendship of the two emperors, who, representing the west and the east, de cided the destinies of Europe. The resistance of the Spaniards to Joseph Bonaparte, and English subsidies, encouraged the court of Vienna to appeal to arms for the third time in 1809. Alexander, as the ally of Napoleon, occupied Galicia, and at the peace got a slice of it. In Turkey, the fortresses of Rustchuk, Giurgevo, and Silistria were taken, and the bulk of the Turkish army on the left side of the Danube laid down their arms before Kutu- zoff. The war with Persia was also successful. In the interior Alexander continued the work of reform. The exclusion of English manu factures gave activity to domestic industry. In 1810 he reorganized the council of the em pire, and formed eight separate departments or ministries. He regulated the value of the cur rency, introduced a new organization into Fin land, and in 1811 inaugurated the church of the Holy Virgin of Kazan, one of the great mon uments of St. Petersburg. About this epoch a revolution took place in his feelings toward Na poleon, and he inclined to the ancient party of his nobles, who were enemies of France and of domestic reforms, and partisans of England. Under this influence he exiled some of his for mer favorites, who for years had labored with him in the task of reform. Napoleon now oc cupied the duchy of Oldenburg, and Alexander refused him his sister in marriage. The im mense majority of the Russian nobility were hostile to the French alliance. Animosity in creased, and the war of 1812 broke out. Eng land and Sweden alone stood by Russia at that time helpless and negative allies; but the treaty of Bucharest, concluded in that year by the mediation of England, on terms wholly ad vantageous to Russia, disengaged the Russian | armies operating on the Pruth and the Danul e. Napoleon rapidly crossed the Niemcn arid in vaded Russia, directing one part of his forces north toward St. Petersburg, while he himself pressed with the mass upon the centre of the empire toward Moscow. Alexander was taken almost unawares, lie adopted the plan of Gen. Barclay de Tolly, retiring slowly step by step, to draw the enemy into the interior, de stroying everything in the retreat, and thus facilitating the union of the central army with that coming from Turkey. lie made an ap peal to the religious and national feelings of the Russians, and organized levies en masse. The people were even more excited than their ruler. After the battle of Smolensk (Aug. 17) he transferred the command of the retreating but not dispirited army to Kutuzoff, yielding to the desire of the nation to be commanded by a native Russian. It is not ascertained whether he ordered the burning of Moscow, but at any rate he approved the act. lie refused all ac commodation with Napoleon, answering that lie had only begun the campaign, and would not treat while a foot of his dominions was oc cupied by the enemy. The retreat of the French, the terrible crossing of the Beresina, and the final annihilation of the invaders, are well known. The Russian forces now overran the duchy of Warsaw, which had been created by the treaty of Tilsit, and whose free institu tions had caused much uneasiness in Russia ; and soon afterward it was definitively incorpo rated with the empire. The advisers of Alexan der Kutuzoff, Volkonski, Araktchcyeff, Bala- shoff insisted on arresting there the further pursuit of the French, and leaving the rest of Europe to its fate. But England urged the continuation of the war, Prussia asked lor help, and Alexander, in his manifestoes from War saw, Feb. 22, and Kalisz, March 25, 1813, ap pealed to the European nations as the redeemer of the continent. In Kalisz an offensive treaty against Napoleon was concluded be- tw T een Russia, Prussia, and England, at the I same time that the czar, animated with new impulses of religion, founded a Bible society, to spread the gospel among all nations, lie took part personally in various battles in Germany and France, where he arrived as the leader of the crusade rgainst Napoleon. On Oct. 12, 1813, the treaty of Gulistan put an end to the war with Persia, and Russia acquired thereby a part of the Caucasus and of Armenia. In Paris, Alexander defended the integrity of France against others of the allies. In June, 1814, he visited London, where he was bril- ! liantly received. In July of the same year he I made a short visit to St. Petersburg. The senate proffered to him the title of " God- sent," which he refused. At the congress of | Vienna, of which he was the most influential \ member, he gave to his newly conquered sub jects, the Poles, a constitution, of which Car- not said that it was too good to be observed. I Napoleon s escape from Elba now shook Eu- ALEXANDER (RUSSIA) 283 rope anew. On March 13, 1815, Alexander signed the proclamation by which the great sol dier was outlawed. Waterloo soon followed, and for the second time Alexander entered j Paris victoriously, July 11, 1815. His religious excitement now increased, and with it his in difference first, and then his hostility to liberty. In Paris, in 1815, under the inspirations of the celebrated Mine. Krudener, he formed the holy alliance, which was to base the political order of the world on the princ ples of Christianity, or, as it came to be understood, of despotism. The czar now took the lead in European affairs. In Russia trade and industry revived, and j efforts were made to expand the national re sources. Alexander was inspired with the best | intentions, but lacked the energy to carry them j out. He began a partial abolition of serfdom by emancipating the serfs in the German Baltic provinces, but without allowing the peasantry the liberty of migrating from one province to another. In 1818 he virtually presided at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, and from that epoch may be dated the complete abandon ment of his once cherished liberal and reform atory ideas. Exhausted bodily by various ex cesses, and mentally by the pressure of the terrible events in which for more than ten years he had played a part requiring almost superhuman efforts, he became the leader of tho reaction against all free tendencies. Met- ternich adroitly played upon his fears, and he almost wholly abandoned to his ministers the internal administration of Russia, while he de voted himself to suppressing liberal movements in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Germany. At the congresses of Troppau (1820), Laybach (1821), and Verona (1822), he urgently sus tained this policy. The constitution of Poland had been violated in its principal parts. Irri tation increased between the nation and the sovereign; conspiracies were formed in con nection with the Carbonarism then existing in France and the south of Europe. At the same timo new ideas were brought to Russia by the armies returning from the west, especial ly by those which had occupied France for sev eral years. The political institutions and social state of other nations thus becoming better known, the desire spread rapidly for changes more in harmony with the spirit of the age. Discontent was increased by the absence of administrative ability and integrity. The army was disorganized. In imitation of Austria, and with the view of surrounding St. Petersburg with an immense military force, military colo nies of the peasantry were created by Arak- tcheyeff, now the virtual ruler of the country. The censorship of the press was exceedingly se vere. Alexander became more and more the prey of hypochondria, gloomy, distrustful, inaccessi ble. The man who once received with a smile the memorials presented by his subjects, now ordered that any one who approached him in public should be arrested and kept 24 hours in prison. Once an active freemason, he now suppressed the lodges throughout the empire. The secret police, whose operations embraced not only Russia but all Europe, became more active than ever, the grand duke Constantine, brother of the czar, being at its head. The Jesuits, who, even after their suppression in the 18th century all over the world, had been tolerated in Lithuania and Russia, were expelled in 1821 and 1822, for spreading Ro man Catholicism among wealthy Russian fami lies, and their establishment at St. Petersburg was handed over to the Dominicans. Alexan der estranged himself from many who had once been his friends. Only Volkonski, a thorough absolutist, but otherwise noble-minded, and Araktcheyeff, a despot by nature, remained un shaken in his favor. Araktcheyeff, indeed, had been the favorite of Paul, and Alexander retained him near his person during his whole reign, as if to atone for his father s murder. Jo seph de Maistre, the philosopher of absolutism, then residing at St. Petersburg, said of the czar after an interview that despotism was breathed out of his nostrils. Alexander ac cused his people, the Poles, and all Europe indeed, of ingratitude. lie hated every spot in turn, quitting St. Petersburg and Russia to visit foreign countries, and returning equally dissatisfied. Finally the outbreak in Greece fearfully increased the dissidence between the czar and the nation. The feeling and sympa thies of the people were with the insurgents. For more than half a century the whole in fluence of Russia had been employed to stir up the Greeks. Now, when the moment of action came, Alexander, under the advice of Metternich and Nesselrode, opposed the natr- ral policy of Russia, abandoned the Greeks to their fate, and suffered one of their leaders, Alexander Ypsilanti, once his favorite aide-de- camp and confidant, to pine in Austrian dun geons. The marriage of the czar being child less, he had become fondly attached to a natu ral daughter by Mme. Naryshkin. The death of this girl, coupled with a fearful inundation at St. Petersburg in 1824, destroyed his mental equilibrium. These catastrophes he considered as the punishment of parricide. In September, 1825, in compliance with the order of his phy sicians, he went with his wife on a journey to southern Russia. Arriving at Taganrog, he left the empress and continued his excursion into the Crimea. Attacked by the Crimean fever, combined with erysipelas, he returned to Taganrog, where he died. A few weeks before his death Count Witt, one of the chief authorities of the military colonies in the south of Russia, disclosed to him the existence of a wide-spread conspiracy against the imperial family. He, however, was unmoved by the information, and his successor, his brother Nicholas, had to fight his way to the throne. ALEXANDER II., Nicolaievitch, emperor of Russia, son of the czar Nicholas and Alex- I aridra Feodorovna (originally Charlotte), a ! sister of Frederick William IV. and William. L 2S4- ALEXANDER (RUSSIA) of Prussia, born April 20, 1818. From the cradle he was the object of tbe most tender love of both his parents. His education was exceedingly careful. His father directed it, and gave almost daily attention to its progress. Gen. Frederics, and afterward Gen. Kavelin, were bis immediate tutors. Contrary to the previous usage with Russian imperial princes, his uncle Alexander I. and bis lather were educated by foreigners. Alexander II. re ceived instruction mainly from native Russians, among whom Zhukovsky, one of the greatest Russian poets, filled the chief place. Without transcendent abilities, Alexander learned well everything taught him. His judgment and perception were clear, and he seldom showed those, outbreaks of violent passion which had always been prominent characteristics of the Romanoffs. This gentleness of character he inherited from his mother. Early in youth he showed a love of justice and forbearance, often trying to assuage the feelings which had been wounded by the asperity of his father. Before seeing foreign countries, according to the wish of Nicholas, he travelled all over Russia. When he approached manhood, the prince de Lieven, formerly Russian ambassador in Eon- don, was made his tutor, principally to acquaint him with the diplomacy of Europe, its routine and etiquette, and to accompany him in his travels in England, Germany, and Italy. His father s antipathy to Louis Philippe, however, prevented him from visiting France during the reign of that king. On April 28, 1841, he married Maria Alexandrovna, daughter of the grand duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, born in 1824. It was wholly a love match, the young prince having made his own choice among a host of German princesses. His majority was declared on May 8, 1834, and from the age of 18 he was admitted by his father to study the diffi cult task of governing the empire, by attend ance at all the sittings of ministers with the emperor; and when in 1840 Nicholas resided for several months in Italy, he delegated to his son all his vast powers. Indeed, to the end of his father s life the relations of the two were most confidential and affectionate. On March 2, 1855, he mounted the throne, at a most critical moment for Russia. Nicholas had left the country engaged single-handed in a war against England, France, Turkey, and Sardinia, with Austria as a passive enemy. For a year Alexander unflinchingly continued the strife. Sebastopol was taken in September, 1855 ; but the allies won nothing more, and the Russian resistance continued. During the en suing winter the neutral German states, espe cially Prussia and Saxony, finding Louis Na poleon not averse to peace, offered mediation. An armistice was agreed upon in March, 1856, a conference convoked at Paris, and a final treaty concluded there on the 30th of that month. On Sept. 7, 1856, Alexander was solemnly crowned at Moscow. Since then he has relaxed the lines drawn to the utmost ten sion by his predecessor. Tie began with eman cipating the nation from the military routine which permeated every branch of the adminis tration. He reorganized the army, dissolved the greater part of the military colonies, freed public instruction from military discipline, and, instead of placing discharged officers as tutors and professors at the head of the educational establishments, appointed men fitted by special j studies for these positions. The censorship was considerably relaxed and limited, and for I the first time genuine publicity was introduced into Russia. He prohibited espionage, and in stituted measures against official corruption, allowing it to be ferreted out and exposed. He advanced young men in the different branches of the public service, superseding those whose only merit was long routine. He gave a new impulse to internal industry and trade, at the same time that he sought to de velop the national commercial marine, and to induce native merchants to extend their rela tions with foreign countries. He annulled the impediments which prevented Russians from visiting foreign lands ; granted a general am nesty for political offenders, Poles and Russians, recalling the exiles from Siberia, and allowing fugitives to return ; and inaugurated that vast system of internal communication which is to cover his immense empire with nets of rail roads. His greatest men sure of reform, how ever, is the emancipation of the serfs. He had conceived from his earliest youth the idea of this measure, and was assisted by Nicholas Milutin and Gen. Bostoftzoft in the preliminary steps. He silenced the opposition of the serf- owners by intimating to them that if there was to be revolution, it had better begin at the summit than at the bottom of society. Their emancipation was decreed March 3, 1861, and carried out within the following two years. His reformatory activity, however, was in terrupted, and to a degree checked, by the Polish insurrection of January, 18(58, which was finally crushed in the spring of 1864, and punished by the most rigorous measures against Polish nationality, followed by re strictions of a milder kind imposed upon other non-Russian provinces of the empire. In 1865 the czar rejected the demand of the old Mos cow nobility for a representative government. An attempt upon his life, April 16, 1866, by Dimitri Karakozoff, was frustrated by the in terposition of the peasant Komisaroff, who w r as ennobled as a reward for his action. A second attempt upon his life was made at the Paris exhibition of 1867, by Berezowski, a Pole. The work of reform was resumed in 1870, when the surprising successes of the Germans startled the Russian nation. The hereditary character of the priesthood was abolished, the army system was reorganized on the Prussian model, and vast measures for education were inaugurated. While persever ing in his steady progress of annexation in central Asia, the czar in 1867 divested him- ALEXANDER 285 sell of his foothold on the American continent by the sale of Alaska. During the Franco- Genn.in war he secured at the London con ference of 1870, by a modification of the treaty of Paris of 185(i, the deneutraliza- tion of the Black sea. ALEXANDER ALEX- AXDROVITCII, sjn of the preceding, and, since the death of his elder brother Nicholas in 18G5, cezarevitch or heir apparent to the throne, was born March 10, 184-3. In 1806 he married the Danish princess Dagmar, who had been engaged to his elder brother. Their eldest child, NICHOLAS ALSXAXDROVITCII, was born May 18, 18 JS. The cezarevitch is noted for his sympathies with the old Russian party, who are prejudiced against the Germans, and against all foreigners, ilis younger brother, the grand duke Alexis, visited the United States in 1871- 2. ALEXANDER, the namo of three kings of Scot land. I. Succeeded his brother Edgar, Jan. 8, 1107, and died April 27, 1124. He was a prince of singular energy and capacity, which stood him in good stead during the rebellions that disturbed his reign, all of which he suppressed. He scoured the independence of the Scottish hierarchy, opposed the pretensions of the Eng lish bishops, and cultivated letters. II. .Suc ceeded his father, William the Lion, Dec. 4, 1214, and died July 8, 1240. He stands con spicuous among Scottish kings for adminis trative ability and equity. He united with the league of English barons against King John, and was consequently for two years un der excommunication. On the accession of Henry III., Alexander ratified a peace with England by marrying Henry s sister, after whose death without issue Henry invaded Scotland; but the Scottish barons rallied in such force to the support of their king that the war was concluded without a battle. III. Son of the preceding by his second wife, a French lady, succeeded his father at the age of 8, mar ried the daughter of Henry III. at the age of 10, and died March 16, 1286. He defeated the attempts of Henry to obtain a controlling in fluence in Scottish affairs, repelled an invasion of Haco, king of Norway (1263), securing as a consequence the allegiance of the Hebrides and the Isle of Man, and brought about a marriage between his daughter Margaret and the Nor wegian king Eric (1282). Margaret died the next year, leaving a daughter Margaret, called the Maiden of Norway, whose death on the way to take possession of her throne was the cause of great misfortunes to Scotland. ALEXANDER, Alexander Humphreys, a claimant of the earldom of Stirling, born in Birmingham, England, about 1783. In 1824 he obtained the royal license to assume the name of Alexander, 0:1 the ground that he had a maternal grand father of that name, that his deceased mother was a great-great-granddaughter of the Hon. John Alexander, fourth son of the last earl of ^tiding (see ALEXAXDEB, WILLIAM), and that, all intermediate heirs being extinct, he was sole heir to the honors and property of the earldom and charter. For a short time he succeeded in exercising the privileges of earl without un dergoing any legal investigation of his claims, and he even claimed from the crown a vast territory in Nova Scotia, which he declared had been granted to the earls of Stirling. He raised large sums on these pretensions, and assumed various rights in connection with them; but at last his claims were challenged by the crown lawyers of Scotland in 1839, and a trial ensued, in which Humphreys (Alexander) brought forward to prove his pedigree several documents purporting to be old manuscripts brought to light in various mysterious ways. These were, however, proved to be forgeries; and his pretensions being thus brought to an end, he withdrew into obscurity. ALEXANDER, Archibald, I). D., an American Presbyterian divine, born in Augusta county (now Rockbridge), Va., April 17, 1772, died in Princeton, N. J., Oct. 22, 1851. His grand father, Archibald Alexander, was of Scotch de scent, though an emigrant from Ireland, whence he came to Pennsylvania in 1736, and, after a residence there of about two years, removed to Virginia. His son William, the father of the subject of this sketch, was a farmer and trader. At the age of 10 years Archibald was sent to the academy of the Rev. William Graham, at Timber Ridge meeting house, and at the age of 17 he became tutor in the family of Gen. John Posey, of the Wilderness, twelve miles west of Fredericksburg. He remained there but one year, and in 1789 he returned home and re sumed his studies with Mr. Graham. At this time his mind became influenced by the re markable religious movement which is yet spoken of as "the great revival," and he turned his attention to divinity. lie was licensed at Winchester, Oct. 1, 1791, and spent some years in itinerant missionary service in different Sirts of his native state. In 1789 he succeeded r. John Blair Smith as president of Ilampden Sidney college, but in 1801 resigned, and made a journey to New York and New England. While on his way to the north he visited the Rev. Dr. Waddel, the celebrated " blind preach er " mentioned by Mr. Wirt in the " British Spy," and contracted a matrimonial engage ment with his daughter, Janetta, whom he married on his return in 1802. He then re sumed his former position at Ilampden Sidney college, but owing to insubordination among the students he accepted a call from the Pine street church in Philadelphia, where he was installed pastor May 30, 1807. The degree of D. D. was conferred upon him by the college of -New Jersey in 1810, and in the same year he was elected president of Union college in Georgia, a tact which remained unknown even by his family until after his death. The theological seminary at Princeton was estab lished by the general assembly of the Presby terian church in 1811, and Dr. Alexander was by common consent elected as its first theologi- 286 ALEXANDER cal professor, which position he sustained until his death, lie published "Outlines of the Evi dences of Christianity," which has passed through numerous editions in various lan guages, and is recognized as a text book in sev eral colleges; "Treatise on the Canon of the Old and New Testament" (1820); "History of the Patriarchs" (1833); "Essays on Religious Experience" (1840); "History of African Colonization" (1846); "History of the Log College" (1840); and a "History of the Israel- itish Nation " (1852). His work on " Moral Sci ence " was published after his death ; and among his unfinished works are one on the "Duties and Consolations of the Christian"; one on "Patriarchal Theology"; a memoir of his old instructor, Mr. Graham ; a history of the Presbyterian church in Virginia; biographical sketches of distinguished American clergymen and alumni of the college of New Jersey ; and a work on "Church Polity and Discipline." ALEXANDER, Sir James Edward, a British sol dier and writer, born in Scotland in 1803. He is descended from the Stirling family, studied at Sandhurst, served in the Burmari war (1825), in the Russian service against Turkey (1829), in Dom Pedro s cause in Portugal (1834), in quelling the disturbances in Canada (1839), in the Crimean war, after the close of which he be came colonel (1858), and in the Maori war in New Zealand (1803). He has published " Trav els from India to England" (London, 1827); "Expedition of Discovery into the Interior of Africa" (1838), undertaken while stationed at Cape Town; "Passages in the Life of a Soldier" (1857); and "Incidents of the late Maori War" (1803). ALEXANDER, James Waddel, D. D., eldest son of Dr. Archibald Alexander, born in Louisa county, Va., March 13, 1804, died at the Red Sweet Springs, Va., July 31, 1859. He gradu ated at the college of New Jersey in 1820, was appointed a tutor there in 1824, resigned in the following year, was settled as pastor of a con gregation in Charlotte county, A r a., and in 1828 accepted a call to Trenton, N. J. In 1830 he resigned that charge and became editor of " The Presbyterian, "a religious newspaper published in Philadelphia, whence he was called in 1833 to the professorship of rhetoric and belles-lettres in the college of New Jersey. In 1844 he ac cepted the pastoral charge of the Duane street church in New York. In 1849 he was ap pointed professor of ecclesiastical history and church government in the theological semi nary at Princeton, where he remained till 1851, when he was chosen pastor of the Fifth avenue church in New York, which station he held till his death. His published works include " Consolation, in Discourses on Select Topics, addressed to the Suffering People of God"; " Thoughts on Family Worship " ; " Plain Words to a Young Communicant " ; " Thoughts on Preaching"; a series of essays entitle d "The American Mechanic and Workingman" ; "Discourses on Christian Faith and Practice " ; a biography of Dr. Archibald Alexander ; and numerous contributions to the "Biblical Re- J pertory " and "Princeton Review," as well as to the publications of the American tract society. The Rev. John Hall, D. D., edited in 1800 "Forty Years Familiar Letters of James W. Alexander," with notes (2 vols. 12mo). ALEXANDER, Joseph Addison, I). D., third son of Dr. Archibald Alexander, born in Phila delphia, April 24, 1809, died at Princeton, N. J., Jan. 28, 1860. He graduated at the college of New Jersey in 1820, and from 1880 to 1833 was adjunct professor of ancient languages and literature. He was afterward assistant teacher of Biblical and oriental litera ture in Princeton theological seminary, and in 1838 was elected by the general assembly of the Presbyterian church professor of Biblical criticism and ecclesiastical history. In 1852 he was transferred to the chair of Biblical and ecclesiastical history, which he occupied till his death. He published "The Psalms Trans lated and Explained" (3 vols. 12mo, 1850); "The Prophecies of Isaiah" (revised ed., 2 vols. 8vo, 1864), and an abridgment of the same work ; a volume on primitive church gov ernment, and numerous essays in the "Biblical Repertory" and "Princeton Review." At the time of his death he was engaged, in connec tion with Dr. Hodge, in preparing a commen tary on the New Testament, of which "Notes on the New Testament Literature " and " The j Gospel according to Matthew " have been published. ALEXANDER, Ludwig Christian Gcorg Friedrich Emil, prince of Hesse, son of Louis II. of Hesse-Darmstadt, and brother of the present empress of Russia, born July 15, 1823. He served in the Russian army in the Caucasus, and distinguished himself in 1845 during the storming of Shamyl s residence. In 1851 he retired from the czar s service, and married the daughter of the late Russian general Count Hauke, -who was raised to the rank of coun tess, and in 1858 to that of the princess of Battenberg. In 1852 he entered the Austrian service, took an active part in the war against Italy in 1859, and was charged by Francis Jo seph to negotiate a truce with Napoleon III. In 1866 he commanded the 8th corps in the war against Prussia. He was repeatedly de feated, and was obliged to publish in 1867 his diary of the war in self-defence. ALEXANDER, Stephen, LL. I)., an American astronomer, born in Schenectady, N. Y., Sept. 1, 1806. He was educated at Union college and at Princeton theological seminary, was appointed tutor in the college of New Jer sey in 1833, adjunct professor of mathematics in the same institution in 1834, professor of astronomy in 1840, of mathematics in 1845, and of mechanics and astronomy in 1854. In 1860 he went to the coast of Labrador at the head of an expedition to observe the solar eclipse "of July 18. He has written many scientific papers, which have excited ALEXANDER ALEXANDER OF KALES 28T considerable interest, including one on the "Physical Phenomena attendant upon Solar Eclipses," read before the American philoso phical society at their centenary meeting in 1843; one on the Fundamental Principles of Mathematics, 1 read before the American as sociation for the advancement of science in 1848; one on the "Origin of the Forms and the Present Condition of some of the Clusters of Stars, and several of the Nebulae," read at the meeting of the American association at Albany in 1850; and several communications to the same association relative to the * k Form and Equatorial Diameter of the Asteroid Plan ets," and also on the "Harmonies in the ar rangement of the Solar System, which seem to be confirmatory of the Nebular Hypothesis of Laplace." ALEXANDER, William. I. First earl of Stirling, a Scottish poet, courtier, and speculator, born about 1580, died in 1640. He was the son of a private gentleman, was at an early age trav elling tutor to the earl of Argyle, and about 1604 became attached to the court of James I., who in 1614 knighted him and appointed him gentleman usher to Prince Charles and master of requests. In 1621 he received a royal grant of Nova Scotia, and made strenuous efforts to sell it in parcels, issuing a glowing description of the country in a pamphlet entitled "An Encouragement to Settlers." To aid him, Charles I. in 1625 created the order of baronets of Nova Scotia, the title to be conferred upon purchasers of large tracts, and granted him the privilege of coining base copper money. According to Sir Thomas LTrquhart, after sell ing 300 of these baronetcies, instead of 150, to which number they were to have been limit ed, and those who emigrated to the colony having failed to make a settlement, Alexander disposed of all rights and interests there to the French on his own account. He obtained from the king in 1628 a charter of the lordship of Canada, and from the council of New England a grant of territory, including Long Island under the name of the island of Stirling ; and he had also received at different times royal grants of five baronies in Scotland. But not withstanding all these favors, he died so in volved that his family estates were given up to his creditors. He was appointed secretary of state in 1626, keeper of the signet in 1627, a commissioner of th > exchequer in 1628, and an extraordinary lord of session in 1631. In 1630 he was created Viscount Stirling, and in 1633 earl of Stirling, Viscount Canada, &c. James I. called Alexander his philosophical poet. His works are numerous, and all didac tic, heavy, and turgid, even when in the dra matic form. The principal are "Doomsday," in more than 10,000 lines, and "Four Mo- narchicke Tragedies," viz. : "Darius," "Julius Cresar," "Croesus," and "The Alexandrian Tragedy." His titles expired with the fifth earl, his last male descendant, in 1739, but sev eral claimants have since arisen. II. A major general in the American revolutionary army, born in New York in 1726, died Jan. 15, 1783. Claiming the earldom of Stirling, to which many of his contemporaries believed him to be entitled, he is generally known in American history as Lord Stirling. Having received an excellent education, more partic ularly in mathematics, he attained a high reputation as a man of science. During the French and Indian war he Avas a member of the military family of Gen. Shirley, acting at different times as commissary, aide-de-camp, and secretary. After the close of the war he went to Scotland, where he spent a large por tion of his fortune in the unsuccessful prosecu tion of his claims to the title and estates of Stirling. On the breaking out of the war of the revolution he was appointed colonel of a regiment, and while stationed at Ne\v York, previous to the arrival of Washington from Boston, he fitted out an expedition consisting of a pilot boat and some smaller boats, with which he put to sea at night, eluding the vigi lance of the sentinels of the British frigate Asia, which then lay in the harbor, and cap tured a transport laden with stores for the enemy at Boston. He opened the tattle of Long Island, where, though he fought with ob stinate bravery, he was compelled to sur render, after having secured the retreat of a large portion of his command. Having been exchanged, he fought under Washington at Brandywine, commanded the reserve at Ger- mantown, and led a division at Monmouth. He died from an attack of gout. The name of Lord Stirling will always occupy an honorable place in American history, not only for his unques tioned patriotism and personal courage, but also for the part he took in exposing and de feating the designs of the "Conway cabal." ALEXANDER OF APHRODISIAS (in Caria), sur- named the Expounder from his commenta ries on Aristotle, flourished at the beginning of the 3d century of the Christian era. His most important work, "On Fate," in which he controverts the doctrine of necessity, was pub lished by Orelli at Zurich in 1824. His other writings, mostly made up of notes upon Aris totle, were highly valued by the Arabs. ALEXANDER ARCHIPELAGO. See ALASKA. ALEXANDER BALAS, king of Syria from 150 to 146 B. C. lie pretended to be a natural son of Antiochus Epiphanes, and his claim to succeed him was supported by the Romans and several of the princes of Asia. lie de feated the troops of Demetrius Soter, and took possession of his throne, after which he aban doned himself to pleasure. Demetrius Nica- tor, son of Demetrius Soter, dethroned him and drove him into Arabia, where he was murdered by the chieftain with whom he had taken refuge. ALEXANDER OF HALES, an English theologian, surnamed the Irrefragable Doctor, died Aug. 27, 1245. A great part of his life was passed at Paris, where he taught philosophy and theology. 288 ALEXANDER JANN^EUS ALEXANDER NEVSKOI In 1222 lie became a Franciscan monk, and was the first of his order to retain his doctor ate in the university. Bonaventura was his pupil, and perhaps also Aquinas. His chief work was his tiumma Theologice, which, after being examined and approved by a committee of 70 doctors, was accepted as a complete man ual of instruction in theology for all institu tions of learning in Christendom. ALEXANDER JANNJEUS, king of the Jews, of the house of the Asraoneans, from 105 to 78 B. C. (See HEBREWS.) ALEXANDER JOHN I., prince of Roumania, of the house of Cuza, born in Galatz, March 20, 1 820. lie was educated in Paris, became a colo nel in the Moldavian service, and held several civil offices, resigning in consequence of disagree ment with the government about the Austrian occupation. He was an active partisan of the uniop party, which favored the political union of the two .Danubian principalities, arid was hostile to Austrian influence. He was ap pointed minister of Avar in 1858, and elected prince of Moldavia Jan. 17, 1850, and of "\Val- lachia Feb. 5. In October, 1800, he obtained the recognition of the sultan, and on Dec. 28, 1861, he proclaimed the union of the two prin cipalities under the name of Roumania. He dissolved the national assembly March 14, 1863, abrogated the electoral law May 14, 1864, and promulgated a new and entirely arbitrary con stitution. A conspiracy formed against him in 1865 was suppressed, but one instigated in 1866 by Bratiano, Ghika, Cantacuzene, and other eminent public men, put an end to his reign. On the night of Feb. 23 they sent officers to his house, who forced him to sign his abdica tion. A provisional government was pro claimed April 13, 1866. Prince Charles of Hohenzollern, a relative of the king of Prussia, was chosen reigning prince, and Alexander Cuza has since lived in retirement at Vienna. ALEXANDER KARAGEORGEHTCH, a Servian prince, born at Topola, Oct. 11, 1806. After the execution of his father, Czerny or Kara George, at Belgrade in 1817, his "mother went with him to Wallachia. He Avas for some time in the Russian military service, until permis sion was granted for his return to Servia, when he became aide-de-camp of the reigning prince, Michael Obrenovitch. After the downfall of the Obrenovitch dynasty, Alexander Avas elected prince of Servia, Sept. 14, 1842. This choice was ratified by Turkey, but not by Rus sia. Both governments sent commissioners to Servia, and on June 15, 1843, he was reflected with the consent of the two powers. He pro moted education and industry, and improved the civil and military service. lie was soon accused, however, of leaning too much toward Turkey, especially during the Crimean Avar, when he prevented the national party from rising in rebellion against the Porte, The sul tan rewarded his loyalty by confirming the privileges which he had granted to Servia, and by allowing the country to be placed, by the I terms of the treaty of Paris of March 30, 1856, : under the collective protection of the great ! powers, instead of, as previously, under the sole protection of the Porte. A conspiracy I against him Avas discovered in 1857, and its two ringleaders, the presidents of the senate and | the supreme court of Servia, Stethnovitch and I Rayovitch, were sentenced to death, and their | six accomplices to haul labor for life. The popular feeling against this sentence ran so high that the authorities durst not execute it, 1 while Alexander incurred still greater odium | by invoking the assistance of the Turkish au- ! thorities for the dcteetk n and punishment of ! the conspirators. He Avas called upon to re sign ; and on his retiring to the fortress of Bel grade, under the protection of Turkish guns, his expulsion from the throne and the country Avas decreed by the Servian national assembly (December, 1858), and Prince Milosh Obreno vitch, then an octogenarian, was reinstated. I Milosh, on his death, Sept. 26, 18( ; 0, was suc- i ceeded by his sen, Prince Michael Obrenovitch. Alexander, living in Hungary, constantly in- 1 trigued with Servian revolutionists and foreign schemers. A conspiracy instigated by them in 1864 was frustrated, but that of 1868 resulted in the assassination of Prince Michael (June 10), but not in the overthrow of the Obreno- j vitch dynasty. Milan (Obrenovitch IV.), Mi- | chad s cousin and adopted son (born in 1854), was proclaimed his successor under a regency. j The murderers were arrested, and 15 of them, I including t\vo brothers of Prince Alexander, were at once put to death, while the prince himself, convicted of having planned and given I money for the executien of the murder, was i sentenced to 20 years imprisonment by the ! court of Belgrade. His surrender being de- ! mended, the Hungarian authorities ordered a i neAv trial at Pesth, and the evidence Avas not I deemed sufficiently strong for his conviction. I He was not molested in Pesth for nearly 18 ! months, when another trial took place (1870), which again resulted in his favor. In Janu ary, 1871, this verdict was reversed by a court of appeal, and he was sentenced to eight years close imprisonment and to payment of costs; but the sentence has not been executed. ALEXANDER KEYSKOI, a Russian hero and saint, son of the grand duke Ycroslav II. of Novgorod and Vkdimi-r, born in 1219, died in 1263. In his youth he fought against the Tartars, who, however, in 12C8 succeeded in making Russia tributary. He was more ! successful in defending the northern bor-nda- | ries against the encroachments of the Danes, ! the Swedes, and the knights sword-bearers. He Avon a great battle against the Swedes in 1240, on the banks of the Neva, near the mod ern St. Petersburg; hence his surname of Nevskoi. In 1243 he deieated the knights on the ice of Lake Peipus. On the death of his father in 1247 he became grand duke of Nov gorod, and on that of his brother Andrew grand duke of Vladimir, and lord paramount ALEXANDER SEVERUS ALEXANDRIA 289 of all the other sovereign Russian dukes. To an embassy from Pope Innocent IV., sent to unite the western and eastern churches, he answered : u We know the true teaching of the church ; we will neither accept yours nor hear anything about it." The Russian church can onized him, and his name is preserved in the na tional songs. Peter the Great erected to his memory a great monastery on the spot where the battle on the Neva was won, and created the order of Alexander Nevskoi. ALEXANDER SEVERUS, Roman emperor from A. D. 222 to 235, the son of Gessius Marcianus and Julia Mammasa, born at Arce in Phoenicia, in the temple of Alexander the Great, during the attendance of his parents there at a reli gious festival. The date of his birth is uncer tain, but most historians ascribe it to the au tumn of 205. His original name was Alexia- nus Bassianus. On the elevation of his cousin Elagabahis to the purple, he accompanied his mother to Rome. In 221 he was adopted by the emperor, and created Caesar, pontiff, con sul elect, and princeps juventutis. He now as sumed the name of Marcus Aurelius Alexan der. Elagabahis soon regarded him as a rival whose destruction was essential to his own safety ; but Alexander s life was preserved by the watchfulness of his mother and the affec tion of the soldiers, who ultimately avenged his injuries by sacrificing his enemy. On the death of Elagabalus he was proclaimed em peror by the praetorians, and the choice was confirmed by the senate. He now took the appellation of Severus, as he was ambitious of being thought a descendant of the emperor Septimius Severus. During nine years of peace he reformed abuses, promoted men of merit and capacity, and restored health to the em pire. In 231, however, he assumed command of the eastern legions to defend his Asiatic provinces from a Persian invasion. Crossing the Euphrates, he encountered the hostile hosts in Mesopotamia, and defeated them with i great slaughter. Receiving intelligence that the Germans were up in arms and preparing | for an irruption into Gaul, he hastened back I to place himself at the head of the Rhenish I army; but at the very opening of the campaign | he was waylaid and slain, along with his mother (to whose care his elevated character, in the midst of corruption, is attributed), by a party of mutineers, who had probably been instigated ! to the deed by his successor Maximin. ALEXAXDRE, Aaron, a chess player, born at Hohenfeld, Bavaria, about 1766, died in Lon don, Nov. 16, 1850. He was for some time ! rabbi at Fiirth, and afterward teacher of Ger- I man at Paris, where he established a boarding school. His Encyclopedic des ecliecs (Paris, j 1837), and his Collection des plus beaux pro- \ Wemes d echecs (Paris, 1840), established for ! him a high reputation as an authority on chess. | tie was among the first chess players of the ; century, and in his 80th year continued to be j u thorough master of the game. In France ! VOL. i-19 and in Europe generally he was known among chess players as "Father Alexandre." ALEXANDRETTA (Turk. Iskanderun; anc. Alexandria ad Issum), a Turkish seaport on the N. coast of Syria, in the vilayet of Aleppo, situated on the E. side of the bay of Iskanderun, in lat. 36 35 N., Ion. 30 E., 23 m. X. of Antioch; pop. about 1,000. Though much improved of late years, especially by the drainage of a pestilential marsh in its rear, it is still a wretched and unhealthy village. The harbor is capacious, and the town has consid erable commercial importance as the port of Antioch and Aleppo. The products of north ern Syria and Mesopotamia, consisting of grain, oils, soaps, gallnuts, wool, cotton, tobacco, &c., and European manufactures, pass through this port. English capitalists have projected a rail road from this port through the valley of the Eu phrates to the Persian gulf, to be ultimately ex tended N. W. to Constantinople. Alexandretta was founded by Alexander the Great to com memorate his victory over Darius III. in 333 on the neighboring plains of Issus. In 1097 it was taken by Tancred ; and in 1832 it was the scene of a victory by the army of Mehemet Ali over the Turks. ALEXANDRIA, a N. E. county of Virginia, on the Potomac, opposite Washington ; area, 36 sq. in. ; pop. in 1870, 16,755, of whom 7,310 were colored. It was once a part of the Dis trict of Columbia, and was retroceded to Vir ginia by act of congress in 1846. Its sur face is hilly and its soil is poor and thin. The staple products are corn, wheat, oats, and hay. ALEXANDRIA, a port of entry and capital of Alexandria county, Va., on the right bank of the Potomac, 7 m. below Washington ; pop. in 1860, 12,652; in 1870, 13,570, of whom 5,300 were colored. The Potomac is here a mile wide, forming a harbor able to accommo date the largest ships. The city is generally well paved and lightgd with gas, and water has been introduced by machinery. It is con nected by a railroad 90 ni. long with the Cen tral railroad of Virginia at Gordonsville, and has a railroad to Leesburg, 40 m. distant, and one to Washington connecting with the Balti more and Ohio railroad. It also has a canal joining the Chesapeake and Ohio canal at Georgetown. The imports from foreign coun tries in 1870 amounted to $33,822, and the ex ports to $39,648 ; 24 vessels were entered from foreign countries with a tonnage of 5,697 and crews of 192 men; 4 vessels with a ton nage of 1,029 were cleared for foreign countries. The number of vessels registered, enrolled, and licensed was 128, with a tonnage of 7,646. Two daily newspapers with tri- weekly editions and one monthly are published here. The city of Alexandria belongs to the territory ceded by Virginia in 1789 to the Union as part of the District of Columbia, and retro- ceded in 1846. At the opening of the civil war Alexandria was in possession of the con federates. On the 24th of May it was entered 290 ALEXANDRIA Alexandria, Egypt Mehemet Ali Square. by the Union forces under Col. Ellsworth, who was shot while hauling down a confederate flag. It was subsequently the seat of govern ment of the few counties of eastern Virginia which adhered to the Union, being occupied by the federal army, and recognized Francis II. Pierpont as governor of the state. ALEXANDRIA, a town, capital of the parish of Rapid cs, La., on the Red river, about 50 m. (direct) from its junction with the Mississippi ; pop. in 1870, 1,218, of whom 448 were colored ; in 1860, 1,461. It is the shipping point of a rich cotton country. When the Shreveport expedition of Gen. Banks and Admiral Porter was descending the river in April, 1864, the fleet, owing to low water was unable to pass the falls at Alexandria, and the destruction or capture of all the vessels, valued at nearly $2,- 000,000, seemed inevitable. In this emergency Lieut. Col. Joseph Bailey, engineer of the 19th corps, proposed to construct a dam across the channel of the river here 758 feet wide, 4 to 6 feet deep, and running at the rate of 10 miles an hour a short distance below the falls. Eight days work had nearly completed the dam, and the water had risen enough for all oxcept the largest vessels to pass, when a por- iion of the work gave way. Admiral Porter immediately ordered the four smaller vessels of the fleet to pass through the breach, which, though attended with great danger, was suc cessfully accomplished. Several wing dams directly at the head of the falls were now con structed, raising the water on the rapids more than a foot additional, when the rest of the fleet passed safely down. The town was near ly destroyed by an accidental fire on the day of its evacuation by the federal troops, May 13 following. ALEXANDRIA (Turk. IsJcanderiyeli), a city of Egypt, on the Mediterranean, 112 m. N. W. of Cairo, founded by Alexander the Great after the destruction of Tyre, 332 B. C. Dinocrates or Dinochares was the architect, and the site se lected was at the Canopic mouth of the Nile, between the sea and Lake Mareotis. The city was regularly laid out and intersected by two main streets, upward of 100 feet wide, run ning from N. to S. and from E. to W. respec tively. On the island of Pharos a lighthouse of vast height was erected, and this island itself was connected with the mainland by a dike which divided the inner from the outer harbor, and through which vessels could pass by means of movable bridges. The east end of the town was called the Bruchium, and here was the royal palace of the Ptolemies. Under them Alexandria was the great centre to which the trade of Europe and the Mediterranean with Persia and the far east converged. It num bered about 300,000 free inhabitants, of vari ous nationalities, and also became the centre of universal learning. Here the schools of Grecian philosophy, and especially the Plato- nists, flourished. Among its ornaments were its library and the museum, an establishment in which scholars were maintained at public- cost. In Alexandria the Scriptures Avere first made known to the heathen by the Septuagint version, and here Christianity early took root, although the city soon became the scene of ran corous and unchristian disputation and violence. In no place were religious conflicts more fre quent or more sanguinary. It also witnessed much political strife, suffering especially dur ing the struggle of Cleopatra with her broth er Ptolemy (Caesar s Alexandrine war). In 30 B. C. it fell permanently under the power ALEXANDRIAN CODEX ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY 291 of the Romans ; and, notwithstanding the re moval of many of the most precious works of art to Rome, its greatness continued till the establishment of the seat of empire at Con stantinople. From the rise of Constantino ple, though still a centre of commerce, Alex andria as a capital began seriously to de cline. In A. I). 640 it was taken by the Sara cens under Amrn, the general of the caliph Omar, and in 960 Cairo was founded by the caliphs of the Fatimite dynasty, and made the capital of Egypt. The discovery of the route to India and the East by the Cape of Good Hope completed its decay. At present the under ground cisterns for the preservation of the Nile water are the only perfect relics of the past. Modern Alexandria is situated on the causeway which once formed the communication between the mainland and the Pharos, and which by constant accumulation of sand and material is now formed into a neck of land. There are two ports, one at the extremity of an extensive roadstead west of the Pharos, in which ves sels of the line may lie ; the other, the modern port, on the east of the Pharos, is less advan tageous. Lake Mareotis was dried up by ac cumulations of sand, but in 1801 the British army cut through the narrow strip which sep arated it from the lake of Aboukir, and let in the sea again. Alexandria is fast becoming as populous as it was in the days of antiqu ity, and looks (1873) rather like an Italian than an ori ental city. The ruins of the ancient city and the wretched habitations of the Arabs are no longer as conspicuous as they were formerly. Large streets well paved and lighted with gas are seen in the European quarter, and abound with fine residences. The great promenade of the Mehemet Ali square, formerly the square of the Consuls, is the central and most animated point of the city. The population was estimated in 1870 at 238,888, including, besides Arabs, Copts, Turks, Persians, Armenians, and Jews, 25,000 Greeks, 20,000 Italians, 15,000 French, 12,000 English Maltese, 12,000 Levantines of miscella neous European descent, 8,000 Germans and Swiss, 8,000 various foreigners, comprising a number of American officers in the khedive s army and American engineers and mission aries. Railways connect the city with Cairo and the Suez canal and with Ramleh. It is as a place of transit for passengers that Alex andria is most remarkable, the steamers to and from India, the Mediterranean, and the Levant all contributing to the prosperity of the city. In 1869 there were 56,000 passengers in the 2,000 sailing ships, and nearly 80,000 in the 1,000 steamers which entered the port, besides men-of-war. ALEXANDRIAN CODEX, an uncial manuscript of the Old and New Testament, so named from the fact that it was found at Alexandria by Cyrillus Lucaris, the patriarch of Constantino ple, who presented it in 1628 to Charles I. of England. It was written on vellum, in double columns, condensed and unaccented. It contains, besides the canonical books, slight ly varied in their order, most of the apoc rypha. Some writers have been of the opinion that the writer of this codex followed three dif ferent editions the Byzantine in the gospels, the western in the Acts and catholic epistles, and the Alexandrine in the epistles of Paul and therefore speak disparagingly of its authority. Others consider it the most perfect copy of the Scriptures extant. The famous passage con cerning the three witnesses (1 John v. 7) is not contained in this codex ; and there are several chasms in the text, more especially in the New Testament. A portion of the gospels of St. Matthew and of St. John, as well as of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians, is wanting. On the first page of the text of Genesis is a declaration that the MS. was dedicated to the use of the patriarch of Alexandria, and an anathema of excommunication against him who shall remove it from the library. Cyrillus, the donor of the MS. to Charles, was a patriarch of Alexandria before his removal to Constanti nople. By some he has been accused of for gery in this whole matter. The MS. is in very good condition generally. It is the only one known which contains the genuine epistle of Clement to the Corinthians. This codex is now preserved in the British museum. ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY, a collection of books formed by Ptolemy I. and Ptolemy II. of Egypt, and probably the largest prior to the invention of printing. It was founded, it is said, at the suggestion of Demetrius Phale- reus, who, when a fugitive at the Egyptian court, spoke with admiration of the public li braries at Athens. Demetrius was appointed superintendent, and diligently employed him self in the collection of the literature of all nations, Jewish, Chaldee, Persian, Ethiopian, Egyptian, Greek, Roman, &c. According to Eusebius, there were 100,000 volumes in the library at the death of Ptolemy Philadelphus ; and subsequently the number was increased to 700,000. The volumina or rolls, however, contained far less than a printed volume ; as, for instance, the "Metamorphoses " of Ovid, in 15 books, would be considered as 15 volumes. During the siege which Caesar stood in Alexan dria, a large part of the library was burned. Gibbon asserts that the old library was totally consumed, and that the collection from Perga- mus, which was presented by Mark Antony to Cleopatra, was the foundation of the new one, which continued to increase in size and repu tation for four centuries, until dispersed by Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, at the de struction of the Serapeum, about A. D. 390. Still the library was reestablished ; and Alex andria continued to flourish as one of the chief seats of literature until it was conquered by the Arabs in 640. The library was then burned, according to a story of very questionable au thenticity, in consequence of the fanatic deci sion of the caliph Omar : " If these writings of the Greeks agree with the Book of God, 292 ALEXANDKIAN SCHOOL ALEXIS they are useless and need not be preserved ; if they disagree, they are pernicious and ought to be destroyed." Accordingly, it is said, they were employed to heat the 4,000 baths of the city; and such was their number, that six months were barely sufficient for the con sumption of the precious fuel. There is no doubt, however, that after 040 the library ceased to exist as a public institution. Con nected with the library was a college, or re treat for learned men, called the museum, where they were maintained at public expense. ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL, a term vaguely ap plied to a development of Neo-Platonisni by the philosophers of Alexandria in Egypt about the end of the 2d century. The characteristic of the school was a broad eclecticism based upon the rationalism of Plato and largely in fluenced by the supernaturalism of the Grecian- ized Jews. Afterward the early teachers of Christianity modified it still more by an ad mixture of Aristotelianism, and it became a transition system between the pagan and Chris tian beliefs, aiming to harmonize all philosophy and all religion. The earliest philosopher of this school was the Jew Philo, but it first took decided form from Ammonias Saccas, about 193. The other chief names identified with it are those of Plotinus, Porphyry, lamblichus, lliero- cles, Proclus, Pantasnus, Clement, Origen, Athanasius, Gregory Nazianzen, and Cyril. Of these, Philo represents the Judaistic ex treme, while Clement is the great Christian Alexandrian. The history of the Alexandrian school has been written by Matter (2 vols., Paris, 1840- 44) and Simon (2 vols., Paris, 1844- 5). See also De Vecole cTAlexandrie, by Barthelemy Saint-IIilaire (Paris, 1845). ALEXANDRINE, or Alexandrian, in poetry, a metre consisting of 12 syllables, or 12 and 13 alternately; so called, according to some, from a poem on the life of Alexander written in this kind of verse by a French poet of the latter half of the 12th century. The French have ever since cultivated this spe cies of verse more than any other European nation. Their tragedies are mostly composed of Alexandrines. In his "Essay on Criticism," Pope gives the English opinion of them : A needless Alexandrine ends the song, That like a wounded snake drags its slow length along. ALEXANDROPOL (formerly Gumr-i), an im portant fortress and town in Russian Armenia, near the frontier of Turkey, 54 m. N". W. of Erivan; pop. in 1870, 17,272. Near it the Russians under Bariatinski obtained on Oct. 30, 1853, a great victory over the Turks. ALEXANDROV, a town of Russia, in the government of Vladimir, 58 m. N. E. of Mos cow, on the river Seraya; pop. in 1870, 5,810. It contains dye works and manu factories of iron ware and muskets. Among the many churches is one with a nunnery and the tombs of Martha and Theodosia, two sisters of Peter the Great. The czar Ivan II. Vasilievitch established here the first ; printing press introduced into Russia, and in I 1560 made the town the capital of his newly I founded dominion of Opritchina. Near the town is an extensive imperial stud of horses founded by the empress Elizabeth in 1761 and completed in 1781, famous for the variety of the breeds. ALEXANDROVSK, a town of Little Russia, on the left bank of the Dnieper, below its cata racts, in the government and 48 m. S. of Ye- katerinoslav ; pop. in 1870, 4,001. It is the place of shipment by the Dnieper for the Black sea, though the trade might be much more active considering the excellent situation of the town. The district of Alexandrovsk for merly contained the lines of fortifications from the Dnieper to the sea of Azov, established in 1770 against the Tartars. The neighboring village of Stilja is noted for its extensive coal mines. Many settlements of foreigners, chiefiy Germans, are in this district. ALEXEI, the Russian form of Alexis. See ALEXIS. ALEXIS (or Alexius) It, Comnenus, emperor of Trebizond (Trapezus), born in 1182, died in February, 1222. The enmity of Isaac Angelus to the family of the Comneni threatened the I entire extermination of that illustrious house. The sons of the last Comnenian emperor of Constantinople, John and Manuel, were by his command mutilated and murdered in prison. The latter, however, left two infant sons, Alexis and David, who fled with their mother to their relative Thamar, the Georgian queen of Tiflis, by whom they were protected and educated. They gradually formed a do minion on the banks of the Phasis, which the distracted government of the Angeli failed to suppress. On the second capture of Constan- I tinople by the Latins, in 1204, Alexis and his brother rallied around them numerous discontented Greeks, left their retreat, and ! passed the Phasis. Alexis captured Trebizond, Cerasus, and Mesochaldion, and took posses sion of all that coast of the Black sea as far as Amisns, while David advanced beyond tjie Ilalys, took Sinope, and pushed his conquests to the environs of Constantinople. Alexis now assumed the imperial title, proclaiming himself king and ruler of all Anatolia. His reign was troubled by perpetual wars with the Turks, and with Theodore Lascaris, who having, like Alexis, become master of a fragment of the empire, was entitled the emperor of Nica3a. In 1214 Alexis concluded a peace with Theodore, but the same year fell into the hands of the sultan of Iconium, and purchased his liberty by yielding to the Turks the town and dis trict of Sinope. His empire at his death was reduced to the coast of the Black sea, com prised between the Phasis on the east and the Thermodon on the west. ALEXIS (or Alexius) I., Conmenus, emperor of Constantinople, born in 1048, died Aug. 15, 1118. He was the son of John Comnenus, who refused the succession bequeathed to him ALEXIS by his brother Isaac. Alexis in his youth served : the emperor Michael VII. in the Turkish war, \ and against the rebel Nicephorus Botaniates. J He was one of the most faithful adherents of j Michael till he was deposed by his rebel en emy, when he offered his services to the new | emperor. Nicephorus bestowed honors upon : him, and charged him with restoring the peace of the empire, then disturbed by many rebel lions. Alexis triumphed over the most power- j ful leaders of revolt, Bryennius and Basilacius, but his victories excited the jealousy of the ; emperor and the envy of the courtiers; and when he refused to march against a new rebel, ; the husband of his sister, his destruction was I resolved upon. Escaping by the protection of | the empress to the army, of which he was the ; favorite, he was immediately proclaimed em- j peror by the soldiers, captured Constantino- ! pie in 1081, and gave it up to pillage. Ni- cephorus was permitted to retire to a convent. ! Alexis found the empire in internal discom- j posure, and surrounded by enemies. On the I east the Seljuk Turks, overrunning the prov- ! inces of Asia, had spread from Persia to the j Hellespont; on the west, the Normans, under Robert Guiscard, after brilliant successes in Italy, were advancing eastward; and new swarms of barbarians from the north, having ! crossed the Danube and occupied Thrace, had j several times defeated the imperial troops. The first measure of Alexis was to conclude a peace with the Turks by abandoning to them the provinces of which they already had pos session. Heavy exactions and spoliations of the churches furnished him the means to at once raise an army of 70,000 men, with which | he marched for the deliverance of Durazzo, ! besieged by the Normans. His treaty with the sultan had procured him an auxiliary force of some thousand Turks, and he had even suc ceeded in enlisting under his banner some of the wild Transdanubians. The battle was fought Oct. 18, 1081 ; and the Normans, led by ! Robert and his wife Gaita, gained a complete | victory. Robert was now obliged by a revolt of his vassals to return for a time to Italy, which gave Alexis leisure to repel the incur sions of the Turks. By means of his navy he contended with doubtful success against them till 1095, but was in despair when he learned that the Turks had availed themselves of the | art of some Greek prisoners to build a fleet, j with which they were approaching Constan tinople. He now addressed himself for aid to the West, declaring that the existence of Chris- tendom was threatened by this new erup- tipn of barbarians. The capture of Jerusalem by the Moslems, the preaching of Peter the Hermit, and the activity of Pope Urban II., produced a meeting of the Christian princes at Piacenza. The ambassadors of Alexis con- j tributed much toward deciding the princes to ; join the first crusade. Alexis had thought only of a moderate succor from the West; I when therefore in 1096 the promiscuous armies ALEXIS MIKIIAILOVITCII 293 of the crusaders began to arrive, numbering untold hosts, and led on by the most renowned leaders of Europe, his fears were quite as great as his hopes, and he was glad to give them a quick passage into Asia, where at first the Turks found little difficulty in annihilating them. Godfrey of Bouillon and Hugh, count of Vermandois, encamped during the winter in the environs of Constantinople, and it was only by a skilful display of his military forces that the emperor felt his capital safe. He failed to give them the assistance which he had promised, and in 1097- demanded from the chiefs of the crusade that they should restore to him his ancient possessions in Asia, and should do homage to him for all the territory which they conquered out of certain prescribed limits. They consented, though Bohemond, the son of the emperor s old enemy Robert Guis card, long refused, and Tancred passed over into Asia to avoid the public ceremony of do ing homage, at which Count Robert of Paris insulted before the world the imperial majesty. Harmony never existed between Alexis and the leaders of the crusades; and though he rendered them important assistance in the siege of NicaBa, and by their aid recovered some important towns of Asia Minor, and the islands of Rhodes and Chios, yet by abandoning the Christians before Antioch, he so outraged Bo hemond that that prince returned to Europe, increased his army, and began to wage war in Thrace against Alexis. He, however, gained but slight successes, and soon made peace. In the last years of his life Alexis continued to war against the Turks, and defeated them in great battles in 1115 and 1116. Alexis was an able ruler, valiant, active, and politic ; but he was also dissembling and hypocritical. ALEXIS, Wilibald. See HIKING. ALEXIS MIKHAILOVITCH, second czar of Rus sia of the Romanoff lineage, born March 10, 1629, succeeded his father Michael Fedoro- vitch July 12, 1645, died Jan. 29, 1676. During the earlier years of his reign he had for ad visers his tutor, Morozoff, and the grand chan cellor Plesoff. An insurrection broke out against his counsellors, and Plesoff was slain. Next (1648) appeared two pretenders to the crown : one calling himself Dimitri (the last pretender who took that name), the other a certain Ankudinoff, calling himself a son of the czar Basil Shuiskoi. Alexis put them down, and afterward proved himself one of the best sovereigns who ever occupied the Russian throne. His reign marked the dawn of that civilization which his son Peter the Great more widely diffused over Russia. He encour aged learning, fostered printing establishments, attracted to Russia from abroad men of letters, artists, physicians, manufacturers, and opera tives. He was active, intelligent, and tem perate. To break the pride of the princes and boyars, who refused generally to obey the orders of a military or civil superior when the date of his title was later than their own, 294 ALEXIS PETROVITCH ALFIERI Alexis ordered these rebels to deposit all the documents relating to their rank in the chan cery of the imperial council, and then burned them together with the old nobiliar record of the empire, called the Velvet Book. Under his reign Russia for the first time began to have the advantage over the Poles, whom he defeated in two wars. By the treaties of Mos cow (1656) and Andruszow (1667) Alexis re covered several provinces formerly taken from Russia. lie was also for several years at war with Sweden, which ended with an armistice in 1658 and a treaty in 1661, mutually guaran teeing their former possessions. During his reign the Cossacks of the Ukraine, for centuries tributaries of Poland, seceded and submitted to Russia. lie was twice married, and left children by both wives. The first was a Milos- lavska, of a Russian boyar family ; the sec ond a Naryshkin, a person of lower rank, whom Alexis chose from the sight of her shoe, which made him think she had a very small foot. She was the mother of Peter the Great. ALEXIS PETROVITCH, the eldest son of Peter the Great and of Eudoxia Lapukhin, born in Moscow, Feb. 18, 1690, died July 7, 1718. Sur rounded from childhood by the relations of his mother, he was the centre of all those who were, like her, averse to the reforms introduced by his father. He affected a fanatic love of old Russian customs and superstitions, and Pe ter decided to exclude him from the throne. Alexis, then about 22 years old, seemingly con sented to this plan, saying it was his wish to become a monk. lie entered a monastery, but still kept up his intercourse with the malcon tents, with his mother, who had likewise been shut up in a convent, and with her numerous dissatisfied relations. During the travels of Peter through various European countries in 1717, Alexis announced that he had re ceived the order of his father to join him abroad. He thus managed to escape to Vien na, where he claimed the protection of the Ger man emperor, and thence he went to Naples. Peter sent after the fugitive Rumiantzoff, cap tain of the guards, and Tolstoi, the privy coun cillor, who, partly by coaxing, partly by men aces, succeeded in bringing him back to St. Petersburg. On Feb. 2, 1718, Peter disinherit ed Alexis, impeaching him and many of his kindred and advisers for high treason. He was found guilty by the great council of the empire and condemned to death. Peter par doned him, but he died July 7, 1718, a few days after the condemnation, some say from fear and excitement ; but the more general belief is, that he was either poisoned or secretly be headed by the order of his father. Peter him self published the proceedings of the trial. Alexis, when very young, was married to a princess of Wolfenbuttel, who died in 1715, leaving a daughter, and a son who reigned afterward as Peter II. ALFANI, the name of two Italian painters, Dome-nico di Paris, born in Perugia about 1483, died after 1540 ; and Orazio di Paris, son of the former, born in Perugia in 1510, died in 1583. Their pictures have often been con founded with each other, and also mistaken for those of Raphael. ALFARABIIS, an Arabian philosopher, died about 950. He travelled, acquired the knowl edge of a large number of languages, and settled at Damascus, where he was joyfully received by the Abbasside caliph, who settled a pen sion upon him. He led an extremely temper ate life, approaching asceticism. His writings were very voluminous and comprehensive, and he is reputed to have been the first who at tempted the compilation of an encyclopaedia, the MS. of which is in the Escurial. ALFIERI, Yittorio, count, an Italian tragic poet, born at Asti, Piedmont, Jan. 17, 1749, died in Florence, Oct. 8, 1803. lie received a very imperfect education at the college of nobles in Turin, which was terminated by his entrance at the age of 1 7 into the army. As his regiment was a provincial one, from which only a few days service at stated annual pe riods was required, he easily obtained the roy al assent to an extended leave of absence for the purpose of travel. With ample wealth, a restless and excitable temperament, and a keen appreciation of the pleasures of life, he passed several years in wandering over the continent, and in 1773 returned to Turin. This period of travel was without any considerable benefit to him, being spent in a great measure in frivo lous dissipation, and at the age of 25 he had given no hint of any dramatic talent or literary ability. Chance seems to have led him, while watching at the sick bed of his mistress, to sketch a few scenes in Italian between Antony and Cleopatra. Crude as these necessarily were, the occupation developed his latent pow ers and gave the first impulse to literary com position. It awakened in him also the desire to lead a more profitable and reputable life. "Cleopatra" was gradually finished, and, to gether with a farce called "The Poets," was in 1775 produced with considerable success on the stage. His labors on these pieces having re vealed to him his ignorance of the structure and resources of his own language, at the age of 27 he deliberately set about educating himself in Italian. A year or two of study in the society of learned men sufficed to familiarize him with the works of the classic writers of Italy, an cient and modern, and in 1777 he returned with enthusiasm to his dramatic labors. At this time he met the beautiful and accom plished countess of Albany, the ill-treated wife of Charles Edward Stuart, pretender to the English crown. For this lady he conceived an absorbing passion, and the desire to win her approbation stimulated his genius to higher ef forts. To be near her he took up his resi dence in Florence, having first settled the bulk of his fortune upon his sister, while reserving to himself an annuity ; and during the next few years he labored with an energy and success ALFIERI ALFONSO 295 which fairly redeemed the lost opportunities of j his youth. By the year 1782 he had produced i 14 dramas. In 1785 he followed the countess j to France, and upon the death of her husband in 1788 is believed to have been married to her in that country, although the relation was never \ publicly acknowledged, and there is no positive j evidence to sustain it. lie continued to reside ; in France, and was engaged in superintending the publication of- an edition of his works in Paris when tho French revolution reached its j first alarming crisis. Compelled to flee the ; country, with the loss of almost everything he ; had possessed there, he returned to Florence, where, in the society of the countess of Albany, \ he passed the remainder of his life. His latter : years were clouded by various troubles, but he i still pursued his literary labors. He wrote sa tires, panegyrics, and sonnets, translated Vir gil and Terence, and when nearly 50 years of j age began the study of Greek. lie died of an j attack of gout, tenderly cared for to the last by ; the countess of Albany, who caused a monu- j ment, sculptured by Canova. to be erected over his remains in the church of Santa Croce. His j dramatic works comprise 21 tragedies, 6 come- i dies, and a "tramelogedia," a name invented I by himself. lie also produced translations I from the Greek dramatists, an epic poem in four j books, a treatise on tyranny, and a number of ! satires and lyrical pieces, including five odes on the American revolution. After his death ap peared his Mixogallo, a collection of satirical pieces in prose and verse, inspired by a lively hatred of the French nation; and his auto biography, in which he records with singu lar frankness the story of his life. Alfieri s I reputation rests almost exclusively upon his J tragedies. Their literary rank is permanent. I Remarkable for a vigor and intensity of expres- j sion worthy of the best days of Italian litera- I ture, their classic subjects and stern outline, j however opposed to the romantic school, have a grand and solemn charm. Though simple to meagreness in construction, and admitting of little by-play or scenic effect, they are said to hold an Italian audience spell-bound by the nervousness of the language and the condensed ! energy and passion with which the higher pas sages are infused. Saul^ Hirra, Oreste, and Filippo are considered the best. To Alfieri belongs the distinction of having founded the Italian school of tragedy. Avoiding pedantic | obedience to Greek or French models, he em- bodied the earnestness of the one and the mod ern form of the other in the language of his country. He was a man of strong likes and dis- | likes and a violent temper, but candid, inde- j pendent, and generous to a fault. Two marked ! peculiarities of his character were his detesta- i tion of the French and his fondness for horses. He was a liberal in politics, although his faith in democracy is supposed to have been somewhat shaken by the excesses of the French revolu tionists ; he hated kingcraft, and prized his own nobility chiefly that he was free to abuse it. Two editions of Alfieri s complete works have- been published 22 vols. 4to, Pisa, 1808, and 22 vols. 8vo, Padua, 1809- 10. The best edi tion of his tragedies, autobiography, and some of his minor works, is contained in the Milan collection of the Italian classics, entitled Opere scdte (4 vols. 8vo, 1818). ALFONSO, the name of several kings of Spain and Portugal, also written ALOXSO, ALONZO, ALPIIONSO, and in Portuguese AFFOXSO. There were five in Aragon, six in Portugal, and twelve in Leon and Castile. The kingdom of Leon is generally considered to have commenc ed with Alfonso I., the Catholic, who was elect ed about 739 king of Asturia, subsequently called the kingdom of Leon and Oviedo, and died in 757. lie carried on a war of extermi nation with the Moors. Alfonso II., the Chaste, grandson of the preceding, elected king in 791, died in 842. lie is famous in the national an nals for having abolished the annual tribute of 100 Christian maidens to the Moors. In his reign lived the great Bernardo del Carpio, the hero of Spanish romance. Alfonso III., the Great, son of Ordono L, born in 818, king in 866, died in 912. lie extended the limits of the Christian rule to the Guadiana, put down a rebellion fomented by discontented nobles in favor of his son Garcia, but afterward abdicated, and won a victory over the infidels as general of his son s troops. Alfonso VI., the Valiant, son of Ferdinand L, born in 1030, succeeded to the throne of Leon in 1065, and died in 1109. Under the preceding reign the kingdoms of Leon and Old Castile had been united, and af ter much internal warfare with his brothers, among whom the father had parcelled out the kingdom, Alfonso made himself master of Leon, Old Castile, the Asturias, and Galicia. His successes against the Moors led to the invasion of the peninsula by the Almoravides from Af rica, against whom Alfonso furnished assist ance to his old enemy the king of Seville, but ineffectually. Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, the celebrated Cid, lived in this reign. Al fonso VI. died without heirs male, and the united crowns fell to his daughter Urraca. She married Alfonso I. of Aragon, who in her right claimed the crown of Castile and Leon. The marriage was, however, dissolved on account of Queen Urraca s misconduct. Alfonso VII. or VIII. (see ALFONSO I. of Ar agon), RAIMOXDEZ, son of Queen Urraca and her first husband, Count Raymond of Bur gundy, born in 1105, died in 1157. He was proclaimed king of Galicia in 1109, was for some time at war with his mother, and suc ceeded her in Leon and Castile in 1126. In 1135 he was crowned emperor of Spain, though he hardly possessed a third of it, and did not transmit the title. Alfonso X., the Wise, king of Leon and Castile, born in 1226, succeeded his father Ferdinand III. in 1252, and died in 1284. He compelled the king of Granac a to do homage to the crown of Castile, and to pay a considerable um of monev. In 1256 Alfonso 29G ALFONSO was chosen by some of the electors emperor of Germany, while Richard of Cornwall was sup ported by others ; but his power in Germany remained a mere shadow, and in 1273 Rudolph of Hapsburg put an end to the interregnum. His reign \vas disturbed by the revolt of his brother Philip and Alhamar, king of Granada, an invasion by the king of Morocco, and a civil war caused by the claim of his second son San- cho to be recognized as heir to the throne. Sancho was excommunicated by the pope and the kingdom placed under an interdict. Alfon so was one of the most learned men of his age. He laid the foundation of Spanish- prose by causing a translation of the Bible to be made into that language, by ordering all legal pro ceedings to be conducted in it, and by the excellent specimens which he himself gave of it in his writings. He is also distinguished as a poet and as a man of science. He is best remembered, however, for his celebrated body of laws, known usually as Las siete Partidas ("The seven Parts"), but named by its author the Setenario, from a code begun by his father. The materials for this work were drawn from the- code of Justinian, the Visigothic laws, the local institutions of different parts of the king dom, and other sources. Its enforcement was long resisted by the great cities, but it was at last in 1348 established on a firm footing, and has been ever since the basis of Spanish com mon law, and has even, by the admission of Florida and Louisiana into the United States, been introduced into the legal system of our own country. Another important work of which Alfonso is the author is the Cronica general de EspaM (" General Chronicle of Spain "). He established on a firm basis the university of Seville, and was eminent for his astronomical and mathematical attainments, and for his researches in alchemy. The as tronomical tables which bear his name, and were probably constructed by Moorish astron omers invited to his court for that purpose, were celebrated for a long time. His astro nomical works have been published in several volumes, by order of the Spanish government, edited by Manuel Rico y Sinobas (1864 ct seg.}. ALFOASO I., king of Aragon and Navarre, surnamed el Batallador (the battler), son of Sancho V., succeeded his brother Pedro I. in 1104, died in 1134. He married Urraca, daugh ter of Alfonso VI. of Leon and Castile, and in her right claimed the sovereignty of those states also, and is sometimes counted as Al fonso VII. of that line. The first years of his reign were distracted by violent quarrels and wars with his wife, whom he finally divorced in 1114. The Moors under Ali ben Yusuf in vaded the province of Toledo, and carried terror to the gates of the capital of Christian Spain ; a second army appeared in Portugal ; and a third laid siege to Barcelona. Alfonso fought an indecisive battle with these last in 1111, after which they abandoned Catalonia, Subsequently he directed his rnns against the I invaders in other quarters, and rescued almost all the territory S. of the Ebro from Mohammedan ! domination. He took Saragossa (1118) after a. | four years series of operations, and made it ! his capital. In 1125 he invaded Andalusia at | the invitation of the Mozarabes, or Christian I inhabitants of that country; and though he | failed in the siege of Granada, he performed I the remarkable feat of leading an army through i hostile territory from Saragossa to the Mediter ranean, somewhere between Malaga and Al- meria, and back again, without serious loss. On the death of his divorced queen he made : preparations to enforce his claims in Castile, | but was persuaded by the church to agree to a truce and renounce the title of emperor of Spain, which he had assumed. He finally un dertook to secure the free navigation of the Ebro by reducing the Moorish city of Tortosa near its mouth. As a preliminary to this en terprise he besieged Fraga, on the Ciuga, an affluent of the Ebro, and was there slain in battle the only engagement, it is said, in which he was ever vanquished. ALFONSO V. of Aragon, and I. of Naples and Sicily, surnamed the Magnanimous, born about 1390, died June 27, 1458. He succeeded his father Ferdinand I. in 1416, and the first act of his reign displayed the generosity of his character. Having received a list of nobles who were conspiring to dethrone him, he tore the paper in pieces without reading it. In the early part of his reign he left Spain to make good his claims to the sovereignty of the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, which were then partly in the power of the Genoese. In the war which followed he met with some success, but soon relinquished this project for more dazzling schemes of ambition. Joanna, queen of Naples, being attacked by Louis III., duke of Anjou, sent to Alfonso, offering to make him duke of Calabria and heir to the throne of Naples if he would aid her against the duke of Anjou. Alfonso eagerly accept ed this proposition, abandoned Sardinia and Corsica, over which his sovereignty thenceforth amounted to but little, and, sailing to Naples, obliged the duke of Anjou to raise the siege, and make a peace on terms advantageous to the queen. But Joanna became jealous of the power of her new ally, and open war broke out between them. The queen summoned to her aid Sforza Attendolo, the general of the duke of Anjou, who defeated Alfonso. The latter was soon enabled by the arrival of fresh troops from Spain to make himself master of the city of Naples, and to hold his enemies in check. But his presence was now required in Spain to protect his kingdom of Aragon, then at war with Castile. Accordingly, leaving his brother Don Pedro in charge of his affairs in Italy, he sailed for Spain in 1423. On his way thither he made a descent on Marseilles, then belonging to the duke of Anjou, captured the city without difficulty, but neither sacked it nor carried away from it any booty, with the ALFONSO ALFORD exception of the body of a dead saint, Louis, formerly bishop of Tonlouse. Alfonso passed about eight years in Spain, and then again turned his attention to Italy. Here the Span iards, pressed by the queen, the pope, the dukes of Anjou and Milan, and the Genoese, had been almost overwhelmed. Alfonso ar rived, in 1432, and, seeing the desperate state of affairs, sailed to the island of Jerba on the coast of Africa, which he conquered, after gaining a victory over the bey of Tunis, to whom the island belonged. After this exploit he returned to Italy, where he engaged in ne gotiations to bring about a reconciliation with Queen Joanna, and in intrigues to obtain ad herents. In 1435 the queen died, bequeathing her crown to Rene of Anjou, count of Pro vence, brother and successor of Louis III., who had died some time before ; and Alfonso, think ing the occasion a favorable one for asserting his claims, renewed the war, and besieged the city of Gaeta by sea and land. But in a naval battle near the island of Ponza, he was totally defeated by the Genoese and the duke of Milan, and was taken prisoner with a great number of his followers ; and shortly afterward his land forces were routed and dispersed under the walls of Gaeta. Having by his nobleness of disposition and gallant bearing gained the affec tion of his captor, the duke of Milan, the latter set him at liberty and became his ally, and Al fonso was thus enabled to resume his opera tions under better auspices. After a contest of several years without effecting much, he succeeded, by the treachery of one of the ad herents of Rene, in making himself master of Naples in 1442, and compelled Rene to seek refuge in Provence. Alfonso was soon after recognized as king of Naples by the assembled states of the kingdom, and by Pope Eugenius IV., who also issued a bull legitimatizing Ferdi nand, the bastard son of the king. From this time Alfonso resided in Naples, exerting him self to improve the condition of that kingdom, the affairs of which, during the reign of Jo anna II. and the disturbances which followed, had fallen into much disorder; and, though taking part in some Italian wars of little im portance, he passed the remainder of his life in comparative quiet. At his death his brother John inherited the crowns of Aragon, Sardinia, and Sicily, while his son Ferdinand received that of Naples. ALFONSO I., the first king of Portugal, son of Henry of Burgundy, count of Portugal, died in 1185. He was several times at war with the kingdom of Castile ; but on the establish ment of peace he turned his arms against the common enemy, the Moors, and fought a battle in 1139, on the plains of Ourique, against the Moorish king of Badajoz and his allies, which completely broke the Moslem power in Portu gal. After this victory he assumed the royal title. In 1140 he took the town of Santarem after an obstinate defence, and put to the sword every living soul; and the following | year Portugal was free. He instituted a code ! of laws, still known as the laws of Alfonso. ! He was succeeded by his son Sancho I. ALFONSO V., king of Portugal, snrnamed the African, born in 1432, succeeded his father Duarte in 1438, died at Cintra, Aug. 28, 1481. During his minority the regency was held tirst | by his mother and afterward by his uncle Dom Pedro, whose daughter the young king married 1 on coming of age. A few years later Dom Pe- dro was declared a rebel and killed in battle, I but Alfonso soon became convinced of his loy- ! alty, paid great honors to his memory, and | punished those who had traduced him. Dur- | ing his reign the Portuguese discovered and colonized Guinea. In answer to the call of \ Pope Calixtus III. for a general crusade against j the Moslems, he equipped a fleet of 250 vessels j for an expedition to Africa, and in 1458 landed I near Tangier with 20,000 men. It was not ! until 13 years later that he found himself, after | severe campaigns, master of Tangier and seve- | ral other cities, his conquests surpassing in im- | portance those of any other Portuguese mon- I arch in Africa. Having been affianced to I Joanna of Castile (his wife being dead), he pro- ; claimed himself king of Castile and Leon, but s was defeated at Toro in 1476 by Ferdinand the Catholic, and driven to seek assistance in France. There Louis XL treacherously held him prisoner till 1479, when he made peace with Ferdinand, and renounced his Spanish pretensions. Joanna took the veil in 1480, and Alfonso was about to enter a monastery when he died of the plague. He founded at Coim- bra the first library in Portugal. For his zeal | in ransoming Christian slaves he was called "the redeemer of captives. 1 ALFORD, Henry, an English author and cler gyman, born in London in 1810, died Jan. 12, 1871. He was educated at Ilminster, and at Trinity college, Cambridge. In 1833 he was ap pointed curate of Ampton, Suffolk, and soon af- ! terward vicar of TTymeswold, Leicestershire, I where he spent 18 years. He was a fellow of his I college, and from 1841 to 1857 was examiner of | logic and moral philosophy in the university I of London. During the years 1841 and 1842 I he was also Hulsean lecturer at Cambridge. On leaving Leicestershire he became minister of Quebec street chapel (1853), where he was distinguished as an eloquent preacher. In j 1857, upon the death of Dean Lyall, Lord Pal- I merston appointed him dean of Canterbury. He wrote poetry in the early part of his life, publishing among other volumes "The School of the Heart and other Poems " (Cambridge, 1835), of which several editions have since appeared. Didactic and defective in form, many of his .poems are nevertheless regarded as gems of exquisite thought and religious feel- j ing. Amon^his other works are his "Plea for the Queen s English" (18!>G), and "Plow to | Study the New Testament " (1807). But he j will be best remembered by his edition of the ! Greek Testament with English notes, referen- 298 ALFOET ALG.E ces, critical commentary, &c. (5 vols., 1841 - 61 ; new aud abridged edition by B. H. Al- ford, 1869); and by The New Testament for English Readers," consisting of the authorized version, with notes, marginal references, and commentary (4 vols. 8vo, revised ed., 1867). ALFORT, a village of France, department of Seine, 5 m. S. E. of Paris, on the Marne, op posite Charenton, forming with the village of Maisons the commune of Maisons-Alfort ; pop. 2,500. It is the seat of a famous national veteri nary school established by Bourgelat ki 1766, having courses of instruction in anatomy, bot any, pharmacy, and the diseases and training of animals, a library of zoological works, lab oratories, a pharmacy, a botanic garden, rich cabinets of specimens, a collection of living ani mals, and a sheepfold in which merino sheep are raised for the improvement of breeds. A certain number of scholars are admitted at the national expense, and others pay their own fees. The course of study lasts eight years. ALFRED THE GREAT, king of the West Sax ons, born at Wantage in Berkshire in 849, died probably in 901 (Oct. 26 or 28). He was the fifth and youngest son of Ethelwolf, king of the West Saxons, and seems to have been his fa vorite child, lie was sent in his fifth year to Rome, where Leo IV. (according to the Saxon chronicles) " consecrated him king." However, the throne was first occupied by three of his brothers in succession. In the reign of Ethel- red, the last of them, an unusually formidable invasion of the Danes occurred, and Ethelred was slain (871). Alfred, who had been his brother s most efficient general, was thereupon, at the age of 22, declared king by the earls and chiefs, with the consent of the whole nation. He succeeded in making a temporary peace with the invaders, which left them free to over run the other provinces of the island. This truce lasted till 876. Alfred, meanwhile., find ing it impossible to raise an army able to cope with them in the field, fitted out a naval force, with which on the commencement of hostili ties he worsted them in several engagements, and in the spring of 877, according to Asser, drove 120 Danish ships on shore, causing the destruction of all on board. The next January they invaded the kingdom in greater numbers than ever. The king, with a few followers, sought safety in the woods and among the hills, and for a few months found shelter in the hut of a cowherd at Athelney, a secluded spot surrounded by marshes and accessible only by a single bridge. Here after a while he was joined by a band of fighting men, and, fortify ing his position, made occasional inroads upon the possessions of the enemy. In May, 878, having been joined by an armed body of his subjects, he attacked the main army of Danes at Eddington, and routed them with great slaughter. It was on the day before this bat tle that he is said to have entered the enemy s camp disguised as a harper. The defeated king Godrun or Guthrun and his followers were made to embrace Christianity, and re ceived the modern counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridge as a place of residence. They became the subjects of Alfred, who in the course of six years seems to have made himself the virtual ruler of all England, though never formally recognized as such. His conduct be fore his misfortunes seems to have been haugh ty and selfish ; but after his restoration his rule was wise and beneficent. The few years of tranquillity from 886 to 893 were employed by him in restoring the cities and fortresses which had been destroyed during the war, improving the navy, of which he is esteemed the founder, systematizing the laws, and in literary labors. The last invasion of the Northmen in his reign took place in 894, under a leader named Hast ings, and after a struggle which lasted three years, of which every part of the country was in turn the theatre, they were once more driven out. He established an elaborate system of coast defences, erecting some 50 fortresses at various points, and regulated the military service so as | to keep only one half the population capable of bearing arms in the field at a time, leaving the remainder to cultivate the soil. It is prob able that the code of laws which bears his name is chiefly compiled from the enactments of his predecessors. He made great improve ments in the administration of justice, caused the rights of property to be respected, and made great efforts for the advancement of lit erature and education. Although he is said to, have been 12 years of age before he was taught the alphabet, he afterward became possessed of extraordinary learning. He invited literary men to his court from all parts of Europe, and although the prevailing tradition that he found ed the university of Oxford is doubtful, he cer tainly did much for the improvement of the monastic school which had previously existed in that place. He made numerous translations from the Latin of works which he considered adapted to the wants of his countrymen, among which are the Liber Pastoralis CUTCK of Pope Gregory the Great, Boethius s De Consolatione Philosophic!?, and Bede s " History of England." He married Elswith, the daughter of a Mercian nobleman, by whom he is said to have had four sons. His disposition was gentle and amiable, and his bearing frank and afl able toward all. He was merciful and forgiving toward his ene mies. His health was never good; in his ! youth he suffered from piles ; and at the age | of 20 he was attacked by an undetermined | internal disease causing terrible pangs, which | he bore with stoical serenity, never suffering his labors to be interrupted. ALGJS, a large family of cellular flowerless 1 plants, in which there is a complete series of forms, from plants of merely one or two cells I to most complicated and extensive growths, as seen in many seaweeds. Algae live for the most part entirely in water, fresh, salt, or brackish, and take their food b;y their whole surface from the medium in which they grow. ALG.E 299 A convenient classification divides them into j five orders, diatomacece, confervacem, fucacea, \ ceramiacece, and characece. The diatoms are | Laurencia pinnatiflda. Laminaria digitata. microscopic bodies, having a spontaneous move ment through the water in which they live, and silicious skeletons or frames, often of won derful beauty, which accumulate in vast depos its at the bottom of ponds. (See DIATOMACE.E.) The confervas are plants of simple cells or series of cells, commonly found in fresh water, but also in salt, growing with great rapidity, and forming a green, red, or violet scum on water, or stain on snow or moist stones. The red snow (protococcus niralis) consists of a single cell, which subdivides into other cells forming new individuals, so that in a few hours a large extent of snow may be covered by this plant, which is only visible by its conglomera tion. A similar plant often colors many square miles of the sea, and, according to some, has given the Red sea its name. Many fresh-water confervas appear in early spring, and when examined by the microscope are shown to be delicate threads composed of a single line of transparent cells of varied shapes, containing several forms of greenish nuclei ; these are the reproductive particles which are to form the spores. The star jelly (nostoc) springs up sud denly after a rain as a greenish trembling jelly. Lavers (porphyra and uha) are stewed and eaten in Europe, and the ulva compressa by the Hawaiian Islanders. Several confervas have been found growing in hot springs of an elevated temperature ; as at the geysers in Cal ifornia, in a spring of a temperature of 120 F. (W. T. Brigham). The fucacece or seaweeds, when found in fresh water, much resemble confervas, but are distinguished from all other algse by the position of the- spores in cells or receptacles sunk in the substance of the plant and opening at the surface by a small pore. The sea aprons (lominarid) have broad flat tened fronds attached to a cylindrical stem, which holds the plant during growth fastened to rocky bottoms ; when torn off by waves, they are found floating, and sometimes of a length of several hundred feet. The lamina- rid saccharina is eaten in Japan, and the lami- naria digitata (called " tangle ") in Scotland. Bory de St. Vincent describes an alga of this family which attains a length of 25 or 30 feet, and the trunk is often as thick as a man s thigh. The sargassum or gulf weed forms im mense beds in the Atlantic, covering 40,000 square miles. The bladder-weed (fucus vesi- culosus) is common on rocky coasts in temper ate regions, and is easily recognized by its olive-green, strap-shaped, branching divisions, bearing at small intervals air bladders by means of which its free end floats in the rising tide. This fucus is used for manure, and also for the manufacture of kelp, and, with other algse, as a source of iodine. A nutritious gela tine is secreted by many of the fuci, and they are eaten by swine or other animals in times of scarcity, and even by man. Perhaps the most remarkable fucus is the liydrogastrum, described by Endlicher as a branching plant, imitating the root, stem, bud, and fruit of the higher plants, but all composed of a single branching cell. The fourth order, or cerami- acece (rose tangles), comprises seaweeds of a rose or purplish color, seldom olive or violet ; the spores are grouped in fours or threes. The order is distinguished also for the amount of gelatine many of its species contain, rendering them most useful among seaweeds. Carra geen moss (chondrus crispus) is used in place ^iMw5jL Chondrus crispus. Fucus yesiculosus. of Iceland moss (a lichen, cetraria Islandicd), and its bitter flavor is partly removed by steep ing in fresh water for some time before boil ing ; it then takes the place of isinglass in pre paring jellies and blanc-mange. Dulse (iridcea edulis) is a thin purplish seaweed, which i* eaten, as well as another alga, rhodomcnia palmata, by the Scotch and Irish, who call it dillesk, and the Icelanders, who name it sugar seaweed ; within a few years it has become an article of food among the foreign popula tion of Boston, and is sold in the streets. The East Indian swallows are said to construct the edible birds nests from the gclidium, a genus of this order. The plocaria tenax (glceopeltis) furnishes so much good gelatine that it is an important article of commerce among the Chi nese, many tons being annually imported at Canton for the preparation of glue and varnish for lanterns, windows, and paper umbrellas, 300 ALGAROTTI also to give a gloss to silks and to size paper ; windows are frequently made of strips of bam boo coated with this glue. As objects of beauty this order affords many fine species, as the lau- rencla pmnatifida, shown in the first cut. The characeoR are aquatic plants of a more obscure organization than any of the previous orders ; they usually exhale a fetid odor, supposed to be unwholesome, and are curious as exhibiting under the microscope a circulation in their transparent stems and branches. Reproduc tion of the, algcv. There are four principal ways in which algos may produce new individ uals. 1. A direct action is exercised by forma tions playing the part of male organs upon a minute mass of protoplasm, which before this action has no coating of cellulose, but now ac quires this and becomes a spore. This male organ is analogous to the anther of flowering plants, and is hence called antheridium; but while the anther produces pollen, the antheri dium gives birth to little bodies of a very dif ferent nature, which have the power of loco motion by means of vibratile cilia? and closely resemble animalcules ; these are called anther- ozoids. An example of this method is seen in vaucheria, an alga consisting of green, one- celled filaments, common in ditches. The an theridium develops from the side of one of these filaments as a horn-like projection, and is soon followed by a similar excrescence in its immediate neighborhood called the sporangi um ; these are at first continuous with the tube on which they grow, but finally form a parti tion completely separating their contents from the parent plant. The antheridium then opens, discharging the antherozoids, which move at once toward the opening end of the sporangi um, and are met by a layer of mucilage, into which they thrust themselves and then retire, repeating this curious action for half an hour, until a thin membrane appears across the open ing, due doubtless to the penetration of an an- therozoid ; and then the others move more and more slowly, and at last become quite still. The fecundated sporangium when grown de taches itself from the plant as a cell filled with brownish particles. After three months it re covers its green color and elongates into a tubu lar filament of the perfect alga. 2. The same vaucheria often shows the extremity of its filament swollen into a club shape, and the green matter is condensed there until it as sumes a blackish tint and becomes enclosed in its own membrane. The end of the filament bursts and permits the escape of a zoospore, which is covered with vibratile cilia having so rapid a motion that to make them visible it is necessary to retard the motion by opium, or arrest it entirely by a very weak solution of iodine. The zoospores, produced apparently without the intervention of sexes, move through the water for some time, and when the cilia cease to vibrate soon germinate. 3. The ordinary fucus presents in its substance cavities or conceptacles opening when mature by small pores, through which escape, in the female plants, the sporangia, which contain eight spores in a membrane which soon dis solves, setting free in the water the spores, and in the male plants the antheridia, which also burst and discharge antherozoids, which are small bodies with two -long cilia. The anthero zoids meet the spores, which seem simply mu cilaginous globules, and attaching themselves impart to the spores a rapid rotary motion, lasting usually six or eight minutes. The spore immediately becomes covered with a mem brane, and is ready to germinate as a new fucus. 4. Reproduction by conjugation is seen in the fresh-water alga spirogyra, which is common in stagnant water in the early spring. The slender filaments of which it is composed are divided into cells by transverse partitions, and these cells contain gelatinous endochrome. Two adjacent filaments conjugate on contact, two cells swelling toward each other and final ly uniting, when the contents of one are trans ferred to the other, and the communication is closed and the full cell develops a spore. The spores arc formed sometimes in one filament, sometimes in the other, and when mature break away the cells and elongate into new spirogyras. This process may be seen with a microscope of low power, and so short is the time occupied that it may be easily followed from beginning to end. Like higher plants, algra absorb carbonic acid and exhale oxygen in sunlight, although they are not so dependent on the sun for their bright colors, these exist ing at depths where the light would be less than half a candle. Professor Harvey has adopted a classification from the color of the spores, which is often used as exceedingly con venient, into chlorosperms, with green spores and usually with a greenish color over all the plant ; rhodosperms, with rose-colored spores ; melanospores, with olive-brown spores. From the motive powers of the zoospores of algae, it is not strange that the early microscopists should have confounded the animal and vege table kingdoms, which come so close together in the spores of algre and the lowest of animals. ALGAIIDI, Alessandro, an Italian sculptor, born in Bologna about the year 1600, died in 1G54. Domenichino obtained employment for him at Rome. By a statue of St. Philip Neri in the sacristy of the Oratorian church in that city, and a colossal group representing the decapi tation of St. Paul in the church of the Barna- bites at Bologna, he achieved a reputation as the first sculptor of his time. lie was chosen to execute the bronze statue of Innocent X., erected to commemorate the completion of the capitol at Rome. He produced the monument of Leo XL in St. Peter s; and for one of the altars in the same church he made the largest basso-rilievo in the world a work in marble representing Attila checked by St. Leo. ALGAROTTI, Francesco, an "Italian scholar, born in Venice, Dec. 11, 1712, died in Leg horn, March 3, 1764, After studying in Rome ALGAROVILLA ALGEBRA and Bologna, he visited France and England, and in Paris wrote " New tonianism for Ladies " (Neutonianismo per le dame, 1734). He then went to Russia with Lord Baltimore, and pub lished an account of the country, and in Ger many became acquainted with Frederick, then crown prince of Prussia, one of whose first acts on coming to the throne was to invite Algarotti to his court. Henceforth the Italian lived in close intercourse with the king. He was created a count, appointed chamberlain, employed occasionally in diplomatic affairs, and commissioned by the elector of Saxony to collect works of art for the Dresden gallery. ALGAROYILLA, an astringent substance, pro duced by the tree juga Martha, an acacia, found at Santa Marta in Xew Granada. The portions taken to England, and examined by Dr. Ure, were pods bruised and agglutinated with the extractive exudation of the seeds and husks. It is replete with tannin, and for tan ning leather possesses more than four times the strength of good oak bark. It is also well adapted for the manufacture of black ink, for a yellow dye, and for an astringent medicine. ALGARYE, the southernmost province of Por tugal, bounded by Alemtejo, Spain, and the At lantic; area, 1,872 sq. in.; pop. in 1868, 177,- 342. It is watered by several small rivers and by the Guadiana, which divides it from Spain. A considerable mountain range in the north forms a watershed between it and Alemtejo. The S. W. part of the province is mountainous and rocky, and of wild and dreary aspect. The plains and valleys produce fruits in abundance, among them dates, figs, almonds, and oranges, which, with wines and fish, form the chief ex ports. The principal towns are Faro, the cap ital, Tavira, and Lagos, all on the S. coast, which ends in Cape St. Vincent, the S. W. ex tremity of Europe. Algarve originally ex tended over much of S. Spain, and also in cluded a portion of N. "W. Africa, where the name is still retained by a province of Morocco (El Gharlie, the western land). It constituted a Moorish kingdom till the 13th century, when it was gradually conquered, and the part W. of the Guadiana finally annexed to Portugal as Algarve d aquem Mar (this side the sea) in 1253. The African portion was conquered by Alfonso V. and formed into the province of Al garve d alem Mar (beyond the sea) in 1471 ; and his successors are still called kings of Por tugal and the Algarves. ALGAZZALI, Aba Hamed Mohammed, a Moslem philosopher, born at Tus, P.ersia, about 1058, died in 1111. His father was a dealer in cot ton thread (yazzal, whence the name Algazzali), and on his death the son was intrusted to the care of a sufi, or mystical philosopher. He be came a professor of theology at Bagdad, and attracted hundreds to his lectures. Anxious to attain to the purest state of which man is capable, he found that for this purpose the soul must be purified from all connection with earth. Accordingly he distributed his wealth, and sought in Syria, in solitary communion with himself, to attain that ecstatic state for which he longed. He spent some time in this manner, and in travelling, settling at last at Nishapoor, and there he passed the remainder of his days, some times, as he says, experiencing the highest bliss of the ecstatic state, but only occasionally, and for a short time. lie was a very prolific writer, but his works were not all considered entirely orthodox by the Mohammedans, and one of them was condemned to be burned on account of some strictures on the Mohamme dan law. One of his works attained so high a reputation among the Moslems, that they sometimes said, if all Islam were destroyed, it would be but a slight loss provided Algazzali s work on the "Revivification of the Sciences of Religion " were preserved. (See Lewes s "Biographical History of Philosophy.") ALGEBRA (Arab. al-ja1>ei\ the science of so lution), originally, a kind of higher arithmetic in which the numbers are replaced by symbols ; but by later applications the symbols are used as well for geometrical quantities in space, or in mechanics for velocities, distances, and times, so that at present algebra occupies itself with quantities in general, whatever be their nature. The oldest work on this science is that of Dio- phantus of Alexandria, a Greek writer, who possibly flourished as early as the 4th century, of which the six books that have come down to us do not contain, the elements, but the theory of the evolution of powers, and the method of solving undetermined problems. Many prob lems of this kind were by the ancients consid ered determined, as they threw out all solu tions in irrational quantities. The Brahmins of Hindostan also had a knowledge of algebra, as well as the Arabs ; but to whom belongs the priority of the invention it is at present impos sible to determine. It is only known that this science was introduced into Christian Europe by the Moors of Spain, a little before the year 1100. For the first three centuries after its introduction it was chiefly studied in Italy, and Lucas Paciolus de Burgo (Luca di Borgo) was the first European writer on the subject. His principal work, Summa Ariihmetica et Geo- metrica, was published in Venice in 1494, and republished in 1523. He mentions a Pisan merchant, Leonardo Bonaccio, who lived in the beginning of the 13th century, and learned algebra in travelling among the Arabs along the coast of Africa and in the Levant. Some historians give to him the honor of having in troduced this science in Europe, while others, among them Montucla, the great historian of mathematics, mention Paolo de 1 Abacco and Belmondo of Padua, who preceded Bonaccio. From the works of Luca di Borgo it appears that in 1500 the science did not go beyond equations of the second degree, the negative solutions were rejected, and the symbols con sisted chiefly of abbreviations of words. Great advance was made by Jerome Cardan, who in 1545 published his Ars Magna^ in which he 302 ALGEBRA ALGERIA gave the solution of equations of the third de- gree, by an operation which is still known among ! all mathematicians as the formula of Cardan ; | those of the fourth degree were solved by his [ pupil Ludovico Ferrari, and published in the j Ars Magna, in which also he makes the distinc tion between positive, negative, and irrational I solutions. At the same time Stifelius in Germany \ invented the signs -f , , and ^/, which did so : much to simplify the formulas ; he published his Arithmetica Integra in Nuremberg in 1544. In 1552 Robert Record e published in England "The Whetstone of Witte," in which for the first time the sign of equality (=) is intro- j duced. From that time not much progress was j made till Vieta in France perfected the alge braic operations and transformations of for- j mulas, and even advanced so far as the general solution of equations of all degrees. He first applied algebra to geometry, and he also found the remarkable expression which solved nu merically the problem of the quadrature of the circle. His works were written about the year 1600, but only published long after his death, by Schooten. Among the eminent mathema ticians of that time we must also mention Ge rard in Flanders, who was the first to indicate j the important use of the negative roots of equations in geometrical constructions, while in England Harriot introduced the signs > and <, and Oughtred first wrote the decimal frac tions simply by the decimal point, as we do now, without writing the denominator always, as was customary till his time. The 17th cen tury was the most brilliant of all centuries in mathematical discoveries, producing the im mortal Descartes, Fermat, Wallis, Galileo, Huyghens, Kepler, Newton, Leibnitz, Ber- I noulli, and many others not less illustrious ; and that century closed with the important j discovery of the logarithms and of the dif ferential calculus. The 18th century enriched the vast domain transmitted, and men like j Laplace, La Grange, D Alembert, Maupertuis, ! Maclaurin, Waring, Lambert, Cutler, Stirling, j De Moivre, and above all Euler, developed j and perfected all the branches of the science. The operations of algebra are founded on a | mutual agreement concerning signs and sym- | bols. The first letters of the alphabet, <7, b, c, &c., are used to represent known quantities, whether of space, time, or number, and the last, z, y, a 1 , &c., are used for the unknown quantities. They are connected by the signs -f, , x , and -=-, meaning respectively addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The powers of quantities are expressed by superior numbers, as a 2 for a x a, a 5 for a x a x a x a x a ; the roots by the sign -y, or \f and ^/, &c. The small space in which a long operation can be indicated by these signs may be illustrated by the following algebraic expression : 17 x (c tZ) 2 -f-c 3 x V (ri* & 2 ) axe <i/3ab !_ which is an ordinary expression involving so many operations that to describe them clearly would occupy a whole page. ALGEC1RAS, a seaport and town of Spain, in Andalusia, province of Cadiz, on the W. side of Gibraltar bay, opposite and 6 m. W. of Gib raltar; pop. 18,000. Charles III. rebuilt it in 1760, as a point of annoyance against Gibraltar. It is constructed of stone, and presents a fair appearance compared with many of the smalk. Spanish towns. The port is guarded by a bat tery called the Fuerte de Santiago. The town is supplied with water conveyed by an aque duct over the Miel. The principal trade is the export of coal from the neighboring mountains, charcoal, and leather. Two considerable sea fights took place oft Algeciras in July, 1801, between the English and French squadrons, and in the second the English were victorious. ALGERBA, the third star in the constellation of Leo. It is a noted star among astronomers, being used as a test for telescopes, which prove it to be double. One of its constituents is orange, the other green. ALGER, Horatio, Jr., an American author, born at Revere, near Boston, Mass., Jan. 13, 1884. lie graduated at Harvard college in 1852, and was afterward engaged partly in teach ing and partly in writing, being for a time editorially connected with two Boston news papers. He then spent a year in travel in Europe, corresponding with American papers. Upon his return he resumed teaching and writing. In 1866 he took up his residence in New York, where he became deeply inter ested in the condition of the street boys. This has given form to most of his later writ ings. Prominent among these are the "Rag- gen Dick " series and the " Tattered Tom " series. With the exception of " Helen Ford, a Novel," and various magazine papers, Mr. Alger s writings belong mainly to the class of books for the young. ALGER, William RonnseyiHe, an American clergyman and author, cousin of the preceding, born at Freetown, Mass., in 1823. lie gradu ated at Harvard college in 1847, studied for the ministry, and became pastor of a Unitarian church in Roxbury. In 1855 he removed to Bos ton, \vhere he succeeded Theodore Parker as minister of the "Liberal Christians" who wor ship in Music Hall, Boston, where he still contin ues to preach (1873). His w^orks comprise " The Poetry of the Orient, or Metrical Specimens of the Thought, Sentiment, and Fancy of the East" (1856); "A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life" (1861); "The Genius of Solitude, or the Loneliness of Hu man Life" (1867); and u Friendships of Wo men " (1870). ALGERIA, a division of N. Africa, formerly the Turkish pashalic of Algiers, but since 1831 included in the foreign dominions of France, bounded N. by the Mediterranean, E. by Tunis, W. by Morocco, S. by the Great Sahara. It is, in the main, situated between lat. 32 and 37 N., and Ion. 2 W. and 9 E. The bounda- ALGERIA 303 ries are not well defined, as large portions of I the border districts are claimed both by the j French government and the nomadic tribes I which inhabit them. An official statement in j 1850 estimated the area at 150,568 sq. m., dis tributed as follows among the three provinces : j Algiers, 43,627 sq. m. ; Gran, 39,375; Constan- tine, 67,566. Later unofficial calculations make it as high as 258,317 sq. m. (Algiers, 39,120; Oran, 111,831 ; Constantino, 107,366). The Atlas mountains constitute an important physi- | cal feature in the country. The Little Atlas runs j along the rocky coast, and varies from 3,000 to j near 7,000 ft. in height; while in the south the Greater Atlas reaches, or even exceeds, in some points an elevation of 8,000 ft. Between the Little and the Greater Atlas extends a plateau called the Tell (highlands), varying in height from 1,900 to 3,600 ft., and containing a large j number of salt lakes, which dry up during the ! summer months. Long, winding defiles lead j S. from the Greater Atlas into the Algerian Sa hara. This desert, occupying more than half * i li-Tek. v <i N ^s=y.o-a/, v !m>, . o .; K i; #yf-/.o K r Ajv^;^^l^ 4A ite^. u^/^S?^ % - ^ ^ ^ K H "^o^Xfe t 3^i ; i ^ " = z^pj-*;/^; ;"---:-;. \ (j_ T.unml^,!, J. .:.-.r ,,/ I, the country, contains many fertile oases and the large salt lake of Melrir, which receives a number of small rivers. The number of oases has been increased by means of artesian wells dug by order of the French government. The principal plain of the country, that of Metid- jah, belongs to the region of *the Little Atlas, The Greater Atlas forms the watershed of the country. The principal river is the Shelliff, which has a tortuous course of about 200 m. and flows into the Mediterranean. The rivers which flow from the S. side of the Greater Atlas lose themselves in the desert, and none are naviga- ble. They are nearly dried up in the summer, but overflow a considerable extent of country in the spring and fertilize the soil. The cli- mate is generally warm, but the heat is rarely oppressive except under the prevalence of the simoom or hot wind from the Sahara, when the temperature ranges as high as 110. A large portion of the country is healthy, even for Europeans ; but in the marshy districts the foreign-born population generally succumb to fevers. Ophthalmia and cutaneous diseases are common. On the limits of the desert the soil is arid and sandy, but between the moun tain districts it is fertile, and especially so in the neighborhood of the streams. Grain crops of all kinds, European and tropical fruits, flowers, and particularly roses, of remarkable beauty, and a species of sugar cane, said to be the largest and most productive of any known species, grow in Algeria. Domestic animals of every variety are numerous. The horses are excellent ; the asses are of fine growth and much used for riding. The camel and drome dary of Algeria are very superior. The merino sheep is indigenous. The Numidian lion, the panther and leopard, ostriches, serpents, scor pions, and many venomous reptiles are abun dant. The chief towns are Algiers, the capi tal (pop. in 1866, 52,614), Constantine (35,417), and Oran (34,058). Near Bona, on the north eastern coast, are the coral fisheries, frequented by the fishers from France and Italy. Bougiah is on the gulf of the same name. On the coast, between Algiers and Oran, are Koleah, Cher- chell (the ancient Cassarea, the residence of Juba), and Mostaganem. Tlemcen, once the residence of Abd-el-Kader, is situated in a fer tile country, near the Moroccan border; the ancient city was destroyed by fire in 1670, and the modern town was almost destroyed by the French. Other towns of the interior are Bli- dah, Medeah, and Milianah, S. and S. W. of the capital. South of the Greater Atlas is the Zaab, the ancient Gcetulia. The chief place is Biscara ; the Biscareens are a peaceful race, much liked in the northern ports as servants and porters. There are many remains of an tiquity in the interior, especially in the province of Constantine, among others those of the an cient city of Lambessa, with remains of the city gates, part of an amphitheatre, and a mausole um supported by Corinthian pillars. The total population in 1866 was 2,921,246, of whom 217,990 were of European descent. Among the latter there were 122,119 Frenchmen, 58,510 Spaniards, 16,655 Italians, 10,627 Maltese, 5,436 Germans, and 4,643 of other nationali ties ; 72,508 were born in Algeria. In 1831 the European population was 3,228; in 1836, 14,- 560; in 1841, 35,727; in 1846, 99,801 ; in 1851, 131,283; in 1856, 159,282; in 1861, 192,746. The number of Mohammedans living in the territory subject to civil government in 1870 was 225,693; nomads, 2,434,974; native Jews, 33,117. A comparison of the above figures with former censuses shows a decrease of tiie native population, while the Europeans slowly increase. The great efforts made by the government to promote colonization in duced from 1830 to 1855 about one million Europeans to emigrate to Algeria; but the majority either returned after a short time or succumbed to the climate. From 1830 to 30-i. ALGERIA 1851 the number of deaths (60,678) exceeded | the births (44,900) by 16,000. Among the \ children of the Europeans the mortality is even ! greater than among the adults. The Moorish population in the cities is likewise decreas- ing; only the Jews show a steady increase. The general result of the efforts for coloniza- ; tion is trilling. From 1831 to 1866 the gov ernment had ceded to European settlers no more than 222, 209 hectares. For several years j the number of Europeans leaving the country was almost as large as the number of new ar rivals. Thus in 1856, 30,460 returned to Eu rope, and only 39,239 arrived. The republican government hoped for an improvement of this state of affairs from a limitation of the military and an enlargement of the civil authority of the country ; and in order to induce the mal content inhabitants of the districts ceded in 1871 to Germany to emigrate to Algeria, it placed by a decree of June 21, 1871, 100,000 hectares of the best government lands at their disposal. The Berbers or Kabyles, who call themselves Mazidh (noble), are believed to have been I the aboriginal inhabitants, the Numidians and Ga3tulians of antiquity. Arabs, the descen dants of the Mussulman invaders, Moors, Turks, Kulughs, Jews, and negroes, and lastly the French and other European Christians, form the rest of the population. The Ka byles are an industrious race, living in regu lar villages, excellent cultivators, and work ing in mines, in metals, and in coarse woollen and cotton factories. They make gunpowder and soap, gather honey and wax, and supply the towns with poultry, fruit, and other pro visions. The Arabs follow a nomadic life, i shifting their camps from place to place. The Moors are probably the least respectable of the inhabitants. Living in the towns, and more luxurious than either the Arabs or Kabyles, they are, from the constant oppression of their Turkish rulers, a timid race, reserving never theless their cruelty and vindictiveness, while in moral character they stand very low. The nomads live in tents ; o ther tribes inhabit | dwellings of somewhat greater stability called j gourbis; only a few have houses. The pro- j portion of the three classes in 1857 is shown by the following table : PROVINCES. Mountain Kabyles. Kabyles of the Plain. Arabs. Tents. Gourbis. Houses. Algiers Oran Constantine. Total 280.474 27. SOD 22.819 45.462 277,185 305,691 447.752 55.529 431.485 77.389 506,195 111,181 65.837 39.381 6.9S6 8.772 63.405 31,327 580.428 378.953 1,385,432 244,099 136,228, 79,480 The census of 1866 returned 211,195 Catho lics, 5,002 Protestants, 33,952 native Jews, 1,785 European Jews, 17,232 members of other Chris tian sects or persons of unknown religion, and 2,652,072 Mohammedans. For the Catholics a bishopric was erected at Algiers in 1838, wkich in 1867 was raised to an archbishopric ; in the same year the new dioceses of Oran and Constantine were created. For the Protestants a decree of 1857 created consistories at Al giers, Oran, and Constantine, under which both the Lutheran and the Reformed churches are placed. The religious affairs of the Moham medan population are placed under the muftis of the two principal mosques at Algiers. The number of free public schools in 1866 was 426, with 45,375 pupils. For secondary instruction there w r ere lyceums at Algiers, Bona, Con stantine, Philippeville, and Oran, the second ary institutions at Tlemcen, and the free school of Oran. The system of public instruction for the Mohammedans comprised the douar schools, the law schools (zaiouas), the schools of law and literature (medresas), the French-Arabic schools, and the French-Arabic colleges. The French troops in Algeria consisted in 1866 of 67,774 men. Besides the garrison troops, which after a certain number of years return to France, there are the so-called native troops, which do not leave the colony except in time of war, and consist of three regiments of Turcos, three of zouaves, three of chasseurs d Afrique, and three of spahis ; altogether 15,000 infantry and 3,000 horse. The admin istration of Algeria was in 1859 placed under a special ministry, which was abolished by decree of Dec. 11, 1860. It was then placed in the hands of a military governor general, to whom all civil as well as military authorities were subordinate. The republic, established in 1870, placed at the head of the administra tion a civil governor, who convokes annually for the establishment of the budget a council, consisting of the three prelects, the archbishop, the military commander, and other notables. Algeria also received the right to send six dep uties to the national assembly. At the head of each of the three provinces is a prefect. The revenue of Algeria in 1866 amounted to 42,223,000 francs, and the expenditure to 47,- 470,000. The French budget provides in ad dition for the maintenance of the army, for public works, and for many other expenditures. In the budget of ordinary and extraordinary expenditures of 1871, the expenditure for Al geria is set down at 22,691,925 francs. Ac cording to a statement made by Picard in tha legislative body in 1854, Algeria at that time had cost France about three milliards of francs and the lives of 150,000 soldiers. In 1868 the government made an agreement with the societe generale algerienne for a loan of 100,- 000,000 francs, which is gradually to be used for the general improvement of the country. The imports in 1868 were valued at 192,664,- 360 francs, and the exports at 103,069,304. The chief articles of import in that year were cotton cloth, woollens, leather and leather goods, wine, brandy, and spirits, fresh fruit, sawed timber, and materials for building. The exports included sheep, wool, tallow, hides, coral, iron, fibre, reeds, cork, olive oil, tobacco, fruit, vegetables, rags, and cotton. In 1870 ALGERIA 305 the most important article of export was es parto for making paper. The movement of si FLAG. ENTERED. Vessels. Tons. CLEARED. Vessels. Tons. French 527 ! 121,010 1.714 ; 164,285 659 1,625 131.831 149,192 j Total 2,241 1 285,295 2,284 2S0.523 | i The merchant navy of Algeria, on Dec, 31, 18(58, consisted of 147 sailing vessels, of 4,098 tons. A decree of July 11, 1860, gave to a company, at the head of which were Count Branicky and the banker Gautier, a charter of 99 years for the construction of a number of important railroad lines; but in 1870 only one of them, that from Constantino to the sea, was near its completion. The telegraphic connec tion of Algeria with France was established in July, 1870, by a submarine cable between Bona and Marseilles. The earliest inhabi tants of Algeria of whom we have any trust worthy accounts were the Numidians and the Moors (Mauri). The former lived in the moun tain districts of the east, and the Moors in the west, where they established many flourishing coast towns, which carried on a brisk trade with Europe. The conquest of Carthage in 146 B. C. laid the foundation of the rule of the Ro mans in this part of Africa, which was gradu ally extended over the whole of the present Algeria. The eastern district at first constituted a portion of the province of Africa, but from the time of Constantine the Great it formed the province of Numidia, and the western district became the province of Mauritania CaBsariensis. The whole country attained a high degree of prosperity. As a defence against the savage mountain tribes the Romans built several forts, one of which, Guelma, is still extant. In the early part of the 5th century the country was conquered by the Vandals, in whose possession it remained till 534, when Belisarius subjected it to the Byzantine empire. The Arabs about 160 years later advanced into the mountains of the Numidians. The Christian religion, which had early been introduced into the country, was wholly extinguished by the Mohammedan con querors ; but the people partially recovered from the state of barbarism into which they had re lapsed under the rule of the Vandals. After belonging for a time to the dominions of the Ommiyade caliphs, Algeria became an inde pendent Moorish state, under the dynasty of the Zereides, which ruled it from 970 to 1148, when Roger of Sicily conquered northern Africa. A few years later (1159) the Almohades of Mo rocco obtained possession of Algeria and ruled there till 1269, when they were expelled by the Zianides of Fez. This dynasty became at the close of the loth century involved in protracted conflicts with the Spaniards, especially when about 20,000 families of Moors and Jews, who in 1492 had been expelled from Spain, settled in Algeria and sought revenge in piracy. In VOL. i. 20 1506 the Spaniards took Bona, and in 1509 the capture of Oran by Cardinal Xiinenes, and of the city of Algiers itself, completed the sub jection of nearly the entire province. The Spaniards erected fortifications at Algiers, but shortly before the death of King Ferdinand in 1516 the emir of Metidja called to his aid the pirate Horuk Barbarossa. This chief expelled the Spaniards from Algiers, murdered the emir, and made himself ruler of the city and its ter ritory. Soon afterward he conquered Tenez and Tlemcen. The Spaniards defeated him in 1517, and in 1518 put him to death. His brother and successor Khair-ed-Din sought assistance from the sultan Selim I., and ac knowledged that prince as his sovereign. Se lim appointed him pasha of Algiers, and sent him a body of troops with which he repulsed the Spaniards and made himself master of the country. Charles V. made an attempt to rein state the Spanish authority, and a powerful expe dition of 370 vessels and 30,000 men crossed the Mediterranean in 1541 ; but a storm and earth quake dispersed the fleet, and cut off all com munication between it and the army. The troops made their escape with a loss of 8,000 men, 15 vessels of war, and 140 transports. From this time forward there were unceasing hostilities between the Barbary powers and the knights of Malta; thence sprang that system of piracy which made the Algerine corsairs so terrible in the Mediterranean. On the other hand, the boundaries of Algeria were constantly extended in the wars with the neighboring tribes. Before the close of the 16th century the pasha of Algeria had advanced westward as far as the frontier of Morocco. Oran, how ever, remained in the hands of the Spaniards till 1708. Bugia in the east was conquered in 1554, and in the south the territory of Algeria was extended as far as the desert. Several attempts made by the Spaniards to reconquer the western provinces utterly failed. In 1501 an entire Spanish army was annihilated at Mostaganem, the Algerines capturing 12,000 men. The duke of Beaufort in 1003 and sub sequent years gained several successes, but they had no permanent results. The English under Blake (1055), the French under Duquesne (1682 and 1683), the Dutch, and other pow ers, at various times attacked Algiers ; and Duquesne twice bombarded it. Thousands of Christian slaves constantly languished in captiv ity in Algiers ; and societies of pious men were formed, whose express object was to ransom the prisoners. Meanwhile the authority of the Turk ish government had been reduced to a name. The janizaries from 1600 elected their deys, and these finally declared their independence of the Porte. The last Turkish pasha was expelled by Dey Ibrahim in 1705; and the janizaries by tumultuous elections appointed new chiefs, whom in their mutinies they often murdered. The janizaries were recruited from the immi grants from Turkey, no native, though the son of a janizary by a woman of the country, being 306 ALGERIA admitted into their ranks. The dey sent occa sional presents to Constantinople as a token of his nominal allegiance ; but all regular tribute was withdrawn, and the Turks, hampered by their constant struggles with Russia, were too weak to chastise the rebels of a distant prov ince. In 1775 Spain undertook her last great expedition against Algiers. The fleet consisted of 44 war vessels and 340 transports under Ad miral Castejon, and the army, which was under the command of Gen. O Reilly, of 25,000 men. Like all the former expeditions, it was utterly unsuccessful. The weaker Christian powers, like Naples, Denmark, Sweden, and the Hanse towns, submitted to the annual payment of a tribute, which nevertheless did not always pro tect their vessels. England remained inactive because the insecurity of the Mediterranean injured the commerce of other powers more than her own. During the French revolution and the empire, the presence of large fleets in the Mediterranean put a check to the pira cies. On the renewal of peace, however, the Algerines recommenced their depredations ; but now the Americans, who in 1795 had been compelled to follow the example of European nations, and to subsidize the dey for peace, re fused the tribute. In June, 1815, Commo dore Decatur encountered an Algerine squadron near Cartagena, took a frigate and a brig, and sailed into the bay of Algiers, where he forced the dey to surrender all American prisoners, and to abandon all future claims for tribute. This bold example was followed by the Eng lish, who, under Lord Exmouth, bombarded the city in 1816, and reduced it to ashes, com pelling the dey to surrender his prisoners. Pi racy, however, was not suppressed, and in 1826 the Algerines openly seized Italian vessels in the Mediterranean, and even carried their in cursions into the North sea. Meanwhile a serious quarrel had broken out with France. In 1823 the dwelling of the French consul had been plundered ; the Algerine ruler, Hussein Bey, personally insulted the consul and spoke disrespectfully of the French king ; and vari ous outrages were committed on French vessels. Algiers was blockaded, and negotiations were opened between France, Mehemet Ali, and the Porte, by which Mehemet Ali, with the assist ance of France, undertook to conquer Algiers, and to pay a regular tribute to the sultan. This was broken off, and the government of Charles X. at last sent an expedition against Algiers in June, 1830, consisting of 38,000 men and 4,000 horses, under command of Gen. Bourmont. Algiers capitulated July 4, on con dition that private property and the religion of the country should be respected, and that the dey and his Turks should retire. The French took 17 ships of war, 1,500 bronze cannon, and nearly $10,000,000 in specie. They immedi ately garrisoned Algiers, and established a mili tary regency. Small squadrons sailed to Tunis and Tripoli, and concluded treaties with these states, which put an end to piracy. Gen. Bour mont was made a marshal, and within a short time captured Bona, Oran, and Bugia. The French intended to surrender Algiers to the sultan, and instructions to that effect were actually on their way to Constantinople when Charles X. was dethroned, and Louis Philippe decided to retain the conquest. Clausel was sent over as general-in-chief in place of Bour mont. As the Turkish soldiers, who had thus far ruled Algeria, were driven out of the coun try, the Arab and Kabyle tribes soon ro,-e against the new rulers. Each town had to bo captured in detail at an immense sacrifice of life. The Marabouts preached a holy war against the Christian conquerors, and the in surgents found an able chief in the young emir Abd-el-Kader. Clausel was replaced by Ber- thezene, and the latter by Lieut. Gen. Savary, duke of Rovigo, in the course of 1831. In carry ing on the war against the natives Savary com mitted the most treacherous acts. The whole Arab tribe El-Uffia, including the old men, wo men, and children, were massacred in one night on account of a robbery committed by some members of the tribe. In consequence of such cruelties the entire nation again flew to arms, under the lead of Abd-el-Kader, who main tained the struggle through the reign of Louis Philippe. (See ABD-EL-!VADEE.) In Decem ber, 1847, he surrendered to Gen. Lamoriciere. The war against Abd-el-Kader thus closed had been signalized on the part of the French by many cruelties, none of which produced so pain ful a sensation as an act of Col. Pelissier, in 1845, in smothering several hundred Arabs in a cav ern. The next notable insurrection was that of the fanatical Marabout Si-Bou-Zian, who in 1 849 raised a rebellion among the mountain tribes, but was finally pursued by the French to the oasis of Zaatsha, where he perished (Nov. 26), with the entire population of his last strong hold. Gen. St. Arnaud in 1851, and Marshal Randon in 1857, fought with success against the Kabyles. The administration of Algeria under went a considerable change by the imperial decrees of 1858, which abolished the office of governor general, and appointed Prince Napo leon chief of a special ministry for Algerian af fairs. The civil districts were more strictly sep arated from the military territory, and general councils introduced. But after a trial of only two years, the government was regarded as a fail ure ; the Algerian ministry was abolished, and Marshal Pelissier reappointed to the office of gov ernor general, which he had previously filled for a few months in 1851. One of the greatest bene fits which the French rule has conferred upon both colonists and natives is the successful bor ing of a number. of artesian wells in the desert, the first of which was begun in 1856. In Feb ruary, 1863, Napoleon III., in a letter to the governor general, expressed the opinion that Algeria properly was not a French colony, but an Arabic kingdom ; that it was wrong to take from the natives any part of their property : that, on the contrary, the tribes and parts of ALGERIA ALGIERS 307 tribes should be made the owners of the territory they occupied; and that a careful legislation should regulate the conditions of personal property. Though this letter appeared to make some impression upon the minds of the natives, the year 1864 witnessed anew insurrec tion in the south of Algeria, which was headed by Si-Lala ; but at the close of the year the country, of which Gen. MacMahon after the death of Pelissier had been appointed governor general, was again fully paciried. In May, 1865, Napoleon paid a visit to Algeria, and there addressed a proclamation to the population, in which he repeated the sentiments expressed in the letter to Pelissier. From October, 1865, to the beginning of 1867, the French were again harassed by new insurrections under the leader ship of Si-Lala and Si-IIamed ben llamza, who in 1861 had been made a commander of the le gion of honor. Si-IIamed, at the head of about 12,000 cavalry, committed great depredations among the tribes friendly to the French rule ; but at the beginning of 1867 all the insurgents had either been driven into the Sahara or anni hilated. From 1869 to 1870 the colony suffered from famine, locusts, and earthquakes, but was almost free from warfare. After the outbreak of the Franco -German war, the French govern ment in July, 1870, called Governor General MacMahon, and with him the larger portion of the native troops, to the seat of war in France. The news of the disaster at Sedan caused insur rectionary movements in the province of Con- stantine in September, 1870, and in October in Oran, where the insurgents were joined by some Moroccan tribes; but Gen. Durieu, the succes sor of MacMahon, succeeded in preventing the troubles from spreading. At the same time the European colonists asked for the aboli tion of the military administration ; and a civil governor was appointed, under whom three i prefects administer the three p rovinces. Al geria also obtained representation in the na tional assembly which in February, 1871, met in Bordeaux. See MacCarthy, Algeria Ro mano, (Algiers, 1867); Daumas, Le Sahara Algerien (Paris, 1845), Le grand desert (2d ed., 1849), and La Grande Kabylie (1847); Yusuf < (a chief of the Turkish troops in Algeria who joined the French as early as 1882, and subse quently rose to the rank of a general), Sur les \ guerres en Afrique (Algiers); Xettement, Ilis- toire de la conquete d Alger, ecrite mr les docu- merits inedits et authentiques (2d ed., 1871). ALGHERO, or Algheri, a strongly fortified sea port town on the X. W. coast of Sardinia, in the province and 11 in. S. W. of Sassari ; pop. 8,000. It was a favorite residence of Charles V. The coral found here is the finest obtained in the Mediterranean. ALGIERS (Arab. Al-Jezireh, the island, be cause there was originally an island before the city, which has been joined by a mole), a sea port and city of X. Africa, in lat. 36 47 X., Ion. 3. 4 E. It was formerly the capital of a pashalic of the same name, and dependent on the Ottoman empire, but since 1830 has been the capital of the French colony of Algeria. : The population, which under the Turks was estimated at 100,000, has since been subject to 1 great fluctuations. In 1838 it was 30,395; in 1846, 70,582 ; in 1851, 50,111 ; in 1862, 58,315 ; in 1866, 52,614 ; and at present it is estimated \ at 60,000. Of these, 16-, 000 are French and j 6,000 Jews. The Jews have since the occupa- i tion of the country by the French become the I most prosperous part of the population, own- I ing most of the land in the city. The natives Algiers, from the Parade Ground. 308 ALGOA BAY ALGONQUINS manufacture arms, leather, silk stuffs, jewels, , &c. The town is built in the form of an am- i phitheatre, on the X. slope of Mount Boujarin, ! which rises 500 feet above the bay, and as i seen from a distance presents a very imposing and picturesque appearance, heightened by the dazzling whiteness of its houses, which rise in ; terraces on the side of the hill. In conse- ; quence of earthquakes they are seldom built more than one story above the basement. On the summit and overlooking the town stands the Casbah, the castle in which the last cloy lived. Its walls are 20 feet thick, and tbe in terior consists of a large courtyard and some four or five stories of porches arched and pil- ; lared after the twisted spiral Byzantine order, i It also contains several other houses and gardens adorned with sycamores and bananas. The city is enclosed by a wall 30 feet high and 12 thick, with towers and batteries. Each side of the harbor is defended by a strong battery. Many of the streets of Algiers, like those of other Moorish towns, are narrow and tortuous, j but in the lower part of the city arcades have been built and the streets widened, giving the place a French aspect. All the streets now have French names. Algiers has a light house, arsenal, dockyard, many mosques, banks, j theatres, fountains, baths, factories, hotels, i several synagogues, a handsome cathedral and I three other Roman Catholic churches, a Prot- , estant chapel, six colleges, an episcopal sem- j inary, a government house, exchange, bish op s palace, and public library. In 1838 an episcopal see was established in Algiers, which in 1867 was elevated to an archbishopric. It is also the seat of a Protestant consistory, of an academy, a lyceum, an Arabic-French col lege, a museum, and other literary institutions. The governor general of the French posses sions in Africa and other chief functionaries reside here. The port is a sheltered body of water of about 220 acres. It was first formed by Barbarossa in 1530 ; the French govern ment have spent upon it upward of 20,000,- 000 francs. In 1862 a railroad was built be tween Algiers and Blidah, 30 m., and a tele graph cable was laid between Algiers and France. Algiers has become the entrepot of four fifths of the trade of the colony. Steam vessels start for this port from Toulon and Mar seilles, and the passage is made in 48 or 50 hours. The commerce between France and Algiers is regarded as a coasting trade and re served to vessels of French register only. The imports are chiefiy coffee, sugar, wine, spirits, and cloths; and the exports, grain, wool, hides, tobacco, iron and copper ore, and coral. ALGOA BAY, an indentation of the S. E. coast of Africa, in Cape Colony, about 425 m. E. of the Cape of Good Hope. It has excellent an chorage, and receives the Sunday river. Near Cape Recife, the W. point, is Port Elizabeth, the port of Uitenhage, 18 m. inland. ALG03IA, a judicial district of the province of Ontario, Canada, forming the extreme N. W. part of the province, bordering on Lakes Supe rior and Huron, and extending E. as fur as the most westerly branch of the French river ; pop. in 1871, 4,807. The W. and N. bounda ries are undetermined, but the area is prob ably not less than 40,000 sq. m. The district is divided into East, West, and Centre. In the first are Killarney, Spanish River, and Mississaga ; in the second, Bruce Mines and Sault Ste. Ma rie : in the third, Batche waning, Michipocoter, Pic St. Ignace, Nipigon, andKaministiqua. The chief productions are timber and minerals ; but though its pine forests have been worked for 20 years, the mines, rich in copper, silver, iron, and tin, were, with a few exceptions, neglected till 1871, when a large number of Americans en gaged in silver mining, and by the end of that year about 20 mines had been opened, generally with great promise of success. The Lake Su perior part of the district is probably one of the richest mineral regions anywhere known. In 1847 numerous companies were formed to work the mines, but most of them failed, and some years ago the government cancelled many of the grants and resumed the land. This district is approached by steamboats, which ply regularly in summer. Capital, Sault Ste. Marie. ALGONQUIN S, a family of Indian tribes in North America, which at the commencement of the 17th century covered a vast region, bounded on the north and northeast by the Esquimaux, on the northwest by the Athabas can tribes, on the west by the Dakotas, and on the south by the Catawbas, Cherokees, Mo- bilian tribes, and Natchez, and extending from about lat. 37 to 53 N., and from Ion. 25 E. to 15 W. of Washington. All the tribes of i the family were nomadic, cultivating very little ground, and moving about in their own districts as hunting and fishing required. They ! resemble each other strongly in manners and i customs, and the differences of dialect are 1 easily traced to a common source. Within the same limits also dwelt the Winnebagoes, a Da- i kota tribe, in the west, and a large family of tribes extending from Lake Huron through the present states of New York and Ohio to North Carolina, and comprising the Wyandots or Ilu- rons, Tionontatez, Neutres, Iroquois, Andastes or Susquehannas, Nottoways, Tuscaroras, and some smaller tribes, all of the same origin and lan guage, but differing essentially from the Algon- quins. The chief Algonquin tribes were the Crees, from Hudson Bay to Lake Superior ; Nas- quapees, on the Saguenay ; Montagnais, on the St. Lawrence ; Algonquins proper, on the Otta- : wa; Nipissings and Ottawas, on Manitouline; ! Chippewas, Menomonees, and Pottawatamies, I on Lake Michigan; Miamis, Sacs, Foxes, Kicka- I poos, and Illinois, in the west; and on the Atlan- ! tic the Micmacs, Etechemins, Abenaquis, Soko- \ kes, Massachusetts tribes, Pequods, Narragan- ! setts, Mohegans, Lenni Lenape or Delawares, Nanticokes, the Powhatan tribes in Virginia, Pampticoes in North Carolina, and Shawnees in the south. West of the Mississippi were ALGONQU1NS ALIIAMBRA 809 the Blackfect and Clieyennes, regarded as iso lated branches of the same family. Various dialects of the Algonquin have been studied and reduced to grammatical rules, by mission aries and others, Eliot s Indian Bible being the most extensive work published in it, while the labors of Eliot, Edwards, Roger Williams, House, Schoolcruft, Zeisberger, Du Ponceau, Gravier, Rale, Le Boulanger, Baraga, and Cuoq furnish the best data for study and comparison. At the beginning of the 17th century the Algon- quins numbered apparently more than a quar ter of a million; and the survivors must even now number 40,000. There is no little con fusion in the later writers as to the locality of the Algonquin tribe, from which the family took its name ; but from the earlier explorers it is evident that they lived on the Ottawa river, the chief band being called also Kichi- sipirini (men of the great river). They were enemies of the Iroquois, and levied a sort of toll on all the canoes that passed down the river to trade with Europeans. They induced the French to join in the war against the Iro quois, but were almost annihilated by war and disease. The only remnant of the Algonquins is at the Lake of the Two Mountains. Their | dialect has been modified by intermixture with the kindred Nipissings and O jib ways, so that its original dialectic forms are scarcely traceable. ALGUAZIL, or ilgnacil, in Spain, an inferior officer of the law, answering to a constable or bailiff. The alguazils are appointed by the judges, the alguazil mayor or head constable by the town council. ALHAMA, the name of several towns in Spain., from the Arabic al and hammiyat, a warm bath. The most important is about 25 in. S. W. of Granada, picturesquely situated in the Sierra de Tejada; pop. about 7,500. Its mine ral waters were in much request among the Moors, wRo drew a large revenue from the springs. The water is sulphurous, strongly im pregnated with nitrogen gas, and on the surface a substance like oil may be observed ; while in cold weather a sort of soapy substance is de posited on the pipes through, which the water passes. In Roman times the site was occupied by Artigi (or Astigi) Juliensis, one of the chief inland cities of Ba3tica. It was afterward a Moorish stronghold, in which the treasury of the kings of Granada was guarded. It was captured by the Spaniards by a night assault in February, 1482. The Alhambra, from the Albaycin. ALHAMBRA (Ar. KaV -al-liamrah, the red castle), a suburb of Granada, fortified in the strongest manner known to the middle ages, capable of containing 40,000 men, and enclos ing the exquisite remains of a Moorish palace, whose beauties have been celebrated by all travellers, and admirably illustrated by the pen of Washington Irving. Situated in the midst of noble woods, surrounded by gardens, and built with sumptuousness and yet with taste, this beautiful spot contained everything that could contribute to the security and gratifica tion of the Granadian princes. The Hall of Lions is the grand apartment of the palace ; it is so called from a splendid fountain supported by lions, and is entirely constructed of marble and alabaster, and ornamented with the most delicate fretwork and arabesques. The Hall of the Abencerrages is still more beautiful. The ceiling is of cedar wood, inlaid with mother-of-pearl, ivory, and silver; and the walls are stuccoed and ornamented with ara besques of the most elegant and intricate de sign. The colors still retain their brilliancy, 310 ALIIOXDEGA ALI and the delicate filigree and tracery are in per fect order, after a lapse of 500 years. The principal building; was begun by Ibn al-Ahmar in 12-48, and finished by his grandson Moham med III. about 1314, but the principal decora tor was Yusuf I. Since the Castil- ian conquest of Granada it has undergone a se ries of disfig urements almost, without interrup tion. Charles V. modernized some of its most charac teristic portions in order to fit it for his own resi dence. Successive governors after ward pillaged it. The French blew up eight of the towers and tried to demolish the whole; and it is only within ten years that the re mains have re ceived intelligent care. The palace is now under the charge of a gov ernor and a num ber of invalid sol diers. The Al- hambra style is reproduced in a particular court in the crystal pal ace at Sydenham; and Owen Jones has published a work richly illustrated on the ornamentation and architec ture of the Alhambra. ALIIOXDEGA, a fortified granary in the sub urbs of Guanajuato, Mexico, which gives its name to the first battle between the insurgents and the troops of the mother country in 1810. Af ter the priest Hidalgo had taken up arms, he first endeavored to attack Guanajuato, against which he marched Sept. 28. Rianon, the commander, did not attempt to defend the city, but shut himself up with the Spanish troops and old Spaniards in the Alhondega. The Spaniards were well armed, and the troops of Hidalgo, except two Creole regiments, were equipped with slings, bows, pikes, machetes or cane knives, and clubs. The Indians assaulted the place with great gallantry, charging up to the Spanish artillery, which they sought to muzzle with their hats and blankets. On the other hand, the Spanish fire did fearful execution, until at last, the guns being without balls, shells were improvised by filling with powder the iron flasks in which quicksilver was brought Interior of the Alhambra Hall of the Abencerrages. from Spam, and firing them among the assail ants. It has also been said that bags of dollars were used instead of grape-shot by the des perate defenders. At last Rianon was killed, the works were carried by storm, and the whole garrison was mas sacred. The num ber of victims is estimated at 2, 000, one family alone having lost 17 members. The battle terminated on Friday night, and on Saturday morning not a Spaniard was alive in the city, and the very houses they had occupied were destroyed. ALI, pasha of Janina, born at Tepeleni, Albania, about 1741, exe cuted in February, 1822. His family had for genera tions held the town and territory of Tepeleni as a fief from the pasha of Berat. His father, having been driv en from his home by his own broth ers, afterward be sieged them at the head of a troop of klephts and burn ed them alive. His mother, of the wealthy Kamco family, was noted for her fero cious character. At her instigation the young Ali affiliated with brigands, and having regained his father s estates, made marauding incursions into neighboring territories. His subsequent alliance with the pasha of Janina, and the ex tent of his depredations, subjected him for some time to the displeasure of the Porte ; but after the execution of his father-in-law, the pasha of Delvino, and the marriage of the latter s suc cessor with Ali s sister, lie acquired supporters at the divan, and procured the appointment of sub-inspector of highways, in which post he compounded with robbers for a share of the booty. His superior was beheaded, while Ali saved himself by timely presents at Constanti nople. During the war of 1787 and the suc ceeding years, between the Porte and Russia and Austria, Ali Pasha, though keeping up a treasonable correspondence with the Russians, rendered good service to Turkey. He obtained the appointment of inspector of public high ways, with peremptory orders to suppress brigandage. Levying a strong force, he soon ALI ALIBERT 311 carried out his instructions, and having cleared : the roads and made war on his former ally, the j pasha of Janina, lie concocted a forged order from the Porte under which he occupied that pashalic, the subordinate beys of which were | in a state of open revolt. His public services, j and still more his bribery, procured him the ap- pointment to the pashalic in 1788, and by force | or fraud he extended his dominion over the ! greater part of northern Greece. He seized the Venetian territories on the coast of Alba nia so soon as the French army occupied the | Italian possessions of the republic in 1797, and ; opened a negotiation with Xapoleon for his j support in case the French expedition against Turkey should succeed. Xapoleon sent M. de Pouqueville to Janina; but on the defeat of the French in Egypt Ali Pasha sided with the Turks and the English, and assisted in driving out the French from Prevesa and Parga (1802). j He carried on a war of extermination against the Suliotes, an independent Christian moun taineer population of Epirus, and subdued them j (1803) after three years heroic resistance on their part. He still continued to keep up a show of allegiance to the Porte, by which he ; was appointed governor general of Roumelia. j His schemes of aggrandizement were notorious, | but he bribed Turkish officials, and never j openly set the power of the Porte at defi- ; ance. This cautious policy was at last forgot ten. Ismail Pasha, a former confidant of Ali, held an appointment at Constantinople. Ali, either from revenge or fear of disclosures, hired assassins to kill him. The attempt having fail ed, the assassins made a full confession. Ali was now outlawed. An army marched against him, which he at first repulsed (1821), but at | last, besieged by Kurshid Pasha in Janina, and j deserted by his Ottoman adherents, he retired to \ a stronghold on the lake, in which he kept his treasures and his magazine, threatening to blow himself up unless he received an amnesty. The I cupidity of the Turks being aroused by his treasure, it became important to secure the place. The incidents of the closing scene are variously narrated; but the general facts are ; that he was deluded by a pretended firman of | pardon into a personal interview with Kur shid. Pasha, in which he was attended by a small body of his officers. In this interview the sultan s commands for his decapitation were made known, on which Ali Pasha imme diately fired at his enemies, and killed or wounded some, but was himself shot dead. His head was cut off" and sent to Constantinople. Only about 20,000,000 francs of his money were found by the Turks. His daughters were sold as slaves ; his sons were all put to death ; his daughter-in-law was dishonored and drowned. As he contributed to the prosperity of the ter ritories under his rule, he u as regarded as rather an enlightened ruler by many Englishmen, in cluding Lord Byron, who visited him at Janina. ALI (Ali ben Abu Taleb), a Mohammedan caliph, reigned 055-661. He was adopted and brought up by Mohammed, his blood relation, married the prophet s daughter Fatima, and is believed to have been his first disciple. On the cleat] i of Mohammed without male issue, he I> t<l claims as next of kin to the succession ; hi _. he deferred to those of Abubekr, Omar, and Oth- mau, who were successively elected by the Moslems, and were supported by Ayesha, the prophet s widow, an inveterate enemy of Ali. It was not till after the assassination of Oth- man that he assumed the sovereign power. The question of his right to the succession di vides the Mohammedan world into the two great sects of Sunnis and Shiahs, the former denying Ali s right, the latter affirming it. Ali s first act of power was the suppression of a rebellion fomented by other pretenders to the crown, who were abetted by Ayesha. The rebels Zoba ir and Talha were defeated and slain, and Ayesha was taken prisoner. A new opponent soon arose in Moawiyah, who suc ceeded in establishing himself in Damascus, and even carried the war into Ali s own terri tories and seized the two holy cities. Three fanatics, having determined on ridding the world of both pretenders, succeeded in killing Ali, but failed in their attempt on the life of Moawiyah. Ali left three sons, one of whom, Hassan, succeeded him for a short time. ALIBAUD, Louis, a Frenchman notorious for his attempt to murder Louis Philippe, born at Ximes in 1810, died on the scaffold, July 11, 1836. In his 18th year he entered the army as a volunteer. During the revolution of 1830 he went over to the popular side, and was wounded at the barricades. Invalided in 1834, he resided alternately at Perpignan, Barcelona, and Paris. Etis attempt to shoot the king, in spired by political fanaticism and a morbid satiety of life, was made June 25, 1836, as his majesty was leaving the Tuileries in his carriage. Being instantly seized by the soldiery, his only regret was that he had failed in his endeavor. ALIBERT, Jean Louis, a French physician, known for his study of cutaneous diseases, born in Villefranche, May 26, 1776, died in Paris, Xov. 6, 1837. His inaugural thesis, on " Perni cious Intermittent Fevers, passed through five ; editions and had an unusual success for a treat- I ise of that nature. About 1803 he was appointed \ physician to the hospital St. Louis in Paris, : and immediately began the investigation of dis- ; eases of the skin, publishing in 1806 the first numbers of his great work on cutaneous diseases. In 1821 he was appointed to the chair of the rapeutics in the faculty of medicine. He wrote on a variety of medical subjects, and was re markable for an elegant style. He was one of the founders of the xocicte m-cdicale cVemula- tion, and several of the addresses which he pronounced before this society did much to establish his literary reputation. * He was phy sician in ordinary to Louis XVIII., by whoin^he was created a baron and officer of the legion of honor. He was also physician to Charles X. His principal works are : Traite desjievres per- 312 ALI BEY ALIEN nicieuses intermittent^ (180-4) ; Description des maladies de la peau observees a fhopital St. Louis (large folio, with 51 plates, 1806- 26); Precis theorique et pratique sur les maladies de la peau (1810- 18) ; Physiologie des passions, ou nouielle doctrine des sentiments moraux (1825); Monographic des dcrmatoses (1832); Clinique de VJiopital St. Louis (1833). ALI BEY, a Caucasian slave, who, by the favor of his master, Ibrahim Bey, rose to wealth and importance in Egypt, and became one of the Mameluke beys, born in 1728, died in 1773. He became chief of the Mamelukes in 1763, and, ; having secured himself adherents in Cairo, he \ slaughtered the other beys in 1706, and as sumed the government, proclaiming himself sultan in 1768. The Porte, then occupied with war against Eussia, left him uncontrolled. His idea, derived from intercourse with Euro peans, was the restoration of the Egyptian kingdom. He formed an alliance with l)aher, | pasha of A-cre, and they seized on Mecca, and sent a fleet into the Red sea. In 1770 they overran Syria, and Daher and Mohammed, | All s general and adopted son, having routed j the Turkish army, were on the point of render- ! ing themselves masters of the country, when 1 Mohammed, either alarmed for himself or gain ed over by the Turks, precipitately quitted the | iirmy, and, returning to Egypt, engaged in a | war against Ali, who fled. The latter, how ever, renewed the contest jointly with Daher, and for a time with great success, but was | finally captured in battle and slain. ALICANTE. I. A S. E. maritime province of Spain, forming a part of the former kingdom of Valencia; area, 2,096 sq. m. ; pop. in 1867 | (estimated), 426,656. One half of the province consists of a bare chain of high mountains, | with partly sterile steppes, without trees or water ; but the southern portion is generally level and fertile, with a mild climate, and agri culture flourishes. Among the products are Alicante mineral salt, sea salt, and esparto, besides silk, grain, and fruits of all kinds. The chief river is the Segura. The principal towns, besides the capital, are Alcoy, Denia, Villa- joyosa, Jijona, Monovar, Elche, and Ori- huela. II. The capital of the province, and the principal port of Valencia, on a bay of the Mediterranean, 230 m. S. E. of Madrid ; pop. about 32,000. It is situated partly on the slope of a hill 400 feet high, on the top of which is a strong castle, and partly on the shore of the bay. The latter portion is modern and elegant. From the northern slope of the moun tain is produced the celebrated Aloque wine. The commerce of Alicante was formerly ex tensive, but has decreased during the last 20 years. The chief exports are raisins, almonds, olive oil, saffron, and vanilla. The city has a cathedral, a government tobacco factory em ploying about 4,500 girls, and a bull ring capa ble of seating 11,000 persons. ALICATA. See LICATA. ALIEN, a person who was born out of the jurisdiction and allegiance of a country, and who is not a citizen of that country. Not all foreign-born persons are aliens by our law, be cause they may be within certain excepted classes, as the children of the nation s ambassa dors born in other countries, or of American citizens temporarily sojourning abroad ; or they may have become citizens by naturalization. In the United States citizenship and alienage are determined by the laws of the federal gov ernment. The subject of naturalization under these laws is treated elsewhere. (See NATU- EALIZATION.) Attica, the foremost state of an cient Greece, treated foreigners with much lib erality. While Sparta was jealous of strangers and excluded them, at Athens foreigners were freely admitted, and at one time constituted half her residents. They were subjected to taxes and to some other light burdens and disabili ties which were not imposed on native citizens; but on the whole the pol icy observed toward them _- : \v;is huiiiaiieaiu] generous, ! and sometimes they were received into citizenship. In other states of Greece ! individuals and sometimes , : \- : whole classes of aliens were endowed with civil rights, such as the privi lege of intermarriage, of holding real property, and of exemption from special taxation. In Home, un der the emperors, foreign ers could acquire and dis pose of property, could de vise and inherit it, and sue in the courts ; and they en joyed other rights accord ed by the jusgentiwn, that is to say, the mere natural rights of persons, though ALIEN 313 tliey were deemed the especial and distinctive privilege of Roman citizens. In Germany and France, in the later periods, foreigners were not only denied civil rights, but were forced to invoke the protection of the native barons or seigneurs, who imposed the heaviest exactions as the price of their protection. In France, in some districts, the alien was forbidden, after a certain term of residence, to leave the lord s domain; and if he died within it, leaving no heirs there, the lord claimed the right of suc cession to his property. This prerogative of the seigneurs, later assumed by the sovereign himself, was what in modern times was known as the droit tVaubaine. It has existed down to a very recent period in Europe, at least in the milder form of the droit de detraction, and practically exists now T , or did only a few years ago, as Mr. Attorney General Gushing sug gested, in many of our own states ; and it is the subject of clauses in some of our latest treaties with European powers. This droit d aubaine, as it was asserted by the king of France, consisted sometimes in a right to levy a tax on strangers on certain occasions, and some times in the claim of inheriting to strangers who left no heirs within the kingdom. It was abol ished in France in 1790, restored by the Code Napoleon on the plea of reciprocity, and abol ished finally in 1819, when the right of succes sion was conceded to foreigners to the same extent as it was enjoyed by native-born French men. The French legislation has had the effect to break down this exaction in other European states ; but Great Britain and the United States have not been so liberal. A very recent treaty with Prussia, which will illustrate the present international practice on this point, contained provisions intended to relieve the subjects of Prussia from their disabilities in respect to real ;ind personal property here, and declared that on the death of such an alien in possession of property, his heirs should have reasonable time to sell it and withdraw the proceeds, "exempt from all droits of detraction on the part of the government of the United States." Soon after the conclusion of this treaty, the Prussian min ister complained that his countrymen did not enjoy in all our states the benefit of the treaty stipulation, and the question arose whether the federal government could make a treaty whose provisions of this character could bind the states ; for though the federal government has supreme and exclusive cognizance of questions of citizenship and alienage merely, yet each state is at liberty to make its own laws in relation to the enjoyment and devolution of property within its own limits. The opinion of the at torney general was very clear and explicit to the effect that the treaty-making power of the general government must bind the states as to the provisions in question. But, so far as ap pears, no decision on the subject has ever been made by the courts. As to real property, sub ject to the right of forfeiture in the state or sovereign, aliens under the common law | may take by act of the party, as the phrase is, though they may not take by act of the law. In other words, an alien may take real estate by purchase, or even by devise, these being acts of parties ; but he cannot take by inherit- | ance, for that is a mere operation of the law. j When the alien takes, as in the two former ! cases, the estate vests in him, and he may hold j it against every one but the state ; nor can the I state enforce its right of forfeiture without | proceedings for that purpose, or, in legal phra- i seology, without an inquest of office found. Until this is done, the alien may exercise com- | plete legal domain over the property, just as a I citizen may do. But though he may sell it, his grantee takes no better title than the alien had, and he is therefore as liable to forfeit the lands I as the alien was. At common law, as just im- i plied, the alien has no inheritable blood, that is to say, he can neither take nor transmit real ! property by descent. Thus it was formerly ! held that a grandson could not inherit to his ! grandfather, though both were native-born ; subjects, if the intervening son, the grandson s | father, were an alien. But a statute was pass- | ed in the reign of William III. which cured i this disability, by providing that native-born i citizens might inherit to their ancestors, not- ! withstanding the alienage of any intervening | ancestor. This statute was reenacted in 1830 i in New York, and in many other states before ! that time. The disabilities of aliens in respect to real property have been materially lessened j in most of our states ; and in some they are I entirely removed, as in Massachusetts, Mary- ; land, Florida, Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, Wiscon- i sin, Nebraska, Dakota, and Nevada. In New ; York, South Carolina, Texas, and many others, the alien may take, hold, and devise lands after declaring his intention to become a citizen in conformity with the naturalization laws. In i Connecticut and California the alien, if a resi dent in the state, may purchase, hold, inherit, and transmit lands in the same manner as a citizen. The right of forfeiture, it should be i observed, is very rarely exercised by the states ; ! on the contrary, the legislatures are very liberal ; in making laws to cure defects of titles arising out of the alienage of former holders, and in 1 releasing in favor of the natural heirs the right of escheat which may have accrued to the state by the death of an alien ancestor in pos session of lands. In respect to personal prop erty, aliens may at common law take, hold, and dispose of it, and make and enforce contracts i in respect to it, just as native citizens may do. An alien in New York may take a purchase- money mortgage on land sold by him, and on a foreclosure may buy and hold the land. But it is doubtful whether he could make such a purchase on foreclosure of his mortgage on lands in which he never had any other title than the mortgage. The revisers in 1830 pro posed a section to confer the power, but it was not adopted. An alien enemy, that is to say, the subject of a state actually at war with us, ALIEN ALIMENT cannot maintain an action in our courts, unless he is here by license of our government or is otherwise under its protection. But an alien friend, whether resident here or not, may sustain in our courts an action like our own citizens for any injury to his person or rights. As to non resident aliens, an illustration of the rule is furnished by the suits for infringement of trade marks in this country, which have been in several instances maintained by English manu facturers. Suits by or against aliens, whether living here or abroad, to which a citizen of the United States is an opposite party, may be brought under the laws of the federal govern ment in the United States circuit courts ; and suits by aliens for torts in violation of the law of nations may be brought in the district courts. Upon the outbreak of a war with the alien s country his civil capacity to sue is suspended, and his property is subject to confiscation. A statute of the United States of 1798, still in force, provides that in such an event the sub jects of the hostile nation within our territory may be restrained, secured, or removed as alien enemies, though they shall be allowed such time for removal of their effects as is provided by treaties with their countries. Aliens are in capable of serving on juries, voting, or holding office. Where they can hold property, they are generally subject to militia duty and the other burdens and taxes of citizens. The prac tice of trying aliens by a jury de medietate lin- guoz (half aliens) lias fallen into general disuse. The power to expel aliens from the state is vested in France in the minister of the interior, and in England and America theoretically in the executive, though it has never been exer cised in either of the two latter countries ex cept in pursuance of an act of parliament or of congress. Such an act was passed in England in 1848, but a report made in 1850 showed that it had not been enforced in a single in stance. In England some important points of the law respecting aliens have been lately set tled by the enactment of the naturalization act of 1870. It declares that henceforth real and personal property of every description may be taken, acquired, held, and disposed of by an alien, in the same manner in all respects as by a native-born British subject; and that a title to real and personal property of every descrip tion may be derived from, through, or in suc cession to an alien, as it may be from a native citizen of the kingdom. The act also provides that any alien naturalized in Great Britain may make a declaration of alienage after proclama tion of any treaty with his native state which insures that privilege for its subjects ; and also that any person born out of her majesty s do minions of a British father may, if of full age and under no disability, make a declaration of alienage. From the passage of the act no alien shall be entitled to be tried by a jury de medie tate lingua, but shall be triable like a native British subject. Provisos of the act declare that its terms shall not qualify an alien for any office or for any municipal, parliamentary, or other franchise, nor enable him to enjoy any rights or privileges as a British subject, except the rights and privileges as to property con ceded by the act. Other significant but less im portant provisions are contained in the statute. ALIGHIEUI, Dante degli. See DASTE. ALIGIIIR, or Allygurli. I. A district of Brit ish India, in the Meerut division of the North western Provinces, between lat. 27 27 and 28 ll N., and Ion. 77 32 and 78 47 E. ; area, 2,149 sq. m. ; pop. about 1,200,000. With the exception of a ridge near the middle of the district, the surface is almost level. The crops are wheat, barley, millet, pulse, indigo, cotton, tobacco, and sugar. At the beginning of this century Alighur was the seat of power of the French adventurer Perron. II. A fort in the preceding district, 55 m. N. of Agra, on the road to Meerut. It was held by Perron with a force of Mahrattas in 1803, and was stormed by the British Sept, 4, about 2,000 of the garrison falling in the assault. A regiment of sepoys mutinied here in May, 1857, and held the place till October, the English escaping without loss of life. ALOIEXT, or Food, all the solid and liquid substances requisite for the nourishment of the body. The living body is in a constant state of change. Every one of its motions, every exertion of the voluntary muscles, even the contractions of the heart and the movements of respiration, are attended by the disintegra tion of some portion of the tissues, which must be renovated in order to maintain their vital activity. This constant waste of tissues de mands a corresponding supply of food, by which the loss may be made good. Properly speaking, all the ingredients of the body con stantly require to be replaced, and must there fore form a part of the food. Alimentary ma terials are accordingly divided into groups, dis tinguished from each other by certain char acteristics. 1. The first comprises the inor ganic substances proper, namely, water and the mineral salts. They are all essential as ingredients of the food, since they form an es sential part of the bodily frame. Of these in organic substances, water is the most abundant and the most constantly indispensable. It forms from two thirds to three quarters of the entire mass of the human body, and is constantly dis charged from the body by the perspiration, the respiration, and the urine. The water thus lost must consequently be replaced by that which is taken with the food and drink. The quantity of water taken in to supply the wants of the system is for an adult man, on the aver age, about 4^ pounds per day. Of the mineral salts which are necessary constituents of the body and of the food, chloride of sodium, or common salt, and phosphate of lime are the most important. They exist in greater or less abundance in every one of the solids and fluids of the body. Chloride of sodium, for example, i is present in the blood in the proportion of 4^ ALIMEXT 315 parts per thousand ; and phosphate of lime j exists in the bones and other solid tissues in much greater proportion. Both these substances are also ingredients of the food. Chloride of sodium is found in muscular flesh, or lean meat, in the proportion of two parts per thousand, ; and we are also in the habit of adding it to the | food as a condiment. Breeders of sheep, cat- j tie, and horses always find that a liberal sup- ! ply of common salt improves greatly the con- | dition of the animals. Phosphate of lime exists in the muscular flesh of animals, in fish, oysters, eggs, in the cereal grains, in peas, beans, pota- I toes, beets, turnips, &c., and even in most of the juicy fruits. The alkaline salts, the car bonates of soda and potassa, are also necessary to the nourishment of the body; since the blood and most of the secretions must have an alkaline reaction, and this reaction is for the most part communicated to them by the pres ence of the carbonates of soda and potassa. Unlike the mineraj salts, however, the alkaline carbonates are not usually introduced into the body under their own form. Many of the sum- j mer fruits and vegetables contain salts of soda j and potassa combined with various organic | acids, such as the malates, tartrates, and ci trates of these bases. These salts are decom- ! posed in the interior of the body, and their | vegetable acids replaced by the carbonic acid, j Thus they become alkaline salts, and provide j for the proper constitution of the animal flu ids. 2. Another group of the alimentary sub stances comprises starch and sugar. These two resemble each other in their chemical constitu tion, being composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen alone. They are further connected by the fact that starch may by various means be converted into sugar. The readiest mode of doing this is perhaps by boiling with a dilute acid. If 320 grains of starch be boiled for five I hours with about two fluid drachms of sul- | phuric acid in a pint of water, it will be found I to have lost the properties of starch and ac quired the sweet taste and other characteristic i qualities of sugar. There are various other | modes by which the same change may be ac complished; and in fact in very many in stances, if not in all, in which sugar is formed in the juices of vegetables, it has first appeared in the form of starch. Of the substances be longing to this group, the different varieties of starch are the most abundant. Starch is found, I in the form of minute rounded grains, in a vast j number of vegetable productions. It is abun- j dant in wheat flour, in rice, Indian corn, rye, j barley, oats, potatoes, peas, and beans, and enters in smaller proportion into nearly every article of vegetable food. In the process of I cooking, or heating the starch in contact with water, its grains swell up, become softened, absorb water, and at last, if the heat be suffi ciently long continued and the water sufficiently abundant, they fuse together into a gelatinous, homogeneous mass. In this condition they are much more digestible than in the raw state, and it is in this form that starch is almost al ways actually used as food. Sugar is also taken not only in its purified form, as an addition to other substances, but also as a natural in gredient in the sweet juices of nearly all the fruits and most vegetables. Wheat flour con tains 5 per cent, of sugar, milk nearly 5 per cent., beets 9 per cent., pears over 10 per cent., and peaches and cherries from 16 to 18 per cent. Vegetable substances containing starch and sugar are always useful, and in the long run indispensable for maintaining health in the human species. A diet exclusively composed of meat and other animal substances becomes after a short time exceedingly distasteful, and an almost irresistible desire is experienced for food of a vegetable origin. This is an instinct ive demand of the system. Even dried or pre served vegetables will not answer the purpose indefinitely, for there is something in the fresh vegetable juices which is essential to health ; and if fresh vegetables are excluded from the food for a long time, all the symptoms of scurvy begin to manifest themselves, showing a gener ally disordered condition of the nutritive func tions. 3. A third group of alimentary ma terials comprises the fats. These substances, like starch and sugar, consist of carbon, hydro gen, and oxygen as their chemical elements, but the proportions in which the elements are combined are not analogous to those in the former group ; and the fats have other dis tinctive characteristics also. They are both of animal and vegetable origin. They constitute the greater part of the adipose tissue or fat of animals, more than 25 per cent, of the yolk of eggs, the whole of the butter derived from cow s milk, 9 per cent, of Indian corn, 32 per cent, of olives, and in walnuts and filberts as much as 50 or even 60 per cent. Fat, in some one or more of these forms, is extremely useful and perhaps indispensable as an article of food. The fact that it constitutes over 34- per cent, of human milk, which is the first and exclusive food of the infant, shows this to be the case, at least for that age ; and the general desire which is felt by the healthy appetite for a certain pro portion of fat is a sufficient indication of its importance. 4. The last group of alimentary materials comprises albuminoid substances. (See ALBUMEN.) They are distinguished from both the starchy and fatty substances by the fact that they all contain nitrogen ; and they are sometimes designated as the nitrogenous elements, in distinction from the others, which are non-nitrogenous. The albumen of the white of egg is one of the most important and familiar. A substance very similar in composition to albumen, namely, musculine, forms the principal mass of muscular flesh, and is the chief ingredient in lean meat used for food. Caseine is present in milk, and in a co agulated form constitutes the principal part of cheese. Legumine is found in peas and beans, and gluten is the albuminoid ingredient of wheat flour. Altogether, an adult man usually 316 ALIMENT consumes rather more than a quarter of a pound of albuminoid matters (calculated in the dry state) during 24 hours. Xo one of the groups of alimentary materials enumerated above, taken singly, is sufficient for the contin ued nourishment of the body. This is sufficiently evident for the inorganic suhstances, such as water and the mineral salts. Vegetables have the power of assimilating these matters, and converting them into the ingredients of the vegetable fabric ; but animals require for their nourishment materials which are already ani mal or vegetable in their nature. But even these suhstances, combined with starch, sugar, or oil, are also insufficient. Dumas and Milne- Edwards found that bees fed upon pure sugar and water soon ceased to work, and afterward perished. They thrive only when supplied with waxy and other vegetable substances in addition. Magendie found that dogs fed upon starch and sugar, or upon an exclusive diet of fat, became after a time debilitated, and died with symptoms of great disturbance of the nutritive functions. Boussingault fed a duck upon butter alone ; but, although the quantity of this alimentary substance was abundant, namely, from 1,350 to 1,500 grains per day, the animal at the end of three weeks died of inanition. All the tissues of the body were infiltrated with oleaginous material, but this substance had proved incapable of supporting life. Lehmann put himself upon a regimen consisting solely of non-nitrogenous substances, such as starch, sugar, gum, and oil, but was only able to continue this course for two or at most for three days at a time, owing to the dis turbance of the general health produced by it. The unfavorable symptoms, however, rapidly disappeared on his resuming an ordinary mixed diet. The substances just mentioned being de ficient in so important an element as nitrogen, this was at one time regarded as a sufficient explanation of their inability to sustain life ; and the albuminoid or nitrogenous materials were therefore supposed to be the only ab solute and completely nutritious ingredients of the food. Direct experiment, however, showed that these substances themselves, when taken alone, were also insufficient. Magendie fed dogs upon pure gelatine and pure tibrine, and found at the end of some days that the animals lost their relish for the food, became emaciated, and died with symptoms of inanition. To be completely nutritious, therefore, the food must contain not one but all of the groups of ali mentary substances, and these substances must be present in their true proportion. This shows the futility of the attempts which have some times been made to fix the nutritive value of different kinds of food by ascertaining their ultimate chemical composition, and particularly by the amount of nitrogen which they contain. The nutritious qualities of an article of food depend upon the proportion of its different in gredients, not only as taken alone, but also as used in combination with other substances. Its digestibility and the extent to which it con forms to the appetite and natural taste are also important elements in the question. The nu tritive value of an article can therefore only be determined by direct experiment and observa tion ; that is, by employing it as food, alone and in combination. Thus all those sub stances which are found by universal expe rience to be the most useful are distinguished by a variety of composition. Milk, which for the young infant is during a certain period the only food employed, contains water, mineral salts, caseine or an albuminoid ingredient, but ter or fat, and a peculiar variety of sugar. Eggs contain albumen, water, fat, and salts. Wheat fiour, as well as the bread which is made of it, contains gluten, water, salts, starch, and a small quantity of sugar. In practice, at least for adults, a judicious variety in the diet is found to be indispensable for the maintenance of health. Of all articles of food, bread is per haps the most important. The best and most nutritious bread is that made from wheat flour. The Hour contains, in 100 parts, on the average, 72 parts of starch, 7 T : V parts of gluten, 5 r \ parts of sugar, and 12 parts of water, together with gum, phosphates of lime and magnesia, alkaline sulphates, and a little chloride of sodium. It is first kneaded into a paste with about one half its weight of water, a little yeast added and thoroughly mingled with the mass by con tinued kneading, and the dough then allowed to remain for some hours at a moderately warm temperature. During this time the yeast ex cites in the sugar of the flour a fermentation, by which it is converted, as in ordinary fer mentation, into alcohol and carbonic acid. The alcohol penetrates the dough and escapes by evaporation. The carbonic acid, however, is developed throughout the dough in the form of minute gaseous bubbles, which are confined and entangled by the tenacious gluten of the flour; and the whole mass thus becomes in flated or puffed up by the gaseous expansion. This is the rising or fermentation of the dough. It is then transferred to an oven and kept there at a temperature of about 380 E. until the baking is complete. The eftect of baking at this high temperature is as follows : First, the starch upon the outside of the loaf is converted into dextrine and hardened into a brownish, brittle layer, which is the crust ; secondly, the gluten throughout is also solidified and at the same time acquires an agreeable and whole some flavor ; thirdly, the starch grains become swollen, fused, and hydrated, fixing perma nently in their substance a certain proportion of the water with which the flour was mingled. Thus, after baking, the bread always weighs more than the flour of which it was made, owing to the necessary combination of water with the starch in the baking process. Usually one pound of flour is found to produce in this way one pound and a quarter of bread. When removed from the oven and cut open, the in terior of the loaf is seen to present a spongy ALIMENTARY CANAL SIT appearance, owing to a multitude of little cavi ties distributed through its substance. These are the cavities originally produced by the bubbles of carbonic acid developed in fermen tation, and which retain their figure in con sequence of the stiffening and coagulation of the gluten by the baking process. This is one of the main objects of fermentation ; for the spongy texture which the bread thus receives enables it to be more easily masticated and mingled with the saliva and gastric fluids, and thus renders it more healthy and digestible. Cheese is made by coagulating the caseine of milk with rennet, after which the coagulum is compressed, in order to free it from the watery, oleaginous, and saline ingredients of the milk ; and when reduced to a sufficiently solid condition, it may be kept for an indefinite time. In many kinds of cheese, however, more or less of the oily ingredients of the milk are retained entangled with the caseine, by which it acquires a richer and stronger flavor. Butter, on the other hand, is simply the oleaginous portion of the milk, separated from the remain ing constituents. In the natural condition of the milk the butter is in the form of microscopic globules, or spherical masses, of a semi-solid consistency, suspended in a state of minute subdivision in the serous liquid. By the opera tion of churning, these little globules are made to cohere mechanically together, and gradually the whole of the oleaginous substance is sepa rated in a distinct pasty mass. It is still fur ther freed from the accompanying ingredients of the milk by pressure and kneading under water, and is finally obtained as butter in a nearly pure condition. The effect of cooking upon food is twofold. In the first place, it softens and disintegrates the substances which are naturally too hard for digestion, and thus renders them amenable to the digestive opera tions. This is the effect produced upon many vegetable substances, such as starch grains wherever they may be found, and all substances having a resisting envelope or a tough and solid texture, such as peas, beans, potatoes, turnips, and the like. In animal substances, on the other hand, the most useful effect of cooking appears to be the partial transformation of the albuminoid matters, as in roast meat, by which they acquire a peculiar and agreeable flavor. There is reason to believe that this flavor, be sides being pleasant to the palate, is also the indication of a chemical change in the albumi noid matters, by which they are prepared for digestion and become better fitted to subserve the nutrition of the body. ALIMENTARY A\AL, a tubular passage, ex isting in man and all the higher animals, com posed principally of a muscular layer and a mu cous membrane, extending from the mouth to the anus, and designed for the reception, trans mission, and digestion of the food or aliment. The cavity of the alimentary canal is continu ous, anatomically, from its commencement to its termination, forming a hollow passage through which the food is carried in the di gestive process. Its different parts are, how ever, partly separated from each other at various points by constrictions and muscular bands, which are alternately closed and opened, to allow of the temporary retention or onward movement of the alimentary materials. The different portions of the canal are also distin guished from each other by varieties of form and size, the development of their muscular layers, and the structure of their mucous or lining membrane. Owing to this variety of structure, and the different characters of the se cretions produced, the action of the alimentary canal upon the food varies in its different parts ; and the process of digestion to which the food is subjected consists of the successive or com bined operation of the whole. The principal portions into which the canal is thus divided, in the human subject, are known as the mouth, the oesophagus, the stomach, the small intes tine, and the large intestine. The mouth is the cavity included between the opening of the lips in front and the fauces behind. In it are the teeth, intended for the mastication and com minution of the food ; the tongue, a muscular and sensitive organ, which subserves both the sense of taste and the proper movement and ad mixture of the food in mastication ; and a lining membrane which contains mucous glandules destined to supply a viscid secretion form ing part of the saliva. There are also the pa rotid, submaxillary, and sublingual glands, sit uated in the immediate vicinity of the mouth., which pour their secretions into its cavity, and thus complete the formation and supply of sa liva, which is mingled with the food in mastica tion and reduces it to the condition of a soft, pasty mass. Immediately behind the fauces is the pharynx, a short funnel-shaped passage lead ing directly to the oesophagus. The latter is a nearly straight tube of uniform size, about nine inches long and rather less than one inch in di ameter. It passes through the neck and pos terior region of the chest to the upper part of the abdomen, where it terminates in the stom ach. It has a double layer of transverse and longitudinal muscular fibres, by whose peristal tic or wave-like contractions the masticated food is rapidly carried from above downward. Its lining membrane is of a simple structure, and produces only a small quantity of mucus, destined by its lubricating qualities to facilitate the passage of the food. The oesophagus, in fact, is simply an organ of transmission, by which the food is transferred from the mouth to the stom ach, where the more important digestive actions are to begin. The stomach is a dilatation of the alimentary canal, lying transversely across the upper part of the intestine. Toward the left side it expands into a wide hemispherical sac or pouch ; toward the right side it becomes narrowed to a smaller diameter, where it unites with the upper extremity of the abdomen. The orifice by which the stomach communicates with the oesophagus is called the cardia (Gr. 318 ALIMENTARY CANAL the tortuous windings of its internal cavity. Its mucous membrane is provided, first, with a great number of glandular follicles which secrete the intestinal juice, one of the active agents in digestion; and secondly, with mi nute filamentous vascular prominences or villi, Abdominal Portion of the Alimentary Canal. .A, oesophagus; B, diaphragm; C, stomach; D, cardiac ex tremity of the stomach; E, great pouch; F, pylorus; G, duodenum, H, right lobe of liver; I, left lobe of liver; K, gall bladder ; L, bile duct ; M. small intestine ; N, entrance of small intestine into the large intestine ; O, caecum ; P, appendix vermiformis ; Q. ascending colon; R S T, trans verse colon; U, sigmoid flexure; V, rectum; W, urinary bladder ; X. pancreas ; Y, spleen. the heart), because it is situated near the heart ; that by which it communicates with the intes- i tine is called the pylorus (Or. irvlupde, a gate- | keeper). Both are provided with a special circular bundle of muscular fibres by which the j food, once in the stomach, is retained there for j a time, to allow of the secretion and operation of the gastric juice. The gastric juice is se creted by the mucous membrane of the stomach, j which is soft, glandular, and vascular in texture, I and, when stimulated by the contact of the food, pours out the gastric juice in considerable abun- j dance, as the perspiration is exuded by the j skin. Next the stomach follows the small in- | testine. This is a tubular canal about 25 feet ! in length and between one and two inches in | diameter. It is thrown into numberless folds j and convolutions, by which, notwithstanding its great length, it occupies a comparatively \ moderate space in the abdomen. It is attached I to the abdominal portion of the spinal column by | a thin, flexible membranous sheet termed the j mesentery, which, while retaining it in its proper position, allows of the necessary movement of its different convolutions upon each other. Its muscular layers are well developed and active, ^nd by their contractions continuously urge $he semi-iiuid ingredients of the food through Two Villi of the Small Intestines. A, substance of the villus ; B, its epithelium, of which some cells are seen detached at B 1 ; C I.), the artery and vein, with their connecting capillary network, which envelopes a-nd hides the lacteal radicle. E, which occupies the centre of the villus and opens into a network of lacteal vessels at its base. which are so abundant and thickly set as to give its internal surface a velvety texture, and which by their absorbent action take up from the intestine the nutritious elements of the digested food. Into the upper part of the small intestine, a few inches below the stomach, there are also discharged two accessory secre tions, namely, the bile from the liver, and the pancreatic juice from the pancreas. The small intestine terminates, in the lower part of the abdomen on the right side, by a junction at right angles with the large intestine. The large intestine, so called from its greater capa city as indicated by a transverse measurement, is about five feet long, and from !- to 2-t inches in diameter. It extends from its commence ment in the right iliac region (see ABDOMEN) upward on the right side of the abdomen, then transversely across to the left side, then down ward upon the left side, then through an S-like convolution to the top of the pelvis, and finally through the cavity of the pelvis to the anus. At the point of junction of the small with the large intestine there are two parallel folds of mucous membrane, with their edges turned toward the cavity of the large intestine, which act as a double valve (called the ileo-csccal valve), allowing the passage of materials in this direction, but preventing their regurgita- tion from the large into the small intestine. The mucous membrane of the large intestine has no villi, but is provided with simple glan dular follicles, which secrete various excremen- titious materials. This portion of the alimen tary canal contains also the refuse portions of the food, which, together with the excremen- titious matters supplied by its lining membrane, assume a faecal consistency and appearance from the situation of the ileo-ca3cal valve down ward, and are finally discharged from the lower extremity of the large intestine. ALDIMTTS, Lucius Cincins, a Roman historian and jurist, prrotor in Sicily 209 B. C. He was ALIMONY 119 for some time a prisoner in the hands of Han nibal, who appears to have treated him with kindness, giving him an account of his march through Gaul and over the Alps. Alimentus wrote a history of Home which is quoted by Livy. Only fragments of it are preserved. He also wrote an account of his imprisonment among the Carthaginians. He is highly praised by Niebuhr as an accurate investigator. He wrote also on law and antiquities. The frag ments of Alimentus still extant are appended to Corte s edition of Sallust. ALDIOXY (Lat. alimonium, nourishment), in lu\v, the allowance which a husband, by order of the court, makes to his wife for her maintenance during her separation from him. Of alimony, as of all matters pertaining to the marriage relation, the ecclesiastical courts in England had in former times exclusive cogni zance. No such courts were ever established here, and the jurisdiction in respect to alimony is exercised in our states either under express statutes, or as being included in the character istic powers of courts of chancery or equity. When the jurisdiction is assumed on the latter ground, the court grants this sort of relief in that class of cases in which the ecclesiastical courts of England would have decreed it. Or dinarily the question of alimony in the United States arises in connection with cases of di vorce, partial or absolute. It has been the rule of the law until very recent legislation, especially in the United States, modified it, that all the personal property of the wife at her marriage, and all that came to her after ward, and the substantial benefit of her real estate too, vested absolutely in the husband. The law therefore put upon him the correlative duty of maintaining the wife according to his condition in life and pecuniary ability ; and it is out of this duty that the wife s right to ali mony in case of her lawful separation from her husband also arises. Accordingly, whenever a court adjudges or concedes that the wife may live apart from her husband for his violation of his matrimonial obligations to her, it will also decree that he make her a proper allowance for her sustenance. Observing the conditions of alimony as they were defined by the practice of the English ecclesiastical courts, some of our states, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania for ex ample, have held that, in the absence of express statutes, they have no power to grant alimony in cases of absolute divorce ; for as in the Eng lish law that kind of divorce was unknown un til recently, the spiritual courts gave alimony of course only upon divorces from bed and board, or as we call them partial divorces. But in most of the states the statutes explicitly provide for alimony in all divorces. In general, and for obvious reasons, our courts will not grant permanent alimony to the wife when she is the guilty party, though, as a merciful safe guard against her further debasement, they do sometimes make such provision for her. Nor on other grounds will the courts compel the j husband to pay anything when the wife has a separate estate which is withheld by settlement I or otherwise from her husband s control, and, ; considering his means and condition, it yields to ! the wife as much as she is fairly entitled to. ; The provision for the wife may either be made pending a suit for divorce, whether brought by herself or by her husband, in which case it is called alimony pendente lite or pending suit ; or : it may be permanent, that is, for the term of | her separation or for her lifetime, and this sort ! of alimony is ordered upon the passing of the ! decree of divorce, whether partial or absolute. ; As to the alimony pending suit, it is quite a i matter of course to give it, whichever party ! brings the action ; though when the husband I is plaintiff, the court ordinarily requires as a i condition precedent a sworn denial of her guilt ! on the part of the wife, or some other proof of | the merits of her case. With this sort of ali- j mony, ordinarily, the court gives a provision j for the wife s legal expenses in prosecuting or defending the action. This is only just, for even if the wife is the defendant, she is not yet proved guilty, and to deny her the means of ; resisting her husband s suit might be to deny ; her the means of vindicating herself. At all I events, if the wife has no means, and the hus- : band has, he must not only support her fairly | during the legal proceedings, but also supply her with means for retaining counsel and otherwise ! paying the legal expenses especially pertaining | to the action. The allowance in these respects I does not always depend on the fact whether | or not the husband has an accumulated prop erty; he may be ordered to pay it out of his ; daily earnings. And the principle is so reason- ! able that in a case where the court could not compel a husband who was plaintiff to pay alimony pendente lite because he had neither property nor any other resources, it ordered him to suspend his action till he could furnish . his wife with the means of defending it. If the husband pay the temporary alimony ordered | by the court, he is discharged of all liability i for even the wife s necessaries ; but he is liable I for them if he withholds the allowance, as he < is in fact, on general principles, if no alimony has been directed. The amount of alimony which the court will award pendente lite de pends on the circumstances of the case and of the parties. It is larger when the wife is plaintiff than when she is defendant, but even in that case the court takes into consideration the fact that she has not yet proved her allega- 1 tions. It will be less or more according to her \ condition in life and her needs. It will be less if she has a separate estate, and it may be in creased or perhaps reduced from the amount first fixed, as the circumstances of the parties may change ; and, as a rule, alimony pending ; the suit is always much smaller than the perma- nent provision made after divorce. In England the proportion of the joint income allowed as alimony is ordinarily, and apart from special reasons either wav, about one fifth. In New 320 ALIMONY ALISON York the courts have been disposed to allow the woman no more than her actual wants require until the final adjudication upon the merits, when the permanent alimony may be fixed from the beginning of the case, and the amount of temporary alimony paid meantime is deduct ed from it. Nor as to permanent alimony is there any fixed rule governing the amount of it. In England it seems to be the common practice to award one third of the husband s income. American courts have settled upon no customary proportion, though there are nu merous cases reported in which the allowance has been fixed at rates between one fourth and one half. The amount is discretionary, and nothing more definite can be said than that it is the design to give such amount as the wife ought to have, regarding all the circumstances, if the marital relation had not been broken up. By the statutes of most of the states, the wife is entitled, especially in absolute divorces, to recover whatever property she brought to the husband upon the marriage. The fund out of which alimony is to come is ordinarily the hus band s income. The court does not, except when special statutes permit the return of the wife s estate to her, or make similar provisions, turn over to her any specific property. Upon the principle that it is the income which is to respond, it cannot on the one hand avail the husband that he has no invested or permanent property, but his earnings must supply the al lowance ; and on the other hand, the husband s mere expectations of inheriting property are alike immaterial. The husband s indebtedness should also be taken into account in ascertain ing his substantial income and resources. As the demand or grant of alimony is properly col lateral to the principal relief, that of separation or divorce, sought in the action, and as the allowance is not decreed at least permanent alimony is not unless the principal relief sought is granted, the application for such maintenance is ordinarily only incidental to the principal suit. It is commonly made upon a special petition, or allegation of faculties, as the proceeding is termed in England, in which the husband s pecuniary resources are alleged ; this he meets with an answer or other counter proof, and the allegations on both sides may be passed upon by the court, or referred for more careful examination to one of its officers, as a master in chancery or a referee. The remedy for enforcing the payment of alimony, when the order of the court regarding it is disobeyed, may be by proceedings against the husband for contempt, or, according to the practice in dif ferent states, execution may issue for the amount in arrears, or an action of debt may be brought ; and in the federal courts it has been held that a bill in equity will lie. In some states, again, the charge of alimony becomes a lien on the husband s real estate, or the court may compel him to give security for its prompt payment, or in a proper case the husband may even be restrained by injunction from so dis posing of his property as to place it beyond the reach of the court. ALISON, Archibald, a Scottish clergyman and author, born in Edinburgh, Nov. 13, 1757, died there, May 17, 1839. lie was educated at the university of Glasgow, and at Balliol college, Oxford, took orders in the church of England, and married the daughter of Dr. John Greg ory, professor in the university of Edinburgh. In 1790 he obtained the perpetual curacy of Kenley in Shropshire, and afterward several other preferments in the same county. There he lived happily and tranquilly, with mingled literary and pastoral labors, till 1800, when he removed to Edinburgh for the education of his children, and became senior minister of St. Paul s chapel, in York place, where his elo quence soon attracted the attention of the culti vated society of the metropolis. In 1831 in creasing years and failing health obliged him to withdraw from public duties. The first edition of his "Essays on the Nature and Prin ciples of Taste," published in 1790, though highly esteemed within a limited circle of men of culture, had been issued in too expensive a style for general circulation. A second edition, with additions, published in 1811, became pop ular. In 1814 Mr. Alison published two vol umes of sermons, which passed rapidly through five editions, and were republished in America. ALISOJV, Sir Archibald, Bart., a British histo rian, eldest son of the preceding, born at Ken- ley, Shropshire, Dec. 29, 1792, died near Glas gow, May 23, 1867. He was educated in the schools and university of Edinburgh, was called to the bar in 1814, and availed himself of the first income from his practice to travel in Europe. In 1822 he was appointed deputy advocate general, in 1828 member of the crown council, and in 1834 sheriff of Lanark shire. His first publication was a work on the "Principles of the Criminal Law of Scotland " (1832), followed the next year by the "Prac tice of the Criminal Law." These books be came standard authorities with the Scottish bar. The first volume of his "History of Europe, from the Commencement of the French Revolution to the Restoration of the Bourbons, n appeared in 1839, and the work was completed in 10 volumes in 1842. It ran through numer ous editions in England, in 12, 14, and 20 vol umes, was reprinted in America, and trans lated into French and German, and even into Arabic (Malta, 1845) and Ilindostanee. The author is said to have conceived the plan of this history in his youth, and to have cherished his purpose during 15 years of travel and study, and 15 more of composition. The au thor was a stanch tory, and his work is consid ered deficient both in accuracy and impartiality by the English liberals. Mr. Alison for many years contributed articles to "Blackwood s Magazine," a selection of which was published under the title of "Essays, Political, Histori cal, and Miscellaneous" (3 vols., 1850). He also wrote "Principles of Population" (2 vols., ALIZARINE 321 184-0), combating the theory of Maltlms; 4k England in 1815 and 1845, or a Sufficient or Contracted Currency " (1845) ; and a " Life of the Duke of Marlborough" (2 vols., 1847). lie wrote a continuation of his "History of Europe " to the accession of Louis Napoleon in 1852, of which a second edition was published at Edinburgh in 8 vols. (1863- o). Mr. Alison was elected rector of Glasgow university in 1851, and received the honorary degree of D. C. L. from the university of Oxford ; and soon after the formation of the Derby-Disraeli min istry, June 25, 1852, he was created a baronet. ALIZAKLVE, the coloring principle of madder, so called from alizari, the name by which that plant is known in the Levant. Madder is the root of several species of rubia, among which the rubia tinctorum is the most valued for its dyeing properties. This grows in Asia Minor, Holland, Alsace, and in the south of France and of Russia, and has been cultivated to some extent in Delaware and Ohio. A species native to England is the rubia peregrina. This belongs to the order rnbiacece, the native members of which, as the galiums, are mostly inconspicu ous wild plants. Some of the foreign species are, on the contrary, important plants, such as the cinchona, ipecacuanha, and coffee plants, and these are distinguished for the number and variety of the peculiar principles which they yield, as quinine, cinchonin e, caffeine, and ali zarine. In spite of the numerous investiga tions that have been made of madder, chemists are still in doubt as to the nature of many of its constituents. Some attribute its coloring powers to the presence of at least two sub stances, alizarine and purpurine; while others say that only one of these produces the true madder colors. Alizarine was discovered and obtained from madder, as a crystalline sub limate, by Robiquet and Colin, in 1831 ; but little importance was attached to this discov ery until Schunck in 1848 showed that all the finest madder colors contain only alizarine com bined with ba-es and fatty acids. The second col oring matter, termed purpurine, was discovered by Persoz. It contributes to the full and fiery red colors in ordinary madder dyeing, but dyes a bad purple, alizarine being essential to the latter. Purpurine disappears during the puri fying processes of soaping, &c., being far less stable than alizarine. It is distinguished from alizarine by its solubility in boiling alum liquor. These two coloring principles may likewise be easily distinguished by the spectrum, alizarine producing a set of dark absorption bands, quite different from those of purpurine, which again vary according to the nature of the solvent. Alizarine can be obtained in yellow needle- shaped crystals by simple sublimation from the dried madder; but this coloring matter is, sin gularly enough, not contained ready formed in the fresh madder root, but is the product of a pe culiar decomposition. A crystalline glncoside, termed rubianic acid (Schunck), is contained in the root, and it is this which splits up VOL. i. 21 simply into alizarine and glucose. This acid crystallizes in line yellow r needles, and gives a definite and crystalline potash salt, from which it was shown to contain 20 atoms of carbon in the molecule. Hence, as no other product but glucose is formed, it follows that alizarine must contain C^c Ci 2 = Ci 4 . The formation of alizarine in extracts of madder root is effected by fermentation peculiar to the plant, and called erythrozine. It is sui generis, since no other ferment produces the same effect. When mixed with a solution of rubian or rubianio acid, at the ordinary temperature, the latter is rapidly decomposed as with acids. This is what takes place in making fleur de garance. Dyers raise the temperature of their madder baths gradually up to the boiling point, be cause the application of a high temperature destroys the ferment. When the temperature is gradually raised, the ferment acts upon the glucoside, and produces alizarine. According to Schunck, the origin of purpurine, and its relation to alizarine, are still (1870) involved in obscurity. The formula assigned to ali zarine by some chemists is CioIIeOs + SIIsO ; while Griibe and Liebermann prefer Ci JI 8 O 4 + II 2 0. Artificial Alizarine. In studying the transformations of alizarine under the action of chemical reagents, Messrs. Grabe and Lio- bermann in 1869 were led to connect it with anthracene, one of the coal-tar series of bo dies (see AXTHEACEXE), and to devise a mode of forming it artificially. This is justly re garded as one of the most important as well as beneficent discoveries of the age : important as affording a new source for a valuable dye, and beneficent as restoring to agriculture largo tracts of land now devoted to the culture of the madder root. The method employed by Griibe and Liebermann in the artificial pro duction of alizarine is as follows: One part of anthracene is heated with four parts of sulphuric acid, of sp. gr. 1*845, for three or four hours, to a temperature of 212 C., and then for about an hour at 300 C. The mixture is allowed to cool, and to it is added water equal to three times the weight of the anthracene em cloyed, and manganese equal to four times t lat weight. The whole, is boiled for three hours, and milk of lime added, which gives rise to a deposit consisting of the excess of lime and man ganese used, and protoxide of manganese, while there remains in solution a double sul- j phate of anthraquinone and lime. The solu tion is now acted upon by carbonate of soda * in excess; carbonate of lime separates, and the j salt of soda thus produced is evaporated to dry- i ness. The solid mass is then mixed with two | or three parts of caustic soda and a little ! water, and heated under pressure in suitable | vessels, at a high temperature, whereby the anthraquinone is further oxidized and con verted into alizarine. The alkaline mass, on cooling, is dissolved in water and sulphuric or acetic acid added in slight excess, when an orange-yellow flocculent substance precipitates, 322 ALKALI ALKMAAK which, when perfectly washed and dried, is artificial alizarine. The artificial product ap pears to he entirely identical with the coloring matter obtained from the madder root. Both the natural and the artificial products crystal lize in needles and dissolve in caustic alkalies, forming violet solutions of the same tint and possessing precisely the same tinctorial value. Applied to mordanted fabrics, they produce exactly the same colors, and they resist equally well the action of light. If an adequate sup ply of anthracene can be obtained, the artificial production of alizarine bids fair to become an established industry of great importance. ALKALI (Arabic, al-qcdi, the ashes of the plant glasswort, yielding soda), the general name of a class of substances, such as cassia, rubidia, potash, soda, lithia, and ammonia, whose distinguishing peculiarities are solubility in alcohol and water, uniting with oils and fats to form soap, neutralizing and forming salts with acids, reddening several vegetable yellows, and changing reddened litmus to blue. These properties are the reverse of those of acids, and the two classes are regarded as an tagonistic to each other. Some other sub stances, as lime, baryta, strontia, and magne sia, possessing some of the qualities of the alkalies as neutralizing acids, and changing the vegetable colors, are called alkaline earths. Pure anhydrous alkalies are exceedingly caus tic, destroying vegetable and animal tissues. They abstract moisture rapidly on exposure to the air. Combined with carbonic acid and water, forming carbonates, they are used in medicine as diuretics and for correcting acidity, as well as for other effects. The alkalies and the earths also were until the present century regarded as simple substances. Lavoisier first suggested that they were metallic oxides. Sir Humphry Davy proved this in 1807, by sepa rating the metals, to which he gave the names potassium, sodium, barium, strontium, and cal cium, the last the metallic base of lime. The discovery of these metals led to that of pure potash and soda. The alkalies were known before only in the state of hydrates, though incorrectly regarded as anhydrous. ALKALIMETRY, the process employed to esti mate the quantity of alkali present in any mix ture. Its principle consists in exactly neutral izing a certain weight of the alkali, and know ing the quantity of acid of a given strength which is required to effect this. The alkaline substance, carefully weighed, is dissolved in warm water, placed in an alkalimeter, which is usually a graduated glass tube, and diluted sulphuric acid cautiously and slowly added till the solution is made neutral. This is known by the use of little bits of test paper in the liquid, which, by their change of color, indicate the slightest acid or alkaline reaction. The process may be reversed to test the strength of acids, and is then called acidimetry. ALKALOID, vegetable alkali, a name given to vegetable extracts possessing the property of uniting with acids to form salts in the same manner as ammonia. The first alkaloid was discovered by Serturner in 1804 in opium ; but little importance was attached to the announce ment, and it was not till 1817 that the real value of morphine was demonstrated and the existence of vegetable alkalies fully shown. Since that time the list of alkaloids has rapidly increased, until at the present time (1872) they number more than 100. There are two classes, volatile liquids and permanent solids. The former contain simply carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, and only three of them are known, coniine, nicotine, and sparteine. The solid and most numerous alkaloids contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. The organic bases are colorless and generally crystalline. They are insoluble or slightly soluble in water, the best solvent being alcohol. Ether dissolves some of them ; chloroform and the hydrocar bons are also good solvents. They generally | possess powerful medicinal properties. Nu merous artificial alkaloids have been formed, the most important of which is aniline. The natural base coniine has also been made artifi cially. Some of the best known of the vegetable alkaloids are nicotine, quinia, morphia, strych nia, brucia, aconitina, atropia, and caffeine. ALKANA. See HEXXA. ALRAXET, the commercial name of two differ ent plants. True alkanet consists of the roots and leaves of the Laicsonia inermis, which grows wild in the Levant. The leaves pulverized and made into a paste yield a yellow dye. The root, which contains a red pigment, is used as a cosmetic. False alkanet (orcanette, radix alcanna spv.rice) is the root of anchusa tincto* rw, which grows in France, Spain, Italy, Hun gary, and Greece. It is inodorous, has a faint, somewhat astringent taste, and colors the saliva. It is used in dyeing goods previously prepared with alum mordants for violet, and iron mordants for gray. The mordanted linen or cotton goods are dipped in an alcoholic ex tract of the root. It is also used for dyeing silk, but not wool. The coloring matter is called anchusine. The violet and gray colors are brilliant. ALKI1VDI, or Alrliindns, an Arabian physician and philosopher, born in Bassorah at the end of the 8th century, died in the middle of the 9th. Some, however, place his life two or three centuries later. He wrote more than 200 different treatises % on logic, music, ge ometry, arithmetic, astronomy, medicine, &c. His treatise known under the Latin title I)e TJicoria Magicarum Art mm has secured for ! him the fame of a magician. Various other | works of his were translated into Latin during the middle ages, and published at Paris, Stras- burg, and Venice. His theories are distin- ! guished by great ingenuity, so much so that j Cardan ranked him among the twelve subtle I spirits of the world. ALKMAAR, a well built and strongly fortified i town of the Netherlands, in North Holland, on ALKMAAR ALLAN 323 the Ilelder ship canal, about 18 m. N. by W. of Amsterdam ; pop. in 1867, 11,609. Its en virons are laid out in beautiful gardens and fine meadows, and broad canals intersect its streets, the banks of which are planted with trees. A court of first resort and a tribunal of commerce sit in Alkmaar, and the town is well supplied with educational and scientific institutions. There is a large export trade in cheese and butter, and a considerable trade in cattle and corn. The manufactures consist of sail cloth, parchment, salt, soap, vinegar, leather, and earthenware. Alkmaar successfully stood a siege of ten years by the Spaniards, from 1573 to 1583 ; and in the expedition of 1799 the British and Russians, under the duke of York, halted here, before the conclusion by the latter, of his inglorious capitulation with the French. ALKMAAR, Hemrich von, a poet of the 15th century, a native of Alkmaar, celebrated prin cipally in connection with his supposed author ship of the famous poem Reinelce Vos or Rei- neke Fuchs ; but, from Alkmaar s own state ments in his preface, it seems probable that he only compiled the poem. ALKORAX. See KORAN. ALLAH (Arab, al, the, and Illcih, God), the Mohammedan name of the Supreme Being. The unity of the Deity is the great postulate of the Mohammedan creed. His attributes are thus summed up by the Koran: "There is no God but God. This only true, great, and most high God has his being through himself; is everlasting ; is not begotten and begetteth not ; is all-sufficient in himself; fills the universe with his infinity; is the centre in which all things unite, as well the hidden as the mani fest ; is Lord of the world of bodies and spirits, creator and ruler, almighty, all- wise, all-loving, merciful; and his decrees are unchangeable." Mohammedans repeat a rosary of the 99 epi thets of the Supreme Being, closing it with the great, all-including name of Allah. Allali ale- bar (God is great) is a battle cry of the Mos lem, while Bism-Illah or Bism- Allah (in the name of God) is the grace before meat of the pious and the invocation at the commencement of every literary performance. ALLAHABAD . I. A division of the Northwest- em Provinces of British India, bounded N. by Agra and Oude, E. by Behar, S. by Gund- wana, and W. by Malwah ; area, 11,826 sq. m. ; pop. about 3,800,000. It is one of the rich est provinces of Ilindostan. II. A district of the preceding division, between lat. 24 49 and 25 44 N., and Ion. 81 14 and 82 26 E. ; area, 2,788 sq! m. ; pop. about 1,400,000. A part of the district is included in the great plain of the Doab, and the surface generally is nearly level. It is abundantly watered by the Ganges, the Jumna, and some artificial water courses, produces timber, maize, cotton, flax, indigo, and sugar, and exports salt.- III. The chief town of the district and province, and since 1862 capital of the Northwestern Prov inces, situated at the confluence of the Ganges ! and Jumna, and on the East Indian railway, ! lat. 25 26 ST., Ion. 81 55 E., 75 m. N. W. of Benares; pop. about 65,000, including sub- | urbs. The Hindoos, who call the town Praya- ! ga, regard it as the holiest of all places, and : immense numbers of pilgrims visit it annually i to bathe at the junction of the two rivers. It I was also regarded by the Mohammedans as I so sacred that, on coming into possession of lit, they named it "God s place" (Allah | abad). It contains some interesting shrines and ruins, and an ancient castle, converted into a fort and great military depot for Upper j India. The native town is inconsiderable, but ! the European quarter is well built, and the : British government since the sepoy rebellion has planned extensive improvements, which i will render Allahabad a great military and j commercial post. Some have identified the I city with the Palibothra of Greek and Roman | geographers. It was fortified by Akbar, and I on the dismemberment of the empire of Delhi was seized in 1753 by the vizier of Oude, from whom it was taken by the British in 1765; it was afterward transferred to the nawaub of Oude, and finally ceded to the East India com- j pany in 1801. It was then in a very ruinous ; condition. A sepoy regiment mutinied here i June 6, 1857, and killed several of their offi- | cers. The rest of the Europeans defended themselves in the fort until relieved by Col. Neill, but the town was nearly destroyed. ALLAMAKEE, a county forming the N. E. ex tremity of Iowa, bordering on Minnesota, and separated from Wisconsin by the Mississippi river; area, 667 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 17,868. It is intersected in the ST. by the Upper Iowa, and in the S. by the Yellow river. The soil is I productive, and. the surface undulating wood- j land and prairie. The productions in 1870 j were 675,448 bushels of wheat, 331,035 of corn, 2,399 of oats, 25,474 of barley, 73,512 of ! potatoes, and 18,873 tons of hay. Capital, Lansing. ALLAMAND, Jean Nicolas Sebastien, a natural ist, born in Lausanne in 1713, died in Leyden, March 2, 1787. He was professor of philoso- i phy and natural history at the university of j Leyden, member of the London royal society, j and of the Haarlem academy of sciences. The j Dutch sailors collected for him, in their expe- j ditions into distant countries, specimens of plants, animals, and fossils, which he placed in i the botanic garden and museum of the univer sity, which were under his care. He devoted much time to the study of electricity, and was the first to explain the phenomena of the Leyden jar. The shrub Allamanda, a native of South America, is called after him. He was the literary executor of sGravesande and Prosper Marchand, and, besides editing their unpublished works, translated and edited many English books. ALLAN, David, a Scottish painter and en graver, born at Alloa, in Clackmannanshire, Feb. 13, 1744, died in Edinburgh, Aug. 6, 1796. 324 ALLAN ALLEGHANY In 1755 he entered as an apprentice the art academy of Robert Foulis in Glasgow, and in 1764 went to Rome, where in 1773 he obtain ed from the academy of St. Luke the gold medal for the best historical drawing. His earliest humorous productions were four sketches of the carnival at Rome. He settled in Edinburgh; and in 1786, after the death of Runciman, he was appointed master of the academy of arts. About the same time he commenced 12 illustrations of Allan Ramsay s "Gentle Shepherd," which lie subsequently engraved in aquatint. He also made some designs from the lyrics of Burns. ALLAN, Sir William, a Scottish historical painter, born in Edinburgh in 1782, died Feb. 22, 1850. Failing to obtain patronage in Lon don, he went to Russia, where he spent ten years, and made visits to the Crimea, Circassia, and Turkey. In 1814 he returned to Edin burgh, where he became intimate with Sir Walter Scott, through whose influence his pic ture of the Circassian Captives " was purchased by subscription for 1,000 guineas. In 1841 he once more went to St. Petersburg, where he executed for the emperor a painting of " Peter the Great teaching his Subjects the Art of Ship building," now in the winter palace. In 1826 he was made an associate of the royal academy at London, and in 1835 an academician. lie was president of the royal Scottish academy from 1838 till his death. ALLA\-KARDEC, Hippclytc Leon Dcnizard, a French spiritualist, born in Lyons, Oct. 3, 1803, died April 1, 1809. He established in 1858 a periodical review on spiritualism (Revue spi- rite), and the societe parisienne des etudes spi rit es. His principal works are: Le lixre des esprits (2 ed., I860); Le lixre des mediums; and V imitation de VEvangile selon le spiri- tualisme (1864). ALLARD, Jean Francois, a French soldier, born at St. Tropez, Provence, in 1785, died in Pesh- awer, Jan. 23, 1839. In 1815 he served on the staff of Marshal Brune, after whose murder he went to Egypt, and thence to Persia, where he entered the service of Abbas Mirza. In 1820 he went to Lahore, and took service under Runjeet Singh, by whom he was finally made commander -in-chief of his army. He organized and disciplined the troops after the French model, and gained many victories. In 1835 he revisited France, accompanied by his family, and was received with distinguished honors, Louis Philippe appointing him charge d affaires in Lahore. ALLARDICE, Robert Barclay. See BARCLAY. ALLEGAN, a W. S. W. county of Michigan, on Lake Michigan ; area, 840 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 32,105. The Kalamazoo river (navigable by small steamboats) intersects it, and it is drained by the Black and Babbit rivers. The soil is a deep black alluvium on the river margins, and in some other parts sand and clay predominate ; the surface is undulating and mostly covered with forests. lu the S. W. part is quarry of. good limestone. Several lines of railroad tra^ verse the county. The productions in 1870 were 338,243 bushels of wheat, 376,974 of corn, 205,219 of oats, 20,973 of barley, 267,795 of potatoes, 129,223 Ibs. of wool, 476,065 of but ter, 127,336 of maple sugar, and 27,453 tons of hay. There were 167 school houses. The capital, Allegan, is built on both sides of Kala mazoo river, 145 m. W. by N. of Detroit, and has a considerable trade in lumber. ALLECAXY. I. A W. S. W. county of New York, bordering on Pennsylvania; area, 1,045 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 40,814. The Gene- see river and its tributaries furnish motive power for numerous mills. On each side of the Genesee valley the country rises until it becomes table land in the E. and W. parts. The productions in 1870 were 195,721 bushels of wheat, 800,600 of oats, 16,404 of rye, 135,850 of corn, 96,554 of buckwheat, 29,558 of barley, 384,687 of potatoes, 492,568 Ibs. of maple su gar, 410,168 of wool, 1,908,721 of butter, 220,- 880 of cheese, and 134,797 tons of hay. There are numerous saw and grist mills, tanneries, &c. Bog iron ore and limestone are obtained. The New York and Erie railroad and the Gen esee canal pass through the county. Capital, Belmont. II. A W. county of Maryland, border ing on Virginia and Pennsylvania, bounded by the Potomac and its north branch ; area, 800 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 38,536, of whom 1,166 were colored. The Youghiogheny river intersects its W. part, and it is drained by several creeks. The main Alleghany mountains and several smaller ridges traverse it, and its surface is rocky and broken. Limestone, sandstone, iron ore, and coal abound, the last being extensively mined at Cumberland. The glades or valleys in the mountains furnish the celebrated glades butter and mutton. The Baltimore and Ohio and Pittsburgh and Connellsville railroads and the Chesapeake and Ohio canal pass through the county. The productions in 1870 were 70,404 bushels of wheat, 45,090 of rye, 116,062 of corn, 206,589 of oats, 47,935 Ibs. of wool, 387,- 639 of butter, and 70,454 of maple sugar. There are numerous manufacturing establish ments. Capital, Cumberland. ALLEGHANY. I. A W. county of Virginia, bordering on West Virginia, and bounded N. W. by the main chain of the Alleghanies and S. E. by Middle mountain; area, 500 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 3,674, of whom 579 were colored. Jackson s river unites with Cow Pasture river on the E. border to form the James. The pas sage of Jackson s river through one of the mountains affords fine scenery. Peters and the Warm Spring mountains extend through the centre of the county. Iron ore is found, and the Red Sweet Springs have some celeb rity. The Virginia Central railroad termi nates at Covington, and the Chesapeake and Ohio railroad begins there. The produc tions in 1870 were 24,843 bushels of wheat, 50,695 of corn, 31,991 of oats, 25,747 Ibs. of tobacco, and 40, COO of butter. Capital, Cov- ALLEGHANY COLLEGE ALLEGIANCE 525 ington. II. A N. "W. county of North Caro lina, bordering on Virginia, bounded W. by New river, a branch of the Kanawha, and E. and S. by the Blue Ridge mountains; area, 300 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 3,691. There are mines of copper. The productions in 1870 were 7,988 bushels of wheat, 43,369 of corn, and 21,496 of oats. Capital, Gap Civil. ALLEGHAXY COLLEGE. See MEADVILLE. ALLEGIIAXY MOIMAIXS. See APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. ALLEGHAXY RIVER rises in Potter county, N. Pennsylvania, flows circuitously westward through New York, returns to Pennsylvania, and after a southerly course unites at Pitts burgh with the Monongahela river to form the Ohio. It flows through a hilly country, abound ing in pine forests and coal. The river is nav igable for small steamboats to Olean, N. Y., 240 in. from its mouth and about 45 m. from its source, and to Waterford, Pa., on French creek, its principal tributary, 14 m. from Lake Erie. Its chief tributary from the east is the Conemaugh. The principal towns along its course are Warren, Kittanning, Franklin, and Oil City. The Alleghany separates Pittsburgh from Allegheny City. ALLEGHENY, a S. W. county of Pennsylva nia; area, 750 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 262,204. Near the centre of the county the Ohio is formed by the confluence of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers. The Youghiogheny and several creeks also drain it. Near the rivers the surface is broken into ravines ; most of the upland is hilly and very picturesque. Nearly all of the county is arable. The productions in 1870 were 325,331 bushels of wheat, 674,916 of corn, 1,111,269 of oats, 78,372 of rye, 69,946 of barley, 769,144 of potatoes, 308,475 Ibs. of wool, 1,223,744 of butter, and 64,730 tons of hay. Bituminous coal is found in the county, and iron, glass, wool, &c., are extensively man ufactured. The valuation of personal property in 1870 was $12,367,611. Allegheny is the sec ond county in importance in the state. Capi tal, Pittsburgh. ALLEGHENY CITY, a manufacturing city of Allegheny county, Pa., opposite Pittsburgh, on the W. side of the Alleghany river, at its junc tion with the Monongahela; pop. in 1860, 28,702; in 1870, 53,180. The city contains many elegant residences of persons doing busi ness in Pittsburgh. It has one weekly news paper, and one semi-monthly and one monthly periodical. The Western theological seminary of the Presbyterian church was established here in 1827. Before the union it was under the control of the Old School Presbyterians. In 1808 there were 5 professors and 70 students, 935 graduates, and the endowment amounted to $184,800. The theological seminary of the United Presbyterian church, established in 1826, and the Allegheny theological institute, organized in 1840 by the synod of the Reformed Presbyterian church, are also situated here. In 1868 the former had 3 professors, 36 stu dents, 426 graduates, and 2,000 volumes in the library. The western penitentiary, an immense building in the ancient Norman style, situated | on the >k common " of Allegheny City, was com- ! pleted in 1827 at a cost of $183,000. In 1868 it I had 463 inmates, employed in weaving, shoe- | making, and the manufacture of cigars; earnings, $27,013. The city contains 12 schools, 2 national banks, 10 savings banks, 1 real estate bank, and 1 trust company ; 4 rolling mills, employing 1,155 hands ; 5 cotton mills, with 1,050 hands; li ale and beer breweries, averaging 20 men each ; 6 | founderies and machine shops, averaging 30 men I each ; 1 blast furnace, with 70 men ; and 1 steel j factory, with 250 hands. The Pittsburgh loco- i motive works employ 380 hands and complete one locomotive a week. There are 45 churches, of which 16 are Presbyterian, 9 Catholic, 8 Methodist, 3 Baptist, 3 Lutheran, 2 Episcopal, and 1 each Congregational, Disciples , and Ke- I formed. The charitable institutions are the home for the friendless, the widows hc T ne association, the house of industry, and the j orphan asylum. There is a soldiers monument I which cost $37,000. The city park contains an j area of 100 acres. The assessed value of prop erty in 1871 was $8,434,636. ALLEGIANCE (Lat. alligare, to bind to), the subject s duty of obedience to the sovereign ; under whose protection he is. Allegiance is | correlative with protection, and the duty of I allegiance is in return for and in consideration I of the fact of protection. Therefore, when the I sovereign can no longer protect the subject, | his allegiance ceases; and on this principle the | duty is discharged by conquest or by cession I of the sovereign s territory by treaty. Natural | allegiance arises from the fact of birth within the territorial domain and actual protection by I the sovereign. But actual allegiance is due i even by an alien to the sovereign of the state l in which he is ; though, by comity of nations, | there is an exception to this rule in favor of foreign sovereigns and ambassadors and their suites, and of the officers and crews of foreign war ships, and of foreign armies when they are permitted to pass through the state. As alle giance is the highest of the citizen s obligations, so the violation of it is the highest of crimes, or treason. The principle that allegiance is due to the actual sovereign has been carried so far as to make acts treasons though they were done against a usurper ; and Blackstone says that on this ground, after Edward IV. recov ered the crown, treasons committed against Henry VI. were capitally punished, though Henry had been declared a usurper by parlia ment. On the other hand, but on the same principle at common law, and until a statute j was passed for their naturalization, the chil- | dren of English subjects born abroad, that is, ! out of the king s domain and protection, were j aliens. But the most important quality at- j tached by the common law to the doctrine of j allegiance was that it was indissoluble. The I principle was shortly expressed in the familiar 326 ALLEGIANCE Latin maxim, Nemo potestexuerepatriam, "No one can abjure his country," or renounce the fealty which he owes to his sovereign. The maxim is as old as English jurisprudence, and until the most recent period the rule has heen maintained in England to its fullest extent. It has nowhere else been asserted, in modern times at least, with the same rigor with which it was enforced there ; and even while it stood the acknowledged rule of the law of England, it was condemned by many of its soundest ju rists. One of them, Twiss, has very lately said of it that it found no countenance in the law of nations, but was on the contrary in direct conflict with incontestable principles of that system. Observing the more liberal tone of modern public law upon this subject, it is worth notice that it is now asserting only the doctrine which was maintained by the law of Rome in its best period. In his argument for Balbus Cicero declared it to be even the firmest foun dation of Roman liberty that the citizen might retain or renounce his allegiance at his pleas ure. But the English common law asserted that allegiance intrinsic and absolute arose from the mere fact of birth within the sover eign s dominion and protection; that it could not be cancelled or forfeited by any change of time, place, or circumstances ; that the subject could not abjure it or renounce it by abandon ing the realm, nor by swearing loyalty to an other state ; nor could it be released in any way without the concurrence of the supreme legislative power. Coke expressed the rigor of the rule as it was held in England in his time, and indeed for more than two centuries after ward, when he said that "all subjects are equally bound to their allegiance as if they had taken the oath of it, because it is written by the finger of the law in their hearts." As has just been said, however, this supreme duty might be released by the consent of the sover eign. Such an assent was given, for example, in the case of the United States, when by treaty our independence was recognized by Great Britain; and after that it was several times decided in England that persons, though born here British subjects, who adhered to the new | state, ceased to be subjects of the crown and j became aliens. But though steadily asserting ! the rule that allegiance was indissoluble, Eng- j land has nevertheless practically conceded ! its invalidity by admitting and naturalizing j foreigners into her citizenship, just as all other j countries have done. In modern times at least, i no other considerable European state has en- j forced the theory of the common law, or at j least not with the severity with which it was ! enforced in England. The French code de- | clares expressly that the quality of a French- | man is lost by naturalization in a foreign conn- | try, and France, Spain, and most of the German states have enacted laws regulating the natu ralization of foreigners. The great European j authorities in public law, Grotius, Pufendorf, j Vattel, and others, concede in general terms ! the right of expatriation, qualifying it only when it is restrained by law, or when the citi zen owes to his native state some already as sumed but not yet discharged obligation ; if, for example, he has violated the law and owes the penalty,, or is invested with some public trust, or war threatens and his sovereign needs his aid ; and these have been the chief modifi cations of the right to renounce allegiance which have been discussed in our own diplo matic correspondence upon this subject with European states. When once naturalization is admitted to be competent and . right, the right of expatriation and of renunciation of the former allegiance should seem to be im plied as a necessary corollary. Naturalization means the complete adoption of a foreigner and the investing him with the actual citizen ship of his adopted country. In practice it compels, as a precedent condition, his entire renunciation of his former allegiance, and the assumption by solemn oath of an exclusive fidelity to the new sovereign ; and, with one or two modifications only, it gives him the same rights which he would have had if he had been born within his dominion and protection. The status which he thus receives is clearly inconsistent with any allegiance to the country of his birth. Allegiance cannot be divided, and if his original allegiance has not been utterly cancelled, then the naturalization is an empty form, and the adopted citizen has not the right to protection and citizenship which the new sovereign pretends to guarantee jto him. These considerations have been brought forward in most of the cases which have arisen from time to time in the United States. In the earlier cases, however, though the courts inclined to give them their just weight, they repeatedly evaded direct decision of the ques tion. From an historical review of all the cases which had arisen down to his time, Chancellor Kent declared the prevailing spirit of the de cisions to be that, in the absence of any legis lation sanctioning the abjuration of allegiance, the rule of the common law remained- un altered. But in one instance at least, as early as 1812, our government assumed a position on this question quite as advanced as it has ever taken in the cases which have arisen since that time. During the war with England then existing, the prince regent announced that every native-born Briton, taken prisoner while fighting in the American army, should be ex ecuted for treason to his lawful sovereign. Mr. Madison announced in return, that if any naturalized citizen of this country were put to death on the pretence that he was a British subject, the United States would put to death two English prisoners in retaliation. There was no further discussion on the subject, and no occasion for any. Still later, and especially within the last twenty years, cases have oc curred in which foreigners naturalized here were upon their return to their native states compelled to render military service there, or ALLEGIANCE ALLEINE 327 were otherwise forced to assume the duties of subjects of their states of birth, and they in voked the protection of the United States by virtue of their status as American citizens. In 1857, in the case of Ernst, a subject of Hanover, naturalized here, who on his return was forced into the Hanoverian army, Attorney General Black gave to the president a very clear and convincing opinion, in which he advised him that Ernst was an American citizen ; that by the public law of the world we have the un doubted right to naturalize a foreigner, whether his natural sovereign consents to his emigra tion or not ; and that Hanover could not jus tify Ernst s arrest, even by showing that he emigrated contrary to the laws of that coun try, unless it could be proved that the original right of expatriation depended on the consent of the natural sovereign; and as to the last proposition, he added that he was sure that it could not be established. In a case in the same year, that of Amther, Mr. Black s opinion was to the same effect on a reversed state of facts. Amther, a Bavarian subject, after being natu ralized here, returned to Bavaria and sought to recover his original status as a citizen of that country. The authorities there doubted whether he could throw off his allegiance to this country, but the attorney general of the United States was of the clear opinion that he could ; that by our law any citizen, native or naturalized, might sever his political connec tion with this government at his pleasure, pro vided it was for a purpose and at a time which were not injurious to our interests. He was of the opinion, therefore, that Amther might be reinstated as a citizen of Bavaria, and that, as a condition to such restitution of his citizen ship, the Bavarian government was at liberty to compel him to abjure his allegiance to the United States in any form that its laws re quired. Doctrines quite as emphatic were pronounced by Mr. Marcy, secretary of state in 1853, in the famous case of Koszta. In a letter to the American minister to Prussia in 1859, concerning cases then in hand, Mr. Cass declared that the right of expatriation could not at this moment be doubted or denied in this country, and that the doctrine of per petual allegiance was a relic of barbarism which was fast disappearing from Christen dom. In I860 Attorney General Stanbery de clined to discuss the general question of the right of expatriation under our law, on the ground that the practice of the United States had long since rendered that question a mere abstraction. It should be observed, however, that our government, in its dealings with other nations on this subject, has not claimed that the right to renounce allegiance is ab solute under all circumstances. It has been willing to concede that our naturalization did not give full rights of American citizenship to aliens whose removal from their native country bore the character of an escape or night from civil or political obligations already fixed upon them ; so that, while it would not recognize any validity in the general right to claim mili tary service, for example, the actual perform ance of which had not been demanded when ! the foreign subject left his country, yet it i would concede that there was a just force in the claim of the foreign state, when the subject had been already conscripted into the army, ; and had deserted from it, or had otherwise run | away from actually existing obligations. The ! whole subject has been finally closed, so far as j the law of the United States about it is con- i cerned, by a very explicit and vigorous statute i passed in July, 1868. Its preamble recites that the right of expatriation is a natural and in- | herent right of all people, indispensable to the ! enjoyment of the rights of life, liberty, and the | pursuit of happiness ; that in the recognition of this principle, this government has freely received emigrants from all nations and in vested them with the right of citizenship ; that ; it is necessary for the maintenance of public i peace that the claim of foreign allegiance as to i such adopted citizens should be promptly and finally disavowed; and it is therefore enacted | that any declaration, opinion, order, or deci- ! sion of any officer of this government which i denies, impairs, restricts, or questions the right i of expatriation, is inconsistent with the funda- I mental principles of the government. The | statute further enacts that all naturalized citi- j zens of the United States, while in foreign | states, are entitled to and shall receive from this government the same protection of person and property that is accorded to native-born citizens in like circumstances. At last, in 1870, I Great Britain by the naturalization act of that i year (May 12) revised all her own laws upon 1 alienage, expatriation, and naturalization, and j for the first time in her history recognized the I right of her subjects to renounce their allegi- | ance to the crown. (See NATURALIZATION.) ALLEGRI, Antonio. See COEEEGGIO. ALLEGRI, Gregorio, an Italian ecclesiastic and composer of church music, born in Rome about 1580, died there in February, 1652. He was the < pupil of Nanini, and on terms of intimacy with Palestrina. His voice was not remarkable, but | he was a perfect master of harmony, and was i made one of the singers in the pope s chapel in ! 1629. The famous Miserere, performed yearly I on Wednesday and Friday of Passion Week, in ! the papal chapel, is his composition. ALLKLVE, or Allein, I. Joseph, an English nonconformist, minister and author, born at Devizes in 1633, died in 166S. lie received his education at Oxford, and was a man of extensive literary acquirements. Though ejected from his curacy and imprisoned for nonconformity, he j yet preserved his reverence for the ecclesiastical authorities, and his loyalty to the king. His principal work, "An Alarm to L T nconverted Sinners," has passed through numerous edi tions. II. Richard, an English nonconforming ! clergyman, born at Ditchet, Somersetshire, in i 1611, died in 1 681 . He was educated at Oxford, 328 ALLEMAND ALLEN and became rector of Batcorabe in Somerset shire, lie was a rigid puritan, and assisted the commissioners appointed by parliament to purify the church of " scandalous ministers." lie was deprived of his rectory after the restoration as a nonconformist, but continued to preach in a private house. Although often censured for so doing, his virtues shielded him from any sever ity on the part of the authorities. ALLEMANI), Zadmrie Jacqnes Theodore, count, a French vice admiral, born at Port Louis (island of Mauritius) in 1702, died at Toulon, March 2, 1826. lie entered the navy at the age of 12, was one of the first chevaliers of the legion of honor, and was soon after its formation raised to the rank of officer. In various cruises he inflicted immense losses upon English commerce. In 1809 he commanded the squadrons of Brest, Toulon, and Eochefort, in the capacity of vice admiral. The fleet was anchored in the Basque roads (between the islands of Aix and Oleron), when on April 11 Lord Cochranc attacked it with 50 fire ships and several infernal machines invented by Col. Congreve. Allemand saved all but four of his vessels, and the success of the Eng lish was very slight, compared to the immense cost of the expedition. ALLELV. I. A S. county of Kentucky, bor dering on Tennessee, bounded N. E. by Big Barren river, and intersected by Trammers creek; area, 300 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 10,296, of whom 1,104 were colored. There are sev eral caves and salt springs in the county. The surface is level and the soil moderately fertile. The productions in 1870 were 55,844 bushels of wheat, 390,883 of corn, 96,647 of oats, 747,489 Ibs. of tobacco, 133,487 of butter, and 23,635 gallons of sorghum molasses. Capital, Scotts- ville. II. A W. N. W. county of Ohio, inter sected by the Anglaize and Ottawa rivers and Riley and Sugar creeks ; area, 405 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 23,623. It has a fertile soil, with a surface generally level and abounding in hard wood timber. The productions in 1870 were 315,164 bushels of wheat, 21,671 of rye, 209,- 269 of oats, 374,017 of corn, 92,035 Ibs. of flax, 125,897 of wool, 466,482 of butter, and 21,173 tons of hay. Several railroads and the Miami canal pass through it. Capital, Lima. III. An E. N. E. county of Indiana, on the Ohio line; area, 638 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 43,494. It is nearly level, with a fruitful soil, and well watered by the St. Joseph and St. Mary rivers, which unite at Fort Wayne and form the Mau- mee river. It is well wooded with oak, hick- | ory, beech, maple, and other trees. The Wa- bash and Erie canal passes through the county, which is also intersected by numerous lines of railroad. The productions in 1870 were 432,- 752 bushels of wheat, 273,344 of corn, 212,944 of oats, 100,930 of potatoes, 106,778 Ibs. of wool, 543,322 of butter, and 28,377 tons of hay. Capital, Fort Wayne. IV. A new county in S. E. Kansas; area, 504 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 7,022. The Neosho river flows through the W. portion of the county. Coal is found, and stock-raising is extensively pursued. The county has railroad communication with Junc tion City on the Kansas Pacific road, and also with Lawrence. The productions in 1870 were 27,734 bushels of wheat, 187,225 of corn, 115,- 708 of oats, 23,333 of potatoes, and 90,588 Ibs. of butter. There were 29 schools, 3 news papers, and 12 manufacturing establishments. Capital, lola. ALLEN, Bog of. Sec Boo. ALLEN, Ethan, an American revolutionary partisan, born in Connecticut in 1739, died in Burlington, Vt,, Feb. 13, 1789. About 1763 he settled, with four younger brothers, in the township of Bennington, Vt. Previous to the revolution there existed a dispute between the colonies of New York and New Hampshire relative to their boundaries, and the debatable land included the whole of the present state of Vermont, then called the New Hampshire grants. Ethan Allen first became conspicuous in the controversy which grew out of the at tempt to enforce New York law. Actions of ejectment being brought against those who held land under grants from New Hampshire, Allen was selected in 1770 as agent to repre sent the settlers in the litigation at Albany. The decision was adverse to them, and they resolved to resist. They adopted Allen s own phrase, " The gods of the valleys are not the gods of the hills." The New York authorities were everywhere set at defiance. Allen was made colonel of an armed force which not only protected the New Hampshire grantees, but removed the New Y^ork settlers. Governor Tryon of New York proclaimed a reward of 150 for his arrest. This state of affairs re mained unaltered till the revolution, New York maintaining her hostile attitude, and the Ver- monters the possession of their farms. In 1775, when war with the mother country had become inevitable, the occupation of Ticonde- roga was determined on, arid the task was con fided to Allen, who set out at once at the head of his "Green Mountain Boys," reaching Cas- tleton May 7, 1775. A party was also detached under Capt- Herrick toward Skcncsborough, and another under Capt. Douglass to Pantori in the vicinity of Crown Point. On the morn ing of May 10 Allen, who had previously been joined by Arnold, surprised Ticonderoga, sum moning Capt. Delaplacc, who commanded the post, to surrender kk in the name of the great Jehovah and the continental congress." By this coup de main, 2 officers, 48 rank and file, 120 pieces of artillery, and a large quantity of small arms, were captured, and the command of the Green mountains was wrested from the English. Only 80 Americans were present at the capture. The other enterprises were equally successful, Skenesborough and Crown Point being also captured. A dispute ensued between Arnold and Allen relative to the com mand, which the latter maintained until he was relieved by the arrival of the Connecticut regi- ALLEN 829 merit, commanded by Col. Hinman, to whom he delivered his conquests. Allen immediately proposed to the authorities of New York an invasion of Canada, which was refused ; and he then pro-ceded to Philadelphia, where the continental congress officially acknowledged his services. He next joined Gen. Schuyler s army as a volunteer, was employed in secret missions to sound the views of the Canadians, and rendered valuable aid in Montgomery s expedition to Canada ; but in an unfortunate demonstration against Montreal with a small force of American and Canadian recruits, made on the persuasion of Major Brown, Sept. 25, 1T75. he was captured and sent a prisoner to England. A few months later he was sent back to America, and confined in prison ships and jails at Halifax and New York till May 3, 1778, when he was exchanged. During most of his captivity he was treated as a felon and kept heavily ironed, but for a part of 1776- 7 was allowed restricted liberty on parole. Kindly received by congress and by Washington, he was about to enter the military service again when the old colonial troubles regarding Ver mont were revived. Allen was now chosen general, and appointed to command all the militia of that state. In the mean time 16 of the western townships of New Hampshire sought annexation to Vermont, sending a peti tion to that effect to the legislature, who referred the matter to the people. The governor of New Hampshire protested against this course, writing to the continental congress to interpose its authority. Allen was sent as the agent of Vermont to explain to congress the course of the state. About this time the English com manders in America began to meditate the res toration of royal authority in Vermont, and, while the Vermont claim to self-government was in abeyance, sought to take advantage of the dispute. A tempting offer was made to Allen through Beverley Robinson, a well known tory of the time, without any result, except that, by feigning negotiations, Allen was able to preserve the neutrality of the English au thorities toward his mountaineers, who were consequently unmolested until nearly the end of the war. Before that time he removed to Bennington, thence to Arlington, and subse quently to the vicinity of Onion river, where he resided till his death, serving for some time in the legislature. He was twice married, and left a wife and several children. In addition to a history of the controversy between Vermont and New York, a narrative of his captivity, and various political pamphlets, he was the author of a work entitled "Reason the only Oracle of Man 1 (Svo, Bennington, 1784), in which the Bible and the Christian religion are assailed from a purely deistic standpoint. ALLSIA, Ira, brother of Ethan, born in 1752, died in Philadelphia, Jan. 7, 1814. He served in the American army during the revolution, although at first a tory, was a member of the constitutional convention of Vermont, and was the first secretary of the state, afterward treas urer, surveyor general, &c. In 1795 he went to France, where he purchased 20,000 muskets and 24 cannon, expecting to sell them to the state; but while returning home with a por tion of them, he was captured and carried to England, under the accusation of furnishing arms to the Irish rebels. A lawsuit of eight years duration followed, in which he was suc cessful. During this time he published The Natural and Political History of Vermont " (Svo, London, 1798). ALLEX, Joseph U., an English landscape painter, born in Lambeth, London, in 1803, died Aug. 2G, 1852. lie was for a time usher in a school, but soon went to London to study art. At this time he used to paint signs and transparencies to eke out a subsistence, and afterward took up scene painting, finally be coming principal scene painter at the Olympic theatre. He had excelled in depicting quiet rural scenery ; but when he began to employ the brilliant effects which should be conlined to the stage, the results which he obtained were far inferior to those exhibited in his earlier productions. He was active in the establish ment of the " Society of British Artists." ALLEN, Paul, an American editor and author, born in Providence, li. L, Eeb. 15, 1775, died in Baltimore in 182(5. After graduating at Brown university, he went to Philadelphia, and was employed to write for the "Port Folio" and the " United States Gazette." In 1801 he published a small volume of poems. He also, about this time, superintended the publication of "Lewis and Clarke s Travels." He became successively the editor of the "Federal Pte- publican" and the "Journal of the Times," but was unsuccessful in both enterprises, sank into extreme poverty, and for a time his reason was obscured. He finally assumed the manage ment of the "Morning Chronicle" at Balti more, and conducted that journal until his death. In 1821 the "Life of Washington appeared, published in his name, but really written by John Ncal and another of his friends, named AVatkins, Allen merely con tributing a portion of the preface. His poem of " Noah " was published in 1821, in 5 cantos. It had originally consisted of 25 ; but, having been placed in the hands of Mr. Neal for re vision, he reduced it to its present dimensions. ALLE\, Samnel, a London merchant and act ing governor of New Hampshire, born about 1035, died May 5, 1705. He purchased from Mason s heirs in 1691 a large tract of land in New Hampshire, including Portsmouth and Dover, and extending 60 miles inland. He acted as governor of New Hampshire until the arrival of Lord Bellamont in 1699. His pur chase involved him in a protracted lawsuit with the actual settlers, who produced an Indian title, subsequently found to be a forgery, but not until his family had become extinct. ALLE\, Solomon, an American revolutionary soldier, born in Northampton, Mass., Feb. 23, 830 ALLEN 1751, died Jan. 20, 1821. He rose to the rank of major during the revolution, commanded the guard which took charge of Andre on his capture, and assisted in putting down Shays s rebellion at a later period. At the age of 50 he became a clergyman. ALLEN, Thomas, an American clergyman, born in Northampton, Mass., Jan. 17, 1743, died in Pittstield, Feb. 11, 1810. lie graduated at Harvard college in 1702, and was ordained in 1764 at Pittsneld, of which town he was the first minister. Twice during the war of the revolution he served as chaplain, and in the battle of Bennington he took an active part. He was minister of the same church from the time of his ordination till his death, a period of nearly 46 years, and during this time preached 600 or 700 funeral sermons. ALLEN, William, D. D., an American clergy man and author, son of the preceding, born in Pittsneld, Mass., Jan. 2, 1784, died in North ampton, July 16, 1868. lie graduated at Har vard college in 1802, and studied theology with the Rev. Dr. Pierce of Brookline. After being licensed in 1804 by the Berkshire association, he preached for some months in various parts of western New York. Upon his return he was appointed a regent of Harvard college, and was also assistant librarian of the college. During this period he prepared the first edition of his "American Biographical and Historical Dictionary " (1809), con taming notices of about 700 Americans. This was the first book of general biography issued in the United States. In 1807 he prepared the biographical sketches of American ministers for the Rev. David Bogue s and Dr. Bennett s " History of Dissenters," published in London in 4 vols. The second edition of his "Dictionary" ap peared in 1832, and contained more than 1,800 names. The third edition, published in Boston in 1857, contains biographies and notices of nearly 7,000 Americans. His connection with the university ceased in 1810, when he was ordained pastor of the Congregational church in Pittsfield, as his father s successor. The legislature of New Hampshire in 1816 altered the charter of Dartmouth college, and created in its stead a university, of which Dr. Allen was made president in 1817. Upon an appeal to the supreme court at Washington, the rights of the college against the state were maintained in 1819. In 1820 Dr. Allen was appointed president of Bowdoin college, Me., and retained that position till 1839, when he resigned it, and ! retired to Northampton, Mass., engaging in various literary labors. Among these is a col- | lection of more than 10,000 words not found i in dictionaries of the English language ; nearly j 1,500 being contributed to Worcester s die- , tionary (1846), more than 4,000 to Webster s (1854), and about 6,000 to the new edition of Webster. His other chief writings are : " Junius Unmasked," to prove that Lord Sackville was the real Junius; "Accounts of Shipwrecks;" "Psalms and Hymns," with many original hymns (1835) ; memoirs of Dr. Eleazar Whee- lock, and of Dr. John Codman (1853) ; " Wun- nissoo, or the Vale of Hoosatnnnuk," a poem, with learned notes (1856); "Christian Son nets" (1860); "Poems of Nazareth and the Cross" (1866); and "Sacred Songs" (1867). ALLEN, William, an English chemist, born Aug. 29, 1770, died near Lindfield, Sussex, Dec. 30, 1843. He was the son of a Quaker silk manufacturer in Spitalfields, and learned chemistry in the pharmacy of Mr. Bevan, in London, to whose business he eventually suc ceeded. He was for many years lecturer on chemistry and experimental philosophy at Guy s hospital, a fellow of the royal society, and president and one of the founders of the pharmaceutical society. In conjunction with his friend Mr. Pepys he established the pro portion of carbon in carbonic acid, and demon strated that the diamond was pure carbon. Having purchased an estate in Sussex, he de voted himself for many years to improving the condition of his tenantry and poor neighbors, founding schools, building model cottages, and laying out gardens and playgrounds. ALLEJV, William Henry, an officer of the Ameri can navy, born in Providence, R. I., Oct. 21, 1784, died in Plymouth, Eng., Aug. 15, 1813. He was a son of Major William Allen, entered the navy as a midshipman in 1800, and in 1809 was appointed first lieutenant of the frigate United States. Oct. 25, 1812, he distinguished himself in the action between this vessel and the British frigate Macedonian, which resulted in the capture of the latter. He afterward received the command of the brig Argus in 1813, with which he cruised in the neighbor hood of England, capturing property to the amount, as was estimated, of $2,000,000. On Aug. 14 he fought the British brig Pelican, losing the Argus, and himself dying of his wounds the next day. ALLEN, William Henry, LL. D., an American scholar and educator, born in Readfield (now Manchester), Kennebec county, Me., March 27, 1808. After preparatory study in the Maine conference seminary, he entered Bowdoin col lege, where he graduated in 1833. From 1833 to 1836 he was teacher of Latin and Greek in Cazenovia seminary, N. Y. ; in 1836 principal of a high school at Augusta, Me., where he became a member of the Methodist Episcopal church; from 1836 to 1846 professor of natural philosophy and chemistry in Dickinson college, Carlisle, Pa. ; from 1846 to 1849 professor of philosophy and English literature in the same institution, and in 1847- 8 its acting president ; from 1849 to 1862 president of Girard college, Philadelphia, and for one year president of the agricultural college of Pennsylvania. In 1867 he was recalled to the presidency of Girard college, which position he now (1873) occu pies. In March, 1872, he was chosen presi dent of the American Bible society. President Allen has contributed to the reviews and mag azines many articles on philosophical, literary, ALLENDE ALLIBONE 331 and educational questions. He is also the au thor of numerous addresses and several valua ble reports on education. In 184(5 he received the honorary degree of M. D. from the Phila delphia college of medicine ; and in 1850 the degree of LL. 1). from both Union college, New York, and Emory and Henry college, Virginia. ALLEXDE, Jose, an officer in the Spanish army, of Mexican birth, to whom Hidalgo first in trusted his plan of revolt in September, 1810. Allende was at that time a captain of the Mex ican regiment of La Reyna, and brought to the service the military skill of which Hidalgo was so much in need. When the regiment of La Reyna and that of Celaya joined Hidalgo, the native levies gained some consistency, and in the same month achieved the famous capture of the Alhondega of Guanajuato. After Nov. 29, 1810, Allende joined Hidalgo, and was able to replace the guns which had previously been lost at Aculco, by bringing others from San Bias, the great naval station of Spain on the Pacific, of which Morelos had obtained posses sion. Contrary to the advice of Allende, Hi dalgo determined to fight the enemy, and was defeated. Allende brought off the fragment of the army, but was arrested near Saltillo by the treachery of an old comrade named Elizondo, and shot at Chihuahua, July 27, 1811. ALLE3TOW.V, capital of Lehigh county, Pa., on the W. bank of Lehigh river, 18 m. above its junction with the Delaware, and 59 m. by railroad N. N. W. of Philadelphia; pop. in 1860, 8,025 ; in 1870, 13,884. In 1762 the town was laid out and called Northampton, the name of the county it then belonged to. It contained 13 families. In 1776 there were 54 houses, of which 7 were taverns. In 1812 Lehigh county was established and Northampton was made the county town, having been incorporated as a borough the year previously. In 1838 the name was changed to Allentown. By a- rail road extending up and down the valley of the Lehigh, it is connected in one direction with the anthracite coal region at the head waters of this stream, and in the other with New York and Philadelphia. Another railroad 36 m. long connects the Lehigh valley with that of the Schuylkill above Reading, and affords the most direct line of communication between New York city and the southwest. By these railroads and the Lehigh canal, Allentown is made a very important central point for sup plies of iron ores and anthracite. Several large blast furnaces, extensive iron works, and rolling mills are in operation. The population of Al lentown are mostly of German descent, and the German language is still commonly spoken. It has 3 daily newspapers, 6 weekly, 1 semi monthly, and 2 monthly periodicals. Allentown contains an academy, a military institute, and a theological seminary. Muhlenberg college, a Lutheran institution, was established here in 1867; in 1868 it had 10 instructors, 161 stu dents, and a library of 1,800 volumes. c ALLESTREE, or Allestrey, Richard, an English divine, born in Uppington, Shropshire, in March, 1619, died in January, 1681. During the civil war he left his studies at Oxford to serve as a soldier in the king s army. Toward the conclusion of the war he took orders, and was one of those expelled when the parliament in 1648 sent visitors to Oxford to demand the sub mission of the university. He found an asylum in the family of Lord Newport in Shropshire, and after the battle of Worcester he was fixed upon by the royalists as a proper person to convey despatches and have a conference with the king at Rouen; and he was afterward the constant medium of communication with him. Soon after the return of Charles II. he was made canon of Christ s church, king s chap lain, regius professor of divinity, and in 1665 provost of Eton. Forty of his sermons were published in 1684, with a life by Bishop Fell. ALLEYN, Edward, an English actor, born in Lon don, Sept. 1, 1566, died at Dulwich college, of which institution he was the founder, Nov. 25, 1626. He was the friend of Jonson and Shake speare, and partner of Henslowe as a theatrical manager and proprietor of the bear gardens. Having become rich, he purchased the manor of Dulwich in 1606, built his college there, and en tered the institution with his wife, contenting himself with the same allowance of food and clothing as each of his pensioners. At his death he left property for the endowment of 20 almshouses, besides legacies te his wife and relatives. (See DULWICH.) ALL-FOURS, a game played by two or four persons with an entire pack of cards. It de rives its name from the four chances therein, for each of which a point is scored ; these are : high, the best trump out; low, the lowest trump out ; jack, the knave of trumps ; and the game, the majority of pips reckoned for certain cards held by the respective players, every ace being counted 4, king 3, queen 2, knave 1, and ten 10. ALLGAIER, Joliaim, a German chess player and writer on the game, died at Prague in 1826. For some years he was a captain in the Austri an service. He spent most of his life in Vien na. His work Anweisung zinn Schachspiel, was first published at Vienna in 1795, and has since passed through numerous editions. A peculiar method of opening the game received from him the name of the Allgaier gambit. ALL HALLOWS. See ALL SAINTS DAY. . ALLIBONE, Samuel Austin, LL. D., an Ameri can author and bibliographer, born in Philadel phia, April 17, 1816. After some years spent in collecting materials for the purpose, he began in 1853 the composition of A Critical Dic tionary of English Literature and British and American Authors, Living and Deceased, from the Earliest Accounts to the latter half of the Nineteenth Century." This work, in 3 vols. royal 8vo (1858, 1870, and 1871), contains no tices of 46,499 authors and 40 classified indexes of subjects. Dr. Allibone is also the author of 332 ALLIER ALLIGATOR some religious controversial essays, and has contributed articles to the "North American Review, 11 the "Evangelical Quarterly Review, 11 and other periodicals ; and he has privately printed and circulated a number of tracts. ALLIER, a central department of France, part of the old province of Bourbonnais, bounded by Nievre, Saone-et-Loire, Puy-de-dome, Creuse, and Cher; area, 2,822 sq. m. ; pop. in 1872, 390,812. It takes its name from the river Al- lier, which flows through its centre ; the Cher, like the Allicr a southern affluent of the Loire, flows through the western part of the depart ment, and the Loire waters its eastern border. The surface is undulating, and the soil generally fertile, yielding much grain and wine. Coal and minerals of various kinds abound; and there are celebrated mineral springs. The de partment is divided into the arrondissernents of Moulins, La Palisse, Gannat, and Montlucon. Capital, Moulins. ALLIGATOR (Fr. alligator, It. alligatore, corrupted from the Sp. el lagarto, the liz ard), a large carnivorous, amphibious rep tile, of the saurian family, peculiar to Amer ica. The name was first given to this ani mal by the English colonists of the southern Alligator. portion of what are now the United States, but has been gradually extended to all the va rieties of the family, called caymans, crocodiles, jacares, <fcc., by the Spaniards, Portuguese, and Indians of the southern continent. The alliga tor was formerly believed to be identical with the crocodile of the old world ; but there have subsequently been found to exist distinctions which indicate generic differences. The ge neric characteristics of the family are long flat heads, thick necks and bodies, protected by regular transverse rows of long plates or shields, elevated in the centre into keel-shaped ridges, and disposed on the back of the neck into groups of different forms and numbers, according to the species. The mouth is ex tremely large, extending considerably behind the eyes, and furnished in each jaw with a sin gle row of conical teeth, all of different sizes, and standing far apart from one another. The eyes are placed on the upper surface of the skull, very near to each other, and provided with three eyelids. The feet have live toes before, long and separate; four behind, more or less perfectly connected by membranes ; the interior toes only, on all the feet, being provid ed with claws. The tail is of great length, slender, strongly compressed at the sides, and surmounted toward its origin by a double series of keel-shaped plates, forming two upright den ticulated crests, w r hich, gradually converging toward the middle of the tail, there unite and form a single row to the extremity. The tail is the animal s great instrument of progression in the water, and its great weapon of defence when surprised on land. Both genera, alliga tors and crocodiles, hibernate, taking no food during the winter months; the Nilotic croco diles, according to Pliny, withdrawing into caves and holes in the banks, while the alli gators of America bury themselves in the mud of stagnant rivers. The principal food of both alligators and crocodiles is fish, but they watch for and devour land animals and even men. It is alleged that the musky fluid secreted from the glands of the throat acts as a sort of bait, and attracts the fish on which they prey. The alligators, according to Cuvier, have the head less oblong than the crocodiles. Its length is to its breadth, measured at the ar ticulation of the jaws, as three to two; the teeth are unequal in length and size ; there are at least 19, sometimes even as many as 22, on each side in the lower, and 19 or 20 in the upper jaw. The front teeth of the under jaw pierce through the upper at a certain age ; and the fourth from the front, which are the largest of all, enter into corresponding holes of the up per jaw, in which they are concealed when the mouth is closed. The hind legs and feet are round, and neither fringed nor pectinated on the sides ; the toes are not completely webbed, the connecting membrane only extending to their middle ; and finally, the post-orbital holes of the cranium, so conspicuous in the croco diles, are very minute in the alligators, or even entirely wanting. Further than this, it is ob servable that the alligators, unlike the croco diles, are rarely if ever to be found in running streams, preferring stagnant ponds and the creeks of large rivers, in which, particularly in South America, they may be seen in great numbers, protruding their large flat heads through the leaves of the nympha?a, pontederia, and other aquatic plants, and watching for their prey ; or sometimes basking in the sun, or sleeping on the banks. They rarely come on shore, except during the hottest part of the day, and always retire to the water on the ap proach of night, during which they are ex tremely active in search of their food. They generally lay from 50 to 60 eggs in one place, of about the same size as those of the goose, which they cover up with sand, and leave to be hatched by the heat of the sun, never, how ever, removing to any great distance. When the young ones come forth, they are five or six inches long, and are immediately conducted to the water by the female alligator. Seldom more than half the brood long survive, the re- ALLIGATOR ALLIX maimler being devoured by the male alligators, and by various ravenous fishes ; while multi tudes are destroyed in the egg by the vultures. The alligators never leave the fresh water, while the crocodiles frequent the mouths of the large rivers, and swirn out into the open sea, passing between different islands at consider able distances. So perfect a characteristic is this of the two genera, that the animal of the West India islands, which swims out into the salt water, is distinctly a crocodile, varying from all the other American species, and exhibiting the modifications which belong only by right to thosa of the old world. The principal species are : 1. The alligator, properly so called, cro- codilus Indus of Cuvier, alligator Mississippien- sis of Gray, inhabiting the waters of the south ern states. It grows to the size of 14 or 15 feet ; its head is one seventh of the entire length, and half as broad at the articulation of the jaws as it is long. It has these distinguish ing modifications from the crocodiles : The snout is flattened on its upper surface, and slightly turned upward at the extremity ; its sides are nearly parallel, and the nose forms a regular parabolic curve. It is from this simi larity to the head of a pike that it has its name lucius. It is said to be far more fierce and voracious than the South American species, often seizing and destroying men and large land animals, the bodies of which it conceals under the banks until they begin to putrefy, when it draws them ashore and devours them ; for its teeth, unfitted for mastication, cannot cut the Ik-sh in its sound state. The female of this species is remarkable for her maternal at tention to her young, never losing sight of her nest until the little alligators are released from the shell. Bartram, the American naturalist, found great numbers of these reptiles in a mineral spring near the Mosquito river, Florida, though the water at its exit from the earth was nearly at the boiling point, and strongly impregnated with copper and vitriol. 2. The cayman, alligator palpebrosus. This species is distinguished by its bony eyebrows, which form knobs as large as the fists of a man. Its toes are almost entirely free from connecting membranes, and its skull lias no post-orbital apertures. It is smaller and less fierce than the others of its genus ; and the female takes no heed to her eggs when they are once de posited. This i.s the alligator of Guiana and Surinam. 3. The alligator of Brazil, alligator trigonatm, a variety of the above species, dis tinguishable from it by a long ridge between the orbits running toward the snout, a notch in the posterior margin of the skull, and a peculiar arrangement of the cervical plates. 4. The jacare, alligator sclerops. This is the alligator of all tropical America, particularly numerous in Brazil. Its head is more elongated than that of the North American alligator, the sides converging toward the snout so as to form nearly an isosceles triangle. The bones of the skull have a rough scabrous appearance, as if diseased; and the orbits of the eye are sur rounded by prominent rims of bone, connected by a ridge between the orbits, constituting to gether the resemblance of a pair of spectacles, whence its name. It grows to a very large size, attaining even to 18 feet, its length being more than eight times that of the head. It never attacks men, or even dogs, whether on land or in passing rivers, unless in the neighbor hood of its nest ; nor does it then prey on the carcasses, feeding only on fish and water fowl. The bony armor of all the species is their protection against all enemies. It is proof against the riiie ball, which can only take effect when it strikes the eye, or the unarmed skin on the belly and about the insertion of the fore legs. The construction of this armor, how ever, prevents them from turning rapidly when on dry land, so that their pursuit is easily avoided. Their flesh, and even their eggs, al though both have a strong musky flavor, are said to be both wholesome and nutritious. The American alligators have neither their allied protector bird, the spur-winged dotterel, nor their characteristic enemy, the ichneumon, which protect or assail the crocodile of the Nile. The hideous aspect, disgusting habits, abominable smell, and odious roar of these reptiles have rendered them objects of undue apprehension. (See CROCODILE.) ALLISGHAM, William, a British poet, born at Ballyshannon in Ireland abort 1828. His father, a banker in his native town, gave him a good education in Irish schools : and he early showed a taste for literary pursuits, contribut ing to various periodicals. In 1 850 he publish ed a volume of poems, which he dedicated to Leigh Hunt, who had long appreciated and encouraged his work. In 1854 he published "Day and Night Songs," of which an enlarged edition, illustrated by artists of note, appeared the next year. In 1864 he published a poem in twelve chapters, entitled u Laurence Bloom- field in Ireland; " but it is by his short lyrics that he is best known. He has for some years held a government appointment in the English customs service, and he has also been since 18f>4 in receipt of a literary pension. He has edited "The Ballad Book. 1 " ALLIX, Pierre, a French Protestant divine, born in Alencon in 1631, died in London, March 3, 1717. While pastor of a reformed congregation at Charenton he assisted Claude in preparing a new French version of the Bible, and acquired some celebrity by a controversy with Bossuet. On the revocation of the edict of Nantes he took refuge in England, estab lished a French congregation in conformity with the Anglican church, and in 1090 was appointed by Bishop Burnet treasurer of Salis bury cathedral. He made several attempts, in Holland, Switzerland, and Germany, to cement a more perfect union among the reformed churches. Besides a number of theological and critical works in French and Latin, he wrote in English (of which he was an excellent 334 ALLOA ALLOTROPISM master) " Reflections upon the Books of Holy Scripture " (1688) ; " Remarks on the Churches of Piedmont" (1690); "Remarks on the An cient Churches of the Albigenses" (1692), &c. ALLOA, a seaport town of Clackmannanshire, Scotland, 30 m. E. N. E. of Edinburgh, at the head of the frith of Forth; pop. about 7,000. It has an excellent harbor, and a dry dock capable of containing the largest ships ; also a spacious wet dock opened in 1863. In the town and its vicinity are extensive collieries, distilleries, breweries, and iron, glass, brick, and tile works. ALLOBROGES, a people of Gaul, whose terri tory comprehended parts of what is now called Dauphiny and Savoy, chiefly between the Isere and the Rhone. Their principal town was Vienna, no\v Vienne, on the left bank of the Rhone. They were brought under the domin ion of Rome in 121 B. C., by Fabius Maximus, and ever after remained faithful to their con querors, though at times discontented. Their name signified "dwellers on mountains." ALLODIUM, in law, a landed possession freed from all feudal tenure or service. Several ex planations have been given of the etymology of the word, but they are all only more or less in genious conjectures. In early ages the allodium was the most desirable property. In process of time the anarchy consequent on the want of a supreme power made the mutual protec tion and support of lord and vassal more ex pedient ; and in England all land passed into fee land, the king being suzerain of the whole country. The theory still remains in slight services, or in small fee farm rents, and in the escheat to the sovereign for want of heirs. In France, before the revolution of 1789, the actual services still remained not nominal, but real, unequivocal, and in some cases odious bur dens ; serfdom, indeed, was only abolished by an express decree of the assembly. Nulle terre sans seigneur was a maxim of law, and the tyranny and monstrous oppressions of the local seigneur proved that it was no dead letter. In Germany the allodium yet remains to be per fected. The system of man service is not yet exploded, such as the right to several days work in harvest or at hunting parties; al though this is much modified, particularly in Prussia, of late years. The conversion of the feudal soil into allodial land is effected either by means of an annual fee rent, or of a fine payable at once, in lieu of all customary ser vices. Even in 1595 the last traces of bondage and serfdom in England were not obliterated. A patent to Sir Henry Lea was issued by the crown, giving him power as commissioner to enfranchise a limited number of crown villeins, and to seize all the rest of the estates acquired by parties in villenage to his own use. This monstrous commission, which was, like many other similar enormities, a means of enrich ing a needy or profligate courtier at the ex pense of the people, could not have operated except in the case of crown serfs ; the doctrine, Nullum tcmpus occurrit regi, coming into op eration against the unfortunate landholders whose title was barred by the impurity of their blood. In the case of subjects, villenage had become obsolete. ALLOM, Thomas, an English architect and landscape painter, born in 1804. His reputa tion rests chiefly on his published works illus- i trating the scenery, architecture, and antiqui ties of England, France, and the East. ALLOMAKEE. See ALLAMAKEE. ALLOPATHY, a word created by hornoeopa- thists to distinguish other systems of medical practice from their own. Having adopted the opinion that "like cures like" (similia simi- libus curantur) as the fundamental princi ple of his doctrine, Halmemann gave to his own system the name of "homoeopathy," de rived from the Greek o/uoiov, like, or similar, and Trdflof, disease, and to other systems the name of "allopathy," from aM.ov, other, or different, and Trdflof, disease. ALLORI. I. Alessandro, a Florentine painter, born in 1535, died in 1607. He was a nephew and pupil of Agnolo Bronzino, whose name is I sometimes given to him. Michel Angelo was his chief model, and he is reputed one of the best artists of the anatomical school. He ex celled also as a portrait painter. II. Cristofaco, also called Bronzino, son of the preceding, born in 1577, died in 1621. He painted several im portant works for the Florentine churches and convents and the palace of the Medici, and excelled in coloring and delicacy of execution. His best known work is "Judith with the Head of Holofernes," in the Pitti palace, but his St. Julian in the same gallery is esteemed superior to it. His works are very rare. ALLOTROPISM (Gr. ahUTponos, in another manner), a word first employed by Berzelius to denote the property in virtue of which the same element can have different chemical char acters. There exists a vast series of phenom ena, of which polymorphism constitutes the first term, allotropism the intermediate, and isomerism the extreme term. Sulphur, which crystallizes from its solution in octahedra of the fourth system, when crystallized by means of fusion forms prisms having a rhombic base, of the fifth system; this is a polymorphous body. Phosphorus being heated changes its properties ; if we heat it still further, it regains its original condition. It can therefore exist in two different states, but it is always phos phorus. This is a phenomenon of allotropism. The formiate of ethy], C 3 H 6 O2, and the acetate of methyl, C3H 8 O 2 , are two perfectly distinct bodies, although they have the same quanti tative composition; they are isomeric. To take an illustration from natural history, allo tropism only makes races, isomerism creates distinct species. Isomeric bodies receive dis tinct names; but sulphur, phosphorus, oxygen, carbon, &c., in their modified forms, that is, in their allotropic conditions, are still sulphur, phosphorus, and oxygen. Originally the word ALLOUEZ ALLOY 335 allotropism was only applied to elements ; later it was also applied to compounds. Tartaric acid which turns the plane of polarization of light to the right, tartaric acid which turns it to the left, and that which does not deviate it at all, are considered by some chemists to be the same compound in several allotropic states. (See ISOMERISM.) ALLOIT/, Claude Jean, one of the earliest Jes uit explorers of the northwest, born in France in 1620, died in 1690. He went to Quebec in 1658, and, after some years 1 training in the Al gonquin missions on the St. Lawrence, founded the mission of the Holy Ghost at Chegormegon on Lake Superior in 1665, collected data as to the Mississippi, explored Green bay, where he founded the mission of St. Francis Xavier, and labored among the Foxes, Mascoutins, Miarnis, and Illinois. In 1676 he permanently estab lished at Kaskaskia in Illinois the mission begun by Marquette; but in 1679 he retired on the approach of La Salle, who was bitterly opposed to the Jesuits. His latest field of labor was among the Miamis on St. Joseph s river, where he died. His contributions to the Jesuit Rela tions are among the most valuable records as to the ideas and manners of the Indians at the time. ALLOY (Fr. aloi, standard of coin, from d la loi, according to law), a compound of two or more metals fused together. When one of the metals is mercury, the compound is called 1 an amalgam. (See AMALGAM.) By the alchemists metals were called "noble" and "base," and when one of the latter was brought into com bination with one of the former, the nobility of this was said to be "allayed" or "alloyed," and assayers at the present day still use. the term in this sense. Most alloys are mixtures of no exact proportions ; the metals dissolve in one another indefinitely, as sulphuric acid unites with water. Some, however, appear to be combinations in equivalent proportions, and of these there are found examples in nature, as of the native gold, which occurs combined with silver 4, 5, 6, or 12 atoms of gold to one of silver, but never a fractional part of an atom of gold. The tendency of some aHoys to take crystalline forms also indicates definite com binations. This is verified by cooling a melted mixture slowly, and when partially solidified pouring off the liquid remnant, when crystals are left which are always combinations in the proportion of the atomic weights of the met als ; for instance, in the mixtures of copper and tin (bronze), copper and zinc (brass), copper and nickel (German silver), or copper and alu minum (aluminum bronze), the proportions of the crystals are found to be either in the ratio of the numbers 64, 113, 65, 59, 27, which are the respective atomic weights of copper, tin, zinc, nickel, and aluminum, or of a multiple the one of the other. The metals of many alloys are with difficulty brought into com bination, and even tend to separate from each other while in the melted state, and in some instances form layers which contain dif ferent proportions of the metals. The changes in the physical properties of metals effected by j their combinations are of great variety, and j cannot before experiment be at all anticipated. ! Even slight variations in the proportions of I the metals involve great changes in the prod- I uct of their union. The specific gravity of the alloy may be greater or less than the mean of that of the component parts. In the alloy of gold and tin it is greater; also of silver with J zinc, lead, tin, bismuth, or antimony ; copper j with zinc; lead with palladium; bismuth with | antimony ; lead with bismuth ; and zinc with antimony. The specific gravity is less in the alloy of gold with silver, lead, iron, copper, nickel, or iridium ; also of iron with bismuth, zinc, antimony, or lead ; tin with lead ; zinc | with palladium or antimony; and zinc with | antimony. The alloy of silver and copper as used in coins is also of less specific gravity when cast; but Karnmarsch found that by rolling and coining it is so far compressed that I the specific gravity is the same as the mean j obtained by calculation. Alloys are always I more fusible than the metal most difficult to melt that enters into their combination, and gen erally more so than the most easily melted one. The fusible metal discovered by Sir Isaac New ton melts at different temperatures between 1 98 and 210 F. It is composed of bismuth 5 or 8 parts, lead 2 or 5 parts, and tin 3 parts. These metals melt, the first at a temperature of 476, the second at about 600, and the last at 442. The addition of one part of mercury lowers the melting point of this alloy to 167. Wood s fusible alloy, discovered in more recent times, consists of 2 parts cadmium, 2 tin, 1 lead, and | 3 bismuth ; it melts at the low temperature of | 150 F. The alloy fusible at the lowest tem- j perature is that of sodium and potassium ; ! the first melts at 194, the second at 128, | while the alloy melts at 80, and is thus liquid at the common summer temperature. Alloys conduct heat and electricity less perfectly than their pure metals; they are also gen erally more brittle. But their power of cohesion is usually greater than that of either of the metals, the alloy resisting more strongly j the force applied to draw a bar apart than does a bar of either one of the metals composing it. I The color which the alloy will take is as uncer tain as any of its other properties. A large addition of zinc will not make its alloy with copper whiter, but will give it the rich pinch beck hue. Tin makes copper more pale, but especially nickel, the addition of one eighth of which is sufficient to make it almost white. Aluminum acts in a similar way, while silver possesses the power of destroying the red color of the copper in so high a degree, that it may be largely alloyed with it without materially impairing its whiteness. Alloys composed of metals of different degrees of fusibility may sometimes be separated into their distinct rnetals by heating to the melt- 336 ALLOY ing temperature of one of them. An alloy I of tin and copper may be thus treated, the | tin melting at 442, and the copper at 1,990. I This sweating process," called liquation, is used to separate silver from copper. Lead is I first melted in with the other metals, and when sweated out it takes the silver along with it. This alloy is then separated by another process, depending on the easy oxidation of the lead. An interesting property of the metals, which may seem somewhat opposed to the one just de scribed, is the tendency of one, when melting, however fusible it may be, to cause any other | in contact with it, however infusible, to dis solve in the melted metal ; its surfaces are washed away, till nothing solid is left. Pla- j tinum, which is among the most difficult met als to melt, is very susceptible of injury from this cause. The costly crucible and other vessels of the chemist may be ruined in an unguarded moment by contact with other metals highly heated. On this property is based the principle of soldering two pieces of metal by means of a third. Their surfaces are fixed together by interposing an alloy which is more fusible than either of the metals to be joined ; and this must also consist of metals which are disposed to unite and form a new alloy with them. Pieces of gold are soldered together with an alloy of gold with silver or with copper ; articles of silver with an alloy of silver and copper ; of copper, with an alloy called hard solder, which is brass containing a large proportion of zinc. Another interesting prop erty of alloys is the different effects produced by the order in which their component parts have been mixed, the proportions continuing the same. Ten parts of antimony added to 90 of tin and 10 of copper, make a compound of very different physical properties from that produced by adding 90 parts of tin to 10 of copper and 10 of antimony. This appears to be analogous to what we witness in vegetable chemistry, as in the identity of composition in starch and sugar. The alloys already in use are very numerous, and new valuable combina tions are continually discovered. Those alone of copper with zinc form a long list, in which we find the names of many very useful com- j pounds, some of them known from the time of | Tubal Cain. Pewter has long been a useful, though a very homely alloy. It is made of dif ferent combinations of lead and tin, sometimes with additions of antimony, bismuth, and cop per, and in this case is known in trade under different fanciful names, as britannia, &c. Ger man silver, composed of copper, nickel, and usually zinc, has in part displaced it, and is likely to be itself displaced by some improved combinations. Muntz s yellow metal is an alloy of 60 parts of copper to 40 of zinc. These pro portions may be slightly varied, but they arc the ones specially recommended in the patent, as producing a composition more easily rolled into sheets while hot. It is used for sheathing the bottoms of ships. In importance, no alloys can rank higher than those of which printers types are made, and no known metal possesses the properties essential to them. They consist of lead and antimony, in proportions varying with the kind of types. For very tine types tin is added, to increase the fusibility and consequently to make the metal flow better, so as to fill the finest details of the mould. Many type founders introduce also some copper, by first alloying it with the antimony; this in creases the durability of the type considerably. The noble metals, gold and silver, are too soft to be used in a pure state. They are alloyed with copper to give them hardness, and gold also with silver. The standard silver of Great Brit ain consists of silver 11 -10, and copper 90. The French silver plate contains 9 5 parts of silver and 5 copper; trinkets, 8 parts of sil ver to 2 of copper. In the United States these alloys are made as rich or as poor as the indi vidual manufacturer judges best for his inter est. His reputation is the only guarantee that his work is what it is sold for. There is no test but actual analysis, and this is not appli cable to the articles without destroying part of them. Specific gravity may be employed to some extent, but as the alloy often has a some what different density from that of the mean of its metals, the calculation gives an approxi mation more or less correct according to cir cumstances. The following rule gjvcn by Dr. Yan der Weyde may be used to find the spe cific gravity of an alloy made of any number of metals, mixed in whatever proportion : "Find the relative volume of each metal by dividing its weight by its specific gravity ; the sum of all the weights divided by the sum of the volumes gives the specific gravity of the alloy." An alloy which closely resembles gold in color, specific gravity, and ductility, is made of 10 parts of platinum, 7 parts of copper, and 1 of zinc. These are put into a crucible, cov ered with charcoal powder, and melted. It? cost is scarcely one fourth of that of gold. The so-called oroide gold is a very base alloy, only resembling gold in color if kept clean, and is easily distinguished from it by having scarce ly half its specific gravity. It is said to be made by melting copper ICO parts, tin IT, magnesia 0, carbonate of potash 9 or salt of antimony 3 G, and quicklime 1 (>. The latest im provement is the so-called sterrometal, invented by Rosthorn in Vienna; it is made by melting 600 Ibs. copper with 2 Ibs. cast iron ; when fluid there is added 36 Ibs. zinc and 4 oz. borax. It is asserted that it is 8,000 Ibs. stronger per square inch than the best wrought iron. Al exander Birchholz of Hartford, Conn., has pat ented the same alloy, and erected a factory in Providence, R. I. Among interesting ap plications of alloys we must mention the plates of easily fusible metals with which steam boilers are sometimes provided, offering an additional safety besides the safety valve, as they will melt at a temperature corresponding with too high a pressure. Another application ALL SAINTS BAY ALLSTON 337 is founded on the fact that alloys are much more imperfect conductors of electricity than the separate metals, from offering more re sistance. Small coils of wire are made of an alloy similar to German silver, in which the resistance is equal to many miles of telegraph wire; they are used in connection with volta meters to measure the strength of batteries, and to detect imperfections or breaks in tele graph wires. ALL SAIXTS BAY, or Bahia de Todos Santos, in the province of Bahia, Brazil, one of the larg est and finest natural harbors in the world. It is 37 m. long and 27 wide, and its surface is dotted with islands. The town of Bahia lies on the E. side of the bay. ALL SAIXTS DAY, a festival in honor of all the angels and saints of heaven, observed in the Roman Catholic church on Nov. 1, and also in the Protestant Episcopal and Lutheran churches. In the eastern churches the same festival has been observed since the 4th cen tury. In the West, it was instituted by Pope Boniface IV. in the early part of the 7th cen tury, on the .occasion of dedicating the Pan theon, a temple built by Marcus Agrippa, 25 B. G., in honor of Jupiter the Avenger and all the gods, to the worship of the true God, under the invocation of the Virgin Mary and all the saints. The feast became general in the 9th centurv. It is also called All Hallows. ALL SOULS, the day after All Saints, set apart by the Catholic church for the commem oration of all the faithful departed, for whom the mass of requiem is said, and the office of the dead recited. In Germany, the people, both Catholic and Protestant, visit the grave yards on this day, and strew flowers on the graves of their friends. ALLSPICE, or Jamaica Pepper, the immature berry of the Eugenia pimento., so named from its being supposed to combine the flavor of sev eral other spices, such as cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg. The allspice, pimento, or bayberry tree is a native of South America and the VOL. i. 22 "West India islands, especially Jamaica. The tree is of a highly ornamental character, often \ upward of 25 or 30 feet in height; the leaves ; inclining to oval, covering the numerous , branches with a luxuriant evergreen foliage ; : the flowers small and without show, succeeded I by spherical berries with a persistent calyx, j and a fragrant aromatic odor. When they are quite ripe, they are of a dark purple color, and filled with a sweet pulp. In many parts of Jamaica the allspice tree grows in great abun- j dance without cultivation, but it is not easily ; propagated by artificial means. The commer- ! cial value of the fruit makes it an object of great interest with the planters, and no crop j receives a larger share of attention. The fa- ! vorite situation for a pimento walk, or planta- ; tion, is among the hills on the north side of the island. A spot is selected in the vicinity of another plantation, or in a locality favorable I to the spontaneous growth of the trees ; this ! is stripped of all other wood, and the^young i pimento plants soon make their appear- | ance, either from seeds previously existing in the soil, or which have been deposited by birds, who feed upon the berries with great I avidity. It is said that a single tree has been known to produce 150 Ibs. of the raw fruit, or j 100 Ibs. of the dried spice. The crop, however, is uncertain, and abundant only once in five | years. The berries require care in gathering i as well as drying. They must be picked when | they have attained full growth, but before they ; begin to ripen, and carefully dried. When the I seeds are allowed to ripen fully, they lose that : aromatic warmth for which they are esteemed as a spice, and acquire a taste almost exactly | like that of jumper berries, which renders them | agreeable food for birds, the most industrious planters of these trees. The leaves and the | bark participate in the warm aromatic proper- i ties of the berries. ALLSTOX, Washington, an American painter, born at Waccamaw, S. C., Nov. 5, 1770, died in Cambridge, Mass., July 9, 1843. From con siderations of health he was removed in his early boyhood to Newport, R. I., and com pleted his education at Harvard college, where he graduated in 1800. Having developed a decided inclination for painting, he went in 1801 to London and became a student of the royal academy, than under the presidency of his countryman Benjamin West, to whom he was indebted for many useful hints in the prosecu tion of his art. A three years 1 course of study in London was succeeded by a lengthened so journ in Rome, where he familiarized himself with the works of the old masters, and gained a reputation as a colorist. During a brief visit to America in 1809 he married a sister of Dr. W T illiam Ellery Channing, and returning soon after to London entered upon his career as an artist. Within the next few years he produced a number of works of great merit, founded for i the most part on subjects taken from sacred 1 history. Two of these, "The Dead Man Re- 338 ALLUVIUM vived by touching the Bones of Elijah," and ! 44 Uriel in the Sun," displaying high imagimi- I tive power and a rare mastery of color and j chiaroscuro, obtained for the artist valuable I prizes from the British institution, and all of I them found ready purchasers. He returned to America in feeble health in 1818, and during the remainder of his life resided principally in Boston and Cambridge. His subsequent career was without the incentive to exertion which he had experienced in England. His country men respected him for the reputation he had acquired abroad, but were scarcely able to ap preciate his talents. Removed from the con genial atmosphere of the great art capitals of the old world, he worked listlessly and ir regularly, and produced no finished perform ance of importance comparable in merit with his earlier pictures. During the last 25 years of his life he occupied himself from time to time on a composition of great size represent ing " Belshazzar s Feast," which he intended should be his masterpiece. But frequent at tacks of illness, an over-fastidiousness of taste, and an ideal which became more exalted and exacting as he advanced in years, seriously marred the progress of the work, and it re mained at the close of his life an unfinished but splendid specimen of his genius. It is now the property of the Boston Athenaeum. All- ston s works are not numerous, considering the extent of his career, but bear the imprint of an original and artistic mind. The best are founded on Scriptural subjects. He also painted landscapes and sea pieces of great excellence, and in ideal portraits combined an almost un rivalled purity of flesh tints with depth and power of expression. Had he possessed the moral courage and the physical ability to em body on the canvas his own conceptions, he would have proved one of the most prolific and imaginative artists of the age. No Amer ican painter has yet approached him in the de lineation of sacred history. Allston was a man of fine literary tastes, and conversed with ease and eloquence on art and metaphysics. He published a volume of poems and a novel, "Monaldi," illustrating Italian life. ALLUVIUM (Lat., from alluere, to wash upon or against), the deposits of sand, gravel, marl, &c., brought down by running streams of the present geological period. Other recent ac cumulations also, as those of peat and of the hills of sand blown together by the wind, are often called alluvial. They all belong to LyelFs uppermost group, the post-tertiary, and are characterized by containing human relics and remains. The same group comprises the cal careous rocks of recent origin which occur on the coast of Guadeloupe, and contain human skeletons imbedded in solid limestone, and also the coral reefs which are in process of formation in tropical seas, spreading out in cal careous strata hundreds of miles in extent. These are not usually included in the term al luvium ; and yet it is not easy to draw a line that shall exclude any formations of recent origin ; for the wash of rivers, as it settles in the bays at their mouths, often finds some ce menting matter that soon binds it into solid rock, and in this hard rock are entombed as fos sils works of art or remains of man. Thus the term alluvium has no precise signification. The great deposits of alluvium accumulate so slowly and silently, that we little appreciate the immense changes made by running water upon the surface of the earth ; yet in the short period from the time to which our records ex tend back, we find that the sediments of a few small Italian rivers have carried out the coast line into the gulf of Venice from 2 to 20 miles ; and that the ancient port of Adria, which in the time of Augustus gave its name to the gulf, is now an inland town, L5 miles from the shore. According to Herodotus, the ancient priests of Egypt regarded their country as " the gift of the Kile." From the great pyramids down to the sea all is made land. The great rivers of the world, as the Mississippi, Amazon, Ganges, and Orinoco, are producing effects far greater than those of the Nile ; but our obser vations of these extend but a few generations back, and we lack sufficient data for calculating very exactly the rate of increase of their deltas. With the Mississippi, however, this has been attempted by Mr. Forshey, an eminent engineer, from observations extending through 30 years. Adopting the estimate of Dr. Riddell of New Orleans, that the weight of sediment is T ^ 7 of that of the water, or -5^-5 of its volume, and allowing the quantity of water brought down per second to be 447,199 cubic feet, the whole amount of sedimentary matter annually added to the delta and carried into the gulf is equal to 4,083,333,338 cubic feet, enough to cover 144 square miles one foot deep. And yet at this rate, for the river to have built up the great accu mulations of alluvium which make its delta, would have required 61,000 years; and higher up there are the accumulations at this rate of some 80,000 years more. Thus long at least, it is probable, the great rivers have flowed as they now flow; and during this latest epoch few changes have occurred in the lower forms of animal life; for in the strata next older than these alluvial deposits, the land and river shells are all of the same species with those now living in the same region. Subsequent investigations by Capt. Humphreys and Lieut- Abbot (1858) have given results Avhich will be described under MISSISSIPPI RIVER. The delta of the Ganges and Bramapootra is far more extensive than that of the Mississippi. It is a wilderness filled with a labyrinth of rivers and creeks, infested with tigers and crocodiles, and larger than the principality of Wales. The riv ers pour down their turbid waters charged with sediment, and abounding with the ruins of ani mal and vegetable life. These are swept into the bay of Bengal, the waters of which are discolored by the fine mud nearly 100 miles from its mouth, while the heavier materials ALLUVIUM 339 subside near the shores and build up the allu vial strata. Near Calcutta, it was ascertained on boring for water that these strata continue below the surface to the depth reached, which was 481 feet. They were alternations of beds of clay and of marl, with others of decayed vegetable matter like peat, which last no doubt had at times formed the surface, until submerged by subsidence, and then buried beneath the deposits of the rivers. In these strata various fragments of fossil bones and shells were brought up, all of which indicated the exist ence of the same animals that now inhabit the region. What the rivers are accomplishing in the interior, the tidal currents are effecting along the coasts. They wear down what has been built up in former times, and strew the mate rials in new deposits of alluvium. In Ger many these accessions, called Anlandung, are of great value along the coast of the North sea. On the American coasts they are more com monly of a sandy character, stretching out in long beaches, the material of which is blown inland by the winds and piled into barren hills. The long sandy strip of land called the Great South Beach on the S. side of Long Island, which is a remarkable example of these sandy strips or "spits," is more than 100 miles in length, exceeding any such accumulation in Europe. These sands are now formed into alluvial beds by the action of the winds and of the ocean currents ; but there is good reason to believe that the greater proportion of the super ficial covering of the rocks of Long Island is nothing more than the accumulations of sedi ment discharged by the Hudson, Ilackensack, Passaic, and Karitan rivers. Alluvial deposits are frequently found in positions above the level of present running waters. Thus, around the shores of some of our great lakes are occa sionally seen in the banks layers of sand and clay containing the same species of shells that are now common in their waters, but several feet above their reach. It was during this modern period of the formation of the alluvium that the gigantic mammoths and mastodons be came extinct. Their bones are found in the peat bogs and marl beds, the origin of which probably does not extend far back from the introduction of man. Indeed, if we may place confidence in the traditions of the American aborigines, we must believe that these animals were contemporary with man. Within the ribs of a mastodon found in Warren county, N. J., in 1845, were seven bushels of vegetable matter. In the western states the bones of these animals are generally discovered in the low places around salt licks which are still frequented by the deer and other wild animals that come to suck up the s.iline waters. If the alluvium is interesting for these gigantic fossils, it is no less so for the microscopic forms of vegetable and animal life, which, though invis ible to the eye, yet by the immensity of their numbers exceed in aggregate bulk that of all the mastodons and mammoths that have ever lived. The silicious deposit, resembling fine white marl, found underlying peat, and at the bottoms of ponds and marshes, especially in a region of primary rocks a substance often used as a polishing powder is found on exam ination by the microscope to consist of the remains of diatoms and desmids. As these vegetables secrete from the primary rock its principal ingredient, so testaceous animals so- crete from the limestone the calcareous matter for their shelly coverings ; and of their remains are made up the marl beds and other beds of I alluvium that abound in shells, as the oyster I banks and muscle beds of our coast. The lima of which the latter is composed is no doubt mostly abstracted from that held in solution in sea water. But salt water, fresh water, and land shells all flourish best where limestone rocks abound ; and where this source of lime is deficient, they even acquire the materials of their own shells from the remains of former individuals. The accumulations of this nature going on in our ponds, lakes, and harbors, | though now little apparent to observation, are i a part of the alluvial formation that will have I an important bearing in the future economy of our globe, as the similar formations of pre- I vious epochs have in the present period. And the same remark may be extended to peat, beds of which are found rivalling, in the quan tity of carbonaceous matter they contain, the beds of fossil fuel, into which they too will in time be converted. The most interesting fea ture of the alluvium, which has been already incidentally alluded to, is its being the only geological formation which contains human relics and remains. In no other formations are they found, or ever will be ; for the races of animals and plants that have lived at different periods have not failed to leave permanent rec- j ords of their most delicate organizations, and in the rocks of a very different epoch are still to be seen the footmarks Lft by strange forms of birds. Thus man and his works charac terize the rocks of this period, as the gigantic birds characterize the new red sandstone, and the great saurians the formations from the lias to the chalk. The alluvial deposits produce our most fertile lands. The clays are the mate rials of our houses and household utensils. The sands are used for many purposes in the me chanical arts. Bog iron ores collect in low marshy places from the filtration of water through older formations, in which ferruginous matters of various forms are diffused. The water dissolves the oxide of iron and conveys it away, as it dissolves the potash from ashes , through which it leaches. It gathers the scat tered materials of the ore together, and as it evaporates leaves them in form suitable for use. As the ores are removed, more collect and re new the supply; so that they are believed by | many, who do not comprehend the manner of i their silent accumulation, to be endowed with J a principle of growth analogous to that pos sessed by organic bodies: a belief which, after 34.0 ALMA ALMAGRO toward the end of the 18th century, the play there having been deeper than either at White s or Brookes s. Before Brookes s club house was all, may not in one sense be so very extrava- j gant ; for according to the researches of i Ehrenberg, the ochreous particles, under the ! microscope, prove to be portions of an organic | body of extreme minuteness, which is now be- , lieved to be a plant. ALMA, a small river in the Crimea, running ! from the high ground in the neighborhood of Bakhtchisarai in a westerly direction to Kala- mita bay, between Eupatoria (or Kozlov) and Sebastopol. The southern bank of this river was selected during the Crimean war by Prince Mentchikoff, the Russian commander, as a de fensive position in which to receive the onset of the allied armies just landed in the peninsu la. The battle was fought Sept. 20, 1854, and resulted in a victory of the allies and the open ing of the road to Sebastopol. The Russian force numbered 35,000 men with 96 guns; the English, under Lord Raglan, 28,000 men with 24 guns ; the French, under St. Arnaud, 28,- 000 men and 72 guns ; and the Turks, 6,000 men. ALMAC& S, a suite of assembly rooms situated at No. 20 King street, St. James s, London, so called after Almack, a tavern-keeper, whose original name was M Call, and who founded the establishment in 1765. They are now called Willis s rooms after Frederick and Charles Wil lis. Here take place concerts, charity balls, and select public meetings. The annual balls, how ever, which are held during the season, consti tute the chief claim to the prominence of Al mack s. They are managed by a committee of ladies, and the only mode of admission is by vouchers or personal introduction. The exclu- siveness of the lady patronesses, great as it is now, was incomparably greater at the time of the opening of the rooms. Down to about 1830 Almack s retained a great deal of its an cient prestige, but since that time it has been gradually declining. The name of Almack s has been given to similar places of entertainment in European watering places. A gambling club of the same name, opened under the auspices of the same proprietor in Thatched House tavern, 85 St. James s street, was rather notorious built, the whig party used to meet at Almack s, where a regular book was kept of the wagers laid by the different members. The following are specimens : "March 11, 1775. Lord Boling- broke gives a guinea to Mr. Charles Fox, and is to receive 1,000 from him whenever the debt of this country amounts to 171,000,000 ster ling. Mr. Fox is not to pay the 1,000 till he is one of his majesty s cabinet." "Aug. 7, 1792. Mr. Sheridan bets Lord Lauderdale and Lord Thanet 25 guineas each, that parliament will not consent to any more lotteries after the j present one, to be drawn in February next." ALMADEN, or Almaden del Azogne (the mine I of quicksilver), a town of Spain, in the prov ince of Ciudad Real, about 50 m. N. of Cordova ; pop. about 9,000. It is simply one I long street, built on a ridge of quartz rock, which is rich in cinnabar. The quicksilver mines here are perhaps the richest and most ancient in the world. They were wrought by the Romans, who had a town here called Sisa- pona Cetobrix. In the 16th century the Fug- gers of Augsburg rented the mines and worked them for some years. They were subsequently operated by the Spanish government, and until the early part of the present century the labor ers were all convicts, but free persons are now employed. The product of the mines is deliv ered at Seville, and since 1836 has been by con tract monopolized by the house of Rothschild. The principal mine is directly under the town, and the great adit is close to the houses, the ascent and descent for the men being by lad ders, while the mineral is drawn up a stone shaft by mules. The depth of the workings is about 1,000 feet, and the cinnabar is found in three principal veins several feet thick. The lowest portions of the mine are the richest. Virgin quicksilver is found in pyrites and horn- stein and in a grayish conglomerate, and in some places may be seen running down the face of the rock. The galleries and permanent works are all splendidly built of stone, and there are extensive storehouses and manufacto ries of everything needed for carrying on the operations of the mine. The annual yield of quicksilver is from 15,000 to 25,000 quintals, though the proportion of mercury to the ore is only about 10 per cent. ; and the mines are apparently inexhaustible. There is a smaller mine near the principal one, and another, called Almadenejos, or Little Almaden, about five miles distant. The number of hands em ployed is about 4,000. They work day and night during the winter, and in summer the mines are closed, the heat then rendering the mercurial exhalations too dangerous. The mi ners suffer a great deal from salivation and par alytic affections, but the summer s rest generally restores their health. The government derives an annual profit of about $1,250,000 from the mines. A practical mining school has been es tablished in the town. ALMAGEST (Arab. ?, the, and Gr. /uejiar?/, greatest), a name given by the Arabians to Ptolemy s compend (cvvra^L^) of astronomy, written at Alexandria in the 2d century, trans lated from Greek into Arabic in the 9th, and translated from Arabic into Latin in the 13th. A better Latin translation from the original Greek was published at Basel in 1541. The Greek text with a French translation was pub lished at Paris in 4 vols. (1813- 28). ALMAGRO, a city of Spain, in the province and 12 m. E. S. E. of Ciudad Real; pop. about 11,000. It is celebrated for its laces, in the manufacture of which thousands of women are engaged in the town and its vicinity. Al- magro was founded in 1214 by Archbishop Rod eric of Toledo. ALMAGRO, Diego de. I. One of the associates of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru, born of un- ALMALI ALMAXAC known parents about 1404, and picked up as a foundling near the Spanish town from which he derived his name, died in 15:38. He had ac quired both wealth and fame in the new world, when he joined Pizarro at Panama in the at tempt to conquer the flourishing kingdom of the incas. In the division of offices among the leaders of the enterprise, Almagro was ap pointed to manage the forwarding of supplies of men and provisions, in which he had to con tend with many formidable obstacles, but over came them all." From the time of the first land ing of the Spanish forces until the death of Ata- huallpa, Almagro was engaged in repeated quar rels with Pizarro, whom he accused of treachery in depriving him of his just share in the fruits of their conquests. He finally attempted to seize Cuzco, the capital, but was persuaded by Pizar ro to undertake instead the reduction of Chili, of which kingdom he was to have the undivided control. In 1535 he set forth with 570 Eu ropean followers, and underwent great hard ships among the mountains. The natives re sisted him bravely, but he had made some pro gress when a rising of* the Peruvians, who had attacked Lima and Cuzco, summoned him home. Returning by a toilsome march along the coast, he defeated the natives, and took possession of Cuzco, which he resolved to hold. A civil war ensued, in which Almagro neglected to avail himself of his advantages until Pizarro, having gained time to recruit his forces by negotiation, marched to Cuzco with 500 men, and, defeating him in a bloody engagement, took him prisoner. After several months of confinement, he was tried, condemned, and strangled. He was a man of frank and winning manners, and far more popular among his men than Pizarro. He had never learned to read and write. II. The son of the preceding by a Peruvian wo man, was a brave, generous, and accomplish ed youth ; his father, mindful of his own deficiencies, having spared no pains in his education. He became the leader of the party opposed to Pizarro upon the death of the elder Almagro, and, after the assassination of the gov ernor, was proclaimed his father s successor. He enjoyed authority for a very brief season, however, as Vaca de Castro soon arrived, bearing a royal commission as governor. Al magro attempted to resist him, and on Sept. 16, .1542, a sanguinary engagement took place be tween the forces of the rival leaders, in which the victory remained with his opponent. Al magro escaped after the battle, but was given up by his own officers, and beheaded at Cuzco. ALMALI, or Elnialn, a city of Turkey, in Asia Minor, 40 in. W. S. W. of Adalia ; pop. about 12,000. It lies in a beautiful valley among the northern offshoots of the Lycian range of the Taurus. The small stream on which the town is built furnishes motive power for numerous mills, and is also used in several tanneries, dye works, and factories. AL-MAMOUN, Abu Abbas Abdallah, an Abbasside caliph, son of Haroun-al-Rashid, reigned from 813 to 833. After the death of his father in 809 he contested the throne with his brother Al-Amin, who was killed. He converted his chief towns into seats of learning. Various works were translated from Greek and Sanskrit. Algebra and arithmetic were borrowed from the Hindoos, astronomy from the natives of the plains of Mesopotamia, and logic, natural histo ry, and the Aristotelian system from the Greeks of the lower empire. In his wars Al-Mamoun was less successful, and the disintegration of the caliphate by the establishment of independent states in parts remote from the centre, which was begun in the preceding reigns, became more disastrous in his. He was succeeded by his brother Al-Motassern, under whose reign the Seljuks first became body guards of the caliphs, whose empire they were in time to usurp. ALMANAC (probably from the Arabic al- manah, the reckoning), a publication of the calendar, generally containing chronological records of religious festivals and memorable events, and astronomical data, as well as miscel laneous information. Tables representing al manacs were first used by the Arabs mainly as astronomical guides, and from them became known among the Alexandrian Greeks and in Europe. Manuscripts of some of those of the middle ages are preserved in various English and continental libraries. An almanac for 1836 was printed recently from a manuscript prepared in 1300 by Petrus of Dacia, containing chaotic as tronomical, chronological, and medical data. The British museum and Corpus Christi college, Cambridge, preserve manuscript almanacs of the 14th century. The earliest printed almanac is believed to have been that of the German as tronomer Purbach (Vienna, 1457). His pupil Regiomontanus published toward the end of the 15th century, under the auspices of the Hun garian king Matthias Corvinus, several num bers of a Kalendarium Novum, in German and Latin. "The Kalendayr of the Shyppars," or "Shepherds Calendar, an English translation of a French work, was published in Paris in 1497. Every month is introduced with a fragment of doggerel verses. The following is a specimen of its contents : " Saturne is hyest and coldest, being full old. And Mars with his bluddy svverde ever ready to kyll. Sol and Luna is half good and half ill." 1 N"ew editions of this almanac were published in the early part of the 1 (5th century. The chief attractions of these and subsequent annual pub- | lications were prognostications of the weather \ and fortune-telling, and they became highly I popular. Paynter s burlesque, "Four Great ! Syers" (about 1500), was followed in 1009 by Thomas Dekker s " Raven s Almanacke," and in i 1018 by Laurence Lisle s " Owle s Almanack/ j "Poor Robin s Almanack," the most famous of | them all, was begun in 1003. Lender James I. al- j manacs were monopolized by the universities and I the stationers company, astrolog} and super- | stition being their principal ingredients. Fran- ! cis Moore s Vox Stdlannn led the way in ad- 342 ALMANAC AL-MANSOUR vertising quack medicine!?. "Poor Robin s Almanack " flourished until the monopoly of the stationers company was broken up in 1775. An attempt for its renewal, made by Lord North in parliament, was baffled by Erskine s argument against it (1779), but the company nevertheless endeavored to retain the monopoly by buying up rival publications. " The Ladies Diary," established in 1794, was of a better kind; but it was not until after the issue of the "British Almanac " (1828) that the stationers company purged their "New Englishman s Al manac" of obnoxious matter. In France, Rabelais made an ineffectual attempt to destroy the popular faith in the astrological predictions of almanacs. Nostradamus (1550- G6) made prophecies popular to such an extent that po litical predictions in almanacs were prohibited by the Erench authorities on several occasions. Matthicu Laensbergh, a citizen of Liege of the 17th century, was the founder of the A Imanack liegeois, printed under the name of Lansbert in 1025, and since 1047 under that of Laens bergh. It contained information about the planets, absurd medical prescriptions, and notices of religious holidays and historical events, and attained great popularity by pre dictions of weather and occurrences. An oc casional hit, as for instance that of the pre dicted downfall of Mine, du Barry in conse quence of the death of Louis XV., confirmed the credulous in their confidence in the al manac. At first it was also made convenient to the illiterate by the adoption of signs indi cative of dates in place of letters. In 1823 the Netherlands authorities used repressive meas ures against the almanac on account of the ob jectionable political allusions, and its circula tion was more seriously checked in 1852 by the Erench government. Since the year 1G25 a calendar for shepherds (Calendricr des Mergers) has been included in each annual almanac. Various spurious Almanacks liegeois are pub lished in France, as for instance the Triple veritable almanack de Liege. Matthieu Laens bergh, the original founder, is still so popular in Belgium and France that from 1824 to 1829 a daily journal of Liege bore his name as a title, and he figures as the hero in a recent French comedy. Though modern works have in a great measure superseded these almanacs, the peasantry all over Europe still retain a great partiality for them. The Almanack imperial (since 1871 national) and Almanack de France, and the Annuaire- Almanack du commerce (published by Didot Jan. 1, 1872), are the leading French almanacs. Many almanacs are at the present day published in France under the title of Annuaires, or Annuaires- Almanacks. On the other hand, literary annuals and albums are published in Franco, Germany, and other countries under the title of almanacs, as for instance the Ger man Musenalmanack, and the French Al manack des muses. Germany originated these annual collections about 1815, and they circu late there more extensively than the ordinary almanacs do in other European countries. A little Breton Almanac for 1872, Almanak Breiz-Izel, prepared by some of the best Celtic scholars in France, contains, beside} agricultural, veterinary, philological, political, and historical lore, some popular tales, prov erbs, patriotic poems, &c. The Almanack de Gotka is published both in French and German by Justus Perthes, at Gotha, Germany, and is (1873) in its 110th year. It is a high authority on the genealogy of sovereign and princely families, and statistics and official information respecting the different countries of the world. Nautical almanacs, containing astronomical information designed to aid in the determination of latitude and longitude at sea, &c., have been published in France since 1679, and in Germa ny since 1776, under the respective titles of Annuaires and Jakrlmcker or Annalen, and in England since 1707. The "American Nau tical Almanac " was founded by Admiral Charles Henry Davis, U. S. N., who was ap pointed its first superintendent in 1849. The first volume, for 1855, was published in 1853. The first ordinary American alma nac is believed to have been issued from the press of William Bradford in Philadelphia in 1087. Franklin s celebrated "Poor Rich ard s Almanac," first published by him in 1732, and continued about 25 years, became very popular in this country as well as in England arid France, where its proverbial and wise ut terances were reprinted and translated. The "American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge" was published at Boston from 1828 to 1861. The "National Almanac," de signed as a continuation of the above, was pub lished at Philadelphia for 1803 and 1864 only. There are now upward of 100 almanacs pub lished in the United States, a number of them being illustrated, relating to almost all imagi nable subjects of desirable information for all classes and occupations, and also including comic almanacs as well as versions in foreign languages, chiefly in German. AL-MANSOIR, Abn Jaffar Abdallah, the second Abbasside caliph, born about 712, died Oct. 18, 775. He succeeded his brother Abul Abbas in 754. On his accession the sovereignty was claimed by Abdallah, his uncle. Abdallah, how ever, Avas completely defeated by Al-Mansour s lieutenant, Abu Moslem, who was soon after put to death for declining to serve as governor of Egypt. Nor was this the only instance of Al- Mansour s cruelty. In 758 Cufa, then the resi dence of the caliphs, was the scene of a riot got up by the Ravendites, a sect who believed in metempsychosis. This so displeased Al- Mansour that he founded Bagdad, to which city the seat of government was removed. His reign w r as again disturbed by a revolt of the descendants of Ali ben Abu Taleb, which was suppressed. His arms were victorious in Asia Minor, Armenia, and further east. Spain, how ever, was lost to the caliphate of Bagdad during ALMARIC ALMODOVAR 343 his reign. lie was the first of the caliphs who introduced the taste for literature. In his reign many of the best Greek works were trans lated into Arabic. AL.MARIC or Amalrie of Bene, or Amanry of Chartres, a French theologian and philosopher, born at Bene near Chartres, died about 1209. He was one of the most celebrated teachers of dialectics and the arts in the university of Paris, and devoted himself especially to the study of Aristotle, from whose writings he drew the germ of his own philosophical system. lie taught that God was an immaterial substance, without form or figure, but with perpetual and necessary movement. All beings were derived from this primitive substance and would finally be absorbed in it. There were three epochs in the religious history of the world: the Mosaic law marked the epoch of God the Father ; the gospel period was the epoch of God the Son, in which every man was a member of Jesus Christ, whose body was in everything as well as in the eucharist; the epoch of God the Holy Ghost was then about to begin, in which the sacraments were to cease and men to be saved by the interior infusion of the Spirit without the need of any external act. The work entitled Physion (now lost), in which Almaric ex plained this theory, was condemned by Inno cent III., and the author was obliged to recant in 1204. His disciples exaggerated his errors, teaching that God the Father was incarnate in Abraham. They denounced the pope as Anti christ, and are accused of gross immorality. One of them, a goldsmith named Guillaume, announced himself as one of the seven person ages in whom the Holy Ghost was to become incarnate, and pretended to the gift of proph ecy. A synod held at Paris in 1209 sentenced Guillaume and nine others to the flames, and the corpse of Almaric was exhumed and burnt with his books. ADIEU (properly alimeli, pi. avaliiri), an Ara bic name given to the better class of public singers and dancers in Egypt, and sometimes erroneously applied also to the lower prostitutes and dancers, the ghawazi. The almehs form a separate social class, live together in compa nies, and often earn very large sums by their songs, dances, and improvisations, which are almost always of a lascivious character. Their services are generally called into requisition at banquets, marriages, and other festivals. The ghawazi are a much lower class, including both male and female dancers, who travel from place to place, and exhibit in the public streets their dances, which, like those of the almehs, con sist of lascivious movements of the body. The female ghawazi are prostitutes of the lowest class; yet a respectable Arab may without dis grace marry one of them who has abandoned her profession. Though the two classes are alike in the licentiousness of their lives and occupations, a sharp distinction exists between the almehs and the ghawazi, the former pan dering to the higher orders of society, w^hile the latter (considered by many actually a dis tinct race of gypsies) address themselves to the populace. ALMEIDA, a strongly fortified town of Por tugal, in the province of Beira, near the- i Spanish frontier, 20 m. W. of Ciudad Ro- drigo, on the river Coa; pop. about 8,000. I One of the foremost strongholds of the king- ! dom, it was taken by the Spaniards in 1762, and by the French in 1810. When in 1811 AVellington compelled the retreat of the French from Portugal, the latter destroyed a large part of the fortifications, but these were soon restored by the British. In 1844 the in surrectionists, under Bomfim, held Almeida a few weeks against the troops of the queen. ALMEIDA, Francisco de, the first Portuguese viceroy of India, born about the middle of the loth century, died March 1, 1510. lie distin guished himself in the peninsular wars with the Moors, and on his appointment to the govern- I ment of the newly discovered Indian provinces, in 1505, was attended by a large number of volunteers. He extended the Portuguese power, but was unfortunate in an expedition against Calicut, losing his son Lorenzo and a part of his fleet. At this juncture Albuquerque came out to India, but Almeida refused to recognize him, and cast him into prison until he had avenged the death of his son, ravaged the coast, and destroyed a fleet of the sultan of Egypt, who was the ally of the king of Calicut, lie then laid down his government, and sailed for I home, but was killed by the natives at Saldanha ! bay, near the Cape of Good Hope. ALMERIA. I. A S. E. province of Spain, in I Andalusia, on the Mediterranean; area, 3,299 | sq. m. ; pop. in 1867 (estimated), 352,946. The i greater part of the province is broken by moun- tains and ravines, with small valleys and pla- | teaux, nearly denuded of wood and subject to great extremes of drought and flood. There are very few roads and no public improvements. But it is one of the richest provinces of Spain in mines of silver, lead, copper, coal, salt, &c., which are worked in the most primitive man ner, mining being the chief industry. There is little agriculture, but some grain and silk are produced, and cotton is raised to some extent I along the coast, its cultivation having been i introduced by Mr. Kirkpatrick, U. S. consul | at Malaga, many years ago. The principal i towns, besides the capital, are Vera, Pur- I chena, Sorbas, and Berja. II. A city and the | capital of the preceding province, situated on the Mediterranean, 104m. E. of Malaga; pop. about 30,000. It was one of the most im portant commercial towns of Granada in the time of the Moorish kings, is still surrounded by the old Moorish walls, and has in general an African aspect. It was formerly the prin cipal port of the coast, and at one time a no torious seat of pirates. The principal building is a magnificent cathedral. ALMODOVAR, Hdefonso Diaz de Ribera, count of, a Spanish statesman, born about 1777, died in ALMOIIADES ALMOND January, 1840. On the fall of the constitution in 1823 he retired into France, whence he re turned on the invitation of the regent Christina, was chosen president of the popular branch of the cortes, and in 1835 was appointed captain general of Valencia, where he ruled with great severity. Under Mendizabal he was succes sively minister of war and minister of foreign affairs, and the latter position he held also under Espartero in 1842- 3. In 1837 he was appointed senator. ALMOHADES, a Moslem dynasty of northern Africa and Spain, which reigned in the latter I half of the 12th century and in the earlier half | of the 13th. The term is an abbreviation of Al-Mo \vahedun, which means the Unitarians. The origin of their power is traced to a certain Mohammed, or, with his full name, Abu Ab- dillah Mohammed ben Yumert, who travelled to Cordova for education, and thence to Cairo and Bagdad to complete his studies. On his return from the east, Mohammed became con spicuous by the austerity of his life and the boldness of his preaching, lie was made tutor of Abd-el-Mumen, a youth of high birth, whose mind he filled with a belief that he was re served to inaugurate a purified Moslem creed. At Morocco he took up his abode in a burial ground, where he preached to the people the coming of the great Mahdi (director), who was to establish the reign of universal justice and peace upon the earth. One day as he was thus preaching, Abd-el-Mumen remarked, "You are yourself the great Mahdi," and immediately swore allegiance to him, in which he was fol lowed by 50, and soon after by 70 others. They retreated to the mountains, preaching the unity of God, and soon their number was swelled to 20,000; and a victory over the king s brother established the influence of the Almohades. The war was kept up against them with varying success, but about 1130 they marched against Morocco, and obtained a com plete victory. The Mahdi now summoned his followers, and, announcing his approaching de parture, laid down his power, and was said to have been translated. Abd-el-Mumen was then elected sovereign. He overran Oran and Fez, and about 1147 reduced Morocco, the last ref uge of the Almoravides, to extremities. After a desperate defence, the city was taken, and Abd-el-Mumen massacred the inhabitants and razed the town. In Spain the Almohades were equally successful. The Almoravides were de feated at every point. Abd-el-Mumen pro claimed a holy war, but died in the midst of his preparations, in 1103. His son Yiisuf suc ceeded, at the age of about 24, and reigned until about 1184, when he died, while besieg ing Santarem in Portugal. Yacub ibn Yusuf or Al-Mansour, his successor, carried on the war against the Christians, and in 1195 defeated Alfonso VIII. of Castile at Alarcos. He died in Africa in 1199. Mohammed Abu-Abdallah, his son, succeeded him. He levied a vast army against the Christians. Pope Innocent III. having authorized a crusade, the clergy ex erted themselves to repel the invasion ; and on June 12, 1212, the battle of Navas de Tolosa was fought, in which Mohammed barely es caped with life, leaving, it is said, 170,000 dead on the field. He returned to Morocco, and resigning his crown to his son Yusuf Abu- Yacub, who was only 11 years old, died in 1213. With the latter prince, who died child less in 1223, the direct Almohade line ter minated. Al-Adel and Al-Mamoun, both nearly related to Abu-Yacub, held for a time the empire of the Almohades, but it was soon torn asunder by internal divisions, and shortly after the middle of the 13th century disappeared. ALM01V, John, an English political writer, born in Liverpool in 1738, died Dec. 12, 1805. In 1759 he established himself as a bookseller in London. On the death of George II. he published a review of his reign, after which he published a "Review of the Administration of Mr. Pitt," besides "Anecdotes of Lord Chat ham" (3 vols. 8vo), "Biographical Anecdotes of Eminent Persons " (3 vols.), and an edition of "Junius" (2 vols.), in which he attempted to prove that Hugh Boyd was Junius. He put his pen and press at the disposal of John Wilkes, and published a pamphlet on "Jury men and Libellers," for which he was tried, but acquitted. He was slso arraigned for sell ing copies of Junius s letter to the king, com pelled to pay a fine, and to find bail to keep the peace for two years. He was the publisher of Wilkes s "North Briton," and wrote his life. In 1774 he established the "Parlia mentary Register." He also compiled "The Remembrancer, or Impartial Repository of Pub lic Events from 1775 to 1784" (17 vols. 8vo, and a prior volume relating to American affairs). In his latter years he became proprie tor and editor of the "General Advertiser. 1 ALMOND (amygdalus), a genus of plants, the type of the sub-order amygdalece, comprehend ing the almond, plum, peach, cherry, nectarine, and a few unimportant bushes of a somewhat Almond Fruit, Flower, Leaves, and Nut. ALMOXDE ALMQUIST 345 gay appearance. The common almond (A. communi*) is a native of Barbary, but lias long been cultivated in tbe south of Europe and the temperate parts of Asia. The fruit is pro duced in very large quantities, and exported into northern countries. It is also pressed for oil, and used for various domestic purposes. There are numerous varieties of this species, but the t\vo chief kinds are the bitter almond and the sweet almond. The sweet almond af fords a favorite article for dessert, but it con tains little nourishment, and, of all nuts, is one of the most difficult of digestion. The highly prized Jordan almonds are brought from Ma laga. The tree has been cultivated in Eng land for about three centuries, for the sake of its beautiful foliage, as the fruit will not rinen without a greater degree of heat than is found in that climate. The bitter almond con tains less fixed oil than the sweet almond. It has a strong narcotic power, derived from the presence of hydrocyanic (prussic) acid, and is said to act as a poison on dogs and some other of the smaller animals. The distilled water of the bitter almond is highly injurious to the human species, and when taken in a large dose produces almost instant death. The leaves of all the varieties of amyglalece contain hydro cyanic acid, and are often dangerous, while the fruit may be used with entire impunity. ALMOXDE, PhiUppus yan, a Dutch vice admi ral, born at Briel in 1646, died near Ley den, Jan. 6, 1711. He served under Admiral Ruy- ter in the memorable sea fights of July, 1666 ; and after Ruyter s death, at Syracuse, Sicily, in 1676, the duty of taking the command of the Dutch fleet on its way home from the Med iterranean devolved upon him. He covered himself with glory at the battle of La Hogue in 1692, and assisted Cornelius van Tromp in reducing the naval power of Sweden. ALMOXER (anciently written amner), an offi cer appointed to distribute alms to the needy, generally an ecclesiastic. Such officers were from very early times in Europe attached to the households of sovereigns, nobles, and prelates, to monastic, educational, and chari table institutions, &c. In England there was a lord high almoner before the time of Edward L, and in modern times the tide has been held by the archbishop of York. There is also a hereditary grand almoner in the person of the marquis of Exeter ; and there is an almonry in Westminster. In France the grand aumo- nie.r was the chief ecclesiastic of the king s household, generally of high birth, and had several subordinates with great power and pe culiar privileges. Since 1792 the office has been several times abolished and restored ; it existed under Xapoleon I. (Cardinal Fesch) and III. There are also almoners of the army and navy, &c. In the church, deacons have some times been called almoners (eleemoxynarii}. ALMOVTE, Juan Nepomaceno, a Mexican gen eral and diplomatist, born in Valladolid in 1804, died in Paris, March 22, 1869. He was of partly Indian origin and the reputed son of Morelos. He held diplomatic posts at various times in Washington, London, Lima, and Paris. With Santa Anna, on whose staff he was then serving, he was captured by Gen. Houston at the battle of San Jacinto in 1836. Released after six months, he became minister of war under Bustarnente. During the war with the United States he fought under Santa Anna, with whom he never ceased to hold friendly re lations. He was ambassador to Paris in 1857- 60, and was one of the principal instigators of the French invasion of Mexico and the election of Maximilian. With the assistance of the im perial forces, he was appointed dictator of Mex ico in 1862 ; but all parties distrusted him, and the French themselves removed him in Septem ber of the same year. In June, 1863, he was president of a junta styled the regency of the Mexican empire. In 1864 Maximilian con ferred upon him the titles of regent and grand marshal, and in 1868 sent him as ambassador to Paris, where he spent the rest of his life. ALMORA, a town of X. India, capital of the British district of Kumaon, Northwestern Prov inces, situated among the Himalayas, 5,337 feet above the sea level, 90 m. X. by E. of Bareilly. It is built along a mountain ridge, in the midst of a barren and desolate region, and approached by a single long, zigzag road. It was captured by the Gorkhas in 1790, and held till 1815, when the town was attacked and stormed on the 25th of April by the British forces under Col. Xicholls, after which the district was an nexed to the British territorv. ALMORAYIDES, a Moslem dynasty in N". Afri ca and Spain, which owes its orig in to Abdallah ibn Yasim, who preached Islam among the Arabian tribes of northern Morocco, became the chieftain of the Al-Murabathin (the devoted, hence the word Marabout), and died in battle about A. D. 1058. Abubekr ibn Omar suc ceeded him, but during his absence on a war like expedition, his lieutenant, Yusuf ibn Tash- fyn, seized the supreme power. Abubekr, on his return, finding his rival too strong, resigned the crown, and Yusuf acknowledged his for bearance by magnificent presents, which he repeated annually during Abubekr s life. Yu suf now founded the city and empire of Moroc co. Invited to Spain by the Moorish prince of Seville to aid him against the Christians, he sent an embassy to Alfonso of Castile announ cing his arrival in the peninsula, and summon ing that monarch to an unconditional surrender, and to embrace Mohammedanism. A desperate battle was fought in the plains of Zalaca in 1086, in which the Christians were "worsted. Yusuf, however, retired, but the following year returned, conquered the Moorish kings in detail, and, having proclaimed his son as his successor, retired to Morocco, where he died in 1106. About 40 years later the dynasty of the Almo- ravides was overthrown by the Almohades. ALMQUST, Karl Jonas Lndvijf, a Swedish au thor, born in 1793, died in Bremen, Oct. 26, 346 ALMY ALOES 1806. He studied theology, and was for some time a teacher. Besides miscellaneous works, lie published novels and poetry, including Torn- rosens Bole ("Book of the Rose 1 ). Impli cated in a case of poisoning in 1851, he tied to the United States, but went to Bremen in 1805. His works are very popular in Germany, where most of them have been translated. ALMY, William, an American philanthropist, born Feb. IT, 1701, died Feb. 5, 1830. He be longed to the society of Friends, and was a public teacher. Having made a fortune in partnership with his brother-in-law, Obadiah Brown, in manufacturing cotton goods, he de voted a large share of his wealth to charitable works, especially in Providence, R. I., where he lived. He endowed the New England yearly meeting boarding school at Providence, and paid for the education of 80 of its pupils. ALXWICK, the county town of Northumber land, England, on the river Alne, 80 m. N. of Newcastle ; pop. about 8,000. It is well built, chiefly of stone, with broad, well paved streets, lighted with gas. It has a fine town hall, and a large square where weekly markets are held. The ancient castle of the same name, N. W. of the town, the residence of the duke of Northumberland, covers ti ve acres of ground, and was restored in 1830 at an outlay of 200,- 000. It is built of freestone, in the Gothic style, and is one of the finest old baronial resi dences in England. Am wick castle formed one of the strongest bulwarks against the incur sions of the Scots in ancient times, and was re- Alnwick Castle. peatedly besieged by them. Near its walls Malcolm III. of Scotland was slain in 1093, and his army routed ; and in 1174 William the Lion was defeated here at the head of a large army, and taken captive. ALOE, a genus of succulent plants belonging to the natural order liliacea>, and tribe asphode- lece, with long, fleshy, narrow, toothed leaves, growing in tropical countries. It has been di vided into a variety of species, consisting of trees, shrubs, and evergreen herbaceous plants, which differ in height from a few inches to up ward of 30 feet, and no less widely in the char acter of their leaves and flowers. A large proportion of these different species have no medicinal properties, but are seen as objects of curiosity, in collections of succulent plants; while a few species are highly valued for the juice of their leaves, Avhich forms the aloes of commerce. (See ALOES.) ALOE, American, See AGAVE. ALOES, the inspissated juice of the leaves of different species of aloe. Several varieties are I known in commerce, some much superior in quality to others. Cape aloes, obtained from the aloe spicata, growing at the Cape of Good Hope, occurs in masses of a shining dark olive- green color, of a vitreous fracture, and trans lucent at the edges ; the powder is of a green ish yellow color, with a very disagreeable odor and intensely bitter taste. Barbadoes aloes is prepared in the West Indies, and is the prod- I uct chiefly of the A. rulgaris. The color is a dark brown, not shining, and the odor is un pleasant. Socotrine aloes, from the A. Soco- trina, occurs in pieces of a yellowish brown color, less shining than the Cape aloes ; the fracture is conchoidal, the odor aromatic, and ! the taste very bitter. This is much the most valuable variety, and the name is applied to parcels of aloes of good quality coming from other sources than the island of Socotra. ALOID.E ALP ARSLAN" Hepatic aloes, known in India as Bombay aloes, lias a dark liver color, and is probably an interior kind of drug, manufactured from the dregs of other sorts. Aloes contains a neu tral bitter principle called aloine, which acts as a cathartic in the dose of from one half to one or two grains, and insoluble matter called apo- theine. It yields its virtues to water and alco hol, and is often administered, in its natural form or in combination with other substances, in pills. It is an irritant purgative, slow in operation, and acting chiefly on the lower bow el and the rectum. A peculiarity of its action is that an increase of the quantity administered, beyond the medium dose, is not attended with a corresponding increase of effect. When used for a long time, the dose may be rather dimin ished than increased. It is rarely used alone, but is combined with soap, rhubarb, colocynth, and iron in substance and in tincture. It forms an ingredient of a great number of empirical preparations. From 2 to 5 grains form a laxa tive dose ; from 5 to 10 grains, a strong purga tive. It is supposed to produce or irritate piles. Its tendency is to produce congestion of other pelvic organs, and it is therefore some times used as an emmenagogue. The processes of preparing the drug are various. Sometimes the leaves are cut off at the stem, then cut in pieces, and the juice drained off in iron vessels. It is then suffered to stand for 48 hours, during which time the dr^gs are deposited, and the remaining portion is poured oft into broad flat vessels, and becomes inspissated. In other places, the leaves are pulled, and after being cut in pieces, the juice is extracted by pressure. The aloes or lign aloes (i. e., wood aloes, Lat. lignum) mentioned in the Bible as a perfume was an entirely different substance. It was probably the product of the aquilaria agallo- chum of tropical Asia, which yields the highly aromatic aloe wood or eagle wood of commerce. There are many other species, the wood of which, like that of the preceding, is rendered j more or less resinous and odoriferous by decay, with a bitter quality which gives it the name \ of aloes; ALOID.E, in classical mythology, the gigantic sons of Neptune by the wife of Aloeus. Their names were Otus and Ephialtes. At the age of 9 their bodies measured 9 cubits in breadth and 27 in height, and they alarmed the gods ; by waging war on Olyrnpus and piling Pelion upon Ossa. They put Mars in chains and kept him so 13 months. Before their beards be gan to grow Apollo destroyed them. AL03IPKA, the founder of the reigning dynasty of Burmah, born about 1710, died May 15, 1760. j lie was originally chief of a small village, j The king of Burmah having been captured i and the country conquered by the Peguans, j Alompra in 1753 headed an insurrection which, j after a series of brilliant victories on his part j with inferior means, ended in 1757 with the j conquest of Pegu and the establishment of his i power over both countries. His reign was short, but was distinguished by great improve ments in the laws and administration of gov ernment, lie founded the city and port of Rangoon. ALOST, or Aelst, a town of Belgium, province of East Flanders, about half way between Brussels and Ghent; pop. in 18(50, 18,978. The Dender, an affluent of the Scheldt, which has been made into a canal for the accommodation of trade, passes through the town. It has consid erable trade and manufactures, and was for merly the capital of Austrian Flanders. Cap tured by Turenne in 1667, the town was for a time in the hands of Louis XIV. It is well built and clean. In the church of St. Martin is a picture by Rubens representing " The Plague of Alost." ALPACA, a spe:-ies of the genus lama of Fr. Cuvier (properly llama), and uuchenia of Illiger, which with the genus camelus consti tutes the family of camelida, of the order of Msulca ruminant ia. The alpaca is found in the mountainous regions of Peru, and subsists on the coarse and scanty forage which grows on the sterile soil of that quarter. The upper part and the sides of the body of this animal are covered with light chestnut-brown wool, which hangs down in slightly curled meshes nearly a foot in length, and is very soft and elastic, almost as tine as that of the Cashmere goat ; the face up to the posterior margin of the jaws, and also the legs, have short, smooth hair ; from the forehead a stiff silky hair falls down upon the face. The shearing of the wool takes place at irregular times annually or bien nially. From 10 to 12 Ibs. are obtained from one animal. ALP ARSLAN (valiant lion), sultan of the Sel- jukian Turks, born in Turkistan about 1028, assassinated in 1072. He was descended from Seljuk, succeeded his uncle Togrul in 1063, and was also appointed by the caliph as emir-el- omra or commander-in-chief. He conquered Ar menia in 1065 and Georgia in 1068, and though repeatedly repulsed by the troops of the Byzan tine empress Eudocia, he eventually carried his victorious arms from Antioch to the Black sea. After the capture and death of Eudocia s hus band and general, the emperor Romanus Di ogenes (1071), he planned an expedition against Turkistan, the cradle of his dynasty, and 3iS ALPEtfA ALPHABET crossed the Oxus with an immense army ; but ! he was stabbed to death by the governor of | the lirst fortress he captured, whom he had or- j dered to be executed in revenge for his obsti- , nate defence. Alp Arslan s virtues as a ruler j are no less extolled than his courage as a war rior. ALPEM, a county of E. N. E. Michigan, on \ Lake Huron and Thunder bay, drained by Thun- der Bay river; area, 700 sq. in.; pop. in 1870, j 2,756. In 1870 there were only 319 acres of | improved land. Capital, Alpena. 1LPES, Basses and Hautes. See B ASSES- ALPES, | and HAUTES-ALPES. ALPES-MARITIMES, a S. E. department of ; France, formed from the circle of Nice, ceded j to France by Italy in 1800, and the arrondisse- j inent of Grasse, taken from the department of i Var; area 1,482 sq. m. ; pop. in 1872, 199,037. It lies between the Mediterranean and the mountains from which it takes its name, and is watered by the Var and several smaller streams. } The surface is mountainous and crossed by nu- i merous valleys. The climate is the finest in j France. The country near the coast is well cultivated, and elsewhere there are valuable forests and various mineral productions. The department is divided into the arrondissements of Nice, Grasse, and Puget-Theniers. The coast is dotted with places naturally or his torically interesting, such as Nice, the capital, Cannes, Antibes, and Mentone. ALPHA AND OMEGA, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet. The book of Revelation three times designates Jesus Christ by the title Alpha and Omega, perhaps in imitation of Isaiah (xliv. 0), who represents God as saying, "I am the first, and I am the last." ALPHABET (from the names of the first two Greek letters, alpha and beta, and therefore the equivalent of our A, B, C), the scheme of signs by which a language is written ; as also, less properly, the scheme of articulate sounds expressed by those signs, and constituting by their combinations the spoken language. It is in the former sense only that the word will be understood here ; the scheme of articulations the spoken alphabet, as it may be termed will be treated, in its character and relations, under the head of PHONETICS. All alphabets are not of the same kind. The intent of such a one as the Greek, the Latin, and our own, is to furnish | a sign for every articulate sound of the spoken language, whether vowel or consonant; and its ideal is realized when there are practically just as many written characters as sounds, and each has its own unvarying value, so that the writ ten language is an accurate and unambiguous reflection of the spoken. This state of things is not wont to prevail continuously in any given language ; for, in the history of a literary language, the words change their mode of ut terance, or their spoken form, while their mode [ of spelling, or their written form, remains un altered, or is not correspondingly altered; so that the spelling comes to be " historical " in stead of "phonetic," or to represent former instead of present pronunciation. Such is, to a certain extent, the character of our English spelling ; but very incompletely and irregularly, and with intermixture of arbitrarinesses, and even blunders, of every kind ; it is an evil that is tolerated, and by many even clung to and extolled, because it is familiar, and a reform would be attended with great difficulties, and productive for a time of yet greater inconve nience. Some alphabets are syllabic ; that is to say, they have a sign for every syllable, com posed of a vowel or diphthong and one or more consonants, that enters into the composition of the words of a language : examples are the Cherokee syllabary, invented by Sequoyah or George Guess, containing 85 signs; and the Japanese irofa, containing 47 signs. Others, again, are consonantal ; that is to say, the con sonants are either written alone, the vowels being unexpressed, or only the consonant has a full sign, and the vowel is expressed by a mod ification of it, or a subsidiary sign attached to it : examples are the Hebrew and Sanskrit al phabets, each having a large number of kindred systems. Then there are modes of writing which are not entitled to be called alphabetic : as the Egyptian or hieroglyphic, in which simple phonetic or alphabetic signs are mingled with syllabic, ideographic, and pictorial ; or as the Chinese, in which there is an indivisible sign for each whole (monosyllabic) word, and even to a great extent for each different meaning of a word, so that the written signs are many times more numerous than the spoken words. The origin and historical and theoretic rela tions of these different modes of representing to the eye the spoken word will be explained in the article WKITIXG. The English alphabet is derived from the Latin, the Latin from the Greek, and the Greek from the Phoenician. The origin of the Greek alphabet is reported by the Greeks themselves; and their report is confirmed both by the forms of their charac ters, and by the names given them : alpha, be ta, gamma, delta, &c., are the Hebrew aleph ^ leth, gimel, do.leth, &c. appellations which have their correspondents also in the other Semitic alphabets, as the Syriac and Arabic. The Phoenician alphabet, in fact, is the old Se mitic alphabet, used by many of the Semitic peoples; itself of unknown origin, it has become the mother of nearly all the prevailing modes of writing in the world. It was a consonantal scheme, composed of 22 signs (see the table on p. 351), representing the following sounds: (aleph), 5, g, d, h, w, z, h, t, y, I; 7, m, n, s, ] (airi), p, , q, r, v7*, t. Of these, aleph is rather a theoretical device, a figment to attach the utterance of any desired vowel to; h is a stronger and deeper h ; and 8 are different from our ordinary t and s, as being spoken with greater effort, and with a peculiar articulation (the fiat of the tongue, it is said, pressed against the roof of the mouth) ; am is a very peculiar guttural utterance, wholly unlike anything in ALPHABET 349 onr system of sounds. The Greeks took from this scheme, without important change of value, the signs for ft, </, d, w, h, k, I, m, n, p, q, r, t ; others they altered in sound, converting t into the sign for aspirated t (th, or theta), z and s into signs for double consonants, ds (or zeta) and to (or .T/) ; while they used s and sh for a time interchangeably as signs for their single sibilant, until thj former finally went out of use. But the most important modification carried out by tli3 Greeks was that by which they obtained signs for vowels also: alcph, h, and a in, as being useless to them, they made into a, e (epnilon), and o (omicron); y (yod) was turned into i (iota); and for u was invented a new sign, upsilon, shaped like our V or Y (the two forms being used at first indifferently). This modification converted the alphabet from a con sonantal into one purely and completely pho netic, a perfect instrument of the expression of spoken language. Other additions were of somewhat later date: signs for the aspirate labial (ph, or phi) and guttural (M, or chi) as parallel with the th or theta, and for the assib- ilated labial Q)s, or psi) as parallel with the ds or zeta and ks or xi, were invented and ap pended at the end of the scheme ; a sign for long o (omega) was further added, and H, which had signified the rough breathing or as piration, was altered in value to a long e (eta). Moreover, the w or "digamma" went by de grees entirely out of use, as did also the q or u koppa," and the two were retained only as numeral signs. Thus the constitution of the Greek alphabet, as we know it, is in all its parts accounted for. The additions and changes went on by degrees, and differently in different parts and colonies of Greece ; the final form is that given by the lonians of Asia Minor, and adopted throughout the whole of Greece about 400 B. C. The Semitic original was always written from right to left; the earliest Greek was written either way, or in different directions in alternate lines (the characters being made to face the other way when written from left to right) ; finally, the present method became established in universal use. The form of Greek alphabet from which is derived the Latin was not that one which, as above described, was finally adopted through out Greece, but differed from it in sundry par ticulars: the H still had its A value; the Q was still used, and was retained by. the Latins for writing the fc sound followed by u before an other vowel ; the character for w, or the di gamma, was also in use, and was applied to represent the (as labial, somewhat kindred) sound/, for which the Greek had no sign; and X (as generally on the mainland of Greece and in her western colonies) had the value of ks, not of eh. The earliest Latin alphabet, then, was A, B, C (pronounced as g), D, E, F, Z, H, I, K, L, M, N, 0, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X, 21 letters. A Z is found in the earliest monuments, but speed ily went out of use, and was about the time of Cicero reintroduced as a foreigner, along with Y (originally the same sign with V, but having now become fixed in Greek usage in this form, and having taken a new value, that of the French u or German u), in order to write in Greek words the peculiar Greek sounds of those letters. A very peculiar change in the constitution of the Latin alphabet was made in connection with C, K, and G. The K passed out of customary use about the time of the decemvirs, and was employed only in a small number of words (with occasional occurrence in others), while C, the equivalent of the Greek gamma, and originally having the same value, was employed to write both the g and k sounds doubtless because these two sounds were in the popular utterance only imperfectly distinguished from one another. And when later (about 300 B. C.), under Greek influence, the careful distinction of the two sounds in writing was resumed, instead of giving C its old value and restoring K to common use, the Romans very strangely continued to the former its k value, and made from it by a slight alter ation a new sign, G, for the g value. The final Latin scheme, after the addition of Y and Z, thus consisted of 23 signs. In it 1 and J were not distinguished, nor U and V; J and U are merely graphic variations of I and V, and of the same value with the latter ; the Romans did not regard the vowel and semivowel values of these two sounds i (that is, i in pique, or "long e," as we call it) and y on the one side, u (that is, u in rule, or the long sound of double o in fool) and w on the other as being suffi ciently diverse to need a double designation. The chief alteration, now, that the Latin alpha bet has undergone in being adapted to English use is the establishment of J and U as inde- 1 pendent letters with distinct values, by the side | of I and V ; J having for us the peculiar sound I (nearly a compound of d with zli, or with the | z sound of azure) into which the Latin J or y I sound has been usually converted, and V being | applied to represent the sound into which, I in most of the literary languages of modern | Europe (as in the later Latin also), the original I w sound has passed. And then, as final exten sion, we have, in common with some other European languages, added a " double U "- | i. e., VV or W to represent the u semivowel, | or w sound : this character is of a date no more ancient than the middle ages. By all these various reductions and additions, our i alphabet has grown from the original 22 signs i of the Phoenician to the present scheme of 26 ! signs ; which, by way of summary, we may dis- ! tribute into eight classes, as follows: 1, letters i inherited from the Phoenicians, and still bear- 1 ing nearly their Phoenician value, are twelve, 1 namely, B, D, H, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T; 2, I letters originally Phoenician, but having their value changed by the Greeks (in every case but one from consonant to vowel), are five, namely, A, E, I, 0, Z; 3, additional letters in vented by the Greeks are two, namely, U (=V or Y), X ; 4, Phoenician letters entering into 350 ALPHABET the Latin alphabet with changed value are two, namely, C, F ; 5, of Latin invention is a single letter, G ; 0, imported from Greek into Latin in differentiated form and with later Greek value is one, Y ; 7, varying graphic forms of j Latin letters, raised in modern times to inde pendent value, are two, J, V; 8, recent addi tion, made by doubling an old sign, is one letter, W. If we had shown, in the handling of the system of signs received from abroad, the same freedom and independence as the Greeks and Romans, we should have an alphabet of at least 32 letters, instead of 20 ; for we require separate representatives for the vowel sound in cat and care, for that in what and all, and for that in but and burn; and for the sibilants in shun and azure, the initial spirants of thin and this, and the nasal m sing ing ; while tliQch sound in church is also, though strictly of com pound nature, well entitled to a separate char acter: the C, Q, and X, on the other hand, having no valuo which should render their retention necessary. The ground of the ar rangement of our alphabet is in the main infer rible from the account of its history given above, being, when once started from the Phoenician basis, strictly a historical one : A to F follow the Phoenician order ; G was put by the Ro mans in the place of the consciously omitted Z ; H and I, again, have their Phoenician posi tions; J follows tlio letter of which it is, as it were, the recently separated shadow ; K to T, again, are in their Phoenician places ; U comes next, as being the first addition made by the Greeks, and it is succeeded by V and W, as I by J ; X is another Greek addition, adopted into the earliest Roman alphabet ; Y and Z are the later additions made to the Latin from the Greek. When, however, we come to in quire into the reason for the Phoenician order itself, we are baffled, and unable to arrive at any satisfactory results ; the arrangement seems to be almost altogether fortuitous. Prob ably it is not by accident that the three sonant mutes, l>, g, d, come together, next after the aleph ; nor that the three liquids, I, m, n, are also found side by side later; but all attempts at explanation beyond this are little better than mere guesses, and involve theories re specting the origin of the alphabet which reach far beyond our actual knowledge. For we really are wholly in the dark as to the antecedents of the old Semitic mode of writing; neither tra dition and history, nor the traced relation of its characters to those of other modes of writing, nor their own shapes and names, afford ground for any thing more than unrestrained conjecture. The names of the characters are each the name of some sensible and depictable object, which has for its initial the letter named : thus, alcph, ox; l)cth, house; gimel, camel; dalcth, door ; and so on. Considering that many Egyptian phonetic hieroglyphs are Avell known to have gained the office of representing cer tain sounds because those sounds were the in itials of the objects depicted (thus, the eagle, ahem, becoming a sign for a; the lion, labo, for I), the supposition has seemed a highly plausible one that the Phoenician letters also were originally rude pictures of the objects in dicated by their names. And this supposition receives a degree of confirmation from a certain resemblance traceable in a few cases between the letter and the object : thus, the sign for alcph is not unlike the front of an ox s head ; mem, water, is like one of the common con ventional signs of water, a waving or indented surface; and ain, eye (our O), is a tolerable eye in outline. Yet the evidence of such a kind is too scanty to be much relied on, and it is quite as plausible a theory that names should have been chosen on acrophonic grounds for a set of signs otherwise originated ; and that a few among them should happen to be, or should have been, chosen because they were sug gestive of an object resembling the sign itself. The Phoenician alphabet, as completed in system and worked over in shape by the Greeks and Romans, has become the most convenient and useful of all the modes of writing invented by men ; and it has gone with European civ ilization over a great part of the globe. Efforts arc making to introduce it among various eastern nations in substitution for their own more cumbrous and incomplete alphabets ; but with little success hitherto, since national pre possession clings with especial tenacity to an institution so inwoven by tradition and custom with a nation s feeling as is its national mode of writing. Efforts, again, have been made to expand this alphabet, by diacritical marks and added signs, into a system capable of accurately representing all the various sounds (some scores in number) which are made by human organs in the utterance of language ; the most con spicuous of these efforts is that of Prof. Lepsius of Berlin ("Standard Alphabet," &c., 2d edi- j tion, London and Berlin, 1863). Others, yet again, have devised alphabets founded on an analysis of the physical processes of production of each sound, and representing those processes by suggestive signs, so as to make each letter by its shape define the precise mode of its own utterance : for example, Dr. Brlicke of Vienna ("Proceedings of the Vienna Academy," vol. xli., 1863), and Mr. A. M. Bell of London ("Visible Speech," &c., London, 1867). Into an account of these attempts we cannot here enter. Nor can we speak in detail of the other alphabets invented and in use among other parts of the human race. Respecting I some of them, the articles on special languages, I and that on WRITING, will give information. | In order to make clearer the relations of the Greek and Latin to the Phoenician or ancient Semitic alphabet, as they have been described above, the following comparative table is given. The first or left-hand column presents the Phoenician letters : their forms (which vary more or less considerably in records of differ ent age and locality) are in part those of the I great Sidoniai* monument of King Eshmunezer ALPHEUS ALPS (probably 500 B. C.), in part those of the re cently discovered Moabite inscription of King Mesha (earlier than 800 B. C.) ; the prefixed names have their Hebrew version, and their correspondence with the Greek is apparent at a glance. The second column gives the forms of the letters as first employed by the Greeks, when writing from right to left. In the third are seen the GrceK letters as finally adopted, being made to face in the other direction and somewhat further modified in form. The fourth column is that of the Latin letters ; here some of the earlier forms are added to those with which we are familiar, for the purpose of illus trating the transition more fully. q -.M 1. aleph .......... 2. both ........... 3. gimcl ......... 4. daleth ......... 5. he ........ 6. vav ........... 8, 9. K>. 1 !. 1-2. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 2o. 21. 22. zaym cheth tcth yod kaph lamed mem nan samech ain pe tsade qoph resh shin tav . . 11 A 3 -^ "Z B A O n K A M o n (p Q w fT ^ ALPHEUS, the ancient name of the Ruphia, a river of Peloponnesus, which rises in southern Arcadia, and, flowing through Ells and the Olympian plain, discharges itself into the Ionian soa. The Alpheus, at a little distance from its source, twice disappears under ground, which gave rise to the myth of the god of the river, and the nymph Arethusa, whom Diana essayed to save from his embraces by transforming her into a fountain, and placing her in the Ortygian isle, near Sicily. The god made a passage for his "y .3 $3 3 A A A B B B r < C A t> D E E F F Z Z H H K UL /vVM v\N river beneath the intervening sea, and com mingled its waters with those of the fountain in Ortygia. ALPINE, an E. county of California, bounded N. E. by Nevada; area, 1,000 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 685. The western portion is occupied by the Sierra Nevada range, including Carson s pass and Pyramid peak. It is rich in silver. In 1870 there were 57,165 sheep, producing 281,700 Ibs. of wool. The other productions were small. There were 3 quartz mills, 8 saw mills, and 2 newspapers. Capital, Silver Mountain. ALPS, the highest and most remarkable chain of mountains in Europe, forming the watershed between the rivers which discharge their waters into the Mediterranean, and those which run to the Atlantic ocean, the North sea, and the Black sea. The Alps have a general crescent-like form, and extend through fourteen degrees of longitude and five of latitude. From the prin cipal chains spurs extend to the Apennines, the Pyrenees, the Vosges, the Ilartz, the Sudetes, the Carpathians, and the Balkan. The average height of the different ranges is about 7,700 ft., from which altitude more than 400 peaks rise in!:o the region of perpetual snow. The prin cipal subdivisions of the Alps are the following : I. The Maritime Alps, consisting of two por tions, of which the first, distinguished as Ligu- rian Alps, extends in a semicircle from the S. W. extremity of the Alpine chain to the Col de Liuzania in Piedmont, and forms the line of separation between that province and the French department of Alpes-Maritimes (the former circle of Nice) ; the second, distinguish ed as the Upper Maritime Alps, terminates on the W. frontier of Piedmont in the lofty peak of Monte Viso. The principal altitudes of the Mari time Alps are : peak to the W. of the village of Mauricio, 13,107 ft; Monte Viso, 12,582 ft.; Monte Pclvo, 9,958 ft. ; Col de Maurin, 9,784 ft. II. The CottianAlps, extending, in a triangular form, from Monte Viso to Mont Cenis, having Piedmont on one side, Savoy on another, and the department of Ilautes-Alpes in France on the third. They give rise to the Durance, the Po, and several smaller streams. The principal summits are: Mont Olan, 13,831 ft. ; Mont Pel- voux, 13,440; Mont Galeon, 12,467; Mont Genevre, 11,785. III. The Graian Alps, the Gray Alps of the German geographers, extend ing from Mont Cenis to the Col du Bonhomme, between Savoy on the AV. and Piedmont on the E., giving rise to several tributaries of the Po and the Rhone. The most elevated summits in this chain are: Mont Iseran, 13,274 ft. ; Ai guille de la Sassiere, 12,346; Rocca Melone, 11,569 ; Mont Cenis, 11,457. IV. The Pennine Alps, extending from the Col du Bonhomme to Monte Rosa, between upper Savoy and the Swiss canton of Valais on one side, and Pied mont on the other. This chain includes the three loftiest mountains in Europe, as well as several other peaks of considerable eleva tion, namely: Mont Blanc, 15,732 ft; Mcntj ALPS Rosa, 15,150; Mont Cervin, 14,835; Le Geant, 13,800; Aiguille du Midi, 12,743; MontVelan, 11,003; Pic Blanc, E. of Monte Rosa, 11,190. V. The Lepontine or Helvetian Alps, includ ing the divergent chain known as the Bernese Alps. This division covers western Switzer land, extending on both sides of the Rhone, di viding Lombardy from Switzerland, and one branch terminating at Monte Bernardino, while the other extends to and unites with the Jura mountains X. of Lake Geneva. This portion of the Alps is more visited than any other, and comprises the finest mountain scenery in Eu rope. Its most elevated peaks are : the Finster- aarhorn, 14,106ft.; the Furca, 14,037; the Jungfrau, 13,718; the Monch, 13,498; the Schreckhorn, 13,386; the Eiger, 13,075; the Bliimlis Alp, 12,140; Monte Leone, on the Simplon, 11,541 ; the Galenstock, the highest of the St. Gothard group, 12,481 ; the Moschelhorn, in the Rheinwald, 10,870; the Grimsel, 9,704. VI. The Rhcetian Alps, commencing at Monte Bernardino, extend ing along the frontiers of Switzerland, Italy, and Germany, and terminating at the N. E. extremity of the Tyrol. The principal sum mits are: Mount Julier, 13,855 ft. ; the Ortler- spitze, 12,852; Monte della Disgrazia, 12,000; the Wetterhorn, 12,176; Monte Gavis, 11,754; the Dodi, 11,735; and several other peaks of nearly the same altitude. VII. The Noric Alps, commencing at Dreiherrenspitze, w r here the preceding division terminates, extend through Salzburg, northern Carinthia, Styria, and Upper and Lower Austria, forming the dividing line of the basins of the Salza and the Drave. Their highest peaks are : the Gross-Glockner, on the confines of Tyrol and Salzburg, 12,776 ft. ; the Wisbachhorn, in Carinthia, 11,518; the Ilohen- wart, in Carinthia, 11,075; together with sev eral other summits nearly 10,000 feet high. VIII. The Carnic Alps, extending, on the con fines of Venetia and Carinthia, from Pellegrino to Terglou, separating the waters of the Gail from those that flow into the gulf of Venice, and sending out a spur to divide the waters of the Save and the Drave. Its highest peak is La Marmoluta, 11,508 ft. IX. From Terglou this chain is prolonged through Gorz and Car- niola to Mount Kleck under the name of the Julian or Pannonian Alps. Its loftiest summit is the Terglou, 10,860 ft. X. A southern con tinuation, called the Dinaric Alps, extends from Mount Kleck through Croatia, Dalinatia, and Herzegovina, to the neighborhood of the Bal kan. The St. Gothard range is the culminat ing point of all these chains of the Alps, and is distant in a direct line from the Mediterranean about 150 miles, 225 from the Adriatic, 525 from the Atlantic, 500 from the North sea, and 550 from the Baltic. It will be evident from thjBse distances that the southern slope is far more rapid and precipitous than the northern. The line of permanent snow for the whole Alps averages about 8,000 to 9,000 feet of alti tude. On the northern slope it is usually 600 or 700 feet lower than on the southern. The glaciers of the Alps (German, Gletscher) form one of the most remarkable features. From the peaks, more than 400 in number, which rise above the line of perpetual snow, there descends into the valleys below a mass of par tially melted snow and comminuted ice, often of very great extent. Constantly pressed for ward by the accumulation of ice and snow be hind it, nothing can resist its onward progress; trees, rocks, houses, all are borne forward on its slow-moving surface, till it reaches the point where the sun s rays are sufficiently fervid to melt the mass, when it forms the source of some mighty river. Often these glaciers pre sent a comparatively smooth surface, the pieces of ice of which they are composed varying in size from a pea to a walnut, but not unseldom they are rent by huge fissures, which are impassable by travellers. The most remark able of these Alpine reservoirs are the glaciers of Mont Blanc, which cover an area of from 90 to 100 square miles. The Mer de Glace, the largest of these, on the northern declivity of the mountain, is 15 miles long, from 3 to 6 miles wide, and from 80 to 120 feet thick. (See GLACIER.) The whirlwinds of the Alps are worthy of notice, not only from their ter rific violence, often overwhelming the hap less traveller with the blinding snow, but from their frequently setting in motion the dreaded avalanche. So precipitous are many of the slopes of the Alpine peaks, that the giving way of a slight barrier, a tree or bowl der, perhaps, is sufficient to detach from its original position a vast mass of snow and ice ; this, gathering force from its fall, brings sud den and inevitable destruction on whatever may be on its track, burying at times whole villages, crushing extensive forests, and fill ing up the beds of rivers. In some parts of the Alps, these masses are so delicately poised that the jar of a footstep, the ringing of a small bell, the breaking of a stick even, is sufficient to cause their precipitation. The optical illusions of the Alps, resulting from a condition of the atmosphere analogous to that of the mirage, have been the subject of much comment. The spectre of the Brocken is the most remarkable of these. It is observed on one of the summits of the Noric Alps. Mont Blanc, the highest mountain in Europe, was first ascended in 1786 by Jacques Balmat, and soon afterward by Dr. Paccard and De Saussure. Its ascent is now a common though dangerous feat of adventurous travellers. The geological structure of the Alps has long puzzled geologists and given rise to most various and ably sup ported views. By some, the whole mass com posing Mont Blanc and surrounding mountains was considered metamorphic and of compara tively recent date ; others regarded the nucleus as primitive and of great antiquity, while the stratified rocks on the lower Alps were referred to different ages from carboniferous to miocene. The presence of carboniferous plants in forma- ALPS tions containing nummulitic limestone was interpreted by some to indicate that the car boniferous flora survived longer in this region than elsewhere ; while others explained the apparent anomaly by an inversion of strata. True granite is rare in the vicinity of Mont Blanc, but occurs in several localities, of which Val- orsine is best known. Both here and at the Col tie Bahne and the Aiguilles Rouges a por- phyroid granite sends veins into the adjacent gneiss, and appears to be true eruptive granite. Many of the apparently eruptive granites, how ever, are claimed by 5l. Alphonse Faure, who has recently (1807) published a valuable work on Alpine geology, as the results of aqueous infiltration. The protogine of the Alps seems to differ from ordinary granite in composition, according to Delesse, in the presence of one or two hundredths of oxide of iron and magnesia. The crystalline protogine forms the centre of Mont Blanc and other peaks, and appears in a curious fan-like form extruded through the secondary strata by breaks which lie de Beau mont compares to gigantic buttonholes. The flanks are formed by crystalline schists. Both the protogine and the schists have been con sidered by all who have studied them stratified rocks, gneissic in structure, passing in places into more schistose varieties, and by no means well separated from each other or the chloritic, talcose, or mica schists of the flanks. The un- crystalline strata in the neighborhood of Mont Blanc includes representatives of the carbonif erous, triassic, Jurassic, neocomian, cretaceous, and tertiary. The anthracite system, as held by Scipion Gras, was estimated to have a thick ness of 25,000 to 30,000 feet, and included, besides dolomites and gypsum, now referred by Faure to the triassic, layers of anthracite, coal plants, limestones containing belemnites of Ju rassic age, gneissic, micaceous, and talcose rooks supposed to be due to the local alteration of members of the anthracite system. To this miscellaneous collection Fillet "added in 1860 nummulitic beds. The many recognized dis turbances of the strata were made to explain all anomalies of grouping to the satisfaction of some, but Sismonda and lie de Beaumont, in a memoir presented to the academy of sciences at Paris describing the sections exposed by the Mont Cenis tunnel, hold that there is no evidence of inversion, dislocation, or repetition in the series of 7,000 metres of strata. Faure indicates the geological history of Mont Blanc, and of the principal portions of the Alps, as follows : In a shallow ocean covering gneiss and crystalline schists, the carboniferous beds were deposited ; some disturbance occurred, as secondary depos its are laid down unconformably over all the old er formations, gneissic as well as carboniferous ; then came the nummulitic limestones and their overlying sandstones, thus embracing a bed from the trias up of a thickness of about 3,800 feet; then came the great upheaval folding these strata, enclosing numrnulites and coal plants in crystalline schists ; then the work of VOL. i. 23 denudation removed the secondary strata, leav ing a few evidences of their former existence, as in the beds more than K)0 feet thick of Jurassic and infra-Jurassic age which cap the Aiguilles Rouges. The glacier action on the slopes of the Alps has been studied by De Saus- sure, Agassiz, Forbes, Tyndall, and others, and, from its extent and the comparative accessibil ity of the Alpine glaciers, has furnished ground for almost all the present knowledge of the geological work of snow and ice on mountain slopes. The formation of the Alps can no longer be considered an event of recent geological periods, at least so far as the crystalline rocks are concerned, although perhaps the extension and exposure of these ancient crystalline rocks may be recent geologically considered. The phe nomenon of transportation of vast blocks of rock across Alpine valleys will be treated of in the article DEIFT. Many metals are abundantly distributed through the Alpine strata, which will be more particularly described under the head of the different countries in which they occur. The great height of many of the Alpine sum mits gives an extraordinary variety to their vegetation. At the base of the mountains it is very rich and beautiful, commingling the productions of a temperate clime with those of a more elevated region, the result of the seeds brought down by the mountain torrents. At the height of 1,600 or 1,700 feet we find a change ; the flora is less beautiful, though still rich and abundant; the primula auricula or bear s ear, the gentiana acaulis, the aconituin napellus or wolf s bane, the trollius Europeans, and the ranunculus aconitifolius, are the most characteristic plants. At 3,300 feet the sol- danella alpina, the crocus vernus, and two spe cies of rhododendrons, adorn the declivities. At the height of 6,500 feet all the vegetation of the plains, including maize and the cereal grains, has disappeared ; the common fruit and forest trees have ceased, and dwarfish larch, alder, and birch trees have taken their places, soon to be succeeded by the stunted pine, pitius mugho, and cembra, above which, from the line of 7,450 to about 8,500 feet, ex tends pasturage of a very rich and nourishing character, and a flora which from its peculiar character is distinguished by botanists as al pine. Its principal genera are andi-osace, sile- ne, saxifraga, ranunculus, gentiana, and pyre- thrum. Of most of these, several species are found. Even amid the eternal snows, Agassiz distinguished several varieties of lichen. Ani mal life is abundant throughout the Alpine chains. Herds of cattle find pasturage on their slopes ; the wolf, fox, lynx, and wildcat abound in their forests; the bear hibernates in their caves ; the marmot and the mole bur row in their pasture grounds. Several animals are peculiar to the regions; among these are the chamois, which inhabits the upper limit of the forest region, the mountain goat, and a species of white hare. Among the birds of prey, the lammergeier, a gigantic vulture,, is 354 ALPS peculiar to the Alps, and, with the eagle, com mits serious ravages on the sheepfolds of the loftier pasturage grounds. Nearly one half of all the known birds, resident or of passage, in central Europe, inhabit the Alps. The number of reptiles is not large, but four or live species of them are not found elsewhere. In the valleys of the Ilautes-Alpes, the Basses-Alpes, Isere, Aosta, and the Orisons, as well as some other of the narrow and ill-ventilated ravines of the Alps, a large proportion of the inhabitants are affected with goitre and cretinism. The Alps were formerly deemed almost impassable. Large bodies of men, hemmed in by the deep snows, perished miserably in attempting to cross them, and Hannibal s bold passage over them .was considered for ages a more daring feat of military prowess than his subsequent victories. Now. however, nearly every portion is crossed by good roads. The principal roads crossing the Alps are over the following passes, of which the chief connect Switzerland with Italy: 1. The Mont Cenis, 0,773" feet high, built under Napoleon I. in ISOS- IO, was crossed by diligences in eight hours, from St. Michel to Susa, connecting with the Chambery and Turin railway. The temporary Fell rail way, opened in 1868, has been superseded by the celebrated tunnel, which lies about 16 m. from the Mont Oenis pass. It was begun in 1857, and inaugurated at Bardonneche, Sept. 17, 1871. On the Mont Cenis pass there is a hospice with 40 rooms. 2. The Little St. Ber nard (hospice 7,076 feet high), one of the old est and easiest passages, supposed to have been crossed by Hannibal, was designed by Napo leon I. as a military road connecting Grenoble with Aosta and thence with Turin. There is a carriage road from Courmayeur to La Thuile, and a new road was opened in 1863 from the hospice to Bourg St. Maurice. The latter place is reached from Courmayeur in about 9-| hours. The boundary line of France and Italy passes along the crest of the road. 3. The Col de Balme pass, 7,218 feet, from Martigny to Chamouni, is celebrated for its view of Mont Blanc, though inferior in variety to the Tete Noire pass (23 m.), which leads over the same ground and is much frequented. 4. The Great St. Bernard, 6,770 feet, from Martigny to Aosta, 47 in., connecting with Turin, and celebrated for its hospice and $ogs. This pass was crossed by Napoleon I. with 30,000 men in 1800. 5. The Simplon, 6,628 feet high, a colossal work of Napoleon L, built in 1800- 6, extending from Brieg to Do- mo d Ossola, 46Jf m., connecting Geneva with Milan. The carriage road formerly began at Sierre, but the distance between that place and Brieg, 23-^ m., is now passed by railway. 6. The new carriage road over the Furca pass, 8,150 feet, completed in 1867, and connecting the St. Gothard directly with the valley of the Rhone, has considerably increased the traffic across the Upper Valais, the Bernese Alps, and the .Simplon. It runs closer to the glaciers 1 than any other road excepting the Stelvio. The Schreckhorn, the Finsteraarhorn, and the range from Monte Leone to the AVeisshorn, are seen from this road. 7. The St. Gothard. A railroad over the St. Gothard pass (6,936 feet) is in course of construction, Italy contrib uting 45,000,000 francs, Switzerland 20,000,- 000, the North German Confederation 10,000,- 000, the grand duchy of Baden 3,000,000, and the other German states the additional cost. Until the completion of this railway, the road over the St. Gothard (built in 1820- 80) con tinues to be crossed by the diligence from Fliie- len to Bellinzona in about 15 hours, connecting Lucerne with Milan. The passage was known to the Romans. Avalanches caused great loss of life in 1478, 1624, and 1814, the road being- unprotected against precipices. Suvaroff s suc cesses over the French in 1799 are recorded in an inscription on the top of the mountain. 8. Bernardino, 6,770 feet, built in 1822, ex tending from Coire to Bellinzona, distance by diligence 16 hours, and thence connecting with Milan. A bridge over the Rhine, below the village of Hinterrhein, the Marscholhorn, and the Schwarzhorn, are the principal sights. The road was known to the Romans. 9. The Spliigen, 6,495 feet, built in 1818- 22, crossed in about fourteen hours from Coire to Chiavenna, connecting with Milan. Macdon- ald s troops, while crossing the Spliigen, Nov. 27 to Dec. 4, 1800, were almost buried by avalanches, nearly 100 men and as many horses being lost. 10. The Bernina, 7,672 feet, connecting the Engadine by Avay of Sa- maden and Tirano, 39 m., with the Yaltellina. A footpath of 10 hours, up the Val de Fani to the Col of La Strella, leads to the baths of Bormio (Worms). The old path over the Ber nina is so dangerous that horsemen prefer the huge circuit by Pisciadella. 11. The Julier pass, 7,558 feet, from Coire to the Engadine. The road begins at Churwalden and ends at Samaden. That by the Valbella pass meets the Julier road at Tiefenkasten, whence there are three passages, through the Julier, Val bella, and Albula passes, to the celebrated val ley of the Inn. 12. The Stelvio pass, 9,100 feet, connecting Milan with Innspruck. It is the highest Alpine road practicable for car riages. It was built in 1820- 25 from Stelvio (Stilfs), a village of Tyrol, to Bormio, in the Yaltellina, and extended in 1825- 34 to Lecco on the lake of Como. This pass is remarkable for glaciers, especially of the Ortles range, for the gorge of Spondalunga, and above all for the scenery of the lake of Como. The damage done to the road in the Austro-Italian war of 1859 has been repaired. 13. The principal road connecting Tyrol with Lombardy is the railway over the Brenner, from Innspruck to Botzen, opened in August, 1867. The old road, known to the Romans as Mons Brennius, has been ac cessible to carriages since 1772, and is crossed in four hours. This pass was one of the scenes of the Tyrolese rebellion of 1809. 14. The ALPUJ ARRAS ALSACE Semmering railway, from Gloggnitz to Miirz- zuschlag, completing the connection between Trieste and Vienna, opened in July, 1854, and remarkable ibr its numerous tunnels and colos sal viaducts, passes over the Semmering pass, which is situated on the boundary of Lower Austria and Styria. A hospice was built by a Styrian duke in the wilderness of the mountain in the 14th century. A carriage road com pleted in 1728 was superseded in 1840 by a ne\v road. Besides these there are many pass es of minor importance, though some of them remarkable for beautiful views and scenery. The "Alpine Club," established in London in 1858, gave new impulse to explorations among these summits. The president of the club, Mr. J. Ball, has published "The Alpine Guide " (3 voK, 186o- T); and the "Alpine Journal," re cording Alpine phenomena and ascents, has been published since 1863. Alpine clubs have since been established in Vienna (1862), Turin (1863), Bern (1863), Aosta (1868), and Munich (1869). The proceedings and explorations of these as sociations are recorded in various periodical publications, as the Giornale delle Alpi, degli Apennini, e dei Vulcani, published at Turin since 1864; the JaUr bv.ch dcs osterreicMschen Alpenvereins, at Vienna since 1865; JaJirbucJi dcs schiceizer Alpenclubs, at Bern since 1864; Zeitschrift des deutschen Alpenvereins, at Mu nich since^ 1869 ; Alpenfreund, at Gera since 1870; UEcho des Alpes, at Geneva since 1870. The explorations in Switzerland are conduct ed systematically according to Dufour s topo- graphical map, the Alpine club of Bern being divided into committees for expeditions to the different mountainous regions. The committee relating to the Glarus (Todi) district caused a panorama of the Ruchen Glarnisch to be pub lished by A. Hein (Glarus, 1870), with the statistics of about 350 mountains, peaks, passes, and lakes. Among the principal recent works on the Alps are the brothers Schlagintweit s Untersuchungen uherdic physiTcalische Geogra phic derAlpen (Leipsic, 1850), and Neue Unter- mchunr/en uber die phyxikaluche GeograpMe und Geoloffie der Alpen (1854) ; Prof. Tyndall s "Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers" (London, 1860- 62), and "Mountaineering in 1861" (1862); Schaubaclvs "German Alps" (5th ed., 1864- 7); Tschudi s Thierleben der Alpenwelt (8th ed.. Jena. 1868) ; Edward Whymper s " Scrambles on the Alps, 1860-^69, including the First As cent of the Matterhorn and the Attempts which preceded it" (London, 1871); Berlepsch s Al pen (4th ed., 1871); and "The Switzers," by William Hepworth Dixon (London, 1872). Geological descriptions of the Alps are con tained in Prof. Sedgwick s and Sir Roderick Murcliison s contributions to the London geo logical society. ALPl J ARRAS, or Alpuxarras (Ar. Al-Busha- rat, Pasture Mountains), a mountainous region in the old province of Granada, Spain, lying between the Sierra Nevada and the. Medi terranean, and including part of the modern provinces of Granada and Almeria. After the taking of Granada by Ferdinand, the Moors remaining in the country were driven to this district, whence, after long struggles and des perate resistance, they were finally expelled by Philip III., in 1610. The Sierra de Gador, the highest summit, rises 6,550 feet above the sea level. ALSACE (Ger. Elsass), formerly a province of France, bounded by Lorraine, the Palatinate, Baden, Switzerland, and Franche-Comte, and constituting the departments of Ilaut-Rhin and Bas-Rhin; since the treaty of May 10, 1871, the main part of the German Reichsland (im perial territory) of Alsace-Lorraine. It is now divided into the departments of Lower Alsace and Upper Alsace, and embraces an area of 3,175 sq. m., and a population of 1,083,886, exclusive of Belfort, formerly in Haut-Rhin, and some other portions of territory, which have been restored to France, and inclusive of some minor portions annexed from Lorraine. The Vosges mountains extend along its west ern side, and the northeastern offshoots of the Jura cross its southern limits ; but the central and eastern part consists of a fertile plain lying along the western side of the Rhine, which here forms the boundary between it and Ba den. The 111 and its tributaries are the other principal streams. There are several canals, of which the Rhone canal is the largest. The manufactures are important, comprising cloth of various kinds, cotton yarn, paper, beet-root sugar, beer, brandy, and oil. The principal cities are Strasburg, Mtihlhausen, and Colmar. As attested by monuments still extant, Alsace had a dense population of Celts sev eral years before the Christian era. It was occupied by the Rauraci, the Tribocci, and the Neinetes at the time of the Roman invasion ; was the theatre of the defeat of Ariovistus by Julius Ca3sar, 58 B. C., and formed part of Celtic Gaul, as the Roman province of Ger- mania Superior, called afterward Germania Prima. The Alemanni first invaded Alsace in the 3d century, and after the close of their long struggle with the Romans, the population, de cimated by war, was rapidly filled up in the 5th century by Germanic settlers, who were called Ill-Sassen, i. e., dwellers on the 111, the main Al satian affluent of the Rhine. After the defeat of the Alemanni near Ziilpich in 496, Alsace be came known under Frankish rulers as the duchy of Alsatia. In the 7th century, under the Frank ish duke Adalric (Etticho) and his daughter Odilia, who became the patron saint of Alsace, great progress was made in Christianizing the country. In the 9th century it was part of Lothaire s empire. In 924 it was annexed to Germany by Henry the Fowler, but it was continually claimed as a Frankish possession until the extinction of the Carlovingian dynasty in 987. It then remained for several centuries in the undisputed possession of Germany as an Alemannian or Swabian duchy, under various rulers and subjected to many vicissitudes. The 356 ALSACE ALSACE-LORRAINE revolt of the Alsatian peasantry, the most vio- : lent outbreak during the religious conflicts of , the 16th century, was quelled May 17, 1525, by j the bloody victory achieved by Duke Anthony ; III. over the peasants. Part of Alsace was j allotted to France by the treaty of Westphalia (1048). Strasburg was seized by Louis XIV. j in 1(581, and the whole country came under ! French authority by the treaty of Ryswick in | 1697, with the exception of Montbeliard and j Mtihlhausen, which were acquired by France 1 subsequently. In 1814 Saarlouis and Saar- briick were ceded to Prussia, and Landau and the adjoining localities to Bavaria. The French made strenuous efforts to Gallicize their Alsatian possessions, but German con tinued to be the language of the masses, ex cept in the large cities, where the speech and modes of life of the upper classes were gene rally French. According to Bockh, in his work on the German-speaking nationalities in Europe (Berlin, 1870), there are hardly 100,000 out of the whole population who do not speak German. In the Franco- German war the re covery of the old German possessions of Al sace and Lorraine became a strong national aspiration. On July 22, 1870, the Rhine bridge at Kehl, opposite Strasburg, was blown up by the Germans. Weissenburg was stormed by them Aug. 4, and the battle of Worth was fought Aug. 6. Strasburg surrendered Sept. 27, 1870 ; Schlettstadt, Oct. 24; Xeu Breisach, Nov. 10; and Belfort, Feb. 16, 1871. Alsace was for- ! mally ceded to the German empire by the treaty ; of peace of Frankfort, concluded May 10, 1871. W. Menzel, A. Schmidt, and Wagner wrote in 1870 on Alsace and Lorraine. Among recent ! French historians of Alsace are Boyer (Paris, I 1862) and Baquol (3d ed., Paris, 1866). ALSACE-LORRAINE (Ger. Elsass-Lothringen), ! a division of the German empire, officially designated as the German Reichsland (imperial territory), and composed of Alsace and those portions of Lorraine conquered from France in ALSACE-LORRAINE ALSTROMER 357 tlie war of 1870, and formally ceded to Ger- I many by the treaty of Frankfort, May 10, 1871. It passed by the terms of its cession into the possession of the whole empire, and not of any j one division of Germany, and it is under the immediate control of the imperial government. The territory originally occupied by the Ger mans in 1870, and formed in August of that year into a district under the temporary gov- i ernment of a governor general, included the | French province of Alsace with its two depart ments Haut-Rhin and Bas-Rhin, two arrondis- sements (Kaufmanns-Saarbruck and Salzburg) i of the department of Meurthe, and three arron- j dissements (Saargemtind, Metz, and Dieden- | hofen, Fr. Thionmlle) of the department of the Moselle. The canton of Schirmeck and a part of the canton of Saales, both from the de- j partment of Vosges, were added in December, j The treaty of peace made important changes j in the extent of these districts. The Germans restored to France the following portions of the conquered territory: 1. From the depart ment of Kaut-Rhin. Arrondissement of Bel- fort: the cantons Belfort, Delle, Giromagny, i and 21 out of the 29 communes composing the canton of Fontaine. Arrondissement of Alt- : kirch : three communes of the canton of Alt- kirch. Arrondissement of Colmar: four com- munes of the canton Masmtinster. 2. From j the department of Meurthe. Arrondissement ; of Saarburg : eight communes of the canton of ; Saarburg, and nine of the canton of Vic. Ar- ; rondissement of Salzburg : three communes of the canton of Salzburg. 3. From the depart- ! ment of Moselle. Arrondissement of Metz: 11 communes of the canton of Gorze. By an ; additional article, ratified in Berlin, Oct. 20, j the comparatively unimportant communes of j Raon-les-Leaux, Raon-sur-Plaine, and Igney, I with a part of Avricourt, were also restored to j France. By the treaty, however, there were ceded to Germany 12 communes of the cantons ; of Audun and Longwy, arrondissement of j Briey, department of Moselle. The entire : Reichsland, as permanently organized by Ger- i many after these complicated changes, is bound- j ed by Luxemburg, Rhenish Prussia, Rhenish | Bavaria, Baden (from which it is separated by i the Rhine), Switzerland, and the French de- | partments of Haute-Saone, Vosges, and what I remains of those of Meurthe and Moselle ; j . area, 5,594 sq. m. ; pop. in 1871, 1,549,459. The natural features of the country, and its history < to 1870, are described in the articles ALSACE and i LORRAINE. The government, as organized by i the Germans, centres in the provincial diet i (Landtag). The Reichsland is divided into 23 i circles (Kreise), each having a Kreisdirector at the head of its local government an officer i nearly corresponding to the sub-prefect of a j French arrondissement. The old French di- ! vision into communes (Ger. Gerneinden) and ! cantons (Ger. Cantone) is retained with some unimportant changes. Before its cession to | Germany, the territory belonged to five French I departments, namely, ITaut-Rhin, Bas-Rhin, Vosges, Meurthe, and Moselle ; it is now divided into three Bezirke (districts), called Ober-Elsass (generally corresponding to the former Haut- Rhin), Nieder-Elsass (Bas-Rhin), and Deutsch- Lothringen (German Lorraine). The educa tional establishments have been reestablished on the plan of similar German institutions, and education has been made by law independent of all sectarian influence. The language of the common people is generally German in Alsace ; in Lorraine more French is spoken. Both lan guages are commonly understood, and near the former frontier both are used. ALSEN, a Baltic island in the Little Belt, in lat. 55 X., Ion. 10 E. It was taken from the Danes by the Prussians, June 29, 1864, and now constitutes, together with a portion of the opposite mainland (joined by a draw bridge), the district of Sonderb urg, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein; area, about 125 sq. m. ; pop. in 1868, 34,551. The island is fertile, and contains fine woods and fresh-water lakes, which abound with fish. ALSTEI), Johann Heinrich, a German Protest ant divine and author, born in 1588, died in 1638. He was for some time professor of phi losophy and divinity at Herborn in Nassau, and afterward at Carlsburg in Transylvania. Among his writings are an Encyclopedia, in two large folios (Herborn, 1630), the most complete work of the kind that had then ap peared ; Thesaurus Chronologic; and Tri- umphus Bibliorum Sacrorum, intended to prove that the principles of all arts and sci ences are contained in the Scriptures. His Tractatm de Mille Annis (1627) maintains that the millennium was to commence in 1694. ALSTOX, John, a merchant of Glasgow, and director of the asylum for the blind in that city, died in 1846. In 1832 the society for the encouragement of the useful arts in Scotland offered a gold medal for the best form of letter adapted to relief printing for the blind. Mr. Alston and Mr. Taylor of Norwich were consti tuted referees. An alphabet in Roman capitals was, after some modification by Mr. Alston, adopted by the society. From this time Mr. Alston devoted himself to the work of supply ing the blind with books. The cost of preparing these is very great, yet Mr. Alston, aided by con tributions, succeeded in publishing the Scrip tures in 19 volumes, and 23 volumes of miscel laneous works, besides maps and cards. ALSTROMER. I. Jonas, a public-spirited Swede, born of poor parents at Alingsas in West Gothland, Jan. 7, 1685, died June 2,1761. He made a fortune in England by commercial speculations, and introduced into Sweden im proved breeds of sheep, the culture of potatoes and of dye plants, established woollen and other manufactories at Alingsas, and contributed to the formation of the Levant and East India companies. He was ennobled and had a statue erected to him on the Stockholm exchange. II. Klas, a botanist, son of the preceding, borr ALTAI at Alingsas, Aug. 0, 1730, died March 5, 1796. | A devoted pupil of Linnaeus, lie collected for j him in his rambles over Europe, particularly Spain, various specimens of flowers, the most j remarkable of which was that of a Peruvian j plant, afterward extensively cultivated under j the name of Alstromer lilies or incas. ALTAI, a mountain range on the boundary j between Russia and China, divided into various j groups. The mountains were long designated I as the Great and the Little Altai, and the name , Altai is still occasionally applied to the vast network of ranges, chiefly in Chinese and part- I ly in Russian territory, and extending, with , irregular branches, from Siberia and China to the N. Pacific, diverging in many directions, | intersected by numerous lakes and rivers, and including the Aldan and other mountains. The Altai range in a narrower sense extends from the vicinity of Tomsk, lat. 50 X., to the junction of the Bukhtarma and the Irtish near Bukhtarminsk, lat. 50 X., and from the Koly- van mountain on the west, Ion. 82 E., to the Sayan chain on the east. The region embraced within these limits includes an area of about 40,000 sq. m., comprised in the Russian gov ernments of Tomsk and Yeniseisk, principally in the former. The Altai system proper, some times called the Ore Altai on account of its mineral wealth, consists of several ridges ex tending from the banks of the Irtish in a direc tion generally E. N. E. At their western ex tremity they rise above the valley of the Irtish in hills about 500 or 600 ft. high, and within a distance of 15 or 20 m. attain a height of 3,000 or 5,000 ft. ; this may be considered the aver age elevation of the greater part of the ranges, until they approach Lake Teletzkoi. Here they rise above the limit of perpetual snow, many of the peaks reaching an elevation of 10,000 ft., and are known as the Altai Bieli. Beyond Lake Teletzkoi there are two well de fined ranges, the principal of which, called the I Tangnu Oola, is within the Chinese boundary, ! and is imperfectly known. The other is pierced by the river Yenisei, which divides it into the Sayariian range and the Ergik Targak Taiga. Eastward of this point the mountains stretch away into the independent chains running E. and X. E. as far as the sea of Okhotsk, and formerly included in the general appellation of the Altai system. Geologically the moun- I tains have been described as a rocky promon- j tory jutting out from the mainland of primitive t rocks which forms the table land of Chinese j Tartary on the S. into the ocean of diluvial de posits which forms the great Siberian plain. The geological formations, however, have not i been carefully studied. Stratified rocks not yet classified form the greater portion of the Altai range. Clay slate, chlorite slate, and j mica slate abound in the upper districts ; and j through these granite, gneiss, syenite, por- j phyry, and greenstone have forced their way. Limestone, carboniferous limestone, and sand stones especially rich in fossil remains, are also found. The metals are gold, silver, copper, and lead, mines of which at some unknown re mote period were worked to a great extent by some unknown people. They were reopened by the Russians in the last century at the "W. end of the range ; but of late attention has been given almost wholly to the washing of detritus brought down by the Irtish, Obi, Yeni sei, and other rivers, whose sands are rich in gold. The product of the other ores is not im portant. The diminished production of silver being ascribed to the exhaustion of the mines, investigations were instituted by Professor B. von Cotta at the instance of the czar (1858), and resulted in the publication of his geologi cal and mineralogical work on the Altai (Leipsic, 1871). The scenery is grand, especially among the stupendous rocks and glaciers in the heart of the mountains, on the banks of the Katun- ya. The two pillars of the Katunya are the highest peaks of the Altai, rising to nearly 13,000 ft. The short summer is excessively hot. The extreme cold of the winter is made salutary by the clearness of the atmosphere. In the forests are birch, alder, aspen, acacia, willow, larch, fir, and Siberian stone pine trees. The dried leaves of the saxifraga crassifolia, used as a substitute for tea, are gathered in the Tchernaya mountain. The animals of the Al tai region are bears, wolves, foxes, lynxes, mountain hares, wild sheep and boars, wild goats, musimons, and occasionally tigers. Ven omous serpents are found in the valleys. The best furs are obtained from black-skinned sables, as well as from martens and from the kulonok (mustela Sib ir led). A marmot pecu liar to the Altai haunts the snow. There are otters, beavers, musk deer, numerous elks, large stags, and red deer. The most remarkable bird is the mountain swallow (Idrundo alpcstris or Daurictf). Among the fishes are red and other salmon, eel pouts, pike, sterlet, and sturgeons; great numbers of the last are used for the manufacture of isinglass and caviare. There are excellent horses, fat-tailed sheep, and a few camels. Game, poultry, and bees abound. Mosquitoes are numerous in summer, especially in the lowlands. Most of the cereals are suc cessfully cultivated, and even melons in the W. part. The inhabitants of the Altai consist chiefly of white Kalmucks or Teleuts in the east, near Lake Teletzkoi, and the nomadic moun taineer Kalmucks in the southeast. They are governed by native chiefs, the Russian govern ment interfering little with them excepting for the collection of the tribute of furs, to which even some of the tribes living beyond Rus sian jurisdiction are made amenable. Except ing the peasantry on the north and northwest, chiefly descendants of fugitive Russian serfs, who belong to the orthodox church, and a few tribes of Mohammedan descent, the great bulk of the Altai population are pagans wor shipping in temples. Carsten s " Ethnological Lectures on the Altai " (St. Petersburg, 1851) divides the Altai nationalities and languages ALT AM All A ALTAR into Tungusian, Mongolian, Tartar, Finnish, and Samoyed groups, subdivided into various branches, with different vernaculars. Ped dlers from the provinces of Moscow and Vladimir periodically visit the Altai, and the great route of travel between St. Peters burg and Peking crosses the range near Lake Baikal, Kiakhta being the Russian frontier town and Maimatchin the Chinese. The Chinese Altai territory, which is little known, is chiefly situated east of the upper Bukhtarme and Lake Dzaizang. The settled Russian Altai region is mainly comprised in the district of Kolyvan Voskresenski, the Russian designation of the mining region of the province of Tomsk, west ern Siberia, and which includes, besides the S. part of a district of the same name, the dis tricts of Kolyvan, Barnaul, Kuznetzk, and Biisk ; area, over 13,000 sq. m. ; pop. 350,000. ALTAMAHA, a river of Georgia, about 140 m. long, which is formed by the confluence of the Oconee and the Ocmulgee, in the S. E. central part of the state. Its course is S. E. through sandy plains and pine barrens to the Atlantic, about 12 m. below Darien, and about 60 m. S. W. of Savannah. For vessels of 30 tons it is navigable through its entire extent. ALTA3IIRA, a town of S. Italy, capital of a district of the same name, in the province of Terra di Bari, 28 m. S. W. of Bari ; pop. about 18,000. It is walled and beautifully situated in a fertile pastoral country. Neighboring re mains are supposed to mark the site of Lu- patia, a town of Apulia on the Appian way. The modern town was settled in the 13th century by colonists from Greece, and many of the present inhabitants are of Albanian origin and still wear the Albanian costume. The em peror Frederick II. endowed the town witli a magnificent cathedral, and it also contains a college, a hospital, an episcopal palace, and other fine buildings. There are two annual fairs, and the principal products of the vicinity are wine and olives. ALTAR (Lat. alt us, high), a place or struc ture, usually elevated, on which to perform certain religious services. The use of altars in religious worship reaches back beyond the historical era. The earliest account we have of an altar (Gen. viii. 20) shows that it was used for the offering of sacrifices. Later in Biblical history, we find altars sometimes built apparently as memorials of some religious event, and sometimes with a further idea of a distinct act of worship, as where Jacob built an altar and poured a drink offering thereon. Generally, however, the idea of sacrifice at tended the altar. In the Jewish system there were two altars, viz., of incense and of burnt offering, besides the table for the shew-bread. Among the surrounding heathen nations, the same custom of erecting altars for pur poses of worship may be traced to the earli est antiquity. The altars of Baal, that god of the oldest pagan cultus, are frequently mentioned in Scripture. Among the Greeks and Romans 1 altars were erected to the various gods, and ; the services varied according to the character and functions of the divinities to which they | were dedicated. The materials used in thecon- ; struction of the ancient altars at first were prob- . ably rude stones. In Egypt they were highly ; wrought with sculptured representations of the j gods. The Israelites at their exodus were , therefore commanded to make their altars of earth, so that they could not violate the second commandment. Afterward they were made I of shittim (acacia) wood and cedar, overlaid I with precious metals. The Greeks and Ro- i mans made them of earth and rude stones at first, then of highly sculptured stone. There are to this day many cairns of stones in the northern part of Britain, which were probably ancient altars. Similar structures are found on the high tops of the Anti-Libanus range, and 1 some of the structures found in Mexico and the ! valley of the Mississippi, and in South America, may have been erected for the same purpose. ; The form of altars has varied among various nations and at different times, as also their ele vation. The Jews were forbidden to go up to their altars by steps. In the Latin and orien- i tal churches, the altar is an elevated structure, 1 on which the priest offers the sacrifice of the mass. In the Roman Catholic church, a per- , manent altar is a solid structure, the top of 1 which must be a slab of stone. Within the , altar is a hollow receptacle for the relics of martyrs or other saints, called the sepulchre. i The altar is consecrated by a bishop with chrism. A portable altar is a small slab of . stone, usually marble, consecrated and con- ; taining relics, which is placed on temporary or ordinary wooden and unconsecrated altars, in such a position that the oblation can be placed on it. Where there is sufficient wealth to permit it, the most costly marbles are used in the construction of altars, and the most , sumptuous decorations are employed in their ! adornment. Altars on which the sacrament is reserved have a tabernacle, made in the shape of a small temple. In the East the altars have, instead of a tabernacle, an urn or casket suspended from the ceiling, in , which the consecrated hosts are kept. In some Lutheran churches the altar has been re tained. Some of the ancient altars remain also in the English churches, though they have been covered in some way, or at least disused. Gen erally speaking, altars have been abolished in the Protestant churches, and the existence of any such thing as an altar in pure Christian worship is denied. In the church of England and the Protestant Episcopal church of the United States there are, and always have been, many who advocate the use of an altar in place of a common table, and solid altars are to be seen in some churches ; occasionally even very beautiful altars of marble, with emblematic de vices, rich altar cloths, altar pieces, and con spicuous crosses. The liturgy, however, sub- , stitutes the word "table 1 in place of " altar," 360 ALTDORF ALTENSTEIN which occurs only in one or two occasional offices. In the early church the tombs of the martyrs, especially in the catacombs, were fre quently used as altars, whence the present form is evidently derived. The earliest Christian writers use the words men set, sacra, mensa Domini, dvaiaorf/fnov, and altare, indiscrimi nately as convertible terms. In the small early churches the altar stood on the floor of the sanctuary; in the churches of the 4th century, which were larger, it was elevated on a plat form ; and it was subsequently elevated still j more, so as to be reached by an ascent of sev eral steps. Until the 13th century it stood in the middle of the sanctuary, and the priest stood behind it, facing the people, as is still the case in the Lateran basilica. Afterward the altar was placed against the wall, or a screen, which occasioned the change in the posture of the priest. This seems to have been peculiar to Rome, however, as elsewhere there is no record of a change in this respect. ALTDORF, or Altorf, a town of Bavaria, in the circle of Middle Franconia, 13 m. S. E. of Nu remberg, on the Schwarzach ; pop. about 3,000. It contains an old palace, and manufactories of wooden toys and breweries. The principal trade is in hops. It was an imperial city be fore the 13th century, and again rose to impor tance in the 17th, through its university, wliich in 1806 was merged in that of Erlangen. The university buildings have since been occupied by a normal school for Protestant teachers. " ALTDORFER, Albreoht, a German painter and engraver, born at Altdorf, Bavaria, in 1488, died at Ratisbon in 1538. lie is supposed to have been a pupil of Albert Diirer, and is dis tinguished in Germany for the romantic charac ter of his conceptions. His principal painting, "The Victory of Alexander over Darius, is in the gallery of Schleissheim, near Munich, and his u Birth of our Saviour" in the imperial gallery of Vienna. His engravings are on both copper and wood. ALTE\A, a town of Westphalia, Prussia, on the Ruhr and Sieg railroad, in the district and 17m. W. S. W. of Arnsberg; pop. in 1871, 7,122. It is situated in a beautiful valley surrounded on all sides by high mountains. The town has for centuries been the seat of a flourishing in dustry, comprising numerous manufactories of iron and steel wares. Near by, on a high cliff, is the castle of the old counts of Altena (later counts of the Mark), which now belongs to the order of St. John. ALTENBIRG. I. Or Saxe-AItenbimr, a sovereign duchy of the German empire, bounded by Prus sia, Saxony, Weimar, Meiningen, Rudolstadt, and Reuss-Gera, the last of which divides it into two parts, the E. division constituting Alten- burg proper and the W. Saal-Eisenberg; area, 510 sq. m. ; pop. in 1871, 142,122. It is trav ersed by spurs of the Erzgebirge, and in the west by ridges of the Thuringian Forest. The rivers are the Pleisse and the Saale. he duchy contains several large lakes and mineral springs, extensive forests in the west, and coal mines in the east. It is among the richest in Germany in agricultural products, especially in rye and wheat ; a great many cattle are raised, and the horse and sheep are of supe rior breed. Wild boars and deer abound. The manufactures are leather, woollen cloths, ho siery, linen goods, wooden wares, and brandy. The duchy joined the North German confed eration in 1866, where it had one vote, which it also has in the empire. The local legisla ture or diet consists of one chamber with 30 members. The present duke, Ernest, who succeeded his father in 1853, is a general in the Prussian and a major general in the Saxon army. In former times the duchy belonged to the Osterland, and was ruled by the margraves of Pleissen. In 1803 it was divided into two principalities. In 1826 it assumed its present territorial form. The inhabitants are chiefly Wends by descent, and many in the rural dis tricts retain the antique costumes. II. A city, capital of the preceding duchy, situated on the Pleisse, 24 m. by railway S. of Leipsic ; pop. in 1871, 19,966. It is well built, and contains many churches, a museum of painting and statuary, a gymnasium, and a great number of educational and literary institutions. The most celebrated public building is the palace, situated on an escarped rock. Altenburg has manufac tories of cigars, gloves, brushes, and haber dashery, and an important book trade. It was for some time an imperial city. In 1430 it was almost destroyed by the Hussites. ALTFJY-OETTING, or Alt-Oettinjr (the Aulinga Villa of the middle ages), a small town in one of the most beautiful and fertile valleys of Upper Bavaria, 50 m. E. N. E. of Munich, and 2 m. S. of Neu-Oetting on the Inn ; pop. about 2,500. It is annually frequented, on account of its famed picture of the Virgin, by many thousand pilgrims from Austria, Bavaria, and Swabia. The Jesuits had a college here, which was suppressed in 1773. In its place the Redemptorists founded a college in 1841, which is the principal house of the order in Germany. Alten-Oetting was in the 9th century long the residence of Carloman, the eldest son of Louis the German. Several German emperors, among whom are Henry III. and Henry IV., held their court here. Tilly is here buried with other members of his family, and the chapel which contains his tomb bears his name. Since Maximilian I. many princes and princesses of the Bavarian house have been entombed here. ALTEXSTEIX, a mountain castle in Saxe- Meiningen, not far from Eisenach, on the S. W. slope of the Thuringian Forest. It was the residence of Boniface, the apostle to the Ger mans, in the 8th century, and just behind it is the place where Luther was secreted by the i elector Frederick the Wise in 1521. The names of "Luther s beech" and "Luther s spring " perpetuate the memory of the reformer s re tirement in this place. The tree stood till 1841, when it was shattered by a tempest, and ALTEXSTEIX ALTIIEX 361 a part of its fragments are preserved in the church of Steinbach ; a small monument marks the place where it stood. Since 1798 Alten- stein has been the summer residence of the court, and has been surrounded by a splendid park. In 1709 a grotto was here discovered, i which is among the most remarkable natural curiosities of Germany. It is of vast propor- ; tions, and through its whole extent flows a rapid stream of water sufficiently deep to bear barges, and turning a mill at the place where it issues from the earth. The entrance to the cavern is through a subterranean gallery. ALTENSTEIN, Karl, baron von Stein zum Al- tenstein, a Prussian minister of state, born in Anspach, Oct. 7, 1770, died in Berlin, May 14, 1840. He was called by Hardenberg into the | ministry at Berlin in 1799. During the war of 1806 he fled with the court from Berlin to j Konigsberg, and after the treaty of Tilsit be- | came the head of the department of finance, j He took a principal part in the foundation of j the university of Berlin in 1809. In 1815 he | was sent with "Wilhelm von Humboldt to Paris, to present the claims of Prussia for the i restoration of the treasures of art and litera- ! ture carried from the country by the French armies ; and in the same year he was made a , member of the commission for determining the boundaries of the Prussian possessions in West phalia and in the province of the Rhine. After his return to Berlin he was made minister of j public worship and education, and in this posi- ! tion he rendered lasting service to the univer- sities, gymnasiums, and schools. Under his direction the university of Bonn was founded, and reforms were introduced into the several branches of popular instruction. He was a zealous partisan of the philosopher Fichte. ALTERATIVES, a term applied by modern writers on medical science in a somewhat ob scure manner. A certain class of substances . are denominated " alteratives in manuals of \ therapeutics. The effects produced by these ! substances, administered in comparatively small and frequent doses, are practically known, but the modus operandi is a mystery. As the same substances in large doses act as emetics, purgatives, or poisons, a name was re quired to designate the peculiar effects of these substances administered in minute doses ; and the most appropriate word that could be found, apparently, was the word alterative." As the manner of action of drugs in health and ! disease becomes more accurately known, the medicines thus designated will undoubtedly be removed to other classes, or this name will be replaced by something more rational and defi- \ nite. It is probable that some alteratives act I either by modifying the character of the nutri- ! tive material carried by the blood to the tissues, j or by promoting the destructive metamor phosis of tissue outside the blood vessels. In these processes, diseased tissues, being the more weakly organized, experience the earliest ; effects, and in this way the good may be ob- tained without the evil. The principal sub stances used as alteratives are iodine and mer cury, and their respective combinations with potassium and other substances. Arsenical preparations are also used as alteratives in small doses. They are mostly employed in chronic diseases and cutaneous, scrofulous, and syphi litic affections. Many other substances are now used as alteratives in small doses, the effects being more or less immediate and temporary, or slow and lasting, according to the dose ad ministered. Any powerful medicine given in frequent small doses may be called ah alter ative, therefore, as it acts continuously, gently, slowly, and, when well selected, often most efficiently. Each medicinal substance acts in proportion to the frequency and potency of the dose administered, when given alone, or with a neutral menstruum, such as mucilage or water. Ten grains of ipecacuanha, taken alone or in water, act as an emetic ; but combined with a strong dose of opium (two grains of good quality, or three of an inferior kind), the ipecacuanha will not produce an obvious effect upon the stomach, but be absorbed into the blood and cause a profuse flow of perspiration, if the patient be kept warm in bed. Arsenic is a violent poison in large doses ; in minute doses, frequently repeated, it is a cure for ague and fever. Many of the most active and poisonous preparations of mercury are highly beneficial in small doses, although dangerous in large ones. ALTERNATE GENERATION. See JELLY FISH. ALTHEA (Gr. a/titiv, to cure), a genus of plants belonging to the natural order mahacece. They have a double calyx, the outer whorl with from 6 to 9 sepals, and the inner with 5. A. officin alls is the marsh mallow, the knowledge of which in medical botany is of great antiqui ty. The mucilaginous roots and leaves of this plant are used in all cases in which emollient or demulcent substances are required. It is a perennial plant, with a white, fleshy root, 12 or 15 inches long. The stems are 2 or 3 feet high, and covered all over with a soft down. The leaves are also covered with down, which gives the whole plant a hoary aspect. The leaves are soft and stalked, the flowers of a pale rose color, appearing in very short clusters from the axil of the leaves. The corolla is like that of the common mallow. The demulcent lozenges sold under the name of pate degmmauve are made of A. officinalis ; they are made in large quantities in the south of France, particularly at Marseilles. The hollyhock, A. rowa, grows wild in China. (See HOLLYHOCK.) Althaea is a common name of the ornamental shrub hibiscus Syriacm, also called rose of Sharon. (See HIBISCUS.) ALTHE.V, Ehan, a Persian who introduced madder into France, born in 1711, died in 1774. He was sold to an Anatolian planter, who for 14 years kept him working on cotton and mad der. On effecting his escape from slavery, he found his way from Smyrna to Marseilles and 362 ALTIIORP ALTON Avignon, where the soil seemed to him favor able to the growth of madder. lie failed to interest the public mind in favor of his plan, but a French lady, Mine, de Clausenette, con sented to plant the seeds which he had brought with him from Smyrna. The experiment was successful and extensively imitated, but Althen, who had thus conferred a great benefit upon France, was left to die in the greatest penury ; and on the same day that the honor of a mon ument in the Calvet museum at Avignon was paid to him by the French authorities, his only daughter died in despair at the hospital. ALTIIORP, Viscount. See SPEXCKK. ALTITIDE, the scientific or technical word for height. The altitude of a triangle is the distance from either corner of the triangle to the opposite side, when that side is considered as the base of the triangle. The altitude of a cone or a pyramid is the height of its vertex above the plane on which it stands. The altitude of a star is its height above the horizon. This alti tude is measured in degrees, a star in the zenith having the greatest possible altitude of 90 de grees. Apparent altitude is that which the star or other heavenly body appears to have, from which the true altitude is obtained by mak ing allowance for the various errors arising from the refraction of the air, the height of the observer, the distance of the body from the earth, etc. ALTKIRH, a town of the new German de partment of Upper Alsace, on the 111, 16 m. E. of Belfort, France, and 70 m. S. of Strasburg ; pop. about 3,200. It is a manufacturing town of some importance, and contains a fine modern church and a ruined castle, which in former times was occupied by the Austrian archdukes in their visits to Alsace. It was founded in the 12th century, and belonged to the counts of Pfirt (Ferrette). The German authorities have selected Altkirch as the town to be fortified as a counter-fortress to Belfort. ALTMHIL, a river of Bavaria, 150 m. long, rising 7 m. X. E. of Rothenburg in Middle Franconia, and emptying into the Danube at Kelheirn, S. W. of Ratisbon. The Ludwig s canal connects it with the Regnitz, an affluent of the Main, thus uniting the North and Black seas through the Rhine and Danube. ALT-OETTING. See ALTEX-OETTIXG. ALTON, a city and port of entry of Madison county, 111., on the left bank of the Mississippi river, 3 m. above the mouth of the Missouri, about 20 m. below the mouth of the Illinois, and 25 m. N. of St. Louis, Mo. ; pop. in 1800, 6,332; in 1870, 8,865. Its length along the river is about 2f m. ; its average breadth about 1-^ m. A little W. of the centre it is divided by a small stream called Piasa creek, which has its sources in springs within and near the city limits, and is arched over and used as a main sewer. The valley of this stream and the bottom land W. of its mouth along the Missis sippi are the chief seats of business. Each side of this valley and up and down the river from it i the ground rises rapidly and in some parts ab- i ruptly into irregular and broken bluffs, the highest being 224^ feet above the river. The | whole city is underlaid with limestone rock, i which is full of fissures and caves, crops out in I many places, and in the western part along the river forms perpendicular bluffs. Alton is the | centre of a rich farming country. Besides the river navigation, three railroads connect it with all parts of the country. The princi- i pal manufacturing establishments (1872) are two i large fiouring mills, two iron founderies, an ! extensive woollen mill, glass Avorks, a castor oil ! mill, a large tobacco manufactory, a manufac- | tory of agricultural implements, a planing mill, ! and several lumber yards and steam saw mills. The packing business is carried on, but less ex tensively than formerly. Lime of excellent quality is made, and, with building stone, is ex ported largely. There are two banking houses, gas works, and a steam ferry to the opposite shore. There is a large Roman Catholic cathe dral, Alton having been made a bishopric in 1868. The other churches are : one Baptist, one orthodox Congregational, one Unitarian, two Protestant German, one Presbyterian, one Cumberland Presbyterian, one Methodist, one Catholic, and one colored Baptist. Alton has a daily and weekly newspaper, a weekly paper in German, and a weekly religious journal, the " Cumberland Presbyterian," the organ of that denomination in the West. There are several | benevolent societies and a library association. ! The state penitentiary, established here in j 1827, was removed several years since to Joliet. ! The buildings are yet standing, and were used | during the civil war as a government prison. ! L T pper Alton, about 1^ m. E., is the seat of | Shurtleff college, a Baptist institution. (See | SITUETLEFF COLLEGE.) In 1807 there was one i small building where Alton now stands, used j by the French of Cahokia and St. Louis as a I trading house with the Indians. The town was laid out in 1817. ALTON, an Austrian noble family, of Irish ! descent. I. Rirluird, count d , a general, born j in Ireland in 1732, died in Treves, Feb. 19, 1790. I He entered the Austrian service very young, | rapidly rose to high rank, and in 1788 be came Feldzeugmeister. In November, 1787, he was appointed to the command of the Aus trian Netherlands, then in insurrectionary fer- i ment. His harsh measures provoked the first | bloodshed at Brussels, June 22, 1788. After I the victory of the patriots at Turnhout, Oct. 27, 1789, he gave the order to destroy all re- | bellious places ; but in December, after the | outbreak in Brussels, he retreated to Luxem- I burg, and was recalled to Vienna, but died on I the way thither. II. Edward, count d\ brother ! of the preceding, also a general, born in Ire land in 1737, died Aug. 24, 1793. He distin- i guished himself in the seven years and Turk ish wars. In 1792 he was imprisoned for , writing in defence of his brother s conduct, but i afterward commanded a division at the siege ALTOXA ALUM 303 of Valenciennes and a corps at that of Dun kirk, where lie was killed. III. Joiiami Willielm Kdnard d , a German naturalist, born in Aqui- leia in 1772, died in Bonn, May 11, 1840. lie was educated at Vienna, visited Italy, and lived for a long time in the grand ducal park at Tieffurt, near Weirnar, where he devoted himself to the study of the tine arts and natu ral history, especially of the horse. In 1817 and 1818, in company with his friend Pander, he explored France, Spain, Portugal, and Great Britain, for scientific purposes. On his return he became professor of archaeology and fine arts at the university of Bonn, lie left a fine collection of paintings and engravings, part of which were purchased by the university and part by Prince Albert, who was one of his Bonn pupils. D Alton is the author of works on the "Natural History of the Horse 1 and "Comparative Osteology, accompanied with f many superb plates, engraved by himself. He took an active part in Dollinger s and Pander s , investigations on the development of chickens in the egg. IV. Johann Samuel Eduard, son of the preceding, born at St. Goar, July 17, 1803, i died in Halle, July 25, 1854. In 1834 he was appointed professor of anatomy and physiology at Halle. He continued the "Comparative Osteology" of his father, and published be tween 1827 and 1838 two volumes on the os trich and birds of prey. In 1850 he published the first volume of his manual of the " Com parative Anatomy of Man." In 1853 he pub lished De Homtris, quibus Extremitates Super- fline suspense siint, and in 1854, in concert with Burmeister, Der fossile Gavial von Boll in Wurternberg. ALTONA, the most important city of the duchy of Ilolstein, North Germany, situated on the right bank of the Elbe, below and im mediately adjoining Hamburg, and for commer cial purposes forming with it a single town ; pop. in 1871, 74,131. It is well built, is a free port, and enjoys privileges favorable to its trade and prosperity. It was set up by Denmark as a rival to Hamburg, and passed with Holstein into the possession of Prussia in 1867. It has six churches, a gymnasium with a library of up ward of 20,000 volumes, an orphan hospital, an infirmary, a college, an observatory, and a mint. It has an extensive trade, and very considerable manufactories. The chief manu facture is tobacco. There are also soap and oil works, sugar houses, distilleries, chemical works, rope walks, tanneries, and divers manu factories of cotton, silk, and leather. Its ex tensive railway and steamboat connections add materially to its importance. Altona was burned by the Swedes, under General Steen- bock, in January, 1713, with circumstances of great barbarity. ALTOO\A, a city of Blair co., Penn., 244m. by railroad W. X. W. of Philadelphia, and 115 m. E. of Pittsburgh; pop. in 1860, 3,595 ; in 1870. 10,610. It was laid out in 1849, and is situated at the head of Tuckahoe valley and at the foot of the Alleghanies. It is on the line of the Pennsylvania central railroad, to which it owes most of its prosperity ; the workshops of the company situated here are the most exten- i sive in the state. The city contains 11 churches, ; a high school, 2 banks, hotels, and 3 daily : newspapers. At Altoona the western-bound : traveller begins the ascent of the Alleghanies. i In the course of the next 11 m. some of the j finest views and the greatest achievements of I engineering skill on the entire line are to be j seen. Within this distance the road reaches ! the summit by so steep a grade that, while in j the ascent double power is required to move I the train, the entire 1 1 m. of descent are run I without steam, the speed of the train being j regulated by the brakes. The summit of the mountain is pierced by a tunnel 3, (5 70 feet long. On the eastern slope is the famous "horse-shoe bend," formed by a very short curve in the road around the brink of a precipitous descent. ALTORF, or. Altdorf, capital of the canton of Uri, Switzerland, in a deep, narrow valley on the lleuss, near the S. E. extremity of Lake Lucerne, at the X. E. terminus of the St. Gothard road; pop. in 1870, 2,724. It is neatly built, and has a Capuchin con vent and an old tower covered with paint ings in honor of William Tell, which is pop ularly believed to occupy the spot where he shot the apple from his son s head, though recent research has proved it to be of a date anterior to the time in which that hero of the Swiss legends figures. ALTO-RILIEVO, a term designating that species of sculpture in which the figure stands complete ly out from the ground, being attached to it only in some places, and in others worked en tirely round like single statues ; such are the metopse of the Elgin marbles in the British museum. Donatellrs alti-rilievi at Florence are among the most perfect examples of this sort of art. The largest work ever executed in alto-rilievo is that by Algardi in St. Peter s at Rome, representing the repulse of Attila by St. Peter and St. Paul. ALTIRAS, a S. county of Idaho, bordering on Montana, and bounded S. and S. E. by Snake river ; pop. in 1870, 689, of whom 314 were Chinese. The Salmon river, a branch of the Columbia, is the principal stream. The X. part of tl .e county is occupied by the Rocky mountains. There are 9 quartz mills. ALOI, a name given to a remarkable series of double salts, of which potash alum may be taken as the type. The alums are more or less soluble in water, crystallize in regular oc- tahedra, and differ from the normal compound in the fact that the alumina and potash are re placed in whole or in part by their isomorphs. We can replace the alumina by the sesquioxide of iron, of manganese, or of chromium, and the potash by soda, the oxide of ammonium, the oxides of ammonium compounds, the oxides of rubidium, caesium, and thallium. Lithia is the onlv one of the alkalies that does not form 304 ALUM an alum. Selenic acid, isomorphous with sul phuric acid, and (it is believed) telluric acid, can be substituted for sulphuric acid in the composition of alums. The following is a list of alums actually known to chemists, toge ther with their chemical formulas: 1. Ordina ry potash alum, (SO 4 ) 3 A1 2 + S0 4 K 2 + 24IL>O. 2. Soda alum,. (SO 4 ) 3 A1 2 + SO 4 Na 2 + 24H 2 O. 3. Ammonia alum, (SO 4 ) 3 A1 2 + SO 4 (NH 4 ) 2 + 24H 2 0. 4. Rubidium alum, (SO 4 ) 3 A1 2 + SO 4 Rb 2 + 24H 2 0. 5. Caesium alum, (SO 4 ) 3 A1 2 + SO 4 Cs 2 + 24H,O. C. Thallium alum, (SO 4 ) 3 A1 2 + SO 4 T1 2 + 24H 2 0. 7. Manganese alum, (SO 4 ) 3 Mn 2 + SO 4 K 2 +24H 2 O. 8. Chrome alum, (SO 4 ) 3 Cr 2 + SO 4 K 2 + 2411 2 O. 9. Chrome- ammonium alum, (SO 4 ) 3 Cr 2 -f SO 4 (NH 4 ) 3 + 24H,O. 10. Iron alum, (S0 4 ) 3 Fe 2 + SO 4 K 2 + 24II-jO. 11. Iron-ammonium alum, (S0 4 ) 3 Fe 2 + SO 4 (XH 4 ) a + 24H 2 O. 12. Thallium-iron alum, (SO 4 ) 3 Fe 2 + S0 4 T1 2 + 24H 2 O. 13. Se lenic alum, (SeO 4 ) 3 Al a + SeO 4 K 2 + 24II 2 0. To this list may be added alum of trimethy- lamine, alum of ethylamine, alum of methy- lamine, and alum of amylamine. The history of alum dates back to a remote antiquity. Pliny in his Historia Naturalis mentions sev eral kinds of alumen, and says that a black and a white occur in Cyprus, the former being used for dyeing dark wool and the latter for light fabrics. As he afterward says that (tinmen liquidum is colored black by nut galls, lie either refers to an impure alum or confounds the substance with sulphate of iron or green vitriol. It is, however, safe to assume that the cTVTTTrjpia of the Greeks and the alumen of Pliny have reference to impure varieties of what is now called alum. It was manufactured some centuries since at Racca in Mesopotamia, whence Leibnitz traced the name alumen roccce, or rock alum. In the 13th century the business was established near Smyrna, and in 1248 ex tended to Italy, where it was protected against foreign importations by the pope. From thence it spread over Germany, and in the reign of Queen Elizabeth was undertaken in England by Thomas Chaloner, and successfully prosecuted notwithstanding the anathemas of the pope. At first only potash alum was manufactured, but since the introduction of ammonia as a refuse product in the production of illuminating gas large quantities of ammonia alum have been made. The more recent development of the potash deposits of the Stassfurt mines has again brought back the production of potash alum to the first rank, and its manufacture is now conducted on an immense scale. Potash alum occurs ready formed in nature, especially among volcanic rocks near Xaples, on the Rhine, on the island of New York, and in numerous other localities. Where the quantity is sufficient to pay for the trouble, the decom posed rock is leached and the resulting liquor left to crystallize ; but only a very small pro portion of the alum of commerce is obtained in this way. There are three classes of raw ma terial from which potash alum is manufactured: 1. Such as contain the constituents of alum in the native state; e. </., native alum, alum I stone, alum slates. 2. Such as only contain sulphate of alumina, and require the addition of an alkali ; e. g., a majority of the alum slates, alum earths, clay, and pyritous bituminous shales. 3. Such as only contain the alumina and require the addition of both the sulphuric acid and the alkali ; e. g., clay, cryolite, baux ite, and feldspar. By far the greater propor tion of alum is made from alum earths and shales, although the employment of clay, cryo lite, and feldspar is on the increase. The min eral alum stone or alunite forms seams in trachytic and allied rocks, where it has been formed as a result of the alteration of the rock by means of sulphurous vapors. It is met with at Tolfa near Civita Vecchia, at Monti- oni in Tuscany, in Hungary, and in other local ities. The compact varieties of Hungary are so hard as to admit of being used for millstones. It was first observed at Tolfa in the loth cen tury, by J. de Castro, a Genoese, who had been engaged in the manufacture of alum from an alum stone or " rock alum " found near the Eu phrates. The composition of alunite is very variable. One specimen from Tolfa was found to contain sulphuric acid 35 50, alumina 39 65, potash 10 02, and water 14 83. It is only when the alunite has been heated to 450 C. that the alum can be extracted from it by water. The stone is roasted in heaps on calcining kilns until it begins to give oft* sulphurous acid fumes, when the operation is suspended. The calcined material is then placed in troughs of masonry and sprinkled with water until it forms a slimy paste ; this is leached in shallow pans with hot water, the lye concentrated and crystallized. Roman alum has a reddish hue, and has long been preferred on account of its freedom from soluble foreign substances. Much of what is now called Roman alum is colored red by the addition of brick dust. Most of the alum of commerce is made by the calcination of aluminous schists, which are argillaceous rocks, containing considerable quantities of sulphide of iron. This is converted by exposure to the air into ferrous sulphate and free sulphuric acid, FeS 2 + OT + 1I 2 O = FeSO 4 + IJ 2 S0 4 ; and the sulphuric acid, acting on the alumina contained in the clay, forms sulphate of alu minum. These aluminous schists are found in two different geological positions, viz. : in the transition strata (alum slate), in which position j they are largely impregnated with bitumen ; and" in the lower tertiary strata, just above the chalk (alum earth). Tf>e latter are much less compact than the former; consequently their i oxidation is easier, and sometimes takes place ! spontaneously. The most extensive alum man- i ufactory in Great Britain (1871) is at Ilurlett, ! near Paisley. The next in magnitude is at Whitby, of whose state and processes an in structive account was published by Mr. Winter in the 25th volume of "Nicholson s Journal." 1 The stratum of aluminous schist is about 29 ALUM 3G5 miles in width, and is covered by strata of allu vial soil, sandstone, ironstone, shell, and clay. The alum schUt is generally found disposed in horizontal lamime. The upper part of the rock is the most abundant in sulphur, so that a cubic yard taken from the top of the stratum is five times more valuable than the same bulk 100 feet belo\v. If a quantity of the schist be laid in a heap and moistened with sea water, it will take tire spontaneously, and continue to burn till the whole inflammable matter is con sumed. Its color is bluish gray; sp. gr. 2*48. It imparts a bituminous principle to alcohol. The rock, broken into small pieces, is laid on a horizontal bed of fuel, composed of brush wood, etc. "When about four feet in height of the rock is piled on, fire is set to the bottom, and fresh rock continually poured upon the pile, until the calcined heap is raised to the height of 90 or 100 feet. Its horizontal area is at the same time progressively extended, till it forms a great bed nearly 200 feet square, hav ing about 100,000 yards of solid measurement. The rapidity of the combustion is allayed by plastering up the crevices with small schist moistened; but notwithstanding this pre caution, a great deal of sulphuric or sul- ; phurous acid is dissipated. One ton of alum \ is produced from 130 tons of calcined schist; , this result has been deduced from an average j of 150,000 tons. The calcined mineral is di gested with water in pits usually containing about 00 cubic yards. The liquid is drawn off into cisterns, and afterward pumped up again upon fresh calcined "mine." This is repeated until the specific gravity becomes 1*15. The half exhausted schist is then covered with wa ter to take up the whole soluble matter. The , strong liquor is drawn oft into settling cisterns, : where the sulphate of lime, iron, and earth are j deposited. At some works the liquid is boiled, j which aids its purification. It is then run into ; leaden pans 10 feet long, 4 feet 9 inches wide, 2 feet 2 inches deep at one end, and 2 feet 8 inches at the other. This slope facilitates the i emptying of the pans. Here the liquor is con- centrated at the boiling heat. Every morning ! the pans are emptied into a settling cistern, ! and a solution of chloride of potassium (either pretty pure from the manufacturer, or the crude compound from the soap boiler) is added. The quantity of chloride necessary is deter- ! mined by a previous experiment in a basin, and i is regulated for the workmen by the hydrome ter. By this addition, the pan liquor, which had acquired a specific gravity of T4 or 1*5, is reduced to 1 35. After being allowed to settle for two hours, it is run off into the coolers to [ be crystallized. At a greater specific gravity than 1-35, the liquor, instead of crystallizing, would on cooling solidify in a magma resem bling grease. After standing four days, the ! mother waters are drained off, to be pumped into the pans on the succeeding day. The crystals of alum are washed in a tub and drained. They are then put into a lead pan, with as much water as will make a saturated solution at the boiling point. Whenever tlf.s is effected, the solution is run off into casks. At the end of Id or 10 days the casks are un- hooped and taken asunder, when the alum is found exteriorly in a solid cake, but in the in terior cavity in large pyramidal crystals, con sisting of octahedrons, inserted successively into one another. This last process is called "rocking." 1 Mr. Winter says that 22 tons of chloride of potassium, or an equivalent of 31 tons of the black ashes of the soap boiler or 73 of kelp, will produce 100 tons of alum. Where much iron exists in the alum ore, the alkaline chloride, by its decomposition, gives rise to an uncrystallizable chloride of iron. For this rea son it is preferable to the sulphate of potassium. Alum may also be obtained from cryolite by heating the mineral with three times its weight of strong sulphuric acid, whereby anhydrous neutral sulphate of aluminum and acid sulphate of sodium are obtained ; treating the resulting mass with a small quantity of cold water to re move the acid sodium salt ; then digesting the anhydrous sulphate of aluminum with warm water, to convert it into the hydrated salt, and adding the proper quantity of sulphate of po tassium. As the alum from cryolite is remark ably free of iron, it is highly prized by many manufacturers. The discovery of an aluminous earth in the neighborhood of Baux, France, and hence called bauxite, has added to the class of materials for the manufacture of alum. To this the addition both of sulphuric acid and of a salt of potash is necessary. Bauxite is exten sively employed in the manufacture of the sul phate of alumina (alum cake) and of the metal aluminum. At the chemical works of Harri son Brothers, Philadelphia, ammonia alum is manufactured from a pure clay mostly ob tained from Xew Jersey. The clay is dried and then ground and calcined in a reverberatory furnace. When thoroughly calcined and puri fied, it is while hot digested for some hours in sulphuric acid contained in large vats. The product is washed with water and concentrated, sulphate of ammonia having been previously introduced, and it is further purified by re- dissolving, then boiled by steam, and finally transferred to the crystallizing tubs. These are about eight feet high, and made of strong staves. At the end of eight or ten days, the staves of the tub being removed, a cylindri cal mass of apparently solid alum is revealed. This being pierced near the bottom, the mother water at the centre flows off along the sloping floor into leaden subterranean cisterns, whence it is subsequently pumped and variously util ized. Each crystallizing vat yields about 21 barrels of alum ready for market. The com position of pure potash alum is : Potash Alumina Sulphuric acid . Water... .per cent. 10-04 100-00 3G6 ALUM ALUMINA or, Sulphate of potash. . . Sulphate of alumina. Water. . . percent. 18-31 " 36-21 45-46 1 00-00 Its specific gravity is 1 724. It is soluble in 18 parts cold water and in equal weight of boiling water. It consequently rapidly crystal lizes out of a hot saturated solution. Alum has a sweet astringent taste, an acid reaction, and, like sulphuric acid, dissolves many metals, for example iron and zinc, with evolution of hydrogen gas. Burnt alum, or dried alum, is made by gently heating alum till the water is driven off. Ammonia alum readily loses all its ammonia when heated, and the sulphuric acid may be driven off the remaining sulphate, so that the pure earth alumina will remain. The employment of alum in medicine and the arts is very extensive. It precipitates albuminous liquids and combines with gelatine. It causes dryness of the mouth and throat, and checks the secretions of the alimentary canal, produc ing constipation, and in large quantities nausea, vomiting, and purging. Its principal use is in dyeing. The goods are mordanted with it and put in the dye, when the colors are precipitated and fixed in the texture of the cloth by the alumina. Alum is added to the size in the manufacture of paper to prevent decomposition, and also to bookbinders 1 paste for a similar pur pose. Baths of alum are used in the tanning of leather, and it is applied in the printing baths of photographers. It has also been em ployed in refining sugar and in the manufac ture of pigments called lakes. The leather of Hungary is made by impregnating strong hides with alum, common salt, and suet ; and in the coloring of morocco the puce tint is communi cated- -by logwood with a little alum. When alum is added to tallow, it makes it harder. Printers cushions and the blocks used in the calico manufactory are rubbed with burnt alum to remove any greasiness which might prevent the ink or color from adhering. Water can be purified by means of alum ; the mud tha-t water holds in suspension collects on the addition of 0*001 part of alum (this is equal to seven grains per gallon) in long thick streaks, coagulates as it were, and is immediately precipitated. This process, the principle of which is inexplicable, was first introduced by the Chinese, and has been imitated in various parts of the world. The operation was well known from a very early period in the highlands of Scotland, ac cording to Dr. Clark, where it is practised with peat water. The Parisian laundresses use it, but it has not been introduced into any of the establishments for the purification of drinking water, partly because alum is a substance never naturally combined in water, and may be re ceived as a real impurity, and partly on ac count of public prejudice. In bottling fruits for preservation, alum water is used. A novel application of alum is seen in the lining of some iron safes with a mixture of alum and ! sulphate of lime; as the alum contains 24 equivalents of water, when the safe is heated it keeps the sides cool from the evaporation of the water, the contents of the safe remaining j uninjured. It is used in the manufacture of bread to increase the whiteness of the flour. According to Liebig, this is very injurious, as | he supposes the soluble phosphates to combine with the alumina, forming insoluble salts, and the beneficial action of the phosphorus is lost to the system. In the manufacture of lard alum is used as an adulterant. Dr. Hassall says that alum is generally put into the vat in breweries to give the beer a smack of age ; it also imparts a heading to porter, which land lords are so anxious to raise to gratify their customers. Alum dissolved in water is used in the adulteration of gin; and it is added to artificial port wine, to increase the brilliancy of the color. ALOILXA, the only known oxide of aluminum. It occurs colorless as corundum, and colored by traces of oxide of chromium and cobalt in the ruby and sapphire. It is found in a few places in larger quantities in the form of emery, which is nearly pure alumina. It is very widely disseminated in nature in combination with other bases in the form of double silicates, constituting feldspars, micas, and a large scries of important minerals, from the decomposition and disintegration of which clays are composed. It forms the greater portion of the crust of the earth, and, in the form of clay, affects the fertility of every soil. It is not taken up by plants, except in rare cases, nor is it found in the animal kingdom. There has recently been discovered a mineral in the vicinity of Baux, France, to which is applied the name bauxite. It differs materially from clay in being simply a hydrated oxide of alumina and iron without any silica. It is entirely infusible, and crucibles and fire brick made of it remain unchanged when ordinary fire-clay material loses shape and partially fuses. It is extensively employed in the manufacture of sulphate and other salts of alumina, and of the metal aluminum. When perfectly pure, bauxite is composed of sesqui- oxide of alumina 52 00, sesquioxide of iron 27 60, and water 20 40; but its composition varies considerably, and some varieties contain small quantities of silica and lime. It differs especially from kaolin in not being a silicate but an oxide of alumina. Well known minerals analogous to it are gibbsite and diaspore. Alu mina may be prepared by adding ammonia to any of its soluble salts (alum for instance), when a gelatinous precipitate of the hydrate of alu mina is thrown down, having the formula, according to the present chemical theories, of A1 2 H 6 O6=A1 2 3 , 3H 2 O, after being dried in the air. To obtain it more dense and free of iron, it is now customary to pass carbonic acid gas through a dilute and cold solution of alumi- nate of soda, prepared in the L T nited States from the mineral cryolite, which is brought from Greenland to be us-xl in the manufacture of ALUMINUM 307 glass and soap. The pure anhydrous alumina is prepared by the calcination of the hydrated oxide obtained as above described, or by expos ing ammonia alum to a lively red heat. A peculiar modification of alumina is obtained, according to Walter ( rum. by long-continued boiling of acetate of alumina; the acetic acid is liberated, and there remains a hydrated oxide soluble in water. A second modification of soluble alumina was discovered by Professor Graham, which can be obtained by the dialytic decomposition of a solution of hydrate of alu mina in chloride of aluminum : it has proper ties differing from either of the other forms. Properties of alum ina. When pure it is a white, liirht powder, devoid of taste and odor, infusi ble excepting before the oxyhydrogen blow pipe, when it constitutes a viscous fluid that can be drawn in strings like melted quartz, and on cooling yields a crystalline mass sufficiently hard to scratch and cut glass. Calcined alumi na is absolutely insoluble in water, but if it has not been heated to redness it combines with a certain portion of water with disengagement of heat. Hydrated alumina is white when moist, but becomes translucent by desiccation, and sometimes yellow if it has been precipitated in the presence of organic matter. Its affinity for coloring matter is so great that it readily absorbs the organic dyes from solutions, and has extensive application as a mordant, as a clarifying agent, and in the manufacture of lakes, the hydrate of alumina after calcina tion is soluble only with difficulty in acids, but readily soluble when freshly precipitated. The hydrates, prepared according to the methods of Crum and Graham, are soluble in water and possess characteristic properties. Several of the metallic oxides, as soda and potash, if fused in a silver crucible with alumina, combine with it arid form aluininates. The minerals corun dum, sapphire, and ruby have been made arti ficially by Deville and Caron, by heating the fluoride of aluminum in a carbon crucible, underneath which is suspended a platinum capsule containing boracic acid ; at an elevated temperature the fluorine reacts on the boracic acid and yields a fluoride of boron and a crystalline metallic oxide. By adding variable quantities of sesquioxide of chromium, good imitations of the ruby, sapphire, and corundum can be obtained ; and it is said that Bonsdorf has made the mineral gibbsite by exposing a solution of aluminate of potash to the action of an atmosphere of carbonic acid. When metallic aluminum is heated to redness in the air or in oxygen gas, it burns brightly and is converted into alumina, 53 -3 parts of the metal taking up 46 -69 parts of oxygen to form the pure earth. The compound thus produced is inferred to be sesquioxide because it is isonior- phous with the sesquioxides of iron and chro mium, and is capable of replacing these oxides in combination in any proportion. ALUMINUM, or Aluminium, one of the metals of the earths never found native, but occurring in combination with other elements in 105 dif ferent species of minerals, and consequently i constituting a large part of the solid crust of : the earth. Among the minerals and rocks containing this metal may be mentioned the following: ruby, sapphire, corundum, emery, : gibbsite, bauxite, turquoise, lapis lazuli, topaz, ! cryolite, feldspar, clay, and slates. Although | so abundant, it is only within a few years that the metal has been prepared in a free state, ! and even at the present time the manufacture j is too expensive to admit of its common use in the arts. Davy, Berzelius, and Oersted at- i tempted to decompose the oxide by means of | the electric current, but without success. Oer- : sted, who discovered the chloride, failed in his j efforts to decompose this salt by metallic alka lies. It was first prepared in 1827 by W r ohler, who obtained a gray metallic powder on de- ! composing the chloride with potassium under | a gentle heat. In 1845 Wohler obtained it in I the form of a metallic button by passing vapor- i ized chloride of aluminum over heated potassi um. Its chemical and physical properties were | then determined, and the subject allowed to rest ! till 1854, when it was a second time discovered i by Deviile. He heated the crude chloride of alu- ! minum in an upright iron cylinder, connected ! by a pipe with a smaller horizontal cylinder con taining iron nails, which reduced any perchlo- I ride of iron present to the less volatile proto- chloride, and also detained any hydrochloric i acid or chloride of sulphur present. The vapor i of aluminum chloride passed next through a I long wrought-iron cylinder containing three dishes holding a pound of sodium each, and I heated on the lower side to dull redness. The reaction is sometimes so violent as to re quire a careful regulation of the heat. Metallic ; aluminum is formed along with the double chloride of sodium and aluminum. This mass ; is then heated in an iron vessel or clay crucible ! until it is entirely melted and the double salt | begins to evaporate. When cold the chloride of sodium found on top is removed, the buttons of aluminum are washed with water, dried, and heated to redness, when they may be pressed together. The loss of aluminum by this process is very considerable. The method was afterward abandoned, and the following mixture employed : chloride of aluminum and sodium, 400 grammes ; common salt, 200 ; fluor spar, 200 ; sodium. To to 80. The double salt is previously fused and heated almost to redness, the common salt fused or strongly ignited, the fluor spar powdered and well dried. The double salt and common salt are broken up into a coarse powder, mixed with the fluor spar, and placed in a crucible with alternate layers of sodium, the whole being covered with a layer of common salt. It is heated gently at first, then more strongly, until the melting point of silver is nearly but not quite reached. The mass is stirred with a clay pipe stem, and poured out on a dry slab of lime stone. The aluminum is readily separated 368 ALUMINUM from the slag, find should yield 25 grammes from 75 grammes of sodium. In this experi ment the liuor spar should be free from silica, and the sides of the crucible be protected by a layer of alumina prepared from a paste of 4 parts ignited aluminum and 1 part aluminate of lime. The process requires some experience in order to succeed. It is much easier and simpler to employ cryolite instead of fluor spar. In 1855 II. Hose in Berlin, and Dr. Percy in England, prepared aluminum from cryolite. The pulverized mineral was mixed with half its weight of common salt, and the mixture arranged in alternate layers with sodium (2 parts sodium to 5 parts cryolite), in an earth en or iron crucible covered with a layer of pure cryolite, and the whole covered with common salt. The crucible, well covered, is heated to a bright red heat by means of a blast lamp for half an hour, then allowed to cool, and the contents removed with a chisel, at the same time tapping the crucible with a hammer. In 1858 Gerhard invented and patented an improvement, consisting in the use of a re- verberatory furnace with two hearths, one above the other, communicating by an iron pipe. In the lower is placed the mixture of sodium with the aluminum compound, and in the upper a stratum of common salt, or of a mixture of sodium and cryolite, or of the slag from a former operation. This layer when melted is made to run into the lower furnace in quantity sufficient to cover completely the mixture contained therein, so as to protect it from the air. Several attempts have been made, but with doubtful success, to separate aluminum from its compounds by means of the ordinary reducing agents, hydrogen and carbon. Johnson has patented the following process: Mix together sulphide of aluminum and anhy drous sulphate of aluminum, in such propor tions that the oxygen present is just sufficient to convert all the sulphur into sulphurous acid (A1 9 S 3 + A1 2 (S0 4 ) 3 = 4A1 + 6SO 2 ). The mixture is heated in a non-oxidizing atmos phere to a red heat. Corbelli of Florence mixes the impure sulphate with 2 parts ferrocyanide of potassium and 1|- of com mon salt, heating the whole to redness. Knowles decomposes the chloride by means of cyanide of potassium. Bunsen in 1 854 obtained aluminum by electrolysis of the fused chloride of aluminum and sodium in a red-hot crucible, ten elements of a Bunsen battery being required. Messrs. Bell Brothers of England commenced producing aluminum a few years since from the ammonia alum of commerce, but afterward employed a native hydrated oxide known as the mineral bauxite. (See ALUMINA.) The baux ite, having first been reduced to fine powder by grinding under an edge-stone, is mixed with a quantity of soda slightly more than is neces sary to form aluminate of soda with the alumi na of the mineral, and heated in a reverberato- ry furnace. The aluminate of soda thus pro duced is afterward decomposed, and furnishes the alumina for further decomposition by means of chlorine and sodium as above de scribed. The electro-galvanic deposition of aluminum, although frequently attempted, does not appear to have been successfully accomplish ed. Properties of aluminum. Aluminum is a bluish white metal, without odor or taste, nearly as malleable as gold and silver; density of the fused metal 2 50, of the hammered 2 67 ; melting point between that of silver and zinc ; nearly as good a conductor of electricity a$ silver ; does not oxidize in the air, even at a strong red heat ; does not decompose water ex cepting at a white heat ; is not blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen. It is not attacked by nitric acid, either dilute or concentrated, at or dinary temperatures, and very slowly even at the boiling heat ; neither is it acted upon by sulphuric acid diluted to the degree at which that acid dissolves zinc ; but hydrochloric acid, either dilute or concentrated, dissolves it easi ly even at low temperatures, with evolution of hydrogen. Caustic soda and potash readily dissolve it, forming aluminates of those bases. Ammonia acts but slightly on it. Professor Wtirtz of New York prepares an amalgam of aluminum by heating thin foil on mercury in a glass tube so drawn out that the foil cannot swim on the mercury. This amalgam is more readily decomposed in the air and in water than sodium amalgam. Aluminum is a power ful reducing agent for solutions of chlorides, and in the preparation of the rare elements* boron and silicon. An alloy of aluminum with silver, called third silver (tiers-argent), com posed of one third silver and two thirds aluminum, is chiefly employed for forks, spoons, and tea service, and is harder than silver and more easily engraved. Another alloy, called minargent, is composed of 100 parts copper, 70 parts nickel, 5 parts antimony, and 2 parts aluminum. The beautiful tone of the metal has suggested its use in the manufacture of bells, and a successful application of it for this purpose has been made. Mixed with copper in the proportion of 10 parts of aluminum and 90 of copper, it forms a beautiful alloy known as aluminum bronze, now frequently employ ed for the manufacture of watch cases, watch chains, imitation jewelry, sheathing for stairs, and bearings of machinery. The alloy of aluminum with iron is crystalline and of no value in the arts. Experiments made in 1805 at the United States mint on alloys of alumi num for coins were not sufficiently successful to induce the government to adopt them. The difficulty encountered in soldering and welding aluminum, and the high cost of its production, have seriously interfered with its extensive ap plication in the arts. It can hardly be said to have fulfilled all the expectations that were raised at the time of the revival in its manu facture introduced in 1855 by Deville. Salts of aluminum. These are very numerous, many of them extensively employed in the arts. Alum and the oxide alumina are separately de- ALVA 3G9 scribed. The chloride, Al 2 Cle, can be prepared by passing dry chlorine gas through a heated mixture of alumina and charcoal. It is a vol atile compound, and is used as above described in the manufacture of the metal aluminum. The hydrated chloride of alumina is easily prepared by dissolving aluminum in hydro chloric acid. It is sold in commerce, under the name of chloralum, as a disinfectant and anti- ! septic, and is also recommended for salting paper in photography. Sulphate of aluminum | is known in a crude state as alum cake, and is prepared on a large scale by roasting aluminous ; shales as described under ALUM. It can be ! prepared in a small way by dissolving the j hydrate of alumina in sulphuric acid. Acetate i of aluminum is prepared by precipitating ace- I tade of lead with sulphate of aluminum or with | a solution of alum. It is extensively used as a j mordant in calico printing, especially in pro ducing madder reds, whence it is called "red liquor. 1 ALUMNUS (Lat., from alere), to nourish, origi nally the designation of a student who was supported and educated at the expense of the alumnat, an institution which, especially after the reformation, was endowed for the particu lar purpose of extending hospitality and educa tion to youths who could not afford to pay for their living and tuition. Maurice of Saxony endowed three such institutions in Pforte, Meissen, and Grimma, which are to this day in active operation. The alumni have to adhere to the rules of the establishment and to perform various services for the school and the church, such as singing in the choir and the like, while the extraneers, the name given to students who pay for their board and tuition, are not bound to perform such services. In ordinary par lance, every graduate of a university or college is now an alumnus. In jurisprudence, the term aluranat is the generic expression for the gen eral responsibilities attached in the eyes of the law to the relationship of the foster-father (nutritor) toward the child whom he has un dertaken to support and educate. ALUNNO, Nieolo, of Foligno, an Italian painter j of the 15th century, one of the masters of the Umbrian school, which was the forerunner of 1 the Roman. His earliest known work bears the date of 1458, and his latest that of 1499. ; His Pietd in the cathedral of Assisi, of which only a portion remains, was regarded by Vasari aa his master work. His other works are : chiefly found in Perugia and Foligno. ALIIRED, Aired, or Alfred of Beverley, an Eng lish historian, died probably in 1129. He is said to have been a native of Yorkshire and one of the canons and treasurer of the church j of St. John in Beverley. He left an "Epitome : of British History" from the time of the fabu- ! lous Brutus to the 29th year of Henry I., writ- ; ten in good Latin, and compiled with a care unusual for that day. It was published by ; Hearne at Oxford in 1716. The work bears a strong resemblance to that of Geoffrey of Mon- VOL. i. 24 i mouth, both having probably been drawn from ! the same sources. ALITA, Alt, or Olt, a northern affluent of the Danube, which rises in the Carpathians of east- ; ern Transylvania, and, after flowing S. and then W., crosses the Carpathians S. of Hcrmann- j stadt, traverses "Wallachia, and empties near " Turna, opposite Xicopolis. Its entire course is I about 330 m. Its principal tributary is the Oltetz, in Wallachia. ALVA, or Alba, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, duke of, a Spanish general and statesman, born in 1508, died Jan. 12, 1582. He was descended from a family which boasted its ex traction from Byzantine emperors ; aud one of his ancestors, a Palycologus, conquered Toledo, and transmitted its appellation as a family name. From his earliest years he was trained to arras, and imbibed a hatred of infidels, which was afterward naturally transferred to those at enmity with the church of Rome. At 16 years of age he fought at Fontarabia, and in 1530 he accompanied the emperor Charles V. in his campaign against the Turks. At this period he seemed like one of the romantic heroes of chivalry. On one occasion he rode as fast as his steed could bear him from Hungary to Spain and back again, merely for a hurried visit to his young bride. In 1535 he took part in Charles s expedition to Tunis. In 1546- 7 he was generalissimo in the war against the Smal- caldian league, winning his greatest honors at the battle of Mtihlberg, in which he totally routed the Protestant forces. In 1554 he went with the Spanish crown prince to England, and shortly before that prince s accession to the throne as Philip II. on the abdication of Charles V. was made generalissimo of the army in Italy, engaged in a war with Pope Paul IV. Although he reverenced the successor of St. Peter, he was greatly displeased with Philip for obliging him to make peace with the pontiff, whose capital he had seized. To patience and cunning he united ferocity and a thirst for blood scarcely human ; he hardly knew the meaning of pity, though frequently alluding to his clem ency in his letters to Philip. The personal ap pearance of this extraordinary man well merits description. He was tall, thin, erect, with a small head, dark sparkling eyes, cavernous cheeks, and a stern expression, rendered more striking by a long, thin, waving, and silvered beard. In manners he was cold and haughty, and was even more inaccessible than his royal master. The spoliation of the churches in the Netherlands by the iconoclasts had enraged Philip more than any of the other troubles in his Flemish provinces ; and their armed invasion having been determined on, 10,000 picked vet erans were placed under the command of the duke of Alva. Refused a passage through the French dominions, the force embarked at Cartagena, May 10, 1567, and landed at Ge noa. The whole army was under the most per fect discipline, and attached to it was a force of 2,000 prostitutes, enrolled and distributed, 370 ALVA doubtless to prevent the troops from any out rages in lands through which lay their march. In three divisions they made their way over Mont Cenis, and through Savoy, Burgundy, and Lorraine, and without the least opposition entered the territory of the Netherlands. Great was the alarm in the disaffected provinces when it was learned that Alva was on his march. William of Orange, who was not to be deceived by any sho\v of clemency, had retired into Germany. The duke s interviews with the duchess of Parma, then regent of the Nether lands, were brief and formal ; but in spite of courtly etiquette, neither could well conceal dislike of the other. Margaret, enraged at being superseded, soon took her departure, and Alva was left alone to fulfil his mission. Es tablishing his headquarters at Brussels, he at once proceeded in his work of vengeance. The " Council of Troubles " was set up, to inquire into and punish all past offences ; and so merci less were its labors, that it was styled by the populace the council of blood. Counts Egmont and Horn, the two idols of the people, who had been foremost in asserting the religious liberties of the Netherlands, but who were guilty of no treason, were beheaded in the great square of Brussels, June 5, 1508. The execution of other popular leaders imme diately followed; burnings at the stake and decapitation thenceforth were decreed by wholesale, and during the whole period of Alva s six years administration in the Neth erlands blood flowed like water. Through out the land his name, and those of his terrible subordinates in the blood council, Hessels and Vargas, came to be feared and hated. The least suspicion of any person, however inno cent, especially if he was rich, drew down the vengeance of the council ; for Alva had prom ised before he left Spain to enrich the treasury of Philip by a golden river a yard deep, drawn from the confiscated wealth of heretics; he even named 500,000 ducats per annum as the sum. Military operations had begun before the fatal 5th of June. Count Louis of Nassau having invaded Friesland, Alva took measures to oppose him vigorously. At first the count met with some success, and at the battle of Heiligerlee defeated the Spaniards under the duke of Aremberg, who was killed. Alva was roused to fury at the news, and to expiate the loss of the duke beheaded 18 nobles besides hastening the execution of Egmont and Horn, and then left Brussels to meet the count in the field. An attempt to destroy the dikes and in undate the country was frustrated by the ar rival of Alva s forces, and at the battle of Jem- rningen he utterly routed Louis and destroyed his army. "William of Orange persevered, and, mustering another army, sought in vain to bring Alva to an engagement. Twenty-nine times did the prince change his encampment, and as often did the Spanish forces hover in his rear. The duke s skill in the campaign of 1568 was a masterpiece of tactics ; he had no- ! thing to gain, the prince everything to hope I for, by a battle. The country people of Brabant, | the scene of this masterly inactivity, refused j the prince supplies ; and Alva had caused the j irons to be taken out of every mill, so that not ; a bushel of corn could be ground in the prov- I ince. Frustrated in his hopes of a battle, Wil- I liam was further dejected by the supineness of j the country. Not a single city opened its gates i to him ; he was forced to quit the Netherlands | and disband his army soon after, while Alva erected a colossal bronze statue of himself in the citadel of Antwerp, and ordered a series of magnificent fetes to be celebrated at Brussels. He was soon engaged in a quarrel with Eliza beth of England, who had seized in her ports $800,000 of Spanish funds. Alva retaliated by ordering the arrest of every Englishman in the Netherlands, and the seizure of all their prop erty ; and between the two angry spirits, Flemish prosperity was well nigh annihilated. But the duke was disappointed in his hopes of forcing a golden stream to flow into the king s coffers; with all his abilities as a soldier, he was a wretched financier; and so far from sup- | porting his army on the confiscations of the people, and supplying Philip with gold besides, as he boasted he would, during the six years of his rule twenty-five millions of money were sent to him from Spain, yet he left the Nether lands without a dollar in the treasury. Among his odious schemes were a tax of the hundredth penny, or one per cent., on all property, real and personal, to be paid instantly and collected once ; a perpetual tax of the twentieth penny, or 5 per cent., on every transfer of real estate ; and a tax of the tenth penny, or 10 per cent., assessed upon every article of merchandise or personal property, to be paid as often as it should be sold. No sooner was this monstrous imposition declared than every one in the land excepting the duke himself perceived how ut terly abortive and ridiculous a scheme it would prove. The towns rebelled, and examples by dozens were made of refractory citizens to no purpose. The king was petitioned, and finally, after all the severity of Alva, a temporary com promise was effected, by which the towns were to pay $2,000,000 yearly for the two follow ing years, that is, until the month of August, 1571. At length universal revolt was man ifested. The shops were all closed ; " the brewers refused to brew, the bakers to bake, the tapsters to tap." Alva thereupon resolved to hang 18 of the tradesmen of Brus sels at the doors of their own shops, without j trial. This summary work was prevented, i however, by the news of the capture of Brief i by the "Water Beggars," adherents of the I prince of Orange. The revolution and capture I of Flushing soon followed, and the first half of | the year 1572 was distinguished by a series of triumphs for the patriot party. The nation I shook off its fetters in one sudden bound of en- | thusias m, and Oudewater, Dort, Leyden, Gor- ! kum, Gouda, Horn, Alkmaar, Edam, and many ALVAR ALVARADO 371 other towns, ranged themselves under the standard of the prince of Orange. His triumph, however, was short, for the news of the mas sacre of St. Bartholomew, in August, fell with frightful effect upon his followers, utterly par alysing their hopes and efforts; his armies melted away, the towns forswore their alle giance to him, and almost in solitude he re tired to Holland, the province which best pre served its fidelity. He had but a few days be fore considered Charles IX. of France as his ally, and was expecting an army of assistance led by Admiral Coligni, when he heard the news of his murder. On many of the offending cities, even those which returned to obedi ence, Spanish vengeance fell with terrible ret ribution. At length, at the siege of Alkmaar, after investing the city for seven weeks, the Spaniards were obliged to retreat ; and from that moment a brighter day dawned on the Netherlands. Finally, disgusted with the hopelessness of his cause, and furious at the intrigues of those in power about him, Alva obtained his recall, received his successor, Don Luis de Requesens y Zuniga, Nov. 17, 1573, and on the 18th of the next month left the provinces for ever. His parting advice was, that every city in the Netherlands should be burned to the ground, except a few to be per manently garrisoned ; and he boasted that during his six years rule he had caused 18,000 persons to be executed. But to this immense number must be added those who perished by siege, battle, and merciless slaughter ; and the list defies all computation. Every conceivable mode of death and torture was wreaked upon the victims of his royal master s vengeance. At the sack of Haarlem 300 citizens, tied two and two and back to back, were thrown into the lake ; and at Zutphen 500 more, in the same inanner, were drowned in the river Yssel. Thousands of women were publicly violated, and unborn infants ripped from the wombs of their mothers. Yet Alva was always com plaining to Philip II. of the unjust hatred shown toward him, and the "ingratitude 1 of the Netherlander in return for his " clemency." He was well received by Philip II., but some time afterward fell into disgrace with the mon arch, from espousing the cause of his own son, who had debauched a maid of honor. He was imprisoned and banished until required for the conquest of Portugal. This he accomplished in 1580, and died at the age of 74 years. ALVAR, Alwur, or Maehery, a native state of Hindostan, in Rajpootana, between lat. 27 4 and 28 13 N., and Ion. 7fi 7 and 77 14 E. ; area, 3,573 sq. m. ; pop. about 280,000. It is a hilly district, inhabited by a savage, predatory people known as Mewattis, and long famous for their hostility to Europeans. Under Brit ish influence, however, their rude character has been greatly modified. The state is gov erned by a rajah who is under the control of the governor general s agent for the Rajpoot states. Alvar, the capital, is situated at the ] base of a rocky range, 110 m. S. S. W. of Delhi ! and 900 m. N. "W. of Calcutta. It is a small, ill-built town, surrounded by a wretched mud wall, and overlooked by a fort on the hill. 1 The rajah s palace and some Hindoo temples are the principal buildings. ALVARADO, a river and town in Mexico, in the state of Vera Cruz. The town is situ ated on the left bank of the river, about 3 rn. from its mouth, and 35 m. S. E. of Vera Cruz; pop. about 2,000. It consists mostly of cane cottages roofed with palm leaves. The coun try south of the river has numerous planta tions of cacao, and produces much rice, both of which articles are sent to the other states of Mexico. There is a dockyard at Alvarado, and a port capable of admitting vessels not ex ceeding 13 feet draught; and it has consider able commerce with Vera Cruz. The climate is very unhealthy. ALVARADO, Pedro de, one of the conquerors of Spanish America, born at Badajoz toward the I end of the 15th century, died in 1541. In ! 1518 he sailed with his four brothers for Cuba, | whence he accompanied Grijalva in his explor- ing expedition along the coast of the American ; continent. Grijalva was so delighted with the ! aspect of the country that he called it New ! Spain, and sent Alvarado back to Cuba to re- | port to Governor Velasquez what they had ! seen and what they had heard, for the first ! time, about the immense empire of Montezu- ! ma. In February, 1519, he accompanied ! Cortes in his expedition, and took an active i and remarkable part in all the incidents of the I conquest of Mexico. Cortes, while engaged in j the battle against Narvaez, left the city of Mex- ; ico under charge of Alvarado, but by his cruel- I ty and rapacity the latter caused an insurrec- I tion, and narrowly escaped with his life. In i the famous retreat of f the night of July 1, 1520 (la noche triste\ Alvarado distinguished hiin- | self by his gallant exploits, and to commemo- i rate his bravery an enormous ditch over which i he leaped to escape from the hands of the ene- | my is called to this day "el salto de Alvarado." ! On his return to Spain he was received with I great honor by Charles V., and appointed gov- i ernor of Guatemala, which he had conquered ! in 1523. He married a daughter of the iiius- j trious house of Cueva, from which the dukes of ! Albuquerque are descended, and returned to America, accompanied by a host of adven- i turers. Guatemala became highly prosperous under his government. Having authority to | extend his conquests, he embarked on the Pa- j cific an expedition of 500 men to effect the ! capture of Quito, and landed near Cape San j Francisco, whence he marched into the interi- i or; but among the Andes he met the forces of i Pizarro, prepared to resist his advance. Dis claiming any intention to interfere with his ! countryman s rights, he received 120.000 i pieces of eight as an indemnification for his j outlay and losses, and, after a friendly meeting I with the conquerors of Peru, returned to Gua- 372 ALVAREZ ALZEY temala. Visiting Spain soon afterward, he ap- | peased the emperor s displeasure at this affair, obtained in addition to his former command the governorship of Honduras, and then fitted out from Guatemala a new expedition of dis covery, consisting of 12 large ships, two galleys, 800 soldiers, 150 horses, and a large retinue of Indians. Sailing W. and N. "W. along the Mexican coast, he was driven by stress of weather into the port of Los Pueblos de Avalos, in Michoacan. Here a messenger from the Spaniards of the interior asked his assistance in putting down a revolt of the Chichimecas of New Galicia. He landed with a part of his force, made a rapid march to the encampment of his countrymen, and with them attacked the Indians, who were strongly posted among the mountains. The Spaniards were defeated and put to flight, and Alvarado was killed by his horse falling upon him at the crossing of a river. The expedition was then abandoned. ALVAREZ, Francisco, a Portuguese traveller, born in Coimbra, died after 1540. He was chaplain of King Emanuel, and in 1515 ac companied his embassy to the negus or empe ror of Abyssinia, then known to the Portu guese as Prester John. Going first to India, they were delayed by various causes, among which was the death of the original ambassa dor, Duarte Galvam, and the substitution of Don Rodrigo de Lima, a soldier quite unfit for the charge. Landing at Massowah April 6, 1520, their journey through the interior was beset with man} r difficulties and dangers ; but at last, on Oct. 20, they were received at the temporary court of the negus, an encampment in Shoa. Alvarez made himself acceptable to all parties, especially to the Abyssinian priest hood, who respected his religious character, and to the negus, who conceived such an admi ration for him that he appointed him ambassa dor to the Vatican a mission which Alvarez could only discharge many years afterward, in 1533. The embassy left the Abyssinian court at the beginning of 1521, with a view of re turning to Portugal ; but a quarrel which broke out among the company, and which called for the interference of the negus, led to their re maining in Abyssinia till 1526, when Alvarez returned to Lisbon, where he was received with great distinction by John III., King Emanuel having died in 1521. The king prompted him to compile an account of his ob servations during his six years stay in Abyssin ia ; and he accordingly prepared an itinerary in five books, which was published in Lisbon in 1540, under the title Verdadeira Tnformacao do Preste Joao das Indicts. Only a few copies were printed, and it soon became very rare. A mutilated copy was obtained by Ramusio, in whose collection will be found "The Journey in Ethiopia of Francisco Alvarez. 1 ALVAREZ, Jnan, a Mexican general, leader of the revolution which in 1855 drove Santa Anna from power, born about 1790, died in 1870. He was of Indian blood, and always exercised an extraordinary influence over tho people of southern Mexico. Being governor of Guerrero in 1853, he had little difficulty in rousing his mountaineers to insurrection. The outbreak took place at Acapulco, at the beginning of the following year. In the decree promulgated by Alvarez, in March, 1854, which became noted as the plan of Ayutla, Santa Anna s depo sition was officially announced, and repub lican institutions were proposed to the people. After Santa Anna s downfall, Gen. Carrera was intrusted for six months with the charge of the government, which, however, he relinquished in September in favor of Alvarez, whose nom ination as president of Mexico was ratified by the assembly of Cuernavaca, which for that purpose he had convoked himself on Oct. 4, 1855. On Nov. 15 he made his entry into Mexico, escorted by a body guard of Indians. His abolition of the privileges of the clergy and the army met with such opposition that he tendered his resignation, substituting in his place his former minister Comonfort, Dec. 11 ; and after procuring $200,000 from the national exchequer, and what arms and munitions he could get, he returned to southern Mexico. ALVINCZY, Joseph, baron, an Austrian field marshal, born in Transylvania, Feb. 1, 1735, died in Buda, Sept. 25, 1810. He distin guished himself during the seven years war at Torgau, at the capture of Schweidnitz, and in the engagement at Toplitz. During the peace he introduced many reforms in the tactics of the Austrian troops. In 1789 he took part, under Field Marshal London, in the campaign against the Turks, and, although he did not succeed in reducing Belgrade, the emperor Joseph II. conferred upon him the dignity of lieutenant field marshal. Subsequently he was sent to Liege to quell an insurrection. He was not successful, but the confidence in his ability as a tactician remained the same, and in 1790, after the defeats of Bcaulieu and Wurmser, he was put at the head of the Austrian army against Bonaparte. He obtained some small advan tages over the French at the Scalda, at Bassano, and at Vicenza, but he lost the two great battles of A r cole (Nov. 17, 1790) and Ilivoli (Jan. 14, 1797), and was recalled, and even accused of treachery. The emperor Francis, who had been one of his military pupils, did not notice these imputations, and appointed him in 1798 superior commander of Hungary, where he reorganized the army, and 10 years later made him field marshal. ALXOGER, Joliann Baptist von, a German poet, born in Vienna, Jan. 24, 1755, died May 1, 1797. Though he was a lawyer, and held the title of court advocate, he availed himself of his legal } station only to arrange disputes or plead for the | poor. His principal productions are two chiv- j alresque epics in "Wieland s style, Doolin von Mainz and Bliomberis. His works were pub lished in Vienna in 1812 in 10 vols. ALZEY, a town in the grand duchy of Hesse, province of Rhenish Hesse, situated on the AMADEUS AMALASOSTIIA 373 Selz, 18 m. S. by W. of Mcntz; pop. in 1867, 5,358. Tho chief industries are tanning and the manufacture of tobacco. It was founded in the time of the Romans, and had for some time in the middle ages its own lords, ruins of whose castle are still extant. AMADEUS, a name very common in the ruling family of Savoy, and first borne by the eldest son of Count Humbert, in the beginning of the llth century. The most noteworthy rulers of this name are : I. Amadens Vt, count of Savoy, the son of Thomas II., born in 1249, succeeded his uncle Philip in 1285, and died at Avignon in 1323. lie obtained the surname of Great. He largely increased his dominions by marriage, purchase, and donations. Among his exploits is mentioned a repulse of the Turks from i Rhodes, then in the possession of the knights of St. John, a triumph which was believed to have led to the adoption of the "cross of Savoy," arid the device F. E. R. T., or F E R T, gener ally explained by Fortitudo cjns Rliodum tcnuit ; but both the exploit and the explana tion are now considered unauthentic. His daughter was married to Andronicus III., emperor of Constantinople. In order to induce Pope John XXII. to preach a crusade in favor of his son-in-law, he undertook a journey to Avignon, where he died. II. Amadens VIII., count of Savoy, and for some time pope or | anti-pope, succeeded his father Amadeus VII. in 1391. He purchased the country of Gene- vois for 45,000 florins, and thus the house of Savoy became so powerful that the emperor Sigismund in 1416 erected Savoy into a duchy. John Paloeologus, duke of Montferrat, agreed to hold the marquisate of Montferrat as a fief of the house of Savoy. By marriage and dona tion Amadeus made yet further acquisitions. In 1434, however, he abandoned his duchy to his son and retired to the monastery of Ripaillc, where he lived so luxuriously ihatfaire Ripaille became a saying in the French language, signi fying to make good cheer. He had never received holy orders, but was elected pope and crowned at Basel by the cardinal of Aries, under the title of Felix V. The papal dignity ! was contested by Eugenius IV., who was sup- | ported by France, England, Italy, Spain, and I Hungary. Eugenius died, and the cardinals at j Rome elected Thomas de Sarzana (Nicholas V.). Amadeus resigned the papal crown in his favor in 1449, stipulating, however, that he I should be perpetual apostolical legate in his late temporal dominions, that he should con tinue to wear the pontifical dress except in a few particulars, that he need not go to Rome to attend any general council, and that the pope should rise to receive him, and permit him to j kiss his check instead of his foot. AMADEUS I. (Amadeo Ferdinando Maria), king | of Spain, duke of Aosta, second son of King Victor Emanuel of Italy, born May 30, 1845. He early held the rank of lieutenant j general in the Italian army and that of rear | admiral in the navy, and showed much interest i in naval affairs. lie married, May 30, 1867, the wealthy Italian princess Maria del Pozzo della Cisterna, whose mother was a countess de Me- rode. His nomination as king of Spain, proposed by Gen. Prim, was sanctioned by Victor Ernan- uel, subject to the approval of the European powers, which was given in October, 1870, and to the ratification by a majority of the cortes, which took place on Nov. 16. He reached Madrid Jan. 2, 1871, Gen. Prim having been assassinated four days previously. lie was him self beset by assassins (July, 1872), by Carlist risings, and by other dangers and administrative difficulties. Becoming discouraged, he abdica ted the throne for himself and his heirs, Feb. 11, 1873, and returned to Italy, the cortes imme diately proclaiming and organizing a republic. AMADIS OF GAUL, the mythical hero of one of the early romances of chivalry, written by Vasco de Lobeira, a gentleman of the Por tuguese court, who died in 1403. The Portu guese original is lost, and the earliest known version is the Spanish one of Montalvo, made be tween 1492 and 1504. It has been translated into various languages, and extended to five times its original length, and was the most popular as it is the best of all the fictions of its class. Amadis, the pattern of a perfect knight, is supposed to have flourished soon after the beginning of the Christian era, and to have gone through a variety of adventures in Eng land, France, Germany, Turkey, and more or less imaginary countries. He is the son of an imaginary king of Gaul (perhaps Wales), and crowns his adventures by marrying Oriana, daughter of Lisuarte, king of England. AMADOR, an E. county of California, bordering on the Sierra Nevada, bounded S. E. by the Amador river, a tributary of the Sacramento, and drained by the branches of the San Joa- quin; pop. in 1870, 9,582, of whom 1,627 were Chinese. Gold, copper, marble, and quartz abound. The productions in 1870 were 16,678 bushels of wheat, 51,815 of barley, 36,760 of corn, 73,010 Ibs. of wool, and 54,165 gallons of wine. There were 36 quartz mills for the pro duction of gold, 9 saw mills, and 2 newspapers. Capital, Jackson. A3IALARIC, the son of Alaric II., and last Visigothic king of Spain, born in 501, died in 531. He was not yet six years old at his father s death, and his bastard brother would have supplanted him had not his grandfather Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, seized the throne and preserved it for his grandson until he reached manhood. He married Clotilda, daughter of Clovis, king of the Franks, in 527, and having treated her with great cruelty to induce her to embrace Arianism, her brother Childebert marched against him, and defeated him in battle. He was killed in the flight. AMALASOXTHA, or Amalasuintha, daughter of Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths, born in 498, died in 535. Her husband Eutha- ric having died, her intellect and learning de cided Theodoric to make her regent of Itaty 374: AMALEKITES AMALGAM during the minority of her son Athalaric, to whom lie bequeathed that kingdom. Assum ing power in 520, and availing herself of the aid of Cassiodorus, she showed great adminis trative talent; but her efforts to educate her son were thwarted by the Gothic nobles and by his own intractable disposition, and his de baucheries destroyed him in hi$ youth. She still endeavored to retain power, but through the influence of Justinian was imprisoned and strangled by her cousin Theodatus, whom she had married and made co-regent. AMALEKITES, a Bedouin tribe, who, accord ing to Arabian traditions, lived in very early times near the Persian gulf, but were gradually driven westward by the Assyrians. When they were first known by the Israelites, they inhab ited the peninsula of Sinai and its neighbor hood to the north, thus controlling the routes across the isthmus of Suez. They are men tioned as defeated by the four kings, and again as harassing the march of the Israelites out of Egypt. They were afterward defeated at Rephidim, but in turn vanquished the Israelites near Hormah, where they had the Canaanites as allies. They are mentioned several times after this, but no longer as powerful ; and they seem to have been almost exterminated by Saul and David. AMALFI, a city and seaport of S. Italy, in Prin- cipato Citra, on the gulf of Salerno, 24 m. S. E. of Naples ; pop. about 5,000, and with several industries. The macaroni of Amalfi is famous, and is exported to all parts of the world. Amalfi is believed to have been founded in the 4th century, but is not mentioned in history till the 6th. It early became an independent re public, governed by doges, and the principal centre of eastern trade, with a population of 50,000, the dependent territory comprising 500,- 000. It originated a new maritime code (Tabula Amalphitana), introduced into Europe an im proved knowledge of the mariner s compass, and preserved the earliest known MS. of the Pandects. The inhabitants also acquired dis tinction in the crusades as the founders of the hospital of St. John of Jerusalem, from which the knights of Malta derived their name. In 1075 Robert Guiscard was called to the aid of the republic against the duke of Salerno, and afterward annexed it to his dukedom of Apulia ; but it maintained a partial independence til] 1131, when it capitulated to King Roger of Sicily, retaining the right of municipal self- government. Its decline in commercial impor tance was hastened by wars with the Pisans, by the encroachments of the sea upon its har bor from the 12th century, and the destruction of its quays and public works by a great storm in 1343. In later times the titles of duke and prince of Amalfi were held by various families, AMALGAM (Gr. C//G, together, and ya/utiv, to marr or accordin to some, //d/,ay//a, an emo llient, from Amalfi. independent villages about 7,000. It is encir cled by mountains and precipices, at the mouth of a gorge, from which a little torrent dashes into the gulf, furnishing power for numerous mills and manufactories. It has been an arch bishop s see since 987, and besides the ancient cathedral, in the Romanesque style, there are several fine churches and a Capuchin convent. The coasting trade, fisheries, and manufactures of paper, soap, and macaroni are the principal , to soften), an alloy of two or more metals, one of which must be mercu ry. This metal has a re markable power of dis solving most of the other metals and forming com binations that ma} r be ap plied directly to various uses ; and, moreover, as the mercury is easily ex pelled from them by heat, these combinations are used as a means of bring ing other metals into a condition of convenient application to many pur poses. Thus, gilding is sometimes effected by washing other metals with a solution of gold in mer cury. The mercury is driven off by heat, and the gold remains coating the surface. A process is pat ented in England for covering iron with zinc, which is based on this principle. A considerable I degree of cold is produced in forming some amal- I gams. Thus, in mixing at a temperature of 05 I F. 118 parts of tin and 201 of lead, both in filings, | 284 of bismuth in fine powder, and 1,616 of ! mercury, the temperature falls to 18. Many of the amalgams are definite compounds, from which the mercury in excess may be squeezed , out ; but sometimes the liquid that thus escapes AMALGAMATION AMALIE is found to be itself an amalgam, containing a smaller proportion of the harder metals, seem ing to indicate two delinite compounds of dif ferent proportions. This is observed with the amalgam of mercury with silver, and also with tin. In tinning mirrors, the glass plates are laid upon smooth stone tables covered with the amalgam. The solid portions adhere in a thin film to the glass ; and this is a compound of atomic proportions. The liquid squeezed out by the weight placed upon the glass proves also to be an amalgam containing but a small proportion of tin. Amalgams are prepared by putting the harder metals, reduced to small size, in mercury, and dissolving them with or without heat, as may be required. When the , metals are not easily dissolved, they may be rubbed together or triturated in a mortar, or : melted, and the mercury heated and poured j into the fused metal. This is the process for ; preparing an amalgam of 4 parts mercury, 2 zinc, and 1 part tin, for the electrical machine. The zinc is first melted, the tin added, and then the hot mercury stirred in. It is to be shaken till cold, then triturated and sifted in a fine sieve. An amalgam of mercury i with iron is prepared by rubbing together in I a mortar clean iron filings and zinc amalgam, | and adding a solution of perchloride of iron, i By rubbing and heating this mixture a bright amalgam of iron and mercury is produced, j Some amalgams take a crystalline form, thus j indicating combination in definite proportions ; i and there is also a native amalgam of this character of mercury with silver. This is \ found in dodecahedral crystals, consisting of 1 ! atom of silver and 2 of mercury =36 per cent, j of the one and 64 of the other. One part of j gold heated with 6 parts of mercury crystal lizes on cooling in four-sided prisms. Tin amalgam made of 3 parts of mercury and 1 of tin forms cubic crystals. Amalgams freed from their excess of mercury are, when freshly made, dry pasty substances, which soon become hard like stone. This property makes some of them convenient for filling cavities of teeth, but the injury the mercury may effect upon the system renders their use highly objectionable. AMALGAMATION, the" process of extracting gold and silver from the gangues in which they j occur in nature by combining them with mer- riiry. The ores are crushed and then washed j through different machines in which mercury \ is^placed. This seizes upon the little particles j of the metals that come in contact with it, and j brings them together into one mass, from ! which the earthy matters are all washed away. | Any greasy substance present almost wholly \ prevents this effect, the grease adhering in a i film upon the surface of the mercury, and thus ! rendering impracticable the close contact ne- ! cessary for their union. The amalgam is from j time to time taken out of the washing machines, ; squeezed through cloth or dressed deerskin, the liquid portion replaced, and the solid distilled in an apparatus suitable for saving the mer- i ; cury, which is then ready for use upon another ! lot of ore. The silver residue from distillation needs refining to render it perfectly pure. j There are two processes for separating silver : from its .ores by amalgamation the European Process in barrels, and the American in heaps, he ore is treated in the European process by j pulverizing the ore and roasting it with an ad mixture of common salt ; by this means all the silver, which was originally a sulphide, is con verted into the chloride. The roasted ore is then placed in barrels which can be revolved 1 upon a vertical axis, and is thoroughly loosened and stirred up with water. Iron in the form of nails or scrap is then added, which takes the , chlorine from the silver and yields the latter in I the metallic state. Mercury is then added in larger quantity than is sufficient to amalgamate all the silver. After the barrel has revolved for an hour or more the mercury will have ta ken up the silver, and is then drawn off. This mercury is filtered and distilled as above de scribed. The American process of amalgama tion in heaps has the advantage of simplicity, and although not so perfect in its extraction of silver, it does not require fuel and expensive apparatus. The ore is first broken up to the size of a pea by means of rude stamps, and then ground to fine powder in round cylindrical tubs with bottoms of stone. Each tub has a horizontal arm revolving with its centre upon the vertical axis of the tub, and having at each end a chain attached to a stone weighing from 50 to 100 pounds. When the arm is revolved, these stones are dragged round and pulverize the ore. The ore is then placed on an amalga mating floor built of stone, and is mixed with a little salt and mercury. After some days the mercury is collected, filtered, and distilled as above described, to save the silver. AMALIA, Anna, duchess of Saxe- Weimar, sec ond daughter of Duke Charles of Brunswick - Wolfenbilttel, born Oct. 24, 1739, died April 10, 1807. She was married to Duke Ernest of Weimar in 1756. After her husband s death in 1758 she took the reins of government, and held them so well that Saxe- Weimar was able speedily to recover from the effects of the seven years war, and escaped the famine of 1773. In 1775 she resigned the administration to her son, and devoted herself to the cultivation of literature. For 30 years she lived in the, soci ety of Wieland, Goethe, Herder, Schiller, and other men of eminence. AMALIE, Marie Friederiko, queen of Greece, born Dec. 21, 1818. She is a daughter of the late grand duke Paul, and half sister of the reigning grand duke Xicholas of Oldenburg, and was married to King Otho of Greece Xov. 22, 1836. She imparted a high tone to the court circles of Athens, and was much respected in Greece on account of her firmness, her be nevolence, and her varied accomplishments. In 1856 she acted as regent during the foreign occupation of Athens. A Greek student made an attempt to shoot her hi 1861. On Oct. 24, 376 AMALIE AMARANTH 1862, after the deposition of her husband, she went with him to Bavaria, and since his death (July 20, 1867) has resided at Bamberg. Her sister married in 1855 Maximilian de Washing ton, a Bavarian baron, a descendant of the English Washington family, resident in Styria. AMALIE, Marie Fricderike Anguste, duchess, a German dramatist, eldest sister of King John of Saxony, born in Dresden, Aug. 10, 1794, died in the palace of Pillnitz, Sept. 18, 1870. She wrote two dramas under the name of Ama- lie Ilerter (Dresden, 1829- 30). Among her subsequent productions, which are noted for* a love of humanity and virtue, her comedies Der Onkcl and Die Fursteribraut became very pop ular. The latter was performed in Paris under the title Une feinme cliarmante (1840). Others of her plays were also adapted to the French stage. A complete edition of her dramatic works was published in Dresden, for the bene fit of the women s association, under the title of Originalbeitrage zur deutschen Schaubuhne (6 vols., 1837-42). A 3d edition of the 1st volume appeared in 1858, and a French version of it (Comedieti) at Paris in 1841. Six of her dramas were translated into English by Jame son (London, 1846), and six others anonymously (1848). She composed operas and sacred music. AMALS, or Amali, the name of the royal fam ily of the Goths. Of this family were all the sovereigns of this nation until the division into Ostrogoths and Visigoths. After that event the Ostrogothic kings were Amals until the extinction of the male line in Theodoric the Great. According to the legendary chronol ogy recorded by Jornandes, the Gothic bishop and chronicler Amal, or Amala, who gave the name to the family, was the fourth descendant of Gapt, the first Gothic king. Amal is sup posed to have signified spotless. AMALTH/EA, in Greek mythology, the nurse of the infant Zeus. She is commonly supposed to have been a goat, who, with her two young ones, was translated to the skies, where all three were metamorphosed into stars by the father of the gods. Zeus, according to one of the various myths on the subject, broke off one of the horns of the goat Amaltluiea, and pre sented it to the daughters of Mclisscus, king of Crete. This horn was endowed with such miraculous power that whenever the possessor wished, it would instantly become filled with whatever might be desired. AMA3VUS, the ancient name of a mountain range, a branch of Mount Taurus, extending in a N. E. direction from the gulf of Issus to ward the Euphrates, and separating Cilicia from Syria, which it bounds on the north. AMAR, J. P. Andre, a French revolutionist, born in Grenoble about 1750, died in Paris in 1816. Elected in 1792 to the convention for the department of Isere, he voted for the exe cution of Louis XVI. within 24 hours, and for the rejection of the appeal to the people. Be ing sent as a commissary to his own depart ment, he showed himself a merciless persecu tor of his neighbors, systematically denounced the Girondists on every occasion, and contrib uted his part to the fall of the Dantonists, then called moderes, and the Ilebertists, stig matized as anarchists. He appeared to favor Robespierre s system, but materially contrib uted to his defeat before the convention. When in 1795 Collot d llerbois, Billaud-Va- rennes, and Barrere were condemned to be transported, he presented himself as their ad vocate. The consequence of this act was his confinement in the fortress of Ham. He re gained his liberty by the decree of amnesty rendered by the convention on its final ad journment. By order of the directory, he was subsequently arrested as an accomplice in the conspiracy of Drouet and Baboeuf, but released for want of legal testimony. However, he was exiled from Paris during Xapoleon s reign, and spent the rest of his life in obscurity. AMARANTH (amarantm ; Gr. auapavros, un fading, because the flowers retain their bright colors when dead), a genus of plants of the family of amarantacece. This genus is rich in species, most of which grow within the tropics (about 60 in Asia, 105 in America, 10 in Africa), some without the tropics (about 20 in Asia, 25 in America, 28 in Kew Holland, several in Africa, 5 in Europe), either in groups or singly, in dry stony situations or among thickets, few in salt marshes. The most ornamental exotic species, cultivated in Europe and in the United States, all annuals, are : A. caudatm (love-lies- bleeding), native of India, from 2 to 3 feet high ; Amarantus caudatus (Love-Lies-Bleeding 1 ). leaves oval, oblong, reddish ; flowers crimson, I in long hanging clusters ; a gigantic variety is I 9 feet high. A. sanguineus, of India; stem j and leaves blood-red ; leaves oval, often emar- | ginate ; flowers red, small, axillary, with inter- nudal clusters. A. speciosus, of Xepaul; py ramidal, 6 feet high ; flowers purplish crimson along the branches. A. tricolor, of China; AMAEAPUEA AMATI 377 branchy, 3 feet high; leaves yellow, red, and green; flowers green, lateral. A. liypochon- driticus (prince s feather), with erect flower spikes and purplish foliage, is a native of Virginia. These hardy species can be sown in the open border, while the less hardy require a gentle hot-bed, whence they may be potted off singly, in rich soil, and well watered. The above-named species blossom from June to October. Many of the spe- | cies, having mucilaginous leaves, are used a^ pot tierbs, with lemon juice. A. viridis is emollient, good for cataplasms. The seeds of A. frumentaceus and anardhana are eaten in India. A. oltusifolius is diuretic. Some others are variously employed in South America. AMARAPIRA, or Immerapnra, a city of the Burman empire, 6 in. N". E. of Ava, near the left bank of the Irrawaddy. It was founded in 1783, and made the capital of the country, but in 1819 the seat of government was trans ferred again to Ava. In March, 1810, the whole city, then containing over 170,000 in habitants, was burned to the ground. In 1827 the population was not over 30,000. Many of the public buildings present a magnificent spec tacle, having their roofs richly gilt within and without. One of its temples, a vast edifice adorned with sculptures, contains a colossal bronze statue of Gautama. A whole street was formerly occupied by goldsmiths. Dr. Adolf Bastian, who visited Amarapura in 1861- 2, describes it as entirely decayed, only a suburb inhabited by Chinese exhibiting any activity. A3IASIA, Amasieh, or Aniasi) all, a city of Asia Mi nor, in the pashalic of Sivas, on the Yeshil-Irmak, \ 50 m. S. S. W. of Samsun on the Black sea ; pop. about 25,000. It is situated in a deep val ley enclosed by precipitous rocks, upon one of ; which, on the left bank of the river, are the re- i mains of an ancient acropolis and two Hellenic towers. Four bridges, one probably of Roman construction, cross the river within the limits of the city. The houses are of stone, but mean | and small ; the bazaars are poor ; and the prin- | cipal buildings are in ruins. There is an active i trade in raw silks, wine, madder, grain, and cotton. The early history of the town is un known. It was the metropolis of Pontus under the Roman domination of Asia Minor. Strabo the geographer was born here, and gives a minute description of the place. The tombs of tho kings, of which he speaks, are still to be seen, scooped out of the face of the rock upon which the citadel stands. AMASIS, or Amosis (Eg. Ahames or Ahmes, the j new moon, or engendered by the moon), the I name of two Egyptian kings. I. The first Pha- i raoli of the 18th dynasty. He reigned from | 1525 to 1499 B. C. He led the insurrection ! against the Hyksos in Lower Egypt, besieged i and captured their great stronghold, Avaris, : pursued them into Canaan, captured there a ! number of towns, and thus began that series of Egyptian wars in western Asia, in which his successors carried their arms even beyond the Euphrates. II. The last ruler but one of the 26th dynasty, reigned from 509 to 526 B. C. lie erected monuments in various parts of Egypt, and particularly adorned Sa is. He was a good sovereign, and is mentioned especially by Herodotus as having had friendly inter course with Solon, and with the celebrated Poly- crates of Samos. lie encouraged Greeks to settle in Egypt, and maintained good relations with Gyrene and other Hellenic states. Under his son Psammenitus, who reigned only six months, Egypt was conquered by Carnbyses. AMATI, a family of Cremona, celebrated for the perfection attained by many of its members in the construction of violins and instruments of that class. I. Andrea, born in Cremona between 1500 and 1520, died about 1577. He is said to have served an appren ticeship as a violin maker at Brescia, and he established a shop of his own at Cremona while still a young man. The instruments used in the chamber concerts of his time, such for instance as the lutes, theorbos, guitars, and mandolins, were all soft-toned, and sweetness rather than power of tone was sought in their construction. Following this taste, his violins are remarkable for their exquisite softness of tone and the beauty of their workmanship. They are of small and medium patterns, the arch elevated ; the wood of the bottom runs with the grain, the sounding-boards are mod erately thick, and the varnish is of a clear brown. Very few of his instruments now ex ist. Charles IX. possessed a collection of 24 violins,, viols, and basses made to his order by Andrea Amati. They were very elaborately or namented, having the arms of France and vari ous other devices painted in colors on the back. II. IVicolo, a younger brother of the preceding, known for the excellence of his violoncellos. He is believed to have outlived Andrea, though the exact dates of his birth and death are un certain. III. Antonio, son of Andrea, born at Cremona about 1550, died in 1635. He was his father s pupil, and succeeded him in business. For a time he was associated with his brother Geronimo, and the instruments bearing their joint names are much esteemed. Antonio adopted the models of his father, but made a much greater number of small than of large in struments. His violins produce delicate, sweet, and pure tones, but they have little power. The first and second strings are the best, the third a little dull, and the fourth slightly dry in tone. His violins are all of exquisite finish ; the arch is high in the centre, and the fir of which the sounding-boards are made is of a fine and delicate grain. IV. Geronimo (date of birth and death unknown), youngest son of Andrea, was a pupil of his father. His violins were generally of a larger pattern than those of his father and brother, and inferior to them. No i violins bearing his mark subsequent to 1638 ! are known to exist. V. Nicolo, son of Geroni- j mo, born Sept. 3, 1596, died Aug. 12, 1684. I lie was the most celebrated of the family, and 378 AMATITLAN AMAZON the greater part of the instruments known as Amatis are from his hands. He not only made great changes in the models and proportions adopted hy his family, but gave to his details a higher finish and to his curves a greater per fection, while he discovered a mellower and more beautiful varnish. The relation of the swells and the thicknesses of his instruments is better planned than in those of his father or his uncle. Thence it is that, while preserving their distinguishing sweetness of tone, they at tain more power and brilliancy. Some violins at which this maker would seem to have work ed with unusual care are masterpieces of art. One of two dated 1688 was at Milan in the col lection of Count Cozio de Salabue. In perfec tion of finish, purity and mellowness of tone, this instrument was considered a marvel. The great violinist Alard also possessed one of the finest instruments that ever came from the hand of this great maker. The weakest point in his violins is the second string, which, owing, it is believed, to the too sudden decrease in the thickness of the belly toward the sides, is thin, the notes Si and Do being particularly liable to this objection. As is the case with the instru ments of all the other makers of this family, the tones of those made by Nicolo are slender, but in an especial degree sweet, round, and silvery. AMATITLAN, a town of Guatemala, Central America, about 18 m. S. of the city of Guate mala, in lat, 14 30 N., Ion. 90 17 W. ; pop. about 15,000. It lies in a volcanic region, near and somewhat below a mountain lake of the same name. It is a principal seat of the coch ineal cultivation. The houses are of one story and of mud, roughly moulded. Hot springs abound in the neighborhood. The waters of the lake have a high temperature, and are sup posed to possess medicinal qualities. AMATIS LUSITANUS (that is, the Portuguese), whose proper name was JOAO RODEIGITEZ DE CASTEL BEAXCO, a Jewish physician, born in Portugal in 1511, after the expulsion of all un converted Jews from the country, died in 1568. He was ostensibly* brought up as a Christian, studied at Salamanca, travelled in France, the Netherlands, and Italy, and dissected 12 human corpses in Ferrara, which was a great feat for a time when religious and popular prejudices ran so strong against the practical prosecution of anatomical science. Having settled in An- cona, he was persecuted as a Jew, and obliged to leave the town after the accession of Paul IV. in 1555. He fled from city to city to save him self from the inquisition. At last he obtained safe refuge at Salonica in Macedonia, where he passed the remainder of his days. AMAUROSIS (Gr., from auavp6^ dark), par tial or complete loss of sight, dependent on a change in the nerve structure of the eye. The term was formerly used to denote any loss of sight the cause of which could not be appreci ated by the naked eye ; but the invention of the ophthalmoscope has been the means of re stricting it to those cases in which the optic nerve or its expansion, the retina, has under gone atrophy, or its component parts are ?o pressed upon that they are no longer capable of performing their functions. The tissue which holds together the fibres of the optic nerve being in close connection with that covering the bone in its vicinity, and with the mem branes of the brain, an inflammation of these latter may by extension induce the disease. A haemorrhage (apoplexy), or a tumor near or in j the nerve, may by pressure cause this condi tion ; or even a plugging of the artery which should supply the nerve with blood ; or, finally, certain diseases of the brain or spinal cord, or of the nerve itself. The disease is usually pro gressive. If the cause be mechanical from pressure, of recent origin, and removable by treatment before change in the nerve structure has proceeded too far, the vision may be re stored or its further loss prevented. Such cases are exceptional. AMACRY, or Amalric, the name of two kings of Jerusalem. I. Count of Joppa, bora in 1135, died July 11, 1173. He was crowned king of Jeru salem in 1162, on the death of his brother Bald win III. He was a vain, ambitious, and im prudent prince, and passed the eight years of his reign in making war on the natural ally of the Franks, the sultan of Egypt, and his only sure support against the inroads of the Sel- juk Turks. Having invaded Egypt with some success, he was soon forced to the defensive by Saladin, who continued his conquests under Baldwin IV., the son and successor of Amaury. II. Of Lusignan, king of Cyprus, was called to the tottering throne of Jerusalem when near its downfall. His nominal reign there lasted from 1194 to 1205. He called upon the western na tions to aid him against the. Saracens, but the crusaders preferred stopping at Constantinople, and partitioning the Byzantine empire, to the more dangerous service against the Moslems. He left Cyprus to his son Hugo de Lusignan. AMAIRY OF CHARTRES. See ALMAEIC OF BEXE. AMAXICIII, or Amaknlu, a seaport town of Greece, capital of the nornarchy of Leucas, at the N. E. extremity of Santa Maura, Ionian Islands, separated by a narrow channel from Acarnania; lat. 38 50 15" N., Ion. 20 43 E. ; pop. about 5,500. From the liability to earth quakes, the houses are chiefly of wood and of one story. It is rendered unhealthy in sum mer by numerous salt marshes. The harbor has an extensive mole, but is only available for small craft. The town is defended on the N. by the strong castle of Santa Maura. It is the see of a Greek archbishop. AMAZIAH, king of Judah 838-809 B. C. See HEBEEWS AMAZON, or Amazons (Port. Rio das Ama- zonas), the largest river on the globe, flowing easterly from the Andes to the Atlantic, and draining about a third of South America, or an area variously estimated from 1,500,000 to 2,500,000 sq. m. The Apurimac, an affluent AMAZON 379 of the Ucayali, is by some considered as its source ; but it properly rises in Lake Laurico- cha near the mines of Cerro Pasco. The head waters, under the name of Tunguragua or Upper Marafion, flow northerly 500 m. in a saries of rapids between the Peruvian Cordille ras, and on reaching the boundary of Ecuador run E. X. E., maintaining this course to their exit under the equator. But the Amazon is a vast river system, rather than one river. More than boO branches and lesser tributaries unite in the grand trunk of this giant stream. From lat. 3 N. to 19 S., a distance, measured by the windings of the mountain chain, of 2,000 m., there is not a stream that descends the eastern slope of the Andes that does not con tribute its waters to swell this mighty flood. Besides the Tunguragua, we find on the S. side the Huallaga, rising within a few miles of its source, and having nearly the same course and length ; it is navigable by steamers to Yurima- guas and by canoes to Tingo Maria. About 200 m. below its mouth enters the magnificent Ucayali. This tributary rises near Cuzco, and has a length of about 1,200 m., with an average width for 250 m. above its mouth of half a mile, and a current of 3 m. an hour. A small steamer has ascended 773 m. from Xauta. Several large but little known streams succeed, as the Javari, Jutahi, TelFe, and Purus, the last of which has been ascended 1,800 m. But the largest contributor to the Amazon is the Ma deira. At its junction it is 2 m. wide and 60 feet deep. Its extreme length is probably 2,000 m., and it is navigable 480 m. Of its affluents, the Beni rises near Lake Titicaca, and the Mamore is separated only 15 m. from the source of the Pilcornayo, the largest afflu ent of the Paraguay. The Tapajos, 1,000 m. long, rises within 20 m. of the head waters of the Paraguay, and is navigable 160 m. above Santarem. East of the Tapajos are the Xingu and Tocantins, navigable about 150 m., the latter of which, however, is^an affluent of the Para, and not of the Xinazon proper. From the north, the great river receives the Xegro, 1,200 m. long. This tributary is of commercial importance, not only because of the rich region through which it flows, but also because it is connected \rith the Orinoco by the natural canal Cassiquiare. Nearly par allel to the Xegro are the Japura and Putu- mayo, each 1,000 m. long; and further W. flow the Xapo and Pastaca, rising in the Quitonian Andes, the former navigable 500 m., the other a torrent. The total length of the Amazon from its source to Para, following the curves, is 2,750 m. If we consider the Ucayali as the head, it will measure 3,000. Lieut. Hern- don estimated its length from the source of the Huallaga at 3,944 m. Though not the longest, the Amazon is the most voluminous river on the globe. The water passing Obidos every second amounts to 500,000 cubic feet, and its freshening influence is perceptible 500 m. from the coast. Some idea of its magnitude may be gained from the fact that 900 m. from its mouth it receives a tributary 2,000 m. long. The usual current is 3 m. an hour. The depth varies from 42 feet in the upper part to 312 at its mouth ; at Tabatinga, where it crosses the Brazilian frontier, it is 66 feet. It is deep at the very edge, not having those sloping shores which characterize most streams. At Xauta, 2,300 m. from the sea, it is -*- m. wide; at the entrance of the Madeira it is 3 m. ; below San- tarein it is 10 in. ; and if we include the Para, its mouth is 180 m. wide. The Para river, however, is distinct, and is joined to the Ama zon by very narrow channels. Like other tropical rivers, the Amazon is subject to pe riodical inundations. The banks, usually high, are overflowed, and vast tracts are flooded. The rise above the lowest level is between 7 and 8 fathoms. At Ega the rise begins about the close of February. The tide of the ocean is perceptible at Obidos, 450 m. up. The bore, or pororoca, as it is termed by the natives, is a phenomenon worthy of remark. It was well described by La Oondamine, more than 100 years ago, in these terms : "During three days before the new and full moons, the period of the highest tides, the sea, instead of occupying six hours to reach its flood, swells to its highest limit in one or two minutes. The noise of this terrible flood is heard flve or six miles, and increases as it approaches. Presently you see a liquid promontory, 12 or 15 feet high, fol lowed by another, and another > and sometimes by a fourth. These watery mountains spread across the whole channel, and advance with a prodigious rapidity, rending and crushing every thing in their way. Immense trees are instant ly uprooted by it, and sometimes whole tracts of land are swept away." It is difficult for ves sels to withstand such a tide, and hence those accustomed to the navigation of the river avail themselves of espems, or resting places, where their vessels may be sheltered from its vio lence. Another characteristic feature is the system of back channels joining the tributaries, and the iga rapes or canoe paths through the forest. One may go from Santarem 1,000 m. up the Amazon without ever entering it. The water of the upper Amazon and of the Pasta ca, Iluallaga, Tapajos, Xingu, and Tocantins is blue or olive-green ; that of the lower Ama zon and of the Madeira, Purus, Jutahi, Javari, Ucayali, Xapo, Putumayo, and Japura is yel lowish; of the Xegro and Tefie, black. The temperature of the water will average about 80. The river is full of islands and sand bars, and the axis of the channel is constantly changing. A vast amount of sediment is carried into the sea, but there is no delta proper, the Marajo and other islands in the great estuary having a rocky base. The immense valley of the Amazon is walled in by the Andes and the highlands of. Guiana and Matto Grosso. Xo other region of equal area has such a remark ably uniform character, and its geological formation is of deep interest. Scarcely any- 380 AMAZON AMAZONS thing is visible but variegated clays and a red dish sandstone. Prof. Agassiz has considered it a cretaceous basin filled with glacial drift ; but Prof. Orton in 1867 discovered a highly fossiliferous deposit in the clay formation, con taining extinct shells, showing it to be of plio cene or miocene date. The region traversed by the Amazon and its affluents is covered with vast forests, and possesses a soil of extraor dinary fertility. u lf," says Huraboldt, "the name of primeval forest can be given to any forest on the face of the earth, none perhaps can so strictly claim it as those that fill the connected basin of the Orinoco and the Amazon." "From the grassy steppes of Ven ezuela to the treeless pampas of Buenos Ayres," says a later traveller just referred to, "expands a sea of verdure, in which we may draw a circle of 1,100 m. in diameter which shall include an evergreen, unbroken forest. There is a most bewildering diver sity of grand and beautiful trees a wild, un- conquered race of vegetable giants, draped, festooned, corded, matted, and ribboned with climbing and creeping plants, woody and suc culent, in endless variety. The exuberance of nature displayed in these million square acres of tangled, impenetrable forest offers a bar to civilization nearly as great as its sterility in the African deserts." Palms, leguminous trees, and giant grasses are the predominant forms. The most valuable for commerce are the caoutchouc tree and Brazil-nut tree, and more than 100 varieties of beautiful woods eminent for their hardness, tints, and texture. Animal life is not so conspicuous in the forest as in the river. The latter is crowded with strange fishes (of which the largest is the pira- rucu, 8 ft. long), alligators, turtles, anacondas, porpoises, and manatees. Mammals, birds, and reptiles are scattered through the forest in great variety, but few appear in any one place. The common forms are monkeys, jaguars, tapirs, capybaras, peccaries, sloths, deer, armadillos, toucans, and macaws. The shores are likewise thinly inhabited ; the most important tribes are the Mundurucus, Tucunas, and Yaguas. The largest towns are Para, Santarem, Manaos, and Iquitos. The Amazon presents an unparalleled extent of water communication. It starts with in 70 m. of the Pacific, and with its tributaries touches Guiana and Paraguay. The Amazon was opened to the world in 1867, and regular lines of steamers ascend to Yurimaguas on the Huallaga. The most important exports are rub ber, cacao, nuts, copaiba, cotton, hides, piacaba (palm fibre), sarsaparilla, farina, tonka beans, annotto, and tobacco. The Amazon navigation company (Brazilian), established in 1854, had in 1872 a capital of $2,200,000, and 9 steam ers, 5 of which ply exclusively in the Amazon waters : 2 between Para and Loreto in Peru, distance 2,100 m. ; 1 on the Peruvian branch of the river, 288 m. ; 1 from Para to Obidos, 400 m. ; 1 from Santarem to Faro ; total dis tance, round trips, 10,491 m. Total receipts in 1869 for passengers and freight, $207,452 08. Imports, $402,580 40; exports, $364,614 19. Yanez Pinzon discovered the mouth of the Amazon in 1500 ; but the river was first naviga ted by Orellana, Pizarro s officer, who in 1541 descended from the Napo to the Atlantic. In 1637 Texeira ascended by the Napo to Quito, and Father Acufia, who accompanied him, published the first description. The name Amazon is derived either from the Indian word amassona, boat-destroyer, or from Orellana s story of his fight with a nation of female war riors; which fable probably grew out of the f:ict that the men part the hair in the middle and wear long tunics. The old names of the river, Orellana and Parana-tinga, are obsolete. Alto xVmazonas, or Upper Amazon, is applied to all above the Negro. To the middle Ama zon, between Tabatinga and Manaos, the name Solimoens is sometimes given. The part above Tabatinga, or the Peruvian portion, is called Maranon, which includes the Tunguragua. AMAZONAS. I. The northernmost province of Brazil, bounded N. by Guiana and Vene zuela, N. W. by Colombia, "W. by Ecuador and Peru, S. by Peru, Bolivia, and the Brazilian province of Matto Tirosso, arid E. by the prov ince of Para. Its limits have not been pre cisely defined; pop. about 80,000. The sur face is covered by virgin forests, and but little known. In this province, at and near the town of Manaos, the river system of South America unites. The principal streams are the Amazon (which above Manaos is called the Solimoens), Negro, Putumayo, and Madeira. II. A N. department of Peru, bounded N. by Ecua dor ; area, about 18,000 sq. m. ; pop. 44,000, besides about 60,000 Indians of nomadic tribes. It is traversed by the Andes. The soil, which is watered by the Maranon and several of its affluents, is extremely fertile, and produces wheat, corn, rice, all sorts of fruits and vege tables, sugar cane, tobacco, cacao, coffee, cot ton, indigo, quinine, and sarsaparilla in abun dance. Its virgin forests are rich in mahog any, cedar, and other valuable timber. The chief industries are the manufacture of sugar, rum, cottons, and woollens, and the salting of fish. Capital, Chachapoyas. AMAZOJVIA, a title given by the geographers of the 17th and 18th centuries to an unexplored tract in the central portion of the Amazon basin, supposed to be inhabited by a tribe of warlike women, who governed themselves, and would tolerate no males in their community. AMAZONS (Gr. a privative and //ad?, breast), a race of warlike women, whose original seat is said to have been in the country adjoining the Caucasus. They were believed to be gov erned by a queen, and to propagate the spe cies by cohabiting once every }*ear with the Gargareans, a nation of men whose territory was separated from that of the Amazons by a chain of mountains. Their male children were either sent to the Gargareans or put to death. Their female children were deprived of the AMBASSADOR AMBER 381 rig!it breast, and trained by their Amazon mothers to war, hunting, riding, and agricul ture. The favorite deities of the Amazons were Mars and the Taurian Diana. The Amazons were fabled to have made extensive conquests in the early ages, in Asia, Africa, and Europe, and to have founded several cities in Asia Minor and the islands adjoining it, such as Ephesus, Smyrna, Cyme, and Paphos. It is a question with ancient writers whether these extraordinary women ever existed. AMBASSADOR, or Embassador, a term general ly applied to the highest class of diplomatic representatives in foreign countries. In an official sense it designates only those who are accredited by one potentate to another, and who represent the sovereign himself, while ministers plenipotentiary and envoys extraor dinary, although accredited to the crown, rep resent only the state, and not the person of its chief. The queen of England, for instance, sends ambassadors to the most influential sov ereigns, but only a minister plenipotentiary to the United States. The American minister plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary (the title ambassador being not often used, although it is mentioned in the act of congress of 1856 relating to the diplomatic service) is conse quently outranked at European courts by the ambassadors of the pettiest sovereign princes. The legates and nuncios of the pope are en titled to the same social and diplomatic privi leges as ambassadors. An ambassador may at all times demand a personal interview with the sovereign as a matter of right, while the minister plenipotentiary can only claim an audience as a favor. Ambassadors extraordi nary are those sent on special missions, and occupy a still more exalted position than those called ordinary, who permanently reside at a court. Ambassadors in the principal non-Chris tian countries enjoy extra-territorial rights, based upon the fiction that they carry along with them the whole territory of their sover eign, so that the country represented is deemed to be present in China, Japan, Turkey, &c., as well as its sovereign himself, in the person of the ambassador. The extra-territorial rights of ambassadors and other official representatives of Christian powers in the East are guaran teed by treaties, and are predicated upon their jurisdiction over more or less extensive com munities of their countrymen and over other persons under their protection. AMBER, a hard, light, nearly transparent res inous substance, found in loose pieces in allu vial deposits, or scattered along the coast after severe storms. It was regarded by the ancient Greeks and Romans with superstition, and in mythology was spoken of as the tear drops shed by the sisters of Phaethon, and petrified as they fell into the sea. The electrical phenom ena first exhibited by this substance (which the Greeks called faeK-oov) added to its mys tery. It was even believed by some of the philosophers to be possessed of a soul. The Arabs, noticing the same phenomena, gave it the name in their language of k<ir<ilte, catch- chaff. The Romans called it auccinum, and the ancient Germans glissum. The ancient trade in amber is described in Sir George Cornewall Lewis s " Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients" (London, 1862). Amber is now generally understood to be a fossilized vegetable gum. The trees from which it exuded stood in forests of past epochs, and are no\v found forming strata of bituminous wood beneath beds of sand and clay. The wood is more or less impregnated with the amber; and this is also met with depending from the trunks in the form of stalactites, and again in rounded pieces mixed with pyrites and coarse sand under the layer of trees. Such a bed is worked as a mine for the amber near the coast of Prussia. The fossil stratum is from 40 to 50 feet thick, and is followed to the depth of 100 feet below the surface. In other countries it is found in beds of brown coal and of lignite; and it is probable that the pieces of it picked up on the seashores have been washed out from the extension of these reposi tories beneath the waters of the sea. On the Prussian coast of the Baltic, between Konigs- berg and Mem el, amber is more abundant than in any other known locality. From this source the great demand for this material in the Mo hammedan countries is principally supplied. The trade was first appropriated by the grand masters of the Teutonic order, who often paid by it the whole expense of their court. After it became a royal monopoly it was guarded by most stringent laws; "strand riders" patrolled the coast, and a peasant concealing or attempt ing to sell a piece of amber he had found was hanged on one of a range of gallows kept standing in terrorem. Since the beginning of the present century the government monopoly has been farmed out to private contractors. Prosecution for theft may still be instituted against persons who retain pieces of amber they have picked up, and any one passing cer tain limits of the beach may be punished as a trespasser. The amber is washed ashore in considerable quantities near the village of Stiir- men. Not only is it found in the sands on the shore, but also in the interior at a greater or less depth beneath the surface of the earth. At present the chief amber diggings in the north of Prussia are on the N". and W. coasts of Samland, N. E. of Konigsberg. These are worked by an open excavation into the moun tain near its base, in which the amber-bearing bed is laid bare, sometimes presenting a thick ness of 2|- feet. Exhausted in one place, a new excavation exposes it in another. The fishing and picking of amber from the sea fur nishes employment to great numbers of people. This is generally undertaken after a storm, when the swell of the waves is moderate. The work men wade into the sea, and catch in nets the seaweed which is borne in by the waves. This is spread on the shore, where the women and 382 AMBER AMBERG children collect from it pieces of amber of vari ous sizes, which is delivered by them to the superintendent. This mode of procuring amber is always less laborious and often more produc tive than digging. In winter, when the sea by the shore is covered with ice, the ice crust is broken through and the seaweed and amber are picked up through the opening. The fishers frequently go out in small boats when the sup ply near the shore fails, and in this way a large quantity of amber is found, though it is less valuable than that gained by digging. Bag nets are used in fishing for amber, and long spears in drawing large pieces out of the surf. The production in 1869 by digging, fishing, and spearing on the coast of Samland was 700 quintals, the dredging machines at Schwarz- ort on the Cur Flats obtained 795, and the diving at Brusterort, between the Cur and the Fresh Flats, 215; making a total of 1,710 quintals, valued at 700,000 thalers. The diving apparatus used was placed in the Paris exhibi tion of 1807 by Capt. Rouquayrol Venayrouse, its inventor. Amber is used almost wholly for small ornaments, as necklaces, and especially for the mouthpieces of pipes. A varnish is also prepared from it, as well as an oil used in medicine, and succinic acid, a useful reagent in chemical investigations, so called from suc- cinum, the Latin word for amber. The largest piece of amber known is one weighing IS^lbs., in the mineralogical museum at Berlin. The value of the specimens is not at all proportion ate to their sizes. A piece of a pound weight might sell for $50, while one of 13 Ibs. weight would readily bring $5,000. Amber is of a yellow brownish or whitish brown color, transparent or translucent, and resembles rosin. Its specific gravity is 1 08. It is nearly as hard as calcareous spar, and is susceptible of a fine polish. When rubbed it becomes neg atively electrical. Heated to 448 F., it melts, and then takes fire, burning with a yellow flame, and evolving much black smoke and an agreeable odor. The analyses that have been made of it give proportions of carbon varying from 70 to 80 per cent, hydrogen from 7 to 11, and oxygen from 7 to 8. Its principal ingre dient is a resin insoluble in alcohol, which forms 80 to 90 per cent, of the whole. With this is found a resin soluble with difficulty in alcohol, and a trace of an odorous volatile oil. The products of its distillation are inflammable gases, water holding succinic and acetic acids and empyreumatic oil in solution (the spirits of amber of old pharmacy), sublimed succinic acid (salt of amber), and an empyreumatic oil (oil of amber). The residue is 12 to 13 per cent, of charcoal. Pieces of amber are often met with containing the remains of insects that have become entangled in the substance when it was of thinner consistency. Their legs and wings are sometimes seen detached from the bodies, as if the insects had struggled hard to disengage themselves from the sticky mass. These insects resemble more those of tropical climates than such as are now known in the regions where amber is found. According to Tasche (1860), there have been found in amber 5 species of Crustacea, 33 of myriapoda, and 205 of arachnida; of insects, 24 species of aptera, CO of herniptera, 8 of orthoptera, 87 of neurop- tera, and, according to Loew (1864), 850 of dip- tera, the latter chiefly of the proboscidean divi sion. Leaves of fern plants, and occasionally some mineral substances, are also met with in amber. Loew believes the amber fauna to be a fragment of a larger fauna, and chiefly found in sluggish waters and ponds and in rotting wood. It is not known when the property possessed by amber of attracting light substances when rubbed w T as first noticed. It is spoken of by Thales of Miletus, Theophrastus, and Pliny. Electricity is excited to such a degree in the processes of working amber into the forms in which it is sold, that the workmen are affected with nervous tremors, and are obliged to change frequently the pieces they handle, that the excited electricity may be dispersed. Amber has recently been discovered in va rious parts of Coin-land. It is also found in several other parts of Europe, Asia, and in E. Africa. False amber is sent from India to China, and is sold for nearly the same price as the genuine article. Amber is found at various places in the United States, oc curring in the greensand formation and in the clays which succeed it, associated with lignite. The principal localities are at Amboy, N. J., at Gay Head on Martha s Vineyard, and at Cape Sable in Maryland. The commerce in amber is divided by its tints, the bright yellow transparent variety being esteemed in Europe, while the clouded whitish yellow is preferred throughout Asia, far more than the other is elsewhere, not alone for jewelry, but for gen eral decoration of personal utensils. It forms the favorite mouthpiece of the oriental tobacco pipe, from its presumed power of resisting in- ! fection, the more necessary where it is dis- I courteous to wipe a pipe passed from one per- j son to another, as much the symbol of amity as the calumet of our Indians. Singular to say, Americans follow the orientals in preferring the whitish mottled variety. Gum copal has been substituted for amber, which it resembles, but it can be distinguished by its enclosing modern insects, while amber holds only extinct varieties ; also by copal burning steadily, while amber has marked scintillation. AMBERG, a town of Bavaria, formerly capital of the Upper Palatinate, on both sides of the Yils, 35 in. E. of Nuremberg; pop. in 1871, 11,688. It is a neat and well built town, with a great number of churches, schools, colleges, hospitals, and other public buildings, a royal palace, an arsenal manufacturing from 10,000 to 20,000 stand of arms yearly, a salt magazine, manufactures of glass, iron, cotton, tobacco, stoneware, and hats, and important iron mines, yielding about 8,000 tons yearly. In the neigh borhood of Amberg the rear guard of the AMBEEGER AMBOYNA 383 French under Jourdan was defeated by the j archduke Charles, Aug. 24, 1796. AMBERGER, ihristoph, a famous German j painter of Ambers; (whence the name), born at j Nuremberg about 1490, died at Augsburg in 1568. His best productions are his portraits, ; in the style of Holbein, whom he imitated, j His historical paintings are small, and hard and sharp in style. AMBERGRIS, a perfume, generally used in its i alcoholic solution. It is a morbid secretion of the liver of the spermaceti whale, and is prin- , ci pally found floating upon the seas of warm j climates intermixed with remains of the food j of whales; it is also met with in the intestines j of the whale. When of good quality it is of a | bright gray color, streaked with black and j yellow, so soft that it may be flattened in the j fingers, and exhaling an agreeable odor if \ rubbed or heated. Its fracture presents a fine i .-Tain, its cut surface a waxy appearance. It j is somewhat lighter than water, fuses at 140 j to 150 F., and at a higher temperature gives I out a white smoke, which condenses into a I crystalline tatty matter. It contains about 85 per cent, of a peculiar fatty, fragrant substance called ambreine, which is extracted by boiling | in alcohol, and separating the crystals that j form in the cooled solution. Persons engaged i in whale fishing look for ambergris in the in- \ testines of the spermaceti whale, and are most : successful in finding it in those that appear ; torpid, sick, and lean ; whence it would seem that the substance is a product of disease. It j is in the lower part only of the intestinal \ canal, mixed with the fasces, that the sub stance is found. The lumps of it are from 3 inches to a foot in diameter, and from 1 Ib. to J JO or 30 Ibs. in weight. The largest piece ! known was bought by the Dutch East India company of the king of Tidore; it weighed 182 Ibs. A piece weighing 130 Ibs. was found inside of a whale near the Windward Islands, and was sold for 500 sterling. Genuine am- ! bergris emits a fragrant smell when a hot | needle is thrust into it. It also melts like fat : to [i uniform consistence. The counterfeit does . not present these peculiarities. AMBIORIX, one of the most famous of the i Gallic chiefs who fought against Julius Cassar j toward the middle of the first century B. C. j Conjointly with the superannuated Cativolcus, i he was ruling over the Eburones, on the lower i Meuse, when the country was invaded by Caesar, | who strove to corrupt him, but only made him dissemble while waiting his opportunity. Dur- 1 ing Caesar s second excursion to England, Ambi- orix organized an extensive conspiracy, which j broke out after the Roman legions had gone j into winter quarters. Having by stratagem in- i duced one garrison to leave their fort, he mas- I sacred them to a man. He was about to at- j tack another camp when Cresar marched to | its relief, and easily dispersed the assailants. Cativolcns took poison, but Ambiorix, with a few friends, made his escape into the forests. AMBLETEUSE, a small decayed seaport of France, on the English channel, in the depart ment of Pas-de-Calais, 5 m. X. of Boulogne. Here James II. landed on his flight from Eng land in 1(589. Napoleon, while meditating an invasion of England in 1804, attempted unsuc cessfully to improve the harbor of Ambleteuse for his flat-bottomed boats. In the vicinity is the famous granite column erected by Napo leon to the grand army in 1805. AJMBOISE, a town of France, in the depart ment of Indre-et-Loire, on the left bank of the Loire, 14 m. E. of Tours; pop. in 1866, 4,188. The town was rendered conspicuous at the opening of the French religious wars, in the 16th century, by the plot framed there against the Guises, known as the conspiracy of Am- boise. The ancient castle, which has been the residence of several kings of France, stands on a rocky precipice, and is almost inaccessible. It is of Roman origin, was rebuilt in the 4th century, and lastly renovated by Louis Phi lippe. Abd-el-Kader was confined here during the greater part of his captivity. The town has manufactures of firearms and files. AMBOISE, George d>, a French statesman and cardinal, born at Chaumont-sur-Loire in 1460, died in Lyons, May 25, 1510. As a younger son he was destined for the church, and was titular bishop of Montauban at the age of 14, and later archbishop of Rouen. During the lifetime of Charles VIII. he belonged to the party of the duke of Orleans ; and when the latter ascended the French throne as Louis XII. in 1498, Amboise at once became prime minis ter. He prevailed on the court of Rome to annul the marriage of Louis XII. with Jeanne de France, and received from Alexander VI. the cardinal s hat. He accompanied Louis XII. into Italy, and arranged the alfairs of Milan af ter its conquest by the French troops. At the death of Alexander VI. he aspired to be pope, but the Italian cardinals passed him over, and elected first Pius III. and afterward Julius II., in spite of his lively antagonism, which threat ened a schism. He left a large fortune. AMBOYNA, or Amboina (Malay, Ambon, dews), an island in the Malay archipelago, the most important though not the largest of the Moluc cas or Spice Islands, between lat. 3 20 and 3 48 S., and Ion. 127 57 and 128 27 E. ; length 35 in., average breadth 10 m. ; area, about 300 sq. m. ; pop" 32,000. A deep, narrow bay, called the bay of Binnen, 14 m. long, al most bisects it. The two halves are composed of high hills rising abruptly from the sea, and cov ered with tall, coarse grass, groves of the co coa palm near the shore, and thick forests in the valleys and near some of the summits. The island is of primitive formation. It is sub ject to earthquakes every year, after which fe vers commonly prevail, but in other respects the climate is very healthy. There are few animals except the wild hog, deer, and horse. Birds are abundant and of many species, and the coasts have long been famous for multitudes 384 AMBOYNA AMBROSE of beautiful shells. The commonest fruits are the cocoanut, mango, banana, nutmeg, and pineapple, the last having been introduced from the West Indies. Excellent indigo is raised, and the cajeput tree furnishes a medi cinal oil. Indian corn has been introduced, and now forms with sago the staple food of the Malay natives. Cacao is extensively cultivat ed, and is rapidly supplanting the clove, of which, however, there are still valuable gar dens on the hillsides. The production of cloves was once a valuable monopoly of the Dutch government. At the time of the Span ish occupation (1581-1 007) it was immeasur ably greater than it is now. The spice is cul tivated on this island and the three little isl ands of Haraku, Saparua, and Nusalaut, lying immediately east of it, and the total yield of the four is about 785,000 Ibs., of which Amboyna supplies about one third. The population of Amboyna consists principally of Malays, most of whom profess Mohammedanism. Savage abo rigines called Horaforas still exist in the forest, and there are Chinese, Europeans, and half- breeds at the capital. The native villages are governed by rajalis appointed by the Dutch resident. The island was discovered by the Portuguese in 1515, was acquired by Spain in 1581, when Philip II. conquered Portu gal, captured by the Dutch in 1607, and by the English in 1015, and retaken by the Dutch in 1022, when a horrible massacre of the English settlers took place, for which Cromwell afterward compelled the Nether lands to make compensation. In 1796 the isl and was once more taken by the British. They restored it at the peace of Amiens in 1802, seized it a third time in 1810, and it re verted finally to Holland in 1814. Amboyna, the capital of the island and of the Dutch gov ernment of the same name, which includes Amboyna, Ceram, Amblauw, and Buro, is sit uated on the S. E. shore of the bay of Binnen, in lat, 3 40 S., Ion. 128 15 E., 8 or 9 m. from the sea ; pop. 14,000, of whom 9,000 are natives, 400 Arabs, 300 Chinese, and 700 nom inally Europeans, though nine tenths of them are half-caste Dutch. The city has a pleasant aspect from the sea, occupying a level area, with broad, straight, and well shaded streets. It has a hospital, a public garden, and two Christian churches. The government is ad ministered by a Dutch assistant resident, subor dinate to whom are a rajah for the Malay pop ulation and a "captain China" for the Chinese. There is a fort called Nieuw Victoria. Good anchorage is found in the harbor, and the port is annually visited by about 200 vessels and praus of all kinds. There is a monthly mail steamer to Batavia. The imports, valued at $200,000 to $300,000 annually, consist chiefly of cotton goods and rice, and the exports of cloves, cocoa, cajeput oil, nutmegs, mace, and various kinds of wood. The port has been free since 1854, but the trade is much less prosperous than it was during the last English occupation. AMBRACIA (now Arta\ a town of ancient Greece, on the left bank of the Arachthus, N. of the Ambracian gulf (now gulf of Arta), which separated Epirus from Acarnania, though originally the town was included in the latter division. It was colonized by the Corinthians about GOO B. C., and early ac quired importance. About the time of Alex ander the Great it became subject to the kings of Epirus, of whom Pyrrhus made it his capi tal, and adorned it with public buildings. Having joined the ./Etolian league, it was taken by the Roman conquerors in 189 and stripped of its works of art. At a later period its in habitants were transported to the new city of Nicopolis, at the western extremity of the gulf, opposite Actium, founded by Augustus Caesar to commemorate his victory over .Mark Antony off the last named place. (See AETA.) AMBRIZ, one of the divisions of the Portu guese colony of Angola in "W. Africa ; area, 89,300 sq. m. ; pop. reported at about 2,100,- 000, but much less according to the official statements of the Portuguese government. The town of Ambriz, or Oporto do Ambriz, is at the mouth of the Logo or Ambriz river, in lat. 7 52 S. It was formerly the port of the small negro kingdom of Ambriz, the capital of which is Quibanza. The Portuguese annexed the town in 1855 ; in 1805 it contained 16 fac tories or trading stations, two of which were American. AMBROSES, a nation of Gaul, who lived near the Alps between Switzerland and Provence. They joined the Cimbri and Teutones in their invasion of the Roman territories, and were routed, together with the latter, and almost annihilated, by Marius, in the battle of Aqua; Sextise (Aix), in 102 B. C. Their women, after a futile attack upon the Roman soldiers who were following in pursuit of the flying foe, offered to yield on the condition that their chastity should be respected. This proposition being rejected, they first slew all their chil dren and then themselves. AMBROSE, Saint, one of the fathers of the Latin church, born at Trevcs, in Gaul, in 340, died at Milan in 397. His father was the Ro man governor of Gaul, but his mother was a Christian. He was trained to the law, and in trusted at an early age with the government of a province. His probity and wisdom in this public administration seemed to justify his re moval to the place of bishop, although at the time of his election he had not even been bap tized. The various objections and stratagems by which he tried to escape the honor thus pressed upon him were all disregarded ; and at the age of 34 he was consecrated bishop of Milan, and continued to hold this office until his death, a period of more than 22 years. His predecessor, Auxentius, was an Arian. The sympathies of Ambrose, however, were with the supporters of the Nicene creed. He would not tolerate the Arian worship, and though he protected an Arian priest from the AMBROSE AMBROSIAX LIBRARY 385 violence of the mob, lie resisted the dicta tion of the empress Justina, who wished that an Arian bishop should be appointed for the city. lie rebuked Valentiniun, defied Maxi- mus, and compelled Theodosius to a humilia ting penance and submission. When all the ! officers of the court were silent upon the mas- j sacre which in a lit of anger Theodosius had , ordered at Thessalonica, Ambrose declared to | the emperor that his crime was beyond abso- | lution without a special act of penance, and that the mass could not fitly be celebrated in : such a presence. His boldness prevailed, and the emperor humbly obeyed his orders, and continued ever after to be his firmest friend. His contest with Symmachus is scarcely less i remarkable. At the instigation of this learned man, then prefect of Rome, the senate took the , occasion of a famine in 383 to ask that the pa gan worship might be revived. Ambrose was prompt to throw against the scheme all the force of his authority and eloquence. lie was ; by no means the equal of his adversary in graces of rhetoric and fulness of scholarship, j but his earnestness, and perhaps in some j degree his threatenings, won the cause. The writings of Ambrose fill two folio volumes ; in the editions of Erasmus (Basel, 1527) and the Benedictines (Paris, 108G- 90). His moral I teaching has throughout an ascetic tone, though less austere than that of the Greek fathers. He was hostile to all amusements and all pleas ures of sense, and commended the monastic ; life as the truest way of Christian obedience j and spiritual growth. He wrote treatises on | * Widows," on tc Virginity;" on " Penance," and | on the "Duties of Ministers," which satisfied j the severe taste of Jerome much better than his seven books on " Faith and the Holy Spirit," which that harsh critic pronounced to be at | once weak, fantastic, and stolen from the j Greeks. His panegyrics, as we read them now, hardly justify his reputation for a won derful oratory. Of his letters only a part have come down to us. They show very faithfully the character of the man, his moderation, courage, fidelity, practical wisdom, and unaffected piety, j There was a dignity in his manner and bearing j which made him appear at once like a ruler j and a saint. Arbogastes, a Roman general, j making war upon the Franks of the Rhineland, j was asked by one of their chiefs whom he had j conquered if he was a friend of Ambrose. From < motives of policy he gave an affirmative an- swer. " Xo wonder that you have beaten us," was the reply, "since you have the favor of a | man whom the sun itself would obey if he j should command it to stand still." The most | valuable legacies of Ambrose to the church j were the hymns which he wrote and the im- ! provements which he made in the method of j chanting the sacred offices. The most famous | of these are the morning song, Sterne rerum \ Conditor ; the evening song. I)eus Creator om- i nium; the Christmas chant, Veni, Redemptor gentium ; and the short hymn to the Trinity, VOL. i. 25 which Luther translated and adopted. These hymns of Ambrose are not to be praised for the beauty of their diction or for any artistic merit. They are rude, loose, and as far from the musical tiow of later Christian rhyming as from the ancient finish of classic Latin verse. But their vigor, their fervor, their striking im agery, not less than their association with the revered name of their author, give them a place in the veneration of the faithful. The body of Ambrose is kept in the ancient basilica of Milan which bears his name, and his feast day is ob served by the Latin church on the 7th of De cember, the day of his ordination as bishop. He has also the honor of a place among the saints of the eastern church, and his name is classed on their registers with the names of Basil, Athanasius, and the two Gregories. AMBROSIA, in Greek mythology, the food of the gods, which was brought to Zeus by pigeons, and which conferred upon the dwellers on Olympus eternal youth and immortality. It supplied the place of all terrestrial comestibles. Favorites of the gods are recorded to have had it given to them as a great favor. It was also used by the gods to anoint their body and hair ; hence we read of the ambrosial locks of Zeus. AMBROSIAX CHAM, a method of singing hymns first introduced into the western church by St. Ambrose, about 386. Although gene rally supposed to be the foundation of all church music, it was in fact derived through the eastern church from the Greeks, and is so little known at this day, that it is impossible to say more of its general character than that it was constructed on the ancient Greek tetra- chords, and embraced the four authentic modes, the four plagal or collateral ones being added by Gregory to form what is known as the Gre gorian chant. The Ambrosian chant, and in deed all kinds of church music, were at first limited strictly to the performance of the psalms and doxologies, from an apprehen sion among the early fathers and bishops that heretical doctrines might creep into the ser vices by the introduction of original hymns. Ambrose, however, in imitation of the Greek fathers, subsequently wrote several hymns, in cluding, it has been erroneously supposed, the Te Deum, which he caused to be habitually sung according to the new method in his church ; and St. Augustine, who was baptized there, speaks with great delight of the impres sion which the performance of the psalms and hymns made upon him. The Ambrosian chant continued to be used in the services of the church until about the commencement of the 7th century, when it was superseded by the new method adopted by Pope Gregory. AMBROSIAX LIBRARY*, a collection founded in Milan in 1009 by Cardinal Federigo Borromeo, archbishop of that city, and named in honor of St. Ambrose. It is especially rich in MSS., for the collection of which learned men were sent into all parts of Europe, and into Asia. A very large number of palimpsests belong to ti: .s 386 AMBULANCE AMENOPIIIS library ; some of them are exceedingly rare and valuable, among which may be mentioned Ci cero s De Republica, fragments of bis orations, and the letters of Marcus Aurelius and Fronto. The palimpsests were mostly obtained from the monastery of Bobbio, and were discovered by the librarian, Angelo Mai, in 1814. There is a MS. of Virgil, valuable for its marginal notes by Petrarch, among which is one relative to his first meeting with Laura. The library at pres ent contains about 90,000 printed volumes and more than 15,000 MSS., besides a large collec tion of statuary, antiques, medals, and pictures. Among these are Raphael s cartoon of the " School of Athens " and the studies of Leonar do da Vinci. Many of the treasures of this library were carried to France during Napo leon s campaigns in Italy, and some of them have never been returned. A printing press is connected with the library, and several profes sors and editors are constantly engaged in col lating and translating the MSS. AMBULANCE (Lat. ambulare, to walk), a tem porary and movable military hospital, formed on the field of battle for the immediate succor of the sick and wounded. The word is tech nically applied to covered wagons on springs, and to such other vehicles as are used for mov ing wounded men from the field of battle to the temporary hospitals, or for carrying the sick and wounded with the moving columns or to the permanent hospitals. The ambulance is a comparatively modern invention, due mainly to the French. Military surgery was formerly but little understood, and those who were wounded on the field of battle were left to the care of those around them, without any selection of fit persons for the duties of sur gery. Nor do we find any trace of a regularly organized system of military hospitals, moving with the army, until the time of Henry IV. of France. The movable ambulances at first consisted of a cumbrous depot of surgical and medical appliances, kept with the baggage at a distance. At present two kinds of ambulances are recognized : one fixed or general, the other movable and light. The larger and reserved ambulances remain with the heavy baggage at some distance from the field of battle, and may be established either in permanent buildings or in large tents or temporary structures. In the late war in France the temporary hospitals fitted up in the palace of Versailles and in the public buildings of Paris were called ambu lances. The lighter and more strictly movable ambulances accompany the soldiers on the field. The system was brought to its highest state of efficiency in the United States army during the civil war. The surgeons accom panying the troops are supplied with abundant means, such as lint, plaster, and bandages, for dressing wounds, and with the necessary in struments for surgical operations. Ambu lances, or small spring wagons drawn by one or two horses (to which the term is in the United States commonly confined), and con taining all the necessary appliances, including beds, for transporting two or more patients, follow close after the troops on the march and in approaching the field of battle. The ambu lances of each division or corps d armee are or ganized into a corps under the command of a subaltern of the line, styled ambulance officer. Railway cars and steamboats have been pro vided with beds and all other conveniences for carrying sick and wounded soldiers to the permanent and more distant hospitals. The American ambulance system, with local modifi cations, is now used by most civilized nations. AMELIA, a S. E. county of Virginia, drained by the branches of the Appomattox river, which almost encircles it; area, 300 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 9,878, of whom 0,828 were colored. It is intersected by the Richmond and Danville railroad. The surface is somewhat diversified. The productions in 1870 were 04,007 bushels of wheat, 70,509 of corn, 02,088 of oats, and 1,037,721 Ibs. of tobacco. Capital, Amelia Court House. AMELOT DE LA IIOISSA1E, Abraham Nicolas, a French author, born in Orleans in 1034, died in Paris, Dec. 8, 1700. After his return from Venice, whither he went in 1009 as secretary of an embassy, he devoted himself to history, politics, and philosophy. His principal work Avas a "History of the Government of Venice," besides which he wrote several volumes of miscellaneous memoirs, and translated four books of Tacitus, Machiavelli s u Prince," in the notes to which he spoke of his author as a great satirist, and Paolo Sarpi s "History of the Council of Trent," with very free annotations. This translation of Fra Paolo was attacked by the ultramontanists, who presented three memo rials for its suppression, while it was defended and eulogized by the Gallicans. The " History of Venice," by its exposure of the secret policy of that republic, raised a great outcry there ; and it is said that, through the intervention of the Venetian senate, Amelot was thrown into the Bastille. AMELOTTE, Denis, a French writer, born in Saintes in 1000, died in Paris, Oct. 7, 1078. His life of Charles de Coudren, second general of the congregation of the Oratory, of which he was a member, contained some strictures on Duvergier de Hauranne, which brought him into collision with the Port Royalists. His influence with the chancellor Seguier prevented the publication of their translation of the New Testament, and in 100G- 8 a translation of his own in 4 vols. 8vo, with annotations, was published, which, although imperfect, wa& superior to any of its predecessors, and is still extensively used. AMEi\OPHIS, Amnnopli, or Amcn-hotep, a name borne by three Egyptian kings belonging to the 18th dynasty, which commenced with Amasis or Aahmes I., about 1525 B. 0. I. The second Pharaoh of that dynasty, who married thc- widow of Aahmes, continued the conquests begun by his predecessor, after th^ expulsion AMERBACH AMERICA 387 of the Tlyksos, in southern Canaan ; subdued the Shasu of the desert east of Egypt ; and made an expedition toward Ethiopia, to extend the j southern frontiers of his kingdom, and restore | the financial prosperity of the country destroyed j by the shepherd kings. He reigned 21 years (1499-147S). II. The son and successor, in 1414, of Thothmes III., and father of Thothmes IV., of whom little is known. His reign was short. III. The son of Thothmes IV., devoted himself during a reign of at least 3G years (about 1400-131)1) to the improvement of his kingdom. Ancient Egypt was never so pros perous nor so extensive as under his adminis tration. It extended into Syria as far as the western bank of the Euphrates, and south, embracing a part of Ethiopia. Monuments of the greatness of Amenophis III. exist all over Egypt, among them the two large colossi, one of which is celebrated as u the vocal Memnon." A.IIERBIUI, Jokann, a German printer, born in Swabia, died about 1520. lie was educated j in Paris, and established his press at Basel in j 1481, publishing the works of St. Ambrose ! (1402), and the first collected edition of the \ writings of St. Augustine (1506), from which the name of St. Augustine type was given to a variety of large letter used in the book. lie proposed to publish the works of Jerome also, and to this end had his three sons thoroughly educated in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. The j edition was, some years after his death, issued j by Froben. Amerbach was one of the first to I substitute the Roman for Gothic and Italic j letters. His son BOXIFAZ (1495-1502), profes- j sor of civil law at Basel, was one of the most intimate friends of Erasmus and his general legatee. He was distinguished as a Latin and Greek scholar and writer. AMERICA, one of the four great recognized con tinental divisions of the globe. It is bounded X. by the Arctic ocean ; E. by the Atlantic, which separates it from Europe and Africa ; W. by the Pacific, which separates it from Asia ; and S. by the Antarctic ocean. The longer axis of the American continent runs almost due north and south. Measured on its central line, Ion. V0 \V., its length from the arctic regions to Patagonia is about 10,500 in. From east to west it presents two shorter axes, each of some thing more than 3,000 m. : one from Labrador to British Columbia, nearly in lat. 51 X. ; the other between Capes St. Roque in Brazil and Parina in Peru, in about lat. 5 S. The Amer ican continent is separated into two not very unequal parts by the isthmus of Darien or Pan ama, less than 30 m. wide at its narrowest point. All north of this isthmus (taken in its more extended sense) is known as North Amer ica; all south of it as South America: the greater part of the isthmus itself being styled Central America. Estimates of the area of America vary considerably, some authorities making it a little more than 14,000,000 sq. m., others raising it, including Greenland, to more than 17,000,000 sq. in. . It may be set down at 15,000,000 sq. m., of which about 8,000,000, are in North America and 7,000,000 in South and Central America. The area is thus about four times that of Europe, nearly a third great er than that of Africa, and about six sevenths that of Asia. Geographically, America lies within the arctic, the northern and southern temperate, and the tropical zones. About one seventh is unavailable for cultivation ; the re mainder is not surpassed in capacity to sus tain life by any equal area of the globe. The population, including that of the islands, is about 85,000,000, riot far from T V that of the entire globe. The geology of America is wor thy of careful study. The oldest strata are a range of crystalline rocks which crop out from the St. Lawrence and the great lakes to the Arctic ocean ; these consist chiefly of gneiss, granite, and trap. In North America this pri mary range is about 1,500 miles in length, with a breadth of 200, seldom reaching an elevation of 800 feet. It forms the western slope of the Andes and Rocky mountains. It extends over the eastern part of South America, hidden in the valley of the Amazon by alluvial deposits. In the central portion it dips under the Silu rian strata, but is free from superincumbent deposits, showing that even in the Silurian age it formed dry land, and has suffered less disturbance than is manifested in most other formations. The Silurian rocks, consisting of sandstone, limestone, slate, shale, &c., are di vided into several periods, and abound in fos sil remains. The Silurian strata dip under the Devonian, which are in parts overlaid with conglomerate. The latter forms the basis of the carboniferous strata which occupy large portions of Pennsylvania and the valley of the Mississippi. At the close of the carboniferous period the continent, nearly as large as at pres ent, was scarcely elevated above the ocean. The great mountain ranges are of more recent origin. They were forced through the Silurian, Devonian, and carboniferous strata, dislocating and disturbing the hitherto horizontal layers. It is where the ancient rocks have been pene trated by masses of igneous rock that the pre cious metals are usually found. The volcanic fires have long since been extinct in the Appa lachian range ; but >roofs of their former exist ence are found in t le metamorphosed Silurian and carboniferous rocks of New York and Penn sylvania, which were long supposed to be pri mary granite. This igneous force still mani fests itself in the volcanoes of the Andes and Cordilleras. Volcanoes still active, at greater or less intervals, mark the whole of the An dean range from Chili to Alaska, the most intense action within the historical period be ing in Ecuador, within two or three degrees of the equator. Here is the volcano of Cotopaxi, one of the two or three in constant eruption. The animals native to America differ in many respects from those of the other hemisphere. This is especially the case with the larger spe cies. The elephant, hippopotamus, and rhi- 388 AMERICA noceros of the eastern continent are in Amer- ica represented by the much smaller tapir ; the camel and dromedary by the llama and vicuna ; the lion and tiger by the jaguar and panther. Of the carnivora the bear is the only species in ; America which exceeds its congeners in the other hemisphere, the grisly bear of Califor nia being the largest of its species. The Amer ican bison exceeds in size any others of its kin dred, and the largest members of the deer i family are natives of America. Among the | carnivora native to America are the grisly, j white, black, and brown bears ; wolves and j foxes of various species; the puma, jaguar, | lynx, and wild cat. Of the marsupalia, there is every variety of the opossum ; of the ro- dentia, the beaver, hare, marmot, mouse, porcu pine, and squirrel; of the ruminantia, many varieties of deer, among which are the moose or elk and reindeer, the bison, musk ox, sheep, goat, and antelope. The quadrumana (apes) differ specifically from their congeners on the eastern continent ; all of them have long tails, and many prehensile tails, which is a peculiar ity of American species. The horse and ox are introductions from Europe. Among the birds there are some species, as the wild turkey, toucan, and humming bird, peculiar to Amer ica. There are eagles, and others of the same family, vultures (among them the great condor of the Andes), ravens, crows, and an immense variety of the smaller birds, few of them being identical with those bearing the same names in Europe and Asia. Serpents are numerous. Among these are the great boa and the rattle snake, peculiar to America. Alligators swarm in the tropical and subtropical rivers ; turtles in the tropical seas. The lakes and streams are prolific in fish, among which the salmon have a wide range. The cod fisheries of the banks of Newfoundland are unequalled in productive ness. Some regions are infested with insects, especially mosquitoes. There is a native wild bee, but the common hive bee was introduced from Europe. The vegetable productions of America are very numerous. The pine, oak, and maple are characteristic of the temperate regions ; palms, of many species, of the tropical. In some parts of southern America the trees are so knotted together by twining plants as to ren der the forests impenetrable to wild animals, except through narrow paths which they have constructed. Maize is the only important cereal native to the new world. Nearly all the fruits of the old world have been introduced into Amer ica, where they flourish in their appropriate lati tudes. The vine is a native, and within a few years its cultivation has received great atten tion. We proceed to give more detailed state ments under the general divisions of the conti nent. I. NOETII AMERICA extends from the arctic region southward to near lat. 15 N. It is bounded N . by the Arctic ocean, E. by the Atlantic and gulf of Mexico, S. by the gulf and Central America, and "W. by the Pacific. Its entire eastern coast line from Barrow strait to the southern extremity of Mexico, including the shores of Hudson bay and the gulf of Mexico, is about 13,000 in. ; the western coast, being less deeply indented, has a shore line of not more than 11,000 m. ; or 24,000 in all. Reclus, counting in the adjacent islands, gives the shore line of North America as 29,969 m. ; South America, 16,012; together about one third more than that of Asia, about three times that of Africa, and considerably more than twice that of Europe. To the maritime system of North America properly belong also the great lakes, or inland seas, which it is estimated con tain a third of all the fresh water of the globe. North America has three main systems of moun tains and watersheds, which divide it into four great hydrographical basins : 1, that which empties its waters into the Pacific ocean ; 2, into the Arctic ; 3, into the Atlantic ; 4, into the gulf of Mexico. Each of these great ba sins is divided into two or more parts. The Rocky mountain range, skirting the Pacific coast, is a continuation of the Andes of South America. At the isthmus of Panama it sinks low, rarely attaining the height of 1,000 ft., with depressions of less than half that altitude. From the isthmus the range- rises gradually, through Mexico and the United States, up to lat. 60 N., where it begins to sink into the Arc tic basin. This mountain range bears different names in different parts of its course. Through Mexico, where it forms a broad table land, it is known as the Mexican Cordilleras. It is only in the United States and the British possessions that it bears the specific name of Rocky mountains. The Spaniards designate the whole as the Sierra Madre (Mother Range). Its general elevation is from 5,000 to 9,000 ft., with many summits much loftier. Among these are Orizaba and Popocatapetl in Mexico, which exceed 17,000 ft., and several in the United States and Brit ish America of from 12,000 to 18,000 ft. Mt. St. Elias, about lat. 60 N., reaches or surpasses the height of 17,850 ft. This range follows the shore line at various distances, the greatest deviation being about lat 40 N., where the Pacific slope of the Rocky mountains has a breadth of some GOO in., upon which are situ ated the states of California and Oregon, and the territories of New Mexico and Utah. The Rocky mountain range is not a single ridge, but rather, like the Cordilleras of South Amer ica, a parallel pair of ridges. Between the two lies the isolated basin of the Great Salt lake. As the Rocky mountains run so near to the coast of the Pacific, the rivers iiowing from them, draining only a small area, are ne cessarily small. The Columbia and Sacramen to, flowing directly into the Pacific, and the Col orado, flowing into the gulf of California, are the only ones of any considerable size. The Yukon, although flowing into Behring sea, a part of the Pacific ocean, belongs to a different hydro- graphical system. Skirting the Atlantic coast is the Appalachian range. Starting from the promontory of Gaspe, on the gulf of St. Law- AMERICA 389 rence, it runs south westward for 1,300 m. to northern Alabama, where it sinks to the level of the gulf slope. The Appalachian system con sists of several parallel ridges, divided into two main lines. The eastern ridge is made up of the Green mountains of Vermont, the Highlands of New York, the South mountains of Pennsyl vania, and the Blue Ridge of Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia. The western ridge comprises the Adirondack, Catskill, Alleghany, and Cumberland ranges. Between these two ridges lies an almost continuous valley, with a breadth of from 15 t ) 60 miles, designated in various parts as the valleys of the Champlain, the Hudson, the Cumberland, the great valley of Virginia, and the valley of Tennessee. The general tendency of the Appalachian ridge is to a greater elevation as it runs southward; the White mountains of New Hampshire being merely an isolated projection from the cen tral mass of the Green mountain range. Ex cept in a few points this range rarely reaches an elevation of 4,000 ft. Mount Mansfield, the highest summit of the Green mountains, is 4,359 ft. ; Mount Marcy, the highest of the Adirondacks, 5,337; Mount Washington, the loftiest of the White mountains, 0,285, an ele vation exceeded by many points near the southern extremity of the chain, the highest being Mitchell s peak, in North Carolina, 6,733 ft. The Appalachian chain is pierced at intervals by gaps which give passage for rivers, canals, and railways, linking the At lantic slope with the valley of the Mississippi. The Appalachian ridge forms the watershed between the streams which How into the At lantic, with the exception of the St. Lawrence, and those which fall into the Mississippi, and thence into the gulf of Mexico. Several of these rivers are of considerable size, such as the Merrimack, Connecticut, Hudson, Dela ware, Susquehanna, Potomac, and James. The Atlantic slope of North America, from the St. Lawrence to Florida, varies in width from 50 to 200 m., the mean elevation of its upper margin being from 150 to 1,000 ft. Through out its whole extent it is without marked transverse ridges. The Rocky mountains and the Appalachians form two sides of a triangle, only the latter is broken off without reaching the point of junction. The third side of this triangle is formed by a broad low swell, without any defined crest, and rarely reaching the ele vation of 1,500 ft. This swell, starting from the eastern base of the Rooky mountains in about lat. 50 N., runs eastward, separating the waters which fall into the Arctic ocean and Hudson bay from those which find their way into the gulf of Mexico. So gradual is the rise that we can define its summit only by noticing whether the general course of the streams is northward or southward. This low swell divides the continent of North Amer ica east of the Rocky mountains into two nearly equal parts, the northern half of which is almost all incapable of cultivation. A little west of the head of Lake Superior this swell divides. One branch sweeps southeastward, the other northeastward, forming between them the basin of the lakes whose waters pass through the St. Lawrence into the Atlantic. So slight is the elevation of the southeastern watershed that a canal with no cutting of more than 100 feet would open an outlet for the waters of Lake Superior, Michigan, Huron, and Erie into the Mississippi, and thence to the gulf of Mexico, instead of into Ontario, and through the St. Lawrence into the northern Atlantic. The lake basin of North America is thus closely connected with that of the Missis sippi. Between the eastern slope of the Rocky mountains and the western slope of the Ap palachian range lies the basin or valley of the Mississippi. This is in some respects the most notable on the globe. Its area is about 1,250,000 sq. m., being only exceeded in extent by the val ley of the Amazon. Latitude, elevation, and rainfall combine to render every part of it capa ble of supporting a dense population. Next to it in this respect comes the basin of the Plata in South America. The most striking physical fea ture of the basin of the Mississippi is its uni form plain-like character. From the mouth of the river to its sources there is nothing like a mountain. At its junction with the Missouri it is but 381 ft. above the level of the sea ; at its source in Lake Itasca it is 1,680 ft., the av erage descent for the whole distance being less than eight inches to the mile. Its great afflu ent, the Missouri, from Fort Benton to the junc tion, falls only ten inches to the mile. The Ohio, from Pittsburgh to its mouth, falls less than five inches to the mile. The Red river falls a little more than a foot, the Arkansas not quite two feet to the mile. Except on its exterior rim, the basin drained by the Mississippi and its main branches falls less than six inches to the mile. The consequence is that there are no rapids to obstruct navigation, each river being navigable as far as the depth of water will permit. The entire navigable length of these rivers is about 40,000 in. The hydrog raphy of the remaining regions of North America is of little consequence, the Rio Grande being the only other river of any im portance upon the eastern side. With the ex ception of purely tropical productions, North America has nearly every species of grain, fruit, and vegetable. It has given to the eastern continent maize, which next to rice is the cereal which enters most largely into hu man consumption, directly as an article of food, and indirectly as sustenance for animals. North America is rich in nearly every valuable mineral. Iron is so widely diffused, especially within the United States, that it may be con sidered universal. Copper is found in many localities, the most abundant deposits being in the region of Lake Superior. Gold and silver have been found in every part of the Rocky mountain and Appal acbian chains, the de posits in Mexico, California, and the adjacent 390 AMERICA regions probably exceeding those of all the rest of the globe. Lead is found in various parts, the main locality, probably the most produc tive in the world, being in Illinois, Iowa, Mis souri, and Wisconsin. Quicksilver has hitherto j been found chiefly in Mexico and California, j where the mines equal in productiveness those of Austria. Zinc has been found only within a ! limited area, mainly in New Jersey and Penn- sylvania. Tin is the only valuable metal which does not occur in large quantities. The coal \ fields of North America comprise more than i seven eighths of all known to exist. Those already explored exceed the entire area of Great Britain. Salt is widely diffused, the principal saline springs being in New York, Virginia, and Michigan. Petroleum, which may properly be classed among mineral sub- ! stances, abounds within a comparatively lim- i ited area, the central point being in north- j ern Pennsylvania, thence extending northward ] and westward. Politically North America is divided into British America, the United States, and Mexico. British America occupies the whole northern half, with the exception of \ Alaska, the extreme northwestern angle, for- | merly Russian America, but now by purchase ! belonging to the United States. It is bounded N. by the Arctic ocean, E. by Davis strait and the Atlantic, S. by the United States, and W. i by Alaska and the Pacific (where its shore j line is very narrow, only about 350 in.). Its i entire area is about 3,500,000 sq. m. ; but i with the exception of a border on the St. | Lawrence and the lakes, and a very narrow | strip on the Red river, and a portion on the j Pacific, the whole of British America lies north of the line of cultivation. The popula- \ tion is 4,455,000, of which the larger part are j of European descent. Nearly all of habitable British America is now consolidated as the Dominion of Canada. The United States oc cupy the central part of North America, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. They are mainly bounded N. by British America (Alaska occu pying an isolated position), S. by Mexico, E. by the Atlantic, and W. by the Pacific. The total area, including Alaska (580,107 sq. m.), is about 3,600,000 sq. m. The population by the census of 1870 is 38,558,371, of whom 33,589,377 are white, 4,880,000 colored, 03.254 Chinese, and 25,731 settled Indians. Mexico is bounded N. by the United States, E. by the gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean sea, W. by the Pacific;, and S. by Central America. It has an area of near- i ly 800,000 sq. m., and a population estimated in 1808 at 9,173,052, of whom more than half are j set down as Indians, and only about 1,000,000 i whites, the remainder being of mixed blood \ and negroes. II. CENTRAL AMERICA, occupy ing the greater part of the isthmus of Darien, comprises the states of Guatemala, San Salva dor, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, which since 1803 have formed a loose political j union, under the name of States of Central America. They contain about 175,000 sq. in., with a population estimated in 1865 at 2,065,- 000, of whom 1,500,000 are Indians, 1,000,000 of mixed blood, 130,000 whites, and 85,000 blacks. Central America lies wholly within the tropics ; but many parts of it are sufficiently elevated to give a temperate climate. III. SOTJTII AMERICA extends from Cape Gallinas, lat. 12 30 N., to Cape Horn, lat. 55 59 S., its extreme length being 4,550 m. The distin guishing physical feature is the chain of the An des or Cordilleras, which borders the whole W. coast, at a distance of from 50 to 100 m. from the shore, gradually sinking at the southern ex tremity to the level of the ocean, a few sum mits appearing as rocky islands. From lat. 22 S. northward the range widens, spreading into a series of ridges generally parallel, the westernmost ridge, almost continuous, being the Andes proper, or Cordillera of the coast. The main line follows, or rather constitutes the isthmus of Panama, an ofishoot striking north easterly to the Caribbean sea. This last is divided into several parallel ridges, through the intervening valleys of which the Atrato and the Magdalena flow northward info the Carib bean. The general chain is nowhere broken through, and thus forms a complete separation between the waters which flow into the Pacific and those which fall into the Atlantic. On the Pacific side there is no considerable river. From the eastern base of the Andes several ranges of highlands divide the whole country into a number of shallow basins. Topographi cally South America is divided into seven dis tinct regions : 1. The shore of the Pacific, 50 to 100 m. in breadth, the extremities of which are fertile, the centre being a sandy desert. 2. The elevated table lands lying between the folds of the main Andes and the other Cordilleras; the chief of these are those of Quito and Bogota. 3. The basin of the Orinoco, a series of llanos, or level plains thinly wooded, but covered du ring the wet season with late herbage, which withers in the dry season, when the heat is in tense. 4. The great basin of the Amazon, cov ering about 2,000,000 sq. m., for the most part densely wooded and thinly peopled. 5. The basin of the Rio de la Plata, a series of plains, known as pampas, the river banks clothed with forests, and the interior covered with luxuriant grass, which supports immense herds of cattle, millions of which are annually slaughtered for their hides. The cattle here probably excel in number those of all the rest of the globe. 6. The mountainous region of E. and S. Brazil, extending from the Atlantic to the interior, where it almost imperceptibly joins with the two former regions. 7. Patagonia, occupying the whole breadth of the continent from about lat, 40 S. to Cape Horn. This region is almost wholly unexplored. The Argentine Confedera tion claims dominion over a great part of it ; but practically it is inhabited only by savages, with scarcely a trace of even a tribal govern ment. About three fourths of South America lie geographically within the tropics ; but the f- : ."fe^^^T 7 * ^ : - ^^^4^^3 ~| " 111 J? || " ?y ^.< -, " 57 ^* AMERICA 391 climate is greatly modified by the elevation. With the exception of a small tract in the X. E. angle, comprising French, Dutch, and Brit ish Guiana, no part of South America is under the dominion of any foreign power. The pres ent political divisions are eleven in number. "We enumerate them in geographical order, com mencing at the north : 1. Venezuela, in the north, bordering on the Atlantic and Caribbean sea; area, 425,0 JO sq. m. ; pop. about 1,250,000. The only census ever taken was in 18-47, when the population was 1,207,000, since which it has probably decreased somewhat owing to frequent revolutions. The bulk of the popula tion are of mixed Indian and negro blood, hardly one in a hundred being put down as pure whites. 2. The United States of Colom bia, formerly known as Xew Granada, bound ed X. by the Caribbean sea and Central Amer ica, E. by Venezuela, S. by Brazil and Ecuador, and W. by the Pacific. It comprises the south ern part of the isthmus of Darien, the Panama railroad running through it. Area, 500,000 sq. m. ; pop. in 1804, 2,794,000, since which time partial enumerations indicate a slight in crease. Most of the population is of mixed races. Thoso in whom European blood pre dominates over Indian are about 1,480,000; Indian over European, 440,000 ; Indian and negro, 440,000; pure Indian, 150,000; negro, 90,000. 3. The empire of Brazil, the only monarchy, stretching westward in its northern part from the Atlantic to Colombia, in its south ern part to Bolivia. It includes the greater part of the basin of the Amazon. Area, 3,140,000 sq. m. The population is variously estimated at from 10,000,000 to 12,000,000. The best native authority gives it in 1807 at 11,780,000, of whom 9,880,000 were free, 1,400.000 slaves, and 500,000 uncivilized Indians. The propor tion of people of mixed blood is small com pared with other South American states. 4. Uruguay, bounded by Brazil, the Atlantic, and the Argentine Confederation; area, 75,000 sq. m. ; pop. 300,000. 5. Paraguay, bounded by Bolivia, Brazil, and the Argentine Confedera tion, the only country with no seacoast ; area, 70,000 sq. m. ; pop. in 1857, 1,300,000, but sin<5e greatly reduced by war and famine. 0. Bolivia, extending from Brazil to the Pacific ; area, 575,000 sq. m. ; pop. 2,000,000. 7. The Argentine Confederation, extending from Bo livia and the Andes to the Atlantic; area, 000,000 sq. m.; pop. 1,800,000. 8. Patago nia, occupying the extreme southern end of the continent ; area, 350,000 sq. m. The population is insignificant, consisting wholly of savages, destitute of any organized government. All the foregoing states are E. of the Andes. The remaining ones are on the Pacific shore, the summits of the range, and its eastern slope. 9. Ecuador, upon and just S. of the equator; area, 275,000 sq. m. ; pop. about 1,300,000, of whom half are reckoned as whites, though many are of mixed blood. Its cultivated parts comprise a narrow strip on the Pacific, the ele- ! vated valley of Quito, between the ridges of I the Cordilleras, and the eastern slope of the latter. Within its limits are several of the , loftiest peaks of the Andes. 10. Peru. S. of i Ecuador, crossing the Andes, and extending ! down the eastern slope ; area, 000,000 sq. m. ; j pop. 2,500,000, of whom 15 per cent, arc 1 whites and 57 per cent. Indians. 11. Chili, : occupying the narrow Pacific coast S. of Bo livia and W. of the Argentine Confederation and northern Patagonia ; area, within its estab lished limits, about 150,000 sq. m. ; pop. in 1808, 1,900,000. IV. ISLANDS OF AMERICA. ! The islands not immediately adjacent to the mainland, which may be properly considered , as belonging to the American continent, are ; grouped as follows : 1, the Greater Antilles, in cluding Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Ptico : i 2, the Lesser Antilles, including Barbadoes and about 30 others; 3, the Bahamas, about 500 in number, most of them uninhabited. Their | total area is not far from 100,000 sq. m., with a population of over 4,000,00jj| With the ex ception of Hayti, these are siflfect to different European powers. To these may be added I Greenland, belonging to Denmark, the popu- I lation of which numbers only a few thousands. The area and population of the American bers as follows: COUNTRIES. Area, sq. m. | Population. NORTH AMERICA. British America 3 500 000 J 4 455 000 Mexico. 800 000 ! 9175000 United States. . 3,600,000 1 38,553,000 Totals, North America 7,900,000 52,188.000 CENTRAL AMERICA. Costa Rica Guatemala 20.000 40,000 135,000 1,180000 Honduras 47.000 831,000 Nicaragua San Salvador. 58.000 10,000 400.000 600,000 Totals, Central America SOUTH AMERICA. Argentine Confederation. . . 175,000 600.000 2,665,000 1.800,000 Bolivia 575 00: ) 2 000.000 Brazil 3.140.000 11.780,000 Chili 150.1,00 1.900,000 Colombia 500 00 2. C 00.000 Ecuador Guiana 275.000 480.000 1300.000 300.000 Paraguay 70.000 325.000 Patagonia 350.1 00 4.000 Peru Uruguay GOO.iiOO 75.000 2.500.000 300 000 Venezuela Totals. South America 425,000 7,240.0. JO 1.250.000 26.259,000 100 000 4 000 000 The history of America, as authentically re corded, hardly goes back five centuries, or about 100 years before the colonization by the Europeans. For everything earlier we have only the ruins left by extinct races, and tradi tions in which the mythical element is pre dominant. It is certain that the Northmen 392 AMERICA visited Greenland as early as the 10th century, and planted a colony there, with which they maintained an almost continuous intercourse. They also sailed for some distance down the Atlantic coast; but there is no evidence that they ever reached further south than New England, or penetrated a score of miles into the interior. But wherever Columbus and his followers went, they found the country peo pled more or less densely by a race or races to whom they gave the general appellation of Indians. When and whence they came is unknown. The widely spread race which we group together as Esquimaux bear a strong resemblance to the inhabitants of Siberia on the one side and those of Lapland on the other. They may have reached America from one side by way of Iceland, or on the other by crossing Behring strait ; not impossibly by both. But in either case intercourse with their European and Asiatic kindred was early interrupted. There is little likelihood that any intercourse, existed betwen the dwellers on Baffin bay*and those on Behring strait. Both live mainly on the products of the sea salmon in the one case, and seals in the other ; consequently they never move far from the shore. There is no evidence that they have ever moved southward to more hospitable regions than those which they now inhabit. The name Esquimaux is of French origin. In the regions around Baffin bay they call them selves Innuits, which means simply folks. In almost every respect they differ widely from the tribes who were found spread over the whole of what now constitutes the United States E. of the Rocky mountains. The early explorers found this whole region peopled by a race homogeneous in physical character and way of life. It is clear, however, that they had been preceded by another race of a higher type. This race, known as the mound-builders, certainly occupied the whole extent of the val ley of the Mississippi, and penetrated as far north as the copper region of Lake Superior, where they have left behind them evidences that they had made no inconsiderable ad vances in the art of working metals. Their principal memorials are found in the earthworks which they erected. Of these many thousands have been found in the single state of Ohio. Their number and magnitude prove them to have been the work of a numerous people organized into large communities. How and when this people disappeared is beyond even plausible conjecture. Passing southward, we come to Mexico, which was found occupied by a people more advanced in many respects than we can suppose the mound-builders to have been. The ruling race at the time of the con quest were the Aztecs; but they had occupied this place for only a few generations. They were apparently immigrants to the table land of Anahuac ; but it is still a disputed question whether they came from the north or the south. Their civilization was undoubtedly engrafted upon an earlier one, to which the name of Tol- tec has been given. In the southern Mexican states of Yucatan and Chiapas, and in Hondu ras and Guatemala, are ruins of large cities which evince a still higher grade of culture. The existence of these great ruins shows that this region, where the present population is hardly ten to the square mile, was once dense- | ly peopled. In the part of South America E. j of the Andes, the aboriginal population never attained to any form of civilization. That portion of South America occupying the ele vated valleys between the various ranges of the Andes, within the present states of Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador, was the seat of a civili zation known as that of the incas. The time of its origin is variously stated ; some place it back three or four thousand years or more; but a more probable date is about A. D. 1000. It was at its height at the period of the Spanish conquest. Taken as a whole, the civilizations of the prehistoric races of America are generally regarded as purely indigenous, having no con nection with and but slight resemblance to these of any other peoples. (See AMERICAN ANTIQFI- TIES.) The historical period of America as fairly written begins with the discovery of the West Indian islands by Columbus in 1492. In the course of different voyages he sailed for some distance along the shores of the continent. In 1497 the Cabots discovered Newfound land, and coasted as far down as Florida. The Spaniards took the lead in conquest and partial coloniza tion. AVithin half a century they took posses sion of the islands; Cortes conquered Mexico, Balboa and others Central America, and Pizar- ro and Almagro overran Peru. The Spaniards were adventurers rather than colonists; their chief object was gold, and they pushed mainly into the regions where this was found. They reached New Mexico before 1537. Brazil was formally occupied by the Portuguese in 1549, j fell successively under the dominion of Spain and Holland, and was finally recovered by Por- j tugal in 1654. The French took formal posses- ! sion of Canada in 1534, and laid claim to the j region westward and southward, including the valley of the Mississippi. The English were much later in colonizing. Their first permanent settlement at Jamestown was made in 1G07. The Dutch and Swedes also, not long alter, set tled at a few points. In 1770 the American continent was divided among three European nations. England, having taken the French, Dutch, and Swedish possessions, held by claim the whole of North America, except Mexico. i Spain held Mexico, Central America, and the i whole of South America, except Brazil, which | belonged to Portugal. Somewhat Liter, Rus- I sia acquired an extensive territory in the ex treme N. W. of the continent. In 1775 be gan the series of revolts which in less than half a century almost entirely expelled the ! European governments, except Great Britain, from the continent of America. The thirteen British colonies rose in 1775, and proclaimed AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES 393 their independence In 1770, which was acknow ledged in 178:3. In 1807 the connection be tween Portugal and Brazil was virtually dis solved, the royal family abandoning Europe, and taking refuge in America. The rising in the Spanish possessions began soon after in Buenos Ayres, Venezuela, and Chili. Mexico revolted in 1810, and secured its independence in 1821. The other states followed at various intervals, Bolivia in 182-4 being the last. In 1825 the surrender of the castle of San Juan de Ulloa removed the last vestige of Spanish do minion on the American continent. In 1867 Russia sold her possessions to the United States. AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES. A large part of what are called the antiquities of America consist only of the architectural and other re mains of the aboriginal tribes and nations, which were displaced or subjugated by European con quest and settlement. Such are many of the ruined temples and other edifices of Peru, Cen- I yond the straits of Bearing. Cortes in Mexico, Grijalva and Montejo in Yucatan, Alvarado in Guatemala, and Pizarro and his captains in Peru, all found vast and imposing structures, the | work of the actual inhabitants, the ruins of I which are almost universally confounded with ! those of more ancient monuments, the earlier | works of the same hands or of unknown or ex- | tinct peoples. It is certain that Cholula, Uxmal, ! and Chichen, Quiche and Pachacamac, were all | perfect and occupied at the time of the conquest. i Hence their remains, however interesting and valuable as illustrating American aboriginal art, can hardly be considered as falling within the denomination of American antiquities. Under this head, in a strict sense, we can only include such monuments as were really regarded as antiquities by the aborigines themselves, con cerning the origin of which they were wholly ignorant, or only possessed a traditionary knowledge. Of this character are most of the earthworks and mounds on the terraces of the Mississippi valley, and in the forests bordering on the Mexican gulf. Such also are the ruined pyramids of Teotihuacan and the crumbling edifices of Mitla, in Mexico ; the still more elab orate structures and sculptured monoliths of Palenque and Copan; and the vast enigmat ical monuments of Tiahuanaco on the south ern shore of Lake Titicaca in Bolivia ; to say nothing of the bewildering remains of Man- siche or Grand Chimu in northern Peru. Commencing with our own country, we find Casa Grande, Xew Mexico. tral America, and Mexico, as well as most of the ruder monuments of New Mexico, and probably all of those still ruder earthworks and rock sculptures which are found eastward of the Alleghanies. Cartier in Canada, and Smith in Virginia, as well as the pilgrims in New England and the French in western New York, all found the Indians constructing defences, consisting of ditches, embankments, and pali saded, the remains of which are still numerous, and which have been variously ascribed to Celtic, Hebrew, and Tartar origins. So too Coronado, who marched into New Mexico as early as 1540, found there in perfect condi tion and actual use those singular edifices of fort-like dimensions and numerous stories, which since, abandoned and ruined, under the name of casas grander, have been claimed as monuments of a supposed migration of the Aztecs from some undefined northern region, or from the frozen wastes of Kamtchatka, be- Fortified Hill, Butler County, Ohio. 394 AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES in the Mississippi valley a succession of earth works, manifestly defensive in character, ex tending from the lakes southward to the gulf. They generally crown the summits of steep hills, and consist of an embankment and exterior ditch, of varying dimensions, with approaches often artfully covered. Fort Ilill, on the banks of the Little Miami river in Ohio, has a line of circumvallation nearly four miles in extent, varying in height, according to the natural strength of the point protected, from 10 to 20 feet, and embracing an area of several hundred acres. When not erected near to streams, and in cases where springs are not included with in their lines, we almost always find artificial reservoirs for holding water. A large class of Ancient Works near Chillicothe, Ohio. these defensive works consist of a line of ditch and embankment, or of several lines one within another, carried across the necks of peninsulas or bluff headlands formed within the bends of streams. Associated with these defensive works, and often included within them, are structures connected with religious ideas and ceremonies. They consist of earthworks with their ditches, when such exist, interior and not exterior to the walls, of regular outline, squares, circles, octagons, and other geometrical figures, often combined, and sometimes of great extent ; as for instance at Newark, Ohio, where they cover an area of more than two miles square, and probably comprise upward of 12 miles of embankment from 2 to 20 feet in height. (Sec " Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," by Squicr and Da vis, forming the first volunie of the "Smith sonian Contributions to Knowledge.") Other works of a sacred or religious origin, consisting of mounds of earth and stone of various sizes, but always regular shapes, are found in con nection with those above described, and are very numerous. They are oftenest square, terraced, and ascended by graded ways ; some times hexagonal, octagonal, or truncated, and ascended by spiral paths, in most respects coinciding with the teocallis of Mexico and the topes of India the high altars, symbolical in form, on which the priests ottered up sacrifices, and paid adoration to the solar god. Some of these arrest our attention by their geometrical accuracy of form, and others by their great size, covering several acres of ground, and rising to imposing altitudes. A mound of this descrip tion, on the plain of Cahokia, Illinois, opposite the city of St. Louis, is TOO feet long by 500 feet broad at the base, and 90 feet high, cover ing upward of eight acres of ground, and hav ing 20,000,000 cubic feet of contents. These mounds frequently contain skeletons. The most common monuments in the Mississippi valley, however, are those which are incontes- tably simple places of sepulture, memorials raised over the dead, and in their size probably bearing a certain relation to the importance when living of the personages over whom they were erected. Some of these, like that at Grave Creek near Parkersburg in West Virginia, and that at Miamisburg in Ohio, the one TO and the other 68 feet in vertical height, no doubt mark the graves of personages of high conse quence among the builders of these monu ments. It sometimes happens that one of these sepulchral mounds contains two or more skele tons, but they rarely cover more than one, except in cases where the later Indian tribes, with a Conical Mound, Marietta, Ohio. vague notion of their sanctity, have buried their dead in them. The early white settlers also occasionally buried in them. The notion that AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES 395 they contain vast heaps of slain, and are memo rials of great battles, is unsupported by facts. Still more remarkable earthworks are those Aniinal-shaped Mounds, Wisconsin. commonest in Wisconsin and Iowa, but of which a few examples are found in Ohio, and which bear the outlines of men and animals, constituting huge bass-reliefs on the surface of the earth. One of these, surveyed by Squier and Davis in 1846, on the banks of Brush creek, Adams county, Ohio, is in the form of a serpent, over 1,000 feet in length, extended in graceful curves, and terminating in a triple coil at the tail. The embankment constituting Serpent-shaped Mound, Adams County, Ohio. the effigy is upward of 5 feet high by 30 feet base at the centre of the body, diminishing somewhat toward the head and tail. The neck of the figure is stretched out and slightly curved, and its mouth is opened wide, as if in the act of swallowing or ejecting an oval fig ure, which rests partly between the distended jaws. This oval is formed by an embankment 4 feet high, and is perfectly regular in outline, its transverse and conjugate diameters being 103 and 39 feet respectively. The combined figure has been regarded by some as a represen tation of the oriental cosmological idea of the serpent and the egg. With the remains of the dead in the sepulchral mounds, as also within those which are believed to have been connected with the religion of their builders, many relics of art have been discovered, displaying greater skill than was known to exist among the tribes found in occupation of the country at the time of the discovery. Elaborate carvings in stone, pottery often of elegant design, articles of use and ornament in metal, silver, and native cop per from Lake Superior, mica from the Alle- ghanies, shells from the gulf of Mexico, and obsidian, probably also porphyry, from Mexico, are found side by side in the same mound. Articles of comparatively recent date, some of them of undoubted European origin, have also been found among the later and secondary deposits in the mounds. Forged inscriptions, stones bearing mysterious characters, kv Erse, I ancient Greek, Phoenician, Celtiberic, and Ru- | nic," as evidences of every possible and im- I possible theory of American origin, have each I found people credulous enough to accept and j defend their authenticity, even after the au- i tliors of the various impostures have abandoned 1 them to their fate. The facts connected with , the monuments of the Mississippi valley " indi- i cate that the ancient population was numerous | and widely spread, as shown from the number : and magnitude of their works, and the exten- I sive range of their occurrence; that it was i essentially homogeneous in customs, habits, religion, and government, as appears from the \ great uniformity which the works display, not only in respect to position and form, but in all t minor particulars ; and that the features com- mon to all the remains identify them as apper- : taining to a single grand system, owing its ori gin to a family of men moving in the same I general direction, acting under common impul- ; ses, and influenced by similar causes." What- | ever differences the monuments display are such as might result from the progressive I efforts of a people in a state of development, or j from the weaker efforts of colonies, or what : might be called provincial communities. It is impossible that a population for whose protec tion such extensive military works were neces- ; sary, and which was able to defend them, should i not have been eminently agricultural ; and such ! monuments as the mounds at Grave Creek and Cahokia indicate not only a dense agricultural population, but a state of society essentially dif ferent from that of the existing race of Indians north of the tropic. There is not, and there was not at the period of the discovery, a single 396 AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES tribe of Indians, north of the semi-civilized nations of Mexico and Central America, which had the means of subsistence to enable them to supply for such purposes the unproductive labor necessary for the work ; nor were they in such a social state as to compel the labor of the people to be thus applied. As regards the an tiquity of these monuments, apart from such facts as a total absence of any reasonable tra ditions as to their origin among the Indians themselves, and the existence of the largest and most ancient forest trees on the embankments and in the ditches of the various works, there are other facts which enable us to arrive at ap proximate conclusions upon this point. None of these works occur on the lowest formed of the river terraces which mark the subsidence of the western streams ; and as there is no good reason why their builders should have avoided erecting them on that terrace, while they raised them promiscuously upon all the others, it seems to follow that this terrace has been formed since these works were erected ; a con clusion supported by the important fact that some of them have been in part destroyed by streams which have since receded for half a mile arid upward, and which under no present possible rise, from rains or other natural cause, could reach the works again. Upon these premises, the time since the streams have flowed in their present courses may be divided into four periods, corresponding to the four terraces which mark the eras of their subsidence, of which period the last and longest (since the excavating power of the streams diminishes as the square of their depth increases) has elapsed since the race of the mounds flourished. An other fact bearing upon the question of the age of these works is the extremely decayed condition of the human remains found in the mounds. Considering that the earth around the skeletons is for the most part wonderfully compact and dry, and that the conditions for their preservation are exceedingly favorable, while they are in fact in the last stage of de composition, we may form some approximate estimate of their remote antiquity. In the barrows of the ancient Britons, in a moist climate and under unfavorable conditions as regards preservation, entire and well preserved skeletons are often found possessing an un doubted antiquity of at least 1,800 years. From these and other facts and circumstances equally conclusive, we may deduce an age for most of the monuments of the Mississippi val ley of not less than 2,000 years. By whom built, and whether their authors migrated to remote lands under the combined attractions of a more fertile soil and more genial climate, or whether they disappeared beneath the victorious arms of an alien race, or were swept out of existence by some direful epidemic or universal famine, are questions probably beyond the pow er of human investigations to answer. The principal remains of antiquity in Mexico are the ruins of temples and of structures dedicated to defensive purposes. Those of undoubtedly high antiquity are most massive in character, and display remarkable evidences of taste and skill. It would seem that during the aboriginal rule the bulk of the inhabitants dwelt in rude structures of thatch and cane, which after a few years of abandonment would decay and leave no trace of their existence, except perhaps in the fragments of broken pottery which might surround them. Whatever of architectural skill the people possessed was dedicated to the con struction of their temples and the residences of their chiefs, which were often included the one within the other. These temples were in nearly all cases pyramidal in form, terraced and truncated, and ascended by flights of steps usually built on an inclined plane running up the centre of one of the sides, generally that opposed to the rising sun. These structures perhaps better deserved the name of altars, or the Scriptural name of "high places," than of temples ; an edifice built on the level summit in reality constituting the naos, or temple Mexican Teocalli. proper. The great temple of Mexico, which is described by all the early writers as nearly identical in form and structure with all the temples of Anahnac, consisted of an immense square area, "surrounded by a wall of stone and lime eight feet thick, with battlements or namented with many stone figures in the form of serpents." The extent of this enclosure, which occupied the centre of the ancient city, may be inferred from the assertion of Cortes that it might contain a town of 500 houses. It was paved with polished stones, so smooth, says Bernal Diaz, that " the horses of the Spaniards could not move over without slipping. 1 " The four walls of this enclosure corresponded with the cardinal points, and gateways opened mid way upon each side, from which, according to Gomera, led off broad and elevated avenues or roads. In the centre of this grand area arose the great temple, an immense pyramidal structure of five stages, faced with stone, 300 feet square at the base and 120 feet high, truncated, with a level summit, upon which AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES 397 were situated two towers, the shrines of the j divinities to whom it was consecrated. It was here that the sacrifices were performed and the eternal tire was maintained. One of these shrines was dedicated to Tezcatlipoca, the other to Huitzlipochtli ; which divinities sustained the same relation to each other in the Mexican mythology as Brahma and Siva in that of the Hindoos. Besides this great pyramid, according to Clavigero, there were 40 similar structures, of smaller size, consecrated to separate divinities ; one was called Tezcacalli, which was covered with hrilliant materials, and sacred to Tezcatli poca, the god of light, the soul of the world, the viviiier, the spiritual sun ; another to Tla- loc, the god of water, the fertilizer ; another j to Quetzalcoatl, said to have been the god of j the air, whose shrine was distinguished by being j circular, "even," says Gomera, "as the winds I go round about the heavens ; for that consid- I eration made they his temple round." Besides j these, there were the dwellings of the priests (amounting, according to Zarate, to 5,000) and j of the attendants in the temples, seminaries | for the instruction of youth, and, if we are to j credit some accounts, houses of reception for I strangers who came to visit the temple and see j the grandeur of the court; also ponds and j fountains, groves and gardens, in which llowers j and " sweet-smelling herbs " were cultivated for use in certain sacred rites, and for the deco ration of the altars. "And all this," says j Solis, " without retracting so much from that | vast square, but that 8,000 or 10,000 persons j had sufficient room to dance in it, upon their j solemn festivals." The area of this temple was consecrated ground ; and it is related of Mon- tezuma that he only ventured to introduce j Cortes within its sacred limits after having I consulted with the priests and received their j permission, and then only on the condition, in j the words of Solis, that the conquerors "should behave themselves with respect." The Span iards having exhibited, in the estimation of Montezuma, a want of due reverence and cere mony, he hastily withdrew them from the tem ple, while he himself remained to ask the par don of his gods for having permitted the impi- j ous intrusion. There is a general concurrence I in the accounts of -this great temple given j by the early authorities, among whom are 1 Cortes, Diaz, and others, who witnessed what ! they described. They all unite in presenting it as a type of the multitude of similar struc tures which existed in Analmac. Their glow ing descriptions, making due allowance for the circumstances under which they wrote, are clearly sustained by the imposing ruins of Pa- pantla, Xoxachalco, Misantla, Quemada, and the thousand other monuments which are yet unrecorded by the antiquary. Solis speaks of j eight temples in the city of Mexico of near- | ly equal grandeur with that above described, j and estimates those of smaller size to amount j to 2,000 in number, "dedicated to as many idols of different names, forms, and attributes. Torquemada estimates the number of temples in the Mexican empire at 40,000, and Clavigero places the number far higher. " The architec ture," he adds, "of the great temples was for the most part the same with that of the great temple of Mexico; but there were many like wise of a different structure, composed of a single body in the form of a pyramid, with a staircase, &c." Gomera says, " They were almost all of the same form ; so that what we shall say of the principal temple, will suffice to explain all the others." Cortes, in a letter to Charles V., states that he counted 400 of these pyramidal temples at Cholula. From all sources we gather that the principal temples, or rather sacred places, of Mexico consisted of large square areas, surrounded by walls, with pas sages midway at their sides, from which ave nues or roads sometimes led off; and that within these enclosures were pyramidal struc tures of various sizes, dedicated to different divinities, as also the residences of the priests, with groves, walks, and fountains. It has al ready been said that the pyramids of Teotihua- can, which are found within eight leagues of the city of Mexico, on the plain of Otumba, are probably among the most ancient monu ments of Mexico. There are two principal ones, dedicated, according to tradition, to the sun and moon respectively ; each built of cut stone, square, with four stages and a level area at its summit. Humboldt says the larger is 150 feet and the smaller 145 feet high. Mr. Brantz Mayer, however, affirms that the larger is 1V1 feet high ; Mr. Glennie, 221 feet. It is 680 feet square at the base, covering an area of 11 acres, or nearly equal to that of the great pyramid of Cheops in Egypt. The pyramid of Cholula also has four stages, and when meas ured by Ilumboldt was 160 feet high by 1,400 feet square at the base, covering an area of 45 acres. The temples of Central America, of which so many ruins still exist, although pos sessing a general correspondence with those of Mexico, had nevertheless mcny features pe culiar to themselves. The artificial terraces or pyramidal elevations seem to have been usually less in size, but crowned with more extensive buildings, upon which aboriginal art exhausted its utmost capabilities. These structures were marked by broad stairways, leading directly to their principal entrances. Upon some of these terraces a single building was erected, but upon the larger ones several (usually four) were arranged so as to form a court or area. They were massively built, the walls being in all cases of great thickness. The larger num ber were one story high ; but there were many of two, and some of three or more stories. In these cases, each successive story was usually smaller than that belov/ it, giv ing the structure the appearance of a pyramid of several stages. The fronts of these build ings, though sometimes stuccoed, were usual ly of stone, and covered with elaborately carved figures and ornaments, many of them 398 AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES without doubt symbolical. The interiors of some corresponded with the imposing charac ter of their exteriors. They were divided into Pyramidal Temple, Palenque. narrow corridors and dark chambers. These were arched, or rather the roofs were support ed by overlapping courses of stones consti tuting a pointed arch, corresponding in type to the eariie-t monuments of the old world. The walls of these corridors were often stuccoed, Monolith, Copan. and covered with paintings and figures in bass- relief. Within some of the chambers, as at Pa lenque, have been discovered tablets clearly of a I mythological character, covered with elaborate ! and artistic sculptures and hieroglyphics. In I these chambers are still found the remains of I idols and altars, and evidences of ancient sacri fices. The works of Stephens, Catherwood, ! Squier, Brasseur de Bourbourg, and Charney contain full accounts of these monuments. In Honduras, at Copan, the remains of edifices are found, corresponding generally with the preced ing description, but associated with grand mon oliths, intricately carved, such as have been discovered nowhere else except at Quirigua, in the vicinity of Copan, and on the islands of Lake Nicaragua. They seem to have been plant ed in the areas, perhaps also on the steps and summits, of the ancient structures. Whether designed as statues of the gods of ancient wor ship, or to commemorate distinguished priests, warriors, or statesmen, can probably only be determined when the hieroglyphical inscrip tions which some of them bear shall have been deciphered. To Copan we may safely assign an antiquity higher than to any of the other monuments of Central America with which we ; are acquainted, except those rude works of j earth and uncut stone which also exist there, ! and which seem to have been the early types ! after which, as civilization and the arts ad- i vanced, the more imposing monuments of ! which we have spoken were modelled. It is certain that Copan was a ruin, concerning which only the vaguest traditions existed, at the period of the Spanish conquest. In New Granada, among many minor relics of antiqui ty, such as figures of divinities and objects worked in gold and stone, are found a few con siderable monuments, consisting of structures which seem to have been supported by columns of large size and just proportions. In Peru we find a very large number of aboriginal monuments, consisting not alone of ruined temples, but of great works of public utility aqueducts, bridges, and paved roads hun dreds of miles in length. The remains of the great temple of the sun at Cuzco are still im posing. In describing it as it existed at the time of the conquest, the early Spaniards ex pended every superlative of their language. It consisted of a principal building and several chapels and inferior edifices, covering a large extent of ground, in the heart of the city. Aqueducts opened within this sacred enclo sure ; and it contained gardens, and walks among shrubs and flowers of gold and silver, made in imitation of the productions of na ture. It was attended by 4,000 priests. "The ground," says La Vega, "for 200 paces around the temple, was considered holy, and no one was allowed to pass within this boundary but with naked feet." Nor even under these re strictions were any permitted to enter except of the blood of the incas, in whom were cen tred the priestly and civil functions of the gov ernment. Besides the great temple of the sun, there was a large number of inferior temples in Cuzco, estimated by Herrera at 300. Nu- AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES 899 merons others are scattered over the empire, all of which seem to have corresponded very nearly in structure to that already described. Eemains of Temple of the Sun, Cuzco, Peru. The one most celebrated, next to that of CLIZCO, was that of Pachacamac, which contained a considerable town, the grand pyramidal shrine of the divinity Pachacamac, and, after the con quest of the coast by the incas, a temple of the sun and a convent of the vestals of the sun, the whole surrounded by a wall of sev eral miles in extent. According to Roman, who speaks, however, with little authority, " the temples of Peru were built upon high grounds or the tops of hills, and were sur rounded by four circular embankments of earth, one within the other. The temple stood in the centre of the enclosed area, and w r as quad rangular in form/ A structure corresponding very nearly with this description is noticed by Humboldt, who denominates it, in accordance with local traditions, Ingapilca, "House of the Incas," and supposes it to have been a sort of fortified lodging place of the incas, in their journeys from one part of the empire to the other. It is situated at Cannar, and occu pies the summit of a hill. The "citadel" is a very regular oval, the greatest axis of which is 125 feet, and consists of a wall, built of large blocks of stone, 16 feet high. Within this oval is a square edifice, containing but two rooms, which resembles the ordinary stone dwellings of the present day. Surrounding these is a much larger circular enclosure, which, from the description and plate, we infer is not far from 500 feet in diameter. This series of works possesses few military features, and it seems most likely that it was a temple of the snn. This opinion is confirmed by the fact that at the base of the hill of Cannar was for merly a famous shrine of the sun, consisting of the universal symbol of that luminary formed by nature upon the face of a great rock. Ulloa describes an ancient Peruvian temple, situated on a hill near the town of Cayambe, perfectly circular in form and open at the top. It was built of uubiirnt bricks, ce mented together with clay. The most won derful and probably amon j; the most ancient monuments of Peru (or rather Bolivia, formerly Upper Peru) are those at Tiahuanaco, already referred to, on the shore of Lake Titicaca. Their origin is lost in obscurity, and they are supposed by many writers to have been the work of a race anterior to the incas, denot ing perhaps a more advanced civilization than the monuments of Palenque. They have been described by a number of the early writers, commencing with Pedro de Ceica, one of the followers of Pizarro, in whose day their ruins seem to have differed but slightly from what they are now. The latest and probably the most exact account of these enigmatical re mains is that of Mr. Squier, who spent several weeks in their investigation in 1804. He de scribes them as situated in a broad, open, arid plain, cold in the wet and frigid in the dry season, where no cereals will ripen, the only production fit for human use being a variety of small bitter potato. The monuments consist of rows of erect stones, some of them rough or but rudely shaped by art ; others accurately cut and fitted in walls of admirable workman ship ; long sections of foundations with piers and portiWs of stairways; blocks of stones with mouldings, cornices, and niches cut with geometrical precision ; vast masses of Sand stone, trachyte, and basalt, but partially hewn ; and great monolithic doorways, carved from single blocks of stone, and bearing symbolical ornaments in relief, besides smaller rectangu lar, and symmetrically shaped stones, rising on every hand or scattered in confusion over the plain. The central and most conspicuous por tion of the ruins is a great rectangular mound of earth, 650 feet long, 450 wide, and now about 50 feet high. It was originally terraced, each terrace being faced by a massive wall of cut stones, artfully dovetailed and clamped to gether, and had on its summit various stone edifices. This mound, which is called "the for tress, has on its E. side an apron or dependent platform, 320 x 180 feet. A short distance to the X. of this mound is what is called l the temple/ a rectangle of 445 by 388 feet, defined by lines of erect stones, some entirely rude, and others apparently partially shaped by art. They support a terreplein of earth, on which are traces of structures, and on the E. side of which are ten great stone pilasters, suggestive of Stonehenge, perfectly alligned, and of vary ing sizes ; the largest being 14 feet high above ground, by 4 ft. 2 in. broad and 2 ft. 8 in. thick. Near "the temple are the foundations of what is called "the palace," the piers which supported the walls being of hard trachyte ad mirably cut, in this respect equalling the finest stone work of ancient or modern times. Be- 400 AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES sides these there is an enclosure called "the hall of justice," rectangular, 420 by 870 feet, within which are the ruins of a nameless structure, "sanctum sanctorum," 131 by 23 feet, composed of massive stones beautifully cut, some of which are 25 1 feet long by 14 broad, and ft. (> in. thick, held together by bronze clamps. A distinguishing and peculiar feature of the remains at Tiahuanaco are a number of monolithic doorways, the largest of which is 18 ft. 5 in. lung by 7 ft. 2 in. high above ground, and 18 in. thick. Through its centre is cut a doorway 4 ft. 6 in. high above ground, and 2 ft. 9 in. wide, above which, on its S. E. front, are four lines of sculpture in low relief, and a central figure immediately over the doorway in high relief. On the reverse the doorway is surrounded by friezes or cor nices, with ornamental niches, cv.c. Besides these remains there are innumerable others of massive proportions, covering fully a square mile, of which it would require many pages to give an intelligible description, even with the aid of cuts and plans. Mr. Squier is disposed to rank the great areas at Tiahuanaco, sur rounded with upright stones, with those vast open temples like Stonehenge and Avebury in England, and of which examples are found in other parts of the world. Looking to the cold, barren region in which these remains oc cur, so ill adapted to the support of any con siderable population, Mr. Squier fails to regard them as relics of an ancient capital or seat of dominion, but of a sacred spot or shrine, the position of which was determined by an augu ry, an incident, or a dream. Certain it is, they were ruins at the time the inca conquerors swept over the Collao. Mr. Squier was the first to make known the existence, in the great An dean plateau, of a class of rude lithic and mega- lithic monuments, generally regarded, through out the world, as the earliest efforts of human art. These consist of circles, defined by un cut stones, which in Scandinavia, the British islands, France, and northern and central Asia, have been loosely designated as "sun" or "Druidical" circles; also of piles of rough stones coincident in style and character with the cromlechs, dolmens, &c., of the same re gions. On the bare mountain tops of High Peru are hundreds and thousands of enclosures or fortresses, pucuras, antedating all history, which were built, according to Peruvian tradi tion, when the country was divided up into warlike and savage tribes, "before the sun shone, 11 or the incas had established their beneficent rule. They strongly resemble the remains which in Europe are uncritically known as Pelasgic. They are held in great reverence, as the works of giants whose spirits still haunt them, and to whom offerings of various kinds are still made. The symbolic character of the stone circles may be inferred from the name they still bear, intiliuntani, places where the sun is arrested or tied up. There is another class of monuments also antedating the incas, the chulpas or burial towers, presumably of 1 the ancient Aymaras. Some of these are ; round, others square, of varying proportions, | from 15 to 40 feet high ; sometimes constructed of elaborately cut stones, in other cases of high stones stuccoed over, and all containing inner j chambers in which the dead were deposited, i generally in niches in the walls, or in cists be- ! neath the foundations. The remains of inca ! art are numerous and imposing. A considera ble portion of the gorgeous temple of the sun ! in Cuzco is still extant; the great cyclopean fortress of Sacsahuaman tlint dominates the city of the sun, and in storming which Juan | Pizarro lost his life, is almost as perfect as it | was three centuries ago ; the mountain strong hold of Pisac challenges our admiration by the | rare engineering skill it displays, as well as by I its massiveness and extent, covering as it does i miles of area ; Ollantitambo, wrought in pol ished porphyry, is a marvel of aboriginal art ; while the palace of the vestal virgins on the | island of Coati in Lake Titicaca, the terraced i mountains, the vast accq-uias, and the paved roads thousands of miles long, all attest the power and beneficence of the incas. The Pc- | ruvian empire was a concretion of families, i tribes, or nationalities, reduced by conquest, and their monuments, especially on the Pacific coast, as Europeans found them, have few re semblances and no identities with those of the i elevated interior whence the inca race descencl- I ed. Among the most important of the coast I nations were the Chimus, who held wide sway, I with their capital, at what is now called Grand i Chimu, or Mansiche, near the town of Truxillo, ; founded by Cortes, in what is known as north - I ern Peru. They were subjugated by the incas I at a period not easily definable, after a long I and bloody struggle, and their capital given up i to barbaric ravage and spoliation. But its ; remains exist to-day, the marvel in many re- I spects of the southern continent, covering not | less than 20 square miles. Tombs, temples, and | palaces arise on every hand, ruined but still I traceable. Immense huacas or pyramidal struc- I tures, some of them half a mile in circuit ; vast I areas shut in by massive walls, each containing I its water tank, its shops, municipal edifices, i and the dwellings of its inhabitants, and each a branch of a larger organization ; prisons, fur- I naces for smelting metals, and almost every i concomitant of civilization, existed in the an- I cient Chimu capital. One of the great huqcas, or pyramidal edifices, called "the temple of the sun," is 812 feet long by 470 wide at the | base, and about 150 feet high. Another, "El | Obispo." is nearly equal in size. These vast i structures have been ruined for centuries; but | the work of their excavation is still going on. From one of them, called that of Toledo, a Spanish explorer of that name in 1577 took $4,450,284 in gold and silver. As already observed, most of the monuments of antiquity in America seem to be the ruins of temples, j places of worship, or edifices in some way con- AMERICAN INDIANS 401 nected with the religion and superstitions of their builders. Throughout they sustain many and obvious resemblances, consisting of elevated platforms or truncated pyramids, ascended di rectly by broad flights of steps, or circuitously by winding paths; they scarcely differ except in the materials of which they are constructed, or the greater labor and skill displayed upon them. The builders of the temple mounds of the Mississippi valley seem to have been gov erned by the same principles which controlled the architects of the majestic teocallis of Mexi co ; their ruder structures being only the evi dences of their ruder or earlier state. Instead of being faced with stone, elaborately carved with the symbols of their religion, the green turf covered the high places of the mound- builders; they ascended them by graded avenues or winding paths, not by broad and imposing stairways ; and the wooden temple roofed with bark supplied the place of the massive edifices which still rear their crumbling, spectral fronts amid the forests of Central America. The fea tures of resemblance between a large part of the monuments of America and many of the most ancient of those of the old world early attracted the attention of Humboldt, who seems to have been strongly impressed with their indentity, yet, with characteristic caution, un willing to follow the connections to their ulti mate results. That the practice of erecting these colossal, montiform temples was neces sarily derivative, cannot be admitted. The primitive temples of every people on the globe seem to have been constructed much upon the same plan, and consisted of great enclosures of earth or upright stones, often, if not always, symbolizing in their forms the leading concep tions connected with the worship to which they were dedicated. The primitive altars, or shrines of the heathen gods, corresponded in rudeness and size with their vast open temples, and like them sustained everywhere a general resemblance. This resemblance to a certain degree may be regarded as accidental, inas- nuch as an eminence or high place would nat urally suggest itself as the most fitting spot whereon to render up homage to those superior powers which were supposed to dwell above, in the skies, or among the stars. It may also have resulted in no small degree from the very general primitive superstition that mountains and hills were the abiding places of the gods. AMERICAN INDIANS. When America was dis covered by Columbus, it was supposed by him and his contemporaries to be a part of the re gion vaguely termed India beyond the Ganges ; and the newly discovered lands were thence forth styled Indies, and the native inhabitants to this day are called Indians. The names by which Indian tribes are known to us are a strange medley. Some are nicknames given by the whites, such as Ilurons, Iroquois, Nez Perces, Gros Ventres, Diggers, Blackfeet, Flat- heads ; others are derived from some locality near which they resided, as the Delawares, VOL. i. 20 River Indians, Montagnais, Athabascans, &c. A great many tribes are known to us by the names applied to them by other Indian tribes. Thus the words Mohawk, Sioux, Esquimaux, Assiniboins, Arkansas, and Nottoway are not tHe real names of tribes, but all Algonquin terms ; so too Adirondacks is the Mohawk term of contempt for the Montagnais on the St. Lawrence. As a general rule Indians when asked their name give the term Men or Real Men. This is the meaning of Onkwe lion we, used by the Ilurons and Iroquois ; Renappi, Lenni, Illiniwek, Irini, Nethowuck, used by Al gonquin tribes ; Tinne, used by the Athabascans ; and apparently of Apache. But this meant the tribe as composed of individuals : each tribe as a unit, a body politic, had a name, generally that of the animal or object which was the totem of the tribe. Thus the five Iroquois nations were called as one Hotinnon- sionni or Hodenosaunee, a cabin ; the Mohawk was the Ganniagwari, the she bear ; the Illi nois were called Anoka. The whole continent was occupied by scattered tribes, from the lowest stage of barbarism to a semi-civilized state, corresponding to the stone and bronze ages of the old world, for iron was nowhere wrought. Agriculture was confined to a few plants maize, squashes, beans, tobacco, plan tains, cassava, &c. Manufactures were con fined to the making of canoes from bark or hollowed trees, lodges of bark or skins, gar ments of skins, and in some parts basket work and rude weaving, weapons, and images carved and occasionally hammered or moulded. There seems to be an identity of race through out the continent. Lawrence gives their gen eral character as follows: skin brown or cin- namon-hued ; iris dark ; hair long, black, and straight ; beard scanty ; eyes deep-seated ; nose broad, but prominent ; lips full and rounded : and face broad across the cheeks, which are prominent, but less angular than in the Mongo lian, and with the features distinct. The gen eral shape of the head is square, with low but broad forehead, back of head flattened, top ele vated, face much developed, and powerful jaws. The parietal region is much developed, the orbits are large, the feet and hands small and well proportioned, and the teeth white and sound; the facial angle about 75. The ave rage stature is no greater than in other races. The muscular development is not great, and there is a tendency to grow very fat when food is abundant and the habits of life are lazy. Though active and agile in sports and pursuits of short duration, the Indian is in ferior to the white race in labors requiring compactness of muscle and long-continued ex ertion. The complexion varies from the dark brown of the California tribes to the almost white of the Mandans and the Chinooks. The beard is scanty, except among the Athabas cans, and is prevented from appearing by the custom of plucking it out. The Indian has a dull, sleepy, half-closed eye, . with little fire, 402 AMERICAN INDIANS unless when the passions arc excited. The features are frequently regular, and the ex pression noble ; many of the women are hand some. The skin is thinner, softer, and smoother than in the white races. The practice of arti ficially moulding the skull was often adopted. The average volume of the brain, as measured in nearly 050 crania, is only 77 cubic inches for the semi-civilized and 84 for the barbarous tribes. Dr. Morton, from a scientific examina tion of skulls from existing tribes and ancient tombs, considers the American nations, except ing the polar tribes, as of one species and one race, but of two great families, which resemble each other in physical but differ in intellectual character. The North American Indian was of haughty demeanor, taciturn, and stoical to the last degree ; cunning and watchful in the sur prise, persevering in the pursuit, and revenge ful in the destruction of his enemies ; cruel to prisoners of war, without regard to age or sex, and when himself a captive enduring the most painful tortures without a murmur ; brave and too often ferocious in war; idle and grave in peace, except when engaged in hunting and amusements; hospitable, and grateful for fa vors ; of necessity a close observer of natural phenomena, his temperament poetic and im aginative, and his simple eloquence of great dignity and beauty of expression. As a race, however, the animal propensities strongly pre ponderate over the intellectual. The origin of the American Indians has been a matter of de bate for centuries, and Grotius, De Laet, Gar cia, and others discussed it in their day with more learning than judgment. During the last century and early in this a number of wri ters, treating many early usages of mankind as peculiarly Jewish, endeavored to prove the Indians to be descended from the ten tribes. Others, with as little foundation in facts, endeavored to derive them from the Welsh, the Mongols, or Malays. The tribes of North America regarded themselves as com paratively recent occupants of the soil. The Algonquins and Iroquois had traditions of their journey eastward : the Algonquins styled the Dakotas men of the salt water, and, being pressed eastward by them, repelled their ad vance. The Athabascans kept up the remem brance of their emigration across the Pacific; the Choctaws came from the northwest, and the Mexicans are generally supposed to have come from the north, though the latest theo ries assign to them a southern origin. All this pointed to the northwest, where the abundance of fish made a natural halting spot for tribes till they were driven south by a new emigra tion. The Hnastecas seem the first moving northward. While language fails to connect them with any Asiatic families, their modes of life and implements are thought to connect them with all the earlier races of the eastern continent whose relics are found in mounds and shell heaps. The most civilized parts when discovered by Europeans were those ex- | tending from New Mexico to Peru. There I permanent architecture prevailed, the work of the occupants or of a previous race, the finest specimens being in the Maya region and in Peru, and the least enduring the adobe build ings of the Gila and Rio del Norte. Out of the limits of this district nothing but the most perishable structures were raised, the only monuments being mounds, often peculiar and apparently symbolical in shape. The inhabi tants were divided into a number of tribes, whose natural state seemed to be that of war. The Esquimaux in the north were warmly clad in furs, and lived in close huts of snow or dug into the earth. The sea furnishing their sub sistence, they invented peculiar boats, spears, and means for kindling and preserving fire. Below them, the wild tribes covering most of British America and the United States were hunters and fishers, giving little attention to agriculture, except among the Huron Iroquois, who raised maize, beans, squashes, and tobacco, and seem to have been the earliest who carried on any trade. In point of manufactures they were about equally advanced. All made pot tery. The Iroquois bark lodges were superior to the tent-like hide huts of the Algonquins, but the latter excelled in the manufacture of the in genious -snow shoes and in canoe building, the Iroquois using elm bark, the Algonquins birch. The Dakotas excelled in the manufacture of stone pipes, and the Pacific tribes in that of baskets, some so closely woven as to hold water. The Rocky mountains furnished a sheep wliose wool several tribes learned to spin and weave. In point of progress the Cherokee and Choctaw Muscogees resembled the northern tribes. The Natchez were the first tribe going south who seem to have had anything like a temple for worship. The Pue blo Indians of New Mexico had towns, built with a dead wall without for protection, rising several stories, and entered by ladders. They had also temples, and cultivated the soil. The Mexican and Peruvian tribes were still further advanced ; their range of manufactures and cultivated plants was greater ; their means of perpetuating the memory of events better. At the north the rudest hieroglyphics formed the only means, the Micmacs in Nova Scotia hav ing the most distinct system, and the only one which Europeans were able to adopt and em ploy ; but the Mexicans had a system of picture writing of which enough has been preserved and explained to give us an insight into their history. The Peruvians at first had a system of record ing by quipos or knotted cords, which, like the wampum belts of the north, seem to have been merely aids to the memory. The uncivilized tribes of South America, embracing the large families of the Caribs on the north, the Tupi- Guaranis on the east, and the Araucanians on the south and west, closely resembled in their state of advancement the wild tribes of the northern portion of the continent. None of these tribes seem to have domesticated any AMERICAN INDIANS animal except the dog, and among the Peru vians the llama. In no part consequently were there tribes leading a pastoral lite, depending on their flocks and herds. Game was taken "by shooting with the bow and arrow, or by means of darts or spears ; smaller animals were taken by traps. Where game was very abun dant, it was sometimes driven into a sort of park and slaughtered. The South American Indians used a blowpipe for small game, and the southern tribes used the lasso and stone halls attached to hide ropes. Fish was taken by nets or speared, and in some parts the fish in lakes were captured by throwing into the water vegetable matter that caused a kind of intoxication. The only beverage of the north ern tribes was water, but the Mobilian tribes had their black drink, or cassine. In Mexico pulque, the fermented sap of the metl or ma guey, furnished an intoxicating drink ; and in South America, a similar drink was the cauiin, made from the cashew and other fruits sub jected to fermentation. All tribes were fond of painting and tattooing their persons, the paint being varied for grief or joy, war or peace. They used as adornments beads made of clam shells, feathers, porcupine quills, and parts of birds and animals. The dress of the hunter tribes was simple, consisting of a robe and breech cloth for the men and a short petti coat for the women ; in the warmer parts this petticoat was often a mere fringe of moss or other vegetable matter, and men went entirely naked. The use of tobacco, generally mixed with willow (hence Idnnikinnic k, a mixture), was almost universal among the Indian tribes, and has spread over the world. It was intro duced at all their important assemblies, and the Mississippi tribes made the pipe the symbol of peace, a usage which spread to other parts of the country. The word calumet, a French Canadian corruption of chalumeau, has been adopted to designate this national pipe. In Peru the leaves of the coca chewed with quick lime, just as the East Indians chew the areca nut and betel palm, produced the same narcotic and stimulating effects. The amusements of the Indians were the athletic exercises, run ning, leaping, paddling, games of ball, games with small stones, some quite complicated, and dances. These last were numerous, and entered into religious observances and preparations for war, as well as merrymakings. The sexes gen erally danced apart. Boys were trained from the time they left the cradle to feats requiring dexterity and courage. The probation of the young warrior was attended in some tribes with long fasts and rigorous tortures ; and he acquired a name and a recognized position in the tribe only on his return from his first ex pedition or battle. War was carried on rather by treachery and surprise, and by small bands, than by set battles or large armies. Those who fell were in the north scalped, the hair of the head with the skin being torn off as once practised in the eastern continent. Prison ers were either adopted and naturalized or tortured. Government was of the slightest kind. Kings and hereditary chiefs were found in some tribes ; ability in others raised a man to command. Laws there were none, or courts, or judicial sentences, except among the more civilized in Mexico and Peru. The manner of making fire in different parts varied, from rubbing two pieces of wood or cane to in genious machinery by which a revolving stake finally gave a blaze. The tribes believed in a future state of existence, and paid great at tention to the bodies of the dead, in some cases collecting their remains after a certain number of years and burying them with choice objects in fur-lined trenches, with games, and celebrations. Food was placed on the graves of the dead, and implements of the chase for use in the next world. They recognized a supreme being, and a host of spirits good and evil, the latter especially to be propitiated. The idea of sacrifice was apparently universal, and animals and human beings were offered, the former as substitutes for the latter. Canni balism, except where impelled by necessity, was apparently connected with religious ideas. Being firm believers in the power of evil spirits, they ascribed disease and defeat to their malign influence; and the medicine men, who were supposed to counteract these, were resorted to in sic-kness, and when starting on the war path, the hunt, or long and perilous journeys by land or water. Dreams exercised a great influence over them, and may be considered a part of their religious system. They regarded them as manifestations of cravings of the soul, the non-gratification of which would be at tended with serious injury to the whole man. Tribes were divided into clans, and as a rule no man could marry in his own clan, and the children followed the clan of the mother. The scheme of relationship was curious and complex. Woman was in a degraded state. She did all the work except war and hunting. She tilled the earth, and bore all burdens. Parturition was attended with little pain. Cooking was simple, and without seasoning. Baking was done in holes in the ground, and water was boiled by throwing heated stones into it. The common plan was to roast over the fire. Corn was parched, and was the food used while travelling, being often hidden in holes marked so as to be recognized. Some diseases introduced by the whites, such as smallpox, and alcoholic drink, have been singularly de structive and fatal. Disease was left to char latans and superstitious treatment. The use of vapor baths was perhaps the most general and effective remedy. They employed as emet ics thoroughwort, spurge, and Indian hemp; and as cathartics also the inner bark of the horse chestnut and butternut ; as rubefacients, mayweed and waterpepper. They were ac quainted with many poisons, which they used for self-destruction, the purposes of revenge, and in the more southern parts for poison- 404 AMERICAN INDIANS ing their weapons. Blood-letting and cupping were not unknown. In asthma they smoked tohacco and drank infusions of spice wood, sassafras, and skunk cabbage ; in coughs, slip pery elm and mallow tea, and decoctions of the twigs of the pine and spruce ; in renal af fections, bearberry, spieewood, and gooseberry root ; in diarrhoeas of all kinds, decoctions of the low blackberry, cranesbill, hardback, white oak bark, partridge berry, and American ipe cacuanha or Indian physic (gillenia) ; in drop sy, the bark of the prickly ash and wild goose berry, and externally a sweat in heated earth ; in amenorrhcea, sassafras, spice, and worm wood decoctions; in haemorrhage, powdered puff balls, and astringents firmly bound on the wound. Incised wounds they sewed together with strings from the inner bark of basswood or fibres from the tendons of deer ; diseases of the skin were treated with yellow dock, and abscesses by poultices of onions. In their in tercourse with the Indians the Spanish govern ment educated the sons of princes and chiefs and gave them rank as Spanish nobles, so that to this day distinguished families boast their descent from Mexican arid Peruvian monarchs ; and among those who governed Mexico as vice roys under the kings of Spain several bore the name of Montezuma. The lower orders of In dians were assimilated with those of the Span ish emigrants, and at an early period were ad mitted to the same civil rights. The wilder tribes were gradually formed to civilization by missionaries under the system of reductions, a presidio of soldiers being assigned to each. The children of the first converts soon mingled with the more civilized Indians. The con sequence is that the great mass of the peo ple of Spanish America are of Indian origin, some towns being almost exclusively so ; and it would be almost impossible from our present data to give the exact Indian, white, and mixed population. The late president of Mexico, Juarez, was a pure Indian ; and so have been many of the presidents of Central America. The number of wild tribes is consequently much less in proportion to the whole Indian popula tion in Spanish America than in the United States. Of the missions on the plan of reduc tions the most famous were those of Paraguay. The French, settling in Canada and subse quently Louisiana, had less civilized tribes to deal with ; but they acquired a permanent as cendancy over them without wars. The Iro- quois, occupying the present state of New York, were the great enemies of the French and their allies. French missionaries, however, repeatedly established missions even among the Iroqtiois, and the descendants of their con verts form three towns in Canada. Missions begun at the commencement of the French set tlements among the Nasquapees, Montagnais, Algonquins, Chippewas, and Ottawas are still maintained among the surviving remnants of those tribes. New missions under Catholic and Protestant direction have been established among the Crees, who had been incidental ly reached by the old missionaries, and the Athabascan tribes and those in British Colum bia and Oregon. The efforts of the French government to elevate the social condition of the Indians were unremitting ; provision was made for their naturalization as citizens ; but these efforts failed, although often re newed, and the most experienced gave up the task as hopeless. Their intestine wars were arrested, agriculture was introduced or improved slightly, and morality raised to a higher standard, so that they resemble the lower grade of peasantry, simple, indolent, and unambitious. Though some chiefs bore French commissions, and the convents educated some girls who became capable teachers and even entered religious orders as nuns, there is no example of men attaining admission to any civil profession. The diminution of game, de stroyed for furs, and the influence of intoxicat ing liquors have steadily diminished the numbers of the Indians in the British possessions. The English who colonized the present United States were not, like the colonists from Spain and France, under a system devised and maintained by the home government. There was no In dian policy, and between the English settlers and the natives- there was a strong degree of incompatibility. From the moment the set tlers w^ere able to dispense with Indian aid in supplying Indian corn and game in return for trinkets or arms, down to the present day, the prevailing instinct of the Anglo-Saxon in America seems to have been to remove the Indian as far as possible from him. In the early times this influenced the austere religious Puritan of New England as much as it did the careless settler of Virginia. New England missions were early begun by the Mayhews on Martha s A^ineyard and Nantucket, Eliot among the Naticks at Newton, Mass., Cotton and others at Plymouth, and Sergeant and his fel low laborers in Connecticut. But these efforts were almost entirely individual, and they have left us monuments of their zeal and ability in Eliot s Indian Bible and other works pre pared for the converts. The most extensive ef forts to Christianize the natives of what is now the United States were those starting from the French and Spanish colonies. The settlement of Florida was followed by permanent and ben eficial missions among the Timuquas and Appa- laches, which lasted till they were almost exter minated by the people of Carolina. Texas, New Mexico, and California were also seats of very extended missions, under which the Indians were instructed, preserved from evil influences, and made self-supporting. The Mexican revo lution overthrew the system, and the whole structure was destroyed in a few years. The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico alone remain, much degenerated from their condition of a century ago. The French missions within our territory embraced those among the Abenakis of Maine, now represented by the Catholic AMERICAN INDIANS 405 Penobscots and Passamaquoddies ; among the Iroquois of New York, their converts finally removing to Canada and now found at Sault St. Louis, St. Regis, and Lake of the Two Mountains ; among the Chippewas, Ottawas, Pottawattamies, Menomonees, Illinois (Kaskas- kias, &c. ), and Minmis (Weas, &c.). Those in Louisiana, among the Tonicas, Natchez, Choc- taws, and Arkansas, seem to have produced little permanent good, except perhaps among the last. Maryland began missions coeval with its settlement, but the overthrow of the origi nal plan of colonization put an end to them. About the beginning of the last century the English society for the propagation of the gos- pef in foreign parts began a new era. Missions arose among the Mohawks and in Virginia and Carolina. Dr. Wheelock s Indian school (after ward Dartmouth college) contributed to the work. The Brainerds labored in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The efforts of the Mora vians had still better results, and their Dela ware mission was the most successful yet seen in the English colonies. During the present century far more has been done. The society of Friends took an active interest in Indian progress. The Episcopalians established an Oneida mission ; the American board of com missioners for foreign missions, organized in 1810, established missions among the Chero- kees, Choctaws, Ottawas, Chippewas, Chicka- saws, Creeks, Dakotas, Pawnees, and Senecas, some of which were remarkably successful. Baptist missions were also established among several of these tribes. A Methodist society established in 1819 also founded Wyandot, Iro- quois, Creek, Ottawa, Shawnee, Dakota, and Oregon missions ; while the southern Metho dists also created missions. The Presbyterians in 1837 began to labor among the Weas and other northwestern tribes, and among some of those in the Indian territory. The American missionary association, American Indian mis sionary association, southern Baptists, and Bap tist home missionary society also entered the field. Their labors were not always perma nent or well concerted, and frequent changes took place. Catholic missions arose among the Chippewas and Ottawas, under Bishop Bara- ga and others, among the Winnebagoes, the Pottawattamies and Osages, and in the Rocky mountains. The French were able to main tain peace with all the Canadian tribes, while the English colonies were constantly at war. The first war between the English colonists and the natives occurred in Virginia in 1022, when the Indians under Opechanganough rose against the settlers to exterminate them. The colonists in a ten years war reduced them at this time, and again in 1644; and in another war in 1675 they still more diminished the Indians. The New England wars began in K>37 with the destruction of the Pequods by tiie settlers of Connecticut and Massachusetts a* allies of the Narragansetts, and the exter mination of the Narragansetts in 1643 by the New Englanders as allies of the Mohegans. In 1675 began the war with Philip, chief of the Wampanoags, in which nearly all the In dians were cut off or driven to a distance. Maryland enjoyed comparative peace, but was in 1675 with Virginia involved in a war with the Susquehannas. The Dutch at New Am sterdam at first maintained friendly relations with the Indians, but in 1643 became involved in wars in which the Indians lost severely. In the south, North Carolina in 1711 suffered terribly in a war with the Tuscaroras, who finally emigrated to New York; and South Carolina in 1715 was attacked by the Yemas- sees and a confederation of tribes on its fron tier. The New England occupancy of Maine brought on new hostilities connected with the wars between France and England. The French in Canada proposed neutrality and an agreement to employ no Indians on either side. New York consented and was saved from the horrors of Indian war, which New England preferred. The New England forces, however, finally overthrew the Pennacooks and Nor- ridgewocks and closed their Indian war. In the seven years war, known in America as the French and Indian war, both sides used the In dians, and the annals of the time teem with horrors. The French had some wars with the Foxes and Miamis in the west, and, provok ing the Natchez, drew on themselves a mas sacre, followed by a war in which the Natchez were destroyed. The French then attacked the Chickasaws, but failed to subdue them. The Indians looked on the English success in Canada with jealousy, and Pontiac in 1763 organized a vast conspiracy of the Indian tribes, aiming at a total extirpation of the whites ; but they were finally reduced, as were the Cherokees, who made war in 1760. In the course of these wars, Michilimackinac, and Forts St. Joseph, Ouiatenon, Miami, Presqu isle. Leboeuf, and Venango, were taken by the Indians, Detroit besieged, and stubborn battles fought at Bloody Bridge, Fort Pitt, Bushy Run, and at Point Pleasant between the Virginians and Shaw- nees. When the American revolution began, the English government at once employed Indians, and the Iroquois and western tribes ravaged the frontiers. An expedition under Sullivan laid waste the territory of the Six Nations. The articles of confederation gave congress little power. Under the constitu tion of 1787 the general government claimed sovereignty over the whole territory, and had the management of Indian tribes not within a state and under laws and treaties with it. The L T nited States treaties with Indians were made as with foreign powers. The great ob ject to be obtained was the cession of the large tracts claimed as hunting grounds, some times on very slight pretexts. The Indian tribes viewed the new government with dis trust, and the Miamis began hostilities in 1790, and in two engagements near the present Fort Wayne defeated the army under Gen. Ilarmar. 406 AMERICAN INDIANS The next year they routed St. Glair s army, i Sioux in Nebraska, Montana, and Dakota 42.993 kiiimg nearly half of his men; but they were , S^^r^^S!^::::::::::::::::::::::::: ifSS reduced by Gen. Wayne in 1703. The war Gros Ventres. Assiniboins, Cheyennes, and Arapahoes, was renewed in 1811, when they were again cJf^iTt^t^-:::::::::::::::::::::::::::: Jiffi defeated bv Gen. Harrison at lippecanoe. In utes in Nevada, Utah, and Colorado 1 2.720 the war with England that followed, the In- %^**SK^SS& *** dians aided the enemy and again ravaged the | ritory 8,706 frontiers ; but Harrison defeated the combined Nayajos in New Mexico I!.!!!."."!!!"".. ! 8^234 forces on the Thames in 1813, killing Tecumseh, y^hon"^ anV Socks in Wyoming; Idaho, and 7 the head of the great Indian confederacy ; while : Oregon 7.687 in the south Jackson in 1813 and 1814 humbled gJSS^^toiKiT^te::::::: . IS the Creeks at lallnshatchee, lalladega, ana Kiowas, Comanches, and Apaches 5,872 Tohopeka. In 1817 the Seminoles commenced i Oregon tribes 5.SOG hostilities, but were punished by Jackson, and cwKwsto iSdtei terito^:::. ::::::::"::: ! |oS Florida soon after became part of the United : Pimas, Maricopas, Papagos, and Cocopas, in Arizona.. 4.031 St-ifpsj torritnrv Tho np\ t Tndi-in trrmhlo was : Apaches in New Mexico 3.479 e ". as I Arapahoes and ( lievennes in Indian territory 3.8: that Caused by the attempt of Georgia to dlS- Dwamish, &c.. in Washington territory 3.3^3 possess the Creeks and Cherokees, who, reiving psages in Indian territory 8,375 i -4--U 4-1 TT -4- A C+." 4. ! Colville, Spokanes, Okanagans, Washington territory. 3,349 on the treaties made with the United States, i Nez Perces in Idaho . 2^07 appealed in vain to congress arid the supreme j Yakamas in Washington territory 2,7*0 court. Failing to obtain redress they yielded J^^^...^........................ g and agreed to remove beyond the Mississippi in Fend d Oreilles. Flatheads, and Kootenays.in Montana 1,900 pursuance of a plan for collecting all the In- Pottawattamies in Indian temtorj and Kansas 1,736 dians in one territory, to be theirs inviolably ^^^^^^^^^\\ \: ! is and for ever. Though treaties were sifflied in Nesqually. &c., in Washington territory 1,2SJ 1825, the removal was not completed till 1838. f^ska & " Indian t61 * 9 The Seminoles under Micanopy and Osceola | Chehaiis. Washington territory.! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 refused to emigrate, and a war ensued in 1835 j Skiaiiams Washington territory &25 ,. , , , , 57-,-, ..oin i rtn " f\(\r Sacs and Foxes with lowas 7<>> Which lasted till 1 842, and COSt Over $15,000,- Mohaves, Arizona 725 000. The Sacs and Foxes under Black Hawk Kansas, in Kansas 627 gave trouble in 1832. Greater trouble ^\]^^^gS^S^"\"\r:":::":. So given by the SlOUX or Dakotas, who from time > Spokanes and t ceurs d Alene, in Idaho 3( to time" attacked frontier settlements and had ; Kickapoos Kansas. 2i : 6 j T mi y-i j A i Illinois and Miamis, Indian territory 2ol to be reduced. The Comanches and Apaches Quapaws. Indian territory 225 have been almost constantly committing denre- Stoc-kbrfdgcs and Munsecs, Wisconsin 220 datkms, often joined by other tribes. The Ore- gon tribes have several times been at war with the whites. The establishment of the Indian Total 237 4TS territory in 1833, the removal of the Choctaws Besides the Indians thus on reservations, there and Creeks, and the settlement of the Qua- are 60,000 in Alaska, and tribes not yet brought paws and other tribes there, were followed by in, as the Apaches, Comanches, Lipans, and the formation of other reservations, under Kickapoos, with a few remnants of tribes in state management in New York, and under the Maine, Georgia, &c. (2,000), and Florida (500), general government in Michigan, Wisconsin, estimated at 53,000 more, making the total In- Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, Mon- dian population of the Union about 350,000, tana, Idaho, Dakota, Colorado, New Mexico, according to the estimate of the Indian depart- Utah, Nevada, Arizona, California, Oregon, ment in"l87l. That the red race is steadily and Washington .territory. The civil war was diminishing can scarcely be doubted. In 1829 ruinous to the tribes in the Indian territory, the entire Indian population of the United Geographically in the south, the confederate States was estimated at 313,000 ; and though government took possession of it, and was sup- the annexation of Texas, New Mexico, and ported by many of the chiefs. Others attempt- ! California brought in a large addition, the esti- ed to take part with the United States govern- mate of 400,000 made in 1850 was evidently ment. The result was disastrous in loss of life too large. In 1855 Mr. Schoolcraft s estimate, and property. In 1869 a board of Indian com- with all the data of the Indian department, missioners was created to superintend the dis- j was 350.000. In 1871 the commissioner esti- bursement of appropriations, and inspect goods ! mated them, including 60,000 in Alaska, as furnished to the Indians. The powers of this still 350,000, showing an actual decrease of body have been from time to time increased, j 60,000 in 16 years. Yet some of the civilized but some new measures were adopted which I tribes have held their own. The Cherokees in have not yet been tested by time, such as that 1822 numbered 11,000 ; 1825, 15,000 ; 1871, of assigning certain districts exclusively to cer- 14,682. The Chippewas and Ottawas in 1822 tain missionary bodies, and the consequent con- were 18,977 ; 1825, 18,850 ; 1871, 19,732. The founding of the duties of Indian agent and mis- Iroquois in 1822, 4,000; 1825, 4,510; 1871, sionary. The following is the return of the I 4,958. The Chickasaws in 1822, 3,625; 1871, Indian population on reservations in 1871 : 5,000. The Creeks and Choctaws in that AMERICAN INDIANS (LANGUAGES) period lost about one third, the Serninoles one half, the Sacs and Foxes seven eighths. In the eye of the law the Indian originally held an anomalous position, neither citizen nor alien, and incapable of becoming a citizen. In some parts marriage between Indians and whites was severely punished. The disabilities have re cently been removed, and Indians are enabled to leave their tribes or renounce the tribal system as a body and become citizens. Col. Ely S. Parker, a Seneca Indian, has even held the office of Indian commissioner. This step enables the more intelligent and industrious Indians to identify themselves with the white population, and induce others by their example to follow the same course. The Indian popu lation of the British colonies is estimated at 150,000. That in Mexico and Central America is not easily ascertained, but form the major part of the people. South America, with some civilized and many wild tribes, has about 7,000,000 Indians. AMERICAN INDIANS, Languages of the. The languages spoken by the natives received lit tle attention in the English colonies; but in French, Spanish, and Portuguese America a more or less extended Indian literature grew up, with grammars and dictionaries of many of the languages. Charlevoix was perhaps the first to call attention to the languages as the surest mode of tracing the origin and affiliation of tribes. Hervas, availing himself of the la bors of many members of the society of Jesus who had been driven from Spanish America, first in his catalogue of languages made a step toward a collection and comparison of the whole. Smith Barton made the first attempt in the United States to reduce the languages to system. Duponceau and Schoolcraft followed him. The Humboluts gave an impulse toward a philosophical treatment of the study, and Balbi in his Atlas ethnographique popular ized the information acquired. At a later date Albert Gallatin performed an immense service by securing new, full, and harmonious vocabu laries, and tracing manj remote and overlook ed affinities, so that his work has become the real basis for all subsequent labors as to the tribes of the United States. Turner devoted many years of philosophical and accurate in vestigation to the subject. In Europe Adelung philosophically arranged the general study, and Buschmann and others contributed to the investigations of particular families of lan guages. Orozco and Pimentel classified the languages of Mexico, Squier those of Central America and Peru, Brasseur de Bourbourg and the accurate Behrendt also elucidating those of Central America. Those who have labored on single dialects in Europe and America are too numerous to note. Ludewig became the bibliographer of the labors in this field in his " Literature of American Aboriginal Lan guages" (London, 1848). The languages of America form a group apart, no one having been found that can take its place as a dialect of any in any other quarter of the globe. They have features common to all, one being the predominance of the verb, by which the verb, subject, and object, direct and indirect, are often conjugated together as one word. In alphabetic power some, like the Iroquois, have no labials; the Mexican wants &, d, f, g, ? , s, and the aspirate ; the Choctaw has no d or g hard ; the Otomi, no ?, r, or , but it has an emphatic k and t; the Quichua has a guttural /*, emphatic p, t, and s, and aspirated p, t, and k. The Otomi, Athabascan, and many of the northwestern tribes have singularly confused, peculiar, or clucking sounds, often impossible to denote. Almost all known American lan guages have comparatively limited vocabula ries, and lack abstract or general terms. Many have, for instance, no word for brother in gen eral, but separate words for elder and younger brother, differing again according as spoken by another brother or a sister. So there will be I no general word for u to fish," but distinct words for fishing with a net, spearing, spearing j through the ice, fire-fishing, &c. Some have two sets of numerals, one for man and a few objects deemed of highest importance, the other for everything else ; and some have even a third set of numerals for money. We can give only a general view of the American languages. I. NOKTH AMEBIOAN. The general name of Es quimaux (raw-fish-eaters) comprehends all the languages of Greenland and of the northern countries, from the coast of Labrador to Beh- ring strait and the peninsula of Alaska, includ ing also that of the settled Tchuktchis of Sibe ria. They consist of two groups : the eastern or Esquimaux proper, with three dialects in Greenland, Labrador, and on the N. and W. shores of Hudson bay; the western, with the idioms of the Tchugatches, Aleutians, and both American and Asiatic Tchuktchis, which differ more one from another than those of the east ern group. The dialect on Winter or Melville island lacks the sounds /, </, r, z. As in almost all American languages, the pronunciation is, so to speak, pectoral, and the consonants are indistinct. The Esquimaux have words for all shades of meaning in which an object is taken, according to its age, sex, and other categories. Many suffixes and few postpositions denote the accidents of declension, comparison, and conjugation. Examples of words : kernertok, (who is) black; aglegiartorasuarpok, he quick ly goes away to write. Numeration proceeds by 20. For the Hudson bay dialect, see the works of Dobbs, I. Long, and Parry; for that of Kotzebue sound, see Beechey ; for that of the Tchuktchis, see Kosheloff and Khromensko. The language of the Karalits (Greenlanders) lacks (Z,/, A, z, and, as initials, 1>, g, I, v ; abounds in , k, r ; and accumulates hard syllables, al though the people have a fine ear and musical taste. There are three dialects, viz. : the Ka- muk of Upernavik ; that of the isle of Disco, the purest ; and the southern, of Julianeshaab. Nu merals beyond 5 are compounded ; 20 is desig- 4:08 AMERICAN INDIANS (LANGUAGES) nated by the words "hands and feet," etc. For grammars of their tongue, see Thorhallesen (1776), and P. Egede (1760), who also made a dictionary, as well as O. Fabricius (1791-1804). On the northwest of the American continent, south of the Esquimaux, is the family of the Ko- loshes, found about Alaska. South of the Es quimaux, on the east and south of Hudson bay, and running west in a narrow strip along the Saskatchewan to the Rocky mountains, and ex tending from the Red and Mississippi east to the Atlantic as far down as hit. 30, was the extensive Algonquin family. It occupied the whole of this vast territory, to the exclusion of all other races except the AVinnebagoes on Lake Michigan, who belonged to the Dakota family, and the Huron Iroquois family, who, surrounded by Algonquins, extended from Lake Huron to North Carolina. The Algonquin family, taking its name from tribes on the Ot tawa river, Canada, comprised, above the St. e lakes, the Nasquapees, Mon- ins, Ottawas, and Kilistinons Lawrence and the tagnais, Algonquin or Crees; on the Atlantic coast, the Mic- macs, Abenakis, Sokokis, Massachusetts, Nar- ragansetts, Mohegans, Delawares, and Virgin ian tribes ; in the west, the Chippewas, Meno- monees, Pottawattamies, Miamis, Illinois, Sacs and Foxes, Blackfeet, &c. ; at the south, the Shawnees. Many of these dialects have been studied thoroughly, and many books and even papers have been printed in them. For their study we have Maillard s Micmac grammar (New York, 1864), Rale s Abenaki dictionary (Cambridge, 1833), Eliot s Massachusetts gram mar (Cambridge, 166G; Boston, 1822), Ro ger Williams s Narragansett (1643), Edwards s Mohegan grammar (1788), Le Boulanger s Illi nois grammar and dictionary (MS.), Baraga s Ohippewa grammar and dictionary (1851- 3), Belcourt s Chippewa grammar (1839), House s Cree grammar (1844), Cuoq s Algonquin gram mar (1866), Zeisbergers Lenni Lenape or Del aware grammar (1827). As the Algonquin was the language of the tribes on the seacoast where the English colonies were planted, it gave several words to the settlers, as wigwam, squaw, wampum, tomahawk, sachem, &c. In the Algonquin dialects there is no article, and no gender, words being used when neces sary to designate the male and female of ani mals and birds. The only division is into what has been called noble and ignoble, or by some animate and inanimate. The Delaware made trees noble, grass ignoble. Possession is desig nated by a form like the English Peter his book Picn o masinaigan. It has two numbers, though some from the double pronoun we make a dual also. Nouns receive by suffixes modifi- tions that some term cases ; but nouns like verbs undergo a kind of conjugation by the prefixing of possessive pronouns. Thus in Delaware : ooch, father; nooch, my father; ~kooc A, thy fa ther ; noochenana, our fathers ; koochmra, your father ; koochewawa, your fathers. Algonquin : ni micomis, my grandfather; ki micomis, thy | grandfather; omicomisan, his grandfather; ni \ (or Tci) micomisinan, our grandfather; ki mi- I comiaiwa, your grandfather; omicomiaiican, their grandfather. Verbs take a multiplicity of forms, not only positive, negative, reflective, I and reciprocal, but animate and inanimate. I Thus in Algonquin: ni sakiha, I love him (an- I imate) ; ni sakiton, I love it (inanimate) ; Li sakiha, thou lovest him ; osakihan, he loves him; but M sakih, thou lovest me; ki mkihi- i min, thou lovest us; ki sakihim, you love me ; I ki sakihin, I love thee ; ki sakihinimin, we I love thee. In all these there are two forms | of we : he and I, ni ; thou and I (with or I without others), ki. In Delaware : ndahoala, I love; kdahoala, thou; wdahoala, he; nda- hoalaneen, we; kdahoaloTihumo, you; wdalio- alewak, they; ndahoatell, I love thee; kda- lioali, thou lovest me. The passive in Algon quin is ni sakihigo, I am loved; in Delaware, ndahoalgussi. I am loved by him (Alg.), ni sakihik. The Huron-Iroquois family com prised, in Upper Canada, the Hurons or Wy- andots, Tionontates, Attiwandaronk ; the Iro quois, Ilodenosaunee, or Five Nations in New York; the Minquas, Aridastes, or Susquehan- nas in Pennsylvania; the Nottoways, Meher- rin, &c., in Virginia; the Tuscaroras in Caro lina, and subsequently in New York. The dialects generally lack the labials. Of those that have been most studied is the Mohawk, into which the Book of Common Prayer and portions of the Bible have been translated, as well as Roman Catholic manuals of prayer, catechisms, &c. The radical words of this dialect, by Bruyas, were published at New York in 1863 ; a short grammar by Cuoq, Montreal, 1866. Of the Onondaga, there is a dictionary published in 1860 ; of the Seneca, a spelling book and some minor works. In Iro quois dialects the verbs have two distinctly marked paradigms, each containing live regular conjugations. In the paradigm k there are 15 persons, I, thou, he, she, and an indefinite pro noun like the French on ; thou and I, he and I, you two, they two masculine, they two femi nine, making five dual forms ; and for the plu ral, you and we, they and we, you, they mascu line, they feminine. In all the verbal relations pronouns in their separate form are replaced by affixes which modify the initials of the persons. M. Cuoq adds to the three numbers another, the indeterminate. Every noun is or may become a verb. There are no articles, no prepositions, and few adjectives, adverbs, or conjunctions. Nouns have no cases, and no gender proper, the only distinction being that of two classes, one comprising God, the angels, and males of the human race, the rest all other crea- i tures animate or inanimate. The verb as- I sumes reflective, reciprocal, and passive forms by inserting syllables. Thus: kenomces, I i love ; katatenonwes, I love myself; tetiata- j tenonwes, we love one another. The pronoun object enters into the verb, as rinomces, I j love him. Verbs of the paradigm w have four AMERICAN INDIANS (LANGUAGES) 409 persons less than those in k; but strangely, j the perfect in verbs of k, and all their deriva- ! tives, are conjugated under the paradigm w. \ Indicative present : kcnonwes, I love ; senon- | ires, thou lovest ; ranonwes, he loves; kanon- ircs, she loves; ienonices, some one loves. Perfect: wakenonwehon^ I have loved; sanon- icehon, thou ; rononwehon, he ; wnomrehon, she ; iakononwehon, someone. Present: wakeriwai- en, I am busy; sariwaien, thou; roriwaien, he; ioriwaien, she; iakoriwaien, some one. West of Hudson bay, above the Churchill river, were the northern part of the Athabascan j family, some tribes of which dwelt on the shores j of the Pacific, and the main body extending south to the Dakotas, while the southern part \ of the family occupied the frontier between I the United States and Mexico. The tribes are j strangely different in character, the northern j being timid, the southern fierce and bold. The i chief tribes at the north were the Chipewyans, ! Tahculli or Carriers, Dog Rib Indians, Sussees, j Tlatskanai, Umpquas, Kwalhioqua, Kenai, &c. Of the southern, the most conspicuous tribes i are the Apaches, Navajoes, and Lipans. Of ! this family we have little to show the grammar | or affinities. South of the Athabascan family, j and between the Mississippi and the Rocky mountains, were the Dakota family, extending as far south as the Arkansas river, and having one tribe on Lake Michigan, the Ochungaras, called by the Algonquins Winnebagoes. The Dakota family includes the Assiniboins, the Dakotas or Sioux, lowas, Omaha s, Puncahs, Missouris, Osages, Kansas, Ottoes, Arkansas, Mandans, Minnetares, and Crows. In Dakota there are separate and incorporated pronouns. ! There is a dual first person, we (thou and j I), but there is no incorporated pronoun for j the third person in either number, so that <l the third person singular is the simplest form of the verb. Verbs have an indicative, im- | perative, and infinitive, and two tenses, an in- j definite and a future. A few examples will j suffice : Kashka, he binds ; yakashka, thou i bindest ; wakashka, I bind; unkashka, we two bind; kashkapi, they bind; yakashkapi, ye bind; unkashkapi, we bind. In other cases the pronouns are introduced, as manon, he ; steals; mayanon, thou stealest. There are some irregular forms, as hiyu, he comes; hidii, \ thou Comest; hibu, I come. The pronoun ob ject enters into the verb : kashka, he binds him, j her, it; nicashka, he binds thee; makashka, j he binds me. Case is shown by position, pos- session by the possessive at the end : wichash- j tayatapi tipi tawa, chief house his, i. e., the ! chief s house. The plural is formed by adding i pi to nouns and verbs. There is a grammar and dictionary of the Dakota by the Rev. S. It. Rigg (Washington, 1852), and an Iowa grammar by Irvin and Hamilton (1848). Adjoining this family were the Pawnees, em- bracing the Pawnees, Rickarees, Huecos. and Wichitas, roving bands long known, but as to whoso language our knowledge is con- fined to vocabularies. Next to the Athabas can family on the Pacific coast are the Kitu- nahas or Flatbows, and the large family of the Selish, embracing the Shush waps or Atnahs, Flatheads, Skitsuish or Coaurs d Alene, Pisk- wans, Clallam, Lunimi, Simiamu, Songhus. and some other tribes. Their language has been made known by the Grammaticct, Lingucs Selicce, a Selish or Flathead grammar, by Men- garini (New York, 1801). The Selish lacks &, (Z, f, r, and v ; g is guttural like the Spanish^ ; ck is very hard ; it has a peculiar &, pronounced with the tongue at the palate. Nouns have no cases, but form plurals by doubling the roots, as skoi, mother, skoikoi, mothers, and in several other modes. It has absolute pronouns and copulative pronouns, the latter used in connec tion with verbs. The verb to l>e exists and enters into the conjugation of indeterminate verbs. The determinate active verb is thus conjugated : les kolm, I do (something definite) ; as kdlm, thou dost; es kol m, he does; kaes kolm, we do ; es kol mp, you do ; es koolm, they do. Perfect : kol w, I did ; 1-61 ntgu, thou didst. The relative forms vary thus : ku ies asgam, I see thee; ko as asgam, thou seest me; ies asgam, I see him ; ko es azgams, he sees me. The Sahaptin family, bounded on the north by the Selish, comprise the Sahaptin or Nez Perces and the Wallawallas, running east to the Rocky mountains and south to the Shosho- nees. The Wallawallas comprise several tribes, the Yakamas, Palus, Klikatats, and Tairtla. The study of their language is aided by Pando- sy s "Grammar and Dictionary of the Yakama Language r (New York, 1802). The language is remarkable for the multiplicity of its pronouns, and for a twofold conjugation of its verbs, one with the tense form unchanged for the persons preceded by the pronoun, the other with the tense form modified by a pronominal suffix, ex cept in the third person, where it is affixed. Below them are the Wailatpu family, compris ing the Cayuse and Molele. Beyond this fam ily were the once numerous Chinook family, embracing a number of tribes from the mouth of the Columbia to the Grand Dalles. They have disappeared with fearful rapidity, and the fullest vocabulary is that by George Gibbs (New York, 1863). Below and above these on the coast were scattered tribes and families, whose relation to others will never perhaps be now known from the utter want of material of an extended character. The Shoshonees, an other important family, comprise the East and West Shoshonees, on the head waters of the Missouri and Columbia ; the Bannacks, on Snake river ; the Comanches. from the head waters of the Brazos to those of the Arkansas and Mis souri ; the Yutes and Pa Utes, in Utah terri tory ; the Kioways, in Texas ; and several tribes in California, the Kizh of San Gabriel, the Netela of San Juan Capistrano, the Kechi of San Luis Roy, the Cahuillos, and perhaps the Moquis. The other California tribes belonged to several distinct families. Arroyo s grammar 410 AMERICAN INDIANS (LANGUAGES) and vocabulary of the Mutsun (New York, | 1861- 2) affords material for studying that language, spoken at San Juan Bautista, Monte rey county, at La Soledad on Salinas river, and by the Rumsens or Achastlians at San Carlos. , A vocabulary with some grammatical notes on the language spoken at the mission of San Antonio shows the absence of pronouns in the third person and great simplicity of forms. The languages of the Pueblo Indians of New ; Mexico form a class by themselves. South of | the Algonquins were the family of the Cataw- bas and Waccoa in the Carolinas ; and the very i extensive family of the Cherokees, embracing ! the Ottare and Ayrate. Their language, which I has analogies with the Iroquois dialects, is re markable as the only one in which the natives I have adopted an alphabet. It was invented by Sequoyah or George Guess, a half-breed, in 1826. His scheme consists of 85 characters, including six vowels, a, e, i, o, u, and the French nasal un ; and nine simple and three combined initial consonants, g, h, /, m, n, kv, s, d, dl, ts, w, y, to which the vowels are attached. The sounds Jc and g, t and d occur almost promis cuously, and dl or tl are sometimes written Tel. As in most languages, there are two forms of ice, viz., the prefix in for I and thou, and ast for I and he ; as inaluniha, I and thou bind it ; asta- luniha, I and he bind it. Plurality is denoted by the prefix t or te, as tetsigawati, I see things. Continuative action is indicated by the suffixes sa and i, as tsikeyusa, I love him unceasingly. The perfect tense is of two sorts, one used when the narrator was present at the action, the other when he was absent ; thus : uhlun, he killed him (in my presence), and uhle i (in my absence). The transitions of the verb are either, 1, as animate, or 2, as inanimate ; thus : 1, galuniha, I bind it (an animal or tree) ; halunika, second person ; Icahluniha, third per son; dual: inaluniha, I and thou bind it; astaluniha, I and he bind it; istaluniha, ye two bind it; plural, italuniha, we bind it; 2, galuniliawi, I bind habitually, or am in the habit of binding, &c. Objects are frequently expressed merely by changes of the verb, as fcutuwo, I am washing myself; Jsulcstula, I am washing my head ; tsestula, I am washing an other person s head, &c., through 13 different forms. All words of relations between parts of speech are postpositions. Parts of the Bi ble and books of elementary instruction and newspapers constitute the Cherokee literature. Below the Cherokees were the Muskokees or Creeks, the Choctaws and Chickasaws, the last two speaking the same language, the first a language bearing strong analogies to it. The Spaniards cultivated the Timuquan, a Choc- taw dialect, and a grammar, catechism, &c., were printed in it as early as 1613- 27. The Choctaw proper has been thoroughly investi gated in our time by the late Rev. Cyrus By- ington, whose "Definer" (1852) and "Choc- taw Grammar" (Philadelphia, 1870) give very satisfactory means of study. The language is remarkable for its multitudinous particles with nice shades of meaning. It has the usual sepa rable and inseparable pronouns, and the double we. Like the Dakota, Mexican, San Antonio, and some others, the third person singular of the present of the verb has no pronoun, and gives the simplest form of the verb. The in separable pronoun for the first person is a suffix; for the second, an affix: Takchih, he, she, or it ties, or they tie him, her, it, or them; ishtakchih, thou tiest him, &c. ; takcMlih, I tie, &o. Among the peculiarities is a pronoun used among those related by marriage. The Muskokee language is divided into the Musko- kee proper or main Creek and the Ilitchitee. The only grammar is that by Buckner (New York, 1860). The verb in its modifications differs from the Choctaw. Issetv (v repre senting an obscure sound), to take; esais, I take it; esichkis, thou takest it; esis, he takes it, &c. Neither Creek nor Choctaw has the sound of a in fate or the letters d, g, j, r, v, or z. The Natchez, on the Mississippi, had a peculiar language which has some anal ogy with the Maya. Of the other Louisiana tribes our data are limited ; the Chetimachas and Attakapas had languages that enter into no known group. Those of Texas were studied by the Spanish missionaries, and works were printed in them, but their affiliations are not known. The languages of Mexico have been classified by recent scholars, Orozco and Pi- inentel. The first family is the Mexican, in cluding the Nahoa, the Pipil in Central Ameri ca, the Zacateco, the Chimarra and Concho | in Chihuahua, the Ahualulco in Tabasco, the Jalisco, the Acaxee, the Sabaibo in Durango, the Xixime and Tebaca in Sinaloa. It extended j from the Gila and Rio del Norte to Guatemala. | As the language of one of the most civilized j races in the new world, it was studied by the I Spaniards and cultivated, a professorship being founded in the university of Mexico. A numbc r ! of grammars have appeared, by Olmoz (1555), Molina (1571), Rincon (1595), Guzman (1643), Vetancurt (1073), Avila (1717), Zenteno (1753), Aldama (1754), and Sandoval (1810) ; and the ! dictionary of Molina (1571) is very full. A ! general view of the language by Albert Gal- ; latin will be found in the "Transactions of the i American Ethnological Society," vol. i. The j Mexican language lacks the sounds I, c7, .7, r, j \ (Spanish), U (Span.), and gn (Italian), but it I abounds in t, z, cJi (Span.), tz, and in the sylla- I bles tla, tli, atl, itl ; x is pronounced with a pe- I culiar guttural sound. The tone generally strikes i the penultimate of the polysyllabic expressions, j in which the particles ca and ti predominate. | Gender is distinguished in animals by the prefix oJricTi, male, ciJtua, female. There is only one I variation for case, e being added for a vocative ; by men, but only an accent on the last sylla- i ble by women. As a general thing, inanimate things have no different form for singular or plural; some have, as milli, sowed ground, plural miltin. Of plurals of animate nouns AMERICAN INDIAN S (LANGUAGES) 411 these are samples: Ichcatl, a sheep, ichcame, sheep; eo<(tl, a snake, cocoa, snakes; tatli, father, tatin, fathers. All nouns may unite with four particles: tziti or tzintli, signifying respect; ton or tontJi< depreciating; pol, signify ing excess; pil, diminutive implying affection: as iehen}>il, a lamb (dear little sheep). Pos- sossive affixes are no, mo, i, to, anmo, in. Cal- U, house; nocal, my house; nomill, my sowed ground; leal, his house; icxitl, foot; nocxi, my foot ; teotl, God ; noteouh, my God ; drop ping a termination, and sometimes substituting another. The inseparable pronouns for conju gations are: 1st person singular, ni ; 2d, ti ; plural, 1st, ti (strongly accented); 2d, an, am. Sinemi, I live or walk; tinemi, thou; nemi, lie; tinemi, we; annemi, you; nemi, they. In the imperative, ti and an, of the 2d person, change to xi, and ma is prefixed to all persons. JIa or macuela is prefixed for the optative. Participles are wanting. It has the usual transitions. Ni tlazotla, I love; nino tlazotla, I love myself; ni pin, I guard, e. g., John; ni tlapia, I guard him ; ni tepia, I guard it, &c. The Mexican has given us two common words, tomato (tomatl, waterberry) and ocelot (pcelotl). The next family is the Otomi or Hi alii u (pronounced Ilianghiting), a monosyllabic lan guage resembling the Chinese. Its dialect is the Mazahui. The Otomi is spoken in Mexico, Michoacan, San Luis Potosi, Quere- taro, most of Guanajuato, and parts of Puebla and Vera Cruz. Its grammar is peculiar from the fact that the verb remains unchanged, the pronoun being conjugated. It has many words of the same letters distinguished by the intona tion. It lacks f, I, r, and s, and abounds in guttural and nasal sounds; has a peculiar c (cc=.qq), pronounced with the root of the tongue and palate ; a dental t (tt) ; and a variety of vowel sounds quite unusual, a having four, e four, i three, u four; and z has three sounds. Distinctions are made by prefixing na, ma, xa : nho or manJw, good ; xanho, a good thing ; rnddi, to love ; nahmddi, love. The Huaxteco- May a- Quiche is a remarkable language, extend ing over a very wide range, of which the Huax- teco seems a northern offshoot. It is spoken with the Totonac in Puebla, Yera Cruz, and San Luis Potosi. The Maya proper and its dialects, the Lacandon, Peten, Caribe, Chanu- bal, and Punctunc, are spoken in Yucatan, Chiapas, and Tabasco ; while its kindred tongue, the Chontal, prevails in Tabasco, Oajaca, Guerrero, and Guatemala; the Quiche and Mam in Chiapas and Guatemala ; the Tzendal and Tzotzil in Chiapas ; the Col in Chiapas and Guatemala, with the Totzlem. Gage made the Poconcho, a dialect of the Mam, known to Eng lish readers two centuries ago. In our time extensive studies have been made as to it by Squier, Behrendt, and Brasseur de Bourbourg. It resembles the Otomi in monosyllabism and tones ; it has six gutturals which are extremely rough; it lacks the sounds of d, f, g, r, s; its words are not inflected. The plural is formed by ob, the comparative by U; thus: clie-ob, woods; tily-il, better. There are four conjuga tions. The language abounds in elisions. As spoken in a district of Yalladolid, it is praised for elegance and conciseness. By many the i Chontal is supposed to have been the language I of Cuba and llayti, the tongue which has given i us the earliest words that were adopted into | European languages, tobacco, canoe, &c. The Mixteca-Zapoteca language has several dialects : the Chocho in Puebla, Oajaca, and Guerrero; the Yope in the two latter states ; the Popo- loco or Teca in Michoacan, Jalisco, and Guate mala ; the Amuchco in Guerrero ; the Zapoteca and Cuicateco in Oajaca. A Mixteca grammar by Antonio de los Reyes and a vocabulary by Alvarado were printed at Mexico in 1593; a grammar of the Zapoteca by Cordova was printed there in 1564, and a vocabulary by the j same author in 1578. The Matlaltzinca or | Pirinda is spoken in Michoacan ; the Ocuilteca | in the state of Mexico seems related to it. Of this grammars were written, but none have been published. The Tarasco prevails in Michoacan, Guerrero, Guanajuato, and Jalisco. In this ; language / and I are wanting ; and I, d, g, ? , i and r never begin a word. Nouns are divided ! into rational, irrational, and inanimate. There 1 are absolute and inseparable pronouns. In conjugating the inseparables are suffixed : Pa, to carry; pa Jiaca, I carry; pangahaca, I am carried; panstahaca, I am always carrying; i pacata, that which is carried, a burthen. There : is a Tarasca grammar by Baselenque (Mexico, 1714), of which a sketch is given in the u Trans- actions of the American Ethnological Society," vol. i., pp. 245, &c. The Opata-Tarahumara- | Pima family embraced a number of dialects ; spoken by tribes in Sonora, California, and Arizona; the Opata and Eudeve in Sonora; the Jova in Sonora and Chihuahua ; the Pima with its dialects, the Papago, Sobaipuris, Yuma, and I Cahuenche, in Sonora ; the Tarahumara in j Chihuahua, with dialects in Durango and ; Sonora; and the kindred Tepehuan in Du- 1 rango, Jalisco, Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Sina- i loa. This family also includes the Cahita, 1 Cora, and Colotlan. A grammar of the Pima i or Nevome (New York, 1862) shows it to lack the sound of a in fate, f, I, and z ; & and p, d | and t, c and g are easily confounded ; contrac- 1 tions are numerous. There is but one conjuga- tion of the verbs, and the verbal form in each | remains the same in each tense, the pronoun i and prefixes varying with the persons. The 1 active verb is simple compared to the passive: I ani haquiarida, I count; ani Jiaqviaridcada, I counted; ni vusi vomtad arii igui, I was assisted. Yerbs of possession are made from nouns : hunu< maize ; humiga, to have maize. See too "A Sketch of the Heve (Eudeve) Lan guage," by Buckingham Smith (Xew York, 1861). The Seris, including the Upanguaima and Guaima, were in Sonora. In Lower Cali fornia were two families: the Guaicuru, with five dialects, the Cora, Uchita, Concho, and 412 AMERICAN INDIANS (LANGUAGES) Laymen; and the Cochimi, with three, North Cochimi, Edu, and Didu. Of the Guaicuru our best notice is in Begcrt s Nachrichten (Mann heim, 1772), of which Ran has given a transla tion. In Central America, besides the Maya and Mexican already noticed, there were fami lies which Squier supposes affiliated with the Guaranis and Caribs. For the study of these we have Cotheal and Henderson s "Gram matical Sketch of the Mosquito" (New York, 1846), Scherzer on the Valientcs and Tala- mancos, Squier s vocabularies, and his mono graph of authors on the languages of Cen tral America (London, 1861). II. SOUTH AMERICAN. The Caribs (whose vernacular name was Calina or Galibi) once dwelt on the shores of Colombia, in Guiana, and on the Lesser Antilles. They speak about 30 dialects, which are very harmonious, but of a weak utterance, so that I and r, ?> and p, g and & are almost alike. Nearly all words end in vowels. Conjunctions conclude the sentence ; animate and inanimate things have different forms of expression. Terminations of cases : da tive , accusative pona, ablative ta. Persons : masc. au, inara, fern, nucuya, niuro, I ; nana, we ; amoro, iburra, amenle, thou ; hocoya, you ; likia, he ; moscan, they. Possessives : prefix e, my ; &, thy ; suffix 0, his. Verbal pronouns : prefix s, 1st person; m, 2d; n, 3d; plural, nanan, &c. Of the principal Caribbean dia lects, the Chaymas is spoken in Cumana. The Tamanaca has more verbs obtained by means of prefixes than perhaps any other language ; it lacks /, , and g, has six conjugations, many tenses (a preterite of yesterday, another of two weeks ago, a third of six months and more ago), and forms for near, others for distant ob jects; the auxiliary of the passive is uocciri, to be ; brother and sister are distinguished as to age, as in Magyar and other Urale Altaic tongues. The Arrawak, on the banks of the Berbice and Surinam, has many remarkable peculiarities, such as the formation of the pas sive voice by changing the final n of the infini tive active into hurt, and many prefixes and suffixes. Caribbean grammars were published by Fathers Tauste, Ruiz Blanco, R. R. Breton, and Gilj, and dictionaries by the first and last named (1665- 7), and an anonymous one (Paris, 1763). Some writers represent the Caribbean language as a branch of the Guarani, which they divide into the southern or Guarani prop er, the middle or Tupi of Brazil, from the island of Santa Catarina to the mouths of the Amazon, and the northern or Caribbean. ---The follow ing seven languages are worth notice, viz. : 1. That of the Mozcas (Muyscas), who before the advent of Europeans inhabited the table land of Bogota, and who in consequence of a culture higher than that of their neighbors extended their idiom among them. It once prevailed in the city of Bogota, but is now extinct. It counted by 20, had a negative con jugation, and many excellent pecularities ; it lacked d and 2, and had an indistinct I. 2. Of the Saypures, on the upper Orinoco. 3. Of the Salivis. between the Meta and Guaviare, afflu ents of the Orinoco, and in the Venezuelan prov ince of Casanare ; full of nasal sounds. 4. Of the Ottomacas, between the Apure and Sina- rucu, spoken with the utmost rapidity. 5. Of the Yaruras, between the Meta and the Ca sanare; it lacks *, abounds in the Spanish aspirate _; , and uses the substantive verb as auxiliary of all others. 6. Of the Betois, on the Casanare, without p. 7. Of the Mainas, in the province of that name, differing from its neigh bors. In the eastern parts of Colombia there are Caribbean dialects. Grammars have been prepared by Fathers Anisson, De Tauste, and De Lugo, and a vocabulary by De Tauste (1680). The Andi-Peruvian family of nations is divided into four classes: 1. The Quichuas (pronounced with a faucal croaking sound, hence also written Qquichhuas) or Incas were more widely spread at the time of the Euro pean invasion than they are now. They differ from the other indigenous races of South Amer ica, resembling more the Mexicans, and being of a dark olive complexion. The language of the incas, however, was not intelligible to their subjects, and Fr. Lacroix supposes that it was a sort of hieratic jargon, unknown to the pro fane. The Puquini about Paz and Lima ob stinately conceal their idiom from foreigners. The language of the Quichuas was extended, by the agency of the incas, over their whole empire ; so that it was known to all officers and educated persons from Quito as far as Chili and the kingdom of Tumac, and, sporad ically, as far as the banks of the Plata. It consists of five dialects: #, Cuzcucano, one of the most cultivated idioms of South America, spoken also by the Creoles of Lima and by others ; 5, Quitena, the hardest and most cor rupt; c, Lainano of Truxillo; d, Chinchaisuyo of Lima; c, Calchaqui of Tucuman. The Qui- chua sounds very harsh and explosive ; it lacks ?>, fZ, / , 17, j, , w, x, and z. It has cases and prepositions. The plural is generally formed by adding cuna. It has two forms of ice. Munani, I love ; munanqui, thou ; munan, he ; munanchic and munnycu, we ; munanquichic, ye; muiiftnc.u, they; munac, lover; mnnay, love ; munfiHca, the person or tiling loved. It counts by tens up to hundreds of thou sands ; and has a very rich and perfectly regu lar conjugation, even of the substantive verb. Its phraseology is simple, and the verb con cludes the sentence. It was used for writing even by the incas, and the Limans prided them selves on their speaking it purely. There are grammars by Domingo de S. Tomas (1560), D. de Torres Rubio (1603), D. G. Holguin (1608), and many others ; and in English, Markham s " Con tributions toward a Quichua Grammar and Dic tionary" (1864). 2. The Aymaras, probably descended from the high plains about Lake Titi- caca (from the bosom of which Manco-Capac, the founder of the inca dynasty, was said to have risen), are almost surrounded by the Qui- AMERICAN INDIANS (LANGUAGES) 413 chuas, but (lifter from them in manners and lan guage. This, though it has many harsh sounds, words, and grammatical forms, is spoken by the descendants of Europeans at La Paz, and by about 4(H)j)UO aborigines. It is rich in many modified expressions (having for instance 12 homonyms of the verb to carry), abounds in postpositions, and has several dialects. There are <rraminars by L. Bertonio (Rome, 1613) and I), de Torres Rubio (Lima, 1616). 3. The Atacamas, numbering about 8,000, on the W. slope of the Andes. 4. The Changes, about 1,000, on the Pacific. On the E. declivity of the Andes, in Bolivia, the Antisian family (so called from the eastern of the three Cordillera ranges, and from which the word Andes is ap plied to all the ranges) contains live tribes with their own tongues, viz. : the Yuracares (yurac, white, and cari, men), Mocetenes (Chunchos), Tacanas, Maropas, and Apolistas; about 15,000 in all. (Tschudi, Antiguedades Peruanas, Vienna, 1852.) N. W. of Bolivia, on the Uca- yali, are the Panos, who used a sort of hiero glyphics, and the Carapuchos, who seem to bark in speaking. On the pampas of La Plata, drained by the Parana and both Salados, there are about 40 tribes, especially in the forests of Chaco, of which we mention the most prom inent. The Abipones, the centaurs of South America, seem to sing their long words ; they have a peculiar sound, half r and half g (like the Arabic ghain), and count in their language only as far as three. The Mbayas (Guaycurus), on the Paraguay, also great horsemen, had an ancient idiom, and speak now the Enacagas, without nasals or gutturals ; they have also a woman language (man, for instance, is called hulegre by men, but aguina by women) and castes, and are called Lenguas by the Spaniards. The Moxos, about 13,000, in Bolivia and the Brazilian province of Matto Grosso, have a mild harmonious tongue, many modified forms of verbs, and very few numerals. There is a grammar and vocabulary by P. Marban (Lima, 1701). The Chiqnitos, about 15,000, in S. E. Bolivia, near the Argentine Gran Chaco, have many nasal and guttural sounds, the French u, and an idiom for females, as well as a language of etiquette used in addressing God and superiors. In the vast regions E. of the river Paraguay, and of a line from its sources to the mouth of the Orinoco, thence bounded by the shores of the Atlantic and on the S. by the Plata, there is, so to speak, an archipelago of tongues in the ocean of the Gua- rani family. In Brazil alone Texeira counted 150 and Spix and Martius 300 tribes, with as many languages ; but, as their affinities cannot be determined clearly, owing to the paucity of their consonant elements, it is impossible to know which of them are languages and which are dialects, or merely local idioms. Hervas reports 51 languages as different from the Tupi, and 16 as akin to it. This Tupi is one of the three great branches into which the language of the Guaranis is divided, viz. : 1. Eastern Guarani (the liiigoa gcral, general language of Brazil), which lacks./, /, 8, and r, but has Ger man cJi, English j, French u (written y) and nasals, Spanish n and II; also ml), nl>, ml, ng. Cases: aba, homo; almupe, homini; abaki, ho- mine. There is no plural flexion. The com parative is formed by the suffix ete. Numerals do not go beyond 4, 5 being expressed by the word hand (ambo), 10 by two hands (opacombo\ ; and higher numbers in Spanish. Pronouns: | yxe., I, my; nde, thou, thy ; ae, he; y, his; oro, we (I and he) ; yande, we (I and you) ; pee, you,2)e, your. Verbs: a-juca, occido; ere-ju- \ ca, occidis ; o-juca, occidit, &c. Tenses are in dicated by adverbs ; voices and many kinds of verbs by intercalating particles. There is no substantive verb. Examples of phrases: Co I nanga xe reminbota (Lat. hcec omnino mihi vo- ! luntas), I wish it; Ne marangatu (milti bo?ii- tas), I am good; Ori rul> ybaqype tec-oar, imo- ete-pyram nde rera, Our Father heaven-in be- I ing, hallowed-be thy name. There are gram- | mars by Anchieta (Coimbra, 1595) and Figuei- i ra (Lisbon, 1687), a dictionary by the latter author, and a recent one by Dias (Leipsic, 1858). 2. Southern Guarani (Guarani proper), on the rivers Parana, Paraguay, and LTruguay ; spoken by many tribes. See a Voca1v.la.rio in Franca s Chrcstomathia Brazilica (Leipsic, 1859). 3. Western Guarani, spoken by the Chiriguani (lat. 18 to 22 S.) on the Pilcomayo, : the Guarayi in the missions of the Chiquitos, I the Cirionos near Santa Cruz, and in 1GO vil- [ lages between the Chaco and Mapayo streams, I in its purity. That dialects of the Tupi once I prevailed over many districts is evident from | the names of several tribes, such as the Tupi- ; nambas, Tupininquins, Tapiguas, Tummimirj, &c. ; so that it became the most extended na tive idiom in South America, and was adopted by the Europeans, as well as by many hetero- ; geneous tribes, as the medium of communica- , tion. Its analogy with the other branches of : the same family and with the Caribbean aided I its extension. Here also the style of female j speech differs in some particulars from that of men. The Omaguas, formerly a most powerful | association of tribes, were the Phoenicians of j the Amazon, Japura, &c., being spread inland I as far as the Rio Napo, on the affluents of the | Orinoco, in Venezuela, to the S. in Solimoens, | on the Para, &c. Their language differs from I all others in South America. It is monosylla- j bic, has nasal and guttural sounds, no gender, ! and a very simple conjugation. The same word j has many significations, according to its tone ; i reciprocal verbs are formed by the suffix ca, \ and active verbs from nouns by ta. It points to the Otomi as well as to trans-Gangetic lan guages. Between the Madeira and the Tapajos the Mundurucus and Tocantins speak a tongue akin to the preceding. Other tribes on the I Amazon have idioms which are related to either j the Guarani or the Omagua, There are gram mars of the Guarani by A. Ruiz de Montoya ! (Madrid, 1639), and P. Restivo, from Bandini, 41-1 AMERICAN INDIANS (LANGUAGES) (1724). Montoya also published a vocabulary. Between the rivers Doce and Pardo, and be tween the Atlantic and the province of Minas Geraes, we find the Botocudos, who have a language of their own, with many nasal and other peculiar sounds, although scarcely any gutturals ; they use a great many vowels, but confound many articulations, as t and d, and Z, n, and r, together; for instance, Taru, or Talu, God. Most of their words are mono syllabic. They have many onomatopoeias and various figurative expressions, and they double many words; thus, nac-nac, sea gull; eng- eng, woodpecker. There are two cases, nom inative and oblique, as taru-ti-po (courser of heaven), the sun; taru-niep (heaven-rest), the moon. The plural and comparative are denoted by ruhu, more; the superlative by yikaram, most. In conjugation there are two moods, infinitive and participles. There is no substantive verb ; thus : lie mung, he gone ; e Telia, it good, &c. Among the Brazilian tongues is that of the Camacans on the river Pardo, in the province of Bahia, with extremely long words, very abrupt peculiar final sounds, and many gutturals ; and that of the Macharis in Porto Segurp, with most peculiar palatals and many nasals. For materials on the Brazil ian languages, see the works of L6ry (1578) ; Mimiani, on the Kiriris (1695); F. de Azara (1781); Prince Maximilian of Neuwied (1815- 7 17); SpixandMartius(1817- 20); Von Esch- wege s vocabularies of the Puris, Coroados, Coropos, &c. ; and the travels of D Orbigny and Auguste St. Hilaire. The Araucanian or Chilidugu, Chili language, formerly extended more northward, and is spoken by the Picun- ches, from Coquimbo as far as Santiago, by the Puelches about Mendoza (E. of the Cordillera), by the Huilliches on the Biobio and Valdivia, and by the independent Aucas in the south of Chili, with dialectic variations. This is prob ably the most harmonious and the most culti vated language among the indigenous races; its purity and elegance being so cherished, that even a preacher is often upbraided by his hearers if he commits a solecism in his sermon. It has not the Spanish aspirated j, g, nor x, z, l>, f ; but has a nasal n and u as in French. In the north, d and r are used for s, and conversely in the south. Words end in vowels and in the mild consonants, ?>, d, g,f, I, m, n, r ; only about 20 in s or z. There is no gender ; the signs of sexes are alca, male, and domo, female. The cases are three, formed by adding ni, genitive ; mo,, men, ablative ; egu, instrumental. Dual, cngu ; plural, ica, egn, or by prefixing pu, or intercalating que between adjective and sub stantive. Persons : inche, I ; eimi, thou ; taye, he; dual: inchu, 1st; cimu, 2d; taye epu, 3d; plural: inchin, we; eimn, you; tayeculd, they. Personal suffixes to verbs: 1, n; 2, imi ; 3, i ; dual, yu, imu, igu ; plural, in, imn, ign. The imperfect tense is formed by intercalating vu ; future, a. The infinitive ends in n ; gerunds in uam, uum ; the participle active in lu, pas sive in el; the conjunctive in li, optative in lichi ; passive voice in ngen (thus, aiiin, to love; aiilngen, to be loved); negation inter calates la (imperative qucl). There are more than 20 forms of transition for all sorts of modifications in the verb (more than in the Altaic languages). In short, some of the best traits of the Indo-European and the polysynthetic languages are combined in the Chilidugu. It has geometrical terms, and is skilfully employed as a rhetorical and poetical idiom. There are grammars and vocabularies by L. de Valdivia (Lima, 1607), A. Febres (1765, 1846), and B. Havestadt (Munster, 1777). The Patagonians (Tchuelhets) are divided into sev eral tribes, such as the Tchuel-cunny (South- men), Tchuan-cunny, (North-men), &c. Falk- ner, an English Jesuit, gave a grammar and vo cabulary of the Moluches (Hereford, 1774). It is supposed that an idiom similar to theirs is spoken by the Yacanacus, who inhabit Tierra del Fuego and the southern margin of the con tinent, as well as the Brunswick peninsula, AMERICANISMS. There were peculiarly strong influences in America to cause variations in the English language from the standard of the mother country, such as the thinness of popu lation ; the novelty of numerous objects, of the mode of life, and of the system of government ; the vast influx of persons speaking the lan guages of continental Europe and Africa ; inter course with the red men ; the want of a me tropolis, a court, and permanently wealthy fam ilies, which might serve as authorities ; and the adoption by newspaper editors of the slang words of the multitude. But there have also been very strong influences at work to protect the English language in America from varia tions. These influences have been, a more ex tensive and thorough popular education than that of any other country, the almost universal habit of reading, an intercourse between dis tant districts by travelling unequalled in any other part of the world, and the extensive use of dictionaries. The consequence is, that there is more uniformity in the English language as spoken in the United States than in the tongue of any other people equally numerous ; every American can with ease understand every other one ; and it may safely be said that as a people the Americans speak English better than the English themselves. But the stand ard of the correct language still remains in the use of the learned and educated people of Eng land. Americanisms are of various kinds, viz. : First, new words, such as sparse, back woods, caucus. Secondly, old English words in new meanings, as block, meaning the land or houses enclosed between four streets in a town or city ; realize, meaning to conceive as actu al ; and section, meaning a square mile of land. Thirdly, words which were provincial in Eng land adopted in general American use, as wilt for wither. Fourthly, words which have re tained in America the meaning they had in Eng land several hundred years ago, while in the AMERICANISMS Litter country the meaning ha? l>cen changed. The word */( / is an example of this. Fifthly, words preserved in American use, which have become obsolete in England ; such as tarry, freshet. Subjoined we give a list of some of the most noteworthy Americanisms, many of which are occasionally used in American news papers, while almost all are frequently employ ed in conversation by the less educated people. A large proportion are of course mere vulgar isms, never used by Americans of any culture. It deserves to be remarked that many Ameri canisms current in the southern, western, and middle states, are not used in New England, where the language, at least as written, ap proximates more closely to that of the mother country. Approbate, used instead of approve. Bad. used in the sense of ill. Bayf/n ie, used to signify the trunks, boxes, valises, cloth ing, &c.. of a traveller. The English say luggage, and con sider baggage pretentious. Balance, meaning- remainder: as, "Two of the professors were dismissed, but the balance were retained." Boird, always used to signify all kinds of boards. In Eng land nine and fir boards are ordinarily called " deals." Bo~>;/ux. meaning counterfeit, false, fraudulent. Bonier, in the sense of a greensward or line of flowers bordering on a wall, in a garden or yard ; called an edging in England. Bos*, meaning an employer or superintendent of laborers. Brash, for brittle. Bread At ufa, much objected to by English writers 20 years ago. but now admitted to be a good word. " u(fft>/. denotes a light four-wheeled wagon ; in England it means a two-wheeled carnage. Buncombe, used hi the phrase to " speak to Buncombe," moaning to speak only to catch the applause or favor of the vulgar. This phrase, often abbreviated " to talk Buncombe," 1 was derived from the name of Buncombe county, N. C. A representative in congress from this county was wont to make speeches to which no one listened; observing the members leaving the hense while he was speaking, he one day declared that he cared little how many left he was not speaking to the house, but to Buncombe. The phrase soon came to mean any speech made solely to please a constituency or the public. Bureau, universally" used to the exclusion of the English " chest of drawers. Calculate, used in the sense of think, suppose; as "I calcu late I can do it." Calico, in the United States, means printed cotton goods; in England it means only white cotton cloth. Caption, used in the" United States to mean the heading of a chapter, section, or page, is not used in England. Clare r usually means good-natured, obliging, in America, and quick-witted or intelligent in England. Conclude is used by Americans in the sense of determine, as, " I have concluded to go." In Great Britain it is used to signify the formation of an opinion, not of an intention. In this connection is a phrase much used in the United States, and appears to have been first brought into currency about 60 years ago. chiefly in Xew England periodical litera ture. English writers would prefer to say, in connection with this subject." Corn means only maize in the United States ; in England it means gram generally. County, in America, is ordinarily used after the proper noun used to designate particular counties, as " Pike coun ty," &c. The English always say " county of." as " county of Lancaster ; " and the Irish say " county Wexford," &c., omit ting - of." Creek, in most of the American states, means a small river; in England it means a small arm of the sea. Creole properly means a person descended from European parents, born in some portion of America which belongs or did once belong to Spain ; but the Americans often use the word to designate a native of the South tinctured with negro blood. Deadhead, a person who has the use of public conveyances, the telegraph, or the mail, admission to public entertainments. ifec., without payment. The transitive verb to deadhead is sometimes used. Declination, the refusal to accept a nomination to office. l)r\i (loads, a general term used by Americans to signify S-ich articles as are sold by linen drapers, haberdashers, mer cers. drapers, hosiers. &e. The word haberdashery " is al most unknown to the [ T nited Suites. Dress, the word almost universally used by American women to designate their gowns. Elect, used intransitively in the sense of choose : as. in a division of property, "He elected to take the real estate." Endorse, a word adopted from commercial usage to signify sanction, approve, confirm. Eventuate, meaning to result in. E.rpect. misused in application to past events ; as, " I ex pect it was." fall, meaning autumn. fancy, used as an adjective to signify fantastic, various. It is frequently used on signs of shops where assorted goods are sold ; thus . " Fancy Store." Whatever is ornamental ra ther than useful fantastic, adapted to gratify luxurious tastes rather than necessary wants, more elegant than substantial, fiirurcd as opposed to plain, may be described as " fancy." Thus there are " fancy silks," "fancy horses." &c. For anal ogous reasons the term is also applied to certain classes of men and women. fish-dealer, the American name for a fishmonger. fix in England means to fasten or make firm : in America it means almost anything in the way of putting in order, ad justing, mending, setting to rights, or making. fleshy for stout. freshet, meaning a flood, is not recognized in England as a good word ; but it was used several centuries ago by good English writers. frock is the name sometimes given by American women to their gown. Ogilvie says frock is now used in England I " for a loose garment or shirt worn by men over their other | clothes, and for a kind of gown, open behind, worn by fe- j males." fruit-dealer, the name generally given in the United States to fruiterers and green-grocers. Gerrymander, a method of arranging election districts so ! that the political party making the arrangements will be eu- abled to elect a greater number of representatives than they ; could on a fair system of districting, and more than they 1 should have in proportion to their numerical strength. T^jj* I word was derived from the name of Elbridge Gerry, a signer j of the Declaration of Independence, who was accused of i being the first to practice this species of fraud on the rights of the people while governor of Massachusetts. Go ahead is of American origin, and is used by Americans in cases where the British would say " All right." Guess, used as "think;" as, " I guess I do." "I guess so." Hack usually means a hackney-coach in America ; in Eng- : land it means a livery stable horse, or one merely used for | travelling and routine work. Hardicare merchant, or hardware dealer, is the Ameri- | can name for an ironmonger. Help is frequently used in the United States to signify I servant, servants, or service. Hold on is a common Americanism for " stop." It is prob ably derived from the German halt an. Homely means plain-featured or ugly in the United States; ; in England, it means pertaining to home, plain, simple, un- . adorned. Improve is an Americanism for opening a farm on wild 1 land t>y cutting away the wood and brush, erecting buildings i and fences, ploughing the ground and putting it in order. . The buildings and fences are styled improvements. Levee, in the United States, is often applied to ceremonious ! reception parties given by official personages, whether in the morning or evening. In England the word is restricted to morning receptions. Loafer, Americanism for lounger or vagabond. Loan, frequently used in the United States as a verb, but seldom in England, where lend is the usual word. Lobby, verb, to attempt to exercise an influence on mem bers of a legislative body by persons not members. Locate, to determine and designate the place of. to settle in. Logrolling (with the verb to logroll), a system of man agement by which a member of a deliberative or legislative body attempts to secure the adoption of a favorite measure, i by inducing other members to vote for it in return for assist ance in carrying their several pet measures. It originated in the mutual aid of the early settlers in clearing trees from the land. Lot. a small tract of land, such as the subdivisions in towns. \ The English usually say " allotment." Lumber means trash in England; in the United States, sawn wood for building and other mechanical purposes. Lum- | bering means making lumber; lumberman, one engaged in I making it; and lumber merchant, one who sells it. Mad is frequently used by Americans to signify angry ; it is not so used by the English. Mail is the ordinary word used in the United States to ex press the ideas conveyed by " post" in England. Americans say " mail a letter," " send it by mail." In such expressions tlie English say "post." 416 AMERICANISMS AMERICAN WINES 3fo?as$es is used in the United States to signify treacle as well as molasses. Properly, the former is the drainage from sugar in the, process of refining, the latter from sugar in the process of making. Molasses comes from the sugar planta tions, treacle from sugar refineries. Narrate has been objected to as a bad Americanism, but it is used by English authors, is found in English dictionaries, and is of English origin. A T ece$#itate is an Americanism much objected to by English writers. Nightfall and afterninht are expressions common in the United States, but not used in England. Rot if if, in the United States, means to give notice to ; in England it means to make known. The American says, You must notify the drawer of the protest. 11 The English man says. " The protest must be notified to the drawer. 1 Obligate, sometimes used by American writers, is objected to by English lexicographers as a low word. Obnoxious is used much more frequently in the United States than in England, where offensive is preferred. On is often used by Americans in such phrases as. Pie lives on a street" " lie took passage on a steamboat," 1 &c. The Englishman would use "in." Pantaloons (or more commonly pants), the common Amer ican name for trousers. Pipe-laying, fraudulent voting, and schemes or means to obtain fraudulent votes. The word had its origin in New York, at the time of the construction of the Croton water works. Some leaders of the whig party were charged with having made arrangements to bring a large number of men from Philadelphia, ostensibly to lay pipes for the water, but really to vote at an approaching election. Pond, a pool or body of water smaller than a lake, with either natural or artificial banks. In England, "pond" im plies that the water is confined by an artificial bank. Posted, well informed, thoroughly conversant with. Quite, in the sense of very. 1 is in universal use by Ameri cans, in such phrases as. "It i s quite cold." Railroad, railroad track, railroad depot, and railroad car, j ore the American names for the English railway, railway line, ! railway station, and railway carriage. The American travels j in the cars," the Englishman " by the rail. 1 In the United ! States the iron horse is ordinarily a " locomotive ; " in Britain j it is an " engine." Rapid*, that portion of a river where the current is so j swift that the surface of the water is broken by short waves or by low tails. Reckon, used in the southern and western states instead j of suppose, think; as, "I reckon he does; 11 That ll do, I reckon." Reliable, for trustworthy, has been adopted in the common use of England, but is not employed by careful writers. Ride, in the United States, means riding either in a wagon , or on horseback. The English restrict " ride " to horseback. | In America, "to drive 11 means to hold the reins; in England . it does not. Kide was formerly used by the English as it is I now used by the Americans. River is always placed by the English before the proper j name when speaking of a particular stream, as "the river ! Thames." The Americans generally place river " after the 1 proper name, as "the Ohio river." Roil, to render turbid, a provincial word in England, is in i general use throughout the United States, where it also means \ to make angry. Rooster is an Americanism for "cock." 1 a male barn-door fowl. | Sick is the ordinary American word for ill. but is used by the English chiefly to express sickness at the stomach. Skedaddle, to run away- a word introduced during the civil j war. and at that time in general use. Steif/h. for the English "sledge." The English go "sledge- driving;" the Americans go "sleigh-riding." Span is an Americanism for pair, applied only to horses or i mules. It is derived from the German Gespann. Stage, for stage coach; rarely so used by the English. Stall is used in the United States to signify stick fast ; as, " The horses are stalled. 1 " The wagon is stalled." &c. Stoop is an Americanism, derived from the Dutch, meaning j the steps at the entrance of a house, doorsteps, a porch, a piazza, ; n platform of stone or wood before a door. Store is the usual American name for a shop ; and shop is : rarely used except to designate a place where mechanical labor i is done. Such terms as " book store," shoe store," " grocery j store." "liquor store." "druir store." are always used by the Americans to the exclusion of "book shop," &c. Suspenders is the proper, as gallowses i? the vulgar, Ameri- I can name for the articles known in P nyland as braces. Suspicion is sometimes used in western American news- papers as a verb instead of suspect. Sn-itch, in speaking of railroads, as, "to switch off." The ! English say " shunt." Tarern. a place where travellers are entertained and lodged. ! In England it means a place where liquors are sold and enter- i tainmeiit (but not lodging 1 ) is provided for parties. Ticket is used by the Americans in many ways unknown J o the English. Politically it means a list of candidates at ;:n election. When an American engages a passage on a railroad, he purchases a ticket; the Englishman is booked at the office. The American purchases a "through ticket" or a -way ticket; " the Englishman is booked for a portion or the whole distance of his intended journey. Timber, in the sense of forest or grove; as "the house stands at the edge of the timber." Transient, in such phrases as a "transient person," mean ing a person staying at a place for a short time, a stranger, a traveller, is not used in that sense in England. Yenixon, deer meat; in England, wild meat generally. Waggon or wagon, according to the usual American spell ing, is frequently used in the United States as a verb; thus, "The goods were wagoned across the mountains." Will is generally used by the natives of the southern, west ern, and middle states, in the first person, instead of shall, when they merely wish to express an expectation. Woods is the common American name for what the Eng lish term " a wood." Vocabularies of Americanisms have been pub lished by John Pickering (Boston, 1816), John Russell Bartlett (New York, 1848, new ed., re vised, 1859), and Prof. Schele de Vere (New York, 1872). Such multitudes of slang words are made every year in America and cir culated by careless or flippant writers, that if they were all collected they might before long equal in number the 60,000 provincialisms of England. Fortunately they are generally used with a knowledge of their vulgarity, and many of them are forgotten almost as easily as they are coined. AMERICAN RIVER, in N. central California, is formed by the union of its N. and S. forks near the W. boundary of El Dorado county, 30 miles above Sacramento city, flows S. W. between the counties of Placer and Sacra mento, and falls into Sacramento river near that city. The N. fork, considered by some as the true American river, rises among the hills at the base of the Sierra Nevada, and flo\vs W. S. W., forming the boundaries between Placer and El Dorado counties for 100 miles. The S. fork flows from Bonpland lake through El Do rado county, and forms part of the division be tween the counties of Sacramento and El Do rado. These streams pass through one of the principal gold-mining districts. AMERICAN WINES. From the first settlement of America, the vine attracted the attention of the colonists, and as early as 1565 wine was made from native grapes in Florida. The first vineyard in the British colonies was planted by the London company in Virginia in 1620, and in 1630 French vine-dressers were imported by them ; but the enterprise failed. AVine was made in Virginia in 1647, and in 1651 premi ums were offered for its production. Beverly mentions that prior to 1722 there were vine yards in that colony, producing 750 gallons per year. In 1664 governor Richard Nicolls of New York granted to Paul Richards the privi lege of making and selling wine free of duty, as the first who entered upon its cultivation on a large scale. Beauchamp Plantagenet, in a description of New Albion in 1648, states that the English settlers in Uvedale, now Delaware, had vines running on mulberry and sassafras trees. He names four kinds of grapes: Tou- AMERICAN WINES 417 louse muscat, sweet-scented, great fox, and ; thick grape. The first two, after five months, j being boiled and salted and well fined, made a j strong red sherry ; the third, a light claret ; the fourth, a white grape, which crept on the | ground, made a pure, gold-colored wine. Ten- i nis Pale, a Frenchman, made out of these four j eight sorts of excellent wine ; and his muscat : after four months would intoxicate a man with j the second draught. In 1683 William Penn j tried to establish a vineyard near Philadelphia, , but without success. A few years later, how- , ever, Mr. Tasker of Maryland, and Mr. Antill j of Shrewsbury, N. J., seem to have succeeded | somewhat better. In 179G the French settlers ! in Illinois made 110 hogsheads of strong wine | from native grapes. At Harmony, near Pitts- ! burgh, a vineyard of 10 acres was planted by Frederick Rapp and his associates from Ger many, and they continued to cultivate grapes and silk at their new colony of Harmony in Indiana. In 1700 a Swiss colony was founded in Jessamine county, Ky., to establish a vine yard, but failed, as they planted only foreign grapes. They removed to Vevay, Switzerland county, Ind., in 1801, there planted native vines, especially the Cape or Schuylkill musca tel, and had more success. After 40 years experience, however, they seem to have become discouraged. The wines and wine grapes of j America may be divided into wines of the At- | lantic coast and wines of the Pacific coast, j They are so entirely distinct that they can j hardly be compared. The wines of the first division resemble more those of Germany and France, containing more acid, more sprightli- ness, flavor, and bouquet ; while the wines of the Pacific coast, especially California, contain j but little acid, a good deal of spirit, and little ! flavor or bouquet, thus more nearly resembling the wines of Spain and southern Europe. The j cause for this may be sought partly in the soil, | but mostly in climatic influences. It is well known to wine makers that the grape must j contain a certain amount of acid to develop j bouquet during fermentation of the must and i its transformation into wine ; while the heat ] of the southern climate develops the largest j amount of sugar in the fruit, the acids diminish. ! I. WINES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. These maybe divided into three distinct classes : 1, white or light-colored wines ; 2, red or dark- colored wines; 3, wines resembling sherry, j 1. White Win es. The Catawba grape was first ; introduced by Major Adlum of Georgetown, D. C., having been found by him in Maryland. It was first planted on an extensive scale by Nicholas Longworth, who may be called one of the founders of American grape culture. lie leased parcels of unimproved land near | Cincinnati to German settlers to plant with vines for one half the proceeds. In 1858 the j whole number of acres planted in vines around j that city, mostly Catawba, was estimated at i 1,200, of which Mr. Longworth owned 120. ! The principal pioneers in the business there, ! VOL. i. 27 and extensive wine makers, are Messrs. Werk, Buchanan, Mottier, Bogen, Rehfuss, and Thompson, all owners of large vineyards and extensive manufacturers of still and sparkling wines. At Hermann, Mo., the Catawba was introduced in 1846, and bore its first fruit in 1847, when excellent wine was made from it on a small scale. Shortly afterward it was also introduced into Illinois. In 1860 the Pleas ant Valley wine company was formed at Ham- mondsport, Steuben county, N. Y., which also cultivates it largely. But it is more extensively cultivated on the shores of Lake Erie than any where else, where the soil on Kelly s Island and Put-in-Bay, and around Cleveland and Sandusky, seems to be well adapted to it. It makes a light-colored wine, sprightly and aro matic, which is perhaps better known and has been longer appreciated than any other wine in the country. It varies very much with the different locations, the wine of New York, northern Ohio, and northern Illinois contain ing less spirit, but a high flavor and a good deal of acid, while the wines of Missouri and further south are smoother, heavier, and less acid and astringent. Although the vine is very uncertain in its product, being much subject to disease, there is more Catawba wine consumed now than perhaps all other varieties together, both still and sparkling. It makes an excel lent sparkling wine, which many connoisseurs prefer to the imported ; and as a still wine it resembles the light Rhine and Moselle wines of Germany, though of course with a peculiar characteristic flavor. Average specific gravity of must, 80 Oechsli ; acid, 5 per M. The Isa bella is a native of South Carolina, and was first introduced in the north and brought to the notice of cultivators by Mrs. Isabella Gibbs. It has been nearly superseded by- better sorts. Its wine is pale pink, light and somewhat flat, hardly ever met with now except as sparkling, for which it is well adapted, though in every respect inferior to Catawba. Sp. gr. of must, 65 ; acid, 6. The Cassady originated in Phil adelphia, in Mr. Cassady s dooryard. Wine fine straw color, good body and fine flavor, strongly resembling the wines of the Palatinate. It is not much cultivated. Sp. gr. of must, 90 ; acid, 4. The Diana is a seedling of the Catawba, raised by Mrs. Diana Crehore, Boston. Its wine is seldom met with alone, as its flavor is too strong, and the must is mixed with other grapes. It has little value as a wine grape. The wine is pale straw color, less sprightly than Catawba, with strong foxy flavor. Sp. gr. 80 ; acid, 4. The Goethe, Rogers s hybrid No. 1, originated by Mr. Rogers of Salem, Mass., is a hybrid between labrusca and T in if era. The wine is very pale, almost white, of a delicate muscatel flavor, sprightly and ethereal ; a very fine light still wine, surpassing Catawba, and no doubt well adapted for sparkling wine, though of too recent origin to have had a fair trial. Sp. gr. of must, 80 ; acid, 4. It is extensively raised at the west as a wine grape. The Lind- 418 AMERICAN WINES ley, Rogers s No. 9, is of the same origin as the last. The wine is somewhat heavier and stronger flavored, resembling Catawha in color and taste. It promises well. Sp. gr. 90 ; acid, 5. The Massasoit, Rogers s No. 3, of the same origin. Wine stra\v color, fine flavor and body, superior to Catawba in every re spect. Very promising, though but little wine has yet been made of it. Sp. gr. 1)5 ; acid, 5. The Salem, Rogers s No. 22, of the same origin. Wine straw color, too aromatic to be pleasant, though of heavy body. Sp. gr. 92 ; acid, 4. The Martha is a seedling from the Concord, and originated with Samuel Miller of Lebanon, Pa. It first fruited in 1863. Wine straw color, of good body, less sprightly and more foxy than Oatawba at first, but improves greatly by age ; and as the grape is very hardy and productive, succeeding everywhere, it may become one of the leading white wines of the country for general consumption. Sp. gr. 90 ; acid, 4. The Maxatawney originated at Eagle- ville, Pa., in 1844. Wine very delicate and smooth, pale yellow, resembling Rhine wine in character ; a fine wine, which will be appre ciated as soon as it becomes better known. Sp. gr. 80 ; acid, 4. The North Carolina seedling was produced by J. B. Garber, Colum bia, Pa., from seed of the Isabella. Wine dark yellow, of fair body and good flavor, if pressed immediately ; about equal to good Catawba, with more muscatel flavor. Sp. gr. 80 ; acid, 5. The lona was originated by Dr. C. W. Grant, of lona Island, N. Y. Wine pale yel low, of good body and fine flavor, superior to Catawba. It is extensively raised as a wine grape in some parts of its native state, and were it not so uncertain, its wine would be come one of our leading varieties. Sp. gr. 90 ; acid, 5. The above belong to the class of la- brusca, or fox grapes. The following belong to the cestivalis class, destined to make the fin est wines, white as well as red, yet produced in the United States. The precise history of the Delaware grape is unknown. It was first introduced to the public and disseminated from Delaware, Ohio. The wine is of a yellow color, fine flavor, and great body, resembling some of th<* finer Rhine wines, especially the Traminer of Germany ; a very good still wine, though not so well adapted to the manufacture of sparkling. As the grape does not succeed everywhere, it will be confined to certain lo calities. Sp. gr. 100 ; acid, 4. The Herbe- inont or Warren was, according to the best au thorities, first cultivated by Mr. Neal, a farmer of Warren county, Ga., in 1800. In the early settlement of the country he found the vine in the woods, and transplanted it. Its produc tiveness and fine flavor attracted attention, and it spread over the state. Mr. llerbemont, of Columbia, S. C., a native of France and an enterprising grape grower, cultivated it largely, and thought it had been imported from France, and belonged to the pineau class an opinion which some of our vintners yet entertain. It was named in honor of him llerbemont, or Herbemont s Madeira. It was by him sent to Mr. Longworth at Cincinnati, and from there introduced at Hermann, Mo., by Mr. Charles Teubner, in 1847. Mr. llerbemont made for many years a very superior wine from this grape, and reported a yield in one sea son of 1,500 gallons to the acre. It is now more and more appreciated as a superior wine grape for the west and south, on dry lime stone soils. Its juice, if pressed before fermen tation, makes a very delicate white wine, re sembling the finer qualities of Rhine wine, more sprightly than any other grape, and conse quently well adapted to the manufacture of sparkling wine. It is a true wine grape, with out pulp, and very juicy ; and after fermenta tion a fine red wine can be pressed from the skins, which contain the coloring matter. Sp. gr. 90 ; acid, 5. The Louisiana was intro duced into Missouri by Frederick Munch of Warren county, who received it from Mr. Theard of New Orleans about 1855. Mr. Theard was positive that it had been imported from France, but it is so nearly related to the llerbemont that a mistake may have occurred. Its wine is perhaps the best of its class we yet have in America, fully equalling the finest Rhine wine, of fine golden color, exquisite flavor, and great body, smooth and rich, but is yet very scarce and high-priced. It is a true cabi net wine. Sp. gr. 110; acid, 5. The Rulan- der or St. Genevieve was first cultivated at St. Genevieve, Mo., by some of the French settlers. It was first brought to the notice of the vine growers at Hermann by Mr. Louis L. Koch of Golconda, 111., under its present name of Rulander, and is now extensively culti vated there. Mr. Peter W^eitzenecker, near St. Louis, also cultivated it at an early date, under the name of Rothelben. Its wine is of golden yellow color, sometimes having a brownish yellow tint, with great body and very fine flavor, standing midway between a choice hock and a sherry, having some of the charac teristics of both. It was awarded the first pre mium as the best light-colored wine at Cincin nati, Ohio, in 1868, about 25 varieties of the choicest wines competing. Sp. gr. 110 ; acid, 5. The Taylor or Bullitt originated with Judge Taylor of Kentucky. It is the only white wine grape belonging to the cordifolia class of which wine has yet been made. It makes a wine of a straw color, of fine flavor, closely re sembling the German Riessling, heavy body, and very sprightly. Were the grape a surer crop than it lias yet proved to be, it would be extensively cultivated. Sp. gr. of must, 100 ; acid, 5^. 2. Red Wines. In the labrusca class of grapes the Concord takes the lead, as it will succeed anywhere, on any soil, and is healthy, hardy, and exceedingly productive. There is perhaps as much wine made from it as from the Catawba, and it is eifectually and truly the poor man s wine, as it can be produced very cheaply, and Las a peculiar enlivening and in- AMERICAN WINES 419 vigornting effect upon the system. For a light summer wine it has not its equal as yet, and ought to supplant all the cheap French clarets, as it is better, more wholesome, and can be made cheaper. It originated with Mr. Bull of Concord, Mass., about 1854, but was not fully appreciated at the east. In 1855 it was introduced into Missouri by George IIus- mann of Hermann, and also about the same time or somewhat later by Frederick Munch of Warren county. The first wine was made of it by George Husmann in the autumn of 1857. It found universal favor, and the wine spread rapidly over the western states. Now it is raised everywhere and has become the grape for the million. Its fruit and wine are much finer at the west than at the east. The wine, if fermented on the husks, varies from bright red to dark red, has a strong native fla vor resembling strawberries, is slightly astrin gent, sprightly, and invigorating. If the grapes are pressed as soon as mashed, it makes a white or yellow wine, which is now coming into use as a substitute for Catawba. It also makes a very fine sparkling wine, and is largely manufactured into the latter variety. Sp. gr. 75 ; acid, 5. The Creveling, Bloom, or Catawissa originated at or near Catawissa, Columbia county, Pa. It makes a claret wine of very fine flavor, without the foxiness of the Concord, and which finds more favor with Europeans than the Concord. It is but moder ately productive, however, and, although a finer table grape than the Concord, will hardly become so popular as a wine grape. It has much of the cestwalis character, and may be a hybrid between labrusca and cestualis. Sp. gr. 75; acid, 5. The Hartford prolific is an old variety, raised by Mr. Steele of Hartford, Conn. Its wine is very light and foxy, other wise resembling Concord in color and charac ter, but hardly so good. It is but little culti vated as a wine grape, although it yields abundantly. Sp. gr. 70 ; acid, 5. The Ives is an accidental seedling produced by Henry Ives, near Cincinnati, Ohio, whence it was dis seminated all over the west. It is productive and hardy, but has been much overpraised. Its wine is a fair claret, with a less foxy fla vor than the Hartford or Concord, of a dark color and a good deal of astringency, in quality midway between the Concord and Norton, as produced at the west. Sp. gr. 80 ; acid, 6. Rogers s hybrid No. 2 originated with Mr. Rogers of Salem, M-ass., and, though hardly thought worthy of a name at the east because of its late ripening, is valuable at the west, be ing productive and hardy, and producing a wine of a brilliant red color, fair body, and peculiar but agreeable flavor, very sprightly and refreshing. Sp. gr. 80 ; acid, 5. The Wilder (Rogers s hybrid No. 4), of the same origin, is very productive, and makes a pleasant, iight red wine, of not much character, but a good summer drink, generally preferred to Concord. Sp. gr. 78 : acid, 4. The Tele graph originated in a dooryard near Philadel phia, and was first disseminated by Major Freas of the "Germantown Telegraph." The vine is very productive, healthy, and hardy, and makes a fair wine, of claret character and agreeable flavor. Sp. gr. 80 ; acid, 5. Among red wine grapes of the astir-alts class, the Alvey or Hagar, introduced by Dr. Harvey of Hagerstown, Md., is one of the best grapes in quality, succeeding well in many parts of the south. Its wine resembles the finer Bordeaux wines in character and flavor, and, if the grape should prove adapted to extensive cultivation, would soon become very popular in the market. Sp. gr. 90 ; acid, 5. The Cynthi- ana was introduced to general culture by George Husmann of Hermann, Mo. It is supposed to have originated in Arkansas; hence its syno- nyme, Red River. Cuttings were received from William R. Prince of Flushing, N. Y., about 1858. The vine closely resembles Nor ton s Virginia, but the fruit is sweeter and more juicy, and the wine of an entirely differ ent character, resembling the choicest Burgun dy, very dark, of great body, and an exquisite spicy flavor. It is one of the best, if not the best of American red wines, and may safely en ter the lists with the best brands of Burgundy ; while the hardiness and productiveness of the vine makes it \vell adapted to general cultiva tion. Sp. gr. 180 ; acid, 4. The Devereauxis a southern grape, closely related to the Ilerbe- mont. It is very uncertain in its crop, but makes a splendid dark red wine of the Burgundy class, the only rival to the wine of the Cynthiana now produced, and perhaps surpassing it in smooth ness and delicacy, though not as aromatic and spicy. Sp.gr. 105; acid, 4. Norton s Vir ginia (erroneously called Norton s seedling) was introduced by Dr. Norton of Richmond, Va., and was found by him on an island in the James river. It was first popularized by the grape growers of Hermann, where it was in troduced about 1850 by Mr. Heinrichs of Cin cinnati, and Dr. Kehr from Wheeling, Va. After a long and patient trial, it has gradu ally spread over the west to such an extent that its wine is known and made everywhere, and recognized as the best medical wine of America. It is dark red, almost black, very heavy, astringent, and of strong flavor, some what resembling the flavor of green coffee. It is a remedy against bowel complaints, chronic diarrhoeas, and summer complaints in children, and as such will hardly be equalled by any other wine, either of Europe or America. It is also a preventive of intermittent fevers and other malarious diseases, and has already been appreciated in Europe as one of the best red wines of the world. Sp. gr. 110; acid, 4. Of the cordifolia class, the Clinton origi nated in New York about 1832. It is exten sively planted, and a good deal of wine is made from it, especially in the northern states; but it is a very rampant grower, and much subject to the attacks of the gall louse. It makes a 420 AMERICAN WINES good dark heavy claret, if the grapes are well j ripened, with rather a pleasant wintergreen flavor, liked by some. Sp. gr. 90 ; acid, 6. The Franklin, probably a seedling of the fore going, is very productive and hardy, and pro duces wine of similar character but inferior to j Clinton. Sp. gr. 80 ; acid, 6. The Marion, j belonging to the same class, makes a fair red wine, but is hardly worth cultivating when bet ter varieties are abundant. Sp. gr. 83 ; acid, 6. 3. Sherry Wines. The Cunningham origi nated in the garden of Mr. Jacob Cunningham, Prince Edward county, Va., about 1812, and proved so thrifty and hardy that it covered an arbor 50 feet long and 12 feet high. Mr. Sam uel Venable then cultivated it to a certain ex tent in his vineyard in Prince Edward, and was probably the first who made wine from it, very much resembling Madeira. It is now largely cultivated at Hermann and Bluft ton, Mo. Its wine is brownish yellow, of great body, and fine, sherry-like flavor ; and as the vine is a rampant grower and abundant bearer, it would be a favorite grape were it not some what tender, and only adapted to dry hillsides. Sp. gr. 100 ; acid, 6. The Hermann originated with Francis Langendorfer, near Hermann, Mo., and first fruited in 1865. It is a seedling of Nor ton s Virginia, exceedingly hardy, healthy, and productive. It may be too late for extreme northern localities, but is certainly one of the most profitable varieties for the west and south. The wine, if properly handled, is of a brownish golden color, with true sherry flavor, very heavy, and exceedingly fragrant and spicy. Con noisseurs have preferred it to the finest imported sherries. Sp. gr. 105; acid 4. Wines of the Southern Atlantic States. There are two spe cies of the vine exclusively confined to the southern states, which will not succeed north of the Potomac, and on the value of which for wine authorities still differ. 1. Vitis vulpinia or rotundifolia (the muscadine or Bullace). To this species may be referred the Scupper- nong, and its seedlings, the Thomas, Flow ers, and Mish. The vine is entirely different from any other species, the bark being smooth, the leaves round and glossy, and the fruit pro duced in clusters of from three to twelve ber ries, which drop from the stem when fully ripe, j As wine has generally been made at the south j so far by an addition of sugar and even alcohol, it is very difficult to judge of its true merits. One of the best wines is made by Germans at Aiken, S. C., where there are very extensive vineyards. The white Scuppernong seems to be deficient in sugar, as its must seldom ranges j above 60, and to contain so much gluten that j it is very sluggish in fermentation. But al- though most of the must, even now, has sugar or alcohol added to it in fermentation, it seems that a good still and also sparkling wine may be made of it ; and as the grape produces abundantly, and is very healthy, it may become a great source of profit to the south. Its wine j is generally pale yellow, of strong flavor and , heavy body, and the vines are said to produce alter the 10th year from 750 to 1,500 gallons to the acre. Sp. gr. 60 ; acid, 4. 2. Vitis mmtan- genxix, or mustang grape. This is found in great abundance in the woods of Texas, where it climbs to the tops of the highest trees. So far as known, no attempts have been made to cul tivate it. The berry is large, black or purple, and contains a very acrid juice. It is said to produce a wine resembling claret, and considerable quantities are made from the wild vines every autumn. II. WINES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. "The history of grape culture in California," says Charles Reukl in his work "California," "takes its rise in the southern districts of the state. The vine was introduced in the middle of the last century by the Catho lic missions. The pious monks had brought their native thirst from the sunny fields of Spain, and longed to quench it in California. They began by sending for large numbers of Spanish and French cuttings, which, however, were found not to thrive when planted. They grew, but bore little fruit, and only at inter vals. A ship which brought the monks their regular supplies once had some fine raisins on board. One of the missionaries planted the seeds, and the experiment succeeded; the vines flourished to admiration, and bore superb grapes. Large plantations were then made, with the aid of the Indians, at the mission of San Gabriel, in Los Angeles county." The grape originally planted by the missionaries is called Los Angeles, and was the only one cul tivated in California to the year 1820. At that date a new variety was introduced in the Sonoma valley, believed to have been brought from Madeira. This new variety, and the old one of the missionaries of Los Angeles, are known as mission grapes, or California grapes, and still constitute two thirds of all the vines grown in the state. New varieties, however, have been introduced, partly from Europe, especially Germany, and partly from the At lantic states. At the present day some 200 kinds of grapes are raised and tried in Califor nia, all of which seem to succeed. Those most frequently met with are: of European or Asi atic origin, the Riessling, Tokay, muscatel, black Hamburg, Chasselas ; of American origin, Catawba, Isabella, Concord, Ives, Herbemont, Delaware, Diana, Salem, and many others. The intelligent and workmanlike culture of the vine, and the management and sale of its prod ucts, are of recent date. The long experience of other countries is still ivanting there, so that many and grave difficulties are encountered. For some time the vine was usually planted in level river bottoms, and even on wide plains, and the vines were supposed to require artifi cial irrigation. It is now ascertained that the vines planted on the slopes of hills, as is usual in Germany and France, succeed far better than the vineyards on open plains, and produce wine generally heavier and of finer flavor. The largest vinsyard in California is that of the AMERICAN WINES Buena Vista company in the Sonoma valley, which contains 450 acres and 306,000 vines. The same valley, which is very beautiful, shel tered against the \jtfnds, and free from fog, also contains the Rhine farm, laid out by Mr. Jacob Gumllaeh, in company with Mr. Emil Dresel. Gen. B. 1). Wilson of San Gabriel has also 260 acres in vines. The total number of vines growing in California at the opening of 1870 was 22,548,315. The counties most actively engaged in grape-growing are Los Angeles, 4,000,000 vines in 1870; Sonoma, 3,250,000; Sacramento, 1,718,914; Amador, 1083,000; El Dorado, 1,357,895; Solano, 1,128,000; Santa Clara, 1,000,000. In 1868, 2, 676,550 gallons of wine and 161,015 of brandy were produced. According to local authori ties, the wine yield of the state for 1870 was from 4, 000,000 "to 5,000,000 gallons, although the federal census of that year gives only 1,814,656. The u Wine Dealers Gazette" esti mates the produce of 1871 at 5,000,000; others place it as high as 7,000,000 or 8,000,000. The aggregate value of the vintage of Califor nia, including $400,000 as the cash value of grapes marketed for other purposes than wine making, may be put down at $2,500,000. The kinds of wines produced in California are as follows: 1. White Wines. The California Hock is of a bright straw color, somewhat variable in bouquet and quality, according to the place of growth, varieties of grapes used, and the skill of the producer ; but it is gene rally far stronger, more fiery and apt to intoxi cate the unwary than the Rhine wine. It is smoother, but has little of the exquisite bou quet of the Rhine wines, and their enliven ing and exhilarating qualities. Of all the wines of California, this is most consumed in the Atlantic states, and is sometimes sold as Rhine wine. The Port, principally raised in Los Angeles, is dark red, strong and sweet, very probably made so by the addition of sugar and alcohol, like its European namesake. An gelica is a sweet wine, a favorite among ladies. It is not a pure wine, ac alcohol, distilled from grapes, is added to it, and it is therefore a much stronger wine than many suppose. Madeira, sherry, muscatel, and claret are all made, but only in smaller quantities, and not highly es teemed. 2. Sparkling Wines. The brothers Sansevain first undertook to make sparkling wines in 1837, but without success. They and some others who turned their attention to the subject suffered great loss in numerous ex periments, w^hich resulted at last, however, in making a good sparkling wine from the grapes of California. The Buena Vista company have pursued this enterprise with great success since 1863, and Isidor Laudsberger and company pre pare monthly between 800 and 1,000 bottles. It is rather too heavy in body, however, and lacks the sprightliness and ethereal qualities of the best imported Erench and German sparkling wines, as also of the sparkling Catawbas, Con cords, and other varieties made in the Atlantic states. The prices of the California wines fluctu ate a good deal, but it is perhaps the only country where wine at its place of production is cheaper than milk. In August, 1869, a gallon of or dinary wine brought 30 cts. at Anaheim and Los Angeles, while a gallon of milk cost 50 cts. The wines of New Mexico resemble those of California very much in character, but are rarely in the market. This may partly be ac counted for by the isolated position and inac cessibility of the country, partly by the indo lence of the manufacturers. During the last few years grape culture has attracted a good deal of attention in Oregon, and it seems both native and foreign varieties thrive there equally well. It is difficult to give even an approxi mate statement of the amount of the wine in terest in the United States. There are hardly any trustworthy statistics to be gathered, as the manufacture is spread over so vast a territory, of which many portions are yet but thinly inhabited. The following statistics are mostly derived from private sources, and should i only be taken as approximate : California Ohio Gallons. . 5.000.000 3.500.000 Wisconsin Marvland Gallons. 25.000 25.000 New York 3 000.000 South Carolina 25.000 Missouri Illinois Pennsylvania Iowa Kentucky.. .. 2,500.000 2.500.000 .. 2.000,000 . . 400.000 300.000 Alabama Connecticut Mississippi Tennessee Arkansas 20.000 20.000 15,000 15,000 15.000 200.000 Georgia 15,000 Indiana North Carolina. . . . . 150.000 40,000 40000 Louisiana Delaware Dist. of Columbia. . . 10,000 5.000 5.000 West Virginia. . . . Vu- nnia 35.000 30000 Massachusetts Nebraska 5.000 5,000 Texas 30,000 Oregon 5,000 New Mexico New Jersey . . 30,000 25,000 Washington Ter Other States and Ter 5,000 . 5,000 Total . . 20,000,000 Of this amount 5,040,000 gallons would come from the Pacific and 14,060,000, from the At lantic coast. The varieties of the Atlantic states, and their approximate value from the producer to the dealer, may be estimated as follows : Catawba Concord Gallons. 6.000.000 4,000 000 Price. $0 75 50 Value. $4,500,000 2.000,000 Norton s Virginia Delaware Clinton . 1.000,000 1,000,000 1 000 000 1 00 1 25 T5 1,000,000 1,250,000 750.000 Isabella . 500,000 50 250,000 Ives Herbemont Scupperuonir . . 500,000 250,000 100,000 75 1 25 1 00 375.000 312.500 1 00.000 Other varieties 610.000 1 00 610,000 Total. . .14,060,000 $11,147,500 I To this may be added : ! For grapes consumed $5,000,000 : For grape vines and grape wood 5,000,000 ; For brandy distilled from grapes, husks, and lees. . . 1,000,000 Total product of vineyards of the Atlantic States.. $22,147,500 ; If the fact is taken into account that grape culture has really assumed importance only : within the last 10 years, it may safely be pre- ! dieted that it will be trebled within the next j 25 years, and become a vast source of national i wealth. AMERIGO VESPUCCI AMES AMERIGO VESPUCCI. See VESPUCCI. AMERSFOORT, a town of the Netherlands, in the province of Utrecht, with a port on the river Eem, about 10 in. from its month in the Zuyder-Zee, and 12 m. E. X. E. of Utrecht; pop. in 1867, 13,258, nearly half Roman Catho lics. It has manufactories of cotton and wool len stuffs, an industrial school, a Latin school, and a Jansenist seminary. Corn and tobacco are cultivated very extensively in the vicinity, and a brisk trade is carried on. AMES, Edward R., D. D., an American clergy man, bishop of the Methodist Episcopal church, born at Amesville, Ohio, May 20, 1806. In 1826 he entered the Ohio university at Athens, and in 1828 opened a high school at Lebanon, 111., which was the germ of McKendree col lege. After remaining here until 1830, he en tered the itinerant ministry as a member of the Indiana conference. Being one of the del egates to the general conference of 1840, he was elected corresponding secretary of the missionary society for the south and west. From 1844 to 1852 he was a presiding elder in the Indiana conference, and was then elected bishop, lie was the first Methodist bishop to visit ihe Pacific coast. During the civil war he served on several important commissions. Since 1861 he has resided in Baltimore. AMES, Fisher, an American orator, states man, and political writer, born in Dedham, Mass., April 9, 1758, died there, July 4, 1808. His father, who was a physician, died when the son was but 6 years old, but his loss was in some degree supplied by the energy and good sense of his widow. Fisher graduated at Harvard college at the age of 16. His youth, the disturbed state of public affairs, and the narrowness of the family means, delayed for several years his entrance into the profes sion of the law. During this interval, how ever, he was busily educating himself by the study of the Latin and English classics. In 1781 he was admitted to the bar, and began practice in his native town. But it was his political essays in the Boston newspapers, un der the signatures of Brutus and Camillus, that first made his abilities generally known. When their authorship was discovered, he entered into private and political intimacy with the leading men of his own state and elsewhere, who were afterward the prominent feder alists of the Washington school. He was a member of the Massachusetts convention as sembled in 1788 for ratifying the federal con stitution, and made himself conspicuous by the zeal and eloquence with which he recommend ed its adoption. When the federal government went into operation, Mr. Ames was elected the first representative of his district, which then included Boston, in congress, and kept his seat during the eight years of Washington s administration. His readiness in debate and the splendor of his set speeches place him in the very first rank of parliamentary orators. At the close of his speech advocating the ap propriation required for the execution of Jay s treaty with Great Britain, a member of the opposite party moved an adjournment, on the | ground that the house was not in a state of i mind to dwell calmly on the question when I fresh from the excitement of its eloquence. At ! the close of his fourth term Mr. Ames left con- I gress and returned to his profession. His inter- ! est in public affairs at that most excited period | was manifested by fresh essays in the newspa pers ; but he took no immediate part in politics | and accepted no office, excepting that of execu- j tive councillor under the administration of 1 Governor Suinner. On the death of Washing- j ton he pronounced his eulogy before the legis- I lature of Massachusetts. The gradual failure i of his health compelled him soon to withdraw from the active practice of his profession, and he spent the last years of his life in philo sophic retirement. He was married in 1792 | to Frances, daughter of John Worthington of j Springfield, and in the occupations of domestic i life, the superintendence of his farm and orchards, the study of literature, and the soci- ! ety of a brilliant circle of friends, his life wore away peacefully and happily. The chief draw back to his satisfaction was found in the gloomy forebodings as to the future of his country and the success of the experiment of republican government, which he felt in common with most of his school of politics. His works were collected and published in one volume soon after his death, with a memoir writ- ; ten by the Rev. John Thornton Kirldand. i An enlarged edition, in two volumes, appeared I in 1854, edited by his son, Mr. Seth Ames, of | Cambridge, Mass. The first volume of this edition is composed of his letters, and they add to his former reputation that of one of the I liveliest, wittiest, and most graceful of letter- I writers. His orations, essays, and letters are i of the highest excellence in their several de partments, although the exuberance of his I imagination, displayed in the multitude and ! splendor of his metaphors and illustrations, is sometimes perhaps a little excessive, notwith standing their felicity and appositeness. His I appearance was attractive, his manners gentle and prepossessing, the play of his wit and imagination brilliant and incessant. Many of his lions mots have passed into proverbs. AMES, Joseph, an American portrait painter, born in Rosebury, X. II., about 1825, died Oct. 30, 1872. He practised his art many years in I Boston. Among his chief works are portraits of Pius IX., Rachel, Daniel Webster, Rufus Choate, and President Felton of Harvard college. His "Death of Webster," a large composition con taining a number of figures, has been engraved. AMES, Joseph, an English antiquary, born in I Yarmouth, Jan. 23, 1689, died Oct. V, 1759. He was a ship chandler or an ironmonger in Wapping, London, and wrote a work entitled " Typographical Antiquities, being an Historical Account of Printing in England, with some Memoirs of our Ancient Printers." It was a AMES AMHERST 42; valuable compilation, and made more so by the subsequent additions of Herbert and Dr. Dib- din. He was the author of some other anti quarian works, was a fellow of the royal so ciety, and secretary of the antiquarian society from 1741 till his death. AMES, William, D. IX, an English Independent divine, born in Norfolk county in 1570, died in Rotterdam in November, 1(533. He was educated at Christ s college, Cambridge, of which he be came a fellow. In the reign of James I. he left the university in order to avoid expulsion for nonconformity, and retired to the Hague, where he became minister of an English church. Sub sequently he filled for twelve years the chair of divinity of the university of Franeker. He then removed to Rotterdam, and intended to emigrate to New England, but this design was frustrated by his death. His widow and chil dren, however, did sail for America. He left many controversial writings against the Armin- ians and others, and his Medulla Theologies, was famous in its day. AMESBURY, a town of Essex county, Mass., about 40 m. X. of Boston, and 6 m. X. W. of Newburyport, extending from the N. bank of the Merrimack river to the New Hampshire line; pop. in 1870, 5,581. A branch of the Eastern railroad extends from Salisbury to this point. Manufacturing is extensively pursued. The town contains 5 woollen mills, with 46 sets of machinery, using annually $1,257,500 worth of stock, and employing 270 males and 372 females ; 1 brickyard, 2 manufactories of hats and caps, 18 of carriages, 1 of carriage wheels, 3 of harnesses, 3 saw mills, and 21 blacksmith shops. There are several churches, good schools, and a weekly newspaper. It is the home of the poet John G. Whittier, who is frequently called the bard of Amesbury. Josiah Bartlett, M. D., one of the signers of the dec laration of independence, was born here in 1729. AMETHYST (Gr. a^idvc-oc, preventing intoxi cation, so named because it was supposed by the ancient Persians that cups made of it would prevent the liquor they contained from intoxi cating), a stone consisting of crystallized quartz of a purple or bluish violet color, probably de rived from a very small amount of oxide of manganese or, according to Heintz, from a compound of iron and soda. The color is not always uniformly diffused through it, and is less brilliant by candlelight. The name was used by the ancients for several other minerals, which had a color similar to the amethyst. In mineralogy, amethyst is that variety of quartz that exhibits a wrinkled fracture, instead of the usual conchoidal one. For oriental ame thyst, see SAPPHIRE. AMGA, a river in Siberia, which rises in the Yablonnoy mountain range, flows in a N. N. E. direction nearly 460 m., and falls into the Aldan, the principal eastern affluent of the Lena. At its passage through the village of Amginsk, where it is bounded on each side by steep rocks up ward of 30 feet in height, it attains a breadth of 3,000 feet. AMHARIC LANGUAGE, the language of Am- hara, the largest division of Abyssinia, includ ing all that portion which lies between the Blue Nile and the Tacazze rivers, and having Lake Tzana in the centre. It is spoken with some variations of dialect throughout Abyssinia, and a knowledge of it is therefore essential to an Abyssinian traveller. It is of ancient Semitic origin, and related to the old Ethiopian or Geez, which it superseded in the early part of the 14th century as the language of the court, and gradually also as the popular idiom. It resem bles, however, the Geez much less than does the Tigre, the dialect of the northern province of Abyssinia, being to a great degree corrupted by non-Semitic African admixtures, and stinted in its grammatical forms. Its alphabet is the Geez, slightly modified. (See ETHIOPIAN LAN GUAGE.) Very little is known of the Amharic language, though the British and Foreign Bible society have published first the New Testament (1829) and later the whole Bible in that tongue. A.1IIIERST, a W. central county of Virginia, bounded S. E. and S. W. by the James river, and N. W. by the Blue Ridge ; area, 418 sq. in. ; pop. in 1870, 14,900, of whom 6,704 were colored. It abounds in fine scenery, of which the passage of the James river through the Blue Ridge is specially noted. Its soil is fertile, and largely covered with forests and plantations. The productions in 1870 were 75,065 bushels of wheat, 160,655 of corn, 117,608 of oats, 1,285,471 Ibs. of tobacco, and 109,773 of but ter. The Virginia and Tennessee railroad passes through the county. Capital, Amherat Court House. AMHERST, a town of Hampshire county, Mass.. 82 m. W. of Boston, on a branch of the Con necticut river; pop. in 1870, 4,035. The situa tion of the town affords extensive views of the Connecticut valley and adjacent mountain ranges. It contains 5 Congregational churches, 1 Baptist, and 1 Episcopal. The preparatory high school is considered one of the best in the state.. There are 4 paper mills, an establish ment for the preparation of palm leaf for hats, bonnets, &c., and one for their manufacture. A weekly newspaper, and a semi-monthly periodical are published in the town. The Massachusetts agricultural college, with its ex tensive dormitories and greenhouses, is about a mile N. of the town, and possesses with other objects of interest the Durfee plant house, which is well stocked with rare and beautiful plants. Since its opening in 1866 this institution has become the largest and most successful agricul tural school in the country. Amherst college, one of the chief seats of learning in New Eng land, was founded in this town in 1821, under the auspices of the Orthodox Congregational- ists. Its projectors had in view the gratuitous education of young men for the ministry, and the charity fund devoted exclusively to this object now amounts to about $70,000. There 424 AMIIERST AMICE is a large number of scholarships available to needy students, and no earnest young man is allowed to leave for want of money. This fund now amounts to $100,000. The Rev. Zephaniah Swift Moore was the first president of the col lege. He died in 1823, and was succeeded by the Rev. Ileman Humphrey, who retained the office till 1845, and performed important ser vices to the institution, having safely carried it through the most perplexing embarrassments. The Rev. Edward Hitchcock followed him, and resigned in 1854, when the present in cumbent, the Rev. William A. Stearns, D. D., LL. D., was inaugurated. The managers of the institution had to struggle against many discour agements at the outset, and not a dollar was appropriated in its aid from the state treasury during the first 25 years of its existence. The state appropriations to the present time amount to $52,500, a portion of which was for the en dowment of the "Massachusetts Professorship of Natural History." The college has received many munificent donations from individuals. Dr. William J. Walker, a resident of Charles- town, Mass., and a graduate of Harvard col lege, besides giving to the institution during the latter years of his life upward of $90,000 to ward the erection of a building for scientific purposes, and founding a professorship of math ematics and astronomy, left a legacy for similar purposes of nearly $150,000. The next largest giver is Samuel A. Hitchcock of Brimfield, who has contributed* to the college $175,000. The donations of the Hon. Samuel Williston, an eminent manufacturer in Easthampton, Mass., who has long been one of the most ardent friends of the institution, amount to about $150,- 000. The funds for the college church recently erected were given by W. F. Stearns, son of the president of the college. Amherst college has 12 public buildings besides the president s house, including an edifice for scientific and other purposes recently built at the cost of more than $120,000, and a church for such as do not prefer to worship with other denomina tions. In the tower is a chime of bells, pre sented by the late George Howe of Boston, and beneath it a small room for tablets in com memoration of the young men who fell in the war. A gallery of art has been started. In 1847 a handsome edifice was erected to be em ployed as a cabinet of natural history and an astronomical observatory, chiefly by the ef forts of the Hon. J. B. Woods of Enficld. The library, a fine building, was constructed in 1853, of Pelham granite. The college possesses a valuable philosophical and astronomical appa ratus, an extensive geological and conchological museum, collections of meteorites and geologi cal specimens, a Nineveh gallery containing about 200 specimens from the ruins of ancient Nineveh and Babylon, a museum of Indian relics, and the Hitchcock ichnological collec tion. In this unique cabinet, named after the late President Hitchcock, are to be found about 1,400 specimens, containing at least 20,000 tracks of animals in stone, together with plas- | ter and clay casts of tracks of living and fossil I animals. There is in the curriculum a regular | department of physical training, under the care | of a physician. There are 13 professors and 8 lecturers and instructors. The libraries of the college and various literary societies con tain about 36,000 volumes. The number of | under graduates is 244. In 1869 the whole number of graduates was 1,829, of whom 1,449 survived. Of the whole number, 751 became clergymen, 75 missionaries, 129 physicians, 186 lawyers, and 208 teachers. AMHERST, a town of British Burmah, in lat. 16 5 N., Ion. 97 25 E., on a triangular | peninsula N. E. of the gulf of Martaban, 30 m. l S. of Maul main ; pop. increased from 5,000 in 1838 to 20,000 in 1853, but since largely re duced. It was founded by the English in 1826, and rapidly increased in population and pros perity, but has been superseded by Maulmain, of which it now constitutes an outer port and a station for pilots. The harbor is spacious and secure, but the bar across its entrance is dan gerous. The military cantonments are on an elevation 1 m. outside of the town. It is a resort of invalids from Maulmain, owing to its salubrious climate. AMHERST. I. Jeffery, baron, an English gen eral, born in Kent, Jan. 29, 1717, died Aug. 3, 1797. He entered the army at the age of 14, was present at Dettingen and Fontenoy on the staff of Gen. Ligonier, and in 1758 was sent to America with the rank of major general. In conjunction with Wolfe and Prideaux, he made the entire conquest of the French strongholds in Canada, for which he received the thanks of the house of commons and the order of the Bath. He was soon afterward appointed com- mander-in-chief of the British forces in Amer ica. In 1763 he was appointed governor of Virginia, and in 1770 governor of the island of Guernsey. He was commander-in-chief of the army 1772- 82, and again 1793- 5, when he was superseded by the duke of York, and was soon afterward made a field marshal. In 1776 he was elevated to the peerage, with the title of Baron Amherst of Holmesdale ; and in 1787 he received a patent as Baron Amherst of Montreal. II. William Pitt, earl, and Viscount Holmesdale, a British statesman, nephew of the preceding, born Jan. 14, 1773, died March 13, 1857. He was British ambassador in China, and succeeded Hastings as governor general of India (1823- 7). Under his administration the Burman war resulted in an important ac cession of British territory, and his services were rewarded with an earldom in 1826. AMIANTHUS. See ASBESTUS. AMICE, or Amiet (Lat. amictus, girt around), a vestment worn by priests in the Roman Cath olic church during the celebration of mass. It I consists of a square linen cloth tied over the ! neck and shoulders, and was originally used as I a protection for the throat. After the general ! adoption of the crava* had rendered the amice AMICI AMITE 425 unnecessary as a neckcloth, it was retained for ] the significance which it had acquired as an emblem of the cloth wherewith the Saviour ; was blindfolded by the Jews the night before \ his crucifixion. AMICI, Giovanni Battista, an Italian optician and astronomer, born in Modena, March 25, 1784, ; died in Florence, April 10, 18(53. He became em- ! inent at an early age for his mathematical and , general scientific attainments, and directed for j upward of 30 years the Florence observatory, j He also lectured on astronomy, and was a j member of almost all the learned academies of ! Europe. Science is especially indebted to him ! for his improvement of the telescope, of several ; microscopes, and of the camera lucida, invented j by Hooke and Wollaston. In 1827 he made di- j optric microscopes, which are sold with his I name attached, and, notwithstanding the im- | proved microscopes of Oberhauser, are still in ; great favor. He was assisted in his labors by his son VIXCENZO, who is professor of mathe matics at the university of Pisa. AMIDAS, Philip, an English discoverer, born j in Hull in 1550, of a Breton family, members j of which had been for nearly a generation do mesticated in England, died about 1018. He commanded one of the two ships composing ! the first expedition sent by Queen Elizabeth j under Arthur Barlow to North America. They touched at the Canaries, the West Indies, and Florida, and then made their way north ward along the coast. On July 13, 1584, they | entered Ocracoke inlet, and landed on Woco- | ken island. Barren and desolate as this part j of North Carolina now is, the mariner thought j it beautiful, and gave gorgeous descriptions of j it. The people of the country were kind and I gentle, and the scenery was lovely and luxuriant. I On the return of Amidas and Barlow to Eng- j land they reported their discoveries to Raleigh, j who does not appear ever to have been on the | North American continent, and from him the j matter was imparted to Queen Elizabeth, who j called the new land " Virginia." Amidas was I long after in the English maritime service, and went in charge of an expedition to Newfound land a few years later. He died in England a few months before Raleigh s execution. AMIENS, a town of France, capital of the de partment of Somme, 70 m. N. of Paris, on the Somme, which is navigable for small craft; pop. in 1866, 61,063. The old ramparts have been converted into fine boulevards and prom- e lades. The citadel is the only remnant of tiie former fortifications. Of the ancient castle nothing remains but the crypt, which is asso ciated with the tradition of St. Firmin s mar tyrdom. The cathedral, one of the largest and finest Gothic edifices in Europe, is remarkable for the splendor of its interior. Amiens has an academy, a lyceum, and a public library. In j the place St. Michel is a statue of Peter the j Hermit, who was born here. Amiens has been the centre of the French cotton industry j since the last century. The cotton velvet fac- ! tories employ 400 looms, and the other manu factories over 3,000. The annual consumption of wool is estimated at 100,000,000 Ibs. Amiens was the Sarnarobriva of the Romans, the pres ent name being traced to the Ambiarii, the early Gallic inhabitants. In the middle ages it w r as the centre of a district then called the Amienois, and ruled by bishops of the town. At the end of the 12th century it was united to the French crown. Subsequently it was ruled by the dukes of Burgundy, but it reverted to the crown under Louis XL The Spaniards, who captured Amiens in 1597, were speedily dislodged by Henry IV. with the aid of Eng lish troops. The treaty of Amiens, establishing peace between England, France, Spain, and the Batavian republic, was signed in 1802. During the Franco-German war the town was occupied for some time by the Germans, after a decisive victory won over the French in the vicinity, Nov. 27, 1870. AMIOT, or Amyot, Joseph, a French Jesuit and missionary to China, born in Toulon in 1718, died in Peking in 1794. He was early distinguished for great scientific attainments and indefatigable industry. In 1750 he was sent to China, and after some stay at Macao was called by the emperor Kien-lung to Peking, which he reached Aug. 22, 1751, and never afterward left. Devoting himself to the study of the antiquities, history, languages, and arts of the Chinese and Mantchus, he annually sent to France memoirs, treatises, and transla tions which greatly extended European knowl edge on these subjects. Among his works published separately were : Eloge de la mile de Moukden, a translation of a poem by the em peror Kien-lung, with numerous notes (1770) ; Art militaire des Chinois (translation, 1772); and Dictionnaire tatar-mantchou-francais (3 vols. 4to, 1789), which was edited by Lan- gles, and the types for which were cut and cast at the expense of the minister Bertin. But the greater part of his writings were included in the Memoires concernant Vhistoire, Us sciences et les arts des Chinois (15 vols. 4to). The list of his contributions to the first 10 volumes of this work occupies 14 columns of the table of contents. His treatise on Chinese music fills most of vol. iv., and his life of Confucius nearly all of vol. xii. In vol. xiii. there is a brief Mantchoo grammar by him. AMITE, a river rising in S. W. Mississippi, passes into Louisiana, and reaches Ascension parish by a southerly course ; it then turns and flows S. E. and E. to Lake Maurepas. It is navigable by small steamboats for a distance of 60 miles. AMITE, a S. W. county of Mississippi, border ing on Louisiana, named from the Amite river, which fiows through its centre, and bounded on the N. TV 7 , corner by the river Homochito ; pop. in 1870, 10,973, of whom 6,777 were colored. The area was 700 sq. m., but a portion of its territory was taken in 1870 to form the new county of Lincoln. The county is mainly oc- 42G AMLWCH AMMOfl cupied by cotton fields and forests ; its surface is somewhat uneven. The soil is fertile. The productions in 1870 were 254,784 bushels of corn, 53,702 of sweet potatoes, 11,233 Ibs. of rice, and 17,456 bales of cotton. Capital, Liberty. AMLWCH, a seaport town on the N. shore of the island of Anglesea, Wales, the terminus of the Chester and Ilolyhead railway ; pop. in 1861, 5,949. The celebrated Parys copper mines, in its vicinity, which gave the town im portance, have of late years greatly decreased in productiveness. AMMAiV. I. Johann Konrad, a Swiss physician, born at Schaffhausen in 1669, died at War- mund, near Leyden, about 1725. He studied at Basel, but established himself in Holland. In 1692 he published an essay entitled Surdm Loquens ("The Deaf Speaking ";, in which he gave an account of the results of his successful efforts in teaching a girl deaf and dumb from birth to articulate. In 1700 he published another essay entitled Dissertatio de Loquela. These two works were of great value to Ilei- nicke, Braid wood, and De l pee, who at a later period organized schools for the instruction of deaf mutes, lie was also noted as an editor and translator of the classics. !! Jost, or Jodocus, a Swiss painter and engraver, born in Zurich in 1539, died in 1591. In 1560 he es tablished himself at Nuremberg, where he ac quired fame, especially by his woodcut illustra tions of Reineke Fuchs, Luther s Bible, Schop- pen s Panoplia, and many other works, being the best and most prolific illustrator of his time. His paintings are rare and much sought for. AMAIIAMS BIARCELLIMS, a Roman soldier and historian, born in Antioch, of a Greek family, died about A. D. 395. In his youth he embraced the military profession, and served under Ursicinus, one of the most celebrated of the generals of Constantius. In 363 he ac companied the emperor Julian in his expedi tion against the Persians. Pie ultimately set tled at Home, and devoted his latter days to the composition of his history of the emperors from the accession of Nerva, A. D. 96, to the death of Valens in 378. It comprised 31 books, the first 1 3 of which are lost. The style is vicious and inflated, but the work is highly valuable as an authority. AllIMERGAr. See OBEK-AMMERCTAJT. AMMON, a deity extensively worshipped in ancient times in many countries of Africa and Europe. The Egyptians called him Amen or Amen-Ra (Ammon the Sun), the Hebrews Amon, the Greeks Zeus Ammon, and the Ro mans Jupiter Ammon. His most celebrated temples were at Thebes in Upper Egypt, in the Libyan oasis of Ammonium (now Siwah), and at Dodona in Greece. lie was generally repre sented in the form of a ram, or as a human being with the head of a ram. This repre sentation meant probably that Ammon stood in the same relation to men as the ram does to the liock ; that he was the guide, governor, and j protector of the people. The derivations of the name Amen are numerous, but none has as yet j obtained general acceptance. AMMOJV, I liristoph Friedrkh von, a German i Protestant theologian and pulpit orator, born I in Baireuth, Jan. 16, 1766, died in Dresden, I May 21, 1850. lie studied theology in Erlan- gen, in 1789 became professor of philosophy, and in 1792 professor of theology and preacher at that university. From 1794 to 1804 he was professor of the same branches in Gottingen, then until 1813 again in Erlangen, and from j that time until his death Protestant court I preacher, vice president of the consistory, and | afterward member of the ministry of worship in Dresden. In 1825 he accepted the old title of nobility, which his family had lost in 1640, together with their feudal estates, on account of their fidelity to Protestantism, and which the king of Bavaria had in 1824 restored to them. j Ammon was, together with Bretschneider, Pmi- lus, Rohr, and other German theologians of mi nor mark, the father of what is known as Ger man theological rationalism. In his principal work, "Development of Christianity into the Universal Religion ? (Fortbildung des Ghristen- tlmms zur Welt-religion, 4 vols., Leipsie, 1833- 40), he holds that the Christian religion is perfectible not only in its external form as a church, but also in its substance and nature, and must be further developed if it is to em brace the whole of humanity. lie regards Jesus as a mere man, who attained the highest scope and elevation, and so became intimately united with God. Though he was among the first to introduce the Kantian philosophy into theology, and to lay a great stress on the use of reason in matters of revealed religion, he was no systematic and comprehensive thinker. Nice distinctions being at that time drawn among the rationalists between rational super- naturalism and supernatural rationalism, he called himself a follower of the latter school, according to which belief or faith begins where science ends, and revelation may make up for the deficiencies of reason. This position being too much exposed .to objections from the side both of believers and unbelievers, he was some times, as for instance by Schleierrnacher in the dispute on "Harms s Theses," charged with duplicity ; and his last great work, " The Life of Jesus" (2 vols., Leipsic, 1842- 4), was even ridiculed on account of its undecided position in regard to the later critical theories of Strauss, Bruno Bauer, Feuerbach, and the Tubingen school. Among his other writings we may men tion particularly Handbuch der christlichen Sit- tenlehre (3 vols., Leipsic, 1823; 2d cd., 1838); Anleitung zur Kanzelberedsamleeit (3d ed., Er langen, 1826), more naturalistic in the 1st and 3d, more supernaturalistic in the 2d edition ; Entwurfeiner reinbiblischen Thcologie (2d ed., 3 vols., Gottingen, 1801- 2); 8umma Theologies Christiana (4th ed., Leipsic, 1830); and his last work, Die wahre imd false he Orthodoxie (Leipsic, 1849). He had the misfortune to see AMMOXIA 427 the theological system which lie represented entirely deserted by the great mass of his con temporaries, either for infidelity or for thorough going orthodoxy and pietism. His biography is entitled Ch. F. Ammon nac.h Leben, Ansich- tcn mid Wirkcn (Leipsic, 1850). AMHOHA, volatile alkali. The origin of the word is uncertain ; some authors suppose it to be from the god Ammon, near whose temple in Upper Egypt it was produced; others from Ammonia, a Cyrcnaic territory; while others again derive the word from d//,uor, sand, because the sal ammoniac (jo aufiuvia^v) was found in the sands of Africa. Pliny was probably ac quainted with it ; it was afterward discovered in 1077 by Kunckel, still later in 1756 by Dr. Black, and finally more fully described by Dr. Priestley in 1774. It is composed of one volume of nitrogen and three volumes of hydrogen, which on combination condense to two volumes. In its pure state, and at the ordinary tempera ture and pressure, it is a colorless, pungent gas, wholly irrespirable, not a supporter of combus tion, excepting of bodies which readily combine with hydrogen, strongly alkaline, having a spe cific gravity of 59, and readily converted into a liquid by cold or pressure. The elastic force of the vapor of liquid ammonia at different temperatures, according to Bunsen, is as fol lows : at 33 7 C. = 1 atmosphere ; at 5 C. =4 atmospheres; at 0. =4-8; at +5 C. =5-0; at +10 C. = 6-5; at +15 C. = 7 6 ; at +20 C. = 8-S. Bunsen prepared the liqui fied ammonia by causing the perfectly dry gas to pass through a column of hydrate of potash, and thence into a tube cooled to 40 C. The liquid ammonia is colorless, very mobile, having a specific gravity of 0*63. It freezes under a pressure of 20 atmospheres at 75 C., and at 87 C. in vacuo. This solid, frozen ammonia is a white, transparent, and crystalline body, possessed of a faint odor. Liquid ammonia is a powerful solvent for a number of metals, as has been recently (1871) shown by Professor Charles A. Seely of New York. T\vo important ap plications of liquid ammonia have been made in modern times. The first is its employment as a motive power according to the invention of a French chemist, M. Tellier ; and the second is the invention of M. Carre to use it for the arti ficial production of cold. One gramme of water at C. and 760 mm. pressure absorbs 0*877 gramme or 1,149 times its volume of ammonia gas; at 20 C. it absorbs 681 times its volume and yields the liquid ammonia, of the shops. Commercial ammonia was formerly obtained from the sal ammoniac of Africa ; but this source is entirely inadequate to supply the present demand, and recourse has been had to numer ous other sources. The greater part of the aqua ammonias of the shops is derived from the waste liquors of the manufactories of illuminating gas. The ammonia of the boracic acid works of Italy is also saved, and some establishments yield 3,300 Ibs. of sulphate of ammonia every 24 hours, in addition to the boracic acid which is condensed in the water. Some of the crude crystals of borax contain nearly 4 per cent, of ammonia, and when these are fused with soda, the ammonia is driven out and can be con densed in suitable vessels. When caustic soda is mixed with Chili saltpetre, much ammo nia is liberated, which can be condensed and saved. The ammonia arising from the beet in the manufacture of sugar and from the gas in coking furnaces is also economized to some extent. The preparation of ammonia for the arts is founded upon the action of quicklime upon a convenient ammoniacal salt. It is cus tomary to distil an intimate mixture of one part of pulverized sal ammoniac with two parts of moistened lime, and to condense the gas in water. On a large scale ammonia is obtained directly from gas-house liquors, without being previously converted into sal ammoniac. Am monia is produced in the juices of various nitro genous animal and vegetable substances in their putrefactive fermentation. It is given out in their decay, and, passing into the atmosphere, is condensed by the aqueous vapor, and returned to the earth in rain water, mists, and snow. It furnishes to plants the nitrogen they require, and is thus the principal valuable ingredient of the manures. Guano is a great repository of it. The shavings of horn have been used to prepare it, whence the name spirits of harts horn. It is given out in the destructive distil lation of all bituminous mineral matters, coin ing over in an impure state, condensed in the aqueous vapors, and mixed with the tarry prod ucts. This is the source from which it is now principally obtained for commercial purposes. It is also evolved from urine in a state of de composition ; and from this substance are pre pared annually in Paris from 17,000 to 18,000 Ibs. of ammoniacal salts. Refuse animal sub stances, as bones and horns, blood and hair, horse fiesh, and rags of wool and silk, are made to yield a variety of ammoniacal salts as the carbonate and acetate by distilling them. The chief product is the subcarbonate of am monia in solution. From the solid matters that will not distil over are obtained animal black, which is used for clarifying sugars, and a carbonaceous substance employed in the manu facture of Prussian blue. Sal ammoniac is pre pared from the crude carbonate thus obtained in combination with the ammoniacal products of the gas works and other operations re ferred to . The liquors are saturated with muriatic acid and evaporated ; the salt depos ited is dried and then sublimed, by which means it is collected free from impurities. Am monia yields numerous salts, some of which are employed in the arts. They are all readily destroyed by heat. The water of ammonia, the carbonate, chloride, and acetate, are used in medicine ; the first externally as an irri tant or to develop the gas ; the others inter nally. Their efiect is to temporarily accelerate the heart s movements, by an action rather on the muscular than on the nervous appa- 428 AMMONIAC AMMONIUM ratus, and to liquefy mucus where they come in contact with it, either directly as in the stomach and intestines, or in the way of elimi nation, as in the bronchial tubes. It leaves the system by the lungs, skin, and kidneys, having much less effect than the fixed alkalies in alka lizing the secretion of the latter organ. Car bonate of ammonia is used as a rapidly diffu sible stimulant in various diseases, especially febrile and neuralgic, and sometimes as an ex pectorant, its action being twofold, strengthen ing the bronchial muscles and liquefying the mucus. The chloride, though it is less pow erful as a stimulant, is used for similar pur poses, and also in some affections of the diges tive organs. The liquor ammonia} acetatis or spiritus Mindereri is, in the doses usually given, but little more than a placebo. Ammonia, in the gaseous or liquid form, has been proposed as an antidote to several poisons, especially alcohol, carbonic acid, and prussic acid. For these purposes the stimulant action is desired, but the gas must be used with great caution on account of its irritant effect on the air passages. The injection of ammonia into the veins, as a cure for the bite of venomous serpents, has been practised by Prof. Halford of Australia, and others on his recommendation. Although recoveries have been reported, the question of its efficacy must be regarded as still unsettled. AMMONIAC, the concrete juice of dorema am- moniacum, an umbelliferous plant, a native of Persia. It occurs in masses of a brownish color containing opaque, yellowish, homogene ous tears, or the same tears may be found sep arated. It is a gum resin with volatile oil. It has been used in medicine as an expectorant and so-called antispasmodic. In the form of a plaster it is used externally. It is allied thera- peutically as well as botanically and chemical ly to asafoetida. AMMONITES, a genus of fossil shells allied to the nautilus. The fossils are in the form of a coil or of a ram s horn, and the name is given to them from their resemblance to the horns upon great depths by its tubular form and by the ribs or plates of shell that supported it within. From the lower rocks of the transition period up to the tertiary, the ammonite has been rep resented by many species. They abound espe cially in the oolite. They appear to have been Ammonites Nodotianus. very widely distributed over the ancient seas, the same fossil species being found in rocks of the same period in different quarters of the globe. They are common in the greensand Ammonites Cordiformis. Ammonites Jason. the statues of Jupiter Ammon. They also resem ble a snake in its coil, and are generally supposed by the common people to be petrified snakes. The animal that inhabited the shell was pro vided with air chambers, by means of which it could rise or sink in the water ; and its shelly covering, necessarily very delicate in order to float, was made strong to bear the pressure at formation in New Jersey, and far up the Mis souri river. In Asia, at an elevation of 16,000 feet, in the Himalaya mountains, some of the same species have been found that are met Ammonites Tornatus. with in England, and one of the same in the Maritime Alps, 9,000 feet above the sea. They are so abundant in some parts of Bur gundy that the roads are paved with them. In the chalk formation they are found of gigantic size, three and even four feet in diameter. AMMONIUM, the hypothetical radical of am monia, supposed to be metallic. What is called an amalgam of mercury and ammonium was first obtained by Berzelius and Pontin from the AMMONIUM AMNESTY 429 aqueous solution of ammonia. Davy produced it with sal ammoniac ; and it has since been ob tained by simply dropping an amalgam of so dium and mercury into a strong solution of sal ammoniac, At a temperature of 32 F. it is a firm crystalline mass ; at 70 to 80 it is a soft solid. It is about three times the density of water. Gay-Lussac and Thenard consider it a mere combination of mercury and am monia ; but Berzelius regards it as a real amal gam of mercury with a metal composed of one volume of nitrogen and four volumes of hydro gen. Since the discovery of other compound radicals that are capable of neutralizing acids, the question of the metallic character of am monium has lost its significance, and few chem ists are now disposed to insist upon calling it a metal. AMMONIUM, Oasis of. See SIWAH. AMMONIUS, a Grecian philosopher, surnamed Saccas or the Sack-carrier, because his offi cial employment was that of public porter of Alexandria, died A. I). 243. By some he is regarded as the founder of the later Platonic school. He numbered among his pupils Lon- ginus, Plotinus, and Origen. According to his system of theological philosophy, God is prima rily essence, and secondarily knowledge and power, the last two being developments of the first ; the world is committed to the care of inferior divinities ; and ascetic life leads to a knowledge of the infinite. AMMONOOSUCK, Upper and Lower or Great, two small rivers of New Hampshire, tributary to the Connecticut. The former is entirely in Coos county, and empties in the town of Northumberland. The latter rises in Coos county, flows W. and S. W. through Grafton county, and empties opposite Wells River, Vt> ; it has a branch called the Wild Ammonoosuck. AMMUNITION, military stores or provisions for attack or defence. In modern usage, the sig nification of the term is confined to the articles which are used in charging firearms and ord nance of all kinds, as gunpowder, balls, shot, shells, percussion caps, primers, and cartridges, prepared and ready for use. Small-arm am munition comprises cartridges and percussion caps, the latter having replaced flints, and in turn been replaced by an arrangement of the fulminate or exploding materials in the base of the metallic cartridges now coming into general use throughout the world. Field artillery am munition is composed of shot, loaded shell, case shot, shrapnel, cartridges, priming tubes, match es, portfires, &c., with rockets for rocket bat teries. In fortresses and for sieges, the powder is generally kept in barrels, and made up in cartridges when required for use; so are the various compositions required during a siege. The proportion of ammunition accompanying an army in the field varies according to circum stances. Generally an infantry or cavalry sol dier carries from 40 to 60 rounds, while a sim ilar or larger quantity per man accompanies the army in wagons, or in exceptional cases, | for the use of cavalry, is carried upon pack | mules. For field artillery, from 100 to 200 : rounds per gun are always kept with the bat- | tery, partly in the limber boxes, and partly in i separate wagons called caissons. Another 20:) I rounds are generally with the ammunition re- | serve of the army, and a third supply follows I in wagons, or is kept on hand at depots estab- i lished at convenient points near the theatre of ! war. Ammunition for siege and seacoast guns, j garrison and naval use, consists mainly of gun- j powder, shot, and shell, and is supplied in large I quantities proportioned to the probable require- I ments in each case, the usual practice in time i of war being to have from 50 to 150 rounds i prepared and ready for use, and the magazines : stored with materials for from 600 to 1,000 rounds more. The proportional weights of ; gunpowder and missiles used in compounding ammunition vary considerably, and are set ! forth in the manuals and regulations pertaining i to that branch of the military service. After a few months of active campaigning, the sup- plies of ammunition are generally severely | drawn upon ; and until the introduction of me- | tallic cartridges for small-arms, as much was ; worn out and rendered useless by the troops | while marching as was expended in battle. AMNESTY (Gr. a/zi^cm a, forgetting, oblivion), | an act of oblivion; a general pardon of the : offences of subjects against the government, or I the proclamation of such pardon. Bouvier, in his Law Dictionary, distinguishes between j amnesty and pardon. Amnesty, he says, is | an act of the sovereign power, the object of which is to efface and cause to be forgotten a crime or misdemeanor ; while pardon is an act of the same authority which exempts the indi vidual on whom it is bestowed from the pun ishment which the law inflicts for the crime he has committed. Amnesty is the absolution and forgetfulness of the offence ; but pardon is i pity and forgiveness. Pardon is given to one who is certainly guilty ; amnesty to those who : may have been guilty. The two things differ further, he says, in their effects and application ; i and as to the latter distinction, he observes, by way of illustration, that pardon is always given to individuals and after judgment, while am nesty may be granted either before or after judgment, and it is in general given to whole classes of criminals or supposed criminals for the purpose of restoring tranquillity in the state. But it does not appear, after all, that there is . any substantial difference between pardon and amnesty. The act of grace is the same, whether it be expressed in the pardon of an individual or in the amnesty of a class, and though the I one be granted after conviction and the other i before it. The distinctions which this author ; suggests seem to relate to the different occasions ; to which the two acts refer, and to the merely incidental results in either case, rather than to anything different in the essential nature of the : acts. During the late civil war, and since it ended, the presidents of the United States 430 AMNESTY have issued several proclamations of amnesty to those Avho participated in it on the rebel side. President Lincoln issued the first of these proclamations on Dec. 8, 18(53. President Johnson issued similar proclamations on May 29, 1865, Sept. 7, 1867, July 4, 1868, and Dec. 28, 1868. Some of these proclamations were limited and conditioned, but the later ones were more liberal, and the last named was very broad and unqualified. With especial reference to this last paper, the question was mooted whether the president, in mere virtue of his office, and without the concurrence of congress, had constitutional authority to order a general am nesty ; and in a report of the judiciary com mittee of the senate made in February, 1869, the authority was emphatically denied. The position taken in this report was rested on two grounds : first, that from the time at least when England had a constitution and settled juris prudence, the crown did not assume to have a power to grant general pardon or amnesty by its mere proclamation, and without the concurrence of parliament, but that such power was regularly and properly exercised only by statute ; second, that for hundreds of years there had been a clear distinction in the English law between pardon and amnesty, and that because the constitution used only the former word it must be understood to withhold from the president the power of granting general amnesty. In reference to the power of pardon our constitu tion is very clear and precise: "The president shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment." The question is, under this constitutional provision, what does its word pardon mean ? Does it include such a power of offering general amnesty as these proclamations have assumed to give? It is true that, in very many of the instances, though by no means in all, in which general pardons have been granted in England, they have issued in the form of acts of parliament. But even in these the tenor of the statutes, and the proceedings attending their enactment, concede that the act of grace proceeds from the sover eign alone, and not from parliament. Thus in the acts of 25 Charles II., ch. 5 (1673), after the restoration; of 2 William and Mary, ch. 10 (1690), and of 6 and 7 William III., ch. 20 (1694), after the revolution of 1688; of 3 George I., ch. 19 (1717). relating to the insur rection in Scotland in favor of the pretender ; and of 20 George II., ch. 52 (1747), after the second rebellion in Scotland, the title of each runs: "An act for the king s (or sovereign s) most gracious, general, and free pardon." The prerogative of the crown in respect to pardon has also always been recognized in the peculiar char acter of the bill, even when the pardon goes by act of parliament ; for, unlike other bills, it is regularly signed by the sovereign before it is introduced into the houses, and it is read but once in either of them ; and when it receives the assent of the houses, this is not signified in the usual form of concurrence, but " the pre lates, lords, and commons, in the name of all the sovereign s subjects, most humbly thank his majesty," &c. With regard to the fact that pardons so often issued by statute, it should be remembered that there were usually very sub stantial reasons for the participation, in a certain sense, by parliament in the sovereign s act of grace, in the fact that a parliamentary act could relieve forfeitures and remove certain other disabilities attending attainders, which a mere pardon could not do ; and provisions to this effect were generally introduced into these acts. The fact, therefore, that in any instance a general pardon or amnesty appears to have been granted in the form of an act of parlia ment, does not of itself imply any denial of the crown s sole prerogative power as to the pardon. More than this, there will be found repeated instances in English history where the sovereign has granted amnesties by general proclamation independently of parliament, and the competency and validity of such acts have never been disputed. In short, so far as the law and practice existed in England before and down to the time of the foundation of our government, it seems to be beyond question that the pow r er of pardon rested finally in the sovereign, and that his grants of gen eral amnesty were conceived to be included in the general power. As to the objection that there was a difference in the English law between amnesty and pardon, it seems to be less sound than the other. Amnesty was never a specific term of the common law, and indeed it rarely occurs even in the statutes-; or text books. On the other hand, pardon is a technical term of the law, and is almost ex clusively employed. It may be safely admitted that, in allusion to great classes of offenders rather than to individuals, and to the political offences involved in seditions and rebellions in distinction from the more usual crimes, amnes ty as a word of description is more apposite and I familiar than pardon. But this mere use of | language does not reach the core of the thing, i and it seems to be beyond dispute that the I essential nature and operation of amnesty and I of pardon in a legal sense are precisely identi- I cal. As to the suggestion that the use of the I word pardon in the constitution implies a de- j sign to exclude amnesty, it would seem to be I completely refuted by the history of the de- j bates upon the constitution. (See Elliott s ! "Debates," vol. iii., p. 497; vol. v., p. 480.) J The discussions there reported show that the I very questions of the expediency of reposing j the power in the president in cases of political j offenders, and it may fairly be said of giving I him the power of general amnesty, were ex- I pressly debated in the conventions. The 74th number of the " Federalist " is even more con clusive upon these points. Hamilton says there j that "the expediency of vesting the power of ! pardoning in the president has, if I mistake I not, been only contested in relation to the AMNESTY crime of treason. This, it has been urged, oiurht to have depended upon the assent of one or both of the branches of the legislative body. . . . But there are strong objections to such a plan. It is not to be doubted that a single man of prudence and good sense is better fitted in delicate conjunctures to balance the motives which may plead for and against the remission of the punishments than any numerous body whatever. It deserves particular attention that treason will often be connected with seditions, which embrace a large proportion of the com munity, as lately happened in Massachusetts [Shays s rebellion]. . . . But the principal argu ment for reposing the power of pardoning in this case in the chief magistrate is this : In sea sons of insurrection or rebellion there are often critical moments when a well timed offer of pardon to the insurgents or rebels may restore the tranquillity of the commonwealth, which, if suffered to pass unimproved, it may never be possible afterward to recall. The dilatory pro cess of convening the legislature or one of its branches for the purpose of obtaining its sanc tion to the measure, would frequently be the occasion of letting slip the golden opportu nity." Before this question about amnesty to rebels arose, or rather before it was made a subject of debate and dispute, the constitu tional power of the president as to pardon was construed as embracing all the significance which the word usually had in the English law ; and this was large enough to include am nesty in the sense now under consideration. Chief Justice Marshall defined pardon very early as "an act of grace proceeding from the power intrusted with the execution of the law, which excepts the individual on whom it is be stowed from the punishment which the law in flicts for a crime he has committed." Story, in his " Commentaries on the Constitution " ( 1,500), gives the broadest scope to the power, and indeed he expressly includes in it the pow er of granting amnesty to rebels, and adopts, without suggesting any doubt of its pertinency and conclusiveness on this head, and as " the chief argument for reposing the power of am nesty in the president," the language on that point above quoted from Hamilton. The early history of the government furnishes significant illustrations of the opinions then prevailing as to the purport of the constitutional grant. In three instances at least within the first quarter of a century after the formation of the govern ment, the president granted general pardons by proclamation without the participation of con gress. The first of them was made by Wash ington, July 10, 1794, in respect to persons wiio took part in the " whiskey insurrection " in Pennsylvania. By this he granted a full, tree, and entire pardon to all persons, with certain exceptions, of all treasons, misprisions of treason, and other indictable offences against the United States. On May 21, 1800, President John Adams proclaimed a general pardon to all persons who had been engaged in the so- called house-tax insurrection in Pennsylvania in 1798. Again, in February, 1815, President Madison proclaimed a general pardon to cer tain persons known as the " Barataria pirates." It is the clear opinion of those legal authors who have discussed the question that the con stitutional grant was intended to convey the largest power implied in the word pardon, and that it justified such proclamations as have been referred to, and which were issued in vir tue of its assumed authority. Since the civil war the conditions of the question have been in some respects materially changed. When President Lincoln issued his first proclamation, an act of congress existed, that of July 17, 1862, by which congress had authorized the president at any time thereafter, by proclama tion, to extend pardon and amnesty to persons who might have participated in the rebellion in any state or part thereof, with such exceptions and at such times and on such conditions as he might deem expedient for the public welfare. But it appears from the tone of the proclama tion itself that the president did not conceive that he derived his capacity from this act, either wholly or even in part. For the pream ble runs: "Whereas in and by the constitution of the United States it is provided that the pres ident shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons," &c., and " whereas the congressional declaration for limited and conditional pardon accords with the well established judicial ex position of the pardoning power, I do pro claim," &c. In speaking of the act of 1802 as a "declaration for limited and conditional par don," the president, it may be assumed, was not giving to the act all the dignity and virtue which congress would have claimed for it. It was in fact a direct intimation that the act was of no effect whatever. At all events, in his next message President Lincoln asserted his exclusive authority under the constitution, and his independence of congress in respect to the pardoning power, even more emphatically than in these proclamations. This provision of the act of July 17, 1862, was repealed on Jan. 21, 1867, the bill for its repeal having become a law by the omission of President Johnson to return it within the prescribed time; so that thenceforth, and until the constitution was amended, the power stood solely on the origi nal provision of the second article. The case of ex parte Garland, which is the only recent case that touches the subject, was before the su preme court in 1866. Garland, the petitioner, had received in July, 1865, and of course while the section of the act of 1862 was in operation, "a full pardon and amnesty" for all offences. No particular reference was made on the argu ment to the effect of that act, but the petition er s counsel quoted the language of the consti tution, and relied on the broad construction given to it by Marshall and others. The court in rendering its decision held that the power conferred on the president by the constitution was unlimited, with the single exception stated 432 AMNESTY AMONTOXS in it, and that it extended to every offence known to the law, arid might he exercised at any time after its commission, either before I legal proceedings were taken, or during their I pendency, or after conviction and judgment; ! and it said further that the power was not sub- I ject to legislative control, and that congress | could neither limit the effect of his pardon nor j exclude from its exercise any class of offenders, j Though this case is not decisive in respect to | the power of granting general amnesty, as the j proclamations which have been issued assume j to do, the case being one of a special pardon, yet it is at least significant upon the point of the exclusive function of the president in re spect to pardons in virtue of the constitutional provision, and against the claim that it is to be shared in any respect with congress. In 1868 the constitution was changed by the adoption of the fourteenth amendment. This amend ment introduced provisions which were thence forth of a force and validity as high and con trolling as the original provision itself, and the two articles are therefore now to be construed together. From the considerations which have been already adduced, it should seem that it was believed that the claim of congress to par ticipate in the pardoning power could be well disposed of only in this way. This provision, it will be seen, expressly brings within the reach and control of congress the cases of the most important offenders in the late war ; but it does not, it is conceived, annul the power of the president to grant pardons and amnesties j to others than those who are especially de scribed, nor does anything in the amendment throw any light on the right construction of the power under the provisions of article second. As to all else relating to that power and its scope beyond that part of it which is reserved to congress by this amendment, we are remitted to the same general considera tions and arguments which have been here sug gested. The amendment (July 28, 1868) is in these words : " No person shall be a senator or representative in congress, or elector of president or vice president, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any state, who, having previously taken an oath as member of congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any state, to support the constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrec tion or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But con gress may by a vote of two thirds of each house remove such disability." In January, 1872, in the case of Klein against the United States, the supreme court held doctrines which sustain the positions here taken in respect to i the president s power to grant general amnesty I under the original provision of the constitution. This case arose before the fourteenth amend- I ment was adopted, and it involves the effect [ and validity of an act of July 12, 1870 (16 U. S. i Statutes, 235), by which congress had attempt ed to annul the benefits of pardon or amnesty granted by the president, especially with refer ence to suits by pardoned rebels in the court of claims. The claimant in Klein s case had done certain acts in aid of the rebellion, but he had accepted a pardon under one of the proclama tions of amnesty, and had taken and not vio lated the oath of future fidelity which was pre scribed by it. The act of July 12, 1870, provided that the acceptance of any such par don should be conclusive evidence of the dis loyal acts pardoned, and that on proof of such pardon and acceptance, and on account of the very disloyal acts so proved, the court of claims and the supreme court on appeal should decline jurisdiction of any suit on the part of such pardoned rebel. But the court held that con gress had no power to make any such law, and refused to enforce its provisions. With refer ence to the repeal in 1867 of the act of 1862 already referred to, Chief Justice Chase says that the repeal was made after, and he fairly implies in consequence of, the decision in the Garland case, where it had been held that the president s power of pardon was not subject to legislation, and that congress could neither limit the effect of his pardon nor exclude from its exercise any class of offenders. The court also sustained the position assumed by President Lincoln in regard to his exclusive authority under the constitution. The court further held that "it is the intention of the constitution that each of the great coordinate departments of the government, the legislative, the execu tive, and the judicial, shall be in its sphere independent of the others. To the executive alone is intrusted the power of pardon, and it is granted without limit. Pardon includes am nesty. It blots out the offence pardoned, and removes all its final consequences. It may be granted on condition. In these particular par dons " (that is to say, under proclamations of amnesty, for the case before the court was one of that sort), " that no doubt might exist as to their character, restoration of property was expressly pledged, and the pardon was granted on the condition that the person who availed himself of it should take and keep a prescribed oath. It is clear that the legislature cannot change the effect of such a pardon, any more than the executive can change a law. The court is required to disregard pardons granted by proclamations on condition, though the con dition has been fulfilled, and to deny them their legal effect." This the court declined to do, and affirmed the judgment of the court of claims, which had awarded restitution to the claimant. AMiEBA. See ANIMALCULES. AMONTONS, Gnillanme, a French physicist, born in Paris, Aug. 31, 1663, died Oct. 11, 1705. lie was deprived of hearing in early life by dis ease. It is said that he refused to make any effort to relieve his malady, and devoted him self diligently to the study of geometry and AMOOR AMORETTI 433 mechanics. He wrote several important trea tises upon scientific subjects, and constructed some new instruments in physical science. He conceived the idea of communicating between distant points by signals to be observed through magnifying glasses, and made successful exper iments before the royal family, though the use of the signal telegraph was not introduced till nearly a century afterward. AMOOR, Amur, or Saghalien, a river in N. E. Asia, formed by the confluence of the river Shilka, flowing *N. E. from the Trans-Baikal region in central Siberia, and the river Argoon, coming from Mongolia nearly in the same direc tion. The two rivers unite at the spot called Streletchnaya Stanitza (Shooter s Post), in about lat. 53 20 X.. and Ion. 121 30 E. The Amoor runs between the Russian Amoor Country and northern Mantchuria, making an arc, and pene trating S. as far as lat. 47 30 ; then flowing N. E. it empties in nearly the same latitude with its rise, in Ion. 141 E., into the gulf of Amoor, "W. of the island of Saghalien, a gulf connected by straits N. and S. with both the sea of Okhotsk and the sea of Japan. The whole length of the river is about 2,400 m. Its principal northern affluents are the Oldo, Jenkiri, Bureya, and Amgoon ; its southern, the Songari and Usuri. The Amoor is naviga ble for its whole length ; its estuary, however, is filled with sand and soft mud, rendering the passage difficult for 30 to 40 m. from the mouth. It freezes throughout its course at the beginning of November, and remains frozen till March, forming a highway for sledges. During winter the shores are visited by heavy snow storms, called in Siberia purga. Both shores are cov ered with thick forests of pine, oak, lime, ma ple, and cork trees. The river abounds with fish, and contains some previously unknown species of sturgeon. A steamer called the America, built in New York for the navigation of this river, first ascended it in 1857. AMOOR COUNTRY, that part of Mantchuria recently annexed to Russia. It embraces all the territory on the left bank of the Amoor, together with the coast districts east of it and of its affluent the Usuri, as far south as the river Turn en on the frontier of Corea. In its widest sense, it is situated between lat. 42 and 57 N., and Ion. 120 and 145 E. By a ukase of Dec. 20, 1858, the country was divid ed into the "province of the Amoor," and the "sea district of the Amoor Country." The latter forms a part of the "littoral province of East Siberia." The province of the Amoor embraces the country on the left bank of the Amoor ; capital. Blagovieshtchensk ; area esti mated at 109,053 sq. m. ; pop. in 1867, 22.297. The principal towns in the sea district of the Amoor Country are Nikolayevsk and Sofyevsk. The island of Saghalien is generally included in the territory of the Amoor Country, the whole of which has an area of about" 276,- 300 sq. m. The principal mountains are the Stanovoi along the northern frontier, and off- VOL. i. 28 i shoots of the Chingan mountains in the west. 1 The winters are very severe, and navigation is | generally closed from the end of October to ! the beginning of May. The soil is fertile. Many plants of southern Asia are met with; I the rivers swarm with fish ; and extensive gold i fields have recently been discovered. Although j the Russian government has endeavored to de- ! velop the resources of the country, its com- j merce made no progress during the period from 1860 to 1870. The native population consists of about 10,000 Tungusians, divided into eight tribes. In September, 1860, the Russian gov ernment organized a force of Cossacks of the : Amoor to defend the southern frontier and to i settle the territory. The first knowledge of 1 the country of the Amoor was obtained by the j Russian authorities in East Siberia, in 1639. j Several expeditions, undertaken by Russian | adventurers, led to protracted hostilities with I the Chinese, until in 1689 the peace of Nertchinsk secured the whole territory to the Chinese. In 1849 the Russian plans of conquest were resumed. After exploring the | coast for several years and establishing the i forts of Nikolayevsk and Mariinsk, a large | military force was sent in 1854 into the coun- | try of the Amoor, and established the Russian I rule upon a lasting basis. A ukase of Oct. 31, I 1856, proclaimed the union of the lower part | of the Amoor Country with Kamtchatka, and made Nicolayevsk the seat of government. By the treaty of Aigoon, May 28, 1858, ratified by the commercial treaty of Tientsin, June 13, the I whole country of the Amoor was ceded by i China to Russia. The eastern and western line | between Russia and China was regulated by a I treaty concluded at Peking on Nov. 14, 1860. For an account of the attempt to construct ! a telegraph from Nikolayevsk to San Francisco in 1863- 7, see TELEGRAPH. Concerning the : country and river, see Collins, "Exploration of | the Amoor River" (Washington, 1858), and i " A Voyage down the Amoor, with a Land Jour ney through Siberia," &c. (New York, 1860). AMOR. See EROS. AMORETTI. I. Carlo, an Italian scholar, : born at Oneglia, March 13, 1741, died in Milan, ! March 24, 1816. In 1757 he joined the order i of St. Augustine, and some years later became ! professor of canon law in the university of Par- I ma; but in 1772 he obtained a dispensation i from his monastic vows, and entered the ranks | of the secular clergy. lie was appointed cura- ! tor of the Ambrosian library at Milan in 1797, | and was the first to make known its treasures ; to the world. lie published from the manu- ; scripts in this collection voyages of Pigafetta ! and Ferrer Maldonado ; wrote an excellent life of Leonardo da Vinci, from original materials ; j and prepared several treatises on natural sci- | ence. His Nuova scelta cVopmcoli interessanti sulle scienze e sulle arti (27 vols. 4to, 1775- 88) familiarized the Italians with the scientific progress of other nations. II. Maria Pellegrina, niece of the preceding, who bestowed great 431 AMOEITES AMPERE pains upon her education, born at Oneglia in 1756, died in 1787. At the age of 16 she sus tained, in public, arguments on various topics in philosophy. She studied law, and at the age of 21 graduated at Pa via, and received from the university her doctor s diploma. She wrote a treatise on Roman law, which was published after her death. AMORITES (according to Simonis and Ewald, ! highlanders), the most powerful tribe of the \ Canaanites, to all of whom the name is occa sionally applied in the Hebrew Scriptures, j They dwelt W. of the Jordan, in the territory ! subsequently allotted to Judah, chiefly in its ! mountainous portion ; and E. of that river they ; held the two kingdoms of Heshbon and Ba- shan, of the latter of which the gigantic Og was king when Moses invaded their country. They were a people of large stature and great prowess, and the Israelites had long and severe contests with them, under Moses, Joshua, and other leaders. AMORTIZATION, or Amortizement (law Lat. amortisare), in old English law, the alienation or j conveyance of real estate to corporations. It was j prohibited by a series of statutes, the earliest of which, the Magna Charta of Henry III., ap plied only to ecclesiastical, but which were sub sequently extended to all corporations. Their influence is not yet extinct, either in England or America, though the powers of corporations have been much enlarged in both countries, and in some states put upon the same footing in this regard with those of private parties. | These statutes were called the statutes of mort- j main, as forbidding conveyances into dead hands ; hence amortization. AMORY, Thomas, an English author, born about 1691, died ]S T ov. 25, 1788. He was edu cated as a physician, but lived chiefly in retire ment on a small income. In 1755 he published "Memoirs of several Ladies of Great Britain," all of whom were, like himself, zealous Unita rians; and in 1756 appeared the first volume of his better known and very curious "Life of John Buncle, Esq.," in which he is supposed to have sketched his own picture. The second volume was published in 1766. He was a man of learning, ability, and deep religious convic tions, but very eccentric. AMOS, one of the minor prophets, Avho proph esied in the days of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II. of Israel, toward the close of the 9th century B. C. He was a native of Tekoah in Judah. He does not appear to have been educated as a prophet, but according to his own account was taken from his flocks to prophesy. His prophecies were especially ad dressed to the kingdom of the ten tribes, and were delivered in the time of their greatest prosperity as a separate people. They de nounce the idolatry practised at Bethel, Gilgal, Dan, and at Beersheba in Judah, and also the sins of the nations bordering on both Hebrew kingdoms, and predict punishment, as well as a brighter future for the Israelitish people. AMOSKEAG. See MANCHESTER, X. II. AMOY (Chin. Hia-men or Sya-min ; Fr. fimouy), a seaport town of the province of Fokien, China, situated at the S. end of an isl and of the same name, in lat. 24 40 N"., Ion. 118 13 E., opposite the centre of the island of Formosa; pop. about 250,000. It is built upon rising ground, facing a very spacious and excel lent harbor, contains many large buildings, had at the time of the British invasion several con siderable forts, one of them 1,100 yards long, and is reckoned to be nearly 9 m. in circumfer ence. It is the port of the large inland city of Chang-choo-foo, with which it has river com munication. Its inhabitants are chiefly em ployed in trade, and its merchants are reckoned among the most enterprising in China. The port was open to the world till 1734, when it was closed. It was captured by the British in 1841, and by the treaty of banking was thrown open, first to Britain, then to all nations alike. The native merchants carry on an extensive trade coastwise, and with Formosa, Manila, Siam, and the Malay islands. The foreign im ports in 1870 were valued at $4,500,000, and the exports at $2,300,000. Amoy is a princi pal seat of Protestant missionary activity, and the missions of the Reformed church of Amer ica and other denominations in 1869 numbered 1,271 communicants. AMPERE. I. Andre Marie, a French physicist and mathematician, born in Lyons, Jan. 20, 1775, died in Marseilles, June 10, 1836. As a boy he showed a singular passion for mathe matics, in which at 10 years of age he had. made remarkable progress, but could not be persuaded to apply himself with zeal to other studies. He finally consented to study Virgil, that he might be able to master the works of Euler and Bernoulli, which were then accessi ble only in Latin. At the age of 18 he had gone through the whole range of scientific studies, and had read the great encyclopaedia of Dide rot and D Alembert so thoroughly, that 40 years afterward he could still repeat whole pages of it. The death of his father by the guillotine during the revolution affected him so that for upward of a year his friends feared that his intellect had been permanently im paired. In 1802 he was appointed professor of mathematics at Lyons, a post which he owed to his first publication, "Considerations upon the Mathematical Theory of Games of Chance." In 1805 he became a teacher in the polytechnic school at Paris, in 1808 inspector general of the university, in 1809 professor of mathematical analysis in the polytechnic school, and in 1814 a member of the institute. In 1820 he began to devote much attention to the phenomena of electro-magnetism, and in 1824- 6 published Recueil des observations elec- tro-dynamiques (2 vols.), a work characterized by profound thought and extraordinary philo sophical sagacity. His publications are nu merous, many of them being contributions to the Journal de Vecole 2J^ytech?iique and the AMPFIXG AMPHIBIA 435 Memoires de Vinstitut. Ampere was a man of genial humor and great simplicity of char acter, and singularly ignorant of the world, from which he lived retired. He was engaged on his last great work, "The Classification of the Sciences," at the time of his death. II. Jean Jacques Antoine, son of the preceding, born in Lyons, Aug. 12, 1800, died March 27, 1864. His education was completed under the super vision of his father at Paris, where he enjoyed the friendship of Mme. Recamier and Chateau briand, lie pursued a course of philosophy with Cousin, and early conceived a passion for English and German literature, romance, and belles-lettres. After some years devoted to travel and literary pursuits, he was in 1833 appointed professor of the history of French literature in the college of France. His work on the early and mediaeval literature of France (4 vols.) was a resume of his lessons. In 1842 lie was elected a member of the academy of inscriptions and belles-lettres, and five years afterward of the French academy. He visited many parts of Europe and the East, studied successfully the hieroglyphics of Egypt, and contributed to the Remie des Deux-Mondes a well written series of articles on a journey in Egypt and Xubia in 1844. He also made an extended tour in the United States, paying much attention to aboriginal remains and an tiquities, and observing carefully the habits of the people. The result of his travels was pub lished in the Revue des Deux-Mondes. His works entitled De la Chine et des travaux de Remusat, and La Grece, Rome et Dante, evince his knowledge of languages and general litera ture; and he published in 1841 a valuable essay on the formation of the French language. Among his other works is VHistoire romaine a Rome (4 vols. 8vo, 185 6- 64), a novel appli cation of archaeology to literature and politics. His Correspondance, constituting an autobiog raphy, was published in Paris in 1872. AMPFIXG, a village of southern Bavaria, on the Isen, 5 m. "W. of Mtihldorf, noted as the scene of a terrible conflict in 1322 between the emperor Louis the Bavarian and Frederick of Austria, generally known as the battle of Mtihldorf, in which Frederick was entirely defeated and captured. In 1800 the famous retreat of Moreau was begun here. AMPHIARAIS, a mythical hero and seer of Greece, the son of 6 icles and Hypermnestra. He was married to Eriphyle, sister" of Adrastus, king of Argos, by whom he had numerous sons. Having sworn that he would abide by the decision of his wife on any difference which might arise between himself and Adrastus, Eriphyle took advantage of this oath to force Amphiaraus to join in the enterprise of the seven against Thebes. Before setting out he made his sons promise to punish her treachery. (See ALCM^EON.) At the siege of Thebes he greatly distinguished himself, but being pur sued by Pericfymenus, he fled toward the river Ismenius, where the earth opened and swal lowed him. Jupiter made him immortal. An oracle of Amphiaraus, near Thebes, enjoyed great reputation among all the Greeks. AMPHIBIA, animals which frequent both land and water. There is probably no truly amphibious animal, as that would imply the possibility of living and breathing equally well ! in air and in water. The old naturalists gave the name to beavers, otters, frogs, and other I animals from all the orders of vertebrate ; Lin- ; naeus restricted the term to reptiles with cold blood and simple circulation ; Cuvier called amphibia such mammals as can dwell on land or in the water, like the seal, the walrus, and the dudong, occupying a position intermediate between the feline and the marsupial animals. There are animals which have both gills and j rudimentary lungs, as the proteus, the siren, and the menobranchns, but they are decidedly I aquatic, and perish sooner or later in the air. j The amphibia constitute an order of reptiles I (the Itatrachia of later herpetologists), and j may be characterized as vertebrated animals, j with cold blood and naked skin, reproducing I by means of eggs, and most of them under going a metamorphosis or change of condition, having relation to a transition from an aquatic j respiration by gills to an atmospheric respira tion by lungs, and a consequent alteration in j general structure and mode of life. These i characters have led some writers to consider I the amphibia as a distinct class, instead of a ! mere order of reptilia. Xo arrangement pro- I posed by naturalists presents a perfect division ! of the different forms; the following by Mr. I Thomas Bell of London, founded on the ab- | sence or presence and duration of the gills, ; seems the most natural: Class AMPHIBIA, \ Order 1. AMPHIPXEUBA. Body elongated, ! formed for swimming ; feet either four, or two : anterior only; tail compressed, persistert; I respiration aquatic throughout life, by exter nal persistent gills, coexisting with rudiment I ary lungs; the eyes with lids. Genera, pro- \ teus, siren, siredon, menobranchus, pseuda- j Iranchus. Order 2. AXOUEA. Body short and broad ; feet during the tadpole state want ing, afterward four, the hinder oney long and ! formed for leaping; tail before the metamor- j phosis long and compressed, afterward want- ! ing; ribs wanting; vertebras few and anchy- j losed together ; respiration at first aquatic by gills, afterward atmospheric by lungs ; gills at ! first external, but withdrawn into the chest I before the metamorphosis; impregnation ef- | fected externally during the passage of the eggs. Genera, rana, hyla, cerat-ophrys, bufo, rhinella, otilopha, dactylethra, bombinator, breviceps. Order 3. UEODELA. Body long I and slender; feet always four; tail long and | persistent; ribs very short; respiration at first aquatic by external gills, afterward at mospheric by cellular lungs ; vertebrae nu- ! merous and movable ; impregnation internal. Genera, sala/rnandrina, salamandra, malge. Order 4. ABB.I>CHIA. Body long and formed 436 AMPHIBIA for swimming; feet four; cranium solid;] tail compressed ; respiration by lungs only ; gills absent ; no metamorphosis known. Gen era, menopoma, ampMuma. Order 5. APODA. | Body elongated, slender, and snake-like ; feet none ; tail very short, almost wanting ; lungs, one larger than the other ; ribs very short ; j breast bone wanting ; impregnation unknown, probably internal. The existence of gills at any period of life is unknown. Genus, ccecilia. In the adult amphibia the skeleton varies considerably. In the frog, which moves ex- j tensively on land, we find the hind legs greatly j developed to enable it to take the enormous leaps by which it pursues its prey and escapes from danger ; hence it has no useless tail, the body is contracted longitudinally into a short space, and the vertebrae are few, united into a I single immovable piece unprovided with ribs, j On the contrary, the water salamanders or newts have a long tail, a slender flexible body, and all their organs fitted for aquatic life, j The structure of the bones is more compact j and calcareous, and less transparent and flex- | ible, than in fishes. The bones of the skull do not overlap each other, but have their margins in contact and occasionally united ; the bones of the face are more closely united to those of the skull than in the fishes ; the intermaxillary and jaw bones are much developed transverse ly, expanding the general form of the skull without involving any enlargement of the brain cavity, which is very small. The hyoid bone experiences most remarkable changes in j those genera which undergo metamorphosis. ] In the highest amphibia, the bones of the spine j are very few ; in the frog there are 9, in the pipa only 8, unprovided with ribs, but having long transverse processes ; the anterior artic ular surfaces of the bodies are concave, and the posterior convex. In the tadpole, and in the genera which retain their gills through life | (siren, menobranchm, &c., hence called peren- nibranchiate), the substance between the ver tebras is soft, and contained in cup-like hollows formed by the concave articular surfaces of contiguous bones, precisely as in fishes ; an other proof of the intermediate condition of these lower forms of the class. In the sala manders the vertebrae are more numerous, especially those of the tail ; in the siren the trunk has 43, and the tail as many more. The limbs are arranged on very different plans in the different groups ; in the frogs and toads they are well developed, and suited for active leaping and swimming ; in the elongated aqua tic species the limbs are small and feeble ; in caecilia, there are not even the rudiments of limbs ; in these the imperfect development of the extremities is compensated by the extent of the spine of the body and tail, by the curves and flexures of which they sw im with consid erable rapidity. In the fish-like tadpole, the limbs are at first scarcely perceptible, and in their gradual development acquire a consider- I able size and well-defined form while vet im- ; prisoned beneath the skin ; the hind legs are first seen ; the tail is much developed, gradu ally disappearing by absorption as the limbs acquire their full size. All the amphibia have teeth on the palate ; the salamanders have them also in both the upper and lower jaws, the frogs in the upper only, and the toads in neither ; the jaw teeth are always slender, sharp-pointed, and closely set ; the frog has about 40 on each side of the upper jaw; the salamander has about 60 above and below ; the palatine teeth are generally arranged trans versely, parallel to the jaw teeth. In the adult amphibia the gullet is wide and short; the stomach is a simple sac, elongated in the aqua tic species ; the intestine is but slightly con voluted, and terminates in a cloaca, or pouch, which also receives the openings of the genital and urinary organs. The vent in the frogs and toads opens on the hinder part of the back ; in the other forms it is beneath the commence ment of the tail, as in ordinary reptiles. The liver, pancreas, and spleen are found in all the class. The lymphatic and lacteal systems are extremely developed ; in the course of the lym phatics are found pulsating cavities or ventri cles which propel their contents toward the veins, but their pulsations do not coincide with those of the heart, nor those of one side with those of the other. In the circulating system we find the most convincing proof of the inter mediate position of the amphibia ; they begin life with the single heart and gills of fishes, but as their metamorphosis goes on, the heart as sumes the compound character necessary for the pulmonary respiration of the reptiles. The heart in the early stage of these animals con sists of a single auricle which receives all the blood after its circulation, and a single ventri cle which sends it through a third cavity, the Inilbus arteriosus, to the gills or branchiae; in the gills the blood is purified by the oxygen of the water, and returned by their veins to the aorta ; from the last branchial artery a branch is given off on each side, which goes to the ru dimentary lungs and afterward becomes the pulmonary artery ; between the branchial ar teries and veins are small communicating branches, which, as the gills are absorbed, gradually enlarge until they form continuous trunks, and the original branchial artery be comes the root of the two descending aorta?, at the base giving off the pulmonary artery ; the two veins which return the blood from the rudimentary lungs enlarge as these organs are developed, and become the pulmonary veins, which last, being distended at their point of union with the heart, ultimately form the second auricle. The circulation, then, of the adult amphibia assumes the character which we find in the reptiles generally, being per formed by a single ventricle and two auricles ; the pure blood in the pulmonic auricle and the impure blood in the systemic auricle are sent together and mixed in the single ventricle, so that a half-purified blood is distributed to the AMPHIBIA 437 organs. The gills, whether external or inter- j nal, are expanded in a leaf-like form, consider- , ably divided, though much less so than in j fishes ; in the earliest stages they are always ! external, and remain so permanently in the J order amphipneura, but in the higher orders j they become very soon internal ; they are sup- j ported by cartilaginous or bony arches con- j nected with the hyoid bone, which changes its ! form in accordance with the development of : the respiratory organ. On the leaflets of the j gills the minute blood vessels run, bringing the j venous blood into contact with oxygen, and sending it back purified to the heart. While \ some amphibia retain their gills through life, j with coexistent rudimentary lungs, others lose j them entirely as the lungs are developed, so : that there probably is a brief period in the life I of some of these animals in which they may j truly be called amphibious. In the caduci- j branchiate genera (or those which lose their I gills), the early condition of the lungs is that of j a mere sac without any appearance of the cells | or pulmonary structure afterward developed ; j it becomes, therefore, an interesting question whether the similar rudimentary lungs of the perennibranchiate genera can serve any of the j purposes of respiration. From the mechanism of respiration in the higher genera, and the j anatomical deficiencies in the accompanying ! apparatus in the lower, it would be at once seen that these simple sacs could hardly aid ! the gills, and much less could perform their office in aerating the blood. Eusconi con cludes that in the proteus, at least, these sacs do not assist in respiration ; and experiments alluded to in the "Proceedings of the Boston j Society of Natural History," vol. vi., p. 153, j show that the menobranchus perishes in about . four hours when removed from the water. In I the higher orders, the reception of air into the j lungs is effected by a simple act of swallowing ; the air enters the mouth through the nostrils, and, the gullet being closed, is forced into the lungs by the action of the muscles of the hyoid bone. The fish-like structure of the nostrils in the lower genera, and the imperfect condition of their glottis and windpipe, with the perfect development of the gills, show that, like the air bag of fishes, these simple sacs, though they represent rudimentary lungs, are not for the purposes of respiration proper. The brain offers the same gradations, from the fish-like simplicity of that of the tad pole and lower genera to that of the reptile, in which the hemispheres become enlarged lat erally, and the spinal cord shorter and thicker ftt the origins of the nerves of the limbs. In the frogs the eyes are large and prominent, in the salamanders comparatively small, and in the caecilia scarcely visible ; in all they resem ble those of fishes in the flattened anterior sur face, the small quantity of the aqueous humor, and the deptli of the crystalline lens ; the eyes of the frog are fully developed, and provided with lids. In the lower genera and in the tad pole state, the organ of hearing is very imper fect, consisting of a hollow in the temporal bone, at the bottom of which is the sac contain ing the cretaceous body on which the nerve is spread ; there is no drum nor tympanic cavity ; the organ is covered by the skin, without any external communication. In the frog the ear is more complicated, having the drum with its cavity and bones, and communicating with the mouth by a Eustachian tube. The sense of smell must be imperfect in the amphibia ; in the lower forms the nostrils are mere cavities in the front of the head, with no communica tion with the mouth, as in fishes ; in the higher orders the nose communicates with the mouth, but in them the apparatus for smelling is prob ably less sensitive than in the lower forms, the nose being more connected with the act of breathing. The sense of taste is probably also very obtuse ; in the frogs and toads the tongue is developed to an extraordinary degree, being long, with the anterior half free, doubled back on itself, and capable of being thrown forward and retracted with great quickness, serving for the seizure of the insects on which they feed, and for conveying them instantly to the back part of the mouth. The amphibia are distin guished from reptiles by the absence of all scaly covering ; a naked skin characterizes all, from the snake-like concilia to the fish-like axolotl. The skin of the aquatic genera is soft, smooth, and kept constantly moist by the cutaneous se cretions ; in the land genera, as frogs and toads, the glands of the skin secrete a thick whitish fluid, which may become acrid and irritating, giving rise to the opinion that these secretions are poisonous ; in the salamander the fluid thus poured out is so abundant, and so suddenly se creted when the animal is irritated, that it is i quite probable that even the effects of fire may : be for a short time arrested by it doubtless the origin of the well known fable in regard to this animal. The cuticle is frequently shed ; that of the aquatic genera being washed away in shreds, while that of the toads is divided along I the median line, removed by the contortions of , the animal, and finally swallowed at a single gulp. The amphibia breathe by the skin as well as by the lungs and gills ; a frog will live : from five to six weeks in a state of complete strangulation, and even after total excision of I the lungs ; indeed, the pulmonary respiration is ; insufficient to support life in these animals with out the assistance of the skin. The medium through which the blood is oxygenated, wheth- er lungs, gills, or skin, whether in air or in I water, is always a modification of the cutane- ^ ous surface ; and, as in frogs the same surface ! is capable of performing both aquatic and at- : mospheric respiration, it is natural to infer that lungs and gills are identical in structure. The amphibia, like many of the invertebrate ani mals, have the power of reproducing parts lost by accident or design ; the common water sala mander will invariably restore the limbs which , have been cut oft" for experiment, and even re- 438 AMPHICTYOXS AMPHILOCHUS peatedly; the common land salamander also reproduces its tail, which it so easily separates in case of need. Impregnation is effected with out sexual congress, except in the land salaman der ; in the order anoura, the male embraces the female with great tenacity, and impregnates the eggs, several hundred in number, as they are ejected under his pressure; in the tailed aquatic species, impregnation takes place dur ing the instantaneous apposition of the cloacal openings of the two sexes. The testes and ovaries are double, and symmetrically arranged ; they are much enlarged at the breeding season. When the young are ready for aquatic life, they burst the thin membrane of the egg, and come out in the fish-like form. In the terrestrial salamander, whose habits do not permit this mode of development, the young undergo their metamorphosis in the oviduct, in which they pass their tadpole state, and appear without gills when they are ready for terrestrial exist ence. Like the viper, the salamander is ovo- viviparous. In the pipa, or Surinam toad, the eggs, instead of being dropped into the water, are placed by the male on the back of the female ; here they are attached by a thick mu cus, and the skin gradually thickens in the in tervals so as to form a cell around each egg ; in these cells the young undergo their metamor phosis, and come from them perfect animals. After the young are hatched out, the cells of the female disappear. Like many of the sau rian and chelonian reptiles, some of the am phibia are used as food. The delicacy of the frog s thigh is well known to the epicure. The Mexicans consider the siredon or axolotl very good eating ; and it is quite probable that, like the reptile iguana, many of the hideous am phibia are wholesome articles of food. AMPHICTYOjVS, members of an amphictyony, a term used by the ancient Greeks to designate an association of neighboring tribes or cities for the observance of the law of nations toward each other, and the protection and worship of some deity, whose temple was sup posed to be the common property of all. The word is sometimes derived from the mythical hero Amphictyon, son of Deucalion and Pyr- rha, but is properly a compound from a/u^i and KTi^cj or KTIU, signifying " dwellers around " or "neighbors." The origin of these associations is enveloped in much obscurity, and beyond the fact that several of them existed in Greece at a very remote period, forming as it were the germ of one of the strongest bonds of union by which the Greek tribes were held together, we know nothing of the circumstances of their formation. The most celebrated of these con federations was that known as the amphicty- onic council, which from small beginnings rose to great importance, on account of the wealth and magnificence of the temple of Apollo at Delphi, of which it was the special guardian. It was composed of 12 tribes, variously de scribed by the authorities, but generally sup posed to comprise the lonians, Dolopians, Thes- | salians, (EtEeans, Magnetes, Malians, Phthian i Achaeans, Dorians, Phocians (including the Del- j phians), Locrians, Boeotians, and Perrheebians, i all of whom originally dwelt in and around I Thessaly and were of equal importance, although j subsequently we find them distributed over all ! parts of Greece. Some became utterly insig nificant or extinct, and the fact of the Dorians standing on an equality w^ith the Dolopians or s Malians shows that the council must have ex- i isted before the Dorian conquest of the Pelo ponnesus. The council met twice a year, in ! the spring at the temple of Apollo at Delphi, ! and in the autumn at that of Ceres at Anthela, near Thermopylae and was represented by | two classes of deputies from each tribe, the 1 hieromnemons and the pylagorse, whence it i has been supposed that two amphictyonies, | organized for the worship of two distinct deities, were subsequently merged in one. The 12 tribes had equal rights at the meetings of the council, and each was entitled to two votes, to be given by its deputies. The objects of the confederation are best described in the following oath which each of its members was obliged to take: "We will not destroy any amphictyonic town, nor cut it off from running water in war j or peace ; if any shall do so, we will march " against him and destroy his city. If any one shall plunder the property of the god, or shall be cognizant thereof, or shall take treacherous counsel against the things in his temple at Del phi, we will punish him with foot and hand and voice, and by every means in our power." Notwithstanding the humane and wise objects of the council, it engaged in two sanguinary wars against some of its own members, called the first and second sacred wars, and finally lent itself to the ambitious purposes of Philip of Macedon, who in the name of the league | excited a third war in 338 B. C., in which the j liberties of Greece were extinguished at the battle of Chasronea. The first of these wars, which began in 595 B. C. and lasted till 585, was declared against the Phocian city of Crissa, on account of injuries inflicted upon j persons visiting the oracle of Apollo at Delphi, I and resulted in the total destruction of the city. | The second sacred war, from 355 to 346 B. C., : originating in a charge against the Phocians of taking into cultivation a tract of land belonging to the Delphic temple, was carried on with such j vindictiveness that nearly every Phocian town ! was destroyed. Philip of Macedon, having j entered the struggle at the solicitations of the Thessalians, decided the war in their favor, and | thus gained his fatal ascendancy in the affairs of Greece. The Phocians were ejected from the league at the close of the war, but were subsequently readmitted. The duration of the amphictyonic council is not precisely known, but it survived the independence of Greece. AMPHILOCHUS, a legendary hero of Greece, ! the son of Ainphiaraus and Eriphyle, and ; brother of Alcmaeon. He took part in the I war of the epigoni against Thebes, aided his AMPHION AMPHITHEATRE 439 brother in the murder of their mother (see ALCM.EON), and subsequently joined the expe dition against Troy. He was celebrated for his prophetic gifts, and had an oracle at Mallus in Cilicia (a city said to have been founded by Amphilochus and Mopsus), which was esteemed the most truthful of all oracles ; and at Athens, Oropus, and Sparta he shared in the divine honors paid to Amphiaraus. AMPIIIOX, in Greek mythology, a son of Zeus and Antiope, the wife of Lycus, king of Thebes. He and his brother Zethus were ex posed on Mount Cithseron, but were found and brought up by shepherds. Mercury, or accord ing to others Apollo or the muses, gave a lyre to Amphion, who from that moment devoted himself altogether to song and music. To avenge the wrongs of their mother, the brothers undertook an expedition against Thebes, which they captured and fortified, slaying both Lycus and his new wife Dirce. They then built a wall around the town, Amphion playing on his lyre, and the stones moving in obedience to its notes whither they were wanted till it \vas iinished. Amphion married Xiobe, by whom he had many sons and daughters, all of whom were killed by Apollo. A3IPHIPOLIS (now Jenikeui), a city of ancient Macedonia, on the Strymon (now Struma, or Kara Su), near its mouth. It was originally called Ennea Hodoi (Xine Ways), and held by the Thracian Edonians, and received its his torical name from an Athenian colony which occupied it in 437 B. C. It was besieged by the Lacedaemonians under Brasidas during the Peloponnesian war, and compelled to sur render to them (424). Later it fell into the hands of Philip of Macedon, and under the Romans it was the capital of a Macedonian district. In the middle ages it was called Po- polia. There are few remains of the town. AMPHISBJEXA (Gr. anQtcpaiva, an animal that can move or walk in both directions), the name of a genus of saurians. The head is so small and the tail so thick and short that it is difficult to distinguish one from the other at first sight ; and this peculiarity of form, in ad dition to the animal s habit of proceeding with equal facility either backward or forward, has given rise to the popular belief in Brazil and other parts of South America, where the am- phisbrena most abounds, that it possesses two heads, one at each extremity. These saurians are distinguished from others by their nearly uniform thickness of body from the head to the extremity of the tail, by their small mouths and extremely diminutive eyes, remarkably short tails, and numerous rings of small square scales, completely surrounding the body and the tail. The jaws are furnished with a single row of small conical teeth, few in number and distant from each other, and the palate is toothless. These reptiles are also destitute of fangs, and are therefore harmless. They live mostly on ants and other small insects, and in habit ant hills and barrows which they make for themselves under ground. The genus am- phisboBna contains only a few species, confined to Brazil, Guiana, and other tropical parts of the American continent. The A.fuliginosa is Amphisbaena fuliginosa (Sooty Amphisbaena). the best known species. It is found in the hotter regions of South America, and does not ! inhabit Ceylon or any part of the East Indies, i as Linnaeus and Lacepede were led to believe, i on the authority of Seba. The general color j of this animal is a deep brown, varied with I shades of white, more or less clear, accord- ing to the season of casting the old and ac- j quiring the new external coat or "skin." It I grows to the length of 18 inches or 2 feet, the tail measuring only one inch or thereabouts. ! The body, about as thick as the wrist of a j child of 16 years, is surrounded by upward of 200 rings, and the tail by 25 or 30. The eyes, I exceedingly diminutive, are covered by a meni- j brane which almost conceals them; and this has given rise to the popular opinion that the I amphisbaena has no eyes. AMPHITHEATRE, with the Romans, an open elliptical building, with an elliptical space in I the centre called the arena, from the low wall surrounding which .rose tiers of seats, sup- i ported on arches, receding to near the summit i of the outer wall. These buildings were used for public games or combats between men or beasts, and in later times also for exhibitions of mimic sea fights, and of crocodiles and other amphibious animals, by filling the arena with i water. The arena was so called because sand j (Lat. arena] was usually employed to give a I firm footing and to dry up the blood. The wall around the arena varied in height from 8 I to 18 feet. On a level with its top spread the j first platform, where the chairs of the more honored spectators were placed. From the top of the wall that formed the back of this space rose the first tier of seats, reaching to an- i other platform with another wall at its back, and so on to the top. The box (suggestus or 440 AMPHITHEATRE cubiculutri) of the chief magistrate or emperor was on a conspicuous part of the first platform (podium), as was that of the vestal virgins. A raised seat on the same was also assigned to the giver (editor) of the games. At each end of the arena was a large door for the entrance and exit of men and beasts. The latter were kept in dens under the platforms and seats, and were sometimes forced upon the arena through small doors in the side of the wall surround ing it. Sometimes also, if not always, there were vast substructions beneath the floor of the arena containing dens from which the animals might be suddenly sent up through trap doors. Excavations in the amphitheatre at Pozzuoli have shown most clearly these ar rangements. On the top of the wall of the arena was a railing of bronze or iron to protect thoe who sat on the first platform from any sudden spring of the wild beasts. As a further | defence, ditches called euripi sometimes sur- j rounded the arena. An awning (velarium), supported by ropes and pulleys from strong | masts set in stone sockets around the top of ! the building, appears to have been sometimes i extended over the spectators. When the wea- | ther did not permit the velarium to be spread, 1 broad-brimmed hats or a sort of parasols were ! used. The first amphitheatre in Rome seems I to have been that of M. Curio, described by Pliny. It consisted of two wooden theatres made to revolve on pivots, in such a manner j that they could by means of windlasses and I machinery be turned round face to face, so as to form one building. Gladiatorial shows were first exhibited in the forum, and combats of j wild beasts in the circus ; and it appears that | the ancient custom was still preserved till the I dictatorship of Julius Cassar, who built a wood- i en theatre in the Campus Martius for the pur- Amphitheatre at Verona. pose of exhibiting hunts of wild beasts. Most of the early amphitheatres were merely tem porary and made of wood; such as the one built by Nero at Rome, and that erected by Atilius at Fidenoe in the reign of Tiberius, which gave way during the games and killed or injured 50,000 persons. The first stone am phitheatre was built by Statilius Taurus, at the desire of Augustus. This building, which stood in the Campus Martius near the Circus Ago- nalis^ was destroyed by fire in the reign of Nero, and it has therefore been supposed that only the external walls were of stone, and that the seats and other parts of the interior were of timber. A second amphitheatre was com menced by Caligula; but by far the most celebrated of all was the Flavian amphitheatre, usually called the Colosseum, which was begun by Vespasian and finished, by his son Titus, j who dedicated it A. D. 80, on which occasion, according to Eutropius, 5,000, and according to Dion, 9,000 beasts were destroyed. The fol lowing table has been compiled to show the proportions of some of the chief amphitheatres: - of 2 1 .2 <! 1 .0" JS s . j- g_ PLACES. 1 c 1* 1 1 ] Borne (Colosseum) . Verona 615 513 510 410 281 246* 176 147 164 100 SO-100,OCO 22,000 508 436 Pozzuoli 480 3S2 336 138 25,000 Aries 459 338 316 130 65* 25,000 45!) 378 437 332 70 17-93 000 Pompeii Poitiers 430 426 335 375 198 264 107 210 10-20,000 Pola 336 292 75 AMPHITRITE AMPUTATIOX During the middle ages, the amphitheatres were used as castles or as quarries, according to the exigencies of the times ; but, in spite of all assaults of man or time, their ruins are among the most stupendous monuments of Ro man antiquity. AMPHITRITE, a nereid or oceanid, the wife of Neptune and goddess of the sea, mother of Triton, Rhode or Rhodes, and Benthesicyme. Jealous of Scylla, she threw some magic herbs Into the well in which her rival was accustomed to bathe, and thus transformed her into a mon ster with six heads and twelve feet. In an cient works of art Amphitrite is always dis tinguished from Aphrodite by a net which keeps her hair in order, and by the claws of a crab on her forehead. AMPHITRYON, in Greek legends, a son of Aleaeus and Hipponome. Having accidentally killed his uncle Electryon, he was expelled from Mycenae, and forced to take refuge in Thebes. To win the hand of Alcmena, he un dertook an expedition against Pterelaus and the Taphians, whose lands he seized and divided among his friends. He was subsequently mar ried to Alcmena, and became by her the father of Iphicles. He was killed in a war which he and Hercules were carrying on against Erginus, king of the Minyans. His tomb was standing at Thebes in the time of Pausanias. AMPHORA (Gr. a/u^opevc;, from a//0/, on both sides, and depeiv, to carry), a large two-handled Greek and Eoman Amphorae. From Specimens in the British Museum. vase, commonly made of earthenware, of va rious forms, but generally tall and narrow, with a contracted neck, and ending nearly in a point. It was used by the ancients to hold wine, oil, the ashes of the dead, &c. ; and some have been found in excavating that had been used as coffins by dividing them in half lengthwise, putting in the body, and joining the parts. The amphora was also a liquid measure among the Greeks and Romans, equivalent to about nine gallons with the former and six with the latter. AMPULLA, a Roman vessel, like a bottle, used for holding wine, oil, or water. The ampulla Rhemensis (la sainte ampoule) was a glass flask filled with holy oil, which, according to tra dition, was brought down from heaven by a | dove at the time of the coronation of Clovis, at Rheims, in 496. From the 9th century, if not before, down to Louis XVI. , all the kings of France were anointed with the oil contained in the sacred ampulla. During the revolution the ampulla was broken and its , fragments thrown away. A pious person pre- served one of the pieces, and after the restora- : tion of the Bourbons it was delivered to the archbishop of Rheims, with a little of the ori ginal oil, as was asserted. Charles X. was anointed from it, and the oil then failed. AMPUTATION (Lat. amputare, to cut off), a surgical operation by which a limb or portion of a limb, or a naturally projecting part of the body, is removed. The cutting away of a tu mor is spoken of as an extirpation or excision. ! Amputation is required where the part is in jured or diseased to such an extent as to ren der it useless and inconvenient, or a source of danger to life if it be retained. For many cen- | turies an operation of extreme danger in itself, and performed only in the most urgent cases, surgical advance has rendered it one of little risk, though of late years there has been a ten dency to curtail its sphere by improvements in other departments of the science. It was at first performed by a division of all the parts at the same level, and only through a joint. About the 1st century the practice of amputating be tween the joints was introduced, and also the very important principle of dividing the bone at a higher level than the soft parts, that the cut surfaces of these latter may be joined together over the bone and unite in that po sition. Formerly the great source of danger w^as the haemorrhage which took place during and after the operation ; to prevent which the parts were divided with red-hot knives, or the cut surfaces treated with heated irons or boil ing liquids, in order to produce a charring of the tissues and plugging of the mouths of the vessels. A band encircling the limb, to restrain the bleeding during the operation, was used as early as the 1st century, but its permanent ar rest was for a long time effected only by the means already mentioned. The band, applied ignorantly, failed of its complete purpose, and the inevitable separation of the eschars pro- i duced by hot bodies in many cases opened ; afresh the vessels, and haemorrhage and death I were the result. The use of the ligature in ; amputation, especially as its proper application was developed, rendered the operation com paratively safe. The honor of its introduction i is probably due to Ambroise Pare in the 16th 1 century. If the ligature was employed in these cases by Celsus, it fell into immediate dis use ; and even the teachings of Pare and I his school were unable for many years to bring it into general favor. The invention 442 AMPUTATION AMRU L-KAIS of the tourniquet by Morel and its per fection by Petit, in the 17th and 18th cen turies, still further diminished the dangers. When it is done for a disease, it is spoken of as a pathological amputation ; when for an injury, , it is named "primary" or "secondary," accord- | ing as it is performed before or after the occur rence of the inflammation which is induced by the violence done to the part. During the in flammatory period the operation is contra-indi cated except for some very urgent reason, The deaths following primary amputations are some- ! what fewer in number than those after second ary, except in the case of the thigh. Where \ done for disease, the mortality is very much ! less. No rule in surgery is better established than that the death rate increases as we ap proach the trunk. An amputation of the leg is less dangerous than of the thigh, and that ; through the lower part of the thigh less than through its upper part. Moreover, an amputa tion through the upper extremity is less grave than one through a corresponding part of the . lower extremity. In performing amputation, | the patient is placed under the influence of an anaesthetic, which by its abolition of pain and much of the terror diminishes the shock to his system, and enables the surgeon to operate more carefully and on a part deprived of mo tion. The circulation through the main artery is arrested by pressure with the finger or the tourniquet. The skin and muscles are then cut by a series of sweeps of the knife round the circumference of the limb, the parts being drawn toward the trunk by an assistant as each one is completed. In this way, as the bone is approached, the parts are divided at a higher and higher level. The bone is then sawed, the sharp edges or corners being rounded off so as not to press upon the part. The chief arteries are treated in such a way as to close their open extremities. This may be done by grasping the end with the forceps and twisting it several times, which is called torsion; or by pressure with a needle passed through trie muscles and over or through the vessel, called acupressure ; or, most usually, by tying it with a ligature, which consists of a well waxed string of silk or other material. The tourniquet is then removed, and the small vessels which bleed are treated in the same way, provided the contact with the air does not cause them to contract. The soft parts are then drawn over the end of the bone and stitched together. The method of cutting the soft parts described above is known as the circular. What is called the flap operation may be performed by trans fixion, cutting from within outward, or by cut ting from without inward. In either case a single or a double flap may be made. This lat ter process may be rendered intelligible by taking a circular piece of paper and folding it along one of its diameters. The centre of the circle would represent the situation of the end of the bone, and the circumference the mar gins of the skin which are stitched together. ! If the cut surfaces grow together at once, there is said to be primary union. This result is but seldom attained, at least throughout, and as a : rule the union is secondary, in which case sup- . puration takes place, and granulations spring I up which grow together and fill up the wound. For the accidents which may occur after am putation, see GANGKEXE, H^EMOKEHAGE, NECRO SIS, OSTEO-MYELITIS, and TETAXUS. AMRITSIR, or I niritsir, a town of the Punjaub, Hindostan, between the Ravee and the Beas, an affluent of the Sutlej, 36 m. E. of Lahore ; pop. about 130,000. There is in the town an extensive tank, built, or rather restored, in 158X, by Ram Das, the 4th Guru or holy man of the Sikhs, the name of which Amritsir, the pool of immortality was in the course of time transferred to the whole town. In the centre of the pool is a temple sacred to Govind Singh, the last of the Gurus. Amritsir is a place of considerable trade, one of the commer cial depots of X. W. India. It is an open town, but Runjeet Singh built a fort there in 1809. AMRl IBi\ EL-AAS, one of Mohammed s early proselytes, died in 663. He belonged to the Koreishites, and in early life was furiously op posed to Mohammed, ridiculing him in epigrams ! and satirical verses, and even attacking those of the new faith who had settled in Abyssinia. At last, however, he was converted, and his zeal in behalf of his new faith was as uncompromising as his opposition had been. The first two succes sors of the prophet, Abu Bekr and Omar, were chiefly indebted to his valor for the conquest of Syria. He carried his conquering arms into Egypt, and, at the head of only 4,000 men, took Pelusium and founded Old Cairo. He soon laid siege to Alexandria, and distinguished himself as much by his personal bravery as by his skill and conduct as a general. He was present in the assault, and in an attack on the citadel was taken prisoner with a faithful slave. Brought before the commander of the fortress, his slave, striking him in the face, ordered him to be silent in the presence of his betters ; and this device saved his life by leading his con querors to suppose him a person of no rank. He was sent back to the Mohammedan camp, with a proposition for a truce. This was re fused, and the city was taken with a loss to the Arabs of 23,000 men. Amru spared the city, but the orders of Omar subsequently caused the conflagration of the library. Amru became emir of Egypt, and his firm govern ment conciliated the inhabitants. He pro jected a canal for uniting the waters of the Nile with the head of the Red sea. Having- been recalled by Caliph Othman, the Alexan drians in his absence revolted, and surrendered the city to the Greeks. Amru returned, and once more reduced the city and spared the inhabitants. The caliph Moawiyah owed hi* accession to Amru, who declared for him in preference to his rival Ali. AMRU L-KAIS, or Amrulcais, an Arabian poet, author of one of the seven Afoallacahs, poems. AMSDORF AMSTERDAM of tlie pagan pre-Mohammedan era, which were suspended to the Caaba, whence their name (pi. MoaUacat, suspended). He was an opponent of Mohammed, and wrote satirical verses against him. Lette published the 3Ioal- lacah at Ley den in Arabic, and Sir Wil liam Jones the English translation (London, 1782). The poem is purely imaginative. It was republished, together with other produc tions of the poet, by Baron MacGuckin ISlane (Paris, 1857), and also by Arnold, in the Sep- tem MoaUacdt (Leipsic, 1850). AMSDORF, Aikolaus von, a German reformer, bishop of Naumburg, born near "Wurzen, Sax ony, Dec. 3, 1483, died at Eisenach, May 14, 1565. He was educated for the church, and early acquired distinction in theology. He seems to have been the confidant of Luther, and attended him in some of his early trials as a reformer. He was a sort of apostle of the reformation, going to Magdeburg (1524), to Goslar (1528 and 1531), and to the principality of Grubenhagen (1534), as the expounder and defender of the principles of the reformation. He was fond of controversy, and this peculiar ity more than once involved him in personal difficulties with his friends. He contended that good works were not only not necessary, but prejudicial to salvation. In the attempt to secure concord between the Lutherans and the Zwinglians (1536), Amsdorf violently op posed the movement, probably on account of his personal hostility to Melanchthon. In 1542 he was appointed bishop of Naumburg, and was consecrated by Luther, who boasted of the uncanonical manner in which the service had been performed, as he himself says, "without suet, lard, tar, grease, or coals." This involved him in a contest with Von Pflugk, who had been regularly appointed by the chapter to the same office. Amsdorf was a violent opponent of the Augsburg Interim, and was one of the leaders in the adiaphoristic controversy. AMSLER, Samuel, one of the greatest German engravers, born at Schinznach, Switzerland, Dec. 17, 1791, died in Munich, May 18, 1849. He passed several years in Rome, and in 1829 was appointed professor of engraving in the academy of Munich. He made a great num ber of fine engravings from Michel Angelo, Raphael, Schwanthaler, Thorwaldsen, Kaul- bach, Overbeck, and other artists. AMSTEL, a small river of the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland, formed by the union of the Drecht and Mydrecht. It passes through the city of Amsterdam, entering it on the S. E., and, after a winding northerly course of 10 miles, uniting with the Y. AMSTERDAM, the largest city of Holland, capital of the kingdom of the Netherlands and of the province of North Holland, situated on the S. bank of the Y, an inlet or arm of the Zuyder-Zee, where that is joined by the river Amstel, 10 m. E. of Haarlem and 31 m. N. N. E. of the Hague ; lat. 52 22 N., Ion. 4 53 E. ; ! pop. in 1870, 281,805, mostly of the Dutch ; Reformed church, and including about 60,000 I Catholics, 36,000 Lutherans, 4,000 Anabaptists, I 1,000 Remonstrants, 28,000 German and about ! 3,000 Portuguese Jews. It is one of the most i remarkable cities in the world, resembling i Venice in the intermixture of land and water, but much larger than Venice, and the canals, I being lined with quays, present scenes of ani mation and enterprise. At the beginning of : the 13th century it was but a small fishing ; village, subject to the lords of Amstel. It was i constituted a town in the middle of that cen tury; was taken possession of by "William III., count of Holland, in 1296 ; fortified in 1482 ; I was for a long time strongly Catholic (the | Protestant citizens having been driven out by the duke of Alva), and joined the confederation of the United Provinces in 1578. Free tolera- I tion was now granted to all sects and religious beliefs, and with additional privileges granted | to it in 1581 by the prince of Orange, and the ! ruin of its rival city Antwerp by the closing 1 of the Scheldt in 1648, it soon reached a high- ! ly prosperous state, and has since advanced | with but few interruptions, owing chiefly to I wars with England, till it is at. present one of i the wealthiest cities in the world. The form ! of the city is that of a crescent, the arms pro jecting into the Y, and thus forming the port. j The enormous dams thrown up since 1851 re sist the influx of the sea into the canals, and are provided with floodgates of the strongest i construction to withstand the pressure of high j tides. They form the east and west docks, I capable of holding 1,000 vessels. The principal I mouth of the Amstel divides the city into two i parts. The land side was formerly surrounded by walls, now replaced by a ditch 30 yards j wide lined with trees, which make a pleasant | promenade. Some of the bastions are now occupied by windmills, the city relying for defence against attacks chiefly upon the facility with which the surrounding flat country can be flooded from the sea. Amsterdam stands upon flat, soft, marshy ground. The houses are built upon piles driven through this surface soil to the depth of 40 to 50 feet into a subsoil I of clay or sand. The canals by which the city is intersected, and on which all heavy freights j are transported, divide it into 90 islands, and I are crossed by about 300 bridges. The city is | about 10 miles in circumference. There are eight iron gates, each named after the town toward j which it opens. The older portion of the city is irregularly built, and many of the streets are j narrow and the houses poor. The newer por- I tions are very handsome. The streets run in parallels along the former walls, and are con sequently semicircular. In the centre of each is a canal, lined with clean paved quays, which are planted with trees. Three streets in this portion of the city are especially noteworthy for their length and breadth, and the elegance of the buildings which line them. These are the Heeren, Keizers, and Prinsen grachten. 444 AMSTERDAM Each is about 2 miles long and 220 feet broad. As with other streets, through the centre of each of these runs a canal. The principal shops of Amsterdam are in the Kalver straat, the Nieuwedijk, and the Warmoes straat. The bulk of tile Jews live in true Ghetto style in the poorer grachten, or water streets, which are lively, particularly in the evening, but over crowded and dirty. The houses of Amsterdam are built of brick, four, five, and six stories high, standing with their gables to the street ; they are mostly entered by flights of steps in front, and are surmounted by forked chimney stacks. Many of the poorer people live in basements or cellars. Others live constantly upon the water, in apartments built upon the upper decks of their trading vessels. The most magnificent public edifice is the palace, formerly the city hall. It is built of stone, was begun in 1648, and completed in 1655 ; rests upon 13,659 piles, driven TO ft. into the ground ; and is celebrated for its great hall or ball room, which is 111 ft. long, 52 ft. wide, and 90 ft. high, lined through out with white Italian marble, and for its magnificent chime of bells, playing automati cally every hour. The next most remarkable building is the Nieuwe Kerk (new church), lighted by 75 windows, many of which are beautifully painted. It contains the tomb of Admiral de liuyter. The judiciary hall, opened in 1836, is among the finest struc tures in the city. Other buildings are the new town hall and the new exchange, founded in 1845 ; the arsenal, built on the island of Kattenburg; and the Oude Kerk (old church), i founded in the 14th century, which con- | tains the tombs of many of the Dutch admi- i rals, and an organ said to be second only The Palace of Amsterdam. to that of Haarlem. Among the more recent fine public buildings is the palace of industry, established in 1864. Churches are numerous. The Calvinists have 10, the Catholics 16, and the evangelical Lutherans 2, one of which with surroundings is represented in our engraving. Various other denominations have several churches. Amsterdam has a great number of excellent charitable institutions, there being upward of 40 under the charge of particular denominations, and others belonging to the city. There are also various excellent educa tional institutions, some denominational in their character, others general. The Athence- iim Illmtre has professorships of art, law, medicine, and theology, a school of anatomy, a botanic garden, and a free library. The city Latin school is a fine institution. There are besides medical and theological schools. The j royal academy of fine arts was founded in 1820. | There is a music school, a naval school, a royal Dutch institution for science, literature, and fine arts, and another private scientific and j artistic association, called Felix Meritis, which is patronized with great liberality, has 400 members, and is in a very flourishing condi tion. Finally, there is a museum of pictures, founded in 1798, containing a very large col lection of the works of Dutch masters, and a remarkable collection of prints, contained in i upward of 200 portfolios. The city is governed by a senate or council elected by the people, and j a burgomaster appointed by the king. Amster- ! dam is more noted as a trading than as a manu- j facturing town, though it has numerous manu- ! factories of tobacco, soap, oil, cordage, canvas, j steam engines and machinery, &c. There are also ! refineries of sugar and salt, glass works, brew- AMUCK AMURATII 445 eries, and distilleries; and ship-building is ex tensively carried on. The entrances and clear ances of vessels in 1868 were about 3,000, with 850,000 tonnage ; and the greater part of the foreign trade of Holland, which amounted in 1868 to an aggregate value of about $150,000,- 000, passes thjrough the port of Amsterdam. The chief articles of export are butter and cheese ; other exports consist of products of the rich Dutch colonies, refined and raw sugar, coffee, spices, tin, oil, dyes, colors, fruit, vegetables, and flowers. The exports to Ger many and England are the most prominent. By the Amstel, the Zuyder-Zee, and various canals, Amsterdam has water communication with all parts of Holland ; and its railroad con nections are also very extensive. The Zuyder- Zee, formerly the entrance to the port, long since became too shallow for the navigation of ocean vessels, and a canal called the Nieuwe Diep was built, admitting large ships, and connecting Amsterdam with the North sea at the Helder. The navigation of this long ship canal, with its large locks shutting out the ocean tides, having been found inconvenient and expensive, a colossal plan has been formed and nearly executed of connecting the harbor and docks by a short cut through the isthmus of Xorth Holland, digging a ship canal through the immense sand hills protecting Holland at its western shore against the North sea. This canal, with its breakwater extending far out into the sea, will be second only in magnitude to the Suez canal. A part of the machinery that was used there has been transported to Amsterdam, and is employed in its construc tion. At the same time the Zuyder-Zee is to be made dry, and the inlet or arm, the Y, on which the city is situated, converted into dry land. Upon this a union railroad depot is to be constructed, where all the railroads will meet, and also the ocean vessels in the sur rounding canals and docks. AMUCK (Javanese, amoak, to kill). The run ning amuck is a Malay custom. The natives by a long-continued and excessive use of opium at length have their features sharpened, their skin drawn over their bones like parchment, and become entirely and ferociously mad. Armed with their formidable creese or dirk- knife, they rush in frenzy from their houses, sometimes naked, and leaping along the crowd ed streets, stab, bite, and curse every one who chances to be in their path. As soon as a per son is seen in this state everybody in terror proclaims the news, and the cry of "Amuck" rouses the population like the cry of "Fire" or "Mad dog" in western cities. Every man snatches the first weapon that comes to hand, and follows the path of the common enemy. Long spears are, however, the favorite and more common weapon, and with these they pen the wretched maniac into a corner, and lance him to death as they would a tiger. Scores of persons are sometimes killed by one of these madmen before he can be checked. AMULET (Ar. hamalat, a thing worn), a pre servative against occult and mischievous intiu- I ences. Amulets are made of various substan- ! ces, and were first known, it is believed, among the Arabs. The early Christians made amulets of the supposed wood of the cross, or of ribbons j with a text of Scripture written on them, and to this day the Roman Catholics call their lit- , tie relics, &c., amulets. The idea that an amu let carried about the person has the power both ! of repelling and healing diseases still prevails in the mind of many persons. Even the cele- j brated Robert Boyle (who flourished in the , latter half of the 17th century) does not hesi- itate to declare that he once experienced the ! efficacy of such an amulet in his own case. The anodyne necklace, made of beads from the I roots of white briony, which is sometimes hung^ 1 around the neck of an infant for teething pur- | poses, is an instance of the still surviving confi- | dence in the medical virtue of amulets. Many I other examples might be given. AMURATH, or Murad, the name of several Turkish sultans. I. Born in 1326, died June 15, ! 1389. He succeeded his father Orkhan in i 1359 in the government of the Turkish domin- | ions in Asia. The first act of his government I was to put down an insurrection in Galatia, I after which he turned his attention and his I arms to Europe. Here he overran the coun- ! try as far as the Balkan, and took Adrianople ! (1361), where he fixed his residence for a time, beautifying the city by the construction of a mosque and other public buildings. In 1365 a | treaty of peace was concluded between the ; Ottomans and the republic of Ragusa, on the | Adriatic, which put itself under the protection j of Amu rath. Pope Urban V., alarmed by the progress of the Ottomans, preached a crusade against them, but the Turks surprised the | Christian forces by night near Adrianople and cut them to pieces (1368). The peace which [ Amurath had concluded with the Greeks, and i which had been observed by him, being thus broken, he continued the war for several cam- | paigns without any decided results, and went | to Asia in 1371. Soon returning to Europe, he vanquished the princes of Servia and Bul garia, and settled at Adrianople. During a peace of six years he employed himself in organizing his army, and formed the corps of spahis, instituting a system of military fiefs as the reward of their services. In this there j was considerable analogy with the feudal sys- I tern, and possibly he was assisted by renegade i Christians in his plans. The Greek emperor, ; John Palaaologus, seeing himself unable to cope with the new power arrayed against him, en- ! tered into friendly alliance with Amurath, and sent his son Theodore to his court to learn the art of war. The sons of the two emperors entered into a conspiracy against their fathers, and levied an army. Amurath advanced alone I to the ranks of his rebellious son and ordered the soldiers to return to their duty. Unable ! to resist the mandate of their terrible ruler, 446 AMUKATH the men obeyed, and Amurath put his son Saudji to death (1375). In Asia Minor he had to contend with several insurrections. Lazarus, prince of Servia, in conjunction with Sisman, prince of Bulgaria, Amurath s father-in-law, renewed the effort for independence, and dur ing Amurath s absence in Asia gained several advantages over his generals in Europe. The arrival of Amurath, however, turned the tide of victory, and at length lie took Sisman prisoner, whom he deposed and confined. Laz- arus, however, continued his resistance, and the armies met on the high plains of Kosovo, | between Xovi Bazar and Pristina. Amurath, under the influence of a dream that he had i been assassinated, was at first unwilling to j liazard an engagement, especially as his troops were far inferior in numbers to the Servians. But the counsels of his son, the fiery Bajazet, ; prevailed, and the signal for the engagement was given. After a bloody contest the Servians were totally defeated at all points, and Lazarus himself was taken prisoner. Amurath examined the field after the battle, and while congratu lating his attendants upon the victory was struck by the hand of a wounded Servian. The wound was mortal, and Amurath s dream was accomplished. The Servian fell under the l>lows of the janizaries, but sold his life dearly. He proved to be Milosh Kobilovitch, son-in-law of Lazarus. Before expiring, Amurath, who is otherwise renowned as equally generous and wise, ordered the execution of Lazarus. II. Born about 1404, died Feb. 9, 1451. He was the son of Mohammed 1., and in 1421 succeeded liis father on the throne. He at once concluded an armistice for five years with Sigismund, king of Hungary and Bohemia, and emperor of Germany. Manuel, the Greek emperor, re fused to conclude a peace unless Amurath gave his two brothers as hostages, failing which he threatened to set at liberty Mustapha, son of Bajazet Ilderim, the legitimate successor to the throne. Amurath refused, and the Greek ad miral, Demetrius Lascaris, was at once sent to land Mustapha near Gallipoli, to which Deme trius laid siege. Mustapha himself advanced toward Adrianople with a constantly increasing army, and encountered Amurath s troops under Bajazet Pasha, who laid down their arms on his making himself known to them, and Ba jazet was taken prisoner and put to death. Mustapha, however, was soon afterward be trayed to Amurath and executed. Manuel, now alarmed for himself, sent an embassy to the sultan to settle terms of peace. Amurath, however, was not to be appeased. He appeared with a powerful force before Constantinople in 1423, and increased his army by a proclamation of his intention to abandon the city and all the booty to the assailants. The assault was at length made, and the city was in deadly peril, when, according to Greek writers, a beautiful virgin dressed in a white robe appeared in mid air, and threw the Mohammedan army into such a panic that Amurath was obliged to retire. On the death of Manuel (1425) a treaty was concluded with John Palseologus, his successor, by which the Greeks consented to pay tribute to Amurath, and surrendered several towns on the Black sea and on the Strymon. The treaties of peace with Wallachia and the emperor Sigismund were also renewed. In 1429 Amurath made himself master of Thessalonica, and in 1431 of Janina. Notwithstanding the armistice be tween Amurath and Sigismund, their friendship was only superficial ; and Ainurath, who had suppressed the revolts of Caramania and Servia, and made satisfactory arrangements with other provinces of his growing empire, turned his at tention to the politics of central Europe, and endeavored to influence the election of Casimir, son of the king of Poland, as king of Bohe- | mia. Failing in this, he laid siege to Belgrade : (1439), which was defended by the Hungarian | warrior, John Hunyady. Amurath was re- I pulsed, and the Ottoman arms now sustained a long series of reverses from the invincible Hunyady. Amurath at last purchased a 10 | years truce of the Hungarians by great sacri- | fices. The death of his son Aladdin, to whom i Amurath was tenderly attached, now plunged j him into such distress of mind that he abdicated | in favor of his son Mohammed, who was only I 14 years of age (1442), and retired to Magnesia, | in Asia Minor. The Christians, in the belief i that their opportunity had now arrived, broke I the solemn peace, for which the papal legate ! gave them absolution, and poured into the ! Turkish dominions under the command of La- | dislas, king of Poland and Hungary, and his general, Hunyady. Amurath was recalled I from Magnesia, and forced to take the command of the army. Hoisting the treaty at the end | of a lance, he encountered the Christians (1444) at Varna, on the Black sea. In a personal j contest he dismounted Ladislas, whose head I was cut off and displayed on a lance to his sol diers. Affrighted at the sight they fled, not- | withstanding the efforts of Hunyady to restore the battle. Again Amurath sought retirement, ! and was again called out to put down a revolt of the janizaries. Hopeless of gratifying his wish for ease, he marched against Greece. After subduing the Morea, and putting it to tribute, he encountered stubborn resistance in \ Albania from the heroic George Castriota (Scanderbeg), who, with the assistance of the | Venetians, was able to postpone for a time the i fall of his native country. A new irruption of I Hunyady into Servia compelled Amurath to | retire from Greece, and a battle was again fought on the plains of Kosovo, in October, j 1448, in which the Hungarian army, after a desperate defence of their intrenched camp for three days, was entirely routed with prodigious loss. Amurath did not long survive this crown ing victory, dying suddenly of apoplexy, on an island near Adrianople. III. Born in | 1545, succeeded his father, Selim II., in 1574, i died Jan. 17, 1595. His first act was to put i his five brothers to the bowstring. His reign AMUSSAT AMYLENE is signalized in Turkish history by the arrogance with which the Turks treated the representa tives of the European powers. The ambassa dors were compelled to observances of etiquette degrading to their sovereigns, and the agents of the embassies were subjected to personal in dignity, the dragoman of France having been compelled to embrace Islamism. In the reign of Amurath III. the plague ravaged Turkey and Italy. The war with Austria was con tinued, and a war which had commenced with Persia was terminated in 1590 by a treaty which secured to the Porte the possession of Luristan, Georgia, Shirvan, Tabriz, and part of Azerbaijan. A depreciation of the coinage resulted in a revolt of the janizaries, who de manded the heads of two officers of state, whom they charged with having been the au thors of the depreciation. This revolt extended itself throughout the Turkish empire, and laid the foundation for the disorder and insubordi nation which rendered the janizaries so cele brated. The war with Austria continued with varying success until the end of his reign. IV. Born in 1611, succeeded his uncle Mustapha, Sept, 1, 1623, at the age of 12, died Feb. 8, 1640. At the commencement of his reign the empire was in a state of the most deplorable disorder. The provinces were rent by insur rections and revolts ; the capital convulsed by the constant mutinies of the janizaries, who were not to be pacified, save by an increase of pay or by the abandonment of some unfortu nate vizier to their brutality ; war was desolat ing the frontiers of the empire. Assuming the sceptre at so early an age, Amurath had little power to amend the state of his kingdom, but with experience came a vigor which was des tined to make the hardiest tremble. In 1638 he commenced the siege of Bagdad, which had long resisted the efforts of the ablest Turkish generals. On Dec. 24 the assault was made, and the city of the caliphs passed from the Per sians to the Turks. The garrison of the citadel capitulated, but not evacuating the city at the hour promised, 30,000 Persians were massacred. Although in the early part of his reign Amurath had promulgated strict laws against the use of wine, he afterward abandoned himself to the most outrageous drunkenness ; and his fits of delirious rage while intoxicated were so terri ble that his people, his soldiers, and ministers all dreaded to enter his presence. AMI SSAT, Jean Znlema, a French surgeon, born at St. Maixent, department of Deux-Sevres, Nov. 21, 1796, died May 14, 1856. He com menced his career as a sub-assistant surgeon in the French army, and afterward became assis tant surgeon at the hospital of La Salpetriere, under Esquirol, and prosector at the faculty of medicine of Paris. He invented and improved as many as 30 different surgical instruments, and was the first to show the importance of twisting a bleeding artery to arrest the hem orrhage, and also to point out the danger of phlebitis from the admission of air into the veins during an operation. His most important works are : Recherches sur le systeme nerveux (1825) ; Tables synoptiques de la lithotripsie et de la cystotomie hypogastrique (1832) ; Recherches sur V introduction de Pair dans les veines (1832). AMYGDALOID, a rock containing almond- shaped cavities. The term is for the most part limited to rocks of the trap variety. The ve sicular cavities in these, as in the lavas, are the result of the escape of gases, as the rocks cooled down from a melted state. Subsequent ly to their formation the cavities have generally become filled with some mineral, as calcareous spar, quartz, agate, chlorite, or a zeolite. AMYL (Gr. d/avW, starch), C 5 H n , the radical of amylic alcohol or potato spirit, a colorless liquid, with a somewhat aromatic odor, pre pared by Frankland in 1849 by heating the iodide of amyl with an amalgam of zinc in sealed tubes for some hours at a temperature of from 320 to 356 F. It also occurs as an incidental product in the distillation of coal. As it doubles its molecular constitution when ever attempts are made to isolate it, the liquid described by Frankland is now commonly called diamyl, and the formula written (C 5 Hi i) 2 . Amyl, or rather diamyl, has the spe cific gravity of 7T at 60 F., boils at 311 F. ; becomes thick at 22 F., but does not freeze ; takes fire when heated and burns with a smoky flame ; mixes in all proportions with alcohol, but not with water ; is not acted upon by fum ing sulphuric acid, but slowly attacked by nitric and nitro-sulphuric acid, and decom posed after long digestion with pentachloride of phosphorus. Amyl by itself has no use in the arts, but is interesting to the scientific chemist on account of the great number of substitution products that have been derived from it. Nitrate of amyl is an inflammable liquid, lighter than water, and having an odor like very ripe pears. It produces in man, when inhaled in the dose of three or four drops, a sudden and violent acceleration of the pulse, with a peculiar flushing of the face. In animals it is capable of producing death. It may be regarded as a powerful general seda tive, the peculiar action on man being due to a rapid relaxation of the muscular walls of the arterioles, giving rise to a suddenly diminished pressure of the blood in the arteries and heart. Its therapeutic applications are not yet exten sive, but it has been used with good effect in angina pectoris, and some other diseases of a supposed spasmodic character. AMYLEXE, a transparent, colorless, thin liquid, with the odor of decaying cabbage, boiling at 102 F., vapor density 2-43, sp. gr. 6-65. ft is produced by the dehydration of amylic alcohol by sulphuric acid or phosphoric acid. It was discovered in 1844 by M. Balard, by heating a solution of chloride of zinc with amylic alcohol or fusel oil, and in a compound of 5 atoms of carbon with 10 of hydrogen. In its prepara tion a concentrated aqueous solution of chlo ride of zinc is heated to 266 F. with an equal AMYNTAS ANABAPTISTS volume of amylic alcohol, and the product dis tilled from a water bath over caustic potash and repeatedly rectified. It is very volatile, mixes with alcohol and ether, burns with a beautiful white flame, combines directly and energetically with bromine, the hydracids, and chloride of sulphur, and its vapor is rapidly absorbed by sulphuric anhydride and per- chloride of antimony. Amylene is the third homologue of olefiant gas or ethylene, and like the latter is the starting point of a multitude of compounds which are derived from it by addition, substitution, or subtraction. An at tempt was made to substitute it for chloroform as an anaesthetic in surgical operations ; but this use has been abandoned, as its employment has in a few cases led to fatal results. AMYNTAS, the name of three Macedonian kings. L The son and successor of Alcetas, reigned from 537 to about 498 B. 0. During his reign Megabazus, the general of Darius, sent ambassadors to demand frcwn Macedonia earth and water, the tokens of submission. The weak Amyntas gave them at once. He even invited the Persian envoys to a magnificent banquet, and when, heated with wine, they brutally ordered him to give up to them his wives and daughters, he would have had the baseness to obey ; but his son Alexander disguised as women several pages of the court, who, when brought to the Persians, murdered them with their daggers. II. Nephew of Perdiccas II., died in 309 B. C. He actually inherited only Upper Macedonia, but after contesting the sov ereignty of the whole country first with his brother, who defeated him with the aid of foreign allies, and afterward with the usurper Pausanias, he became king of all Macedonia in 393. He was again driven from his throne by Argfeus, son of Pausanias, and only recovered it with the help of the Thessalians. He en tered into a lasting alliance with Sparta. III. Grandson of the preceding, succeeded, when g3t an infant, his father Perdiccas III., 360 . C., but was in the following year deposed by his uncle Philip II., and put to death on the accession of the latter s son, Alexander the Great, who charged him with conspiring against his life (336). A3IYOT, Jacques, a French author, bishop of Auxerre, born at Melun, Oct. 30, 1513, died at Auxerre, Feb. 6, 1593. After many arduous struggles with poverty and obscurity, he suc ceeded in acquiring some reputation as a teacher ; and through the patronage of the sis ter of Francis I., Margaret of Berry, he was made professor of Greek and Latin in the uni versity of Paris. Subsequently he obtained the abbacy of Bellozane, and visited Rome to gather materials for the translation of Plutarch and other Greek writers, and took part in the council of Trent. On his return to France he became tutor of Henry II. s two younger sons, the future kings Charles IX. and Henry III., under the former of whom he was raised to the offices of grand almoner and curator of the Paris university, and ultimately to the bishop ric of Auxerre. The most celebrated of hist works, which chiefly consist of translations, is I the version of Plutarch. AMYRAUT, Moise, a French Calvinist theolo- ! gian, born in 1596, died in July, 1664, at Bour- | gueil, in the province of Anjou. He was edu- ! cated at Saumur, where he was afterward a I professor of divinity. By his talents and mod- eration he soon acquired reputation and influ- | ence. In 1631 he attended the synod of Cha- i renton, and was commissioned to present to the ! king a remonstrance against the infraction of i the edicts of pacification. In fulfilling this i mission he procured the abrogation of the i humiliating requirement that Protestant depu- j ties should address the king only on their knees. He endeavored to bring about a complete union between the various Protestant churches, which he advocated especially in a Latin tract, De Secessione ab Ecclesia Romano., deque Pace inter Evangelicos in Negotio Religionis insti- tuenda. The favor and respect with which he was treated by the heads of the French govern ment, Richelieu and Mazarin, are to be as cribed to his opinions concerning the power of princes ; he publicly maintained on several oc casions the doctrine of implicit obedience to the ! sovereign authority. Among his numerous I writings, now nearly forgotten, though popu- | lar in their time, are treatises on Christian i morals, on the natural laws of marriage, against indifferentism, and against the Millenarists. ANA, as a prefix, a Greek word signifying over again, against, and the like. Its use is i exemplified in Anabaptist, anachronism, and analysis. As a suffix, it is the Latin termina tion of the neuter plural of an adjective of three | terminations; thus Ciceroniana would be the I matters of any sort appertaining to Cicero. In the literature of the modern European nations, it alludes to the collections of the sayings or | anecdotes of celebrated wits. The first collec- i tion of this kind was the Scaligeriana, pub- | lished at the Hague in 1666, by Vossius, in Latin. The next of the ana was the Perroni- I ana, in French, being notes of the conversa tions of Cardinal Duperron(1669). Menagiana and Thuana are also celebrated collections in French. French literature of the 17th century is particularly rich in this department. The ana mania lasted about half a century. In Eng lish, the "Walpoliana" is the best. German literature is not rich in personal memoirs ; the Taiibmaniana is the most famous, and we have I also the MelanchthopAana. In England, the i records of the prize ring are called "Fistiana" | and "Boxiana." American literature does not ! much affect this species of title. ANABAPTISTS (Gr. ava^a^ricrrjq, a rebaptizer), : a name sometimes applied to all those sects of ; modern times of which rebaptism has been a I distinguishing mark. The justice of the appel- ! lation has never been acknowledged by those to I whom it has been applied. In receiving con- i verts to their communion, they administered ANABAPTISTS 449 baptism, not as repeating the sacred rite, but as a valid baptism, in place of one which was im perfect or void. Thus, the Baptists repel the name Anabaptists, not, as some suppose, for the mere purpose of repudiating an alleged connection with the fanatics of the reforma tion, but because it does not represent correct ly their practice. They baptize, as they allege, according to the original institution of the rite, and there-fore claim to be Baptists; they never repeat baptism in the case of any who, in their judgment, have been so baptized ; and they therefore deny that they are Anabaptists. It may be doubted whether the word, as now applied to Baptists, is not always intended as a reproach ; certainly it should be excluded in that application from respectable modern liter ature, as giving an unnecessary otfence. The title belongs historically to large classes of peo ple who sprung up in various countries of Europe during the period of the reformation. Though applied to them against their remon strances, it has become fixed in literature as a historical term, and is too convenient for prac tical purposes to be expelled by any considera tions of critical justice. Whether these vari ous classes agreed or not in things more essen tial ; whether they were furious and fanatical, or gentle and pious ; whether setting up mock kingdoms by force of arms, or conscientiously abstaining from the use of arms altogether, they were alike in the visible thing of repeat ing baptism, and hence were designated by a common name, and too often visited with com mon penalties and maledictions. It is the busi ness of the historian to discriminate between these classes, to look beyond names for histor ical facts, and to redeem from the reproach of many generations great numbers of people whose faith was in essential harmony with the faith of Protestantism, whose lives were pure, and whose deaths were a rare and honorable martyrdom. In this historical discrimination something has been already effected. Illustra tions generally accessible may be found in Burners " History of the Reformation in Eng land," Brandt s " History of the Reformation in the Netherlands," Mosheim s "Institutes of Ecclesiastical History," and especially in the "Dutch Marty rology," published by the Ilan- serd Knollys society, London, under the edi torial care of Edward B. Underbill. Precisely when or where the Anabaptists of the refor mation period first appeared, whether in Ger many or Switzerland, it is difficult if not im possible to determine. They sprung up like rank vegetation, under sudden and refreshing rains, after drought and sterility. The solu tion of the problem is found in the fact that the seeds were in the soil. The better classes uf them claimed a descent from the Waldenses, the Wycliffites, and the Hussites, who had struggled 1 for a church separated from the world and distinguished by the holiness of its members. Consciously or unconsciously, ideas like these must have been working in the VOL. i. 29 minds of multitudes in various countries. When, therefore, the reformation came, open ing the Bible to the people, announcing its revelations as the highest law, and inviting the human mind to freedom of thought, these prin ciples acquired sudden and prodigious force. Ardent minds, bent in the direction of a prim itive Christianity, and of a social order corre sponding thereto, were dissatisfied with the partial reformation which contented Luther and Zwingli, and demanded more. This de mand, sharpened by discussion, became a pop ular movement, and, pushed to its last develop ment, took the opposite directions, on the one hand, of a wild, ungovernable, and licentious fanaticism, subversive of all social order, and on the other, of a mystical though sincere and gen uine piety, characterized by some harmless ec centricities of faith and by separation from the world. These parties, so diverse in character and tendencies, went under the common name of Anabaptists, because they were distinguished by the common, visible badge of rebaptism. The usual references in illustration of the charac ter of the furious Anabaptists are the following : In 1521 they made their appearance at Zwick au, and, accepting as their leader Thomas Miinzer, took part in the peasants war, and shared its sanguinary results. Munzer and his associates are represented as having claimed a divine commission not only to establish a com munity of holy persons, but also to extirpate magistrates by the sword. He excited his fol lowers to revolt against the civil authorities, and assured them of the immediate deliver ance of Christendom from the grievous oppres sions of its rulers. They were totally defeated, May 15, 1525, near Miihlhausen, and the leaders were put to death. Itinerant prophets still, however, spread the principles of the sect. They declaimed against the wickedness of the times, and demanded a community of saints, without distinction of rank or office. They claimed an internal light, which was of more value than learning in interpreting divine revelation. No Christian might exercise the functions of a magistrate or take an oath. Property was to be shared in common among the faithful. In 1533 they began to concen trate their operations at Minister. John Mat thias of Haarlem and John Boccold of Ley- den were their leaders. They had gained over to their cause Rothmann, the preacher who introduced the reformation into that city, and Knipperdolling, a leading citi zen. Seizing the arsenal and the senate house, they placed Matthias at the head of aifairs, and his authority became arbitrary and complete. The inhabitants were trained to military duty, the fortifications were strengthened, and tjie faithful were invited to come from every quarter to aid the struggles and share the triumphs of Mount Zion, from which they were to proceed to the conquest of the world. Count Waldeck, prince and bishop of Miinster, surrounded the city with an army. Matthias sallied out and 4:50 ANABAPTISTS 1 ANABAS SOANDENS gained signal advantages. His fanaticism rose with his success, and, issuing forth again with only 30 followers relying on their spiritual pre tensions, was with all of them put to death. John Boccold was now raised to the throne of David, in ohedience to divine commands made known in visions. He wore a crown, clothed himself in purple, coined money, and appointed judges. But the fanaticism, when it had reached the height of spiritual folly, passed hy an easy transition to license and sensuality. The obligations of matrimony were declared invasive of spiritual liberty, and freedom of divorce and licentiousness followed. King John himself multiplied his wives, honoring, however, one of them only as his queen. The example of the monarch was not lost upon the people, and the name of Minister during the reign of the Ana baptists has passed to history as the synonyme of unbridled and indecent lust. The city was taken June 24, 1535, after a brave defence, in which Rothmann was slain. John Boccold, arid Knipperdolling and Krechting, leading associ ates, were tortured with red-hot pincers, and then hung up in iron cages, which are still pre served in Miinster. Thus in 15 months per ished the kingdom of the Anabaptists. Even now, however, the delusion did not cease. It subsided indeed into its more spiritual char acter, and its excesses were chietly individual and local. But the fanaticism of this class of Anabaptists remained the reproach of the re formation, and the terror of civil society. There was another class of Anabaptists, widely different from those who have been described. In some instances, undoubtedly, when the for- mer class fell back upon their purely spiritual views, the two parties coalesced. Brandt re fers to an instance in which the moderate were brought into difficulty by being found in such association with the fanatical. The distinction, however, is real, and may be traced. It is a mistake to suppose that the rejection of infant baptism during the reformation was found among the unlearned only. Melanch- thon, Zwingli, and (Ecolampadius were all troubled by the questions which arose respect ing the adjustment of this rite to the personal faith required by Protestantism. Some of those who became leaders of the Anabaptists were the associates and equals of these reformers. Mantz, G rebel, and Ilubmeyer were men of learning the last of great genius and elo quence. Mantz had been the friend and fel low student of Z^yingli, and was an early mar tyr in the cause of the Anabaptists, Zwingli himself pronouncing his sentence in the words, " Qui iterum mergit, mergatnr" The persecu tion of such men and their followers in Swit zerland shocked the moderate of all parties. In expressing his views of this persecution, Erasmus pays a tribute to the character of the sufferers in these words: U A people against whom there is very little to be said, and con cerning whom we are assured there are many who have been reformed from the worst to the best lives; and though, perhaps, they may foolishly err in certain opinions, yet have they never stormed towns nor churches, nor entered into any combinations against the authority of the magistrate, nor driven anybody from his government or estate." These people, so per secuted, demanded a church composed of spir itual persons, introduced into it by a voluntary baptism. They demanded likewise the separa tion of the church from the state, and the non interference of the magistrate in matters of re ligion. Anabaptists of the same class were found in the Netherlands in large numbers. The record of their sufferings, their martyrs multiplied by thousands, furnishes a melancholy and affecting chapter in human history. Wil liam of Orange, founder of the Dutch republic, was sustained in the gloomiest hours of his struggles by their sympathy and aid, and has left his testimony to their loyalty, industry, and virtue. That great prince, however impor tuned, steadfastly refused to persecute them. The same class were found in England during i the reign of Edward VI., and Burnet declares I that books, not flames, were used in reply to i their arguments. One of the doctrinal peculi- I arities of the Anabaptists, which seems to have | been almost universal among them, related to I the origin of the human nature of Christ. I They denied that he took his flesh of Mary, ex plaining his incarnation by a higher miracle. I Doubts have arisen, on the one hand, as to I whether they believed in the reality of his human i nature, and on the other, as to whether they believed him to be a divine person. The records of the examination of some of them | before the courts ought to remove all questions I of this kind. They believed fully in his com- i plete humanity, and their answers show that their questionings in regard to the origin of his human nature did not necessarily imply any departure from the common views of his divin ity. Menno Simonis became their chief leader, and the instrument of their organization into a recognized body of Protestant Christians. Mennonites and Anabaptists have from his time j been interchangeable terms, and the communi ties so called have descended to the present age. [ (See MENNO SIMONIS, and MENNONITES.) MABAS SCANDENS (Cuv.), an acanthopte- rygious fish, of the family of lalyrinthilran- chidce, and the only species of the genus. This family, which has been known from remote antiquity, is remarkable for the peculiar struc ture of some of the pharyngeal bones and for the serrations of the gill covers. The palate is toothless; the jaw teeth are villiform, the outer ones the strongest; the lower is tooth less in front, but far back among the three supe rior pharyngeal s the teeth are crowded, conical, and large. The head is round and wide, and its scales, as well as those of the body, are large, hard, and strong ; the dorsal and anal fins are of nearly equal height; the branchiostegal rays are six. The inferior and three posterior up per pharyngcals are of the usual form, and provi- ANABASIS ANACONDA 451 ded with teeth ; but the two other upper pharyn- geals on each side are dilated into thin and con voluted lamime, capable of retaining a considera ble amount of water; this labyrinth communi cates with tbe gills by a small opening which ! may be entirely closed. The water enters this cavity every time the fish opens its mouth, and may be retained for a considerable period. A j fish dies out of water, not from immediate want j of oxygen, but because the gills become dry i and improper for its transmission. The anabas j can live many hours and perhaps days on the | land, as the water contained in its pharyngeal i receptacle trickles slowly over the gills and j keeps them moist at the will of the animal, i which leaves the rivers and pools, and crawls j by means of its fins and tail considerable dis- | tances. Another peculiarity of this fish is the j number of sharp spines which project from the i edge of the operculum and suboperculum, the ! latter being uncommonly movable. The specific j name is derived from its alleged habit of climb- I ing trees, which it is said to do by fixing its | opercular spines in the bark, flexing its tail, and fastening the spines of the anal fin ; then de taching the head, it throws itself forward, to recommence the planting of the anal spines. It certainly moves on land in this way, and may perhaps ascend low trees, though this is denied by some writers. It inhabits the streams and pools of India and the Indian islands, living principally on aquatic insects ; it is used as food, though small and full of bones ; it grows from 6 to 10 inches long. It is brought alive to the Calcutta markets from a distance of over 150 miles; from its being found at a great dis- ! tance from water, the natives believe that it falls from the heavens. ANABASIS, a Greek word signifying originally ; ascension, then a campaign or march from a \ lower to a superior region ; for example, from j the shores of a sea to the interior of a country. In this signification the word forms the title to two historical works of antiquity : the one, by Xenophon, describing the anabasis or campaign of Cyrus the Younger against his brother Ar- taxerxes II., and the celebrated retreat of the 10,000 Greeks, auxiliaries of Cyrus, from the battlefield of Cunaxa, where that prince per ished, to the shores of the Euxine; and the other by Arrian, relating the anabasis or cam paigns of Alexander the Great. ANABLEPS, a genus of soft-rayed fishes of the carp family (cyprinidas), so named because the division of the cornea and iris by transverse ligaments gives the appearance of double eyes, from the dumb-bell-shaped pupil. The lens, retina, and vitreous humor are single. As one | half of each eye apparently looks upward and j the other half downward, they have been pop ularly called four-eyed fishes. The A. Gronorii or tetropJithalmus, of Surinam and Cuyuni rivers, is about 10 inches long, with a cylindri cal body and strong scales, flattened head, and blunt snout with the upper jaw the longer. This genus is also viviparous, but the vascular adhesion of the embryonic membranes is rup tured long before the birth of the young, in stead of at the time of exclusion as in mam mals ; the gestation is almost wholly ovarian. (See FISHES.) ANACHARSIS, a Scythian philosopher who made his appearance at Athens in the early part of the 6th century B. C. He became very intimate with Solon, and was so esteemed for his virtue, learning, and sagacity, that some ranked him among the seven wise men. He was made a citizen of Athens, and is said to have been even initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries. According to Herodotus, he was killed by his brother after his return to his native country. Many of the sayings of Ana- charsis have been preserved by Diogenes Laer- tius, Athenaaus, and other ancient writers. AXACLETUS. I. A saint and pope of the Ro man church, according to some, the second after St. Peter, and a martyr under Domitian in 91 ; according to others, martyred about 109, hav ing succeeded Clement I. as the fifth bishop of Rome. II. An anti-pope, whose original name was Peter de Leon. He was said to be of Jew ish descent, was born in Italy, and educated at the university of Paris. He entered the order of Cluny, and was afterward cardinal and legate of Pope Calixtus II. both in England and France. He was elected pope in 1130 by a portion of the cardinals in opposition to In nocent II., and was sustained by the Romans, Milanese, and Sicilians. In spite of the arms of the emperor Lothaire and the opposition of other sovereigns and of the clergy generally, Anacletus maintained himself at Rome till his death, Jan. 7, 1138. AJVACONDA (eunectes murinus, Wagler), a large serpent of .the boa family, found in most parts of intertropical America. The genus boa, which contains the large American serpents, has been made to include many species which do not be- Anaconda (Eunectes murinus). long to it, among others the anaconda ; and we find accordingly this species named boa scytale, boa murina, boa gigas, and boa aquatica, by various authors. The genus eunectes may be distinguished from all others of the boa family by the nostrils opening at the upper part of the end of the muzzle, and looking directly up ward ; this peculiarity, added to their very small size, the little space between them, and 4:52 ANACONDA AN/ESTHETICS their crescentic form, which allows them to be completely shut, indicates the aquatic habits which we know characterize the anaconda. Other generic characters are the three plates which surround the nostrils, the plates which cover the anterior half of the top of the head and the scales which cover it posteriorly, the flat and smooth scales of the body, and the un divided plates on the under surface of the tail. The head is comparative^ small, conical, very flat below, and truncated in front ; the body is considerably larger in the middle than at either extremity ; the tail, less prehensile than in the boas, forms about one sixth of the total length. The eyes, which are small, are so placed that the animal can see at the same time objects above and before it, a provision common to all water serpents. The mouth is perfectly straight, and armed with strong teeth gradually dimin ishing in size in the four series ; the number is 16 on each side in each jaw, 5 on the palate, and 10 on the pterygoid bones. The scales of the body are lozenge-shaped, and nearly of the same size, except those of the sides, which are two or three times larger than the rest ; on the trunk there are about 60 longitudinal and 375 transverse rows ; on the tail there are over 80 transverse and about 36 longitudinal rows. The plates or scutellaB of the abdominal region are very narrow, and about 250 in number, and of the tail from 60 to 73. The colors are simpler than in the boas, being blackish green above in the adults, and olive brown in the young ; on the temples, between two lines of pure black, is a wide yellow band ex tending obliquely from the eye to behind the angle of the mouth ; the back and tail present large oval disks of deep black, disposed in two series alternating with each other, and oc casionally coalescing ; along each side is a single or double row of black rings contrasting finely with the yellow ground color; the color be neath is ochre yellow with black quadrangular spots, isolated or confluent. The anaconda is the largest serpent of America, and is only equalled in size by some of the pythons of the old world ; it is occasionally seen in mu seums 20 feet long, and it probably attains a considerably larger size, though the accounts of travellers are generally much exaggerated in this respect. The Guianas and Brazil are the tavorite and perhaps the exclusive resorts of the anaconda. It lives mostly in the water, and is fond of shallow places, where it remains with all but the head submerged watching for its prey ; it swims rapidly, in an eel-like man ner, and can pass a long time beneath the sur face ; it is occasionally seen floating lazily with the current ; it is also in the habit of stretching itself on the sand or on the rocks, on a river s bank, or along the trunk of a fallen tree, where it lies in wait for animals which come to drink. Its ordinary food consists of agoutis, small ro dents, iguanas, fish, and occasionally a monkey, sloth, or ant-eater ; it crushes its prey in its strong folds, and, seizing it with its teeth, swal lows it very slowly, head first. The time of impregnation is the winter months, when the natives attack it Avith guns, arrows, and even clubs ; it is sluggish in its motions on land, and timid, and not at all feared ; it is very tenacious of life. The natives use the skin for shoes and bags, the fat for the purposes of oil, and the flesh for food. It is ovoviviparous. Only one species of the genus is described. ANACREON, a Greek lyric poet, born at Teos in Ionia about 561 B. C. When that city was taken by the Persians, about 540 B. C., he emigrated to Abdera in Thrace, whence he afterward went to Samos, and spent several years at the court of Polyerates. On the death of Polyerates he was invited to Athens by the tyrant Ilipparchus, who sent a vessel for him. Here he formed an intimacy with Simo- nides and other poets. He left Athens prob ably on the murder of Ilipparchus in 514, and died in the 85th year of his age, but the place of his death is uncertain. He is said to have been choked by a grape stone. We possess only a few genuine fragments of the poems of Anacreon. His favorite themes were love and wine ; his distinguishing characteristics licen tiousness, gracefulness, and fervor. The best editions are by Fischer (8d ed., Leipsic, 1793) and Mehlom (Glogau, 1825), and of the sepa rate fragments that of Bergk (Leipsic, 1834). ANADYOMENE (Gr., emerging), a surname given to a picture of Venus rising from the ocean. Apelles was the first who painted her in this posture as she rose from the sea, and was drying her hair with her hands. This picture was bought by the inhabitants of the island of Cos, and put in their temple of ^Escu- lapius. The emperor Augustus bought it of them for the remission of 100 talents tribute, took it to Rome, and placed it in the temple of Venus Genitrix. In Nero s time it was nearly washed out, and was repaired. ANADYR, or Anadir. I. An extensive gulf or sea of Asia, at the N. E. extremity of Sibe ria, lying between Cape St. Thaddee and Cape Tchukotskoi, of late years much resorted to for whales. II. A river of Siberia, having its source in Lake Yoanko in the Stanovoi moun tains, about lat. 66 30 N., Ion. 173 E. It traverses the central portions of the Tchuktchi country in N. E. Siberia, flows first W., then E., and after a course of about 500 m. falls into an inlet of the gulf of Anadyr. The coun try through which it passes is rocky and bar ren, and covered with snow about nine months in the year. ANJ2MIA. See BEAIN, DISEASES or THE, and CHLOROSIS. ANAESTHETICS (Gr. av, privative, and aladdvo- fiai, I feel), substances Avhich can produce a general or partial suspension of nervous sensi bility. In the common acceptation of the term should be included all drugs which have the faculty of so acting upon the brain that this effect can be caused ; for instance, all the forms of narcotics and diffusible stimulants. ANESTHETICS 453 But by general consent this title is now con- i lined to the most volatile forms of chemical agents which can produce the effect when in- , haled or applied externally, and the effects of j which are transitory; the terms narcotization and coma being applied where a long-contin- ; ued effect is caused by other agents. The gen- ! eral action of all anaesthetic agents is through the medium of the blood, into which they are j taken either from the lungs, the stomach, or j by the skin, and carried by the circulation to the brain, where they produce a profound but transient state of intoxication. Anaesthesia is ; said to be either general Or local: general, when all power of sensibility is suspended; local, when only a particular part of the body j is affected, the brain and the rest of the system , remaining as ordinarily. Loss of sensation in re stricted portions of the body has been attempted in various ways, as by long pressure upon the : nervous trunks leading to the part, first put in i operation by Ambroise Pare, afterward adopted by Dr. Moore, about 1784; the application of >. carbonic acid gas, recommended by Dr. Hick- i man in 1828, a procedure which was revived ] by the late Dr. Simpson ; the application of j the various ethers, especially chloroform ; and I by a true freezing of the part, as recommended ; by Dr. James Arnott of London, who employ ed for the purpose a mixture of pounded ice | and common salt enclosed in a muslin bag. \ The most useful method has been found to be j the employment of ether spray, directed in a continuous stream upon the part by means of ; an atomizing apparatus. Various anaesthetic agents have been employed at different times the several kinds of ethers, nitric, acetic, sulphuric, &c., protoxide of nitrogen ("laugh ing gas "), aldehyde, olefiant gas, naphtha, car- j bu retted hydrogen, Dutch liquid, benzoin, chlo- ; roform, and amyleno, a substance introduced i by Dr. Snow of London ; but none of them liave proved so successful, or are now so gen- ! erally used, as sulphuric ether and chloroform, j This latter substance was discovered in 1831, ; but its chemical composition was not accurately j known till 1834. (See CHLOROFORM.) Its use j for the same purpose as sulphuric ether was ! first proposed by Dr. J. Y. Simpson of Edin burgh, in 1847. The advantages claimed for | it over ether are the smallness of the dose re- i < paired, a more perfect action, less depression when the heart or lungs are diseased, a more ! rapid effect, less disgust to the patient during inhalation, absence of persistent odor, and ! lastly, that it is cheaper. But as unfortunately j it has happened that several deaths have oc- j curred from its use, it cannot be looked upon i as so safe an agent as ether, from the use of which, no matter in how large quantities or how carelessly, not one death has yet been re- | ported. The benumbing of the nerves of sen- | sation by the administration of narcotic drugs | has been practised for many years, and, as rec- j ords show, was known to the ancients ; but | with the exception of certain traditions as re- ! gards the use in the East of tbe mandrake (atro- pa mandragora) and hashish (cannabis Indicd) in the form of vapor for this purpose, we have no proofs that anaesthetic inhalation was ever employed. Richard Pearson recommended the inhalation of sulphuric ether for asthma, &c., in 1795 ; and in 1810 Nysten described an instru ment for its use. In Sir Humphry Davy s " Re searches concerning Nitrous Oxide," published in 1800, is this remark: "As nitrous oxide in its extensive operation seems capable of destroy ing physical pain, it will probably be used with advantage during surgical operations in which no great effusion of blood takes place." Dr. J. C. Warren of Boston prescribed ethereal inha lation for the relief of pulmonary inflammation in 1805, and Mr. Wesley Smead of Cincinnati published an article on this treatment in 1822. The power of the ethers to produce insensibil ity was mentioned by Godman in 1822, Mitch- ill in 1832, Prof. Samuel Jackson in 1833, and Wood and Bache in 1833. But its application as an agent for the relief of pain during sur gical operations was first publicly made at the Massachusetts general hospital in Boston, Oct. 16, 1846, by Dr. W. T. G. Morton of that city, who subsequently secured a patent for the use of the article under the name of "letheon." On Jan. 2 of the next year a new claimant for the discovery came before the public, in the person of Dr. Charles T. Jackson of the same city ; and still later the same claim was ad vanced in behalf of Dr. Horace Wells of Hart ford. (See JACKSOX, MOETOX, and WELLS.) The objects gained by the administration of anaes thetics are various, according as we have to do with surgery, midwifery, or medicine. In surgery: 1. A protracted and careful examina tion, and consequently more accurate diagno sis, can be made in many cases of disease and injury, where the intense pain caused by the examination prevents the manipulation of the surgeon, as in fractures, dislocations, and stone. 2. From the total relaxation which the mus cles receive under a full dose, the reduction of many forms of dislocation, hernias, &c., is facil itated. 3. In military service, under its influ ence, men can be removed to a distance where the operation can be conveniently performed, in stead of as formerly being obliged to operate upon the field of battle or in places otherwise unfavorable. 4. The general use of many forms of remedial operation is extended, which otherwise are attended with such exquisite agony that they were rarely resorted to unless from most extreme necessity, as for instance the application of the actual cautery and moxas. 5. Many operations can now be performed for the relief of long-continued disease, or after injury, which before would have been haz ardous, owing to the depressed or feeble state of the patient. 6. Many delicate operations can now be easily performed where perfect quiet is demanded of the patient, and which can hardly be afforded by any amount of exercise of the will, as in operations upon the eye, dis- 454: ANESTHETICS section of nerves, or the taking up of arte ries. 7. Patients will now apply earlier than heretofore for relief in surgical diseases, the dread of the surgeon s knife often having in duced them to postpone it until the case be came almost hopeless. 8. The mortality from operations has materially decreased, for it is well known that pain has a serious tendency to depress the nervous system and produce death from exhaustion. In midwifery: 1. In addition to preserving the mother from the pain always incident to parturition, we have the power of preserving her strength unimpaired when the labor is long continued or especially severe. 2. In all cases of instrumental labor or those requiring manual assistance, the aid can be afforded with greater ease to the ac coucheur and more safety and less accompany ing suffering to the mother. 3. Many cases in doubt in diagnosis can be more correctly solved. 4. From the relaxation of the muscular fibres, the exit of the child through the uterine neck or the vaginal passage, when they are rigid, is facilitated. 5. Anesthetics have the power of keeping in abeyance and reducing the violence of one of the worst complications of labor, puerperal convulsions. 6. The recovery of the patient after labor is assisted, and the chances of subsequent dangers lessened. In medicine: 1. As a relief from severe or ex hausting pain in disease, as from toothache, passage of calculi, or neuralgia. 2. As a nar cotic in mania, delirium tremens, excitement, or wakefulness from any cause. 3. As an anti- spasmodic for cholera, hysteria, asthma, convul sions, &c. They have also been employed in the treatment of many inflammatory diseases, fevers, &c. They are found very useful in the detection of feigned diseases, as affected paral ysis, dumbness, or contraction of limbs. They have been sometimes employed for nefarious purposes in cases of violence, where a strug gle or noise was feared. The first effects of all anaesthetics, or when they are taken in small quantities, is exhilarating and intoxicating as from any diffusible stimulant, evidenced by bursts of laughter, hysterical weeping, or loud unmeaning talk. When long continued or in large doses, there ensues a general feeling of warmth, extra power, and excitement gener ally, first felt in the extremities, soon followed by a prickling benumbed sensation, with confu sion of ideas, noises in the ears, usually com pared to the vibration of an engine from one side of the head to the other, and flashes of light before the eyes. This is soon followed by loss of sensation and voluntary motion, and total coma. The patient is generally observed to become a little flushed in the face, the veins of the forehead turgid, the eyes suffused and staring open, and the pupils dilated. The pulse is generally increased at the commencement of inhalation, but becomes decreased often lower than natural when the system is fully under the influence, which is the time chosen for the per formance of all great surgical operations. The respiration, which is slightly quickened at first, becomes slower and deeper in the somnific state. The temperature of the body remains generally of the ordinary standard, but becomes slightly reduced when the influence is long continued. The effects of the anaesthetic generally disap pear soon after the administration is discon tinued, and the patient returns to consciousness with merely a slight tendency to sleep and dizziness, and with no recollection of anything which has happened during the inhalation. Sometimes, however, the recovery is attended with nausea or vomiting, which most often happens when the drug is taken on a full stom ach ; for this reason it should not usually be given until several hours after a meal has been eaten. No person has yet been found to with stand the influence, but the effect is seen much sooner and more quietly in some than in others. Anaesthetics should not generally be used in diseases of the heart or brain, or when there is excessive degeneration of the lungs. When, from an over-dose or the inattention of the giver, the patient seems likely to sink, and respiration is suspended, the vapor should be removed from the mouth at once, the pa tient laid in a reclining position, free access of air allowed, cold water dashed upon the chest and face, and, if necessary, artificial respiration made, sinapisms placed on the feet, and galvan ism used. Many instruments have been devised for inhalation, but, as often happens, the sim plest means is usually the best. The most ad visable plan for administering is to fold a coarse towel into the form of a small cone, and place in the bottom a small sponge containing the liquid. At the commencement the sponge should be held at a small distance from the mouth, and the patient be directed to inhale by deep and long-continued inspirations, notwithstanding the cough. As he gets more and more under the influence, it should be approached to the face, but it is imperatively necessary that there should be a free admission of atmospheric air. Par ticular attention should be paid to the condi tion of the pulse. It is now generally conceded that chloroform is much more dangerous to life than ether. Ether should therefore be cm- ployed in preference, unless special circum stances make it imperative to select chloroform as the anesthetic agent. If chloroform be used, it should be remembered that its vapor is hea vier than the air, and consequently sinks; care should also be taken to guard the skin from its irritating properties by smearing slightly with oil or glycerine. If ether be used, care should be taken not to have any lighted candles or gas jets in the neighborhood of the patient, as the vapor of ether is exceedingly inflammable, and very serious consequences might result i rom its accidentally taking fire. The ratio of power of ether and chloroform is considered as about 8 to 1 in favor of the latter, this producing its effect in from 30 to 60 seconds, the former on an average in from 3 to 4 minutes. The dose of chloroform is from 30 drops to 1 oz. ; that ANAGNI ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 455 of ether is of almost any quantity, as much as two quarts having been employed in some long- continued and severe operations. ANAG1VI (anc. Anaijnia), a town of Italy, about 40 in. S. E. of Rome; pop. about 7,500. Anagnia was one of the most ancient cities of Latium, the capital of the Ilernici, and an early antagonist of Rome. It is the residence of some of the most powerful families of Italy, and it has given birth to several Roman pon tiffs, among others to Gregory IX., Alexander IV., and Boniface VIII. ANAGRAM (Gr. avo, backward, and y/wfy///a, letter), the transposition of the letters form ing a word or sentence into a new word or sentence having some bearing upon the sub ject of the former one ; as, Honor est a Nilo, formed from the letters in the name of Horatio Nelson. To make a true anagram, every letter of the original words must be retained in the transposition, and no new one must be added. In ancient times anagrams were regarded as prophetic, or as embodying a direction to the man on whose name they were made; it is said that Pierre de St. Louis became a Carmel ite monk on finding that his name, Ludovicus Bartelemi, could be transposed into Carmelo se devoir et. Satirical anagrams were very common in the 16th and 17th centuries; Cam- den, the English historian, devoted a treatise to them, and many of the most learned men spent their leisure in making them upon the names of their contemporaries. Perhaps the best anagram ever made is the one which trans poses Pontius Pilate s question to Christ Quid est verita*? (What is the truth?) into the answer, E*t xir gni adest (It is the man who is before you). The following are a few excel lent anagrams: Arthur Wellesley, duke of Wellington Let well-foiled Gaul secure thy renown." Napoleon Bonaparte "No, appear not at Elba." Louis Napoleon Bonaparte Arouse, Albion; an open plot." For some curious anagrams, and their history, see the introduction to "Macaronic Poetry," by James Appleton Morgan (New York, 1872). ANAHIAC, an aboriginal name, signifying, in the Nalmatl or ancient Mexican language, by or near the water ; from att, water, and nahuac, near. The name has come to be applied spe cifically to the valley, or rather the plateau of the city of Mexico, although in the early writers we find references to several Anahuacs; as, for instance, Anahuac-Ayotlan and Anahuac- Xicalanco, the latter applied to the district around the lake or lagoon of Xicalanco in Tabasco. From the circumstance of their having established themselves originally around the lakes of Clialco and Tezcuco, the tradi tional tribes of Mexico have been called Ana- hualtecas, people living by the water. It is alleged that these tribes came from some northern region, supposed by some to have been from Asia by way of Behring strait, and that the ruins of ancient edifices, known as casas grandes, in New Mexico and Chihuahua, mark the path of their migration. It is, how ever, known to critical students that their original seats, figuratively represented as seven caves, were somewhere in the vicinity, proba bly on some of the islands, of Lake Michoacan ; and that when they reached the region of Anahuac, they were simple barbarians, clothed in skins and living by the chase. Around the lakes of Mexico, however, they found the feeble remnants of a people far advanced in civilization, agriculturists and architects the Tulhuatecas, a name corrupted by uncritical writers into Toltecs. These Tulhuatecas were unable to resist the irruption of the seven war like tribes, but gradually taught them agricul ture and the arts, and thus laid the foundation of the Tezcucan and Mexican empires, in which civilization and barbarism, lofty religious pre cepts and the most cruel rites, were incon gruously mingled. The Anahualtecas were precisely the people better known as Aztecs (see AZTECS); and the name of Anahuac is now only understood as applying to the plateau of the city of Mexico. This great table land comprises three fifths of the territory belong ing to the Mexican republic, and has an eleva tion of 4,000 to 8,000 feet above the level of the sea. E. and W. it is bounded by the two great chains of mountains into winch the Cor dillera of Central America io subdivided in its northward progress. Out of this plateau rise many lofty mountains, including the stu pendous volcanoes of Jorullo and Popocatepetl, but it is generally level. ANAITIS, or Analiid, an oriental goddess, anciently worshipped by the Lydians, Arme nians, Cappadocians, and Assyrians. The clas sical writers identify her sometimes with Di ana, sometimes with Venus, and she appears to have combined the attributes of both these goddesses. Her temple was magnificent, her statute golden, her worship most lascivious. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY, a branch of mathe matical science which consists in the applica tion of algebra to geometry. It may be divided into three parts, according to the branch of geometry to which the algebra is applied. 1. Applying algebra to elementary geometry, it furnishes means for the easy solution of the most intricate problems, the simplification of demonstrations, the finding of constructions, the discovery of new propositions, etc. 2. The application of algebra to the conic sections and other curves has simplified this study and great ly expanded the knowledge of the higher geom etry, which treats of other curves than the circle. 3. Its application to the system of coordinates in space, invented by Descartes, gave birth to a new view of the geometry of space, simplifying and expanding largely that branch called stereometry. 1st. In the solution of geometrical problems by algebra the figures are drawn as if the problem was solved, and if necessary, such additional lines as may establish known relations between the different quan tities ; then the known and unknown quantities 456 ANAM are expressed by letters of the alphabet, and the relation between them are, if possible, ex pressed in algebraic formulas or equations ; these, rightly treated after the rules of algebra, give in the end an expression in known quan tities equivalent to the unknown quantities. The results indicate the solution, either a manner of construction or a new geometrical relation, or it reveals an unknown property or theorem. 2d. In order to apply algebra to curved lines in general, use is made of the method of coordinates invented by Descartes. It consists simply in accepting two lines drawn through one point, by preference perpendicular one to the other, and defining the position of any point by its distance from either line or coordinate ; these distances are respectively called the abscissa and ordinate, and customarily expressed by the signs #and y. Selecting now r such a point successively at various places of an arbitrary line, there will be a certain rela tion between these distances, that is, between x and T/, which may be expressed by an equa tion; the simplest equation is y = ax, or y= ax + c, which is an equation of the first de gree, and the equation of the straight line. If the line is a parabola, the equation will be of the second degree, and in its simplest form is y a x \ or y = ax~ + c. All the other conic sections can be expressed by equations of the second degree. Every curved line has in this way its corresponding equation of the third, fourth, or some other higher degree ; for in stance, the so-called cissoid corresponds to the equation if = (a + ;r) 3 -=- (a x), 3d. But the grandest application of this ingenious method of expressing positions of points was the next step made by Descartes of constructing co ordinate planes, being three planes inter secting at one point, by preference at right angles, forming thus a trihedral angle. (See ANGLE.) The position of any point in space is thus determined by its distance from each of these three planes or faces of the angle. In such case there are of course three distances to be considered, x, ?/, and 2, requiring two equations to determine the nature of a line. For instance, y = ax + c and x = cz + d is the equation for a straight line in space, while y ax* + c and x = cz" + d represents the equation of a parabolic curve of double curvature, that is, one which cannot be laid on a plane sur face, but a parabola drawn on a parabolic sur face. Of course the number of different curved lines is as infinite as the number of different possible equations. This part of analytical geometry has given rise to the foundation of a much simpler but very useful and practical branch, by the great French mathematician Monge, namely, descriptive geometry. ANAM, or Annam, sometimes called from one of its provinces COCHIN CHINA, an empire occupy ing the eastern portion of the Indo-Chinese peninsula, between lat. 8 30 and 23 30 N., and Ion. 100 and 109 E., and bounded N". by China, E. and S. by the China sea, "W. by Siam, and N". "W. by Burmah; area about 200,000 sq. in. ; pop. probably about 15,000,000. Before the French conquests (1859- 62) the empire included three distinct provinces and- part of a fourth, Cambodia. long-King or Tonquin, the largest province, occupies the northern part and borders on China; Cochin China proper, or Dang-Trong, extends southward in a nar row strip along the eastern coast ; Tsiampa forms a continuation of this strip still further south ; while that portion of Cambodia formerly belonging to Anam extends to the delta of the Cambodia river. Besides these provinces, a portion of the territory occupying the moun tainous centre of the Indo-Chinese peninsula, ; and inhabited by the Laos and Moi tribes \ primitive peoples living under patriarchal chiefs of their own is also under the dominion of Anam ; but as these tribes are also tributary to \ Siam and other countries, and as they profess allegiance now to one, now to another, the \ extent of the Anamese dominion is indefinite. i A considerable range of mountains extends ANAM AKASTASIA through the whole length of the empire, paral- j lei with the eastern coast, and about 30 m. dis- | tant from it. From these How numerous | rivers, which, though generally too shallow for j easy navigation, thoroughly irrigate the coun- j try. The great river Mekong or Cambodia, j emptying into the China sea and gulf of Siam i by many mouths, richly fertilizes that part of Cambodia formerly subject to Anam, but now under French rule as a part of French Cochin China. Throughout the southern part of | Anam, but especially near this delta, the coun try produces great abundance of rice, sugar, spices, and tropical fruits. The mountains supply excellent timber for ship-building, j besides ebony and other valuable woods. The | inhabitants of the northeastern coast live in I great part from the product of the fisheries. The Anamese are a people somewhat akin to I the Chinese in language and in many of their | most important customs ; but they also partake largely of the Malay characteristics, and evi dently form a link between the Mongolian and Malay races. They are generally quiet and in offensive, indolent and fond of gayety. They i wear their hair long and gathered in a knot on j the .top of the head, have little beard, and dress in simple frocks and wide trousers of cotton or I silk. Many Chinese merchants live among them, ; and carry on commerce, which the natives neg- I lect, in rice, indigo, and silk. The last the Ana- i mese manufacture with considerable skill, but I they have few other industries. Their religion is professedly Buddhism, and the higher classes j even adopt Confucianism ; but they are not a re- i ligious people. The social customs of the Ana- j mese are very similar to those of the Chinese ; ! but though the women are much oppressed, they are not obliged to live in seclusion. Wed dings and funerals are celebrated with great ceremony. The mountain tribes already noticed claim to be the aborigines, and have their own religions and customs. (See LAOS.) Anam is i governed by an emperor with absolute power ; ! and under him are the mandarins, or officials, forming a nobility sharply distinguished from the body of the people. Embassies are annual- j ly sent to Peking, but Anam no longer pays tribute to the Chinese empire. Mandarins ap- ! pointed by the emperor govern the provinces, and control the standing army, which is com- ; paratively large. The capital of the country is Hue, at the mouth of the river of the same | name. The early history of Anam is in- : volved in obscurity. It is only known that frequent wars with neighboring powers de- j termined its boundaries, and that the empire was formerly entirely subject to China. In the latter half of the 13th century Marco Polo visited the country. The Portuguese were the first Europeans who actually resided there. In the 17th century, when Anam was in its | greatest prosperity, the Jesuits introduced Christianity, and propagated it with such ener gy that by the close of the 18th century French priests had converted the emperor, Gya-Long, | and established a hierarchy of great influence. The succeeding emperors, however, rejected its doctrines and persecuted priests and con verts. The present emperor, Tu-Duc, has es pecially opposed Christianity ; and the murder of several missionaries between 1854 and 1858 seemed to the French government a sufficient cause for revenge, while it served as a pretext for the acquirement of a French colony in the East. In 1858 a French fleet, assisted by sev eral Spanish vessels, captured Turon, a town near the capital, Hue. In 1859 the French took Saigon, an important town on the river Saigon. After an obstinate resistance on the part of the Anamese, who succeeded in pro longing the war for four years, the French, who had taken many towns and the whole province of Saigon, dictated terms of peace by which they became possessors of that province as well as of Bienhoa and Mytho ; these remain in their possession and form, under the name of Cochin China, the only important French colony in the East. (See Cocnix CIIIXA.) By the treaty, three ports in Tonquin were opened, and Christianity was permitted throughout Anam. An insurrection took place in Decem ber, 1862, but it was quelled by the French. ANAMBOE, a seaport town on the Gold Coast of Africa, 10 m. E. of Cape Coast Castle; pop. about 5,000. It is the seat of considerable trade, and formerly had a large traffic in slaves. The British fort here is the strongest on the coast. The exports are gold dust, ivory, palm oil, and peanuts; and the imports are silks, tobacco, wines, guns, and cutlery. ANANIAS, the name of three persons men tioned in the Acts of the Apostles. I. A dis ciple at Jerusalem, who, having sold his prop erty for the common cause, conspired with his wife Sapphira to give in a part of the price and reserve the rest, representing that he gave all. Peter is related to have discovered the im pious fraud at once, and the Holy Ghost to have avenged it by striking both the deceivers dead. II. A devout man who dwelt at Da mascus, and who is recorded to have been warned in a vision to go and find Paul, and restore him to sight, after he had been struck blind at his conversion. According to tradi tion, he was afterward bishop of Damascus and a martyr. III. A high priest before whom Paul was brought for trial at Jerusalem, and who commanded Paul to be smitten on the mouth (Acts xxii.). Paul being sent from this tribunal to Felix, Ananias among others went up to accuse him of being u a pestilent fellow and a mover of seditions," &e. He was, ac cording to Josephus, nominated to his office by Herod, king of Chalcis, A. D. 48, sent to Rome in 52 to answer before Claudius a charge of oppression brought forward by the Samaritans, at a later period deposed, and finally assas sinated at the beginning of the Jewish Avar. ANASTASIA, the name of several saints of the Roman and Greek churches. I. Auastasia the Eider was a martyr of the time of Xero, a pupil 458 ANASTASIUS ANATHEMA of St. Peter and St. Paul. Her festival day is April 15. II. Anastasia the lounger, of an eminent Roman family, was brought up in the Christian faith by her mother Flavia, perse cuted by her heathen husband Publius, and finally burned in Aquileia, in 303. Her day is Dec. 25. III. Auastasia, the daughter of an eminent Greek family of Constantinople, at tracted by her beauty the attention of the em peror Justinian. She resisted his dishonorable proposals and retired to Alexandria, where she lived for 23 years as a monk, her sex remain ing unknown till her death in 507. Her day is March 10. ANASTASIUS, the name of four popes. I. Saint, occupied the Roman see 398-402. He was contemporary with Jerome, Chrysostom, and Augustine, and is remarkable for having condemned various axioms and writings of Ori- gen. Several letters by him are extant. II. Saint, pope from 490 to 498. A letter from him to Clovis on his conversion and some frag ments on the eastern schism are preserved. III. From 911 to 913. His rule was gentle, but no details of his life are known. IV. From July 9, 1153, to Dec, 2, 1154. He had pre viously been greatly distinguished as governor of Rome, and as pope favored the knights of St. John of Jerusalem. ANASTASIUS, the name of two emperors of Constantinople. I. Surnamed Dicorus, born about 430, died in 518. He was a member of the lifeguard (silentiarii) of the emperor Zeno, on whose death in 491 he was proclaimed emperor through an intrigue with the empress Ariadne, whom he soon afterward married. Though more than 00 years of age, he began his stormy reign by suppressing with great ability a rebel lion organized against him by Longinus, Zeno s brother, who had aspired to the throne, and by two other natives of the Isaurian province, whose names were also Longinus. Rebellions, plagues, earthquakes, and a severe famine filled the next years of his reign with hardship for the people and difficulty for the emperor; and finally the Persians under their king Cabades invaded the empire with such success, that Anastasius was compelled to purchase peace by an enormous tribute (505). In the opening years of the Gth century Anastasius became in volved in the religious disputes of the time, and was anathematized by Pope Symmachus for favoring the Eutychian heresy. II. Originally named Artemius, chosen emperor in 713 as successor to Philippicus, whose minister he had been. He began his reign by punishing Rufus, the traitor who had deposed Philippicus. In 715 he undertook an expedition against the Arabs, but it was rendered futile by the mutiny of many of the sailors of his fleet. The muti neers proclaimed as emperor one Theodosius, a government official, who besieged Constantino ple and Nicaea, in which latter place Anastasius was when attacked. The latter was driven from the throne (710), and retired to a monas tery, while the rebel became emperor as Theo dosius III. In the reign of Leo III. Anastasius endeavored to regain the throne, but was de feated and put to death (721). ANASTOMOSIS (Or. ava, through, and cr6fia, mouth), the communication or inosculation of different blood vessels by opening one into the other. In the arteries it is comparatively rare, as these vessels divide and separate from each other, for the purpose of distributing the blood to different organs. Nevertheless, it always exists in certain situations, where the principal trunk is liable to compression, and where this compression would have the effect of shutting off all nourishment from the parts beyond were there no other means of vascular communica tion. Thus the arterial branches situated above and below the principal joints anastomose with each other ; and if the main artery of the limb is compressed or tied, the blood still finds its way to the parts below by this circuitous route of communication. The arteries supplying the intestines also communicate freely with each other, so that the circulation is not interrupted by the folding or bending of the parts upon each other. The most remarkable instance of arterial anastomosis is that at the base of the brain, where the two principal arteries entering the skull from behind, namely, the right and left vertebral, unite in a single trunk, which afterward divides and sends branches forward on each side to inosculate with the two internal carotid arteries, which themselves afterward communicate with each other by a transverse anastomosis at the anterior part of the brain. Thus there is at the base a continuous vascular circle or ring, called the "circle of Willis," sup plied with blood at the same time from four different arteries, the two carotids and the two vertebrals, and from which branches are sent off to the various parts of the cerebral sub stance. In the veins anastomosis is much more frequent, even the larger veins of the upper and lower limbs seldom continuing far in their course without giving and receiving branches of communication with adjacent veins. Thus a passage for the blood from the extremities to ward the heart is constantly kept open, notwith standing the compression to which these vessels are liable by the contraction of the muscles and accidental pressure. In the capillary blood vessels, finally, anastomosis is abundant and constant. All the capillary blood vessels, in fact, inosculate with each other in every direc tion, and in such profusion as to form a net work or plexus of minnto vessels, with corre sponding interspaces or islets included between the meshes. This provides for a continuous and uniform supply of blood to every part of the organ, and brings the blood into close con tact with the substance of its tissue. ANATA. See ANATHOTII. ANATHEMA (Gr. avd07^a, from avaridr^i, I set apart), in the Greek classics, anything set apart as an offering to the gods, applied to the numerous votive gifts which were suspended upon the walls of temples or exposed upon ANATIIOTII ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS 459 public altars. By change of usage it after ward became the name of anything devoted to the infernal gods, anything execrated and ex ecrable, causing the abhorrence of men. In this sense it was adopted by the Christian church as the synonyme of the Hebrew herem, which signifies both a thing devoted to God and extermination, and which was used by the Jews in pronouncing the ban of excommuni cation. The Old Testament gives many exam ples of herem or anathema. Moses pronounced the anathema against those Canaanitish cities which should refuse to submit to the Lord, and Joshua declared everything captured in Jericho herem, and punished Achan for violating the ban. In the New Testament it is used in the sense of "set aside" or "accursed." In the Roman Catholic church it is a sentence pro nounced against heretics and schismatics, or against those who wilfully and obstinately per severe in a course of conduct which the church condemns. It implies exclusion from the com munion and society of the faithful, who are taught to regard the object of this ecclesiastical penalty as one who by his crimes has cut him self off from the church and merited the flames of hell. The anathema, however, is not sup posed to be a sentence of eternal reprobation ; it is a temporal punishment, similar in its effects to excommunication. Most of the dog matical decrees of the church close with anathemas against all who presume to deny them. Thus the council of Trent employs it against such as deny the existence of purga tory, the doctrine of the real presence, &c. ANATHOTH, a town of ancient Palestine, the birthplace of Jeremiah, about 4 in. N. of Jeru salem. It was in the possession of the tribe of Benjamin, and a city of priests. It was once a considerable place, but is, according to Robinson, identical with the present Anata, an insignificant village. Anata is in the top of the high range of hills north of Jerusalem, and commands a prospect of the Dead sea. It was in Anathoth that Jeremiah bought the field (witnessed by Baruch), as a symbol of the return from the captivity. ANATOLIA. See ASIA MIXOE. ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS, the skeleton and other portions of the dead body preserved from decomposition by various artificial meth ods, for the use of medical schools or science. The soft parts are usually separated from the skeleton by long-continued maceration in cold water, or by steaming or boiling ; the bones are bleached, and the articulations held to gether by means of wires. This is called an artificial skeleton, and, when properly pre pared, may be kept for an indefinite time. To preserve the natural articulations of the bones, the soft parts must be removed carefully by dissection, and many delicate sections and mechanical adaptations are required to display the internal structure, forms, and relative pro portions of the skeleton and its component parts. The whole body of an animal, or any soft portion of the body, such as the heart or the intestines, may be preserved for a consid erable time in alcohol or in spirits of turpen tine ; and such preparations are very useful in the study of comparative anatomy. Another method of anatomical preparation consists of injecting the vessels with some colored sub stance to distend them, and display their rami fications in the organs, that the shape and course and relative dimensions of the vessels may be seen with ease. By means of a large syringe inserted into the main trunks of the arteries, these vessels are filled with a soft colored mass, which penetrates into the small est branches, distends them, and makes them visible. The infused substance usually con sists of a mixture of soap, pitch, oil, and tur pentine, to which is added a coloring sub stance : red for the arteries, blue for the veins, and white for the absorbents or lymphatics. For the latter vessels quicksilver is preferred, on account of its extreme divisibility. Dried preparations of the soft parts, such as muscles, nerves, and membranes, are preserved by covering them with a protecting coat of trans parent varnish. The quicker they are dried, the better for this mode of preparation and conservation. Spirits of wine, distilled with pepper or a very strong pimento, and mixed with muriatic acid, is used for preserving them. Washing with pyroligneous acid gives firmness and whiteness to these anatomical prepara tions. Those which are preserved in liquids are usually kept in bottles of transparent glass, with accurately ground stoppers, to prevent evaporation, and secure them against the de structive influence of air, moisture, heat, dust, and insects. Preparations of this kind are very necessary to preserve important speci mens of normal and abnormal development in the animal economy, but they are difficult to preserve long in a comparative state of perfec tion. Other means have therefore been devised as substitutes for common use. Instead of anatomical preparations properly so called, anatomical imitations are now used for pur poses of general instruction, and great perfec tion has of late years been attained in the manufacture of these works of art. Imitations of organic form and structure were formerly made in wood, as those of the abbe" Fontana in the museum at Florence ; or in wax, as those made by Laumonier and others in France and Italy ; card-board, as by Dr. Ameline of Caen ; or in lithographic drawings, woodcuts, colored prints, &c. Drawings, however per fect, are not sufficient for all purposes ; and though the anatomical imitations of organs were sometimes mnde with rare perfection and beauty in wax, they were too expensive for common use, and could neither be taken to pieces for detailed inspection, nor handled freely without risk of injury. In 1825 Dr. Auzoux of France conceived the idea of mak ing imitations of all the organs of the human body ; not only of their general external form 460 ANATOMY and appearance, but also of their internal and minute details. For this purpose lie composed j a pasty mixture of a sort of papier mache which may be moulded to any form while liquid, and hardened in the form thus given. Models of the organs were made in all their different layers and proportions, with the ves sels and the nerves in each, as they are found in nature ; the liquid substance was then poured upon the models and allowed to har den. A complete manikin of the human body and all the internal organs was thus formed, which could be taken to pieces and put to gether again at will and with the greatest ease ; each part being colored in imitation of nature, and labelled with a number or the real name, by which it could be recognized at any time, either in or out of its natural position in the manikin. In 1830 this art, called clastic anatomy (Or. A^aar<$f, broken), was brought to great perfection ; and a comparatively fault less model of the human body, 5 feet G inches in height, could be manufactured and sold for $600. This was still, however, too expensive for many persons, and complete manikins of a smaller size (3 feet 6 inches, in lieu of 5 feet 6 inches) were manufactured, and sold for $200 each. Each manikin contains 129 distinct pieces, forming different layers and organs or parts of organs. ANATOMY (Gr. avaro/ay, dissection), the sci ence which treats of the structure of organized bodies as learned from dissection. During the primitive ages of the world anatomy was little cultivated as a science, and hence the art of surgery was undeveloped. In later ages reli gious scruples forbade the opening of the human body to inspect the viscera ; and students of anatomy were limited to the dissection of ani mals, to gain a knowledge of internal organs and their functions. The first branch of this science which was studied from nature was therefore animal anatomy, now called " com parative anatomy," from the fact of different types of the animal kingdom differing in their internal structure as much as in their external form. Aristotle was the first to give accurate descriptions of the internal organs of different, species of animals, and for many centuries after him little was done to advance the science by actual dissection and observation. Hippocrates had some accurate views of osteology, but his descriptions of the brain and the heart, and their respective functions, show that he knew little of anatomy. The first important development of human anatomy, of which we have any authentic record, took place at Alex andria in Egypt during the reign of the Ptole mies. Erasistratus of Ceos and Herophilns of Chalcedon are mentioned by Galen as eminent anatomists of the Alexandrian school ; and Herophilns is said to have obtained permission to open and inspect the bodies of living crimi nals, to gain a knowledge of internal organs and their modes of action. The writings of Celsus show that he cultivated anatomy, but the next great steps in advance were made by Claudius Galenus, the celebrated physician of Pergamus. Galen was born at Pergamus, A. D. 130. He collected the works of his predecessors and pursued the study of anatomy, as far as he was able, by dissecting animals. He first showed that arteries in the living animal contain blood, and not air alone, as had been supposed by Erasistratus ; but it did not occur to him to notice the circulatory movement of the blood in the vessels. This was reserved for Harvey, many centuries later ; before which time the blood was supposed to move, in the veins as well as in the arteries, from within outward. During the middle ages the natural sciences, neglected by the Christians, were mainly culti vated by the Arabs ; but, as the Mohammedan religion forbade the dissection of human bodies, their physicians were obliged to rely on the knowledge transmitted to them by the school of Alexandria, and chiefly on the works of Galen. Their writings add little or nothing to the sci ence of anatomy, unless it be the names of cer tain organs translated from the Greek into the Arabic, arid afterward to some extent adopted by Italian and Spanish writers on anatomy. The spirit of religious liberty and commercial enter prise revived the cultivation of the arts and sciences in Italy during the 14th century ; and Mondino da Luzzi, professor of anatomy at the university of Bologna, first publicly dissected two human bodies in the presence of medical students in 1306 and 1315, and shortly afterward published a description of the organs from di rect observation and dissection. This, with the works of Galen, served as a text book for the schools till the 16th century, when the study of human anatomy from actual dissection be came general in the medical schools of Italy. From this time forward human anatomy has been constantly studied from actual dissection and observation, in those countries of Europe where religious considerations offered least re sistance to this mode of proceeding. First Italy, then Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Ger many, France, England, and America, have furnished names of eminence in the cultivation and advancement of the science of anatomy ; but popular prejudices have hindered the free dissection of human bodies in medical school;-, until a very recent date, in many states of Eu rope, and also in this country. Anatomy is now one of the most important branches of natural science, and its various departments have become so extensive as to require separate divisions and distinct methods of analysis. We have thus comparative anatomy, including every type of animal organization, not except ing man, as one of the types of the animal kingdom ; and human anatomy as a distinct branch of study, in connection with physiology, pathology, surgery, and therapeutics. These again are subdivided into distinct branches, under the names of regional or surgical anat omy, descriptive or special anatomy, histolo- gical or general anatomy, and microscopical or ANATOMY 461 minute anatomy. Surgical anatomy treats of the relations of organs to each other, in each region of the body, such as the positions, forms, dimensions,, structure, and peculiarities of nerves and vessels, muscles, glands, and mem branes, in the head, the trunk, and the limbs, a proper knowledge of which is necessary to guide the surgeon in his delicate and difficult operations. He must know where to cut and what to jivoid in operating on the living body; for the life of the patient might be jeoparded if the surgeon were not well acquainted with the relative anatomy of vital organs. Descrip tive anatomy treats of the distinct systems which pervade the whole frame, or perform a certain class of functions in the organism ; such as the bones of the skeleton, the muscles, the skin, and the nerves of the whole body ; the digestive system ; the blood vessels ; the respiratory organs ; the generative and the uri nary apparatus ; the blood and the secretions. General anatomy treats of the different tissues which compose the special organs or classes of organs in different parts of the body ; such as the three distinct coats of the stomach, i. <?., the mucous membrane, the muscular coat, and the serous membrane or peritoneal covering ; the areolar or connective tissue, found between the mucous and muscular layers, and disseminated more or less extensively throughout the body. Minute anatomy investigates the elementary basis of organic nature, and by the aid of chem istry and the microscope observes and analyzes the atomic and cell structure of the tissues which compose the organs of the body; the fluids and contents are also subjected to this minute analysis. Animal anatomy was scantily and almost exclusively studied by the ancients ; human anatomy was fairly commenced by the Italian schools of the 14th, loth, and 16th cen turies ; the descriptive branch was chiefly cul tivated throughout Europe until the end of the 18th, when Bichat instituted and almost origi nated the systematic study of general anato my. Microscopic observations had been made by Malpighi and other anatomists, but many of the great discoveries of comparative and general anatomy have been made in the pres ent age ; and the systematic study and de velopment of minute anatomy date from the improved construction of the compound micro scope in 1832, before which time it was impos sible to make much progress in this most im portant branch of science. Descriptive or special anatomy is limited to the study of the parts which form the body of one type or indi vidual, or of the two sexes of one species, as man and woman. It does not, however, ex clude reference to age and difference of race. The organs of the body have been classed in various ways by different anatomists, and most ly according to the nature of their special structure and peculiarity of use or function. Bichat s method, slightly modified, is most in use, and is perhaps the best. By this the or gans are classed as follows : I. Organs pertaiu- ! ing to the animal, voluntary, or relational func- : tions. II. Organs pertaining to the nutritive functions. III. Organs pertaining to genera tion, or the reproductive functions. To the I first class belong the organs of locomotion, in- j nervation, voice, and sensation. 1st. The skele- i ton, composed of bones, cartilages, ligaments, ! and joints, as instruments of locomotion and ; forming the subject of what is termed oste- ! ology. 2d. The muscular system, composed . of muscles, tendons, sheaths, and their append- j ages, as agents of locomotion, forming the sub- ! ject of myology. 8d. The nervous system, | composed of medullary white substance and ! gray vesicular matter, enclosed in sheaths of serous and fibrous membrane, forming the brain, spinal cord, ganglia, and nerves. The special study of the structure and functions of the nervous system and appendages is termed neurology. 4th. The vocal organs, as an appa ratus of relational use between man and the external world, are the larynx or throat, and the mouth; the one as an organ of the voice, and the other as an organ of articulation or speech. 5th. The special organs of sense are distinguished into proper and common ; taste, smell, sight, and hearing belong to the former, I and touch, the sense of temperature, and the ! muscular sense of resistance, weight, lassitude, I &c., belong to the latter. The mouth, the nose, ! the eyes, and the ears are special organs, but I the whole external surface of the body serves ! for the sense of touch and temperature, while i the whole internal muscular structure seems to i be affected by the sense of lassitude, and the , muscular parts of the trunk and limbs are , affected by the sense of resistance to external i weight or force. To the second class of organs, i pertaining to the functions of nutrition, belong i the organs of digestion, respiration, circulation, | secretion, and excretion. 1st. The digestive system consists of the alimentary canal, to gether with its accessory organs, such as the i salivary glands, the liver, and the pancreas. i The alimentary canal, consisting of its succes- : sive portions, namely, the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, I receives the food and accomplishes its digestion j by the mechanical operation of the teeth in | mastication, followed by the modifying action ; of the various digestive secretions. 2d. The ; heart is the centre of the circulatory system, I which consists of two distinct circuits, called pulmonary and systemic. From the right ! ventricle of the heart the dark impure blood | is sent through the pulmonary arteries into j the lungs, where the minute capillary blood : vessels are exposed to the almost direct con- | tact of the air, from which oxygen is absorbed I to vivify the blood, giving it a bright scarlet ; red. A thin membrane intervenes between the | air in the lungs and the blood, but this does \ not impede the absorption of oxygen and the exhalation of carbonic acid gas, the one to give new life and the other to rid the blood of | poisonous gas and effete matter. When thus 462 ANATOMY purified and renovated in the lungs, the blood returns to the left side of the heart, performing a complete circuit in the region of the heart and lungs alone, for this sole purpose. It is then propelled from the left ventricle of the heart, through the aorta and all the arteries of the whole body, into every organ, for the pur pose of nutrition. The capillary vessels ramify minutely in every organ, and the tissues of the part absorb the nutrient portions of the fluid, and return waste matter to the veins, in ex change for the nutriment brought to them by the arteries. The general system of arteries carries pure blood to all parts of the body, and the general system of veins returns impure blood from all parts of the body back into the heart, to be thence sent into the lungs for puri fication, and thus keep up perpetual circulation and renovation, od. The respiratory organs are the larynx, the trachea or windpipe, the bronchial tubes, and air vesicles within the lungs. Their function is to breathe in new sup plies of air to vivify the blood, and to exhale carbonic acid and other vitiated matters, which are poisonous when accumulated in too large a quantity. 4th. The kidneys separate from the blood the elements of the urine, and thus rid the system of another kind of waste matter, which also becomes poisonous if allowed to accumulate within the vessels that contain and circulate the vital fluid. When in the bladder the urine is not dangerous, because no longer mingled with the blood, unless too much accu mulated and too long retained. To the third class of organs belong the reproductive systems, male and female. These are not essential to the life of the individual, - as they may be ex tirpated without danger even to the health. General anatomy treats of the different sorts of tissue composing the organs of the body. Bichat made 21 distinctions of animal texture, but later anatomists have modified his method of distinction. It will suffice here to say that the sheath or covering membranes of bones, muscles, nerves, and many other organs, are formed of a fibrous kind of membrane, much alike in texture and in its leading properties, whether it be the periosteum of the bones, the fibrous sheath of the muscles, the neurilemma of the nerves, or the tunica albuginea or covering of the testicles, the ovaries, &c. Serous mem brane is also the same kind of tissue in every part of the body, although called arachnoid when it serves as a covering for the brain, pleura as a covering for the lungs, and peri toneum as a covering for the viscera of the abdomen, and a lining for the inner walls of the trunk below the chest. The leading ele ments of structure in the organs of the body are fibrous tissue, serous membrane, bony texture, cartilaginous texture, fibro-cartilage, muscular fibre of various kinds, striated and non-striated, glandular tissue, mucous mem brane, dermoid tissue or skin, cuticle or epidermic tissue on the surface of skin and mucous membrane, horny tissue, as the hair and nails, white nervous or medullary sub stance, and gray nervous or ganglionic or vesicular matter ; and diseases are character ized in many instances, not so much by the particular organ affected in any part of the body, as by the particular tissue affected by disease in any given region. Minute anatomy goes deeper still into details, and with the microscope and chemical analysis endeavors to find out the elementary constitution of the tissues and fluids of the body. Thus chemistry reveals to us that the simple elements found in the tissues are oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitro gen, sulphur, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, sodium, potassium, chlorine, fluorine, silicon, iron, and manganese, with perhaps a trace of two or three others. The compound elements are of three classes : first, substances of an or ganic nature introduced with the food, or formed in the processes of digestion and nutrition ; sec ondly, substances resulting from the waste or disintegration of the body ; and thirdly, sub stances of inorganic or mineral origin. The in organic compound substances are water, chlo ride of sodium, chloride of potassium, fluoride of calcium, hydrochlorate of ammonia, carbon ate of lime, bicarbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, carbonate of potassa, bicarbonate of potassa, carbonate of soda, bicarbonate of soda, sulphate of potassa, sulphate of soda, sul phate of lime, basic phosphate of lime or bone earth, acid phosphate of lime, phosphate of mag nesia, phosphate of potassa, neutral phosphate of soda, acid phosphate of soda, ammonia, and phosphate of magnesia and ammonia. The compound substances resulting from waste of the human body are principally carbonic acid, urea, creatine, creatinine, urate of soda, and urate of potassa, The substances of an organic nature related to the nutrition of the body are the uncrystallizable albuminoid mat ters, such as albumen, albuminose, fibrine, pan- creatine, mucosine, rnusculine, globuline, hema- tine, biliverdine, and melanin e ; crystallizable substances, either containing nitrogen, such as glycocholate and taurocholate of soda, or des titute of nitrogen, such as sugar and fat. By microscopic observation, the elementary struc ture of the tissues is found to consist mostly of minute cells, fibres, tubes, and a homogeneous or granular substratum. Schwann believed that all the tissues of the body were formed from cells ; but subsequent observation shows that although many tissues retain their original cellular structure throughout life, and many more are formed from cells which are after ward metamorphosed, there are some in which no other cell agency is employed than that which occurs in the elaboration of the plastic material; a certain structureless lamella, com monly called basement membrane, offers no visible traces of cell structure, but rather re sembles the filmy tissue of which the walls of minute cells themselves are formed. It is, how ever, generally believed that minute cells, or other analogous or derived forms, constitute ANATOMY, COMPARATIVE ANAXIMENES 463 the elementary organic parts of nearly every tissue, and tli.it all chemical changes occur in them, as integral elements of structure, with out altering their numbers and relative posi tions ; that these minute anatomical elements, in fact, are as permanent in form as the tissues and the organs they compose ; and that all growth in the individual organism takes place by a relative enlargement of their size, and not by any increase of their number ; so that, as the organs remain the same in form and num ber in the adult as in the new-born child, the same is true of the tissues that compose the organs, and the microscopic cells composing tissues. The principal varieties of cells now recognized are : the red globules of the blood, flattened, circular bodies, homogeneous in structure, from 4n>W to ^oVo f an mcn m diameter; the white globules of the blood, which are colorless and granular, spherical in form, and T ^ of an inch in diameter ; scale- like epithelial and epidermic cells, very thin, pentagonal or hexagonal in shape, with a round or oval nucleus imbedded in their substance ; columnar and ciliated epithelium cells, lining certain parts of the alimentary canal, air pas sages, generative organs, and ventricles of the brain ; glandular epithelium cells, forming the active agents of secretion in the glandular organs ; and the nerve cells of the brain, spinal cord, and ganglia. The fibres are : the white fibres of areolar tissue, of tendons, fascia?, and the like ; the yellow elastic fibres of elastic tissue; the compound muscular fibres; and ultimate nervous filaments. The tubular ele ments are the capillary blood vessels and lym phatics, and the straight or convoluted tubules of the kidneys, the testicles, and some of the glandular organs. The homogeneous or granu lar substratum, in which these anatomical elements are imbedded, varies in consistency and composition in the different tissues. ANATOMY, Comparative. See COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. ANAXAGORAS, a Grecian philosopher, born at Clazomenie in Ionia, about 500 B. C., died in 428. He rejected wealth and honors that he might indulge his love of meditation and phi losophy. From Clazomeme he removed to Athens, where he lived in the closest intimacy with Pericles, and also numbered among his friends or pupils several of the most distin guished Athenians of that period. Anaxagoras is generally considered the first of the Greeks who conceived of God as a Divine Mind (by him termed voi-q) acting upon matter with con scious intelligence and design. He taught that the sun was no deity, but an inanimate fiery mass, and therefore not a proper object of wor ship ; and that the miraculous appearances at sacrifices were explicable by natural laws. lie suggested that the moon shone by reflected light, and rightly explained solar and lunar eclipses. His attempt to account for these phenomena, at that time regarded as super natural, on natural principles, brought him into great danger. He gave moral expositions of the myths of Homer, and explained the names of the gods by allegory. As a penalty for what was accounted his impiety, he was con demned to die ; but through the influence of Pericles his sentence was commuted to banish ment, lie retired to Lampsacus, on the Hel lespont, and died there a few years later in poverty. A little before his death the senate of Lampsacus sent messengers to inquire what commemoration would be most acceptable to him ; he answered, " Let all the boys have a play day on the anniversary of my death ! " This festival was called Anaxagoreia, and was observed for centuries. The fragments of his works have been collected by Schaubach (Leip- sic, 1827), and by Schorn (Bonn, 1829). AXAXARCHIS, a Grecian philosopher, a native of Abdera in Thrace, who attended Alexander the Great into Asia, and succeeded in winning his friendship by his wit and servility. After i the death of Alexander, in 323 B. C., Anaxar- j chus, while returning to Greece, is said to have been shipwrecked on the coast of Cyprus, and pounded to death in a mortar by order of Ni- cocreon, one of the princes of that island, whom I he had offended. ANAXIMANDER, a Grecian philosopher of the Ionian school, born at Miletus in 610, died about 547 B. C. He is said to have led a colony to Apollonia in Illyria, and many won derful deeds and inventions are ascribed to him. Grecian philosophy is indebted to him for the word apxfli signifying origin or prin ciple. His general doctrine, as stated by an cient writers, concerning the origin of nature, was that the first principle of all things is in finity (rd d7T^oi;); that the universe, though variable in its parts, as a whole is fixed and unchangeable ; that infinity is the beginning and end of all things. He was the first to commit philosophical doctrines to writing. lie wrote a treatise on geometry, and made calculations on the distances and size of the heavenly bod ies. He held that the stars are globes of air and fire animated by divinity, that the earth is a globe fixed in the centre of the universe, and that the sun is 28 times as large as the earth. He was the first to compose a trea tise on geography, and also prepared a chart of such portions of land and sea as he was acquainted with. According to some, he in vented the sun dial. AXAXIMEXES. I. A Grecian philosopher, born at Miletus, flourished in the latter half of the 6th century B. C. He taught that the essence of all things is air, whence all things are produced by condensation and rarefaction through eternally existing motion ; that the sun and moon are fiery bodies of a flat, circu lar form; that the stars are also fiery sub stances, fastened like nails in a crystalline sphere; and that the earth is a tablet resting on air. II. A native of Lampsacus, a historian and rhetorician, and one of the preceptors of Alexander the Great. He wrote a history of 464: ANOAOH ANCHOR Alexander s reign, and that of his father Philip, and also a history of Greece. ANCACII, a N. TV. department of Pern, be tween the Andes and the Paciiic, bounded N. E. by the Maraflon; area, about 18,000 sq. in. ; pop. 317,000. It is one of the most fertile por tions of Peru, producing heavy crops of cereals and a large quantity of sugar, and in some parts cotton. The elevated table lands are made very fertile by irrigation. Excellent marble is quarried and valuable minerals abound. The capital is Iluaras, in an extensive, beautiful, and populous valley of the same name. Wood here is scarce, and its place is supplied with champa, a black vegetable matter resembling lignite. The other chief cities are Iluaylas, Santa, Hua- ri, Cajatambo, Pomabamba, and Pallasca, each the capital of a province or district of the same name. It was through the passes of this department that the Colombian army, in the war of independence, made its astonish ing march into Peru to attack the Spanish forces at Junin. ANCELOT. I. Jacques Ar^no Francois Polycarpe, a French dramatist, born in Havre, Feb. 9, 1794, died in Paris, Sept. 7, 1854. He held an office in the ministry of the marine, which he lost after the revolution of 1830, as well as a pension granted him by Louis XVIII. In 1841 he was received a member of the French academy. His first tragedy, Louis IX. (1819), had great success from its adoption by the royalists as an offset against Casimir Dela- vigne s Vepres siciliennes. After retiring from office he devoted himself chiefly to the rapid production of vaudevilles and light pieces for the minor theatres. lie also published Six mois en Russie^in prose and verse (1826); Marie de Brabant, a poem in six cantos; and ISIIomme du monde, a melodramatic romance, afterward dramatized. II. Marguerite Lonise Vir^inie Chardon, a dramatist and novelist, wife of the preceding, born in Dijon, March 15, 1792. She collaborated largely in her hus band s lighter works, and produced several successful comedies, the most popular of which was Marie, ou trois epoques (1836). Her Theatre complet (4vols., 1848) comprises 20 plays. Her most popular novels have passed through many editions. She also cultivated painting, and in 1828 exhibited Une lecture de M. Ancelot, a picture which excited much at tention from its portraits of nearly all the Parisian litterateurs. ANCHISES, a legendary Trojan prince, the father of ^Eneas. He was related to the fam ily of Priam, and was king of Dardanus in Troas. Venus was enamored of him, and, visiting him in the disguise of a Phrygian prin cess, became the mother of ^Ericas. Accord ing to Virgil, Anchises survived the capture of Troy, being borne from the burning city on the shoulders of his son, and died in Sicily shortly after the arrival of JEneas in that island. The people of Egesta, a town situated near the place where he is said to have been buried, erected a sanctuary and celebrated funeral games in his honor. ANCHOR (Gr. aynvpa, Lat. anchora, Ger. Ariker\ a metal hook of suitable form and of sufficient weight and strength to enable a ship, by means of a chain or cable attachment, to lay hold of the bottom, and thus remain fixed in any desired position. The form of the an chor has undergone but slight modification since the time of Anacharsis, the Scythian philosopher, about 594 13. C. Before him an chors with one arm or tooth had been a short time in use, but he first added the second. The later Greek anchors were of iron, but origi nally they consisted of large wooden pipes filled with melted lead. In the heroic times of Greece, large stones were sunk into the water by ropes to hold the ship ; and a little later bags of sand and baskets filled with rocks were used. Every ship was supplied with from four to eight anchors. The largest of them was termed the sacra, and was only used in times of great danger ; hence the proverb, sacram, anclwram vohere, to fly to the last refuge. The Chinese anchors, now as in ancient times, are only crooked pieces of heavy wood. With the exception of Spain and certain of the South sea islands, where copper is occasionally employed, the metal used in the construction of anchors is the best of wrought iron. The form of the common wrought-iron anchor, with the manner in which it " lays hold " of the sea bottom, may be best understood by a refer- FIG. 1. Common Anchor. ence to fig. 1. It is evident from the direc tion of the strain that any forward movement will cause the lower fiuke and arm to be buried still deeper in the earth. Anchors are called solid or ordinary when the shank and j arms are wrought into a body ; they are called portable when they can be taken to pieces. ! Each part of an anchor has a distinct name. I The shank or the central part of the instru- 1 ment is a round or octagonal bar of iron taper- ! ing toward one end, where it becomes square ; | the arms are two curved pieces projecting from i the heavy end of the shank at right angles with it, and in opposite directions; the stock is a i transverse beam, of wood or of iron, fastened I to the square end of the shank at right angles | with it and with the arms, and serves to cant the anchor when the arms tall on the bottom in ANCHOR 465 a horizontal instead of a vertical position ; the square is the square end of the shank, which at the extreme end, just beyond the place where the stock is fastened, is bored through for attach ing the shackle by means of a pin ; the shackle is a ring, by means of which the cable or chain is attached to the anchor ; the crown is the extreme end of the shank, or the external part of the arms, on which the anchor falls when let go in a vertical position ; the palms , or flukes are parts of the arms, of a shield-like | form, which are near their extremities, and j constitute the holding surface of the anchor. | The angle of the face of the palm with the : shank is 51. The arms extend from the shank j in a curve the outside radius of which is 35. That part of each arm which sustains the palm is called the blade, and the part which projects beyond the palm, and has to open the ground, | is named the point, peak, or bill. If 100 be taken as the unit of length for both the stock and shank, then 40 will represent the average length of each arm from the crown to the bill. The relative weights of these several parts may be roughly estimated as follows : The shank, -^ of the whole ; each arm, T 3 ff ; two palms, -^ ; stock, I- ; shackle, jy. When an anchor is let go from the ship, it falls ver tically through the water, and, should the bot- j torn be an even one, the crown will strike first ; j but a rocky bed may compel one of the arms ; to receive the full force of the fall, for which | reason any cross section of an arm should rep- ! resent an ellipse, with the line of its greatest j diameter vertical to the point of probable con- | tact, thus receiving the heaviest strain in the | direction of the greatest strength. After ! striking the ground the anchor falls sideways, \ the arms lie flat, and the stock rests on one i end. A length of chain proportional to the I depth of water, and so calculated that the j hardest pull of the vessel will not lift it en- | tirely from the ground, is permitted to run out. : The action of the current or of the wind on the : vessel soon makes her exert a traction on the ! chain, and this lying on the ground pulls down | the shackle, bringing the stock flat on the bot- torn, and the arms perpendicular to it ; this is called canting the anchor. The longer ; the stock and the shorter the arms, the less i force will be required to perform this opera- ! tion ; hence in all anchors the stock is longer ! than the arms. After canting, the anchor will ! be dragged or will hold. Quick holding de- pends on the sharpness of the bill and the ; angle of the palm with the ground. For weighing anchor," the chain or cable is taken in by aid of a capstan, till the bow of the vessel is brought over the shackle ; here an in creased pull is necessary to trip it, and the anchor is raised to its place. The property of (pick tripping depends on the curve ot the arm, and on the angle of the palm ; they have to be such that when the shackle is pulled up vertically, the bill cuts open a short curved ; circular way in which the palm and arm fol- ! VOL. i. 30 low. When the palm is out, the ground is torn open by the arm, which is comparatively sharp, and acts with a more advantageous lev erage than the palm would. More than two thirds of the ruptures of anchors happen in the operation of weighing. We have said that the arms ought to be thicker in the dimension parallel to the shank, to resist shocks against rocks. The same is necessary to resist the strain in tripping. The shank is exactly in the same circumstances, and has to be thicker in the direction of the arms, and to decrease in size from the crown to the square. Though theory indicates rectangular sections as best for the arms and shank, they are in practice made round or oval, or at least the angles are much rounded. This has been found necessary for the preservation of cables, which often take a turn around the anchor when the vessel changes its direction with the tide or wind. The forg ing of an anchor requires the constant super intendence of an educated engineer, while the workmen should be chosen with an eye to their skill and judgment, as well as muscular strength. A sufficient number of wrought-iron bars made from the best scrap iron, or from a Welsh mine iron," are bound together by iron hoops, form ing the faggot ; this is placed in a specially contrived furnace, where it is brought to a white or welding heat, when it is removed by the aid of a crane to the anvil, and subjected to the rapid and powerful blows of the stamp ing hammer. When an approximate form is thus obtained, the finishing is done by heavy sledges in the hands of the anchor smiths. The arms and stock may be forged separately and then welded together at the crown, or, as in the process patented by Mr. Perrins of England, the whole may be built up by the welding to gether in a given order of a number of separate pieces, so adjusted as to secure the greatest strength in the direction of the heaviest strain. When the stock is of wood, it consists of two beams, generally oak, mortised in the centre so that they may embrace the square, upon which they are firmly bolted ; the middle thickness should be one twelfth of the length, and the whole should taper from the centre out, the diameter of the end being about one half that at the centre. The iron stock, which is rapidly replacing that of wood, is a simple round bar tipped with knobs, which prevent its en tering the ground, and with one end bent at right angles. This passes through a hole in the square which is rounded out for the pur pose, and is held in position by a metal ring or shoulder upon one side, and a slit and key on the other; by removing this key, the whole stock may be driven through, and thus, owing to the crook upon the end, be doubled down upon the shank, rendering it much more com pact and portable. So important is the quality of strength in an anchor, that all modifications of the tried and approved form, or any im provements that have the appearance of sac rificing strength to convenience in handling, ANCHOR or even gain in holding power, seem to have been regarded with suspicion. Hence the an chor no\v in general use might almost have been described a century ago. In 1833 Lieut. Rodger of the English navy received letters patent for an improve ment in the size and form of the palms, "having found hy ex perience that anchors with small palms will not only hold better than with large ones, but that the arms of the anchor, even with out palms, have been found to take more se cure hold of the ground than anchors of the old construction of similar weight and length." FIG. 2.-Admirnlty Anchor. He fixed llp(m Qne fifth of the length of the arm as a suitable propor tion for the length or the depth of the palm. The palm of the anchor, instead of being flat, presents two inclined planes, calculated for cutting the sand or mud instead of resisting perpendicularly. The Lenox, Mitcheson, and Aylen anchors are all improvements on the old admiralty pattern; while the Isaac anchor, an American invention, has a flat bar of iron passing from palm to palm, in addition to which two other bars unite the ends of the stock to the centre of the shank, intended to prevent the fouling of the cable. A novel and in many respects important improve ment is that of the Porter anchor, having five ship owners appointed by the lords of the admiralty to test their relative merits. The names arc arranged alphabetically: if 1 tt . i - S tb (3 1 !! ANCHOR. 8 ^ s "* 1 s 1 "S . l.f S s !? if 1 - g 2 = 3 J2 3 11 "i .5 OS 1 -. M | S fan < G- H E !<5 Admiralty . 4 5 1 2 1 4 1 2 2 , 2 Avlcn 7 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 2 I 5 Porter, or 1 Honiball ( 2 3 4 2 1 4 3 5 i 3 Isaac 1 6 4 5 1 1 4 4 8,1 Lenox 6 3 2 ; i 2 8 2 1 | 3,2 Mitcheson . 1 rial 1 313 2 3 2 4 | 4 Rodger 5 2 ill 2 4 2 i 1 1 1 2 Trotman... . 1 3 1 3 i 3 4 1 4 3 5 | 5 FIG. 8. Trotman Anchor- movable flukes or arms; this anchor, with certain valuable alterations, is represented above as the "Trotman anchor." It will be readily seen that, by the closing of the upper* arm against the shank, the chances of fouling are greatly decreased, as also the danger of the ship s grounding upon her anchor in shal low water. The accompanying table, showing the relative order in which the several anchors above mentioned stand with regard to each of the properties essential to a good anchor, was embodied in a report made by a committee of The estimated numerical values of these sev eral anchors are as follows : Trotman, 1 28 ; Rodger, 1-26; Mitcheson, 1-20; Lenox, 1-13; Porter, 1-09; Aylen, 1-09; Admiralty, 1, stand ard; Isaac, 0*73. Notwithstanding the above favorable report, the Trotman anchor has not been received with general favor by ship mas ters, though largely used by the merchant steamers. In general service, anchors rank according to their size and weight, as follows : bower, sheet or stream, and kedge ; and a competent authority recommends them in the following order : the Lenox and Rodger for boAver, Mitcheson for sheet, and Trotman for a shore anchor. The anchor adopted by the United States navy is solid with an iron stock, and as a rule its weight is proportionally less than the English standard, our officers prefer ring a smaller anchor with greater length of chain. The following table gives the relative size of chains to anchors of given weight, and is compiled from the navy regulations on this subject r Weight of anchor. Size of chain. SOOOlbs 2 T V inches. 6.000 " .If! " 4,000 " l T ff " 2 000 " 1 iv- " 1,000 " |2- " The following is a reduced table of "Lloyd s Regulations for the Number and Weights of Anchors for Merchant Vessels " : ,si| Stream. Kedge. Bower, Wood Stock. Bower, Iron Stock. Stream. Kedge. g -g Tons, i 50 2 100 2 250 3 500 3 1 000 3 1.600 3 2.000 ! 4 1 1 1 1 -J 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 Cwt. 3 13 23 85 43 47 Cwt 4 7 15 26 41 50 54 Cwt. n 5" 9 12 14 14 Cwt. |Cwt. 6-f 81 Si 4 9 4 In addition to these various forms of com mon anchors, there are numerous devices de signed for special service. Among these are the grapnel and mushroom anchors shown in fig. 4. The former is adapted for securing light craft,- and the latter a solid concave ANCHORET ANCHYLOSIS 407 metal plate vritli central shank is onlr used where permanent anchorage is desired, as for light-ships, buoys, &c. The latest novelty is an FIG. 4 Grapnel and Mushroom Anchors. anchor with an elastic shank. The principle of having a spring between the soil and the vessel is evidently excellent, as it is certain that without the natural spring formed by the curve in the chain it could never withstand the sudden jerks from a mass of several hun dred tons, though the better place for the spring seems to be on board rather than in im mediate contact with the rough sea bottom. AXCHDRET, Anchorite, or more properly Ana- cliorct (Gr. dra^w/w?-^), a person retired from society, especially one who has withdrawn himself with the specific purpose of attaining a higher degree of spirituality. The term is par ticularly applied to the hermits who began to appear in the Christian church about the 3d century, living in solitude generally in desert places, and not, like the later cenobites or mdnks, in communities. They often subjected themselves to extreme penances and mortifica tions. St. Paul the Hermit, St. Simeon Stylites, and St. Anthony of the Desert were among the most celebrated of them, Paul being reckoned the earliest of the solitaries. After the in stitution of monasticism they gradually dis appeared in the West. A synod in 092 ordained that no person should be admitted an anchoret until he had resided three years in a monas tery. Hermits are still to be found in the East, unconnected with any convent. Some writers consider Enoch, Elijah, John the Baptist, and Jesus to have been anchorets. The Thera peutic of Egypt, who were probably derived from the Jewish Essenes, were anchorets, or at least ascetics. The same is true to a degree of the Nazarites of the Old Testament, But so far as Christian anchorets are concerned, they must be referred to the time of the Decian persecution, as the era when they first attained to any historic consideration. AM HOVY, a small fish of the genus engraulh of Cuvier, the peculiar features of which are the opening of the mouth extending behind the Anchovy (Engraulis encrasicholus). eyes, and the long sharp head and projecting upper pw. It is distinguished from tlio sprat and other similar fishes by its very short anal fin, and the dorsal fin being immediately above the ventral. Anchovies enter the Mediterra nean from the sea in enormous shoals in the spring, and deposit their ova along the shores in May, June, and July. They are caught like the herring with nets at night, with the use of lights. Gorgona, a small island west of Leg horn, is a famous place for the fisheries, arid it gives its name to the best qualities of the com mercial article. Other important fisheries are ! along the coasts of Provence and Catalonia. , As the fish are taken, the bodies, separated \ from the heads and entrails, are salted and ": packed in small barrels, and in this state are ready for exportation. Sent to other countries, | they are there repacked in bottles. The brine | in which they are kept is reddened with ochre | and Venetian red, which is supposed to be : done for the purpose of concealing the other dirt. Notwithstanding their impurities and ; the substitution of many inferior fish, anchovies are a favorite relish at the breakfast table with many, being taken out of the bottles and eaten | raw. Anchovy sauce has been a favorite con- ; diment from the time of the Romans. They called it garum, and prepared it as it is now ; made, which is by bruising and boiling the fish ! over a slow fire with melted butter. ANCHYLOSIS (Gr. ayiti;7.uais, a bending), that condition of a joint in which its natural mobil- I ity is greatly impaired or entirely lost. The de- | rivation of the word would imply that the joint is bent, but it is used to designate the abnormal condition in any position. Anchylosis may be true or false. In the former the material which i has been produced by the diseased process, and which prevents the proper degree of mo tion, is bone; in the latter it is fibrous tissue, or the muscles which surround the joint are shortened to such an extent as to curtail move- , rnent. In either case the material may be | between those surfaces of the bones which help ! to form the joint (intra-articular), or may lie i chiefly or entirely outside (extra-articular). | Anchylosis is usually the result of an intiamma- | tion in or near the joints affected, though it I may occur in cases where the joint has been retained in a fixed position for a considerable ; length of time, the disease or injury being in a distant part. If a bone be broken, it must be i kept fixed in order that it may unite ; and to ; effect this it is usually necessary to render the joint above and that "below the fractured part : immovable until union has taken place. During ! this period, if proper precaution be not exer- cised, the joint may become stiffened, and in i this case it is almost always by false anchylo sis. This result is more apt to occur if the fracture be very near to, or especially if it im plicate, the articulation. When a joint is in flamed, the immobility necessary to cure this condition, and still more the not infrequent partial or complete destruction of those struc- 468 ANCIENXE LORETTE ANGOLA tures which form it, are frequent causes of anchylosis. This result, though never desirable, is at times unavoidable, and the most favorable termination that can be expected. The treat ment is of three kinds, preventive, precaution ary, and remedial. Anchylosis may be pre vented by moving the joint at proper times, the parts which surround it being in this way kept from contracting. As regards precaution ary treatment, where anchylosis is inevitable, the surgeon should always endeavor to place the part in such a position as that it shall be most useful to the patient ; e. </., a nearly straight position for the knee, a bent position for the elbow. To remedy the resulting de formity or inconvenience, the contracted parts may be stretched gradually by proper appara tus, or they may be stretched and ruptured suddenly ; and some which refuse thus to yield may in appropriate cases be divided by a nar- row-bladed knife passed subcutaneously. The above treatment can be practised only where the anchylosis is of the false kind ; if it be true, a portion of the bone at or near the joint may be removed, and the parts be allowed to stiti en in a more convenient position, or an attempt may be made to form a new joint by keeping up motion. Where the limb is useless and inconvenient, it may be advisable to re move it. ANCIEME LORETTE, a village of Canada, 7 m. W. S. W. of Quebec ; pop. in 1871, 2,333. It is a place of historical interest, as the refuge of a portion of the Huron Indians after they were defeated and driven from the E. shore of Lake Huron, about 1050. There are now about 250 of them, chiefly employed in making moccasins and snow shoes. ANCILLON. I. Dayid, a French Protestant divine, born in Metz, March 18, 1017, died in Berlin, Sept. 3, 1092. He was the son of a lawyer, and received his first education at a college of Jesuits, who endeavored in vain to convert him to Catholicism. After completing his studies at Geneva, he was pastor at Cha- renton, and afterward at Meaux (1041- 53) and at Metz (1053- 85). On the revocation of the edict of Nantes he went to Frankfort-on-the- Main, and was afterward pastor in that city, at llanau, and in Berlin. He wrote Apolofjie de Luther, de Zwingle, de Calvin et de Beze (llanau, 1000), and several other small works. II. Charles, a French author, son of the pre ceding, born in Metz, July 28, 1059, died in Berlin, July 5, 1715. He graduated as a law yer in Paris, failed to obtain from Louis XIV. the exemption of the Metz Protestants from the revocation of the edict of Nantes, though the persecutions were somewhat relaxed, and subsequently joined his father in Berlin, where the elector of Brandenburg placed him at the head of the French refugees, and subsequently sent him as minister to Switzerland. After being employed (1095- 99) by the landgrave of Baden-Durlach, the king of Prussia appoint ed him historiographer and chief of police. | Among his works are Ilistoire de V etaldissc- | ment des Francais refugies dans les Etats de Bmndebourg (Berlin, 1090), and Ilistoire de la tie de Soliman II. (Rotterdam, 1700). III. Lndwig Friedrich, grandson of the preceding, born in Berlin in 1740, died June 13, 1814. | lie was pastor of the French community in 1 Berlin, counsellor of the upper consistory, and ! author of various writings. IV. Johann Peter ! Fricdrieli, a Prussian statesman and historian, I son of the preceding, born in Berlin, April 30, 1707, diud there, April 19, 1837. After gradu ating at the university of Geneva, he was ap pointed pastor of the French church in Berlin (1790), and professor of history in the military academy (1792). In 1793 he travelled through | Switzerland and France. In 1801 he published ! Melanges de litterature et de pJrilosophie. Two years later followed his most important histor ical work, the Tableau des revolutions du sys- teme politique de V Europe depuis le 15" ie siecle | (afterward translated by himself into German). This was followed by his works Ueber Staats- wissenschaft (1819), Ueber Glauben und Wissen in der Philosophic (1824), and other writings. ANCKARSTROEM, or Ankarsti om, Johan Jakob, the assassin of Gustavus III. of Sweden, born about 1700, executed at Stockholm, April 29, 1792. The son of a superior officer, he became a page at tile court of Gustavus, and j subsequently ensign in the royal body guard ; but in 1783 he withdrew from military service, and settled into country life. As a partisan of the old aristocratic party he vehemently op posed the measures of the king, who followed up his work, begun on his accession, of restrict ing the power of the senate and the nobility. He became implicated in the seditious move ments of the island of Gothland, and was tried for treason in 1790, but acquitted for want of evidence. The same year he engaged in a con spiracy with General Pechlin, Count Horn, Count Ribbing, Baron Bjelke, Colonel Liljehorn, and other discontented nobles, to kill the king ; and on casting lots who should execute the deed, the choice fell upon Anckarstroem. On the night of March 15, 1792, at a masked ball, he shot the king, inflicting a fatal wound. Anckarstroem was at once arrested, tried, con victed, and sentenced, first to be ignominiously flogged, and then to die on the scaffold. He met his fate with great firmness, exulting to the last in the righteousness of his course, and re fusing to disclose the names of his accomplices. AXCLAM. See ANKLAM. ANCONA. I. One of the four provinces of the | department of the Marches, Italy, bounded E. by I the Adriatic and traversed by branches of the j Apennines, with fertile valleys, and by the small rivers Misa, Esino, and Musonc; area, about 740 sq. in. ; pop. in 1872, 202,359. Almost the whole province is under cultivation. It is rich in cattle, cereals, hemp, tobacco, wine, oil, and fruit, and produces some silk. II. A fortified city and free port, capital of the above prov ince, on the Adriatic, 132 m. N. E. of Rome; ANCOXA ANORE 469 pop. in 1872, 45,741, including about 5,000 Jews and a number of Greeks, Levantines, and Turks. The city is built in the form of an am phitheatre, on the slope of two hills rising from the shores of the Adriatic. It is connected by railways and steamers with all parts of Europe and the East. The annual arrivals of ships are over 1,500, besides steamers. The chief imports are colonial produce, metals, and coals. The principal exports are corn, hemp, bacon, sulphur, and cotton. The coasting trade is also very active. The chief manufactures are woollens, cotton, silk hats, and paper. The port is form ed by two moles: one, built by Trajan, is 2,000 feet "long, 100 feet wide, and 65 feet above water, and is spanned by the famous arch of Trajan, considered the finest in the world ; the other has a triumphal arch constructed by Pope Benedict XIV. from the designs of Vanvi- telli. The harbor, defended by several forts, had fallen into decay and was filling up ; but it has recently been dredged and is now rapidly improving. Ancona, notwithstanding its fine quay and a beautiful situation, has the disagree able appearance of a Levantine city, with dirty and narrow business streets, though with a number of good residences along the quay. The cathedral, situated on a promontory, has a remarkable porch, a cupola reputed to be the most ancient in Italy, and fine marble pillars. ! The churches of San Domenico and San Fran- j cisco contain pictures by Titian ; and there are also notable pictures in the other churches, | most of those in St. Agostino being by Lilio, I known as Andrea di Ancona. The English residents worship in the Free Church of Scot land chapel. The city is believed to have been founded by a colony of Syracusans in the time of Dionysius the Elder. Trajan used the port as a military station. After having been gov- Ancona, with the Arch of Trajan. erned by Romans and Lombards, and devas tated by Saracens on several occasions, partic ularly in the 10th century, Ancona remained for a considerable period independent until 1532, when Clement VII. annexed it to the Papal States. In 1832 the citadel Avas seized by the French as a demonstration against the Austrians, who had occupied the insurgent Marches; but the papal authorities continued to preside over the civil administration. The French occupation lasted till 1838. In 1849 the city surrendered to the Austrians, who evacuated it after the battle of Magenta, fought June 4, 1859. Gen. Lamoriciere, commander of the Papal troops, after his defeat at Castel- fidardo, surrendered here to the Italians, Sept. 29, 1860. Ancona became part of Victor EmanueFs possessions Dec. 17, I860. ANCRE, Concino de Concini, marshal and mar quis d\ a Florentine adventurer and prime minister of France, shot in Paris, April 24, 1617. He was the son of a notary, and went to France in 1600 in the suite of the bride of Henry IV., Maria de Medici, one of whose at tendants, Leonora Dori or Galigai, was his wife. With the aid of this woman, who was the daughter of Maria s nurse, he soon rose to high favor at court. He fomented the dis agreements between the king and queen, and when the latter became regent on Henry s death he was recognized as the prime favorite of the palace. lie bought the marquisate of Ancre, and, though he had never been a sol dier, was created marshal of France. The re sentment of the country at his sudden eleva- ! tion and his insolence was aggravated by his 470 ANGUS MAROIUS ANDAMAN ISLANDS raising an army of 7,000 men, whom he kept at his own disposal and his own expense. Ap pointed prime minister by the queen regent, he kept the young king Louis XIII. under a re straint that was little better than captivity; and that prince before he was 17 years old gave his assent to a conspiracy formed by his favor ite, I)e Luynes (a man whose fortunes the mar shal himself had made), to put the minister to death. The murder was committed before the Louvre by L Hopital-Vitry, a captain of the royal guards, Du Ilallier, and Perray; and Louis, presenting himself afterward at the win dow, cried out, " Thanks to you, I am now king." Vitry was made marshal of France. The body of the murdered man, after a secret burial, was dug up by the mob, dragged to the Pont Neuf, gibbeted, and torn into a multitude of pieces, which were then sold to the infuriat ed people. His widow, who is said to have been the first instrument of Richelieu s for tunes, was accused of Judaism, corruption, and sorcery, and burned on the Place de Greve, July 8, 1017. She displayed great firmness, and declared that the only sorcery she had em ployed toward the queen was "the power of a strong mind over a weak one." ANCUS MARCUS, the fourth king of Rome, said to have been the grandson of Numa, and to have reigned from 640 to 616 B. C. He re vived the religious ceremonies which his grand father had established, but which had fallen into desuetude. He waged successful wars against the Latins, took many of their cities, and transported their inhabitants to Rome. He founded a colony at Ostia, erected a fortress on the Janiculum, and caused several other works to be constructed, which added to the strength and security of his capital. ANCYRA (now Angora), an ancient city of Asia Minor, originally in Phrygia, said to have been built by Midas, and to have derived its name from an anchor found on the place where it stood. It was enlarged by Augustus, was made the capital of the province of Galatia, and became a principal depot of the Romans for the productions of the East. A copy on marble blocks, erected by the inhabitants of Ancyra, of the inscriptions of Augustus s Roman bronze tablets, which was discovered by Tournefort, and has since been often ex pounded by antiquaries, is known under the name of Monumentum Ancyranum. ANDALUSIA (Span. Andalucia, originally Vandaliisia, from the Vandals who settled there in the 5th century ; in antiquity, Bwtica), the most southern grand division of Spain, ly ing between lat. 36 and 38 40 N., and km. 1 30 and 7 30 W. ; area, 27,153 sq. m. ; pop. in 1867, 3,200,944. It is bounded N. by E>tre- rnadura and New Castile, E. by Murcia, W. by Portugal, S. W. by the Atlantic, and S. and S. E. by the straits of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean. Its chief river is the Guadal quivir, its mountain ranges the Sierra Nevada in the south and Sierra Morena in the north. Mulhacen, a peak of the former, is 11,678 feet high. The climate is mild, the soil generally fertile, and the country level where not moun tainous. The vegetation partakes both of the European and African character. In the south cotton and sugar cane are cultivated. These, with grain, olives, wines, figs, silk, cochineal, wool, and a fine breed of horses, are its chief products. Gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, an timony, sulphur, coal, mercury, vitriol, serpen tine marble, and alabaster are found. The mines, rich in antiquity, are now much neg lected. The country is parcelled out into vast estates, belonging to the crown, the clergy, and large landed proprietors. Agriculture is in a very backward state. A large part of the plains is devoted to pasturage. The manufac tures, once important, have greatly declined ; the principal are those of Avoollens, silk, and leather. The chief cities are Seville, the seat of the captain general, Cadiz, Cordova, Grana da, Jaen, Malaga, Almeria, and Iluelva, each the capital of a province named after it. The chief ports are Cadiz and Gibraltar. The Andalu- sians are a mixed race, descended from Phoe nicians, Carthaginians, Romans, Goths, Van dals, and Moors, all of which nations are con spicuous in the checkered history of the country. Physically they retain many of the peculiarities of the last-named people. They are animated and naturally intelligent. Trajan, the Senecas, and Lucan were natives of Andalusia. In the middle ages it was the flourishing home of Mos lem and Jewish learning ; in modern times it has given Spain some of its most illustrious statesmen, painters, and authors. ANDAMAN ISLANDS, a long, narrow group of small islands in the E. part of the bay of Ben gal, in Ion. 92 50 E., and between lat. 10 and 14 N., about 150 in. S. by W. of Cape Ne- grais, 100 m. N. of the Nicobar group, and 350 m. W. of the Tenasserim coast ; area, about 3,000 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 9,630. They include the North, Middle, South, and Little Andaman islands, with a number of islets, and are all densely wooded, producing ship timber and or namental woods. The 1,000 natives are a di minutive and barbarous people, who seem to be distinct from all other known races, and Avhose language has no apparent affinity with any other tongue spoken in India or the Indian islands. They are seldom more than five feet in height, have protuberant bellies, slender limbs, woolly hair, thick lips, fiat noses, and small red eyes. Their color is a deep black. They wear no clothing except a thick plaster of mud, intended to resist the attacks of in sects. They live in the most wretched huts, subsist by fishing, never till the ground, have no implements that will resist fire, paint their heads with red ochre, will hold no intercourse with strangers, and are supposed to worship the sun and moon. The British formed a set tlement at Port Cornwallis on the largest of the islands in 1793, with the purpose of making a penal colony for convicts from Bengal, but ANDELYS ANDERSEN 471 abandoned it tlirce years later on account of the unhealthiuess of the climate. After that the group was seldom visited till 1858, when Port Blair on one of the islands was selected as a penal settlement. Here, on Feb. 8, 1872, the earl of Mayo, viceroy of India, was assassinated by a Mohammedan convict, immediately after landing at night for a visit of inspection. ANDELYS, Les, a town of France, in the de partment of Eure, on the Seine, 18 m. S. S. E. of Rouen. It properly consists of two towns, Grand Andely on the Gambon and Petit An- dely on the Seine; pop. in I860, 5,161. It is the" birthplace of Turnebus and Poussin. Near it was the celebrated fortress Chateau Gaillard, and a convent founded by St. Clotilde. ANDENNE, a town of Belgium, in the province of Namur, near the right bank of the Mouse, 10 m. E. of Xamur ; pop. in I860, 6,278. It has a convent of the Beguines, and manufac tories of pipes and earthenware. ANDERLECHT, a town of Belgium, in the im mediate vicinity of Brussels, of which it may be regarded as a suburb ; pop. in 1866, 11,663. At Anderlecht Dumouriez defeated the Aus- trians on Nov. 13, 1792. ANDERLOM. I. Pietre, an Italian engraver, born at Santa Eufemia, near Brescia, Oct. 12, 1784, died in Milan, Oct. 13, 1849. After pre paratory studies under his father, who was himself an engraver, he entered the school of Longhi at Milan, of which he subsequently be came director. His most admired pieces are portraits of Da Vinci, Canova, and Peter the Great; his " Moses with the Daughters of Je- thro," after Poussin; his "Virgin," after Ra phael; and his masterpiece, " The Woman taken in Adultery/ after Titian. II. Fanstino, brother of the preceding, an engraver of Pa via, born in 1766, died Jan. 9, 1847. Among his works are a portrait of Herder, a Magdalen after Correg- gio, and a "Holy Family" after Poussin. ANDERSEN, Hans Christian, a Danish author, born in Odense, April 2, 1805. His father was a shoemaker in needy circumstances, but pos sessing literary taste. Andersen s scanty edu cation was chiefly acquired at a charity school. At nine years of age he lost his father, and shortly afterward was taken into the house of the widow of a clergyman, where he was en gaged to read aloud to the family. After a short sojourn in a manufactory, where he was ill-treated by the workmen, whom he had amused by singing and reciting to them pas sages from Holberg, he returned home, and for a while led an inactive life. He possessed an agreeable voice, and his mother was advised to send him to the theatre. She determined, how ever, to make a tailor of him, but before his ap prenticeship commenced he obtained permis sion to go to Copenhagen and witness the per formance of a play. Accordingly, in 1819 he found himself in that city with 10 rix dol lars in his pocket, and sought to get an engage ment at the theatre in some humble capacity. He was rejected on account of his awkward- | ness and ignorance, but soon afterward pre- i sented himself to Professor Siboni, director of | the royal conservatory, who received him with kindness, and caused him to be instructed as a i singer for the stage. At the end of half a year | his voice, which was in the transition state, failed him. lie then applied for assistance to the poet Guldberg, the brother of a former patron in Odense, by whose aid he was enabled to strug- i gle on for a few years, sometimes employed in ! the theatre and sometimes studying. During ! this period he wrote some tragedies whicn : excited the attention of Oehlenschlager and others, but which he was unable to have pro- j duced upon the stage. Councillor Collin, a I benevolent and clear-sighted man, having be- j come director of the theatre, procured his admission free of expense into one of the gov- | eminent schools. This was the turning point ! in Andersen s life; he embarked in this new career with enthusiasm, was admitted into the j royal college of Copenhagen, and while com- ; pleting his studies there produced in 1829 his I first work in print, entitled " A Journey on : Foot to Amak," which was received with ex- I traordinary favor, and gained him the acquaint- I ance of some of the most influential people in I Copenhagen. Some volumes of poems which j succeeded increased his reputation. Oehlen- ! schlager, Ingemann, and other friends having | procured a royal stipend to enable him to j travel, in 1833 he visited Italy, his impres- I sions of which he has recorded in his novel, ! "The Improvisatore," which stands unrivalled | as a picture of scenery and manners in southern [ Europe; and he has since travelled extensively | throughout Europe and the East. His next i novel, " O. T.," describes life in the north, and [ " Only a Fiddler " some of the most striking J scenes in his early struggles. Among his other j works are "Fairy Tales," "Picture Book with- j out Pictures," " Travels in the Ilartz Moun- I tains," "A Poet s Bazaar," "Ahasuerus," j "New Fairy Tales," and some volumes of I poetry, dramas, fairy comedies, and texts for operas. In 1846 he visited England, where he ! made many friends, and in 1841) wrote one of j his longest works, "The Two Baronesses," in : the English language. His works reflect his own kindly and open disposition, and are mark ed by humor, invention, and a poet s enthu siasm. His fairy tales for children have been i read with delight in every modern language. \ He is also an admirable public reader of his own works, enjoying in this respect in Den mark a fame equal to that of Dickens in Eng- i land and America. In 1845 he received a ! royal annuity which placed him in comfortable | circumstances for the remainder of his life. | The series of translations from his works by ! Mary Howitt and others has introduced him ! to a large circle of admirers in England and i America. The first complete edition of his I works in English was published in 1870- 71 ; in New York, in 10 vols. 8vo, including "The , Story of My Life," an autobiography. 472 ANDERSON ANDERSON. LAN. W. county of South Car olina, separated from Georgia by the Savannah river, hounded N. E. by the Saluda and drained by a number of smaller streams ; area, 800 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 24,049, of whom 9,593 were colored. The Greenville and Columbia and the Blue Ridge railroads traverse the county. The surface is uneven ; the soil fertile and well cultivated. The productions in 1870 were 77,169 bushels of wheat, 409,688 of corn, 34,213 of oats, 18,225 of sweet potatoes, 162,842 Ibs. of butter, 15,397 of wool, and 5,274 bales of cotton ; value of animals slaughtered, $189,982. There were 984 white and 309 colored children attending school. Capital, Anderson. II. An E. central county of Texas, bounded W. by the Trinity river, and touching the Neches river on the east; area, 900 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 9,229, of whom 4,436 were col ored. About two thirds of the county is timbered. The surface is rolling and the soil fertile. In 1870 the county produced 177,285 bushels of corn, 22,136 of sweet potatoes, 4,016 bales of cotton, and 49,381 Ibs. of butter. Iron ore is abundant. There are about 20 churches and the same number of schools. Capital, Palestine. III. A N. E. county of Tennessee, traversed by Clinch and Powell s rivers; area, 600 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 8,704, of whom 928 were colored. On its northwest ern border is Cumberland mountain, and on the southeast rises Chestnut ridge, between which two ranges lies a deep fertile valley, well watered and abundantly stocked with timber. Coal is found in various parts of the county. At Estabrook are salt and sul phur springs. The chief productions in 1870 were 22,932 bushels of wheat, 202,664 of corn, and 73,441 of oats. Capital, Clinton. IV. A N. central county of Kentucky, bounded E. by the Kentucky river, and intersected by Salt river; area, 300 sq. in. ; pop. in 1870, 5,449, of whom 698 were colored. The surface is level or gently undulating; the soil generally pro ductive. The productions in 1870 were 35,340 bushels of wheat, 300,963 of corn, 33,004 of oats, 19,539 of rye, 15,165 Ibs. of tobacco, 18,425 of wool, and 112,341 of butter. Capi tal, Lawrenceburg. V. A S. E. county of Kan sas, drained by Potawatamie creek, a branch of the Osage river; area, 576 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 5,220. The productions in 1870 were 35,769 bushels of wheat, 206,989 of corn, 77,779 of oats, 12,913 Ibs. of wool, and 93,485 of butter. Capital, Garrett. ANDERSON, ASexander, the first wood engraver in America, born in New York, April 21, 1775, died in Jersey City, N. J., Jan. 17, 1870. lie was the son of a Scotch printer, who just be fore the outbreak of the revolution published in New T York a republican newspaper, " The Constitutional Gazette," so strongly opposing British rule that when Howe s army entered the city he was obliged to take refuge in Con necticut. At the age of 12 Anderson made his first attempt at engraving on small copper and type-metal plates, having obtained his only instruction by watching jewellers and other workmen. Among his early engravings were some copies of anatomical figures, and his in terest in subjects of this kind induced him to begin the study of medicine. He took his doctor s degree at Columbia college in 1796, writing an able thesis on u Chronic Mania," but soon began to devote himself to art studies, finding his first regular employment in the illus tration of a little book, "The Looking-Glass for the Mind." Hearing of the method of Be wick, the English engraver, he began to use boxwood blocks, though for some years em ploying copper in the greater part of his work. He invented his own tools for wood engraving, since none existed in America at the time he began the experiment. After 1812 lie en graved only upon wood, and attained great skill. He illustrated many standard works ; among the earliest was the first edition of Web ster s spelling-book. He was for many years employed in illustrating the American tract society s publications, retiring in 1865, at the age of 90, till which time he had retained his skill and mental powers almost unimpaired. ANDERSON, Sir Edmund, an English judge, born in Lincolnshire about 1540, died Aug. 1, 1605. He was made chief justice of the com mon pleas in 1582, and distinguished himself by his zeal for the established church and his harshness toward dissenters. lie was one of the commissioners for the trial of Mary queen of Scots, and afterward of Raleigh. His "Re ports of Cases argued and adjudged in the time of Queen Elizabeth, in the Common Bench " (fol., London, 1644), and "Resolutions and Judgments on the Cases and Matters agi tated in all the Courts of Westminster in the latter end of the Reign of Queen Elizabeth "" (4to, London, 1655), are much esteemed. ANDERSON, James, a Scottish antiquary and lawyer, born in Edinburgh, Aug. 5, 1662, died April 3, 1728. In 1705 he published "An Essay showing that the Crown of Scotland is Imperial and Independent," in answer to a pamphlet which had appeared a short time before. For this he received the thanks of the Scottish parliament, besides a present in money, and a commission to collect and pub lish ancient documents illustrative of the na tional independence. Soon after the union of the two kingdoms he removed to London, where he employed himself in literary labors and in endeavoring to obtain a recognition of his claims on the government; and from 1715 to 1717 he was postmaster general of Scotland. He published "Collections relating to the His tory of Mary, Queen of Scotland " (4 vols. 4to, 1727- 8). His "Royal Genealogies, . . . from Adam to these Times," appeared after his death (1732), as also his great work, Selec- tus Diplomatum et Numismatum ScotioB The saurus (1739), edited by Ruddiman. ANDERSON, James, a Scottish writer on agri culture, political economy, and natural science. ANDERSON ANDERSONVILLE 473 born at Hermiston, near Edinburgh, in 1739, died Oct. 15, 1808. At tlie age of 15, having lost his parents, lie assumed the charge of the paternal farm, and he was still very young when he introduced among the farmers of his neighborhood the two-horse plough without wheels. In 1763 he took a lease of 1,300 acres of nearly wild land in Aberdeenshire, and in 1771 contributed to the "Edinburgh Weekly Magazine " a series of essays on planting, which were in 1777 collected and published separately. In 1780 he received from the uni versity of Aberdeen the degree of doctor of laws, and in 1783 removed to Edinburgh. In 1784 he was employed by the government to make a survey of the Hebrides and the western coast of Scotland, with a view to the improve ment of the fisheries. In 1791 he established a literary and scientific periodical called the "Bee," designed especially for the young. Having removed to the neighborhood of Lon don in 1797, he commenced in April, 1799, a periodical entitled "Recreations in Agricul ture," which continued until March, 1802, and of which he wrote the most valuable papers. ANDERSON, Jolm, a Scottish professor, founder of the Andersonian university at Glasgow, born in the parish of Roseneath, Dumbarton shire, in 172(3, died Jan. 13, 1798. In 1756 he was appointed professor of oriental languages in the university of Glasgow, and in 1760 pro fessor of natural philosophy. He established a gratuitous course of popular scientific lectures. By his will he directed all his property to be applied to found an institution for the educa tion of the poorer classes. Though this insti tution was conducted first on a small scale, it has since increased its means of usefulness, and now has 14 professors and lecturers, with courses of instruction in surgery, chemistry, institutes of medicine, materia medico, anat omy and physiology, medical jurisprudence, natural philosophy, botany, the classics, and Hebrew, French, and music. In 1786 Dr. An derson published "Institutes of Physic" for popular use, which passed through five editions in ten years. ANDERSON, Martin Brewer, LL. D., an Amer ican educator, born in Brunswick, Me., Feb. 12, 1815. He graduated in 1840 at Waterville college, Me., where, after studying about a year in the theological seminary at Newton, Mass., he became a tutor of Latin, Greek, and mathematics. In 1843 he was appointed pro fessor of rhetoric, but continued to give in struction in Latin, and organized and taught a course of modern history. In 1850 he re signed his professorship, and became proprietor and editor of the "New York Recorder," a weekly Baptist journal. In 1853 he was called to the presidency of the then newly founded uni versity of Rochester, which position he still holds (1872). In 1868 he was offered the presidency of Brown university at Providence, R. I., but declined to accept it. He has preached much, though never ordained as a clergyman, and | has contributed literary and philosophical arti cles to various public journals. ANDERSON, Robert, an officer of the U. S. army, born at "Soldiers Retreat," near Louis ville, Ky., June 14, 1805, died at Nice, France, Oct. 26, 1871. He graduated at AVest Point in 1825, entered the 3d artillery, and served in the " Black Hawk war" of 1832. In 1835- 7 he was instructor of artillery at West Point, afterward served in the Florida war, and in May, 1838, became assistant adjutant general on the staff of Gen. Scott. In 1841 he re signed this appointment on his promotion to a captaincy. He accompanied Gen. Scott to Mex ico in 1847, and was severely wounded at Molino del Rey. In 1857 he was promoted lo be a major in the 1st artillery. On Nov. 20, 1860, he assumed command in Charleston har bor, S. C. On the night of Dec. 26, expecting I an attack by the authorities of South Carolina, he removed his small garrison from Fort Moul- trie to the stronger Fort Sumter, where during the next 3 months he was closely invested by j the confederate troops. On April 13 he cvac- uated the fort after a bombardment of nearly 36 hours, during which he lost none of his men by the fire of the enemy, marched out with his 70 men with the honors of war on the 14th, 1 and sailed the next day for New York. In I May, 1861, he was appointed brigadier general I in the IT. S. army, and commander of the de- ; partment of the Cumberland, but in conse- I quence of failing health he was soon relieved, 1 and afterward breveted major general in the I regular army, and retired from service. In | 1868 he went to Europe for the benefit of his health. He translated and adapted from the French " Instructions for Field Artillery, Horse and Foot, arranged for the Service of the U. S. Army," and "Evolutions of Field Batteries of Artillery," now used by the war department. ANDERSONVILLE, a village of Sumter co., : Ga., on the Southwestern railroad, 62 m. S. ! of Macon ; pop. in 1870, 1,346. It was during the war the seat of a Confederate States mili- ; tary prison, established by Capt. W. S. Win- j der, Nov. 27, 1863, at which time the popula- I tion of the neighborhood did not exceed 20 | persons. The site selected was a pine and oak ; grove of about 22 acres, on the side of a hill of red clay, 1,600 feet E. of the railroad. ! Near the base of the declivity was a stream of unwholesome water about 5 feet wide and not j more than 6 inches deep. The trees were cut I down and the enclosure Avas surrounded by a | strong stockade 15 or 18 feet high. It was originally a parallelogram, 1,010 feet long by : 779 feet wide, but in the summer of 1864 its length was increased to 1,620 feet. At the I distance of 120 feet, surrounding the inner i enclosure, was another palisade of rough pine logs, and between the two were sentry boxes overlooking the interior. A cordon of con- ! nected earthworks mounted with 17 guns, | commanding the entire prison, surrounded the ; outer palisades. A wooden railing about 3 ANDERSONVILLE feet high around the inside of the stockade, and at an average distance of 19 feet from it, constituted the "dead line," prisoners passing which were summarily shot. The stream above mentioned passed from W. to E. through the enclosure, and furnished the only water for washing accessible to the prisoners. Many acres bordering the stream on either side were trodden by the feet of the prisoners into a deep and filthy mire. Deducting the quagmire thus formed, about 300 feet wide, and the space cut oft by the "dead line," the remain ing space before the enlargement comprised about 12 acres, giving to each prisoner when the number reached 30,000 an average area of about 17 square feet. A small shed, covered but not enclosed, furnished the only protection from the inclemency of the weather. A few wells were sunk in the prison, and there were also a few springs. A second enclosure, 925 feet long and 400 feet wide, similar to the prison, \\ r as constructed in June, 1864, for a hospital ; with the exception of a few old tents, it contained nothing but long sheds made of poles, with roofs of pine boughs or planks, and without sides. The bakery was within the two lines of palisades, and the cook house was 200 yards outside. On the high land overlooking the prison were a two-story building for the confederate officers and men, and the huts for the guards, who numbered from 3,000 to 5,000. Near the railroad sta tion a stockade measuring 195 by 108 feet was constructed, and for a while used as a prison for officers ; but they were subsequently con fined at Macon. Between the graveyard and the stockade stood a small hut in which riine bloodhounds were kept. The graveyard was situated about 300 yards K W. of the stockade. Trenches varying in length from 50 to 100 yards having been dug, the bodies were laid in rows of 100 to 300 and covered with earth. At the head of each body a wooden stake was planted by the federal soldiers de tailed to bury their companions, and each stake bore a number corresponding with a sim ilarly numbered name upon the hospital record. The first detachment of federal prisoners was received at the Andersonville prison Feb. 15, 1864. Soon afterward John IT. "Winder, a brigadier general in the confederate army, assumed command of the post, with his son, W. S. Winder, as adjutant. The superinten dence and management of the prison were assigned to Henry Wirz, a Swiss by birth. The following exhibit from the prison records shows the number and mortality of prisoners : Total number received at prison 49.4^5 Largest, number in prison at one time, Aug. 9, 1864. . 83.006 Total number of deaths as shown by hospital register . 12,402 in hospital 8,735 u in stockade 3,727 Percentage of deaths to whole number received 26 to number admitted to hospital. 69f| Average number of deaths for each of the 13 months . 958 Largest number of deaths in one day. Aug. 23, 1864. 97 Cases returned from hospital to stockade 3,409 Total number of escapes 323 1 DATE. S I i i 15 I i * < & irl 5iti i" I S-iH. IbGl. March 4, April . 9 603 282^ 577 592 .... 1:16 451 711 1 231:26 367; 1.2031 40 1:22 678 1,742 56 1 : 18 693, 2.992 97 1:11 218 2.700 90 1:3 208 1,560 50 1 : 2 859! 485....; 1:2 706 160 .... 1:29 046 200 ! .... 1:25 !-51 149: !l:39 319 118!.... 1:28 51 32 .... 1 : 2 12,926j_ number of dea Gun-shot wounds. .. Plenrisv 6 4 4 5 9 S 13 11 3 4 2 2 3 :hs re- 149 109 May IS. June 26. July 31 August 31 September 8, October 4 November i 1 December 4 1865 January 5 February i 5 March ! 3 April Principal diseases and suiting therefrom : Diarrhoea 3.952 Scurvy 3.574 Dysentery. . 1 648 Bronchitis 93 Rheumatism 83 Unknown 1 268 Anasarca 377 Typhoid fever 229 Varioloid 63 Gangrene 63 Catarrh . 55 Debility 198 Intermittent and remit tent fevers 177 Ulcers 51 Phthisis 36 ! In August, 1864, Dr. Joseph Jones, professor | of chemistry in the medical college of Georgia, under the direction of the surgeon general of the confederacy, was sent to Andersonville to investigate the nature and cause of the sick- j ness prevalent there, "for the benefit of the | medical department of the Confederate States armies. 1 " The order, dated at Richmond, Aug. | 6, 1864, recited that "the field of pathological I investigation afforded by the large collection of I federal prisoners in Georgia is of great extent and importance, and it is believed that results I of value to the profession may be obtained by a careful investigation of the effects of dis ease upon the large body of men subjected to i a decided change of climate and the circum stances peculiar to prison life." Dr. Jones re ported that scurvy, diarrhoea, dysentery, and hospital gangrene were the prevailing diseases; | that there were few cases of malarial fever and i no well marked cases of typhus or typhoid fever. The absence of the different forms of malarial i fever was accounted for by the supposition that i the artificial atmosphere of the stockade, j crowded densely with human beings and load- | ed with animal exhalations, was unfavorable to j the existence and action of the malarial poison. Subsequently, at the suggestion of Gen. I Winder, an investigation was made by Dr. G. | S. Hopkins and Surgeon IT. E. Watkins, who reported the general causes of diseases and mortality as follows: "1. The large number of prisoners crowded together. 2. The entire | absence of all vegetables as diet, so necessary as a preventive of scurvy. 3. The want of barracks to shelter the prisoners from sun and rain. 4. The inadequate supply of wood and ANDERSSEN ANDES 475 good Welter. 5. Badly cooked food. C. The filthy condition of the prisoners and prison generally. 7. The morbific emanations from the branch or ravine passing through the pris on, the condition of which cannot be better explained than by naming it a morass of human excrement and mud." Early in May, 1864, a j report upon the condition of the prisoners was | made by the confederate surgeon E. J. El- | dridge, pursuant to instructions of Gen. Ilowell j Cobb, and on July 5 an inspection report was j submitted by Col. Chandler of the confederate | war department. In these reports the sick- j ness and mortality of the prisoners were attrib- j uted to the bad condition of the prison and its j management. In August, 1865, a special mili tary commission was convened by the secre tary of war to try Wirz. The indictment charged him with injuring the health and de stroying the lives of soldiers confined as pris oners at Anderson ville, by subjecting them to torture and great suffering, by confining them in unhealthy and unwholesome quarters, by exposing them to the inclemency of the winter and the dews and burning sun of the sum mer, by compelling the use of impure water, and by furnishing insufficient and unwholesome food ; also for establishing the " dead line," and ordering the guard to shoot down any prisoner attempting to cross it; for keeping and using bloodhounds to hunt down prisoners attempt- j ing to escape ; and for torturing prisoners by j confining them within the "stocks." Wirz, j having been found guilty on these charges, was hanged Nov. 10, 1865. After the close of the war the cemetery at Andersoriville was ar ranged by Col. Moore of the U. S. quarter master s department, pursuant to orders from the secretary of war. The stakes were re moved and neat head boards, inscribed in black letters, with the names of the dead were substituted. The bodies in the trenches were found to be from two to three feet below the surface, and in some instances, where the rain had washed away the earth, but a few inches. They had been buried without coffins or the ordinary clothing, and not more than 12 inches in width had been allowed to each body. With the aid of the hospital record. 12,461 graves were identified and marked with tablets giving the number, name, rank, regiment, company, and date of death of each person; and 451 graves bore the inscription "Unknown U. S. Soldier." The cemetery was carefully laid out ! in walks and adorned with trees. VI)ERSSE\ T , Adolph, a German chess player, ; born in Breslau, July 6, 1818. He was a teach- j er of mathematics, acquired in Berlin a high reputation as a chess player, and attended in 1851 the chess tournament in London, where he defeated Staunton and other English celeb- ! rities. In December, 1858, he was defeated in ! Paris by Paul Morphy ; but in 1862, at the j second London chess tournament, he obtained j the highest prize. He is the author of many j original outlinss of games and of writings on the theory of chess, published in the Leipsio Schachzeitung. ANDERSSON, Carl Johan, a Swedish traveller, born in the province of Wermland in 1827, died in the territory of the Ovacuambi, S. W. Africa, July 5, 1867. lie was the natural son of Mr. L. Lloyd, an English sportsman residing in Swe den. In 1849 he went to England, and the next year joined Francis Galton in a journey to the territories of the Damaras and the Ovam- bos, S. W. Africa. He continued his explora tions alone in 1853- 4, and published after his return to England (1855) "Lake Ngami, or Ex plorations and Discoveries during Four Years Wanderings in the Wilds of Southwestern Africa." Revisiting Africa in 1856, he made a second journey to Lake Ngami (1858) in compa ny with Mr. Green, an English elephant hunter, and found his way up the Okavango, through the territory of the Ovambo, one of the princi pal red tribes of Herrevo land, which had never been visited by a European excepting by the German missionary Hugo Halm. He published in London in 1861 a work on the Okavango river. Returning to Herrevo land by way of Walfish bay and the Zwachaub river, he mar ried Miss Aitchison of Cape Town, and devoted himself at Otjimbingue, near Ondongo, to agri culture and commerce. During the war with the Damara and Namaqna tribes he was repeat edly despoiled by the latter, and finally so seri ously wounded that he had to be removed to Cape Town. During his illness he studied or nithology and prepared materials for an illus trated fauna of S. W. Africa. Barely recovered, he set out again in May, 1866, with a young Swede, on an expedition to the Cunene, with a view of establishing commercial intercourse with the Portuguese settlements X. of that river, and came within sight of the long-sought stream ; but, too feeble to cross it, he had to retrace his steps and died on the home journey. AXDERSSOX, Mis Johan, a Swedish botanist, born Feb. 20, 1821. He made a voyage round the world in the Swedish frigate Eugenie in 1851- 3, and published Verldwm&eyling (3 vols., Stockholm, 1853- 4). He also wrote on Scan dinavian botany. Since 1856 he has been pro fessor at Stockholm, and superintendent of the botanical collection of the academy of sciences. ANDES, the range of mountains which ex tends along the northern and western coasts of South America, from the southern extremity of the continent to the Caribbean sea. It is the most compact mountain system in the world. Skirting the Pacific shore for nearly 4,500 m., with a mean elevation of 12,000 feet and varying in breadth from 40 to 350 m., it covers with its base a surface of more than half a mil lion square miles. Nowhere else docs nature present such a continuous, well defined, and lofty chain. It is in strong contrast with the broken and straggling systems of Europe and North America. The Himalayas surpass the Andes in extreme altitude, but as they are situated beyond the tropics and destitute of 476 ANDES volcanoes, they do not present that inexhausti ble variety of phenomena which characterizes the latter. Though presenting one continuous axis, the Andean range consists of several mem bers, known by the names of the countries in which they occur. The Patagonian section is a single narrow range of moderate elevation, but ascending in several points (Mt. Darwin, Mt. Stokes, and the volcanoes of Yanteles and Minchinmadiva) to 0,400 and 8,000 feet. It begins in a group of mountainous islands, the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego ; and, indeed, the western side throughout its whole length is penetrated by narrow inlets or arms of the sea and bordered by a series of rugged islands. This Pacific side, exposed to the prevailing winds, is of barren rock; but the eastern slope is covered with forests of beech (fagus bctu- loidc*), which reach up to 1,000 or 1,500 feet above the sea level ; and beyond this succeeds a belt of dwarfed alpine plants and peat mosses, which continues to the height of 3,500 or 4,000 feet, the limit of perpetual snow. Almost every arm of the sea, says Darwin, which penetrates to the interior higher chain, not only in Tierra del Fuego, but on the coast for 650 m. north ward, is terminated by tremendous and aston ishing glaciers. Great masses of ice frequently fall from these icy cliffs, and the crash rever berates like the broadside of a man-of-war through the lonely channels. The glacier fur thest from the pole which conies down to the sea, surveyed during the voyages of the Ad venture and Beagle, is in lat. 46 50 S., in the gulf of Penas. As the Andes enter Chili they begin to recede from the ocean, and a fer tile belt of country intervenes, which in lat. 36 is about 100 m. wide. They still form one immense ridge, but they gain in height and breadth. Though in mean elevation they are inferior to the Andes of the north, they yet contain the gigantic Aconcagua, the culminat ing point of the whole system, and the highest mountain in the new world. It is frequently called a volcano, but it shows no trace of mod ern igneous origin, although it is porphyritic. Its height was computed by Capt. Beechey from its angle of elevation at Valparaiso to be 23,910 feet ; but the more exact measurement of M. Pissis makes it 22,422. Other Chilian peaks are Tupungato, Antuco, Villarica, Chilian, May- pu, and Osorno, some of which, if not all, are volcanic. The snow line in the latitude of Valparaiso is about 15,000 feet above the sea. "To this line, 1 Darwin observes, "the even summits of the range seemed quite parallel. Only at long intervals a group of points or a single cone showed where a volcano had ex isted or does now exist. Hence the range re sembled a great solid wall, surmounted here and there by a tower, and making a most per fect barrier to the country." The Bolivian Andes extend from about lat. 24 to 15 S. For some distance there is but one undivided range as in Chili, between which and the Paciiic is the vast desert of Atacama, doubtless the bed of an ancient sea. At the mountain knot of Al- turas de los Lipes, lat. 22, the chain separates into two great longitudinal ridges, called the Cordillera of the coast and the Cordillera Real, which enclose the wonderful table land of Des- aguadero, the Thibet of the new world. This high valley, elevated 13,000 feet above the sea, extends 500 m. in length and from 30 to 60 in breadth along the top of the Andes. It is so com pletely walled in that the streams have no appa rent outlet, but meet in Lake Titicaca. The sur face of this lake is 12,846 feet above the Pacific. It is the largest fresh-water accumulation in South America, covering 4,600 sq. m. and having a depth of at least 120 fathoms. The Rio Des- aguadero connects it with the Laguna Aullagas, 180 in. S., which is about 50 feet lower than Titicaca. The valley enjoys a temperate cli mate, but it is treeless and cultivation is limit ed. Yet large cities have flourished at this altitude. Potosi, fajried for its silver mines and for being the most elevated city on the globe, two centuries ago contained 150,000 inhabi tants. Its altitude is 13,330 feet. The cecro on which it is situated is honeycombed by min ing operations, over 5,000 loca-minas being vis ible. To the N. E. of it is Chuquisaca or Sucre, the capital of Bolivia, in the midst of cultivated fields. La Paz, a few leagues from the southern extremity of Lake Titicaca, is situated in a que- bmda, or ravine, 620 feet below the lake, and still over 12,000 feet above the sea. The water that flows through the quebrada of La Paz winds around the volcano of Illimani, and, flow ing northward and uniting with other branches, becomes with them one of the great tributaries of the Amazon. Nine fine bridges cross this ravine in the city. The Cordilleras run parallel to each other, from 200 to 300 m. distant; the eastern range has a mean elevation of 13,500 feet, and the western 14,800. They arc united at various points by enormous transverse moun tain dikes or knots. The highest summits in the coast range are Bahama, 22, 350 feet; Pa- rinacota and Gualatieri, 22,000 each; Poma- rape, 21,000; and the active volcano Arequipa, 20,300. The loftiest peak in the Cordillera Real is that of Sorata, 21,286 feet; and near by is its rival, Illimani, only 100 feet lower. The Pacific slope of this section of the Andes is sandy and barren. In a day s journey into the interior from the port of Iquique in Peru, not a sign of vegetation is met with except lichens strewed loosely upon the sand with no thing to attach them to the surface ; nor is t^e solitude of the desert interrupted by any living thing, bird, beast, or insect, save the occasional train of cargo mules between the coast and the nitrate of soda mines, and the vultures that hover over them, or settle down to feed upon their prey broken down and left behind. The salts of noda (common salt, and the nitrate with some sulphate; are intermixed with the sand, forming hard incrustations, which, though highly attractive of moisture, find in this dry climate not enough of it to cause them to de- ANDES 477 liquesce. Where worked, at a distance of about 40 m. from the coast, they are in a hard stratum, between 2 and-] feet thick, found just beneath the surface, and extending along the j margin of a great basin or plain for 150 miles. I The Bolivian plateau terminates in the knot j of Vilcaftota, where the Cordilleras unite, but ! again diverge as they traverse Peru, and at the | same time change from a meridional to a north- | westerly course. They stand over 100 miles apart, and bound the diversified plain of Cuzco, | a populous and fertile region. Though under j the burning sun of the tropics, this region, the j territory of the ancient incas of Peru, enjoys the climate and fruits of the temperate zone. Through the range of the mountain valleys, extending from Potosi in Bolivia in a north- j westerly direction, taking in the lakes of Au- Ilagas and Titicaca, and the river Desaguadero, j which connects them, and reaching beyond j Cuzco, are still to be found the ruined works : of the ancient inhabitants, the evidences of j their high degree of civilization. These are ! the wonderful roads which Ilumboldt in his Vties des Cordillercs speaks of as among the most useful and stupendous works ever executed ] by man. They passed over the snowy summits of the sierras, through the mountains by tun nels cut in the solid rock, over the precipices by steps, and the awful quelradas (or chasms) ; and rivers by solid masonry, or by bridges swung by osier ropes. With the same bold engineering, their aqueducts for irrigating the dry soil of the valleys brought water for hun- | dreds of miles from distant sources in the I mountains. In these valleys, the grains of the temperate latitudes, as wheat and barley, are ! still cultivated ; and as the table land de- \ scends toward the north, sugar cane and other tropical plants appear, but the main ridge of i the Andes still towers to great heights between these interior valleys and the Pacific coast. \ The highest known pass is from Lima in lat. | 12 to Tarma and Pasco ; it crosses the ridge at an elevation of 15,760 feet. The rain clouds swept on from the N. E. are intercepted on the ; eastern slopes, and the drainage is all back to ward the Atlantic, whence the abundant waters have been brought by the trade winds. The strip of land 20 to 50 m. wide along the coast is singularly dry ; no rains reach it from over the mountains, and the vapors raised along the Paoitic are driven by the prevailing winds from its shores. The high table lands of Pasco, about lat. 11 S., are famous as the highest points of the Andes occupied by man. Here are worked some of the richest silver mines of Peru, at an ; elevation of 14,000 feet, and, only 1,500 feet below the line of perpetual snow. From this point for 400 m. northward, to the Andes of Quito, the mountains decline in height, and j no peak for more than 7 S. of the equator reaches the line of perpetual snow. The Andes crowd more closely on the coast, so that the | rains that swell the sources of the Amazon full within sight of the Pacific ; yet they spread in parallel -N. and S. ridges over a vast width of country, and between the different ranges the great branches of the Amazon, as the Maraflon, ths Iluallaga, and the Ucayali, find their way in a northerly direction to enter at right angles the main river bound on its eastern course. The valleys of these rivers afford convenient situations for roads, and they are connected with the coast by various passes over the western summits ; one of the principal of these is the road from Truxillo, in lat. 8 S. on the coast, to Caxamarca in the valley of the Maranon, over a summit of 11,600 feet eleva tion. Thence the road continues northward to Chachapoyas, and from this place over the central ridge of the Andes to Moyobamba and Tarapoto on the Iluallaga. All this fine region of the Andes, with its numerous towns and rich mines, is occupied principally by Indians. Farming and mining are almost their only em ployments. Except silver, products of the mountains hardly pay for transportation ; the most important are the bark of the cinchona tree, which abounds in the forests on the east ern ranges, and the sarsaparilla, which is very common in the densely wooded plains of the rivers east of the mountains. North of the silver mines of Pasco, the Peruvian Andes may be said to consist of three Cordilleras, known as the western, central, and eastern, of which the first is the highest, and is separated from the Pacific by an arid desert 50 m. in breadth. The summit of the Andes of Peru is the Nevado de Sasacuanca, 17,900 feet. While the snow line in Bolivia, according to Pent- land, is at 17,000 feet, in Peru it descends to 15,500. Following these ranges, we find them decreasing in altitude till they terminate in the knot of Loja, one of the lowest parts of the chain. Here begins the most magnificent series of volcanoes in the world the Andes of Quito. Two cordilleras, running nearly due N"., enclose the beautiful table hind of Quito, 200 m. long by 30 wide. This table land is divided by the transverse ridges of Assuay and Tiopullo into the three basins of Cuenca, Am- bato, and Quito, having the mean altitude and temperature of 7,500, 8,000, and 9,500 feet, and 62, 61, and 59, respectively. The Alto de Tiupullo, or Chisinche, forms the watershed between the Pacific and Atlantic, the waters of the Quito valley flowing W. by the Esme- raldas, and those of Ambato reaching the Ama zon by the Pastaza. The eastern or Royal Cordillera contains the ever-active volcano of Sangai, 17,120 feet; ruined Altar, 17,400; the perfect cone of Tunguragua, 16,579, silent since 1780; the Llanganate mountains, rich in gold; Cotopaxi, 18,862 feet " the most beau tiful and most terrible of volcanoes ; " the extinct Antisana, 19,279 ; square-topped Ca- yambi, standing exactly on the equator, 19,358 ; and Imbabura, which in 1691 poured forth a vast quantity of mud and thousands of fishes (pimelodes cyclopuni). In the coast range are Chimborazo, with its untrodden dome, 21,420 478 ANDES feet above the sen; Caraguirazo, about 18,000; Iliniza, 17,370; and Pichincha, 15,827 the only active volcano in this cordillcra, and having the deepest crater on the globe. The snow limit at the equator is 15,800 feet. One degree north of the equator is the volcanic knot of Los Pastes, where the cordilleras unite, again to diverge as they enter Colombia. There the Andes spread out "like the graceful branches of the palm tree." The coast range, la Cordillcra de la Costa, divides the valley of the Cauca from the Pacific, and finally merges in the low mountains of Darien. About 120 m. N. of the equator, the other cordillera sepa rates into two chains, of which the eastern most, Surna Paz, runs by Lake Maracaibo and terminates near Caracas on the Caribbean sea. The central chain of Quindiu divides the Cauca and Magdalena, and culminates in the volcanic Tolima, 18,270 feet, the highest peak in the new world N. of the line, and situated further from the sea (120 m.) than any other active volcano. In general, the Andes present a steep slope toward the Pacific, and descend gradually into the vast plains of the east. In Ecuador, the western slope (according to Prof. Orton) is 225 feet per mile, and the eastern 125 feet. In Chili, says Darwin, the descent on the E. side of the cordillera is much shorter or steeper than on the Pacific side. Besides the longitudinal valleys between the cordille ras already mentioned, there are innumerable valleys of erosion on the sides of the Andes in keeping with their colossal size. The gigantic mountain chain, throughout its entire length, forms a great barrier to the interchange of life and commerce between the eastern and west ern sides of the continent. No river crosses it, and even the separate cordilleras are bro ken at few points. The passes are wild paths, narrow, steep, rugged, and often running along the edge of precipices. Man has done little to improve them, except in the elevated plains of Peru, where the incas laid out four grand roads from their favorite capital, Cuzco, which rival the similar works of the old Romans. Chirnborazo, 14,250 feet, and Papallacta. The maritime chain in New Granada, though low, has but few and ( "iifficult passes. From Tr uxillo to Popayan a great commercial road for mules runs longitudinally along the Andes. The finest carriage ways in western South America are in the Quito valley. There is a marked difference between the vegetation, the quadru peds, and to some degree the birds and insects on the eastern side of the Andes and those on the western. This fact accords with geolo gical history; for these mountains, says Dar win, have existed as a great barrier since the present races of animals have appeared; and therefore, unless we suppose the same species to have been created in two different places, we ought not to expect any closer similarity between the organic beings on the opposite sides of the Andes than on the opposite shores of the ocean. The characteristic forms of ani mal life on the Andes are llamas, vicunas, al pacas, condors, and humming-birds; nearly all the domesticated animals are importations. The puma, jaguar, peccary, deer, opossum, mon key, squirrel, weasel, and a small black bear abound in the lower altitudes. The population of the Pacific states, consisting of Indians (Aymard in the southern and Quichua in the northern half) and Spanish Americans, is main ly gathered in the high valleys. Near Ocu- ruro in Peru is the little post hut of Rumi- huasi, on a wild, forbidding height 420 feet higher than the summit of Mont Blanc the loftiest habitation in the world. Ascending the equatorial Andes, we find every variety of climate arranged in zones according to the al titude, and characterized by floral life. From the bananas and palms on the steaming low lands, we pass in succession tree ferns, cincho na, polylqm (the last of the trees), heaths, gentians and geraniums, paja (the long wiry grass of the paramos), and lichens. The most prominent flowers in the Quito valley belong to the composite?, lalnata>, leguminosce, and gentianacece. The Andes pass from the hot climates of the equatorial regions through the The least elevation of these passes is rarely less i southern temperate zone nearly to its extreme than twice the height of Mount Washington. | verge. At their termination, in hit. 56 S., the climate is indeed more boisterous and wintry If it docs not reach above the extreme limits of vegetation, it is a favorable pass. Frequently they lead through the regions of perpetual snow, and during the winter months are en tirely closed. In Chili there are eight of these passes, S. of lat. 32 S., of which the chief are the Uspallata and Portillo, leading from Val paraiso to Mendoza, and reaching the altitude of 12,450 feet. There are six passes in Bolivia, of which the best is by Cochabamba leading to the Mam ore; its highest point is 15,000 feet. Peru may be crossed by three paths : from Lima to Mayro, via Cerro Pasco and Iluanuco ; from Lima to Tingo Maria, via Iluanuco; and fromTruxillo to Moyobamba, via Chachapoyas. One leading from Lima to Tarma and Pasco is 15,700 feet high, the highest pass in the Andes. Ecuador is generally crossed via the A renal on ^ than that just over the limit of the frigid zone in the northern hemisphere. In the summer season, at Tierra del Fuego, the warmth is in sufficient to lift the line of perpetual snow higher than 3,500 or 4,000 feet above the level of the sea, while in Norway for such a climate one must go from 11 to 14 degrees further from the equator. As the Andes toward the north spread out into broader masses, and stretch up ward to higher elevations, they carry with them through the tropics the cold temperature of their southern termination. But the moun tains are not only the regulators of the climate, they are also the great condensers, lifted up into the higher regions of the atmosphere to catch the abundant moisture distilled by the trade winds, and to shed it in copious streams ANDES 479 from the eastern slopes on which it is precipi tated, eastward toward the Atlantic, feeding the great i ivcrs of the continent, and spreading fertility along their paths. Glaciers are rare, being found only in the narrow ravines of the southern section. The volcanoes of the Andes, 51 in number, are remarkable for their continu ity, in scattered groups, from the western coast of Patagonia, in lat. 43 28 S., to the northern limits of the Andes a few degrees from the equator; and even into Central America the continuation of this volcanic belt may be traced in the cordillems of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, and Mexico. The most southern group extends from Yanteles, opposite the island of Chiloe, to Coquimbo, in lat. 30. There is then a space of more than eight degrees of latitude with no volcano known to have been in action, to which succeeds the range of vol canoes of Bolivia and Peru, the extent of which is from lat. 21 to 15 S. Thence to the vol canoes of Quito is a district of fourteen degrees of latitude, little known and thinly populated. No volcanoes are spoken of in it, but they may be there and have escaped the observation of civilized man. The volcanoes of Quito extend from 100 m. S. of the equator to 130 m. N. of it ; and from their northern termination it is about six degrees further to the southern termination of the volcanoes of Central America. They are not only remarkable for the long line of coun try they spread over, but also for the great height of many of the peaks, and their extreme ly destructive character. The products of an eruption are usually water, mud, ashes, and fragments of pumice, trachyte, and porphyry. But the volcanoes of the Andes are singularly exempt from floods of lava. From high up the flanks of Antuco in Chili, the summit of which rises 16,000 feet above the sea, immense cur rents of lava flowed in 1828 ; but this is a rare occurrence, the matters usually ejected being vapors and scoria?. The outbursts of the vol canoes are closely connected with the frequent and disastrous earthquakes of this region. These commotions appear to extend under the whole range of the Andes, and even far out under the ocean. So frequent are they that M. Boussingault is of opinion that a full regis ter of them would show that they are inces sant. The geological structure of the Andes shows that the chain was slowly upheaved in mass from the sea, and has since undergone three subsidem-cs. Indeed, there are evidences that the Andes are now subsiding again, for successive measurements indicate a lower ele vation. (See American Journal of Science, 1 October, 1871, p. 2(37.) In the pass of Uspa- llata, the two parallel ridges, based on the an cient porphyries, are capped, the range next the coast with black clay slates containing the grypheas, ammonites, and other fossil shells of Jurassic and cretaceous age, and altered by in trusion of the igneous rocks ; while the eastern range is covered with still later formations, as sandstones and conglomerates made up of the 1 fragments of the rocks of the western range, and I bearing all the appearance of the tertiary strata found along the Pacific coast. These later for mations also are intermingled with trap rocks | and volcanic tuffs, and altered by contact with ; the granitic rocks, which since the deposition of the sedimentary rocks have intruded among . the strata. The metallic veins from the gran ite also penetrate them, and veins of gold have been worked in close proximity to fossil trunks of trees, found by Darwin standing im- > bedded in the stratified rocks. The Andes ap pear throughout their length to carry a similar geological structure, which is made manifest j as well by a similarity of mineral productions j as by the reports of those naturalists who have ! ascended the summits ; granitic and porphyritic rocks form the lower portion, and on these rest immense formations of mica slate, gneiss, and , quartz rock. Upon the very summits are found i the tertiary strata, which, like the same forma- | tion extending along the Pacific coast, are pro ductive in beds of bituminous coal, and the va- j riety called brown coal, at intervals from Pata- I goniato Panama. Beds of this coal are worked in Chili for the use of steamships; and in the I mining region of Pasco in Peru, in the irame- i diate vicinity of its celebrated silver mines, and | at an elevation of over 14,000 feet, coal prob ably of the same age is found in abundance. ! The quality of such coal is not likely to be as 1 good as of the bituminous coals of the true coal formation, but our data are very imperfect | on this point, as also whether the real carbonif erous rocks are found at all in South America. The secondary rocks generally cover the gran- i ite in the mountains of Venezuela, but thin away toward the equator ; and in the plains of the Rio Negro Humboldt noticed the ! bare granite in patches of 10,000 square yards forming the level surface. Mines of silver I have frequently been alluded to in describ- | ing different localities along the Andes. Near : the equator and N. of it they are not produc- I tive ; but in Peru and Bolivia they are prob- j ably unsurpassed in richness by any mines of I this metal in the world. The mines of cinna- \ bar of Huanca Velica, in southern Peru, have in former times produced very large quantities of mercury, and the same ore is also found near Tarma in the valley of the Jauja river, and i in the equatorial Andes, N. "W. of Cuenca; I platinum is met with in small grains in the al- | luvium near the Pacific coast of New Granada. i Gold is found in the silver veins of Peru, and j is worked in veins in Chili. In Bolivia it is i washed from the deposits along the streams. i Lead ores are common with those of silver, ! but are not regarded as of much value. The , copper mines of Chili are very productive in I the rich oxides and carbonates of this met;il. 1 Many cargoes of these valuable ores are ship- i ped every year to Swansea in Wales to mix i with the lean ores of Cornwall ; and our own copper-smelting establishments along the coast receive occasional supplies from the same 480 ANDLAW ANDORRA source. The production of Chili, and of Peru also, in these ores might be largely increased, were there better facilities for getting the ores to the coast, or were there convenient supplies of fuel for converting them into pro ducts more economical for shipment. The nitrate of soda mines of Peru have already been noticed. The finest gem of the Andes is the eme rald, the Tunca mines near Bogota furnishing nearly all in the market. The name Andes, ac cording to Garcilasso, is derived from Anti, the name of an ancient province E. of Cuzco. Others think it may have come from the aboriginal word anta, copper, this metal being so abun dantly distributed through the mountains. Col. Tod, in his work on Rajasthan. notices that the northern Hindoos apply the name Andes to the Himalaya mountains. But Ilum- boldt says there are no means of interpreting it by connecting it with any signification or idea ; if such connection exist, it is buried in the obscurity of the past. See " The Narrative of the Ten Years Voyage of II. M. Ships Ad venture and Beagle," by Captain King, Cap tain Fitzroy, and Charles Darwin (London, 1839); Darwin s "Geological Observations on South America" (London, 1846); "The U. S. Naval Astronomical Expedition to the South ern Hemisphere during the years 1849, 50, 51, 52," by Lieut. J. M. Gilliss and others (Philadelphia, 1856), especially vol. ii., on "The Andes Minerals, Animals, Plants, and Fos sils; " and "The Andes and the Amazon," by J. Orton (New York, 1870). AJVDLAW, Franz Xaver von, a German diplo matist, born at Freiburg, Baden, Oct. 6, 1799. He served in the foreign office and diplomatic service of Baden, and was for many years ambassador at Vienna retiring in 1856. He wrote Erinnerungsblatter aits den Popieren eines Diplomaten (Frankfort, 1857), and Mein Tagebuch, embracing the years 1811- 61 (2 vols., Frankfort, 1862). Among his other prin cipal works is Die Frauen in der GeschicJite (2 vols., Mentz, 1861). AXDOCIDES, an Athenian orator, born in 467 B. C. Accused in 415 of aiding Alcibiades in profaning the mysteries and mutilating the Ilerma3, he was banished after revealing the names of four of the guilty parties, who were then executed. On the establishment in 411 of the government of the 400, he returned to Athens, but was imprisoned on a charge of rendering some service to their demo- cratical opponents at Samos. Escaping soon after, he fled to Cyprus, where he remained till another revolution at Athens encouraged him to go thither once more to solicit the restora tion of his rights. He was unsuccessful, and had to retire a third time into banishment. On the overthrow of the tyranny of the thirty in 403 he was, however, permitted to return, and for sevsral years he enjoyed much of his former consideration and influence; but having been convicted of illegal conduct during an embassy to Sparta, he was a fourth time driven into ex- j ile, where he died at an advanced age. There are three orations of Andocidcs extant in de fence of himself, besides one against Alcibiades, which is, however, considered spurious. His style is simple and unadorned. The best edi tion of these orations is that of Baiter and I Sauppe (Zurich, 1838). ANDORRA, a small republic situated between i the French town of Foix, in the department of Ariege, and the Spanish town of Urgel, in the province of Lerida, in valleys shut in on all sides by the Pyrenees, excepting on the south along the Balira and its affluents ; area, 200 sq. m. ; pop. estimated at about 12,000. It is divided into 6 communes. The capital, of the same name, is in lat. 42 30 N., Ion. 1 30 E., 30 m. S. of Foix and 12 m. N. of Urgel; pop. about 800. The other principal places are Ordino, San Julian, Encam, Canillo, Masana, and the beautifully situated springs of Escaldas, which French speculators have sought to convert into a fashionable watering and gambling place. The chief products are to bacco, grapes, and timber. Game abounds. Ce reals are imported from France. There is some traffic in wood, iron, and wool, but the princi pal occupation is cattle raising. The Andor- rans, having assisted Charlemagne against the Moors, were rewarded with the privilege of self-government, the emperor only reserving to his crown some feudal claims, which were ce ded in 819 by Louis le Debonriaire to the bishop of Urgel. The counts of Foix and subsequently Henry IV. reasserted these claims, but they were relinquished during the French revolu tion, and partly restored in 1806 at the request of the people of Andorra. The republic con tinues to maintain its independence under the suzerainty of France and the authority of the bishop of Urgel. The executive power is held by the president or first syndic of the general council, assisted by a second syndic, both elected for four years by its 24 members, who are themselves elected for the same term by four heads of families of each commune. Jus tice is administered by two viguiers or primary magistrates, respectively appointed by the French government and by the bishop of Urgel, who also alternately name a civil magistrate. The republic pays a biennial tribute of 960 francs to France and one of 891 francs in the inter vening years to the bishop of Urgel. The An- dorrans are a fine, vigorous race, who boast of their poverty as preserving their freedom, and are very proud of their ancient institutions. Every man from 16 to 60 is trained as a sol dier. They are illiterate, and so incommunica tive that in Catalonia to assume ignorance is called to play the Andorran. They are, how- j ever, kindly and hospitable, marry chiefly among themselves, and the principal families ! are all related to each other. They speak a i Catalonian dialect. The bishop of Urgel is the ; sole dispenser of ecclesiastical patronage for four months, his appointments being subject to papal ratification during the rest of the year. ANDOVER ANDRADA E SYLVA 481 See Baquer s TTistoria de lc. republica de An dorra (Barcelona, 184-9); Ziegler s Reise in Spanie.n (Leipsic, 1852) ; and Bayard Taylor s "By- Ways of Europe" (New York, 1869). ANDOVER, a market town of Hampshire, England, 20 m. N. of Southampton ; pop. in 1871, 5,501. Its name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon Andeafaran (ferry over the river Ande). Andover has a large malt trade and an extensive traffic in timber with Ports mouth. The fair which is annually held at Weyhill near Andover was formerly one of the most celebrated in Europe. ANDOVER, a town of Essex county, Mass., on the Merrimack and Shawsheen rivers. 21 m. N. of Boston ; pop. in 1870, 4,873. The village is pleasantly situated in an elevated and healthy district, and has railroad connection with Bos ton, Lawrence, Lowell, Salem, and Newbury- port. The chief importance of the town is de rived from its literary institutions. It is the seat of Phillips academy, founded in 1780 by the munificence of John and Samuel Phillips, who were sons of a clergyman of Andover and graduates of Harvard college. The former was prominent in the politics of New Hampshire, and the latter was lieutenant governor of Mas sachusetts. Its funds are large, and it has a complete chemical and philosophical apparatus, and libraries containing 2,500 volumes. There are 8 instructors, and 154 students in the classi cal and 74 in the English department. The Andover theological seminary, an offshoot of Phillips academy and under the same trustees, was founded in 1807, with the object of pro viding for the church a learned, orthodox, and pious ministry." Its early donors were Samuel Abbot, a merchant of Boston, Moses Brown and William Bartlett, merchants of Newbury- port, and John and Phoebe Phillips of Andover. The whole amount it has received is not less than $400,000. It is under the control of the Congregationalists, but is open to Protestants of all denominations. It has 5 professors, generally more than 100 students, and a library of 30,000 volumes. In 18^0 the number of grad uates was 1,018. Its course of studies occu pies three years. Tuition and room rent are free to all, and additional aid is given to a por tion of the students. The " Bibliotheca Sacra," a leading organ of New England theology, edited by the professors, is published as a quarterly at Andover. The Abbot female academy, established here in 1829, is a flour ishing institution, designed especially for the education of female teachers. The" buildings of these institutions are of brick, and stand near together on an eminence commanding a fine prospect. There are generally from 400 to 500 students in all the institutions. Ando ver contains also a bank and 8 churches, 5 of which are Congregational, 1 Episcopal, 1 Meth odist, and 1 Baptist. In 1865 there were 4 factories for the manufacture of tow and flax, employing 100 males and 150 females ; 5 wool len mills, with 24 sets of machinery, employing VOL. i. 31 212 males and 188 females; a file factory with 350 hands ; and an establishment for the man ufacture of steel, employing 100 hands. ANDRADA, Antonio d , a Portuguese missiona ry, born about 1580, died in Goa, Aug. 20, 1633. He entered the society of Jesus at Coimbra in 1596, joined the East Indian mission, arrived at Goa in 1600, and was appointed superior of one of the houses of the society. Hearing that vestiges of Christianity existed in Thibet, ho set out, disguised as a Mongolian, to visit that country in 1601, and reached Caparanga, the military capital, where it is said he built a church in honor of the Virgin. He made a second journey to Thibet in 1625- 6, and was again most favorably received. Returning to the Portuguese settlement, he was appointed provincial of Goa and deputy of the inquisition. His Novo descobrimento do Grdo Catayo, ou dos Iteynos de Tibet (Lisbon, 1626), was trans lated into Italian, and from that language into French (new ed., 1795). ANDRADA E SYLVA, Bonifacio Joze d , a Bra zilian statesman and naturalist, born in Santos, June 13, 1765, died near Rio de Janeiro, April 6, 1838. Under the patronage of the Lisbon royal academy he was enabled to travel in Eu rope, studying in Paris under Lavoisier, at the mining school of Freiberg under Werner, and at Pavia under Volta. In 1800 he became pro fessor of metallurgy and geognosy at Coimbra, and soon afterward general intendant of the Portuguese mines. He took an active part in the construction of canals and public works, and in 1812 he was named perpetual secretary of the Lisbon academy of sciences. He re turned to Brazil in 1819, and became one of the champions of national independence. As vice president of the provincial junta (Dec. 24, 1821) he urged Dom Pedro I. to remain in Brazil, became his minister of the interior (Jan. 16, 1822), was removed from his office Oct. 25, but reinstated Oct. 30, at the request of the people, and was finally displaced July 17, 1823, on account of his liberalism. In the constituent assembly his opposition became so bitter that after its dissolution (Nov. 12, 1823) he was ar rested and banished to France, and lived in Bor deaux till 1829, when he was permitted to re turn to Brazil. Dom Pedro I. abdicating April 7, 1831, in favor of Dom Pedro II., selected Andrada as the hitter s guardian and tutor. In 1833 he was tried on a charge of intriguing for the restoration of Dom Pedro I. Although ac quitted, he was deprived of his position and restrained of his liberty. He wrote on mineral ogy, and is the author of Poesias d" 1 America Ely sea (Bordeaux, 1825). His brothers, ANTO NIO CARLO and MARTIM FRAXCISCO D ANDRA DA, were associated with Brazilian politics and shared his fate. The latter (born in San tos in 1776, died there Feb. 23, 1844) left two sons : JOZE BONIFACIO, author of Rosas e gouos (Sao Paulo, 1849) ; and MARTIM FRANCISCO, author of Lagrimas e sorrisos (Rio, 1847), andl of the drama Januario Garcia (1849). 482 ANDRAL ANDRE ANDRAL, Gabriel, a French physician, horn in Paris, Nov. 6, 1797. His father, Guillaume, was a memher of the academy and chief physi cian to the French army in Italy and to Murat, and afterward to Louis XVIII. Through the influence of his father-in-law, Royer-Collard, and also by his fame as the author of the Cli- nique medicale (4 vols. 8vo, 1824- 0), he was appointed in 1827 professor of hygiene in the faculty of Paris, and in 1830 was promoted to the chair of internal pathology. In 1839 lie succeeded .Broussais as professor of pathology and general therapeutics. In conjunction with Gavarret and Delafond he published researches Sur les modifications de proportion de quelques principes du sang. His Precis cPanatomie pa- thologique (3 vols., Paris, 1829), Cours de pa- thologiquc interne (3 vols., 1830), and Essai (Vhematologie pathologique (1843) have been translated into foreign languages. ANDRASSY, Gyula (Julius), count, a Hungarian statesman, born in the county of Zemplen, March 8, 1823. His ancestors were known from the llth century in Bosnia, and from the 16th in Hungary, where they acquired vast estates with the rank of count. The Italian branch of the same stock, the margraves d An- drassy and chevaliers de Rivalto, have been extinct since 1793. The head of the senior Hungarian branch, Count CHARLES, the father of Count Julius (born in Gomor in 1792, died in Brussels in 1845), was an opposition member of the diets of 1839- 40 and 1843- 4, and wrote in German " Outlines of a Possible Reform in Hungary." Count Julius was a member of the Presburg diet of 1847- 8, lord lieutenant of the county of Zemplen, led the militia against the Austrians, went as Hungarian ambassador to Constantino] >le, and from 1849 to 1857 was an exile in France and England. He was a mem ber of the diet of 1861, vice president of the diet of 1865- 6, and chairman of the committee on "the common relations of the Austrian empire." After the accession of the Beust ministry, Oct. 30, 1866, and the recognition of Hungarian sovereignty under a dual Austro- Ilungarian. empire, Count Andnissy was, at Deak s demand, appointed Hungarian prime minister of the empire, Feb. 17, 1867. He also acted as minister for the national defence, pop ularized his administration by selecting several of its members from outside the ranks of the aristocracy, carried out the measures broached by the committee of 1865- 6, under the guidance of Deiik, in support of the sovereign rights of Hungary, and instituted various financial, mili tary, and judicial reforms. Sympathizing with France during the Franco-German war, he yet insisted upon neutrality. He approved the overthrow of the papal temporal power, and was rather antagonistic to Russia in the east ern question, until he succeeded Count Beust (Nov. 9, 1871) as foreign minister of the Austro- Hungarian empire, when he seemed disposed to eschew all external complications, and bent on the preservation of peace. ANDRE, Johann Anton, a German composer, born at Offenbach, near Frankfort-on-the-Main, Oct. 6, 1775, died there, April 5, 1842. His father was Johann Andre, founder of the cele brated musical establishment, which still con tinues to prosper at Offenbach, and which under his son s direction attained a high degree of ce lebrity, especially by his purchase of the com positions left by Mozart. His own compositions comprised over 100 pieces of all sorts of music, and at the time of their publication were popu lar in southern Germany, although they are at present almost forgotten. He wrote a Lehr- buch der Tonkumt (Offenbach, 2 vols., 1832- 43, the last part by his pupil Heinrich Henkel), and published Mozart s diary, and some original pieces of that composer. ANDRE, John, a British officer, born in London in 1751, executed at Tappan, Rockland co., N. Y., Oct. 2, 1780. At 18 years of age he embarked in a mercantile career, but being disappointed in a love affair he entered the army, and in the autumn of 1775 was taken prisoner by Gen. Montgomery in Canada. He afterward became aide-de-camp successively to Gen. Grey and Sir Henry Clinton, the latter of whom in 1779 caused him to be promoted to the rank of ma jor, and appointed adjutant general of the British army in North America. In this ca pacity he soon became engaged in a secret correspondence with Gen. Benedict Arnold of the continental army, the object of which was the betrayal of the American cause to the British commander-in-chief. Early in August, 1780, Arnold assumed command of West Point on the Hudson river, then the strongest and most important post in the United States, and considered the key of communication between the eastern and southern states. In further ance of his treasonable designs he proposed to Clinton, whose headquarters were then in New York, to deliver this fortress into his hands, and with a view of perfecting arrangements for that purpose demanded a personal inter view with Andre". The latter accordingly re paired on Sept, 20 to Dobbs Ferry, on the Hudson, and failing to meet Arnold there, went on board the British sloop-of-war Vul ture, which was anchored in the river near that place. On the night of the 21st he went ashore at a point about 6 m. S. of Stony Point and had an interview with Arnold, which was prolonged into the morning of the 22d. On departing for West Point Arnold gave him a passport, authorizing John Anderson (the name assumed by Andre) to pass the American lines to White Plains or below, if he chose; and also six papers in his own handwriting which would enable the British general to direct his attacks against West Point with almost ab solute certainty of success. These, at Arnold s suggestion, Andre concealed between the soles of his feet and his stockings. Andre had fully expected to return to New York on board the Vulture; but finding this impossible, he re luctantly crossed the river to Verplanck s ANDREA ANDRE.E 4S3 Point, accompanied by one Joshua Smith, at j whose house the interview with Arnold had j taken place, and prepared to journey on horse- j back to New York. Previous to this he had, contrary to the positive instructions of Clin ton, exchanged his uniform of a British officer j for a disguise. He passed the night of the 22d j with Smith at a place called Miller s, and early | on the succeeding morning was again in the ! Kiddle. Near Pine s bridge Smith left him, ] and he proceeded on his way alone, taking j the Tarrytown road through what was then | known as the "neutral ground," a region j devastated by marauding parties from both j armies. Between 11 and 12 o clock, when | within half a mile of Tarrytown, he was chal- j lenged by three men, John Paulding, David ; Williams," and Isaac Van Wart, to whom he j incautiously replied that he belonged to the "lower" or British party. His captors, who were Americans, immediately searched his person and discovered the treasonable papers. | Rejecting his offers of pecuniary reward, they I conveyed him to the nearest military station I at North Castle. lie was thence taken to Tap- j pan, the headquarters of the American army, | and tried as a spy before a board of officers ! consisting of six major generals and eight brig- i adiers, by whom he was found guilty and sen- ; foenced to death. Every effort was made by i Clinton to save him, and every fair opportunity : , allowed by Washington, but his offence under j military law was unpardonable. His request that he might be shot could not under the circumstances be granted, and he was hanged : as a spy, in the full uniform of a British officer, and in the presence of a large detachment of troops and an immense concourse of people, I whom he bade witness that he died like a j brave man. During the brief period of his j captivity he endeared himself to all who came ! in contact with him by his sweetness of dis- ! position and the charm of his conversation and ! manners. His fate was lamented not less sin- ; cerely by American officers than by his own j countrymen. Its justice, notwithstanding the | exasperation which it originally provoked in ! England, is now generally conceded. In 1821 : Andre s remains were removed to England, j and are now interred in Westminster Abbey ! beneath a costly monument of marble. AXDUEA, Girolamo d\ a Roman cardinal, born ! in Naples, April 12, 1812, died in Rome, May 15, 1808. He was a member of an old patrician ! family, and was intrusted by Pius IX. with im portant diplomatic and ecclesiastical functions, j For some time he displayed great zeal in behalf of the papal government, and was made car dinal in 1852. Subsequently he became hostile to the Roman see and showed a leaning toward the party of Italian unity. He was at first treated with forbearance, but in 1865 an investigation ; was ordered into his conduct, and he was re- ! moved from his bishopric of Sabina, and in 18G7 ordered to leave Naples, where he was then residing, and present himself at Rome. After some hesitation he obeyed, and was sub jected to certain ecclesiastical penalties, with out being permanently deprived of his digni ties. He did not long survive his disgrace, and died very suddenly. AXDREA PISANO,an Italian sculptor and archi tect, born in Pisa in 1270, died in Florence in 1 345. He was one of the first to depart from the Gothic style in art. After having been em ployed at the cathedral of Pisa, in the execution of the bronzes at Perugia, and of some small figures in marble for Santa Maria al Ponte at Pisa, he was invited to assist in completing the facade of the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore of Florence. He also executed a mar ble statue of Boniface VIII., and statues of St. Peter and St. Paul, for the same church, which were much admired. After having spent some time at A enice, where he made several small statues for the front of St. Mark s, he returned to Florence, and after the death of Arnolfo di Lapo was placed in charge of all the public works. He executed the bronze relievi for the gates of the baptistery, which gained for him great fame and the honorary citizen ship of the republic. The subject is the life of St. John, and the incidents are represented in 22 compartments. He designed the castle of Scarperia, the arsenal of Venice, and the church of San Giovanni at Pistoia. By order of the adventurer called the duke of Athens, who in 1342 made himself by a coup-cFetat master of Florence, he fortified and enlarged the ducal palace, ornamented the city wall with towers and magnificent gates, and designed a small citadel. ANDREA DEL SARTO. See SARTO. AM)REE. I. Jakob, a German theologian, born at Waiblingen in Wurtemberg, March 25, 1528, died June 7, 1590. He studied at Stutt gart and Tubingen, and was ordained a pastor in the former town in 1540. In 1557 he be came preacher to the court of Duke Christo pher of Wurtemberg, whom he accompanied to the diets of Ratisbon and Frankfort. In 1562 he \vas appointed professor of theology and chancellor of the university at Tubingen, and provost of the church of St. George, and from this time took an important part in the movements and discussions of the Protestant church. He was particularly influential in se curing the adoption of the Formula Concordim as the common profession of faith of the t\vo Protestant parties. II. Joliann Valentin, a volu minous German author, grandson of the preced ing, born at Herrenberg, Aug. 17, 1586, died in Stuttgart, June 27, 1654. After travelling over Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and France, he filled various ecclesiastical positions, and for some time officiated at the chapel of the duke of Wurtemberg. His Mythologia Christiana and some of his other Latin works, have been partly translated into German by Herder and Sonntag ; and his Civ is Chrutianus, sire Peregrini quon dam errantis Restitutiones (Strasburg, 1619), was translated into French under the title of 484 ANDREW ANDREW Le sage, Citoyen (Geneva, 1622). He published in 1033 a work advocating republican Christi anity in Germany. His German writing s in clude several poems; among others, Christlich \ Genial (Tubingen, 1(512), which is highly praised i by Herder, who declares that Andreas boldly ! announced truths in the 17th century which no one would dare to express in the 18th. lie first made known the order of Rosicrucians in ; two or three publications, and is regarded by some as its founder or inventor ; but this is denied by Herder. (See ROSICEUCIANS.) His | autobiography, in Latin, was published at Ber- j lin in 1849. ANDREI*], Lanrentins, or Lars Andersson, a Swedish scholar, born in 1482, died at Streng- nas, April 29, 1552. He studied in Rome, and upon his return to Sweden was appointed arch deacon of the cathedral at Upsal. Gustavus Vasa made him his chancellor, and requested him to undertake the translation of the New Testament. In 1540 he was accused of having concealed his knowledge of a conspiracy against the life of the king, and was condemned to death, but finally escaped by the payment of heavy fines. From that time he lived retired in Strengnas. His translation of the New Tes tament, which was the first version in Swedish, was published in folio in 1526. ANDREANI, Andrea, an Italian painter and en graver, surnamed II Mantuano, born in Man tua about 1540, died in Rome in 1623. He de voted himself principally to wood engraving, and exerted a marked influence upon the devel opment of that branch of art. His cuts are printed in chiaroscuro, and his works have often been confounded with those of Altdorfer, from his using a similar monogram. Two of his best prints are after Titian s "Deluge" and "Pharaoh s Host destroyed in the Red sea." ANDREANOV ISLANDS. See ALEUTIAN ISL ANDS. ANDREE, Karl Theodor, a German geographer, born in Brunswick, Oct. 20, 1808. His studies at Jena were interrupted by his trial (1838) for revolutionary proceedings, and being acquitted, he thenceforward connected himself with jour nalism. Since 1801 he lias been editor of the Globus, a geographical and ethnographical pub lication at Hildburghausen. His works, chiefly relating to the American continent, include, besides his copious contributions to the Bruns wick periodical Westland (5 vols., 1851- 3), Nordamerika in geographischen imd ge- echichtlichen Umrisscn (2d ed., Brunswick, 1854); Buenos Ay res und die argentinische RepuNik (Leipsic, 1856) ; Geogmphische Wan- derungen (2 vols., Dresden, 1859) ; and Abes- sinien (1871). He is also the author of For- schungsreisen in Arabienvnd Ostafrika (2 vols., Leipsic, 1860- 61) ; and of Geographic des Welt- handeh (vol. i., Stuttgart, 1863). ANDREINI. I. Francesco, an Italian comedian of the 16th and 17th centuries, chief of the celebrated troupe called / Gclosi. He published j Le bravure del capitan Spavento (Venice, ! 1609), Bagionamenti fantastici (1612), and two theatrical pieces in verse (Kill). II. Isabella, wife of the preceding, a comic actress and an author, born in Padua in 1562, died in Lyons in 1604. She acquired great fame not only by her acting both in Italy and France, but by her varied accomplishments and learn ing, and her irreproachable character. Medals were struck in her honor with the legend, JEternafama. Her writings both in prose and verse are numerous, nearly all relating to love. III. Giovanni Battista, son of the preceding, a comedian and poet, born in Florence in 1578, died in Paris about 1050. Besides three long and several shorter poems, he was the author of 18 dramas, from one of which, a "sacred representation" entitled Adamo, Milton has been supposed to have borrowed the plot of "Paradise Lost." There is, however, little re semblance between the two works. ANDREOSSI, Antoinc Francois, count d , a French general and savant, born at Castelnau- dary, March 6, 1761, died at Montauban, Sept. 10, 1828. He entered the artillery at an early age, and served under Bonaparte in Italy and in Egypt, where he took an active part in the work of the scientific commission. lie was one of the few selected by Bonaparte to ac company him on his return to France, aided him powerfully in seizing the government, and was made inspector general of artillery and engineering. After the treaty of Amiens he was ambassador to London in 1809, governor of Vienna, and afterward ambassador to Constan tinople till the restoration. He again engaged in politics during the Hundred Days (1815), was one of the commissioners to treat with the foreign armies after the battle of Waterloo, and thenceforth devoted himself to scientific pur suits. He made ^important contributions to the Memoir es sur VEgypte. ANDRES, Juan, a Spanish scholar, born of a noble family at Planes in Valencia, Feb. 15, 1740, died in Rome, Jan. 17, 1817. lie early en tered the society of the Jesuits, and on their ex pulsion from Spain in 1767 was removed with his companions first to Corsica, and then to Ferrara, where he taught philosophy ; but the Jesuit college there was soon suppressed by the pope, and he afterward resided chiefly at Man tua and Parma, In 1776 he published in Ital ian Saggio della filosofia di Galileo, expound ing with fairness the system of that philoso pher. His principal work is DelV originc, de" 1 progressi e dcllo stato attuale d?ogni lettera- tura (7 vols. 4to, Parma, l782- 99; 4th ed., 23 vols. 8vo, Pisa, 1821). lie became blind in 1815 and retired to Rome, but continued his scientific and literary pursuits till his death. ANDREW, a N. W. county of Missouri, sepa rated from Kansas by the Missouri river, and intersected by the Platte and several other streams; area, 425 sq. in. ; pop. in 1870, 15,137, of whom 401 were colored. It has railroad communication with St. Joseph. The soil is fertile, and well adapted to grain, tobacco, ANDREW 485 hemp, and pasturage. In 1870 the county produced 107,325 bushels of wheat, 1,086,375 of corn, 178,332 of oats, 102,967 of potatoes, 187, (563 Ibs. of butter, 31,825 of wool, and 5,941 of tobacco ; value of animals slaughtered, $463,582. Capital, Savannah. ANDREW, the name of three Hungarian kings of the family of Arpad, the founder of the Magyar monarchy. Andrew I., a cousin of St. Stephen, who introduced Christianity among his subjects, and successor of Aba Samuel. In 1046, in order to win partisans to his claims to the crown, he allowed a persecution of the Christians, lie warred more or less success fully against Henry III., emperor of Germany, against his o\vn brother Bela, supported by Boleslas II., king of Poland, was defeated by the Poles and the Hungarian malcontents, and died soon after, in 10(51. Andrew II., called the Hierosolymitan, ascended the throne in 1205, in a civil war against his own nephew, Ladislas III., and died after a checkered reign of 30 S.*ars. (See HUXGAEY.) His third wife was eatrice d Este, who returned to Italy, and gave birth there to a posthumous son named Stephen, who married a rich Venetian lady, Tomasina Morosini, the mother of Andrew 311., called the Venetian. lie succeeded Ladislas IV. in 1290, and was obliged to defend his crown against the pretensions of Pope Nicholas IV. and the emperor Rudolph of Hapsburg, both of whom claimed it as their special fief, as well as against Charles Martel, the son of the king of Naples, who was by his mother a descendant of the house of Arpad. Andrew was victorious, but the dissatisfied magnates raised up a new pre tender in the person of Charles Robert, son of Martel; and Andrew died in 1301, disgusted and mortified by the rebellion. With him the lineage of Arpad ended. ANDREW, Saint, one of the twelve apostles, born at Bethsaida. The name of his father was Jonas. He was a disciple of John the Baptist, and the first called of the disciples of Jesus Christ, to whom he brought his brother Simon, afterward called Peter, and is hence called by some of the fathers "the rock before the rock." Of his apostolic labors nothing is said in the Acts of the Apostles. According to Origen, he preached in Scythia. St. Jerome says that he preached also in Achaia, and other ancient writers say also in Sogdiana, Colchis, Argos, and Epirus. He is the princi pal patron of Scotland. Tradition reports that he was crucified at Patrre, now Patras, in Achaia, on a cross of this form, x (crux de- cussata\ hence called St. Andrew s cross. ANDREW, James Osgood, I). D., an American clergyman, one of the bishops of the Methodist Episcopal church South, born in Wilkes county, Ga., May 3, 1794, died in Mobile, Ala., March 2, 1871. At the age of 18 he was licensed to preach, and in December, 1812, he was received into the South Carolina conference. At the general conference of 1832 he was elected bishop of the Methodist Episcopal church. His sec ond wife being the owner of slaves, the north ern delegates to the general conference of 1844 judged that "this would greatly embarrass the exercise of his office as an itinerant general superintendent, if not in some places entirely prevent it." Accordingly, the majority of the body resolved "that it is the sense of this gen eral conference that he should desist from the exercise of this office so long as this impedi ment remains." The southern delegates, con sidering this a virtual suspension from the episcopal office, and therefore extra-judicial and unconstitutional, entered their protest. The result was an amicable division of the church into two independent jurisdictions, with an equitable apportionment of the church property. The southern division, under the name of the Methodist Episcopal church South, held a general conference at Petersburg, Va., in May, 1846, at which time Bishop Soule, senior bishop of the M. E. church, and Bishop Andrew gave in their adherence to the church South. Bishop Andrew continued to exercise his episcopal functions till 18G8, when he re tired from active duty on account of age. His volumes of "Miscellanies" and on "Family Government" have been widely circulated. ANDREW, Jolni Albion, 21st governor of Mas sachusetts since the adoption of the constitu tion of 1780, born in Windham, Me., May 31, 1818, died in Boston, Mass., Oct. 30, 1867. He graduated at Bowdoin college, Me., in 1837, and immediately afterward commenced the study of law in Boston, where in 1840 he was admitted to the bar. During the next 20 years he practised his profession in that city, his most conspicuous efforts being called forth by causes arising under the fugitive slave law of 1850; and in 1858, having during the previous ten years been closely identified with the anti- slavery party of Massachusetts, he was elected a member of the state legislature from Boston. In 1860 he was a member of the republican convention which nominated Mr. Lincoln for the presidency, and in the same year was elected governor of Massachusetts by the largest pop ular vote ever cast for any candidate. Antici pating the conflict between the government and the seceding states, he early took measures to place the militia of Massachusetts on a footing of efficiency; and within a week after the presi dent s proclamation of April 15, 1861, he de spatched five regiments of infantry, a battalion of riflemen, and a battery of artillery to the assistance of the government. He subsequently took an active part in raising and equipping the Massachusetts contingent of three years volunteers. He was reflected governor of Massachusetts in 1861, and made frequent visits to Washington and other places to con fer with public men on national affairs. lie took part in the conference held by the gov ernors of the loyal states a Altoona, Penn., in September, 1862, and prepared the address which they subsequently presented to the presi dent. He presided at the first national L T nita- 480 ANDREWS ANDROCLUS rian convention in 1805. Tie retired from the I office of governor in January, 180(5, having positively declined a fifth reelection, and re sumed the practice of the law. He afterward also declined an offer of the presidency of An- j tioch college, Ohio. ANDREWS, James Pettit, an English historian, ! born near New bury, Berkshire, in 1737, died in London, Aug. 0, 1797. His most important work (which he did not live to complete) was his " History of Great Britain, connected with I the Chronology of Europe." The part publish- j ed commences with Caesar s invasion and ends with the accession of Edward VI. The plan of the work is peculiar, a portion of the history of England occupying one page, while the ! synchronous portion of the history of Europe is placed on the page opposite. He also wrote a continuation of Henry s "History of Britain " to the accession of James I. (1790), and an amusing collection of "Anecdotes" (1789). ANDREWS, Lancelot, an English scholar and prelate, born in London in 1555, died in Win chester house, Sept. 25, 102G. He was a fa vorite of James I., who made him his lord j almoner, and successively bishop of Chichester, | Ely, and Winchester, and a privy councillor; j and he was one of the authors of King James s j translation of the Scriptures. His Tortura Torti, a large 4to volume (1009), was an an- I swer to Bellarmine s attack upon James s j "Defence of the Right of Kings." His other principal works are his "XCVI Sermons," "Lectures on the Ten Commandments," and " Posthumous and Orphan Lectures," all pub lished after his death. His Prceccs Prirata (1674) is a collection of passages from the Bible and the fathers in Greek and Latin, still much used in the English translation ("Manual of Private Devotions and Meditations for Every Day in the Year "). His style, though much | admired in his own day, is quaint, affected, and overloaded with imagery. He had high no tions of ecclesiastical authority, which brought him into conflict with the puritans. He was generally esteemed, however, as a pious, chari table, upright, and munificent prelate. MDRIA, a town of S. Italy, in the Neapoli tan province of Bari, situated in a tine plain, 32 m. W. N. W. of Bari ; pop. in 1871, 34,084. It has a royal college, a small Gothic palace, and a superb cathedral. The favorite hunting seat of Frederick II., Castel del Monte, about 12 m. from the town, is still an imposing structure. In 1799 Andria was nearly de stroyed by the bombardment of the French, after a gallant defence. AXDRIEl X, Francois Gnillaumc Jean Stanislas, a French author, born in Strasburg, May 0, 1759, died in Paris, May 10, 1833. lie studied law, and distinguished himself as the advocate of the Abbe Mulot in the affair of the diamond necklace. He welcomed the revolution with enthusiasm, but on the fall of the Girondists was obliged to hide himself. On May 23, 1794, he returned to Paris and began to study Eng lish literature, and several of his pieces from this time show traces of his familiarity with Swift, Addison, and Steele. In 1795 he was made judge of the court of cassation, was admitted into the newly organized national institute, and was awarded a pension of 2,000 francs by the convention. In April, 1798, he was chosen by the moderate party one of their candidates to the council of 500. After the 18th Brumaire he was appointed by the con sulate a member, and afterward secretary and president of the tribunate ; but the first consul removed him in September, 1802. After hav ing declined the office of censor, offered to him by Fouche, with 8,000 francs salary, he accepted that of librarian to Joseph Bonaparte, with 6,000 francs, a post which he held for ten years. In 1802 he wrote for the theatre Lou- vois, of which his friend Picard was the direc tor, Ifelvetivs, ou la vengeance dhm sage. After the death of this philosopher, he was one of the habitues of the famous salon of Madame Helvetius at Auteuil. In 1814 he was elevated to the professorship of French literature in the college of France. The romantic school of literature was the object of his unsparing attacks. He was one of the founders of the Decades philosopliiques et litteraires (1794- 1807). Among his more remarkable contribu tions to the French stage are Les Etonrdis, performed with brilliant success in 1787; Le tresor (1804) ; Holier e arcc ses amis (1804) ; La comedienne (1810) ; and his tragedy of Brutus (1830). His complete works were published in 4 vols., 1817- 23, and in 6 vbls., 1828. ANimiSClS, or Psendo Philip, a native of Adramyttium, of humble origin, who in 154 B. C. assumed the name of Philip, proclaiming him self the natural son of Perseus, the last king of Macedon, whom he strikingly resembled. He applied for help to Demetrius Soter, brother-in-law of Perseus, who delivered him to the Romans. Escaping from Home to Thrace, he raised an army, and drove the Ro mans out of Macedonia and Thessaly (149), but was checked at Thcrmopylas and driven back by Scipio Nasica. He soon afterward defeated and slew the Roman pr.Ttor Juventius, took the title of king of Macedon, and formed an alliance with Carthage. In 148 he was twice defeated by Q. Caecilius Metellus (who was hence surnamed Macedonicus), fled to the Thracian king Byzas, was by him delivered to the Romans, and, after gracing the triumph of Metellus at Rome, was executed by order of the senate in 140. AOROCLUS, a Roman slave of the early part of the first century, of whom Aulus Gellius says that having fled from the tyranny of his master and been recaptured, he was sentenced to be devoured by wild beasts in the circus ; but a lion which had been let loose upon him recognized him as a man who had once relieved it of a thorn in its foot, and immedi ately began to caress him. The emperor or dered Androclus to be pardoned, and presented AXDROIDES ANDRONICUS 1ST with the lion, which he used afterward to lead about Koine. ANDROIDES. See AUTOMATON. ANDROMACHE, the daughter of Eetion, king of Cilioian Thebe and wife of Hector, hy whom she had a son named Scamandrius or Astyanax. She lost her father and her seven brothers at the capture of Thebe, her husband in the defence of Troy, and her son on the fall of the latter city, when she became the prize of Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles, to whom she bore three sons, Molossus, Pielius, and Perga- mus. On the death of Pyrrhus she became the wife of llelenus, brother of Hector and ruler of Chaonia, a part of Epirus, by whom she had a son called Cestrinns. AJVDROMEDA, a mythical princess, daughter of Cepheus the Ethiopian king and Cassiopea. Her mother having boasted that the beauty of her daughter surpassed that of the nereids, the latter prevailed on Neptune to afflict the country with a deluge and a sea monster. The oracle of Ammon promised that if Andromeda was surrendered to the monster, Ethiopia should be released. The princess was chained to a rock by the shore, and rescued by Perseus, who slew the monster and married Andro meda. Phineus, to whom she had previously been promised, attempted during the celebra tion of the nuptials to slay Perseus and carry otf the bride, but was himself killed with all his associates. After her death, Andromeda was translated to the firmament and placed among the stars. ANDRONItTS, the name of four emperors of Constantinople. Andronicns I. (oninemis, grand son of Alexis I., born in 1110, died Sept. 12, 1185. He distinguished himself by his martial ability, dissolute conduct, and romantic adven tures. In his youth he served against the Turks, was for some time a prisoner, and was afterward appointed to the military command of Cilicia. He besieged Mopsuestia, and though his campaign was unsuccessful, he was rewarded by his cousin the emperor Manuel with new hon ors. He engaged in a treasonable correspon dence with the king of Hungary, and was im prisoned twelve years in a tower of the palace. Escaping after two unsuccessful attempts, he reached Kiev in Russia, persuaded the grand duke Yaroslav to form an alliance with Manuel against the Hungarians, and for this was par doned, but was afterward exiled to a command on the Cilician frontier. At the head of a band of adventurers, he undertook the pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and, after roving laAvlessly through Persia and Turkey, at length fixed his residence at (Enoe, a city of Pontus. On the death of Manuel the populace called him to the purple. He put to death the son and widow of Manuel (1183), but was strict in dispensing justice among the people. A popular rising in favor of his kinsman Isaac Angelus put an end to his career, and he was murdered by the populace with slow tortures. Andronicus II. Palaeologus, the Elder, born in 1258, died Feb. 13, 1332. He was crowned emperor in his 15th year, and held the title nine years as the | colleague, and from 1282 to 1328 as the suc- | cessor of his father Michael. In his reign I Osman, the founder of the Ottoman empire, i effected the conquest of Bithynia, and advanced | within sight of Constantinople. Andronicus invited for his assistance from the west a multitude of Catalans, who defeated the Turks in two great battles, but were themselves driven out only after great trouble. His own | grandson, Andronicus III., compelled him to abdicate in 1328, and shut him up in a mon astery, where he died four years afterward. Andronicns III. Palseologns, the Younger, grand son of the preceding, born in 1296, died | June 15, 1341. He revolted against his grarid- ! father in 1321, was made his colleague in 1325, but again revolted and deposed him in 1328. I He reconquered Chios from the Genoese ! (1329), and took Epirus from the Albanians I (1337). In 1333 the Turks took Nicaea and j made it their capital, and Andronicus joined the fruitless alliance of the western powers I against them. He was also at war with the ! Catalans in Greece, and more successfully with i the Bulgarians, Kiptchak Tartars, and Servians. I His internal administration was moderate and ! conciliatory. He left the empire and his infant | heir John under the guardianship of John Can- ! tacuzenus. Andronicns IV. Palseologos, grandson I of the preceding, governed the empire in the ! absence of his father John VI., afterward con- } spired with the son of the sultan Murad to i murder their fathers, and was captured and partially blinded. Escaping from a long im- j prisonment by the aid of the Genoese, he i brought about a division of the empire between I his father and himself, Androriicus making j Selymbria his capital. The dates of these I events are very uncertain. On the death of i John VI. in 1391, Andronicus gave way to his brother Manuel II., and died a monk. ANDRONKl S. I. Livins, the most ancient of the | Latin poets, died about 221 B. C. He was an I Italian Greek, whom the fortune of war had j thrown into the hands of the Romans, and < made the slave of M. Livius Salinator. His : master gave him his liberty, and with it his own name of Livius. Andronicus then settled i in Rome, acquired a perfect knowledge of the I Latin language, and became a voluminous writer j of dramatic and other poetry. But few frag- j ments of his works have come down to us, of which the best edition is that of Diintzer (Ber lin, 1835). Cicero considered them not worth reading. Horace avows that he would have contemplated their destruction with regret II. Of Rhodes, a Peripatetic philosopher who I flourished in the middle of the 1st century B. C. j He is chiefly celebrated as the editor of Aris- ! totle s works, to which he gave that arrange- | ment which is to a great extent retained in the present editions, lie wrote a general work on Aristotle, which contained a complete cata logue of his writings, and commentaries on 488 ANDROS ANDUJAR some of his physical, metaphysical, and logical treatises, all of which have perished. AADROS, an island of Greece, in the archipel ago, the northernmost of the Cyclades, 21 by 8 m. ; pop. in 1870, 19,074. It is mountainous, but has many fertile valleys, yielding wine, oil, silk, oranges, citrons, &c. Andro, or Cas tro, the capital, is situated on a shallow har bor on the E. coast; pop. 5,000. The Andri- ans submitted to the Persians in the invasion of Greece by Xerxes, and subsequently, after some resistance, to the Athenians. Still later, the island was successively annexed to Mace- don, Pergamus, and Koine. AJNDROS, an island of the Bahamas, giving name to a small group of islands which are but thinly inhabited, and the passages between which are intricate and difficult. The main island, 20 m. "W. of New Providence, is of irregular shape, 65 m. long and 45 m. wide. It is chiefly composed of salt-water marshes and fresh-water swamps, in which there are a few elevated oases bearing excellent cedar tim ber. It has a population of about 800, nearly all colored, a school, and the privilege of send ing one member to the Bahamas assembly. ANDROS, Sir Edmund, an English colonial governor, born in London, Dec. 6, 1637, died there, Feb. 24, 1714. lie was brought up at court, his father being an officer of the royal household. lie was a major in Prince Ru pert s dragoons, and in 1674 succeeded his father as bailiff of Guernsey. In the same year he was commissioned governor of New York, and received its surrender by the Dutch after their brief repossession of it. He admin istered its affairs in the interest of the duke of York, was involved in controversies with the surrounding colonies and with the French in Canada by his extensive claims to jurisdic tion, and in 1680 seized the government of East Jersey, deposing Philip Carteret. He was recalled to England in 1681, cleared him self of several charges preferred against him, and retired to Guernsey. New England hav ing been consolidated, Andros was appointed its governor general in 1686, under instructions which, while establishing religions toleration, forbade all printing, and authorized him to appoint and remove his own council, and with their consent to enact laws, levy taxes, and control the militia. Carrying out these in structions in a despotic manner, his govern ment soon became very odious to the colonists. Connecticut having held out against him, he appeared in the council chamber at Hartford with an armed guard in October, 1687, and demanded the surrender of its charter, which is said to have been prevented by its sudden removal and concealment in a hollow tree afterward celebrated as the charter oak. Con temporary documents, however, seem to prove that no such event occurred, that Andros really possessed himself of the original charter, and that a duplicate had been concealed some time previously. (See Brodhead s "History of New York," vol. ii., pp. 472- 3.) In 1688 New York and New Jersey were added to his juris diction, and Francis Nicholson was appointed lieutenant governor there. On the news of the revolution in England, the people of Bos ton imprisoned Andros and several of his officers, April 18, 1689, and the New England colonies restored their former governments, while Jacob Leisler usurped authority in New York. (See LEISLEE.) In July he was sent to England by order of King William, with a committee of accusers, but was acquitted with out a formal trial. In 1692 he was made gov ernor of Virginia, where he made himself com paratively popular, but was removed in 1698 through the influence of Commissary Blair. In 1704- 6 he was governor of Guernsey. In 1691 Andros published a narrative of his pro ceedings in New England, which was repub- lished in 1773. ANDROSCOGGIN, a S. W. county of Maine ; area, 400 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 35,866. It has a fertile soil, and in agriculture ranks among the foremost in the state. The productions in 1870 were 7,800 bushels of wheat, 72,344 of corn, 20,404 of barley, 96,413 of oats, 371,391 of po tatoes, 48,605 Ibs. of wool, 559,213 of butter, 179,858 of cheese, and 50,787 tons of hay. The county has fine water power at Lewiston, produced by the junction of the Androscoggin and Little Androscoggin rivers, and there are numerous manufacturing establishments. The Portland branch of the Grand Trunk railroad, and the Maine Central and other lines, traverse the county. In 1870 there were 8,182 children attending school. Capital, Auburn. ANDROSCOGGIN, or Ameriscoggiu, a river of New Hampshire and Maine. It is formed in Coos county, N. II., near the Maine boundary, by the union of the Margalloway river with the outlet of Umbagog lake, flows S. to the AVhite mountains, and making a sharp bend to the E. about lat. 44 20 , enters the state of Maine, and joins the Kennebec river at Merry Meeting bay, about 18 m. above the entrance of that river into the ocean. Its length is 157 m., 66 of which are in New Hampshire. ANDRYANA, Alexandre, a French champion of Italy, born in 1797, died in January, 1863. lie was an officer of the French army till 1814, and subsequently joining the Italian revolu tionists, he became a fellow prisoner of Silvio Pellico in the fortress of Spielberg, and wrote graphic Memoires cT-un prisonnier d etat (2 vols., Paris, 1837- 8; 4th ed., 1862). He took part in the French revolution of 1848, and in 1859 was commissary general to the army of occupation in Lombardy. ANDUJAR, or Andnxar, a town of Spain, in Andalusia, province of Jaen, at the foot of the Sierra Morena, and on the right bank of the Guadalquivir, 50 m. E. N. E. of Cordova; pop. about 13,000. It is a comparatively wealthy and very industrious place, its indus try consisting chiefly in alcarrazas, a peculiar kind of jars made of red and white clay found ANEGADA ANEMOMETER 489 in the neighborhood, and highly esteemed for the power of keeping water cool in hot weather. The vicinity furnishes an extraor dinary abundance of wheat, barley, oil, wine, and honey. The town contains several mon asteries. It is supposed to be near the site of the ancient Illiturgis or Forum Julium. The capitulation of Baylen, so called from the neighboring place of that name, which was the opening of the French disasters in the Peninsu lar war, was signed in Andujar in July, 1808, after severe lighting around the town. ASEGADA, a British West Indian island, the northernmost of the Virgin group and of the Lesser Antilles, 18 m. N. of Virgin Gorda; length 10 m., greatest breadth 4i m. It has but few inhabitants, who produce some cotton and food, and large quantities of salt from salt ponds. There is abundance of fresh water. Numerous shipwrecks occur, especially on a reef extending S. E. and S. from the E. end of the island. ANEL, Dominiqne, a French surgeon, born in Toulouse about Io79, died about 1730. He acquired great fame by his invention of the probe and syringe still known by his name, and is also celebrated for his successful treat ment of aneurism and fistula lachrymalis, upon which he published treatises. At the begin ning of the 18th century he served as surgeon in the Austrian army, and in 1710 established himself at Genoa. ANEMOMETER (Gr. aveuoe, wind, and [terpov, measure), an instrument for measuring the force of the wind. Attention was first given to this subject by Dr. Croune in 1667, and in struments were contrived by him and by Wol- fius and others in the last century. These have all given place, however, to recent inventions of more perfect construction. The first at tempts were to measure the force of the wind by its pressure upon a vertical plane, kept in position by a spring or by a weight suspended by a cord wound around a conical spiral axis, which weight the wind would raise more or less according to the degree of pressure on the vertical plane. A bag of air opening into a glass tube which was shaped like the letter U, and contained a fluid which by compression of the bag was forced down one leg and up the other, was another contrivance for the same purpose. Another form of it was to dispense with the bag and turn one extremity of the tube against the wind, expanding it to a funnel shape, so that the wind might blow directly into it and press upon the surface of the fluid, The tube was drawn out to a small diameter in the curve at the bottom, so as to check the sudden fluctuations caused by irregular blasts of wind. By means of this simple instrument, Dr. Lind, who invented it, ascertained the force of the wind at different velocities by the height of the column of water raised by it. A gentle breeze, moving at the rate of nearly four miles an hour, raises a column of water ^ of an inch, which is equivalent to a pressure of ! 2^ ounces upon a square foot. A high wind i moving 32iV miles per hour raises the column 1 inch, with a pressure of nearly 5^ pounds on I the square foot. A column of 3 inches indicates a pressure of 15^- pounds, and a velocity ex ceeding 56J miles an hour. At 9 inches the wind is a violent hurricane moving 97^ miles an hour, and exerting a pressure on the square foot of 46f- pounds. The atmospheric pressure being a little over 2,000 pounds on the square foot, or equal to a column of water 33 feet high, the greatest force exerted by the wind is feeble in comparison with this. A more com plicated apparatus was invented by Dr. Whew- ell, and another by Mr. Osier, both of which have been used in England at the meteoro logical observatories and government institu tions. Both are self-registering, and deter mine the force of the wind by the number of revolutions of a windmill fly, the axis of which by perpetual screws and toothed wheels is connected with the registering pencil. In TYhewell s instrument the windmill with its wheels and vane is on a horizontal plate, which revolves on the top of a vertical cylinder. The pencil is attached to a little block of wood or nut, through which passes a screw from the horizontal plate above to a circular rim below the cylinder, all which revolves around the cylinder as the wind changes. A straight rod also goes through the pencil block or nut, up and down which it slides as the screw turns. According as the wind blows gently or strongly, this screw turns slowly or fast, and carries the pencil down the cylinder at a pro portional rate. Its point reaches the surface of the cylinder and marks upon it its position, and as the frame turns with the change of direction of the wind, the course of the wind is registered upon the face of the cylinder. For this pur pose it is divided by vertical lines into 16 or 32 equal parts corresponding to the points of the compass. This instrument is deficient in not recording the time during which each wind blows, nor the times of its changes, nor its force at any particular moment. It merely gives the order of the changes, and the entire quantity that blows from each point. This is known by the vertical length of the pencil mark in each division of the cylinders corresponding to the courses. It is defective also by the friction of its machinery. Osier s instrument, constructed on similar principles, is more complicated than Whewell s. Its register is divided by lines into spaces, which represent the 24 hours of the the day, and in these spaces pencils inscribe lines, one of which indicates the direction, an other the pressure, of the wind, and a third, connected with a rain gauge, the quantity of rain which has fallen at every hour. The re gister moves along by clockwork under the pencils, and at the meteorological observatory at Greenwich a new one is employed every day. In the royal exchange in London one of these instruments is in use with a register made to last a week. By the lines inscribed on the 490 ANEMONE register the integral or quantity of the wind can be calculated that has blown to each point of the compass during the periods of the obser vations; and thence the resultant, or average etfect of all the winds. The instrument now in use in the I nited States olh ce for weather reports is liob mson s anemometer, which con sists of four horizontal arms (see figure) radiat ing from a central point, at which is a vertical axis of revolution. A hollow hemispherical cup is attached to each arm in such manner that when the wind is pressing upon the con cave side of a cup on one arm, the cup on the opposite arm presents its convex side toward the wind. The wind exerts more pressure on the concave side than on the convex, and hence causes the arms to revolve. The rate of revolution per minute gives the velocity of the wind. Each instrument has to be tested by placing it upon a moving body on a calm day. In this way it is easily found what the number of revolutions is which the instrument will give for any velocity ; it is then placed upon a high building, and its axis attached to a re cording apparatus similar to that described above. Biram s anemometer is an instrument for measuring and registering the quantities of air which circulate through the passages of mines. It was invented in consequence of the recommendation of a committee appointed by the British house of commons, that the use of such an instrument should be adopted as a precaution against the explosions in coal mines. It is a disk of a foot diameter, made to revolve when placed in a current of air, and furnished with registering wheels like those upon a gas meter. Any want of attention on the part of those having charge of supplying the required current of fresh air is thus readily detected. ANEMONE (Gr. av/wc, wind, as many species grow in elevated windy places), a genus of plants of the family of ranunculacew, Jussieu. The leaves of the stem are generally ternate, forming an involucre which is more or less dis tant from the flower; the calyx corolla-like, with from 5 to 15 colored petals, longer than the stamens; carpels numerous, ending in per sistent styles. About 60 species are cultivated on account of their beauty, succeeding best in light loamy soils. They are propagated by di vision, offsets, and seeds; the greenhouse species from cuttings in light loam under glass. The colors of the flowers predominate in the follow ing order one over the other : white, yellow, blue, reddish white, purple, red, striped, whit ish, creamy violet. Their recommendations for a place in the garden are : a line dense foliage _ Anemone Ilortensis. of beautiful green color ; involucre green, and distant about ^ from the flower ; stem straight, light; flowers globose, petals large, rounded, with an unguis (nail) of different color. The native countries of the species are, in order of prevalence, Europe, especially the south, North America, Siberia, the rest of Asia, South Amer ica, South Africa. The most valued are : The A. Itortensis and stcllata, often flowering the second year, easily doubled by culture ; flower ing from mid -April to the end of May. A. pavonina, of Europe ; root tuberous ; flowers purple ; attains a foot in height ; a variety is crimson with green centre. A. ranvnculoides, of Europe, about 6 inches high. A. apen- nina ; leaves biternate; many narrow, blue petals. A. narcissi folia, of Switzerland; 10 inches ; umbellated purplish and yellow. A. viti folia, of Nepaul, japonica, and elegans (also from Japan), recommend themselves by their strong and tall frame (l-- to 3 feet), and by the beauty of their floAvers. A . capensis or arlorea ; stem woody, though but 7 inches high ; flowers reddish outside, white inside. A. pulsatilla, common in Europe; 10 inches high ; flowers large violet; foliage hairy. A. coronaria, of Asia Minor ; hard to be raised from seed in this country. A new genus has been separated from the anemone, under the name of hepatica, to which belongs the beautiful species common ly called anemone that adorns our forests in early spring; leaves leathery, dark green on the upper side, liver-brown on the lower; flowers numerous, of all shades of white and bluish purple. Both are allied to the clematids, hellebores, aetseas, and crowfoots, w r ith which they form the 41 genera of ranunculacem. The hepatica was employed of old in liver com plaints, from the belief in its sympathy with ANEMOSCOPE ANEURISM 491 that oman. Pulsatilla is a much used remedy i in the homoeopathic materia medica. AXEMOSCt)PK(Gr. drt-,uof, wind, and aito~dv, to , look), a wind indicator, or weathercock. The j term is, however, only applied when the weathercock is attached to a spindle which : passes from the vane into an apartment below, : and there by an index upon a compass dial in- ; dicates in what direction the wind blows. For expressing this direction the plan has been j adopted of dividing the great circle of the hori- ; zon into 32 parts of 11 15 each, and calling the directions of the wind successively: X., N. j by E., N. X. E., X. E. by X., X. E., N. E. by i E., E. X. E., E. by X., E., E. by S., E. S. E., ! S. E. by E., S. E., S. E. by S., S. S. E., S. by j E., S., S. by W., S. S. W., S. W. by S., S. W., | S. W. bv W., W. S. W., W. by S., W., W. by I X., W. X. W., X. W. by W., X. W., X. W. by 1 X., X. X. W., X. by W., X. The latest im- ; provement of the anemoscope is to attach a ; recording clockwork to the dial plate, so that not only the direction of the wind, but the ! time that it blows in any direction, is perma- | nently recorded. Such an arrangement is now in operation at the meteorological observatory ; in the Central Park, Xew York. A\ERIO. I. Felice, an Italian musician, born j in Rome about 1560, died about 1630. In 1594 he succeeded Palestrina as composer of | the pontifical chapel. A great number of his i compositions have been published, and his un- j published pieces have been preserved in the \ archives of the basilica of the Vatican and in ! the pontifical chapel. II. Giovanni Francesco, brother of the preceding, born in Rome about 1567, was for many yenrs chapel master of the king of Poland and of the cathedral of Verona, j and subsequently a teacher of music at the Ro- j man seminary. He was one of the first Italian j composers who made use of quavers, semi-qua- i vers, and demi-semi-qoavers. Many of his | musical compositions have been published. ANEROID. See BAROMETER. AXEURIN, a Welsh bard, who was the leader of the mediaeval Britons in the battle of Cat- traeth, and who celebrated in heroic verse the deeds of that day. His work is still preserved in the literature of Wales. He died about 570. It is supposed that this poet was either identi cal with or the brother of the historian Gildas. ; AXEl RISM (Gr. avevpvajj.6^ a widening or ex- i tension), a term used in surgery to signify a ! vascular tumor or enlargement, arising from | the morbid distention of an artery It is much I more common in some arteries than others, but i any artery of the body is liable to it. The cor- I responding disease and enlargement of a vein is ! termed varix. An artery is composed of three ! coats or membranes which form the walls of a i strong, elastic, and distensible tube. In a | healthy state, the tube maintains a certain di- i ameter under the ordinary impulse of the blood ; j but when the walls of an artery become dis- j eased, they yield before the constant pressure j of the circulating fluid, causing the diseased part to form a bag or tumor. This bag en larges as the diseased walls distend ; and the inner and middle coats, being less resisting than the outer, especially in a diseased state, give way and burst, leaving the outer coat alone to form the walls of the aneurismal tumor. This admits of a considerable amount of distention ; but it eventually bursts, and then the unre strained current gushes out with violence, and the patient dies from loss of blood. Sometimes, however, the dense cellular sheath of the arte ry, though very distensible, is strong enough to retain the blood for a time after the rupture of the proper walls of the artery, and the aneuris mal sac may thus be very much enlarged, and not give rise to fatal haemorrhage. At times, in fact, this external sac allows the ruptured walls within to partially collapse ; the current fiows as usual ; the blood in the external sac coagulates and forms a clot around the ruptured part beneath; the clot increases from its stag nant state outside the current, and eventually plugs up even the ruptured parts, extending into the diseased artery and plugging up the tube, thus forcing the current to flow more abundantly through collateral channels, enlarg ing the walls of neighboring arteries, and form ing a spontaneous cure for the original disease. This is a very rare occurrence. The tumor usually enlarges by degrees, pressing upon the nerves and tissues near it, and causing pain as well as absorption of the sofb or bony struc tures against which it presses. An aneurismal tumor always pulsates strongly, and can gen erally be distinguished from all other tumors by this characteristic feature. It sometimes happens, however, that an artery pulsating be neath an abscess or an ordinary tumor causes the latter to simulate to some extent this pul sating character, and hence arise at times errors of diagnosis of a serious character ; real aneurisms have been mistaken for abscesses lying upon a pulsating artery, and when opened under this impression to let out pus, the blood has gushed out from an aneurismal tu mor, and the error has proved fatal. Ruysch relates that a friend of his opened a tumor near the heel, not suspecting it to be an aneurism, and the haemorrhage, though stopped at last, placed the life of the patient in great danger. Boerhaave was consulted by a patient on a swelling of the knee, and, suspecting it to be an aneurism, cautioned him against having it opened ; but it was opened by another person, and the man died on the spot. It is said that Ferrand, the head surgeon of the Hotel Dieu in Paris, mistook an axillary aneurism for an ab scess, plunged his bistoury into the swelling, and killed the patient. Such mistakes, how ever, can hardly happen now, as all the best works on surgery give ample instructions on the means of diagnosis in this and other impor tant diseases. The cure of aneurism consists in the obliteration of the diseased portion of the artery, by passing a ligature around the sound portion of the vessel at some distance 492 ANFOSSI ANGEL FISH above the locality of the tnmor. The merit of this method of cure is due to the celebrated John Hunter, who, observing that the old practice of passing the ligature upon the artery immediately above the tumor often failed, was led to think that the arterial walls, being dis eased near the tumor, could not sustain the process of inflammation necessary to cause the tissues to adhere; and consequently he under took to tie the femoral artery in a case of pop liteal aneurism, and was perfectly successful. Since then his method has been universally adopted. Recently many attempts have been made, some of them with considerable success, to produce a similar resi It, either by continu ous pressure over the artery kept up for a day or two, or by a ligature applied temporarily to the artery and withdrawn as soon as coagula tion has taken place in the aneurism and the neighboring portion of the artery. By what ever means this is accomplished, the flow of blood is stopped in the large vessels below the ligature ; but the secondary vessels communi cate with each other so abundantly in all parts of the limb, by what is called anastomosis, that the blood soon flnds its way through these smaller channels, and enlarges them by slow degrees to suit the wants of nutrition. ANFOSSI, Pasqaalc, an Italian composer, born in Naples in 1729, died in Rome in 1797. He was a pupil of Sacchini and Piccini, the latter of whom in 1771 procured him an en gagement in Rome. His first successes were in 1773, with the opera L Incognita persegui- tata, and several others immediately succeed ing. His serious opera ISOlimpiade having failed, he went to Venice, and in 1780 to Paris, where his Incognita perseguitata, with a French libretto, was riot well received. In 1783 he was manager of the Italian opera in London, and in 1787 returned to Rome, where he enjoyed henceforth uninterrupted popu larity. Of his works, which are now little known, the best are LSararo, II curioso indis- creto, and / viaggiatori felici. ANGARA, a river of (Siberia, which enters Lake Baikal at its N. extremity, under the name of Upper Angara, leaves it near the S. W. end as the Lower Angara or Upper Tunguska, flows past Irkutsk, pursues a N. and W. course for about 750 m., until it is joined by the river Tchadobet, continues in a westerly direction about 250 m. further, and empties into the Yenisei, E. of Yeniseisk. ANGEL (Gr. Aj yeAof, a messenger), a name given in Jewish and Christian theology to certain spiritual beings endowed with super human powers of intelligence and of will. They are frequently mentioned in the Old as well as the New Testament as immediate in struments of Divine Providence. In Scrip ture, however, the original word not unfre- quently has its primary signification of mes senger, even where rendered angel in the Vulgate and the English version. They are regarded as pure spirits in whose existence there is nothing material. They often appear in the Scriptures with bodies and in the human form; but it was in the early church and still is a matter of theological dispute whether these bodies and this form were only assumed by them for a time for the special purpose of conversing with men. Besides these good an gels, the church recognizes a class of ki fallen angels, 11 who left their first estate and are now u angels of the devil." The second council of Constantinople, contrary to the opinion of Ori- gen, declared that there are different classes of angels; and since Dionysius the Areopagite | the opinion that there are nine classes of an- ! gels has become prevalent in the Catholic and | eastern churches. It was a common opinion ! among the fathers of the early Christian church that every individual is under the care of a particular angel who is assigned to him as a I guardian ; but Protestant theology finds noth ing in the Bible to support this notion. While the older Protestant churches, in general, i agree in the doctrine of the angels with the I Catholic and eastern churches, they reject as I unbiblical the opinion of the latter that it is i good and useful to ask the good angels for | their protection, aid, and intercession, and to 1 venerate their images. According to the crit- ! ical school of Protestant theology, the belief I in angels was foreign to the early religion of ! the Jews, and derived from the Persians about i the time of the Babylonish captivity. Sev- ! eral prominent Protestant theologians of mod- ! ern times, like Schleiermacher and Ilase, deny I the existence of angels altogether, regarding | them as creatures of Biblical poetry; others, like I Martensen and Rothe, endeavor to establish the | doctrine on a new speculative basis ; while Swe- | denborg and his followers regard the angels of 1 the Bible and all spiritual creatures as disembod- i ied human beings, who have at some time ex- | isted in the flesh in this or some other world. | (See NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH.) Pictures of the I angels were expressly allowed by the second | council of Nice. They are usually represented | in the human form, in the male sex, as beauti- i ful youths ; the rapidity with which they are | supposed to carry out the commands of God is i symbolized by wings, flowing garments, and I naked feet ; harps and other musical instru- | merits which are placed in their hands are in- ! tended to indicate that they incessantly sing ] the praise of God. ANGEL (in French ange d or, angelot, angclot- tus, angelw\ a coin so named from the figure of AXGEL FISH ANGELL 493 the archingel Michael and the dragon stamped on one side of it. It was originally a French coin, first struck in 1340, with the French arms on the obverse. It was introduced into England in the reign of Edward IV., and called angel. Its value was then 6s. 8d. ; under Henry VIII. it was raised to 8s., and under Charles I. to 10s., after which its coin age ceased. AXGEL FISH, the common name of the squa- tina angclm (Dum.), a representative of the family of squatinidoB, intermediate between the sharks and rays. The body is flattened above and below, and discoid in shape on ac count of the broad pectorals and ventrals, as in rays; the mouth is very wide and at the end of the snout ; the eyes small and on the dorsal aspect, with the large spout holes behind them ; the head rounded anteriorly ; the pec torals separated from the head by a furrow in which are the long and closely approxi mated gill openings ; two dorsals, both on the tail, further back than the ventrals ; tail keeled on the sides, and the caudal nearly or quite symmetrical ; male claspers small ; scales con ical, with a terminal point; teeth conical, irregular, with interspaces. It is the only genus of the family, and this, the best known species, is called shark ray from its appear ance, angel fish from the resemblance of the expanded pectorals to wings, monk fish from Angel Fish (Sqimtina angelus). its rounded head seeming to he enveloped in a cowl, and fiddle fish from its general shape. It attains a length of 7 or 8 feet, and is rough and mottled with brown and bluish gray above, smooth and dirty white below; the lighter pectorals are bordered with brown, the nostrils covered by a ciliated membrane, and along the back is a row of spines. It is not un common in the European seas, and in the Medi terranean, where it was known to Aristotle, in whose time, as now, the rough skin was used to polish wood. It is gregarious, fierce and dangerous to approach, hideous, very vo racious, swimming near the bottom, and feed ing on flat fishes and other species living in the mud and sand. The young are produced alive in June. The flesh is white, coarse, and taste- : less, though formerly esteemed as food. A I species has been described on the American I coast as the 8. Dumerili (Lesueur). ANGELI, I Hippo, an Italian painter, born in | Rome, lived in his youth in Naples, whence he I is sometimes called the Neapolitan, and died | in Florence about 1645. lie excelled in land- I scape painting, and was one of the tirst to ob- i serve the strict rules of perspective in works ! of that class. His works a:-e rare and dear. ANGELICO, Fra, the familiar appellation of ! one of the most celebrated of the early Italian ! painters, born at Mugello, Tuscany, in 1387, ! died in Rome about 1455. At the age of 20 I he entered the monastery at San Domenico, I near Fiesole, where he took the cloistral name of Giovanni da Fiesole. Previous to this ; time, according to Vasari, he had borne the | name of Giovanni Guido di Mugello, and ac- \ cording to others that of Santi Tosini. Here ; he passed the remainder of his days in the I devout discharge of his religious duties and the | pursuit of his art. From the beauty of his | angels and glorified saints he was called by his | countrymen il beato (the blessed) and angelico \ ( the angelic). He painted only sacred subjects, | would never accept money for his pictures, | and never commenced them without prayer. | He visited Rome at the command of Nicholas j V. to decorate the papal chapel. The pope I offered to make him archbishop of Florence, a | dignity which his humility would not permit | him to accept, but which he succeeded in pro- i curing for a brother monk. lie painted fres- j coes in his own monastery and in the church | of Santa Maria Xoveila at Florence, and nu- I merous easel pictures, of which the Louvre pos- i sessesanoble specimen, the " Coronation of the ; Virgin." In many details of art he was excelled I by his contemporaries ; but, in the language of I Mrs. Jameson, u the expression of ecstatic faith | and hope, or serene contemplation, 1ms never ! been placed before us as in his pictures." ANGELINA, an E. county of Texas, bounded N. E. by Angelina river, and S. W. by the jNeches; area, 1,059 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, i 3,985. of whom 742 were colored. The county I abounds in heavy timber, oak. pine, beech, j holly, hickory, magnolia, sweet gum, sugar ! maple, ash, sassafras, cane brakes, cypress, | mulberry, &c. The soil is black, and in the i bottoms sandy. Corn, cotton, sugar cane, rice, I and tobacco are the principal products. Large numbers of hogs are raised and sent to market. There are two steam saw mills, hut no other | manufactories. Petroleum is abundant. Cap- ! ital, Homer. ANGELL, Joseph R., an American writer on law, born in Providence, R. I., April 30, 1794, died in Boston, May 1, 1857. He graduated at i Brown university in 1813, edited the "United ! States Law Intelligencer and Review" from i 1828 to 1831, and was for several years reporter of the decisions of the supreme court of Rhode ! Island. He published treatises, between 1824 : and 1854, on the "Common Law in relation to ANGELN ANGILBERT Water Courses," the "Right of Property in Tide Waters," the "Law of Private Corpora tions," the "Limitation of Actions," the u Lia bilities and Rights of Common Carriers," and the " Law of Fire and Life Insurance." At the time of his death he was employed in preparing a treatise on the "Law of Highways," which was completed by Thomas Duri ee. Lord Brougham esteemed his work on the " Limi tation of Actions" very highly. ANGELN, or An?len (Lat. A nglia Minor ; Dan. Angel), a district about 300 sq. m. in extent, in Schleswig, bordering on the Baltic and the bay of Flensburg. It is the only territory on the continent which has preserved the name of the tribe of Angles. The present inhabitants are distinguished for bodily strength, industry, and morality. ANGELO, Michel. See BUONAROTTI. ANGELUS DOMINI, a short form of prayer which Catholics are accustomed to recite in honor of the incarnation, at sunrise, noon, and sunset, at the ringing of a bell, called the An- gelus bell. This custom originated with the ringing of the bells on the eve of festivals. Pope John XXII. (K527) ordered that at the ringing of the bells on these occasions all the faithful should rec ite three Ave Marias. The council of Lavaur (1368) ordered that the bell should be rung also at sunrise. The Angelus at noon is attributed by some to Pope Calixtus III. (1456), and by others to King Louis XL (1472). Mabillon thinks that the Angelus as now prac tised is of French origin, and became general at the beginning of the 16th century. ANGELIS SILESIUS, whose real name was JOIIANN SCHEFFLER, a German philosophical poet, born at Breslau, in Silesia, in 1624, died there, July 9, 1077. After receiving a medical degree, he travelled through Holland, became court physician to the emperor Fer dinand III., embraced in 1653 the Roman Catholic faith, afterward became a priest and councillor to the bishop of Breslau, and finally retired to a cloister. He is the author of a sys tem kindred to that of the mystic pantheists Tauler and Bohme, of whose writings he had been a student. His peculiar faith is mainly expressed in poems, of which he published col lections, with the titles of " The Cherub s Guide Book," "Spiritual Pastorals," "The Troubled Psyche," and "The String of Pearls." ANGERMAN, Aii^erman-aa, or Anijernian-elf, a river of northern Sweden, rises in the lake of Knit, on the Norwegian frontier, and, after flowing S. E. through the provinces of Wester- botten and Westernorrland for 240 m., falls into the gulf of Bothnia, 12 m. N. of Ilerrio- sand. It is navigable to Solleftea, about 60 m. It passes through many lakes, contains nu merous islands, and is noted for its fine scenery. \ ANGERMUNDE, a town of Prussia, in the Pots- darn district of the province of Brandenburg, on Lake Munde and about 40 m. by railway N. E. of Berlin ; pop. in 1871, 6,412. It trades in wool, tobacco, and yarn, and there are fish- j erics, breweries, and manufactories of hosiery | and cloth. ANGERS (anc. Juliomagus, in the territory of the Andecavi or Andegavi), an old city of i France, capital of the department of Maine-et- Loire, situated on the Mayenne, 4 m. from its I junction with the Loire, 161 in. S. W. of Paris, ; on the line of the Tours and Nantes railway; ; pop. in 1866, 54,791. It has a college and sem inary, a government sail-cloth manufactory, and various manufactories of linen, woollen, cotton, and silk stuffs; also tanneries and ! sugar and wax refineries; and contains the i mother house of the Sisters of the Good i Shepherd. In the vicinity are extensive slate | quarries. Its chief curiosities are the ruins ; of a castle of the old dukes of Anjou, a ca- | thedral containing the monument of Marga- ! ret of Anjou, remains of a Roman aqueduct, ; and a museum with 600 pictures. It has a li- I brary, a botanical garden, and a school of arts and trades. The university, founded in 1246, and once among the most famous schools of learning in Europe, and the royal academy of : belles-lettres, established by Louis XIV. in I 1685, were destroyed during the revolution. In 1585 the castle was surprised by the Ilugue- \ nots, and in 1793 the city was besieged by the \ Vendeans, when the inhabitants endured great ; sufferings. Lord Chatham and the duke of Wellington studied here at a military school. ! David the sculptor was born here. ANGHIERA, Pietro Mai tire d (called in English ; PETER MARTYR), an Italian historian and geog- ! raphcr, born at Arona on Lago Maggiore in 1455, died in the city of Granada in 1526. He ; was of noble extraction, and at the age of 22 i went to finish his education at Rome. In 1488 he accompanied the Spanish ambassa dor to Spain, where he served in two cam paigns against the Moors, and then entered the church, and opened a school for the young no bility. In 1501 he visited the sultan of Egypt on a mission from King Ferdinand, arid took occasion to explore the pyramids and some of the most striking remains of antiquity. The king obtained for him the title of apostolic prothonotary, and in 1505 made him prior of the church of Granada. Charles Y. afterward presented him with a rich abbey. The histor ical works of Peter Martyr are among the best sources of information respecting the important age in which he lived. His literary remains comprise his Opus Epistolarum, a collection of letters in 38 books, in which almost every event of public importance from 1488 to 1525 is re corded ; a history of the new world entitled De Rebus Oceanicis et Orbe Novo, written from original documents furnished by Columbus, and from statements made to the council of the Indies, of which he was a member; an account of newly discovered islands and their inhabi tants ; and a report of his visit to Egypt, under the title of De Legatione Bdbylonica. ANGILBERT, Saint, minister of Charlemagne, and the most distinguished poet of his age, born ANGINA PECTORIS in Neustria, now Normandy, died Feb. 18, 814. He studied under Alcuin with Charlemagne ; ! received Bertha, the daughter of that prince, in marriage; was appointed prime minister of Pepin, king of Italy; and after returning to France was intrusted with a portion of the gov ernment, and became secretary and minister to Charlemagne. With the consent of his wife i he entered in TOO the monastery of Centule or j St. Riquier, of which he became abbot in 794. | He often left his retreat to attend to interests ; of state or to ecclesiastical affairs, and made four journeys to Home, in the last of which he j accompanied Charlemagne and saw hun crown- ed emperor of the West. Angilbert was a cor- respondent of Alcuin, and was called the Ho- i mer of his time. His poems and a history of the j abbey of Centule are marked by much elegance. | ANGINA PECTORIS (Lat. angere, to suffocate), j a disease so named from a sense of suffocating j contraction or tightening of the chest, over the i sternum, causing anguish and fear of sudden ; death. A sudden attack of severe pain in the | lower part of the chest, commonly inclining to ! the left side and extending down the left arm, j is the most prominent symptom of the disease, i The pain sometimes affects the right arm, and ; is often attended with palpitation of the heart ] and a sensation of fainting ; but the latter j symptoms are not constant. The pulse is com- j monly accelerated, though otherwise very ! slightly affected. The countenance is pal- j lid, and the expression anxious and depress- j ed. There is no regular interval between the j paroxysms nor distinct warnings of return, j They come on suddenly and unexpectedly, from | slight causes, and often when no immediate : cause can be assigned, and last from a few min- i utes to half an hour or more. The health is often tolerably good between the intervals j when first the disease comes on, but by degrees \ it fails, and various uneasy sensations distress j the patient in the intervals of paroxysms, j The respiration becomes labored and digestion j difficult. The nature of this disease is still in- j volved in some obscurity. It seems to be j mainly an affection of the nerves, complicated ! with symptoms of a rheumatic or a gouty na- i tu re, and often also with disease of the vessels, j The morbid appearances which are found after j death are most frequently ossification of the ! small vessels that supply the heart itself, com- ] monly called coronary arteries ; ossification of j the valves of the heart ; excessive accumulation i of fat on its external surface; enlargement of its cavities, arid change of structure in its muscu- | lar substance, which becomes soft and flabby, j thin, and easily torn. Although the hardening j of the coronary arteries and the valves of the ! heart has been generally called ossification, ; the term is a misnomer ; for there is no real ossification, but a hardening and thickening of the parts by earthy deposits, such as are ob- served in the blood vessels and in the joints of ; certain rheumatic and gouty constitutions. The degenerations and morbid appearances of the vessels, valves, and tissues of the heart are therefore often quite analogous to those ob served in other parts of the body, in patients suffering from gout and rheumatism and certain kinds of aneurisms, with morbid deposits in the distended and thickened walls of the arteries. Still, these symptoms are not constant, and cases are not infrequent in which the patients have suffered much during life from attacks of angina pectoris, and yet in which no morbid changes whatever have been found after death, either in the heart or blood vessels. Much has been done to ascertain the primary seat and the nature of this disease, but physicians are not as yet unanimous in their opinions. The majority believe it to be primarily a nervous affection, the nerves at fault being those which supply the lungs and the heart. It differs from neuralgia properly so called in several most important features, although the sudden violent shooting pains are not unlike those of tic dou loureux and other forms of severe neuralgia. In so far as the latter disease may be chiefly caused by swelling and inflammation of the sheaths of the nerves, there is a strong analogy; but careful observation suggests that the gouty or rheumatic diathesis, whatever be the nature and the cause of that peculiar cachexia, lies at the bottom of the disease of the heart known as angina pectoris; and that the neuralgic pains are no more violent and sudden in the paroxysms of this disease than they are in gout and certain forms of rheumatism. The seat of the disease, however, renders the same parox ysms more alarming. There are undoubted instances on record in which angina pectoris has been completely cured, the paroxysms growing more moderate in character and less frequent in their recurrence, and finally passing off altogether, leaving the patient in a state of sound health. On the whole, however, the malady is a dangerous one, having a tendency to become Averse rather than better, the pa tient s health gradually deteriorating, and death finally taking place, either from syncope during one of the paroxysms, or from one of the compli cations mentioned above, by which the disease is so frequently accompanied. Angina pectoris seldom affects young people. It most fre quently occurs in the meridian of life or in the descending phase of existence. It is much more frequent in the male than in the female. Sir John Forbes and M. Lartigne found that out of 155 cases 140 were males and only 15 females. The following list of 04 cases by M. Lartigue shows its comparative frequency at different ages: At 17 years, 1 ; 21, 1 ; 29, 1 ; 30 to 35, G ; 40, 2 ; 41 to 50, 11; 51 to GO, 25 ; fil to 70, 13 ; 71 to 77, 4. When the disease is far advanced, paroxysms are easily brought on by mental or moral emotions. Absolute rest of body and tranquillity of mind are necessary while the paroxysm lasts. The head and chest should be raised, and the body seated in an easy chair ; and where the disease is far ad vanced, the patient should sleep in this position. 490 ANGLE ANGLE, a portion of space between two lines or between two or more surfaces intersecting each other. Geometry distinguishes four kinds of angles: plane, spherical, dihedral, and poly hedral. 1. Plane angles. When two lines are situated in the same plane and not parallel to each other, they intersect at some point, and around this point of intersection they form four plane angles ; the point of intersection is called the vertex, and the lines the sides of the angles. If all the four angles thus formed are equal, they are called right angles, and the lines are said to be perpendicular to one another ; when not equal, those smaller than a right an gle are called acute, and those larger obtuse angles. Angles are measured by degrees, which are nothing but angles so small that 360 of them are situated around one point, and therefore 90 in a right angle. For practical measurement of angles the circumference of a circle is divided into 300 equal parts (see fig. 1), and its centre 270= FIG. 1. Plane Angles. FIG. 2. Spherical Angles. laid on the vertex of the angle, in which case the parts of the circumference between the sides of the angle will indicate the number of degrees contained in the same. Each degree is again divided into GO parts called minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds. The whole circumference of the circle is therefore subdi vided into 1,296,000 seconds, which is about the limit of accuracy of astronomers in measur ing angles at the firmament. When angles have curved sides (as represented in fig. 2), tangents are drawn to the curves at the ver tex, and the angle these tangents make with one another is measured. 2. Spherical angles. Under this name is designated the space in cluded between two arcs of great circles, drawn on a sphere. A D and B I), fig. 2, form together a spherical angle, which, if the plane B O E D is perpendicular to the plane A O D, is a spherical right angle: the intersections of the meridians with the equator of the earth are such right angles, while the intersections of the meridians at the poles form a number of acute spherical angles. The angles which the astron omers measure in their celestial triangles are all spherical angles. 3. Dihedral angles are formed by the intersection of two planes. The planes A B C D and A B F E, fig. 3, form a di hedral angle ; the line of intersection, A B, is called the edge, and the planes are called the faces. Such angles are measured by the plane angle formed when passing a plane perpendicu lar through the edge, or, what is the same, drawing two lines OT and ST from the same point in the edge A B, perpendicular to the FIG, 3. Dihedral Angles. same, and one in each plane ; the arc S T is in that case the measure of the dihedral angle. 4. Polyhedral angles are the spaces included FIG. 5. Tetrahedral Angle. FIG. 4. Trihedral Angle. between three or more planes which intersect at one point. Thus O, fig. 4, is the vertex of a trihedral, and O, fig. 5, the vertex of a tetrahedral an gle, respectively bounded by three and four faces. As an arc of a circle is used for measuring plane and dihe dral angles, so a portion of the surface of a sphere, of which the centre is at the vertex, is used to measure polyhedral angles. Angle of Total Reflection. When a ray of light falls j on a polished surface separating a transparent denser medium from a similar rarer one, it will be reflected and refracted, that is, split up into two rays ; one of which will be thrown back, and the other will pass on and be diverted more or less from its course. Such a splitting up of a ray of light always takes place when it j passes from a rarer into a denser medium. | But when the light passes from a denser into j a rarer medium, for instance, from glass into j air, this will not be the case under all inclina tions of the ray. When the angle of inci dence is not very acute, no refraction, but total reflection, will take place. Let A B O repre sent a cross section of a glass prism ; then the ray D R will be split up, being reflected to RE and refracted to R R, because the angle of incidence, D R Q, is very acute, the ray F T, however, making with the perpendicular T P a less acute angle. As F T P is only re flected in the direction T G, and not refracted at all, it cannot pass out of the prism at T, and this constitutes there a case of total reflec tion. The minimum number of degrees required ANGLER FISH ANGLESEY 497 for such a case is calculated according to a law discovered by Descartes, which is that "the dines of the angles of incidence and retraction bear a fixed relation to one another, different for each substance. 1 When the calculation gives for the sine of the angle of refraction a quantity greater than 1, it gives a sine which cannot exist, which indicates that no refraction can exist in this case, and that consequently all the light is reflected. The smallest angle of incidence with which this takes place, or the angle of total reflection, differs according to FIG. 6. Angle of Total Reflection. the relative power of refraction of the two transparent media. For light passing into air, it is when coming from water 48 30 ; from crown glass, 42 ; from flint glass, 38 ; and from dia mond, 24. This is one of the reasons of the special brilliant lustre of the last-named sub stance. For other special applications of the term (angle of incidence, of least deviation, of polarization, of repose), see MECHANICS, POLAR IZATION, and SPECTRUM. ANGLER FISH. See GOOSE FISH. ANGLES, or Angli, an ancient German tribe which, after various migrations, settled in Den mark, and thence passed over in great numbers to England, to which they gave their name. Tacitus in his German ia mentions this tribe by name. Lendenbrog and Leibnitz (Scriptores Rerum Srunsuicensium) have preserved some fragments of the ancient laws used in common by the Angli and the Varini. On the conti nent their name has only been preserved in the district of Schleswig called Angeln, and his tory would have let them drop entirely into oblivion, but for the circumstance that their immigration into Britain gave to the greater portion of the southern part of that island the name of Angle-land, England. (See ANGLO- SAXONS.) ANGLESEA, or Anglesey, a small island in the Irish sea, on the coast of Wales, from which it is separated by the Menai strait, constituting a county; area, 302 sq. m. ; pop. in 1871, 50,919. The chief agricultural products are oats and barley. Cattle and sheep are largely raised. The copper mines at Parys and Mona, once very productive, have much" declined. The chief towns are Beaumaris, the county seat, Holy- head, Llangefni, and Amlwch. which unite in returning one member to parliament, besides the county member. The Menai strait is VOL. i. 32 crossed by a fine suspension bridge, one of the earliest and most perfect specimens of this style i of structure, also by the Britannia tubular j bridge of the Chelsea and Ilolyhead railway, I one of the great triumphs of modern science and enterprise. (See BRIDGE.) Anglesea was < known to the Romans as Mona, and was the | last stronghold of the Druids, of whose religion i various cromlechs and other remains are still extant. On the N. W. end of the island is the smaller island of Holyhead. ANGLESEY, Earl of. See ANNESLEY. ANGLESEY, Henry William Paget, first marquis of, and second earl of Uxbridge, a British gen eral, born May 17, 1768, died April 29, 1854. He received his education at Westminster and at Christ Church, Oxford. In 1793 he raised a regiment of infantry at his own expense among \is father s tenantry in Staffordshire, with which he served in the campaign in Flan ders; and in 1799 he commanded a regiment of cavalry in Holland, and ultimately became the most distinguished cavalry officer in the service. In 1808 he joined Sir John Moore in Spain, as commander of the two cavalry brig ades. He defeated the French at Mayaga, and repulsed their advanced guard at Benevente, where he took Gen. Lefebvre-Desnouettes pris oner, and covered Sir John Moore s celebrated retreat, which ended in the battle of .Corunna, where a charge by him decided the fate of the day. Returning to England in 1809, he did j not serve again till the battle of Waterloo, | where he commanded the heavy cavalry, and headed the terrible British charge that annihi lated the French cuirassiers. In this action he lost a leg. He had inherited the earldom of Uxbridge in 1812, and on July 4, 1815, he was created marquis of Anglesey. At the corona tion of George IV. he was lord high steward of England. In 1827 he became a member of Canning s cabinet as master general of the ord nance, and in 1828, under Wellington, lord lieutenant of Ireland. In these offices he was exceedingly popular from the impartiality of his administration, while his firmness secured him the respect of all. In December, 1828, in a letter to Archbishop Curtis, the Roman Catholic pri mate of Ireland, he expressed opinions so favor able to Catholic emancipation that his recall was determined upon, and he quitted Dublin Dec. 19, amid the regret of all classes. In 1830, under Earl Grey, he was restored to his post. The severe measures now employed against O Connell s repeal agitation destroyed his former popularity in Ireland, and led to the overthrow of Earl Grey s ministry and his own. retirement in 1833. In 1846 he again became master general of the ordnance, and was made field marshal. He finally retired from office in 1852. He married in 1795 the daughter of the fourth earl of Jersey, from whom he was di vorced in 1810, and soon afterward married ! Lady Cowley, daughter of the first earl of Ca- dogan, who had also just been divorced. His former wife soon married the duke of Argyll. 498 ANGLING ANGLO-SAXONS ANGLING, the art of taking fish by means of the rod, line, and hook. It probably was never a popular recreation with any of the more civilized peoples of antiquity, but in England it early became a favorite sport. One of the earliest books printed in the English language is a small folio republication of u The Boke of St. Albans," issued in 141)6 by Wynkin de Worde, and containing a " Treatise of Fishing with an Angle." The fish which have always been the keenest object of the skilful fisher man s pursuit, both as the best on the board when taken, and as affording the greatest sport to the taker, are those of the salmon family, including the true or sea salmon, tbe sea trout, the lake trout of several varieties, and the brook trout. For fly-fishing, the rod for sal mon fishing should be from 16 to 18 feet long, pliable, elastic, and tapering ; with a reel ca pable of containing 100 yards of strong, evenly plaited hair line, tapering gradually from end to end, and terminating in a leader of the best round silkworm gut, to which is attached the foot length of a large, gaudily colored salmon fly. The trout fly rod is of the same general character, but shorter, lighter, and capable of being easily managed with one hand ; whereas the salmon rod requires the use of both, and takes a strong and practised man to wield it with effect through a whole day s fishing. From 10 to 12 feet will be long enough for an ordinary fly rod, and from 30 to 40 yards of line will be an ample allowance. Trout flies are much smaller, and usually much more gravely colored, than the salmon flies most in use. The object in fly-fishing is to throw the fly well out, and, letting it drop on the water as lightly and naturally as possible, to keep it playing and dancing in the eddies, with mo tions simulating those of a drowning insect. The fish of America most valued by the angler are the trout, striped bass, the black bass of the hikes, and the rock bass ; several varieties of pike, from the gigantic muscalonge of the basin of the St. Lawrence down to the little Long Island pickerel, which rarely exceeds 10 inches in length ; the pike perch, known as the glass-eye or Ohio salmon, in the western waters ; the perch ; the carp ; and many other species and varieties, of various degrees of size and excellence, down to the little, many-colored pond fish. The principal differences between bait-fishing and fly-fishing consist in the use of the fish or the worm with trolling, spinning, roving, or stationary tackle. Trolling and spinning are both practised with dead fish, to which the angler, by the play of his wrist and line, conveys a motion in the water similar to that of swimming. The bluefish and Span ish mackerel are caught by trolling, but in stead of bait the hook is attached to a piece of bright metal or bone, shaped somewhat like a small fish. In spinning, swivels are used, and a series of small hooks, tied on fine gut, are applied to the bait externally, which is fastened to the line head upward, with a ! slight curve given to the tail, so that the action ! of the swivel and the force of the current cause I it to play with a rotatory motion in the water. ! Roving is performed with a small live fish, | hooked, so as not to injure him seriously, through the dorsal fin or the lip, and suffered to swim about at his own pleasure, within such lim its as are accorded to him by the length of line. Bottom fishing requires a weighted line, a cork float, and worm, paste, or shellfish bait ; it is adopted for trout and perch fishing in rivers, and for taking many sorts of sea fish in bays and tideways. The following are the titles of a few of the most valuable works on angling, pub lished within a few years : Scrope s "Days and Nights of Salmon Fishing " ; " The Book of the Salmon," by Andrew Young ; Sir Humphry Davy s " Salmonia " ; Pulman s " Yade Mecum of Fly-fishing for Trout"; "Handbook of Angling," by Ephemera ; " The Rod and Line," by Hewett Wheatley ; Ronald s "Fly-fisher s Entomology." These are all English works, to* which may be added the following American publications: Dr. Bethune s edition of Izaak Walton s " Complete Angler," Frank Forres ter s "Fish and Fishing," Brown s "Angler s Guide," Lanman s " Adventures," Roosevelt s "Superior Fishing" and "Game Fish of the North," and G. C. Scott s "Fishing in Ameri can Waters." ANGLO-SAXONS, the Teutonic people who in the 5th and 6th centuries passed over from their territory in and near the Cimbric (Danish) pen insula to the island of Britain, then just aban doned by the Romans. They first acted as aux iliaries to the British against the Picts and Scots, but afterward subdued and overspread the country, establishing themselves as its per manent inhabitants, while the aboriginal races gradually disappeared before their rapid growth. They were principally collected from three nations, the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, all members of the great Saxon confederation, a rough union of Teutonic tribes effected dur ing the 4th century, under the Saxon hegemo ny, for mutual advancement and protection. (See SAXONS.) The Saxons inhabited the country called Nortu Albingia or Eala Saexen, extending from the Elbe to the Eider, on the W. side of the Oimbric peninsula, and divided into Ditmarsia, Stormaria, and Hol- satia districts which still retain these names. The Jutes inhabited South Jutland, now Schleswig. The territory of the Angles was probably the district of Angeln, now also within the limits of Schleswig. These tribes, celebrated for naval prowess, had made sev eral piratical expeditions to the British coast | before the abandonment of the island by j the Romans. According to the statement of old histories, the details of which are not now fully credited by critical writers, it was the knowledge of them thus acquired by the Brit ons that led these latter to call upon them for aid, when, about A. D. 449, Vortigern, the i leading British chief of the time, found him- ANGLO-SAXONS 499 aelf unable to withstand the increasing inroads of the Picts and Soots, the barbarous tribes in habiting the north of the island. In response to his invitations, it is said, the Saxon chiefs Ilengist and Ilorsa, who were visiting the coast for some unexplained but probably predatory purpose, came to the assistance of the British with only a few hundred men, yet with such effect that the Picts and Scots were almost im mediately defeated. While it is now general ly admitted that the names of these chieftains are probably mythical, the fact that many Saxon settlers landed at this time in Britain, and the account of the general events which followed, are unquestionably matters of history. The Picts and Scots were overcome, and the country, already somewhat cultivated and with much of the luxury of a Roman province, soon aroused the cupidity of the strangers. They sent for large reinforcements of their countrymen, and turned their arms against the inhabitants. From this time Saxons constant ly poured into the island, and by gradual steps, which it is now impossible to trace, the native Britons were completely subjugated by the new people, who overspread the whole country, in troduced their laws, customs, and language, and became the acknowledged founders of most of its future institutions. As successive bands arrived, they landed on different parts of the coast, and their leaders founded separate states. Turner gives an elaborate chronology of these, fixing the date of the establishment of each, and the name of its founder ; but later in vestigations have shown upon how doubtful a basis these accounts must rest. The little that is actually known of the events of the cen tury following the landing of the first Saxon settlers may be said to be the one fact that at different times during that period new de tachments of the invaders, with their chiefs, founded eight kingdoms, as follows, mention ing them in their most probable chronological order: Kent, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia, Essex, Bernicia, and Deira, the last two afterward joined in Northumbria. Grad ually, during the 8th century, these became united in the alliance called the Saxon hep tarchy though it should properly be called the octarchy; and finally, about 827, they were united into one kingdom, called Anglia, or England (A. S. Engla-land), by King Eg bert of Wessex. The history of the eight sepa rate sovereignties until this final union presents in general only a series of wars between them, of oppression of the conquered Britons, who revolted again and again, and of such changes in the boundaries of the various kingdoms as render it almost impossible for us to correctly define their limits at any one point of time. The progress of the Saxons after their union under Egbert belongs to the history of Eng land; but their customs, and those laws and institutions which grew up under the heptarchy and under Egbert and his successors, can best be treated here. At the head of each of the | governments of the heptarchy, and at the j head of the whole nation after its union under Egbert, stood the king (cyning). He was first j chosen from among the leaders of the people, i but afterward the office became in some sense i hereditary, though not according to the modern | laws of succession ; for although the new king j must be chosen from the descendants or im- I mediate relatives of the late ruler, a younger son was often preferred to the eldest, or a I brother s family to the direct heirs, the choice in fact depending greatly on personal qualifica tions. The king s power was at first decidedly limited by the witenagemote, or supreme coun cil (parliament) ; but afterward it became more nearly absolute. He determined the rank of his immediate followers, summoned the wite nagemote, ledMn war, &c. The queen (cweri) was held in great respect ; offences against her were punished like those against the king ; and she often played a conspicuous part in the government. Next in rank were the aethelings | or nobility; and this term included in early i times only the immediate family and near ! relatives of the king. Just below the aethel- | ing, and in time coming to share many of his | privileges, was the ealdorman. Officials of ! many kinds bore this title, but it was at first i generally applied to the governor of a province, j who led its forces in war and superintended | its affairs in peace. The title was not in early I times hereditary, but became so after the reign | of Alfred. The thanes (thegnas) composed the I next class, and were landholders, forming a "nobility by service," as it is called by Lap- penberg, divided, according to position and i immediate attachment, into king s thanes and subordinate thanes. Upon the possession of a certain amount of landed property depended generally their title; though merchants who had made three voyages of a certain length were also entitled to the rank of thanes. The thanes were exactly similar to the barons after the Norman conquest. Below these classes were the common freemen or churls (ceorlas), rarely entirely independent men, but generally standing in the relation of retainer to some chief. The lowest class of all was that of the theowas or slaves, made up of those prisoners of war who had been reduced to servitude, of the descendants of Roman slaves, and of those made seivile as a punishment for crime. These could not be sold outside the country, and in general seem to have been nearly as well off, save in civic rights, as the poorer churls. The chiefs of the Christian clergy occupied high positions, the archbishop hold ing the privileges and rank of an aetheling, the bishop that of an ealdorman. They were also prominent members of the witenagemote. The country of the Saxons was divided into shires, each composed of a certain number (varying greatly in different cases) of hundreds ; and these in their turn were made up of those districts which united in choosing (originally) 100 men for the defence of the shire and its 500 ANGLO-SAXONS governor. "The meeting of the hundred," says Lappenberg, "was held monthly for ob jects of voluntary and contentious jurisdiction. The presiding officer was the ealdorman, as sisted by the bishop of the diocese and the principal thanes. The townships were repre sented by their reeves [sheriffs] and four depu ties." In northern England a similar division was called a wapentake. A tithing was an as sociation of freemen, who bound themselves to become surety for one another in case of misbehavior, and to aid in bringing to trial any one of their number who should commit a criminal offence. Every freeman was obliged by law to enroll himself in such an association. Among the most cherished Anglo-Saxon institutions was also \\iQfolcmote. Authorities disagree somewhat as to the nature and privi leges of the assemblies thus named, but the term seems to have been freely applied to large gatherings of freemen for counsel on public measures, rather than to any organized conven tion of the people. The right of meeting in folcmote seems to .have corresponded exactly to the modern right of assembling in public gatherings, and of free debate. See Palgrave s "Rise arid Progress of England under the Anglo-Saxons" (London, 1832); Lappenberg s "History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings" (English translation by 13. Thorpe, Lon- don,^1845) ; " Six Old English Chronicles," edit ed by J. A. Giles (London, 1848) ; J. M. Kemble s " Saxons in England " (London, 1849) ; Sharon Turner s " History of the Anglo-Saxons " (7th ed., London, 1852) ; " The Anglo-Saxon Chroni cle," edited with a translation by B. Thorpe (London, 1861). Anglo-Saxon Church. The Teu tonic invaders of Britain, after the fall of the Roman empire of the West, were of course pagans, and, with the pride of a conquering in presence of a conquered race, would not receive Christianity from the Welsh Christians. Pope Gregory the Great sent a solemn embassy of 40 Benedictines to Ethelbert, king of Kent, who had espoused Bertha, a Frankish princess. St. Augustin, known as the apostle of the Eng lish, was at the head of it. The king consented to be baptized in 597, and Augustin was ap pointed archbishop of Canterbury. From Kent Christianity rapidly spread among the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In 604 a union of all the churches in Britain was made by the exer tions of Theodore, afterward archbishop of Can terbury, and in 068 the services of the church were made uniform over the island. Under Theodore there were an archbishop of York and 15 bishops. During the 8th and 9th centuries the Anglo-Saxon church enjoyed a degree of independence which Avas not quite canonical. By the aid of Dunstan in the latter part of the 10th century, it was brought into more complete harmony with the Roman see. This church produced the venerable Bede, St. Boniface, the apostle of the Germans, and many others who contributed to the cause of learning and the spreading of Christianity among the pa gan nations of the north. Its history has been carefully investigated by Soames,aiithor of " The Anglo-Saxon Church " and "The Latin Church during Anglo-Saxon Times," and by Lingard, "Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church. "- Anglo-Saxon Jurisprudence. The memorials that have come down to us afford but an imper fect view of Anglo-Saxon laws. Codes are spoken of as having been promulgated by sev eral of their kings, but these do not appear to have been a collection of all the laws in force, | but rather such regulations as were new or little known, and which supplemented the body of laws contained in the unwritten customs with which the people were familiar. The very idea of a complete code would have been far in advance of the time. Ethelbert, king of Kent, is said to have published laws as early as A. D. 501. The first laws of much note were those of Ina, king of the West Saxons, after which we have the laws of Alfred, Edward his son, Ethelred, and Canute. The general features of all are similar ; they are permeated with the prevailing superstition of the period ; they consist in the main of regulations of police more or less barbarous in character, intermin gled with moral and religious precepts derived from the ecclesiastics who framed them. The laws of Ina thus commenced : "First, we com- j niand that God s servants hold the lawful rule; after that we command that the law and doom ! of the whole folk be thus held," &c. ; and | among the first of the laws is one that if a I slave be put to w r ork on Sunday, he shall be I free. The churls and their tenure, which is j the origin of the modern copyholds, are re- I ferred to. The next important laws are those I of Alfred, which became more famous than | they deserved through the admirable manner j in which they were administered by that mon- j arch. The first attempt at settling an orderly I course of procedure in administering justice was in the laws of Edward the Elder. While these prescribed the trial by ordeal in cases where compurgators did not come forward, yet they provided that trial should be by sworn witnesses as much as possible. The laws of Canute were more complete than any which preceded them, and better deserving the name of a code. They begin as follows: "Let God s justice be exalted ; and henceforth let every man, both poor and rich, be esteemed worthy of folc-right, and let just doom be doomed to him." They prescribed regular terms of court, regulated weights and measures as well as mon eys, and punished counterfeiters with the cut ting off of hands. A freeman who was not infamous, and had never failed in oath or or deal, could clear himself with a single oath; but others must furnish compurgators or sub mit to the ordeal. It has been a common sup position that Edward the Confessor promul gated a code of written laws, but of this there is no sufficient evidence. The Anglo-Saxons after the conquest exhibited a strong attach ment to the lews of their last king, and the ANGLO-SAXONS (LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE) 501 conqueror caused a compilation of them to be j made ; but it contained little of importance, or i that would be likely to be thought important j by the people beyond a recognition of their | right to assemble in full folcmote to elect ; their sheriff and discuss public affairs.- The ] meagre character of the Saxon compilations is j accounted for by the fact that the great body j of their law, like that of the English law to I this day, consisted of unwritten customs and i usages with which the people were familiar, and which the conqueror did not attempt to set aside.. Many of these customs, as well as the divisions of the country for administrative and judicial purposes, were of Roman origin. Justice was administered in local courts, of which the chief were the hundredgemote or wapentake, held by the sheriff and bishop for | the trial of criminal causes in every hundred the sheriff presiding assisted by the bishop on the trial of offences in general, and the bishop with the assistance of the sheriff when offend ers against the church were to be dealt with ; and the scyregemote or county court, which was the principal court of civil jurisdiction, and whoso judges were the freemen and land holders of the county, presided over by the earl or sheriff, assisted by the bishop. The Saxons appear to have accepted the idea that the king was the fountain of justice, but his intervention was riot often invoked except to set the courts in motion when justice was i delayed or refused. From the rude trials j by witnesses in their popular tribunals was j developed at length the orderly system of trial j by jury. The Mirror of Justice" enumerates \ several judges who were hanged in Alfred s i reign for causing prisoners to be executed who j were not convicted by the unanimous verdict of twelve sworn men. The most remarkable j feature of Anglo-Saxon criminal law was the i sco,le of compensation prescribed for the com mission of homicide and other crimes. Even the life of the king was rated at a money value, j which under the laws of Athelstan was 30,000 thrymsae, each thrymsa being worth four pence; while that of an earl was 15,000, and so on down to a common person, rated at only 267. The ears, the teeth, the limbs had each their separate value, and the place where an offence was committed was sometimes an ag gravation requiring an additional penalty. The compensation or were was payable to the in jured person, or, in cases of homicide, to the immediate family of the deceased, or, if he had none, to his other relations. If the offender was unable to p^y, he was liable to death, but was allowed to ubmit to the loss of limb or other corporal i liction instead. Torture to extract evidence was unknown among the Anglo-Saxons. Immunity seems to have been extended in some cases to those who in the heat of passion excited by the chase of an of- fender should slay him upon the spot, while the irregular infliction of punishment in cold blood upon a detected criminal was visited with extreme penalties. An offender fleeing to sanctuary was allowed protection during his stay there, whatever his crime might have been. Lands among this people appear to have been held by a species of feudal tenure, and were descendible to all the sons, or, as some writers think, to all the children equally, and they were conveyed either by writing or by ceremonies conducted in the presence of witnesses, designed to give publicity to the transfer. A collection of the laws of the Saxon kings was made by Lainbard in the time of Queen Elizabeth, under the title of Archaionomia, which was afterward repub- lished by Dr. Wilkins, and also more recently under the title of u Anglo-Saxon Laws and In stitutes," edited by Benjamin Thorpe (London, 1840). A\GLO-SAXONS, Language and Literature of the. The language of the German tribes who con quered and peopled Britain in the 5th and Oth centuries was by them called Anglisc, Englisc (English) ; but since English has become so widely different from its mother speech, the name Anglo-Saxon has come into use for the old language. This language was a growth on the island of Britain from the collision of many dialects spoken by the invading tribes. The Celts used a very different kind of speech, so that the Celtic affected the Anglo-Saxon as the tongues of the aborigines of America have affected our English ; it gave a good many geographical names, and but few other words. The new language was shaped to literary use by ecclesiastics who wrote and spoke Latin, and a large part of the literature is translated or imitated from Latin works. Hence it con tains many words from Latin and frequent im itations of Latin idiom, and it attained the power to render Latin with more accuracy and ease than any other Germanic tongue of its time. The Danes also contributed something to it, especially to the Northumbrian dialect. But it is after all a true Low German speech, closely akin to Frisic, Old Saxon, Dutch, and Platt-Deutsch. The talk in the harbors of Antwerp, Bremen, and Hamburg is said to be often mistaken by English sailors for corrupt English. These Low German tongues are akin to the High German on one side and to the Scandinavian on the other, and these all with the Moeso-Gothic constitute the Teutonic class of languages, which belongs, with the Latin, Greek, Slavic, Sanskrit, and the like, to the Indo-European. The invading tribes had writing of their own in characters called runes, but the literary remains are almost all in an alphabet known as the Anglo-Saxon, the let ters of which, except three, are Roman charac ters, with some fanciful variations. Thorn (f>) and wen (p) are runes, and edh (ft) a crossed d. Occasionally k, q, v, z get into the manuscripts, mostly in foreign words, and uu or u for }\ The Semi-Saxon has a peculiar character for j (3). The vowels were pronounced nearly as they now are in German : a as in far ; d as in fall; 502 ANGLO-SAXONS (LANGUAGE AND LITERATUEE) Old Forms. Eoman. Names. homo, A. S. guma, man. These changes were yt a. A a ah complete in the 3d century, and here the Anglo- A- 3e JSt SB a Saxon has remained, while the High German has shifted in the same way a second time, B b B b bay changing ic, I, to ich ; tha, thou, to du ; deor, EC C c cay deer, to thier, and the like; so that Anglo- DS D H rliv Saxon stands in the same relation to German O ,L,J U. *-^*-*J that Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin do to Anglo- D 3 DH dh edh Saxon. A marked fact in this speech is the 6 e E e ay sensitiveness of the vowels to the influence of F F F f ef other letters. A stem a may appear as ce, ea, e, or o, according to the vowel or consonant E s G- g gay after it ; and so with other letters. In cases P P h H h hah where i follows the stem, man changes to men ; I i I i ee so fot to fet, feet ; gos to ges, geese ; mm to T 1 T i A! mys, mice, and the like. Such changes are j-j i jj called umlaut. Breaking is produced by a con 00 m Mm em sonant, as when c or g changes a to ea : Lat. N n N n en castrum to ceaster ; or I or r changes a preced O o O o o ing i to eo : meolc, milk. There are inflection endings for five cases, three numbers, and P P P p pay three genders ; but the instrumental case is R p R r cr rare, and the dual number is found only in pro & f S s es nouns. The substantive has four declensions distinguished by the endings of the genitive sin i t tay gular es, e, a, an. The three first come from Y P p TH th thorn old vowel steins, the last from a consonant stem. U u U u oo FIRST DECLENSION. P p j vv V N SINGULAR. An. Sax. English. German. Latin. i m fw^ c wen Nominative, wulf. wolf. wolf, anser. ( V * * / \ v / ) Genitive, wulfes, wolf s, wolfes, anseris. X x X x ex Dative, wulfe. to or for a wolfe, anseri. Y y Y y ypsilon wolf, Accusative. wulf, wolf, wolf. anserem. J J J l^kjij Instrumental, wulfe, by or with a (ablative) ansere. <E as # in <7?6? ; $ as & in ^Zare ; e as in Ze ; e or y, "wolf, as in Ae?/ ; i as in <^ m ; \ as ee in deem ; o as PLURAL. Nominative, wulfas, wolves, wulfe, anseres. in wholly ; 6 as in holy ; u as in full ; u as 00 in Genitive, wulfa, of wolves, wolfe, ansermn. fool ; y nearly like u in music or the French w; Dative, wulfum, to or for wulfen, anseribus. y the same sound prolonged. The consonants Accusative, wulfas, wolves. wolfe, anseres. were pronounced as in English, except that c, Instrumental, wulfum, by or with (ablative) auseribus. was always like k, g as in give, and both letters wolves, were distinctly sounded in initial hi, hr, hw, FOURTH DECLENSION. wl, icr, en. The changes to the modern Eng SINGULAR. An. Sax. English. German. lish sounds have most of them occurred since the time of Chaucer, many since Shakespeare. Nominative, oxa, ox, ochse. Genitive, oxan, of an ox, ochseu. Dative, oxan, to or for an ox, ochsen. There are many words common to Anglo- Accusative, oxan, ox, ochsen. Saxon, Gothic, and Latin, Greek, or Sanskrit. PLURAL. When we compare the spelling of such words, we find that the Anglo-Saxon retains the origi Norn, and Ace. oxan, oxen, ochsen. Genitive, oxena, of oxen, ochsen. Dative. oxum, to or for oxen, ochseu. nal vowels better than the Gothic. It has the old , <, while the Gothic has changed to 6 or e ; The common English endings of the possessive and the old i, while the Gothic has ei. In its and plural are from the first declension. The consonant system it agrees with the Gothic, -en of oxen is from the fourth. Neuters have and is midway between the old forms of the no plural sign, and so some English words from Greek, or Latin, and High German. Each surd | them do not yet always use it: sheep, deer, mute of the Greek or Latin is in Anglo-Saxon swine, folk, hair, head, hundred, year, and the changed into its cognate aspirate : to th, Latin like. The old feminines were declined some tu, A. S. thu, thou; p to ph=f, Lat. ped-es, what like the Latin first, with a genitive in -c, A. S. fet, feet; c to ch=7i, Lat. cannab-is, A. and we find a few examples of it in Chaucer. S. hcncp, hemp. Each sonant mute changes Gender is determined by the endings of words ; into its cognate surd : d to t, Lat, dent-es, A. it agrees generally with the German : w{f-man, S. teth, teeth; J to p, Lat. canna&-is, A. S. woman, is regularly masculine because it ends hene^>, hemp ; g to c, Lat. e^-o, A. S. \c, I. in man; wif wife, is neuter; sunne, sun, is Each aspirate mute changed to sonant : th to feminine ; mona, moon, is masculine. Each d, Gr. ther, A. S. deor, deer; ph=fto b, Lat. adjective may be declined in two ways accord frater, A. S. brother, brother; ch=h to g, Lat. ing as it is definite or indefinite, as in German. ANGLO-SAXOXS (LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE) 503 An ending -e is found in Chaucer to indicate sometimes the plural, sometimes the definite declension. Comparison in Anglo-Saxon was by endings, -/*, -st ; not by more and most. TIIE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. SINGULAR. PLURAL. DUAL. Nom. ic, 7. wo, ice. wit, ire tico. Gen. min. mine, of me. user, ure, our. uncer, of u* tico. Dat. mo, to or for me. us, ux. unc, to us two. Ace. mec, me, me. usic, us, us. uncit, unc, us two. Nom. thu, thoti. ye, ?/. git, ye tico. Gen. thm. thine, of t tee. cower, ?/owr. incer, o/>0M too. Dat. the, to or/o/ tf iee. eow. you. inc. to >/ow ?.<>. Ace. thec, the, t/iee. eowic, cow, you. incit, inc, yow tico. Neut. PLURAL, all genders. hit, it. hi. Z/^y. his, its. hira, Meir. him, iZ>. him. them. hit, #. hi, them. SINGULAR. Masc. Fern. Nom. he. heo, she. Gen. his. hire, her. Dat. him. hire. her. Ace. hine. hco, lier. The English she, they, their, them, are from the Anglo-Saxon demonstrative se, seo, that ; its is a modern growth, not found in the first edition of our English Bible. The arti cles are both in use, and the demonstratives that, that, and thes, this, plural thus, those; the personals are used as reflexives ; hied, who, is an interrogative ; other English pronouns are from Anglo-Saxon originals. So are the numerals except second, A. S. other. There are two great classes of verbs: 1, the ancient or strong class, which formed their past tense by reduplication, repetition of their root; 2, the modern or weak class, which formed their past tense by composition with dide, did. In the first class there are five conjugations, dis tinguished by the vowel of the past tense. 1. The original root is a, unchanged in the past : swimman, swam, swummen, swim, swam, swum. 2. The root is i, changed to # in the past : ridan, rdd, riden, ride, rode, ridden. 3. The root is u, changed to eo, o, past ed: cleofan, deaf, clofen, cleave, clove, cloven. 4. The root was d, changed to a, past 6 : wacan, woe, wacen, wake, woke, waken. 5. The root a diphthong or long vowel changed to eo, e: feallan, feol, feallen, fall, fell, fallen. The weak verbs make another conjugation: 6. The past a compound with dide, -de : lufian, lufode, lufod, love, loved, loved. The umlaut and breaking referred to in the first part of this ar ticle introduce variations of vowel in different parts of the same verb, and different variations for different verbs, so that to a superficial view there may appear to be many conjugations, or no regularity at all. The following paradigms show the inflection endings: INDICATIVE MODE. Present and future tense. Past, strong. Past, weak. 1, nime, take. nam, took. lufode, loved. 2, nimest, tnkest. name, tookext. lufodest. loredst. S,mmeth.t,tketh. nam. took. lufode. loved. 1, 2, 3, niinath, take. namon, took. lufodon, loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present. Past. Singular, 1, 2. 3. nime. . name. Plural, 1, 2, 3, nimen. narnen. Imperative. Infinitive. Singular, nirn. niman. Plural, nimath. Gerund, to nimenn PARTICIPLES. Present, nimen de, taking. Passive, numen, taken ; gelufod, loved. The -th of the indicative 3d singular and the plural appears as -* in the northern dialect of Anglo-Saxon. There are said to be 168 plu rals in -* and 46 in -th in the Shakespearian folio of 162*3. (Prof. T. R. Lounsberry, "On Cer tain Forms of the English Verb," in " Transac tions of the American Philological Associa tion," 1869-70.) The subjunctive is used for our potential and imperative, as in the English expressions, u it were a sin," "be it so"; but a periphrastic potential in may, can, might, &c., is in use. The gerund in -enne changed to -ende and then to -ing ; and in the English we have in the ending -ing a verbal noun, present participle, and gerund mixed. The form given above as the present tense may be used for any modification of both present and future act, the other form to express every shade of past act ; but auxiliaries are also used. A perfect in hcebbe, have, and a pluperfect in hcpfde, had, are in full use, though the participle of the principal verb is often in the accusative case agreeing with the object of hcelrte : lie hcefih mon geworhtne, he has man wrought. A few intransitives use eom (am) and icces (was) for perfect signs: he is gecumen, he is come; he wees dgdn, he was (=had) gone. Sceal, shall, and wille, will, are common for future signs, though they generally have some meaning of duty, power, promise, resolve, in addition to that of future time. A progressive form is common in the active: is feohtende, is fight ing, continues fighting ; but not in the passive. The emphatic form in do hardly occurs. The adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and other particles are many of them common to other Indo-European tongues, and many of the more obscure may be traced to pronouns. Compo sition is more freely used in Anglo-Saxon than in English, and many of the suffixes and pre fixes are there found as separate words. A body of rules almost as great as those used in Latin grammar is needed to state the uses of the different cases. Some verbs govern a gen itive, some a dative or instrumental, some the accusative, some two or three different cases. The uses of the subjunctive mode are various and obscure. The arrangement of the parts of a sentence is often intricate. The syntax is that of a highly inflected language. Most of the difficulties of English idiom are to be traced to Anglo-Saxon combinations, and they are often easily understood by the help of the old meanings of the words, or the old inflection forms. For the study of the language may be used Bosworth, "Anglo-Saxon Dictionary" (London, 1848); Marsh, "English Language and its Early Literature" (New York, 1862); lladley, "Brief History of the English Lan guage," in Webster s Dictionary (1865) ; Ptask s grammar, translated by Thorpe (London, 1865); Shute, "Manual of Anglo -Saxon for Begin ners" (New York, 1867) ; March, "Compara- 504 ANGLO-SAXONS (LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE) tive Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon," and "In troduction to the Study of Anglo-Saxon " (New York, 1870); Corson, "Handbook of Anglo- Saxon and Early English" (New York, 1871); Grimm,Deut8che Grammatik (Gottingen, 1840); Ettmuller, Lexicon cum Synopsi Grammatica (Quedlinburg and Leipsic, 1851) ; Ileyne, Kurtz Laut- iind Flexiomlehre (Paderborn, 1862) ; Koch, Hixtoriische Grammatik der englischen Sprache (Weimar, 18(53); Grein, Sprachschatz der AngelsachsiscJien Dichter (Cassel and Got- tingen, 1804); Maetzner, Englische Grammatik (Berlin, 18(55). Anglo-Saxon Literatnrei It was a habit of the early Germans to give hin^honor to the xcop or poet, and long before their con quest of Britain there were current among them cycles of songs, of mythological and heroic ballads, such as furnish the material for epic poems. Their exploits in Britain doubtless added to the number of current ballads, and of skilful poets and singers. We learn from | Beda that the harp passed from hand to hand at feasts, and that it was disgraceful for any man not to be able to sing in turn. Bishop Aldhelm used to stand in minstrel s garb on the bridge over which the people were to pass and collect a crowd by the beauty of his song, into Which, when their attention was gained, he wove words of devotion. The verse common to the northern nations was brought to great perfection among the Anglo-Saxons. It is an accentual rhythm, marked off into verses by alliteration. The common narrative verse is constructed in sections separated by a metri cal pause. Each section has regularly four accents. This accent or metrical stress falls on each syllable having a primary accent in prose, on many syllables having a secondary accent, and in certain metrical emergencies on other syllables, especially the last syllable in each section. Each metrical stress is followed by a remission of voice, which may be silent, or filled by an unaccented syllable or two. Each peil ect line contains three alliterating words, t\vo in the ^rjjL,aejciion, and one in the first part of the second section. Cj/ninfl aceal mid cen pS cwene" fjebic gari, bu nunt and beii gutri : bu sceo lan ce reaf geo fum <j<id ices ftiC. A kinjr shnll with cattel a queen buy, with beakers and bracelets : both should first in gifts sood be. (Gnom. Exon., line 82 + .) Many lines have but one alliterating word in the first section, and irregular sections have three or sometimes only two feet. Rhyme is found occasionally in most poems. A few con tain rhyming passages of some length. One is known as the rime song. It contains 87 verses in all sorts of rimes, and is plainly a task \ poem to show riming skill. CluJi mdli fli tetK flan mCtn hwt tetJi\ orrj-xorrf i,itcth\ bald aid thirtieth, &c. Sci/l dum* Msce rede" sai/ndari gener ede* vcom munf b-iwe rede* u iil dr ffehe> ede\ &c. Subtle fiend fi>hteth, darts sin whetteth, borrow- sorrow biteth, bold old severeth, &c. From sins freed. let us escape saved from stains covered, gloric^sly honored, &c. Almost all the Anglo-Saxon poetry we have is in this verse, varied occasionally by passages in longer verses of similar construction. It is the common verse in Old Saxon, and in Ice landic has been cultivated into a surprising variety of artificial meters. The poems re maining in Anglo-Saxon are few. The Chris tians destroyed whatever was tainted with paganism, and the Normans neglected every thing Anglo-Saxon. They have been divided into seven classes. .J^The ballad epic. Of this we have one poem and a few fragments. "Beowulf" is a poem of 3,183 lines, celebrat ing the exploits of a Gothic prince Beowulf, for the most part in slaying monsters. The scene is laid in the island of Seeland and the opposite Gothland. It is evidently a pagan production, though rewritten by a Christian. Only one copy of it is known, and no mention of iiTTas oeen found elsewhere. A few names and facts referred to in it have however been identified in old German history, and serve to show that it embodies historical matter of the end of the 5th century. The manuscript is thought to be of the 10th century. Its exist ence is mentioned in Wanley s catalogue, 1705. In 1781 it was badly injured by fire. In 1786 the Dane Thorkelin had two copies of it made, and in 1815 published an edition. No particu lar notice was taken of it till the late revival of Anglo-Saxon scholarship; but the present generation of Anglo-Saxon scholars, especially in Germany, have studied it with great enthu siasm, and find in it the Iliad and Odyssey of the north. Among many editions, translations, and essays of elucidation and criticism, we mention Kenible, edition (London, 1833) and translation and glossary (1837) ; Ettmuller, translation and valuable notes and introduction (Zurich, 1840); Thorpe, text, translation, and glossary (Oxford, 1855); Grein, two editions (Gottingen, 1857 and 18(57), and translation (1857) ; Gruntvig, text and notes (Copenhagen, 1861); Heyne, two editions with notes and glossary (Paderborn, 1863, 1808), arid transla tion (1863); Wackerbarth, translation into rhymed English verses like Scott s "Marmion" (London, 1849); Ilaigh, "The Anglo-Saxon Sagas," containing a notable attempt to locate Beowulf on English ground (London, 1861); Morley, "English Writers," vol. i. (London, 1867). A few fragments may be classed with "Beowulf," as "The Traveller s Song," 143 lines; "The Fight at Finnsburg," 48 lines; "Bryhtnoth," 325 lines; the first two to be found in Thorpe and Kemble, and all in Grein (1857). 2. The Bille epic. This is a growth of Christian England. We have the story of its originator, Ciedmon, from Beda, who lived near him, and may have seen him. lie was an unlearned man, so backward that he could not take his turn in singing to the harp at feasts, and so sensitive that he would leave the board in shame as the harp came round. Once when he had done this, and fallen asleep in a stall near by, a vision appeared to him, and bade ANGLO-SAXONS (LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE) 505 him sing. "I cannot sing," said he; "I have I left the feast and come here because I cannot i sin?." "Sin? for me though," said the vision; ; "sing the creation." And he sang the famous verses which were to usher in a new era of song : Nu scylun Iiergan Iiefaenricaes uard, metucltes in.iecti end his modgidanc, Uere uuldur fadur; sue he uundra gihuaes eci dryctin or astelidie. He icrist scop aelda barnum liehcn til Earofe, bales scepen : tha middungeard nsoncynnaes uard ei i drvctin, seftcr tladae, firuin,foldan, f rea allmectig. "Now must we glorify the guardian of heaven s kingdom, the maker s mi_ ht. " and his mind s thought, the work of the worshipped when of his wonders each father one, the ever livincr lord ordered the origin, He erst created for earth s children heaven as a high roof, the holy creator: then this mid world did man s guardian the ever living lord afterward prepare, for men a mansion, the master almighty." (Iladley s translation.) Next morning he told his story and repeated | the verses. The abbess Hild and her learned | men proved him, and found that he could turn ; into noble poetry passages from the Bible which they read to him. They recognized the | gift as divine, and received him into the mon- ! astery. There he led a holy life, humble and j lovely, and composed many Christian poems. Hosts of imitators followed. The "Ileliand," a poem of some 6,000 lines in Old Saxon, cele brating the acts of the Saviour, is thought by many to be a translation from Ca^dmon. But \ none equalled him till Milton. A single man- uscript remains, containing Genesis (2,935 lines), , Exodus (589), Daniel (765), Christ and Satan (733). All that is known of it is that it be- ; longed to Archbishop Usher, who gave it to j Junius, who printed it at Amsterdam in 1635, ; and who bequeathed it to the Bodleian library. There is no external evidence to prove these poems C3Bdmon s,.but they have been accepted provisionally by most students as a rewriting of his originals in another dialect. The Gen esis gives the story of man s first disobedience and his fall, beginning with the fallen angels. The description of Satan, his first speech, some striking expressions in the description of his fall, of heaven, hell, Adam and Eve, strongly sug gest that Milton borrowed from Credmon, but they may be accounted for by their using com mon sources. Editions are by Thorpe, for the society of antiquaries (London, 1832; Illumina tions, 1833), Grein (Gottingen, 1857, transla tion, 1857>, and Bouterwek (text, translation, copious introductory essays, notes, and lexicon, Giltersloh, 1854). Among the many valuable articles upon it may be mentioned Dietrich s in Ilaupt s ZeiUchrift, X., 310-367. With these works of Credmon may be classed a frag ment of Judith (350 lines), Cynewulf s " Christ" (1,694), "The Harrowing of Hell" (137), and some other fragments, all to be found in Grein s Bibliothek der Angelsachsischcn Poesie (Got tingen, 1857), and translations in his Dichtun- gen der Angchachsen (1857). 3. Ecclesiastic narratives the lives of saints, and versified chronicles, without the epic exaltation of the former classes. Such are "Andreas" (1,724 lines), "Elene" (1,821), "Juliana" (731), and " Guthlac " (1,353). 4. Psalms and hymns translations of Hebrew psalms and a few Chris tian hymns and prayers. The version of the Psalms has been attributed to Bishop Aldhelm, (656-709). The manuscript is in the royal library at Paris. Editions have been published by Thorpe and Grein ; Essays by Dietrich in llxwpfs Zeitschrift (IX., 214-222). 5. Secular lyrics. A few, mostly elegiac, are found in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, celebrating kings and heroes. They are also to be found in Grein s Bibliothek. 6. Allegories, gnomic verses, riddles. This was a favorite style of composition with the later Anglo-Saxons. We have in Grein s Bibliothek "The Phoenix," a translation from Lactantius, much expanded (677 lines) ; "The Panther " (74) ; " The Whale " (89) ; also gnomic verses which are still inter esting, and riddles in considerable numbers, and hard enough to guess. 7. Didactic ethical. The "Meters of Boethius" are versifications of passages in Boetliius De Comolatione Phi- losophice, attributed to King Alfred. They were transcribed by Junius from a manuscript since lost. Editions are by Ra \vlinson (Oxford, 1698); Fox, with translation (London, 1835); Grein (1858); and Fox, (2d ed., with metrical rendering by Martin Farquhar Tupper (Lon don, 1864). The Anglo-Saxon prose is of com paratively little literary value. It affords abun dant material for the study of the language and the people, but consists mostly of transla tions from the Latin. They have been classified as follows: 1. Theological translations of the Bible. Portions of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, and Judges, called the Heptateuch, together with an out line of Job, the Gospel of Nicodemus, and a fragment of Judith, were published by Thwaites (Oxford, 1698). The Psalms are spoken of above. We have several manuscripts of the Gospels. Editions have been published in Eng land by Parker (1571), Marshall (1665), Thorpe (1842), and Bos worth (with the Gothic, Wyck- liffe, and Tyndale versions in parallel columns, London, 1865). Kemble began an edition with the old Latin and four Anglo-Saxon texts printed together, and various readings from four others. Matthew has been printed in this form, and the work is going on at the Univer sity press, Cambridge. A large number of homilies are still to be found. A set by ^rElfric, 80 in number, compiled or translated from Latin works, about A. D. 990, for the un learned, were printed by Thorpe for the /Elfric society (1844- 6). More are promised by the early English text society. 2. Philosophy. In this department we have only Alfred s transla tion of Boethius, mentioned above. 3. His tory. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle extends from the invasion of Julius Caesar to Henry II., 1154. As far as the history of Beda extends, it is 506 ANGOLA ANGORA abridged from it or from some common source. It lias been supposed that Alfred had it com piled and copies placed in the monasteries. How the records were kept afterward is not known. It is for the most part a meagre note of events of little interest, but in the later times there are sometimes reflections and poet ical passages, as well as sketches of character. It has been often printed and translated. Thorpe s edition (London, 1861) has seven par allel texts, a translation, and indexes. There are also a large number of charters, deeds, wills, and similar documents remaining, of which Kemble has published six volumes (Codex Diplomat- icus j%fci Saxonici, London, 1839- 46). Beda s "Ecclesiastical History "was written by him in Latin, and translated into Anglo-Saxon by Alfred. It is one of the world s great books. It has passed through many editions in many countries. Wheloc s edition has Latin and Anglo-Saxon in parallel columns (Cambridge, 1644) ; and Smith s has various readings (Cam bridge, 1722). A new edition is needed. For ancient history there is Alfred s translation of Orosius, with additions by the translator of some value. Thorpe s edition with translation and glossary is in Bohn s library (London, 1857). There are some biographies. St. Guthlac has been repeatedly printed (Goodwin, London, 1848). 4. Law, A large body of laws re mains, extending from Ethelbert, who was king of Kent at the time of its conversion to Chris tianity, to those of William the Conqueror. The best editions are those of Thorpe (Lon don, 1840), containing the ecclesiastical insti tutes, and Schmid (Leipsic, 1858), a critical text with Latin and German translations, notes, and a glossary. These and the charters are perhaps the most valuable prose remaining for the study of the people. 5. Natural science and medicine. " Popular Treatises of Science " (Thorpe, London, 1841); "Leechdoms" (3 vols., O. Cockayne, London, 1864- 6). 6. Grammar. ./El trio has a Latin grammar in Anglo-Saxon, which answers as a reverse grammar. It is printed in Somner s Diction ary (Oxford, 1659). yElfric s "Colloquy," in Thorpe s "Analecta Anglo-Saxonica " (Lon don, 1846). There are a few glossaries in Wright (London, 1857). AIVGOLA, in its wider sense, a Portuguese colony on the W. coast of South Africa, Lower Guinea, between lat, 7 30 and 17 S. It was discovered by the Portuguese in 1488, and they have ever since held it, except from 1641 to 1648, when the capital and a portion of the colony were occupied by the Dutch. The gov ernment general of Angola, as claimed by the Portuguese, embraces an area of upward of 200,000 sq. m. The population is estimated by the Portuguese government at 2,000,000. The colony is divided into four districts, besides the Gimbandi country, which is likewise re garded as belonging to it : Ambriz, Angola proper, Benguela, and Mossamedes. The rule of the Portuguese is recognized between the Koanza and the Dande only, the main part of Angola proper ; outside of this territory they have isolated fortified places, and the native chiefs sustain the relation of more or less doubtful vassals. A line of forts which they intended to construct across the continent to connect with their colony of Mozambique in eastern Africa has never been completed, but the country in the interior has been explored to some extent. The soil is very fertile, and the vegetation is luxuriant; the fauna and flora are tropical. Along the rivers sugar cane is rais ed, and in the primitive forests excellent coffee is found. The climate is unhealthy along the coast. The mountains contain gold, iron, lead, and sulphur. Spring, the rainy season, begins in September. The most intelligent among the natives are the people of the dis trict of Ambaca, most of whom are able to read and write. As roads are almost wholly wanting, the government employs carregadores (burden-carriers), who are furnished by the villages. In the district of Golungo-Alto the number of these carriers was estimated by Dr. Livingstone at 6,000. An army of 5,000 men, four war vessels, and the packet ser vice consume nearly the entire revenue of the colony. A Catholic bishop was appointed for Angola about the middle of the 16th cen tury, and a large number of the natives were nominally received into the church ; but since the expulsion of the Jesuits, the native churches have been to a large extent without priests, and the population has partly relapsed into paganism. In 1857 there were in the whole diocese only six priests, though the Christian population was estimated at 300,000. The capital, Saint Paul de Loanda, on the coast of Angola proper, is the seat of the governor general and of the bishop; pop. 12,500, of whom 850 are whites, 2,500 mulattoes, and the remainder negroes. The chief coast towns of the three other districts are Ambriz, Sao Felipe de Benguela, and Mossamedes. (See GrraEA.) ANGORA (Turk. Engurieh ; anc. Ancyra), a city of Asia Minor, capital of a Turkish eyalet of the same name, 220 in. E. S. E. of Constantino ple ; pop. about 45,000, including about 30,000 Turks, 10,000 Armenians, 4,000 Greeks, and 1,000 Jews. It is situated in the midst of a vast elevated plain, abounding in fruits and pastu rage, over which the roving tribes of the Turco mans tend their sheep, goats, and horses. The citadel is situated on a steep rock, and its walls are covered with inscriptions. The trade with the west is chiefly in the hands of the Greeks and Armenians, and thus the city in social life is rather European than Mohammedan. It is the see of a Greek and of a Catholic Armenian bishop. On July 20, 1402, Angora was the scene of a terrible battle between Timour and the sultan Bajazet L, in which the lat ter was captured. There are some ancient remains. (See ANCYRA.) The Angora goat, with its silken fleece, is the most curious pro duct of this region. Its hair, which is white ANGORNO and soft, and about eight inches long, is shorn 1 twice a year, and is much esteemed as material ; for shawls. In 1809 the number of these goats [ ANGOULEME 507 Angora Goat. in and near Angora was estimated at 1,000,- 000. The yearly yield of wool is about 2,700,- 000 Ibs. The Angora goat was introduced into South Carolina in 1849, and still more were im ported in 1863. ANGORNO, a town of Borneo, in central Af rica, near the S. W. shore of Lake Tchad ; pop. said to be above 30,000. Weekly markets are held, at which a very extensive trade is carried on in cotton, amber, metals, slaves, &c. AXGOSTTRA, or f indad Bolivar, a city of Vene zuela, capital of the province of Guayana, on the right bank of the river Orinoco, at a pass (angostura) where it is confined between high rocks, about 260 m. S. E. of Caracas ; pop. about 7,000. It was founded in 1674, and named San Tomas do la Nueva Guayana, to distinguish it from another San Tomas 32 leagues distant. Its name was changed to Ciudad Bolivar, and subsequently in common speech to Angostura. It is built in the form of an amphitheatre, on the slope of a rocky hill, destitute of vegetation. The houses are massively constructed, usually of two stories. The city is the principal emporium for the com merce of the Orinoco, although 240 m. from the mouth of the river. It is the seat of a bishopric, and contains a college, ecclesiastical seminary, hospital, and a hall in which a ses sion of the congress of Colombia, then includ ing New Granada and Venezuela, was held in 1819. The city is defended by a fort on the opposite side of the river, here 3,100 ft. wide. The exports consist of cotton, cocoa, indigo, hides, sugar, and Angostura bark. _ ANGOSTURA BARK, the bark of galipea offi- cinalw, a South American tree of the rue fam ily, growing on the river Orinoco, and espe cially on the Caroni, Venezuela. It possesses a peculiar and disagreeable smell when fresh, and a bitter and slightly aromatic taste. It is sometimes used in medicine as an aromatic tonic. By the natives it is employed to intoxi cate fish, as the cinchona is in Peru. The false Angostura may be distinguished by its greater thickness and hardness, its total want of odor, and its intense tenacious bitterness, due to the poisonous alkaloid brucia. When steeped in water it does not become soft like the true Angostura. It is said to be the bark of strych- nos nux-vomica. ANGOT, or Ango, Jean, a French merchant of Dieppe, died in 1551. He made trading voyages to Africa and the East Indies, and secured a large fortune, which he used with liberality. Some of his ships having been cap tured by the Portuguese, he fitted out a fieet, fully provided with soldiers and arms, which en tered the Tagus and blockaded Lisbon. Every vessel coming to that port was intercepted, while both shores on the river were devastated. The king of Portugal sent an ambassador to Fran cis I., who referred him to the merchant of Dieppe. Angot, however, persevered, and forced Portugal to pay a large indemnity for his losses. Unsuccessful speculations brought ruin upon him, and the king of France, to whom he had lent large sums, having failed to repay him, Angot spent his last years in destitution. ANGOULE3IE (anc. Inculisma, or deltas Eco- lismensium), a town of France, capital of the department of Charente and of the ancient province of Angoumois, situated on the Cha rente, 66 m. 1ST. E. of Bordeaux, on the railway connecting that city with Paris; pop. in 1866, 25,116. It is built on an isolated hill, rising about 200 feet above the river ; and though the streets are narrow and crooked, it presents with its white stone houses a neat and cheer ful aspect. In the centre of the town is the old ruined castle, the birthplace of Marguerite of Navarre, and remains of the ancient fortifi cations are also extant. A noble cathedral of the 12th century, the church of St. Andre dating from the llth, and a Benedictine abbey of the time of Charlemagne, are among its oth er antiquities. It has a college, a museum of natural history, manufactures of paper, wool lens, linen, earthenware, and cognac, a cannon foundery, and a thriving trade with Bordeaux and the southern departments. It was for some years the seat of a naval school, trans ferred to Brest in 1830. From the 9th centu ry Angouleme, with its territory of Angoumois, to which Perigord was at first united, was gov erned by counts. In 1360 it was ceded to the English, who were driven out in the reign of King Charles V. It afterward belonged to the crown, was erected into a duchy by Francis I., and formed a royal apanage till 1(550, since which the title of duke of Angouleme has been only nominal. AXGOILEME. I. Charles de Valois, duke of, natural son of Charles IX. of France by Marie Touchet, bora April 28, 1573, died Sept. 24, 1650. He received from Catharine de 1 Medici the counties of Auvergne and Lanragais, mar ried the daughter of the constable de Mont- morency, distinguished himself at the battles of Arques, Ivry, and Fontaine Francaise, but was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment for cer tain intrigues with his uterine sister, the mar- 508 ANGOULfiME ANHYDRIDES quise de Verneuil. Released in 1616, he con ducted the siege of Soissons the next year, ob tained from Louis XIII. the duchy of Angouleine in 1019, and besieged Rochelle in 1628. He took part also in the- wars of Languedoc, Germany, and Flanders. He left Memoires of the reigns of Henry 111. and Henry IV., a Relation de Vori- gine et sueces des cherifit, et de Vetat des roy- aumes dc Maroc, Fez et Tarudant, translated from the Spanish of Diego de Torres, and some other writings, all of which have been pub lished. II. Louis Antoinc de Bourbon, duke of, eldest son of Charles- X. of France and Marie Therese of Savoy, born at Versailles, Aug. 6, 1775, died at Gorz, June 3, 1844. At the outbreak of the revolution he accompanied his father (then duke of Artois) to Turin, where he spent a few years in military studies. In 1792 he received a command in Germany, but he was not fitted for a soldier, and soon withdrew from the field, retiring with his father to Holy- rood, and subsequently joining his uncle Louis XVIII. at Blankenburg and Mitau. At the lat ter place he married, June 10, 1799, his cousin Marie Therese Charlotte, daughter of Louis XVI. During the hundred days he was ap pointed lieutenant general of the kingdom, and made a weak attempt to oppose the emperor; but his troops abandoned him, and after a few days detention as a prisoner he was sent to Barcelona. After the second restoration he was charged with the suppression of disorders in the southern provinces, and in 1823 command ed the army of intervention which put down the revolution in Spain. In July, 1830, he signed with his father the act of abdication in favor of his nephew the duke of Bordeaux (now Count de Chambord), and went into ex ile with the rest of the royal family. He was a man of mean abilities and sluggish disposi tion. III. Marie Theiese Charlotte, duchess of, wife of the preceding, and daughter of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, born at Versailles Dec. 19, 1778, died at Frohsdorf, Oct. 19, 1851. She shared the imprisonment of her parents in the Temple, and after their execution was held in captivity till December, 1795, when Austria procured her liberation in exchange for cer tain members of the convention. She lived at Vienna till her marriage, known by the title of rtiadame royalc. Afterward she shared the vicissitudes of her husband s exile, sustaining his courage by her superior spirit and intelligence, returning with him to France in 1814, and ex erting a great influence over the troops at Bordeaux during the hundred days, so that Napoleon called her "the only man in the fam ily." At the time of the July revolution she was at Dijon, and made a dangerous journey in disguise to Rambouillet, where she rejoined the duke. She went with the royal family to England, where her husband and she assumed the titles of count and countess of Marne. They lived some time at Holyrood, but the climate of Scotland proving too severe for the countess, they removed to the continent. ANGOITMOIS, one of the old provinces of France, between Poitou and Guienne, bounded W. by i Saintonge, with which it was joined to form a 1 military government. Capital, Angouleme. It | nearly corresponded to the present department j of Charente. It was generally governed by the counts of Angouleme from the 9th to the 14th century, when it was united to the crown. A\GRA, a seaport town on the S. side of the j island of Terceira, one of the Azores ; pop. | 13,000. It is well built on a hill rising from the water s edge, has wide but dirty streets, and is generally the residence of the governor of the Azores, as well as of the consuls of Eng land, France, and Holland. The harbor is pro tected by two forts, but, though the best in the Azores, it is exposed to all winds from the S. S. W. by S. to the E., and on the approach of a gale from this quarter vessels are obliged to put to sea for safety. The principal exports are wine and grain. ANGUSCIOLA, Allans-sola, or Agnosdola, Sofonisba, an Italian female painter, born at Cremona about 1530, died about 1620. After executing a num ber of portraits and some fine historical pieces, she went to Madrid in 1561, at the invitation of Philip II., and painted portraits of Queen Isa bella and other celebrities of the Spanish court. Constant application brought on blindness in her latter years. Vandyke, who visited her frequently, was wont to speak with great re spect of her knowledge of art. Her sisters LUCIA, EUEOPA, and ANNA MARIA also painted, but were less distinguished than Sofonisba. AINGIS, Earls of. See DOUGLAS. AMIALT, a duchy of the German empire, sit uated on both banks of the Elbe and the Saale, and bounded by Prussian Saxony, Branden burg, and Brunswick; area, 897 sq. in.; pop. in 1871, 203,354. It was formerly divided into four duchies, called Anhalt-Dessau, Anhalt- Bernburg, Anhalt-Zerbst, and Anhalt-Kothcn, after the principal towns, but was in 1793 uni ted into three, in 1853 into two, and finally in 1863 into one. The soil is mostly level and fertile, and here and there wooded and pictu resque. It produces corn, flax, tobacco, hops, and fruits. There are iron, lead, and copper mines. The Anhalt family trace their lineage to Esico von Ballenstedt, who flourished in the 10th century. They have been generally of martial spirit, and in the history of Germany they have furnished various distinguished gen erals in the service of the emperors and of the kings of Prussia. From Anhalt-Zerbst came Catharine II., empress of Russia. The present duke, Frederick, born April 29, 1831, succeed ed his father May 22, 1871. Capital, Dessau. ANHYDRIDES, compounds which become acids upon the addition of water. In technical lan- | guage, they are the oxides of acid radicals, and | stand in the same relation to acids as the oxide of potassium, K 2 O, does to the hydrated pot ash, I1KO. The most familiar anhydrides are sulphuric, nitric, hypochlorous, and acetic ; these have long been called anhydrous sulphu- ANI ANIMAL 509 ric acid, anhydrous nitric acid, anhydrous hy- pochloroua acid, and anhydrous acetic acid; but as thej do not possess acid properties until combined with water, it is now proposed to call them sulphuric anhydride, nitric anhydride, &c. The following formulas will illustrate how an anhydride becomes an acid on the addition of water: SO 3 (sulphuric anhydride) + II 2 O= H 2 SO 4 (sulphuric acid) ; N 2 O 6 (nitric anhy dride) + 1I,O = 2IIXO 3 (nitric acid); C1 2 O (hypochlorous anhydride) + Ii a O=2HClO (hy- pocblorous acid). Anhydride has therefore a signification of its own, and must not be confounded with the term anhydrous, applied to substances which have no water either mixed or combined with them. AM, or Anni, a ruined city of Turkish Ar menia, on the Arpi Tchai, about 25 m. E. S. E. of Kars. Its ancient name appears to have been Abnicum, but its history is only imper fectly known. In the 5th century it was a small fort : in the 10th it became the capital of the Bagratide kings of Armenia; in the llth it was sacked by the Seljuks, and subsequently occupied by the Kurds; and in the 12th re peatedly taken by the Georgians. In the 14th century it was finally ruined by an earthquake, and has never since been reoccupied. There are numerous ruins of churches, chapels, and private buildings, while the massive walls, about m. in circuit, are in good preservation. See Riiiue.s <TAni, by M. F. Brosset (2 vols., St. Petersburg, ISGO- Ol). MUET-BOIUGEOIS, the popular name of AUGUSTS ANICET BOURGEOIS, a French play wright, born in Paris, Dec. 25, 1806, died at Pau, Jan. 12, 1871. He was a clerk in a law yer s office, when he wrote in 1825 his first melodrama, Gxstare, ou le Napolitain. He afterward produced over 200 plays, most of them in conjunction with other authors, though he was the sole author of his best drama, La Venitienne (1834). His fairy plays have had an immense run, especially Les pilules du Dia- l)le. He is also believed to have been the real author of Teresa, Angele, and other pieces as cribed to Alexandre Dumas. His remains have been removed to Paris, where he was buried May 10, 1872, Alexandre Dumas the younger pronouncing the funeral oration. lARKITS, /t freedman and preceptor of Nero, and commander of the Praetorian fleet at Cape Misenurn, A. D. 59. At Nero s instiga tion he had a false bottom made for a ship which Agrippina was enticed to visit. She barely escaped drowning, and was soon after ward murdered by Anicetus at her villa, near the Lucrine lake. Seneca, in his defence ot Nero, used Anicetus s story of Agrippina s plots against the emperor s life. Anicetus also professed to have had an intrigue with Octa- via, so as to furnish Nero with a pretext for her banishment. He subsequently lived in luxury in Sardinia with the money given him by Nero in reward for his infamy. 1AIELLO, Tominaso. See MASANIELLO. ANILIC ACID (Spanish anil, indigo), an acid > produced by the action of diluted nitric acid | upon indigo ; also called indigotic acid. Car- j bonic acid is produced with it, and remains in ! solution, the anilic acid separating it. in light ! yellowish white prisms, which are fusible and I volatile, and dissolve in 1,000 parts of water. Their composition is represented by the formu- 1 la C 7 H 6 (NOo)O3, H 2 O. Anilic acid decom- j poses acetate of lead, forming with the lead a crystallized anilate. A\!LI\K, a substance discovered in 1820 by i O. Unverdorben, in the distillation of indigo. i At the present time it is almost exclusively ! prepared by the deoxidation of nitro-benzole | by means of nascent hydrogen evolved from | iron filings and acetic acid. This operation is ! graphically represented by the following for- | mulas : CoHsNOa (nitro-benzole) + 611 = C 6 H 7 | N (aniline) + 2II 2 O. Aniline is a colorless ! oily liquid, of a vinous aromatic odor, and bit- | ter burning taste, and in the air turns brown. | Its specific gravity is 1,028. It is slightly sol- ! uble in water, to which it imparts a weak | alkaline reaction. Alcohol, ether, and the i fatt} oils dissolve it in all proportions. It i solidifies at 8 C., boils at 182 C., and com bines with acids and forms salts soluble in ! water and alcohol. The faintest trace of ani- ! line can be detected by the deep purple violet color which chloride of lime produces with it. It is an active poison, but its salts are said to be harmless. In 1856 Mr. Perk m, while ex perimenting with aniline, discovered the beau tiful purple dye, which was soon introduced into commerce under the name of mauve. Since that time a variety of colors have been produced, and the manufacture of aniline has become an industry of great importance. AMMAL. It is difficult to define the word animal, and even a scientific definition distin guishing an animal from a vegetable is scarcely less so. The assertion of Linnreus, that u plants live and grow," while "animals live, grow, and feel," is probably correct; but it is impos sible to verify its correctness as applied to the very lowest animals. According to the Ger man naturalists, an animal may consist of a single cell. The idea also till recently main tained, that all animals have a stomach, or in ternal digestive cavity, is untenable; since many microscopic animals have no trace of a digestive apparatus. Indeed, there is no part or organ common to all animals. The stomach, the heart, and other parts of the circulatory apparatus, the mouth, and even the head, so indispensable in the higher animals, not only in the lower become modified in form and de velopment, but in the lowest even entirely dis appear. Nor can muscular fibres or nervous filaments be identified in the latter. The changes in form of the same organ in different animals can merely be alluded to here. The mouth, for instance, usually single, and opening transversely, is sometimes double, triple, or multiple, and modified into a trunk, or sucker, 510 ANIMAL as in many insects. The heart has but two \ cavities in fishes, while there are three in rep- j tiles, and four in birds and the mammalia. The same type of structure, however, often ex- , tends over a vast number of species of animals. | All the vertebrate animals have the same typi- j cal skeleton, it being modified in the various \ species to suit their requirements. The bones of the anterior extremities, for instance, are the basis of the arm and hand of man, of the , fore legs of quadrupeds and reptiles, the wings | of birds, and the anterior fins of the whale. Nor are our investigations in regard to func- j tion in all cases more satisfactory. Feeling and j voluntary motion are certainly characteristic j attributes of all but the lowest animals ; but j some of the latter are endowed with only j a kind of motion of a lower grade than the j voluntary, and do not give certain evidence of j feeling at all. It is therefore not surprising | that it was found impossible for a long time to j distinguish the lowest animals from the sim- j plest vegetable organisms ; and that to these doubtful structures the name of zoophyte, or animal-plant, was given. Hence it is not pro posed here to attempt to give a precise defini tion of the term animal, but only some of the more striking particulars which distinguish ani mals from plants. It should, however, be here remarked, in regard to the microscopic ani mals, or animalcules, that Prof. Agassiz has shown that many of them are merely the ova, or germs of higher animal forms. 1. An or- | ganism manifesting the power of sensation or voluntary motion, or possessing a digestive cavity (stomach), or into whose structure en ters the nervous or the muscular tissue, is an animal. But, on the other hand, the impossi bility of demonstrating either or all of these characteristics does not prove the organism to be a plant, as before stated. Besides, some plants, as the sensitive plant (mimosa pudica), withdraw their leaves from the touch of the j hand ; but not, as there is every reason to be- j lieve, in consequence of either sensation or j volition. 2. Albumen is the great nutritive j element of animals, while starch is that of | plants. Some of the lowest plants (fungi) are, \ however, apparent exceptions to this proposi- ! tion. Consequently, the chemical composition j of the tissues of animals differs from that of i plants : the basis of vegetable structure is eel- j lulose, a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and | oxygen, while those of animals contain nitro- ! gen also in addition. Recent researches show | that cellulose is found in some of the lower j protozoa. 3. It has been stated that plants | absorb carbonic acid gas from the atmosphere, i and give out to it pure oxygen, while animals i precisely reverse the process. Plants actually, | in their nutrition and growth, assimilate the j carbon of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, I and return its oxygen to the latter ; but in the j respiratory process they, like animals, consume the oxygen of the air, and return to it carbonic acid gas. By day, however, they give off less of the latter than of oxygen. 4. For the fixa tion of carbon in the tissues of plants, as just stated, the constant stimulation of light is in dispensable. This is not true to the same de gree of animals, whose tissues also consist in part of carbon, as has been seen. In respect to varieties in size, the animal kingdom pre sents a far wider range than the vegetable. The extremes in the former are the whale, sometimes 100 feet long and weighing as many tons, and the animalcule, of some species of which .30,000 individuals may inhabit a single drop of water; while in the latter we find on the one hand the sequoia of California, 90 feet in circumference, and the talipot of Ceylon, a single leaf of which may shelter 20 men from the rain, and on the other the microscopic fungi, as the yeast plant (torula ccrerisice), or those constituting the mould on decaying sub stances. Dick calculates that the largest trees of Guiana are 2,985,984,000,000,000 times as large as the rose-leaf plant ; while the largest whale is to the minutest animalcule as 34,560,- 000,000,000,000,000 to 1. The number of spe cies, and probably of individuals, is also far greater in the animal than in the vegetable king dom. About 70,000 species of plants may be seen in Paris in a single collection. Balbi 40 years ago estimated the whole number of known species at 80,000 ; and it has been supposed that there are about 250,000 species in all on the globe. On the other hand, there are at least 100,000 species of animalcules alone. Dick estimated the whole number of species of animals at 300,000, and the number of indi viduals at 24 billions; while the parts and adaptations of these exceed 60,000 billions. In regard to rapidity of increase, the highest plants vastly excel the highest animals. An elm of average size sometimes produces 158 million seeds. But the lowest animals and plants manifest the greatest power of multipli cation. The bovista gigantea, a species of fun gus, has been known to increase its size more than a million times during a single night ; and Ehrenberg speaks of an animalcule which prop agates so rapidly that its descendants would in four days amount to 70 billions. The sci entific study of the animal kingdom constitutes the department of natural science termed zoology. Zoography is merely the description of animals ; while zootomy, or comparative anat omy, is the study of their structure, and zoon- omy, or comparative physiology, that of their functions. To facilitate these investigations, a scientific classification of the animal kingdom was first published by Linnrcus in 1735, in his Sy sterna Naturae. This was improved by G. Cuvier, who spent 17 years in perfecting his system (1795 to 1812), which, being based upon the structure of animals, is termed the ana tomical system. Modifications have also been made by Lamarck, Virey, Dumeril, and De Blainville ; but Cuvier s classification is still generally adopted. He arranged the animal kingdom in four great divisions, viz. : I. The ANIMAL 511 vertebrata (those animals having a spinal col umn), containing four classes mammalia, birds, reptiles, and fishes. II. The mollusca. III. The articulate. IV. The radiata. The classes are divided into 72 orders, and the latter into the different genera and species, j The classification of Prof. Agassiz, founded on I that of Cuvier, is one of the most modern, and in many respects one of the most instructive. It is as follows : Branch I. RADIATA. Class 1. Polypi: including the 2 orders, actinoids and hal- cyonoids. " 2. Acalephoe : 3 orders hydroids (including siphono- phoni 1 ). discophora?. and ctenophora?. " 3. Echinoderma: 4 orders criuoids, asteroids, echi- noids, and holothurioids. Branch II. MOLLUSCA. Class 1. Acepliala : 4 orders bryozoa (including the verti- cella ), brachiopods, tunicata, and lamellibranchi- ata. " 2. Gasteropoda: 3 orders pteropoda, heteropoda, and gasteropoda proper. " 3. Cephalopoda : 2 orders tetrabranchiata and di- brauchiata. Branch III. ARTICULATA. Class 1. Warms: 3 orders trematods (including cestoids, planaria?. and leeches), nematoids (including acan- thocephala and gordiacei\ and annelides. " 2. Crustacea : 4 orders rotifera. entomostraca (in cluding cirripeds), tetradecapods. and decapods. u 3. Insects: 3 orders myriapods, arachnids, and in sects proper. Branch IV. VERTEBRATA. Class 1. Mi/zontes: 2 orders myxinoids and cyclostomes. " 2. Fishes proper : 2 orders ctenoids (as the perch) and cycloids (as the cod). [This division will probably be considerably modified by its author.] " 3. Ganoids": 3 orders caelacanths. acipenseroids, and sauroids : and doubtful, the siluroids, plectogna- thi. and lophobrancb.es. u 4. Selachians: 3 orders chiinaera?, galeodes, and ba- tides. " 5. Amphibians: 3 orders csecilise, ichthyodi, and anoura. " 6. Reptiles: 4 orders serpents, saurii, rhizodontes, and testudinata. gans of animals are constituted, the vertebrata as follows : These are in 1. Epithelial Tit/rue : A. Epidermis and its modifications nails, hoofs, horns, scales, and shells. B. Hair and its modifications bristles, wool, and feathers. 2. Elastic Tissue, its properties much resembling those of gum elastic. 3. White Fibrous Tissue, in tendons, ligaments, &c., very strong and almost totally inextensible. 4. Osseous and Dental Tissues, in bones and teeth. 5. Areolar Tissue, connecting the various organs to gether. 6. Adipose Tissue, otherwise called fat. 7. Cartilage, in the joints, those of the ribs, &c. 8. Muscular Tissue, the source of motion. 9. Nerrouft Tissue, the seat of sensation and intelligence. 10. Membranes, cutaneous (skin), mucous, and serous. 11. Glands, the secretory organs. 12. Vessels, the blood vessels and the lymphatics. The tissues of animals are developed direct ly from the vital fluid, the blood. This in all the vertebrata is red, from the presence of minute cells containing a colored fluid, and which are called the blood corpuscles. In the invertebrate animals no such cor puscles exist, and therefore the blood is color less. Hence the division of animals into the red-blooded and the white-blooded. The blood of each animal in the central parts of the body has its peculiar natural temperature, that of man being 98 to 99 F. The tem perature of all animals lower in the scale than birds is lower than that of human blood, and hence all these are called cold-blooded, while birds and the mammalia are termed warm blooded animals. The fecundity of animals also varies inversely with their elevation in the scale. While mammals produce from 1 to 8 or at most 10 young at a time, a tench produces 38,000 and a mackerel 546,000 eggs; and Leeuwenhoeck professes to have counted 9,384,- sessores (including scansores and accipitres). u 8. Mammalia: 3 orders marsupialia, herbivora, and carnivora. As to the chemical composition of animals, probably only 17 out of the 64 simple elements now known, or at most 19, enter into their structure. These are : Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Copper, : 4 onl, -rs-natatores. grail*, rasores. and in- i 000 eggs in a single Codfish. Some of the mam- ; mals are, however, very prolific. Pennant cal- i culates that the descendants of a single pair of j rabbits would, without interference, amount in | four years to 1,274,840. But external circum stances exert a powerful influence in this re- I gard. For instance, the pigeon in its wild I state broods but twice a year, but when do- j mesticated six, and sometimes even nine times. In the latter case, a single pair would in four | years produce 14,762 descendants according to ; Stillingfleet, and according to Linnaeus, over ! 18,000. The astonishing fecundity of some of ! the animalcules has already been illustrated. I The mammalia alone bring forth their young ; alive, the duration of gestation being as follows in the following species : elephant, 20 months 1 and 18 days; rhinoceros, 9 months; horse, 11 months; ass, 12 months; cow, 9 months; reindeer, 8 months ; buffalo, 12 months ; sheep Sulphur, Phosphorus, Calcium, Iodine, Lead, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Manganese, Iron, Chlorine, Fluorine, Silicon, Bromine. These elements, variously combined, form numerous compounds, termed the immediate principles of animal structures, of which in the mammalia there are about 90. Of these, some are of mineral origin, as water, common salt, and phosphate and carbonate of lime. Some are formed within the bodies of animals bv disassimilation, as urea, uric acid, and crea- j and goat, 5 months ; foxes and wolves, o tine; and others still are obtained from vege- : months ; Greenland whale, about 10 months. table and animal food for the nutrition of the tissues, as albumen, caseine, musculine, and fat, and hence exist as constituent elements in the latter. These immediate principles unite to form the tissues of which the parts and or- Obviously there must be a correspondence of the structure of an animal to its habits and functions. For example, a carnivorous animal must have great strength and powers of loco motion, enabling it to overtake, seize, and de- 512 ANIMAL stroy its victim. It must therefore have largely developed muscles and strong bones, and the teeth and jawbones must be es pecially strong, and the former of a peculiar form for tearing animal tissues. Such an animal must also have an acute sense of smell and of hearing, and a corresponding structure of the or gans of these two senses. It is therefore not wonderful that Cuvier could construct an entire animal from having a few of its bones given, and that Agassiz has deduced the form and struc ture of a fossil fish from its scales alone. What is nourishment to one animal may prove to be poison to another. Pallas states that hedge hogs eat abundantly of cantharides without in convenience. The sphinx of a species of cater pillar feeds on the acrid and poisonous juice of the milk thistle (tythimalis), and a certain worm on the leaves of the tobacco plant. Bees feed on and obtain honey from the se cretions of many poisonous plants ; and a kind of buzzard devours the nux vomica. Most animals, however, confine themselves within certain definite limits so far as the sources of their nourishment are concerned. Even the hog, which is usually spoken of as omnivorous, may be mentioned in illustration. It has been found that the ox eats 270 and rejects 218 plants; the sheep, 387 and 141 ; the goat, 449 and 120 ; the horse, 202 and 212 ; while the hog eats but 72 and refuses 171. This animal, there fore, except in cases of necessity, evinces even a superior discrimination in the selection of its food. Some animals never drink at all, drink not being required if the food contain a large amount of water, as is the case with the suc culent plants. The gemsbok and the eland, two species of antelope, are thus adapted to the sandy deserts they inhabit. The amount of food required by animals depends upon its quality and their activity. A far less bulk of animal than vegetable food is required; and the greater the activity, the greater is the waste of the tissues, and the more nourishment is needed to repair them. The intervals of fast ing are therefore determined mainly by this circumstance. While birds are eating most of the time when not asleep, reptiles pass months in succession without food, in the mean time being in a dormant state. And those of the mammalia which hibernate (as the dormouse, hedgehog, marmot, &c.) also pass the entire winter with little or no food. The sloth also has been known to suspend itself on a pole for 40 days without taking food. But irregularity of supply of food must also be taken into ac count. The griffin vulture will retain its vigor for five or six weeks without food; but when opportunity recurs it does not leave its repast for days, or so long as a morsel of flesh remains, so completely gorging itself that it is incapable of rising on the wing till it has ejected the con tents of its crop. A total privation of food is longest endured without fatal consequences by animals manifesting the lowest vital energy. Fourteen persons, male and female, survived starvation on being shipwrecked for 23 days. An eagle lived 28 days, and several dogs 3(5 days without food. On the other hand, land tortoises have been kept alive 18 months and serpents for five years without food. The re- j quirements of different animals in regard to I their food will determine the limits on the globe within which each species will thrive ; | and this, together with the temperature re- I quired by each, is the principal agency deter- | mining the geographical distribution of the ! various species of the animal kingdom. The | greatest amount of strength and endurance is I possessed by the warm-blooded animals ; birds I being the strongest of all animals in proportion I to their size, except certain insects. The lion I is capable of bearing off large animals, and has been known to leap over a broad ditch with a ; heifer in his mouth, and to break the back of a | horse with a single stroke of his paw. The grisly bear, weighing 800 Ibs., can drag the carcass of a buffalo weighing 1,000 Ibs. to a I considerable distance. The camel sometimes ! carries a weight of 1,000 Ibs. 30 miles a day, and judges so accurately of its powers that, I being accustomed to lie down while loaded, it i refuses to rise till a part has been taken off, if too heavy a burden is imposed. The horse ia j about six times as strong as a man, his power | being estimated at 420 Ibs. at a dead pull. lie j cannot, however, carry more than three times | as much weight up a steep hill. A Canadian i shrew mole, whose body was but four inches j long, being let loose in a room, passed between i the legs of some heavy chairs and the wall with | which they were in contact, throwing them | aside without much apparent effort, and at last j hid itself behind a pile of quarto books more i than two feet high, which it also moved from I the wall. This animal also burrows so quickly, | that on being let loose in a yard it almost in stantly disappears beneath the surface of the ground. On the other hand, the sloth is so averse to all effort that, when it has satisfied its appetite upon the fruits of trees, it falls to the ground to save itself the labor of descend ing. As instances of fieetness of animals, the kangaroo, the hare, and the antelope may be | alluded to. The first progresses by a rapid se- | ries of leaps, frequently of 20 feet, its own | body being from 5 to feet in length. The i hare sometimes passes over 25 feet at a single bound. The springbok bounds to the height of 10 to 12 feet, clearing at each leap from i 12 to 15 feet without any apparent exertion. Even the sheep in its wild state runs and leaps with great agility. The movements of the dol- : phin are also very rapid, and it leaps so high : out of the water as sometimes to throw itself ! upon a ship s deck. The ostrich will at the outset outstrip the fleetest horse. The nandu (allied to the ostrich) is equally fleet, and when caught kicks so violently as to break even stones. The carrier pigeon flies 25 to 30 miles an hour. The dragoon pigeon has flown I from Bury to London, 72 miles, in 2 hours. AXIMAL ANIMALCULES 513 rp.illanzani states that two swallows Hew iroin Milan to Pa via, 18 mik-s, in 13 min utes. The precision and rapidity of muscu lar action of some animals is also remark able. The elephant can pick up a pin with its huge trunk. The chamois goat leaps with the greatest precision from point to point on the mountain rocks, alighting on surfaces scarcely large enough for its feet to rest upon. A bird called the wryneck, having a long tongue like the woodpecker, darts forth and retracts this organ with such rapidity that the eye is unable to follow it. The frog also catches flics by move ments scarcely less rapid. Xo animal possesses more than five senses, and some are probably j endowed with not more than one, the sense of j touch. But we find each sense manifested in the animal scale, in all grades of perfection. Of in telligence, also, we find great varieties in birds ! and mammalia, while below the former we hard- j ly find any higher attributes than mere instinct, i This, indeed, predominates in most birds, and in | the mammalia often assumes the appearance ! of cunning, artifice, or sagacity. The Egyptian j ichneumon, being fond of poultry, feigns it- ! self dead till the birds coine within its reach, j when it springs upon and strangles them, usu- j ally contenting itself with sucking their blood. There is a species of musk which also feigns death when caught in the noose set for it, but escapes the moment it is untied. The Europe an cuckoo neither builds a nest for itself nor hatches its own eggs. It deposits a single egg in the nest of the hedge sparrow (and some times of the wagtail or the titlark), while the other bird is laying her eggs. This addition to her charge disturbs her arrangements, and during incubation she throws out her own | eggs, or so disturbs as to addle them, to make j room for the cuckoo s ; but, according to Dr. j Jenner s observations, she never displaces the j latter. When some of her own eggs and that I of the cuckoo are hatched, the young cuckoo j manages to throw out the young sparrows and | the remaining eggs, and thus gets the whole j nest to itself. The ostrich surrounds her nest j with a trench, in which she deposits some of ! her eggs as the first food of the young ones to j be hatched from the eggs in the nest. To an | animal capable of being educated, though to a | slight extent, we cannot deny the possession of j intelligence ; and judged by this criterion, most i of the mammals and some birds must be re- j garded as possessing this attribute. The adap- i tation of means to ends, in entirely new cir- | cumstances, must also generally be attributed I to it rather than to mere instinct. Swallows club together to repel a common enemy, many closing round a hawk. A martin being caught \ in a noose of packthread, fastened at the other ; end to a gutter, all the martins in the vicinity i were attracted by its cries, and, striking the i thread with their bills, succeeded in setting I him at liberty. The superior intelligence of the elephant is often asserted ; but this animal j i.s really less intelligent than the dog, and about I VOL. i. 33 equal in this respect to the horse. As tested by educability, as well as by acquired taste*, the quadrumana are far the most intelligent of the lower animals. Carnivorous animals are mostly solitary in their habits, while many of the herbivorous are socially inclined and gre garious. This is the case with the llama and the horse in the wild state. Camelopards herd together usually in companies of l(i. Ante lopes are found in herds of 2,000 or 3,000, or in small parties of only five or six individuals. The males also of antelopes and deer frequently consort together, independently of the females. On the other hand, the conjugal attachment of the stellerine (allied to the dugoiig) is so great that if the female be taken, the male will dash on shore to her in spite of blows, with the swiftness of an arrow. Some animals are do cile and yielding, others obstinate. The mule is proverbial for the last attribute, but the llama is still more remarkable in this respect. Some animals are grave or morose, while others are playful, and even have their peculiar amuse ments. The mocking-bird amuses itself in frightening other small birds by imitating the screams of the sparrow hawk. The particular classes and orders of animals will be described under the appropriate heads; the four classes of the vertebrata forming the articles AMPHI BIA, HERPETOLOGY, ICHTHYOLOGY, MAMMALIA, and ORNITHOLOGY ; while the in vertebrata will be found described under the heads ANIMAL CULES, ARACHNIDA, ARTICULATA, CRUSTACEA, ECHINODEKMA, ENTOMOLOGY, ExTOZOA, EPIZOA, MOLLTJSCA, PROTOZOA, and RADIATA. ANIMALCULES, a name familiarly applied to the more minute forms of animal life, for the knowledge of which we are mainly indebted to the microscope. Leeuwenhoeck led the way in this as in most other branches of microscop ic study ; but it is to Gleichen that we are in debted for the first attempt at the systematic study of the subject. He was followed by the Danish microscopist O. F. Muller, who made the first regular classification of animal cules. Subsequent observation has detected many errors in the classification of Muller, and it has now little other than a historic in terest. It is to Ehrenberg that we are indebted, directly or indirectly, for almost all our knowl edge of these forms. Since the appearance of his work. Die InfmiomtMerchcn* the study of minute animal forms has been ably pursued by Dujardin in France, Siebold, Kolliker. and others in Germany, Owen in England, and Bai ley in the United States. The earlier observ ers grouped together, under the term animal cules, a vast variety of living beings having nothing in common except their minuteness of size. Plants and animals, mollusks, crus taceans, insects and worms, larva) and per fect forms, all were aggregated together under the vague term animalcules. The labors of modern scientific men have been in great part, exhausted in the distribution of this mass of animal and vegetable life a-n ion y; tho various - ANIMALCULES classes, families, and orders to which its heter ogeneous materials properly belong, and the formation of a class to which the name infuso ria, first proposed by M tiller, is now generally applied. To this class we shall confine our selves, and shall generally use the term infuso ria, not that it is absolutely accurate, for though the greater number of these animals are devel oped in infusions, yet this rule is not without some striking exceptions. If a drop of water in which animal or vegetable matter is decay ing be placed upon the object-holder of a microscope of adequate magnifying power, say 200 diameters, it will be found to swarm with living beings in active and incessant motion. They vary in size from -^ of an inch, when they are just within the limit of unassisted vis ion, to a minuteness which it tasks the power of the glass to detect. These are infusoria; they abound in every ditch, pond, lake, or riv er, are equally numerous in salt as in fresh water, have been found in thermal springs of high temperature, and in the melted snow of the Alps and the Andes; in short, wherever water and decaying vegetable or animal matter exist, these infusorial animals will be found in vast numbers. There is no doubt that they are often drawn np into the atmosphere in watery vapor, and borne to and fro by the winds. Many forms are not deprived of life by complete desiccation, and may therefore be mingled with the dust, and in this condition carried about by the winds, to resume their active vi tality so soon as they chance to fall into water. The suddenness w T ith which they appear in wa ter, even distilled water, when exposed to the air, furnished the advocates of spontaneous gen eration with one of their strongest arguments. Infusorial animalcules have neither vessels nor nerves, and are made up of a uniform tis sue, called by Dujardin sarcode, and by Huxley protoplasm. This is in some classes of nearly uniform consistence; in others the external layer possesses considerably more density than the internal, while in yet others a distinct pel licle or skin can be made out. They have no true feet; a few of the very lowest type have the power of protruding portions of their homo geneous structure in the form of limbs, which they use both for the prehension of their food and for locomotion. In the higher forms the locomotion is by cilia, or very minute hairs. This motion is probably automatic, as it is con stant day and night, the animal never sleeping, nor appearing to take rest. Yet it certainly has in some cases many of the characteristics of spontaneity, the animal in his rapid course seeming to avoid obstacles; but the subject of the character of the locomotion of these animals is very obscure. Some of these higher forms have a shell or outer coat, called carapace or lorica; these are spoken of as loricated. We have already intimated that the systematic classification of the infusoria has been a mat ter of great difficulty. That of Ehrenberg, to which we shall in the main conform, though possessing great merit, has also very great, defects. He includes among his infusorial an imals very many large and important families which are now known to belong to the vegeta ble kingdom. His desmidiece are now very generally, we might almost say universally, admitted to be (tl(j<p ; and his diatomacece are now also placed in the vegetable kingdom. The classification of Pujardin, though it has some great advantages over that of Ehrenberg, is deformed by a multitude of new terms, or. what is worse, old terms to which he affixes new significations. The two great obstacles which at present forbid even the hope of success in any attempt at systematic classification of infusoria are: 1, the great difficulty of distinguishing the lower forms of animal from the correspond ing forms of vegetable life ; 2, that of deciding whether a given form is permanent, or whether we have to do with the larva) of an insect, or some one of those forms which crustaceans, polyps, and other of the lower animals assume in the progress of their alternations of genera tion. A motion apparently spontaneous was formerly supposed to decide the question in favor of an animal nature: but Vaucher of Geneva (1700) proved that a motion not to be distinguished from the spontaneous movements of animals is common in the spores of the simpler aquatic plants, and is indeed nature s provision for their dispersion. That animals absorb oxygen and give out carbon, while plants give out oxygen and absorb carbon, affords in the opinion of many naturalists the desired test. But although this is a very gen eral, it is not found to be a uniform law. A third distinctive mark, and probably the most, useful, is found in the character of their nutri tive material plants being nourished by inor ganic, animals by organic food. There are some exceptions to this rule also, but they are not numerous, nor do they greatly detract from its practical value. Agassiz has satisfied him self that very many of Ehrenberg s genera are germs of aquatic worms, and he suggests that this is probably the true nature of all the infu soria. Should this idea prove well founded, the most essential changes will of course be necessary in the arrangement of the infusoria if, indeed, it is not found necessary to break up this class altogether, and distribute the in dividuals of which it is composed throughout the lower divisions of the animal scale. But. meanwhile we shall adopt the classification of Ehrenberg, eliminating from it those families on whose vegetable nature the great mass of naturalists are agreed. Ehrenberg divides the infusoria into potygastriea and rotatoria. The characteristic of the former is the appearance of certain internal cavities, which he supposed to be dilated portions of the alimentary canal, or stomachs ; hence their name polygastric, or many-stomached. The rotifera, the so-called wheel animalcules, are distinguished by a pecu liar arrangement of cilia upon lobes near the mouth, which, when in a state of active vibra- ANIMALCULES tion, give to the lobes the appearance of wheels in rapid motion. These so-called wheel ani malcules are, however, so widely diflerent in their plan of structure, and so much higher in their degree of organization than the polygas trica, that naturalists have very generally sep arated them from the infusoria, and have placed them among the eutromostracan crustaceans. We shall, however, treat of both in the present article. I. POLYGASTRIC INFUSORIA. It is un fortunate that the name polygastric, or many- stomached, is taken from a supposed peculiarity of the animal, the existence of which in any of the class has been rendered by later researches more than doubtful, and the absence of which in some families is admitted by Ehrenberg himself. By retaining this name, we commit two verbal inconsistencies : 1, in calling ani mals many-stomached which have probably no stomach at all ; and 2, we form a subdivision of these polygastrica, the characteristic of which is the absence of any digestive tube. Following Ehrenberg, then, we base the first great division of the polygastric infusoria on the presence or absence of an alimentary canal. Those in which it does not exist he calls anentera ; those in which it does, entero- dela. Of the anentera, some have the power of protruding a portion of their homogeneous bodies as a foot-like process; and of these some have a shell, or, in scientific phrase, are loricated, others are non-loricated. The former are called arcellina, the later amabce-. Of the remainder, some are furnished with cilia, others are not. To the former the term dinobryina is applied when they are loricated, and astasiwa when they are not. The non-ciliated, in like manner, are called peridina when loricated, and cyclidina when naked. The cnterodela, or polygastrica having a digestive canal, are di vided in the same way into two parallel series, as they have or have not a lorica or shell. First in this parallel series are placed those where the orifice of the digestive tube is single; these are wrticellina and ophrydina. Next come those with two orifices at opposite ends of the body; these are enchelia and colepina. Next are those where the two orifices are irregularly placed, the aspiditcina having no shell, the trachelina and ophryocercina each having a shell ; the former having a proboscis but no tail, the latter a tail and mouth anterior. Lastly, those having two ventral orifices : the euplota, where the shell is present, and the kolpoda and oxy trichina, the former moving by cilia, the latter by other organs, neither having a shell. A diagram will perhaps make this classification more intelligible : POLYGASTEIC ANIMALS. ANENTERA, hacing no digestive tube. Loricated. Non-loncated. A. Protruding prxrt of the ) . body like f^et ne [ARCELLIXA. AM<EB*. B. Having cilia. DINOBRYINA. ASTASIJSA. C. Non-ciliated. PEHIDINA. CYCLIDINA. ENTERODELA, ha ring a digestive tube. A. One orifice to the di gestive tube. B. Two orifices at oppo site ends of the body. C. Two orifices irregular ly placed. VORTIOELLINA. OPITRTDIXA. ENTHET.IA. COLEPINA. TRAOIIELTNA, a ) proboscis but no ^ASPIDISCINA. tail. terior mouth. ( OXYTRICHINA, D. Two ventral orifices. ECPLOTA. < moving by oth- ( er organs" As to structure, we have already stated that neither nerves nor vessels have been discovered j in infusoria ; indeed, in the very lowest class, the j amoeba and arcellina, which are by Dujardin I called rhizopoda, and by other writers pseudo- poda, we find life manifesting itself almost without organization. The amwba is a jelly-like mass, without determinate shape, in texture nearly uniform, having no integument ; in fact, only differing from a mass of jelly in being slightly more fluid in the centre than at the circumference, and having at some point near its surface a vesicle, perhaps only a vacuole, which pulsates pretty regularly. When this creature is about to move, a current of the more fluid central portion is seen tending to ward some one point of the circumference ; soon a portion of the mass protrudes, it elongates till perhaps double the length of the animal, the mass of whose body then seems to pass into the protruded and elongated portion, and thus locomotion is effected. The mode of taking food is thus described by Kolliker, who studied it in the actinophrys, a genus closely allied to the amoeba, and like it made up of a mass of jelly, portions of which, scarcely differing from the general mass in structure, are protruded in the form of rays : " The modo in which the actinophrys is nourished is one of the highest and most special interest. Al though the creature has neither mouth nor stomach, yet it takes in solid nutriment, and re jects what is indigestible. This miracle, for ?o it may almost be called, is thus effected : When in its progress through the Avater the actino phrys approaches any small plant or animal a minute crustacean, rotifera, the young of cy- clops, or the lower alga diatomacece for in- stance as soon as the mass is touched by one j of the rays of the actinophrys, it seems to ad- | here to it; the ray now slowly shortens itself, and draws its prey to the surface of its own | body ; the surrounding filaments attach thcm- selves to it, bending their points together, and ! closing over it till it is enclosed on all sides. Gradually a cup-like cavity is formed in the j body of the actinophrys, at the base of the j ray, and into this the prey is crowded, till, the j cavity still growing deeper, the whole mass i comes to be imbedded in the very substance of i the animal, which gradually closes around and I over it, and thus the mass comes to be con- i tained in a cavity or stomach formed for its j reception. Here it is digested, and its nutri- ! tive portions absorbed; and when this is ac- 510 ANIMALCULES complished, the undigested portion, if any such remain, is protruded toward the surface, and finally emerges from the body of the animal as it might from a mass of jelly ; the opening by which it escaped closes behind it, and the ani mal resumes its pristine form and condition." Of the mode of reproduction in these animals, we only know they multiply by self-division, and that when portions of the mass are cut or torn away, these maintain an independent ex istence, and soon acquire the shape and func tions of mature animals. Of their proper sexual reproduction we know nothing, al though all analogy leads us to suppose that this multiplication by division, whether spon taneous or artificial, must have its limit, and a proper sexual reproduction by germ and sperm cells be interposed. Ascending in the scale, we come to those polygastric infusoria which have a proper digestive canal the en- terodela of Ehrenberg. Though the existence of an alimentary canal is made the characteristic of this group, its presence in any of the genera is by no means certain. All have beyond con troversy a mouth into which food is taken, and many have an anal orifice from which excre ment is discharged ; but whether there is any canal with definite walls through which the food passes, as in the higher animals, is doubted by many naturalists, and denied by not a few. Ehrenberg indeed traced the course of the ca nal passing very nearly straight in the length of the animal s body in some genera, convoluted in others, and in a third class winding in a spi ral around the inner surface of the body, with llask-like appendices communicating with its cavity, and making up the great mass of the body. But the disciples of Ehrenberg, work ing with the best modern improved micro scopes, have not been able to satisfy themselves of the existence of this so-called digestive tube. A mouth and a short, generally ciliated oesoph agus, these animals certainly have; but the existence of an alimentary canal, beyond this short gullet, is very doubtful. The infusoria of this class differ from the amcebcc and other rhizopoda, in that they have a true investing membrane or skin, which in some families can be detached as an independent membrane ; and from the internal surface of this membrane partitions are sent off, which divide the general cavity of the body into separate chambers. In these the jelly-like tissue of the animal, the Barcode of Dujardin, is lodged ; and into these chambers the food, when it has escaped from the oesophagus, is received ; it passes from one to the other till it has made the circuit of the body, not, however, with much regularity, and is in its course digested ; and all of its aliment ary substance being absorbed, the residue is ejected either by the mouth or by an anal ori fice. Tims is the function of digestion per formed in the cnterodela. It was stated in the definition of the infusoria, that they have no nerves or blood vessels. Nervous matter has certainly never been detected in any of the class ; and although Ehrenberg supposed that two colored (generally red) spots, which are found pretty constantly near the anterior part of the body, are eyes, yet, as he was equally confident of the existence and nature of these spots in some forms which undoubtedly belong to the vegetable kingdom, it is probable that he was in error as to these. In most poly- gastric infusoria, small vessels which appear to contain a clear, nearly colorless fluid, are found, which enlarge when full, and when empty con tract so as to be scarcely visible. Their num ber varies from a single one to ten or twelve; they usually occupy the same place in individ uals of the same species, and their contents seem sometimes to be propelled from one to the other. They are probably receptacles of nutrient fluid stored up for the use of the sys tem. Another remarkable peculiarity of the infusoria is, that in the very substance of their bodies may generally be found a solid granular- looking mass of very variable form round, oval, curved, or even in some cases branched by some called the nucleus. By Ehrenberg it was said to beatestis; and although this opin ion has found little favor with the more recent observers, yet that this peculiar mass has a very important connection with the reproductive function cannot be denied. When the infusoria are about to multiply by self-division, the sep aration always begins in the nucleus. May not this be a mass of germ cells, such as we see in those insects which, after one sexual connec tion, continue throughout a succession of gen erations to bring forth young, till the mass of germ cells is exhausted, and a second sexual act is necessary to continue the multiplication of the species ? In none of the infusoria has any muscular or contractile tissue been found, though the very lowest form, the amoeba, possess the function in an eminent degree. Here, as ever in the animal scale, function pre cedes organization ; and the function of muscu lar contractility is manifested while there is as yet no appearance of muscular tissue. The stalk of the xorticella forms a notable illustra tion of this rule, as it possesses contractility in a remarkable degree, yet no muscular tissue is to be found in it. Reproduction is effected in different ways in the different forms ; the mode which has been best studied is that by sponta neous self-division. This is sometimes longitu dinal, sometimes transverse. As before stated, it begins in the nucleus, and this body is often completely divided while the line of future sep aration has scarcely begun to appear on the surface of the animal. These subdivisions are completed in so short a time, that Ehrenberg has calculated that no fewer than 208,000,000 may be produced in the space of one month from a single individual. Another mode in which new individuals are formed is by what is called conjugation. Two individuals attach themselves together, till at length their entire bodies coalesce and form one, in the interior of which a new individual is formed, and in pro-* ANIMALCULES 517 cess of time discharged from the parent body, either by splitting or through some orifice. Yet another mode of reproduction has been observed by Stein and other microscopists. It has been called the encysting process; and although it has been studied in relation to but few forms, yet the facts already established render it very probable that many, if not indeed all the in fusoria multiply by this or some closely allied process. An infusory animal about to become encysted secretes from the surface of its body a thick glutinous substance, which, gradually hardening, forms a firm case- in which the ani mal is shut up, but not so closely as to prevent tolerably free motion. A change now takes place in the animal itself; the cilia upon its surface are retracted, and the body assumes a pretty regular circular outline: then either the whole body, or the nucleus only, breaks up into many small fragments, each of which assumes an in dependent life, and moves freely in the parent organism; this mother-cell now bursts and is disintegrated, while the young brood swim forth either in the form of the parent, or in some transition shape, from which, through one or more changes, they pass into the permanent type identical with the parent organization. II. ROTIFEEA OR WHEEL ANIMALCULES. These have little in common with the order of infuso ria of which we have spoken, being both more highly organized and formed on a different plan. Even in respect to size they differ, being gene rally much larger, some having a length of half a line, and many being within the limit of un assisted vision. By many naturalists they are classed with the articulated animals, under the term of cilio-articulates. Their name, as we have already stated, is derived from a particu lar and very curious arrangement of the cilia covering two lobes near the anterior extrem ity, which when in motion have exactly the appearance of two minute wheels rotating very rapidly. But this, though a striking peculiar ity of many rotifers, is not common to them all. In some the cilia about the head are ar ranged in a wavy line. The rotifera may be defined as minute worm-like animals, very transparent, without legs, having the anterior portion of the body furnished with certain re tractile lobes, the margins of which are covered with cilia, the alimentary canal distinct and having two orifices, the mouth having a true dental apparatus, the reproduction by ova only. They are aquatic, though a few species can ex ist in moist earth. They are found alike in salt and fresh water, but rarely in that which is rendered foul by decaying vegetable and animal matter, and which swarms with the polygastric animalcules. It is only when these have devoured the decaying matter that the rotifer appears to feed upon them. Rotifera have great tenacity of life, and are not de stroyed by complete and long-continued desic cation. Individuals have been kept in vacuo with sulphuric acid and chloride of lime, in suring the utmost possible amount of dryness, for a month, and yet revived on being placed in water. The rotifera have always two in vesting membranes, both transparent, and the inner always flexible; the outer is in many quite firm, constituting a horn-like tube, from which the head and tail of the animal pro trude. It never contains either lime or silica, which is probably the reason why no traces of these animal forms are found in any fossilif- erous rocks. Their bodies are retractile, and many creep like worms. They swim by means of their cilia very rapidly. Near the tail is, in most forms, either a dirk-like or claw-like pro cess, by which the animal can attach itself. The gullet is furnished at its inferior portion with a masticating apparatus consisting of two strong semicircular jaws, each furnished with from one to five teeth, which appear to contain mineral matter. The stomach is either globu lar or tubular, and scarcely distinguishable from the intestine below. Near the anus the intestine is enlarged into a sort of cloaca with which the genital apparatus communicates. Several small glandiform bodies are observed near the alimentary canal, and some undoubt edly communicate with its cavity. It is a curi ous fact that, though the digestive apparatus is in most of these animals much more fully developed than any other, yet in one genus described by Mr. Dalrymple (" Philosophical Transactions," 1849, p. 339), no anal orifice was found, and indeed scarcely any intestinal canal ; so that the excrementitious food must have been ejected from the inouth, as in some of the very low polygastric forms. We now come to locomotion. Several distinct longitu dinal bands of a highly contractile tissue pass the entire length of the animal, and certain transverse bands have probably the same power. It is, however, very doubtful whether any true muscular tissue, with the characteristics by which we identify it in the higher animals, exists in these animalcules. The same remark applies to the nervous system. The function is certainly performed ; but whether the cords and masses which Ehrenberg describes as nerves and ganglia really have that character, is at least uncertain. Two red spots near the head are supposed on pretty strong evidence to be eyes, or at least rudimentary forms of the or gan of vision. There is no proper circulatory apparatus, but water is very freely admitted into the body, and probably serves to aerate, the tissues. It is kept in motion by cilia lining the tubes into which it is received. Reproduc tion. All that is certainly known upon this subject is that the rotifera multiply by true ova, and never by gemming, budding, or spontaneous : splitting, like the polygastrica. Until recently i they were generally supposed to be hermaph- I rodite, but some late observers believe them i to be unisexual. Ovaries are made out with- ! out difficulty, and in the vast majority of indi- ! viduals ; but spermatozoa have been found in ! only a very few, perhaps only one species. If i males exist as a separate sex, they are probably 518 ANIMAL ELECTRICITY only developed at one period of the year, and their term of existence is very short. This is rendered probable by a very curious observa tion made by Mr. Dalrymple. lie found in one genus male individuals, that possessed neither mandibles, nor alimentary canal, nor glands. The only apparatus that was fully de veloped was the generative. The animal was in fact a mere male genital system, endowed with power of independent existence, though that existence must have been of very short duration. The transparency of the tissues en ables us to trace very satisfactorily the forma tion and progress of the ova. Their growth is very rapid, and they are in some genera ex truded from the ovary two or three hours after their germ is first detected, and hatch in less than half a day. In other families the eggs remain in the ovary or cloaca, and are there hatched, the young being born alive. From the transparency of all the tissues, it is often possible to trace the form, and to a certain extent make out the details of the structure of the young animal while it is yet in the body of the parent. ANIMAL ELECTRICITY, electricity produced in the bodies of animals. Of this electricity there are two kinds, the dynamical or galvanic and the statical. I. The production of dynamic elec tricity. Few discoveries in science have more importance than the almost accidental obser vation made by Luigi Galvani in 1786. After having examined the influence of the shock produced by a spark of the electrical machine on a frog s leg, Galvani observed a new and very curious phenomenon. He had skinned a frog, taking away its two legs with a part of the spine, and attached the whole to a copper hook which he had hung upon an iron railing near his laboratory. He stood watching to see if the electricity of the atmosphere would produce upon these legs the same effect as an electrical machine. After some time, having observed no sign of electrical influence, he decided to remove the frog s limbs, and while doing so he perceived the very muscular con traction which he had been vainly expecting to see produced by atmospheric electricity. He soon discovered the condition of this con traction, which was the contact of the moist limbs of the frog with the iron rail. Having substituted for the copper hook and iron rail a metallic arc composed of pieces of these two metals, he found that he could produce the con traction at will. For the production of sud den muscular contraction and of a movement of the limb, it was only necessary to place one end of the arc in contact with a nerve or with the spinal canal, from which the nerves emerge, and with the other end one of the muscles of the leg. Galvani first published these ex periments in 1791, in his celebrated work, Ds Viribus Electricitatis in Motu Muscular i Commentarim. According to the theory pro posed in this work, the muscles chiefly contain the animal electricity which manifested itself in the above experiments, and which he thought was supplied by the nerves and the blood. When the discoveries of Galvani be came known, the whole civilized world was seized with admiration, and the curiosity to witness his experiments became universal. Du Bois-Reymond says : " Wherever frogs were to be found, and where two different kinds of metal could be procured, everybody was anx ious to see the mangled limbs of frogs brought to life in this wonderful way. The physiologists believed that at length they should realize their visions of a vital power. The physicians, whom Galvani had somewhat thoughtlessly led on with attempts to explain all kinds of nervous diseases, as sciatica, tetanus, and epi lepsy, began to believe that no cure was impos sible." Volta soon opposed the views of Gal vani, and maintained that the pretended animal electricity was nothing but the electricity de veloped by the contact of two different metals. Galvani replied that with one metal only the muscular contraction was produced, although very feebly. Volta answered that the metals employed were not pure, and that as they had no homogeneity they acted like two metals. He showed that even the least physical altera tion of a part of an arc of one metal was suf ficient to make it act as if it were composed of two metals. Galvani, however, succeeded in producing contractions without the inter vention of any metal whatever, by merely applying the nerve of a leg on the muscles or establishing a communication between the muscles and the nerve by a piece of moist animal tissue. Alexander von Ilumboldt took sides with Galvani against Volta. In employ ing very irritable frogs he found that there were strong muscular contractions in the fol lowing circumstances : 1, when the leg of a frog was bent back against the ischiatic nerve, both parts being still originally connected; 2, when the crural nerve and its muscles were connected by a fragment cut from the same nerve ; 3, when a connection was established between two parts of the same nerve by means of some animal tissue. In 1798 Gal vani died, and the next year Volta discovered the pile; and, as it has been said, he then earned the right of exclaiming, with triumph ant scorn, "I don t need your frog; give me two metals and a moist rag, and I will pro duce your animal electricity. Your frog is nothing but a moist conductor, and in this respect it is inferior to my wet rag." For nearly 30 years the suj porters of the theory of animal electricity were silenced by the great discovery of Volta. In 1825 Nobili, having rendered extremely sensitive the galvanometer (instrument for the measuring of galvanic cur rents), thought that the current which produces muscular contractions in the frog s legs might be detected by his instrument. lie failed in his first attempt, the contractions taking place while the needle of his instrument stood still ; but after having improved the instrument Le ANIMAL ELECTRICITY 519 succeeded in obtaining a notable deflection of . the needle. Unfortunately for the progress of science, Nobili admitted tliat the cur- | rent formed in muscles was due to a differ ence of temperature between the nerves and the muscles. Nevertheless, he left to his suc cessors some facts of great importance, the most interesting of which is that when the legs of several frogs are disposed in such a way that the nerves of one touch the muscles of an other, this kind of pile increases in power with the number of legs. To Prof. Carlo Matteucci belongs the merit of having positively proved the production of galvanic currents in muscles. His researches, those of Du Bois-Reymond,, of Donne, of Baxter, of Brown-Sequard, of Eck- ard, and others, have established beyond doubt that a production of electricity is constantly going on in all the tissues of the living animal economy. The following facts, among others, have been well demonstrated: 1. When the electrodes or conductors of a galvanometer are applied one on one surface, and the other on another surface, of the animal body, a current takes place which moves the needle of the in strument. Thus Donne found a current be tween the skin and most of the internal mem branes ; thus Matteucci ascertained that there are different electrical states in the liver and the stomach; and thus also Baxter found a current between the internal surface of an in testinal vein and any part of the mucous mem brane of the bowels. 2. There are electrical currents in muscles and nerves, as we will show hereafter. 3. All the organs of the body yield electrical currents when they have been divided, and when their normal surface and the surface of the section are in communica tion with the electrodes of a galvanometer. No one has been more successful than Du Bois- Reymond in experimenting upon the production of galvanic or electrical currents in the various parts of the body. lie owes his success in a great measure to his galvanometer, which ad- mi rable instrument, made by himself, is so sen sitive that the exceedingly weak current from two parts of the skin, e> r en very near each other, is felt by it. The wire wound upon the frame of this apparatus is 5,584 yards or more than 3 miles long; it forms 24,160 coils around the frame. However, it is not necessary to employ such a powerful instrument to prove the existence of animal electricity, and the or dinary galvanometers may answer the purpose. Before the researches of Du Bois-Reymond it was admitted that there were two kinds of muscular currents, one belonging to divided muscles and the other to undivided muscles. The first had been very well observed by Mat teucci, who ascertained that it is constantly directed from the interior of the muscles to its surface. It exists in the muscles of all the animals which have been examined, and Brown- Sequard has found it in man. As to the other current, that of undivided muscles, it is what Nobili called the proper current of the frog. Du Bois Reymorid found that this current ex ists also in the higher animals, and that its direction varies extremely according to many circumstancey. In the limb of the frog this current is directed from the tendon of the prin cipal muscles to their surface. If in certain animals the current seems to be weak, although it may be in reality strong, it is because in some muscles the tendon is placed at one ex tremity and in others at the other, and that sometimes there are tw r o tendons. The gal vanic current of muscles gradually diminishes after the death of animals, or after the separa tion of the muscles from the living body. Ac cording to the researches of Du Bois-Reymond, and numerous experiments made by Brown- Sequard, the laws regulating the diminution and the disposition of the muscular current are the same as those of muscular irritability. Between these two physiologists, however, there is this difference, that Du Bois-Reymond thinks that the cessation of the current takes place at the time a supposed coagulation of the fibrinous liquid of the muscles occurs, producing the so-called cadaveric rigidity; while Brown-Sequard has shown that there is no such thing as this coagulation where cadaveric rigidity supervenes. The latter physiologist has discovered that the muscular current, after having completely disappeared (cadaveric rigidity being fully established), may be reproduced, together with the mus cular irritability, when an injection of blood charged with oxygen is made into the arteries of a limb. This experiment he has per formed not only on animals, but on the limbs of guillotined men. He found that the more oxygen there is in the blood employed, the quicker the muscular current and irrita bility return. This fact, with many others dis covered by Matteucci and Du Bois-Reymond, shows that the production of the current de pends on the nutrition of the muscles, and par ticularly on the oxidation of their tissues. Prof. Matteucci published many facts to prove that the muscular current is independent of the nervous system; but his experiments are all open to objections. More decisive researches have been made by Brown-Sequard, who has ascertained that in muscles whose nerves have completely and definitively lost their vital prop erties, currents not only exist during life, but may be reproduced by the influence of injec tions of oxygenated blood when they have dis appeared after death. Du Bois-Reymond has established as a law that every point in the natural or artificial longitudinal surface of a muscle is positive in relation to every part of its transverse surface, whether natural or arti ficial ; and as the tendons, which are conduc tors, are in communication with the natural transverse surface, it follows that they are negative as regards this surface. This law sig nifies that the longitudinal surface of a muscle acts like the positive pole of a pile or galvanic battery, while the transverse surface acts like 520 ANIMAL ELECTRICITY the negative pole. According to this impor tant law, when any point of the longitudinal section of a muscle is connected by a conduc tor with any point of the transverse section, an electric current is established, which is di rected in the muscle from the transverse to the longitudinal section. Du Bois-Reyrnond has discovered that the smallest part of a mus cle acts in the same way as the whole of it, except that the strength of the current is less and less powerful as the part is smaller. Each elementary bundle of fibrils in a muscle seems to be like a couple in a galvanic battery, except that the couples represented by these elementary bundles are not able to transmit their current so freely as the couples of a real galvanic battery usually are. Du Bois-Rey- mond has found that the amount of electricity generated in muscles must be excessively great ; but as it is impossible to make an aggregation of all the elementary currents existing in a muscle, we have not a real measure of the quantity of electricity produced in these or gans. We owe to Matteucci the discovery of one of the most important facts concerning animal electricity. He found that when a muscle contracts, if there is a nerve placed npon it leading to another muscle, the latter contracts also. The contraction of this second muscle Matteucci calls induced. To facilitate the understanding of what we have to say on this subject, we will call not only this second ary contraction induced, but also the muscle that exhibits it, and we will call the first contrac tion and the muscle in which it takes place in ducing. Matteucci had a great deal of trouble in trying to explain this induced or secondary contraction ; his latest view was that it re sults from a galvanic discharge from the in ducing muscle on the nerve of the induced one. Du Bois-Reymond, who has carefully examined the circumstances of this fact, explains it other wise, lie supposes that the current of the in ducing muscle passes through the nerve of the induced one, and that when the inducing mus cle is set in contraction, the current dimin ishes, and. as any diminution of a continuous current passing through a nerve is a cause of contraction for the muscle which it animates, it results that the induced muscle contracts. It is known that when a continuous current passes through a nerve there is a contraction in the muscle which it enters in the beginning of the passage and on its cessation, and also when there is any change in its strength. * It is to this last condition that the induced contrac tion is attributed by Du Bois-Reymond, but, if he were right, there should be a contraction in the induced muscle at the time we put its nerve on the inducing one, and also at the time we take it away ; but unfortunately for the theory, there is no contraction in these cases, except in peculiar circumstances. We must therefore consider the theory of the distin guished German physiologist as not sufficiently grounded. Whatever may be the cause of the irritation of the nerve of the induced muscle, it is certain that when the inducing one con tracts this motor nerve is irritated ; the same thing takes place, as Matteucci and Brown-Se- quard observe, when an excitor or a sensitive nerve instead of a motor is placed upon the inducing muscle ; the irritation then causes either a reflex movement or a pain. Brown- Sequard has been led by many experiments to conclude that the irritation of sensitive nerves by the contraction of inducing muscles has a great share in many important physio logical and pathological phenomena. Every one knows that, except when we look at the parts of our body which we move voluntarily, we direct our movements almost entirely ac cording to the sensations that we receive from our contracting muscles. These sensations have been shoAvn by this physiologist to be chiefly due to the induced irrritation of the sensitive nerves at the time the muscles con tract. The muscular sense of Sir Charles Bell, or the guiding sensations of Prof. Carpenter, are thus obtained, and so it is with the measure of the distance of objects when looked at with both eyes ; the state of our ocular muscles* teaches us the distance, and they do it by the irritation they induce in nerves while contract ing. According to Brown-Sequard, the pain of cramps, that of the contractions of the uterus in parturition, that of the spasm of the sphinc ters, &c., depends upon an excessive induced irritation of the sensitive nerves in conse quence of muscular contractions. Among the other proofs adduced by him in support of his view that muscular contractions, normal or pathological, induce irritations in their sensi tive nerve fibres, probably by a galvanic dis charge, and exactly as an inducing muscle irri tates a motor nerve placed upon it, the follow ing are the most important : He has found that it is electrically just the same thing for the intensity of the irritation of the motor nerve lying upon an inducing muscle, and for the intensity of pain in a case of spasm of the sphincter of the anus, and in a case of contrac tion of the anterior muscles of the thigh. In these three circumstances, viz., the experiment with the motor nerve, and the two pathologi cal cases in man, we observe: 1, that there is no irritation or no pain if the inducing muscle has no resistance to overcome when it con tracts (it is so after the section of the muscle or of its tendon) ; 2, that the irritation or the pain increases when the inducing muscle is ex tended. The known facts that the pain due to the spasm of the sphincter of the anus disap pears when it is divided, and that the section of a tendon of a contracted muscle causes the cessation of pain, had not hitherto received any explanation. The researches of Brown- Sequard render now very easy the understand ing of the mode in which these facts are pro duced. With the help of his very sensitive galvanometer, Du Bois-Reymond has been able to prove that the galvanic currents of muscles ANIMAL ELECTRICITY 521 in man rniy be rendered evident during a voluntary movement. If the two electrodes of the galvanometer are in communication, one with one hand and the other with the other hand of a man, and if a voluntary movement is made by one of the arms, there is at once a deviation of the needle of the instrument, indi cating the passage of a galvanic current. Ac cording to the discoverer of this important fact, at the time of the contraction of the mus cles of one arm, the current which existed there, and which was neutralized by a cur rent of equal strength in the other arm, be comes diminished, and therefore the surplus of the other passes out and deflects the needle of the instrument. Du Bois-Reymond has discovered that nerves are, like muscles, able to afford galvanic currents. The principal law concerning these currents is the same as that of the muscular currents. The direction of the galvanic current of the nerves is from their interior to their exterior, just as it is with the muscles. From all his experiments on the electro-motive power of muscles and nerves, the following conclusions may be drawn: 1. The muscles and nerves, including the brain and the spinal cord, are endowed during life with an electro-motive power. 2. This electro motive power acts according to a definite law, which is the same in the nerves and muscles, and may be briefly stated as the law of the antagonism of the longitudinal and transverse section; the longitudinal surface being positive, and the transverse section negative. 3. As the nerves have no natural transverse section, their electro-motive power when they are in a state of rest cannot be made apparent unless tiiey have previously been divided. 4. The muscles, having two natural transverse sec tions, may show their electro-motive power without being divided. However, the electro motive power of the undissected muscles is often more or less concealed by the contrary action of a layer situated on the natural trans verse section, which Du Bois-Reyrnond calls the parelectronomic layer. The contrary elec tro-motive power of this layer may be increased by cooling the animal. 5. Every minute parti cle of the nerves and muscles acts according to the same law as the whole nerve or muscle. 6. The currents which the nerves and muscles produce in circuits of which they form a part, must be considered only as derived portions of incomparably more intense currents circulating in the interior of the nerves and muscles around their ultimate particles. 7. The electro-motive power lasts after death, or, in dissected nerves and muscles, after separation from the body of the animal, as long as the excitability of the nervous and muscular fibres; whether these fibres are permitted to die gradually from the cessation of the conditions necessary to the support of life, or whether they are suddenly deprived of their vital properties, by heat, chemical means, &?. 8. We may add that, according to Brown-Sequard, the electro-mo- j tive power, at least in muscles, after it has | disappeared naturally after death, may be re produced with the other vital properties by the influence of injections of oxygenated blood. 0. In the different contractile tissues the elec- j tro-motive power is always proportioned to the mechanical power of the tissue. 10. Other animal tissues may produce electro-motive ac tion ; but it is neither so strong as the action of the nerves and muscles, nor so regular ; nor does it vanish with the vital properties of the tissues ; nor does it, lastly, undergo those sud den variations of intensity and direction, which maybe thus briefly stated: 11. The galvanic current in muscles when in the act of contrac tion, and in nerves when conveying motion or sensation, undergoes a sudden and great dimi nution of its intensity. (We have said above that there is some reason to doubt the accuracy of this law as regards muscles.) 12. Muscles inactive from the contrary action of the par electronomic layer, when contracting, become active in the opposite direction to that which muscles in a state of rest exhibit. Hence it must be concluded that the electro-motive force of the parelectronomic layer remains con stant in the act of contraction. 13. If any part of a nerve is submitted to the action of a per manent current, the nerve in its whole extent suddenly undergoes a material change in its internal constitution, which disappears on breaking the circuit as suddenly as it came on. 14. The electrical phenomena of motor and sensitive neryes are identical. Both classes of nerves transmit irritation in both directions. We will merely say in addition to these laws, that, in examining who was right between Galvani and Volta, we find that they were both in some points right, and in some others wrong. Galvani was right in saying that there is an animal electricity, and Volta was right in looking at the heterogeneity of metals as a source of electricity ; and had he extended his views to the living tissues, he would have found that there also, as in metals, where there are two heterogenic particles in contact one with the other, a galvanic current is generated. II. The production of static electricity in animals. A constant production of this kind of electri city cannot be doubted ; but animals and men being in free communication with the earth, it is rarely possible to ascertain the presence of this electricity. But when the body of a man is insulated he may affect the electrome ter. If two men are insulated, as it often oc curs that they are charged with different elec tricities, there is when they touch each other a peculiar crackling, and sometimes a spark, announcing the combination of the vitreous and the resinous electricity. In dry weather many persons may hear the sound and see the light resulting from a combination, when they suddenly pull off the articles of dress in contact with their skin. Dr. Schneider men tions a Capuchin friar who, on removing his cowl, used to perceive a number of shining, 522 ANIMAL HEAT crackling sparks passing from his scalp. But it is in the United States that the most interest ing fact concerning the production of static elec tricity has been observed. It was in a lady, who for many months was in an electrical state so different from that of surrounding bodies, that, whenever she was but slightly insulated by a carpet or other non-conducting medium, sparks would pass between her per son and any object she approached; when she was most favorably circumstanced, four sparks per minute would pass from her linger to the brass ball of the stove at the distance of 1 inch. Sometimes the electricity thus devel oped is sufficient to light the gas from an ordi nary burner. From the pain which accompa nied the passage of the sparks, the lady s con dition was a source of much discomfort to Tier. The circumstances which appeared most favor able to the production of electricity were an atmosphere of 80 F., tranquillity of mind, and social enjoyment; while alow temperature and depressing emotions diminished it in a corre sponding degree. The phenomenon was first noticed during the occurrence of an aurora borealis; and though its appearance was sud den, its departure was gradual. Articles of dress had no influence upon its intensity. ANIMAL HEAT, the heat produced iii the in terior of animal bodies by the nutritive changes going on in the blood and the tissues. Living animals, as a general rule, if not invariably, have the power of generating heat within their own bodies. The proof of this is, that in many of them the temperature of the body is habit ually above that of the surrounding atmos phere or water in which they live. Thus the temperature of the porpoise has been found to be 99-5 F., and that of the seal 104. The temperature of the human body, and that of the quadrupeds generally, is about 100 ; while that of many of the birds is 105, 110, or even 111. As this temperature is maintained at or about the same standard, though that of the external atmosphere may be much lower, and as the animal is consequently losing heat in cessantly by radiation and conduction, it is evident that there is a constant supply from an internal source by which the external loss is made good. In man and in all the higher ani mals, namely, birds and mammals, this internal heat is very active; so much so that their higher temperature is easily distinguished both by the touch and the thermometer, and is kept at almost a uniform standard whatever may be the external variations. These are therefore called the warm-blooded animals. In reptiles and fishes, on the other hand, the production of heat is less active ; their temperature is ha bitually lower than our own, so that they feel cool to the touch; and it varies so little from that of the surrounding media that greater care is requisite to distinguish it, even by the thermometer. They are accordingly distin guished as the cold-blooded animals. Animal heat is generated, however, even in these ! species, as is demonstrated by exact observa tion. Thus the temperature of a frog has been found to be 48 \vhen immersed in water at 44-4 ; that of a serpent 88-4, in air at 81 -5 ; that of a tortoise 84, in air at 79-5 ; and that of a fish from 1-7 to 2 -5 above that of the surrounding water. In the invertebrate ani mals, the appreciation of their temperature by the thermometer has been found more difficult, since, on account of their small size, the radiat ing external surface is greater in proportion to the mass of heat-producing tissue within; and the heat thus generated is almost as rap idly dissipated. This difficulty, however, has been overcome in the case of insects by ex perimenting upon a large number collected in a small space. Thus Mr. Newport found that when the temperature of the external atmos phere was 34 5, that of the interior of a hive of bees was 48 5 ; and that if the insects were thrown into a state of active excitement by rapping on the hive, it would rise to 102. The heat thus produced in the interior of the body is not exactly the same in degree in every part. It is generated either in the blood itself or in the substance of the internal organs, or most probably in both. At all events, the blood acquires during its circulation through different organs slightly different degrees of warmth. Thus Claude Bernard has found, by introducing the bulb of a delicate thermometer into the vessels of a living dog, that the tem perature of the blood in the abdominal aorta varied from 99 5 to 105 5 ; in the portal vein, from 100 to 100 ; and in the hepatic vein, from 101 to 100-8. The warmest blood in the body, on the average, was that of the he patic vein, which had passed through two suc cessive capillary circulations, namely, that of the intestines and that of the liver, since leav ing the arterial system. On the other hand, while passing through an organ in which it is exposed to the influence of air and evapora tion, the blood diminishes somewhat in tem perature. Thus, in passing through the lungs it was found to have lost sometimes a little less and sometimes a little more than -J- F. For the same reason, the temperature of the skin is habitually a little lower than that of the internal organs. If the bulb of a thermo meter be taken between the fingers of the closed hand, it will rise only to 90 or 95 ; in the axilla, carefully protected from the air, it will stand at 98 ; while under the tongue, and in contact only with the vascular mucous membrane, it will reach 100. In the external parts of the body, therefore, which are espe cially exposed to the influence of the outer air, the temperature may vary considerably. Espe cially the thinner parts, with a comparatively greater extent of surface, feel this variation in a marked degree, and may thus be affected with a local depression of temperature. On a very cold day the ends of the fingers, the nose, the ears, &c., may be cooled down very con siderably, and in some instances may be even ANIMAL HEAT congealed and destroyed, without affecting sensibly the general system. But if the cold be so intense and long continued as to depress the general temperature of the blood and the internal organs, the system at large begins to feel its effects, and the vital powers yield to its inilueiK-e. A benumbing effect is produced, followed by a difficulty of muscular exertion, a confusion of mind, drowsiness, and insensi bility ; and death takes place long before the body as a whole is actually congealed. Thus the maintenance of the internal temperature at or near the natural standard is a condition necessary to life. Experiments upon the warm blooded animals have shown that in them, as a general rule, death is produced when the tem perature of the blood is reduced to about 80. The vital changes necessary to existence can not go on below this point. On the other hand, the animal temperature may rise above the natural standard. There is no doubt that an increase of heat is produced in the muscular tissue during the contraction of these organs. We have already noticed the rise of tempera ture observed by Mr. Newport in a hive of bees when the insects were excited to activity. Becquerel and Breschet found the temperature of the biceps muscle of a man raised 1 8 3 by active contraction and relaxation continued for several minutes ; and Matteucci observed an increase of 1 in the muscle of a frog separated from the body and artiljcially excited to con traction. It is a matter of common observation that a general sensation of unusual warmth follows any active muscular exertion. Xot only is the temperature of the muscular system itself raised, but the rapidity of the circulation is accelerated, a larger quantity of warm blood is brought to the skin in a given "time, and the sensitive integument thus feels the increased temperature. No doubt it is owing to this fact that active muscular exercise is itself a protec tion against external cold. An unusual degree of heat in the atmosphere also tends indirectly to raise the temperature of the body; for if the internal production of heat be the same, and its external loss by contact with the at mosphere be diminished, of course the actual temperature of the body would rise in conse quence. A provision is made, however, against allowing this increase of temperature, whether from muscular exertion or external heat, to reach too high a point. This provision is the cutaneous perspiration. Anything which raises the bodily heat above the natural stand ard excites the circulation through the skin, and increases the quantity of perpsiration pour ed out upon its surface. This fluid, by its evap oration, uses up or renders latent a portion of the heat, and thus reduces the skin and the blood circulating through it to its natural tem perature. The body therefore can be exposed to a very high external temperature without itself rising above its natural standard, provided the perspiration be free and its evaporation unim peded. If the perspiration be checked, how ever, or if its evaporation be prevented by ex posure to hot water, or hot air loaded with moisture, the temperature of the body rises, and death soon takes place. The experiments of Magendie and others have shown that in the higher animals life is destroyed when the blood generally has become heated 10 or lo above the natural standard. Animals therefore have a natural internal temperature, which is essen tial to the performance of the vital functions, and which cannot be either raised or lowered to any considerable extent without producing death. With regard to the precise mode in which animal heat is generated, and its exact chemical conditions, opinions are not entirely agreed. Many physiologists have entertained and still accept the belief that it is due to an oxidation or combustion of the elements of the blood and tissues by the oxygen absorbed in respiration. The grounds for this doctrine are as follows: 1. The most common and ready method by which heat is generated artificially is the combustion of substances, like wood and coal, which are rich in carbon. The rapid oxi dation of these substances, which requires a free access of air, causes a great development of heat, and at the same time uses up the oxy gen of the atmosphere, and produces as a re sult carbonic acid. The consumption of fuel, the degree of heat produced, and the quantities, of oxygen absorbed and carbonic acid liberated, are all in direct ratio to each other. The pro cess may go on rapidly or slowly ; but in either case the relations of quantity remain the same. If the oxidation be rapid, as in a furnace or open fireplace with a strong draught, the fuel is soon consumed and a large quantity of heat is pro duced in a given time. If the process be re tarded, as in a close stove with a limited or gradual admission of air, the consumption of fuel is slow, an d the heat, less intense at any particular moment, is continued for a propor tionally longer time. But in both instances, for the entire amount of heat which has been gen erated, there are the same quantities of fuel consumed, of oxygen absorbed, and of carbonic acid produced. 2. In the animal body the ab sorption of oxygen and the exhalation of car bonic acid are the most striking and constant of all the phenomena of nutrition. At the same time heat is evolved, as in the case of artificial combustion ; and it is very natural to connect the two sets of phenomena with each other. Furthermore, as in artificial combustion, the elevation of temperature in different animals corresponds very closely with the activity of respiration and the quantity of the two gases inspired and exhaled. These considerations have led to the adoption of the theory, at once intelligible and comprehensive, which attributes the production of animal heat to the direct oxi dation or combustion of the carbonaceous in gredients of the fo-od and tissues. On the other hand, there are certain facts which are less favorable to the above theory. 1. In the first place, though the combustion of carbonaceous 524 ANIMAL HEAT ANIMAL MAGNETISM matter happens to be tlie most familiar and useful of the artificial means for producing heat, it is by no means the only one which will have that effect. A great variety of both physical and chemical changes, other than oxi dation, are attended with an elevation of tem perature, often of a very active kind ; as in the ordinary slaking of lime, where a boiling tem perature may be reached in a few minutes by the simple combination of water with the al kali, which already contains the oxygen it is capable of absorbing. A great variety of chem ical and physical changes are constantly go ing on in the process of nutrition, varying in their character in the different organs; and of their details \ve are in many cases still igno rant. As \ve have seen that animal heat is pro duced as a local phenomenon in the different or gans, it may be the result of these combined changes, which vary in character in different parts of the body. 2. The first absorption of oxygen by the blood, which takes place in the lungs, is not accompanied by any very marked elevation of temperature. This elevation, if it exist at all, is not sufficient to compensate for the cooling effect of the air and exhalation in the pulmonary cavities ; for we have seen that in the living animal the blood has been found by experiment to lose slightly instead of gain ing in temperature while passing through the lungs. The oxygen is here taken up by the red blood globules, and thence distributed to the tissues ; but it is doubtful whether its sub sequent transfer to the ingredients of the tis sues has any more the character of an active combustion than its first absorption by the blood. Some physiologists regard oxygen as a kind of food which must be supplied to the body with great regularity and constancy, and which is destined to become a constituent part of the tissues very much in the same manner as other nutritive elements. 3. The produc tion of carbonic acid in the interior of the body is directly due, not to a combination, but to a decomposition of the ingredients of the tissues. Carbonic acid may be generated at anytime in either of two ways: by the immediate combi nation of oxygen with carbon, as in the com bustion of charcoal ; or by the decomposition of another body still more compound in its na ture, as in the decomposition of carbonate of lime by an acid, or the decomposition of sugar in fermentation. In both these latter cases carbonic acid is evolved without any direct oxidation taking place; and the process will go on accordingly without the access of oxygen or atmospheric air. In the animal body* it is by such a process of decomposition that car bonic acid is produced ; and the proof of this is, that if the fresh muscles of a frog, or the living animal itself, be enclosed in an "atmosphere of hydrogen or nitrogen, or even in a vacuum, they will still for a considerable period continue to exhale carbonic acid. This has been fully shown by the experiments of Marchand. 4. While it id true that the development of animal heat is in proportion to the consumption of oxygen and the exhalation of carbonic acid, this is also true of most if not all the other sub stances consumed and eliminated by the living body. An abundant production of warmth coincides with a general vigor and activity of all the animal functions, with muscular exer tion, capacity of endurance, and a liberal con sumption of both the nitrogenous and non- nitrogenous elements of food. We cannot safe ly attribute the heat-producing power exclusive ly to one or the other class of alimentary sub stances ; for while fat and albuminous matters are both consumed in large quantities in cold climates, on the other hand starchy materials form a considerable proportion of the food in warm weather and in tropical climates. In point of fact, oxygen and carbonic acid are two substances which enter and are discharged from the system by the same organ, the lungs ; but there is not necessarily any direct relation between them, except that oxygen is one of the nutritious substances essential to the body, and carbonic acid is excrementitious. ANIMAL MAGNETISM, or Mesmerism, an influ ence analogous to terrestrial and metallic mag netism, supposed to reside in animal bodies and to be capable of transmission from one to another. It was first brought into notice in Germany in 1775 by Mesmer, a native of Swa- bia, who had graduated in medicine at Vien na nine years beforehand had written as his inaugural thesis a treatise on " The Influence of the Planets on the Human Body." He regarded the new force, which he said could be exerted by one living organism upon another, as a means of alleviating or curing disease. Maximilian Hell, a professor of astronomy at Vienna, had made some suggestions to Mesmer a few years earlier as to the possibility of pro ducing an effect on the human body by mag netism, and he soon claimed to be the discoverer of the new influence. Mesmer declared that the effects he produced were those of animal magnetism, capable of transmission without his touching the body of the patient, while Hell s theory, he affirmed, had made necessary the actual contact of the patient with a metallic magnet. The disputes to which this rivalry gave rise, together with various accusations of imposture, caused Mesmer to receive a warning from the government. He left Vienna, and in 1778 transferred his residence to Paris. Here he appears to have been from the first regarded with dislike, or at least with suspicion, by the medical profession, but with great favor by the general public. lie received at his house pa tients suffering from various diseases, and per formed upon them many reputed cures by the influence of the magnetic fluid. His method was to seat himself in front of the patient, with his eyes steadily fixed upon him, and to per form with the hands a few preliminary manipu lations about the epigastrium and hypochon- drium in order to establish between them what he called the "magnetic relation." He then ANIMAL MAGNETISM proceeded to cperate upon the diseased part by touching it with the right hand on one side and the left "on the other, and performing certain cir cular or vihratory movements with the fingers which were left free ; an essential condition being that actual contact should be kept up on the two opposite sides in order that the mag netic influence might circulate, passing into the body of the patient on one side and out again on the other. His idea with regard to the na ture of the influence termed animal magnetism may be best conveyed in his own words, as contained in a set of so-called u propositions " or " assertions," in a volume published by him in 1779 and entitled Memoire sur la decouverte du magnetisme animate. The most important of these propositions are as follows : 1. " There exists a mutual influence between the celestial bodies, the earth, and animated beings. 1 2. u This reciprocal action is regulated by mechan ical laws which up to the present time have been unknown/ 3. u Animal bodies are susceptible to the influence of this agent; and they are affected by it on account of its disseminating itself through the substance of the nerves." In cases where the body was affected by some disorder which pervaded all parts of the sys tem, Mesmer was in the habit of magnetizing his patients with long and wide passes, made from a distance, either with the open hands or with the aid of a short-rod or wand of glass or steel. His success witl^ the public, however, and the number of patients who presented themselves, increased so rapidly that he could no longer give to each one the personal atten tion rendered necessary by this method of practice, and a new one was adopted which soon became the main feature of the magnetic system, and was in fact the principle from which mesmerism, or animal magnetism as practised by Mesmer, acquired its greatest reputation and popularity. This was the " magnetic tub," about a foot and a half high and six feet in diameter, placed in the centre of a spacious apartment. This tub was filled with water up to a certain level, and its bottom cov ered with a mixture of iron filings and broken glass. Around its outer circumference were ranged a series of bottles with their necks looking inward toward the centre, and around its centre another set of bottles with their necks looking outward. The whole tub was surmounted by a wooden cover pierced with a number of small holes; and through these holes were inserted an equal number of glass or metallic rods bent at right angles, the inner ends of which dipped beneath the surface of the water, while the outer portions radiated horizontally in every direction, and were held in contact with the bodies of the patients, ar ranged in concentric circles round the tub. Thus a large number could be subjected at the same time to the magnetic influence. The tub was a sort of reservoir in which the magnetic force was condensed, and from which it radi ated in continuous currents through the bodies of the patients. Its circulation was secured by means of a long cord, attached by one extrem ity to the tub, and passed in successive loops round the waist of each person, the magnetizer himself forming one link in this continuous chain of living bodies. Thus the magnetism, radiating from the tub by the metallic rods, returned again to it by means of the cord, and so continued its course in a closed circuit with out ever becoming exhausted. The more sus ceptible of the patients soon felt a nervous influence pervading the affected parts, or even their whole bodies. This often became so intensified as to produce irregularity of respira tion, and, especially among the female patients, sobs and laughter of an hysterical nature, ex altation of the sensibilities, partial unconscious ness, and even convulsions and a kind of mani acal delirium. These effects, however, lasted but for a time after the patient was removed from the magnetic circle, and resulted in many cases, according to the assertions of Mesmer and his friends, in the relief or cure of diseases previously regarded as hopeless. The receipts of Mesmer from the patients resorting to his establishment were said at one time to amount to nearly 100,000 francs a year. His system had indeed become so popular that he ventured to address a note to the French government, stating that he had discovered an agent by which most of the diseases of the human frame could be cured, and requesting the grant of a certain chateau and adjoining lands as a reward for his discovery, and as a place for the estab lishment of a great healing institute. The gov ernment refused his request, but offered him a yearly pension of 20,000 livres, and a certain sum for the establishment of a hospital, on condition that he should teach his doctrines to some per sons, of whom three should be selected by the government. This offer he rejected ; and his friends, desirous of giving him some lasting pecuniary reward for his discoveries, propos ed that classes should be formed of pupils whom he should instruct in animal magnetism. Each pupil should pay 100 livres as tuition fee, and bind himself not to teach others. These classes were formed, and they paid him in all 340,000 livres. Among those who sub scribed themselves as pupils were Lafayette, D Espremenil, the marquis de Puysegur, and Dr. D Eslon. D Eslon was a man of much influence, and held the post of physician to the king s brother. He took great interest in ani mal magnetism, used it in his practice, and made a large fortune by its means. In 1784 the French government ordered the medical faculty of Paris to investigate Mesmer s theory, and make a report upon it. Under this order a commission was appointed, consisting of Benja min Franklin (at that time minister to France from the United States), Lavoisier, Bory, Bail- ly, Majault, Sallin, D Arcet, Guillotin, and Le Roy. Mesmer refused to appear before them, but D Eslon took his place, made himself the advocate of the new doctrine, and tried a great ANIMAL MAGNETISM number of experiments before them. In their re- port to the government the commissioners say ; that, "in regard to the existence and the util- j ity of animal magnetism; they have come to the ! unanimous conclusion that there is no proof of | the existence of the animal magnetic fluid ; that | this fluid, having no existence, is consequently without utility; and that the violent effects ; which are to be observed in the public practice j of magnetism are due to the manipulations, to : the excitement of the imagination, and to that sort of mechanical imitation which leads us to repeat anything which produces an impression upon the senses." The special report of the committee of the academy of sciences, con sisting of Franklin, Le Roy, Bory, Lavoisier, arid Bailly, and made to the academy itself, concludes as follows : u Magnetism, accordingly, will not have been altogether valueless for the philosophy which pronounces its condemnation ; it is one more fact to be recorded in the history of the errors of the human mind, and an im portant experiment upon the power of the imagination." (Histoire de Vacademie royale des sciences, 1784, p. 15.) This report of the commission, together with a previous quarrel in regard to money matters between Mesmer and his partisans, seems to have rapidly dimin ished the prosperity and esteem which he had enjoyed in Paris. He left that city in 1785, and passed the rest of his life in retirement in Switzerland, in the possession of considerable wealth acquired from his former magnetic prac tice. About the time of Mesmer s retirement from Paris, animal magnetism entered upon a new phase of development, by the discovery by the marquis de Puysegur of the magnetic sleep, or somnambulism, which afterward be came still further developed by the addition of clairvoyance. It is under this title that the most surprising phenomena of animal magnet ism have been exhibited during the present century. A magnetic clairvoyant is a person who, having been thrown into the somnambu listic condition by the manipulations of the magnetizer, becomes possessed of extraordinary powers of sense and perception. The term clairvoyant designates the power which is claimed for these persons of seeing distinctly through the substance of opaque ol jects. Thus a clairvoyant, it is said, can read a book un opened, or a letter which is enclosed in a solid wooden box. He can do this as well as with his eyes closed or bandaged as if they were open and uncovered. Sometimes the sense of sight, or a faculty capable of perceiving things which the normal man perceives only by means of the organ of vision, seems seated in the fore head, in the backhead, in the fingers, or in the knuckles of the hand. It is asserted that the clairvoyant can hear also without using his ears, and with more aeuteness than can others in the waking state using their ears. Some times the sense of hearing appears to have its seat at the pit of the stomach, and tlie clair voyant hears no sounds except those n.adc at his breast, The senses of taste, touch, and smell are ordinarily inactive. But while insen sible to impressions upon his own nerves, he feels all those which are experienced by his magne tizer ; and if the latter be pinched, the clair voyant winces, as though he felt the pain at the corresponding part of his own body. He is governed by the will of the magnetizer; whatever the latter orders him to do, he does; and this order is understood and obeyed, even if not spoken, but merely thought. As the theory of these alleged phenomena was gradu ally developed, mesmerism again rose into some degree of favor. M. Deleuze, assistant secre tary and naturalist of the Jardin des Plantes, published in 1813 a favorable u Critical History of Animal Magnetism;" and other friendly publications followed rapidly in France arid | Germany. Several able German physiologists | spoke of the new agent as worthy of attention. ! Well conducted magazines were established to propagate its principles. The Prussian govern- i merit took notice of it in 1817, so far as to order that none save physicians should practise it ; and in the following year the academy of sciences of Berlin offered a prize for the best treatise on the subject, but this oft cr was sub sequently withdrawn. Ennemoser, Kluge. | Kieser, Wolfarth, and Nees von Esenbeck defended mesmerism in books and magazines before the German public, and Deleuze kept the subject before France by publishing a num- | her of works. In 1825, Dr. Foissac, a young | physician and an enthusiastic believer in animal j magnetism, demanded of the royal academy of medicine in Paris that another commissioK should be appointed, and another investigation made. The academy consented and appointed a commission of five members to conduct the inquiry. Their report, not made till 1831, ! while it did not concede by any means all that I the believers in the new force claimed, was in i general favorable to the theory of its existence I and effects; and although not regularly adopted j by the academy, or printed as a part of its for- ! mal memoirs, it gave a powerful impulse to the investigation of mesmerism, and extended it into Britain and America, where it had been almost unknown before. In 1833 J. C. Colquhoun j published in English a translation of the report with remarks; in 1836 he published an original j work on the same subject, entitled Isis Rere- late. In 1837 the subject was again taken up i by the academy. A committee of nine was i appointed, among whom were Roux, Bouillaud, ; and Cloquet, who tested in several se? sions the phenomena exhibited by a reputed clairvoyant. ! Their report, made Aug. 17, 1837, detailed all j the particulars of their investigations, and ex- : pressed the results as follows : "The facts which had been promised by M. Berna (the j magnetizer) as conclusive, and as adapted to throw light on physiological and therapeutical i questions, arc certainly not conclusive in favor i of the doctrine of animal magnetism, and have i nothing in common with either physiology or ANIME ANJOU therapeutics." This report was adopted l>y | the academy Sept. 5, 1837. In the same month j M. Burdin, a member of the academy, made a i standing otter of 3,000 francs to whoever : within two years should produce a clairvoyant able to read without the use of the light, the ; eyes, or the touch. The conditions of the trial were afterward modified so that the paper to ; be read might be illuminated, provided the I eyes of the clairvoyant were properly covered, i and the sense of touch might be used as an aid, j hut with a smooth glass surface covering the j object to be examined. The time during which j the prize was to remain open was also extended j to three years. The money was deposited with \ a notary subject to the order of the academy, j and a committee appointed to supervise the experiments. Several clairvoyants appeared as contestants for the prize at various times, but the committee in each case reported their com plete failure. About 18-40 a new and prominent student of animal magnetism appeared in the person of Mr. Braid of Manchester, England, who discovered that he could produce sleep in most persons whom he tried, by ordering them to look steadily at some small object about a foot from the eyes, and above their level. He gave the name of "hypnotism " to the sleep and somnambulism thus produced, and styled his theory for the explanation of the phenomena " neurypnology." The principles discovered by him were applied by other persons in vari ous ways, and variously styled u biology," a electro-biology," &c. All the phenomena produced under these different names are sub stantially mesmeric. Mr. Braid had no faith in clairvoyance proper; but he admitted an exaltation of the senses" in the mesmeric and hypnotic states, giving a delicacy of per ception, and sometimes a perspicacity of rea soning, exceeding that of the normal state. These views were sanctioned by Dr. William B. Carpenter in his " Human Physiology." Re cently there has been no special change in the doctrine of clairvoyance, except that it has become somewhat closely connected with that of spiritualism. While the members of the medical profession, with few exceptions, have always opposed the claims of mesmerism, these have nevertheless found supporters in many men of learning and eminence ; among them, be sides those already mentioned, are Laplace, Cu- vier, Agassiz, Hufeland, Sir William Hamilton, Dr. Herbert Mayo, and Prof. Edward Hitchcock. For information in regard to the theories of its advocates, see Deleuze s " Practical Instruction in Mesmerism; " "Letters on Animal Magnet ism," by Prof. William Gregory; "Mesmerism, its History, Phenomena, and Practice," by Wil liam Lang ; " Facts in Mesmerism," by the Rev. Chauncey Hare Townshend ; " Truth in Popu lar Superstitions," by Dr. Herbert Mayo; and "Practical Instruction in Animal Magnetism," by Dr. Alphonse Teste. AN 1MB (Fr., animated), a resin supposed to be derived from the hymeniza courbaril of South America. It exudes from wounds in the bark, and collects between the principal roots. This resin is soft and sticky, and melts easily, diffus ing white fumes and a very pleasant odor. Insects are generally entrapped in such num bers in it, that it is said to well merit its name of animated. The Brazilians use it internally in diseases of the lungs. It was formerly em ployed in the composition of ointments and plasters, but at present its only use is for var nishes and incense. ANISE SEED, the fruit of the pimpinclla ani- sum, a native of Europe and Africa. It is extensively employed as a carminative medi cine, and for the purpose of flavoring liqueurs or medicines. It yields an aromatic oil both by distillation and expression, which is used Anise (Pimpinclla anisum). for the same purposes as the seed, and is also a ! favorite article with vermin-killers, who em- i ploy it to disguise the scent of poisonous baits. i The anise-seed cordial of the shops is a cora- | pound, of alcohol, anise seed, and angelica. ! The plant is cultivated in Malta and Spain, j and grows spontaneously in Egypt and the I islands of the Grecian Archipelago, especially Scio. The genus pimpinclla belongs to the umbelliferous tribes of plants inhabiting mead- j ows and mountains in Europe and Africa. ANJOU, an ancient province of X. W. France, j chiefly constituting the present department of I Maine-et-Loire, with Angers for its capital. I In the time of the Romans it was inhabited by 1 the Andegavi. During the Frankish and feu dal eras its counts played an important part in European history. The eldest branch of the family traced its descent to the days of Charles the Bald in the 9th century, and the younger branches to those of Louis VIII. and XL, in the 13th. Among the eminent counts of Anjou, those of the name of Foulques or Fulk were distinguished as crusaders, especially Foulques V., who in 1131 succeeded his father-in-law Baldwin II. as king of Jerusalem. His son Geoffrey, surnamed Plantagenet, became 528 ANJOU ANNABERG through his marriage (1127) with the empress Matilda the father" of Henry II. of England. Charles, hrother of St. Louis, commonly called Charles of Anjou (born about 1220), a brave cru sader, heir to Anjou and Provence, became the founder of the younger branch which reigned over the Two Sicilies. In 1356 Anjou was made a duchy. Louis, son of King John II., was the first duke, and ancestor of the u good King Rene of Anjou." The last of this branch, Charles IV., bequeathed the duchy to Louis XL, who permanently annexed it to France (1483). Since that time Anjou has merely given honorary titles to Bourbon princes. Among them was Francois, fourth son of Henry II. and Catharine do Medici, duke of Alencon, afterward duke of Anjou (born in 1554). He was famous for his zeai in favor of the Hugue nots, and his opposition in the Netherlands to Philip II. After having been for a short time acknowledged by the Netherlander as ruler under the title of duke of Brabant (1582), they expelled him on account of his autocratic measures. lie was one of the rejected suitors of Queen Elizabeth. . Several descendants of Louis XIV. bore the title of dukes of Anjou. Louis XV. bore it anterior to that of dau phin ; and Philip V. was known in France under the same title before he became king of Spain, at the beginning of the 18th century. ANJOU, Margaret of. See MARGARET. ANKLAM, an old town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, on the river Peene, 6 m. from its mouth in the Stettin-IIaff, 45 m. N. W. of Stettin, and 91 m. by railway N. of Berlin ; pop., including the three sub urbs, in 1871, 10,739. It has an active trade. AXKYFITZ, Mikolaj, count, a Polish politician, executed in 1794. He was ambassador at Copenhagen, and deputy to the diet from Cra cow. In the diet of Grodno, which was forced to sanction the second dismemberment of Poland, he played a prominent part ; and when the treaty consummating it was concluded with Russia, he was deputed to sign it on behalf of Poland, July 23, 1793. Immediately after ward a salary of $13,000 was conferred upon Ankwitz by the Russian government, with the appointment of president of the council. When these facts became known, the rage of the peo ple knew no bounds. On April 18, 1794, soon after the breaking out of the revolution of which Kosciuszko became the leader, he was accused of treason, and his correspondence was seized, which established his guilt. lie was : hanged, and buried in the felons 1 graveyard. AMA CAULOm, grand duchess of Russia, i originally called Elizabeth Catharine Christina, ! daughter of Charles Louis, prince of Mecklen- j burg, and Catharina Ivanovna, daughter of the eldest V-rotherof Peter the Great, born in 1718, i died March 18, 1746. She w r as a niece of the j empress Anna Ivanovna. In 1739 she married j Anthony Ulrick, duke of Brunswick- Wolfen- ! buttel. They had in 1740 a son, Ivan, whom i the empress Anna designed as heir to the Rus- i | sian crown, appointing Biron regent. After j the death of the empress the same year, Anna i Carlovna overthrew the regency of Biron and | took affairs into her own hands, declaring her- I self grand duchess. A year later (Decem- i her, 1741) she was overthrown by Elizabeth, | daughter of Peter the Great, who was de clared empress. The boy Ivan was shut up i in the fortress of Schlussclburg, where he I perished. Anna, her husband, and a daugh- ; ter were sent to Kholmogory, a small town ! on an island in the Dwina, near the White | sea, where she died. AMA C03L\ENA, daughter of Alexis Comne- ! mis, emperor of Constantinople, and the empress Irene, born Dec. 1, 1083, died in 1148. She Avas married to Nicephorus Bryennius, a Greek j nobleman of distinction, whom she incited j after the death of her father, in 1118, to con- ! spire against her brother and seize the sceptre. ! The conspiracy failed, and Anna and her hus- I band were banished from Constantinople and ! stripped of most of their property. Anna ; during her exile composed a biography of her \ father, which she styled Alexias. This work is I divided into 19 books, and, though very de- : fective in many respects, is yet of great im- | portance as a history of the period of which it ! treats. The best edition of the Alexias is j Schopen s, published at Bonn in 1839. AftKA IVAJVOVIVA, empress of Russia, born ! in 1693, died Oct. 28, 1740. She was the I daughter of Ivan, the eldest brother of Peter | the Great, and married the duke of Courland, | who died previous to her ascending the throne. i She became empress on the death of Peter II., | grandson of Peter the Great, in 1730. Oster- j mann, the great chancellor, and the then all- | powerful princes Dolgoruki facilitated her ele- i vation over the heads of two daughters of | Peter the Great, as Anna promised a limitation ! of the autocracy. But Anna brought from Cour- ! land to Moscow her favorite, the former equerry i Biron, who prevented her from keeping her | promise, exiled the Dolgorukis to Siberia, and j ruled absolutely over the empress and the na- ! tion. He organized the system of espionage i over all classes, officials and private individu- i als, which with more or less rigor prevailed for i more than a century. Anna interfered in the I affairs of Poland, in 1733, in favor of Augus tus III. against Stanislas Leszczynski, and obliged the Courlanders to choose Biron for I their sovereign duke, and on her deathbed : named him regent during the minority of her j nephew Ivan; but a revolution overthrow him, ! and he was exiled to Siberia. AMABERG, a town of Saxony, in the Erzge- birge, 2,000 feet above sea level, in the district of Zwickau, 19m. by railway S. of Chemnitz; pop. in 1871, 11,639." The mining, formerly of great importance, has been diverted to other localities, and the government department relating to it was removed in 1856 to Marien- berg. Annaberg, however, besides being the seat of various district authorities, continues ANNALS ANNAPOLIS 529 to be an important centre for the manufacture of lace and fringes, which latter industry was introduced about 1590 by Protestant refugees from Spanish oppression in Flanders. Crino lines are also made here to the extent of over 1 00,000 dozens annually. The town was found ed in 1-496. A\\ALS (Lat. annale-s, that is, libri annales, year books), a concise and unadorned narrative of events, written in the order of time. In the early days of Rome the pontifex maximus kept a record of state affairs, prodigies, arid the markets, which, written upon a white tablet, was displayed in some convenient por tion of his house to the public inspection. These records were called annalcs and were written down to the pontificate of Publius Mucius Scavola, 131 B. 0. When the Gauls burned the city, 390 B. C., the greater portion of those previously written were de stroyed. Subsequently, other individuals com posed portions of Roman history, imitating in style the pontifical annals. The first of these works, which was written by Quintus Fabius Pictor, commenced with the founding of Rome, and came down to the author s own time, dur ing the second Punic war. AMATOLLS, a city of Anno Arundel county, Md., capital of the county and of the state, 28 m. 8. by E. of Baltimore, and 40 m.. E. by N. of Washington ; hit. of tiie state house, 38 58 N., Ion. 70 29 W. ; pop. in I860, 3,228 whites and 1,301 colored; in 1870, 5,744, of whom 1,682 were colored. It is beautifully situated on the Severn river, about 2 m. from its junction with the waters of Chesapeake bay. For a long period before Baltimore was at all noted, Annapolis was the seat of wealth, refinement, and extensive trade. It was for merly a port of entry, but has lost its corniner- United States Naval Academy, Annapolis. cial importance, and is now chiefly distinguished as the seat of the state go\ernment and of the United States naval academy. The city is con nected with Baltimore an^l Washington by rail road, and with the former also by regular lines of steamers "rlie plan of the city bears some resemblance to that of the national capital, all the streets radiating from two points, the state house and the Episcopal church. Its appear ance is interesting from its air of quiet seclu sion; and the antique look of many of the houses, with their peculiar style of architec ture, gives the stranger an impression of some old European town, rather than that of an American city. The state hou^e, standing on an eminence, is a noble and massive structure of brick, with a lofty dome and cupola. It con tains the halls of the legislative assembly, as well as the state library and records. St. John s college, founded in 1784, is a state institution. In 1868 there were 10 instructors, 433 gradu- VOL. i. 34 ates. and about 3,500 volumes in the library. St. Mary s seminary, a Roman Catholic insti tution, is also situated here. Three weekly papers are published in the city. The naval academy was established in 1845 by the lion. George Bancroft, then secretary of the navy. Candidates (who must be over 15 ami under 18 years of age) are admitted to the institution after passing a thorough phvsical examination, as well as an examination in the elements of an English education. They remain in the institution four years, under strict discipline and instruction in all the branches of the naval profession, before they are examined for ad mission into the navy as midshipmen. The academic board is composed of the superin tendent of the institution, who must be an ; officer of the navy, not below the rank of com- : mander; the executive officer, or commandant I of midshipmen, with four assistants, who must i.be either commanders or lieutenants in the 530 ANNAPOLIS ANN ARBOR navy, and who discharge the duties of instruc tors in seamanship, naval tactics, and practical gunnery ; and the professors of mathematics, of steam engineering, of astronomy, navigation, and surveying, of natural and experimental philosophy, of field artillery and infantry tac tics, of ethics and English studies, including in ternational law, of the French and Spanish languages, and of drawing and draughting. The academic staff consists of the members of the academic board as heads of the different departments, assisted by 04 professors and in structors. The grounds connected with the establishment are extensive, having recently been considerably enlarged. Across College creek 114 acres were added in 1809, and in 1870- 71 a large naval hospital was built upon this ground at a cost of over $150,000. The grounds immediately surrounding the academy contain buildings for recitation and lecture rooms, mess rooms, dormitories, officers quarters, a phi losophical hall and laboratory, and an astro nomical observatory. The observatory has an equatorial telescope constructed by Clark of Boston, with a tine achromatic lens of 7f inches clear aperture, and 9J feet focal length ; an ex cellent meridian circle by Repsold of Ham burg; and a very complete collection of the minor instruments used by the travelling astron omer, the surveyor, and the navigator. The academy has a carefully selected library of ^bout 15,000 volumes, to which additions are made annually. Fort Severn, to which the grounds formerly pertained, is now enclosed and covered with a roof, and used as a gymnasium and ball room. Two sloops of war are attached to the institution, used during the summer months as practice ships, and for sailing upon an ocean voyage. At the beginning of the academic year 1870 the whole number of mid shipmen in the several classes was 253; 08 graduated at the end of the year, and 100 were admitted. During the civil war, the academy was removed to Newport, R. L, but soon after its close was brought back here. An napolis was settled in 1049 by puritan refugees from Virginia, under a ruling elder named Durand, and was at first called Providence. The next year Brooke, under a commission from Lord Baltimore, organized the county under its present appellation, and called the settlement Anne Arundel Town in honor of Lady Baltimore. A few years later it was again known as Providence, and was the seat of a Protestant council, disputing the legisla tive authority with the Catholic council at St. Mary s. The latter was finally abandoned in i 1694, and the government was established at j the settlement on the Severn, where a town j had been regularly laid out and called Annap- | olis after Queen Anne, who gave it some valu- able presents. A city charter was granted in ! 1708. At the close of the revolution Mary- ! land offered to cede Annapolis to the general j government as the federal capital. During the j negotiations for a permanent site, it was re- ; solved in 1783 that congress should meet alter nately at Annapolis and Trenton, the first ses sion to be held at Annapolis. It was at this session that Washington surrendered his com mission as commander-iii-chief, Dec. 23, 1783. ANNAPOLIS. I. A W. county of the prov ince of Nova Scotia, Canada, bounded N. W. by the bay of Fundy ; area, about 1,700 sq. m. ; pop. in 1871, 18,121. The principal river is the Annapolis, which flows S. "VV. about 60 m., through an expansion called Annapolis basin, to the bay of Fundy. The surface is varied. The elevated ridge of the North mountains ex tends along the coast, with flanks of excellent soil ; the uplands of the valley of Annapolis river are well adapted to fruit culture; and the region S. of the Annapolis valley is broken but generally fertile. There is a valuable bed of iron ore near the Moose and Nictaux rivers. The chief employment of the population is ag riculture, and the exports of dairy produce are considerable. II. A town (formerly Port Roy al), capital of the above-named county, situated on Annapolis basin, in lat. 44 40 N., Ion. 65 37 "W., 95 m. W. of Halifax, with which it is con nected by railway; pop. 2,127. The basin is a capacious and sheltered harbor, but the en trance, through Annapolis strait, is narrow and difficult. The first European settlement on this part of the coast was made here by De Monts in 1604. Under the name of Port Royal it was the capital of the French colony of Acadia, after the conquest of which by the English in 1710 the name of the town was changed. The capital was removed to Halifax in 1750. ANN ARBOR, a city of Michigan, capital of Washtenaw county, lying on both sides of Huron river, in lat. 42 15 N., Ion. 83 43 W., 38 m. by railroad "W. of Detroit; pop. in 1870, 7,363. The Huron river, and a creek which empties into it from the south, supply valuable water power. There are within the limits of the township 2 woollen mills, 4 flour mills, 5 breweries, 2 factories of agricultural implements, 2 tanneries, 2 printing offices, nu merous saw mills, planing mills, and workshops for wood and iron, 10 churches (2 Baptist, 2 Methodist, Catholic, Episcopal, Congregational, Presbyterian, Lutheran, and Unitarian), and 6 school houses, one of which has accommoda tion for 1,000 pupils. There are numerous fruit gardens, and the streets are thickly planted with shade trees. Two railroads pass through the town, the Michigan Central, E. and W., and the Toledo and Saginaw, N. and S., and the city is the centre of a brisk inland traffic. There are five mineral springs in the city (over one of which has been erected a large water-cure establishment), an opera house, concert halls, and a ladies library as sociation. Of the resident inhabitants, about one quarter are of German descent, and the German language is taught in the schools. The most important interest of Ann Arbor is the Michigan university. (See MICHIGAN Usi- ANNATS ANNEALING 531 VERSITY.) Ann Arbor was settled in 1824, and incorporated as a city in 1851. AMATS, or Annates, originally certain funds which by ecclesiastical law were paid by a new incumbent of a church living to the pope or bishop. As the name indicates, they amounted to the first year s stipend from the living, and were required in one instalment, but were afterward paid in two. In England they were at first paid to the archbishop of Canterbury ; the popes aftenvard appropriated them. The English parliament in 1532 be stowed them on the crown, but Queen Anne restored them to the church, for the support of the poorer livings, whence they have been called Queen Anne s bounty. In Germany annats are synonymous with the sermtia, an early form of taxation in the western church. AMATTO. See ANNOTTO. AME, queen of Great Britain and Ireland, the last member of the house of Stuart who sat upon the English throne, born at Twicken ham, near London, Feb. 6, 1664, died Aug. 1, 1714. She was the second daughter of James II., then duke of York, by his first marriage with Anne Hyde, daughter of the illustrious Clarendon. Though both her parents became attached to the Roman Catholic church, she was educated in the principles of the church of England, and in 1683 was married to Prince George, brother of Christian V., king of Den mark. It was for some time a matter of doubt and deep anxiety what part she would take in the contest which distracted England between James II. and the party of the prince of Orange ; but the influence of the vehement duchess of Marlborough, for whom Anne had a romantic fondness, at length made her decide the question against the promptings of filial affection. She renounced the purpose of ac companying her father in his exile, adhered to the dominant party, and by the act of settle ment the British crown was guaranteed to her and her children in default of issue to William and Mary. She lived in retirement till the death of William, and the friendship between her arid the king and queen was only formal. Of the 17 children whom she bore to her husband, only one survived infancy, the duke of Gloucester, who died in 1700, at the age of 11. On the death of William in 1702, Mary having previously died without heirs, Anne ascended the throne. Though feeble in character, she pursued the plans of her prede cessor against the ambition of Louis XIV., and on the day of her coronation the triple alli ance was renewed between England, Holland, and the German empire, against France. This was shortly after the opening of the war of the Spanish succession, in which Prince Eu gene and Marlborough, by the victories of Oudenarde, Rarnillies, and Blenheim, drove the French troops from the Danube across the Rhine. In the battle of Malplaquet, the son of James II., the chevalier St. George, charged at the head of the French cavalry the army of his sister Anne, commanded by Marlborough. The most important conquest made by Eng land in this war was the fortress of Gibraltar. The great political event of the reign of Anne i was the union of England and Scotland, com- ! pleted May 1, 1707. In 1710 the popularity of Marlborough, who had been for eight years the idol of the queen, the parliament, and the people, began to wane, and his duchess lost the queen s confidence. The tories, who now had in their ranks the ablest statesmen and the most effective writers, increased in power, and the whigs completed their own ruin by the prosecution of Dr. Sacheverell for preaching in favor of the divine right of kings. In the new election the tories were successful, a new ministry was formed, in which Harley, after ward earl of Oxford, and Lord Bolingbroke were the chiefs, and a new favorite, Mrs. Ma- sham, the daughter of a London merchant, reigned at court. It was determined to con clude peace, and the fruits of the war, not less than the allies of England, were neglected in the treaty of Utrecht, signed April 11, 1713. j The new leaders were not harmonious, and | though the crown had been settled, in the event of Anne s death without children, upon the princess Sophia of Hanover, the grand daughter of James L, yet the court and court iers were occupied with intrigues to give the succession to the son of James II., James, the chevalier St. George. The queen, wearied with the wrangling and cabals of her minis ters, suddenly died ; and her death, at a mo ment when the plans of Bolingbroke were im mature, was perhaps the means of securing peacefully to England the Protestant succes sion. Anne was deficient in mental vigor, but amiable. Though she was obliged twice to set a price upon the head of her brother, she seems to have cherished for him a strong affec tion. Her reign, distinguished by successful wars, has also been called the Augustan period of English literature. The writings of Addi- son, Pope, Steele, Swift, and Defoe adorned the age, and periodical sheets and newspapers, such as the successive numbers of the "Specta tor," then first came into fashion. ANNEALIXG (Sax. ana-Ian, to heat), a process of softening and toughening certain metals and glass by heating them, and then cooling them very slowly. In working some of the metals under the hammer, or in rolling them into plates, or in drawing them out into wire, they become hard and brittle, so that the process cannot be continued without restoring them to their former condition. This is done by an nealing. It has sometimes to be often repeated in drawing out a single plate of brass or alumi num. The jarring motion to which the wheels of railway cars and their axles are subjected changes in time the soft, fibrous texture of the iron into a crystalline structure approaching that of cast iron. They become brittle, and can be restored only by working them over and annealing. Intense cold produces a similar 532 ANNE ARUNDEL ANNE BOLEYN effect when the change of temperature is very sudden. The tempering of steel is an artificial hardening of the same nature. Cast iron may he chilled and hecorne as hard as steel, hut hrittle. It may he annealed (with a slight change in the composition at the same time) and form malleable castings even cast-iron nails that will clench. The subject is more particularly interesting as it relates to the changes effected by temperature in glass. When this is melted and shaped into articles which are allowed to cool in the air, the glass becomes too brittle for any use. The ex terior cools first and forms a contracted crust, which shelters the interior particles ; so that these continue longer in a semi-fluid state, and are prevented from expanding, as glass does in cooling, and uniting with the rest to form a ho mogeneous mass. The inner parts are thus con stantly tending to expand. If, on the contrary, the glass is placed in a hot oven, and this is al lowed to cool very slowly, the particles of glass appear to assume a condition of perfect equi librium of cohesive force without tension, so that the mass becomes tough and elastic. The extreme effect of sudden cooling is very curious ly shown in the philosophical toys called Prince Rupert s drops and the Bologna phial. The former, which were shown by Prince Rupert to Charles II. in 1661, are little pear-shaped lumps of glass, with a curved stem, formed by dropping melted glass into water. Most of the particles hurst to pieces, but some assume this form. When taken out of the water they will bear a smart blow without breaking, the effect being spread equally throughout the whole body; hut if a little piece be broken off the end of the | stem, they will fly into fragments with a sort ! of explosion. Dr. Ure explains this phenomenon j by referring it to the tendency of a crack once I formed in the glass to extend its ramifications in different directions throughout the whole mass. The same effect is observed in t^ie very large sheets of plate glass used for shop win- | dows : once cracked, they are seen in time to | fall to pieces, the cause no doubt being imper- i feet annealing. The Bologna phials are made of unannealed glass, 3 or 4 inches long and | about i of an inch thick. Xo regard is paid to j their shape. They will hear a pretty hard blow with a hammer handle on the outside, or a small bullet may be dropped into one with out breaking it; but if a sharp fragment of sand, or small piece of stone, be dropped in, the glass will burst in pieces, generally at once, but sometimes after a considerable interval. AOE ARUNDEL, a central county of Mary land, on the W. shore of Chesapeake bay, bounded N. by the Patapsco river, W. by the Patuxent, and watered in the eastern half by the South and Severn rivers ; area, 750 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 2-4,457, of whom 11,732 were colored. The surface is undulating and hilly, and the soil is fertile. In 1870 the county pro duced 126,451 bushels of wheat, 560,359 of com, 65,888 of oats, 3,020,455 Ibs. of tobacco, 21,521 of wool, and 142,632 of butter. Copper and iron ore are found. The Annapolis and Elk Ridge railroad passes through the county. Capital, Annapolis. AME OF AUSTRIA, queen of France, daughter of Philip III. king of Spain, born Sept. 22, 1601, died Jan. 20, 1666. She was married in 1615 to Louis XIII., and in 1638, 23 years after her marriage, became the mother of Louis XIV., and in 1640 of Philip of Orleans, the first of that branch of the house of Bourbon. Car dinal Richelieu, the all-powerful minister of the weak Louis XIII., dreading the influence of the queen, or, as others pretend, having been re fused by her as a lover, succeeded in prejudic ing the mind of the king till he allowed Anne to be continually persecuted, exiled, and at times left to suffer the greatest penury. Riche lieu accused her of conspiring with the dukes of Lorraine, with England, with her brother the king of Spain, with all the enemies of France, and with the conspirators at the court, against his own supremacy. At the death of Louis XIII. in 1643, the parliament, contrary to his will, appointed her regent during the minor ity of Louis XIY. Cardinal Mazarin, who is supposed to have been secretly married to her, ruled in her name, and provoked the revolt of some of the princes of the blood and other French grandees known as the war of the Fronde (1648- 53). (See FBOXDE.) AME BOLE1N, Bullen, or Bonleyne, queen of England, one of the wives of Henry VIII., be headed May 19, 1536. The date of her birth is uncertain, some authorities placing it as early as 1500, others as late as 1507. She was a daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, afterward created Viscount Rochlbrd and earl of Ormond and Wiltshire, and was one of the ladies selected to accompany the princess Mary to France at the time of her marriage with Louis XII. in 1514. When Mary returned after Louis s death, Anne remained behind attached to the household of Claude, the queen of Francis I. She was recalled to England in 1522 (or according to Froude in 1527), and admitted to the household of Catha rine of Aragon. Here she seems to have been cir cumspect in her behavior, witty, vivacious, and accomplished. The stories of her questionable conduct at the French court rest upon insuf ficient testimony. It was not long before she attracted the attention of Henry, who obliged Wolsey to interfere and break off a proposed marriage between Anne and Lord Percy, son of the earl of Northumberland. Anne grew in favor precisely as the royal scruples about the validity of the marriage with Catharine in creased. It was in the latter part of 1527 that Henry openly declared to Wolsey his intention to marry Anne as soon as the divorce could be obtained. The cardinal s opposition soon gave way before Henry s violent will, but Anne al ways looked upon Wolsey as her rival, and could not rest until she had persuaded the king to disgrace him. At last, after five years 1 agi tation of the divorce, Anne was married to the ANNE OF BRITTANY ANNESLEY 533 king at Whitehall, Jan. 25, 1533, by Dr. Lee, one of the royal chaplains. She had already for three years resided in the palace and been | Henry s constant companion, and a few months | before the wedding had been created marchio- j ness of Pembroke. The divorce question was | now brought into the ecclesiastical court of | Canterbury, where Cranmcr had been created archbishop on purpose to decide it. In May i he pronounced the marriage with Catharine null from the beginning, and Anne the lawful wife of-his majesty ; and on June 1 her corona- I tion wos performed with great pomp. Three months later was born the princess Elizabeth, j whose subsequent reign shed so much splendor j upon English history. The life of the court | while Anne shared the throne was gay and j easy ; and when Henry began to tire of her and j find stronger attractions in Jane Seymour, it | was not difficult to convict Anne of improprie- | ties, to say no worse. A committee, including \ with other lords her own father, appointed to j inquire into her conduct (April, 1536), reported j her incontinent with Brereton, N orris, and Wes- j ton of the privy chamber, Smeaton, the king s | musician, and even her own brother, Lord j Rochford. All the accused were sent at once ! to the tower. Anne was tried by a commis- ! sion of peers under the presidency of her uncle, j the duke of Norfolk, and found guilty, partly j on the confession of Smeaton, though she her- j self and the other prisoners protested innocence | to the last. Cranmer was compelled to pro- I nounce her marriage with Henry null and void, ! as he had formerly pronounced Catharine s. ! Her prison hours were spent in alternations of | composure and excitement ; but on the scaffold ! she conducted herself with queenly dignity. ! Smeaton was hanged, and the other four ac- | cased were beheaded. ANNE OF BRITTANY, queen of France, born ! in Nantes, June 26, 1476, died in the castle of i Blois, Jan. 9, 1514. She was the daughter and j heiress of Francis II., duke of Brittany. That \ duchy was her dowry on the marriage with j Charles VIII., son of Louis XI. of France, Dec. | 6, 1491, and thus became incorporated with | France. She was previously affianced to Max- I imilian of Austria, but her guardian, Louis | XL, dissolved the engagement, and thus as- j sured the aggrandizement of his kingdom and j family. After the death of Charles VIII. , in j 1498, she married his successor, Louis XIL, and exercised a great influence over her hus band and all around her. She was an example { of virtue and industry, and administered the j kingdom with ability during the campaigns of her husbands in Italy. ANNE OF CLEVES, daughter of Duke John III., | and fourth wife of Henry VIII. of England, ! died at Chelsea, July 10, 1557. To please the | Protestant party, and to make friends among j the Protestant German princes, Henry wedded l her with reluctance, Jan. 6, 1540, but divorced j her in July of the same year, and settled upon | her an annuity of 3,000. ANNECY, an old town of Savoy, capital of the French department of Haute-Savoie, pleas antly situated near the lake of its name, 22 m. S. of Geneva; pop. in 1866, 11,551. It has various factories, cotton-spinning mills, glass and iron works, and is the seat of a bishop. St. Francis de Sales was born here, and his relics are preserved in St. Mary s church. ANNELIDA (Lat. annellus, a small ring), red- blooded worms, such as the earth worm, the lug worm, and the leech. They are the only section of invertebrate animals which have red blood. They form an extensive class, sub divided into four orders by Milne-Edwards. The body has an elongated form, with distinct, soft, semi-cartilaginous annulations, connected together by longitudinal oblique muscles, en abling the animals to twist themselves in various directions. The whole is covered with a moist skin, indicating by slight segments the soft annuli beneath. The first segment is fur nished with a mouth, and in some species with eyes and tentacles; the last segment is fur nished in some cases with bristle-like appen dages, and in others, as in the leech, it is dilated into a sucker. Each segment has usual ly minute seta3, or spines, which are useful in locomotion. In some species vascular tufts are observed, which serve as respiratory organs. There is a system of veins and arteries. The nervous system consists of ganglia, united by means of a double nervous cord. Each in dividual is bisexual. The common or earth worms seek safety by retiring into holes which they bore in soft earth, mud, or sand. The ftdbella and terebella of the seashore aggluti nate around them particles of sand and of broken shells to form a case in which they dwell. The serpula exudes a calcareous secre tion to form a long twisted tube, in which the animal resides, and from which it protrudes its head and respiratory tufts. The four orders of this class are : 1, the dorsibrancMata, or er- rantes, including the sea centipedes and sea mice; 2, the tubicolw, which include those that live in tubes, as the serpula ; 3, the ter- ricola, including the common earth worm; and 4, the suctorice, having suctorial disks, as the leech. From the recent researches of Prof. Edward S. Morse, it appears that the firachiopoda come near the tubiculous anne lids; and he therefore removes them from the mollusca to the annelid division of articulata. ANNESLEY, Arthur, first earl of Anglesey, born in Dublin in 1614, died April 6, 1686. He was the eldest son of Sir Francis Annesley, after ward Baron Mountnorris and Viscount of Va- lentia. He was among the loyal members who met in the parliament summoned by Charles I. at Oxford in 1643. The royal cause having become almost hopeless, he joined the par liamentarians, and was one of the three com missioners appointed to settle the affairs of Ireland in 1645. He took an active part in the restoration of Charles II., and in 1661 wa created Baron Annesley and earl of Anglesey 534 ANNIUS OF VITERBO ANNUITY in the peerage of England. lie was afterward made treasurer of the navy and lord privy seal, and held the latter office till 1682, when he was dismissed for favoring the exclusion of the duke of York from the throne, lie pub lished several works on polemics, politics, con stitutional law, and parliamentary privileges. JAMES AXNESLET, Lord Altham, his grandson, born in 1715, was kidnapped by his uncle and sent to America, where he was 13 years in slavery, but finally in 1743 established his legal right to the honors and estates of the earls of Anglesey, though lie never assumed the title. Smollett gave the leading facts of the case in his novel of "Peregrine Pickle." The earldom of Anglesey expired in 1761, but the Irish peer ages of Annesley and Valentia are held by de scendants of Arthur Annesley. ANNHS OF VITERBO, an Italian Dominican, born at Viterbo about 1432, died Nov. 13, 1502. His real name was Giovanni Nanni, which he Latinized into Johannes Annius. He enjoyed the especial favor of Pope Alexander VI. and his family ; though his death was believed to have been caused by poison administered by command of Cresar Borgia, who wished to be rid of one whose plainness of speech offended his pride. Annius published in 1498 Anti- quitatum Volnmina XVII., purporting to be a collection of works of ancient authors pre viously supposed to be lost, including Berosus, Marcus Cato, Manetho, and others. It has long since been condemned as spurious. ANNO, or llauiio, Saint, archbishop of Cologne, died Dec. 4, 1075. He belonged to a noble fam ily, and was destined at first to the profession of arms. He was chancellor under the em peror Henry III., and tutor of Henry IV. After the death of Henry III., aided by Archbishop Adalbert of Bremen, and others, he obtained the regency, but soon laid it down in disgust. The hymn of St. Anno, composed about a cen tury after the archbishop s death, is a kind of panegyric on the saint, commencing with the popular traditions of Germany, and touching on the history of the archiepiscopal see of Cologne, and of 33 bishops before the poet, among whom were seven saints. It was first printed from a forgotten manuscript by Martin Opitz of Dantzic in 1639. ANNONAY, a town of southern France, de partment of Ardeche, 37 m. S. of Lyons, noted as the birthplace of the Montgolfiers, inventors of the air balloon, and for its paper made at mills erected by these famous brothers; pop. in 1866, 18,445. It has several celebrated manufactories of gloves. It is the point of junction of the Cance with the Deaume river, which is here crossed by a suspension bridge. ANNOTTO, Aimatto, or Aruatto, a red coloring matter extracted from the outer part of the seeds of a Brazilian evergreen, called the bixa Orellana. Dissolved in an alkali, as a crude pearl-ash, its color changes to orange. It is used to color milk, butter, and cheese. Dyers, painters, and soap-makers also make use of it. Though employed only for disguising other sub stances, it is itself probably more adulterated than almost any other article of commerce. It has been purchased containing over 60 per cent, of chalk, and is often found contaminated with red lead, so that cheese colored with it has been made poisonous. Other substances usual ly mixed with it are turmeric, rye, barley, and wheat flour, sulphate of lime, salt, alkali, Vene tian red, and copper. ANNUITY, a yearly payment, subject to va rious conditions. The payment may be stipu lated without regard to any contingency, in which case it is called an annuity certain. If limited in time, it is called a term or tem porary annuity certain. If no limit is fixed, it is called a perpetuity. A contingent annuity is one of which the payment is limited by the occurrence of some future event, uncertain as to time, but more or less probable. It is tem porary when it must cease at a fixed time, pro vided it has not already ceased by the previous occurrence of the contingent event. The con sideration for insurance, as generally paid, is an example of contingent annuity, but is called premium. Annuities paid as reward for meri torious services are called pensions ; and those paid for the use of real estate are called rent. Though the term annuity implies a year as the interval between the payments, yet in prac tice it is made to include any series of equal or uniformly increasing or decreasing payments at equal intervals, as annual, semi-annual, quarter ly, or monthly ; and in mathematical theory the intervals may be infinitely small, when the annuity is said to be payable momently. The most important* contingency ever introduced into annuity contracts is that of death. A fixed sum which is payable at equal intervals during the entire life of a person is called a life an nuity. If it depends on two or more lives, and is to cease on the death of either, it is called a joint life annuity. A survivorship annuity is one which so depends upon two or more lives, that it is to commence only when one or more begin to be survivors. These annuities may be temporary, or for the whole life, immediate or deferred ; that is, the first payment may take place in advance or immediately after the oc currence of the contingency, or it may be de ferred one or more of the equal intervals. The most important question in regard to any such series of payments is its present value. This would be easy to answer in regard to annuities certain, but for the interest of money. For if money earned no interest, the present value would be the sum of all the future payments, which in case of a perpetuity would be infinite. If we assume any perpetual rate of interest, the present value of a perpetuity at that rate is obviously the principal that will yield that interest; and this principal is always less in regard to a given interest as the rate is higher. Any term annuity certain may be considered as the early portion of a perpetuity. Hence the difference between the principal, P, which ANNUITY ANNUNCIATION 535 is the present value of the perpetuity, and the same discounted at compound interest for the intervals of the term TZ, at the assumed rate i (P (Y+j)n P) i s tne present value of the term annuity for n intervals. The subtrac- tive quantity ( (1 ! +i)u - P, or VP as it is usually written) is called the reversionary value of the term annuity, or of the estate whose income is absorbed by its payment. Any annuity is said to be worth as many "years 1 purchase " as the times it is contained in its present value. The present value of any life annuity involves a medical as well as a mathematical question. The mathematical solution, which comes first, is founded on an assumed rate of mortality, more or less worthy of confidence, according to its agreement with observed facts when taken in large numbers. This gives the value supposing the life in question possessed of the average vitality due to its age. Medical science will modify this result so far as it can deter mine a variation of the individual from the assumed average, though it has no means of fixing a definite or numerical variation. It is a common mistake to suppose that the present value of a life annuity can be found from the "expectation of life," or average after-lifetime at the given age, by finding the present value of an annuity certain for the term of that ex pectation, this can be true only whan the assumed interest is zero. This popular error has been much fostered by life insurance companies publishing tables of "expectation," which can have no possible application to their business except by this erroneous method, and which, so applied, only prove their premiums too high. The only correct method of applying the rates of mortality and interest to ascertain the present value of any series of payments contingent on life, is to apply them separately to each and every possible payment. Each future payment must, in effect, be multiplied by the present value at compound interest of a dollar, or monetary unit, payable certain at that time; and this product must again be multiplied by the fraction, derived from the table of mortality, expressing the probability of the party being then alive to pay it. The sum of as many such products as there are possible payments is the present value of the life annuity. "When only one or two lives are concerned, there are tables which abridge the operation to a narrow compass; but when there are three or more, the combinations be come too numerous to admit of exhaustive tables, and mathematicians content themselves with methods of approximation to solve par ticular problems. After the mathematical solu tion, which can only be as correct as the as sumptions on which it is founded, comes the medical, weighing the special facts by which the individual case differs from the average or general type. The reason why the business of selling annuities to commence in a year or less is always unprofitable to an honest company, and why it is unprofitable to a government as a means of borrowing money, is that the med ical selection is in favor of the buyer. On the contrary, companies dealing in policies of in surance, or selling annuities long deferred, suc ceed by a medical selection in their own favor. The most valuable re.-ent contributions to the basis for calculating life annuities are con tained in the works of Chisholm, and the writ ings of Dr. Farr, in connection with the re ports of the registrar general of Great Britain. Very valuable observations have also been made by Mr. Meech on the United States cen sus of 1860, and by Mr. Elliott on the popula tion returns of Massachusetts. ANNUNCIATION, the announcement to Mary by the angel (Luke i. 30-33) that she should conceive and bear the child Jesus. In com memoration of this event, the church instituted the feast of the Annunciation, to be observed on the 25th of March. In old style this day commenced the year. Writers differ as to the time when this feast was instituted. Some throw it as far back as the 4th century, since there is mention of it in a sermon ascribed to Athanasius. Others think its origin is to be assigned to the 7th century, which is the most probable opinion, as the sermon of Athanasius is believed to be spurious. ANODYNE (Gr. av privative and bdvvij, pain), a term properly applied, not to medicines which relieve pain by removing its cause, but to those which merely diminish the conducting power of the nerves of sensation, or which render the brain less susceptible to or less conscious of pain. The principal medicines of this kind are opium, belladonna, and hyoscyamus, with their alkaloids, Indian hemp, ether, and chloroform. The last two are usually called anaesthetics, because they diminish the power of the brain to receive impressions from any external source. The use of anodynes is generally to be looked upon as the substitution of a lesser evil for a greater, and a habitual resort to them is always, if possible, to be avoided. ANOINTING, an ancient custom of pouring aromatic oils on persons as a token of honor. It was employed in consecrating priests, proph ets, kings, and the places and instruments appointed for worship. In the Old Testament, the anointed of the Lord is a person upon whom God has conferred a particular dignity, and whom he has appointed to a special minis try. The anointing oil was often a very costly preparation. Olive oil, spikenard, and myrrh were the more common materials. A very precious oil, the holy oil, was used in the ser vice of the sanctuary, and could not be applied to any ordinary purposes. The Roman Catholic church has retained anointing as a symbol in its sacraments of baptism, confirmation, ordina tion, and extreme unction. In consecrating a church, the bishop anoints the walls of the edifice and the altars which are to serve in the celebration of the mass. Anointing with per fumed oil was in common use among the 536 ANOKA ANQUETIL-DUPERRON Greeks and Romans as a mark of hospitality to I guests, and modern travellers in the East still \ find it a custom for visitors to be sprinkled j with rose water, or to have their head, face, j and beard anointed with olive oil. ANOKA, an E. county of Minnesota, bounded S. W. by the Mississippi river, arid intersected : by Rum river, one of its branches ; area, 420 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 3,940. The productions in 1870 were 27,390 bushels of wheat, 17,715 of oats, 36,838 of corn, 15,872 of potatoes, and 5,240 Ibs. of wool, and 11,200,000 feet of lum ber Avas sawed. Capital, Anoka, at the mouth of Rum river, 22 m. X. N. W. of St. Paul. ANOLIS ((inolius), a reptile of the saurian family, peculiar to America, belonging to that section of the iguanas which Cuvier distinguish es as having teeth on the palate of the mouth as well as on the interior ja\v bones. Its body, legs, arid tail are long and tapering. The fore legs are longest, having five toes furnished with sharp, hooked claws, with a sort of pad ap- ( rested Anolis (Anolius velifer). Green Carolina Anolis Ued-throated Anolis (Anolius principulis). (Anolins btillaris). pended to the under side of the last joint, which increases the power of their hold on any sub stance over which they may chance to be walk ing. There is a large extent of loose skin extending from the chin to the belly, which when not distended forms a longitudinal fold under the whole lower surface of the animal. The anolis has a singular serrated or saw-edged crest along the spine and upper side of the tail, and the whole animal is covered with small, round scales, which give it a granulated ap pearance resembling the finest shagreen. The anolis seems in many respects to supply in the new world the place occupied by the chameleon in the old. Its colors change with the same or even greater rapidity, especially on the loose skin of the throat, which is constantly distended when the animal is actuated by strong passions, and in this state it assumes an endless succession of ever-varying hues. It frequents woods, coppices, and rocky places ; climbs and leaps so swiftly and rapidly that its movements can hardly be traced; and, when overheated or fatigued, pants like a tired dog. It is a gentle, inoffensive creature, feeding on insects and flies, and is easily alarmed. There are six species, two of which belong to the United States, and the others to the Antilles and. to South America. 1. A. velifer is of a beautiful ashy blue color, and is the largest of the family. Its body is about a foot long, and the tail a foot and a half. The crest extends along the top of the tail for half its length from the ori gin, and is supported by from 12 to 15 rays. It is a native of the West Indies. 2. A. bima- citlatm is little more than half the size of the former species, is of a greenish blue color, clear on the head and upper parts, but variegated with brown on the body, tail, and extremities. It is found from Pennsylvania to the shores of the gulf of Mexico and in the Antilles. 3. A. equestris has scarcely any crest, and is nearly the size of A. velifer. 4. A. lullaris is not above half the size of A. eqv.estris, with a reddish green throat, and very pretty. It is green in color, has a short muzzle spotted with brown, and, except in the absence of the crest or tail, is very similar to A. Itimacula- tus. It belongs to the Antilles. 5. A. line- atus is of a pure, bright green color, rather larger than the last species, and is marked along each flank with two parallel lines of oblong black spots ; it is a native of different parts of South America. 6. A. principal-is is a native of South Carolina, and is known as the green lizard. It is a beautiful greenish gold- colored reptile, particularly distinguished by a black band on the temples, and the elongated and flattened form of its muzzle. AXQl ETIL, Louis Pierre, a French historian., brother of Anqnetil-Duperron, born in Paris, Feb. 21, 1723, died Sept. 6, 1808. lie was an ecclesiastic, and published a history of Rheims (1756), a history of France (14 vols. 12mo, 1805), historical monographs on the times of Henry IV., Louis XIII., and Louis XIV., and a Precis de rhistoire universelle (9 vols. 12mo, 1797 ; 12 vols., 1801 and 1807), part of which was composed in prison during the reign of ter ror. His Motifs des gucrrcs ct des traites de paix de la France (1798) is praised for its evi dences of profound knowledge of diplomacy and its sound judgment. AAQIETIL-D I PERRON, Abraham Hyacinthe, a French oriental scholar, born in Paris, Dec. 7, 1731, died there, Jan. 17, 1805. He was edu cated for the church, but preferred to devote himself to oriental literature. In his enthusi asm for this pursuit he enrolled himself as a common soldier in the expedition to the French colonies in the East Indies, in 1755, chiefly for the purpose of discovering the ancient books of the Parsees. He visited Chandcrnagore, Surat, the coast of Ooromandel, and was just about proceeding to Benares when the capture ANSALONI ANSDELL >3T of Pondicherry forced him to return to France, where he arrived in 1762, without money, but with valuable oriental manuscripts. He was appointed interpreter of oriental languages at the royal library, was admitted to the academy of inscriptions and belles-letters, and in 1771 he published in French the first translation of the Zend-Avesta ever made in an occidental 1 mguage, with an account of his travels and a life of Zoroaster. AASALOM, Giordano, a Sicilian Dominican missionary, died by torture at Nagasaki, Japan, Nov. 18. 1634. Hearing that in the Jap anese islands Christians were persecuted with the utmost barbarity, he went with a Spanish missionary expedition to the Philippine islands, learned the Japanese language in a Chinese and Japanese hospital at Manila, and in 1632 went to Japan, where he spent two years in the disguise of a native priest. He was finally dis covered and arrested at Nagasaki, where he was tortured to death. Another priest and 69 converts were put to death at the same time. ANSARIES, or Ansarians (Arab. Ameriycli), also called NOSSAIKIAXS, an Arab tribe or sect inhabiting the mountainous district between the northern part of the Lebanon and Antioch, Syria. This range, called the Ansarian moun tains, is much lower than the Lebanon, not averaging more than 4,000 feet. Limestone is the prevailing rock, and thin oak forests cover almost the whole ridge. The Ansaries are to be found also in Antioch, Saida, Latakieh, and other towns and villages on the coast. Their chiefs live in Bahluleh, Simrin, and Safeta. Of their origin and early history little is known. They endeavor to conceal their doctrines from all foreigners, and only male adults are initi ated. Among Moslems they, like the Druses, profess Mohammedanism. Their prophet Nos- sair taught that God has appeared 11 times in human form, in Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Mo hammed, Ali. Ilakem-bi-amr-Illah, and other imams; that he always encountered opposi tion and then returned to heaven, where he wrapped himself in a blue mantle, and at length retired to the sun, which is therefore worshipped by the Ansaries. They wait for the appearance of a Mahdi or Messiah, who will be the last of the 12 imams in whom the Deity assumes a human form. Like the Yezidis of northern Syria, they allow promis cuous intercourse of the sexes on certain fes tivals, and in performing their religious rites they are said to be very licentious. They be lieve in the migration of souls, which for the faithful is a progressive purification till they become stars ; but those who neglect their re ligious duties, betray the mysteries, or deny the divinity of Ali, are doomed to transforma tions into Jews, Christians, Mohammedans, donkeys, dogs, and hogs. They have four de grees: shamsi, worshippers of the sun ; kama- //, worshippers of the moon; klesi or kadami, worshippers of women ; and shemali (shcmal, north ; literally, northerners). They practise circumcision and ablutions, and pray three I times a day under the open sky. Their chief religious festival is called the Gha- j dir. Their doctrines teach them benevolence, honesty, and patience in adversity, but they ; are thievish, superstitious, and ignorant, though | very hospitable. Each community is governed ; by a mokaddem, who is almost wholly indepen- ! dent. They have frequently defended their | freedom with great courage against Turkish and ! Egyptian pashas. During the crusades they j were found in all parts of Syria and Mesopo- i tamia. The accounts given .of this sect by ! modern travellers vary, and must be received j with caution. According to Mme. Audouard j (U Orient et ses peuplades, Paris, 1867), they | are divided into three parties, considerably dif- | fering from each other. The most numerous ! of them worship a beautiful young woman, ! who is elected to the dignity of goddess every j third year. Among the Ansaries it is usual to ! reckon the sect of the Kadamisseh, who live I east of them in several valleys of the Cadmus \ mountains. They keep apart, however, from the i Ansaries, do not intermarry either with them or any other neighboring sect, and have their I own religious customs. Like the Assassins of the middle ages, they call themselves Ismaelians. AASCARHS, or Ansgar (Fr. Ansehaire), Saint, the "apostle of the north," born in Picardvin | 801, died at Bremen in 864. Educated in the : old Benedictine monastery of Corbie, near ; Amiens, he was early transferred to a new one ! recently founded at Ivorvey on the "NVeser, where ! he distinguished himself as a teacher. When I Harold of Denmark, who had been baptized in ! Mentz, returned to his country, he took with | him as missionaries Anscarius and his colleague Audibert. Success at first attended their efforts, ; but after a time they, as well as the king, were i expelled from the country. Anscarius in 829 i penetrated into Sweden, where he obtained i from the king, Biorn, permission to preach, and I made many converts, returning to his monaste- ! ry in 831 . In the same year Pope Gregory IV. ! made him archbishop of Hamburg and apostolic I legate, and to this appointment the bishopric of | Bremen was afterward added. Pope Nicholas | I. appointed him his legate to preach the gospel I among the Swedes, Danes, and Slavs. lie won i the favor of King Eric of Jutland, and succeeded j in preaching the Christian religion there in 862. I In Sweden he reformed many disorders which had grown up among the new Christians. An- I scarius was not indeed the first who attempted : to propagate the gospel in northern Europe, ! but he was the first to firmly plant Christian- I ity among the Danes and Swedes. ANSDELL, Richard, an English painter, born i in Liverpool in 1815. He is known chiefly as 1 a painter of animals and field sports, although i occasionally attempting a historical work, such as "The Battle of the Standard." Among his best pictures are a number on Spanish sub- i jects. He has also worked in conjunction i with Creswick, the landscape painter. 538 ANSELM ANSPACII ANSELM, a saint and doctor of the Latin church, born at Aosta in Piedmont about 1033, died in Canterbury, England, April 21, 1109. His youth was dissolute, until, at the age of 27, he entered the Benedictine monastery of Bee in Normandy, of which in 10(53 he succeeded Lanfranc as prior, and in 1078 became abbot. In 1092 he was invited to England, and in 1093 was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury as successor to his friend and master Lanfranc, since whose death in 1089 the see had been vacant. In this office he had several meraora- I ble conflicts with William Kufus and Henry I., especially on the subject of ecclesiastical investi tures, and was deprived for a time of his bish opric, passing several years in France and Italy. Anselrn is generally regarded as the earliest of the scholastic theologians. As a religious phi losopher he had no superior in his own age, and few superiors in any age. His greatest works, and those which have won for him the surname of "the Augustine of the middle ages," are his treatise I)e Concordia Prcedesti- nationis, and the treatise Cur Deus Homo, in which he illustrates the doctrine of satisfaction, which has since his time ruled in the theory of the atonement. The best and most complete edition of the works of Anselm is that issued in 1675 at Paris, under the direction of the Benedictine monk Gabriel Gerberon. ANSON, a S. county of North Carolina, bor dering on South Carolina, bounded N. by Rocky river, and E. by the Yadkin; area, 650 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 12,428, of whom 6,951 were col- \ ored. The Yadkin furnishes abundant water power. The surface is hilly ; the soil is good and well suited to cotton. The productions in 1870 were 39,928 bushels of wheat, 149,726 of j corn, 46,851 of oats, 25,569 of sweet potatoes, and 4,311 bales of cotton. There are several cotton factories. The county was named in honor of Lord Anson, who owned a great deal of property here. Capital, Wadesboro. ANSON, George, lord, an English admiral and navigator, born at Shugborough, Staffordshire, April 23, 1697, died June 6, 1762. He entered the navy when a boy, was made a post captain in 1724, and received the command of the Scarborough man-of-war. Between 1724 and 1735 most of his time was spent on the Caro lina station, where he founded the town of Ansonburgh. In 1739 England declared war with Spain, and he was appointed to the com mand of a squadron which was to proceed to the South sea, and harass the Spanish trade and settlements in that quarter. The expedi tion, wretchedly equipped, heavily laden with private merchandise in spite of Anson s re monstrances, and some of the vessels unsea- worthy, sailed Sept. 18, 1740. He lost part of his fleet off Cape Horn, a great part of his men died of scurvy, and he finally crossed the Pa cific ocean with only a single ship. In conse quence of these disasters, the original object of the expedition was abandoned, but Anson was enabled to explore the coasts and islands of the Pacific, and make important discoveries. Every coast and harbor he visited was carefully sur veyed, and he made a large collection of Span ish charts and journals. With his single vessel he took Payta, on the coast of Peru, and a number of ships, among them the Manila gal leon, laden with treasure. Throughout the voyage he showed great courage, prudence, and fertility of resource, besides tender care of his sick men and humanity toward his prisoners. He returned home with his prizes in June, 1744, having eluded the French channel fleet during a fog, and was soon afterward made rear ad miral of the white and a commissioner of the admiralty, in 1746 vice admiral of the blue, and in 1747 of the red. He commanded the chan nel fleet in 1746- 7, and on May 3, 1747, cap tured off Cape Finisterre most of the French India fleet, consisting of nine ships, and carry ing over 3,000 men and 420 guns. This achievement procured him a peerage as Lord Anson, baron of Soberton. He was first lord of the admiralty from 1751 to 1756, and again from 1757 till his death. In 1761 he was made admiral of the fleet, and soon afterward sailed from Harwich in the Charlotte yacht, to bring the future bride of George III. to England. Anson s "Voyage round the World," prepared by Benjamin Robins from materials furnished by the navigator (4to, London, 1748), passed through four editions the first year, and has been translated into many languages. His title expired with him, but his name was assumed by his nephew and heir George Adams, whose son was created Viscount Anson, and his grand son earl of Lichfield. ANSON, George, British commander-in-chief in India, born in London, Oct. 13, 1797, died of cholera at Kurnaul, May 27, 1857. He was the second son of the first Viscount Anson, and uncle of the first earl of Lichfield. At an early age he entered the Scots fusilier guards, with which regiment he served at the bat tle of Waterloo. In 1825 he was placed on half pay with the rank of lieutenant colonel ; in 1851 he became major general. He sat in parliament for many years as a whig. In 1855 he was appointed commander-in-chief in India, where he held the local rank of general. He died soon after the sepoy rebellion began. ANSONIA, a manufacturing village in the town of Derby, New Haven co., Conn.., on the E. bank of the Naugatuck river and on the Naugatuck railroad, 9 m. W. N. W. of New Haven; pop. in 1870, 2,749. It was estab lished by Phelps, Dodge and company of New York, and named from Mr. Anson G. Phelps. It has 11 rolling mills, 2 founderies, white lead works, woollen mills, extensive clock, hoop skirt, and other factories, good public water works, a bank, several churches, and many fine residences. The fall in the river at this point affords excellent water power. ANSPACH (Ger. Ansbach, formerly Onolz- ~bach ; Lat. Onoldum), a town of Bavaria, capi tal of the government of Middle Franconia, ANSPAOH ANSTEY 53d and formerly of the principality of Anspach- I Baireuth, which gave the title of margrave to j a branch of the house of Brandenburg. The j town is situated at the junction of the Holz- bacli with the Lower Rezat, in the government | of Middle Franconia, 24 m. W. S. W. of Nurem berg; pop. in 1871, 12,035. It has a beautiful castle, a picture gallery, a library, manufactures of surgical instruments, cutlery, cotton, wool- , len, and silk stuffs, leather, earthenware, white i lead, tobacco, cards, parchment, &c., and a j trade in wool, flax, and grain. It owes its ! origin to the monastery of St. Gunibert, found- j ed here in the 8th century. The last margrave, Christian Frederick Charles Alexander, son of the duchess of Baireuth, the sister of Frederick the Great, and nephew of Queen Caroline, the wife of George II., was born in 1736 and died in 1806. He spent most of his life in travel and gallantry, married the celebrated Lady Craven (see next article), and left a name re nowned in the scandalous chronicles of the continent. In 1790 he sold his principality to Prussia for about $300,000. ANSPACH, Elizabeth, margravine of, youngest daughter of the fourth earl of Berkeley, born in December, 1750, died in Naples in January, 1828. She was married in her 17th year to Mr. Craven, afterward earl of Craven. She then had beauty, fascinating manners, and much talent. After having been married 13 years, during which time she had seven chil dren, she separated from her husband, pro ceeded on a very extensive tour, visiting Italy, j Austria, Greece, Turkey, Poland, and Piussia, I and was received with eclafby several crowned j heads. Finally she went to reside at Anspach, j where she established a theatre, wrote plays ! and directed their performance, and became an ! important personage with the margrave, whose I wife was generally confined to her chamber by j ill health, and soon after died. Lady Craven continued a visitor at Anspach, and accompa nied the margrave on his excursions to other courts and his tours through Italy, England, and Portugal. Lord Craven died in Septem- I ber, 1791, and his widow was soon afterward married at Lisbon to the margrave, in a very ostentatious manner. Returning to England, her three daughters refused to see her, "out of respect to their father," her eldest son neg lected her, and her brother, Lord Berkeley, reproached her for marrying again so soon after her late husband s death. Her reply was, that " it was six weeks after Lord Craven s decease that she gave her hand to the mar grave, which she should have done six hours after had she known it at the time." Queen Charlotte intimated that she could not be re ceived at court, and refused to grant an audi ence to the margrave, who had settled in Eng land, purchasing Brandenburg house, in the suburbs of London, subsequently so well known as the residence of Queen Caroline. In 1802 the margravine received a patent from the emperor of Germany, creating her Princess Berkeley ; but the queen of England still de clined seeing her. In 1806 the margrave died, aged 70, leaving 150,000 to his widow. After wandering over Europe, she finally settled at Naples. Her latter years, spent in literary re tirement, were respectable. She wrote several farces and musical pieces, and was an accom plished composer. She published "Memoirs of the Margravine of Anspach, formerly Lady Craven, written by Herself" (2 vols., London 1825), which is only an apology for her life. Among her other works were two volumes of travels in Europe and the East, in letters to the margrave before their marriage. ANSTED, David Thomas, an English physicist, born in London in 1814. He was educated at Cambridge, and has been professor of geology at King s college, London, and the college of civil engineers at Putney. During the last 25 years he has been principally engaged on works illus trating the application of geology to engineer ing and mining. Besides several treatises on geology and related subjects, he has published "Scenery, Science, and Art" (1854), "The Channel Islands" (1862), "Correlation of the Natural History Sciences " (1863), "The Ionian Islands" (1863), and "Physical Geography" (4th ed., 1870). He has also contributed largely to the scientific reviews ; and while vice presi dent of the geological society he edited several volumes of their quarterly review. As a con sulting engineer he has a high reputation. ANSTER, John, an Irish poet, born at Charle- ville, in the county of Cork, about 1798, died in June, 1867. He was educated at Trinity college, Dublin, and published in 1819 a volume of " Poems and Translations from the German." These were favorably reviewed in "Black- wood s Magazine," to which some of them had been originally contributed, and gained for him the friendship and encouragement of Coleridge. By his advice, Anster completed his version of Goethe s "Faust," specimens of which had already appeared in "Blackwood." Mr. An ster was called to the Irish bar in 1824, and was for some time regius professor of civil law in the university of Dublin. He published a second volume of "Poems and Translations" in 1837, and an "Introductory Lecture on the Study of the Civil Law " in 1849. ANSTEY, Christopher, an English satirical poet, bornatBrinkley, Cambridgeshire, Oct. 31, 1724, died at Chippenham in 1805. He is only re membered for his amusing satire called "The New Bath Guide," the profit on the sale of which was declared by Dodsley to be greater than he had ever gained in the same period from any other book. The principal targets for the writer s shafts are physicians and Meth odists. Smollett borrowed largely from this poem in " Humphrey Clinker." AJVSTEY, Thomas Chisholm, an English author, born in London in 1816. He was called to the bar in 1839, removed to Ireland, was member of parliament for Youghal from 1847 to 1852, and from 1854 to 1858 was attorney general 540 ANT at Hong Kong. Ho has published several works, the most important of which are "A Guide to the Laws of England affecting Ro man Catholics" (1842), and "Guide to the History arid Constitution of England. 1 AJVT, an insect belonging to the family for- micidcv (or formicarice, Latreille), of the sub order hymenoptera or membranous-winged in sects. There are numerous genera and seve ral hundred species known and described from various parts of the world. Some species have been famed from remote antiquity for the intelligence displayed in their labors. The habits of others are as yet insufficiently studied, or where ascertained exhibit a lower grade of development. Many species, which are com mon to the temperate regions of both conti nents, agree in the following respects: they live in communities consisting of hundreds and even thousands of individuals, of which the fertile females are the largest, the males next in size, and the infertile females (commonly termed nurses or workers, and improperly neuters) the smallest. The last, however, in some species are of at least two different sizes, which are respectively known as the soldier or major and the minor worker. These differ especially from the fertile females in the lack of development in the ovaries and wings. All of these forms, however, are hatched from eggs, not observably differing, which are not glued singly to one spot, as in the honey-bee, nor lodged irremovably in cells of clay, as in the case of many wasps, but are scattered about in parcels of three or more, loosely at tached to each other, so that they can be sep arated and carried from place to place at pleasure, during the process of hatching. This is during that season the principal duty of the female and of the nurse ants, as it is afterward to do the same by the large cocoons. This transportation of the eggs has, from their re semblance, led to the erroneous idea that ants lay up grain for winter use; whereas many species never feed at all during the winter, re maining torpid. The eggs are exposed by the worker, or by the female when alone, to the rays of the sun during the early morning, cov ered from its too poAverful influence during the extreme heat of the day, and removed beyond the influence of cold or wet by night. " As soon as the larvae or grubs are hatched, they j are treated in the same manner. Until then- ! maturity the grubs, which are necessarily vora- cious, since they have not only to take up mate- j rial sufficient for their own growth, but for the ! formation of the substance whence to spin I their cocoons, are fed by the nurse ant, or by | the female when alone, with a liquid disgorged ! from the stomach of the parent. When a fe- | male has founded her colony alone, she must be at work early and late, in order to collect sustenance sufficient for herself and for the support of the 20 or more greedy grubs. As soon as the grubs have attained maturity, if of those species which are destitute of stings, they I generally spin their cocoons, of a membranous i texture and a brownish-white color, which considerably resemble barleycorns. The co coons are treated precisely as were the eggs and the grubs, in their exposure to proper temperature, and their removal from undue j extremes of heat or cold, until they are ripe for their second birth, when the young ants are cut out of their cerements by the mandi bles of the nurse ants. Early in the pairing season, both males and females are to be seen in great numbers in all the ant hills, provided with glistening wings, mixed with the wingless workers, who keep diligent watch over them, posting regular sentries and never allowing them to escape beyond the limits of the colony without a guard, several of whom may at times be observed dragging back a deserter by the limbs. There always seems to be a dis position among the winged ants to desert the colony, but the workers never accede to this truant disposition, but resist it to the utmost, nor ever yield unless the breeders become too numerous to be fed or guarded by them. The actual copulation does not take place in the ant hills, but at some small distance from them, and not infrequently in mid-air ; and scouts are | always on the lookout to drag back the fertil- I ized females to the principal settlement, or to form small independent parties, which seize a female and found a colony on their own ac- : count. Sometimes it will happen, so great is i this propensity to ramble on the part of the | females after their impregnation is complete, ! that an original settlement is wholly deserted, i owing to the workers who have gone off in j pursuit, if they have been led too far from i home to care about return, forming fresh col- j onies in whatever place they succeed in cap- ! turing a fugitive queen. Occasionally, when ! an impregnated female escapes by herself, she lays her eggs and establishes her own colony, unassisted by the workers ; in which case she | herself performs the duties to the eggs which ! would otherwise be rendered by the nurse | ants. The males, after their duties of impreg- | nating the females are performed, are permit- | ted to stray away after their own pleasure, i without any effort on the part of the workers j to retain them, and die shortly afterward. It I was formerly supposed that all ants procured I wings at a certain stage of their growth ; ..but ANT it was discovered by the younger Huber that I in the males and females they are gradually j developed from the first day of their existence, j until, when their purpose has been fulfilled, i they are dislocated and cast aside like worn- j out clothes. Besides the labors of the work ing ants, or neuters, already described, they have the task of forming the streets, chambers, j and habitations of the colony, repairing them, | thatching them, fortifying them against _the | weather by various operations of mining, j masonry, or carpentry, performed with won- j derful skill, and under circumstances which prove the possession of some powers or senses beyond our comprehension. It is, however, noticeable that the possession of elbowed or flail-shaped antenna is almost in- i variably associated with a high degree of in- j telligenoe, evidenced by constructive ability, j command of language, &c,, as in the bees, j wasps, and ants. The most remarkable of the i mining ants are the formica sanguinaria of j Germany and the F. cwpitum or tuft ant of I England, which perforate long galleries in the \ clay, removing all the rubbish, and building buttresses to support their work, by aid of i their mandibles only, and then overcasting the { whole with a thatch of grass stems and heather against wet or cold. The most common of the mason ants are the red and yellow field j ants, which erect superficial habitations ; first raising pillars, then springing arches from i pillar to pillar, and lastly erecting above them j the loose piles of soil which we know as ant hills. Their materials for these edifices are the soil, sand, and clay, kneaded with rain j water into a tenacious mortar, which is be- j smeared over wheat stalks, blades of grass, or j any casual supports which they can find. The ; carpentering ants are those which, like the j emmet, F. fuliginosa, of Europe, and the F. ; carycB or walnut ant of the United States, per forate their cells in the solid timber of growing trees, boring or chiselling them out, side by j side, at all sorts of divergent curves, and some- < times at right angles one to the other, appar- . | ently in conformity with no plan, and carried on in accordance with the will of the excava tor only, until they come so closely into rela- j tion with another series of workings that the | divisions between them are not thicker than j ordinary letter paper, when they instantly ! terminate, or turn aside, without in any known ; instance perforating the partition between the ! several galleries. There is a considerable va- ! riety in the food of ants. A favorite article of diet is honey in some of its modifications, but i more especially the secretions of the various i species of aphides, known as honey dew, j which is found besmearing the leaves of ! plants, and which is so injurious to the vege- ! tables when it becomes thick enough to ob- ! struct the pores ; and it is on this account that J wherever aphides abound, ants will ever be j found attending on their motions. Some vari- ! eties of ants are in the habit of capturing root- i sucking aphides and imprisoning them in their cells, with a view to feeding on their honey dew. In this case the ants take the same care of the "root lice" as they do of their own young. Many ants subsist largely on decay ing animal and vegetable matter, rendering themselves very serviceable as scavengers, and as assistants to the naturalists in the prepara tion and cleaning of the skeletons of small animals for museums. The allusion in Prov. vi. 0-8 to the habits of an Asiatic species, is also applicable to a Texan ant, myrmica mole- faciens, which is reported by observers to not only feed upon a certain grain, the seed of aristida stricta, but also to plant, cultivate, and harvest it, laying it up in dry cells " against the rainy day/ This species, some times called the "agricultural ant," builds "paved cities, constructs roads, and sustains a large military force." Myrmica molesta, the "troublesome" or the "little red ant," is of a reddish yellow, the worker measuring only _A_ of an inch in length, and is the great pest of houses in many parts of the United States. In other places a large black ant (F. Pennsyl- vanica) takes its place, destroying decaying timbers, books, provisions, specimens of natu ral history, furs, and other property. Very small ants abound in South America, whose bite is so sharp that they are called fire ants ; they are very annoying and destructive, mak ing up in numbers what they lack in size. Some species, especially the wood ant, F. rufa, and the Amazon or warrior ant, F. ruje&cens, as well as the sanguinary ant, F. sanguinaria, are literally slave-holders. They sally out in great swarms on belligerent and predatory ex cursions, for the purpose of capturing and bringing home to their own colonies the eggs and cocoons of other tribes, generally of the dusky ant, F. fusca, which, when hatched in the fortresses of the victors, are compelled to life long labor. Independent of the annual migra tory disposition of all the species, for the pur pose of forming new colonies, sudden impulses, probably connected with facility of obtaining food, at times appear to seize on certain vari eties of ants, leading them all to take wing simultaneously. Strange relations may be found in the "History of the Berlin Academy " for 1749, in the German "Ephemerides," and in the Journal de physique for 1790, of vast clouds of ants, darkening the air, and having a curious intestine motion, like that of the aurora borealis, unconnected with their line of flight, being seen at divers places, and, when they fell, literally covering the earth, so that one could not tread, without crushing them at every footfall. For particulars con cerning the habits and ravages of the great white ant of the tropics, see TERMITES, for that insect is not properly an ant. Du Chaillu has graphically described the formidable le gions of the Cashikonay ant of Africa, before which all animals flee. See tiie works of Baron de Geer and the younger Iluber, Pack- 542 ANTACIDS ANTARCTIC DISCOVERY ard s "Guide to the Study of Insects" (Salem, 1868 et scq.), arid Fitch s " Reports on the Insects of New York." ANTACIDS, certain drugs used to neutralize acid, either in the alimentary canal or circula ting in the blood. For the former indication, the carbonates and bicarbonates of soda and potassa, lime water, chalk, and magnesia with its carbonate, are used. The symptom which they temporarily relieve is, however, often more efficiently treated by regulated diet or by mineral acids. For the second purpose we have, besides the alkalies and their carbonates, including littisa, which is weight for weight the most powerful, the salts formed by them with acetic, tartaric, and citric acids. These acids, when in combination with alkalies, take up in the blood more oxygen, forming carbonic acid, which forms with the bases bicarbonates; so that the alkalization of the blood is attained without the local gastric troubles which might attend the administration of the caustic or carbonated alkalies in equivalent doses. The acetate of potassa, or corresponding salts, are largely used in the treatment of acute rheuma tism where they render the urine alkaline. They also considerably increase its quantity. ANTJE, in ancient geography, a Sarmatian people, between the Dniester and the Don, a branch of the Slavic Veneda) or Wends. Jus tinian overcame them when he caught them in the Roman territory, and gave them new abodes on the other side of the Danube, that they might be a rampart against the Huns. From them Justinian took his title of Anticus. ASTJEUS, a mythological giant of Libya, son of Neptune and Terra, a mighty wrestler, and invincible while he continued in contact with the earth. Whoever visited Libya was bound to wrestle with him, and with the skulls of the vanquished, who were all slain, he erected a temple to Neptune. Hercules overcame him by lifting him off the earth, and strangling him in the air. ANTALCIDAS, a Spartan, who, at the end of the Corinthian war, was sent on an embassy to Tiribazus, governor of Sardis, to negotiate a peace with Persia. He succeeded, and the peace, concluded in 387 B. C., with the concur rence of several Grecian states, was called after his name. It excited universal indigna tion throughout Greece, for Sparta had sacri ficed to the Persian monarch the general inter ests of Greece in order to gratify her jealousy of the Athenians and Thebans. On being sent again to obtain the promised subsidies from the Persian king, he was tricked by the ori entals, and fearing the popular indignation at home, he starved himself to death. ANTAR, properly Antarah, an Arabian prince and poet of the 6th century, author of one of the Moallakat, the seven poems suspended on the Caaba at Mecca. A copy of a work called "Antar," celebrating the exploits of the prince, is in the imperial library of Vienna ; and in the catalogue of the books written by Von Hammer there is some account of this ro mance. The legends of his exploits appear to have been embodied in a book and consider ably enlarged by Asmai or Osmay, at the court of Haroun al-Rashid. He appears to have been aided in this by Yohainah and Abu Obeidah. The copy translated by Mr. Terrick Hamilton, oriental secretary to the British embassy at Constantinople, was pro cured at Aleppo, and is comprised in a smaller form than any other as yet sent to Europe. The voluminous work had, it appears, been curtailed of many of its repetitions and much of its poetry by some learned inhabitants of Syria, and was therefore called the Shamiyeh or Syrian Antar, in contradistinction to the original large work, which was called the He- jaziych or Arabian Antar. Though usually written in a continuous form, the story may very properly be divided into three parts. The 1st reaches to the marriage of Antar and Ibla; the 2d includes the period when the hero suspends his poem at Mecca; the 3d comprises the death of Antar and most of his comrades and relatives. Von Hammer, who twice read through the original, declared it to be "more interesting than the celebrated Thousand and One Nights ; " and Sir William Jones says : "I have only seen the 14th volume of this work, which comprises all that is elegant and noble in composition. So lofty, so various, and so bold is its style, that I do not hesitate to rank it among the most finished poems." With the Arabs it is a standard work. It is certainly one of the most ancient books of Arabian lit erature. Its language is uncommonly pure, equally remote from the harshness of the ear lier or the conceits of the later authors. ANTARCTIC DISCOVERY. The ancient geog raphers, among others the Greek Ptolemy, supposed a continent to exist near the south pole, and to extend to a great distance around it. On nearly all maps published before the middle of the last century, this continent is vaguely given as "Terra Australis Incognita. 11 Captain Cook, by his second voyage, first threw doubt upon this theory. He was everywhere prevented by large masses of ice from reaching any high southern latitudes, and he could dis cover no land. In the few cases in which he passed beyond the Antarctic circle he reached only 61 10 S. latitude. In 1819 the South Shetland islands were seen but not visited by Capt. William Smith, the commander of a mer chant vessel, driven far to the south in trying to round Cape Horn. In 1821 Trinity land, lying S. of the South Shetlands, in about lat. 62 S., was discovered by How ell, an Englishman ; Palmer s land to the westward of Trinity land, forming a part of the same coast line, by Pal mer, an American; and still further to the south and west the Russian Bellinghausen found Alexander s land. Weddell, the next English explorer, made no discoveries of land, but reached lat. 74 15 S. Enderby s land, lat. 67 30 b., long. 50 E., and Graham s ANTARCTIC DISCOVERY ANT-EATER 543 land, a still further southwestern extension of Palmer s hind, were discovered in 1831 and 1832 by Biscoe, who circumnavigated the southern ice region, an expedition having been fitted out for the purpose by Messrs. Enderby, merchants of London. In 1837 and 1838 Du- mont d Urville and Balleny made comparative ly unimportant explorations ; and in 1839 the French and American governments each sent out an expedition for a voyage of discovery m the Southern ocean. Dumont d Urville com manded the French ships, and Lieut. Charles line is one that greatly needs confirmation ; isl ands lay all about his course a little further to the north, and they may easily have been the only interruptions the solid ice tloe found to the south. The French expedition under D Urville also discovered a considerable extent of coast in the same quarter, and named it Adelie ; but he succeeded no more than Wilkes in es tablishing the fact of its continuity for any great distance. It is now generally conceded that it would be rash to assume from the results of these two expeditions that the existence of a great antarctic continent is proved. In Janu ary, 1841, Capt. James Clarke Ross, who com manded an English expedition in the Erebus and Terror, discovered a line of coast trending southward from a point near lat. 70 41 S., Ion. 172 30 E. Here were mountains 9,000 to 12,000 feet high, of volcanic origin; one, Mt. Erebus, in lat. 77 32 S., Ion. 167 E., was active, and near it was an extinct crater which Ross called Mt. Terror. The whole line of coast discovered by Ross was steep and rocky, and the land he saw (Victoria Land) was, like almost all that seen by the other explorers, entirely bare. Since 1842 no important dis coveries have been made in the antarctic seas. ANTARCTIC OCEAN, and Antarctic Circle. See POLAR SEAS, and POLAR CIRCLES. ANT-EATER, the popular name of the Sonth American species of the old genus myrmeco- pliaga, of the edentate order of mammals, from the principal food of these animals. The or dinal characters are given under EDENTATA. The South American ant-eaters are covered with hair ; the scaly ant-eaters of the old world are described under PANGOLIN. Xone of them have any teeth, and the plantigrade anterior feet are armed with enormous claws, bent downward and inward toward the palm, so that Wilkes the United States fleet of four vessels. On Jan. 16, 1842, Wilkes s officers discovered land from the masthead in about Ion. 160 E., lat. 61 S. The expedition followed the indi cations of land to the westward for several days, and afterward for several weeks sailed along an immense ice field, which Wilkes thought to be a continuous barrier lying along the coast of an antarctic continent. As he saw land only at a few widely separated points, his inference that there existed a continuous coast Great Ant-Eater (Myrmecophaga jubata). the animal walks on the outer edge of the foot. In this way the points are kept unbroken, serv ing as admirable instruments for tearing down ant hills, though they render the gait of the creature very slow and awkward. The bones of the jaws and nose are elongated into a kind of tube, nearly cylindrical, at the end of which is the small circular mouth, from which is pro truded the long tongue covered with a gluti nous saliva by which its food is captured. The great ant-eater or ant bear (myrmecophaga ju- ANT-EATER ANTELOPE bata), the tamanoir of the Portuguese, is about 4 feet long, with a bushy tail of 2 feet more, . the head being more than a foot long; the height at the shoulder is about 8 feet, and at the croup 5 inches less. The claws are 2 inches long, sharp-pointed, with cutting edges, | but so directed that they are comparatively use- ; less as weapons of defence or offence, and ap plicable only to the motions of tearing down ant hills ; there are 4 on the fore feet and 5 on the hind. The tongue may be protruded to j the length of 18 inches. The hair is long and ! coarse, brown mixed with gray at the head, and with white on the body and tail ; the throat is black, with a broad stripe of this color, bor dered with a narrower white one, running over the shoulders to the rump ; arms and thighs silvery white, and hind legs black ; breast and under parts brown. The claws when not in use are folded against a callous pad in the palms and soles. Though large and powerful, it is very stupid and inoffensive, and allows itself to be overpowered by the meanest enemies, which it could easily hug and tear to death, did it know enough to exert its great strength. It is wholly terrestrial, unable to climb trees from the structure of the claws and the absence of prehensile power in its uncommonly plumy tail; it makes no burrow, covering its body when at rest by the tail, which, with its long mane, makes the creature resemble a bundle of coarse loose hay. The female has a single young one, which she carries on her back long after it can provide for itself. Its food consists exclusively of ants; it obtains them by tearing open the hills, and drawing its glutinous tongue over the insects, at the rate, it is said, of two protrusions in a second. The flesh of the ant bear is black and of a musky flavor, but it is eaten by the Indians and negroes, and at times even by the European colonists. It is a native of South America, from Colombia to Paraguay, and from the shores of the Atlantic to the foot of the Andes ; but it is nowhere a numerous species, being rarely seen even in its native re gions. Like all animals using a purely insect diet, it is capable of enduring a total deprivation of food for almost incredible periods. The tamandua, M. tamandua, does not exceed the size of a large cat. Its head is less dispropor tionately long, but is of the same cylindrical form with that of the larger animal, with which also correspond the formation of its anterior and posterior extremities, the construction and number of its toes, and the shape and form of its claws. The most remarkable difference be tween the two animals lies in their tails, that of the tamandua, which is a purely sylvan ani mal, living exclusively in trees and never found on the ground, being bare on the inferior side and of singular prehensile power. The hair over the whole body of the tamandua is uni form, short, crisp, and shining, a sort of silky wool standing out from the body; and it varies much in color in different individuals. The female has butt\vo pectoral mammae, and bears but one young one at a birth, which is of a light straw color and very ugly. The taman dua feeds on termites, ants, honey, and even bees, which in those countries make their hives in the topmost branches of the forest trees, and are stingless. It is a native of tropical Ameri ca. The little or two-toed ant-eater,, cycto- thurus didactylus, is not larger than the com mon squirrel. It has but four toes on its hind feet, and two on the fore feet. Its whole length, from the snout to the insertion of the tail, is but 6 inches ; the length of the head is not quite 2 inches, while that of the tail is j about 9. In general form it resembles the ta- mandua, but its muzzle is shorter and less tapering. Its ears are short and drooping, and are nearly concealed among the fur, which is ! long on the head and cheeks. The hair on the | body and sides is long, soft, and glossy, much [ shorter on the tail, of a uniform light straw color, tinged with maroon along the back, | where it has a strongly marked line. The tail i is bare of fur at the under surface toward the ! end, and is very prehensile. The ribs are very broad and flat, overlapping each other. It lives in trees, having many of the habits of squirrels; it feeds on the larva? of wasps and | other insects, which it picks out of their nest? j with great dexterity. Like other ant-eaters, it , is nocturnal in its habits, being fond of sleeping by day with its tail securely twisted around a : branch. It has four mamma?, two pectoral and , two abdominal, and bears but one offspring at i a birth. Its native countries are Guiana arid Brazil ; farther south it is unknown. ANTELOPE, an animal of the family antilopea, ruminating mammalia, with hollow horns, con ical, bent buck, cylindrical or compressed, ringed at the base. The occipital plane forms I an obtuse angle with the frontal plane. The \ core of their horns is thin, consisting of a dense bone, often with a clear sinus at the base i within. Teats two or four. Feet pits in the : hind feet, and generally in the fore feet also. Perhaps the most certain characteristic of the ! antelopes is the cylindrical and annulated form | of their horns, which are never angular, or I provided with prominent longitudinal ridges, like those of the sheep and goats. They are also generally distinguished by having the lach rymal sinuses peculiar to the solid-horned an imals of the cervine family, and possessed by the antelope alone of the hollow-horned rumi nants, though not by all the species. In other respects, the different species of antelopes vary as widely as can be conceived. Many approach the deer so closely that the hornless females of the two families can hardly be distin guished apart; although the difference would appear on dissection, the true solid-horned deer being possessed of neither gall bladder nor gall duct, which belong to all the hollow-horned ruminants. They are the fleetest, as they are the most beautiful and most graceful of quad rupeds. They are, generally speaking, both gre garious and migratory, occasionally uniting in ANTELOPE vast herds. Africa is the headquarters of the antelope family in regard to variety, heauty, and numbers. Madagascar and Australia possess no antelopes; Hindustan and Further India have several varieties ; western Europe and Amer ica each but a single species. Originally, all white, divided by coal-black lines; the common antelope of India, A. cervieapra ; the madoqua, A. saltrara, the smallest of all horned animals, i not exceeding a hare in size ; the steinbok, tho ourebi, the grysbok, the klipspringer, and the , bush goat, with the red reed buck, the water I buck, and the sable antelope, of southern Afri- j ca. The red reed buck (called rietbok in tho . Dutch settlements) is about five feet high and I five long ; its color is gray above and white be- j neath. The sable antelope, a very rare and i beautiful animal, is one of the noblest types of ; the genus ; its back and sides are black, and its ; belly white ; its horns arc more than three feet in length, and are covered with bold ridges. Of the cervine antelopes, by far the most re markable are the gemsbok, oryx yazella, and I the oryx, oryx leucoryx. The former stands Red Reed Buck (Eleotragus arundinaceus). species of antelopes were referred to a single j family; but they are now distinguished into \ two great divisions: the antelopes of the fields, whose nostrils are smooth and free from hairs, ! and the antelopes of the desert, which are beard- ! ed and have bristly muzzles. The antelopes of the fields are again subdivided into three groups : the true antelopes, which have a light, elegant body, slender limbs, small hoofs, short tails, lyrate or conical horns, placed above the eyebrows; the cervine antelopes, with short, deer-like bodies, strong, slender limbs, long tails, cylindrical at the base, with the hair longer at the ends, and muzzles like those of the cervine ruminants ; and the goat-like antelopes, which have a short heavy body, strong hoofs and false hoofs, very short tail, flat and hairy above, and recurved conical horns. Of the true antelopes, the most remarkable are the gazelles of Egypt, Barbary, and Turkey in Asia ; the Ariel gazelle of Egypt and Kordofan; the pal- lah, antilope cepyceros melampus, of southern Africa, with its annulated, lyrate horns, and its sleek hide, painted with brilliant rust color and Addax nasouiacuiatus. 34 feet high at the shoulder, with long straight horns, annulated at the base. His hide is of a deep blue-gray above and snow-white below, divided by marked lines of jet black. Even the lion seldom dares attack him. The oryx is a native of Xubia and Senegal. Another cer vine antelope, not far inferior in size to the last, is the addax of Senegal, which lias preserved itM name unaltered since the days of Pliny. A Sable Antelope (Aigoccms niger). VOL. i. 35 Siberian Antelope (Saiga Tartarica). 546 ANTELOPE ANTEXOR species less familiar than either of those jnst ! named is the Siberian antelope (saiga coins or j Tartarica), an animal inhabiting the region of ; the Caucasus, northern Persia, and Siberia. It i is of medium size, resembling a deer in form, and has a peculiarly curved forehead and face. Its horns are of a light color and semi-transpa rent, and are much valued. The animal is gre- ! garious and migratory in its habits. Of the | goat-like antelopes there are several of the ori- : ental species; but the two most conspicuous are the European chamois, or antelope of the i Alps, rupicapra tragus, resembling a goat with- | out a beard, with short erect horns, suddenly curved backward at the tip, and coarse hair, ; beneath which lies a close coat of wool (see CHAMOIS); and the American prong-horn, A. j Americana, which has considerable affinity to the chamois; its horns only differ from that j Prong-horn (American A antelope s in turning inward at the tip, and in having a short anterior, medial prong. The winter coat of this antelope differs from that of any other known animal ; the hairs, which stand out to the length of two inches at right angles to the body, being tubular, like the quills of a bird, and nearly as brittle as glass. This antelope is fully described in Dr. Richardson s Fauna JBoreali- Americana. The antelopes of the desert are divided into two groups, the equine antelopes and the bovine antelopes. Of the equine antelopes there are but two species : the gnu, A. gnii, of South Africa, called the wildebeest by the Boers, which is nearly of the size of the ass, and has precisely the body, neck, mane, tail, and paces of a small horse, with the limbs, hoofs, and horns of an ante lope; and the brindled gnu or gorgon, cato- Mepas gorgon, called by the Boers the ~blauw wildebeest, of the same country. (See Gxu.) The bovine antelopes are the A. bultalis of northern Africa, equal in size to the largest stag, called by the Arabs beJcker-el-wash, or the wild ox, the hartebeest, the blesbok, the bontebok, and the sassabee of southern Africa ; the korrigum of Senegal; and the doria, or gilded antelope, of western Africa. To these, which complete the list of antelopes as sci entifically distinguished, may be added the highly interesting group of strepsicerce. This group of antilopean ruminants includes the koo doo, strepsiceros kudu, which is fully 4 feet high at the shoulder, with horns nearly as long as the male is high, reflected in a beautiful sweeping spiral of 2-J- turns ; the eland, oreas canna, which is as large as a horse, weighs from 7 to 9 cwt., unlike most antelopes is always fat, and is said to furnish meat superior to beef (see ELAND) ; and the great nil-ghau, portax truc/o- camelus, one of the largest of antelopes, having much the character of the ox, with the horns, head, and muzzle of an antelope, the flat com pressed neck of a horse, with a thin erect mane, increasing into a tufted bunch on the shoulders, and a singular beard-like tuft of stiff hair growing out of the middle of its throat, peculiar to itself alone. Its fore legs are some what longer than its hind ones, and its withers rise so much as to give it the appearance of having a hump. Its color is deep slaty blue, with a white spot on each cheek, and a large white patch on the throat. It is a native of the dee]) forests of India, where it is a vicious and dangerous animal, but it has been taken to England, where it lives and breeds. AATEAJVyE, horn-like members on the head of insects and crustaceous animals. The an tenna) are commonly called feelers, but their functions are not understood. In insects they are two in number ; in crabs and lobsters there are more than two. The antennae of insects are usually composed of minute articulated rings, containing nervous threads, muscles, tracheae, and cellular tissue, forming organs of sensation, motion, and respiration. In most orders the articulations amount to 10 or 11 in number, although they are much fewer in some species, while in others they reach even to 150. The length of the antennas does not depend on the number of articulations, as they are often long when of only three or four pieces, and the reverse. They are inserted on the front of the head in the region of the eye, and connected by means of a ball and socket. The distinction of sex in some species is marked by the peculiar formation of the antennas. In moths the antennas of the male are of more simple construction than those of the female. In moths and beetles they are much longer than the body, while in the common house fly they are comparatively short. Linnasus and Bergman supposed them to be organs of touch, and they were thence termed feelers ; but M. Straus-Durckheim is of the opinion that the antennas are the insect s organs of hearing. Professor Bonsdorf, of Abo in Finland, and other naturalists, have adopted the same opinion. The younger Huber attributed to ants the use of the antennas in a sort of lan guage, which he terms the u antennal lan guage," understood not only among ants them selves, but also among the aphides, which furnish the honey-dew on which ants feed. A1YTENOR, a Trojan prince, son of ./Esyetes and Cleomestra, and one of the wisest among the elders of Troy. He counselled his fellow ANTEQUERA ANTIIOX 5-i citizens to give Helen up to the Greeks. It is said that, having been sent to negotiate for peace with Agamemnon, he concerted with him and Ulysses a plan for delivering up the citv; and when Troy was taken the skin of a panther was hung up at his door as a signal to the Greeks to spare the house. According to some authorities, he afterward founded anew kingdom at Troy on the ruins of the old one; according to others, he settled at Gyrene or on the W. shore of the Adriatic. AMEQl ERA (anc. Antiquaria or Anticaria), a city of Spain, in the province and 25 in. N. by W. of Malaga, with which it is connected by railroad, on the Guadalorce; pop. 25,900. It is situated in a fruitful valley, surrounded by lofty moun tains containing numerous marble quarries, and has many churches and convents, and some remains of antiquity. While the Moors held the kingdom of Granada this city was a fortress of great importance, and the possession of it was constantly contested. A Moorish castle, built on Roman foundations, still exists in the upper part of the city. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in agriculture and the manu facture of cloth, leather, paper, silk, and cotton. MTHELMINTICS. See ENTOZOA. AMHEMHS. I. Emperor of the West from A. D. 467 to 472. He was the son-in-law of the emperor Marcian, and was invested with the purple at the suggestion of Ricimer, who ultimately became his son-in-law. Anthemius and Ricimer soon quarrelled, however, and then the latter, proclaiming Olybrius emperor, laid siege to Rome. The city was taken by storm, and Anthemius was slain. II. An architect and mathematician of Tralles in Lydia, who flourished in the 6th century. He designed for the emperor Justinian the plan and conimenced the building of the church of St. Sophia. A fragment of one of his mathematical works was published at Paris in 1777. AXTHER (Gr. avdr/ P 6s, flowery), the male or gan of the flower. Considered morphologically, it is a modified leaf, the petiole or stem of the leaf becoming the filament of the stamen, and the leaf blade by the separation of its two sur faces forming two theca3 or lodges containing pollen, the midrib of the leaf becoming the con nective of the anther. The filament may be absent, when the anther is said to be ses-sile ; and it may be inserted on the style, as in or chids (in the Limuean class gynandria), or on the corolla. Several filaments may be more or less united, sometimes forming a tube around the style, as in malvacece (class monadelpJi in) ; sometimes a split tube with a single detached filament, as in leguminoscs (class diadelphia) ; sometimes the tube is split into several por tions, forming clusters of stamens (class poly- adelphia). The filaments may differ in length in the same flower, as two short and two long (class didynamia), or two long and four short (class tetradynamia). The number of stamens characterizes 13 classes of the LinnsBan system, which is now wholly abandoned by botanists. The attachment of the anther to the filament varies. Sometimes the connective is only a prolongation of the filament (adnate anther), which may extend far beyond the anther, as in the oleander. If the filament joins the con nective at its centre, it may balance the anther if the connective is linear, in which case the anther is said to be versatile ; or if the con nective is shield-like, bearing several pollen lodges on its lower edge, it is called peltate. Lilies present an example of the first, and in tulips the connective has a funnel-like hollow in which the filament is fixed ; and the juniper, cypress, &c., show the peltate form. The an ther appears in the flower bud before its fila ment as a gland-like excrescence. The two cells on either side the connective often subdi vide into four ; but as the development pro gresses the septum disappears and the anther becomes bilocular, or even, by the removal of the connective, unilocular. The lodges are cylindrical, globose, ellipsoid, cordate, kidney- shaped or hastate, or even, as in the squash, undulating or twisted. The surface may be smooth, or downy, fringed, and bearded, as in lobelias. Anthers may be united in the same way as the filaments, as in composite^ (class syngcncsia), or they may be suppressed or abortive on some of the filaments. From their position on the connective, they are said to be introrse when the lodges face the style, or ex- trorse when they are directed outward, which is the more common position. When the pol len is ripe the anther opens, either by pores at the base or apex (and these pores are some times at the end two tubular extensions of the lodges), as in the potato and melastoma ; or by valves, as in the barberry ; or, what is most common, by clefts or sutures on the edge cor responding to the edge of the typical leaf. After the discharge of the pollen the anther collapses, and, if of a yellow or orange color when full, becomes a dark orange-brown. ASTHON, Charles, LL. D., an American clas sical scholar, born in New York in 171)7, died there, July 29, 1867. His father, Dr. G. C. Anthon, a German by birth, was surgeon gen eral in the British army, and soon after the revolution settled in Xew York. Charles grad uated at Columbia college in 1815, and in 1819 was admitted to the bar. The next year he was appointed adjunct professor of languages in Columbia college. In 1830 he produced his large edition of Horace. In that year, also, he became rector of the grammar school at tached to the college, and in 1835 he sue ceded Prof. Moore as head of the classical department of that institution. For many years it was his constant custom to retire at 10 and rise at 4, so that a large part of his day s work was done by breakfast time; and thus he produced some 50 volumes, consisting chiefly of editions of the Latin classics and aids to classical study, and including a Latin lexicon and a "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities." All his works were republished in England. When 548 ANTHONY ANTHRACITE first made rector of the grammar school, he conferred on the public schools of his native city six free scholarships. ANTHONY, Henry B., an American journalist ; and senator, horn at Coventry, R. I., April 1, 1815. He was educated at Brown university, j became in 1838 editor of the Providence Journal," was governor of Rhode Island in 1849 j and 1850, and declined a reelection in 1851. In 1859 he was elected United States senator i as a republican, succeeding Philip Allen, a j democrat; was reflected in 1864, and again in j 1870. He was a delegate to the Philadelphia ! convention of 1866, and president pro tempore of the senate for some time in 1869 and 1871. ANTHONY, Saint. I. Surnamed the Great, born in Upper Egypt in 251, died in 356. He was rich and well educated, but sold all his possessions, gave the money to the poor, and retired into the desert, where he spent a great many years in ascetic solitude. At the age of 54 he was persuaded to become the director of a number of anchorets who wished to enjoy his instructions. They dwelt in detached cells in Eayoom, near Memphis, and from this estab lishment dates the foundation of the monastic system. St. Anthony twice left his retreat and visited Alexandria : once during the per secution by Maximian in 311, when he hoped to obtain the crown of martyrdom ; and again in 355, to support his friend Athanasius against the Arians. During his seclusion he is said to have neglected ablutions, clothed himself simply in a hair shirt, and fought with devils. He was reported to have cured a cutaneous disease known before his time as the "sacred tire," but afterward as St. Anthony s fire, and later as erysipelas. On this tradition an order bear ing his name was founded (1095) for the care of patients with this disease by Gaston, a rich French nobleman, at St. Didier-la-Mothe, in gratitude for a supposed cure wrought on his son by the reputed bones of the saint. II. Of Padua, born in Lisbon, Aug. 15, 1195, died in Padua, June 13, 1231. He was one of the leaders of the newly established order of Fran ciscan monks, and, desirous of martyrdom, embarked for Africa, was shipwrecked on the coast of Italy, and preached with wonderful eloquence and success in the cities of Mont- pellier, Toulouse, Bologna, and Padua. He was canonized by Pope Gregory IX. in 1232, and is honored especially in Portugal and Italy. ANTHONY, Susan Brownell, an American re former, born in South Adams, Mass., Feb. 15, 1820. Her father was a member of the society of Friends. She was employed in his cotton factory, completed her education in a school at Philadelphia, and from 1837 to 1852 was a teacher in the state of New York. She be came interested in the cause of temperance, and an admission to a convention being denied to her on account of her sex, she called a conven tion of women (1849), and since that time has been conspicuous in various philanthropic and reformatory movements. She has identified herself especially with the agitation for female suffrage, in the interest of which she has visited many parts of the United States, and delivered numerous lectures and addresses. In 1868 she founded in New York a journal called "The Revolution," which she conducted for some time in conjunction with Mrs. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Parker Pillsbury. She has acted on several occasions as delegate of the New York working women s association. ANTHRACENE (C 14 ILo), formerly called para- naphthaline, a solid hydrocarbon which accom panies naphthaline in the last stages of the distillation of coal tar, and which has acquired great importance as the material from which artificial alizarine is now manufactured. In an experiment made on a large scale it was found that 100 tons of tar yielded 63 ton of anthracene, or one ton of anthracene can be obtained from the distillation of about 2,000 tons of coal, not reckoning the quantity of anthracene contained in the pitch. The prep aration of anthracene is conducted as follows: The semi-fluid product of the fractional distil lation of coal tar, commonly called green grease, is placed in a centrifugal machine in order to expel mechanically as much as possible of the oil, and the residue is pressed between hot plates. The crude material is carefully dis tilled, rejecting the portion which comes over between 340 and 350 C., and the portion remaining in the retort is exhausted with rec tified petroleum at a boiling heat, filtered, and cooled. The crystalline mass is expressed and the entire operation repeated several times. On recrystallization from alcohol, the nearly pure anthracene is obtained in rhomboidal plates. If these be carefully sublimed, a chem ically pure product is obtained. Pure anthra cene occurs in bluish-white foliated crystals, having a beautiful violet fluorescence. These crystals are rhomboidal tables. A little above 200 C. it melts to a limpid liquid, which be comes rapidly dark-colored. It is not per ceptibly volatile at 100 C., but between 210 and 220 C. it sublimes easily, yielding a fetid and irritating vapor. Distilled at 350 C., it is partially altered. It is quite soluble in boiling alcohol, and in light naphthas, from which" it crystallizes out on cooling. Heated slightly with fuming sulphuric acid, it dissolves gradually, giving a greenish solution of the sulphanthracene acid. The green color appears to be due to a trace of nitrous compounds of the acid. Nitric acid attacks anthracene vio lently, and chlorine and bromine act upon it, yielding substitution products. Anthracene has been made artificially from toluole and from benzole. The chief use of anthracene is in the artificial production of alizarine. Sev eral patents have been taken out for this pur pose by Grabe and Liebermann, who were the i original discoverers in 1869 of the methods of its manufacture. (See ALIZARINE.) ANTHRACITE (Gr. avOpadr^ like coals, from ! avdpaf-, coal), the most condensed variety of MAP OF THE AXTHKAriTE KEGTOX OF PENNSYLVANIA BY S. HARRIES I)AOD IXHIBITINC ITS RELATIONS TO THE PRINCIPAL MARKETS. ENGINEER OF MIXES. &o. ANTHRACITE mineral coal, containing the largest proportion of carbon and the smallest quantity of volatile matter. Excepting the diamond, anthracite is fie purest form of carbon in its natural state. The best specimens contain 95 per cent, car bon, but the average production of the purest beds of this coal will not exceed 90 per cent., and generally not more than 80 to 87 per cent, carbon. The volatile matter in the dense, hard varieties is almost exclusively water and earthy impurities, but in common varieties the volatile portion consists of water, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen ; while the ash or incombustible matter contains oxide of iron, iron pyrites, silica, alumina, magnesia, lime, &c. The grada tion of anthracite is arbitrary; there is no fixed limit in the descending scale at which anthracite becomes semi-anthracite. A coal containing 80 per cent, carbon may be and often is termed anthracite, while other coals containing 80 per cent, carbon are truly semi-bituminous. The ; superior density, irregular fracture, and general appearance of anthracite are distinguishing , features to common observation ; while water : and ash take the place of hydrogen and oxy gen, or bituminous matter. But anthracite j which contains only 80 per cent, carbon, with 20 per cent, water and incombustible matter, is the lowest grade of commercial coal, and of | little value as fuel. The constituents of an thracite, as determined by ordinary analyses, j and generally published, are only approximate, i They are generally made from picked speci mens, by many men and many methods, each giving widely diverse results even from the j same coal, and the mere aggregates of carbon, volatile matter, and ash, while the distinguishing features and chemical constituents are seldom given. The change from anthracite to semi- anthracite is gradual and imperceptible in the coal beds of the prominent anthracite fields. There is no fixed point at which the one ter minates or the other commences. The same uncertainty is manifest in all published analyses of mineral coal. Xo commonly adopted limit is assigned to the various gradations. Those called semi-anthracite in one place are termed anthracite in others, and vice versa. The same indefinite relations are observable between semi-anthracite and semi-bituminous, and be- \ tween semi-bituminous and bituminous coals ; while the gradations of all carbon compounds ; are alike indefinite and unsettled, down through cannel coal, bitumen, asphaltum, petroleum, naphtha, and carburetted hydrogen gases. The ; uncertainty, however, exists in the mean and not the extreme varieties. Hard, dense anthra cite could not be mistaken for any other class ; : and while light, volatile semi-anthracite might be readily termed semi-bituminous, it could not be mistaken for anthracite. The following table gives the average aggregate constituents of the prominent varieties from the chief anthra cite districts of the world : ANALYSES OF ANTHRACITE. LOCALITY. 1 By whom analyzed, j i -H "3 Carbon. Volatile matter. Ashes. 2-70 3-30 2-25 1-28 2-90 6-95 4-50 4-30 7.00 8-30 3-66 G-40 ?1-60 1-76 ? -94 4-57 ? 9 6-052 7-204 Density. 1 Color of ashes. 1 No. li 0. 1. 2. B. 4 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. ! !. 12. i: , i I. 15. 16. Lackawanna. Carbondale Lehigh District, Mauch Chunk Rogers 1 Reports. . . I Olmsted 1 E E E E E M E B 9 B? ? ? ? 9 ? ? 9 9 9 90-23 90-10 92-60 92-30 92-07 86-09 94-10 85-70 76-10 59-25 85-84 87-40 92-42 86-24 90-72 83-54 94-234 63-694 74-372 84-103 7-07 6-60 5-15 6-42 5-03 6-96 1-40 10-00 16-90 2-44 water. 10-50 6-20 5-97 12-00 8-34 6-89 9 9 19-576 8-693 1-400 1-550 1-553 1-630 1-570 1-460 l-5(iO 1-416 1-350 1-370 1-S50 1-690 1-870 9 9 9 ? Whit*. i. .1 Red. White. Red. 9 Pink. ? 9 9 9 9 ? 9 9 : Pink. Gray. Dr. J. Perey 1 " Beaver Meadow Pottsville District, Tamaqua 11 Delaware mines, mean of 40 varieties " Mammoth coal bed West n Dist.. Lykens Valley, semi-anthracite " " Dauphin, semi-bituminous. . . . Virginia, Price s Mountain Rhode Island. Portsmouth Massachusetts. Mansfield South Wales, hard anthracite Johnson | Rogers 1 Reports. . Johnson Rogers Reports . : M/C. Lea Johnson | A. H. Everett Dr. C. T. Jackson . i De Schaufhauelt.J Taylor " semi-anthracite French. Mayence Jurassic. Lamure Russia. Donetz " Titlis Dr. A. Fvfe M. V. Regnault. .. M. Voskressensky. Henry M. Smith.. New Mexico. Santa Fe. lignitic anthracite.. Sonora, Les Brouces, " The above table is compiled from the best available sources ; and though the analyses are generally from hand specimens, and there fore not commercially useful, they are char acteristic, and indicate the chief constitu ents of the prominent anthracites. The an thracites of Pennsylvania are generally de nominated white-ash or red-ash coals, but the color of the incombustible residue varies from pure white to gray, rose-pink, pink, light- red, brick-red, and brown ; and this variation of color is as marked in the ash of bituminous and all intermediate varieties of coal as in anthracite. The color of the ash is obtained from the oxide of iron, and is no criterion of the character or value of the coal, because these colors exist, from white to brown, in the lowest, oldest, and hardest anthracite, as well as in the upper, latest, softest, and most volatile semi-anthracite and bituminous coals. The nomenclature proposed by Prof. J. P. Lesley and adopted in " Coal, Iron, and Oil," the latest standard work on anthracite, in which the beds are identified in the Pennsylvania anthracite 550 ANTHRACITE fields and connect ed with the bitu minous coal beds of the Alleghany field, designates the lowest work able and consistent bed as A and the highest as X. But this nomenclature denotes series or groups of coal beds, rather than single beds. Fig. 1 presents the gen eral type of the Pennsylvania an thracite strata. The figures in the column and in con nection with the letters indicate thickness in feet. A number of small unworkable seams are not here repre sented. The 15 groups from A to N include 30 beds above 2 ft. thick and 20 seams less than 2 ft. This mode of grouping the beds in the an thracite fields was suggested by the natural divisions of massive sand stone and con glomerate strata in the coal meas ures, and the fre quency with which some of the promi nent groups united as a single bed or divided into two or three beds. In the southern an thracite field of Pennsylvania a few imperfect, ir regular, and im pure "nests" or pockets, rather than beds, of graphitic anthra cite are occasion ally found below A ; but these local deposits have no general horizon, and are valueless for commercial purposes. Though pockets of good III N ptN^fO^t 5 10 12 11 15 H 25 I 10 FIG. 1. ANTUKACITE STRATA coal are sometimes found from 5 to 20 ft, thick, they vary to as many inches, and do not exist as regular and consistent beds. A is usually a small bed of red-ash coal, but two or three thin seams are frequently found in this group which | exist in the conglomerate, or close to it, every- j where. The coals of A generally contain from 10 to 20 per cent, of earthy matter, and are sel dom workable. B is generally a large bed from 10 to 30 ft. thick, but frequently two beds of 5 to 10 ft. each. The lower part produces red- ash coal, and the upper gray or pink. The coal is excellent, and valued for blast furnances, though it contains more silica than the coal of any other workable bed higher in the measures. C is usually a group of small unworkable beds, producing white or gray-ash coals. D is a single bed of pure white-ash coal, generally from 5 to 10 ft. thick. E is the celebrated mammoth, which is a single bed from 20 to 70 ft, thick in some localities, and a group of two and three in others. The coal is always of the white-ash variety, and is hard, dense, pure, and lustrous. Fully eight tenths of the present anthracite production is from this group. F is composed of two small beds of white-ash coal, and is not of much value ; it is oi ten known as the " rough vein." G is generally a large bed from 7 to 10 ft. thick, and always a single one, though the lower stratum produces white-ash and the upper pink or gray-ash. It is locally known as the gray-ash or primrose vein, and is supposed to be identical with the Pittsburgh bed in the bituminous field. All the workable beds, from A to G inclusive, pro duce blast furnace coal ; but the coals of the beds frc-m G to N are less dense and contain less carbon and more volatile matter than the lower coals, and crumble under a high temper ature. They are therefore not used for steam | and furnace purposes generally, but are much valued for household uses, excepting large fur- | nace heaters. They evolve an intense heat, and are free-burning, but will often "clinker" un- i der a strong draught. In the preceding analyt ical table the highest percentage of carbon is 1)4*10 (No. 6), which is a hand specimen from the mammoth bed, E, in the Pottsville district ; but it is a well known fact that the mammoth coals of the Lehigh district are equally as pure and generally more dense than any other an thracite. The average, therefore, of Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 -will give the mean of the hardest and purest anthracite; while No. 5 (M) is a type of the upper coals, and approaches the limit of the true anthracite, as shown by 7 and 8, which are semi-anthracite and semi-bitumi nous. The density and hardness of the coal de crease from A to N in the ascending order, while the volatile matter increases from N to A in the descending order ; and the proportions of carbon increase and decrease in the same ratio and order. The coals of the lower beds are most hard and dense. The middle beds pro duce the purest coal, and the coal of the upper i beds is most soft and friable under heat. The ANTHRACITE 551 same description would apply to the general decrease of carbon and increase of volatile matter in these coal beds from east to west. ! There is a gradual decrease also in the dimen sions of the beds in the same direction. The same gradual change from hard anthracite to semi-anthracite and bituminous is as marked a feature in the South Wales (English) coal fields as in the Pennsylvania coal fields. The general fea tures and fractures of hard anthracite are pecu liar and noticeable to the common observer. They are massive, hard, dense, amorphous or conchoidal in fracture, with fine, sharp edges when bro ken, and a rich satin or an iron-black sub-metal lic lustre. With some local exceptions, the soft er varieties, both red and white-ash, are less mas sive, hard, and dense, more regular and cubical in fracture, and, exclu sive of the upper red-ash beds, less rich and lus trous. The prominent ^ f."ffl 5 anthracite fields of the <j tH < world are those of Penn sylvania and South Wales, which produce nine tenths of the quantity used. The developed coal fields of the world em- s-J 1\\ <5 brace an area of about ^ 3 . : 5 350,000 sq. m., of which EfP / I over 300,000 are in the \v\| | United States, exclusive of lignite. (See COAL.) About 2,000 sq. m. of this entire area contain an thracite, of which half is in the United States, in cluding the somewhat doubtful New England coal fields. The entire coal production of the world in 1871 was be tween 225 and 250 mil lion tons, of which Eng land produced 110 mil lions and the United States 41 millions. About 20 millions of the entire amount was anthracite, of which 15 million tons were produced in Penn sylvania, and the remain der in South Wales, France, and other conn- tries. The South Whales coal field lies on the northwest of the Bristol channel, extending from St. Bride s bay in the east to Pontypool in the west, a distance of 90 m., with a maxi mum breadth of 00 m. Its mean breadth is less than 20 m., presenting an area of about 1,500 sq. m., of which only 1,000 contain work able coal beds. It is divided by an axis parallel to its strike, and divided also into numerous intermediate basins, while the measures undu late both from E. to W. and from N. to S. The deepest part of the field is supposed to be 8,000 ft. Most of the mining has been done by "drifts," and but few shafts had been sunk to any great depth up to 186-i. Twenty-three workable seams exist in the principal basins, averaging altogether 92 ft. of coal. Of these, 12 are from 3 to 9 ft. thick, and 11 from 18 in. to 3 ft. Besides these there are numerous smaller seams from 6 to 18 in. thick. On the N". side of the field the coal is anthracite in character, and resembles the anthracites of Pennsylvania, though generally containing more hydrogen or volatile matter ; on the E. or N. E. the coal is semi-bituminous, and is used exten sively, both raw and coked, in the blast furna ces of the region. On the S. side the coal is of a bituminous character. The change from an thracite to semi-bituminous and bituminous is gradual, and much the same in its metamorphic phases as we find existing in the coal fields of Pennsylvania. There are 1 6 thin seams of iron stone interstratified with the coal ; the general yield of this ore is nqt over 30 per cent, of metal in the furnace. The coal production of South Wales in 1854 was 8,550,270 tons ; of this amount only 1,000,000 tons was anthracite, the total being the products of 245 collieries. The anthracites of Pennsylvania exist in four parallel coal fields, in the counties of Schuyl- kill, Carbon, Columbia, Northumberland, and Luzerne, embracing an area of 470 sq. m. Within these fields numerous parallel basins or synclinal troughs are formed by the peculiar undulations of the strata, which dip at every angle from horizontal to perpendicular. Fig. 2 represents the general grouping of the principal basins of the southern Pennsylvania anthracite field, and the eastern part of the middle field, without reference to local peculiarities and abrupt dips. PENNSYLVANIA ANTHRACITE FIELDS. "Wyoming or Northern Coal Field 19S sq. m. Lackawanna Region Wyoming Keg-ion Middle or Second Coal Field 91 " Shamokin Region Mahanoy Region Lehigh Coal Field 37 " Hazleton Basin Beaver Meadow Big and Little Black Creek Lower Black Creek Green Mountain and other smal basins Southern or Schuylkill Coal Field 146 Lehigh Region (E. extremity) . . . Pottsville Lykens Valley Region.. Middle Region (semi-anthracite)... Dauphin Region (semi -bituminous) 100 sq. m. 93 " 50 " 41 " 10 " 8 " 9 " 5 " Total 16 99 16 15 470 Coal was discovered in the Wyoming valley soon after its settlement, but the first authentic 552 ANTHRACITE account which we find of the use of anthracite | in the United States was in !768- 9, when it was used by two blacksmiths from Connecticut . named Gore. One of these brothers, Jude | Obadiah Gore, related the facts to Judge Jesse Fell of Wilkesbarre, who subsequently commu nicated them to Silliman s " Journal " and Haz ard s "Register." In 1776 coal was quarried j from the Baltimore bed near Wilkesbarre and the Smith mine near Plymouth, and taken down the Susquehanna in arks to the government arsenal at Carlisle. This trade was continued during the revolutionary war, and anthracite ! was used by the blacksmiths and gunsmiths of j the lower Susquehanna from that time forth; I but from the difficulty of making it burn it | was not used for domestic purposes till 1808, when Judge Fell succeeded in burning "stone coal " in a grate of his own construction. An thracite was sold in the vicinity of Wilkesbarre to the smiths at $3 a ton, and in Marietta, on the lower Susquehanna, at $8 to $9 a ton from 1810 to 1814. This was probably the first successful use of anthracite for general purposes in the world. The earliest record of the production of anthracite in France, as given by Taylor, is in 1814; while Mr. Blakewell, an English geologist, says the Welsh coals were "inferior" and not used for domestic purposes in 1813, and but "little used" in 1828. The northern or Wyoming coal field is naturally di vided into two regions, the Lackawanna and the AVyoming, and these into several districts. The Lackawanna region includes the districts on the Lackawanna creek, which empties into the Susquehanna at Pittston. The districts are the old or original Lackawanna, at and around Carbondale, the Scranton, and the Pittston. Around these centres the early developments of the Lackawanna region were made, and j collieries clustered. The Carbondale district | was opened in 1829 by the Delaware and Hud son company s canal and railroad ; the Scran- ton district by the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western railroad, in 1854; and the Pittston | district by the Susquehanna canal in 1843, and j the Pennsylvania coal company s railroad in 1850. The production of the Wyoming or northern coal field in 1871 was 6,481,171 tons. Of this amount 2,867,598 tons was sent from the Wyoming region, and 3,613,573 from the Lackawanna. There are now (1873) nine rail- | roads and two canals employed in transporting j coal from these regions. The coal beds in the j Wyoming portion extend to K (fig. 1), but in the j Lackawanna the number is less, extending only to II or I. The coal of the entire field is an thracite. The first or southern and middle anthracite fields are the next in size and im portance, and in order of development. Their topography and geology differ materially from the northern field, as shown by fig. 2 from Lesley. The valleys in which the coal exists are comparatively narrow, while both anticli- nals and synclinals and the strata of the meas- ures are more abrupt than those of the former. This field terminates in the east on the Lehigh river, in a single point or synclinal trough. In the west are two terminal points or prongs, which are wide apart at their extremities near the Susquehanna. Its extreme length is 73 m. to the end of the Dauphin or south fork, and 10 m. less by the Lykens Valley or north fork. Its mean breadth is 2 m., and its maximum, at Pottsville, 5 m. The number of coal beds is greater in this than in any of the other anthra cite fields. The coal of the E. end is hard an thracite ; of the Lykens Valley fork, semi-an thracite; and of Dauphin fork, semi-biturninous. The middle anthracite field is divided longitu dinally by the Locust mountain anticlinal, over which the coal beds connect at several points. It is divided into two regions. The Mahanoy re gion is 25 in. long, with a mean breadth of nearly 2 m. Its basins are narrow and deep, and the strata abrupt. The Shamokin or northern part, not shown in fig. 2, is 20 m. long, with a mean breadth of 2^ m. The basins are wider, of lens depth, and the strata of less inclination, than the former. The highest bed in this field is K. The coal is generally anthracite, except at the W. extremity, where it is semi-anthracite. The earliest records we find of the existence of coal in the southern and middle coal fields are those on Soul s map of Pennsylvania and Fa- den s "Atlas of North America" (1810- 17). The first discovery for practical purposes, how ever, was made in 1791 by a hunter named Philip Ginter on the Lehigh end of the south ern coal field, and on the site of the since fa mous Lehigh coal quarry at Summit Hill. In the following year the "Lehigh Coal Mine Company " was formed by Robert Morris, J. Anthony Morris, Cist, Weist, Hillegas, and others, who secured 6,000 acres of land and opened the quarry the same year (1792) to test the character and value of the coal. In 1798 a charter was obtained by this company for a sluice navigation on the Lehigh, and in 1803 six arks with 600 tons of coal, from the Sum mit Hill quarry, were started down the river ; but only two, with less than 100 tons each, reached Philadelphia. The city authorities purchased the coal to supply a steam engine used at the water works, then in Broad street; but it could not be made to burn, probably because it was tried in large lumps, and was broken up to gravel the walks of the grounds. In 1806 another ark load was taken to Phila delphia with no better success. It appears, however, from a brief account of "The Dis covery of Anthracite on the Lehigh," in the memoirs of the historical society of Pennsyl vania, written by Dr. T. C. James of Phila delphia, who had visited the mines, that he had commenced using stone coal in the winter of 1804, and, having laid in a supply from this and the former cargoes, continued to use it to the day of publication in 1826. About this time (1800) William Morris, whose mines were near Port Carbon, Schuylkill county, took a load of coal to Philadelphia, but did not succeed in selling ANTHRACITE 553 or bringing his new "stone fuel" into notice, j In 1814 two arks of coal reached Philadelphia, of five which were started from the mines, and , these two cargoes were sold to Messrs. "White and Hazard at the Schuylkill Falls wire manufac tory, at $21 per ton. But previously, in 1812, j Col. George Shoemaker of Pottsville had taken ; nine wasron loads of coal from his mines at ; Centreville, near Pott.^ville, to Philadelphia, and had disposed of two loads at the cost of ; transportation to these gentlemen, who desired to succeed in using it at their manufactory, j Mr. "White and his firemen spent half a day in : the attempt to burn it without success. At j noon they closed the furnace doors and went j to their dinner in disgust with "stone coal;" but on their return they were astonished to find the doors red-hot and the furnace in dan ger of melting. Since then anthracite has been | a desirable and eminently available fuel for all j purposes. Col. Shoemaker, however, had dis- posed of the other seven loads to others who did not succeed in making the coal burn, though this was the free-burning red-ash vari ety, and they obtained a writ from the city authorities for his arrest as an impostor and swindler, who had sold them rocks for coal. The Lehigh navigation was improved in 1820, and during that year 365 tons of anthracite which heads the column of the trade was sent to Phil adelphia and sold at $8 50 a ton. From this time the anthracite trade has steadily increased. Previous to 1847 most of the Lehigh coal was obtained from the open quarry in the mammoth or E bed (not an accumulation of beds, as is generally supposed), on the spot where the coal was first discovered. In 1847 about 2,000,000 tons had been sent from this quarry, and 30 to 40 acres had been excavated from the bed, which is here 50 ft. thick. Since this date the quarry method has been abandoned for regular mining operations by tunnels and slopes. The original "Coal Mine Company" leased in 1817 their whole property and privileges to Messrs. White, Hazard, and company, for 20 years, at an an- | nual rental of one ear of corn ! but they were bound to deliver for their own benefit 40,000 bushels of coal annually in Philadelphia. These gentlemen formed their interests into a stock company the "Lehigh Coal Company" and also organized the Lehigh navigation company, afterward incorporated as the Lehigh navigation and coal company, and subsequently changed to the Lehigh coal and navigation company. The stock of the old coal mine company was bought > up by the new organization. At first the shares, representing 50th parts of the whole property, were bought at $150 each ; the last j brought $2,000. The number of tons shipped | by the Lehigh canal in 1871 was 740,630, and the i total amount by canal from the commencement j of the trade is 26,139,540 tons, of which, how- i ever, a considerable portion was mined in other regions. The Schuylkill canal was projected I in 1814, and so far completed in 1822 that j 1,480 tons were shipped over it to Philadelphia, i Since then 28, 700,015 tons have passed through it, of which 1,010,171 tons were shipped in 1871. The first railway built in the United States, ex cept one of three miles at Quincy, Mass., was a gravity road from the Lehigh quarry at Sum mit Hill to the canal at Mauch Chunk, a dis tance of 9^ m. This was used from 1827 to 1872 for the transportation of anthracite; but on the completion of the Nesquehoning tun nel through the Locust mountain the old gravity line was abandoned as a coal road, and is now devoted to pleasure excursions, for which it has long been famous on account of the novelty of the ride and the picturesque grandeur sometimes beauty of the rapidly changing scenes. The view from the top of Mt. Pisgah, which towers over the waters of the Lehigh, is remarkably wild and grand. The numerous railroads built as feeders to the Lehigh and Schuylkill canals and the principal trunk lines will be found in an accompanying table. The Philadelphia and Reading railroad, opened from Pottsville to Philadelphia in 1841, had trans ported 62,128,735 tons of anthracite up to 1872, of which 4,584,450 tons were shipped during 1871. The Lehigh Valley railroad was opened from Mauch Chunk to East on in 1853, and trans ported 2,889,074 tons in 1871, and a total of 22,981,252 since its completion. This line has since been extended through the Wyoming valley and into th* state of Xew York, on the line of the Susquehanna river. The Lehigh and Susquehanna railroad, opened from the head of navigation on the Lehigh into the Wyoming region in 1846, was extended to Easton as a great trunk line in 1867, and during the next year 1,058,054 tons were transported over it. The term "Lehigh coal region" originally designated only that portion of the southern anthracite field which extended from Tamaqua on the Little Schuylkill to the Lehigh river ; but since the completion of the Beaver Meadow and Hazleton feeders to the main line of canal the name has been applied to all the small middle basins, of which there are six, though three of these the Little, Big, and Lower Black Creek basins are on a tributary of the Susquehanna, and cannot properly be termed Lehigh basins. They produce a hard, dense, amorphous coal, resembling the original Lehigh coal in both feature and character. The geology of these small basins is similar to that of the E. end of the southern and middle anthracite fields. They are long, narrow, canoe- like troughs, nearly parallel in strike with them selves, and with the larger fields to the south, north, and east. The upper productive coal bed in these small basins is E. Xo. 3 in the preceding analytical table represents the gen eral type of these basins. The small percent age of ash, however, is an exception. The number of collieries in these anthracite regions in 1871 was 437, and their entire production, in cluding home consumption (not in the tables), was 17,000,000 tons ; and 52,227 men and boys were employed in and about the mines. 554: ANTHRACITE TABLE OP ANTHRACITE PRODUCTION IN PENNSYLVANIA. (From Bannan and Ramsey s "Coal Trade Statistical Register.") YEARS. Schuylkill. Wyoming and Lackawanna. Lehigh. Lykens Valley. Shainokin. Trevorton. Aggregate. 18fl 365 365 1821 1 073 1 073 1 48 ) 2 240 3 720 1823 1 128 5.823 6,951 1S24 1 5(57 9,541 11.108 6 500 28 393 84,893 18 (> 1 6 707 81 280 48,047 1S ? 7 31 360 3 l > 074 63434 4" >->Sl 30 232 77 516 1829 7 J 173 7000 25 110 112083 1^30 186.059 8 V > ( i84 7,000 43 000 166.131 41 750 359.190 174 734 1831 81 854 54 000 40 906 170 820 1832 1833 209,271 20 971 84.600 111 777 70,000 123 000 363.871 487.748 1834 22(5 6 : )2 43 700 106 1> 44 87(5 636 1835 339 5(18 90 000 131.250 560,758 183(5 432,045 103.861 148,211 084.117 5 *3 15 115387 223 M02 802441 1^38 433875 78207 213 615 725097 1839 442 008 122 300 221,025 11,930 797,863 1S40 8,218,019 4,~y> ")! 846,832 148 470 1.319,963 2^5318 11,930 15505 5,210,685 841 584 1841 585542 192 270 143 037 21.463 932 312 1842 184-3 541,504 077 312 252,599 285,605 272.546 267 793 10.000 10 000 1,070.049 1 240 710 1844 840373 365 911 377.002 13,087 1,596.453 1845 1 (183 796 451 836 429453 10,000 1 975,085 184(5 1 36582 518389 517116 12572 2 284 659 1847 1 583 374 583067 633.507 14,904 2 814.852 1848 1 052 835 685196 670321 19,356 3027708 1849 1 005 120 732910 781 656 25325 19650 3 164 661 1850 1;?51 10.258,740 1,712,007 2.229,426 4,216,253 827,823 1,156,167 4,317.749 690.456 964,224 , 25.325 87.763 54.200 146.937 19,921 24,899 18.954.678 3,287,970 4,428,916 1S52 1853 2.450,950 2.470.943 1,284,500 1 475 732 1,072,136 1,054.309 59.857 69.007 25,846 15.500 4,893.289 5,086.391 1854 2.895,208 1 603 478 1,207,186 107500 63, 500 5,876 S72 1855 331S 555 1 771 511 1 284113 1 1 7 i? 21 116 117 6 607 517 1856 1&57 1853 3.25S.356 2.95.541 2 ^66 449 1,972.581 1.952.603 2 186 094 1.351,970 1,318.541 1 380 030 102.926 121.739 I 9 7 815 210,518 266,517 242579 78,112 110,711 106686 6,896,351 6,044.941 6 802 967 1859 3,004,953 2,731,236 1,628,311 138,712 305,043 124,290 7.808,255 1860... 1861 27.192,388 3!270.51 6 2 697,489 16,961,725 2.941,817 8 055 140 11,951,276 1,821,674 1 738 377 936,770 178.860 172380 1,291,040 800.256 290928 414,799 90,148 49 477 58.333,469 8,513.123 7 954.314 1862 2 890 598 3 145 770 1 351 054 177 1 7 1 864865 63 223 7 869403 1863 1864 3,433.265 3 642.218 3.759,610 3 960 836 1,894,713 2 054 669 141.282 129 973 837.136 889779 62,200 56 301 9,566,006 10177475 1865 3 735 802 3 9 55 658 1 822 535 186900 484,257 27 095 9 485 152 1866 1867 4.633,487 4 334.820 4.736.616 5 328 322 2,128,867 2 062 446 219,913 293 036 610,809 533815 53.648 48 118 13,829.692 12,552,489 1868 4414356 5 990 813 2 507582 380 383 911 787 88728 13 834 132 1869 4,748,969 6,068369 1 929,523 384749 974 015 45612 13051.747 1870.. 37.801,521 0.720.403 42.243,951 7,554,909 19,311,440 2 990 878 8,151.352 453818 4,897,391 1 025 515 534,550 67847 106.883.488 15 274,029 1871 5,124.780 6481,171 2,249 356 481 328 1 1> 13 096 14 965 501 Totals 87,501,909 78,308,841 42,306,793 4,121,843 8,585,909 219,981,040 CANALS BOLT EXCLUSIVELY OR CHIEFLY FOR THE TRANSPORTATION OF ANTHRACITE. CAPITAL INVESTED IN MINING AND TRANSPORT ING ANTHRACITE. Coal lands, 300,000 acres, at $250 per acre $75.000.000 Collieries, 437, average $100.000 each 43.700.000 Canals, 673 m.. average cost $70,000 per mile. . . 47.000,000 Railroads, 2,290 m. single track, $56,000 pr. m. . . 128,000,000 NAMES. Lc / n Cost. Schnvlkill Navigation 103 $13,207.752 4,455,000 2,438.850 2,000.000 7.164.420 6.907.850 4,857.104 7,000,000 512,000 Lehigh Coal and Navigation 43 Delaware Division i 60 Total .. $293,700,000 The New England anthracite field, embracing the Portsmouth basin in Rhode Island and its continuation, the Mansfield basin in Massachu setts, is greater in area than all the Pennsyl vania anthracite fields, but its value for com mercial purposes bears no comparison. The "Wyoming Valley 64 Delaware and Hudson 103 Union : 77 Susquehanna and Tide- water ... i 45 Pennsylvania .... i 151 Wicinisco . 12 Total 673 $47,537,476 ANTHRACITE 555 RAILROADS BUILT EXCLUSIVELY OR MAINLY FOR THE TRANSPORTATION OF ANTHRACITE. LENGTH IN MILES. Cost. NAMES. Sidings and Brandies. Double Track. Main Track. Philadelphia and Reading: (total length, including leased lines, 1,2(50 m.) i 153 151 85 32 75 &<% 9 15 :::: 3% 29 7 2^ 47 "5" 260 115 45 105 16i 6 101 75 S3 104 45 7 2S 3% 2.) 1 *-% 100 54 11 28 5# I3S.677.075 IS S25.000 3384.306 12.041,781 U52. J63 160,500 19.230.730 8,000.000 8.000.000 5.231.8S3 1,850,600 891,608 416J87 323.375 3,905.600 208,259 282,815 2.000,000 1,2S3.490 576.640 1,569.450 160.500 Lehi <T h and ^u^qnclnnna : 8% * Central Railway of \e\v Jersey (approximated} ? * Morris and Kss ex (approximated) ? Danville HazletO i and Wilke*barre 2% Little SchuylkMll 19 Mill Creek and Mine Hill 9 Mine Hill and Schuvlkill Haven ; 100 Mount Carbon " . . 2 Mount Carbon and Port Carbon Qi^" Pennsylvania Coal Company s Eailroad 10 Schuvlkill and Susquehanna . 9 Schuvlkill Valley Navigation Railroad . . 3 Shaniokin Valley and Potts ville 41^ McC auley Mountain Eailroad Totals 520X 538% j 1,231& $128.167,912 general formation of the beds resembles that of j the lower irregular beds or pockets in the south- j ern Pennsylvania field below A ; and the im- I pure, graphitic character of the coal is the ; same. In both the coal exists in "nests " rather j than beds, sometimes 10 and even 20 ft. thick, | but often not as many inches, and frequently j they disappear entirely. In the Pennsylvania j anthracite fields the palaeozoic sedimentary stra- I ta, between the coal measures and the igneous | rocks, are between 5 and 7 m. in thickness; | while the sedimentary strata below the New I England field are comparatively thin, and so highly crystallized or metamorphosed by heat as to have been mistaken by the early geologists for the gneissic rocks. Dr. Edward Hitchcock, however, maintains that the whole region, em bracing not less than 500 sq. m., is a true coal field, which has experienced more than ordi nary metamorphic action both mechanical and chemical. lie says: "The mechanical forces seem to have operated on the strata containing the coal in a lateral direction, so as not only to I raise them into highly inclined positions, but also to produce plaits or folds. . . . The chemical metamorphoses which these rocks have experi enced consist mainly in such effects as heat would produce." Prof. Silliman, Prof. Jackson, and Dr. Hitchcock have given favorable opin ions in regard to the probable future produc tiveness of this field and the commercial value of the coal. The developed coal beds are three in number. Their dimensions are variable, but may be averaged from 3 to 7 ft. respective ly, when in their best condition. At Ports mouth the principal bed has been mined by a slope of GOO ft. in length, inclining at 30 to 35, to a vertical depth of 300 ft. ; from the * This table is from official sources, excepting the Morris and Essex and the Central railway of New Jersey, which were not built exclusively as coal transportation lines. bottom of which gangways were driven 1.000 ft. in length on the strike of the bed, which increased and decreased from 16 inches to as many feet. Mining operations have been at tempted in many localities in this field, but all have ended in failure, owing to the disappear ance or faulty character of the coal beds. The amount of coal mined from the field has been insignificant, and no trustworthy statistics have been recorded. The product, however, when pure and solid, compares favorably with the Pennsylvania anthracite, though usually the best of it contains more water, graphite, and earthy impurities. It is probable that deep and well conducted mining operations will eventually develop this field in a remunerative manner. The diamond drill can now be used before incurring the cost of pits and mining operations, and it may reasonably be anticipated that purer coal and more regular beds will be found at greater depth. The Virginia anthra cite field, which may be appropriately termed the Xew river coal field, in Montgomery and Pulaski counties, in S. "W. Virginia, consists of two narrow, parallel basins on Price s and Brush mountains. Price s mountain is a nar row, short synclinal ridge, which rises in the Silurian limestones of the great valley range, and is part of the watershed between the James and Xew rivers. In this ridge the coal is en closed as a narrow trough or basin, with an eastern dip of 30, while the true western dip is inverted and dips E. at an an<rle of 80 or 85. Thus the bottom slate of the lower bed is the roof of the upper bed, and the basin may be generally represented by an Italic capi tal V ; but the force which tilted and folded the strata in this inverted manner distorted the coal measures and crushed and ruined a large part of the coal, while slips and other forms of fault render the operations of mining ANTHRACITE in this basin uncertain and precarious. The coal of Price s mountain basin is a true anthra cite, but less dense, lustrous, and pure than that of Pennsylvania. The Brush mountain basin lies at the E. base of the North mountain, and resembles the opposite Price s mountain basin in lithological structure ; but the inverted strata of the W. side have been destroyed, ex cept in a few localities, by erosion. In some few phves where the inverted strata exist in this basin, they are folded back, so that the coal beds, which in their normal condition must have dipped to the west, are now lying on their opposite dip, and the strata of the entire basin in such localities dip cast, abutting abruptly against the underlying sandstones or limestones. The coal of this basin is semi-anthracite. Coal has been mined in a small way from numerous localities in these basins, but to the present time (1873) it has all been drawn in wagons from the mines to the Virginia and Tennessee rail road, a distance of from 2 to 8 m. The total amount mined cannot exceed .15,000 to 20,000 tons up to the year 1873. It has been used successfully in grates, stoves, cupola furnaces, puddling furnaces, and locomotives, but has not been tested in the blast furnace. Near the surface the coal is weak and friable, but at con siderable depth it becomes more dense, solid, and pure. Much aluminous and carbonaceous shale exists in connection with this coal, and sometimes excludes it entirely, forming a "fault." The entire area of these two basins cannot exceed 10 sq. m. They arc merely nar row synclinal belts, with an occasional repeti tion or fold forming two parallel basins, seldom more than 500 yards wide inclusively. The coal-bearing strata of this range or belt, how ever, are much more extensive than those em braced in the New river coal field, and extend over 200 m. N. E. and nearly 100 m. S. W. It is found in Sidelong hill, a continuation of Blue or North mountains in Pennsylvania, and ex ists in a basin of considerable extent on North mountain, a short distance W. of Martinsburg, West Va. In this locality there are two basins, one on the E. side of the mountain and another on the W. side, or rather on the summit of the mountain. That on the east is narrow and folded in the form of a F, the left or E. side inverted in the usual form of this range ; but that on the summit is more regularly stratified, forming a comparatively shallow basin. Here we find all the indications of a true basin of the carboniferous era. The conglomerate and the red shale (Nos. XII. and XL of the Pennsyl vania geological survey) are in regular order and position, and the lower beds of coal are identi cal with A, I), and C of the Pennsylvania fields, in the order of stratification, character of bed, and color of ash. The area of this small upper basin is perhaps 5 sq. m. It lies on the head waters of Back creek, which flows into the Potomac W. of Martinsburg. Yet notwithstanding the greater regularity and or der of these anthracite beds, they are faulty and too small and impure to be mined for ordinary commercial purposes. The beds range from 3 to 5 ft. in thickness, of which two thirds may produce marketable coal. This range of coal- bearing strata may be traced with occasional gaps from this place to New river. The coal beds have been developed in a small way at the Dora mines on the North fork of the Shen- andoah, W. of Staunton, where anthracite of good character has been mined for local use. ! The next point at which the coal has been \ mined is W. of Fincastle on Catawba creek, i From here it has been dug into in many places to the Brush mountain basin on New river, and from New river it has been opened at many points to the Tennessee line ; but the only localities yet developed, where this range con tains beds in workable condition and produc tive of good coal for ordinary purposes, are I those particularly described, including the Dora | mines, which however are the most doubtful. This range of coal deposits has always been considered by geologists as belonging to the ! proto-carboniferous or false coal measures. i Recent investigations have cast doubt on this classification, and those most familiar with the geology of the region are inclined to place it in i the true coal measures as identical with the ! strata of the Pennsylvania coal fields. Besides .! the principal anthracite fields already described, there are other small, partially developed, and less known deposits of anthracite in Arkansas, New Mexico, Sonora, and Oregon. Of the re- < maining anthracite deposits of the world, those | of France are most largely developed. The first and most extensive is a continuation of the Belgian coal field, in the department of Le i Nord. The coal is of a dry or semi-anthracite ! character in a portion of the French extension, | and about one half the coal products of this field is denominated anthracite in the French j reports, but it is not strictly anthracite. The I other French fields producing anthracite are named from the departments of Pas-de-Calais, Calvados, Sarthe, Maine-et-Loire, Loire-Infe- rieure, Correze, Puy-de-D6me, Uaute-Saone, Tarn, Haute-Loire, Ardeche, Isere, and Ilantes- Alpes. The total annual production of coal in France is now (1873) over 10,000,000 tons, of which about 2,000,000 tons is anthracite and j semi-anthracite, and of the latter more than | one half is the product of the field of Le Nord. The European anthracite field next in impor tance to these is that of Donetz in S. Russia, between the Dnieper and Donetz rivers, which is perhaps the largest connected field contain ing anthracite yet developed. It embraces over 8,000 sq. m. of coal area, but, like the South Wales and Pennsylvania anthracite fields, one j end contains anthracite and the other bitumi- I nous coal beds, according to Murchison ; while | anthracite and bituminous beds are found in the same locality, and the undulations of the I strata, which dip from 20 to 70, indicate a close resemblance to the peculiarities of the ! Pennsylvania anthracite fields. An analysis of ANTHRACITE this anthracite gave- 94*234 per cent, carbon. | Anthracite also exists in Spain, Portugal, Ger many, Austria, Norway, Persia, India, China, j and South America ; and generally anthracite is found in connection with the altered or met- amorphic rocks, which accompany all great j coal formations to a greater or less extent. Anthracite undoubtedly owes its existence to a superior heat or a comparatively high tern- : perature during its formation. The hardest and most dense anthracite is always found I where the coal has been subject to a high tern- : perature ; but where the heat has been most j intense, graphite rather than coal is found. In ! the New England Held the outcrops of the coal j beds frequently yield plumbago, which is col- [ lected and sold as "British lustre," and nests I of pure graphite are found in the beds at con- | siderable depth. An analogous condition is ; found in the pockets of carbonaceous coal which j exist below A in the southern Pennsylvania field, j The proportions of carbon are due to the vary- i ing degrees of heat to which the coal or the I elements forming anthracite have been subject- | ed. This fact is fully illustrated in the Penn sylvania anthracite beds, where the lowest j contain the most carbon and the highest (in j the measures) the most volatile matter. Where | the coal is nearest to the igneous or plutonic rocks, whether granitic or metamorphic, ; whether in the deepest parts of the coal basins j or on their edges, the conditions are the same, j and all true coal fields are alike in these condi- | tions. It is true, the Richmond (Va.) bitumi nous coal field is formed in the crater of an | extinct volcano ; but that field is a late creation i of the Jurassic period, and was deposited when j the earth and the rocks beneath it were com- | paratively cool, and even there a trap dike is intruded evidently long after the completion of the coal field between the beds. The ef fect of this heated and volcanic mass of rock has been to coke a coal bed GO ft. beneath it, and burn one 10 ft. above it to a graphitic cinder. The general effect of trap intrusions seems to j be the same in all cases, but the altered bitu- { minous coal under such circumstances is rather i a coke than an anthracite, which differs greatly in appearance, though the constituents are the I same. Prof. II. D. Rogers explains the forma- I tion of anthracite by supposing it to be the re- | suit of altered bituminous coal metamorphosed ! by intense heat, and of course by heat induced subsequent to the formation of the bituminous j beds; and he further explains the escape of the volatile portion of the latter as gas through cracks and openings caused by the plication of \ the anthracite strata. This plication follows ; closely the general type of the eastern palseo- zoic rocks, which are intensely crushed and i folded near the contact of their edges with the igneous or granitic rocks, and much less plica- \ ted and distorted in a western direction. This i fact undoubtedly led to the above theory, which seems as natural as it is ingenious ; but the facts do not sustain the theory. 1st. The upper beds and strata are more dislocated, distorted, and crushed than the lower beds, as plainly demon strated by the plication of the strata on the apex of the leading anticlinals in the southern field. 2d. The measures are more plicated and crushed at the western extremity of this field, in the Dau phin or south prong, than at the eastern extrem ity ; yet the coal of the latter is a dense, hard anthracite, while that of the former is semi- bituminous. 3d. The heat must have been most intense during the early stages of coal formation. In view of these facts, it has re cently been contended that true anthracite is not a metamorphosis of bituminous coal, but as much a normal creation as the bitumi nous variety itself from a combination of its constituents under superior heat, however the original elements were produced. (See COAL.) The faults and irregularities of the anthra cite beds and strata are the result of crust movements, and the plication of the distorted and crushed rocks indicates contraction, both lateral and perpendicular, as the cause. The effects of a combined lateral and perpendicular movement are simply those which are evident in the plication of the anthracite beds of the southern Pennsylvania fields, and their accom panying shales ; but the crust movements have been slow and uniform, bending rather than breaking the strata, except in cases of sharp foliation of anticlinals or synclinals. Where the folding has been most abrupt the strata are inverted, and the coal is crushed and par tially destroyed. The coal beds thus distorted are always subject to faults of the peculiar character described in the New England and New river coal fields, as well as those of Penn sylvania. Such faults are more frequently met with in the upper than in the lower beds of the latter. A fault is rarely met with in the great white-ash beds B, D, and E, except where they are inverted or seriously dislocated by the plicating movements. The dislocations of Amer ican coal beds are rarely vertical, and never to any great extent, as in the English fields, where this form of fault is peculiar. The near est approach to this in the former is a "slip" which may slide one portion of a bed over the other, or remove it a few feet up or down. In the anthracite fields, however, faults are much more numerous than in the bituminous fields of England or the United States, but these are generally of the characteristic form peculiar to highly plicated strata before described. There are, however, other less frequent forms of fault, such as the occurrence of large areas of soft carbonaceous shale in place of the coal ; long ribbon-like streaks of rock or slate in the coal from the top of the bed, apparently to fill a crack in the same ; or the interposition of rock and slate between the strata of a bed, dividing it so as to render valueless sometimes one or both divisions. These faults do not affect the accompanying beds. The preceding are such as are strictly denominated faults in the Penn sylvania anthracite fields ; but the ever-varying 558 ANTHRACITE dip of the strata, the change of strike incident thereto, and the general irregularities of both coal bed and accompanying strata, would be denominated faults in the great bituminous fields of the United States or England. The use of anthracite as a common fuel is recent. It was long supposed to be an inferior kind of coal, and the creation of an earlier period than the true carboniferous; even now there are a few professional men who adhere to this ex ploded theory. The first attempts to use it as fuel were as a substitute for wood or the free- burning bituminous coals, where a draught of air through the mass is not absolutely necessary, as in the case of anthracite. On account of this difficulty of ignition, and the prevailing igno rance in regard to the best methods of using it, anthracite was slow to be appreciated. In 1813 it was considered inferior in Wales, and was but little used for any purpose ; and though known and tested as a valuable fuel in the United States arsenal at Carlisle, Pa., in 1770, and by smiths on the Susquehanna generally even at an earlier date, it was only in 1812 that it was successfully used in Philadelphia, and there the mode of burning it was discovered by accident. The general trade only commences with a few tons in 1820. (See table.) At first the increase of consumption was slow, but so soon as its use and advantages became generally understood, it assumed the first place in the list of combus tibles. For household purposes it is preferred not only on account of its cleanliness and the absence of smoke and the peculiar odor of bitu men, but also on account of its durability and long continued and uniform heat. For war steamers, where the conspicuous smoke of bi tuminous coal is exceedingly objectionable dur ing hostile movements, anthracite has been fully tested and found superior, not only because of the absence of smoke, but of its good steam- producing qualities, its duration at high tem peratures, and the consequent maintenance of a steady uniform steam power. For the eco nomical combustion of anthracite a strong draught rather than an abundant supply of air is required. In common use, however, where chimney draught is ordinarily employed, these two requirements are antagonistic, as far as economy is concerned. To obtain a draught strong enough to pass sufficient air through the coals, a high and hot chimney is required, which absorbs and carries off the largest pro portion of caloric from furnaces as commonly constructed. The coal is rarely burned to carbonic acid by direct combustion in this man ner, but rather to carbonic oxide, which is lost, and more than half the fuel is thus wasted. The first or direct combustion, producing car bonic oxide, generates about 1300 C., while the carbonic oxide is capable of producing over 2100 C. of heat in addition ; but when anthra cite is burned to carbonic acid direct in properly constructed gas-burning furnaces, the tempera ture is increased to 2400 C. The volume of heat or total heating effect is, however, in favor of carbonic oxide as fuel, and it would b^ much more economical and generally useful to con vert anthracite or bituminous coal to carbonic ! oxide before using it as a fuel. In the blast furnace, however, where anthracite is preemi- j nent, the coal must be used in its solid condi- I tion ; but here, in well constructed furnaces, the total heating effect of the coal is utilized. But it cannot be claimed that anthracite is a superior fuel for all purposes, because bitumi nous coal can be used in all cases, while an- j thracite cannot be used in the present state of the arts for the production of illuminating gas, ! Where a long hot fiame is required, as in pud dling furnaces, hydrogenous coal is more avail- j able ; and for welding heats, where hollow fires 1 are desirable, the latter class of coal is also used. But under proper combustion, anthracite, as | the purest form of carbon available for fuel, ! will yield a higher temperature than any other kind of fuel. The earliest record of the use of anthracite for the production of iron is in 1826, when a small furnace built under the direction of Messrs. White and Hazard of the Lehighcoal company, near Mauch Chunk, Pa., was tried with anthracite and cold blast; but, though I several pigs of anthracite iron were made, I the furnace chilled and the attempt proved a failure. Several other experiments were made j both on the Lehigh and the Schuylkill, which were successful in the production of anthracite iron, but failed of practical results. Attempts I had been made prior to this time to use anthra cite for the production of iron in the blast fur naces of AA^ales ; but nothing definite is given in regard to the date of these experiments until j after the introduction of the hot blast by Neil- | son in 1831, or its more general use in 1833. Mr. David Thomas then conceived the idea of ! using anthracite with hot blast, and induced his 1 employer to try the experiment. A coke fur- | nace was accordingly altered during 1836, and provided with a hot-blast arrangement ; and in February, 1837, anthracite iron was success- ! fully made in Wales for the first time. In 1837 ! the Lehigh coal and navigation company, at tracted by the success of the Welsh furnace, I sent one of their directors to Wales, who en gaged Mr. Thomas to start a furnace on the i Lehigh, which was successfully accomplished in i June, 1839. The "Pioneer Furnace" at Potts- j ville, built by William Lyman of Boston, had been put in blast a few months previous, after the directions of Mr. Thomas. For this Mr. Lyman was awarded a premium of $5,000 which had been offered by Burd Patterson of Pottsville and Nicholas Biddle of Philadelphia for the profitable production of anthracite iron, and which was paid at a banquet given at Mt. Carbon early in 1840. Since then the Thomas and Crane iron works on the Lehigh have grown to mammoth establishments, and are now capable of producing 100,000 tons j of pig iron per annum ; and the total annual j production of anthracite iron has now (1873) ! reached 875,000 tons. ANTHROPOLOGY ANTICOSTI 559 ANTHROPOLOGY, the science of man. See ANATOMY, ARCH/EOLOGY, COMPARATIVE ANAT OMY, ETHNOLOGY, MORAL PHILOSOPHY, PHI LOSOPHY, AND PHYSIOLOGY. ANTHROP03IORPHITES (Gr. Mpaxos, man, and popffj, form), those who helieve that God possesses a human shape. Audius, a Syrian lay man (340), taught that God essentially exists in human form, and opposed the authority of the clergy. He was excommunicated, and his sect disappeared after about a century. In the 10th century anthropomorphism was revived, but did not attain any prominence as a doctrine. AYTIBES (anc. Antipolits), a town and sea port of France, department of Alpes-Haritimes, built on a promontory jutting into the Mediter ranean, 15 m. S. W. of Nice; pop. in 1866, 6,829. It has fortifications erected by Vauban and some Roman antiquities, including an aque duct in good preservation. The chief industry and trade are in salted fish, dried fruits, wine, and olive oil. The town was founded by the Greeks of Massilia (Marseilles) in the 4th cen tury B. 0. Under the Romans it was a mili tary station and an important seat of commerce, but it was ruined by the barbarians and Sara cens. In later times it was strongly fortified, and successfully withstood a siege of the Eng lish and Imperialists in 1746. ANTICHLOR, in chemistry, any substance ca pable of eliminating the excess of chlorine or of free hypochlorous acid left in goods and paper after the process of bleaching by chloride of lime. Several agents can be employed, and they generally act by converting the chlorine into an innocuous salt. One of the first sub stances employed for this purpose was the sul phite and bisulphite of soda patented by Henry Donkin in 1847. In 1853 these salts were superseded by the hyposulphite of soda, which has now become the principal antichlor of commerce. Sulphide of calcium, prepared by boiling sulphur with milk of lime, has also been used as an antichlor; so likewise has a solution of protochloride of tin in hydrochloric acid. In the latter case, however, it is neces sary, after the completion cf the bleaching pro cess, to add carbonate of sodium, in order to neutralize the free hydrochloric acid, which would otherwise act as injuriously as the free chlorine itself. The precipitate of oxide of tin thereby produced is quite white and soft, and does not interfere with the subsequent stages of the paper manufacture. Coal gas was also used as an antichlor in paper making as early as 1818, but it is not so convenient as the agents mentioned above. The products formed by the action of chlorine (or hypochlorous acid) on sulphite or hyposulphite of sodium are sulphate and chloride of sodium, both of which are innocuous and easily removed by washing. ANTICHRIST (Gr. avri, against, or in place of, and Xp<rr<5f, Christ), a term which occurs five times in the Bible, but only in the first and .second epistles of John. These passages recog nize the previous teaching that "Antichrist shall come ;" declare the existence even then of "many Antichrists," who "went out from" the Christians, but "were not of" them; and characterize as an Antichrist him " that de- nieth the Father and the Son," or "confess- eth not that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh." Most interpreters identify Antichrist with the "man of sin" (2 Thess. ii. 3); many also with the "little horn" of Daniel s fourth beast and the "king of fierce countenance," with the Apocalyptic beast and false prophet, and with the false Christs and false prophets foretold in Matt. xxiv. 5, 11 ; but all these are con troverted points. The numerous representa tions of Antichrist given by Biblical critics and theologians may be arranged under the follow ing five heads: 1. An individual yet future. Thus most of the early Christian fathers rep resent the "many Antichrists" of the apostle s day as forerunners or types of a terrible future Antichrist a person (of the tribe of Dan, ac cording to Aretas, Bede, &c.) armed with Sa tanic powers (Satan himself, say some) who is to come just before the final and glorious appearance of Christ, and then to be destroyed by Christ. 2. A polity or system. Thus the Waldenses, Wycliffites, reformers of the 16th century, and others, make Antichrist to be the papal system, or the pope as representing the Roman Catholic polity ; others, imperial or pa gan Rome ; others, Mohammedanism, or popery and Mohammedanism, or Judaism and pagan Rome and papal Rome, &c. 3. An individual already past. Thus Antichrist has been found by different Roman Catholic and Protestant expositors in one or another heathen emperor of Rome, Jewish leader, false Messiah, or heresiarch. 4. A class united in opposition to Christ. This opinion, held by Bengel, Mac- knight, Bishop Wordsworth, &c., makes Anti christ a collective term, equivalent to the "many Antichrists" of 1 John ii. 18, or the embodiment or representative of a limited or unlimited class of those who set themselves up against Christ, as the false prophets or teachers about the time of the destruction of Jerusalem, or all false teachers in every age, or the partic ular class who deny that Jesus is the Christ, or all heretics, &c. 5. An evil principle per sonified. This opinion, held by Koppe, Nitzsch, and others, is naturally connected with the view that Satan is not a person, but only evil personified. It may be added that Jewish rab binical books describe Antichrist under the name of Armillus, who, it is said, will defeat and slay the Messiah Ben Joseph, but will him self be defeated and slain by Messiah Ben David ; and that Mohammedan traditions rep resent the Jewish Messiah Ben David as him self Al-Dajjal (Antichrist), who will be slain by Jesus. ANTICOSTI, an uncultivated island in the gulf of St. Lawrence, 120 m. long and 30 m. wide in the centre, narrowing toward both ends. It divides the gulf into a N. and a S. channel. The E. point is in lat, 49 5 N., Ion. 62 AV. ; the 560 ANTICYRA ANTIETAM W. point in lat, 49 48 , Ion. 04 35 . Along a great part of the coast there is a dangerous belt of reefs uncovered at low tide. There are two harbors comparatively safe at all times: one at Gramache or Ellice bay, near the W. end, and the other at Fox bay on the northwest. The coast line on the S. side rises from 20 to 80 feet above the water ; on the N. a succession of ridge-like elevations, separated by depressions, rise from 200 to 500 feet. On the S. side there are excellent peat beds 80 m. in length and 2 in width, with a depth of from 3 to 10 feet, and marl beds of considerable thickness. There are three lighthouses on the island. AiNTIClKA. I. An ancient city of southern Thessaly, on the Spercheus, famous for produc ing the best hellebore, which was regarded by the ancients as a cure for madness. II. A city of Phocis on the Corinthian gulf, also cele brated for the production of hellebore. The Anticyrteans are said to have been expelled from their city by Philip of Macedon after the close of the sacred war. It was taken in a subsequent age by the Roman general Lievinus, and given up by him to the ^Etolians. It was occupied during the Macedonian war by the consul Flamininus, for the sake of its harbor, which afforded a secure retreat for the Roman fleet. The site of Anticyra is still discernible on the shore of the Corinthian gulf, and known as Aspra Spitia, or "the white houses." ANTIDOTES (Gr. avri, against, and 6i66vat, to give), a term formerly used to signify reme dies or preservatives against sickness, but now applied only to means for counteracting the effect of poisons. To get rid at once of the poisoning substance, to hinder its absorption, or to counteract its effects, are the general re sults to be sought for. The first of these ob jects is attained, when the poison is in the stomach, either by the stomach pump or an emetic. If a stomach pump is not at hand, an ordinary elastic syringe with a stomach tube may be made to do duty in washing and pump ing out the stomach. The best emetics are those which act rapidly, especially mustard, which is almost always at hand, sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), or sulphate of zinc (white vitriol), the vomiting being encouraged and kept up by tickling the fauces, giving large draughts of warm water, &c. If the poison has been thrown into or under the skin, as by the bites of serpents or mad dogs, or wounds from poi soned weapons, it may be sucked out by the mouth or a cupping glass; the wounded part may be excised, or a ligature placed so as to hinder the entrance of the poison into the sys tem. Dr. Fayrer s elaborate experiments have shown that these procedures, to be of any avail, must be put in force with the utmost promptness, since only a few seconds suffice for the poison of venomous serpents to enter the circulation. The cauterization of such wounds either with the hot iron or powerful chemical agents, such as nitric acid, nitrate of silver^ and ammonia, has been practised. Many substances may be rendered insoluble or comparatively inert in the stomach by appro priate chemical reagents. Strong acids may be neutralized by magnesia, chalk, or soap; caustic alkalies by vinegar. We may use for arsenic freshly precipitated sesquioxide of iron, which every druggist should have the materials at hand for preparing at short notice. That which has been kept under water, or the so- called subcarbonate, may be used in case the first is not ready. The light magnesia, or freshly precipitated gelatinous magnesia, has also been used. A mixture of chalk and castor oil, of the consistence of cream, is said to envelop the particles of arsenic still adherent to the stom ach after it lias been washed, and render them harmless. For bichloride of mercury, albumen (eggs), gluten (wheat flour), or caseine (milk) may be used, but should at once be followed by an emetic, as the precipitate formed is not absolutely insoluble. With lead and baryta, sulphates form insoluble precipitates; with sulphate of copper or zinc carbonate of soda, and with oxalic acid carbonate of lime (chalk) may be used. The vegetable astringents (galls, tannic acid, strong tea), and also a solution of iodine in iodide of potassium, form insoluble precipitates with some of the alkaloids. The antidotes which fulfil the third indication, coun teracting the effects of poisons, are not so well determined. Inflammation from irritant poi sons is to be treated on general principles. Opium narcotism is to be treated by external irritants, such as cold affusion or forced exercise and strong coffee. The efficacy of belladonna as an antidote to opium, and vice versa, is not established. For prussic acid ammonia may be cautiously used. The symptoms of nux vomica and strychnia may be partially con trolled by chloroform, chloral (if there is time for it to act), or bromide of potassium. Aco nite has been proposed. Aconite poisoning calls for stimuli, as alcohol and ammonia. ANTIETAM, Battle of, fought by the national army of the Potomac, under Gen. George 13. McClellan, and the confederate army of North Virginia, under Gen. Robert E. Lee, between Sharpsburg and the Antietam creek, an af fluent of the Potomac river, Sept. 16 and IT, 1862. After the defeat of the army of the Po tomac in the seven days fighting on the line of the Chickahominy, the confederates prepared for an invasion of Maryland, worsted Pope s army at Cedar Mountain, in the second battle of Bull Run, and at Chantilly, crossed the Potomac near Leesburg, and concentrated their forces at Frederick. Meanwhile the national army had been withdrawn from Harrison s Landing and consolidated at Washington with Pope s command, and the whole, under McClellan, moved out to meet Lee. The right wing, con sisting of the 1st and 9th corps, was under Burnside ; the centre, composed of the 2d and 12th corps, was under Sumner; and the left wing, composed of the 6th corps, was under Franklin. In this order McClellan marched ANTIETAM 501 by the Rockville turnpike, the right wing of ! his army extending toward the Baltimore and j Ohio railroad, and the left toward the Potomac, i His advanced guard entered Frederick as the ! confederate rear guard was leaving it. At this place, on Sept. 12, he became acquainted | with the disposition of Lee s forces, as well as j with his immediate plans, through a copy of i Lee s marching orders which one of the con- ! federate commanders had inadvertently left behind him. Lee, having captured all the out lying detachments of the national army, in- eluding that in the stronghold of Harper s I Ferry, and thus secured his communication i with Richmond, concentrated all his available forces, choosing his position in front of Sharps- burg, in the angle between the Potomac, which j covered his rear, and the Antietam, whose \ deep bed and precipitous sides covered his front. Lee s line, forming almost a semicircle i about the village, covered all the roads con- i centrating at that place ; its right wing rested i on the heights dominating the creek, and stretched along it, sweeping all the crossings ! for more than half a mile ; the centre occupied the open fields and patches of wood extending ! to the Hagerstown road, and the left rested j upon the Potomac. McOlellan s army ap- proached the battlefield along the turnpike | leading from Keedysville to Sharpsburg, his i main body going into position on the left bank | of the Antietam on the afternoon of Sept. 15. j No fighting took place on this day. The great- | er part of the 16th was passed in harmless j cannonading, but late in the afternoon McClel- | Ian threw forward Hooker s corps, with orders | to force a passage of the Antietam by the : upper one of the four stone bridges spanning : the creek in that neighborhood. This bridge, i being beyond the reach of the confederate line, | had been left undefended, and Hooker s cross ing was therefore quickly and easily made, j Pushing forward at once through a narrow | piece of woods, he soon struck the confederate | left under Hood, and after a sharp skirmish, j terminating with nightfall, in his favor, his corps rested on their arms near the Hagers- j town road, almost in contact with the enemy s \ line. This advance served to place one corps j of 18,000 men in a good position to give battle j as well as to uncover the other crossings of I the Antietam as far down as the Keedysville ! road, thus rendering it easy for McOlellan to | secure his initiatory movement, by sending Mansfield s 12th corps, under cover of dark- ! ness, to strengthen Hooker. On the morning of the 17th the disposition of the combatants was as follows : Lee s position was substantial ly unchanged; his entire army, estimated at about 65,000 strong, was formed in a semi circular line covering the roads converging at Sharpsburg. Hooker s and Mansfield s corps of McClellan s army had crossed the Antietam and held advanced positions on the extreme right ; Sumner s corps held itself in readiness to cross ; Porter s corps was in reserve, cover- VOL. i. 36 ing the Keedysville bridge, but separated from the enemy by the creek ; and Burnside s corps occupied the extreme left, and was also sep arated from the confederate position by the Antietam. The aggregate strength of these corps was about 85,000 men; but being partly on one side and partly on the other side of a stream which could hardly be crossed any where except by a bridge, and which was particularly easy to defend, the superior strength of the Union army counted but for little in the bloody conflict which followed. McClellan s plan was for Hooker and Mans field, supported by Sumner, to attack the con federate line, and engage it so closely as to permit Burnside, advancing simultaneously, to force a passage at the lower bridge, and thus unite all the corps except the reserve on the further side of the Antietam, with their entire strength available for the final struggle. Hook er s corps held a position close to the enemy s line, and was therefore forced to begin skir mishing almost as soon as it was light. After gaining some slight advantages it attacked with great fury, and succeeded in forcing Lee s left under Jackson backward for nearly half a mile before it received the slightest check. Hooker gave his men a short breathing spell, and dashed forward again ; but his divisions were already fatigued as well as greatly shat tered by their bloody work. Meeting the reserves of the enemy s left, they were in turn driven back to the position from which they advanced less than an hour before, notwith standing Mansfield had in the mean time has tened forward to join in the conflict. This gallant veteran lost his life in trying to regain the ground lost by Hooker, and, although aided by a terrible fire from the reserve artil lery of the Union army, stationed near the Keedysville bridge, his corps was also forced to retire to the position from which it had ad vanced. McClellan now ordered Sumner to advance, and this resolute commander accord ingly made his appearance on the battlefield about 9 o clock, and with all the precision of a parade moved his corps of four divisions against the confederate line, over a part of the field somewhat to the left of that covered by Hooker and Mansfield, but directed mainly against the woods to the west of the Dunker church on the Hagerstown road. The con federates, having had time to rectify and strengthen their lines, received this formidable attack with steadiness; but so fierce was the onset of Sumner s right division under Sedg- wick, that the confederate division confronting him was driven back into and beyond the woods, when it was strongly reenforced by troops which had arrived upon the field only that morning. The confederates now made a spirited counter attack, directing their move ment mainly against Sedgwick, who was in echelon with the other divisions of Sumner s corps, and therefore poorly supported by them. The fighting which ensued was characterized .62 ANTIETAM ANTIGONUS by the greatest bravery, but wlien it ceased Simmer s entire corps was also defeated, and the enemy s line completely restored. By 11 o clock half of the Union army and nearly all of the confederate army had been engaged. The latter, standing in a close and compact line, on its own chosen ground, had been able to act as a unit, while the former at the out- start was divided by the Antietam, and had spent its force in gallant but disconnected at tacks, resulting in defeat by detail, accom panied by an immense loss of life. Had Lee known at any time during the afternoon the extent of the injury he had inflicted upon the right wing of the Union army, and as sumed the offensive, it is scarcely to be doubted that he would have gained a complete victory notwithstanding the timely arrival of Franklin s corps on that part of the field. Neither Burn- side s nor Porter s corps had yet been seriously engaged, although the former had been ordered to attack simultaneously with the other corps. His failure to carry the bridge in his front and to effect a lodgment beyond was due to the fact that it was swept by the sharpshooters of the enemy s right, occupying the commanding hillocks close to the borders of the creek. The confederate position here was very strong, and, being covered by the Antietam, almost entire ly impassable in this portion of its course, was practically unassailable. Burnside advanced promptly as ordered, but his foremost troops encountered such a galling fire that they could not even reach the bridge, miiQh less carry it. After several hours delay Burnside succeeded in throwing one brigade across the creek by a ford which had been discovered some distance below, thus relieving the pressure in his front, and permitting the main body of his corps to cross by the bridge and to secure a good posi tion on the right bank of the creek. After reforming his lines Burnside advanced, car ried the heights beyond, and pressed back the enemy s right several hundred yards ; but his attack not being supported by detach ments from the other parts of the army, as it should have been, he was defeated and driven back almost to the creek, as the other corps had been. Night ended the conflict with both armies concentrated and confront ing each other on the W. side of the Antie tam. On the 18th McClellan stood on the de fensive. During the day he received the re- enforcement of two strong divisions under Humphreys and Couch, and then resolved to attack the next day; but meantime Lee had made good his retreat to the south side of the Potomac. McClellan s loss in this action was 2,010 killed, 9,410 wounded, and 1,043 missing ; total, 12,409. Lee s army, having fought on the defensive throughout, and frequently under cov er, is estimated by confederate writers to have lost only about 9,000. This battle was follow ed rather by negative than positive military re sults. The confederate army retired to Vir ginia and assumed a defensive attitude; the people of Maryland did not rise in rebellion, and the national capital did not fall into the hands of the invaders. On the other hand, the political measure which followed it was positive ami far-reaching in its effects. Presi dent Lincoln had made a solemn vow that if Gen. Lee \vas driven back from Maryland, he would crown the result by issuing a proclama tion abolishing slavery, which was done, at least conditionally, on the 22d day of Septem ber, 1802, AJNTIGONE, one of the tragic characters in the Greek legends, a daughter of (Edipus by his mother Jocasta. When (Edipus, after dis covering that he had killed his father and mar ried his mother, put out his eyes in despair and went to Attica, Antigone guided him on the way and attended on him till his death. She then returned to Thebes, where Ilrcmon, son of the tyrant Creon, became enamored of her. The brothers of Antigone, Polynices and Eteocles, having fallen in the war for the pos session of Thebes, and she having attempted to bury Polynices in defiance of an edict of Creon, the tyrant ordered her to be buried alive or to be shut up in a cave, and Hsemon slew himself by her side. The story of Antigone was a favorite subject with the great tragic poets of Greece, and is told with some variations. AjYTIGOMS. I. The Cyclops (so called from having lost an eye in battle), a Macedonian officer of Alexander the Great, and subse quently king of Asia, slain at the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia in 301 B. C. At the dis tribution of Alexander s empire, Antigonus received as his share the greater Phrygia, | Lycia, and Pamphylia. Attacked by Per- ! diccas, he took refuge at the court of Antip- ater, regent of Macedonia and Greece. On ! the death of Perdiccas in Egypt (321), An- i tipater made a new distribution of the Asiatic I provinces. Antigonus had Susiana added to i his former dominions, and to him was cornmit- 1 ted the charge of annihilating Eumenes, the I ally of Perdiccas. By bribing one of his offi- i cers, Antigonus gained a victory over Eumenes i and shut him up in the fortress of Nora in ; Cappadocia. In the mean time Antipater died [ (319), and Antigonus in his turn began to as- | pire to that universal dominion at which Per- j diccas had aimed. First destroying Eumenes I (310), he occupied Susa, the Persian capital, and wrested Babylonia from Seleucus. A co alition was now formed against him by Seleu cus, Ptolemy of Egypt, Lysimachus of Thrace, and Cassander, the son of Antipater; but An tigonus, with the aid of Aristodemus of Mile tus, succeeded in combining many of the Hel lenic cities in his support, and, though Seleu cus recovered Babylonia, the Macedonian gar risons were expelled from the Peloponnesus, Euboea, Thebes, and the greater part of Phocis and Locris. After a truce of one year, during which Cassander murdered Roxana and the young Alexander (311), the war broke out again. The restored Athenian democracy paid ANTIGONUS ANTI-LIBANUS 563 to Antigonns and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes extravagant honors. Having defeated Ptolemy in a sea light off Salamis in Cyprus (300), An- tigonus threw off the pretence hitherto kept up by the generals of Alexander that they were holding merely for his heirs, and as sumed the title of king. Ptolemy, Lysimachus, find Seleucus immediately called themselves kings also. Cassander, general of Macedonia, held hack a little longer, but soon followed. Cassander, driven out of Greece by Demetrius (303), now formed a league against Antigonns with Seleucus and Ptolemy. In August, 301, the armies met at Ipsus. Antigonus and his son had upward of 70,000 foot, 10,000 horse, and 75 elephants; the coalition had 64,000 foot, 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. Demetrius defeated Antio- clms, the son of Seleucus, but pressed him too far in pursuit, so that Seleucus cut him off. The Thracian archers of Lysimachus broke the centre, where Antigonus, now at the age of 81, was commanding. He would not flee, saying Demetrius would come and help him, and died on the field of battle, leaving the victory to those who represented the principle of a bal ance of power in the world. II. Antigonus Go- natts, king of Macedonia, grandson of the pre ceding, and son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, born in 319 B. C., died about 240. He is supposed to have received his surname from his native village of Gona or Gonni in Thessaly. When his father was captive in the hands of Seleu cus, king of Babylon, Gonatas offered to take his place. The affairs of Macedonia having fallen into confusion after the invasion of the Gauls, Ptolemy Ceraunus having been slain by them, and Sosthenes having died, Antigonus entered Macedonia with a small force, drove out the Gauls, and was accepted by the Ma cedonians as their king, 277 B. C. But Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, expelled him in 273, and he fled to the Peloponnesus. On the death of Pyrrhus shortly afterward he recovered Macedonia, was again expelled by Alexander, son of Pyrrhus. and again rein stated by his own son Demetrius. Xearly all that is known of his subsequent reign is his at tempt to prevent the formation of the Acha?an league. lie was succeeded bv his son Deme trius If. III. Antigonns Doson, king of Mace donia, born in 280 B. C., died in 220. His sur name was given him to signify that he was always promising gifts which he never gave. He was an illegitimate grandson of Demetrius Poliorcetes, and in 220 was named guardian of Philip, the young son of Demetrius II., whose widow he married. The Macedonian nation preferred his rule on account of his military talents, and chose him to be their king. lie was successful in his wars for the suppression of the Dardanian, Thessalian, and Moesian re volts. In the affairs of the Peloponnesus he took the part of Aratus and the Achaean league against Cleomenes and the Spartans. He de feated Cleomenes decisively at Sellasia in 221, ! and took the city of Sparta, but was recalled I by a revolt of the Illyrians, whom he defeated. I He was succeeded by his ward Philip V. IV. j King of the Jews, and the last of the Asmo- j neans, born in 80 B. C., died in 35. He was ! the son of Aristobulus II., and was made pris- j oner and sent to Rome by Pompey. He es- | caped, headed a revolt in Judea, and was j taken a second time by Gabinus, who sent him again to Rome. Julius Caasar permitted him j to return. He was placed on the throne of Judea by the Parthians in 40 B. C., and was | besieged in Jerusalem by Herod and Sosius, a j lieutenant of Mark Antony. He was taken, j sent to Antony, scourged, and put to death. ANTIGUA, one of the British West India islands, in the Leeward group, 40 m. N. of Guadeloupe, about 18 m. in diameter; area, 108 sq. m. ; pop. j in 1871, with the adjacent island of Barbuda, j 35,157, including 2,146 whites. It is the resi- ! dence of the governor of the Confederation of the Leeward Islands, who is also governor of An- ! tigua. There are no rivers, and the coasts are j generally dangerous to shipping; but there are I three good harbors: St. John s, the capital, i on the W. side ; English Harbor, on the S., where there is a large dockyard and a royal mail i packet station ; and Parham on the X. The rev- | enue in 1869 amounted to 38,586, the expendi- I ture to 39,252, and the public debt to 54,431. The chief products consisted in 1866 of 17,330 hogsheads of sugar, 7,852 puncheons of molas ses, and 696 of rum; and the total tonnage of vessels entered and cleared, exclusive of coast ing trade, was 43,906. The total exports in 1869 were 200,973, and the imports 174,- 357. Antigua was discovered by Columbus in 1493. A few English settled there in 1 632. In 1666 a grant of it was made by Charles II. to Lord Willoughby. After an interval of French occupation, which laid waste the island, it was again settled by Col. Codrington and formally ceded to Great Britain (1667). The legislature liberated the slaves, numbering about 30.000, ; unconditionally in 1834. The sum awarded : for their emancipation was nearly 426,000, including those of Amruilla. The island con tains besides the capital five towns, and about ! 100 villages of emancipated slaves. Antigua is one of the Confederation of the Leeward Islands. This Confederation commenced in May, 1872, Sir Benjamin C. C. Pine being governor. AMI-LIBAMS, or Anti-Lebanon, a mountain ridge of Palestine, one of the two offsets of the Taurus which are thrown off from that range as it passes the X. E. point of the Mediterra nean and take a southern direction parallel to each other, as well as to the coast. The west ern and highest of these ranges, or in a narrower sense its main portion, is the Libanus or Leba non; the eastern is the Anti-Libanus, called by the natives Jebel esh-Shurki. In the central part of their course they are separated by the valley of Gale-Syria, 20 m. in breadth. To the south the Anti-Libanus sends off a spur 564: ANTILLES ANTIMONY which unites with the Libanus, and so sepa rates the inteiiying valley into the northern or Syrian, and the southern or valley of Jordan. Through the northern tiows the Orontes or Aasy. In the heights of Ilermon, the uniting spur, and the highest land of the Anti-Libanus range (9,000 feet), rises the Jordan, which tiows to the south ; between it and the Orontes rises the Leontes or Litany, which, coursing to the S. W., enters the Mediterranean. The Anti- Libanus range is lower than the Libanus, and less continuous. Geologically it is less fossiliferous, as its limestones approach a crystalline charac ter, giving more striking evidences of volcanic agency. It lacks also the far-famed cedars of Lebanon, its foliage being mostly of white pop lar. It abounds in small lakes enclosed in its small table lands, a characteristic mostly want ing to the Libanus range. ANTILLES, a name of somewhat loose appli cation, but generally given to two groups of the West India islands. The name of Antilla is sometimes supposed to have been applied by Columbus to his first discoveries in the new world, because a continent of that name had previously been believed to exist AV\ of the Azores. Others derive the word from ante islas (forward islands), and apply it to the Caribbean group. At the present day geog raphers generally distinguish Cuba, Ilayti, Porto Rico, Jamaica, and the small neighbor ing islands of Caymanbrack, Great and Little Cayman, and Isla de Pinos as the Greater An tilles ; and the Windward group or Caribbeans, extending in a semicircular line from Porto Eico to the mouth of the Orinoco, as the Lesser Antilles. (See WEST INDIES.) ANTI-MASONRY, a political movement which originated in the state of New York in 1827. In the autumn of 1826 AVilliam Morgan, a me chanic of Batavia, N. Y., who was reported to be about to publish a volume exposing the se crets of the order of freemasons, of which he had been a member, was kidnapped and carried off. Committees of vigilance and safety were formed, and an investigation initiated, which resulted in tracing the abductors and their vic tim westward to Fort Niagara, near Lewiston, N. Y., whence it appeared that Morgan had been taken out upon Lake Ontario in a boat and drowned. This was the final conclusion of those who prosecuted the investigation, though reports were repeatedly current that Morgan had been seen alive and at liberty months after his reported abduction. One of these accounts placed him in Smyrna in Asia. The persons by whose aid he was rapidly and quietly con veyed, in a carriage drawn by relays of horses, from Batavia to Fort Niagara, were said to have been freemasons. Prosecutions were in due time instituted against those whom the investi gation showed to have been in any way con cerned in the abduction, and repeated trials re sulted in the conviction of some of them on minor charges, but no murder was ever judi cially established. It was supposed to be shown in the course of these trials that the masonic oath disqualified masons in certain of the higher degrees for serving as jurors in any case where a brother mason of like degree was a party, and his antagonist was not. The anti-masonic party was thereupon formed in western New York, and polled 313,000 votes for its candidate for governor, Solomon Southwick, in 1828. This vote rose to 70,000 in 1829, and to 128,000 for Francis Granger for governor in 1830 ; in which aggregate, however, were included the suffrages of many who were not anti-masons. The excitement gradually diffused itself into other states, and in 1831 a national anti-mason ic convention was held, wherein most of the free states were represented, and William Wirt of Maryland was nominated by it for president of the United States, with Amos Ellmaker of Pennsylvania for vice president. Mr. Granger was again the anti-masonic candidate for gov ernor of New York in 1832, and received the votes of nearly all opposed to the reelection of Gen. Jackson, but was defeated by about 12,000 majority. In Pennsylvania Joseph Rit- ner was this year brought forward as the anti- masonic candidate for governor, and beaten by barely 3,000 votes by Gov. Wolf, who had many enemies in his own party ; but at the presidential election in the same year, Gen. Jackson carried the state over the combined opposition by 25,000 majority. Anti-masonic state and electoral tickets were supported in many if not most of the free states, but were successful only in Vermont, which cast her seven electoral votes for Wirt and Ellmaker. Vermont remained for two or three years un der anti-masonic rule, but the party gradually faded out, and was absorbed by others during the political and financial struggle that grew out of Gen. Jackson s veto of the United States bank charter in 1832, and the removal of the deposits in 1833. Until then western New York, the theatre of the Morgan abduction and the cradle of the anti-masonic excitement, gave large anti-masonic majorities ; while west ern Pennsylvania, northern Ohio, and portions of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, evinced a preponderating sympathy therewith. In 1835, during the struggle which followed the removal of the deposits, Joseph Ritner was chosen gov ernor of Pennsylvania as an anti-mason, through a division in the democratic ranks ; but the anti-masonic party gradually lost its distinctive character, and soon after ceased to exist. ANTIMONY, a metal first extracted from the ore in 1490 by Basil Valentine, a monk of Er furt, It is of a silver- white color, slightly bluish, of strong lustre, and of a peculiar taste and smell. Its texture is radiated and fibrous, and the metal is so brittle that it may be pounded to powder in a mortar. For this reason it can not be used alone for any practical purpose, but combined with other metals it forms valua ble alloys. Its specific gravity is (5*7, its melt ing point 842 F. At common temperature it does not oxidize, but heated moderately in the ANTIMONY 565 open air, it takes fire and burns with a bright bluish-white flame. The vapor is an oxide, which in condensing often forms beautiful crys tals, formerly known as the argentine flowers of antimony. The metal also, after being melt ed in close crucibles and cooled very slowly, crystallizes in octahedral forms. The name is said to be derived from anti-monachos, or anti- monks, some preparation of the metal havirfg proved fatal to several of the brotherhood, not withstanding it had been observed that the same mixture had a fattening effect upon hogs, after purging them. A more probable deriva tion is from atimad, its Arabic name. The ancients gave the name stibium to some com pound of the ore they were acquainted with, which was without doubt the common ore of commerce, the sulplmret. This name is adopted in chemical nomenclature to represent the metal. Its symbol is Sb. Antimony is sometimes found in a metallic state. It so occurs in the Ilartz, in France, and in Swe den. The only important natural production of it, however, is the sulphuret, a combination of 71-77 per cent, of the metal and 28 23 of sulphur. This ore is of a lead-gray color, crys tallized in lamime and needles, w r hich are very brittle and fusible in the flame of a candle. Its specific gravity is from 4 13 to 4 6 ; hardness=r2.. It is easily ground to a black powder, and in this state forms a pigment, which appears to have been used in ancient times by ladies for coloring the eyebrows and edges of the eyelids. The ore is not of rare occurrence in metallifer ous districts ; but the great supply of it is from the island of Borneo, through Singapore. There are mines of it in lower Hungary, France, and Great Britain. A large vein has been found in Tulare county, California, about 80 miles from Los Angeles, in a high granitic range that bor ders the Tulare valley on the south. Its separa tion from the sulphuret is now effected by first melting the ore in crucibles, perforated at the bottom, and placed in other vessels. As the ore melts, it flows through into the lower ves sel, unaltered in composition,.but freed from its earthy gangues. This is the crude antimony of commerce. On roasting it to expel the sulphur, different combinations of oxide of antimony and sulphur are formed as the glass of anti mony, the liver of antimony, and crocus. The first-named consists of 8 parts of oxide and 1 of sulphuret. It is a transparent salt, of a reddish yellow color. Crocus contains 2 parts of sul phuret to 8 of the oxide ; it is opaque and of yellow-red color. Liver of antimony is opaque and deep brown ; it consists of about 4 parts of sulphuret and 8 of oxide. Crude anti mony is reduced to a metallic state by first carefully roasting it to obtain the oxide. This is then mixed with crude tartar, or with car bonate of soda, and powdered charcoal, placed in melting pots, and heated in a wind furnace. An impure metal is thus obtained, called the regulus of antimony. This is again melted with a small proportion of oxide of antimony, by which it is freed from its impurities. Antimo ny combines with oxygen in three proportions, the first forming the peroxide, Sb 2 O 3 ; the third quinquioxide, or antimonic acid ; and the sec ond antimoniate of antimony, or quadroxide, a compound of the other two. The most impor tant alloys of antimony are : type metal, con sisting of 4 parts lead and 1 of antimony, which when used for stereotyping has added to it ^ to y-o of tin; Britannia metal, 100 parts tin, 8 antimony, 2 bismuth, 2 copper; and various white alloys used for teapots, spoons, and forks. Pewter may be made of 12 parts tin, 1 part an timony, and a little copper. Several com pounds of antimony are used in medicine. The pulvis antimonialis, corresponding to the nos trum James s powder, is composed of 1 part teroxide of antimony and 2 parts precipitated phosphate of lime. Kermes mineral is a com pound of teroxide and tersulphide in varying proportion, and the precipitated sulphide con tains also a portion of teroxide. The most important preparation is the tartrate of anti mony and potassa, or tartar emetic. This drug causes vomiting by a specific effect .upon the nervous centres. It has a peculiar de pressing effect upon the heart and muscular system, both when it produces vomiting and when tolerance, as it is called, has been estab lished. In poisonous doses it produces burn ing in the mouth, throat, and stomach, hic cough, copious secretion of mucus and saliva, colic and diarrhoea, muscular weakness, some times convulsions and cramp, and a pulse at first weak and slow, then weak and rapid. In chron ic poisoning the symptoms are similar, but less marked. Frequently repeated, with intervals of comparative ease, they lead to emaciation, loss of strength, and finally fatal depression. The post-mortem appearances are not very characteristic, and for medico-legal purposes the presence of the drug must be demonstrated. There are various processes for extracting antimony from suspected matter, which consist essentially in oxidizing and dissolving it in acids. Its presence may be demonstrated by the formation of characteristic precipitates, or by its deposit in*a metallic form by Marsh s or Reinsch s test. The metallic spot formed by antimony in Marsh s test is less volatile than that of arsenic, and is insoluble in hot nitric acid or hypochlorite of soda, both of which dis solve arsenic. Tartar emetic is much less used in medicine than formerly, but still finds some favor as a diaphoretic and expectorant, and as a cardiac sedative in inflammatory diseases, es pecially pneumonia. Statistics, however, do not speak in its favor as compared with less depressing agents. In most cases other sub stances possess advantages over this drug as an emetic. Externally, in the form of ointment, it produces a pustular eruption. In poisoning by tartar emetic, vomiting should be encour aged by tickling the fauces and drinking warm water, or the stomach pump may be used. Tannin, such as exists in galls or in green tea, 566 ANTINOMIAXS AOTIOCH renders less active any of the drug which may remain in the stomach. Subsequent infiamma- tion is to be treated on general principles. ANTIN09IIANS (Gr. avri, against, and v<fyzof, law), those wlio reject the moral law as not binding upon Christians. Some go further and affirm that a child of God cannot sin; that the moral law is abrogated as a rule of life ; and that good works hinder salvation. Wesley de fines antinoinianism to be " the doctrine which makes void the law through faith." Antino inianism in a modified form early showed itself in the Christian church, as appears by the Epistle of James, and later in the writings of Augustine, by whom it was opposed. Its full development is due to John Agricola (1492- 150(5), one of the early coadjutors of Luther. He maintained that the moral law was super seded by the gospel ; that the law is binding only upon unbelievers, but as soon as a man exercises faith in Christ, he comes under a new moral economy with which the law has no pos sible relations ; that the law is not in any way instrumental in bringing men to the benefits of the new dispensation, but that faith and re pentance are to be secured only by the preach ing of the gospel. He affirmed that these con clusions followed as necessary consequences j from the doctrines taught by Luther, and that | he and Melanchthon were inconsistent in not } admitting them. The controversy between ! Luther and Agricola became violent. It was partially reconciled at a conference at Torgau (1527), when after a sharp debate Agricola ! retracted his doctrines ; but, according to Me- I lanehthon, "he was not convinced, but over- ! borne. In 1537 Agricola, being then established ! at Wittenberg, put forth anonymously a series of j theses on the nature of repentance and its re- lations to faith, in which his former views were more strongly expressed : "Art thou steeped in > sin, an adulterer or a thief, if thou believest, thou art in salvation. All who follow Moses must go to the devil: to the gallows with Moses. Luther replied in a series of disputa- j tions, in which Agricola, who had in the mean time acknowledged the authorship of the the- j ses, was at first treated tenderly ; but after- ward Luther used harsh language, classing \ Agricola with the Anabaptist fanatics. In 1540 : Agricola again retracted, and was reconciled with Luther. The controversy was however \ carried on by others in Germany. Antino- ! mianism appeared in England during the protec torate of Cromwell, some of the sectaries main taining that "as the elect cannot fall from \ grace nor forfeit the divine favor, any wicked actions which they may commit are not really ; sinful ; and that, consequently, they have no need to confess their sins or to break them off j by repentance." In the 17th century antino- ! mianism again made its appearance in England, its supporters maintaining that it was a logical consequence from the doctrines taught by Cal vin. It reappeared in the 18th century to a considerable extent among the followers of ! Wesley. It was earnestly opposed by Wesley and John Fletcher, the latter of whom wrote "Checks to Antinoinianism," probably the ablest of his works. In America antinomian- | ism properly so called has never been main- ! tained except by isolated individuals, although ! it is sometimes used by polemics as a term of reproach. Among the prominent writers in English who have opposed antinomianism are John Wesley, John Fletcher, Robert Hall, and Andrew Fuller. ANTINOUS, a beautiful Bithynian youth, the favorite of the emperor Hadrian, accompanied that prince on his journey through Egypt, and was drowned in the Nile A. D. 132. Accord ing to Dion Cassius, he drowned himself under the following circumstances : The oracle at Besa had informed the emperor that a great danger which was threatening him could only be averted by the immolation of the person whom he loved most fondly. The youth, hearing this, threw himself into the Nile as a voluntary sac rifice. To perpetuate his memory, Hadrian built near Besa the magnificent city of Antino- opolis or Antinoe in Middle Egypt, and caused a newly observed star to be called by his name. Antinous was deified, mysteries in his honor were celebrated at Mantinea, and statues of him erected throughout the Roman world. AXTIOCH (anc. Antiofliia ; Turk. AntaMa or AntaJcieK), a city of Syria, was the most mag nificent of 16 cities of the same name built by Seleucus Nicator, about* 800 B. C., in memory of liis father Antiochus. It was distinguished by the appellation Epidaplmes, which it received from the neighboring grove of Daphne, con taining a magnificent temple of Apollo. (See DAPHNE.) Antioch was advantageously situ ated, in communication with all the trade of the Mediterranean, and conveniently approached by caravans from the east. It was the nourishing capital of the Seleucid empire, and subsequent ly the favorite residence of wealthy Romans. In the time of Chrysostom its free population was computed at 200,000, and the Christian church, which had been established here soon after the martyrdom of Stephen, then number ed 100,000. The inhabitants were distinguish ed both for their intellectual and their luxuri ous character. A high Greek civilization was mingled with various Asiatic elements ; a pas sionate love of frivolous amusements was close ly associated with a strong tendency to meta physics and a solemn faith in astrology. To their addiction to scurrilous wit and the in vention of nicknames may be attributed the appellation "Christians" first given in this city to the followers of Jesus Christ. For GOO years Antioch deserved the title which Pliny gave it of "queen of the East." About 145 B. C. tens of thousands of the inhabitants, who had revolted against Demetrius II. and be sieged him in his palace, perished in a bloody struggle with the Jewish force sent for his res cue by Jonathan, one of the Maccabees. In A. D. 115 Antioch was almost utterly ruined by an ANTIOCII AXTIOCII COLLEGE .567 earthquake, but was rebuilt in its ancient splen dor by the contributions and influence of the emperor Trajan. In 155 it was destroyed by fire, and restored by Antoninus Pius. On the decline of the Roman empire it suffered severely in the wars with Persia, being sacked by Sapor I., Chosroes I., and Chosroes II. In 331 it was vis ited by a famine so dreadful that a bushel of wheat sold for 400 pieces of silver. The same calamity befell the city in the reign of Julian, and again in that of Theodosius. The inhabit ants were severely punished by Theodosius in 387 for resisting the payment of an extraordi nary tribute. In the years 458, 520, and 587 Antioch was visited by earthquakes, and on each occasion nearly ruined. That of 526 was the most destructive of life of any on record. Gibbon states that 250,000 persons perished. In 638 it fell into the hands of the Saracens, about 9 75 was reannexed to the Byzantine em pire, in 1098 was taken by the crusaders, and in 1268 its power was extinguished by Sultan Bibars. (See BOHEMOND.) The bishop of Anti och in the 5th century received the title of patri arch, and ranked next to the bishops of Rome, Constantinople, and Alexandria. In the Greek church he still ranks immediately after the patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria. In the Roman Catholic church four bishops bear the title of patriarch of Antioch, those of the Maronite, United Greek, LTnited Syrian, and Latin rites. None of the present patri archs of Antioch reside in Antakieh. Anta- kieh, or modern Antioch, is situated on the S. bank of the Orontes, which at this place is about 120 feet wide, 55 m. W. of Aleppo; pop. about 12,000. S. of the city is a high mountain, the sides of which Ibrahim Pasha fortified to command the town. It has a num ber of insignificant mosques with low mina- City of Antioch. rets, and several Christian churches. Most of I the Christians in Antioch and the neighboring j mountains are Armenians, among whom the j American missionaries have made many con- \ verts. Silk is much cultivated here, and ex- j ported in a raw state to France. Oil, soap, j and leather are also manufactured, and grain. honey, and butter are exported in large quan tities. The fertile plains of Antioch are quite uncultivated, being subject to raids by the Turcoman robbers, who are more dreaded by the peasantry than the Bedouins; but on the hills around are numerous plantations of figs, olives, and vines. Large herds of horses in a half wild state roam the plains; they are reared by the Turcomans for the Syrian markets. In 1822 the town again suffered severely from an earthquake; and on April 3 and 10, 1872, heavy shocks occurred, overthrowing part of i the walls, rending the ancient Roman bridge in several places, and destroying a great number of the houses in the city and in the surround ing villages and several thousand lives. AXTIOCH COLLEGE, a seat of learning at Yellow Springs, Green county, Ohio, 75 m. IN. E. of Cincinnati. It was incorporated in 1852, and its buildings, erected at an expense of $150,000, occupy a beautiful and health ful situation. The college is designed to give education as cheaply as possible to the people of the West ; to open every opportunity equally to men and women; and to be religious but not sectarian. It requires sound moml char acter in the students, not less than scholarship. Horace Mann was its president from 1853 till his death in 1859, when he was succeeded by Thomas Hill, D. D., who held the position until elected president of Harvard college in 1862. 568 ANTIOCIIUS In 1866 George W. Hosmer, D. D., of Buffalo, N. Y., was chosen president, but resumed the office in 1872, and was succeeded by Prof. Ed ward Orton. The education of the two sexes together has proved successful. About one third of the pupils have been women, and the moral tone of the students has been excellent. The average number in attendance in all depart ments for the last five years has been about 1 (55. The highest cost of tuition in the college course is $30 a year. There are seven professors and four assistant female teachers. The college has an endowment of $103,000. By a recent vote of the board of trustees, an offer is made to the high schools of Ohio of free tuition to one young man and one young woman in each school yearly, who shall be well prepared to enter the freshman class. A preparatory school and a musical institute are attached to the col lege, and under the supervision of the faculty. ANTIOCIHS, the name of several kings of Syria, of whom the following are the most im portant in its history: I. Antiodms I., Soter, born about 325 B. C., died in 261. He was the son of Seleucus Nicator and Aparna, the daughter of the Persian satrap Artabazus. At the battle of Ipsus he commanded the cavalry of his father, and was routed by Demetrius Poliorcetes. lie fell ill through love for his stepmother Stratonice, and his father not only abandoned to him the object of his desire, but abdicated a portion of his dominions in his fa vor, lie joined his father in his expeditions into the countries lying between the Indus and the Caspian. On the assassination of Se leucus in Thrace (280) he inherited all his do minions. In his reign a division of the Gauls, who had ravaged Macedonia, Hellas, and Thrace, penetrated into Asia Minor, and set tled permanently in northern Phrygia, subse quently known as Galatia. Antiochus gained a brilliant victory over them in 275, from which he took his surname of Soter (Saviour). He disputed the throne of Macedon with An- tigonus Gonatas, the son of Demetrius Polior cetes ; but the matter was arranged by Anti- gonus retaining the throne and marrying the daughter of Antiochus. After an unsuccessful war with Eumeiies, king of Pergamus, he put to death his eldest son, Ptolemy, who had re volted against him. He was killed by a Gaul in a battle near Ephesus. II. Antiochns HI., the Great, son of Seleucus Callinicus and Laodicea, born about 2o8 B. C., slain in 187. He suc ceeded his brother Seleucus Ceraunus at a time when his kingdom was in a disorganized con dition. After reducing a revolt of the govern ors of Media and Persia, and of Artabazanes, governor of Atropatene, he was defeated by Ptolemy Philopator near Gaza (217) in an at tempt to secure possession of Coele-Syria and Palestine, but recovered his laurels by suppress ing the rebellion of his cousin Achteus, whom he besieged in Sardis, captured by treachery, and put to death, thus reannexing a consider able portion of A^ia Minor to the Syrian mon archy (214). In pursuance of his scheme of restoring his kingdom to the position it held at the death of its founder, Seleucus Xicator, he turned his arms against Parthia, and reduced Arsaces III. to vassalage, lie was unsuccessful against Euthymedus, king of Bactria. Crossing the mountains of Paropamisus (Hindoo Koosh) into India, he made a treaty of alliance with the king of the Punjaub, and directed his march homeward through the provinces of Arachosia, Drangiana, and Carmania, and reestablished the Syrian supremacy in those regions. Eor this seven years expedition he received from his sub jects the surname of the Great. Soon after his re turn to Antioch (205), Ptolemy Philopator died, and his sou Ptolemy Epiphanes, then five years old, succeeded to the throne of Egypt. Anti ochus thereupon entered into an alliance with Philip of Macedon to overrun and partition Egypt. He quickly gained possession of Pales tine and Coele-Syria, and after a great victory near Paneas was received by the Jews in Jerusa lem with great enthusiasm. Learning the defeat of his ally Philip by the Romans at Cynoscepha- Ia3 in 197, he made peace with Ptolemy, pro ceeded with a fleet along the coast of Asia Minor, reducing many of the Greek cities there, crossed the Hellespont, and took possession of the Thracian Chersonese. The Roman senate sent an ambassador in 196 to demand that he should restore what he had taken from Philip and Ptolemy, whose guardianship the Roman people had just assumed. They also demanded immunity for their ally Attains, king of Per gamus. Antiochus replied that as he did not seek to interfere with what the Romans did in Italy, they must not trouble him in Asia. In the following year (195) Ihmnibal, driven from Carthage, took refuge with Antiochus at Ephesus. Hannibal s advice was to carry the war immediately into Italy, but Antiochus did not move till 192. Then he crossed over into Greece at the invitation of the ^Etolians, who were in arms against the Romans. He brought only 10,000 men with him, but was chosen com- mander-in-chief by the .Etolian assembly, and began by making Philip of Macedon his enemy instead of his friend. After capturing Euboca, instead of pressing forward, he wasted his time in treating about the surrender of a number of little cities, fell in love with a Euba>an damsel and married her, and spent the winter at Chal- cis in a round of dissipation, in which his army shared. The Roman consul Acilius Glabrio, with Cato for his legate, now advanced upon him. He made a stand at Thermopyla3, was entirely routed, and barely escaped with his new wife (191). The next year Lucius Corne lius Scipio took the conduct of the war, with his brother Africanus as his lieutenant. Dis heartened and panic-struck by the defeat of his fleet, Antiochus withdrew his troops from Ses- tos and Ahydos, and the other fortified mari time cities of Asiatic Greece, which might have held the Romans in check. Thus the lat ter had free passage into Asia. The two ar- ANTIOQUIA ANTIPATER 569 mies mot at Magnesia nearMt. Sipylus ; that of Antiochns numbered 70,000 men, that of the Romans 30,000. The Syrians were thoroughly defeated and cut to pieces, and Antiochns was compelled to submit to whatever terms the Romans chose to impose. These terms were to resign the provinces west of the Taurus, to pay a large sum for the expenses of the war, to deliver up to the Romans his elephants and ships of war, and to surrender Hannibal and the other anti-Roman refugees. Hannibal and another were allowed to save themselves by flight; the rest were given up together with hostages for the execution of the treaty. One of these hostages was Antiochus Epiph- anes, the king s younger son. In collecting means to pay the indemnity, he plundered a wealthy temple in the province of Elymais, upon which the indignant people rose and massacred him and his attendants. III. An- tioelms IV., Epiphancs, or the Illustrious, second son of the preceding, succeeded his elder bro ther Seleucus Philopator in 175 B. C., died in 164. He was kept as hostage at Rome until his brother sent his own son Demetrius to replace him. He recovered Coele-Syria and Palestine in a single campaign (171), overran all Egypt except Alexandria, took captive the young king, Ptolemy Philometor, and in 170 sacked Jerusalem and plundered the temple, as related in the book of the Maccabees. He undertook four expeditions into Egypt, and would have an nexed that country had not the Roman ambas sadors met him on the last occasion (168) and ordered its immediate evacuation. On his re turn home he commenced that great persecu tion of the Jews which is related in the 2d book of the Maccabees, during which time the service of the temple was broken off for three years. He set up the statue of Jupiter Olym pus there, and desired to introduce the wor ship of the Greek deities, but was thwarted by the insurrection of Mattathias and his sons the Maccabees. After a frustrated attempt to plunder a temple in Elymais, he became raving mad, in which condition he died. His subjects called him, in parody on his surname, Epiina- nes, the madman. ANTIOQUIA, one of the nine states of the United States of Colombia, between lat. 5 3 and 8 9 K, and Ion. 74 3 and 76 13 W., touching the gulf of Darien on the X. "W., and bounded by the states of Bolivar, Santander, Cundinamarca, Tolima, and Cauca; area, 24,823 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 365,974, about 20 per cent. white, the remainder mestizos (mixed white and Indian), mulattoes, and Indians, chiefly civ ilized. The central range of the Andes spreads put over nearly the whole state, terminating in its E. and N. E. portions. The river Cauca flows through its entire length, and the Magda- lena forms the -E. boundary, and is navigable for steamers of light draught. Antioquia is rich in gold, and although the mines and wash ings are but little worked, the annual produce is estimated at $2,500,000. The soil is ex tremely fertile, and the valleys lying between the various mountain ranges abound in cat tle. Springs impregnated with iodine abound throughout the state, to which is attributed the exemption of the inhabitants from goitre, which prevails in other parts of the republic. The principal cities are Medellin, the capital, Ca- ceres, Remedios, and Zaragoza. AMIPAROS (anc. Oliarus or Olearus), an island of the Grecian archipelago, one of the Cyclades, forming part of the eparchy of Naxos, Greece, about 3 by 7 m., separated from Paros by a strait 1^ m. wide; pop. about 1,000. Cotton, barley" and wine are produced in small quantities. The island contains masses of w bite marble, and is celebrated for a grotto, 120 yards long, 113 wide, and 60 feet high, situated 2 m. from the sea, at an elevation of 500 feet. It consists of an immense marble arch, the roof, sides, and centre of which are covered with stalactites and dazzling crystallizations assum ing the shapes of columns, screens, flowers, trees, &c. The stalactites hanging from the roof unite in several places with stalagmites rising from the floor, so that the arch is appa rently supported by a continuous series of pil lars. The grotto is entered by a natural arch of rugged rock, overhung with trailing plants. AMIPAS, Herod. See HEROD. AMIPATER, a Macedonian general, one of the successors of Alexander, born about 390 B. C., died in 319. He was educated by Aris totle. Appointed viceroy of Macedonia and Greece when Alexander made his expedition into Asia, he defeated the Spartans and slew their king Agis in 331. Alexander became dis trustful of him, and ordered him to be super seded, but died before the change could be made. At the division of the empire, Antip- ater received Macedonia and Greece, and the guardianship of the future child of Alexander by Roxana. When the death of Alexander be came known, the Athenians determined to strike again for liberty, and made an alliance with the ^Etolians, Thessalians, and all the Greeks north of the isthmus except the Bceo- tians, and with the Peloponnesians who were not of the Lacedemonian party. The allies, under the Athenian Leosthenes, were at first successful ; but Antipater, having been reen- forced, gave them battle in 322 at Crannon in Thessaly, and, though the victory was not com plete, compelled them to sue separately for peace. The Athenians and JEtolians, deserted by their allies, were unable to continue the struggle. Antipater demanded the surrender of Demosthenes and Hyperides, the two demo cratic orators, put a Macedonian garrison in Munychia to act in concert with Phocion and the Athenian conservative party, broke up the democratic constitution of Athens, and left the government in the hands of about 9,000 citizens who were possessed of a property qual ification, and were disposed to peace, banishing most of the other citizens to various parts. He \ drove the ^Etolians into their mountains, and 570 ANTIPIION ANTI-EENTISM starved them into submission. After the death of Perdiccas (321), Antipater made a new di vision of the provinces, giving a part of the ter ritory of Perdiccas to Antigonus, part to Lyshn- achus, and part to Seleucus. ANTIPHOS, an Athenian orator, son of So- pliilus the sophist, born at Rhamnus in Attica about 480 B. 0., died in 411. lie taught rhet oric at Athens, composed orations for others, was the first who received money for such ser vices, and is believed to be the first who sub jected the art of oratory to strict theoretical rules. He was the most active leader in the revolution which established the oligarchy of the 400 in 411; and his only public speech was the one he delivered in his own defence on its overthrow in the same year. Tlmcydides called it the ablest that was ever made in simi lar circumstances, but it is now lost. Antiphon was condemned to death. There are 15 of his orations extant, the best edition of which is that of Dobson (London, 1828). ANTIPIIOXY (Gr. av-ijuwia, response), the re sponse which, in the Roman Catholic service, one side of the choir makes to the other in the chant. Antiphonal or responsive singing is the most ancient form of church music, and is said by the historian Socrates to have been first in troduced among the Greeks by Ignatius, and among the Latins by St. Ambrose. The chant ing of the psalms alternately is doubtless older than Christianity, and prevailed in the temple service of the Jews, many of the psalms being composed in alternate verses as if with a view to this mode of singing. In the cathedral wor ship of the Catholic church, two full choirs are stationed one on each side of the sanctuary, one of which, having chanted a verse, remains silent, while the opposite choir replies in the verse succeeding; and at the end of each psalm the Gloria Patri is sung by the united choirs in chorus. ANTI-REffTISM, The Dutch West India com pany authorized its members in New York to take up land upon the banks of the streams and rivers, on condition of introducing within a limited time 50 settlers for every mile of land. The proprietor was invested with the title and privileges of a lord patroon or protector, and his colony or manor was governed by the same customs and laws as were the feudal manors of the United Provinces. After the revolution a very large proportion of the land in the settled parts of New York was held by the patroons, and the cultivators occupied their farms on leases for one or more lives, or from year to year, stipulating for the payment of rents, dues, and services, copied from the feudal tenures of England and Holland. In 1770 and 1785 laws were enacted by the legislature of the state abolishing feudal tenures, but the proprietors of manor grants, unwilling to give up all their feudal claims, contrived a form of deed by which the grantees covenanted to perform services, and pay rents and dues, precisely sim ilar to the feudal incidents thus abolished. The counties of Albany, Rensselaer, Columbia, Greene, Ulster, Delaware, Schoharie, Mont gomery, Herkimer, Otsego, and Oneida include within their limits most of these manors. In 1839 associations were formed to devise means for getting rid of these burdens, and soon be came known as anti-rent associations. The anti-rent feeling manifested itself in open re sistance to the service of legal process for the collection of manorial rents. The first conflict which awakened general attention happened in the town of Grafton, Rensselaer county, where a band of anti-renters in disguise killed a man named Smith during an altercation on the highway. A legal investigation, at which more than 200 persons were from time to time examined, failed to disclose the author of the deed. In his messages of 1841 arid 1842, Gov. Seward discussed the grievances complained of by the tenants. He recommended a reference of the matters in dispute to arbitrators, and appointed three men to investigate and report to the legislature. This commission failed to accomplish anything. The disaffection arid ex citement increased, until, after a tragical affair at Andes in Delaware county in 1845, Gov. Wright issued a proclamation, declaring the county in a state of insurrection. The trials and convictions at Delhi in that county, and the convictions of certain anti-renters at Hud son, Columbia county, for conspiracy and re sistance to law, put an end to operations by the disguised bands. The anti-rent associations determined to form a political party, whose policy should be to elect jtll town and county officers from their own ranks, and to vote for no state, civil, judicial, or executive officers unfriendly to them, or unpledged to their cause. In the legislatures of 1842-"7 about one eighth of the members were elected in the interest of the anti-renters. In the constitu tional convention of 1846 some of the ablest men were avowedly anti-renters, or advocates of their measures and principles. Their influ ence procured the insertion of a clause in the new constitution abolishing all feudal tenures and incidents, and forbidding the leasing of agricultural land for a term exceeding 12 years. The legislature at successive sessions passed laws which bore heavily upon the landlord interest, and tended gradually to ameliorate the condition of the tenants. In 1846 Gov. Wright, who was a candidate for reelection, was de feated by 10,000 majority for John Young, whom the anti-renters hud nominated. Gov. Young pardoned from the state prison all the so-called anti-rent convicts, on the ground that their offences were rather political than crimi nal, -and that it was the wise policy of all good governments to forgive and restore to citizen ship political offenders, after the law had been vindicated and order and peace restored. After 1847 the excitement died out, the anti-rent in fluence ceased to be a disturbing force in poli tics, and the anti-rent organization contented itself with efforts to contest in the courts the ANTISANA ANTISPASMODICS 571 validity of the titles of the landlords, and the legality of the conditions and covenants con tained in the manor grants. ANTISANA, a volcanic mountain of Ecuador, in the eastern Cordillera, 35 m. S. E. of Quito, ac cording to Humboldt, 10,148 ft. high ; according to Wisse, 1 ( .),279. An eruption in 1590 is re corded ; and Humboldt saw smoke issuing from several openings in 1802. Four immense lava streams descend from the snowy summit, one of which, the Volcan de Ansango, is 10 m. long and 500 ft. deep. The lava is mainly a black, cellular, trachytic porphyry. But the volcano is now dormant, if not extinct. On its side is Lake Mica, near which is the celebrated Haci enda, one of the highest habitations in the world and the centre of an extensive corral. Humboldt made its altitude 13,465 feet; Bous- singault, 13,356; Orton, 13,300. ANTI-SCORBUTICS. See SCURVY. ANTISEPTICS (Gr. am , against, and o^rr-rdf, putrid), substances or means which prevent or arrest putrefaction. Putrefaction is a process which highly complex organic bodies undergo when subjected to the proper conditions of heat, moisture, and air, and no longer con trolled by the laws of vital chemistry. Nitro genous or albuminoid bodies are essential to this process, in which they play the double part of being themselves decomposed and, by an imperfectly understood action called catal ysis, exciting allied changes in other bodies. The growth of living infusorial organisms hold ing a very low position in the scale of animal or vegetal >le life, called vibrios and bacteria, is a frequent if not invariable accompaniment of this process ; but it is still a question how es sential they are in its production. The meth ods of preventing organic decomposition de pend upon the removal of some one or more of the conditions necessary for its accomplish ment. The temperature may be above or be low the limits at which putrefaction can go on. The preservative effect of cold, and especially of dry cold, is well known, and exemplified in the keeping of meat and fruit on ice or in ice houses. Anim?ls have been found undecornposed in the ice of Siberia, which belong to extinct species and which must have been embalmed in ice for ages. A boiling tem perature coagulates albumen, kills infusorial organisms, and temporarily arrests putrefac tion, until the material receives a new ferment from without. The exclusion of air, as in the process of canning fruit and meat, renders the result more permanent. Many substances with draw water from the tissues, and also from the infusorial organisms, thus causing them to shrivel up and lose their activity. Such are sugar, glycerine, alcohol, and many salts, as common salt, saltpetre (nitrate of potassa), and alum. Fruits ai j largely preserved in sugar ; many medicinal fluid extracts may be made with glycerine ; and anatomical specimens may be preserved almost indefinitely in glycerine or alcohol. Salt and saltpetre are of the | highest value in the preservation of meat. If the water is simply driven off by the heat of the sun and atmosphere, meat may be kept un changed for a long time in a dry climate Sev- j eral of the agencies first mentioned, such as boiling water, alcohol, and some salts, as well as corrosive sublimate, chloride of zinc (Bur nett s disinfecting fluid), and tannin, act by I coagulating and rendering chemically inert I albuminous substances. Corrosive sublimate is ! used but little except for anatomical purposes. I Chloride of zinc is an excellent disinfectant for | ships, hospitals, dissecting rooms, and water I closets, and is also used to preserve bodies for I dissection. Tannin forms with the gelatine of ! the skin, in leather, one of the most enduring; I of organic compounds. Prof. Brimetti of Padua has used tannic acid very successfully I in the preservation, as anatomical specimens, I of various internal organs. Bodies have been i found perfectly preserved in peat bogs, that must have been undergoing the tanning process for hundreds of years. Many of the most use- j ful antiseptics act not only in one or more ; of the ways mentioned, but also either as poi- i sons to the infusoria accompanying decornposi- tion, or as opposing the catalytic action of fer ments. Quinia, for instance, has been found ! to have both these properties in a high degree, killing infusoria immediately in the proportion i of one part to 800, in some minutes at 1 to : 2,000, in some hours at 1 to 20,000, and pre- i venting or retarding the formation of carbonic ! acid from sugar, the reaction of emulsine upon amygdaline, and of ozone upon guaiacum. As a preservative against actual putrefaction, it was found, weight for weight, less efficient than i corrosive sublimate. Carbolic acid, creasote, chloroform, and perhaps the volatile oils, act in this way. Carbolic acid has been largely used of late years as a surgical antiseptic dressing, in I watery solution, 1 to 30; diluted with glyce rine, with alcohol, with oil, as putty, or as plas ter with shellac. The antiseptic treatment de mands that all wounds should be carefully pro- i tected from the air by some of the forms of carbolic acid dressing just mentioned, even a finger used in examination or an amputating I knife being dipped in carbolic acid oil, lest they ! should carry living germs to the wounded sur- ; face. The action of creasote finds useful appli- i cation in the smoking of meat. Volatile oils : and resins were probably the active agents in the ancient process of embalming. Chlorine, i and sometimes iodine, act as disinfectants by ; withdrawing hydrogen from products of putre faction, allowing the nascent oxygen and other remaining elements to form simpler and more stable combinations, and as antiseptics by poi- soning infusoria or destroying the activity of ferments. AXTISPASMODICS, the means of removing spasm. Spasm or cramp occurs in muscular i structures, and is caused by irritation of the ! nerves. Spasm consists in an irregular and ; sometimes excessive action of a group of mus- 572 ANTISPASMODIOS ANTIUM cles, or a single muscle, or some particular fibres only of a muscle; and various names are applied to spasms of the different muscles or sets of muscles. The conditions giving rise to spasm are various, and affect one or more parts of the nervous circuit, which may be con ceived to consist of an afferent or sensitive fibre conveying sensitive impressions to a nervous centre, the latter transforming them into motor impulses, which, passing out by an efferent or motor fibre to a muscle, stimulates it to con traction. When these contractions take place irregularly, or in a degree disproportionate to the stimuli giving rise to them, or when they arise from stimuli which should not normally occasion them, and more especially when they take place unconsciously or involuntarily, they become spasms. They often arise from organic disease of the nervous centres, as in inflamma tion of the brain or spinal cord, or their mem branes, from tumors and haemorrhages, as pos sibly in chorea or St. Vitus s dance. A poi soning of the centres by abnormal constituents of the blood, as in Bright s disease, also gives rise to them. The nervous centres, especially the spinal cord and medulla oblongata, and the sensitive nerves, may become too sensitive, as in tetanus or lockjaw, poisoning by strychnia, and epilepsy. Other forms of spasm are due to special local irritations, as colic to improper food, uterine colic to the introduction of fluids into the uterus for therapeutic purposes, asth ma to certain states of the atmosphere, cramps of the feet and legs to cold or constrained posi tions. In treating these various affections, va rious drugs may be used, which so far deserve the name of antispasmodics. Heat often re lieves many spasms, as colic, cramps of the legs and feet, and the general convulsions of children from intestinal irritation, and may be applied in the form of hot baths or hot fomen tations. Abnormal excitability of the spinal cord and medulla oblongata is diminished by bromide of potassium, which does excellent ser vice in epilepsy, and sometimes by belladonna. The newly discovered hydrate of chloral has also the same property. Opium relieves the intense pains of uterine or other colic, and re laxes spasmodically contracted intestinal or uterine fibres. Ether and chloroform, inhaled, not only diminish but nearly destroy the activ ity of the nervous centres; they control all the voluntary muscles, and are the most powerful antispasmodics which can be used in any form of spasmodic disease. Unfortunately, their ef fect is often temporary. It is possible that the physostigma (Calabar bean) and woorara (South American arrow poison) may be practically used in some convulsive diseases. In organic diseases of the brain and cord, the disease rather than the symptom deserves attention. The substances to which the name antispas modics in the narrowest sense is applied are used either in the treatment of colic, of some children s diseases, in many hysterical affec tions, and some others. They are the " volatile oils," such as mint, lavender, &c., derived chiefly from the tribe of plants called labiatce ; cajeput oil, from the myrtaccce ; dill, anise, fennel, &c., from the urribelliferce from which tribe also are derived the foetid gurn resins, such as asafcetida, galbanum, ammoniac, &c. These, with valerian, myrrh, and camphor, de rived from the vegetable kingdom ; musk and castoreum, from the animal kingdom ; cyanide of iron and the oxides of bismuth and zinc, from the mineral kingdom, are among the most valuable antispasmodics. In the treatment of hysteria, moral, tonic, hygienic, and sometimes surgical measures are of far greater importance than antispasmodics, which at the most can only temporarily relieve symptoms. Spasmodic affections may be complicated with inflamma tion, and in that case they require most careful and somewhat different treatment. They may also occur in debilitated constitutions, or in persons of full habit; and here again the treat ment differs. Thus the medicines classed un der the head of antispasmodics are of small importance in comparison with a correct diag nosis and an appropriate mode of treatment in each special form of spasmodic affection. ANTI-SLAVERY. See SLAVEEY. ANTISTHENES, an Athenian philosopher, the founder of the sect of the Cynics, flourished about 380 B. 0. He was a pupil of Gor- gias, and afterward one of the most faithful disciples of Socrates, remaining with him through all his sufferings, and being present at his death. He began to teach his new doc trines in the Oynosarges, a gymnasium near the temple of Hercules, set apart for the instruction of the sons of Athenians by foreign wives ; Antisthenes himself was the son of an Athenian citizen and a Thracian (or according to some authorities a Phrygian) woman. From this gymnasium the followers who soon surrounded him probably took their name of Cynics. He taught that the highest virtue consisted in self-denial, independence of outward forms, social usages, and the comforts and luxuries of civilization, and in despising riches, honors, and human knowledge. His principal disciple was Diogenes. His works, of which only trifling fragments remain, were of a polemic character, bitterly assailing many of his contemporaries. ANTITAIRUS. See TAURUS. ANTITRINITARIANS. See UXITABIANISM. ANTIUM, an ancient city of Latium, built on a rocky promontory which projects into the Mediterranean, 82 m. S. of Rome. One legend ascribed its foundation to a son of Ulysses and Circe, another to Ascanius. No authentic record shows even by what people it was founded. In the time of Tarquinius Superbus, who annexed it to the Latin league, it was in habited by a mixed race who practised piracy and carried on a limited legitimate commerce. They favored the Volscians, and were only kept among the cities subject to Rome by strong garrisons and bodies oV Roman colonists, ANT LION ANTOMMARCHI 573 who were sent to Antinm from time to time. Later, though at exactly what period is not known, it loll entirely into the hands of the Volscians, and for some time vigorously aided them, according to Livy, in their wars again>t the Romans. In 468 B. C. it was retaken by the latter, and held till 459, when it again re volted. For a century it was the chief Vol- scian city, but in 338 it was a third time over come and garrisoned by Rome. The city con tinued prosperous, partly because of its excel lent harbor, partly because of its popularity as a summer resort for the citizens of Rome. Cali gula and Nero were born in Antiuin, and Cicero had a villa there. A vast circus, and temples of Venus, ^Eseulapius, Apollo, and Fortuna, as well as one which was the seat of a celebrated oracle, added to the magnificence of the city. Its prosperity declined with the decline of the western empire, and it was laid waste by the Saracens during their incursions, so that by A. D. 950 it had become a petty fishing village. Pope Innocent XII. (1091-1700) made an at tempt to restore something of its beauty, but with only temporary success ; and the town, known in modern times by the name of Porto d Anzo, remained almost deserted until the ac cession of Pius IX. This pope built there a very beautiful church and a villa which was for many years his favorite summer residence. Other beautiful villas have sprung up around it, and Porto d Anzo is no\v a town of about 1,000 inhabitants, occupying almost the centre of the site of ancient Antium, the ruins of which are everywhere visible. Among these ruins were found the Apollo Belvedere and the Fighting Gladiator" of the Borghese collec tion, with other art treasures. AXT LION, or Lion Ant, a species of neuropter- ous insect, of the genus myrmeleon (Linn.), which has become celebrated for the singular manner in which the larva obtains a living prey. The perfect insect (J/. formicarium, Linn.) resembles a small dragon fly, has a good power of flight, and is generally found in the warmer parts of Europe. The larva is about half an inch long, of an oval depressed form, and grayish sandy color ; the small head is armed with two strong and long mandibles, serrated and pointed, with which it seizes and sucks the juices of its prey. The powers of locomotion being small, it has recourse to arti fice to entrap insects. It makes a funnel-shaped excavation in sandy soil, with loose and crum bling sides, and buries itself, all but the head, at the bottom, waiting for a victim. If an ant or small insect approaches the edge, the sand gives way and it rolls down within reach of the expectant jaws ; after the body has been drained it is cast out by a toss of the head. If the insect be large or likely to escape, the ant lion throws repeated showers of sand upon it by means of the head, until it falls exhausted and defenceless to the bottom of the pitfall. Sometimes a revengeful wasp, well-armed bee, or mail-clad beetle falls into the snare, and the sting of the first two or the powerful jaws of the last often prove fatal to the ant lion. The larva state continues about two years, when a cocoon is spun, in which it is changed into an inactive nymph ; the perfect insect comes out in two or three weeks, and lays the eggs for a new brood in dry and sandy places suited for the operations of the larvae. There are other species both in the old world and the new, all with similar habits. AXTOINE DE BOIRBOX, duke of Vendome, and afterward king of Xavarre, the father of Henry IV. of France, born in 1518, died Nov. 17, 1502. He married in 1548 Jeanne d Albret, only child of Henry II. , king of Navarre, and assumed the title of king in her right. Like his brother, the duke of Conde, he embraced Protestantism. After the accession to the throne of France of the young king Francis II. (1559), he endeavored to obtain the control of the affairs of that country, but failed through his want of energy and perseverance. On the death of Francis in 1500, he was made lieu tenant general of the kingdom, and adviser to the queen mother (Catharine de Medici), dur ing the minority of Charles IX. He then aban doned his former associates and religion, and allied himself with the duke of Guise and the constable de Montmorency. Upon the break ing out of the civil war in 1502, he commanded the royal forces, and died of a wound received at the siege of Rouen. ANTOMMARCHI, Carlo Francesco, physician to Napoleon at St. Helena, born in Corsica, died at San Antonio de Cuba, April 3, 1838. He was professor of anatomy at Florence, where in 1818 Letitia Bonaparte sent Cardinal Fesch to induce him to go to St. Helena. The em peror at first treated him with marked cold ness, but afterward honored him with implicit confidence, and in his will left him 100,000 francs. On the emperor s death Antommarchi went to Paris, where he published Les dcrniers moments de XapoUon (2 vols. * 8vo, 1823). Nearly nine years after Napoleon s death An tommarchi produced a cast of his head, which purported to have been taken after death. The authenticity of this cast was hotly contested, especially by the advocates of phrenology, against whom it was used as an argument. ANTONELLI ANTONINUS Antoramarclii in consequence of these disputes came -to America about 1830, and practised homoeopathy at New Orleans and Havana. MTOJVKLLI, Giacomo, an Italian cardinal and statesman, born at Sonnino, near Terracina, April 2, 1806. He was educated at the great seminary of Rome, and having early distin guished himself by his ability, he was raised to the prelacy, after taking orders, and appointed by Gregory XVI. to various civil offices, attain ing in 1845 to the post of minister of finance. After the accession of Pius IX. he was made cardinal (June 12, 1847), and in 1848 prime minister, in which position he won at first the favor of the popular party. Though continuing to be the pope s chief political adviser, the op ponents of innovations soon compelled him to make place for Mamiani. After the assassina tion of the latter s successor, Rossi, Antonelli urged Pius IX. to leave Rome, and joined him at Gaeta (November, 1848), where he conducted the negotiations which resulted in the pope s return to his capital (April 12, 1850) under the protection of the French army of occupation. Antonelli was now made secretary of foreign affairs, in which capacity his retrogressive pol icy exasperated the liberals, and even led to remonstrances on the part of foreign powers, but without shaking his position. He protested in vain against the progress of events in Italy, reorganized the civil administration on the most reactionary basis, and was opposed in his abso lute policy even by some of his colleagues in the papal government, the principal of whom, Mgr. de Merode, minister of war, was removed in 18G5. In 1807 he was made curator ad in terim of the university of Rome. In January, 1808, by the death of "Cardinal Ugolino, he be came dean of the order of cardinal deacons. After the evacuation of Rome by the French in August, 1870, he appealed to various foreign powers for assistance, and remonstrated against the success of Victor Emanuel, who made his formal entry into Rome Nov. 21, 1871. An attempt upon his life was made in 1855. AftTOiXKLLO DA MESSINA, an Italian painter, born at Messina in 1414, died about 1493. According to Vasari and other authorities, he was the first Italian who painted in oil, learn ing the art under Van Eyck at Bruges. Be fore his journey to Bruges, he had already ac quired some fame at Messina, Rome, and Paler mo, which became more firmly established on his return, when he worked for some time at Milan and at Venice to some extent in portrait painting, but chiefiy in religious pictures. AJVTOALMS, Marcus Aurelius, a Roman empe ror, son-in-law and successor of Antoninus Pius, born A. I). 121, ascended the throne in 101, died March 17, 180. His original name was Marcus Annius Verus. After the death of Ceionius Commodus, better known as Verus, Hadrian selected Antoninus Pius to succeed him, and caused the latter in his turn to adopt Marcus Annius and Lucius Verus, the son of Commcius, as his ultimate successors. During the reign of Antoninus Pius, who had given to him his daughter Faustina in marriage, Marcus distinguished himself principally by his studies I in philosophy, having assumed the mantle of ! the Stoics in his 12th year; while Verus so far j disgraced himself by his early profligacy, that i his adoptive father disinherited him, and, pro- ! curing the nomination of Marcus Aurelius as I sole successor by the senate, associated him with ; himself in the empire. On his accession, how- | ever, Marcus Aurelius, who now assumed the | name of Antoninus, gave Verus an equal share j of the government. Shortly after his acces- i sion a war broke out with the Parthians in the I east, the command of which, nominally given I to Verus, was virtually held by his lieutenants, I the principal of whom, Avidius Cassius, over- | ran Mesopotamia, destroyed Seleucia, and pene- i trated as far as Babylon, while one of his col- | leagues made himself master of Armenia, re- i placed the rightful king of the Parthians, Sozi- I mus, on the throne, and reduced Vologeses, his | rival and the instigator of the war, to sue for a | dishonorable peace. This outbreak was follow- | ed, or rather interrupted, by yet more danger- | ous hostilities in the north, extending from the j sources of the Danube to the Illyrian frontier, i where the barbarous tribes of the Marcomanni, I Alani, Jazyges, Quadi, Sarmatians, and others, i all took arms at once in such force as compelled \ both the emperors to proceed to the frontiers. ; Here they were so successful, that in 109 the | enemy sued for peace, and the colleagues set | out on their return for home ; but Verus dy ing of apoplexy on their journey, and the war being renewed, Marcus Aurelius again turned his face northward, and for the next five years | carried on the war in person in Pannonia, with- j out ever returning to Rome ; enduring the j greatest hardships with the serenity of a philos- I opher, while he conducted his campaigns with | the skill of a soldier. On one occasion a fierce I battle was fought on the surface of the frozen I Danube ; but tbe most remarkable victory was I one gained over the Quadi in consequence of a | sudden and terrific thunder storm, by which { the Romans were saved from apparently immi- ! nent defeat, and the superstitious savages were j confounded and put to rout. This victory was I generally ascribed to divine interposition, the j emperor and his Romans attributing it to Jn- j piter Tonans, and the Christians, who com- I posed the 12th or Meletine legion, to the influ- | ence of their prayers. Eusebius goes so far as | to assert that the emperor gave to that body of | men the title of the "thundering legion; " but j in spite of his virtues, Marcus Aurelius per- | secuted the Christians. His wife Faustina, ! learning the danger of her husband s situation, | and fearing that in case of his death, and the | long minority of her young son Commodus, she | should sink into a private station, entered into ! an intrigue with Avidius Cassius, the empe- | ror s deputy and general in Syria, promising i him her hand in case of the death of Aurelius, I and encouraging him in that event to seize the AXTOXIXUS PIUS AXTOXIUS 575 reins of the government. A false report of the defeat and death of Aurelius following, Avidius Cassius assumed the purple. Despair ing of pardon when he learned the falsity of the report, he persisted in his rebellion, and rapid ly made himself master of several Roman prov inces in Asia. While the emperor was making preparations to reduce him, the usurper was assassinated by a centurion of his own army. The conduct of Marcus Aurelius was magnani mous in the extreme. lie put no one to death in consequence of the overt treason, punished but few, and burned the letters of Cassius, in order to avoid learning who had seconded or in stigated him in his proceedings. Faustina, who had remained in her husband s company during these compromising events, and whose privity lie either did not suspect, or, more probably, did not choose to perceive, died in Cilicia, it was supposed by suicide. In 176 the emperor visited Rome after an absence of eight years, and celebrated his victories by a splendid triumph, and by a largess to every Roman citi zen of eight pieces of gold; then having as sociated with himself in the sovereignty his unworthy son Cornmodus, and celebrated the young man s nuptials with Crispina, he inarch ed in company with his expectant successor to conclude the war with the northern barbarians, and, in the midst of a career of uninterrupt ed triumph, died at Vindobona, now Vienna. Oommodus was suspected of hastening his end. Marcus Aurelius was an excellent man and an admirable monarch. His whole life was a prac tical example of his own philosophic doctrines. The only blot on his character was a cruel per secution of the Christians in Gaul; and this is so inconsistent with the spirit of his own char acter, with his general principles of mildness and toleration, and with the example of his predecessor, by which he was for the most part strongly influenced, that it is difficult to explain. His "Meditations, which are "still extant, would be an honor to any writer of any age, and breathe the very spirit of the re ligion which he persecuted. The best edition is Gataker s (4to, Cambridge, 1652). The best English translation is that of George Long, " Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus." AXTOmiS PIUS, Titns Anrelins Fnlvins, a Ro man emperor, born near Rome, Sept. 19, A. D. 86, began to reign in 138, died in 161. He was descended from a respectable provincial family of Xemausus (Ximes) in Gaul. He rose during the reign of Hadrian to the administra tion of Asia, arid afterward to the manage ment of one of the four regions of Italy, and was selected by Hadrian as his successor, whol ly on account of his fitness for the dangerous eminence. His reign was eminently happy and prosperous, and so peaceful that it passed away leaving no striking mark upon the page of his tory. He made no effort to advance the limits of the empire, but by his firmness and wisdom deterred the barbarians on his frontiers from disturbing the peace of the realm. The Ger mans, the Dacians, the Mauritanians, the Greeks, the Egyptians, all exhibited at times some tendency to give trouble ; but their ag gressions were easily frustrated by military de monstrations. The only commotion of any real consequence was that of the Brigantes in the northern part of Yorkshire, who repeatedly invaded the central parts of the British prov ince, but were severely defeated by the legate Lollius Urbicus (141), who built a strong ram part of turf and stone, the ruins of which can be still traced, and are to this day known as the wall of Antoninus, from the mouth of the Esk to that of the Tweed, some distance to the north of that of Hadrian, which had been erected to prevent the incursions of the Cale donians, from the mouth of the Tyne to that of the Solway. The Parthians gave up their hos tile views against Armenia, owing solely to his remonstrances; the Scythians submitted their disputes to his arbitration ; and the barbarians on the upper Danube received a king of his ap pointment. At home he promoted literature and education, and made up for the losses of citizens through public calamities out of his private purse. He was fond of country life, and passed much of his time at his Campanian vil las, never after his accession appearing at the head of his armies, and refusing to travel in his provinces, in order that they might not be sub jected to the expenses of a royal progress. He died in the 75th year of his age. His reign of peace and order, and his observance of reli gious rites, procured for him the title of the sec ond Xuma, while he owed his surname Pius to the zeal with which he advocated in the senate the granting of divine honors to his paternal predecessor. He tolerated and protected the Christians, and received with favor the first apology for the Christian religion, addressed to him by Justin Martyr. By his wife Faustina he had two sons, both of whom died before their father, and two daughters. One of the latter, a second Faustina, inherited both the beauty and the profligacy of her mother ; she was married to Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. ANTONIO, Nicolas, a Spanish bibliographer of Flemish origin, born at Seville in 1617, died in Madrid in 1684. He lived in Rome 20 years (1659- 1 79) as agent of Philip IV. and in other official capacities, and collected a library there said to have been only second in importance to that of the Vatican. His fame rests on his Bibliothcca Ilispana Nova and Bibliotheca Hupana Vetns, which comprehend all the liter ary names of Spain, and in some cases of Portu gal, from the 1st century to nearly the end of the 17th. In many instances biographies . are given of the various authors. AMOMIS, Marens, a Roman orator, born in 143 B. C., killed in 87. In 104 he was prastor, in 99 consul, and in 97 censor. He was famed for his eloquence in the forum, rendering Italy, according to Cicero, the rival of Greece. As an aristocrat, he adopted the party of Sylla, 5T6 ANTONY ANTRAIGUES and was put to death by Marius and Cinna when they triumphed, lie is one of the inter locutors in Cicero s J)e Oratorc. lie was the grandfather of Mark Antony. AXTONY, Mark (MARCUS AXTOXIUS), the Ro man triumvir, horn in 83 B. C., died in 30. He was the son of Marcus Antonius Oreticus and Julia, daughter of the former consul Lucius Julius C;csar. During his hoy hood, and while he was receiving a good education under his tutor Epidius, his father died, and his mother married Puhlius Lentulus, afterward strangled for his share in Catiline s conspiracy. In his stepfather s house he met the most profligate young men of Rome, and, sharing their habits of extravagance, he was obliged to take refuge from his creditors in Greece, where he com pleted his studies. After serving with much distinction under Gabinius in Syria (57), and in Egypt (50-55), and under Cajsar in Gaul, he returned to Rome, and was made a tribune of the people ; but having strongly espoused the cause of C;esar, and vetoed the senate s decree commanding that leader to disband the armies he had with him in Gaul, Antony was obliged to leave Rome in the dis guise of a slave and take refuge in Cesar s camp. He warmly seconded Cnesar in his sub sequent subjection of Italy, and when his chief became dictator was appointed by him com mander of the cavalry, and governor of Italy during the absence of the victorious leader, who was pursuing Pompey. During his gov ernorship, Antony gave himself up to the most open licentiousness, repudiating his wife, ap pearing publicly in his chariot with a common courtesan, and surrounding himself with de bauchees of every class. He subsequently mar ried Fulvia, widow of Clodius. In 44 B. C. Caesar appointed him his colleague in the gov ernment, and lie in return aided his patron in many ways ; once testing the popular feeling by publicly offering him an imperial crown on the occasion of the Lupercalia. On Cresar s death, Antony at first feigned submission to the assas sins ; but afterward, seizing the opportunity given by their allowing him to deliver the fu neral oration, he so eloquently incited the people to avenge the dictator s murder that the conspirators were driven from Rome. lie was now the most powerful man in the state ; but his plans for the dictatorship were checked by Cicero, who urged the claims of Octavius Cae- sar; the surname Caesar proved an excellent popular catchword, and Antony, opposing this new choice, was declared an enemy of the re public and banished from Rome, while the senate supported Octavius. After raising an army, fighting several battles, and suffering de feat at Mutina from which place he was obliged to flee to his friend Lepidus, who was preserving an armed neutrality beyond the Alps Antony finally effected a reconciliation with Octavius, with whom he at once joined in a scheme for the complete subjection of Rome. The triumvirate was formed soon after by Octa vius, Antony, and Lepidus (43). In the general slaughter of their enemies which followed, An tony caused Cicero to be murdered among the first victims. Brutus and Cassius were speedily defeated at Philippi (42) by the army of the tri umvirs, and the latter now divided the empire, Antony receiving Asia, Macedonia, Syria, and Greece. He next carried on a Avar against the Parthians, and, when finally obliged to retire from their country, effected one of the most skilful retreats recorded in history. While ad justing the affairs of his department of the em pire, he met Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, and from that moment became the complete slave of her caprices, extending her dominions, ruling as she dictated, and deserting his wile (Octavia, the sister of Octavius, whom he had married after the death of Fulvia), to lejid a life of un exampled luxury and sensuality with his new mistress at the Egyptian capital. The Romans were enraged. Octavius sent a fleet and army against him, and defeated him in the naval battle of Actium (31), partly through Antony s fatuity in following Cleopatra when she retired from the engagement, in which she at first acted as his ally. .For a time he abandoned himself again to his old excesses. In a few months Oc tavius again completely defeated him in Egypt. His resources were now at an end, and, ren dered desperate by his failure and by a false report that Cleopatra had committed suicide, he stabbed himself, and died in her presence, having been carried to her wounded as soon as he discovered that the report of her death was untrue. MTRAIGIES, Emmanuel Louis Henri dc Lannay, count d , a French adventurer and secret agent, born at Yilleneuve-de-Berg about 1755, assas sinated near London, July 22, 1812. He was a patron of science, letters, and art, figured con spicuously in aristocratic circles, where in 1788 he was called the handsome conspirator, and wrote against the nobility. Alter his election in 1789 as deputy to the states general he soon re turned to royalist doctrines, and leaving France in 1790, was subsidized by foreign governments to intrigue against the revolution. His name became notorious in the conspiracies against Napoleon, who had him arrested in Italy in 1797, with documents incriminating Pichegru. He escaped, went to St. Petersburg, joined the orthodox Greek church, and received a pension and the office of chancellor of the Rus sian legation at Dresden (1803), whence he was expelled by order of Napoleon, against whom he had published a famous diatribe (Fragment du 18" lc litre tie Polyltc, trouce sur le Mont AthoK). He next betrayed Russia by revealing to Canning the secret articles of the treaty of Tilsit, and received a large pension from the English government ; but Napoleon s detectives having, as was supposed, received copies of these documents through his valet Lorenzo, the latter, fearing the consequences of his treach ery, assassinated his master and his wife, and then shot himself. ANTRIM ANTWERP 577 ANTRIM. I. A county forming the N. E. extremity of Ireland, in the province of Ulster, bounded N. by the Atlantic ocean, E. by the North channel, S. by Belfast Lough and county Down, and W. by Lough Neagh and county Lon donderry; area, 1,191 sq. rn. ; pop. in 1871, 419,782. The surface is hilly, and near the E. and N. E. coasts there are several consid erable elevations, from which the country slopes gradually inland to the level of Lough Neagh." There are no considerable rivers except the Bann, which flows between this county and Londonderry. The seacoast is bold and rugged, formed of lofty basaltic cliffs, and presenting, between Bengore Head and the mouth of the Bann, the singular formation known as the Giant s Causeway. (See GIANT S CAUSEWAY.) In the X. E. part of the county, called "the Glens," are picturesque and fertile valleys, and the scenery is varied and pleas ing. Besides agriculture, the linen manufacture is the chief employment of the people ; and along the coasts an extensive fishery is carried on. The principal towns are Belfast, the county town (a part of which, however, be longs to county Down), Antrim, Ballymena, Carrickfergus, Larne, and Lisburn. II. A mar ket town of the preceding county, situated on the right bank of the Six-Mile Water, less than a mile from its embouchure into Lough Neagh, and 13 m. N. W. of Belfast; pop. in 1871, 2,131. It is a principal seat of the linen man ufacture. The town is well built, and consists of little more than one long street, with its short cross streets. Near it are Antrim castle and Shane s castle, one of the celebrated round towers of Ireland. Qn June 7, 1798, a battle was fought here between the English troops and the United Irishmen, resulting in a victory for the former. ANTRIM, a county of Michigan, in the N. W. of the main peninsula, bordering on Grand Traverse bay, Lake Michigan ; area, 700 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 1,985. There are several small lakes in the county. The productions in 1870 were 8,596 bushels of wheat, 10,005 of Indian corn, 4,270 of oats, 45,098 of potatoes, 22,920 Ibs. of butter, and 16,208 of maple sugar. There were 12 school houses and 399 children attending school. ANTWERP (Fr.Anvers; Spun. AmMres ; Ger. and Flem. Antwerperi). I. A province of Bel gium, bounded N. by Holland, and E., S., and W. by the Belgian provinces of Limburg, Bra bant, and East Flanders; area, 1,094 sq. m. ; pop. in 1809, 485,83:5, nearly all Roman Cath olics. The province is almost an uninterrupted flat, but chiefly composed of fertile soil, ex cepting some barren districts in the N. and N. W. The district called the u polders," extend ing along the Scheldt from Antwerp to Zand- vliet, originally a swamp, has been drained and converted into rich pasture and arable land. The principal rivers are the Scheldt, which borders it on the west, and its navigable tribu taries, the Ilupel, the Dyle, and the Great and VOL. i. -37 Little Nethe. The province is rich in wheat, rye, barley, flax, hemp, fruit, cattle, horses, fish, honey, and tobacco, and in manufactures of cotton, lace, woollens, linens, silks, soap, spirits, refined sugar, salt, leather, and oil. The principal towns are Antwerp, Mechlin, Lierre, Turnhout, Boom, Gheel, and Zandvliet. II. A city, capital of the preceding province, and the principal seaport of Belgium, situated on the right bank of the Scheldt, 45 m. from its mouth, and 29 m. by railway N. of Brussels, in lat. 51 13 N., Ion. 4 24 E. ; pop. in 1809, 126,608. The recent removal of the old forti fications has vastly extended the area of the city. The old citadel, long regarded as a model fortress, has been razed, and the greater part of its site was sold in 1870 to the Prussian railway contractor Strousberg for 14,000,000 francs, under the condition that about half of the space should be reserved for the construc tion of basins, docks, and wharfs. The rest of the ground is to serve as a site for a new rail way station. A new city, with fine boule vards, squares, and promenades, has sprung up on the site of the old ramparts and bastions. The new r fortifications, constructed in 1862- 5, extend over an area of nearly 20 in. The new citadel (citadelle du nord) commands the river and is connected with the principal old fort by a new curved line of walls. The outer circle of detached forts, each provided with about 135 guns, are linked together by a military road beyond the reach of shells from an enemy outside. About one half of the enceinte is de fensible by inundations produced by cutting the dikes. The w r hole enceinte is expected to afford room for about 30,000 men in bomb proof barracks. The cost of the new work is estimated at about 12,000,000 francs. Gun carriages and artillery appendages are made in the arsenal, and ammunition for ordnance and small arms in the pyrotechnic school. The magnificent dockyards constructed under the direction of Napoleon I. were demolished in 1814 in accordance with the treaty of Paris, but the two great basins were preserved and have been converted into docks, which are lined with warehouses. New dock basins (Kattendyk) were opened in 1800. An exten sive system of canals affords facilities for inland traffic. The old part of the city retains its quaint Flemish characteristics. The Flemish language is spoken by the mass of the peo ple and French by the cultivated classes. On the Place Verte is a conspicuous statue of Rubens, who lived and died here. Vandyke s is near the museum, and one of Teniers was erected in 1807. The cathedral of Antwerp, one of the most celebrated Gothic edifices of Europe, contains master works of Rubens and other celebrities. The churches of the Augus- tines, St. James, St. Anthony of Padna, and others, contain also remarkable paintings of the great masters. In the church of St. George, opened in 1853, are frescoes by Guffens and Swecrts. The works of Rubens 578 ANTWERP ANUBIS and Vandyke give the highest celebrity to the academy or museum of painting. The old bourse, which served as a model for the London exchange, was destroyed by fire in 1858. The new bourse is near the hotel St. Antoine. The hotel de ville contains fine paintings. Among the other public buildings are the library and the botanical arid zoologi cal gardens. The city is connected by rail ways with all parts of the continent, has regu lar steam communication with English, Dutch, and German ports, and is a point of departure for emigrants to the United States. In 1840 the tonnage was about 850,000 ; in 185"0, 900,- 000; and in 1871, over 2,000,000. About 7,000 vessels annually enter find leave the port. The navigation and commerce of the United States with Antwerp for 1870 comprised 50 vessels entered and 48 cleared ; the inward cargoes, chiefly guano and petroleum, were estimated at $4,528,093, and the outward at $2,040,147. The larger portion of the Belgian import and export trade, valued in the aggre gate at 5,000,000,000 francs, passes through this port. Antwerp was a place of im portance as early as the llth century, and was at the zenith of its prosperity in the 15th and 10th, with a population estimated as high as 200,000, and a commerce ex tending all over the world ; and the Scheldt was filled with shipping of all nations, 2,500 vessels being there at one time. Charles V., to protect himself against the citizens, added in 1507 a citadel to the original fortifications of 1540. A conflict in 157b- 7 between the local, German, and Spanish troops, resulted in the death of 10,000 persons and in the surren der of the citadel by the citizens. In 1583 the latter defeated the attempted seizure of the city by the duke of Anjou. On Aug. 17, 1585, the citadel capitulated after 13 months 1 siege, one of the most eventful in history, to the duke of Parma, Spanish viceroy of the Netherlands. The prosperity of the place, shaken by these vicissitudes, was almost annihilated by the closing of the navigation of the Scheldt in the middle of the 17th century. Rotterdam and Amsterdam during this period superseded Ant werp in importance, and its commerce did not begin to revive till after the acknowledgment of the freedom of the Scheldt navigation by Holland in 1795. The citadel was captured in 1740 and 1792 by the French, in 1793 by the Austrians, and in 1794 once more by the French. In 1809 Bernadotte protected the city against Lord Chatham s attempt to de stroy the port and the forts. In 1814 it was defended against the English by Carnot, the French governor, and surrendered only after the conclusion of peace, May 5. Alter the union of Belgium with Holland (1815) Antwerp carried on an extensive trade with .lava, which has since been diverted to Dutch ports. In 1830, during the Belgian revolution, the city was bom barded from the citadel by the Dutch general Chasse, who was finally forced to surrender his stronghold Dec. 23, 1832, after a siege by a French army of 50,000 men under Marshal Ge rard. This ended the contest with Holland, and on Dec. 30, 1832, the citadel, almost wholly de stroyed by the bombardment, was occupied by the Belgian troops, since which period the city has become the great commercial emporium and military stronghold of Belgium. The abolition by settlement in 1803 of the Belgian Scheldt dues had a happy effect upon the prosperity of Antwerp. In September, 1871, a great part of the city was destroyed by fire, but rap idly rebuilt. The remarkable former artistic achievements of Ant werp are described in Schnaase s Niederlan- dixclie Brief e (Stuttgart, 1834) ; and among the more recent historical works relating to the city is UHi&toire de la villa cTAnvers, by Gens (Antwerp, 1801). AiMBIS (Eg. Ane.pn\ one of the principal Egyptian deities of the second cycle. lie was represented either as a dog or a man with a dog s or a jackal s head. Sometimes he wore a double crown. A white and yellow cock was sacrificed to him. The town of Cynopolis, in Anubis. ANVIL APACHES 579 the lower Thebais, built in his honor, was the ; special seat of his worship. He is said to have represented the horizon. The name signifies gilded, and his images were either of solid gold or gilt, lie was supposed to be the illegitimate son" of Osiris by Xephthys, and was the atten dant and guardian of Osiris and Isis. When Osiris \vas murdered by Typhon, Anubis help ed Isis to find his body. He accompanied the souls of the deceased to their place of judg ment, and weighed their actions before the tribun il of Osiris. In the Greek mythology he was identified with Hermes. ANVIL, an iron block with a smooth face on which smiths hammer and shape their work. The smallest anvils, called bickerns, are mostly : made of steel. The largest, used with tilt, trip, or steam hammers, are of cast iron, and of a very uniform and simple shape. They are " truncated quadrangular pyramids, placed with the small end up, the large resting upon a block of wood fixed in the ground. The mid- ! die-sized anvils, on which the forging is per- ! formed with sledge hammers, are made of cast ! or wrought iron. Formerly extra good anvils were made of wrought iron covered with steel, j the fibres of which were placed vertically. To ; do this the bars of steel were cut in pieces i about an inch long, which were placed stand ing side by side, bound by a wire, and welded into a steel plate, which was itself welded to ! the anvil. The heat necessary for welding very often altered the steel, which was brought back to its original state by the anvil being warmed for a few hours in a box full of ce- . ment. It was afterward hardened by pouring a stream of water upon the steel face till the whole block was cooled. The best anvils made in the United States are of cast iron covered with steel ; they possess most of the advantages above described, and are compara tively cheap. The covering of steel is placed ! at the bottom of a mould, and cast iron is I poured upon it. Some makers place a core in the mould so as to leave a deep recess nearly reaching the steel covering in the centre of the | anvil. The air penetrates into this recess, and j the metal is cooled more uniformly. ANVILLE, Jean Baptiste Bonrgniguon d\ a French j geographer, born at Paris in 1097, died there j in 1782. At the age of 15 he published a map ; of ancient Greece. In his 22d year he was appointed royal geographer. He published 211 maps and plans, and 78 memoires. One ! of his best maps is that of ancient Egypt. His Orbis Veteribus Xotns and his Orb is Romanits \ have become standard guides for students of ancient history. His " General Atlas, 1 his Atlas Antiquus Major, and his maps of Gaul, Italy, and Greece during the middle ages, are \ celebrated. In 1779 the French government purchased for the royal library his large collec- \ tion, which consisted of 10,500 maps. AORTA (Or. aoprrj, air vessel), the largest ar- tery in the body. The aorta and arteries were first named air vessels by Greek anatomists. because until the time of Galen they were sup posed to contain air instead of blood. The aorta arises from the left ventricle of the heart, ascends a short dista-nce toward the neck, and then curves obliquely backward and toward the left in a semicircular bend, at the level of the second dorsal vertebra, funning the k arch of the aorta." It then passes downward through the posterior part of the chest and ab domen, to the point where it divides into the two common iliac arteries, which are each in turn divided on either side into an internal branch, ramifying into the lower regions of the trunk, and an external branch, descending to the lower limbs. The carotids arise from the arch of the aorta to supply the head and face, and the subclavian arteries derive from the same arch, to supply the different regions of the neck and the upper limbs. Numerous large arteries arise from the aorta or main trunk as it descends from the upper to the lower portions of the trunk ; and these divide again into innumerable branches as they ram ify minutely and extensively within the body. AOSTA (anc. Augusta Pretoria}, a town of Piedmont, in the province and 49 in. X. X. W. of Turin, on the Dora-Baltea, at the foot of the Great St. Bernard, and the southern termina tion of the Alpine pass of that name : pop. 6,000. It contains many Roman remains, and was the birthplace of Anselm. archbishop of Canterbury, and the scene of the labors of St. Bernard, founder of the hospice bearing his name, who held the archdeac* nry of Aosta. The valley in which it stands is famous for its immense pine forests, mines of copper, lead, and iron, and marble quarries. Cretinism and goitre prevail among its inhabitants. The third son of the king of Italy (Amadeus, late king of Spain) derives his title of duke of Aosta from this town, which has been greatly im proved during the last 15 years. APACHES, a fierce nomadic nation of the great Athabascan family, roaming over portions of Texas, Xew Mexico, and Arizona in the United States, and Sonora, Chihuahua, and Durango in Mexico. The Apaches proper have only tem porary war chiefs, and do not cultivate the soil, while the Lipans, a tribe of the same race and language, have their regular chiefs whom they obey ; and the Xavajos, another tribe of the same language, cultivate the ground and manufacture excellent blankets. The Apaches comprise the Jicarillas, in the Sacramento mountains; the Gila Apaches, on the San Francisco ; the Tonto Apaches, on the Sierra del Mogoyen. their impregnable position ; the Mimbrenos, in the Sierra de los Mimbrcs; the Copper Mine Apaches, on the Rio Grande, and for part of each year in Chihuahua and Sonora; the Mascalero Apaches, ranging from the Sierra de Guadalupe to that of San Andres and west to the Rio Grande ; with some smaller bands. As the Spanish settlements advanced the Apa ches became the scourge of the frontier, repel ling all attempts to civilize and convert them. 530 APACHES APE No mission was ever established among them, and they drew to them tribes who shook off the Spanish yoke. A document on Sonora in 1762 estimates the mining towns, stations, and missions depopulated by the Apache inroads into that province at 174. Since the annex ation of the Apache territory to the United States the tribe have given great trouble, es pecially those under Mangas Colorado, who for 50 years led very large bands to war, till he was finally captured and killed while attempt ing to escape, in 1803. Within a few years an effort has been made by the government to gather the Apaches upon t reservations under the superintendency of Nevv Mexico, and there feed them. The sum of $125,000 was appro priated for the support of these Indians in 1871, and the experiment of confining them to particular localities is believed to have been attended with some success. The commis sioner estimates that in the event of a com plete adoption of the plan, it will require an expenditure of $25,000 a month, or $300,000 a year. The plan of establishing the Apaches on reservations and feeding them for a time was much opposed by the people on the frontiers, Mexican and American, w r ho had long been victims of their ravages. This led to a massacre at Camp Grant, Arizona, April 30, 1871, of more than 100 Apa ches who were actually prisoners in the hands of the United States troops. Cochise, the great Apache chief, however, submitted, visited Washington, and seemed well dis posed. The numbers of the Apaches proper in the United States are variously estimated. Mr. Bartlett thought SchoolcratVs statistics too high. By the Indian commissioner in 1871 they were estimated at 7,500, though Cremony in 1808, from eight years stay in their country, thinks their number at least 25,000. The language of the Apaches abounds in guttural, hissing, and indistinct intona tions. Mr. Bartlett in his " Report on the Boundary Commission," and others, give vo cabularies that establish its connection with the Athabascan family. Their lodges arc built of light boughs and t\vigs. The captain of the band wears a kind of helmet made of buckskin, ornamented with a feather. Their arrows are very long, usually pointed with iron. All are mounted on small ponies, capable of great en durance. The Spanish bit, or simply a cord of hair passed between the ja\vs, forms their bridle. Panniers for holding provisions are generally carried on the horses of the women. The shells of the pearl oyster, and a rough wooden image, are the favorite ornanfents of both sexes. Their feet are protected by high moccasons of buckskin, and the smallness of the foot resulting from this has always dis tinguished their trail from that of other Indians. Their principal articles of clothing, formerly of deerskin, are now made of coarse cotton cloth. Many of them dress in the breech-cloth only, but they arc beginning to wear the blanket I and straw hat. The women wear a short pet ticoat, with their hair loose. Those in mourn ing for husbands killed in battle cut their hair short. The younger children go almost entirely naked. Those under the age of two years are i carried in a kind of osier basket by the mother, i in which the child is fastened in a standing posture. When on horseback, the basket is fastened to the saddle. They do not scalp their | enemies. They are fond of card-playing and j of smoking, and when idle are given to a mo- j notonous kind of singing. When fighting they i keep their horses in rapid motion, and are never at rest in the saddle. In their religious ideas they seem to favor the belief in one God ; I and Montezuma, or his spirit, is blended in their minds with a certain crude religious as piration. They have a superstitious reverence | for the eagle and owl, and for all perfectly white birds. They equally respect the bear, and refuse to kill it or to partake of the flesh. To the hog they have the same repugnance as the Jews and other Asiatic tribes. APE, a quadrumanous animal of the class mammalia, nearly approaching the human race in anatomical structure. A common distinc tion between the monkey, baboon, and ape is, that the first has a long and prehensile tail, the second a short one, and the third none at all. According to the modern zoological definition, however, the genus ape, or pit?iecus, comprises those quadrumanous mammals which have the teeth of the same number and form as in man, and which possess neither tails nor cheek pouches. This definition, while it excludes certain tailless baboons and monkeys, compre hends the three sub-genera of orangs, chim panzees, and gibbons. Their arms almost touch the ground when they stand erect on their hind legs; but the legs are scarcely a third part of the entire height. The legs are not on the same line with the thighs ; the knees arc turned outward, and the soles of the feet turn inward, so as to be opposed to one another. The apes are thus enabled to grasp the trunks of trees with much greater force than if their members were constructed like man s. The fingers and toes are long, flexible, and deeply separated from one another ; and | the thumb, or anterior finger, is completely op posite to the other four, as well on the hind as on the fore limb. Thus their hands and feet are equally well formed for grasping, and can j be used indiscriminately. Hence, apes are j neither two-legged and two-handed, like the human race, nor four-footed, like quadrupeds, but four-handed (quadrumanous). When they walk erect, which they rarely do without the I aid of a staff or of their forearms, owing to the oblique articulation of the lower extremi ties, they rest only on the outer edge of the feet. This gives them a tottering and uncer tain motion, to remedy which they place the fists of their long arms on the ground, and move in the attitude and at the pace of a lame man going on crutches. Consequently, while APELDOORN APENNINES 581 on the ground, they are slow, inert, and help less animals, although in their native forests, passing from bough to bough and from tree to tree, they are the most agile of all creatures. The character and habits of the great apes in a state of nature are little understood. Not withstanding the gentleness and docility of those brought young from their native climates, there is reason to believe that in their native wilds they become as they grow old fierce, dangerous, and perhaps even carnivorous ; for, although the number of their teeth and the formation of the molars and incisors precisely resemble those of the human being, the canines are developed in the same relative proportion as in the carnivora, so much so that the tusks of a full-grown orang-outang are fully equal to those of a lion. In confinement, however, they are almost wholly free from the mischievous and petulant curiosity and violent fits of pas sion which characterize the smaller monkeys ; are deliberate in their actions, circumspect, in telligent, and susceptible of a high degree of attachment to those who take care of them, or with whom they consort. They have two sin gular points of resemblance to man in their habits, which are worthy to be contrasted with the structural dissimilarities which have been insisted on above : 1. They do not repose, like the other monkeys, squatting on their hams, but stretch themselves on their sides, like human beings, and support their heads on their hands, or find some natural substitute for a pillow. 2. Alone of animals, they use other means of defence or attack than their own nat ural means, strength, and weapons, readily be taking themselves to the use of stones and clubs, which they wield with considerable dexterity, either hurling them as missiles, or using them hand to hand. In their mental powers, or intelligence, the apes in nowise ap proach the dog, the elephant, or the horse, although their natural facility of imitating hu man action has obtained for them the credit of approaching nearly to human comprehen sion. See CHIMPANZEE, GIBBON, GOEILLA, and ORANG-OUTANG. APELDOORX, a town of Holland, province of Gelderland, 15 m. X. of Arnhem ; pop. in 1868, 12,087. In 1871 it had 42 manufactories of papier mache. Near it is the royal castle of Loo. APELLES, the most celebrated of Greek painters, born, according to Pliny and Ovid, m the island of Cos ; according to Suidas, at Co lophon. Strabo and Lucian call him an Ephe- sian, but he appears to have been such only by adoption, and to have studied at Ephesus. His instructors were Ephorus the Ephesian, Pam- philus of Amphipolis, Melanthus, and, accord ing to Athenreus, Arcesilaus. The masterpiece of Apelles was his Venus Anadyomcne, or " Venus Rising from the Sea," the model for which is believed to have been either Phryne or Campaspe, one of the royal mistresses whom Alexander the Great resigned to the painter. This painting was ultimately placed by Augus tus in the temple of Julius Cajsar, where it was gradually destroyed by age. It is said that Alexander, whom, according to some. Apelles accompanied in his expedition to Asia, would allow no one but Apelles to paint his portrait ; and one of his paintings representing Alexan der holding a thunderbolt was sold for a sum equal to about $200,000. He was accustomed, when he had completed a piece, to expose it to the view of passers-by, and to hide himself behind it in order to hear the remarks of the spectators. On one of these occasions a shoe maker censured the painter for having given one of the slippers of a figure a less number of ties than it ought to have had. The next day the shoemaker, emboldened by the success of his previous criticism, began to find fault with a leg, when Apelles indignantly put forth his head and desired him to confine his criticism to the slipper. Hence arose the expression Ne sutor ultra crepidam, "Let not the cobbler go beyond his last." APELT, Ernst Friedrich, a German metaphy sician, born at Reichenau, March 3, 1812, died in Jena, Oct. 27, 1859. He was a professor at Jena, and a disciple of Jacob Friedrich Fries, whose theories he supported in various works, especially in the 2d volume of his EpocJien der Geschichte dcr Menschheit (Jena, 1845). He edited Fries s posthumous Politik, oder philosopMsche Staatslelire (1848), and wrote Thcorie der Induction (Leipsic, 1854), Me- taphysilc (1857), and Die Reformation der SternJcunde und Religionsphilosophic (1860). His philosophical method has been described as combining the theories of Kant with the ideas of Jacobi, and is fully explained in Kuno Fischer s Die beidcn Kanfschen Schulen in Jena (Stuttgart, 1862). APENNINES, a chain of mountains in Italy, extending, with but trifling intervals between its principal groups, through the entire length of the Italian peninsula, from the Maritime Alps to the straits of Messina, a distance of 800 m. Through the greater part of its extent the chain is about equally distant from the Adriatic and the Mediterranean. Xo part of it is above the limit of perpetual snow; its highest peak, Monte Corno, near Aquila, rises only 9,542 ft. above the sea; while the average height of the range does not exceed 4,200 ft. To the height of 3,000 ft. the Apennines are generally covered with forests ; above this their sides are bare and rugged, and their sum mits rough and broken, not rising into sym metrical peaks or needles, like those of the Alps. The range is divided by the best geog raphers into five portions, the Ligurian, Tuscan, Roman, Neapolitan, and Calabrian Apennines. These are in turn divided into smaller groups. 1. The Ligurian Apennines, which are not in reality separated at their western extremity from the Maritime Alps, are generally consid ered as beginning near the source of the Bor- mida, a short distance W. of Savona, though 582 APENNINES the point of division between them and the Alps is differently assumed by different geog raphers. They run N. E. as far as the pass of the Bocchetta, N. of Genoa, and then S. E., following the trend of the coast, and joining the Tuscan Apennines a short distance S. of Monte Pellegrino. Their entire length is about 130 m. The breadth of the chain varies great ly ; in the north its spurs extend nearly to the Po. West of the Bocchetta pass the summits are low, seldom rising more than 2,000 ft. ; but beyond this to the eastward the height of the range increases. Its principal peaks, all between 5,000 and 6,000 ft, high, are Monte Antola, N. E. of Genoa; Monte Penna, near Chiavari ; Monte Gottaro, W. of Pontremoli ; and Monte Pellegrino, N. of Castelnuovo. Several important roads cross the chain ; one (with a railway), at the pass of the Bocchetta, is the means of communication between Genoa and the towns N. of the mountains ; a second, from Parma to Pon tremoli, crosses by the pass of La Cisa ; another, at the western extremity of the range, leads from Millesimo to Savona; while smaller pass es are found at different points. The pass of the Bocchetta is famed for the grandeur of its scenery ; and the Avhole aspect of the Ligurian Apennines is more picturesque than that of any other portion of the great chain. 2. The Tus can Apennines begin with Monte Cimone, and, extending S. E. for about 80 in., end with the Alpe della Luna, near the pass through which runs the road from the valley of the Tiber to Urbino. Monte Cimone (0,973 feet) is the highest peak. To this portion of the chain belong, besides some less important detached groups, the Alpi Appuane, which rise to a height of 5,800 ft. (the Pizzo d Ucello being their highest summit), run nearly parallel with the main range, and extend to the valley of the Arno. In these mountains is found the cele brated marble of Carrara ; the principal quar ries are in the sides of Monte Sairo, near the town of Carrara. 3. The Roman or Cen tral Apennines extend S. E. a distance of about 150 m., and include, especially in that portion best known as the mountains of the Abruzzi, all the highest peaks of the whole range. Here lies the great group of the Gran Sasso d Italia, whose summit, Monte Corno, or Monte Ca- vallo, is the highest point of the Apennines, 9,542 ft. above the sea. The range is broader here than at any other point; the mountain groups of the Abruzzi form a large square, and throw out spurs in all directions. The lake of Celano lies among the southern mountains of this chain, at an elevation of nearly 2,200 ft. The Roman Apennines are traversed by many passes, and surround fertile upland valleys and elevated plains. Besides Monte Corno, the principal peaks are Monte Amaro, in the de tached group of the Majella, which rises to the height of nearly 9,000 ft. ; Monte Vellino, 8,183 ft. ; Monte Vittore, 7,398 ft. ; Monte Sibilla, 7,212 ft. ; and II Terminillo Grande, 7,034 ft. ! 4. The Neapolitan Apennines begin near the southern limits of the Abruzzi, and extend in a broad chain, with many considerable off- i shoots, to Monte Volture, near which they begin to divide into two branches. One of I these runs S. E. as far as the gulf of Taranto. I Beyond the river Ofanto it dwindles to a range ! of low hills, and finally almost disappears in I the district of Otranto. The other branch takes a southerly direction, to the pass of La- ! gonegro. To the eastward of the Neapolitan | range, but so widely separated from it as to properly form a distinct ridge, lies Monte Gar- i gano (5,450 ft,), extending into the Adriatic, and forming the rugged promontory N. of the gulf of Manfredonia. The highest peak of the chain is Monte Miletto, 6,744 ft. ; but the aver age height of this division is less than that of the others. 5. The Calabrian Apennines, be ginning at the pass of Lagonegro, fill the penin sula of Calabria, and terminate in the moun tain promontory of Aspromonte, the highest summit of which rises 4,500 ft. above the sea. A singular and almost complete break is made in them by a deep valley, which runs from the gulf of Santa Eufemia to the gulf of Squillace, and divides the chain into two distinct groups. The Calabrian Apennines have no very lofty or noteworthy peaks, but their scenery is rugged and picturesque. They are granitic, and differ in their geological features so entirely from the rest of the Italian chain that most geographers, | while applying the name Apennines to them in compliance with general usage, really class them as a separate system. West of the Apen nines, and filling much of the country between | them and the Mediterranean, lies a separate ! system of lower mountains, different from them | both in appearance and geological formation. These are called the Sub-Apennines. They in clude many mountains of volcanic origin, and are the result, according to the best authori ties, of a much later convulsion than that Avhich undoubtedly threw up the more massive pile of the main range. 1. The Tuscan Sub- Apen nines occupy the space between the Arno and the Tiber, reaching their greatest height in the S. E. part of this tract. They surround a great part of the plain of the Arno. Among their best known groups are the Ciminian hills. 2. The Roman Sub-Apennines are almost all of volcanic origin ; they extend from the Tiber, and surround the principal part of the Cam- pagna di Roma. The Alban hills are a part of this division, which, running southward along the coast, ends at the promontory of Gaeta, 3. The Neapolitan Sub- Apennines include in their southern portion the volcanic group of which Mt. Vesuvius is the great centre, and extend to the Punta della Campanella. The mountains of Sicily undoubtedly form, with few exceptions, a part of the system of the Apennines. (See SICILY.) Limestone, chalk, and sandstone are the basis of the northern portion of the Apennines, and of most parts of the main chain through the entire peninsula; APENRADE APHIS 583 tertiary formations containing abundant fossils distinguish many of the offshoots, and, as has been already noticed, groups of purely volcanic mountains appear in many places among the Sub- Apennines, and even approach the main range, to the system of which they in no way belong. This volcanic formation is found only on the western side of the chain. For the vegetation of the Apennines, the rivers flow ing from their sides, the methods of cultiva tion employed on their fertile lower slopes, and the people inhabiting the mountain coun try, see ABRUZZO, CALABRIA, and ITALY. APEXRADE, a seaport town in the Prussian province of Schleswig, situated on the Baltic, 20 m. N. of Flensburg; pop. in 1871, 5,932. On March 30, 1848, there was here an en counter between the Prussians under Wrangel and the Danes. Near the town is the castle of Brundlund. APHIS, the plant louse, or puceron, a genus of insects included in the order liomoptera. The number of species is very large ; 326 are de scribed in Francis Walker s list of specimens of homopterous insects in the collection of the British museum. Almost every sort of plant furnishes a living to a different kind of aphis. The attacks of these insects are often ruinous to certain crops. The A. rosce is most destructive to the rose tree, on which it is constantly found. Apple trees and pear trees are attacked by a species of aphis which injures their fruit. Cab bage and turnip crops are sometimes destroyed by swarms of the A. brassier. Their attacks on all plants seem to be regulated by the health of the plant and the peculiarities of the season. If atmospheric conditions render the plant un healthy, then the aphis appears ; if these cease, the aphis disappears ; and one crop of plants may be attacked several times in the same year. Most species of this insect are green ; but a dark species, the bean dolphin, or A. fabce, attacks the bean, whole acres of the plant being suddenly covered by these black insects. They have, however, many destructive foes. The larvas of the lady-bird (coccinellidce), the %yrphu8 or bee-like fly, the chrysopa or lace- wing, and several species of ichneumonidce, pursue and eat them very greedily. Tobacco is the principal remedy against destructive swarms of the aphis. In conservatories, or where plants can be placed under cover of any kind, they may be easily exposed to clouds of tobacco srnoke, and that is the simplest way of destroy ing the aphis ; but in the open air, where the fumes of tobacco easily disperse, the best way is to apply the tobacco in water. The affected parts may be syringed with the infusion of tobacco, and after the effect is produced, the plant may be washed by the rain or with pure water. These insects have a soft, roundish body, a small head, complete and half-globular eyes, antennas of from 6 to 11 joints, longer than the head and often hairy. The beak has its origin from the lower part of the head, be tween the fore legs, and in the act of sucking [ is held nearly perpendicular. The wings, when | developed, are 4 in number. The legs are very j long and slight. Near the extremity of the abdomen above, most kinds of aphis are pro vided with a pair of tubular horn-like process- | es, through which they eject a sweet, thickish i fluid, commonly called honey-dew, of which I ants and many other insects are very fond. At i the end of autumn many of the species, such | as the A. quercus and the A. rosce, of both sexes, are numerous, some winged, and some without , wings. While some can fly to a distance, others, without wings, are restricted to the neighbor- ! hood of their native plant. As soon as she has paired, the mother aphis deposits her eggs or larva? in a place fit for passing the winter, dif- ferent places being selected by different species. I Some prefer the oak, and leave their eggs on some waving bough high in the air ; others in i the crevices of the bark, or in a subterraneous receptacle. Bonnet supposes that the aphides | are always viviparous, and never lay eggs ; ! what are commonly called eggs, produced in | the autumn, being a sort of cocoon, containing | the young aphis enclosed in an envelope. This, i however, is not universally admitted. The pa- | rents die after disposing of their eggs or co- I coons, and these remain torpid during the win- I ter. All the aphides which appear in spring ! are females, which are endowed with a most | wonderful spontaneous fecundity, no pairing ! being possible, as no males appear till autumn. j Latreille states that one female during the sum- ! mer months will produce 25 daily, each of which ! will in turn do the same, and so on for several | generations in a single season. Reaumur cal- ! culated that one aphis may be the progenitor I of about 6,000,000,000 descendants in its own | lifetime. The A. lanigera produces each year, | says Prof. Owen in his "Lectures on Compara- | tive Anatomy," 10 viviparous broods, and one I which is oviparous ; and each generation aver- 1 ages 100 individuals. The progression is 1, 100, 10,000, 1,000,000, 100,000,000, 10,000,000,000, 1,000,000,000,000, 100,000,000,000,000, 10,000,- ! 000,000,000,000, 1,000,000,000,000,000,000, for the 10 viviparous broods; and by adding the \ oviparous generation, the result is 30 times | greater. The female aphides thus produced j are considered as larvae, presenting a more de- ; veloped condition than the larvae of coleoptera and lepidoptera. The compound eyes are com- pletely developed ; the antenna? have attained their perfect shape and proportions, the 6 tho racic legs their full size and power. The only | subsequent change of these fertile larvae is an additional size and the manifestation of the or- | gans of reproduction. In the last generation, which is the 7th, the 9th, or the llth, accord- ; ing to the species of aphis, the spontaneous I power of reproducing their species is totally I lost ; wings are developed, and winged male ! insects now make their appearance. The fe- I males of the present generation are the winged ! insects which produce eggs and deposit them ! where they may be hatched by the sun in time* 584 APHRODITE APOCALYPSE of blight. The number of aphides which ap- | pear in spring must, of course, depend on the number of eggs laid in the preceding autumn ; but countless swarms of them being ushered into life at the same time has led to the notion that they are generated by the atmosphere. APHRODITE. See VENUS. APICIIS, the name of three noted Roman epi cures. I. Lived in the earlier part of the 1st century B. C. He spent much of his time at intervals in Latiurn, on account of its excellent i lobsters, but having heard that the African lob sters were larger, set sail for that continent. Several fishermen came off to his vessel with the finest ; but seeing that they were inferior to those of Minturnse, he ordered the pilot to steer for Italy. He is said to have procured the banishment of Rutilius Rufus in 92. II. Mar- ens Cabins,, who lived in the time of Augustus and Tiberius, established a school where the art of good cooking was taught. In the culti vation of his own appetite and that of his schol ars, he had expended more than $3,000,000, when he settled up his accounts, and perceiving j that but about $800,000 remained, concluded ; that he could not live as he wished upon that j sum, and poisoned himself. He invented several j sauces and cakes which long bore his name. Apion, the grammarian, made his life and la bors the basis of a volume ; and all cooks for centuries belonged to the Apician or anti- [ Apician faction. III. A .contemporary of Tra jan, who taught the world how to pickle oys ters. A treatise, De Re Culinaria, or De Obsoniis et Condimentis, &c., bearing the name of Caelius Apicius, by an unknown writer (probably a Coalius who added to his own the famous name of Apicius), is the most ancient j cookery book in the world. APIS (Egyp. Hapi, a name closely resem bling that of the Nile), a bull worshipped by the Egyptians. In their mythology the soul of Osiris, murdered by the evil spirit Typhon, migrated into this bull. It was therefore the symbol of creative productivity and fertil- j ity. The calf was born from a cow made pregnant by a ray of the sun and one of the moon. It must be black, with a white triangu lar or square spot on the forehead, a vulture or an eagle on the back, various other mystical signs on various parts of the body, and a scarabams under the tongue. Its principal worship was in Memphis, in the temple of Phthah (He phaestus, Vulcan, or fire). When such a calf was found, the priest transported him in a chariot | with great pomp to Heliopolis, where he was kept in a temple accessible to the worship of ! the people for 40 days. After that lapse of time no one could approach him, and he was transported to Memphis, where he had his own t?ir.plo, with chapels and courts for exercise, and his own priests. The lifetime of Apis was 25 years, in harmony with one of the theo- I logico-astronomicnl cycles of the Egyptians. | After the death of one and before the finding i of another Apis, the whole land was in mourn- 1 ing. Apis in heaven was placed in the con stellation of Taurus. APLANATIC LENS (Gr. a privative and ^avrj- Tix.6q, wandering), a lens made in such a way as to correct the spherical aberration. When rays come from a great distance, this may be done by making the curve of a lens parabolic in place of spherical, and in telescopes it is accomplish ed by careful repolishing by hand and testing. For microscopic and photographic lenses, how ever, a system of two or even more double achromatic lenses is employed, of which the curves are such that all the rays emitted from one point come to a single focus in a corre sponding point. Such a microscopic lens is said to consist of an aplanatic system of lenses, and perfection in this respect is the great problem, now being solved by manufacturers of micro scopes and photographic cameras. APOCALYPSE (Gr. airoK&^wpi^ unveiling), or Revelation of St. John, the name of the last book of the New Testament. The church at an early period appears to have ascribed the authorship of the book to John the evangel ist. Papias and Melito of Sardis, according to the testimony of Eusebius, regarded the Apocalypse as inspired. Justin Martyr and Irena?us expressly quote the Apocalypse as the work of the apostle John; and the third council at Carthage, in 397, admitted it into its list of canonical books. On the other hand, Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, testi fies that some church writers before him re pudiated the Apocalypse as a forgery of Cerin- thus ; and he himself undertakes to prove that it was not the work of the apostle John, but of some other John who lived in Asia. That this opinion was shared by other prominent men of the church may be inferred from the fact that the Apocalypse is absent from the ancient Peshito version. Jerome moreover states that the Greek church felt with regard to the Apocalypse a doubt similar to that entertained by the Latins with regard to the Epistle to the Hebrews. The rejection of the canonical and apostolical character of the book was chiefly prompted by opposition to chiliasm ; and when the interest in the chiliastic controversies de clined, the church generally recognized the Apocalypse as a work of the apostle John. In modern times the question of the apostolic ori gin of the book was revived by Semler, and many of the prominent exegetical writers of the Protestant churches (in particular De Wette, Ewald, Lticke, and Baur) undertook to prove that the Apocalypse and the Gospel of John could not possibly have been written by the same author. While, however, most of these writers deny that it was written by the apos tle John, Baur, Hilgenfekl, and other critics of the Tubingen school, ascribe the Apocalypse to him, but not the fourth Gospel. Among those who have recently undertaken to prove that neither the fourth Gospel nor the Apoca lypse was written by St. John, Th. Keim (Ge- schichte Jesu wn Nazara, vol. i., 1867) and APOCALYPSE APOCRYPHA 585 Scholten (De Apostcl Johannes in Klein- Azie, I Leyden, 1871) are the most prominent. The Johannean origin of both the Apocalypse and j the fourth Gospel was, on the other hand, vin- i dicated against the critical schools by Hengsten- . berg, Hase, Godet, and in particular by Niermey- | er (Verhandeling over de Echtheid dcr Johan- \ neische Schriften, the Hague, 1852). No book j of the New Testament has received so many dif- j ferent interpretations. Two principal classes of i expositors may be distinguished, the historical j or continuous and the preterist. According to | the opinion of the former, which is shared by ! nearly the entire ancient church, the Apoca- I lypse is a progressive representation of the en- j tire history of the church and the world. Sir j Isaac Newton, Bengel, E. B. Elliott, Words worth, Hengstenberg, Ebrard, and Alford are prominent representatives of this class. Writ ers of this school have found in the Apocalyptic visions prophetic references to nearly every great event of the Christian era, such as the migration of nations, the reformation, the pope, ! the French revolution, and Napoleon ; and the j calculations of the millennium have led to vary- j ing results, and in some instances even to the | establishment of particular sects. The date of the Apocalypse is given by these writers as A. D. 95-97. The preterist mode of interpreta- | tion, according to which the Apocalypse has j been almost or quite fulfilled in the time which j has passed since it was written, and refers prin- [ cipally to the triumph of Christianity over Ju- | daism and paganism, found able advocates in j Grotius, Bossuet, and Calmet, and since Herder j and Eichhorn has become the exclusive inter- I pretation of all the liberal Protestant schools i of theologians. Among the recent champi- j ons of this school, Ewald, Lucke, Bleek, Stu- I art, Lee, and Maurice are best known. Ac- j cording to their view, the seven heads are | seven emperors. As Galba was accounted as j the sixth of the emperors, the book is sup posed to have been written during his reign (in 68). The fifth, who will return as the eighth, is Nero, who at that time was believed not to be dead, but to have retired to Parthia, whence he ! would return. In the symbolical number 666 | these writers commonly find the words "Ne- i ron Kaisar," written in Hebrew letters. Some ! writers, chiefly English, believe that, with the ; exception of the first three chapters, the book j refers wholly or principally to events which ; are yet to come. Swedenborg regards the I Apocalypse as a peculiar revelation of divine truth, the book of all books which is least en- ! cumbered b y literal references to mundane things, and most remarkable for the complete ness with which it contains the heavenly word. APOCRYPHA (Gr. a^Kpv^oc, concealed), hid- | den or unpublished books. This term is va- j riously applied in the Roman Catholic and I. Protestant churches. The Roman Catholic church gives the name Apocrypha to those books to which a reception into the canon of the books of the Old Testament was refused. Protestant theology generally designates these books by the name pseudepigrapha, and calls Apocrypha those books the inspired character of which was long a subject of dispute in the church, and which were finally declared by the council of Trent to be a part of the canon. They are not contained in the Hebrew canon of the Old Testament ; but as the Sep- tuagint embraced them, they are frequently quoted by early church writers as sacred books, were expressly received into the Chris tian canon by a synod of African bishops held at Hippo in 393, and were thereafter gener ally accepted as canonical books by the Latin church. By the Catholics these books are called deuterocanonical or antilegomena. The following books are included in this class: 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Esther x. 4- xvi., Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, Song of the Three Holy Children, History of Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, Prayer of Manasses, 1 and 2 Maccabees. The Protestant churches con tinued to print the apocryphal or deuteronomi- cal books of the Old Testament in their various editions of the Bible until about 1821, when discussions arose in the British and foreign Bible society which resulted in 1826 in a res olution that that society should no longer circulate the apocryphal books. German Protestants are divided on the subject ; some theologians, as Ebrard and Keerl, declaring against the reception of the Apocrypha into the Protestant Bibles, but others, including Hengstenberg and Stier, in favor of it. The Greek church, at the synod held in Jerusalem in 1672, recognized the Apocrypha as inspired books. That class of books to which the Ro man Catholic church exclusively applies the name of apocryphal is very numerous. The most important among those relating to the Old Testament are the third and fourth books of Esdras, and in particular the book of Enoch, which has only been preserved in an Ethiopia translation (published for the first time in 1838 by Laurence). The apocryphal books of the New Testament comprise a number of spurious gospels, acts, epistles, and apocalypses, many of which were written by heretics in the inter est of their sects. A complete collection of the apocryphal literature of the New Testament was begun by Thilo (Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti, vcl. i., Leipsic, 1832, containing nine apocryphal gospels). After the death of Thilo the work was continued by Tischendorf, who published in succession the Apocryphal Acts (Acta Apocrypha, Leipsic, 1852), a new collection of Apocryphal Gospels (Evangelia Apocrypha, 1853), and the Apocryphal Apoca lypses (Apocalypses Apocrypha, 1866). An English translation of part of them by William Hone was published in London in 1820. See " Contributions to the Apocryphal Literature of the New Testament," by W. Wright, and "Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles," edited from Syriac MSS., with an English translation, by the same author (2 vols.. London, 1871). 586 APOLDA APOLDA, a town in the grand duchy of Saxe- Weimar, on the Thuringia railway, about 12 m. E. N. E. of Weimar; pop. in 1867, 8,882. It is remarkable for its manufacture of hosiery, which has been developed chiefly within the last ten years. Upward of 1,200 looms are in operation (1872), employing 11,000 persons. Steam power is used in the two principal es tablishments. There are also iron and bell founderies. There is a mineral spring, discov ered in the 18th century. The castle near the town and the adjoining domain belong to the university of Jena. APOLLIMRIMS, an heretical sect, founded about 302 by Apollinaris, bishop of Laodicea, who, in his zeal against the Arians, sought to impress the following modifications on the Nicene creed: 1. That since two perfect be ings cannot coalesce in one person without the production of a monster, therefore in the nature of Christ is not found the union of per fect God with perfect man. 2. That there is no human vavg or rational soul in Christ, the divine, or perfect God, standing in place of it. 3. That there is but one nature in Christ, and that lias both a divine and human side, and the connection between them is so organic that they may each be regarded as vested with the attributes of the other. Apollinaris was cen sured by the councils of Alexandria and Constan tinople, and Athanasius appeared as his antago nist, lie died about 390. His doctrine is one of the steps in that great movement which springs out of the discussion of the dual nature of Christ, and which next reappeared in Mono- physitism, into which many of the followers of Apollinaris naturally fell, while others re turned to the communion of the church. APOLLO, one of the principal gods of Grecian mythology, called also Phoebus, and in Homer and Hesiod generally designated as Phoebus Apollo. He was the son of Jupiter and La- tona, and twin brother of Diana. Homer and Hesiod give no details about his birth ; but later writers relate that Juno had put under ban all lands which should harbor Latona, who was then pregnant. Delos was an uninhabited rock in the -ZEgean, just risen above the surface of the sea. There Latona, after nine days labor, brought forth Apollo and his sister. The earlier mythology of the Greeks, as reflected chiefly in Homer, represents Apollo as an archer who inflicts vengeance with his arrows ; as a god of song and stringed instruments, in which character he is said to have invented the phorminx ; as a revealer of the future, a function which he exercised especially at the temple of Delphi ; and as a god of flocks, in which capacity he kept the herds of King Ad- metus. In the later poets he is the same as the god Helios, or the sun, but in the earlier Phoe bus Apollo and Helios are quite distinct. With the advent of the lyrical poets Apollo becomes a patron of the healing art. In this aspect he is the father of JEsculapius. He was the presi dent and protector of the muses. He is usually APOLLONIA represented in the prime of youth and manly beauty, with long hair, his brows bound with the sacred bay tree, and bearing the lyre or the bow. The most celebrated places where Apollo was worshipped were Delphi and Aba3 in Phoc-is, Ismenium near Thebes, Delos, Tenedos, Didyma near Miletus, Patara in Cilicia, and Clarus near Colophon. The hawk, the raven, the swan, and the grasshopper were his favor ite animals. Apollo was the peculiar god of the Dorians, lie had musical contests with Marsyas and Pan. According to Herodotus, the Egyptian synonyme of Phcebus Apollo is Horus. The Romans received him from the Greeks. We first hear of his worship at Koine in 430 B. C., when a temple was raised to him for the purpose of averting a plague. During the second Punic Avar, in 212, the Ivdi Apol- linares were established at Rome. Every cen tenary anniversary of the ludi, they celebrated in his honor the ludi sceculares. Horace wrote the Carmen Sceculare on such an occasion. APOLLO BELVEDERE, a statue, perhaps the greatest existing work of ancient art, repre senting the god Apollo at the moment of his victory over the Python. It was found in 1503 among the ruins of ancient Antium (now Porto d Anzo), and derives its name from its position in the Belvedere of the Vatican, where it was placed by Pope Julius II., who had purchased it before his accession to the papal throne. It was removed by the French in 17-97, but re placed after 1815. The statue is of heroic size, and shows the very perfection of manly beauty. The god stands with the left arm extended, still holding the bow, while his right hand, which has just left the string, is near his hip. This right hand and part of the right arm, as well as the left hand, were wanting in the statue when found, and were restored by Angelo da Montorsoli, a pupil of Michel An- gelo. The figure is nude ; only a short cloak hangs over the left shoulder. The breast is full and dilated ; the muscles are conspicuous, though not exaggerated; the body seems a little thin about the hips, but is poised with such singular grace as to impart to the whole a beauty hardly possessed by any other statue. The sculptor is unknown ; many attribute the statue to Agasias the Ephesian, others to Praxiteles or Calamis ; but its origin and date must remain a matter of conjecture. APCLLODORIS OF (HAR1STIS, a comic poet of the new Attic comedy, flourished about the middle of the 3d century B. C. Terence took from him the plots of several of his plays. APOLLOMA. a city of ancient Illyria or New Epirus, near the mouth of the river Aous (now the Yoyutza in Albania). It was founded by colonists from Corinth and Corcyra. The place, having suffered much from the attacks of the Illyrians, sought the protection of the Romans, and remained faithful to them during the Macedonian war. A few huts, a monastery, and a church, together with the remains of two temples, are the vestiges of the city. APOLLONIUS PERGJSUS APOLLYON 587 APOLLOMIS PERG.EUS, an ancient geometer of Alexandria, born at Perga in Pamphylia, flourished about 230 B. C. His work upon the conic sections gained for him from his contem poraries the title of the Geometer. Only four books of this work have come down to us in the original language. Three more are pre served in Arabic, and the 8th is lost. APOLLOKHS RIIODUS, the author of the Argonautics, an epic poem on the voyage of the Argo, flourished at the close of the 3d century B. 0. He spent much of his youth in Alexandria, of which he is supposed to have been a native, and there composed his poem, which is still extant. He read it pub licly, but the Alexandrians treated it with contempt ; and this so angered him that he left the city and went to Rhodes, where he long resided, taking his surname from the town. The Rhodians received his work with the great est favor. Later in life he returned to Alex andria, and, by reading the revised poem in full, so changed the opinion of it held by the Alexandrians that they covered him with honors. He was made librarian of the mu seum, an office which he is supposed to have held till his death. He was buried in the same tomb with Callimachus, with whom in his youth he had had a violent quarrel regard ing the merits of his poem. His epic, in four books (Argonautica), gives a simple, beautiful, and vigorous sketch of the Argo s expedition. Apollonius also wrote epigrams (of which one on Callimachus is still extant), and several works which are lost. APOLLOM13 TYANEUS, a Pythagorean phi losopher, born at Tyana, Cappadocia, about 4 B. 0. He travelled for many years through Asia Minor and the East, disputing everywhere concerning the mysteries of nature and religion. From Babylon he journeyed to India, where he disputed with the Brahmins on the comparative merits of the Alexandrine and oriental philos ophers. He laid claim to supernatural power, and is said to have received from priests and people divine honors. At Athens he was denied admission to the Eleusinian mysteries, because he was regarded as a magician. It was only by force that he obtained an entrance into the cave of Trophonius, where he is said to have found the theological books of Pythagoras. At Rome he was arrested and brought to trial as a practiser of the black art, but acquitted. After visiting Spain, Africa, and Greece a sec ond time, he bent his course to Alexandria. Vespasian was then in Egypt preparing to strike a blow for the imperial purple, and hearing of Apollonius s arrival, he determined to turn to account the influence which the philosopher possessed with the people as a prophet and thaumaturgist. Accordingly, when Vespasian, on his entrance into the city, was met by the magistrates and philosophers, he inquired with affected anxiety whether the Tyamean was pres ent. Being answered in the negative, he at once proceeded to the place where he was, and entreated Apollonius to make him emperor. The Pythagorean rejoined that he had already done it in praying to the gods for a just and venerable sovereign. At a council of philos ophers presently held in Alexandria to consider the claims of Vespasian, Apollonius warmly advocated the cause of his new patron. Hav ing, after the death of Titus (81), been accused of attempting to excite the Greek cities of Asia against the tyrant Domitian, he voluntarily surrendered himself, and was cast into prison at Rome loaded with chains. His biographer, Philostratus, says that he freed himself from captivity by the exercise of his supernatural powers. Apollonius himself, at a subsequent period, publicly stated in Greece that he owed his liberty to the clemency of the emperor. Several cities contended for the honor of having been the last residence of Apollonius, but it seems most probable that his old age was spent at Ephesus. Tyana, the place of his birth, was raised to the rank of a sacred city, and invested with peculiar privileges, and here during the supremacy of paganism a temple existed in which the Pythagorean was worshipped. He used no animal food, wore no woollen garment, suffered his hair to grow, and abjured the so ciety of women. As a philosopher he labored to reconcile the oriental and Greek systems with the symbolism of his master. As a re ligious reformer he sought to restore the rites of paganism to their pristine purity. He held that all sensible objects were material and cor ruptible ; that all sacrifice was impure in the sight of the gods ; and that even prayer itself became polluted when it passed the lips of the supplicant. Except some letters and a reply against a complaint of the philosopher Eu phrates, all his works have perished. APOLLOS, an Alexandrian Jew, converted to Christianity about A. D. 54. He began (Acts xviii. 24) to preach at Ephesus, " knowing only the baptism of John," and was afterward in structed by Aquila and Priscilla, and sent into Achaia. At Corinth he was very popular, di viding fame with Paul and Peter, as it appears from that apostle s reference in 1 Cor. i. 12 : "Every one of you saith, I am of Paul, and I of Apollos, and I of Cephas." APOLLYON (Gr. A-o/J.vuv, the destroyer), used in Rev. ix. 11 as a translation of the He brew abaddon. In the Old Testament al>ad- don signifies the subterranean region, or place of the dead, equivalent to the Greek Hades. The rabbins, however, divide this region into two portions, the upper being the grave, the lower abaddon, founding this distinction espe cially upon Ps. Ixxxviii. 11, "Shall thy lov ing kindness be declared in the grave, or thy faithfulness in destruction [abaddon] ? " In Revelation Apollyon is personified as the angel who has dominion over the bottomless pit, the chief of the destroying agents, represented under the figure of locusts, who emerge from the abyss at the sounding of the fifth trumpet, Some apocalyptic expositors have held that 588 APOPLEXY APOSTOLICI the locusts represent the Saracens, and that Apollyon means especially Mohammed; but it is more likely that the figure is a general rep resentation of the convulsions attending the breaking down of paganism and the establish ment of Christianity. In the " Pilgrim s Prog ress" Apollyon is the name of the evil spirit encountered by Christian in the valley of the shadow of death ; hence the word has come to be almost a synonyme for the chief of the fallen angels. APOPLEXY. See BKAIN, DISEASES OF THE. APOSTLES (Gr. a~6aro%oi, the sent, messen gers), a title bestowed in the New Testament upon all who were commissioned to preach the gospel of Christ, but especially upon the twelve whom Jesus chose from the whole number of his disciples to be his heralds among Jews and Gentiles. Their names were Simon Peter, Andrew, James (son of Zebedee), John, Philip, Bartholomew, Thomas, Matthew (Levi), James (son of Alpheus), Lebbeus (Thaddens), Simon, and Judas Iscariot. They were mostly Galile ans and laboring people, all being fishermen but Matthew, who was a tax-gatherer. Some of them were connections of the family of Jesus or companions of his youth, and they had been disciples of John the Baptist before Christ s ap pearance. They accompanied Christ on his journeys, witnessed his works, heard his pub lic teaching and discussions, and the more in timate of them (Peter, James, and John) were often admitted to the privacy of his medita- tipns. During his lifetime the apostles under took one missionary expedition at their Mas ter s bidding; but after the resurrection the eleven remained in Jerusalem, not openly dis tinguished from other Jews. The place of Judas was filled by Matthias. It was not until the day of Pentecost that their work commenced in earnest with the public an nouncement of Christ as the Messiah. The per secution to which Stephen fell a victim scat tered the believers (some think only those of Greek extraction) ; but the apostles still con tinued in the city or in Judea, Peter alone venturing reluctantly to make a short journey as far as Cfesarea, where he baptized some un- circnmcised people. The work assigned by Christ of preaching the gospel to u all the world," left unattempted by the original apos tles, who wished to confine its blessings to the circumcised Jews, was first fully undertaken by Paul, a man who had never seen Jesus on earth, had received no commission from him like the rest, had sought from Peter and his companions no authoritative exposition of the Master s truth, and was at first an object of suspicion. All that we know from historical records respecting the apostles is gathered from the letters of Paul and the book of Acts, though legends about all of them were early current, recounting their voyages, sufferings, and mar tyrdoms. An interesting account of the apos tles labors is found in Neander s " Plant ing and Training of the Christian Church." 1 Schwegler s Nacliapostolisclies Zeilalter should I also be consulted. APOSTLES CREED, the oldest, most compre hensive, and most universally accepted creed of Christendom, interesting from its antiquity, and still more from its general adoption by the Greek, Roman, and Protestant churches. It reads as follows: " I believe in God the Father Almighty (Maker of heaven and earth) : and in Jesus Christ his only Son our Lord; who was conceived by the Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary; suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, (dead,) and buried ; (he de scended into hell,) the third day he rose from the dead ; he ascended into heaven, and sit- teth on the right hand of (God) the Father (Almighty) ; from thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead. I believe in the Holy Ghost ; the holy (catholic) church, (the communion of saints ;) the forgiveness of sins ; the resurrection of the body ; (and the life everlasting.) Amen." The passages en closed in parentheses are additions to the origi nal form, which was complete by the middle of the 2d century. The nucleus of the creed is supposed to have been the formula of baptism, "in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost," to which the other articles were appended, the whole forming a brief summary of historical statements from the New Testament in regard to the Father, Son, and Spirit. The creed is rather an epit ome of recorded facts than a system of specu lative opinions, and was never designed nor used to express the philosophical thoughts of the church. The impression that this vener able symbol was regarded as a secret formu- | la, part of the disciplina arcani, is erroneous. I The tradition that it was made by the apostles themselves, who at a meeting in Jerusalem contributed each an article toward an authen tic, compendious, and unchangeable rule of faith, rests upon no historical evidence. APOST<LICI. I. A sect of the 2d century, mentioned by St. Augustine, concerning which very little is known. They considered mar riage and individual possession of property mortal sins. II. A sect of the 12th century, mostly from the lower classes of society, who would not take an oath, nor shave, nor cut their hair, nor marry. Although their lives were blameless, many of them were executed at Cologne. III. A sect founded about 1200 by Gerard de Segarelli of Parma, a young man who had been rejected from the Franciscan order. They believed that the kingdom of heaven was soon to come, and went barefoot through Italy, Switzerland, and France, preach ing, begging, and singing. They rejected mar riage, but lived in intimacy with females whom they called spiritual sisters, and who accom panied them on their journeys. Segarelli was burned as a heretic in 1300. The sect con tinued to live a while longer under Dolcino, a Milanese, but soon became reduced to banditti, and in 1307 the movement ceased. APOTHECARY APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS 589 APOTHECARY (Lat. apothecarius, from Gr. airodt/K-rj, a shop or store), one who prepares and dispenses medicines. Apothecaries formerly sold herbs and drills and spices, and by long practice in the art of preparing tinctures, sir ups, powders, extracts, pills, and medicated waters, they became a special corporation, dis tinct from grocers and in some places from druggists, and were organized into a privileged body in the civilized parts of Europe, during the middle ages. In England the corporation still exists, in virtue of a royal charter, and with power to confer licenses on its members, who are invested with the right to administer medi cine, as well as to prepare it and sell it in shops. A large proportion of the medical practitioners in England are only apothecaries ; but the cor poration enlarges its curriculum of studies and examinations as occasion may require. The royal college of surgeons in London also has a charter, and a right to give diplomas, which are honorary, and confer no legal right to practise medicine and to sue for payment. Most young apothecaries, however, now obtain them before they venture to practise as surgeons. In -France the old corporation of apothecary druggists has been dissolved, and a new chartered corpora tion of pharmaciens has been substituted in its place. These keep shops, prepare medicines, and make up prescriptions, but have no legal right to practise as physicians. In the United States there is neither law nor custom to pre vent an apothecary from practising as a physi cian. It is only lately that any legal restric tions have been placed upon the dispensing of the most powerful drugs by any boy whom the proprietor of an apothecary s shop might choose to employ. In apothecaries weight, used in dispensing medicines, the pound (ft>) is divided into 12 ounces ( ), the ounce into 8 drams (3), the dram into 3 scruples O), and the scruple into 20 grains (grs.). In the whole sale drug trade avoirdupois weight is used. APPALACHEE BAY, a large open bay on the S. "W. coast of Florida in the gulf of Mexico, having a breadth of about 45 m.. and an extent inland of 18 m. There is a wide passage from the bay, 10 feet deep, leading to the town of St. Mark s, which furnishes excellent anchor age ground. APPALACHEES, an Indian tribe of Florida, living on a bay which still bears their name. They were of the same family as the Choctaws, and were very numerous. They were at first not friendly to the Spaniards, and made war on them at intervals down to 1638. A Spanish post was established there, and missionaries soon won them over, care being taken to in struct the chiefs, many f whom learned to read and write. The oppression of the Span ish commanders led to a revolt about 1687; and the Spaniards after reducing them com pelled many to work on the fortifications. Their appeal to the king in 1688, signed by the chiefs, is still extant. While this discontent prevailed, the English and their Indian allies ; invaded the country of the Appalachees, de- | stroying many towns and killing or carrying I off great numbers of the people. In 1704 St. Mark s was taken and the missionaries were ! put to death. The tribe was now reduced ! from 7,000 to about 400. On the settlement | of Louisiana a portion removed to St. Louis in ! the vicinity of Mobile, while the Spaniards i gathered the remainder at Soledad. After I 1722 they disappear as a tribe, being probably | absorbed in the Choctaw nation. APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS, the great range of mountains, called also the Alleghanies, which extends from that part of Canada lying between the New England states and the St. Lawrence river, through the whole length of Vermont, across the western part of Massachusetts and the middle Atlantic states, to the northern part of Alabama. The name Appalachian was given to the mountains by the Spaniards under i De Soto, who derived it from the neighboring Indians. The name Alleghany, given by the | English settlers of the north, was received | from the Indians, and supposed to mean end- ! less. The White mountains of New Hampshire and the Adirondack mountains of New York are really outliers of this range, though sepa rated from it by wide tracts of low elevation. I In their Alpine forms and more metamorphic ! structure, they present also features somewhat I different from those which are especially pe- | culiar to the Appalachian range. The Cats- j kills form a link of the main range. These I groups will all be found described under their j own names. Not including the lateral ranges, ! the greatest width of the Appalachian chain is j about 100 m. This is in Pennsylvania and I Maryland, about midway of its course. Its j extreme length is about 1,300 m. At either I end its termination is not well defined, the | mountains sinking away and being lost in the i hilly country that succeeds to them, and at the I south its gneissoid and other ancient rocks gradually disappearing beneath the cretaceous I formations of this region. In all their extent I the Appalachian mountains are remarkable, ! not for their great elevation, nor for their I striking peaks, nor for any feature that dis tinguishes one portion of them from the rest, I but for a singular uniformity of outline, par- I ticularly of that which defines the summit of i the ridges, as well as that which marks their direction. While varying little in height, the ridges pursue a remarkably straight course, I sometimes hardly diverging from a straight ; line for a distance of 50 or 60 m., and one | ridge succeeding beyond another, all continu- i ing the same general course in parallel lines, like successive waves of the sea. As one curves round into a new direction, all curve with it. Thus the valleys between the ridges preserve i a uniform width, and are as remarkable for their parallelism as are the hills which bound i them. An able paper upon " The Physical Structure of the Appalachian Chain" was read before the American association of geologists 590 APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS and naturalists in 1842, by the Profs. Rogers, who were at the head of the geological surveys of Pennsylvania and Virginia, and who had extended their observations into the continua tions of the chain N. and S. from these states. This paper is still the most complete treatise upon this subject. Prof. Guyot has also given much attention to the physical structure of these mountains, and made careful barometrical measurements of several of their highest sum mits, both near their northern and southern extremities. The general course of the Alle- ghanies is that of the coast line opposite to them. The sea makes its nearest approach to them at the mouth of the Hudson river, which is only 50 m. from the passage of this river through the Highlands. Thence as far S. as Cape Ilatteras, the width of the Atlantic slope gradually increases, till the space between the coast and the Blue Ridge is about 200 m. ; and so it continues to the southern extremity of the mountains. This space is a hilly district, gradually becoming of higher elevation as it extends back from the coast. In New England its average height at the base of the mountains is about 500 ft. above the sea ; in Pennsylvania, 300; in Virginia, 500; and further S. 1,200. From the mountains to the lowest falls of the streams over the edge of the granitic platform, this is for the most part a region of the low est stratified, metamorphic, and granitic rocks. These lowest falls mark the head of navigation of the streams, and the descent to the lower and more level platform of the upper second ary and tertiary formations, which in the south ern states stretch along the coast in a belt sometimes reaching 100 m. in width. The eastern ridges of the chain, rising from their elevated base, do not present the appearance of the height above the sea which they actu ally reach ; and on their western slope, which stretches far away toward the Mississippi, their height is still more completely lost in the elevated and wide-spread plateau. Between Lake Champlain and Lake Ontario, this west ern table land is 1,500 ft. above the sea. and from it as a base rise the high summits of the Adirondack mountains. In Virginia and Ten nessee, as observed by Prof. Guyot, the bot tom of the valley W. of the Alleghanies is from 1,000 to 2,000 ft. above the sea, and be yond it for 100 m. W. extends a plateau of 1,500 to 2,000 ft. elevation, traversed by lon gitudinal ridges. All the cross sections from the eastern edge of the granite present first the slightly undulating profile of the Atlan tic slope, which is succeeded by the sudden rise to the highest elevation, and this by the wave-like descent and ascent across the valleys and the ridges, and finally terminate in the gradual descent on the western table land. As first pointed out by Prof. Rogers, the same law is found to obtain in this chain and in the Jura mountains, of steepest general slopes toward the east ; but of individual ridges the gentler slopes are toward Ihe east, and the steepest mclina- | tions toward the west. In the mid-region of the chain in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Mary land where the breadth is greatest, the height appears to be correspondingly diminished. The summits, valleys, and table land all reach here I their least elevation. The highest summits are but little over 2,000 ft, above the sea. Still the barrier between the eastern and western waters is complete ; and no clean cut through the range is anywhere found, excepting that of the Mohawk river in New York, the highest I elevation of which is only 400 ft. above the | sea. Toward the north and the south from ! this central portion, the plateau becomes more | elevated, as well as the summits that rise up j from it. In North Carolina, near the borders ! of Tennessee, and in the northern part of Bun combe county, the base of the Black moun- ! tains, which have been an especial subject of examination by Prof. Guyot, is found to extend from 100 to 150 m. in length, with an eleva tion of 2,000 ft. Above this many summits are found reaching more than 4,500 ft. high er, as the Black Dome, the height of which above the sea is 0,7(>0 ft. ; the Balsam Cone, 6,668 ; the Black Brother, 6,671 ; Cat-tail peak, 6,595 ; Hairy Bear, 6,597, &c. The great ele vation of this group makes it the culminating point of the system. Mt. Washington in New Hampshire, though found by the measurement of Prof. Guyot to be but 6,288 ft, above the sea, which measurement differs only three feet | from that made by the officers of the coast j survey, appears much more elevated than the summits of the Black mountains, from its ris ing from a plateau of not half the height of the base of this group. In the southern part of Pennsylvania other parallel ridges succeed to the Alleghany mountains : Negro mountain, Laurel hill, and Chestnut ridge, each a repeti tion of the other, at distances about 10 m. apart, and each occupying nearly as great a breadth as the valleys which separate them. The capping of their summits is the con glomerate rocks, which underlie the coal meas ures. These strata arch over the crests of the ridges, projecting in bold cliffs, and on each slope dipping beneath the coal measures, which in the valley hills attain their greatest thickness. Thus the same strata appear upon the summits, and in undulating lines pass be neath the valleys to reappear upon the crest of the next ridge, and so on till, dipping down the western slope of Chestnut ridge, the coal measures spread in nearly horizontal strata over the western portion of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. Their lowermost lay ers reappear as they rise to the surface upon the other margin of the great coal basin, as far into Ohio as Zanesville, and thence along a line extending to the mouth of the Scioto. In the ! gentleness of the dips of the strata, this west- i era slope presents a striking contrast to the highly disturbed stratification of the Atlantic slope. There the rock formations, nearer the disturbing causes which have elevated the APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS 591 mountains and metamorphosed the rocks of the most eastern ridges, are thrown into con fused and intricate positions, and pressed into folds and wrinkles, the prevailing inclination of which is toward the southeast as hori zontal layers of heavy cloth, pressed laterally by irresistible force from one end of the pile, would be lifted into folds, whose general in clination, by the falling back of the arches, would be toward the direction where the force is applied. The direction of the line of force is that of the ridges themselves, or rather of the anticlinal and synclinal axes, the one being the crest of wave-like form into which the strata are thrown, and the other the trough. This, too, is the line^ of the great fissures, which, now filled with metallic ores, constitute the mineral veins of the chain. It is the line of the rents caused by the earthquakes of the present period ; and it is regarded by the Profs. Rogers as the line along which the elevating force that lifted the mountains extended, mov ing onward at right angles to this line, with a wave-like motion, till the result was attained of placing the ridges in their present positions. Toward the southeast, whence the movement proceeded, the axes are crowded near to gether. Toward the northwest they are re peated at distances gradually increasing, till the undulations at last flatten out and die away in the horizontally stratified regions of the west. The straightness or regular curvature of these axes, and their parallelism in distinct groups, continued for distances sometimes amounting to over 100 m., without change in the stratification or topography, cannot fail to excite the astonishment of the geological ob server. Among these axes are particularly noticed by the Profs. Rogers the straight axis of Montour s ridge in the Susquehanna region, which extends about 80 m. ; the beautifully inflected axis of Jack s mountain, in the Poto mac region, 90 m. long ; and that of the Knob- ly mountain, nearly a continuation of the last named, itself 100 m. long. In S. "W. Virginia, the straight axis of Clinch mountain is traced for more than 120 m. The strata of the Ap palachian system are all of marine or ter restrial origin. The fossils they contain are all of families belonging to the salt water, or plants of terrestrial growth. The latest or uppermost groups are those of the coal forma tion. Throughout the whole chain none of the stratified rocks belong to a later epoch. Their elevation, then, must have taken place previously to those periods, when the upper secondary rocks, that lap upon the extreme eastern border of the Appalachian formations, were deposited, and previously to those still later periods when the great deposits of ter tiary marls, sandstones, and clays were pro duced, which cover the S. E. part of our country. These mountains are then of much older date than the Alps or the Andes, upon the high summits of both of which rest the rocks of these later formations, containing their characteristic marine fossils. Raised probably by many successive impulses exerted on the same lines (it may be after long inter vals of rest), the rush of the retreating waters appears to have opened those gaps through the ridges, which constitute a peculiar and most interesting feature in the topography and scenery of these mountains, and which could not have been produced by the action of any existing streams. The same rush of waters, acting upon piles of strata of various degrees of hardness, and consequent capacities of re sistance, impressed upon these the forms ap propriate to these properties. This is seen in the sharp outline of single beds of sand stone, which project from the sides of the hill, around which they outcrop ; and in the reced ing of the profile of the mountain against the beds of softer shales and slates. It is seen on a grander scale in the peculiar forms which each of the rock formations gives to the hills or mountains it composes, and which enables one to recognize it wherever met with by a glance at the topography. The regular arrange ment of the rock formations throughout all their foldings and undulations is rarely dis turbed by any of those sudden breaks which are common in other countries, and which bring into contact, by the displacement of por tions of the series, strata usually far separated from each other. These "faults, 1 however, are met with in several of the states, but par ticularly in S. W. Virginia, where they extend for about 100 m. in length, their course being the same as that of the anticlinal axes out of which they grow. They appear to have re sulted from the lateral thrust toward the northwest of the folded piles of strata. They are observed, always beginning on the N. TV. side of the anticlinal axes, in tracing these along their course, the strata on this side be coming steeper and steeper, till at last they are inverted, and dip toward the southeast. At this point the strata appear to have burst asun der along the line of greatest curvature, and the S. E. portion to have been lifted up, bring ing its lower strata against the higher mem bers on the other side of the line of fracture. The depth of this dislocation, or the extent of the displacement, increases toward the centre of the line of fault ; and where the length of this line, as in the district under consideration, stretches along for 100 m. or more, it cannot appear disproportional that the vertical dis placement should in its central portions amount to -^ of this distance ; and that the lower groups of the Appalachian system, usually sep arated by intervening strata of four or five miles in thickness, should be brought in con tact, so that the edges of one series abut against the edges of the other. Thus the lower lime stones of the great valley of Virginia are seen, in Montgomery county, and thence westward along the line of the Virginia and Tennessee- railroad, in vertical position, with the strata of the far more elevated series containing eeal 592 APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS beds dipping toward them, as if the more re cent formations passed beneath these ancient groups. The thermal springs, which are of frequent occurrence along the Appalachian chain, and particularly so in Virginia, flow out almost universally on the lines of anticlinal axes, or of the faults. Their elevated temper ature indicates the great depths from which they rise, and consequently that to which the folds and fractures of the stratification reach. The geological formations of the Appalachian belt, comprising all the groups from the granite to the coal, are abundantly productive in the most important ores and minerals, which espe cially belong to these different formations. In the ancient granitic rocks which skirt the edge of the lower stratified formations, and some times spread out over broad areas, as in the mountainous region W. of Lake Ohamplain, in the highlands of New York and New Jersey, are found inexhaustible repositories of magnetic iron ores, which already are worked to great extent in connection with the valuable beds of hematite ores that are found conveniently near them, ranging from Canada to Alabama along the line of the great Appalachian valley. These beds occur in great depressions in the lower limestones and metamorphic slates of this range, and sometimes in veins in the same rocks, and are worked in every one of the states through which this passes, everywhere presenting the same peculiar features. They arc frequently of extraordinary extent, and though worked in several instances for more than 100 years, the actual depth to which they reach, and their real nature, have never been fully explored. Together with the magnetic ores, they furnish the supplies for a very large proportion of all the iron manufactured in the United States; and the numerous bodies of them still untouched are a provision for still larger demands for generations to come. The value of these repositories can hardly be over estimated, particularly when considered in con nection with the long extent of their range, not far back from the coast, and the enormous supplies of mineral coal that can be conve niently brought to effect their reduction. Far more valuable are they than the gold found in the granitic and metamorphic rocks of the east ern ranges, though this, judging from the pro duction of certain localities in the southern states, would, if exposed by the great irregu larities of the surface, like those of California, be found as rich and abundant as there. It is worked in alluvial deposits enriched from the auriferous veins; and these also contain ores of copper and lead, and occasionally of silver. These deposits and veins are met with in the valley of the Chaudiere below Quebec, and are again seen in a few localities in Vermont; but their great development is on the eastern bor ders of the Appalachians S. of the Potomac, j The copper ores met with in the rocks of the Appalachian system have never proved of great importance. They are found along the range j of the talcose and micaceous slates of the I Blue Ridge, as well as associated with the gold I further toward the southeast. In Virginia , these slates produce some workable beds of ; lead ore, and display occasionally attractive j appearances of copper. In New Jersey the I same range produces the remarkable red ox- I ides of zinc associated with Franklinite, which I are worked together, the one to produce the white zinc paint, and the other a superior qual ity of iron for the manufacture of steel. Fur- I ther S. along the same belt are found, in the j Lehigh valley and in Lancaster county, Pa., the | valuable silicates and carbonates of zinc, called calamine, which are worked for the same pur pose as the red oxides of New Jersey. Veins of lead ore are found m several of the forma- j tions ; and in Wythe county in S. W. Virginia I a mine in the great limestone formation has I been worked with some interruptions for more | than 100 years. These lead veins, however, of the lower members of the Appalachian sys tem, have for the most part proved of little importance; indeed, throughout the range of the mountains none of the formations above the metamorphic rocks are rich in any other metallic ores than the hematites which are oc casionally met with, the red fossiliferous iron ores of Formation No. V. of the Pennsylvanian survey, called in New York the Clinton group, and the argillaceous ores of the coal measures. No rock formation is more useful to man for the variety and value of its productions than the true coal formation. It furnishes the great supplies of anthracite and bituminous coal, beds of fire clay, and west of the Alleghany ridge abundant beds of limestone. Salt water is ob tained by boring artesian wells to lower mem bers of the series, and the brine fiows up or is pumped up into the valleys, to be evaporated by the combustion of the coal found in the neigh boring hills. In many localities, where the salt-bearing rocks approach the surface, the brine is more readily obtained in large quanti ties, and the coal is transported for its evapo ration. The formations that furnish the salt also contain great beds of gypsum. Onondaga county in New York is famous for these pro ductions, and in Washington county in S. W. Virginia solid beds of salt are struck in the midst of the most extensive plaster deposits. From one extremity of their range to the other, the Alleghanies have furnished large sup plies of the valuable white pine ; and many of the less accessible districts of the belt still abound with it. Far toward the north, upon the better soils of the mountains, the hard-wood forests prevail the fine sugar maple, of the curly and bird s-eye varieties, and the white birch. The ash and the beech also attain their highest state of perfection in the most fertile soil of these northern mountains. Upon the poorer lands, and along the ravines of the mountains, the " black growth " flourishes the evergreens, as the different species of the pine family, the spruce, the hemlock, cedar, and APPALACIIICOLA APPARITION 593 balsam fir; and in the swamps, the hackmatack ! or larch. The varieties of the oak appear fur- I ther S. upon the range, these and the chestnut taking the place of the maple, birch, and beech, and, to some extent, of the evergreens also. The large cherry tree, so valuable for its tim ber, is met with in Pennsylvania, scattered upon the mountains; in W. and S. W. Virginia it forms forests of itself. The white oak, the white poplar, the white and yellow pines, and the chestnut are the valuable forest trees of the mountains of Virginia. In some localities still further south, the dark growth of the ! conifers covers the summits, as found, for in- | stance, by Prof. Guyot in the group in North i Carolina named the Black mountains from the dark foliage of its balsam firs, spruce, and hemlock. Among the flowering shrubs, none are more beautiful than the varieties of kalmia, azalea, and rhododendron, which are found in the greatest profusion upon the slopes of the Alleghanies and along their watercourses, giv ing to the rough places of the mountains the rich colors of cultivated arardens. APPALACHICOLA. I. A river of W. Florida, formed by the union of the Chattahoochee and j Flint rivers at the S. W. angle of Georgia, ! flows S. about 75 m. into St. George s sound, j through an estuary called Appalachicola bay. j It is navigable for steamboats through its whole course, and with its branches is supposed to i drain not far from 20,000 sq. m. The tide runs ! up 60 m. lit A town and port of entry, capi- ; tal of Franklin county, Fla., situated on a bluff | at the mouth of the preceding river, 65 m. S. W. ; of Tallahassee ; pop. in 1870, 1,129; in 1860, | 1,904. Large quantities of cotton are shipped i here by steamboats. In 1870 the number of j vessels registered, enrolled, and licensed was 21, j with an aggregate tonnage of 2,033 tons ; of these 7 were steamers with a tonnage of 1,587 tons, t APPAXOOSE, a S. county of Iowa, adjoining Missouri; area, 510 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 16,- j 450. The North Missouri railroad traverses it. j The river Chariton, which flows through it, i and numerous smaller streams, furnish ample < water power, while the rolling prairies which ; cover a large part of the surface are fertile, and \ the watercourses are bordered by tracts of j timber. Large beds of coal have been found at several points. In 1870 the county produced 134,411 bushels of wheat, 986,280 of corn, 322,- 256 of oats, 59,079 of potatoes, 83,784 Ibs. of wool, 484,147 of butter* 22, 65 9 tons of hay, and i 37,150 gallons of sorghum molasses. Capital, Centreville. ^ APPARATUS, in physiology, a group or collec- j tion of different organs, which are associated in the performance of some function in which each one bears a particular part. Thus, the : heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries together constitute the circulatory apparatus. The ! bones, ligaments, tendons, and muscles of the limbs form the apparatus of locomotion. The mouth, teeth, tongue, stomach, and intestine, with the accessory glandular organs, are the VOL. i. 38 digestive apparatus. An apparatus may in clude not only different organs, but also entire systems. Thus the circulatory apparatus com prises not only the heart, which is an organ by itself, but also the arterial system, the venous system, and the capillary system. All of these, however, are essential to the circulation of the blood, and each performs its own special part in the function. APPARITION, a spectral illusion, by which imaginary objects are presented to the senses with such vividness that they are believed to be real. This form of illusion, the result of some abnormal state of the brain, concerning which medical science has given thus far only incomplete information, has been the cause of much superstition. The apparitions seen in ac tual delirium, or by those obviously insane, do not of course fall within the scope of this arti cle ; and the well authenticated instances in which apparitions have been seen by men of ordinarily clear intellect, and apparently in their customary good health, are so mingled with impostures and exaggerations that it is difficult to make them the ground of scientific investigation. But there are some cases where men of the highest intellectual power have had this cerebral affection, yet have retained enough acuteness of observation to investigate their own disease, and describe the apparitions coolly and accurately, though knowing them to be illusory. The most noteworthy of these cases is that of Nicolai, an eminent publisher in Ber lin, who in 1791 was for some months con stantly subject to spectral illusions, which pre sented to him the figures of friends, unknown persons, and singular animals, which accompa nied him everywhere, went through all the movements belonging to their real prototypes, and even spoke to him. Conscious of their character, he observed them so accurately as to be able to write a scientific paper upon them for the philosophical society of Berlin. He was ultimately cured by blood-letting. Many similar instances are recorded in the volumes referred to at the close of this article. Some well authenticated accounts of apparitions ap pearing to persons a short time before death do not in the present state of medical inquiry ad mit of so satisfactory an explanation. That both the apparitions actually seen and those in which the superstitious believe should most fre quently represent the forms of dead friends, is conceded to be natural ; for the brains of those who see or fancy they see them are generally excited by grief or filled with morbid fears of death. Yet these causes, and the natural ten dencies of superstitious minds and low states of knowledge, gave rise to the popular belief in ghosts. See Dr. John Ferriar s u Essay toward a Theory of Apparitions 1 (London, 1813); Dr. Samuel Hibberfs u Sketches of the Philosophy of Apparitions " (Edinburgh, 1824) ; Sir Walter Scott s " Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft 1 (Edinburgh, 1830); Mrs. Crowe s " Night Side of Nature " (London, APPEAL 1848) ; Jung Stirling s GeisterJcundc, translated into English under the title u Pneumatology " (New York, 1851) ; Dr. Brierre de Boismont s u Hallucinations, or tlie Rational Theory of Ap paritions/ etc. (English translation, Philadel phia, J85:3); Robert Dale Owen s Footfalls on the Boundary of Another World " (Phila delphia, 18( )0), and his Debatable Land " (New York, 1872). See also, in this work, DEMOXOLOGY, SPIRITUALISM, and WITCHCRAFT. APl KAL, in law, the proceeding by which a decision of a court or judge is taken to a supe rior tribunal for review. Though appeal is commonly used in the law to describe all revi sory proceedings, yet the word strictly belongs to that remedy of the civil law which takes up the whole cause to the higher court and sub jects facts as well as law to review. At com mon law an appellate court takes cognizance characteristically only of matters of law. Mat ters of fact in that system can be revised only upon a new trial. For example, if a party in a suit conceives that a verdict against him is not sustained by the evidence, he applies to the court where the case was tried for a new trial. Upon an appeal from the decision on that mo tion, the appellate court may or may not sus tain it ; but if it docs not, it will not itself pro nounce a verdict on the facts, but remits the cause to the lower court, to be tried there again by a jury. The review upon points of law is bad at common law upon a writ of error, while the appeal is used in courts which follow the practice of the civil law. The distinction be tween the two modes of review is now abol ished in many of our states, but it still remains in the procedure of our federal courts. In ad miralty and equity causes in those courts, mat ters of fact as well as of law are ordinarily tried in the first instance by a judge without a jury ; and appeals from sentences or decrees in such causes carry up the whole case, and the appellate court passes upon the questions of fact and of law alike. But common law causes the ordinary issues, for example, which are tried with a jury go up to the appellate court upon a writ of error, and are revised there only in matters of law. The proceedings upon appeal are in all our states regulated by statutes. Indeed, without some such authority the right of appeal docs not exist at all. The subject of appeal is ordinarily the final judg ment or action of the inferior court, and it must be the final decision upon the substantial matter and merits of the cause. Orders of the court upon mere points of practice in the pro gress of the action, which do not involve its merits, or which rest in the pure discretion of the court below, are not subjects of review. But a plain abuse of judicial discretion, or a clear mistake in exercising it, may give good grounds for appeal ; and so may the refusal of the court below to exercise a discretionary power on the mistaken ground that it did not possess it. A party cannot appeal from a judg ment entered against him on his default or con sent, nor from his own judgment of nonsuit, nor where he has agreed that the judgment of the lower court shall be final. The right to appeal may also be lost by taking proceedings on the footing of the decision, and especially by accepting any benefit under it. Properly, only a party to the record may appeal, and he only when he is aggrieved or injured by the decision ; but he may be injured by a judgment, even in his favor, which is less favorable to him than he is entitled to, and in such a case he may appeal. A party to the record loses his right of appeal when he ceases to have any interest in the subject of the suit. If a party to the record dies, the right of appeal does not exist in his legal representative until he is sub stituted as a party in the action. When the matter comes before the appellate court, the presumption is in favor of the judgment below, and the question is whether for any cause the judgment shall be reversed. Unless there is a majority or other controlling vote for rever sal, the judgment stands affirmed of course. As the appellate court is inclined to sustain the decision of the court below unless there is clear reason for reversing it, it will not look into any part of the judgment which is not ap pealed from, nor take notice of any defects or insufficiencies in the proceedings below, unless they were formally objected to there unless, indeed, the insufficiencies not objected to could not have been cured by the opposite party be low if the objection had been stated ; and even a ruling to which the appellant did object, but which has done him no substantial harm, will not be noticed. An erroneous charge of the judge below which is wholly extraneous and immaterial is no ground for reversal ; nor will a verdict be set aside for misdirectk.n of a judge, if the court can see from the whole evidence that the result would have been the same, if the objectionable instruction had not been given, or when the whole evidence justifies the verdict. If a judgment is right in point of law, it is no reason for reversing it that it cannot be sustained on the ground on which the couit below proceeded. When the appeal brings up questions as to the sufficiency of the evidence to support a verdict, an appellate court is dis inclined to disturb the finding of the jury un less it is clearly and ceitainly against the weight of the evidence, the theory of our law being that the jury is the best tribunal for de ciding all matters of fact. The same principle- applies to findings by referees or by judges trying causes without juries; and in such cases, especially when the evidence was con flicting, the conclusions as to facts will not ordinarily be reversed. In all our states the statutes will be found to contain provisions re lating to the conditions of appeals, namely, in respect to the time within which they must be taken, the security which must be given, and the effect of the appeal in staying proceedings on the judgment appealed from. As to the time for taking the appeal, if it is prescribed APPEAL 505 by statute, it cannot be extended by the court ; and if an appeal is not taken within the limit, it is lost. Ordinarily, the appellant does not se cure his right of appeal until he Drives a bond or some such undertaking for costs ; and he does not ; stay execution on the judgment against him un- less he gives a like security for the payment of ! the amount of it in case it is affirmed. With re- ! spect to criminal cases, the statutes of most of : the states provide for reviews of verdicts upon writs of error at the instance of the convicted party. But there is ordinarily no appeal or remedy of that sort allowed to the people to j reverse a judgment of acquittal. The constitu- j tion of the United States provides that no per son shall be subject for the same offence to be ! twice put in jeopardy of life or limb, and no j state can by any statutory provision take away from a criminal the benefit of this provision, j Whenever statutes give any right to the state to have a review of a criminal trial, they must be construed with regard to the constitutional j prohibition. The supreme court of the United I States exercises an appellate jurisdiction over ! the state courts,* where the validity of a treaty j or statute of, or authority exercised under, the j United States is drawn in question, and the j decision is against that validity ; or where the validity of any state authority is drawn in I question on the ground of its repugnancy to i the constitution, treaties, or laws of the Uni- | ted States, and the decision is in favor of its i validity ; or where a question of construction j upon the constitution, a treaty, or a statute of I the United States arises, and the decision is I against the claim under the authority of either. j All civil causes, where the amount involved j is sufficient, may be carried on appeal from the United States district court to the circuit ; court, and thence to the supreme court. The circuit courts exercise an appellate jurisdiction i over all cases brought in the district courts, J except where the matter in controversy is of a > very small pecuniary value. Another mode of ! review in the supreme court is that upon a case certified from a circuit court. As this court may consist of two judges, they may, w r hen ! they fail to agree, certify to the supreme court i that they are divided in opinion, and in that i event the case is entertained by the higher tri- \ bunal as upon an appeal. (See COURTS OF THE ! UNITED STATES.) In New York the court of j appeals is a court of appellate jurisdiction only. It lias been lately reorganized under an amend ment to the Constitution adopted in 1869. The amendment provides that the court shall con sist of a chief justice and six associate judges, to be chosen by the electors of the state, and to hold office for 14 years. Five members of j the court constitute a quorum, and the con- j currence of four is essential to a decision. The present court has all the powers and jurisdic tion which were possessed by the late court of I appeals, which it displaced. It has exclusive jurisdiction to review upon appeal any actual determination made at a general term by the supreme court, by the superior courts of New York and Buffalo, and by the court of common pleas of the city of New York in certain speci fied cases, among which the more important are the following : Upon appeal from a decision of any of these courts on final judgments in an action brought originally in it or removed into it from another court, it may reverse, affirm, or modify such judgment, or review any order in the case which involved the merits. The court also entertains appeals from orders affect ing substantial rights when they in effect deter mine the action and prevent judgments from which appeals might be taken ; or when such orders discontinue actions, or grant <;r refuse new trials, or strike out pleadings. But no appeal lies to the court of appeals from an order granting a new trial on a case or excep tions, unless the appellant with his notice of appeal gives also a consent that if the order appealed from be affirmed, absolute and final judgment may be forthwith entered against him. When the decision of any motion at a special term of the supreme court involves or is rested upon the constitutionality of any law of the state, an appeal may be taken first to the general term of that court, and thence to the court of appeals. No appeal to this court stays execution on a judgment unless it is ac companied with a bond securing payment of the judgment upon an affirmance or a dismissal of the appeal. In England, the appellate juris diction of the court of chancery, where equity causes are heard originally by the master of the rolls or by the vice chancellors, is exer cised by the lord chancellor alone, or sitting with one or both of the lords justices, or by these two alone. With respect to appeals in civil causes tried in either of the three su perior courts (queen s bench, common pleas, and exchequer), the first appeal lies to the court of exchequer chamber, where the causes coming from either of the three are heard by the judges of the other two. In criminal cases appeals on questions of law arising in the courts of over and terminer or quarter sessions may go through the queen s bench to the exchequer chamber, but they are usu ally taken directly to the court for crown cases reserved. This latter court was created in 1848, and is composed of the judges of the three superior courts. It has final au thority on questions raised by evidence, or in arrest of judgment ; but on more impor tant questions, like demurrers to indictments, the appellant may go through the queen s bench to the exchequer chamber, and thence to the house of lords. The house of lords is the supreme appellate judicature of the realm. By its ancient jurisdiction it reviews all errors brought up through the exchequer chamber from the common law courts of England and Ireland, and under more recent authority it entertains appeals from judgments of Scotch courts on questions of law. The house of lords also takes cognizance upon appeals of errors in crimi- 50G APPEAL rial causes from all the inferior jurisdictions, | except where the court for crown cases re- ; served has the final decision ; and in chancery : cases it hears appeals from all the English and Irish equity courts. By recent statutes ap peals may also be taken to the house of lords from the probate courts of England and Ire land. There have been lately some emphatic ; complaints made about the weakness of the house of lords as an appellate court. Its de cisions upon appeals are practically left entirely j to the law lords, and it has not unfrequently j happened that two or three of these have re- i versed judgments which had been sustained j by a majority of the judges of the courts be- ! low. In one case of a recent date the i prevailing judgment of the house of lords, , given in fact by two persons only, coincided ! with the opinion of only four judges below, \ while the defeated party had had altogether j seven judges in his favor. In another case j the party who succeeded in the house of lords had had in the course of the suit through all the courts only four judges in all in his favor, while his opponent had had eight. \ Another supreme appellate tribunal is that of j the queen in council. The judicial functions of the crown are however in fact delegated to the judicial committee of the privy council. This court revises judgments of the colonial courts throughout the empire, and sentences of the ecclesiastical and admiralty courts. The committee after consideration make their re port to the crown, and its approval is signified by an order in council. In France, incorrect decisions are also held in check by a system of appeals. The first regularly organized tribu nals of appeal in France were about the reign of Louis IX. The French right of appeal, especially in criminal cases, seems to American or English observers to be often frivolously ex ercised. The French courts of appeal may dis- | charge or amend the judgments of the courts below, and may reduce or increase punishments or the pecuniary awards of juries. The theo- I ry of the French appeal seems to be a submis- j sion of the facts as stated in the proceedings to the court of appeal, to whose judgment all deductions whatsoever are referred. Appeals from justices of the peace lie to the tribunals of first instance, composed of from three to twelve judges, divided into chambers of civil and criminal jurisdiction. The decisions of these tribunals and of the tribunals of com- i merce are reviewed in 27 higher courts, taking their names from the cities where they are i established. Each of these courts is composed of at least 24 judges, and is usually divided ; into three chambers, one having cognizance of civil causes, one of criminal accusations, and one of police matters. In the civil chambers | seven judges, and in the chamber of criminal i accusations five judges must concur. On very important or difficult questions two of the | chambers combine, a-nd the decision must be j concurred in by 14 judges. Appeals from these courts go to the court of cassation. This court has 49 judges, and may on appeal annul the judgments of any of the inferior courts for any error of law apparent on the face of the proceedings. No new evidence is received in this court, while on appeals from the courts of first instance the proofs may be changed to any extent. In Germany, the system of appeal was commenced in 1496, and is now greatly elaborated ; the courts are of the first, second, and third instance. The appeals may be based either on matters of law or fact. Each king dom has its own tribunals, and the smaller principalities are associated together in districts for the purposes of courts of appeal. The proceedings of the German courts, like those of the English court of chancery, are exces sively prolix and tedious, and entirely in writ ing, the arguments only being oral, and their es sence being contained in the pleadings, as de ductions from the facts. Besides the sense in which we in modern parlance use the word appeal, proceedings of historical interest known as appeals were formerly recognized in English law, wherein the term was used as derived from the French appeler, to summon or to challenge. An offender on his trial might by permission of the court confess the charge, and "appeal" another person as the instigator or accomplice of his crime, who thereupon might be put on his trial, or fight his accuser. If he was acquitted, or if he conquered, the accuser was hanged on his own confession ; if convict ed or vanquished, the accuser was pardoned, as for service done to the state. Sir Matthew Hale denounced this practice, and it fell into disuse, although by various statutes now re pealed the indemnity, and even the reward of approvers, w T as long maintained. A party in jured by a felony, his widow or heirs, might also appeal the offender for the price of blood, and subsequently for the purpose of punish ment. This was distinct from a crown prose cution. The appellee, the person accused, could then demand his wager of battle, which the accuser, if a peer, a citizen of London, the widow, a priest, an infant, or person above 60, might decline. The appellant might also de cline to fight if the evidence which he adduced raised a very violent presumption of the guilt of the appellee. The combat commenced by the appellee throwing down his glove, which was lifted by the appellant, whereupon each party affirmed categorically by an oath the truth of the accusation and denial, concluding, "and this I will prove against thee by my body." Thereupon the parties must proceed to fight, with club and buckler, in the presence of the court, from sunrise to the appearance of the stars in the evening. If the appellant was van quished, the appellee was acquitted, and had his action against the appellant, who was there upon declared infamous; if the appellee was vanquished, he was hanged forthwith. The last occasion on which the appeal of felony and wager of battle w r ere resorted to in England APPENZELL APPETITE 597 was no longer ago than the year 1818, when j the defendant was charged on such an appeal I with the rape and murder of the appellant s i sister. The appellee waged his battle, where upon the appellant claimed that the evidence which he ottered of the guilt of the accused j was so conclusive as to exempt him, the appel lant from the necessity of lighting. But the judges decided that the evidence was insuffi- j cient to sustain the claim, though they offered to consider the point whether the wager of j battle had not been waived by the form of the I pleadings. But the appeal was withdrawn, and ! the accused was thereupon discharged. In the j next year, 59 George III., the wager of battle ! was abolished by parliament. The case here j referred to (Ashford v. Thornton) is reported j at great length in 1 Barnewall and Alderson s j Reports, p. 405, where, in the elaborate argu- j ments of counsel and in the opinions of the judges, will be found interesting matter upon \ this now obsolete topic of the law. APPENZELL, a ^ T . E. canton of Switzerland, entirely surrounded by the canton of St. Gall ; j area, 163 sq. in. ; pop. in 1870, 60,639. The surface is irregular and hilly, but there are no j considerable mountains, except the picturesque range of the Sentis on the southern border. Offshoots of the Alps form parts of the eastern j and western boundaries of the canton. The ! principal stream is the Sitter, a tributary of i the Thur. Since 1597 the canton has been divided, by an agreement of the inhabitants, into two independent half-cantons, each con- j taining a certain number of Rhoden (a Swiss word for communes or parishes). The north ern and Protestant division, called Outar , Rhodes (Ausaerrhoden), contains about 100 sq. in. and 48,726 inhabitants, who carry on a j considerable commerce, and manufacture cot- ; ton, linen, and silks, their silk-weaving and silk embroidery being among the most beauti ful work of the kind in Europe. The southern and Roman Catholic division, called Inner Rhodes (Innerrhoden), contains about 52 sq. m. j and 11,913 inhabitants, who devote themselves | almost entirely to raising cattle, making but- i ter and cheese, and other pastoral industries. Outer Rhodes sends two members to the fed eral council, and Inner Rhodes one. The capital of Inner Rhodes is Appenzell, a scattered vil lage 6 m. S. by E. of St. Gall ; of Outer Rhodes, j Trogen. The inhabitants of both divisions are intelligent and quick of wit to a degree that has given them a celebrity throughout Switzer land ; their habits are simple ; they are fond of athletic exercises, and are excellent wrestlers and marksmen. The canton belonged in the 8th century to the Helvetian dominions of the Frankish kings, and shared their fortunes, un- ! til in 1292 it was placed by Adolphus of Nassau under the control of the abbey of St. Gall, which had been founded in 720, and had al ways exercised great authority in its affairs. In consequence of the oppressions of the abbots, & rebellion broke out in 1401, and was renewed at intervals for 50 years, finally resulting in the independence of the people. In 1452 the district joined seven other cantons for the sake of greater safety, and in 1513 it was re ceived as a canton of the Swiss confederation. It derived its name from the monastery of Ab- batis Cella, established by the monks of the abbey of St. Gall. APPERLEY, Charles James, an English sporting writer, born in Denbighshire in 1777, died in London, May 19, 1843. After serving for a short time in a cavalry regiment, he began contributing under the name of " Nimrod " a series of articles to "The Sporting Magazine," which through his contributions soon doubled its circulation. The proprietor paid him a handsome annual salary and kept a stud of hunters for his use. His habits were expen sive, however, and after the death of this lib eral publisher, Mr. Pittman, the new owners of the magazine brought suit to recover moneys advanced; and to escape them "Nimrod "in 1830 established himself in a chateau near Ca lais. At the request of Lockhart he wrote for "The Quarterly Review " in 1827 some excel lent papers, which were afterward collected under the title of "The Chase, the Turf, and the Road." Among his other works are: "Hunting Reminiscences," "Life of a Sports man," "Nimrod Abroad," "Remarks on the Choice of Horses," and "Treatise on the Horse and Hound." His method of summering horses without throwing them out of condition is now generally adopted in England for hunters. It consists in feeding them on green food, in large loose boxes, on clay floors, their shoes being taken off, and their systems lowered by gentle alteratives, instead of the old method of turning them out to grass. APPERT, Benjamin Nicolas Marie, a French philanthropist, born in Paris in 1797. At the age of 18 he formed the idea of establishing schools for mutual instruction in the depart ment of Le Nord, and applied the principle in the following year to military organizations, with such success that Marshal Gouvion St. Cyr, minister of war, in 1818 appointed him professor of a normal school for officers and non-commissioned officers in Paris. Within three months 163 of these schools, with 20,000 pupils, were in full operation, and in the course of two years 100,000 soldiers had reaped the benefits of them. In 1822 he was imprisoned on a charge of favoring the escape of two po litical convicts. After his release he devoted several years to the improvement of the condi tion of prisons, and published a monthly Journal des prisons (1825- 30). After the revolution of 1830 he became the queen s almoner and secretary general of the society of Christian morality. He was the author of several works on bagnios, prisons, criminals, and prison edu cation, and a series of Voyages in various Euro pean countries for examination of their prisons. APPETITE (Lat. appetere, to desire or seek earnestly), in physiology, the natural desire and 98 APPIAN APPLE relish for nutritious food. The desire for food returns, in man and animals, with a certain degree of regularity, at periodical intervals. This is owing to the continuous alteration and waste of the ingredients of the animal tissues < and fluids by the active powers of life, and is ! an indication that the time has arrived for the j ingestion of food to reestablish the equilibrium between nourishment and disintegration, and | thus maintain the integrity of the vital powers. The healthy appetite, in persons taking a prop er amount of exercise, is the best guide for determining the frequency with which food should be taken, as well as for its quantity, and j the kind of food consumed. If not satisfied | within a reasonable time, the appetite becomes | at first imperative and distressing, and is then > apt to fail altogether ; so that the desire for j food disappears until the next recurrence of its j habitual period of return. A morbid appetite, j or a craving for food in unnatural quantity or of \ unnatural character, is sometimes a well marked i symptom of disease. APPIiX (I. at. Appiamis), a Greek historian j of the 2d century, born at Alexandria in Egypt. ! He removed to Rome in the reign of Trajan, \ and continued there under Hadrian and An toninus Pius, lie was by profession an advo cate, and at Kome filled the office of procura tor, and had charge of the imperial treasury. He wrote a Roman history in 24 books. Elev en books of this history, together with some j fragments, have come down to us. His style is unaffected, and his work, though disfigured by blunders, is highly important as a repertory of information. The best edition of his remains is that of Schweighauser (3 vols. 8vo, Leipsic, 1785). APPIAM, Andrea, an Italian painter, born at Bosisio, near Milan, in 1754, died in 1817 or 1818. His best works are frescoes in the palace at Milan and the cupola of Santa Maria di San Celso. " Apollo and the Muses " in the Villa Bonaparte is also an admirable specimen of his style. Napoleon and most of the members of the imperial family sat to him for their por traits. An attack of apoplexy in 181-3 ren dered him so helpless that he was obliged to sell his drawings and other valuables, and he died in poverty. APPIAJVO, the name of an Italian family which ruled over Pisa and Piombino from the 14th to the 17th century. I. Jat opo I., the founder of ; the family, died Sept. 5, 1398. Having at- | tached himself to the Ghibelline party, he con- | spired with Galeazzo Visconti, sovereign of Milan, excited in 1892 a commotion in the streets of Pisa, during which he effected the massacre of the chief magistrate, Pietro Gambacorti, and his two sons, and in the midst of the popular consternation assumed the title of sovereign of Pisa. II. Gherardo, son and successor of the preceding, sold Pisa to Visconti, duke of Milan, for 200,000 fiorins, reserving to himself only the sovereignty of Piombino and the isle of Elba, whither he withdrew in 1399. Ilis descen dants of the male line preserved for two cen turies the principality of Piombino, after which it was surrendered in 1031 by the emperor Ferdinand II. to Philip IV. of Spain. III. Ja- copo III., ruler of Piombino, died in 1474. A conspiracy against him, aided by Galeazzo Maria Sforza, duke of Milan, proved unsuccess ful, but Jacopo was obliged to place himself under the protection of Ferdinand, king of Naples. He consented to receive a Neapoli tan garrison in Piombino, and in return was permitted to join to his own name that of Aragona. IV. Jacopo IV., son of the preceding, sovereign of Piombino, died in 1511. lie mar^ ried a daughter of the king of Naples, and took a command in the army directed by that prince and by Sixtus IV. against Lorenzo dc 1 Medici. He was taken prisoner by the Florentines and obliged to pay a ransom for his liberty. In 1501 Caesar Borgia took possession of Piom bino, but Jacopo was restored by an insurrec tion of the people. APPIAN WAY (Lat. Via Appia}, a celebrated road which with its branches connected Rome with all parts of southern Italy. The main road was laid out as far as Capua by Appius Claudius Csecus (312-307 B. C.), and was sub sequently continued to Brundusium. It was remarkable for its substantial pavement of large and well fitting blocks, and was the most picturesque of all the approaches to Rome. Numerous magnificent sepulchres lined the road, the most memorable of which were those of Calatinus and the Scipios. Lntil about 20 years ago, the greater part of the road be yond the tomb of Caacilia Metella, or between the 3d and llth milestones, was hardly dis tinguishable from the surrounding campagna, excepting by the ruins of sepulchres; but ex cavations in 1850- 53, extending over the Ap- pian way from its beginning -at the Capena gate as far as the ancient site of Bovilla3, have reopened an interesting part of the road. Ca- nina, who carried out this work under the auspices of the papal government, describes these discoveries in La prima parte della Via, Appia dalla porta Capena a Bomlle ( 2 vols., Rome, 1851- 3). The restoration of the an cient road is called the Via Appia Nova, and passes in a straight line through Albano until it reaches the viaduct, completed in 1853, which spans a deep ravine between Albano and Aric- cia. The railway from Rome to Naples crosses the Appian way near the llth milestone. APPIUS CLAIMI S. See CLAL-DH-S. APPLE, the fruit of pyrm mains, of the natural order rosacecp. Although the apple is mentioned in the Bible, and by Theophras- tus, Herodotus, and other ancient writers, it is probable that other fruits were desig nated by that name. Even now the word apple is used to designate a fleshy fruit, as the love-apple (tomato), pine-apple, rose-apple (myrtaccce). The derivation of the word is curious. Anglo-Saxon apl (German, Apfel), one of the few names of our common fruits APPLE ;oo "he Appian AVay. (See p. 538.) not derived from the Latin or French, is, ac cording to Dr. Prior, of common origin with the Zend and Sanskrit ab or ap, water, and l/hala, fruit. The Latin jjomum, from the root po, to drink, would also signify " a watery fruit." Whatever he the parent country of the apple, it was doubtless of eastern origin. Pliny mentions the crab and wild apples as small and sour, so sour " as to take the edge from off a knife ; " but some, he says, are re markable for their * tine flavor and the pun gency of their smell." Many varieties were cultivated about Rome, and they usually bore the names of those who originated them or grafted them. More than 20 sorts are men tioned by Pliny, but none of these, if in exist ence now, can be identified from his brief and imperfect description. Probably the Romans introduced the apple into England as well as ; the pear, but the early chronicles are silent as | to its subsequent history in that country until ! after the establishment of Christianity, when j the monks and heads of religious houses plant ed orchards, and henceforth the fruit became common. The early settlers of America brought apple trees, and an island in Boston | harbor where they were planted still bears ; their name. The Indians helped to spread the fruit through the country, and "Indian or chards" are common throughout Xe\v England. Whether in the wild state or cultivated, the apple is by no means a handsome tree. The stem is slow-growing, low-branching, with rigid, irregular branches, in many varieties pendent to the ground ; the bark after the tree has passed its early youth becomes rough and scaly ; the diameter of the head is usually greater than its height, which seldom exceeds 30 feet ; the leaves are broad, tough, and rigid, those of sweet-fruited trees being usually of a darker green ; the blossoms are generally tinged with red and are sweet-scented ; the .fruit is more or less depressed at the insertion of the peduncle; woody threads (10) pass through the fruit, being regularly disposed around the 25 carpels, which contain two seeds each. The apple tree is very tenacious of life, many specimens bearing fruit in this country at an age of nearly 200 years, and the best artificial varieties last from 50 to 80 years. Various species of the genus pyrus grow spon taneously in Europe; the P. main* is found as far north as 60 in western Russia. In the United States, the P. coronaria or American crab apple is abundant in the middle states and southward ; it is about 20 feet high, and the blossoms, which appear in May and are large, rose-colored, and sweet-scented, are followed by a greenish-yellow fragrant fruit about an inch in diameter. The apple does not grow well in warm climates, and although cultivated in China and India, it is only in the cooler and mountainous parts that it lives long, and the fruit is less abundant and inferior in quality. In the Hawaiian islands the apple trees planted some years ago seem, to have entirely changed their habit of growth, and send up long, verti cal, almost branchless shoots. Wherever the apple occurs in its truly wild state, it is usually armed with thorns while young. Xew and choice varieties of apples are obtained by planting seed, as about one in 10,000 of the resulting trees will prove better than the origi nal, and a desirable kind once obtained may be continued by grafting or budding. In cul ture deep limestone lands are the best, as indi cated by the analysis of apple wood and bark by Prof. Emmons, who found in 100 parts of 600 APPLE the ashes of sap wood 16 parts potash, 18 lime, 17 phosphate of lime ; in 100 parts of the ashes of bark, 4 parts potash, 51 lime. The young trees should be planted in holes of considerable size and depth, setting the tree at the same depth it was in the nursery, taking care to re place none of the barren subsoil, and covering the surface of the ground with a mulching to re tain water or liquid manure, which may then be applied without danger of caking the earth about the rootlets. The distance between trees should be from 25 to 40 feet, according to variety, some spreading much more than others. Usu ally in New England the trees are planted too closely; and the system of lining the stone walls with these trees has much to commend it, as the walls retain moisture and also allow the leaves and snow to drift and accumulate at their sides, thus supplying needed nourish ment to the trees ; and, moreover, as the rocks wear away they replace the potash in the soil, or, if it be a limestone rock, the limestone which the tree so much needs. Apple trees will not grow well in wet soil, nor where the sod sur rounds them ; the ground should be stirred up about the trees and well manured with plaster or animal manures, as indicated by the soil, for several years after planting. Alkaline washes on the trunk will preserve the even green bark until the tree is 10 or 15 years old. The rich soils of the western states yield apples of unequalled size, but the flavor is inferior to those produced on eastern limestone soils, or where the proportion of vegetable matter in the soil is less and that of the red oxide of iron greater. Dwarf apple trees are sometimes cul tivated for hedges or ornament, and the Chi nese raise the tree in pots. Many varieties grafted on the wild crab do well and are dwarfed; but in Europe the favorite stock for dwarfing is the French paradise apple, a natu rally small tree, or the English doiizain. In England and France the trees are trained on walls, as espaliers and balloon-shaped, to insure ripening; but in the United States no such precaution ig necessary. Of ornamental blos soming apple trees, the common crab and the double-flowered Siberian crab, both red and white, are much cultivated. The wood of the apple tree in its wild state is fine-grained, hard, and of a light brown color ; and, in exception to the general rule, the cultivated wood is of a still finer and closer grain, weighing in the proportion of about 66 to 45 of the wild wood. In a green state the wood weighs from 48 to 66 Ibs. per cubic foot, and it loses in drying about a tenth of its weight and from an eighth to a twelfth of its bulk. It is much used by j turners and for the manufacture of shoe lasts, j cogs for wheels, and some kinds of furniture ; stained black and polished, it passes for ebony; -, and the wood of the roots is cut into thin sheets or veneers for interior decorations. The apple as an article of food is probably unsurpassed except by the banana for its agreeable and nu tritive properties. Unlike most tropical fruits, it requires no training to become acceptable to the palate, and, whether baked, boiled, made into jellies, or preserved with cider in the Sha ker apple sauce or apple butter, is popular everywhere. The exportation of New England ice was accompanied by the exportation of I New England apples, which are better suited I for this purpose than western ones; and at the i ice ports of China and India American apples | are to be purchased in as fine a condition as in our own markets. American apples always com mand a good price in England. Every farmer | cuts and dries a supply of apples for use in the late spring and early summer, and immense quantities of apples are pared and cut by ma- i chinery, and slowly dried in ovens or in the | sun, furnishing an important article of trade. The flavor is much injured by long exposure to j the sun. When properly prepared, dried ap ples will remain good for five or six years if kept in a dry place ; and for use it is only ne cessary to soak them in water a short time previous to boiling. Crab apples make the best jelly, and are also much used for a sweet pickle. The raisine compose of the French is ; made by boiling apples in must or new wine. By I mixing the juice with water and sugar a light fruit wine is obtained. Cider in the United States has never acquired much celebrity from the care of its manufacture, as it has usually been made from the refuse of the orchard. That made from wild apples or seedlings is much the best. In England, in the counties of j Herefordshire, AVorcestershire, and Devonshire, much cider is made of superior quality. (See CIDEE.) To these uses of the apple it may be added that a mixture of apple pulp and lard j was the original pomatum. The orchard prod- i ucts of the United States (mostly apples) are stated in the census returns for 1870 to be j worth $47,335,18!). More than a million acres are under cultivation as orchards, but many ; more acres of hilly land might be used profit ably for this purpose, where no other fruit j would grow well. In New England the crop ! is apt to be irregular, and some years the abun- ! dance is so great that the fruit will not pay for i picking and sending to market, and is used for | cider or to feed swine. The apple tree is not subject to disease, and years ago the fruit was perfectly fair and uninjured by worm or cater- I pillar in New England, as still in Oregon and the West; but now the borer (xaperdd Invitta- ta) attacks the stem, perforating it a little above the ground ; the woolly aphis attacks the tender shoots; the caterpillar (clixiocampa Americana) ; builds its cobweb nests and devours the leaves ; the canker-worm (anisopteryx vernata) also devours all foliage ; the apple moth (carpocapsa pometarid) lays its egg at the edge of the calyx, and the larva when hatched enters the fruit ; and the bark louse (coccus) attacks the bark. The borer may be destroyed, as well as the bark louse and aphis, by potash washes (li Ibs. of potash to 2 gallons of water), if applied when the egg is unhatched ; but after APPLES OF SODOM APPLETON GC1 the borer has entered the stem it may be killed I by thrusting a wire into the hole. The apple i moth is destroyed by feeding all the fallen up- j pies to swine, thus preventing the larvae from i entering the earth, where they undergo their : transformations. The caterpillar comes from eggs laid in the fall on the smaller twigs, encir- j cling them, and, as the whole community col lects in the nest, may be burned by torches on ; poles thrust among the branches. The canker- worm is not so easily managed, from the vast number of its armies. As the females are wing- i less, they may be prevented from ascending the stem to lay their eggs, when they issue from ; the chrysalis in the ground at the base of the tree, by tar or any viscid substance that will entrap them, and by digging around the trees in the fall and exposing the pupaa to the weather. The varieties of apple suitable for growth in different parts of the United States have been made the subject of many experi ments by the best pomologists ; and the national pomological society, founded in 1850 by the i late A. J. Downing and others, has published the results. To these reports and to the pub- lications of local societies cultivators are re ferred for the best kinds for orchards in their vicinity. For general cultivation, the Williams s | favorite, a large red apple, the Porter, New- j town pippin, early bough, red Astrakhan, and j Gravenstein are recommended for fall use; : while for winter the Baldwin, Rhode Island greening, Danvers winter-sweet, fameuse, Hub- \ bardston nonesuch, northern spy, Spitzenberg, minister, Vandevere, and Roxbury russet offer ! a variety both for cooking and dessert. Some of these, however, do not flourish in Xew Eng land ; others do not bear well in the western states. For exportation the Baldwin, Rhode Island greening, Xewtown pippin, Spitzenberg, and Swaar are most in demand. In the Bos- j ton market native apples command a higher ] price than western ones, although the latter are usually larger and fairer. Apples are com- i monly brought to market in barrels which weigh about 150 )bs. ; and Pliny says that this was | one of the two fruits known in his time that | could be preserved in casks. On the western coast, however, apples are always marketed in | boxes somewhat smaller than standard orange boxes, holding about a bushel. APPLES OF SODOM, a fruit supposed to grow j near the Dead sea, fair to the sight, but when j plucked dissolving into smoke and ashes. A general opinion, supported by Hasselquist, is ; that the "apples of Sodom" are to be found ; in the fruit of the solarium melongena (night- ! shade), which he describes as tilled with dust j or ashes; or at least, when punctured by a certain insect, as it frequently is, the whole , interior of the fruit is converted into a fine dust, leaving the rind entire in form and color, j Robinson, in his "Biblical Researches," iden- i tifies the apple of Sodom with the asclejiias gigantea rel procera. The Arabs call it other. \ It is found on the shores of the Dead sea, and Robinson says that seeing the two (the osher and the nightshade) growing side by side, the former struck him at once from its agreement with the ancient story, while the latter did not. He describes the osher as from 10 to 15 feet high, having a grayish cork-like bark, oval leaves, flowers similar to the silkweed of the northern United States, and as discharging like that plant a milky fluid when broken. The fruit resembles an orange in size and color, but, when even very carefully touched, explodes like a bladder or puff-ball, leaving in the hands only a rind and a few filaments by which the interior was traversed. APPLETON, a city of Wisconsin, capital of Outagamie county, situated on an eminence overlooking Fox river, 30 m. from its mouth, and 5 m. is", of Lake Winnebago, and on the Wisconsin division of the Chicago and North western railroad, 214 m. from Chicago; pop. in 1870, 4,518. The rapids known as the Grand Chute have here a descent of about 30 feet in a distance of 1-J- m. The city is the seat of Lawrence university, a Methodist institution, established in 1847, which in 1871 had 9 in structors, 185 male and 87 female students, and a library of 6,000 volumes. APPLETON, Daniel, the founder of the pub lishing house of D. Appleton and company, in Xew York, born in Haverhill, Mass., Dec. 10, 1785, died March 27, 1849. He commenced business as a retail trader in his native place. He afterward removed to a larger business field in Boston, and subsequently to Xew York. In the latter place he commenced the importation of English books, and in the course of years, by his energy of character, established one of the largest importing and publishing houses in the United States, which is now continued by his sons. APPLETON, Jesse, D.D., president of Bow- doin college, born in Xew Ipswich. X. II., Xov. 17, 1772, died in Brunswick, Me., Xov. 12, 1819. He graduated at Dartmouth col lege in 1792, was licensed to preach in 1795, and in February, 1797, was ordained the pastor of a church in Hampton, X. II., where he re mained 10 years. From 1807 till his death he was president of Bowdoin college. In addi tion to the duties appertaining to his office of president, he was often called upon to preach in the neighboring towns, besides which he preached before the Bible, missionary, and peace societies of Maine, the American board of foreign missions, the Massachusetts legisla ture, and numerous other public bodies. lie was the father-in-law of the late president Franklin Pierce. Two volumes of his sermons, lectures, and addresses have been published. APPLETON, Nathan, an American merchant and political economist, born in Xew Ipswich, X. II., Oct. 6, 1779, died in Boston, July 14, 1861. In 1813 he was associated with Francis C. Lowell and Patrick T. Jackson in establish ing at Wai th am near Boston a cotton mill, in which was set up the first power loom ever G02 APPLETW APPONYI used in the United States. In 1821 he became one of the founders of the Merrimack manu facturing company, from which originated the city of Lowell ; and he was the projector and chief proprietor of the Hamilton company. lie was distinguished as n steady advocate of the protective system. In 1815 he entered the legislature, and was several times re- elected. In 1830 he was chosen a represen tative in congress from Boston, and during the first session opposed McDuffie s report on the tariff, in a speech characterized by Mr. Webster as "a model of close reasoning on an abstruse subject." In 1842 he was again elected to congress, and aided in securing the passage of the protective tariff bill of that year; but after the close of a single session lie resigned his seat. His little treatise entitled "Remarks on Currency and Banking" (en larged edition, 1857), has been pronounced " almost worthy of being studied in the schools as an elementary manual." He also published an account of the introduction of the power loom and the origin of the city of Lowell. He accumulated a large estate, and was noted for his integrity and philanthropy. APPLETON, Samuel, an American merchant and philanthropist, brother and partner of the preceding, born in Now Ipswich, N. II., June 22, 1700, died in Boston, July 12, 1853. His opportunities for study were confined to the dis trict schools, and at the age of 17 he became himself a teacher. In 1794 he established himself in trade in Boston. He was for many years a heavy importer of English goods, and at a later period largely engaged in the cot ton manufacture. At his death his fortune amounted to nearly $1,000,000, and he had given away nearly as much as that during his lifetime. He endowed the academy at New Ipswich with a fund which secured its perma nence, and founded the professorship of natural philosophy of Dartmouth college, with a gift of $10,000. In his old age he became more and more absorbed with a desire to relieve the suf ferings of the poor, and intrusted physicians and others with large sums for that purpose. By his will he placed property to the amount of $200,000 in the hands of his executors, " to be by them applied, disposed of, and distrib uted, for scientific, literary, religious, and chari table purposes." APPLIISli, a S. E. county of Georgia, bounded N. and E. by the Altamaha river, and drained by the affluents of the Santilla; area, 1,060 sq. in. ; pop. in 1870, 5,08(5, of whom 970 were colored. It has railroad communication with Brunswick and Macon. The surface is level and sandy. In 1870 the county produced 63,003 bushels of corn, 39,508 of oats, 38,100 of sweet potatoes, 48,500 Ibs. of rice, 12,509 gallons of molasses, and 152 bales of cotton. Capital, Holmesville. APPOLI), J. George, an English inventor, born in 1799, died at Clifton, Aug. 31, 1804. The paying-out apparatus used in laying submarine ! telegraphs was chiefly his invention. His cen- j trifugal pumps for drainage purposes attracted t much attention at the international exhibitions of 1851 and 1802. In his own house and its surroundings almost everything was automatic, ; doors and shutters opening and closing mechan- ically. He had also secured a monopoly as a : dresser of furs by a secret process. APPOMATTOX, a county of Virginia S. E. of the centre of the state, bounded N. W. by the James river, and drained by the sources of the ! Appomattox; area, 200 sq. in.; pop. in 1870, 8,950, of whom 4,53(5 were colored. The sur face is diversified with ranges of mountains and covered with forests, and the soil is fertile. The county is intersected by the South Side rail road, running from Petersburg to Lynchburg. In 1870 the county produced 33,825 bushels of wheat, 70,708 of corn, (15,858 of oats, and (556,944 Ibs. of tobacco. Capital, Appomattox i Court House, or Clover Hill. APPOMATTOX CGl IiT MOtSF, a Ullage, capi- I tal of Appomattox county, Ya. (locally called ! Clover Hill), 20 in. E. of Lynchburg. On April 9, 1805, Gen. Lee here surrendered the i army of northern Virginia to Gen. Grant. Of this army only 27,805 remained. The rest had been killed and taken prisoners, or had : deserted, during the battles around Richmond, ; and after its evacuation on the 2d. There | were delivered 350 wagons, about 10,000 mus kets, and 30 pieces of artillery. APPOMA1TOX KIYEK rises in Appomattox and Prince Edward s counties, Va., and flows i circuitously E. about 120 in. to the James river at City Point. It has a narrow and deep chan- i nel, and is navigable for vessels of 100 tons to | Petersburg, about 20 m. from its mouth. By ! a canal round the falls at Petersburg, vessels I of four or five tons ascend to Farmville, about J 80 m. further. APPOjVYI, one of the oldest noble families of Hungary, several members of which have ! achieved considerable prominence in the Hun garian or Austrian service, among them the ; following: I. Gyorgy Autal, count, born in 1751, officiated as member of the royal lieutenancy in Buda, and subsequently as lord-lieutenant of the county of Tolna, but chiefly distin- \ guishcd himself as founder of the Apponyi | library, a large and valuable collection, opened to the public in Presburg in 1827, ten years after his death. II. Autai, son of the preced- I ing, born in 1782, was equally remarkable as a patron of literature and art and as a diplomat ist, serving successively, as a representative of | Austria, at the courts of St. James, Rome, and ! Paris. He died in 1852. II!. Rudolf, the son , of the preceding, born in 1812, chose the ca reer of his father, was appointed Austrian min- | ister at Turin in 1849, transferred to London j in 1850, made ambassador there in 1800, and relieved in 1871 by Count Beust, when he was sent by Count Andrassy as ambassador to Oon- j stantinople. IV. Gyorgy, cousin of the preceding and grandson of Gyorgy Antal, born in 1808, APPRAISEMENT APPRENTICE 603 was a conspicuous member of the conserva- | tive party at the diet of Presburg in 1843- 4, j and became Hungarian court chancellor in j 1847. He lived in retirement during and after the revolution of 1848- 9, and accepted in 1859 a position in the wider Reichsrath of Vienna, j where he furthered with great energy and | ability various schemes for the restoration of the constitution of his country. In 1860 he j was madejudex curia, in 1801 opened as royal commissioner the diet of Pesth, and by his me diatory position was in the following years, next > Francis Deak, the most influential person to in bringing about the reconciliation between Hungary and the court of Vienna, which in 1867 culminated in the transformation of the Austrian empire on the basis of nationality and constitutionalism. A leading conservative, Count Apponyi is esteemed by all parties as a patriot and a statesman. APPRAISEMENT (Lat, appretiare, to set a price upon), a valuation of property by persons authorized to make it by the law or by stipula tion between the parties. The three principal kinds of appraisement known to American law are : of the inventoried property of decedents and insolvents; of property taken for public use ; and of real estate seized upon execution. In some states the creditor may enforce a sale of his debtor s lands without a previous ap praisement; in others an appraisement is a ne cessary prerequisite. In some states land once sold on execution is irredeemable by the debt or ; in others he has a right to redeem it with in a reasonable period, six months or a year, ! at the appraised value, with interest. There are states where the creditor has no right to sell upon execution, but may take the property | of his debtor in payment so far as it goes, at | two thirds of the appraised value ; in case of j refusal the levy is discharged, and the creditor must pay costs. APPRENTICE (Fr. apprendre, to learn), a j person bound to service for a term of years, | and receiving in return for such service in- ! struction in his master s business. Apprentice ship had its origin in the system of associated trades which prevailed in almost all parts of Europe in the middle ages. Those only who were free of the fraternity of a trade were al lowed to exercise it; and the usual, if not the indispensable, mode of acquiring this freedom was through an apprenticeship to a member of the body, for a time and under regulations varying in different towns and in different trades in the same town. In some instances the rules designed to limit the numbers of the fraternity were so strict as to prohibit the master from taking any apprentice but his own son. In France, the apprentice, after having served in that capacity from three to eight or ten years, served as a journeyman, called the compagnon of his master, a number of years more, after which he was entitled to admission as a master into the communaute or corps de inarchands, if the chef-d ceuvre which he was required to deliver to the jurande, wardens of the company, showed him to be a proficient in his art. Sons of merchants living with their fathers until they were 17 years old were en titled to the privileges of those who had served their apprenticeship. These companies were abolished at the revolution, but the contract of apprenticeship, although no longer imperative, is still frequently entered into in France, and there are statutes regulating the rights and du ties of the parties to it. In Germany, where the system exists to the present day, in a more or less modified and legally limited form, the term of apprenticeship, Lehrjahre, is generally about seven years, but sometimes less. The apprentice, after serving for the prescribed term, becomes a Gesell, like the French com- pagnon, and is entitled to receive from the guild a general letter of recommendation, armed with which he commences his -travels. Being recognized and employed by his brethren of the same craft, he works his way from town to town, and on returning with certificates of good conduct during his Wanderjahre is en titled to become a master. In Italy the con tract of apprenticeship resembled that in use in England. In Scotland and Ireland the regula tions regarding it were never rigorous, and those existing in the latter country were early superseded by English laws designed to en courage immigration. In the 12th century guilds were formed in England, and shortly afterward, without doubt, apprenticeships came into vogue, although there is no notice of them in the statutes until the year 1388. The London apprentices, many of whom were of high birth or had wealthy masters, formed an important body and figure in history, partic ularly during the time of the civil wars. The term of apprenticeship was fixed at seven years, which had been the ordinary period of service previously, by a statute passed in the reign of ! Elizabeth. The institution became so wide- | spread that acts designed to limit the number of ! apprentices were passed, and the courts showed no favor to the laws which recognized and sup ported the relation, but restricted their opera tion to trades existing at the time of their pas sage ; a doctrine which, while giving rise to some absurd anomalies, exempted most of the large manufacturing towns from the operation of the act of Elizabeth. In 1813 numerous petitions for the repeal pf this statute were presented, and shortly afterward apprenticeship, as a ne cessary means of access to a trade, was abolished. The English law on the subject has been re vised and settled in the master and servant 1 act of 1867 (30 and 31 Victoria, ch. 141); and in almost all our states the contract of ap- j prenticeship is provided for by express statutes, j most of them, at least in the older states, being | of an early date. The statutory law of New I York had been till 1871 very little changed since the original act of 1801. The contract of apprenticeship is made between the master on one side and the infant and usually his par- 604 APPRENTICE ent or guardian on the other. It is commonly in writing and under seal, and is to be regarded like any other contract of that sort. It has been said that at common law the infant is bound by an engagement of this sort, because it is an agreement that certainly must be for his benefit. But it is probable that this is not the rule, and that the infant is not bound by his contract of apprenticeship more than he is by any other of his contracts. The statutory law may however declare that he shall be bound in such a case, and it usually does. It has also been held in the United States, though otherwise in England, that at common law the parent or guardian may bind the minor with out his joining in or assenting to the articles. But the statutes of almost all our states ex pressly require the infant s assent. The long existing statute of New York on the subject may be referred to as fairly illustrating the American law on the subject. By that statute, every male infant and every unmarried female under the age of 18 years may with the con sent of the proper parties bind himself or her self in writing to serve as clerk, apprentice, or servant in any trade, profession, or employ ment, if a male till 21 years of age, and if a female till 18 years of age, or for any shorter term; and such engagement is as binding on the infant as if he or she were of full age. The engagement, however, must be with the consent of the father ; and by a statute of 1862, if the mother be living, it is not valid without her written consent also. But if the father be dead, or incapable of giving his as sent, or have neglected his family, the consent must be given by the mother; or if she be dead, or incapable, or refuse, then by the le gally appointed guardian ; or if there be none, or he be incapable, then by the overseers of the poor or any two justices of the peace of the town where the infant resides. The con sent in either instance must be in writing. The executor of a father s last will, who has been directed to bring up the child to some trade or calling, may also bind the infant to an apprenticeship. Superintendents and over seers of the poor of counties, or overseers of the poor of a town, with the consent of two justices of the peace, or of the mayor, recorder, or an alderman, may also bind out children who are charges on a county, town, or city. By recent statutes idle and truant children may also be bound to apprenticeships by simi lar officers. The age of the infant must be stated in the indentures, and will be taken to be the true age; but public officers authorized to make the contract must inform themselves of the true age fully. Any sum of money agreed to be paid by the master must be men tioned in the articles. If the child is appren ticed by public officers, the indentures must contain an agreement on the part of the mas ter that he will cause the child to be taught reading and writing, and if a male, arithmetic. Any person coming from a foreign country may bind himself to service if an infant, until 21 years of age; and if the agreement is made in order to earn the price of his passage money to this country, it shall not be for a longer term than one year, and in this case the inden ture must be acknowledged by the apprentice on a private examination before the mayor, recorder, alderman, or justice of the peace. An indenture of this sort may be assigned by the master with the consent of either of these officers. No indenture is valid against the ap prentice unless it is made in the manner here prescribed. If the apprentice absent himself from his service, he must serve double time, though not for more than three years beyond the original term. Complaints by the master of the misbehavior of the apprentice are to be heard by certain officers, and the apprentice may be punished by confinement, or in a proper case the officers may discharge the ap prentice from his service, and his master from all obligation to him. The apprentice may also be discharged from service by the same officers on his complaint of ill usage by his master ; and in such a case the master may be bound over to answer in a court of sessions. The law in these respects is substantially the same in Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Ken tucky as in New York. By a recent statute of New York (1869) all institutions for the re ception of minors must, on binding children in their charge to apprenticeships, take bonds to the people, in which the master shall under take to treat the children kindly. By the stat ute of New York passed in 1871, it is provided that it shall not be lawful to take as an ap prentice any minor without first obtaining the consent of his legal guardians ; nor shall any minor be taken as an apprentice unless an in denture be drawn up according to the require ments of the act ; and the indenture mutt be under seal, and signed by the employer, the apprentice, and his parents or parent if liv ing, or if not, then by his legal guardians. The indenture, to be valid, must also contain cer tain covenants and provisions expressly pre scribed by the act. The apprentice shall engage to serve not less than three nor more than five years, and shall also covenant not to leave his master during the term of service. The master must covenant to provide the apprentice prop er board, lodging, and medical attendance; to teach him every branch of the business for which he is indentured; and at the end of the term to give him a certificate in writing stating that he has served his full time. Any person taking an apprentice without complying with these requirements is guilty of a misdemeanor and liable to a fine of $500. No indenture made under the statute shall be cancelled before the expiration of the term except in case of death, or by an order of a court for good cause. If the apprentice leave his employer without his con sent or without good cause, and refuse to re turn, he may be arrested and committed to a jail or house of correction for such term as the APPRENTICE APPvICOT G05 magistrate may think just. If the apprentice | refuse or neglect to perform his part of the contract, the indenture may be cancelled for ; the benefit of the master; and the apprentice ! forfeits all wages then due him. If the master refuses to perform his part of the contract, the parent or guardian may bring an action for lamages against him, and may recover not less than 100 nor more than $1,000, to be paid to the apprentice or to his parent or guardian for his : benefit. In Vermont minors above 14 years of age may be bound as apprentices by their father or guardian, and the consent of the minor must j be attested by his signature to the indentures. ; The law on this point is similar in Rhode j Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, j Missouri, and other states. In Ohio, if the ; guardian binds the infant, the court of common pleas must approve the contract. Among the more important and practical points which have been decided in respect to apprenticeship, it has been held that as the agreement on the part of the master is in the nature of a personal trust, the indenture cannot be assigned by him, at all events not without the infant s consent, or unless, as by the custom of London, such assignment be sanctioned by settled usage. But an assignment without the infant s con sent, though it do not bind him, may hold the master to his own covenants. In some of our states the consent of both father and infant is made essential. The apprentice cannot aban don the service unless his master desert him. Nor is the apprentice s misconduct in general a defence for the master in an action against the latter on his covenants. For though one may dismiss a mere servant for misconduct, a master cannot turn away an apprentice for or dinary misbehavior, such as idleness or drunk enness; but he may discharge him for theft or for any wilful injury. Illness of the apprentice does not discharge the master; and in a recent case in Massachusetts the father recovered full wages for the whole period of the apprentice s last illness and up to the time of his death. The master is also bound to provide proper medicines and care for the apprentice in case of his sickness. If the apprentice run away and go into another person s service, the mas ter is entitled to recover the full value of his labor, without deduction of the wages paid the apprentice by his new employer. The master has also an action for the value of the apprentice s services against any one who en tices him away, or wilfully harbors him after his desertion, with a knowledge of the appren ticeship. Though the master may chastise the minor as a parent may, yet he cannot authorize any one else to inflict the punishment ; and it has been held in New York that whipping the apprentice for absenting himself at a trial where he was required as a witness, was as sault and battery. Where an apprentice was bound to the master and his executors, they carrying on the same business, it was held that the widow, who was executrix and continued the master s business, was bound to instruct the minor, and he was bound to render her service. As the infant is not bound at common law by his covenants, it is usual to take security from some responsible person for the performance of the contract by the apprentice ; and in such a case the surety must be a party to the arti cles. The contract is dissolved by consent of all parties. The death of the master also dis charges the obligation of the apprentice, and so does his bankruptcy or insolvency, or his abandonment of the business in which he agreed to instruct the apprentice. APRAXIN. I. ledor, a Russian grand admi ral, born in 1671, died Nov. 10, 1728. He was one of the leading men of the reign of Peter the Great, and is especially remarkable as the creator of the Russian navy. During the war between Sweden and Russia he expelled the Swedes from Ingria, in 1710 conquered Viborg in Finland, and when war with Turkey broke out, in 1711, he commanded in the Black sea. In 1713 he attacked Finland from the sea, and devastated the shores of Sweden, destroying hundreds of villages, and many towns and iron works. He accompanied Peter in his warlike expedition against Persia, and served on the Caspian sea. He always enjoyed the entire confidence of Peter, though firmly opposed to his reforms, and more than once implicated in extensive malversations. II. fetcfan Fedoroviteh, a relative of the preceding, died Aug. 31, 1758. When young he served in the army of Munnich against the Turks, rose rapidly, and. returning to the court of the empress Elizabeth, distin guished himself by his decided opposition to the policy of the king of Prussia and his diplomatic adherents, including Count Lestocq, the favorite of the empress. At the beginning of the seven years war Apraxin, with the rank of field mar shal, commanded an army against Frederick the Great. In May, 1757, he invaded Prussia, took Memel, advanced into the interior, destroying everything, and on Aug. 30 won the battle of Gross-Jagerndorf against the Prussian general Lehwald. Instead, however, of marching on Berlin, to which capital the road was open, Apraxin retreated to Courland. having, as it is pretended, received news of the sickness of the empress Elizabeth, and having conspired with the grand chancellor Bestusheif to raise to the throne her grandnephew Paul, over the head of his father. Peter III. After the empress re covered, Apraxin was tried by court martial, but died in prison before the trial ended. APRICOT (old Eng. apricock, Fr. alricot, Ger. Aprikose ; probably from Lat. arbor prcecox, early tree), the fruit of primus Armcniaca or Armeniaca vulgaris, of the order rosacece. It is a small, rapidly growing tree, attaining to the height of 20 to 30 feet, with a somewhat spread ing head, the leaves heart-shaped, smooth, and shining. The flowers are usually white and appear before the leaves indeed, blossoming before any other fruit tree in the early spring. The fruit seems to be intermediate between the 606 APRIES APTERYX peach and plum, having the outside of the for mer and the stone of the latter. The tree is a native of Armenia, and also of the Caucasus, Cabool, the Himalayas, China, and Japan, and by cultivation has been introduced throughout the temperate zone. The tree was cultivated by the Romans, and is mentioned by both Pliny and Dioscorides. The Roman generals intro duced it into Gaul and Britain, although the first notice that has been found of its being in England is by Turner, whose " Herbal " was printed in 1562. There it seldom ripens its fruit unless trained against a wall. In Cali fornia vast quantities are raised, of a large size and fair quality, ripening before the peach. In its wild state the fruit is small, of a waxen yellow color, rosy-cheeked, and of a pleasant, slightly acid flavor. It is dried in large quan tities in the East under the name mishmish, and the preserved apricots of Damascus are favorably known to all travellers, and some times imported into the United States. The Apricot Fruit, Flower, and Pit. best varieties are the Moor Park and the Brus sels and Breda, the last two being especially adapted to the confectioner s purposes. The Siberian apricot is cultivated for its foliage and flowers. The chief enemies of this fruit in the United States are a species of curculio, which causes the early dropping of the imma ture fruit ; the black wart, which attacks the branches ; and another fungus which destroys the leaf. Apricots are seldom seen in the New England markets, and they are by no means common in New York. APRIES (Eg. Uahprahct, the sun enlarges his heart), a king of Egypt of the 26th dynasty, the Hophra of the Bible, and the Uaphris of Mane- tho, succeeded his father Psammis (Psamatik II.) about 588 B. C. He invaded Syria, be sieged Sidon, and fought a naval battle w r ith the king of Tyre, but failed in his attempt to save Zedekiah from Nebuchadnezzar, who sub sequently invaded Egypt. Apries was still more unfortunate in a war against Cyreiie, and perished soon after, according to Herodotus, by a revolt of his subjects, who raised Arnasis to the throne (about 509 B. C.). APRIL (Lat. Aprilis), the 4th month of the year, consisting of 30 days. With the Romans it was the 2d month of the year. Julius Caesar added the 30th day to it. In the time of Nero it was called Neroneus. The name is supposed to be derived from nperire, to open, because \ the buds open themselves at this period. In the Athenian calendar, the latter portion of Elaphebolion and the greater part of Muny- ! chion correspond to April. Charlemagne, in : his new calendar, called it grass month, the name still given to it by the Dutch (grasmaand}. The French revolutionary calendar merged it into the greater portion of Germinal and the commencement of Floreal. On antique monu ments Aprilis is represented as a dancing youth I with a rattle in his hand. The custom of send ing people on empty errands on the 1st of April I (hence called All Fools Da.y) is common in | every country of Europe. Oriental scholars say that it is derived from the Jmli feast among | the Hindoos, where a similar custom prevails. Another opinion is that it comes from a cele bration of Christ s being sent about to and | fro between Herod, Pilate, and Caiaphas. Jn ! France the fooled man is called jjoisson (Vavril, meaning a silly fish, easily caught. In Scotland he is called gowk, which means a cuckoo. APTERAL (Gr. d privative and irrepdv, wing), \ an architectural term used particularly with reference to the temples of the ancient Greeks and Romans. It is applied to buildings which have no lateral columns, but may have porti cos of columns projecting from their ends. APTERYX, a struthious bird of New Zealand, 1 called by the natives Tciwi-Tciwi from its pecu- | liar cry. It belongs to the family which con tains the living cassowary, emu, rnooruk, and ostrich, and the extinct tepyornis, dinornis, and dodo. The beak resembles that of a long- billed wader, being slender, with the base covered with a bony cere, the upper mandible : the longer and containing the openings of the nostrils near the tip ; the base of the bill is fur nished with long, slender black bristles, inter mixed with the feathers, and projecting in all directions; the wings are 2 small crooked ap pendages, extending about 1-^ inches from the sides of the chest, and terminated by a curved, obtuse, horn} claw 3 lines long, having 9 quill plumes differing but little from those of the body ; the tail is not apparent ; the tarsi are as long as the middle toe, covered with va riously sized scales, and very robust as in galli naceous birds ; there are 3 anterior toes, free 1 and covered with scales, and a very short hind toe, all armed with strong and rather sharp claws. The plumage is loose as in other ter restrial birds which have no power of flight, re sembling that of the ernu in size, structure, and color, but wanting the accessory plumelet ; the , skin is very tough, a line thick along the back, APTERYX APULIA cor and there is a large amount of fat between it and the muscles, especially on the back, abdo men, and root of neck ; the head is broad and but slightly depressed. The genus apteryx was established by Shaw in 1812 from a stuffed skin, and was at that time supposed to have be come extinct like the dodo; but in 1833- 8 other specimens arrived, which are described by Mr. Yarrell in vol. i. of the " Transactions of the Zoological Society of London," and by Prof. Owen in vols. ii. and iii. of the same work. Apteryx australis. Three species are described. A. australis (Shaw) is about 30 inches long from tip of bill to end of toes, 19 inches to end of coccyx, and weighs about 3J- Ibs. ; the bill varies in length from 4-|- to fi inches, the longest belonging to the fe males, another anomaly in this bird ; the bill is 1 inch wide at the gape and T lines high ; the color is grayish brown, darkest on the back. A. Mantclli (Bartlett), described in 1850, is about 23 inches long, with a bill of 4 inches ; the color is dark rufous brown, darkest on the back. A. Oiceni (Gould), described in 1847, is the largest species, and is said to be about 3 feet high ; the upper parts are trans versely barred with blackish brown and ful vous, and the plumage is exceedingly dense and hair-like, resembling more the covering of a mammal than a bird ; the bill is an inch short er, more slender, and curved ; the wings are exceedingly rudimentary. The large size of the unhatched young, and the possession within the egg of the remarkable characters of feet, wings, and beak of the adult, show that the young apteryx must be able to pro vide for itself very soon if not immediately after leaving the egg. The bill of the apteryx is moderately strong, as the bird is said to be in the habit of resting the head upon it against the ground, and to thrust it into the soil in search of food ; it is struthious in structure, and grallatorial only in its length and slenderness. There is no trace of extension of air cells, as in birds of flight, into the interspaces of the abdominal viscera, and the diaphragm is well developed and pierced only for the O3sophagus and ves sels ; the lungs are bird-like, and also the or gans of circulation, except in the more mem branous character of the right auriculo-ven- tricular valve; the larynx and trachea are struthious. The bones are not perforated for the admission of air. These birds are found in New Zealand, particularly in regions covered with extensive and thick beds of ferns, in which they hide when alarmed. They are nocturnal in their habits, feeding upon snails, insects, worms, and the large soft-bodied lepi- dopterous larva ; they run swiftly and defend themselves vigorously with the feet. The nest is made either at the base of a hollow tree or in deep holes which they excavate in the ground. The natives pursue them for their skins, which from their strength are highly valued for making dresses. Though a living specimen has been seen at the zoological gar dens in London, the apteryx is probably nearly extinct ; the aapyornis is supposed to be extinct, though some believe that it may yet exist in Madagascar ; the dodo has been lost within the memory of man; and the dinornis doubtless antedated the historic period. API LEHS, or Appnleias, a Roman satirist, born at Medaura in Africa about A. D. 130. By his mother he was a descendant of Plutarch. After studying at Carthage, he began to travel for the purpose of learning philosophy and re ligion. Coming to Rome, he was obliged to sell his clothes in order to obtain the sum necessary for his initiation into the service of Osiris. He soon repaired his fortune by mar riage with a rich widow in Africa, whose rela tions instituted legal proceedings against him, alleging that he had used magic to win her property and aifections. But in his defence Apuleius satisfied the judges that a widow of 14 years standing needed not the constraint of magic in taking a husband younger than her self. The most celebrated of the numerous works of Apuleius is the " Metamorphoses, or the Golden Ass," a philosophical romance, written, according to Warburton, to ridicule Christianity. But the more probable design of the author was to show, under the guise of allegory, that a voluptuous life leads to besti ality, from which a man can be lifted only by cultivating virtue and religion. The .justly famous tale of Cupid and Psyche forms an epi sode in this work. His writings on ethics and metaphysics are a good epitome of the works of Plato ; but the development of that philos opher s more profound doctrines was reserved for subsequent inquirers. The best edition of Apuleius is by llildebrand (Leipsic, 1842). An English version appeared in London in 1853. " The Golden Ass " has also been trans lated by T. Taylor (London, 1822) and Sir G. Head (London, 1851). APULIA, a division of ancient Italy, com prising nearly all that territory now included in the provinces of Capitanata and Terra di Bari, near the S. E. extremity of the peninsula, bounded by the Adriatic, Messapia or Calabria (Terra d Otranto), the gulf of Tarentum, Luca- nia, and Samnium. At a remote period the Greeks called the whole southeastern part of Italy, including both these divisions and other 608 APUEE AQUA TOFANA territory, by the name of Japygia, after Japyx, j the son of Daedalus. This district was inlmb- ited by three tribes, the Messapians or Salentini in Messapia, the Peucetii in the region near ; the Autidus (Ofanto), and the Daunians further north. The Romans, however, ignoring these divisions, called all the region, except Messapia, Apulia. The Apulians first appear in history as concluding in 826 B. C. a treaty of alliance with Rome against the Samnites, which they soon after repudiated, thus becoming involved in war with the Romans. In 317 all the Apu- lian cities submitted to Rome. It was the chief theatre of the most important part of the . second Punic war, and the battle of Cannae was ; fought within its borders in 210. Many Apu- ; lian cities made common cause with Hannibal, j but \vere severely punished on their recapture ! by Romans. A great portion of Apulia again turned against Rome in the social war, but was resubjugated and harshly punished by C. Cosconius in 89. The province appears to have suffered so severely from the conflicts carried on within it, that from this time it de clined in wealth and prosperity; and little is said of it rntil its union, under Augustus, with Calabria (in the ancient meaning of the term) and the territory of the Hirpini, the three form ing the "second region " in that emperor s di vision of Italy. The Hirpini were afterward transferred into the lk first region," Calabria and Apulia forming one province, down to the fall of the western empire. The Byzantine em perors regained control of it in the 10th cen tury, after its possession had been long an object of contention between the Lombards, Saracens, and themselves, and held it under a viceroy called a catapan until it was conquered by the Normans in the llth century, who made it a duchy, Robert Guiscard, their lead er, becoming its first duke. His son Roger united it, as well as Campania and modern Ca labria, with his kingdom of Sicily. The modern name of part of the territory, Capitanata, is a corruption of Catapanata, from catapan. The principal cities of ancient Apulia were Teanum, Luceria, Arpi, Salapia, Canusiam, Venusia, and i Barium. The district is by the Italians called | Puglia, but not officially. APIRE, a river of Venezuela, has its sources | in Colombia, in the eastern chain of the Andes, flows between the provinces of Varinas and Apure in an E. N. E. direction, receiving the waters of the Portuguesa, Guarico, and other affluents from the north, flows then E. S. E., and unites with the Orinoco, of which it is an impor tant tributary, in lat. 7 40 N., Ion. 66 45 TV. According to Ilumboldt, its mean descent is about 14 inches to the mile; but the current in the lower part of its course is hardly percepti ble, and any rise in the waters of the Orinoco causes it to overflow its banks. The lands thus overflowed yield, after the water has retired, a rich and excellent pasturage. APURIMAC, a river of Peru, which rises in lat. 15 21 E., Ion. 72 10 TV., not far from the sources of the river Camana, in a lake sit uated between spurs of the mountains of Cay- lloma. It flows N. for a short distance, then N. N. TV. for about 165 m., receiving several other streams, to its junction with the Man- taro in lat. 12 S., and from that point is known as the Tambo as well as the Apurimac. Hence it flows first X. E., then N. N. TV. for more than four degrees of latitude nearly parallel with the Urubamba, and they unite and form the Ucayale in lat, 8 80 S., Ion. 78 24 TV. The Apurimac and the Urubamba collect the moist ure of the high plateau of the interior of Peru, and are among the largest tributaries of the Amazon, the former being sometimes reckoned its source. AQl A (Lat. water), a favorite prefix of the old alchemists to various fluid mixtures, as aquafortis, now called nitric acid; aqua regia, the mixture of nitric and muriatic acids, used to dissolve gold, the king of the metals, now called^ nitro-muriatic acid, or nitro-chlorhydric acid; aqua vita 1 , now alcohol. Aquamarine is an old name given to a fine variety of beryls from the color resembling the green of sea water. The aquae of the pharmacopoeia con sist of water holding volatile or gaseous sub stances in solution. Those* which receive a name from some volatile vegetable substance, as aqua cinnamomi or aqua campliorw, contain very much less of the active ingredient than the corresponding tinctures. AQl A TOFAA A (Ital. acqua della Toffanina), a secret poison employed in Italy during the lat ter part of the 17th century, and said to have been invented by a woman named Tofana, a native of Sicily, who lived for a time in Paler mo, and subsequently in Naples, where she ex ercised her criminal art on a large scale. Her customers are said to have been chiefly young wives who wished to be rid of their husbands ; and when the number of mysterious deaths about the year 1659 at last aroused suspicion, a secret society of young married women was discovered, presided over by a creature called La Spara, who had learned the art of poisoning from Tofana. La Spara and several others were executed. Tofana was thrown into prison, but the date and manner of her death are uncertain. According to Labat, a French traveller, about 1709 she was seized in a convent in which she had taken refuge, and having, on being tortured, confessed 600 poisonings, she was strangled in prison. On the other hand, Keysler, a German traveller, says he saw her in prison at Naples, a little old woman, in 1730. The poison was put up in small phials, labelled " Manna of St. Nicholas of Ban," with an image of the saint on one side. Incredi ble and contradictory accounts are given of its nature and effects ; it is most probable that it was essentially a strong watery solution of arsenic obtained by long boiling. The use of such an article, even in the dose of five or six drops, frequently repeated for a length of time, would cause death with many of the symptoms ascribed to the aqua Tofana. AQUARIANS AQUARIUM AQUARIANS, or llydroparastatae, a sect of ascetics in the early Christian church who, from scruples against the use of wine, were in the habit of consecrating water for sacra mental purposes. It was founded in the 2d century by Tatian, a disciple of Justin Martyr. AQUARIUM) or Aquavivarinm, a term applied to certain artificial arrangements for the exhibi tion and study of living animals and plants in habiting either fresh or salt water. To Mrs. Pon r er, a lady of French descent, belongs the credit of first" adopting the aquarium as an aid to scientific research. This intelligent and en thusiastic naturalist, during the year 1832, be gan the study of the fishes and algte off the coast of Sicily, by transferring them to glass tanks in which the water was often renewed ; and this renewal or revivification of the water was long regarded as essential to the health and vigorous growth of the inmates, it being argued that as the air is contaminated by the breathing of animals living upon the surface, and its oxygen is combined with the carbon furnished by the organic body, so the air con tained in the water is consumed by administer ing to animal life, and the gaseous product is not only unfit for longer sustaining this, but, unless removed, proves fatal to it. But subse quent investigations into the various phenom ena of vegetable and animal growth have de termined that it is the office of plants to re store to the atmosphere the oxygen, and ab sorb the excess of carbon ; and it appears that the subaqueous vegetation fulfils the same office in preserving the purity of the air in the water, upon which depends the life of the ani mals it contains; and that this balance may not be destroyed by the presence of poisonous gases, the results of decomposition and decay, it was found needful to add certain animals which feed on decomposing vegetable matter, and act as the scavengers in this community. Such are the various species of the molluscous ani mals, as the snails. It is also of importance to guard against the preponderance of animal life in these artificial tanks or jars; for although there can hardly be too many plants for the health of the animals, as long as they grow healthily and do not decompose, yet an ex cess of animals over plants will disturb the bal ance, and lead to the destruction of the for mer. Valisneria spiralis, various species of cha-ra, anacharis alsinastrum, stratiotes aloides, callitriche autumnalis or vernalis, ranuncu lus aquatilis, and myriophyllum spicatum are among the fresh-water plants adapted to this purpose. The fresh-water aquarium is more easily constructed and requires less skilful management than the marine tank. It should be square or hexagonal, as curved surfaces dis tort the forms of the inmates, and a greater number of sides increases the liability to leak age. Where metal corner posts are used, they should be plated if possible, as the oxidation of the metal often results disastrously. The glass plates should be held in position by hy- VOL. i. 39 draulic cement ; that known as Scott s is highly recommended. Where putty only is available, it should be painted, the tank filled with water for a week or more, and then carefully cleaned before receiving the fishes and plants. The bottom should be covered to a depth of an inch or more with well washed river sand, and its surface thickly strewn with pebbles; clay or mould should be avoided, both because of the vegetable germs it may contain, and because its frequent disturbance by the fish renders the water turbid. The use of tastefully arranged rockwork adds greatly to the beauty ; but rocks containing metallic substances should be re jected ; and where shells are used, they should first be well soaked or calcined in order to destroy all organic matter contained in them. In constructing these arches or columns Port land cement may be used to advantage, and some point of the structure should project above the water level. Thus arranged, the tank, which should be at least 12 inches deep, may be filled with fresh spring or river water to within an inch of the top, and it is then ready for occupation. Such fresh- water plants as the lutomus, nymphcea, and alisma, should Fresh-Water Tank. have their fibrous roots extended and gently imbedded in the sand, with a layer of pebbles to keep them in position. All river plants that bud and root from points on the stem, as ana charis, ranunculus, callitriche, and chara, can be raised by securing them in tufts to the sandy bottom by a light layer of pebbles. There are certain plants which, in addition to beauty of structure and vigorous growth, are of great service as oxygen producers ; such are the va- lisneria spiralis, water thyme (anacnaris al sinastrum), with the flowering water crowfoot (ranunculus aquatilis), milfoil, and starwort. Though the stocking of the aquarium depends largely upon the purpose it is to serve, yet cau tion is needed as to tl)e number and habits of the inmates. A young pickerel only an inch and a half long has been known to devour 25 minnows in a week. For general interest, the stickleback takes the lead among the fishes, and for beauty the gold fish, tench, gudgeon, perch, minnow, and Prussian carp all flourish, with snails and mussels as purifiers. Where the proper balance is not easily maintained CIO AQUARIUM and the renewal of the water is difficult, it may he revivified by dipping out and pouring hack in a small stream from a proper height. As in the marine tank, an excess of sunlight is apt to encourage the growth of a minute green fungus, besides unduly elevating the tempera ture, which should range between 40 and 60 F. The marine tank, owing to its greater range, and the extreme sensitiveness of its ani mals and plants, requires more constant and careful management. As a rule it should be more shallow. To secure this, and also obtain suffi cient depth of water for fish and hardy plants, a tank having its back and two ends opaque has been successfully adopted, in which case these may be of the same material as the bed plate- marble, slate, or well seasoned wood. The front is of glass, and the bottom an inclined plane rising from the lower corner in front Marino Tank, Side View. to above the water level behind; on this rest the rock and shell work. The triangular space ; between the front and this plane may be filled j to the depth of an inch or two with sand and I gravel, with a sprinkling of the same among the rocks and shells above. The purpose of this | sloping floor is to afford the anemones, actinia, &c., which move seldom and slowly, to ap- : proach the surface and recede from it at pleas ure. Marine plants purify sea water, as fresh water plants purify fresh water. The difficul ties of maintaining the balance are, however, ; greater in sea-water artificial tanks than in I fresh-water ; but by care in selecting seaweeds, i avoiding those which are large and throw oft* ! much matter from their surface, and not over crowding the water with animal life, tanks | containing marine aquatic animals and plants ! can be easily managed. Species of po-rpl\yra, \ cliondrus, crispus, iridea edulis, and the deles- serm are recommended. Where vegetation is only needed for the production of oxygen, Mr. Shirley Hibberd, the author of a useful hand book on the aquarium, recommends the en couragement of confervoid growth ; and where sea water is used, the germs contained in it will soon, under the light and warmth of the sun, develop into a vigorous and serviceable vegetation. This, together with certain ani malcules that, contrary to rule, are also oxy gen producers, will be all that is needed to preserve the desired balance. The absence of direct sunlight and the presence of the fiucci- num or sea snail both serve to keep in check that fungous or mucous growth which would otherwise obstruct the vision. The fishes and crustaceous and molluscous animals should be introduced by degrees, with proper regard to maintaining the due balance of vegetable and animal life. Those which appear to thrive best are minnows, sticklebacks, shrimps, small lobsters, hermit crabs, eels, and star fishes. The patella or limpet, purpura or whelk, the top, the winkle, and several varieties of crepi- dula also do well. The more delicate sea plants, with the various forms of actiniae, should be secured if possible attached to their native bed, as removal from it is hazardous. The best position for either tank is between or at the side of windows, so as to avoid the direct rays of the sun. Marine animals and plants are extremely sensitive to atmospheric changes, and the salt water, which should not vary far from 60 F., should also have a specific gravity of T028 at this temperature. As in the fresh-water aquarium, regard must be paid to the habits and tastes of the inmates, lest the stronger overcome the weaker. All save the fishes may be best transported in damp sea weed, care being taken to pack securely and transfer rapidly. Where sea water cannot be obtained, a mixture of common salt 81 parts, Epsom salts 7 parts, chloride of magnesium 1 1.) parts, and chloride of potassium 2 parts, may be dissolved in pure water until its gravity reaches 1-028 at 60 F. The animals should be fed twice a week with finely cut fresh mus sels, oysters, or raw beef; and in case of the mollusks, actiniae, &c., the food should be brought within reach by means of a small glass rod. Decayed vegetation or putrid ani mal matter must be quickly removed. When the supply of oxygen is limited, the fishes will approach the surface often to breathe. The first aquarium having for its aim the instruc tion of the people was erected in the gardens of the zoological society, Regent s park, Lon don, in 1853. It was made up of 25 glass tanks, 6 feet in length and 30 inches in depth and width, lining the interior of a crystal building 60 by 25 feet. The success of this effort prompted the crystal palace aquarium company to erect their building, which was opened to the public Aug. 22, 1871, at Syden- ham. This mammoth aquarium with its ad juncts is nearly 400 feet long and 70 broad. AQUEDUCT Gil It is situated at the northern end of the palace, and is one story high, with a reservoir beneath the main saloon containing 80,000 gallons of sea water, and the tanks above 20,000 gallons in all, 100,000 gallons, weigh ing 1,000,000 Ibs. Eighteen tanks with plate- glass fronts range along the left of the grand saloon, separated from the wall by a narrow passage, and a row of 21 shallow tanks, the inmates of which are held as a reserve force. To the right are two small rooms with 9 shal low tanks each, in which the view is from above only ; here the light is better suited to the growth of the sensitive rhodosperms (red algra). The 18 large tanks range in capacity from 4,000 gallons in the centre to 400 on the ends of the line. The water is elevated from the main reservoir through double sets of vul canized rubber pipes, and discharged into the two central tanks at an average rate of 6,000 gallons an hour, the stream diverging north and south and passing through the main line into the reserve and side tanks, and thence returning to the reservoir. Independently, however, of the simple fall of water from one tank to another in steps of from 3 to 6 inches in height in the series 1 to 18, other streams of water, mixed with great quantities of air in minute bubbles, are driven from the main pipe into all the tanks with force, through jets ; so that myriads of such bubbles, controlled by stopcocks, are forced in a state of fine division (resembling falling sand, or steam) nearly or quite down to the bottom of each tank, and thus the fluid is charged with as much atmos pheric air as it will take up in open vessels. The quantity of seaweed necessary to decom pose the poisonous carbonic acid gas evolved from the animals, which could not be effected by mechanical agitation, is grown upon the rocks of the aquarium by the action of light on the spores of algre existing invisibly in the water. ] These tanks contain at present 95 distinct i forms of marine life. A description of this I work appeared in "Nature," vol. iv., p. 4(59. | There are extensive aquaria in the principal j continental cities of Europe, those of Naples, \ Brussels, and Berlin being the largest. For in structions as to the management of the aqua rium, Gosse s "Handbook of the Marine Aqua rium" (London, 1854), and Hibberd s "Book of the Aquarium" (London, 1850), are safe and serviceable guides. See also Rossmass- ler s Das Siisswasseraquarium (Leipsic, 1851). AQl EDUCT (Lat. aquw, of water, and ductus, a channel; formerly spelled aquceduct), a chan nel for the conveyance of water, or, in the more general acceptation of the word, a structure raised above the surface, upon which water conduits are laid. Methods of supplying water which do not include such structures are com monly called water works. The use of these conveyances for water to supply cities may be traced back to a very remote period in Persia and in Judea. The "pools of Solomon," near Bethlehem, were three large reservoirs con nected with each other, from which water was conveyed to Jerusalem, 6 m. distant. One of these pools was 582 ft. long, and, at an aver- ! age, about 180 wide. Jerusalem is still sup- plied with water from them through a 10-inch earthen pipe. In Egypt and Babylonia simi- lar works were constructed in very early ages. Enough remains of the ancient aqueduct of Carthage to show that it was one of the most remarkable of these great works; upon it the I waters from the mountains of Zeugis were con- i veyed through an arched conduit 6 ft. wide Kuins of the Aqueduct of Carthage. AQUEDUCT and 4 ft. deep. The whole length was 70 m. The ruin here illustrated is that of an arcade near Undena, composed of 1,000 arches, many of which were over 100 ft. in height. In its construction hydraulic cement was largely used, which is at present so solid that a single piece over 100 feet in length has fallen from the top without being broken. The ancient city of Mexico was supplied with water by the aqueduct of Chapultepec, built by Mon- tezuma, and carried across the lake upon a causeway. But no aqueducts, ancient or mod ern, equal in length or in expense of labor those constructed by the incas of Peru. To irrigate their sterile soil, they brought water from the reservoirs of the mountains several hundred miles off. The aqueducts passed along the pre cipitous sides of the Andes, penetrating some by tunnels worked through the solid rock with out iron tools, and crossing chasms upon walls and arches of solid masonry. The conduit was constructed of large slabs of freestone, which were closely fitted together without cement. The works have long since fallen to ruins. The Romans, however, exceeded all other na tions, ancient and modern, in the construction of these works. A treatise De Aquceductibus UrMs Romce was written by the consul Sextus Julius Frontinus, who had the direction of the aqueducts under the emperor Nerva. He re fers to nine different aqueducts, which brought into the city daily 28,000,000 cubic feet of pure water. The number of these was afterward increased to 24, some of which had several channels placed one above another, and extend ing many miles. They were built on a grade of regular descent, winding around the hills or penetrating them by tunnels, and in the low Euins of the Aqua Claudia. levels supported on arches, which sometimes, as in the New Anio, extended for 6 m. in one continued series, many of the arches more than 100 ft. high. The whole length of this aque duct was over 63 miles. The Aqua Marti a, which extended 38 miles, contained nearly 7,000 arches. The conduits were constructed in brick or in stonework laid in cement. There were numerous openings for ventilation and cisterns for collecting the sediment, in conse quence of which the water was very pure. The Aqua Julia and Aqua Tepula were conveyed into the city upon the same structure, though at a higher level. The Aqua Claudia took its rise 38 m. from Rome, and approached it by a circuitous route, being led under ground 36^- m. and along Y in. of cut stone arcades of sufficient height to supply the hills of Rome. The capacity of all the aqueducts was wonderful in proportion to the population. Strabo said that whole rivers flowed through the streets of Rome. It is esti mated that 50,000,000 cubic feet of water must have been supplied daily to a population of 1,000,000, or about 312 imperial gallons to each individual. This is about ten times the supply from the three aqueducts at present in use. The Romans built other aqueducts also in their provinces, some of which exceeded in grandeur those which supplied the capital. That of Metis (Metz) in Belgic Gaul is among the most remark able. Extending across the valley of the Mo selle, it conveyed the waters of the river Gorse to the city in such quantity that from it basins were filled in which mock naval engagements took place. The ruins of this great work still remain. There may also be cited the aqueducts of the island of Mitylene, of Antioch, of Sego via in Spain, and of Constantinople. The aqueduct of Antioch was supplied from Beit el- Ma, 6 in. distant. The illustration given is that AQUEDUCT 013 of a portion of one of the main bridges, TOO ft. long and 200 ft. high. Though solidly built, it is yet the rudest example of Roman work, and Aqueduct of Antioch. contrasts strangely with the bridge of the aque duct of Nimes, or Pont du Gard, across which t .ie waters of the river Hure were led. This -liltre spanned the valley of the river Gard not compelled to do so from ignorance of other methods. Prof. Leslie obtained a lead pipe supposed to have been used at the baths of Caracalla ; and Delorme states that the waters from Mount Pila crossed three valleys through i inverted syphons. The water was collected in a reservoir upon one hill arid conduct ed through nine lead pipes 8^ in. in diam eter and 1 T ^ in. thick down the hillside, thence along an arcade 80 ft. high, and up the opposite slope, where it was discharged into a second reservoir. It is estimated that the lead alone used in these three inverted syphons would now be worth $2,500,000. In modern aqueducts the system of gradual descent is only partially followed, the use of cast-iron pipes ad mitting of frequent changes in the inclination. In the reign of Louis XIV. an aqueduct of vast expense was constructed for supplying Ver sailles with water. The bridge of Maintenon, built for supporting this aqueduct, is about 4,400 ft, or I of a mile long, upward of 200 ft. high, i and is constructed of three tiers of arches, 242 I in each tier, and of a span of 50 ft. The aque- i duct for supplying Marseilles is a canal 60 m. ! long. It passes through several chains of lime- ! stone mountains by 45 tunnels, the united length ! of which is 8^- m., and across a ravine 5 m. | from Aix by a structure of masonry 262 ft. high ! and 1,287 ft. long. The quantity of water that ! flows through it is 198,000 gallons per minute. The Lisbon aqueduct, completed in 1738, is about 3 leagues in length, and in some parts of its course has been excavated through hills ; bnt near the city it is carried over a deep valley for a length of 2,400 ft. by several bold arches, the largest of which has a height of 250 ft. and a span of 115 ft. The Croton aqueduct of New York surpasses all modern constructions of this I- oiu du Gard, -Mmes. by a triple TOW of arches, the first six having a span of 60 ft. each; above these were 12 simi- i-ir ones ; while the upper row was composed of 36 smaller arches arranged as in the illustra tion, the whole forming one of the finest exam ples of Roman architecture. In 1740 the en gineer Pitot built a roadway beside this aque duct and level with its lowest tier of arches. The aqueduct of Spoleto is of uncertain origin. One of the bridges is 810 ft. long, and the main arches are 240 ft. high. This work remains entire. Though the Romans con structed their aqueducts so as to obtain a gradual descent, it is evident that they were Croton Aqueduct, crossing Mill liiver. kind in extent and magnificence. It was com pleted in 1842, having been five years in build ing, under the superintendence of Mr. John B. Jervis, chief engineer. The whole expense, AQUEDUCT including $1,800,000 for distributing pipes, and amounts paid for right of way and other incidental charges, was $10,375,000. Includ ing commissions and interest, the whole cost was $12,500,000. The whole length, from its source at Croton river to the distributing reser voir on 5th avenue and 40th street, is 40^ m. On this line are 16 tunnels having an aggregate length of 6,841 ft., and cut mainly through gneiss rock. A large part of the open cutting is also rock work. A dam constructed across the Croton river raised the water 40 feet, and formed the Croton lake, which covers about 400 acres. This is the collecting reservoir, and contains with a depth of 6 ft, of water 500,000,- 000 gallons. A new collecting reservoir is (1873) in course of construction at Boyd s Cor ners, Putnam county, to be formed by building across the west branch of the Croton river a dam 700 ft. long and of sufficient height to se cure a storage capacity of 3,000,000,000 gal lons, flooding over 300 acres of land. From Eock Tunnel Main Aqueduct. the dam to the Harlem river, nearly 33 m., the aqueduct is built of stone, brick, and cement, arched over and under, G ft. 9 in. wide at the bottom (this being the chord of an arc, the versed sine of which is 9 in.), 7 ft. 5 in. at the springing line of the arch, and 8 ft. 5^- in, high; area of cross section, 53^ sq. ft. In rock tunnels the roofing arch is dispensed with, though the bottom and sides are as here de scribed and illustrated. Its capacity is equal to 115,000,000 gallons daily. The inclination is 1-1088 ft. per mile, or 33 92 ft. ip the 33 m. The velocity of the water is 1| m. an hour. Across Harlem river the aqueduct is carried upon the High bridge in two cast-iron pipes of 3 ft. diameter, and one w rough t-iron pipe 7 ft. 6 in. in diameter, recently laid over the former. The lower pipes are 12 29 ft. lower than the bottom of the conduit on the 1ST. side of the river, and 10 ft. below the aqueduct on the S. side. While the bridge was building, the water was conveyed in a 3-foot iron pipe down one bank of the river and up the other, and the original intention was to have had this for the permanent plan. Objections being raised that the pipe would obstruct the navi gation of the river, and restrictions being im posed by the state legislature as to its use, it was finally decided to build a bridge with arches 80 ft, wide and openings 100 ft. high, to admit the passage of vessels. The bridge, as now completed, is 1,460 ft. long, with 8 arches in the river of the required span, and 7 others on the banks of 50 ft, span. The whole height of the bridge above high-water mark is 116 ft. There are two receiving reservoirs in the Central Park, known as the old and the new. The former covers an area of 35 acres and has a capacity of 500,000 gallons ; the latter 100 acres, with a capacity of 1,170,000 gallons. From these reservoirs to the distributing reservoir, a distance of 2 m., or directly into the city, the water is conveyed in two lines of iron pipe 30 in., two lines 36 in., and one line 48 in. in High Bridge, Harlem Kiver. AQUEDUCT diameter. The capacity of this distributing reservoir is 20,000,000 gallons. It is a stone structure 45 ft. high above the streets, and 425 ft. square at the top, covering a little more than four acres. The higher sections of the island lying north of Manhattan valley are supplied from a reservoir and tower lately erected on the high ground near 173d street, between 10th avenue and the aqueduct. The water for the supply of this high service res ervoir and the adjacent tower tank is fur nished by two pumping engines stationed near the lower end of the high bridge. (See WA TER WORKS.) In 1871 the average daily de mand was 85,000,000 gallons, which is taken mainly from the distributing reservoir and conveyed through the city in 340 m. of iron pipe ranging in diameter from 4 ft. to 4 in. The cities of Brooklyn and Jersey City re ceive their water supply, the former from sev eral ponds from 8 to 14 m. distant, and the latter from the Passaic river, 8 m. distant. In both cases the water enters the city upon such a level as to require the use of pumping engines for its distribution. For the plan and capacity of these engines, as also of those in operation at the famous Falrmount. water works, Phil adelphia, see WATER WORKS. The aqueduct which supplies the city of Boston leads from Cochituate lake to the receiving reservoir at Brookline, a distance of 14 m. For the greater part of the way it is a conduit of brick mason ry. Over the valley of Charles river is a line of iron mains, and in Newton and Brookline are two tunnels. The brick conduit winds by ir regular curves along the country, and is of such an elevation as admits of the work being most ly beneath the natural surface. The brick work is 8 in. thick, laid in hydraulic ce ment, the section of the conduit being that of an egg, the larger end down. The greatest Cochituate Aqueduct. width is 5 ft. and the extreme internal height 6 ft. 4 in. This aqueduct is everywhere cov ered by at least 4 ft. of earth, and nowhere ad mits of a passage underneath, except by cul verts at the crossing of Charles river and at a bridge over a valley in Needham. The two 30-inch iron pipes cross the river upon a stone bridge at a level 71 ft. above low-water mark. The whole length of each pipe is 979 ft. The tunnels are in porphyritic rock of great hardness, one 2,410 and the other 1,150 ft. in length. The city of Washington is sup- i plied with water through an aqueduct con structed by the national government, 18 m. long, leading from the Potomac falls to the , receiving reservoir at Chain Bridge. On the line of this work are 11 tunnels and 6 bridges; 1 the chief of these, over Cabin John creek, is a stone structure 100 ft. high and having a single span of 220 ft. The whole cost of the work 1 exceeded $3,000,000. The Chicago lake tunnel, through which the waters of Lake Michigan ; are led into that city, was commenced March 17, 1864, and completed under the supervision of city engineer E. F. Chesborough, March i 8, 1867. (See TUNNEL.) Though the Crotori aqueduct is at present the greatest work of its j kind in the United States, others have been 1 projected which, if brought to successful com pletion, will far surpass it. Among these is ; the plan of supplying the city of San Francisco : from Lake Tahoe, a mountain reservoir of great depth and purity, located upon the boundary : line between California and Nevada, and dis- I tant from San Francisco about 150 m. It is : also now proposed to construct an aqueduct from Lake George to the city of New York, a distance of over 200 m., the conduit to i be of sufficient size to supply the many cities I and villages along the route. In addition to | the structures mentioned above, there are nu- I merous bridges designed for the conveyance of I canals across rivers and valleys. The first of j these canal aqueducts built in England was i constructed by the architect Brindley, under ; the supervision of the duke of Bridgewater. i Upon it the Lancaster canal crossed the river \ Lune. It was composed of 5 arches of 72 ft. ! span each, with an average height of 65 ft. above the level of the river. The Forth and j Clyde canal crosses the valley of Kelvin upon 1 an arcade somewhat higher, though of not so great length as that across the Lime. The Pont-y-Cysyllte aqueduct conveys the waters of the Ellesmere canal across the vale of Llan- gollen In Wales. This bridge is 1,000 ft. long, built w r ith 19 arches, each having a span of 45 ft. The canal level is 126 ft, above that of the river below. In the United States there are many structures of this character, those on the Erie canal alone numbering 32. The chief of these are the two crossing the Mohawk river, the Richmond aqueduct over the Seneca river, and the stone arcade across the Genesee at Rochester. The larger of the two Mohawk bridges, crossing the river at a point 14 m. N. W. of Albany, consists of a wooden trunk resting upon 29 stone piers ; it is 1,300 ft. long, and cost $331,000. The Richmond aqueduct is a beau tiful stone structure 894 ft. long, the water being also conveyed in a wooden trunk. For beauty and strength, however, the aqueduct bridge across the Genesee river at Rochester deserves special mention. It is a solid stone structure 920 ft. long, supported upon 6 cut stone arches of 52 ft. span. It is in the centre of the city, and was erected at a cost to the GIG AQUILA AQUITANIA state of $500,000. At Pittsburgh, Pa., the Penn sylvania canal is conveyed across the Alleghany river upon a wire suspension aqueduct, having 7 spans of 160 ft. each from pier to pier. AQUILA, a fortified city of Italy, capital of the province of Abruzzo Ulteriore II., on the Aterno, 56 m. N. E. of Rome ; pop. about 12,000. It was built by the emperor Fred erick II. in 1240, from the ruins of the ancient Amiternum, the birthplace of Sallust. It was much reduced by earthquakes in 1688, 1703, and 1706. It has a large number of churches and monastic houses. AQUILA, Raspar, a German reformer, who thus Latinized his name ABLER, born in Augsburg, Aug. 7, 1488, died in Saalfeld, Nov. 12, 1560. He studied theology in Ger many and Italy, became chaplain of Franz von Sickingen, and in 1519 was imprisoned by the bishop of Augsburg for preaching and writing in favor of Lutheranism, and was re leased only on the interposition of the queen of Denmark. He passed several years in Wit tenberg as a preacher and teacher, and in assisting in Luther s translation of the Bible. His publications against the Interim, Christ- lie ft es Bedenken anf das Interim and Das In terim ilium inirt (154S- 9), caused the emperor to offer a high price for his capture. AQUILEIA, a village of the Austrian Coast- land, circle of Gorz, a few miles from the Adriatic and from the Italian frontier. It oc cupies a portion of the site of ancient Aqui- leia, a city founded about 182 B. C. by the Ro mans at the E. extremity of Transpadane Gaul, as a defence against the northern barbarians; or possibly somewhat earlier by the Gauls, in which case, however, it soon fell into the hands of Rome. It is said to have derived its name from aquila, an eagle, which appeared as a favorite omen to its founders. It was a powerful military post in the time of Cassar. In Strabo s time it was the great emporium of Roman trade with Rha3tia, Noricum, Panno- nia, Istria, and Dalmatia, roads running from the town into those countries. Maximin laid siege to Aquileia, but, failing in the attempt to take the place, he was slain by his own soldiers, A. I). 238. In 452 it was taken by Attila, and razed to the ground ; its inhabitants fled to the lagoons on which Venice now stands. It was afterward retaken from the Huns by Nur ses and partly rebuilt. It was an important episcopal see, and several councils were held there. The bishops of Aquileia assumed in the 6th century the title of patriarch, and for sev eral centuries carried on a contest with the popes, who in opposition to Aquileia estab lished the patriarchate of Grado. The patri archate of Aquileia was not abolished till 1751. In the middle ages the place gradually dwindled down to a state of entire insignificance. AQUINAS, Thomas, a saint and doctor of the Latin church, surnamed the Angelic Doctor, born according to some authorities at Aquino in the kingdom of Naples in 1224, according to | others at Belcastro in 1220, died at the Cister- | cian abbey of Fossa Nuova, in the Pontine I marshes, March 7, 1274. His father was count | of Aquino, and allied both by blood and mar riage with several of the royal families of Eu rope. At an early age he was intrusted to the care of the Benedictines at Monte Casino, i and thence he was transferred to the university of Naples. From the first he showed an in clination to the monastic life, and in 1243 he- received the habit of the Dominicans. Ills relatives were opposed to this proceeding and imprisoned him in a tower of his father s castle, | whence, by the help of one of his sisters whom he had converted, he escaped, and was allowed to resume in peace his convent life. In com pany with the general of the Dominican order, lie went to Cologne, where he became a pr.p:l of Albertus Magnus. The nickname of Dumb j Ox, which his fellow students gave him fr> m his size and silence, gave occasion to his master one day to exclaim w r hen the promptness and acuteness of his answers had astonished them all, " This dumb ox will give such a bellow in learning as all the world shall hear." In 1248 Thomas was appointed to teach ethics at Co logne; and four years later, he was teaching theology at Paris. His school was thronged with students, and crowds waited upon Lis preaching. In 1261 he was recalled by Urban IV. to Italy, and became a constant attendant and friend of this most active of popes, teach ing in the more important places of central and southern Italy, particularly in Naples, Rome, Bologna, and Pisa. He was on his way to the council at Lyons, to sustain the cause of the Latin against the Greek church, when he was seized with his fatal illness. Less than 50 years afterward, in 1323, he was canonized, and the day of his death was appointed as the day of his festival. He is ranked with the four great doctors of the western church. The works of St. Thomas have always had high authority, and large use is still made of them in Catholic theological study. They form 17, 19, and 20 folio volumes, in the various edi tions from 1490 to 1745. The three volumes of the Summa, Theologian may be regarded as the most finished compend of scholastic divinity. See " Life and Labors of S. Thomas of Aquinas," by Roger Bede Vaughan (2 vols., London, 1872). AQUITAJVIA, the southwestern division of ancienfe Gaul, situated between the Garonne, the Pyrenees, and the bay of Biscay. It was the smallest of the earlier divisions of Gaul, and Augustus, in order to equalize it in some measure with the other two, extended its fron tier to the Loire. The language, institutions, and physical conformation of the Aquitani were different from those of the other inhabi tants of Gaul, and proclaimed their affinity with the Iberian tribes of the Spanish penin sula. Aquitania, or Aquitaine, was an indepen dent duchy under the Merovingian and Carlo- vingian dynasties, though Charlemagne reduced AKABELLA STUART ARABIA 617 it to temporary subordination. By the mar riage of Louis VII. with Eleanor of Aquitaine, it became united to the French monarchy in 1137; but 15 years later the same princess, having been divorced from Louis, married Henry Plantagenet (afterward Henry II. of England), and transferred the possession of Aquitaine to her new husband. The title to the duchy was disputed by England and France for many years, but Charles VII. finally re united it to the French crown in 145:3. In the 13th or 14th century the name became cor rupted into Guienne. (See GUIENXE.) ARABELLA STIART. See STUART. ARABESQUE, a kind of ornamentation, either sculptured or painted, which was at first a characteristic of Moorish architecture, but has in modern times been largely used in decora tions of every style. It consists of fantastic combinations of flowers, fruits, branches of almost any graceful and beautiful objects which \/ may be intertwined with one another in a variety of forms, or in constant repetitions of a single pattern. The Alhambra, as the best preserved specimen of Moorish architecture, is particularly rich in arabesques, and those here illustrated are taken from its walls. Raphael | employed arabesques in the ornamentation of j the Vatican, and of late years Kaulbach has ! often used them in fresco painting; while in the ordinary decoration of rooms and buildings they have become one of the most common ! methods of embellishment. ARABtiift, Arabghcer, or Arabkir, a town of Asia Minor, in the eyalet and 102 m. E. S. E. j of Sivas, on the caravan road from Aleppo to Trebizond; pop. about 30,000, one fourth of whom are Armenians, and the rest Turks and | Turcomans. The prosperity of the to\vn is due to the caravan trade and to the cotton in dustry of the Armenians. Fruit trees sur- ! round the town, especially the white mulberry, I whose fruit is eaten fresh and also used for making brandy and sweetmeats. Wheat is successfully cultivated, and iron ore abounds in I the surrounding highlands. ARABIA (by the Arabs called Jeziret el-Arab, the island or peninsula of the Arabs), a penin sula forming the S. "W. extremity of Asia, be tween lat. 12 40 and 34 K, and Ion. 32 30 and GO E., bounded N. by Palestine, the Syrian desert, and the Euphrates, E. by the Euphrates, Persian gulf, and gulf of Oman. S. by the Indian ocean and the straits of Bab-el- Mandeb, and W. by the Red sea, the gulf of Suez, and northern Egypt. It is about 1,500 m. in length from near Anah on the Euphrates to the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, and 900 in breadth from Suez to Bassorah. The S. coast is 1,200 m. long. Area estimated at somewhat more than 1,000,000 sq. m. Its northern limits can hardly be denned with ac curacy, owing to the fact that the vast arid deserts of Syria and Arabia blend into each other without any distinct landmarks. Burck- hardt represents the boundary as extending from the shores of the Mediterranean near El- Arish along the southern border of Palestine and the Dead sea, thence winding across the Syrian desert to Palmyra, and crossing in a straight line to the Euphrates at Anah. The ancient geographers divided Arabia into three parts. Arabia Petraea or the Rocky occupied the mountainous tract between Palestine and the Red sea; Arabia Deserta or the Desert extended eastward and southward from Pe- traea to the Euphrates and the Persian gulf, comprising the great desert ; and Arabia Felix or the Happy occupied the shores of the Red sea and the Indian ocean. These divisions, however, have always been unknown to the inhabitants themselves. The modern divisions are: 1. The Bahr el-Tur Sinah or Sinaitic peninsula of Petermann, the El-IIadjr of Von Hammer, comprising the small peninsula be tween the Mediterranean and the two northern arms of the Red sea, and corresponding very nearly to the Arabia Petraea of Ptolemy. 2. Hedjaz, or the land of pilgrimage, commencing S. of the above, extending along the Red sea to the parallel of 19, and bounded E. by the great central desert. It is a barren dis trict, consisting of sandy plains toward the coast and rocky hills in the interior ; the inhab itants depend for a livelihood mainly on the gains from Moslem pilgrims. Some places, as Wady Fatimeh and Taif, are well watered and produce grain and vegetables. The chief com mercial ports and cities are Jiddah and Yembo, and the two sacred cities of Mecca and Medina are also in this division. The viceroy of Egypt is nominally the ruler of this territory, but the Beled el-Haram or holy land proper, including the two sacred cities, is under the peculiar jurisdiction of the sherif of Mecca. The Howei- tat Arabs, a fierce and dangerous tribe, control the coast from the 25th parallel northward. 3. Yemen, occupying the remainder of the Red sea coast, and forming part of Arabia Felix. It comprises the finest and most fertile portion of the peninsula. Toward the sea the soil is scorched and barren, but the interior is a high- 018 ARABIA land country, of precipitous though fertile hills, and a healthy climate. Its extent is about 30,000 sq. m., and it is governed by several petty sovereigns or chiefs. Its principal towns are Sana, Mocha, and Loheia, and it is in this province that the celebrated Mocha coffee is raised. The stronghold and port of Aden, an Asiatic Gibraltar, now belonging to Great Britain, is in this district. Tbe Tehama is a sandy belt extending along the Red sea nearly from Akaba to Aden, and stretching backward to the mountains, varying in breadth from 30 to 60 miles. It bears many marks of having anciently formed part of the bed of the sea, and various marine fossils are to be found in the soil. As the sea gradually recedes and leaves the coral banks exposed, these are soon filled up by the sands. This tract is of no service to man; it contains vast strata of salt, and the sandy soil is wholly incapable of cultivation. 4. Hadramaut, forming the great southern por tion of Arabia. It extends along the Indian ocean from Ion. 45 to 54 30 , and stretches far into the interior. The mountains on the coast, brown and bare, rise in several ranges behind each other to the height of 1,000 or 1,500 feet, intersected by well watered and fruitful vales. Beyond is the Dahna or great sandy desert, which covers the greater portion of central Arabia. Hadramaut contains about 20 towns ; its harbors are Makalla, Dafar, Merbat, and Hasek. The inhabitants are a thriving and commercial people, and the country was for merly famous for producing frankincense. 5. Oman, occupying the tract lying between the Persian gulf and the Indian ocean, and having for its western boundaries the district of Ha dramaut and the great central desert. It is a very mountainous region, and toward the sea presents the same appearance as Hadramaut. It is divided among several petty chiefs, the most powerful and enlightened of whom is the imam of Muscat, as he is called by English and Americans, but whose proper title is sultan of Oman. His efforts to extend the commerce of his country with foreign nations have given him considerable reputation. He claims the greater part of the seacoast. Be tween Oman and Hasa is a tract called Me- nasir and the cape of Katar. This portion is dreary, sun-scorched, and nearly destitute of vegetation. The bay of Bahr el-Banat, on which it borders, contains the best and most copious pearl fisheries in the Persian gulf, and is a source of considerable wealth to the inhab itants. 6. El-Hasa or Ahsa, extending along the W. coast of the Persian gulf, between Ka tar and Irak Arab, and the Euphrates. It is partly mountainous and partly level. This dis trict is subject to occasional shocks of earth quake, and almost all the springs are warm with a slightly sulphurous taste, and the rocks are of tufa and basalt. A bath was built at one of these hot sulphur springs and frequented by invalids for many years; but when the country fell into the hands of the Wahabees, they destroyed it from superstitious motives. The products of Hasa are fine wool, cotton, rice, wheat, dates, sugar cane, and almost all the leguminous plants. Cloaks, shawls, gold lace, swords, and daggers are manufactured here. The chief towns are Hofhuf and Katif. The Wahabee chieftains have greatly reduced the commerce and manufactures of Hasa by drafting merchants and artisans into their army. 7. Nedjed or Nejd, the central and largest of the divisions of Arabia, is traversed from N. E. to S. W. by a range of mountains, forming a plateau about 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. This plateau is intersected by numer ous fertile valleys, bordered by steep and often precipitous banks ; in these are built the villages and towns. In the E. part of this region iron ore is found in considerable quantities ; and in the west, in Jebel Toweik, are both iron and cop per. The best breed of Arabian horses is pro duced in Nedjed. Riyad is the capital of the Wahabee monarch. Nedjed is separated from Hasa by a tongue of the Dahna, the great desert. The monarch or chief of Nedjed has subjected Hasa on the east, lower Kasim on the northwest, and the surrounding Bedouin tribes. The pop ulation of Nedjed and Ilasa, including the Be douin tribes, is computed at about 1,300,000. 8. Shomer, consisting of three mountain ranges running N. E. and S. W. nearly parallel to each other, Jebel Adja, Jebel Selma, and upper Ka- sim. These, with lower Kasim, which belongs to the chief of the Wahabees, are separated from Nedjed by a strip of desert. Between these mountain ranges extend broad plains covered with grass and shrubbery, which afford excellent pasturage for cattle. Grain, dates, and other fruits are raised in the mountains, and water can be found almost everywhere by digging a few feet beneath the surface. Havel, the capital, is a walled and fortified town of about 20,000 inhabitants, situated almost in the heart of the province. It has of late years dis tinguished itself by encouraging commerce, sub duing the marauding Bedouin tribes around, and rendering travel more secure. Another wide expanse of sand lies between Shomer and Wady Jowf and Wady Serhan on the north, the former a fertile valley and the latter a barren sandy depression. Both are under the jurisdiction of the prince of Shomer. Be yond this commences the Syro- Arabian desert. West of Nedjed and Shomer is another expanse of desert that separates these two districts from Hedjaz and Yemen. The more habitable parts of the Syro-Arabian desert are occupied by various Bedouin tribes the Beni Lam on the east, and the Howeitat, Sherarat, and the Edwan (once a very powerful tribe, but now greatly reduced in numbers) on the west. Von Hammer adds to these two other divisions : Esh-Shehr, or Mahra, E. of Hadramaut proper, a dreary region, but containing some well cul tivated and well inhabited districts, and occu pied by a people whose language differs mate rially from the modern Arabic ; and El-Yama- ARABIA G1D mah, the S. E. portion of Nedjed, bordering on El-IIadjar, Oman, and the great desert. The i latter has been designated above as the district j of Katar and Menasir, famous for its pearl i fisheries. The S. and S. E. portions of Arabia j consist of an immense waste of sandy desert, the Dalma or Robat el-Kholy, "the abode of emptiness," which covers about one third ; of the entire peninsula. The sands, gener- ; ally of a reddish color and thrown up into mounds by the winds, present to the eye the appearance of a fiery sea suddenly solidified. There is a very strong resemblance, in almost every particular, between the Arabian desert and the African desert of Sahara. Ophthalmia is common in Arabia, owing probably to the ir ritation produced upon the eye by the glare of the sand, and its almost constant presence in the atmosphere. A species of leprosy known as Arabian elephantiasis is also prevalent, and is attributed to the bad quality of food and water. The plague has occasionally visited the coast, but never penetrated into the inte rior. A remarkable phenomenon in the central portions of Arabia, especially those bearing evidence of volcanic action, is the sand gulfs described by Baron von Wrede. These are large pits filled to the brim with a whitish impalpable powder. Von Wrede cast into one of them a sea lead, which sank so rapidly that he was obliged to let go the line, which, though of considerable length, instantly disap peared. Palgrave is of opinion that the water shed of central Arabia bears from N". N". W. to S. S. E. between Ion. 45 and 46 E. and lat. 29 and 24 X. Its greatest altitude is behind Jelajel in the province of Sedeyr in Nedjed, whence it gradually declines till lost in the southern des ert. On each side of this ridge to the -south also Arabia slopes coastward to the Persian gulf, Indian ocean, and Red sea, though with some local interruptions. The Sinai tic penin sula is traversed by spurs from the Lebanon range. Mt. Seir and Tur Sinah (supposed to be Mt. Sinai) are its principal summits. Of the many islands which border the coast, the Bahrein isles in the Persian gulf and Socotra in the Indian ocean are the only important ones. Arabia has no considerable river. Its streams, taking their rise in the mountains, lose them selves for the most part in the sands, or form deep ravines called by the natives wadys; they reach the sea only when swollen by the rains. The Sehan and the Kebir flow into the Red sea; the Meitan and the Moseira into the Indian ocean. Several of these are said by recent geographers to pursue a subterraneous course, for which the dense clay which under lies the sand, and the cavernous limestone, afford facilities, and to discharge into the sea at some distance from the shore. A recent German traveller relates that at certain points near the coast the sailors would spring over board with their goat skins, and diving down would bring up fresh water from springs below the surface of the sea. In many parts little or no rain falls throughout the year. On the W. coast rains are periodical, occurring from June till September. On the S. and E. coasts, on the contrary, they occur during the winter months. In the desert the thermometer is generally above 100 F. during the night, 108 in the morning, and in the course of the day it rises to 110 and sometimes higher. The climate of Mecca is sultry and unwholesome ; at Medina it is much colder in winter and hot ter in summer. At Mocha it averages from 90 to 95 in July; in Muscat from 92 to 102 during the day. In Petraea the diversity is I much greater, the maximum in the upper re gions being 75 in May, and in the lower i country, particularly on the seashore, 102 to ! 105, and sometimes 110. In the desert, near ; the Euphrates, Griffith observed that it rose to 132 under his tent and to 156 when exposed i to the sun s rays. The mountains consist of ! porphyry, jasper, quartz, sandstone, alabaster, basalt, marble, and limestone. The minerals ; are blue alabaster, agates, carnelians, tourma lines, the emerald, the onyx, gypsum, saltpetre, sulphur, naphtha, asphaltum, iron, lead, and copper. Gold was formerly obtained in Ye men, but the supply has long been exhausted. Mines of iron, lead, copper, and rock salt are still worked. Although but a small portion i of Arabia is susceptible of cultivation, its vege table productions have always been greatly famed. The date and other species of palm i stud the oases of the desert. In Yemen the coffee tree yields the small Mocha berry. The balm tree (ancyris apobalsamum), which fur- ; nishes the fragrant balm of Mecca, the acacia \ Tera, which produces the gum arabic of com- ; merce, the cassia fistula or purging cassia, the ! aloe, and the olibanum or frankincense, are the most valuable of the products of the soil. The durra (sorghum vulgare), a species of millet, which furnishes the chief article of food : to the village Arabs, the sugar cane, wheat, I barley, beans, rape, lentils, melons, gourds, oranges, lemons, pears, quinces, apricots, al- 1 monds, peaches, grapes, tamarinds, and cocoa- i nuts form the bulk of the other productions of the country. The methods of agriculture ! adopted by the Arabs are extremely rude, but owing to their industry, and the porous and friable character of the soil, which only needs water to make it yield abundantly in the more fertile regions, they succeed in raising very good crops. In many parts of Yemen ploughing j is not attempted, but the ground is cultivated i with a crowbar and hoe, as substitutes for the I spade. Throughout nearly the whole country which is under cultivation, artificial irrigation j is practised. At Muscat wheat and barley are I sown in December and reaped in March. The j horse is supposed by some to have originated j here. The camel and the dromedary are na- i tives of the Arabian deserts. The ass also I originated in this country, and the onager or i wild ass, though perhaps a different species, i still roams in the deserts of Nedjed. There is ARABIA a race of oxen with a hump on the shoulders. The broad, thick-tailed sheep is common, hut its \vool is coarse, and its fiesh not delicate. Among 1 wild animals, the rock goat or ibex, gazelle, antelope, and jerboa are very abundant ; and in the interior the hyena, panther, ounce, jackal, wolf, fox, wild boar, and wild cat ex ist. There are many species of apes, some of which cause great damage to the coffee planta tions of Yemen. Among rapacious birds are found one or more species of the eagle, falcon, heron, owl, and ostrich. The partridge, guinea fowl, and pheasant are also found in different districts of the country. Fish abound on all the coasts, and on that of Oman the piniui ma rina, or pearl oyster, is found in large quan tities. Reptiles are very numerous, including tortoises, many species of lizards (some of which, like the guaril, are of great size, and are used for food), serpents, and batrachians. The locusts often destroy the crops, and many other insects infiict serious injury upon men or animals. For many centuries the Arabians mo nopolized, in connection with their neighbors of Phoenicia, the greater part of the carrying trade of the world ; and even when the Venetians, Portuguese, and Dutch had entered into com petition with them, they .still retained the trade between India and Europe. The doubling of the Cape of Good Hope by the Portuguese was the signal for a rapid decline in their commerce; but the opening of the overland passage to India in recent times gave it a new impulse. The principal exports of Arabia are coffee (much of which is brought to Muscat, Mocha, and Jiddah from Abyssinia, Nubia, and Egypt, and exported thence as genuine Mocha coffee), dates, gum arabic, myrrh, aloes, almonds, balm of Mecca, frankincense, some aromatic and medi cinal drugs, and pearls. The traffic in pearls is almost entirely in the hands of the banians, or Hindoo merchants. From Muscat, wheat, horses, raisins, salt, dried fish, and drugs are also ex ported. Arabia receives from Europe silver, iron, copper, lead, firearms, and gunpowder; from Abyssinia, slaves, sheep, elephants teeth, and musk ; from the E. coast of Africa, gold, slaves, amber, and ivory ; from Egypt, "rice, ! lentils, sugar, and oil ; from Surat, linen ; and j from Coromandel, cotton. The population of the Arabian peninsula has been variously I estimated at from 10 to 15 millions. The ! latter is probably the nearest to the truth, as recent explorations demonstrate that the in terior contains more fertile lands and a denser population than was formerly supposed. It is estimated that the various races and tribes known collectively as Arabs comprise nearly seven eighths of this population; the re- | mainder consists of Hindoos, Turks, negroes, I Abyssinians, Jews, Persians, and Franks. Of the settled Arabs there are many distinct tribes, differing so much in manners, habits, and language as to give the impression to the I traveller that they originated from different j stocks. The discoveries at several points in the i interior of Hiinyaritic inscriptions, and the ex- ! istence of a language spoken by the natives of the interior villages called Ehkili, bearing a i much stronger analogy to the Himyaiitic than to the Arabic, would seem to indicate that a ; portion of the fixed Arabian population are i descendants of those Ilarnites who originally j settled in Syria, Phoenicia, and the adjacent countries. The fixed Arabs are as a general rule, and especially in the northern parts, in- i dolent, improvident, deceitful, treacherous, and j prone to robbery. But at the same time they | are courteous, sociable, easy in their manners, j and intelligent, and the lower classes are su- ! perior to those of a corresponding grade in j more civilized countries. The Bedouins are, ! probably with less admixture than the inhabi- ] tants of the towns and villages, of Semitic race. i They speak the Arabic language with great j purity and force, and subsist by rearing cattle and by plunder. (See BEDOUINS.) Moham medanism or Islainism is the prevalent religion of Arabia, though according to recent travel lers the people are generally less devout and more inclined to skepticism than those of any other Mohammedan country; and among the inhabitants of WadyDoan, a large and popu lous valley in the interior of Hadramaut, Von Wrede found traces of the ancient fire worship ; I while M. Arnaud in 1843 found among the I mountains of Yemen many Arabs whose rever ence for Hud, a prophet who preceded Moham- ! med and who cursed him and his followers, was \ much stronger than that for the prophet of j the Koran. The Arabs claim descent from { Kahtan or Joktan, of the posterity of Noah by Shem, and from Ishmael. Ishmael, according to their tradition, was prince and first high j priest of Mecca, and his posterity ruled the ! city lor 14 generations. Joktan or Kahtan was the first king of Yemen. His successors reigned I 2,000 years in that country. Saba, the fourth after him, built the capital and called it after his name; hence the Sabasans. He converted j one of the valleys in his territory into a large | lake, five leagues in length, by constructing a \ mole or bank across its lower extremity. The water was thence conducted to the fields, gar- j dens, and houses of the inhabitants, and the lands thus irrigated became very productive. Bilkis, one of the queens of Y^emen, according to the Arabs, was the famous queen of Sheba who visited Solomon. From her designation queen of the south, and the description of her presents to Solomon, gold and spices, there is little doubt that Arabia, and Y emen in par ticular, was the native country of this prin cess. The French traveller T. J. Arnaud, who visited this region in 1843, found among the ruins abundant evidence of its former greatness in the massive blocks of stone covered with inscriptions in the Himyaritic character, and in the ruins of buildings and temples which must have once approached in magnificence those of Palmyra or Tadmor. Himyar, the immediate successor of Saba, is ARABIA 621 supposed to have been the founder of the city of Mareb, and to have invented the Ilimyaritic characters. After an inundation caused by the bursting of the immense reser voir built by Saba the tribes of this kingdom were scattered, and were not again united till a century later under Tobba I., about A. D. 175. Under him and his successors Yemen rose to more than its ancient splendor. Assad Abu- karb (220) invaded and subdued Tehama, de feated the Tartars in Azerbijan, plundered many cities of Khiva, and seems to have carried his arms into Bokhara. Tobba II. in 297 in vaded Hedjaz and besieged Yathreb (now Me dina), a city inhabited by Jewish refugees after the destruction of Jerusalem. While there he was converted to Judaism, and on his return home all the nation embraced the Mosaic faith. Dunawas in 480 was a furious persecutor of the Christians, and is said to have burned 20,000 of them in a pit filled with combustibles. The Christian king of Abys sinia sent an army under the command of his son Arayat, with orders to slay every Jew and plunder the country. Dunawas was routed, and cast himself into the sea, and the race of the Himyarite princes became extinct. Arayat was confirmed in the government of Yemen, and the Abyssinians ruled it for 72 years, until Seif, a descendant of the Him- yarites, obtained from Chosroes, king of Persia, an army with which he wrested the power from the hands of the Abyssinians. He was appointed viceroy of the king of Per sia, to whom he paid an annual tribute. After Seifs assassination by an Abyssinian slave, Yemen was governed by Persian satraps under the title of emirs till it was subdued by the lieutenants of Mohammed. The kingdom of Hira in Irak was founded by some of the dis persed clans after the inundation in Yemen. Numan L, about A. D. 400, signalized himself by his conquests in Syria, building numerous vessels on the Euphrates, and adorning the capital with palaces, gardens, and hunting parks. Numan is said to have become a con vert to Christianity and abdicated the throne to live in retirement. Mundar II., Avho reigned about 493, proved a valuable ally to the Per sian monarch Kobad in his successful invasion of the Roman territories. In the reign of Mun dar V. (033) the kingdom of Hira was invaded and subdued by the lieutenants of Mohammed. Other colonies of Arabs migrated northward into the territory of Damascus, where they founded a dynasty of kings called -the Gassa- nites. Several small principalities existed in those districts before their arrival, the chief of which was the tribe of Silh, who had become converted to Christianity, in consequence of which the Roman emperor invested them with the government of the Syrian Arabs. These the emigrants (the tribes of Aus and Khasraj) expelled, slew many of their petty princes, and established their own sovereignty over these conquered territories, which lasted for about 400 years, when it was extinguished by Mos lem conquests. The Nabathrean Arabs, or Ishmaelites, long preserved a distinct name as a nation, asserting their independence alike against the armies of Egypt and Ethiopia, of the Jews, Assyrians, Greeks, and Romans. "It was extremely difficult," says Diodorus Siculus, "either to attack or subdue them, be cause they retired to their deserts ; and if an enemy ventured to follow them, he was sure to perish of thirst and fatigue, for the wells were only known to themselves." In the time of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires these wild tribes remained either wholly in dependent, or acknowledged a temporary al liance with their monarchs. The Medes and Persians under Cyrus and Cambyses found it necessary to have a friendly understanding with the Nabathasans to secure a safe passage into Egypt. In 312 B. C. Antigonus, one of the successors of Alexander the Great, made an unsuccessful incursion into the territory of the Nabathreans, and in 310 Demetrius, his son, invaded them again. One of the Ptolemies annexed a narrow strip of Arabia to his do minions. In 219 Antioclms the Great captured the city of Rabbath Moab and subdued several tribes. After that the northern Arabs were frequently involved in wars with the new Jewish state, and fortified several cities on its border, as Bostra, Medabah, and Hesbon. Several Roman proconsuls of Syria undertook expeditions against them, but without any further advantage than the payment of a trib ute or temporary cessation of hostilities. In the reign of Augustus, /Elius Gall us, prefect of Egypt, undertook his famous expedition into Yemen at the head of 10,000 Roman legiona ries, 500 Jews, and 1,000 Nabathaeans ; 80 ships of war and 130 transports conveyed these troops down the Red sea under the guidance of Syllias, by whose treachery numbers of the vessels were wrecked. Gallus penetrated as far as Mariaba, represented as the capital of the Rahininites, but eifected nothing. Other use less expeditions followed. In A. D. 362 the army of the emperor Julian besieged and de stroyed Anbar, the capital of the kings of Hoja. A new era dawned on Arabia at the birth of Mohammed (about 570). His doctrines soon gained a firm foothold, and Mecca once conquered, he found nearly the whole penin sula at his feet. Abu-Bekr, Omar, Othman, and Ali, who succeeded Mohammed in turn under the title of caliph or emir-el-mumenin, " commander of the faithful," carried forward what he had begun. In the reign of Ali, Moawi- yah, governor of Syria, cast off his allegiance, was proclaimed caliph by the western provinces, penetrated into Hedjaz, reduced Medina and Mecca, and extended his conquests as far as Ye men. A few months after AH 1 s death the sover eignty passed into the hands of Moawiyah, the first prince of the dynasty of the Ommiyades, who held the supreme power over the Moslem empire till A. D. 750. This period is marked G22 ARABIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE by internal dissensions and bloody struggles. Walid I., one of this line, abolished the use of the Greek language and characters, which had hitherto been employed in keeping the ac counts, and ordered his clerks and secretaries to substitute the Arabic, a change to which very probably we owe the invention or at least the familiar use of our present numerical fig ures. To this dynasty, which ruled for nearly 90 years, succeeded that of the Abbassides, who transferred the seat of the caliphate from Cufah to Bagdad, and held sway over a large part of the Mohammedan countries from the 8th to the 13th century. The subsequent his tory of Arabia is but a succession of quarrels among its numerous petty chiefs, except the reform movement of the Wahabees, a sect founded in the middle of the 18th century by Mohammed ibn Abd-el-Wahab. (See WAHA BEES.) In 1870 and 1871 a rebellion broke out among the Bedouins in Iledjaz, which was with difficulty suppressed by the Turkish troops. See " History of Arabia, 1 by A. Crichton (Ed inburgh, 1834), and "Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia," by W. G. Palgrave (Lon don, 1871). ARABIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The Arabic belongs to the southern branch of the Semitic family of languages, and after the He brew is the most important member of the family. The other members of the southern branch are the Plirnyaritic and the Ethiopic. The particular dialect which, mainly through the influence of the Koran, became the stan dard of the literary language, was that spoken in the central part of Arabia, in Iledjaz and Nedjed. Partly perhaps because of its sheltered position, but partly also because of an unusually strong conservative tendency, the Arabic, though the latest of the Semitic lan guages to acquire historical importance, is in its forms the most archaic of all. Nowhere else are the inflections so fully preserved, and for the comparative study of these languages the Arabic is of the first importance. In wealth both of grammatical forms and of vo cabulary it is equalled by few languages, and no other of the Semitic family approaches it. The characteristic features of the family, the prevailing triliteral and consonantal character of the roots, and the modification of the radi cal meaning by a significant change of vowels within the root, appear most clearly in the Arabic. There are other features which, if not altogether peculiar to it, are found in the other dialects only in a rudimentary or fragmentary state. Such are the system of case endings and the so-called u broken plurals," that is, col lective nouns which have nearly supplanted the proper plurals formed by means of termi nations. The number of derived forms of the verb, commonly called conjugations, is also con siderably larger in Arabic, each verb having, at least theoretically, 15; and the mode forms are likewise more numerous. As an instru ment of thought the Arabic h characterized by great flexibility, delicacy, and precision. While the other Semitic languages have only a ; very simple syntactical structure, unsuited to 1 the expression of any but the more obvious ! relations of thought, the Arabic has an exten sive philosophical literature. The external his tory of the Arabic is remarkable, furnishing in | many respects a parallel to that of the Latin, i It has taken possession of nearly the whole i field formerly occupied by the Semitic family. I It has also spread over the whole north of ; Africa, and in central Africa it is still aggres sive. The present Arabic-speaking races num ber about 35,000,000. Where it has not sup planted, it has strongly impregnated the lan guages with which it has come in contact. I The Turkish and Persian have borrowed from J it nearly one half of their vocabularies, the | Ilindostani but little less, the Hindi and Malay j quite largely. The languages of western Eu- I rope have felt its influence, the Spanish, as was j natural, most strongly. Elsewhere it is to be I traced mainly in the presence of various -scien- | tific and technical terms, such as algebra, al- \ chewy, azimuth, nadir, cipher, alcohol, elixir, | magazine. A glossary of words of Arabic der ivation found in Spanish and Portuguese has been published by Dozy and Engelmann (2d ed., Leyden, 18G9) ; in French, by Pihan (Paris, 1851); in Dutch, by Dozy (Leyden, 1867). The literary Arabic has during its whole his- i tory remained almost without change, and the various dialects now spoken, when we consider the long period (12 centuries) and the wide territory which they cover, show remarkably little divergence either from the literary lan guage or from each other. They differ from the written language mainly in the frequent loss of final vowels, and with them of inflec tions of the noun and verb, which they served to distinguish. Phonetic decay has reached i about the same stage of progress in the Arabic ; now spoken that we find in the Biblical lle- I brew. The Arabic alphabet is derived from the Estrangelo, or Old Syriac, and more re- ! motely from the Phoenician, and was introduced ! not more than a century before Mohammed. : It no doubt consisted originally, like the Es- ! trangelo, of 22 characters, which number was ; afterward raised by the use of diacritical marks to 28. Like all the Semitic alphabets, it is ! written from right to left, and is essentially i consonantal. The vowel signs, written above ; and below the line, are a later invention, gen- ! orally attributed to Abul-Aswad, the earliest Arab grammarian, who died in 088. These ! vowel and diacritical signs were first applied to the Koran, in order to put an end to the disputes to which the previous ambiguous i mode of writing had given rise. The Arabic system of vowel notation, unlike the Hebrew < and Syriac, is strictly etymological. Only the ! fundamental vowels a, ? , ?/, long and short, | and the diphthongs aw, ai, are written, although in speaking several intermediate vowels are heard. Both in manuscripts and in printed texts ARABIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 623 the vowel signs are frequently omitted either wholly or in part. There are several forms of the Arabic character, of which the Cufic, so called from the city of Cufah, the seat of one of the early grammatical schools, was the first to gain general currency, thougli from an early date the neskhi or copy-hand was in use, and since the 10th century has been the prevailing form. Of the remaining forms, some, as the Maghrebine or Moorish, have a local currency, and others are employed for special uses. The Arabic alphabet has gained a wide vogue be yond the limits of the language, having been adopted by the Persian, Afghan, Hindostani, Turkish, Malay, and in quite recent times by the Berber and other African dialects. The original defects of the alphabet are seriously aggravated when it is applied to languages of different families. Grammar was the first of the sciences cultivated by the Arabs, the special motive being the necessity for fixing the text of the Koran ; and though it soon reached the limit of its development among them, it always remained a favorite study. The earliest gram matical work which has been preserved is that of Sibawaih, about 780 ; one of the most cele brated, the subject of numerous commentaries, is the Alfiya (so called because composed of 1,000 verses) of Ibn Malek, who died in 1273 (Arabic by Dieterici, Leipsic, 1851 ; Arabic and French by De Sacy, Paris, 1833). Of those by European scholars, the best are by De Sacy (2d ed., Paris, 1831) and Ewald (Leipsic, 1831- 3). Among grammars devoted to the spoken idioms may be mentioned those of Caussin de Perceval (Paris, 1835), Marcel (on the Afri can dialects generally, 2d ed,, Paris, 18(39), and Pihan (dialect of Algiers, Paris, 1851). Of the native dictionaries, the chief are the Sihah of Al-Jauhari (died about 1007) ; the Lisan el- Aral} of Ibn Mukarram (died 1311) ; the Kdmm of Firuzabadi (died 1414), containing 60,000 words (printed at Calcutta, 1817, and at Cairo, 1864) ; and the Taj el-Arm, an enormous compilation, of which the Kdmus forms only about a seventh part, made at Cairo in the last century. The materials of the large Arabic-English lexicon of Lane, now in progress (Parts i. to iii., Lon don. 1863- 7), are drawn mainly from the last- mentioned work. Among the other European lexicographers, the chief are Golius (Leyden, 1653) and Freytag (Halle, 1830- ? 37). The Arabs have produced a literature of vast ex tent, and after large reductions from the ex travagant estimate sometimes put upon it, a very high value must still be allowed it. It commences with poetry. The oldest remains, in which however the characteristic form and style of Arabic poetry appear already fully developed, go back about a century before Mo hammed. With the Koran a new era begins in literary as well as in political history. The Koran was to the orthodox believer not only the rule of faith, but also the highest authority in law, the perfect model in point of style not simply inspired, but uncreated and eternal. Un der the Ommiyade dynasty of Damascus, what there was of literary activity was concentrated mainly on the Koran, the establishing of the text and interpretation, and on the preserva tion of the traditions of the prophet. The fol lowing century, under the Abbasside caliphs of Bagdad, Al-Mansour, Ilaroun al-Rashid, Al- Mamoun, and Motassem, was the most flourish ing period of Arabic literature. Greek philos ophy and science were introduced, mainly through the agency of Syrian Christians, and through the medium of translations, made for the most part not directly from the Greek, but from the Syriac. Law, history, and geography were cultivated, schools and libraries estab lished, rewards bestowed on poets and scholars. In this patronage of literature the princes of the Ommiyade dynasty in Spain, especially Hakem II. (961-976^ were worthy rivals. After the capture of Bagdad by the Mongols in 1258 the literary spirit gradually declined, and for the last three centuries little has been pro duced but commentaries on the older literature, and some works of an encyclopaedic character. The field in which the Arabs have shown most originality is unquestionably poetry, and its golden age was the century before Mohammed. Of the poems of this period, the most cele brated are the seven Moalldkat, so called, ac cording to the common but doubtful tradition, because they were "suspended" in the Caaba at Mecca, an honor bestowed on such as carried off the prize in the poetical contests. They have been frequently published, both together (Arabic by Arnold, Leipsic, 1850 ; English by Sir William Jones) and separately. One of the seven, Amrulkais (German by Riickert, Stutt gart, 1843), holds a first place among all the Arabic poets. Three others deserve to rank with these, Nabiga, Alkana, and Al-Asha; the first two published by Ahlwardt in " Divans of Six Ancient Arabic Poets " (London, 1870). Specimens of many other early poets are found in the Hamdsa of Abu Temam (Arabic and Latin by Freytag, Bonn, 1828- 47 ; German by Riickert, Stuttgart, 1846) ; in the Hamdsa of Bohtori, and in the Kitcib el-Aghdni of Ali of Ispahan (Arabic and Latin by Kosegarten, vol. i., Greifswald, 1840). Motanebbi, about the middle of the 10th century (Arabic by Dieterici, Berlin, 1861 ; German by Von Hammer, Vienna, 1824), is the greatest of the poets after the ad vent of Mohammed. Arabic poetry is almost exclusively lyrical. Epic and dramatic poetry they have not, and the rhymed treatises on grammar and other prosaic subjects can hardly be classed with didactic poetry. In proverbs Arabic literature is rich, and several collections made by native authors, chief among which is that of Meidani, have been published by Frey tag (Arabic and Latin, Bonn, 1838- 43), and a smaller collection by Burckhardt (Arabic and English, London, 1830). The Mal:nmat of Hariri (Arabic by De Sacy, 2d ed., Paris, 1847- 53; English by Preston, .London, 1850) is a collection of amusing adventures, narrated 624 ARABIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE with much grace and skill in most artfully rhymed prose, interwoven with short poems. It lias been admirably imitated, rather than translated, in German by Ruckert (Stuttgart, 1837). The romance entitled " Adventures of Antar," of which about a third part has been translated by Hamilton (4 vols. 8vo, London, 1820), is a charmingly drawn picture of Arab life before the rise of Mohammedanism. The famous collection of tales known as the " Thou sand and One Nights," or the " Arabian Nights," is of unknown date and authorship. It was first made known in Europe about the end of the 17th century by Antoine Galland, who was employed by Colbert to collect MSS. in the East. The copy of the Arabic MS. brought by Galland from Syria contained a marginal note dated 1584, and from internal evidence the middle of the loth century has been fixed upon as the probable period of the composition of the work. Some of the tales were evidently borrowed by the writer from older authors, and Von Hammer identifies at least the plot and some of the stories of the " Arabian Nights " with an earlier collection in Persian, called Hezar Afmneh (Arab. Elf Khurafeh, " The Thousand Fanciful Stories"). An excellent translation, with elaborate critical and illustrative notes, was made in England by Lane. Theology and law among the Arabs, as in the East generally, were very closely connect ed, both resting on the common foundation of the Koran. But the Koran being contradictory on some points, silent on many others, and alto gether without order or system, recourse was had first to the oral traditions of the sayings and doings of Mohammed ; next to the decisions of the imams or legitimate successors of the prophet, and the early caliphs ; and where these failed, to analogical reasoning. Of the commentaries on the Koran, the most esteemed is that of Beidhawi (published by Fleischer, Leipsic, 1844- 8) ; and of the collections of tradi tions, that of Bokhari (Krehl, Leyden, 1862- 8). Sharastani gives a view of the many religious and philosophical sects into which Islam was divided (Arabic by Cureton, London, 1842- 6; German by Haarbrucker, Halle, 1850- 51). The great schism is that which divides the Sun- nis, the orthodox party, who recognize the au thority of the traditions and decisions above mentioned, from the Shiahs, the followers of Ali, who reject many of them. The latter sect prevails chiefly in Persia. There are four lead ing schools among the Sunnis, all regarded as orthodox, and called after their founders the Hanefite, Malekite, Shafiite, and Hanbalite. They agree in their general principles, but differ in various details, and all date from near the commencement of the Abbasside dynasty. The Hanefite code prevails in India and Turkey ; the Malekite in Africa, except Egypt. In Egypt the generally received authority is the Shafiite code, but the courts are Hanefite, the cadi being sent from Constantinople. The fourth or Hanbalite school has little influence. The most cele brated digest of the Hanefite code is the HuLaya, translated into English by Hamilton I (Calcutta, 1791); another, the Multalca al- \ Abkar, translated into French, is contained in D Ohsson s Empire Ottoman (Paris, 1787- 1820). The collections of decisions are also weighty authorities. One of them, tlieFutawa Alcmjir, made by order of the emperor Au- rungzebe, was printed in Calcutta (6 vols. 41o. 1828- 35), and a portion of it relating to the law of sale has been translated into English by Baillie (London, 1850). The chief authority on the law of inheritance, the Sirajiya, was translated by Sir William Jones (Calcutta, 1792). A compendium of the Malekite code by Khalil ibn Ishak has been translated into French by Perron (Paris, 1848- 52); another of the Shafiite code, by Abu Shoja, has been published by Keijzer (Arabic and French, Leyden, 1859.) Of historical works the num ber is very large (Hadji Khalfa enumerates 1,300), and the materials for the history of the countries and periods embraced in the Moham medan dominion are very full and valuable, but outside of this meagre. In style they are for the most part mere chronicles, seldom rising to a comprehensive survey or attempting to trace the deeper historical connections of events. It is a common habit of the writers to quote largely from their authorities, and this makes amends in part for the absence of anything like historical criticism. The follow ing are some of the more important works that have been published, beginning with general histories : Abulfeda, Historia Mmlemica (Ara bic and Latin by Reiske, 6 vols. 4to, Copen hagen, 1789- 94), and Historia Antemuslemica (Arabic and Latin by Fleischer, Leipsic, 1831); Masudi, "Historical Encyclopaedia" (Arabic and French by Barbier de Meynard, vols. i.-vi., Paris, 1861- 7l ; English by Sprenger, London, 1841, vol. i. only); Tabari, "Annals" (Arabic and Latin by Kosegarten, Greifswald, 1831- 53) ; Ibn al-Athiri, "Chronicle" (Tornberg, Upsala and Lund, 1851 etseq.}; Ibn Koteiba, "Manual of History" (Wustenfeld, Gottingen, 1850); Ibn Ettiktaka (Ahlwardt, Gotha, 1800); and Hamza of Ispahan (in Arabic and Latin by Rasmussen, Copenhagen, 1817). Histories of the early conquests: Al-Beladzori (De Goeje, Leyden, 1863- 7), and Al-Wakidi, "Moham med s Campaigns" (Calcutta, 1856), "Con quest of Syria " (Lees, Calcutta, 1854), " Con quest of Mesopotamia " (Arabic by Mordtmann, German by Niebuhr, Hamburg, 1847). His tories of particular countries: Al-Makkari, on the history and literature of the Spanish Arabs (Arabic by Dozy and others, Leyden, 1855- 01 ; English, with omission of the parts relating to literary history, by De Gayanos, Lon don, 1841- 3) ; Ibn Adhari, Africa and Spain (Dozy, Leyden, 1848- 51); Ibn Abi Zer, An- nales Regum MaurctanicK (Arabic and Latin by Tornberg, Upsala, 1843- 6; French by Beaumier, Paris, I860); Makrizi, "History of the Mameluke Saltans " (French by Quatremere, ARABIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE Paris, 1835-"T), "History of the Copts" (Arabic and German by Wustenfeld, Gottin- gen, 1845); Ibn Taghri, annals principally of Egypt (Juynboll and Matthes, Ley den, 1852- 01); a collection of chronicles by vari- : ous writers relating to the city of Mecca (Wustenfeld, Leipsic, 1857- 9) ; \ collection ; relating to Sicily (Amari, JSibliotheca Arabo- ; Sicula, Leipsic, 1855-7) ; Al-Suyuti, "History of the Temple at Jerusalem " (English by Rev- | nolds, London, 1830). To the general charac- j ter of Arabic historical writing above given, ; we have a noble exception in Ibn Khaldun (died 1400), a writer of a philosophical spirit i and a profound historical sense. Of his history, , the introduction has been published by Qnatre- ! mere and translated into French by De Slane (in the Notices et extraits des manuscrits, vol. xvi. et seq,), and another part, the history of ! the Berbers, edited and translated by De Slane (Algiers, 18-47- 56). Among biographies, that ! of Mohammed by Ibn Ishak (Arabic by ! Wustenfeld, Gottingen, 1S58- 00; German by ! Weil, Stuttgart, 1804) is especially important. I For original speculation in philosophy we must look rather to the religious sects than to j the philosophers so called, a name reserved for those who borrowed the systems of the Greeks, j especially that of Aristotle, in which they in- j troduced few changes of importance. The most celebrated names among the eastern Arabs are . Alkindi of the 9th, Alfarabius of the 10th, and above all Ibn Sina (A vicenna) of the early part of the llth century. More profound and original was Algazzali (died 1111), who aimed at the j overthrow of the existing systems, and from ; skepticism passed finally to asceticism and mys- i ticism. W^ith respect to the idea of cause, he \ held substantially the position and anticipated ; the arguments of Hume. In the 12th" century Spain became the centre of philosophical ac- j tivity, its chief representatives being Ibn Badja j (Avempace), Ibn Tophail (Abubacer), and Ibn ; Roshd (Averroes). The schoolmen first ob- ; tained the Latin translations of some of the treatises of Aristotle, not directly from the j Greek, but from Arabic versions, and Averroes, j as the latest of his commentators, was accepted as his authorized interpreter. In the 13th and : 14th centuries the authority of his commentary was hardly questioned, and in the 15th and : 10th it was many times reprinted. These cir- j cumstances give to Arab philosophy a for high- i er importance in the history of European cul- j ture than its independent value would entitle ! it to claim. In mathematics the Arabs were ; the pupils of Greece and India, but they added not a little to the sum of knowledge which j they had received. Neither algebra nor the ! Arabic numerals were, as the names would seem to indicate, of Arab invention; but the I Arabs perfected the processes of the one, arriv- | ing at the solution of cubic equations, and they ; facilitated the introduction of the other. They ! simplified trigonometrical calculations by substi tuting the use of sines and tangents for chords. VOL. i. 10 In astronomy they improved the instruments of observation (Abulhassan, "Treatise on Astro nomical Instruments," French by Sfidillot, Paris, 1834- 5), and constructed new and more accu rate tables (Ibn Yunis, Arabic and French by Caussin, Paris, 1804; Olug-Beg, Arabic and French by Sedillot, Paris, 1847- 53). They made some discoveries of importance, among which is perhaps to be reckoned that of the variation of the moon by Abul-Wefa, commonly ascribed to Tycho Brahe, six centuries later. The science of medicine owes much to the Arabs, especially in the departments of pharmacy and materia inedica. In surgery, from ignorance of anatomy, they made little advance. The most celebrated among the medical as well as among the philosophical writers is A vicenna, whose " Canon of Medicine " was for four centuries the leading text book in European schools (printed at Rome, 1593, and in Latin versions not far from 30 times). The EUiari or Continens of Al-Razi (Rhazes) enjoyed also a wide reputation, and in the Latin translation passed through many editions. The study of medicine led naturally to that of chemistry and botany. Chemistry made substantial progress among the Arabs. To Geber we owe the first preparation of sulphuric and nitric acids and aqua regia. The distillation of alcohol also, as the name implies, was a discovery of the Arabs. Botany was little more than the handmaid of medicine. There was no attempt at scientific classification, but only an alphabetic arrange ment of the material, as among the Greek bo tanical writers. But in the number of plants described, the style of description, and the de termination of synonymes, the advantage is largely on the side of the Arabs. The best known writers are Al-Nahati and Ibn Baitar (German by Sontheimer, Stuttgart, 1840- ? 42). In geography the Arabs have rendered most important services, less in the mathematical than in the descriptive branch of the science. The vast extent of the empire of the caliphs, and the reports gathered from the governors of remote provinces, the commercial inter course reaching even beyond the limits of the empire (witness the Arabic coins frequently dug up in northern Russia and even in Nor way, which prove the existence of an estab lished trade, if they do not necessarily suppose the presence of Arab merchants), the pilgrim age to Mecca, which it was the duty of every Moslem who had the ability to make once at least in the course of his life all this could not but add materially to the sum of geograph ical knowledge. The narrative of an Arab mer chant named Soleyman, who visited China in the 9th century, was published in Arabic and French by Reinaud (Relation des voyages dans rinde et d la Chine, Paris, 1845). Al-Is- takhri and Ibn Ilaukal about 950 traversed the different Mohammedan provinces from the Atlantic to India. The Liber Climatum of" the former was published by Moller (Gotha, 1839 ; German by Mordtmann, Hamburg, 1845). ARABIC LITERATURE ARACHXIDA The "Oriental Geography of Ibn Haukal," by Ouseley (London, 1800), is translated from a Persian version in which the works of Al- Istakhri and Ibn Ilaukal have been recast and combined in one. Especially important are the geography of Edrisi (about 1150), who lived at the court of Roger II. of Sicily, and who visited England (French by Jaubert, Paris, 1836- 40; and the portion relating to Africa and Spain, Arabic and French, by Dozy and De Goeje, Leyden, 180(3) ; the " Geographical Dic tionary " *of Yakut (died 1229), published by Wtistenfeld (Leipsic, 18G6 et seq.) ; geography of Abulfeda (Arabic by Reinaud and De Slane, Paris, 1840; French by Reinaud, Paris, 1848). Ibn Batuta (died about 1377) surpassed all in the extent of his travels, which reached from Spain to China and into central Africa (Arabic and French by Defremery and Sanguinetti, Paris, 1853- 9; English, abridged, by Lee, London, 1829) A Abdallatif, a physician, wrote an ac count of Egypt, founded on his own observa tions, and ot great value (De Sacy, Paris, 1810). He took advantage of a plague in Cairo in 1201- 2, of which he gives a graphic descrip tion, to make anatomical investigations. The Arab geographers, instead of following in their descriptions political or physical divisions of the globe, generally adopted, after the example of the Greeks, the system of climates or zones, usually seven. In the determination of lati tudes and longitudes, of the magnitude of the earth, and the shape of the continents, they made a somewhat nearer approach to the truth than the Greek geographers. Under the caliph Al-Mamoun (813- 33), a measurement was made of the length of a degree of latitude. Such is the extent of Arabic literature that, notwith standing the labors of European scholars and the production of native presses, especially at Boulak, Cairo, and in India, and recently in England, where Rigk Allah Hassoun, an Arabic poet, has devoted himself to the production of standard works, the greater part even of what has been preserved is in manuscript, and still more has perished. In proof of the great num ber of works lost, we need not appeal to the ex aggerated accounts of the libraries of some of the Mohammedan princes (Hakem II. of Spain is said to have collected 600,000 volumes). Works in literary history, always a favorite department with the Arabs, furnish abundant evidence. The most important of these works are the Fihrist or " Catalogue of Sciences " of Ibn al-Nadim, of the 9th century (published by Fliigel vol. i., Leipsic, 1871); the "Bio graphical Dictionary" of Ilyn Khallikan, of the 13th century (Arabic by Wtistenfeld, Gottingen, 1835- 50; French by De Slane, Paris, 1842- - 71); and Hadji Khalfa s (died 1035) "Dic tionary of Arabic, Persian, and Turkish Litera ture" (Arabic and Latin by Flugel, 7 vols. 4to, Leipsic, 1835- 58). Hammer-Purgstall s "Lit erary History of the Arabs (7 vols. 4to, Vienna, 1850- 56), which comes down only to the year 1258, contains notices of about 10,000 writers. i Of the printed books a tolerably complete in dex is contained in Zenker s Bibliotheca Orien- talis (Leipsic, 1846- GO). Alt I KIM, or Arabians, a Christian sect of the 3d century, founded by BeryJlus, bishop of Bostra in Arabia. They denied the divinity of Christ, and affirmed that the soul dies with the body, and is raised to life again with it in the resurrection. Origen contended with Beryllus, and a synod condemned the Arabici. ARACAN, or Arracan. I. A division of British Burmah, including the districts of Akyab, San- doway, and Ramree, bounded W. by the bay of Bengal, S. by Pegu, and separated by the You- madoung mountains on the E. from Ava ; area, 23,529 s<i. m. ; pop. in 1871, 447,957. It is a hilly ! region, with numerous fertile plains and val- j leys, dense jungles, and pestiferous marsnes. The coast has very few harbors, and though I the country is rich in timber, coal, petroleum, salt, tobacco, and rice, and has considerable i trade, there are few important towns. The climate is very unhealthy to Europeans. The principal river is the Aracan or Kuladyne, which enters the bay of Bengal 15 m. N. of Akyab, after a S. course of about 200 m. The aboriginal inhabitants, called Mughs, consti tute about half the population. Education is I very general, few being unable to read and i write. The province was conquered by the I Burmese in 1783, and taken from them by the I British in 1824. Capital, Akyab. II. A town, i the former capital of the above province, on the 1 river Aracan, about 50 in. from its mouth ; pop. I about 10,000. It is a straggling, decaying place, which once had about 95,000 inhabitants. The climate is extremely unwholesome. ARAl ATI. I* A port of Brazil, in the province | of Ceara, on the Rio Jaguaribe, about 10 m. from the sea, lat. 4 31 S., Ion. 37 48 W. ; pop. about 20,000. It has five churches, and a I very fine town hall. Its exports are mainly cotton and hides. At the mouth of the river is a dangerous bar. Severe floods occur dur- i ing the rainy seasons. II. A river in the same I province, flows due N. about 120 m., and en- i ters the Atlantic by two mouths, near Pernam- j buquinho, 150 m. N. W. of the town of Aracati. ARACIDfE, in Greek mythology, a Lydian I maiden, famous for her skill in weaving. She ! challenged Minerva, and wove a piece of cloth ! on which the amours of the gods were reprc- ! sented. This work was so faultless that Mi nerva, despairing of being able to excel it, tore it to shreds, whereupon Arachne hung j herself. The goddess loosened the rope and saved the life of Arachne ; but the rope w;is transformed into a cobweb, and the maiden into a spider (Gr. apaxvrj}, that insect which Minerva most hated. ARACHNIDA, a class of invertebrate animals belonging to the articulata, and including spi ders, mites, and scorpions. The arachnida difl er from insects in having no antenna? ; in the number of eyes being in most species 8, and, even wl-en only 2, in never being placed later- ARACIIXIDA ARAFAT 02 T ally on the head; in the legs being usually 8, although in sonic species G, and in others 10; and in their respiratory apparatus consisting of radiated trachere. Most arachnida are carniv orous. Some parasitic species, such as the mi nute parasite mites, are furnished with a sucker, m some respects constructed like that of the gadfly. In other species there is a pair of upper jaws and a pair of under jaws carrying jointed feelers, and between them a sort of tongue formed by a projection from the breast. At the back of the mouth there is a piece of horny texture, termed by Savigny, Latreille, and Audouin the pharynx, forming the en trance into the gullet. The gullet, the stom ach, and the intestines run in a direct line from the pharynx to the vent. In most arach nida there is a complete circulatory system of arteries and receiving veins, returning blood. The respiratory organs have two peculiarities, on which Latreille established his two great divisions of arachnida, pulmonaria and trache- aria. The pulmonaria, which Straus-Durck- heim and Leon Dufour place in the first or chief division, comprises the numerous species of spiders and the scorpions. Their respiratory apparatus consists of small cavities formed by the union of triangular laminae of extreme thin ness. The division furnished with air pipes (trachearia} similar to those of insects, com prises the harvest or shepherd spiders, mites, and other genera. u The presence of tracheae, or air pipes," says Latreille, ; excludes all com plete circulation ; that is, the distribution of blood to different parts, and its return from the respiratory organs to the heart. The eyes of the arachnida are all simple. In most species of spiders they are 8 in number, but in some they are 6 and in others only 2. Nothing is known of the organs of hearing in arachnida, although it has been well ascertained that these animals do hear. Male spiders are alwaj s much smaller than the females. The palpi or feelers of the male are furnished with organs of various forms, usually bulging at the tip ; the feelers of the female gradually taper to a point. The eggs of spiders, not having a hard shell, are soft and compressible. Before being laid, they lie in the egg bag, squeezed together and flattened, within the spider s body, but assume the globular form after being laid. The female spider, in preparing a nest for her eggs, uses her own body as a bird uses its body to give form and proper size to its nest. The eggs are excluded from a cavity just behind the breast. The hatching of the eggs of one species (tlufepeira diadema) has been traced with care, and the successive evolution of the embryo depicted with skill, by Moritz Herold of Marburg. Latreille arranges the arachnida into two great orders, pulmonaria and tra chearia. He subdivides the first order, A. pul monaria, into two families, under the names of a ra n e idee- and pedipalp L The araneidce include our common spiders, having palpi simple, pedi- form ; mandibles armed with a movable and perforated claw, emitting a poisonous liquid ; abdomen inarticulate, terminating by spinner ets. The pedipalpi, including the scorpions and their allies, have the abdomen articulate, without spinnerets; palpi produced, cheliform (chela, claw), or shaped like pincers; mandi bles with a movable digit. The second order, trachearia, includes various forms of shepherd spiders and sea spiders, mites, and ticks ; true mites, garden mites, spider mites, wood mites ; true ticks, plant ticks, water ticks, harvest ticks ; false scorpions, book scorpions; shepherd spiders, sea spiders, and parasitic sea spiders. ARAD, a town of Hungary, capital of the county of the same name, on the right bank of the Maros, 19 m. N. of Temesvar ; pop. in 1869, 32,725. It is the seat of a Greek bishop, and contains a gymnasium and Wallachian college. Considerable trade is carried on with Germany and the Black sea, chiefly in tobacco and cattle. Its annual fair is second only in importance to those of Pesth and Debreczin. In the 17th century the city was captured and destroyed by the Turks. It is skirted on two sides by the Maros, and defended by a fortress, which, held by the Austrians, capitulated only after a long siege to the Hungarian army in the revo lutionary war of 1849. Three months later (Oct. 6), Arad witnessed the execution by the Austrian authorities of 13 Hungarian generals and colonels, who had surrendered with Gorgey at Vilagos (Aug. 13), or, following his exam ple, a few days later. On the opposite bank, and connected by a bridge, is Xew Arad (Hun. Uj Arad), in the county of Temes; pop. 4,900. ARADtS (now Ruad), a rocky islet, about a mile in circumference, lying 2 m. otf the Syrian coast, in lat. 35 X., 35 in. N. of Tripoli. It was early occupied as a stronghold by the Phoenicians, known to the Hebrews as Arvad, a city second only to Tyre and Sidon, and held supremacy over a considerable tract on the ad jacent mainland, where Antaradus was found ed. The city shared in the general fortunes of Phoenicia, and about A. D. 038 was destroyed by Moawiyah, the lieutenant of the caliph Omar, and never rebuilt. Aradus is the only island on the Syrian coast mentioned by the historians of the crusades. It is now occu pied by about 3,000 people, mainly fishermen. Remains of the old Phoenician walls are still to be seen. ARAFAT, or Orphat (Arabic, gratitude), a gra nitic hill in Arabia, near Mecca, a pilgrimage to which is enjoined upon all who visit that city. It rises about 200 feet above the plain. The pilgrimage occupies three days from Mecca. On the second day the ceremony of the sermon on the mount is observed. The cadi of Mecca usually preaches the sermon, riding first upon a camel up the entire length of the stone steps which ascend the mountain to the summit. Hearing this sermon is the great point of the pilgrimage, and confers the title of hadji (pilgrim). There is a tradition among the Mohammedans that on this moun- 628 ARAGO tain Adam first met Eve again, after a separa tion of 120 years immediately following the expulsion from paradise. On the summit is a chapel, which, according to tradition, was built by Adam himself. ARAGO. I. Dominique Francois, a French physicist and statesman, born at Estagel, near Perpignan, Feb. 26, 1786, died in Paris, Oct. 2, 1853. After studying mathematics at the col lege of Perpignan, he entered in 1803 the poly technic school. On leaving it in 1805, he was appointed secretary of the board of longitude, and in 1800 he was commissioned to finish in conjunction with Biot the measurement of an arc of the meridian in Spain, begun by Delara- bre and Meehain, as the basis of the decimal metrical system of France. He was employed in the island of Majorca on the outbreak of war, taken for a spy, saved from the mob by some months confinement in a fortress, after ward taken by Spanish corsairs from an Al- gerine vessel and harshly treated, enlarged on the demand of the dey, shipwrecked on the coast of Sardinia, and after new perils reached Algiers in a Bedouin disguise. Here he was treated with suspicion by a new dey, but finally reached Marseilles in a French frigate in 1809. On his arrival in Paris he was elected a member of the institute, though only 23 years old, and soon afterward appointed professor at the poly technic school. In 1830 he became perpetual sec retary of the academy of sciences, and director of the observatory, a post which he retained till his death. lie rendered special services to optics by his own experiments, and by his in fluence over others, and especially by direct ing the labors of Fresnel and Mains. He was the first to recognize the value of Young s op tical papers. lie investigated magnetical phe nomena, and made some contributions to me teorology, especially in connection with elec tricity, lie also successfully investigated the colors of polarized light, the application of polarization as a test of the origin of light, the experimental proof of the retardation of light in dense mediums, the apparent magnetism of copper rotating near a permanent magnet, and the influence of the aurora upon the needle. For the last three years of his life he was blind and otherwise a sufferer. lie was the author of more than 60 distinct memoirs on various branches of science. He established, in con cert with M. Gay-Lussac, in 1816, the Annalcs de chimie ct de physique. The article in the l | Edinburgh Encyclopaedia" on the polariza tion of light is from the pen of Arago. His complete works appeared in Paris in 17 vols. (1855- 60), under the direction of Barral. From the royal society of London he received in 1829 the Copley medal, an honor never before conferred upon a French man of science. When Napoleon, after the battle of Waterloo, thought of emigrating to the United States, for the purpose of devoting the remainder of his life to scientific pursuits, he invited Arago to accompany him ; and when this intention was foiled by the English, Monge endeavored m vain to prevail upon Arago to follow the ex-empe ror to St. Helena. On the outbreak of the revolution of 1830, Arago espoused the cause of the people. In 1831 he was elected member of the chamber of deputies by his native de partment of Pyrenees-Orientales, and took his seat on the extreme left. He delivered mem orable speeches in behalf of science and educa tion, and in the political questions of the day he strenuously opposed all encroachments upon the rights of the people, and denounced the government monopoly of railways and the project of the fortifications of Paris. lie was also a member of the council general of the Seine, of which he was president till 1849, arid the declaration of the council in favor of the emancipation of slaves was due to him. He took a conspicuous part in the movement which led to the overthrow of Louis Philippe, and on Feb. 24, 1848, he became a member of the provisional government, and officiated first as minister of marine, and afterward added to the functions of this office the duties of the war department. He belonged to the republi can wing of Marrast and Marie, who opposed the theories of the socialists, and advocated liberal institutions, as they exist in the United States. At the same time he represented his native department in the constituent assembly. When the provisional government surrendered the reins of power, the assembly appointed him member of the executive commission. In this position he displayed great personal courage during the bloody days of June, 1848. He opposed the election of Louis Napoleon to the presidency, and gradually ceased to take part in public affairs. But to the last he proved true to his republican creed, and after the coup d etat of December, 1851, refused to take the oath to the government of Louis Napoleon. II. Jean, brother of the preceding, born in 1788, died in Mexico, July 9, 1836. He was a sub- treasurer in Perpignan, and, having been de prived of his appointment on a denunciation which subsequently turned out to be false, he embarked for New Orleans, and, joining the younger Mina, became a general in the Mex ican service in the war of independence. III. Jacques Etienne Victor, brother of the preceding, born at Estagel, March 10, 1790, died in Brazil in January, 1855. When only 20 years of age he made an artist s tour through various coun tries of the Mediterranean. In 1817 lie sailed in the exploring vessel Uranie as draughtsman to the expedition. The ship was wrecked at the Moluccas, and Arago did not return to France till 1821. He afterward resided at Bordeaux and Toulouse, and lost his sight in 1837, which, however, did not prevent him from engaging in new voyages. His most interesting work is Souvenirs d un axcugle: Voyage autour du monde (with illustrations and comments by Francois Arago, 2 vols., Paris, 1838 et seq.~). IV. Etienne, brother of the preceding, born at Perpignan, Feb. 7, ARAGO ARAGON G20 1803. He studied at Loreze, and undertook a course of chemistry at the polytechnic school, which he quitted for the purpose of joining the secret societies. He established the Lorgnette and Figaro newspapers, and was director of the Vaudeville until it was burned down. He has written upward of 100 theatrical pieces, including Lcs aristocraties, a five-act comedy, j produced at the Theatre-Fran^ais. In 1830 j he closed his theatre to join in the popular ! movement, and distributed the theatrical stock j of arms to the people during the three days of I July. He was among the most prominent to j signalize his disapproval of the shortcomings of Louis Philippe s government, which cancelled I his theatrical license in 1840. The Reforme, a daily democratic journal, was founded by Etienne Arago. He was one of the prime j movers in the revolution of 1848, and placed i himself in the direction of the post office, I which post he held till the retirement of Gen. Cavaignac. In 1849 he was expelled from | France for his participation in revolutionary j movements, and went to Belgium, which coun- i try he was also obliged to leave in 1851 at the request of Louis Xapoleon ; and after wander ing about in different countries, he settled at I Turin. The amnesty of 1859 enabled him to return to Paris. He attracted much public at tention in 1862 by leaving the societe des gens de lettres upon the ground of its being con trolled by the banker Mires and other schemers. ! In 1870 he was mayor of Paris from Sept. 5 to Oct. 31, when the invasion of the hotel de ville forced him to retire. Among his later productions are a poem on Spa, the Belgian watering place (Brussels, 1851); a historical novel relating to the Vendean wars, Lcs Blancs et les Bleus (2 vols., Paris, 1862); and a vin- ; dication of his course in the February revo- ; lution, Les pastes en 1848 (1867). V. Em manuel, an advocate and politician, son of j Dominique Francois, born in Paris, Aug. 6, I 1812. His name as well as his opinions and tendencies caused him to be retained in several < political cases of importance. In 1839 he de- I fended Barbes and Martin Bernard. He took I an active part in the revolution of 1848. When the abdication of Louis Philippe was announced j in the chamber, Arago, who had penetrated j thither, rose and loudly proclaimed that royalty ! was by this act extinct, and that the people j objected to a regency. Lamartine and other j deputies followed, and a provisional govern ment was organized on the spot. Lyons being : in a turbulent state on account of destitution j among the working class, Arago went there as j commissary general, with plenary powers, and | ordered 500,000 francs to be immediately ap- ; plied in relief of the distress. This action was I subsequently made the subject of furious party j invective, lie became a member of the legishi- tive assembly for the Pyrenees- Orientales, and i was envoy in Berlin from May till December, : when on Louis Napoleon s election to the presi- ! dency he resigned, and strenuously opposed him after his return to Paris in the constituent and subsequently in the legislative assembly. After the establishment of the second empire, he devoted himself almost exclusively to the law, acquiring distinction by defending in 1867 the Pole Berezowski, who attempted to mur der the czar at the time of the Paris exposi tion, and in 1868, together with Gambetta and Cremieux, the journalist Peyrat, who had started the project of a monument in honor of Baudin. In 1869 he was put forward for the legislative assembly in two departments, but defeated by the government candidates. In 1870 he became a member of the provisional government without portfolio, resisting the ag gressions of the rioters on Oct. 31. At the age of 20 Emmanuel Arago published a volume of poems, and was for five years afterward en gaged in theatrical writing. ARAGOi\, formerly a kingdom, now a royal captaincy general in the northeast of Spain, bounded X. by the Pyrenees, separating it from France, E. by Catalonia, S. E. by Valencia, S. W. by Xew Castile, and W. by Old Castile and Xavarre; area, 17,984 sq. m. , pop. in 1867 (estimated), 925,773. The surface is irregular from the numerous spurs of the Pyrenees that cross it, besides which it is separated from the neighboring provinces by ranges of lofty hills, that convert it almost into a basin. The* Pyre- nean chain in Aragon reaches a great altitude, some peaks exceeding 11,000 feet. The prov ince is watered by the Ebro and its tributaries, the Huecha, Jalon, Jiloca. Huerva, Aguas, Mar tin, Guadalupe, and Xonaspe, on the right, the Gallego, Isuela, and Cinca on the left. A canal commenced in 1528 by Charles V. stopped short of its object, which was to reach the sea at Tortosa, and furnish a maritime outlet for the province. It extends from Tudela, in Xavarre, to Sastago. Its average width is 69 feet, its depth 9 feet. It is mostly lined by high, thick walls, and crosses the Jalon river by an aque duct 4,800 feet in length. The chief produc tions of Aragon are grain, flax, and hemp of good quality, fruits of various kind, maize, wine, and various dyestuffs. The mineral produc tions are iron, quicksilver, lead, copper, cobalt, marble, and coal. The mines and quarries are indifferently worked, the chief being one of rock salt near Remolinos. Cattle are not very plentiful, but sheep and swine are bred in con siderable numbers. The mountains and forests abound in game. Aragon is divided into three provinces, Huesca, Saragossa, and Teruel. The principal city is Saragossa. After the fall of the Roman empire Aragon passed into the hands of the Visigoths. Early in the 8th century it was conquered by the Moors, from whom it was eventually taken by the rulers of Xavarre. In 1035 Ramiro I., son of Sancho III. of Xa varre, received it in partition and raised it from a county to a kingdom. The four suc ceeding kings of the same house enlarged the kingdom, which, after the acquisition of the county of Barcelona, passed from the Xavarre C30 ARAGON ARAKTCIIEYEFF to the Barcelona dynasty about the middle of the 12th century. The latter gave 11 kings to Aragon, ending with Martin in 1410, and won and kept the Balearic islands, Sicily, and Sardinia. The Barcelona dynasty was succeed ed in 1412 hy Ferdinand I. as the first king of the house of Castile. In consequence of the marriage of Ferdinand II. with Isabella, heiress of Castile, in 1409, Aragon and Castile were united, and the consolidation of the Spanish mon archy dates from the accession of their grandson Charles V. (1510). The Aragonese had prob ably the earliest representative system of Eu rope. Their fueros (constitutional charter) com pelled the king to take an oath to support them, to give to his subjects half the territory lie should take from the enemy, not to enact laws without their consent, nor to declare war or to make peace without the consent of his counsellors. The fucros provided a cortes, in which all classes of the state were represented, and also enunciated principles of self-govern ment and popular rights not exceeded by the liberalism of the present day. To insure the sovereign s adherence to this compact, ajvsti- cia was provided for as guardian of the laws. He was to be appointed by king and cortes to gether ; his decisions were without appeal, and he was only answerable to the nation at large. The cortes were composed of the nobility, the caballeros, and the commons, to whom in 1301 the ecclesiastics were added. Unanimous consent of the king and the four orders was requisite to a law. The cortes were summoned and dismissed by the king, who presided at their deliberations in person, unless unable to do so, in which case the crown prince or his lieutenant was present. He could not remain in the cortes at the taking of the votes on a measure. Every Aragonese had the right to lay before the cortes any greuges (grudges or grievances) in relation to a breach of ihefueros of the kingdom, and the cortes appointed a committee to report on the grievance. After all petitions and grievances had been disposed of, but not before, the cortes voted the supplies for the services of the state. These supplies were of a limited character. In 1370 the first money grant was asked by Pedro IV. to levy a body of men-at-arms. The Aragonese cortes refused, being "accustomed," as they said, "to serve the king with their persons, not their purses." Subsequently, the same king, how ever, coaxed his subjects into a loan. In 1412 Ferdinand I. obtained another loan, which loans paved the way to royal aids, benevo lences, and other exactions. On the dissolu tion of the cortes, officers called a disputacion, and associated with thejusticia, were appointed by the cortes to watch over the public interests until they met again. The Aragonese had an ancient constitutional right of taking up arms as a defence against the refusal of their king to observe and protect their fueros. The king at his coronation having taken the oath to uphold the constitution, protect the fueros, and do jus tice, the justicia who administered it replied in the name of the people, " We, who are worth as much as you, take you for our king and lord, provided you keep our laws and liberties ; otherwise not." The decline of Aragonese lib erty began with the union of the crowns of ! Aragon and Castile, which increased the power of the monarchy ; and the accession of Charles V. was the death blow to the liberty and privi leges of the Spanish cities and provinces*. In the reign of Philip II. the justicia, Juan de Samoza, having summoned the people to arms to protect their fueros, the king sent a force against him, and wrote an autograph letter to his general, directing him to take and pun ish the justicia without delay ; an order which was strictly obeyed, the judge being beheaded without form of trial. ARAGOJVA, a town of Sicily, in the province and 8 m. N. by E. of Girgenti ; pop. about 8,000. It is a very poor place, situated on a bare plain, backed by steep hills ; but it has a large castle of the princes of Aragon a, and is in the neighborhood of extensive sulphur mines, and of the mud volcanoes called Maccalube, which rise about 200 feet above the plain, and are known to have been in a state of continual activity for 1,500 years. ARAGUAY, or Araguaya, a river of Brazil, rises in lat. 18 10 S. and Ion. 51 30 W., flows northward, between the provinces of Matto Grosso and Goyaz, to Sao Joao, lat. 5 S., where it unites with the Tocantins, and the combined stream discharges its waters, after a course of nearly 400 m. further, into the south ern estuary of the Amazon, in lat. 1 40 S. Its whole course is about 1,300 m., of which about 1,100 are navigable. About midway in its course it separates into two arms, which en close the island of Banana or Santa Anna, 210 in. long and 40 broad. Its principal tributary is Das Mortes, which joins it in lat. 12 S. Many tribes of warlike savages are found on the banks of the Araguay. It furnishes an un interrupted navigation from Parti almost to the head waters of the Parana. ARAKTIHEYEFF, Alexei, count, a Russian statesman, born in 1709, died May 3, 1834. He was of an obscure family, was educated in the military school of St. Petersburg, entered the ar tillery, and reached in it the highest rank. He was a favorite of Paul I., and for a short time governor general of St. Petersburg, but was dismissed on account of his insufferable harsh ness. Paul made him commander of his fa vorite regiment of guards at Gatchina, an im perial residence in the environs of the capital. Suspicious of danger, Paul the day before his murder sent an order for Araktcheyeff and his regiment. The courier was detained by the conspirators, and Araktcheyeff reached the barriers of the capital too late. Alexander, the successor of Paul, kept Araktcheyeff near his person, and he remained unshaken in his mas ter s favor. He was energetic and active, but hard and utterly distrustful. The military col- ARAL ARAM CC1 onies introduced into Russia under Alexander, were created and organized by Araktcheyelf amid bloodshed and cruelties. During the last years of the czar s reign Araktcheyeff became j virtual ruler of the empire, issuing laws and j ukases on blanks with the imperial signature. ; Soon after Alexander s death he was ordered to confine his residence to his estates at Gru- I zino. He left the bulk of his large fortune to a military school founded by him in Gruzino, and $20,000 to serve, with the accumulated inter est, as a prize for the best history of the reign of Alexander, 100 years after his death. It is supposed that this part of the will was an- : nulled by Nicholas. ARAL, Sea of, a large inland sea or lake of ; Asiatic Russia and Turkistan, between lat. 42 ! 30 and 47 X., and Ion. 57 30 and 61 30 E. j It lies about 40 feet above the ocean, and more than 100 feet above the Caspian sea, from which it is 200 m. distant at the nearest point, and with which Humboldt and others suppose it to have been formerly connected. The Aral, covering an area of about 24,000 sq. m., is, next to the Caspian, the largest inland sea of the eastern hemisphere. It is shallow, with many islands. It has no outlet, but the Sir Darya or Sihoon (the Jaxartes of the ancients), the Amu Darya or Jihoon (the Oxus), and several smaller rivers flow into it. The water is brackish, but is freely drunk by horses, and is used for culi nary purposes. Fish are abundant. The navi gation of the sea of Aral is exceedingly difficult for sailing vessels; perfect calms alternate with violent and sudden storms, oftenest com ing from the northeast. The harbors and anchorages are few and insecure. The shores are generally low and sandy, but on the north- I ern side are small hills of clay. Its borders are generally uninhabited in summer, but in ; winter they are frequented by nomadic tribes j from the Kirghiz steppes. The sea of Aral is ; in the power of the Russian empire. The Rus- j sians explored and made a map of it as early \ as 1740, and they sent occasional expeditions to its borders till 1847, when they built a fort at the mouth of the Sir, and began to take j military possession of the principal islands of ; the lake. Colonies were soon afterward | founded, and Russian vessels began the regular j navigation which they have since continued. ARAM (Latinized Aramcea), the Hebrew i name of the region lying N. and E. of Pales- ! tine and Phoenicia, and extending to the Tigris, j the northern and southern boundaries never i having been accurately defined. It correspond- j ed generally to Syria and Mesopotamia of the Greeks and Romans, and included parts of Chal- | dea and Assyria. In the Septuagint the name j is usually rendered by Syria. It means high- I lands, for, although most of the region is a low ! plain, the part which immediately borders upon Palestine is elevated. That portion between the Tigris and Euphrates is specially designated as Aram-naharaim, "Aram of the two rivers," answering to the Greek Meaon-orap a. Here was the original home of Abraham, whence he migrated to Canaan. From this migra tion dates the long separation between the lie- brews and their AramaBan kindred. The Ara maic language remained in a rude state after the separation, while the Hebrew, which was undoubtedly at first identical with it, became greatly developed ; so that in the time of Hezekiah the former was unintelligible to the mass of the Jews. When the ten tribes of Israel were carried away, their place was partly supplied by various AramaBan immigrants, who gradually formed a patois designated as Gali lean or Samaritan. The exiles from Judah, du ring their residence in Babylonia, abandoned their own language and adopted the Aramaic, which they brought back with them to Judea. This formed the current language in Palestine until it was partially superseded, after the Ma cedonian conquest, by the Greek. Christ and his principal disciples probably spoke both lan guages ; they certainly spoke Aramaic. In the 7th century the Moslem invasion of Syria in troduced the Arabic language, which gradu ally took the place of the Aramaic ; and the latter has become nearly extinct, existing now as a living tongue only among the Syrian Christians near Mosul. Properly speaking, the Aramaic has no literature of its own. As a written language it has been used in its two branches, the Chaldee and Syriac, only by the Hebrews and eastern Christians, and by them only in treating of religious subjects. The ca nonical books of the Old Testament contain two extended passages in Chaldee (Ezra vii. 12-26 ; Dan. ii. 4 to vii. 28). Several of the apocry phal books were written in Aramaic, although they now exist only in the Greek translation. The versions of Hebrew Scriptures known as Targums are written in Aramaic. It is not unlikely that the Gospel of Matthew was origi nally written in it, although we have it authen tically only in its Greek form. The Talmud, as a whole, is written in Aramaic, but with such variations from the main dialects that some have proposed to give the name Talmudic to the idiom in which it is composed. (See CHAL DEE LANGUAGE AXD LITERATURE, and SYRIAO LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.) ARAM, Engene, an English scholar, born at Ramsgill, Yorkshire, in 1704, executed at York for murder, Aug. 6, 1759. Aram enjoyed a remarkable reputation for extensive scholar ship acquired under the greatest difficulties,- his father having been a poor gardener. After his marriage he established himself as a school master in his native district of Netherdale. In 1734 he removed his school to Knaresborough, where in 1745 he became implicated in a rob bery committed by Daniel Clark, a shoemaker of Knaresborough; and being discharged for want of evidence, he went to London. Clark disappeared mysteriously at the same time. Aram, while employed as school usher in vari ous towns, and in an academy at Lynn in Norfolk, pursued his favorite studies, and was 632 ARANDA ARAPAIIOES engaged in compiling a comparative lexicon of the English, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Celtic languages, when he was arrested on the charge of murder. Aram s wife had frequently in timated that he and a man named Houseman .were privy to the mystery of Clark s dis appearance. Houseman, on being pressed by the coroner, testified that Ararn and a man named Ferry were the murderers, and that the body had been buried in a particular part of St. Robert s cave, a well known spot near Knaresborough. A skeleton was discovered in the exact place indicated, and Houseman s evidence led to Aram s conviction. Aram re fused the services of counsel, and conducted his own defence in an elaborate and scholarly manner, making an ingenious plea of the gen eral fallibility of circumstantial evidence, es pecially that connected with the discovery of human bones. After condemnation he ac knowledged his guilt. On the night before the execution he attempted suicide, but was discovered before he had bled to death, and his sentence was carried into eftect three days after it was pronounced. Before he attempted suicide he wrote an essay on the subject, and also a sketch of his life. Of his " Comparative Lexicon " only passages from the preface are extant. He left a widow and six children. A veil of poetry has been thrown over his fate by Thomas Hood s ballad of " The Dream of Eu gene Ararn," and Bulwer s romance of "Eu gene Aram." ARANDA, Pedro Pablo Abarca y Bolea, count of, a Spanish statesman, born in Saragossa in Decem ber, 1718, died in 1799. He first served in the army, but subsequently devoted himself to the civil service. After officiating for seven years as ambassador of Charles III. at the court of Poland, he was appointed commander of the .army in Portugal. Here he captured Almeida in August, 1762, and was afterward appointed | captain general of Valencia. In 1765, after quelling an insurrection in Madrid, he was made president of the council of Castile, and soon after prime minister. He inaugurated a new municipal system, established schools, provided Madrid with a permanent garrison, | strengthened the army and navy, advanced the j industrial and agricultural interests of the king dom, and reformed the financial condition of the bank of San Carlos. He established a law which ; made the sanction of the council of Castile requi- | site for the validity of the decrees of the Vati- I can, opposed the inquisition, and set up apoliti cal censorship in order to neutralize its influ ence. By a decree of April 2, 1707, the Jesuits were expelled from Spain, and their property confiscated. The hostility of the clerical party, heightened by his confidential correspondence with Voltaire, who had urged him to persevere in his work of reform, forced him in 1773 to tender his resignation as prime minister. Ac cepting the post of ambassador at Paris, he became noted for his opposition to England, which had indeed always been the leadin^ ; feature of his foreign policy. He prevailed I upon Charles ILL to join France in supporting the cause of America, and in 1783 was one of the signers of the treaty of Paris, which recog nized the independence of the United States. In 1787 he returned to Spain, and in 1792 again became prime minister as successor of Florida Blanca ; but under Charles IV. he was forced to surrender the place to the queen s favorite, Godoy. On occasion of the war with France, he expressed himself against its justice, and this remark was seized upon as a pretext to banish him from the capital. ARAJVJUEZ (anc. Am Jovia), a town of Spain, in the province and DO m. by railway S. of the city of Madrid, on the left bank of the Tagus; pop. 3,800. It is the site of a royal palace of great beauty founded by Philip II., a favorite retreat of the monarchs of Spain during the spring, and is well supplied with gardens, cafes, hotels, and various places of fashionable amusement. The presence of the court swells the population to about 20,000. j In summer the place is not healthy. ARAM, Janos, a Hungarian poet, born at Nagy-Szalonta, in the county of Bihar, in 1817. He is the son of a poor Protestant, who edu cated him for the church. After leaving col lege he roamed for a while with a troop of strolling players, and then returned to Szalonta and supported himself as a teacher of Latin. In 1843, the Kisfaludy society having offered a prize for the best popular epic, Arany won it by his poem, Az cheszett alkotmdny ("The Lost Constitution"). In 1847 he sent to -the same society the first part of his greatest pro duction, the trilogy Toldi. The society gave the author more than the stipulated price, and had it printed at their expense. In February, 1848, appeared his Murdny ostroma ("Siege of Murany "). Since 1848 his chief literary works have been Katalin (1850), the second part of Toldi (1854), two volumes of lyric poems (1857), and another trilogy, Buda liaid- la, the first part of which appeared in 1864. ARAPAHOE, an E. county of Colorado terri tory ; area, 4,600 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 6,829. The Kansas Pacific railroad passes through the county and terminates at Denver, and is con nected by a branch from that city with the Union Pacific at Cheyenne. Capital, Denver, which is also the capital of the territory. ARAPAHOES, an Indian tribe which has for many years resided near the head waters of the Arkansas and Platte rivers. They are known also as Fall Indians, and were called by the French the Gros Ventres of the south. Gallatin supposed them to be the Querechos of early Span ish explorers in New Mexico. They style them selves Atsina. This is apparently another form of Asinais or Cenis, a confederation of tribes vis ited by La Salle at this point, and subsequently by Spanish missionaries and French traders. The Arapahoes, like the Asinais, are by language allied to the Caddoes. At the present time they are one of the five tribes constituting the ARARAT ARATUS C33 Blackfcet confederacy. In 1822 they were a powerful tribe estimated at 10,000, but in 1842 they had dwindled to 2,500 in 300 lodges, and, with the disappearance of the buffalo, are rap idly declining. ARARAT (Arm. Ma sis ; Turk. Agri Daglt), a mountain of western Asia, considered a portion of the " mountains of Ararat " on which, ac cording to Gen. viii. 4, Noah s ark rested after the deluge. It is divided into two peaks, Great Ararat on the N. W. and Little Ararat on the S. E., whose bases blend, while their summits are nearly 7 m. apart. The summit of Great Ararat lies in lat. 39 42 X., Ion. 44 38 E., and is 17,323 feet above the sea level, and 14,320 feet above its base. For more than 3,000 feet below its summit it is constantly covered with snow and ice. Little Ararat is lower by about 4,000 feet, and is free from snow and ice in September and October. The two mountains are of volcanic character, an eruption having taken place from them as lately as July, 1840. The apex of Great Ararat was visited on Oct. 9, 1829, by Parrot. Ararat is the central point of the dividing lines of Ar menia, and the great landmark between Russia, Turkey, and Persia. ARARAT, or Pilot Mountain, a mountain of Xorth Carolina, in Surrey county, between the Ararat and Dan rivers. It is of a pyramidal form and one third of a mile high ; and its top is a plateau one acre in extent, on which is a gigantic rock 300 feet high. ARAS. See AKAXES. ARATUS. I. A Greek poet, born at Soli in Cilicia, flourished about 270 B. 0. He was educated under Dionysius of Heraclea, a Stoic, the principles of which sect he embraced. He was a friend of Ptolemy Philadelphia, and also of Antigonus Gonatas, king of Macedon, at Mount Ararat. whose instigation he embodied most of the as tronomical knowledge then possessed by the Greeks in two philosophical poems. The first, Phenomena, gave a general description of the heavenly bodies and their movements, while the second, Diosemeia, described their influ ence on the atmosphere. These poems pos sess much merit. Aratus is the poet whom St. Paul quotes in his speech on Mars Hill, Acts xvii. 28. The best edition of his works is by Buhle (2 vols. 8vo, Leipsic, 1793, 1801). II. A Greek general and statesman, son of Clinias, born at Sicyon, 271 B. C., died in 213. On account of the murder of his father and many of his relatives by Abantidas, their enemy in one of the political contests of the time, he was taken while very young to Argos, where he was educated till he reached the age of 20. At this period he succeeded in carrying out, without bloodshed, a revolution he had long plotted with some Argive friends, by which Xicocles, a usurper who had made himself ty rant of Sicyon, was dethroned and the city set free. Aratus persuaded the citizens to join the Achaean league, of which he was elected general in 245. Reflected in 243, he captured the cita del of Corinth and expelled its Macedonian garrison. Corinth was easily induced to join the AchaBans, and was soon followed by Trce- zen, Epidaurus, Megara, Cleona?, Argos, and Megalopolis. He now hoped to unite all the governments of Greece ; but the power of the Acha3an league already began to excite the jealousy of the JEtolians, and of Cleomenes III., king of Sparta, who aspired to restore the Spartan hegemony. Its first active en emy was the latter, who began a war about 224. Aratus defeated him, but only by sum- ARAUCANIANS moning to his aid Antigonus Doson, king of Macedon, and by taking the unfortunate step of delivering to him Corinth and its citadel as the price of his assistance. Antigonus took advan tage of this offer, which at once proved fatal to the power of the Achaean cities. He became gen eral of the league, and gradually gained complete control of it, transmitting this authority to his son Philip. Aratus remained a prominent lead er in spite of the Macedonian rule ; but in a new war which soon broke out with the ^Etolians (22 1 to 210), he was unsuccessful. He was tried for neglect of duty, but acquitted in considera tion of his past services. From this time he was little more than an adviser of the Macedonian king, who had now made the league completely dependent upon himself; and although ap pointed general for the 17th time in 21 7, he never attained his old influence. According to Plutarch and Polybius, whose story has been doubted by many historians, he was put to death by slow poison, given by Philip s order. The Greeks paid divine honors to his memory, and celebrated twice a year games called Ara- teia one on the anniversary of his birth, and one on that of his deliverance of Sicyon. ARAUCANIANS, an Indian nation inhabiting the provinces of Arauco and Valdivia, Chili. The name is derived from the Indian word auca, meaning frank, or free. As offering the most successful example of Indian self-government in the presence of the European races, the Araucanians are of interest to the philosopher and the ethnologist. The chief authority with regard to them is "Molina s History of Chili," of which an English translation was published at Middletown, Conn., in 1808. Five different poems have been written by Europeans upon their patriotic struggles against the European invaders. The best are the Araucana of Alonso de Ercilla, a Spanish knight of the 16th century, who took part in the wars he describes, and the Puren Indomito of Alva rez de Toledo (Paris, 1862). The Araucanians were first invaded by the Spaniards in 1537. Valdivia founded many settlements in their country, which with their founder were de stroyed in 1602. In 1641 the marquis de Baydes made a treaty with their chief, but in 1665 war commenced again, and lasted at in tervals until 1773, when Spain at length ac knowledged the independence of the Arauca nians, and allowed them to maintain an embassy at Santiago de Chili. In the contest between the mother country and the Chilian colonists, they preserved a strict neutrality. Schmidt- meyer visited them in 1820, and published his "Travels into Chili, over the Andes," in 1820- 21. Mr. Edward Reuel Smith, of the U. S. astronomical expedition in Chili, published "The Araucanians, or Notes of a Tour among the Indian Tribes of Southern Chili" (New York, 1855). The territory of Arauco has been from time immemorial divided into four vu- thanmapus or uthalmapus, or provinces, each presided over by a magistrate called a toqui; these four provinces correspond to the natural divisions of the country, viz., the maritime province, the plain province, the province at j the foot of the Andes, and the province in the Andes. Each of these is divided into five illarehues, ruled by an ftpo-ulmene, and each illarehue is further subdivided into nine rehucs j or townships, over each of which presides an | ulmene, or head of a clan. The symbol of a toqui is an axe of porphyry or marble ; of an apo-ulmene, a staff with a silver head and a silver ring round the middle ; of an ulmene, the same without the silver ring round the I middle. All of these dignities are hereditary according to primogeniture. No regular trib ute or any predial service is payable by the clan to the ulmene, by the ulrnenes to the apo-ul mene, or by the apo-ulmenes to the toqui. In time of war, however, military service is acknowledged as the most sacred of duties. The four toquis, or governors of provinces, form the grand council of the Araucanian fed eration, presided over by one of its own mem bers, the grand toqui. This council decides on war and peace, and on emergencies calls to gether the general assembly. At this diet, every toqui, apo-ulmene, and ulmene may at tend ; it chooses the commander-in-chief from among the four toquis ; but if none of them are qualified, then from the diet at large. The levy is made by the ulmenes upon their several clans. The army consists of both cavalry and infan try. The toqui Cadeguala was the first who established a regular body of cavalry, in 1585. The diet is held in a large plain which lies be tween the rivers Biobio and Dunqueco. The religion of the Araucanians is akin to their political institutions. Their Supreme Being is the great toqui of the universe; he has his subordinate ulmenes to look after details. These are, the god of war, the beneficent god, the god of mankind, and others. Guecubu is the god of evil. The celestials exact no trib ute from their subjects here below ; therefore the Araucanian builds no temples nor idols, supports no priests, and rarely offers sacrifice. After the death of the body, the soul goes into paradise, a region which lies on the other side of the Andes. Their religion, in other respects, resembles other primitive creeds. They hate the Spanish language, and their toquis, though | well acquainted with it, will never use it on | any public occasion. They make a foreigner j take an Araucanian name before he is allowed to settle among them. . A missionary, when prea ching to them, is often interrupted in the midst of his discourse, if he commits a blunder. The Araucanians are stoutly built, and of mod- ! erate height. Their complexion is olive, and lighter than the other South American Indians; j they have a round face, low forehead, short, broad nose, small, fiery eyes, small lips, and long head. The women do all the home and | field work; the men hunt, fight, and tend the flocks. They live in wooden or reed plastered houses, well built, and often 60 feet by 5 in AEAUCO ARBITRATION G35 s!zo, not in villages, but in the centre of their plantations. They raise wheat, maize, and barley, peas and beans, potatoes, cabbages, and fruit, as well as flax, and keep numbers of cat tle and horses. Before the arrival of the Eu ropeans they wove ponchos and coarse woollen cloths of very good workmanship. Their lan guage is very wide-spread, and had nine recog nized dialects. It was spoken from lat. 25 S. to Cape Horn, and eastward to Buenos Ayres. The best grammar is the Chilian grammar of Febres (Lima, 1765; Santiago, 1846). Mo lina s account has been accused of exaggera tion, and may be compared with the works of Gilj, Havestadt, Falkner, &c. In 1861 a Frenchman named De Tonneins, having ingra tiated himself with the tribes, was proclaimed king of Araucania under the title of Orelie An- toine I. He was soon at war with Chili, and was captured in January, 1862, on Araucanian territory. The arrest was pronounced illegal, but the Chilian government held him some time as a lunatic, permitting him finally to go to France, where the validity of his regal title was formally recognized in the course of a lawsuit. He published Orelie-Antoine I" T , roi d 1 Araucanie et de Patagonie, et sa captivite au Chili (1863). He afterward returned to Arau cania, and in 1869- 70 was again at war with Chili ; but in 1871 he was once more in France, and began publishing an official Araucanian journal at Marseilles, striking medals, estab lishing orders of knighthood, &c. He left in Araucania a deputy, one Planchut, who soon usurped the regal title. ARAICO, a southern province of Chili, di vided into the three departments of Arauco, Laja, and Nacimiento; area, 13,500 sq. m. ; pop. in 1868, 82,709, besides some 35,000 In dians. Capital, Arauco, on a bay of the same name, 300 m. S. of Valparaiso. This province was created by decree of Dec. 7, 1852 ; but the Araucanian Indians still maintain their independence in the interior. ARAXES (now Aras), a river in Armenia, ris ing about 25 m. from Erzerum, in lat. 41 30 N., Ion. 41 10 E., between the E. and W. branches of the Euphrates. It flows E., S. E., and N. E., and after a course of about 425 m. unites with the Kur about 75 m. from its mouth in the Caspian. It is notable for the impetuosity of its current. Virgil describes it as u disdaining a bridge," but it is now crossed by four stone bridges. There can be little doubt that the Aras is the river descended by He rodotus under the name of Araxes, although Rennell thinks the Jaxartes was meant ; and it has been supposed also to be the Oxus, and even the Volga. By Araxes Xenophon proba bly intended the Chaboras, an affluent of the Euphrates. The river now known as the Ben- damir was also called Araxes. It rises in central Persia, flows past the ruins of Perse- polis, and after a course of about 150 m. falls into the salt lake of Bakhtegan or Negris, in lat. 29 30 N., Ion. 52 30 E. ARBACES, the founder of the Median empire, according to Ctesias, who asserts that Arbaces, jointly with Belesis of Babylon, captured Nine veh and overthrew the empire of Sardamipa- lus (876 B. C.), that he reigned 28 years, and that his dynasty numbered eight kings. These statements differ from those of Herodotus. ARBALAST, or Crossbow. See AKCIIEEY. ARBELA, the ancient name of Arbil or Erbil, a small village in Turkish Kurdistan, which lies on the usual route between Bagdad and Mosul, about 40 m. E. by S. of the latter city, in lat. 36 11 N., according to the elder Niebuhr s observations. The third and last of the great battles between Alexander and Darius (331 B. C.) is called after this place, though it was not actually fought at Arbela, but at a place 36 m. W. by N. called Gaugamela, now Karmelis. ARBITER, a Roman umpire, chosen by an agreement (in the Roman law compromusum) between contending parties, to decide their differences. His decision was called the arbi- trium. Such a judge, chosen by the parties themselves, was an arbiter receptus. An arbiter datus was appointed by the praetor to decide in matters purely of equity, while the judex deci ded in matters of law and precedent. The du ties and rights of these officers, with the extent to which the decisions of an arbiter could be en forced, were sharply defined by the Roman law. ARBITRATION, the decision by a private per son of matters of difference submitted to him by the parties. References differ from arbitra tions in that they are made with the sanction of the court, or at least are more directly un der its control, and are govered by the rules of law more strictly than arbitrations are. The law is not disposed to take away the ordinary means of relief by action or other proceedings at law, unless suitors have clearly signified their intention to give them up in favor of arbitration. The New York court of ap peals has held void an article of the constitu tion of a grand lodge of odd fellows, which created certain members a tribunal to pass upon violations of the rules of the order, with power to forfeit the delinquents right to property. Even if the defendants had signed such a constitution, the court said it would be against public policy to hold them bound by it, and that courts would not enforce the de cision of tribunals created by private compact, except in those cases where the parties had expressly submitted to arbitration definite mat ters of controversy. In a recent case in New York city, the court held that the so-called " arbitration clause " in the articles of associa tion of the board of brokers could have no other effect than an ordinary agreement to submit ; and the court declined to give a remedy against a member of the board who declined to submit to its jurisdiction, for that was only the exercise of the ordinary power of revocation. As a general rule, all matters in dispute concerning personal rights which may be the subject of actions may be referred to C3G ARBITRATION" arbitration ; such, for example, as breaches of contracts, differences about partnership affairs, the value of property, and questions of dam ages in cases of wrongs like assaults, trespass, or slander, where damages might be recovered by suit. Claims relating to real estate might at common law be submitted to arbitration. In such a case an arbitrator might direct that one party convey or release to the other. But a practical objection to this proceeding, so far at least as titles to land are concerned, is that the property in the land cannot pass by the award. In some of the states the statutes re lating to arbitrations forbid the submission of certain matters pertaining to real estate. Thus in New York no submission can be made of claims to the fee or to life estates in realty; but the same restraint is not imposed as to in terests in terms for years, nor to controversies as to boundaries, partitions, or the measure ment of dower. Nor are equitable rights re lating to real estate withdrawn from arbitra tion. The policy of the statute in these re spects has been said in New York to be to withdraw from the unlearned forum of arbitra tion those questions of title to lands which de pend on strict technical rules ; and that, since equitable claims even in respect to titles de pend rather on the general principles of jus tice, they may be well submitted. In gene ral, a crime cannot be withdrawn from the cognizance of the courts. But where a person has a remedy by action for private damages, collateral to the public remedy by indictment, as in cases of assault, libel, or nuisance, he may submit the question of his personal interests to arbitrators. Persons who are competent to contract are also capable of submitting their affairs to arbitration. It was the general rule at common law that married women could not make a submission, though there were excep tions to that rule in favor, of Avomen whose husbands were civilly dead or alien enemies. But since the enabling acts which have been lately very generally introduced, giving to married women separate estates, and indepen dent powers and capacity to contract in re spect to them, they have been held capable of consenting to arbitrations. An infant s sub mission is at common law, like most of his con tracts, voidable by him. But it has been held with regard to such agreements of infants, and of married women too, who had not the liberty of contracting which is conferred by the re cent married women s acts, that if an award is made against a party who entered into an ar bitration with either of them, it will bind him, even though the woman or the infant cannot j be held by it, because he must be presumed to | have known that at the outset, and if he did not ! intend to be bound, he should not have joined I in the submission. Whether one partner can bind his copartners by an agreement to arbi- I trate has been much discussed, and the weight of authority seems to be against his power to do so. But such an agreement may bind the ! partner who made it, and he may be held for the damages resulting from the refusal of his copartners to perform the award. In the ab sence of statutes to the contrary, the submis sion need not be in any special form, nor even in writing. But in most of the states, under the statutes on the subject, a submission may be made a rule of court; that is to say, the par ties may agree that the proceeding be entered of record in a court, and then the award upon confirmation has the effect of a judgment of that court, and may be enforced with the same legal remedies provided for judgments. These statutes require the submission to be in writing and executed with certain formalities. The statutes usually require that the arbitra tors shall be sworn, and that the witnesses shall be sworn also, either by them or by jus tices of the peace or other competent persons ; and that the attendance of witnesses may be compelled by subpoenas issued either by the arbi trators themselves or by justices or other judi cial officers. But it has been held in New York, though its statute requires the arbitrator to be sworn, that this is not an essential prerequisite to his jurisdiction, and that the omission of the oath is only an irregularity. When the sub mission provides for the appointment of an umpire by the arbitrators to decide between them if they disagree, this third person should be agreed upon before proceeding with the arbitration. The hearings by the arbitra tors should be on notice to both parties; and if they proceed ex parte and without notice to the party against whom the award is made, it is void. All the arbitrators must concur in the award, unless it is otherwise provided by statute or by the submission ; and when it is provided that, in case of their disagreement, the decision of the umpire shall be final, the award should in case of such a reference to the umpire proceed from him and be signed by him. The award must dispose of all the questions contained in the submission, and must conform to its terms in all respects. If it includes matters not covered by the sub mission, it will be good for so much as is au thorized by it, if that part can be separated from the rest ; but if it departs essentially and incurably from the submission, it is fatally bad. The award must be certain in its terms ; that is, it must inform each party precisely what he is to do. It must also be final and conclusive in all respects. The statutes of the several states usually define the grounds . on which awards may be set aside. In New York they may be vacated, on application to the court, for corruption or fraud or partiality on the part of the arbitrators; or if they were guilty of misconduct in refusing postponements, or in rejecting proper evidence, or exceeded their powers or imperfectly executed them in material points. And in the same state awards may be corrected for evident mistakes or for other imperfections. Very similar statutory provisions exist in Illinois, Missouri, and other ARBITRATION ARBLAY GO*T oT states. In several of the states it is also pro vided that an award may be vacated by the courts for any legal defects appearing on its face. The chief vice or weakness in the pro ceeding by arbitration is the power which either party has to revoke the authority given by him to the arbitrators. The only practical penalty for such a breach of the agreement, and even when there are bonds fixing precise sums by way of liquidated damages, is that the party who revokes must pay the expenses incurred by the other up to the revocation. In some of the states, as in Massachusetts and Maine, the statutes provide that neither party shall revoke the submission without the consent of the other. Bat in other states, as in New York and Missouri, the only restraint is, that no revocation shall be made after the cause is finally submitted to the arbitrators upon the evidence. The death of a party pending the proceedings operates as a revocation, unless it be expressly provided otherwise by the sub mission, or, as is the case in some of the states, by statute. A submission suspends, and an award bars, the right of suit on the original cause of action. The award must be made within the time directed by the agreement, and it is a nullity if made after that time, unless the parties consent to an extension of the time. The power of the arbitrators is exhausted by delivery of the award, and though in making it the} 7 have exceeded their powers or otherwise erred, they cannot recall it or make another one. The courts have repeatedly held that when not limited by the terms of the submis sion, the decisions of the arbitrators upon law and fact alike, provided that they act within the scope of their authority, are conclusive. If the award is Avithin the submission, and contains an honest and fair decision, a court of equity will not set it aside for error either in law or in fact. Judge Story and other high judicial authorities have further declared that arbitrators are not bound to award upon the mere dry principles of law applicable to the case before them, but may make their award upon principles of equity and good conscience. On the other hand, if the submission expressly provides that the case shall be decided accord ing to the law, and the arbitrators make a mis take in that respect, this will subject the find ing to revision by a court. In Pennsylvania, under a statute enacted in 1836, either party to a civil action may compel a submission of it to arbitrators by filing a rule in the prothono- tary s office calling for such a reference, and by serving a copy of the rule on his opponent. The number of the arbitrators, three or five or one, is fixed by the parties, or, if they cannot agree, by the prothonotary. The parties then by alternate nominations select the arbitrators; but if they cannot agree upon these, the pro thonotary makes up a list containing five names for each of the number of the arbitra tors, from which the parties alternately select the requisite number. In England a statute of 1807 provides for councils of conciliation and arbitration, which may be formed by mas ters and their workmen. These councils exer cise powers granted by former statutes of simi lar tenor (1 Victoria, ch. 07, and 8 and 9 Vic toria, ch. 77, 128), and by the present statute are authorized to hear and determine all ques tions of dispute and difference between the workmen and their masters; and their awards are final and not subject to review or challenge in any court. No attorneys, solicitors, or counsel are allowed to attend any hearing before the councils, without the consent of both sides. The courts of prudhor/unes are courts of a similar sort in France. They are established in Paris and Lyons and some of the other large cities, and take cognizance of disputes between master manufacturers and their work men, and between workmen and their appren tices. The court is composed of master work men or manufacturers and of foremen, six of each, one half of the number going out each year. The court acts first as a court of conciliation ; and if it fails to bring the parties to an agree ment, it has jurisdiction to the amount of 200 francs without appeal, and to any higher amount subject to appeals to a tribunal of commerce. It is said that almost all the cases brought before these courts are settled by con ciliation. ARBLAY, Madame d> (FRANCES BUEXEY), an English novelist, daughter of Charles Burney, born at Lynn in June, 1752, died Jan. 0, 1840. In her childhood she was silent and timid, and was considered uncommonly dull. In 1700 her father removed to London, and was much sought as a music teacher. After her mother s early death Frances was left to educate herself. Dr. Johnson was her father s friend, and Garrick his frequent guest, and the brilliant social cir cle in which he moved afforded rich material for genius to work upon. Miss Burney soon gave evidence that she rightly appreciated her privileges. In 1778 her novel kk Evelina" was published, under an assumed name, by a Mr. Lowndes, who gave her 20 for the copyright. Though the author of the book was unknown, and the publisher was not eminent, its suc cess was marvellous, and Miss Burney was at once classed among the first writers of fiction. "Evelina" was followed by a comedy, "The Witlings," which was never acted, nor even printed, and in 1782 appeared the novel of "Cecilia," which was successful. Three years after this she was appointed keeper of the queen s robes. After five years service she resigned this post on account of her failing health, and in 1793 married Alexandre Richard d Arblay, a French artillery officer, whom the revolution had made an exile. In 1790 "Ca milla" was published in five volumes, bringing the author a handsome sum of money, but no increase of fame. Ten years, 1802- 12, she passed in Paris, her husband having given in his allegiance to Napoleon s government. At the expiration of this term she returned alone 638 ARBOGAST ARBUTHNOT to England and produced another novel in five volumes, "The Wanderer," which had little popularity, and is now almost forgotten. At the peace her husband, now Gen. d Arblay, joined her, and remained with her till his death, at Bath, in 1818. In 1832 Madame d Arblay published the memoirs of her father, written in a turgid style, entirely at variance with her earlier diction. This was the closing work of her long life, which ended when she was 87 years old. The literary fame of Madame d Arblay rests upon "Evelina" and "Cecilia," her earliest works. ARBOGAST (ARBOGASTES), a Gaul in the mili tary service of the Romans during the latter half of the 4th century. In 388 he accompa nied Theodosius on his expedition to support Valentinian II. against the usurper Maximus. After the revolt was reduced, Arbogast, by the order of Theodosius, remained with Valentinian as adviser ; and when the latter attempted to recover his independence, Arbogast put to death all his partisans, and finally the emperor him self. Not daring to seize upon the imperial purple, he gave it to Eugenius, going himself to light against Marcomir, chief of the Franks. Theodosius marched into Italy to avenge his cousin, and Arbogast and Eugenius were de feated in the passes of the Julian Alps, in 394. Eugenius was captured and executed. Arbo gast escaped into the mountains, but soon de spairing, committed suicide. ARBOIS, a town of France, in the department of Jura, situated in the deep valley of the Cui- sance, 25 m. N. E. of Lons-le-Saulnier ; pop. in 1866, 5,895. The town has a college, and produces a noted wine. ARBOR YIT), a coniferous tree (tlivja\ with compressed evergreen foliage forming flattened brunches, strongly aromatic. Varieties are American Arbor Yitse. found throughout the northern temperate re gions of both continents. The tree bears prun ing well, and may be trimmed into conical or pyramidal standards, or worked into an excel- j lent hedge. In its wild state the American ; arbor vita3 (T. occidentalis) has loose spread- | ing branches when growing on the edges of \ streams, but it becomes bushy in cultivation. Its height varies from 20 to 50 feet, and it is one of the largest of all the species. The Chinese, Nepaulese, Siberian, and Tartarean are all beautiful varieties and easily cultivated, | although in northern New England they are ! apt to lose their branches by frost. The tJivja plicata is a curious variety from Nootka sound, with singular foliage. The cone of thuja is small, and in ripening assumes a vertical posi tion on the branches. ARBRISSEL, Robert of, founder of the order of Fontevrault, born at Arbrissel, Brittany, in 1047, died at Orsan in 1117. In 1085, upon his appointment as vicar general of the bishop of Rennes, he began sweeping reforms among the clergy and people of the diocese, which brought him into such bad odor that upon the death of his superior in 1089 he retired to Angers and gave instructions in theology. At the expira tion of two years, disgusted with the world, he retired into the forest of Craon, where he lived as a hermit. Numerous anchorets soon placed themselves under his direction, and he gave his followers the name of " The Poor of Christ." In 1096 he founded the abbey of La Roe, of which he became the first prior, but soon relinquished this peaceful life to travel barefooted through the country, preaching repentance and penance to the people. He soon had several thousand followers of both sexes, for whose accommoda tion he built a number of abbeys, the most celebrated of which is that of Fontevrault, near Poitiers, established in 1099. ARBROATH, Aberbrothwiok, or Aberbrothock, a royal and municipal burgh of Forfarshire, Scotland, on the North sea, at the mouth of the Brothwick or Brothock, 58 m. N. N. E. of Edinburgh ; pop. in 1871, 19,974. The town has a signal tower communicating with the Bell Rock lighthouse, which has been celebrated by Southey as the Inch Cape Rock under the pious care of the abbot of Aberbrothock. The once powerful abbey of Arbroath, founded in 1178 by William the Lion, who is buried here, in honor of Thomas a Becket, was destroyed by the re formers in 1560. All that remains of it is the ruined church with its cloisters, and an east window with a circular light at the top, a conspicuous mark for sailors, who call it the "round O of Arbroath." The small harbor is protected by a breakwater. Between 400 and 500 vessels enter and leave the port annually, with between 30,000 and 40,000 tons. There are four annual fairs and a weekly market. The imports are tallow, flax, hemp, and lin seed ; the exports grain, paving stones, and the local manufactures of sailcloth, thread, and leather. ARBUTIINOT, John, a Scottish physician and writer, born in Kincardineshire about 1675, | died in London, Feb. 27, 1735. He was the son of a Presbyterian clergyman, took his doc- ARBUTIINOT ARBUTUS GC9 tor s degree at the university of Aberdeen, and going to London, supported himself for a while by teaching mathematics. He made his first literary venture in 1007 in a critical essay en titled "An Examination of Dr. Woodward s Account of the Deluge," in which he aimed to show that a universal deluge was inconsistent with philosophical truth. The reputation which this work gave its author was considerably heightened in 1700 by his "Essay on the Use fulness of Mathematical Learning." He now began to practise as a physician, and quickly attained a high position in the profession, aided not a little by his witty conversation and agree able manners. In 1704 he contributed to the royal society a paper concerning the regularity of the birth of both sexes, which procured his election into that body. In 1709 he was ap pointed the queen s physician in ordinary, and the next year was admitted a member of the royal college of physicians. He lived in con stant intercourse with Pope, Swift, Gay, Par- nell, Gray, and Prior, in whose brilliant circle he was unequalled for learning and wit. In 1712 he wrote the "History of John Bull," a political allegory, designed to ridicule the duke of Maryborough and render the war unpopular. It is the most durable monument of his fame, and one of the best humorous compositions in the English language. He formed in 1714, in conjunction with Swift and Pope, the plan of writing a satire on the abuse of human learning in every branch. The design was to be ex ecuted in the humorous manner of Cervantes, in the form of a history of feigned adventures. It was frustrated by the death of Queen Anne, by which Arbuthnot lost his place, and a serious blow was given to all the political friends of the associated wits. The design was never carried further than an imperfect though witty and original essay, written chiefly by Arbuthnot, under the title of " First Book of the Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus." Dr. Arbuthnot vis ited Paris immediately after the death of the queen, and on his return continued his literary occupations and his medical practice. In 1717 he and Pope gave assistance to Gay in a farce entitled " Three Hours after Marriage," the fail ure of which is explained in part by the peculiar character of Arbuthnot s humor, which was something too refined and rare to be generally appreciated. In 1723 he was chosen second censor of the royal college of physicians, and in 1727 was made an elect of the college, and pronounced the Harveian oration. In 1727 also appeared the most valuable of his serious performances, entitled "Tables of Ancient Coins, Weights, and Measures." He continued to write humorous papers, among them a re markable epitaph upon the infamous Col. Char- teris. In 1732 he contributed toward detecting and punishing the impositions of the so-called "Charitable Corporation," and shortly after ward published his essays concerning " The Nature and Choice of Aliments," and " The Effects of Air on Human Bodies." He was [ then living in great debility at Hempstead, and, | failing to obtain relief, returned but a short time before his death to London. His last hu morous work was an entertaining and scholar- like paper on " The Altercation or Scolding of the Ancients." Arbuthnot was equally admir ed for his amiability and his wit. Some of his writings are so blended with those of his con federates that they are not easily distinguished. ARBUTUS, a genus of evergreen shrubs be longing to the natural order cricacece. The fruit is a berry containing many seeds. The- most remarkable species of this genus is the arbutus of Virgil, called the A. uncdo, or the strawberry tree, the berries of which bear a strong resemblance to the common strawberry. It is a native of the south of Europe and the Levant. In northern Europe it is a hardy ever green, sometimes attaining to a height of 20 feet, bearing greenish-yellow blossoms in Oc tober and November, and bright yellow and red berries in November and the following Arbutus unedo, or Strawberry Tree. I months. At the lake of Killarney in Ireland I there are beautiful groves of this species i of arbutus, which give a charming aspect | to the country. Its berries, if eaten freely, ! are apt to produce stupefaction. In Cor- 1 sica a pleasant wine is said to be prepared from I them. Its bark and leaves are astringent. | The oriental a v butus, A. andrachne, is a native i of the Levant, and has similar narcotic quali- | ties. It is superior in beauty, but much less hardy in cold climates, not bearing fruit in | northern Europe. Its leaves are broader and i less serrated ; its bark peels off so as to leave i the stem always smooth, and of a clear bright I cinnamon-brown color. The mule arbutus, | A. hybrida, apparently a cross between these I two, has great beauty of foliage, and in moder- I ately cold regions grows well, but does not 1 bear berries in northern Europe. A. procera 1 is a native of California, cultivated as an orna- | mental evergreen in the gardens of Great Brit ain. The trailing arbutus (epigcea repens) is 64:0 ARC ARCADIA a plant of the same order, but of a different genus. It takes its generic name (Gr. kni and yfj, upon the ground) from its trailing lowly habit, and its common name Mayflower from Trailing Arbutus (Epigeea repens). the season of its blossoming. The leaves are alternate, coriaceous, and evergreen ; the stems and other portions of the plant are covered with reddish, bristling hairs; and the cluster of very fragrant white or pink flowers appears in the axils of last year s leaves. It is found throughout New England, especially near the coast, on the edges of pine forests, and it also grows in great perfection in the valley of the Connecticut. It is also called ground laurel. ARC (Lat. arcus, a bow), the name of any portion of a curved line; thus, an arc of a circle is a portion of the circumference. To rectify an arc is to give the length of the straight line to which it would be equal if it were made to have the same length in a right direction which it now has in a curved. Two arcs are said to be equal when, being rectified, they have the same length ; and similar when, being taken from different circles, they have the same number of degrees that is, are equal fractions of their respective circumferences. The arcs of a circle serve to measure the angles (see ANGLE) ; if from the vertex of the angle as a centre, with whatever radius, a circum ference be described, the number of degrees of the arc intercepted between the two lines which form the angle will be the measure of the angle. Thus, for instance, as the arc of 90 corresponds to a right angle, if we find that the intercepted arc contains 15, we con clude that the angle is to a right angle in the ratio of 15 to 90~ or that it is the sixth part of a right angle. The chord of an arc is the right line which joins its extremities; a seg ment is the area included between an arc and its chord; and a sector is the area included between an arc and the two radii going from its extremities to the centre of the circle. ARC, Joan of. See JOAN OF ARC. ARCACH9N, a village of France, in the depart ment of Gironde, 35 m. by railway W. S. W. of Bordeaux ; pop. about 2,000. It is situated on a landlocked bay or lake (bassin d Arcachon), about 60 m. in circumference, connected with the gulf of Gascony by a narrow strait. Since 1854 the village has been converted into a watering place by the Pereire family, who bought the surrounding woods and swamps, and drained part of the bay. Previous to the Franco-German war the visitors annually aver aged 5,000. Persons suffering from diseased lungs are much benefited in winter by the mildness of the climate. The beach is very fine, and sea bathing attracts in summer many visitors. The pine woods extend almost as far as Bayonne, and abound with game. ARCADIA, the central and, next to Laconia, largest of the ancient divisions of the Pelopon nesus ; area about 1,700 sq. m. It included the most picturesque and beautiful portion of Greece. The country embraced by its ancient boundaries is mountainous, with many forests, but it contains also rich meadow lands, and rivers and brooks abound. Mount Cyllene in the northeast, Erymanthus in the northwest, and Lycaaus in the southwest, are some of its mountains most frequently mentioned by the an cients. The Alpheus was its principal stream, and Stymphalis its largest lake. It had neither seaports nor navigable rivers. Pausanias says its name was derived from that of Areas, son of Callisto. In the most ancient times its inhabitants, of Pelasgic origin, were hunters and rough shepherds ; but they gradually turned their attention to agriculture and to raising cattle. Their habits were simple, and the quiet and happiness of their life among the mountains, their fondness for music and danc ing, their hospitality and pastoral customs, made the Arcadians pass among the ancients for favorites of the gods. Pan and Diana were their principal deities. The poets have chosen Arcadia for the scene of many idyls, until its name has become the synonyme for a land of peace, simple pleasures, and untroubled quiet. In spite of this the Arcadians were, like nearly all mountain races, a brave and martial people, and, though they produced no great military leaders, were almost constantly engaged in war, either on their own account or as the mercenaries of others, fighting brave ly even against their own countrymen for those who hired them. They fought in the ranks of both contending parties in the Peloponnesian war, and at the battle of Issus thousands of them were slain in the army of Darius, by Alexander. The principal cities of Arcadia Mantinea, Tegea, and Orchomenus engaged in frequent and injurious disputes among them selves. Against the Spartans the Arcadians (about 370 B. C.) built the city of Megalopolis, and organized a general assembly. They sub sequently became confederates in the Acha3an league, and on its final defeat in 146 B. C. fell ARCADIUS ARCH Gil under the Roman power. Thenceforth they have no separate history from that of the em pire, and of mediaeval and modern Greece. At present Arcadia, comprising the larger part of the ancient division, with the addition of the ancient district of Oynuria and a part of Laconia, forms one of the nomarchies of the kingdom of Greece, hounded E. in part by the gulf of Xauplia ; area, 2,028 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 131,740. Capital, Tripolitza. ARCADirS, the first of the Byzantine empe rors, born in Spain, A. D. 383, died in Constan tinople, May 1, 408. He was the elder son of Theodosius the Great, the last ruler of the whole Roman empire. In 395, a few months before his death, Theodosius divided the empire be tween his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, giving to the former the eastern part, extend ing from the Adriatic to the Tigris and from Scythia to Ethiopia. Arcadius ruled at first under the regency of Rufinus, who was soon assassinated at the instigation of his rival, Sti- licho, the regent of Honorius. Eutropius, a eunuch, afterward became regent, and held the place till 390, when Tribigild, a Gothic chief in Phrygia, revolted and compelled Arcadius to put his favorite to death. Trigibild and his tribe also obtained permission to pass the Bos porus and settle on the European side ; but- being Arians, they were massacred or driven out by the people of Constantinople. In re venge for this the empress Eudoxia, who had now acquired the absolute control over her husband, caused Chrysostom, the great adver sary of Arianism, to be banished to Comana in Pontus (404). Arcadius was a contemptibly feeble man, but of strict religious orthodoxy. ARCESILAIS, a Greek philosopher, the founder of the Middle Academy, born at Pitane in /Eolis about 316 B. C., died about 241. He was originally intended for a rhetorician, but T--hile pursuing his studies at Athens decided f o devote himself entirely to philosophy, and succeeded Crates in the chair of the academy of Athens. From the little we know of his opinions, it seems that he was a skeptic, but not in the Pyrrhonic sense of that term ; and his celebrated saying, " that he knew nothing, not even his own ignorance," seems to have been but an utterance of humility. He was also distinguished from the pure Pyrrhonists by his predilection for questions appertaining to practical life, arid by the undeviating mod eration of his tone. ARCH (Lat. amis, a bow), a curved structure supported by its own curve. An arch is dis tinguished from a vault by its length being much less than its width, as is the case with the arch forming the roof of a door or of a window ; but this distinction does not apply to structures built entirely above ground and open on both sides, as the arch of a bridge or a triumphal arch. It was long supposed that domes were unknown to the Egyptians and early Greeks, the first arched monument on record being the cloaca maxima of Rome, built VOL. i. 41 in the age of the Tarquins ; but it is now cer tain that arches were used by the Assyrians and Babylonians long before the foundation of Rome, and also that the Egyptians were ac quainted with the principle of the arch, though they did not see fit to make use of it to any great extent. The earliest arches in Italy were built by the Etruscans. The original Etruscan dome was supported by a few pillars, under which stood the augurs; the object was to protect the priest against the sun and rain, and at the same time allow him to study the horizon and be seen by the people. The Romans scarcely de viated from the semicircle, which is the simplest form of the arch, and in building it did not follow true mechanical principles ; so that the great strength of their numerous aqueducts, viaducts, and monuments is to be ascribed to their massiveness and to the good cement em ployed. It was not till the middle ages that the arch was properly built and widely used. Strong abutments are generally found around the monuments of that period, which consist of a succession of arches built one above the other, from the ground to the top of the monu ment, the uppermost one being used as an aqueduct for the roof gutters, appearing from below as light as if made of tin plate. The roofs of many of these edifices are formed of large arches as main ribs, which sustain smaller arches abutting on them ; they are as slender as possible, and so appropriately shaped and ornamented as to appear much lighter than they are. The wedge-shaped stones of which an arch is composed are called voussoirs ; the uppermost is the keystone ; the two blocks of masonry on which the arch rests are the abutments ; the line from which the arch springs is called impost ; the inner curve, in- trados or soffit ; the curve outside the vous soirs, extrados; the span is the distance be tween the piers ; the distance of the keystone above the impost is the height of the arch. The names of the parts of the arch proper are, the springs of the arch, the haunches, and the crown. When the arch has only to support it self, each voussoir sustains the weight of those placed above it, and consequently they must be made larger and larger from the crown to the spring; but when the arch has to support weights, the various modes in which they may be disposed require as many different construc tions, and the finding of the resulting force acting on each part is one of the most difficult tasks of the architect. The use of arches in the form of an arc smaller than a semicircle is comparatively recent, and superior for many purposes to older forms. In bridges, for ex ample, it leaves in ordinary times a larger pas sage for boats, and in times of freshet offers less resistance to the water, and the bridge runs less risk of being carried down. Since the introduction of cast iron in architecture, arches of that metal and of a single piece have been built; in such cases the arch is used only to please the sight, as the solidity of the struc- 042 ARCHAEOLOGY ture depends entirely on other portions of the work. A triumphal arch is a monumental structure erected in honor of some celebrated person and his deeds, or to commemorate some great event. Triumphal arches probably ori ginated with the Romans, and L. Stertinius is the first recorded who erected such a monu ment. Two were built by him, one about 196 B. C. in the Forum Boarium, and another in the Circus Maximus. A few years later, Scipio Africanus built one on the Clivns Capitolinus, and in 121 Q. Fabius Maximus erected one on the Via Sacra. Of these none remain. Dif ferent writers record 21 as having been built in the city of Rome. The most celebrated Roman arches are those of Augustus at Rimini, of Trajan at Beneventum and Ancona, and those of Titus, Drusus, Septimius Severus, and Constantino at Rome. That of Titus is one of the best. It is situated at the foot of the Pala tine, and was probably completed after his death and apotheosis, as in the inscription he is called Divus. It commemorates his conquest of Judea. Remains of Roman arches are to be seen in Spain, Greece, and other countries. The custom of raising magnificent triumphal arches began under the first emperors. During the republic arches were decreed to victorious generals, but not to the dead. When Augustus was emperor, the senate proposed to have one built in honor of Drusus the elder, who died in Germany. Augustus consented, and a marble arch was constructed on the Appian Way. Paris, of all modern cities, has the most nu merous and the most beautiful arches. The Portes St. Denis and St. Martin were erected in 1673- 4; the arc du Carrousel in the years 1806- $), in honor of the armies of France. The latter is at the W. entrance of the Tuileries ; its height is 47 feet, its breadth 55. Its two prin cipal faces have each eight Corinthian columns, surmounted by statues. The most magnificent , is the arc de TEtoile, at the extremity of the j avenue des Champs Elysees, built for the pur pose of commemorating the victories of Na poleon. (See PARIS.) The arch at Hyde Park corner, with the equestrian statue of the duke of Wellington, and Cumberland gate, are the only specimens in England. ARCHEOLOGY (Gr. hpxala, ancient things, and P.dyof, discourse), the science of antiquities, and especially of human antiquities in gene ral. The primeval period of man has been divided into the stone, the bronze, and the iron ages. Sir John Lubbock, in his " Introduc tion "^ to Nilsson s "Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia," subdivides the stone age into the i palaeolithic and neolithic, the former the older I and the one in which the stone implements are j not polished, as they are in the latter. The antiquities of this epoch are found in beds of ! loam and gravel extending along the river valleys of central Europe (the loess), sometimes 200 feet above the present water level ; they were evidently deposited by existing rivers, which ran then as now and drained the same areas ; they contain no marine remains, and each valley is characterized by fragments of the rocks in its special area. The geography of western Europe was very much the same as now, the only variations being in the ever- changing coast line and the depths of the river valleys. The animals then living were the hairy mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, hippopot amus, and most of the existing mammalsA especially tigers, hyaenas, and bears, ruminantff and rodents, of very great size. The climate was then colder than now, as the musk ox, woolly pachyderms, reindeer, and lemming extended to the south of France. It must have taken a very long time for the extinction: of these large mammalia ; there is riot the most vague tradition of their presence in west ern Europe, and there are no marks of sudden destructive cataclysms. It must have required many centuries for rivers to excavate their valleys more than 200 feet. The presence of man is indicated at this period in westers Europe by his bones and implements of nn- t polished flint, without pottery or any of the metals ; similar implements have been found in the caves of France and Spain. (See BONE CAVES.) From all the evidence collected by the above-named authors, it would seem that the people then living in the south of France resembled the Esquimaux of the present day, their chief food being the flesh of the reindeer; they were ingenious workers in flint, bone, and horn, and fond of making rude drawings, on the horn of the mammoth and other exist ing animals. A cold climate is also indicated by their habit of allowing bones and offal to, accumulate in and near their cave dwellings. The cave period is probably less ancient tharu" the gravel epoch, and, from the abundance of, their remains, is often called the " reindeer " period. In the Reliquim Aquitanicw, by Messrs. Lartet and Christy, there is a full ac count of the archaeology of the old stone age, as exhibited in the south of France, especially in the caves in the valley of the Dordogne and of Cro-Magnon and Moustier. These caves belong to the age of simply worked stone, without the accompaniment of domestic animals or imple ments of polished stone ; bones of the reindeer are abundant, and the coexistence of man witn this animal in latitudes so much lower than il^s present habitat implies a certain degree of elevation above savages, as not only food, clothing, and implements, but materials for ornamentation were obtained from it. In the earlier gravel period, the mammoth, rhinoceros, horse, and ox predominate, the reindeer pre vailing in the Dordogne caves, but in neither are found remains of the dog, goat, and sheep ^ the same is true of the gravels and caves in England, in central France, and in South Wales. Birds and fishes, especially the salmon, were eaten ; and everything shows that food was not so scarce as to demand any struggle for existence. The domestic economy of these early races is shown by their hearths, boiling ARCHAEOLOGY G43 stones, rough hammers, and hollowed dish-like pebbles ; there is a total absence of pottery. The remarkable similarity of the stone imple ments from different parts of the world is } worthy of notice ; this form of primitive in dustry has been traced in Europe from Greece to Scandinavia, and from the Atlantic coast to i the steppes of Russia ; in Asia, it appears from Palestine to the Malay archipelago, in India and Japan, and on the shores of the Arctic ocean ; in America, from Behring strait to the : plateau of Mexico, from Colombia to the Atlantic, from Peru to Tierra del Fuego, along | the valley of the Amazon and its tributaries, j in central Brazil, and in the West Indies ; and j the ancient weapons resemble those now used ; by the natives of Xew Caledonia and the Esqui maux. M. Primer-Bey, from the examination of skeletons found in the cave of Cro-Magnon, maintains that the crania of the reindeer age, which he calls Mongoloid, belong to a double ; series, one approaching the Lapp and the other the Finn of the present day ; the skulls of the Dordogne caves, different from both these, he refers to the Esthonian type. From the low and projecting bony palate, he thinks the language of the cave dwell- j ers was neither Aryan nor Semitic, but analo- | gous to that of the Finnish races. He concludes j that they had massive bones, long and flat feet, | comparatively short arms and long forearms, with powerful muscles, greatly developed jaws, widely opened nostrils, and were of unbridled passions. Prof. Broca found the human thigh bones in their width approaching those of the I highest apes, and a remarkable transverse flat- | tening of the tibia ; the ascending branch of the lower jaw was very wide, and the cranial capacity equal to that of high races of the ! present day. In reply to M. Broca, M. Quatre- | t ages cautions anthropologists against too has- ; tily giving undue significance to assumed agree- | merits between fossil man and apes, from any preconceived views of the origin and descent of the human race. The neo^i^ or p olished- stone age was sepaf9teTn5y*^onsiuerable in- terval of time from the old stone age. Many \ thousand polished-stone implements are col- j lected in the museums of northern Europe and j America ; they are not found in the river-drift gravels, and are especially abundant in Den- | mark and Sweden, while the ruder implements ! of the palaeolithic age are unknown there, in-: j dicating that these northern countries were not j inhabited during the earlier period. Xo bones^ I of the reindeer nor of the great extinct mam- i mals are found with the polished implements, ! and nothing made of metals ; arrow heads and rough chisels would continue to be made in j this, and even in the next and the present ages, : while the metals were rare and costly. The j Danish shell mounds are the refuse heaps of | the people around their dwellings or temporary ! stopping places; they contain no remains of I reindeer, but bones of the domestic animals, and all kinds of household objects lost or bro ken, including rude pottery made by hand. Similar shell heaps have been found in the United States, especially along the seacoast, marking the former dwelling places of the aborigines of this continent ; several of these have been described by Prof. J. Wyman in vols. i. and ii. of the " American Naturalist " (1808). They are found from Maine to Florida, and are made up of the shells of the mollusks used by them as food, especially the clam and quahog, with bones of the elk, deer, beaver, bear, dog, various fur-bearing mammals, birds, and espe cially the great auk, now believed to be extinct ; occasional pieces of charcoal, and implements of bone and stone, but no human remains, are found. The growth upon them of large trees proves that they must be several centuries old, though not so ancient as the shell heaps of Denmark ; they show a great variety of animal food, to say nothing of the vegetable; they afford no trace of any intercourse with Eu ropean nations. The layers are from 4- to 3 feet thick, and sometimes 250 feet long and 40 or 50 wide, and near the seashore, which has evidently been raised since their deposition ; there are sometimes several layers, separated by earth, indicating successive occupations. Some of the lake dwellings of Switzerland (see LAKE DWELLINGS) belong to this age, while those yielding metal implements belong to the next or bronze age. There are evidently two classes of these lake dwellings. Many burial mounds contain flint daggers and stone imple ments, and none of metal. Bodies in the stone age were either buried in the sitting posture or were burned ; they were rarely, if ever, ex tended at length. Bones of the dog in the shell heaps, and of the ox, sheep, goat, and pig in the lake villages, lead to the belief that these animals were then domesticated ; the domes tic fowl and the cat were unknown. The hunting had by this time given place to the agricultural state, as we find corn-crushers, blackened wheat, barley, and flax in the lake dwellings, but no oats, rye, nor hemp ; tissues of woven flax are met with. Even at this early period two kinds of skulls are found, one long and the other round, indicating the existence of at last two human races, the first perhaps belonging to men of the stone age, and the last to the bronze period, which was now coming on. In the villages of the Swiss lakes the houses were built on wooden platforms ex tending over the water, resting on piles driven into the mud. Similar villages have been found in Italy, Savoy, the French Jura, Germany, Scotland, and Wales ; and from their number and size they must have been the centres of a numerous population, a single one having had more than 40,000 piles. Some of the people on the coast of Borneo and in parts of Poly nesia make their huts on similar platforms at the present day. The charred posts and grains indicate that these villages were destroyed by fire. In the succeeding or bronze age, imple ments and arms of this alloy were extensively C4-1 ARCHAEOLOGY used, and many are preserved in collections; stone implements and arrow heads are found with the bronze, showing that the former ser viceable material was still used. The later Swiss villages and many tumuli or mounds belong to this period. Bones of the domestic animals and cultivated plants are found instead of wild ones; the piles of the villages are cut squarely with metal, and not irregularly by stone or charred by fire ; the pottery shows marks of the wheel ; gold, amber, and glass were used for ornamental purposes, though silver, lead, zinc, and iron appear to have been unknown ; there were no coins in use, and there are no signs of writing or inscriptions; skins were worn, though tissues of Max and wool were also used; the ornamentation is geometrical, consisting of lines, circles, zigzags, and triangles, much as is now seen on the mats made by the tribes of central Africa ; the handles of the arms and bracelets indicate a small race. The use of bronze proves com merce, and the tin must have been brought from Cornwall, and copper must have been used before bronze. As copper implements arc not found in western Europe, it is probable that the knowledge of bronze was introduced into and not discovered in Europe; it could not have been introduced from Italy, as the Romans never entered Denmark, and such implements have rarely been found in Italy, j and none of the peculiar leaf-shaped bronze j swords, so common now in the north, are seen in southern museums. If such are of Phomi- ! cian origin, as Prof. Xilsson maintains, it must ! have been before their historic period, as they [ were familiar with iron from the earliest known times. After a transition period, during which bronze was used with iron, as proved by iron instruments with bronze handles, though never j the reverse, we come to the iron age, which ; leads directly to the historic. In this the wea- . pons and cutting instruments were generally j made of iron ; such were in use by the Britons at the time of the Roman invasion; coins j were employed, and silver was used for orna mentation of the person and of implements; ! the pottery was much better, and the weapons were more artistically made and ornamented. ! Neither bronze nor stone weapons were used in northern Europe at the beginning of our ! era, and the people of the north and west were considerably above the savage state. The re semblance of the rude implements in the old and in the new world, in the same stage of civiliza- ; tion, is very striking. M. Lartet makes only two prehistoric ages, the stone and the metal. ; The stone age he divides into 1. that of the ! extinct mammals, like the maimn ->th and the cave bear ; 2. that of the migrated existing ani- j mals, the reindeer epoch ; 3, that of the do- mesticated existing animals, the polished-stone age. The metal age he subdivides into the bronze and the iron ages. According to him, primitive man lived in a comparatively cold, j barren, and wet earth, presenting no fruits for i 1 his sustenance, and no opportunity for a ture ; essentially predaceous and carnivorous, an eater of raw flesh, and a cannibal, like many savage races of the present day; with small skull and brain, retreating forehead and prominent jaws, short but robust, below even the New Zealander and Australian of to-day; and paying a great and superstitious respect to , the dead. In the reindeer period there was an 1 advance, as shown by the more symmetrical though unpolished weapons, but as yet no agri culture ; the great mammals began to disap pear, and to be replaced by smaller and more useful forms. The mastodon was evidently known to the founders of the Central American | cities, and its figure is pictured on their walls ; ! as the mastodon survived the mammoth, the i former came down almost to the historic pe riod. During the reindeer epoch the glaciers again advanced, and the climate became cold, ; though to a less degree and for a shorter time than before ; after this came another I warmer period, when the glaciers melted, j causing the floods which as deluges enter into : the traditions of so many nations; then the i great mammals were exterminated, and the ! reindeer and the arctic animals retreated to the north, where they have since remained. In the next epoch, with a continued mild cli mate, man became agricultural, had polished implements, and made the dog his companion. In the bronze age man made still great ej* advances, domesticating animals, cultivating grains and fruits, and smelting metals, espe cially copper. The iron age insensibly merges into the historic period. The mound-builders M. Lartet considers intermediate in civilization between the polished-stone and the bronze epochs of Europe, not in time, but in stage of advancement; they lived in towns, and were not only hunters, but miners, potters, weavers, agricultural, artistic, and commercial. The stone, bronze, and iron ages do not indicate definite periods of time in man s civilization ; every race goes through these ages, some more rapidly than others. Some eastern nations had probably passed out of their stone age at least 3,000 years B. C. ; some in northern and cen tral Europe were in this age when Caesar sub jugated Gaul ; the Sandwich islanders were in their stone age in the time of Capt. Cook ; the Esquimaux and the North American Indians generally are now in their stone age ; it is sim ply the age of the infancy of the race. In Amer ica the copper preceded the bronze age; the latter existed when the Spaniards first visited Mexico and Peru. The mound-builders of the Mississippi valley used implements of pure cop per, hammered cold, obtained from the region of Lake Superior; they preceded the Aztecs. Judging from the forests overlying this old civ ilization, the copper age must have been at least 1,000 years ago. "Africa had no bronze age, passing from the stone to the iron age, on account of the exceptional occurrence of iron there, which the natives work skilfully both ARCILEOPTERYX ARCHANGEL 645 cold and hot. The men of the iron age in Europe were probably the Celts, conquered and described by the Romans. The Esqui- j nuiux, the Australian, and the Xorth Aineri- can Indian will probably never pass beyond the stone age, and will finally become extinct, , the lirst from climate, and the last two from ; contact with superior races with which they cannot compete. It is most likely that the ; savage Librarians and Iberians described by | Caesar as living in caves, and conquered by | him, were the southern representatives of the ; old stone age, while the Finns and Lapps are ; the more modern and northern remains of the j later stone age. The American Indians, the shepherds of Tartary, and the African races : have no written history of their own ; this has been attained only in comparatively recent \ times even by the civilized nations of Europe, j From geographical causes the Tartars have always been migrating shepherds, occasionally uniting in formidable hosts, the scourges of more civilized races, as when eastern Europe was overrun by the hordes of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane. For full information on the subject of archaeology, the reader is referred to j the writings of Christy, Lartet, Boucher de j Perthes, and Quatrefages in France ; Schaff- : hausen, Virchow, and Lindenschmit in Ger- I many ; Thomsen, Engelhardt, Steenstrup, and Xilsson in Denmark ; Troyon, Keller, Morlot, , Vogt, and Desor in Switzerland; Gastaldi, : Canestrini, and Foresi in Italy ; Schoolcraft, Squier, Foster, Davis, Whittlesey, and Wyman | in the United States; Crawfurd, Prestwich, | Boyd Dawkins, in England, and especially to j Lyell s "Antiquity of Man," and Lubbock s i Prehistoric Times." For details on the stone I age, see "Primitive Inhabitants of Scandina- i via," by Sven Nilsson (London, 1808). ARCHJlpPTERlX (Gr. apxalog, ancient, and | Tr-i-pvt;, wing), the name given by Owen to the j recently discovered long-tailed or reptilian bird i Archffiopteryx, Restored. of Solenhofen, one of the connecting links be tween the reptile and the bird, which made its appearance, as far as known, during the oolitic epoch of the Jurassic period. In the mesozoic age. not only the mammals but the birds had reptilian characters, and the earliest birds had long verteb rated tails. The tail in A. macrurus (Owen) was 1 1 inches long and 3 wide ; it consisted of 20 vertebra 1 , with a row of feathers along each side, the feathers being in pairs cor responding to the number of vertebne, and di verging at an angle of 45 ; the last pair ex tended backward nearly in the axis of the tail, and 3-J- inches beyond it. The wing appears to have had a two-jointed finger, and its breadth was made by feathers as in birds, and not by an expanded membrane as in the pterodactyl and other flying reptiles; the feet were also like those of birds, and its body was covered with feathers. As we know comparatively little of the terrestrial reptiles of the triassic or preceding period of the mesozoic age, and very little of its bird-like forms beyond that afford ed by the footprints in the Connecticut valley, it is expected by naturalists friendly to the doctrine of evolution that future researches will reveal birds more reptilian than the archas- opteryx, and bird-like reptiles, which will go far toward filling the gap which now exists between reptiles and birds. ARCHANGEL (Russ. Arkhangelsk}, I. The northernmost government of European Russia, bounded X. by the White and Polar seas, E. by the Ural mountains, and S. and "W. by Vologda, Olonetz, and Finland. It includes the islands of Xova Zembla, Vaygatch, Dolgoi, and Kol- gnyev, and has a continental area of about 290,000 sq. m., and an estimated total area of about 340,000 sq. m. ; pop. in 1867, 275,779. It is watered by the Petchora, Mezen, Dwina, and Onega, all of which flow north. Lapps, Finns, and Samoyeds, many of them still hea then, form the native population, living indepen dently among the conquering Russian settlers. The country is covered with immense forests. The soil yields vegetables, oats, barley, hemp, and flax. The principal towns besides the cap ital are Kola, Kern, Onega, Pinega, and Mezen. II. The capital of the preceding government, named after a monastery dedicated to the arch angel Michael built there in 1584, situated on the river Dwina, 30 m. from its mouth in the White sea, 450 m. X. E. of St. Petersburg, in lat. 64 32 X., Ion. 40 33 E. ; pop. in 1867, 20,178. It has a military and a civil governor, an archbishop, a high school or gymnasium, a navy yard, and several private ship yards. For nearly a century and a half, previous to the construction of St. Petersburg, Archangel was the principal and indeed the only mart of the Russian import and export trade. As early as the time of Queen Elizabeth English merchant ships occasionally entered the mouth of the Dwina, and they were soon followed by those of the Dutch and the German Ilansa. The harbor is large and one of the best in northern Europe, though somewhat obstructed by a sand bank at the entrance. Archangel is still one of the principal points for the trade with the interior of Russia and with Siberia, the Dwina being connected by canals with the Volga, and thus with Moscow and Astrakhan. The ice disappears in April, and the navigation closes in September. The principal objects of trade are fish, fish oil, tallow, linseed, furs, 646 ARCHBISHOP ARCHDUKE hides, lumber, wax, iron, linen, bristles, and caviare. In 1 855 the harbor of Archangel, de fended by a fort, resisted the English attacks. Archangel, being able to receive the largest men- of-war, soon afterward became one of the chief places for the construction and maintenance of the Russian navy. The buildings of the ad miralty or navy board, as well as the barracks for sailors, are situated on the island of Solom- balsk. In summer Archangel sends out nu merous fishing boats, and in winter hunters to the utmost northern regions, such as Spitz- bergen, Xova Zembla, and the mouth of the Lena in Siberia. A special company has been formed in Archangel for the herring fishery. In 1808 the exports to Great Britain, consisting chiefly of linen goods (305,890 pieces) and oats (8.728,244 bushels), were valued at 960,938, and the total exports at 1,504,211. ARCIIBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus), the chief of the bishops of an ecclesiastical province. The first formal sanction of this authority was by the council of Nice, in 325, which distin guished the bishops of the capitals as metro politans, and the more eminent of the metro politans were termed archbishops or patriarchs. In the 8th century the title was applied to every metropolitan and to the more eminent of the bishops. Since that time, in Roman Catholic countries, the archbishops have had a more definite position in the hierarchical scale, ranking next below patriarchs, although their prerogatives have considerably varied. They possess a double character, exercising over their own diocese ordinary episcopal functions, and also having a limited jurisdiction over the bish ops of their province, who are termed suffragans. They claim the right of calling provincial syn ods, of presiding at them, and publishing their acts ; also the right of supervision ; and an ap peal lies to them from the decisions of the bish ops. The archbishop also supplies benefices left vacant by the bishops for a longer time than that prescribed by the canons, and receives the bulls of the pope, which he announces to his suffragans. The symbol of his superior authority is the pallium, a band of white wool len worn around the shoulders. The archiepis- copal dignity has been retained in the Greek and Anglican churches. The ecclesiastical gov ernment of England is divided into two provin ces, Canterbury and York. The archbishop of Canterbury is the chief primate and metro politan of all England, first peer of the realm, and member of the privy council. It is his prerogative to crown the king, and he is con sulted by the ministry in all ecclesiastical affairs, and generally delivers in parliament the sen timents of the bench of bishops. The arch bishop of York crowns the queen, and is her chaplain. He also belongs to the privy council, but his inferiority to the archbishop of Canter bury is recognized in his being styled simply primate of England, while the latter is styled primate of all England. The two archbishops have precedence of all temporal peers except- ; ing those of the blood royal, and excepting the | lord chancellor, who in processions is interposed I between them. The archbishop of St. An- : drews was the metropolitan of Scotland while | episcopacy prevailed in that country, and the archbishop of Armagh is primate of all Ireland. In Denmark the bishop of Copenhagen has j precedence of the others, but the bishop of 1 Seeland is the metropolitan, and anoints the ! king. In Sweden the bishop of Upsal is the i sole archbishop. In Germany, three of the | archbishops, those of Treves, Cologne, and Mentz, were electors of the empire. ARCHDEACON (Gr. ap%/6taKovo(;, chief minis ter), an ecclesiastical dignitary, the assistant of j the bishop. At the beginning of the 4th cen- I tury there was in almost every diocese an arch- ! deacon, invested with authority by the bishop, | particularly in the administration of temporal j affairs. To him belonged the care of preserv ing public order and propriety during the divine service, of guarding the ornaments of ! the church, and of tending the poor throughout j the diocese. He was called the hand and the I eye of the bishop, and, from his influential posi- | tion, became recognized as superior to the j priesthood, though retaining only the deacon s ! consecration. As overseer of the deacons and ! of the younger clergy who were not yet conse- crated, he had the supervision of their educa- ! tion and studies, so that a certificate from him ! was required before their ordination to the j priesthood. AVhen the dioceses began to en- j large, and the metropolitan churches to attach j to themselves the neighboring country congre- | gations, it became necessary to divide the dio- j cese into a number of archdeaconries. The | archdeacons increased in independence and ! power till the 13th century, when they claimed j a jurisdiction proper to themselves, and the ! right to appoint their own subordinates. Sev- l eral synods sought directly to limit their pre- f rogatives, and it was finally decreed by the j council of Trent that henceforth the archdea- j cons should hold their right of supervision only I by the bishops permission. From that time | they have gradually disappeared from many j dioceses. England is divided into 67 archdea- I conries, and it is imperative upon each arch- I deacon to visit his district at least once in three , years. It belongs to him to see that the church- j es and chancels are in repair, that everything i is done conformably to the canons, and to hear I from the churchwardens any representations of public scandal. The archdeacons are ap pointed by their respective bishops. ARCHDUKE (Ger. Erzherzog), a German title in use from very early times. "We find among the Franks archdukes of Austrasia. The title ! also existed in Lorraine and Brabant, and was | especially assumed by the house of Austria, I though there is no positive historical record as i to when or why it was granted to them by ; the emperors. The Kahleberg branch of the house of Austria or Hapsburg has used the title since 1156, but without special privileges. AROHELAUS 647 It became hereditary in that line after the pro mulgation of the golden bull, but the electors did not recognize its validity till 1453. It is supposed, however, that Maximilian I. extended this dignity to his branch of the family, attach ing to it various privileges, and placing the archdukes in every respect above all other crowned vassals of the German empire. The Hapsburgs have preserved it ever since; and since the assumption by the emperor Francis of the title of emperor of Austria (1804), all the male and female members of that house have been called archdukes or archduchesses. AKCflKLAl S. I. Surnamed Physicus, or the Naturalist, a Greek philosopher, supposed by some to have been a native of Athens, by others of Miletus. He flourished about the middle of the oth century B. C., and was a pupil of Anaxagoras. Archelaus is said to have been the first philosopher who taught physics in combination with ethics, at least in Greece. He held that the antagonism of heat and cold caused the separation of fire and water, and produced a slimy mass of earth ; that the action of heat upon the moisture of this mix ture generated animals, originally nourished by their native mud, and gradually becoming ca pable of propagating their species ; that these animals were all endowed in diiferent degrees with intellect; and that man, separating in time from his brother animals, rose to his supe rior condition. He held also the doctrine that "right and wrong are not from nature, but from custom. " After the banishment of Anaxagoras from Athens, Archelaus estab lished himself in that city, and is said to have instructed Euripides and Socrates. II. A king of Macedon, from 413 to 399 B. 0. He was, according to Plato, an illegitimate son of Per- diccas II., and a monster of cruelty. If we may believe Thucydides, however, Archelaus, by erecting fortresses, forming roads, and add ing to his military strength, established the basis on which Philip and Alexander raised the superstructure of Macedonian power. He insti tuted public games at ^Ega3, or at Dium, which he dedicated to the muses and Zeus. lie was a lover of literature, science, and the fine arts. His palace was adorned with paintings by the greatest Grecian masters, and was the resort of Euripides, Agathon, and other distinguished men. Archelaus is said to have been slain at a hunting party by his favorite Craterus, but whether accidentally or deliberately is not known. HI. The greatest of the generals of Mithridates the Great of Pontus, born in Cap- padocia. He commanded the army which his master sent against Xicomedes, king of Bithy- nia, whom he encountered in Paphlagonia, and completely defeated. On the outbreak of the terrible struggle known in Roman history as the first Mithridatic war, he was sent with a naval and military force into Greece. He sub dued many of the zEgean islands and com pelled the Athenians to take part against the Romans; but when Sylla became his opponent his triumphant career terminated. At ChaBro- nea and Orchomenus, in Boeotia, his xVsiatic myriads were overthrown and almost annihi lated (86 B. C.), and he was himself driven to flight and concealment. Mithridates now com missioned Archelaus to negotiate with his con queror. The two generals met at Delium, where Sylla is said to have vainly endeavored to induce Archelaus to betray his sovereign. Afterward a preliminary treaty was concluded, which was not approved by Mithridates; but Sylla by the advice of Archelaus had an inter view with the king at Dardanus (84), and there made with him a treaty so favorable to the Romans, that henceforward Archelaus, the principal mediator in the matter, was regarded as a traitor, and had ultimately to take refuge with his former antagonists from the vengeance of his king. IV. Son of the preceding, was made by Pompey in 63 B. C. priest of the goddess of war at Comana in Cappadocia. This office conferred on him the power of king over Comana and its territory. When Bere nice, queen of Egypt, proclaimed that she was desirous of marrying a prince of royal blood, he pretended to be the son of Mithridates, won her hand, and presently found himself king of Egypt. Gabinius, the proconsul of Syria, hav ing espoused the cause of Ptolemy, marched an army into Egypt, where a battle was fought in which Archelaus lost his crown and his life after a reign of six months. V. Son of the preceding, succeeded to the office of his father at Comana. In 51 B. C., having aided the insurgents in Cappadocia, he was ex pelled from his dominions by Cicero, then pro consul of Cilicia. After the Alexandrian war he was deprived of his office by Julius Caesar, who gave it to one of his own adherents. VI. Son of the preceding, was made king of Cap padocia by Mark Antony, in 36 B. C. Au gustus confirmed him in the possession of his kingdom, and even added to it a portion of Cilicia and Lesser Armenia. Archelaus was once accused at Rome by his own subjects, but he had Tiberius for an advocate on the occa sion, and was acquitted. But afterward, while sojourning in Rome, Archelaus was so impoli tic as to offend Tiberius, and when the latter became emperor he invited the king to visit Rome once more, and, as soon as he came, had him accused before the senate of meditating treason. His old age saved his life, but he was compelled to remain in Rome, where he died soon after (A. D. 17). On his death Cappa docia was converted into a Roman province. VII. A son of Herod the Great, was pro claimed king by the army on the death of his father (4 B. C.). Shortly after his accession a sedition broke out, in the suppression of which he manifested the cruelty of his nature. He then went to Rome to solicit from the emperor the confirmation of his title, which was disputed by his brother Antipas. Dividing the kingdom between them, Augustus gave Archelaus the sovereignty of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, 6*3 AROHENHOLZ ARCHERY with the title of cthnarcli. On his return from Rome lie transgressed the Mosaic law by tak ing to wife Glaphyra, the not childless widow of his brother Alexander. In the 10th year of his reign he was accused by the Jews before Augustus of various crimes, and being found guilty, was deprived of his dominions, and ban ished to Gaul (A. I). 8), where he died. VIII. A sculptor, a native of Priene, and the son of Apollonius. He is supposed to have lived in the reign of Claudius. He made the marble bass-relief representing the apotheosis of Ho mer. This work is now in the British museum. AKCIIKMIOLZ, Johann Wilhelm, baron, a Ger man author, born at Langenfurt, a suburb of Pantzic, Sept. 3, 1745, died near Hamburg, Feb. 28, 1812. He * served in the Prussian army from 1760 to 1763, and afterward spent 16 years travelling over Europe. On his re turn to Germany he devoted himself to liter ary pursuits, and lived successively at Dres den, Leipsic, Berlin, and finally at Hamburg. His work on England and Italy," and his his tories of Queen Elizabeth and Gustavus Vasa, enjoyed popularity; but his most valuable work is that on the seven years Avar. His "Annals of British History since 1788" are piquant and full of anecdote. In his "His torical Essays " he gives an account of the fili busters and pirates who infested the West In dies during the 17th century. From 1782 to 1791 he edited a periodical called Literatur und Voll erkunde, and from 1792 to the time of his death he Avas editor of the Minerra. ARCHER, an unorganized county in 1ST. "W. Texas, near the Indian territory, watered by branches of the Wichita river; area, 900 sq. m. This county was returned as having no Sopulation in 1870, its settlement having been elayed by Indian depredations. It has but little good farming land, but is well adapted to stock raising, having tine grass in abundance and plenty of water. The county is regarded as one of the most valuable in the state for its minerals, among which is bismuth. ARCHERY, the art of shooting with the bow, which is probably the oldest weapon for use in other than hand-to-hand combats, and the ! earliest implement of the chase. The mention of the bow in the oldest portions of the Hebrew Scriptures, and its constant appearance in the sculptures of Nineveh and of Egypt, show that it was used by the oriental nations from the earliest times ; and these nations long preserved their superiority in its use; for the Greeks and Romans, who themselves made little use of the 1 bow, though they employed foreign archers as mercenaries, found in their wars with eastern races that bowmen formed the chief strength : of their enemies. The Cretans, however, ex- 1 celled in the use of that weapon. The Per sians, Parthians, and Numidians were among the best archers of antiquity of whom we have authentic record. In India and China the bow was also the chief weapon ; and it was probably of the same form as those Chinese Bern- and Ornamented Quiver. Bow and Arrows used in India. now known in these countries, though seldom used. But the great period of archery began with the Norman conquest of England, when the longbow, originally a weapon of the Norse tribes, and brought into western Europe by Duke Rollo, was used with such effect by the Nor mans that the Saxons found no weapon to successfully oppose it. Upon the amalgamation of the two peoples into one nation, it became the English national weapon, and was rapidly made famous. The prop er length of the longbow was the height of the archer using it. The Egyptian Bow. Quiver, and Arrows. Bow, Quiver, and Arrows used in the Greek Armies. arrow was half as long as the bow ; from 60 to 90 Ibs. was the force needed to draw a fitting arrow to the head on a bow six feet long. Such an arrow was called " a cloth- yard shaft," from the measure, a cloth yard or three feet. The long bow was made of Spanish yew, Eng lish yew, or ash mentioned in the order of their excellence for the pur pose. Arrows were made of ash, oak, and yew, weighed from 20 to 24 pennyweights, were tipped with steel and feathered with goose feath ers. The bowstrings were of plaited English Longbow. ARCHERY ARCHES G-19 silk. The power of flight, correctness of aim, and penetration of these terrible missiles were prodigious. In shooting matches, 300 yards was the common range, and the ordinary mark was a straight willow or hazel rod, as thick as a man s thumb and live feet long ; and such a mark a good archer held it a shame to miss. At 200 yards no armor but the best Spanish or Milan steel plate could resist the English arrow ; and the legends of men and horses shot through and through are proved by cors lets of the stoutest plate, preserved in several collections, where the shafts have been driven through the breastplate and the whole body of the wearer, and then through the steel backplate, not inferior in strength to the breast plate. In shooting, the longbow was held per pendicularly at arm s length, and the bow string drawn back until the arrow feathers were opposite the right ear. While the English archers were the best in the world, and their longbow was the most formidable weapon, several nations of continental Europe acquired great dexterity in the use of the crossbow or Crossbow. arbalast. This consisted of a bow fixed trans versely at the end of a wooden stock somewhat resembling a modern gun stock ; along the top of the stock ran a barrel slit nearly to the muzzle, in such a manner that the string of the bow could pass tlmmirh the slit and be drawn along it until caught by a trigger; this latter being pressed, the string was released, and swept forward with great force along the slit barrel, discharging the bolt or arrow which had been placed in it. Sometimes the arrow was placed in a simple groove in the top of the stock, along which the released string swept. This bow was generally of steel, and so strong that a steel winch was often fixed to the stock for the purpose of drawing back the cord. In shooting, the crossbow was aimed from the shoulder, like a musket. The Genoese were famous crossbowrnen, and several provinces of France furnished good archers. Archery disappeared as firearms came into use ; and as an instrument of war and the chase, the bow is now confined to the most savage tribes. Many of the Xorth American Indians were expert with the bow ; but they early adopt ed the musket or the rifle, and now, except among the most remote frontier tribes, the bow Bow and Arrows of the North American Indians. is never seen unless in the hands of children or as an implement for catching fish. The Comanches, however, are an exception, for to this day their force consists in their skilful archery. Their bows are short, and their ar rows clumsily pointed ; but they are properly feathered, and the warriors discharge them with such force that they have been known to pass entirely through the body of a bison. Among many of the African tribes, too, the bow is still in use. ARCHES, Conrt of. one of the ten English eccle siastical courts, so called because its sittings were formerly held in the church of St. Mary-le-Bow (Sancta Maria de Arcubu8)\n London, whence they were in 1507 transferred to the hall of the doctors commons. This court has origi nal jurisdiction in most ecclesiastical causes arising in 13 parishes in London, which form a deanery. The presiding officer, called the dean of the arches, is also the deputy of the arch bishop of Canterbury, so that the court of arches has an appellate jurisdiction in all eccle siastical causes arising out of the diocese of York. Formerly the jurisdiction of this court was very extensive, especially in matrimonial and testamentary matters; but these have within a few years been transferred from the ecclesiastical courts to the crown, and divorces to the divorce court. The practitioners in the ecclesiastical court are styled doctors, advocates, and proctors, and must before admission to practice obtain the fiat of the archbishop, and then be duly admitted by the dean of the arches. This court has now but little business to do ; but the dean, as president of the college of doctors of law, is usually constituted princi pal judge in admiralty. C50 AKCHIAS ARCHIL ARCHIAS, Anlns Lidnios, a Greek poet, born at Antiocli toward the close of the 2d century B. C., and well known to us only through the oration of Cicero in his defence. When a young man lie went to Koine, and was treated with much attention by the leading men of the republic, and especially by the Licinian family, whose name he assumed as a token of respect. lie attended Licinius Lucullus, the praetor, to Sicily, and afterward to Ileraclea in Lucania, whither his patron was banished for his conduct in the servile war. He was with the younger Lucullus in Asia during the first and third Mithridatic wars, and in the in terim he accompanied him into Africa. lie at length returned to Rome, where an accusation was brought against him for having assumed without just title the privileges of a Roman cit izen. The case was tried before Q. Cicero, who was then pra?tor, and whose relative, Mar cus Tullius, undertook the defence. The re sult is unknown. Cicero and Quintilian assert that the poems of Archias were equally re markable for beauty of style and variety of thought. They are all lost, except some epi grams preserved in the Greek Anthology, if indeed these be justly attributed to him. ARCHIATER (Gr. apxiarpo^ chief physician), a title which seems in the first place to have been purely honorary and not official. In the times of the Roman emperors Greek physicians were encouraged to come to Rome and enter the imperial service ; and it was to one of these, Andromachus the elder, that the title archia- ter was first given by Nero. AY hat was in tended only as a personal compliment to An dromachus passed rapidly into an institution, and archiater became a designation of a class. The archiatri were divided into two classes, the city archiatri and the court archiatri. Later it came to be a civil requirement (under An toninus Pius) that small cities should have five archiatri, large ones seven, and the largest ten. The archiatri were salaried officers, and were expected to treat the poor gratuitously. As perquisites, they charged the rich for prac tice, and also had certain stipends called anno- naria commoda. It was also considered a part of their duty to teach medical science, and to exercise a general supervision over the health of their medical dioceses and the practice of the inferior physicians. The archiatri were usually elected by the suffrages of physicians. In Sweden and Denmark the order still exists. ARCHIBALD, Adams G., a British colonial statesman, born at Truro, Nova Scotia, May 18, 1814. lie studied law in Halifax, was called to the bar in 1830, was elected a mem ber of the legislature of Nova Scotia for the county of Colchester in 1851, and was re- elected in 1855. Next year he became solici tor general in the government of Mr. Young, then a leader of the liberal party, and was reflected to the legislature by acclamation. Mr. Archibald had a .large share in breaking up the mining monopoly which, under a grant i of George III. to the duke of York, held all i the coal and other mines of Nova Scotia, under the name of the general mining company. In i 1803 he carried a bill through the legislature I of Nova Scotia which substituted for the uni- j versal suffrage a somewhat restricted franchise. I He was one of the delegates to the intercolo- I nial convention held at Quebec in 1864; and | his advocacy of that scheme of union cost him j his seat when he next appeared for reelection. In the cabinet of Sir John Young, which was I formed in 1867, he was p resident of the coun cil and secretary of state for the provinces, and in 1871 he was appointed lieutenant governor ! of Manitoba. This office he resigned in the beginning of 1872. ARCHIDAMIS, the name of five kings of Sparta, of the Proclid or Eurypontid line. The first of the name, son of Anaxidamus, lived during the war with Tegea, about 668 B. C. The second, son of Zeuxidamus, reigned 469-427 B. C. In 464 occurred the terrible earthquake which almost destroyed Sparta, when Archidamus by his energy probably saved the surviving citizens from massacre by the helots. lie commanded in the wars against the revolted Messenians. In the dis cussions at Sparta and Corinth prior to the rupture with Athens he was prominent as an advocate of peace and moderation. In the i Peloponnesian war he commanded three expe ditions against Attica and one against Platrea. His grandson AECHIDAMUS III., son of Agesi- I laus II., reigned 361-338 B. C. In 367 he had } defeated the Arcadians and Argives in the "tearless battle," so called by the Spartans be cause they did not lose a man ; and in 362 he had , successfully defended Sparta against Epami- I nondas. In the sacred war he aided the Pho- I cians against the Macedonians with money and ! men, but toward its close he retired on the I approach of Philip, leaving the Phocians to I their fate. He was killed in Italy, in a battle I fought in aid of the Tarentines, on the day of the battle of Chrcronea. AECHIDAMFS IV., his grandson, and son of Eudamidas I., is only known from his defeat by Demetrius Polior- cetes in 296 B. C. ARCIIIDAMUS V., last of the Proclid line, son of Eudamidas II., possessed himself of the throne in 240 B. C., but was soon slain by the murderers of his brother and predecessor Agis IV. ARCHIL, or Orchil (Span, orchilla ; Fr. or- \ settle). The red, violet, and blue colors which are known in commerce under the names of archil, cudbear, and litmus are supplied by I different species of lichens, rocella, variolaria, lecanora. The rocella tribe grow upon rocks I on the seacoast in the Canary islands, Sardinia, j and Corsica, at the Cape of Good Hope, and i on the W. coast of South America. Archil is j prepared by digesting the lichens in a hot solu tion of ammonia, allowing it to stand for a few hours, and exposing the clear solution, which i is drawn off from the lichen, in deep jars, to i the air for about three weeks ; the solution ARCHILOCHUS OF PAROS ARCHIMEDES G51 when concentrated by evaporation forms the archil liquor of commerce. The dye is also met with as a violet paste, and when dissolved in alcohol is used to color spirit thermometers. In consequence of its want of permanence, ar chil is rarely employed with any other view than to modify, heighten, and give lustre to other colors. Some confusion exists in refer ence to the trade names of the different dyes prepared from lichens, but the best authorities confine the use of the word archil to the liquid or pasty dye obtained from the rocella tribe. Cudbear is the equivalent of persio, and is chiefly made from the lecanora tartarea, while litmus is derived from the rocella tinctoria. ARCHILOCHIS OF PiROS, one of the earliest Ionic poets, and the first who wrote in the iam bic measure, flourished 714-676 B. C. His fa ther was of noble descent ; his mother was a slave. After he had acquired fame by a hymn to Ceres, he became suitor to the daughter of Lycambes, a noble of Paros, who was promised him in marriage, but her father afterward re voked the promise. The poet thereupon com posed a lampoon upon the family so bitter that it is said the daughters of Lycambes committed suicide. He subsequently emigrated to Naxos, where he wrote fierce diatribes against his native land. He was no better satisfied with the country of his adoption. In a battle with the Thracians he flung away his shield; for this he endeavored to justify himself by writing a poem in which he said it was better" that one should throw away his arms than lose his life. He acquired a high reputation, but his poems were so unbridled that they were prohibited in Sparta. He led a wandering life for years, his journeys extending as far as Italy. Return ing to Paros, he was killed in a battle between the Parians and Xaxians. The Delphian oracle, which had before his birth promised to his father an immortal son, pronounced a curse upon the man who killed him, because he had "slain the servant of the muses. Notwith standing the license of his satires, he was ranked high by Plato, and Horace mentions him in terms of admiration. The fragments of his poems extant have been collected and edit ed by Jacobs, Gaisford, Bergk, and better by Liebel, Archilochi Reliquice (Leipsic, 1812). ARCHIMANDRITE (Gr. prefix a PX i, and (idvdpa, fold or cloister), a superior or general abbot in the Greek church, exercising supervision over several abbeys and monasteries. In the Greek church the archimandrite is subordi nate to the bishop of the diocese, having, however, some episcopal functions in the cere monial of worship. In Sicily, some abbots of monasteries of the order of St. Basil, founded by the Greek church, are called archimandrites. Abbots of monasteries of the United Greeks, established chiefly in Russian Poland, Galicia, and Hungary, are also called archimandrites. ARCHIMEDEAN SCREW, an apparatus used for raising water. It consists of a screw blade turned around a solid axis, similar to a winding staircase, and enclosed in a hollow cylinder. When placed in an inclined position, with the lower end in water, the latter will be caught be tween the screw blades, and the cylinder being turned in the proper direction, the water will be raised and discharged at the upper end. Our first figure represents such an apparatus, with FIG. 1. Archimedean Screw with Spiral Blade. one half of the enclosing cylinder removed, so as to expose the interior arrangement and form of the screw blade. It is still occasionally used, when water is to be raised to a limited height of 10 to 15 feet or less, and the quantity, is so large that a dozen pumps would be required ; in this case an Archimedean screw turned by two or three men will economize greatly the labor, as with it each man is able to raise per minute 40 gallons of water 10 feet high, or in general to produce the labor of nearly 4,000 foot pounds per minute. This is a larger amount of work than generally can be done with pumps, in which the friction is always consider able when compared with that of the pivots on which the Archimedean screw turns. If water is to be raised to great heights, however, say 90 or 100 feet, this apparatus is not practi cable, and pumps are requisite. Another form of this apparatus is represented in our second FIG. 2. Tubular Archimedean Screw. figure. It consists of a tube wound spirally around a core, and operates on the same prin ciple as the former ; but it has a much smaller capacity, and is therefore seldom used on a large scale for practical purposes. ARCHIMEDES, the most celebrated mechani cian of antiquity, born in Syracuse, Sicily, about 287 B. C., died in 212. He is said to have visited Egypt in early life, and to have in- 652 ARCHIPELAGO ARCHITECTURE vented there several useful hydraulic machines, including the Archimedean screw, which he applied to drainage and irrigation. Vitruvius says that King Iliero, suspecting that a golden crown had been fraudulently alloyed with sil ver, asked Archimedes to discover if it were so. Going one day into the hath tub, it chanced to be full of water, and he instantly saw that as much water must run over the edge of the tub as was equal to the bulk of his body. Perceiving that this gave him a mode of determining the bulk and specific gravity of the crown, he leaped out of the bath and ran home, crying Eureka, eureka, u I have found it, I have found it." This was the origin of his discovery of the important principle that a body plunged in a fluid loses as much of its weight as is equal to the weight of an equal volume of the fluid. In his old age he defended his native Syracuse against the Romans under Marcellus with great mechanical skill, and later historians say that he burned the Roman ships by concentrating upon them the sun s rays from numerous mirrors. His purely mathe matical works still extant demonstrate him to have far excelled all those who preceded him. The most celebrated are those on the ratio of the sphere and cylinder, on the ratio of the circum ference to a diameter, on spiral lines, and on the parabola. lie requested a cylinder and sphere to be placed upon his tombstone, and when Mar cellus had stormed Syracuse, and Archimedes had been killed by a Roman soldier, the Roman general conferred upon him an honorable burial, and caused the tombstone to be in scribed as he had desired. Cicero, about 140 years afterward, being appointed quaestor over Sicily, sought and found the tomb of Archime des, overgrown with weeds and thorns. ARCHIPELAGO (Gr. prefix apxt, main, and ir&ayoci sea), originally a specific name applied to the yEgean sea, but now a generic term designating any body of water containing a great number of islands, and applied also to the group of islands itself. I. The Grecian archi pelago (the ^Egeun, in the wider sense of the word) is an arm of the Mediterranean sea, ex tending northward upward of 400 in., with an average breadth of about 200 in. Its geo graphical position is between lat. 35 and 41 K., and Ion. 2:) and 28 E. Turkey in Europe forms its northern and northwestern coasts, Asia Minor its eastern, and Greece its western, while its southern limit is marked by the island^of Candia or Crete. Within these limits the /Egean forms an extremely irregular out line, having numerous armlets and indentations, among which may be mentioned the gull s of Nauplia (or of Argolis), ^Egina (the Saronic), Volo (the Pagasean), and Salonica (the Ther- maicj, all on the west. It is studded with a vast number of islands, ranging in size from mere rocky islets to areas of 4,000 sq. m. (Can dia), and mostly composed of calcareous mass es, forming high bluffs or mountain clusters, rising abruptly from the sea. Many of the mountains reach a height of 2,000 feet, while the highest summit, on Negropont or Euboea, exceeds 5,000 feet. The ^gean islands, ex clusive of Euboea, the largest of all, are divided into three groups, viz. : the northeastern, in cluding the islands of Thasos, Samothrace, Im- bros, Lemnos, Tenedos, and Lesbos ; the Cycla- des, forming a kind of insular continuation of Euboea and Hellas proper (see CYCLADES); | and the Sporades N., E., and W. of the pre- \ ceding (see SPORADES). Most of the Cyclades ! and the northern and western Sporades be- i long to the Greek kingdom, while Turkey pos- ! sesses the northeastern group and the eastern | Sporades. Many of the islands are pictur- 1 esque in scenery, and all the arable portions ; are extremely fertile. The principal produc- \ tions are silk, cotton, honey, wine, figs, raisins, | oranges, and other fruits. Coral and sponge | are found among the Sporades, while the Cy- I clades furnish the pure white marble known | as the Parian, from Paros, one of the group, | where it was first worked. Here also were ; found (about 1627) the Arundel marbles, or | Parian chronicle, so full of historical inter- | est. In the channel of Negropont (the Eu- I ripus) the tide frequently runs in a given | direction at the rate of G to 8 m. an hour, and j then suddenly, without any known cause, sets I in the opposite direction at nearly the same ! rate. The climate of the islands is salubrious, I the inhabitants are hardy, and the women ! noted for beauty. The localities of the YEge- | an are filled with classic and sacred associa- | tions. IL The second in importance is the Indian archipelago, which includes that exten- ! sive insular region of the eastern hemisphere, i extending from the S. E. coast of Asia to Aus- i tralia, embracing the Philippine group, Suma- | tra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, and the Molucca ! and Banda isles, and stretching between Lit. ! 11 S. and 20 N., and Ion. 95 and J35 E. i This immense area is bounded by the Chinese sea, the Pacific, Australia, and the Indian ocean. The population of the archipelago consists of two distinct races, the Malay and the negro. ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architecture from Gr. apxirinTuv, a master workman), the art of building. This term embraces every kind of structure except works of defence and ships. The styles of architecture, like other historical monuments, may be divided into two classes, the first comprising the barbarous art of those nations which lie outside the circle of civiliza tion, and the second comprising the historical styles, beginning with the Egyptian, Assyrian, and Greek, and reaching to our own day. The Assyrian and Greek give evidence of hav ing arisen from a system of wooden construc tion ; in the Egyptian the primitive material seems to have been mud or unburnt bricks. In the subsequent use of stone the forms proper to the original materials became as it were fos silized, and continued in use long after their origin and meaning were forgotten. Of the early achievements and of the progressive steps ARCHITECTURE 053 of the science of architecture there remain but fragments, though sufficient, with the assis tance of history, to teach us their antiquity. Throughout the globe we find remains of edifices which proclaim an early possession of certain degrees of architectural knowledge. The most remarkable vestiges of these primitive struc tures, save the Celtic monuments, were once supposed to be the works of giants or Cyclops like those mentioned in the Odyssey. By whom they were erected, however, is unknown, though they have been attributed to the Pelas- gians. The walls of the cities and of the sa cred enclosures and tombs were composed of blocks of stone of a polygonal form well adjust ed. No cement was used, the interstices being filled with small stones. At times they present : horizontal layers whose upright joints are vari ously inclined. Their entrance gates received different forms, the most common being quad rangular, composed of upright jambs, either perpendicular or inclined, supporting a lintel. Others assume the shape of a pointed arch, the jambs gathering to a point at the summit. Examples also present themselves of truncated pointed archways over the lintel, an arch occa sionally being constructed to relieve this mem ber of the superincumbent weight. We are led to suppose that within their city walls the hab itations were erected without order, a place being reserved in the midst for public assem blies. Little is known of their domestic archi- j tecture, as there exist no vestiges of those pal- ! aces so highly spoken of by the ancient poets, i Perhaps the most interesting of their struc tures are their circular subterranean chambers styled treasuries ; they present vaulted ceilings, although not constructed on the principle of the arch, the vaulted form being obtained by horizontal annular layers, corbelling inward, and the projecting edges of the stones being taken oiT after the construction was completed. According to Blouet, they served for tombs as well as for treasuries. Internally they were covered with sheets of bronze. At MycenaB i and Tiryns several examples are to be found. One of the most ancient nations known to us who made any considerable progress in the arts of design is the Babylonian. Their most cele brated monuments were the temple of Belus, ; the Kasr, the hanging gardens, and the wonder- | ful canals Xahar Malca and Pallacopas. From the dimensions of their ruins can be formed an idea of the colossal size of the struc tures they composed. The material employed : in cementing the burned or sun-dried bricks, upon which hieroglyphics are still to be traced, i was the mortar produced, by nature from the \ fountains of naphtha and l/.tumen at the river Is, near Babylon. Xo entire architectural mon ument has come down to us from Xineveh, the superb capital of the Assyrians; nor from the Phoenicians, whose cities, Tyre, Sidon, and others, were adorned with equal magnificence ; ; nor from the Hebrews, the Syrians, the Philis- | tines, and many other nations. Our want of knowledge concerning the architecture of these ! oriental nations is attributable partly to the devastations of war and partly to the perish ability of the materials that were employed, 1 such as gypsum, alabaster, wood, terra cotta, i and brick, with which their ruins abound. From recent discoveries, we have been able to see the great affinity existing between many of | the works of these nations and those of Egypt and Greece ; in their sculptures and ornaments, for example, and in the coloring of the various parts of their structures, which were without doubt polychromatic. Of the very ancient 1 Chinese monuments we have no trace, they having been destroyed by Tsin-Chi-Hoang-Ti upon his ascending the throne. Their pagodas are merely imitations of the design of. the nomadic tent. The Chinese wall is one of the most stupendous structures of the world. Japan, Siam, and the islands of the Indian ocean abound in ancient ruins once sacred to the divinities of the Buddhist faith. The Hindoos, in their colossal structures, with their endless sculptured panels, their huge figures, and their astounding intricate ex cavations, evince a perseverance and indus try equalled only by the Egyptians. The Hindoo structures are remarkable for their severe and grotesque appearance. The his tory of the art in other regions and in its later developments may be most convenient ly treated under several divisions. I. EGYP TIAN AECHITECTUEE. The architectural types of all other structures of antiquity sink into insignificance when compared with those of Egypt. The obelisks, pyramids, temples, pal aces, tombs, and other structures with which that country abounds, are on a colossal scale, and such as can have been executed only by a people far advanced in architectural art, arid profoundly versed in the science of mechanics. These works, like the Hindoo structures, were remarkable for their gigantic proportions and massiveness. Intricate and highly painted ri- lievo sculptures or hieroglyphics covered the entire extent of their Avails. The earliest works of the Egyptians arc their hypogea or spea, wherein their dead were interred, and which served also as subterranean temples. In these excavations, or caves in the flanks of mountains, square piers were reserved in order to support the superincumbent weight. They were covered internally with hieroglyphics and bass-reliefs, enriched with color. Subse quently temples were constructed in the open air. At Amada exists perhaps the most an cient example of these temples. It is peculiarly interesting to archaeologists, as it forms the connecting link between the superb edifices of the Pharaohs and their prototype,- the spca. It also furnishes us with the proto-Doric order, combining square pillars with cylindrical col umns. The plan of the temples constructed by the Egyptians is very similar to that of their hypogea, or caves. They were generally ap proached by an avenue, on either side of which 654 ARCHITECTURE was a row of sphinxes, leading to the propy- lon or gateway, before which stood the obe lisks, thus forming an entrance into an open quadrilateral court surrounded by porticos. Ruins of the Temple of Quorneth at Thebes. Opposite this entrance was another leading into a spacious hall, whose ceiling was sup ported by columns. In the rear of this prin cipal hall were one or more smaller ones. The walls, ceilings, and columns were decorated with figures in bass-relief and hieroglyphics richly colored. The colors most generally em ployed were yellow, red, green, and blue. The palaces were constructed upon a plan very similar to that of the temples. We know little concerning the habitations of the great mass of the nation. According to some, houses were constructed in stories, while others assume that their abodes were mere huts. This people de voted their lives and money to the construc tion of their tombs. Besides their wonderful cities of the dead, hewn in rocks or imbedded in hills, the Egyptians reared their stupendous pyramids, the most gigantic monuments exist ing. Their ground plan is perfectly square, the sides presenting nearly equilateral triangles. From the immensity of these constructions, some have suggested the probability of the existence of a natural rock or hill within. AVhether or not the outer surface was smooth or graduated with steps, when finished, it is impossible for us to decide. The constructions of the Egyptians are in granite, breccia, sand stone, and brick, which different materials are adjusted with much precision. We cannot but wonder at their monolithic obelisks, especially when we refiect upon the immense distances they were transported. The pyramidal shape pervades most of their works, the walls of their temples inclining inward. The jambs to their entrance gates also Avere generally in clined. The Egyptians never used columns peripterally even under the dominion of the Greeks and Romans; when the column was used externally, the space intervening was walled up to a certain height. To these cir cumstances, together with the fact that their monuments were terraced, can be ascribed their massive and solid appearance. With them, columns were employed to form porticos in their interior courts, and also to support the ceilings. The shafts, of different forms, being conical, or cylindrical, or bulging out at the base, sometimes presented a smooth surface; they were rarely fluted, being generally cov ered with hieroglyphics. Occasionally they were monoliths, but were generally constructed in layers, and covered with hieroglyphics; a circular plinth formed the base. The capitals resemble the lotus, either spreading out at the top or bound together, assuming the bulbous shape ; above is a square tablet forming the abacus. Others, of a later date, present pro jecting convex lobes; while other capitals are composed of a rectangular block with a head carved on either side, surmounted by a die also curved. Caryatic figures were also employed by the Egyptians, and were generally placed against walls or pillars, thus appearing to sup port the entablature, composed of a simple architrave and a coved cornice, with a large torus intervening, which descends the angles of the walls. II. GRECIAN ARcniTECTrEE. The Pelasgians appear to have been the first people settled in Greece numerous remains of whose structures are still extant. Subsequent ly, from the knowledge possessed by the in digenous tribes, together with that acquired from the Egyptians and the Asiatic nations, the Greeks extracted and developed a style peculiarly their own, and architectural art passed from the gigantic to the elegant and classic forms. Under the government of Per icles it flourished with meridian splendor, and some of the most superb edifices the world has ever seen were erected during this pe riod. The Grecian monuments belonged to the states, and upon the public works the governments lavished fabulous sums. Hee- ren informs us that the Greeks placed the necessary appropriation of funds for the public works at the head of the government expendi tures. The thoughts of the whole Greek na tion, it would seem, were turned toward the adornment of their cities. They forbade by law any architectural display on private resi dences, and in fact, until after Greece became subject to Macedonia, architects were permit ted to work only for the government. The Greeks loved recreation, and the government, as a political necessity, provided the populace with amusements. Hence the Grecian cities were adorned with temples, theatres, odeons, gymnasiums, choragic monuments, and the ; like. The Grecian temple consisted of a pro- naos or vestibule, and a naos or cella. These sometimes were accompanied by an opisthodo- mus, supposed to be the treasury, together ; with a rear portico, or posticum. According ARCHITECTURE 655 to the disposition of the columnar decoration, they were styled in antis, prostyle, amphipro- style, peripteral, dipteral, pseudo-peripteral, or pseudo-dipteral. The principal front of those in antis presents columns in the middle, with antas on either side, supporting the pediment ; in the prostyle, the anta3 are replaced by col umns , the amphiprostyle presents a similar disposition in the rear as well as the front; the peripteral presents columns forming a por tico around the cella; when the lateral col- urns were engaged, instead of isolated, the temple was styled pseudo-peripteral ; the dip teral offered a double colonnade around the cella ; in the pseudo-dipteral, one of the ranks of columns was engaged in the wall. They are termed tetrastyle, hexastyle, octastyle, ac cording to the number of columns supporting the pediment. The temples were generally covered; those erected in honor of superior deities were hypetheral, or open to the skies. In these latter, the cella was divided longitudi nally into three naves by a double row of col- ums, which supported the roof covering the side aisles. In order to save room, these rows of columns were in two stories, as thereby they were enabled to attain the desired height with columns of a less diameter. The ceilings of the porticos were subdivided in caissons, often times highly colored, as were likewise many parts of the edifices. The frieze below the ceiling, on the exterior of the cella walls, was often ornamented with bass-reliefs. The walls internally were decorated with paintings, though it is supposed that generally these lat ter were not executed directly on the walls, but were suspended against them. The pave ment of the cella was usually elevated above that of the portico; that of the Parthenon, however, is level throughout. Opposite the entrance door was placed the statue of the deity of the temple, which was often of colos sal size, while others were arranged on either side of the cella, or about the principal deity. They were generally in marble or bronze ; sometimes, however, they were of ivory and gold. Besides the different statues of their divinities, the cellas contained altars, tripods, thrones, arms, vases, and utensils of different sorts ; all of which objects were generally in precious materials, highly wrought. The more important temples were built on sacred ground ; within the peribolus or enclosure were sacred groves, grottoes, altars, columns, statues, &c. The entranceway or propyla3um, some what similar in plan to the pronaos of their temples, was grand and imposing. Little is known of the theatres and odeons, the graded hemicycles of the former, destined for the spec tators, being all that now remains of them. These hemicycles were excavated in the side of a hill. Of the choragic monuments, that of Lysicrates at Athens is the finest example ; upon a quadrangular basement was placed a cylindrical monument with engaged Corinthian columns supporting an entablature surmounted by a dome crowned with a beautiful acro- teral motive, upon which is supposed to have been placed a tripod. The Grecian agoras, or public places of assembly, were surrounded by porticos decorated with paintings commemora tive of glorious achievements. Within the en closure were temples, altars, and statues dedi cated to their heroes. We know little of the architectural arrangement of the gymnasiums, which contained the halls, porticos, and ex- edras, where the sages taught their different philosophies; or their baths, accompanied by their dependencies, about which were disposed the stadium and courts for various gymnastic exercises. It is likewise difficult to obtain any accurate idea of the architectural disposition of the domestic habitations, as no examples remain. The beauty and grace which pervade all the works of the Greeks, whether monumen tal, mechanical, or industrial, lead us to sup pose that, although imperfect as regards com fort, they must yet have exhibited a certain degree of elegance. A just idea of the mould ings and ornaments, unequalled for their pu rity and grace, can be obtained only from per sonal observation. The styles may be classed in systems or orders as the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. They also employed, though rare ly, caryatides. Innumerable conjectures exist concerning the origin of these different orders. In all probability we are indebted to the Do rians for the invention of the Doric ; although Champollion sees in an Egyptian order, which he styles the proto-Doric, the type of the Gre cian order of that name. The oldest example extant is at Corinth. To the lonians, likewise, is attributed the honor of having first employed the Ionic order, no example of which is to be found in Greece prior to the Macedonian con quest. Vitruvius accords to Callimachus the invention of the Corinthian capital, but foliated capitals of much greater antiquity than any discovered in Greece are to be found in Egypt and in Asia Minor. The most perfect Grecian example of this order is employed in the cho ragic monument of Lysicrates. Little doubt need be entertained as to the Greeks deriving the idea of their caryatic order from the Egyp tians, who often employed human figures in stead of columns in their structures. The Doric holds the foremost rank among the Gre cian orders, not only on account of its being the most ancient, the most generally employed, and consequently the most perfected, but more especially because of its containing, as it were, the principle of all their architecture, as well as an exact imitation of all the parts employed in their primitive constructions, which were undoubtedly of wood. Thus we see the post represented by the column, the wall plate by the architrave, the extremities of the joists by the triglyphs ; the rafters naturally produce the projection which composes the cornice; while the double pitch of the roof gives us ne cessarily the form of the pediment. This style, typical of majesty and imposing grandeur, was 650 ARCHITECTURE Tuscan. Doric. Ionic. Corinthian. Composite. almost universally employed by the Greeks in the construction of their temples; and certain ly monumental art does not furnish us with the equal of a Greek peripteral temple. The Grecian Doric may he divided into three parts: the stylobate, the column, and the entablature. The stylobate is formed by three receding courses, together about equal in height to the inferior diameter of the column, which dimen sion is generally used as a measure of propor tion in describing the orders. On the upper most course stands the column, from four to six diameters in height, and whose diameter at top is about three fourths of that at base ; the shaft, thus assuming a conical shape (which diminution, in a slightly curved line, is styled entasis), generally bears 20 shallow flutes, their sections forming segments of circles, or similar curves which meet and form a sharp anis. At the base these flutes detail on the pavement ; they pass through the hypotrachelium, or necking, and terminate beneath the annulets of the capital, either in a straight or curved line. Upon the shaft is placed the capital, nearly one half of a diameter in height, composed of an abacus, or square tablet, about 1-J- diameter in width and one fifth in height. This member is supported by the echinus, of about the same height when there is a necking, but occupying a greater proportion when none exists. This echinus or ovolo bears three, four, or five rings at the bottom, where it dies away in the shaft. The axes of the columns were slightly inclined. According to Yilleroi, in a rectangular temple, planes passing through the centres of the col umns would meet in a straight line ; in a point, if the plan of the temple were square; the columns at the angles following in both cases the direction of diagonal lines. This inclina tion does not commence until the second course, or about one tenth of the height of the column, if monolithic. The first course being an ob lique truncated cone, determines t"ie angle of inclination ; the remaining courses lorming the column are upright truncated cones, perfectly adjusted one to the other. The inclination of each column is proportional to the distance, to the line joining the foci if the monument be rectangular, or to the centre of the plan of the edifice if square. Thus the columns at the angles are the most inclined, those in the mid dle of the sides the least. The entablature, about two diameters in height, is subdivided into three parts : the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice. The architrave occupies about two fifths of the whole height, being perfectly simple, crowned by the taenia or con tinuous fillet, one tenth or one twelfth of its entire height ; below this fillet, under the tri- glyphs, there is a regula, of less height, from which depend six cylindrical drops. The face of the architrave is generally in a vertical plane tangent to the base of the columns. The frieze, of about the same height as the archi trave, is terminated on top by a projecting fascia, occupying about one seventh part of its whole height, which breaks around the tri- glyphs, where it is slightly increased in depth. Horizontally, the frieze is subdivided into tri- glyphs and "metopes, which regulate the inter- columniation in the following manner : A tri- glyph about one half a diameter in width is placed exactly over the middle of each column, and one in the intervening space. They are separated by the metopes, which in width are equal to the entire height of the frieze. This distribution differs, however, at the angles; here the outer edge of the trigiyph is in the same perpendicular line with the circumfer ence of the base. Thus the first intercolum- niation, counting from the angles, is contracted. The Greeks also gave a greater diameter to the columns at the angles. The trigiyph is sub divided into two glyphs, each one fifth of the ARCHITECTURE Got whole width (a triangular fluting or channel formed by the intersection of two vertical planes inclined inward from the face of the tablet), of two semiglyphs, and two inter- glyphs, each one seventh of the entire width. The glyphs detail on trenia. Above they are sometimes square-headed, sometimes curved; the semiglyphs finish with a curve at the top. The surface of the interglyphs is in the same plane with the architrave. The metopes re cede from the triglyphs, and were oftentimes decorated with sculpture. The cornice, pro jecting about its own height, is composed of a corona, about one half of the whole height, crowned by a square fillet supported by a con geries of mouldings, together about one half of the height of the corona, which latter has on the lower edge a sunken face bearing the mutules and gutta?, which form the soffit or plancher of the cornice, inclined up inward at an angle of about 30. The mutules are placed directly over the triglyphs and metopes, and are exactly equal to the former in width ; they are ornamented with three rows of cylindrical drops. The height of the pediment is gener ally about 1-J- diameter. The cornice crowning the inclined sides of the tympanum differs from the horizontal one at its base, inasmuch as the mutules are left out, and another member superimposed, which is either an ovolo with -a fillet, or a cymatium, occupying a space equal to about one half of the depth of the cornice with its mutules. The tympanum was often decorated with sculpture. The flank cornice supported antefixre, an ornament used to cover the ends of the joint tiles of the roof. The antge or pilasters, nearly equal in diameter to the columns, did not diminish at the top, nor were they fluted like the columns ; they gen erally had a congeries of mouldings at the top and the bottom. The Greeks never employed peripterally any other than the Doric order. The Ionic, remarkable for its grace and suavity of proportions, holds a middle place between the simple Doric and the rich Corinthian order. According to some, it was originally employed in funereal edifices. At Telmessus, in Lycia, are to be found tombs cut in the rock, which invariably offer examples of this style ; moreover, on the Grecian vases the rep resentation of the Ionic column is symbolical of a sepulchral monument. This order, as well as the Corinthian, is more tractable than the Doric. Like the latter, it is composed of stylo- bate, column, and entablature. The column has a base as well as a capital, and is about nine diameters in height. The base, about one half a diameter in height and H in width, is composed of a torus resting on the stylobate, a scotia, and a second torus, all about equal, and separated from each other by a fillet, one also finishing the apophyge, or escape of the shaft, which diminishes with entasis about one sixth of a diameter, bearing 2-4 flutes deeper than in the Doric column, and which are separated from each other by fillets. These VOL. i. 42 flutes finish in the same curve above and be low. The capital is about one half of a diam eter in height, when unaccompanied by a neck ing; when one exists, it is about three quar ters high. The volutes, carved on the faces of a parallel ogrammic block, and connected at the sides by bolsters and in front by flowing lines, are supported by a congeries of mould ings, composed of a bead and ovolo. Super imposed is the abacus. These volutes are a full half diameter in depth, and extend in width about 1^ diameter. When this capital is accompanied by a necking, a torus is intro duced in corbel mouldings, supporting the vo lutes, and the necking itself, ornamented with the honeysuckle and tendrils, is separated from the shaft by "a fillet or a bead. The outer volute of the capital at the corners is inclined at an angle of 45, so as to present a volute when viewed from either side ; internally the two volutes meet at right angles. The en tablature, a little over two diameters in height, is composed of architrave, frieze, and cornice. The former, occupying about two fifths of the whole height, contains three equal fascias, slightly projecting one beyond the other, the lowest one being in a plane tangent to the inferior circumference of the column. On the upper edge of the architrave are a few cor belling mouldings, comprising a little less than one quarter of its whole height. The frieze is of the same height with the archi trave, recedes slightly, and is either plain or ornamented with sculpture. The projection of the cornice is about equal to its height. It is composed of bed mouldings under cutting the corona; this Litter is of great breadth, and the crown mouldings are of much less importance than in the Doric. The pedi ment of this order is also rather lower, and its cornice is crowned by a rectangular fillet surmounting small mouldings. The interco- lumniations differ from two to three diameters. The only example of the Grecian Corinthian is to be found in the choragic monument of Lysicrates, which is a small circular structure decorated with engaged Corinthian columns, placed upon a high rectangular basement. This order i? composed of a stylobate, a column, and entablature, the first occupying in height a little more than one diameter. The column is about 10 diameters high, has a base some what similar to the Ionic, between one third and one half of a diameter in height, and in width rather more than H diameter. The shaft, whose top diameter is about five sixths of that at the base, bears 24 flutes nearly semi circular, terminating at the bottom in the same curve, and at the top in leaves, the fillets form ing stalks. The capital, separated from the shaft by a groove, is a little more than 1^ diam eter in height. Its cylindrical body is sur rounded at the bottom by a row of water leaves occupying about one sixth of the entire height. Above them is placed a row of acanthus leaves twice as high as the former, seemingly buttoned 658 ARCHITECTURE on. Between this second row and the abacus are helices and tendrils, the latter supporting honeysuckles in the middle of the abacus, which member is about one seventh of a diam eter in height, and in plan presents a square with concave sides whose angles are cut off at 45 ; its section presenting a fillet, on which reposes a cavetto and an ovolo separated by another fillet. The entablature is about 2J diameters in height, of which the architrave and cornice occupy separately rather more than one third, and the frieze rather less. The architrave is divided into three equal fascias, inclined inwardly sufficient to bring the outer edges in the same plane with the inferior diam eter of the column ; these fascias together are crowned by corbelling mouldings, being one sixth of the entire height. The frieze is slight ly inclined also and is sculptured. The projec tion of the cornice is about equal to its height. The bed mouldings have about two fifths of this projection, and occupy five eighths of the entire height of the cornice, undercutting the soffit. Their principal feature is a dentilled member, more than one quarter of the whole cornice in height. The height of the corona is only three eighths of the cornice, and nearly one third of this is taken up by the crowning ovolo and fillet. In this example the cornice is surmount ed by a cut fascia supporting antefixa3, some what similar to those employed on the flanks of Doric and Ionic temples. The intercolum- niation is 2 diameters. In the example offered us at the Acropolis of Athens the caryatides stand on a stereobatic dado, placed on the sty- lobate ; the antss bear the mouldings of the temple to which they are attached, forming base mouldings to the dado, which has also a cornice. The entire height of the stereobate is about three fourths of that of the figures, taken together with their base and capital ; the former is a square tablet or plinth, the latter a circular moulded block crowned by an abacus. The entablature is about two fifths of the height of the figures, and is nearly equally divided between architrave and cornice. The upper of the three fascias of the architrave is orna mented with circular disks. The cornice is composed as usual of bed mouldings, corona, and crown mouldings, the former with dentilled member forming about two fifths of the whole height. The researches of Mr. Penrose have proved that all the horizontal lines of the Greek temples were curved, and that most of the plane faces inclined either out or in. These refine ments were evidently intended in part to coun teract certain obvious ocular illusions, but some of them are difficult to account for. Similar refinements are found in medieval and modern work. III. ETRUSCAN AECHITECTURE. The polygonal formations observed in the walls of Etruria belong to the Pelasgic civilization, and are similar to those of Greece and of Asia Minor. The commercial relations existing between the Etruscans and the Hellenes of Greece and Magna Grascia account for the existing simili tudes in their artistic productions. The ceilings of the hypogea, hewn so as to represent cais sons, tend to corroborate the idea that their earliest structures were of wood, which, with them as with the Greeks, became the archetype of their structures in stone. To the Etruscans the invention of the arch, constructed on its true principles, has been generally attributed, as likewise the composition of an order styled Tuscan, a species of simple Doric, no entire example of which, however, has been be queathed to us by the ancients. IV. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. The history of Roman archi tecture under its kings and at the beginning of the republic is somewhat obscure, as but few of the monuments of that period remain. The Roman kings fortified the city, and erected various palaces, temples, and tombs. It grad ually became adorned with colossal works of art, whose grand features, forming such a con trast with the comparative insignificance of its power and condition, would seem to indicate that the future of imperial Rome had been foreshadowed to its people. The early Ro mans employed Etruscans in their works. After conquering Greece, Rome became en riched with the spoils of Athens and Corinth. The Greek artists sought protection and pat ronage among their conquerors, and adorned the imperial capital with structures which call ed forth unbounded praise. The Grecian style was blended with the Etruscan during the more early period of the Roman school. But as the arch, which was the characteristic feature of Roman architecture, revealed its treasures, the Grecian elements were employed only as a system of ornamentation. Thus, oftentimes, the column no longer served as a support, but was merely used to decorate the pier or Avail from which the arch sprang. Great discussions have arisen as to who were the inventors of the arch. In Etruria are found many monuments wherein its design exists, and which are of an anterior date to the construction of the cloaca maxima (wherein it is fully developed), and even to the foundations of Rome. It is probable that the Romans borrowed it from the Etruscans, who may have followed eastern examples, but that it owed its useful application to Rome. With its introduction came various important modifications in architecture. Arches were substituted for lintels. With the assistance of the arch great spaces could be covered, and the various combinations of vaulted ceilings naturally ensued. The early Roman structures were of stone. Subsequently the mass of the constructions was of brick, externally decora ted with slabs of marble, and similarly decora ted internally, together with stucco work. Bricks seem to have been used by the Romans, partly in consequence of the facility offered by this material for the construction of the arch, and partly because they had but little marble. Stone, terra cotta, bricks, and marble were in geniously put together in various ways. The i edifices of the Romans display a taste for the ARCHITECTURE 659 luxurious and magnificent rather than for the harmonious and beautiful. Their exterior pave ments were variously composed of stone, tiles, marble, porphyry, and other durable materials, laid in cement. Internally their floors were similarly laid in mosaic work. This style of work is supposed to have originated among the eastern nations, subsequently being employed by the Egyptians and Greeks. The walls of the Romans were stuccoed and decorated with paintings in the arabesque style, or covered with various marble, alabaster, and jaspers, while their columns also were of granite, marble, and porphyry. This luxury strikes us the more forcibly, as these apartments, so richly adorned and containing various chefs d ceuvi e of art, were but very imperfectly lighted ; in fact, they were sometimes wholly dependent upon lamps. This, too, is one of the great defects in their dwellings, as can be clearly seen at Pompeii. Their houses generally presented an entrance on the street, accompanied by shops if in a principal thoroughfare, leading into an atrium or court, with a compluvium in the middle and porticos on the sides connecting with the rooms occupied by the servants. This court connected with another in the rear, also surrounded by a portico, which led to the apartments of the mas ter. But nowhere is this taste for richness ra ther than simplicity more evident than in com paring the details and mouldings of the Greeks and Romans. It is due the latter, however, to make an exception in favor of their Corinthian order, which they employed as universally as did the Greeks the Doric, and to their structures must we turn for many of the finest types of this order. The column, varying in height from 9 to 10 diameters, is composed of base, shaft, and capital. The base, about one half diameter in height, in some cases consists of two tori and a scotia, with intervening fillets, placed upon a plinth, as in the examples of the temples of Antoninus and Faustina and of Vesta; in the temples of Jupiter Tonans, of Castor and Pollux, and in the portico of the Pantheon, there exists a double scotia. The shaft dimin ishes with entasis about one eighth of a diam eter, and is generally fluted when the material permitted. These flutes were semicircular, separated by fillets one quarter of their width, and 24 in number. At the upper extremity, the fillet above the cavetto supports a small torus, on which rests the capital, about 1-J- diam eter in height, composed of two rows of eight acanthus or olive leaves. The lower row, about one third taller than the upper one, occupies about one quarter of the whole height of the cap ital. The leaves of both finish on the hypotra- chelium. Above are helices and tendrils trained with foliage, surmounted by an abacus, composed of a cavetto, fillet, and ovolo, forming together one seventh of the entire height, and which in plan presents a square with the corners cut off; the sides being concave segments of circles, in the middle of each of which is placed a flower or rosette. The entablature is about one fifth of the column in height, three fifths of it being occupied by the architrave, together with the i frieze, the former divided into three unequal fascias, generally separated by a bead and a cyma reversa, and crowned by a small con geries of mouldings, the first fascia impending the shaft at top. The frieze is generally en- | riched with sculpture. The bed mouldings of ; the cornice, when decorated with modiflions, : occupy about three fifths of the total height ; ! when no modillions exist, only one half is taken up by them. They generally consist of a bead, : a cyma reversa, and a fillet, a vertical member dentilled or not, another bead, and an ovolo, ; supporting a plain vertical face, one third of bed i mouldings in height, which bears the modil- ; lions, and is surmounted by a cyma reversa, ! which breaks around the same. The modillions are horizontal consoles, in width equal to their height, bearing large volutes at the inner end ; and smaller ones at the outer extremity, joined ! by a graceful curve, underneath which spreads i an acanthus leaf; the space between them is : about twice the width of the modillion itself. Resting upon the modillions is the corona, sur- I mounted by a small congeries of mouldings, , a cymatium, and a fillet. The soffit of the corona is coffered between the modillions; in I the centre of each is placed a rosace. The com- posite order may be considered as a sort of Corinthian, as the principal difference exists in the capital, where the volutes occupying about one quarter of the total height rest upon a bead and ovolo ; the central tendrils are also omitted, and the upper row of leaves is higher than in i the ordinary Corinthian. Besides this particular composite capital, the Roman monuments fur nish us with others ornamented with trophies, eagles, masks, &c. The pediments of the Ro- , man edifices were steeper than those of the Grecian; the cymatium was continued along the flank cornices, thereby doing away with i the antefixae. The Doric order, on account of its simplicity, was very rarely employed by the Romans. In the few examples which have been preserved, the proportions are more slender, the projections less hardy than in the Grecian Doric ; and, in endeavoring to give it more elegance, this order lost with the Ro mans its simplicity and grandeur. At Albano an example has been discovered where most of the mouldings are ornamented. The baths of Diocletian furnish us with still another ex ample greatly enriched. The necking is orna mented with small rosaces, the echinus is sculp tured with leaves, the metopes and corona are also enriched with sculpture, while the cornice resembles that generally employed in the Ionic order. The best examples of this order be queathed to us by the Romans decorate the temple of Hercules at Cori, and the theatre of Marcellus at Rome. The former, however, is almost wholly Greek. In the latter example, the column, composed of shaft and capital, is about eight diameters in height. The capital, occupying about one half of a diameter in 660 ARCHITECTURE height, may be divided into three nearly equal parts. The uppermost, given to the abacus, of less projection than in the Grecian examples, is crowned by a cynia reversa and fillet ; the ovolo supporting the abacus is a semi-torus resting on three fillets, and occupies the mid dle division ; while the lower third is taken up by a necking which is separated from the shaft by a small torus and fillet. The shaft, less conoidal than in the Grecian examples, is with out flutes, the superior diameter being about four fifths of the diameter at the base. The total height of the entablature is about one quarter of that of the column ; its projection is about equal to its height. The architrave is one half of a diameter in height ; the frieze 1^ diameter. The principal difference in the distribution of the Grecian and Roman Doric frieze is in the position of the triglyph over the column at the angle. The Romans preserved the same intercolumniation throughout, and placed the triglyph directly over the column, thus forming half metopes at the angles. In the cornice the bed mouldings occupy more height than in the Grecian types, and are composed generally of a cyma reversa, dentil, and ovolo, separated by fillets. The corona is of less im portance, it being sacrificed to the cymatium, which in return is of more value than in the Grecian Doric. The soffit generally bears mutules, though sometimes these latter mem bers are dispensed with. The only examples of the Ionic order in ancient Rome are to be found in the temples of Saturn and Fortuna Yirilis, in the baths of Diocletian, in the Colosseum, and in the upper order of the theatre of Marcellus. The total height of the columns varies between eight and nine diam eters. The base, about one half of a diameter in height, is composed of a torus resting on a ! plinth, a scotia, and a second torus ; the three upper members have fillets intervening. The shaft, slightly increased in diameter at one i third of its height, is either plain or fluted ; in 1 the latter case the flutes, separated by fillets, are semicircular, and are 20 in number. The diminution of the shaft varies between one eighth and one tenth of a diameter. The capitals, occupying about one half of a diameter, I vary; those of the theatre of Marcellus and of j the temple of Fortuna Virilis are without a . necking. The volutes, connected by horizontal j instead of curved lines, are bolstered, and the j abacus crowning the volutes is composed of a j cyma reversa and a fillet. In the Ionic capitals | of San Lorenzo at Rome (generally thought , formerly to have belonged to the temple of I Jupiter and Juno), there exists a necking. The temple of Saturn presents still a third species, the volutes being doubled and inclined at an angle of 45. The height and projection of the entablature are nearly equal, varying between one quarter and one fifth of the height of the column. The architrave and frieze are equal in height, and are a little less than that occu pied by the cornice. The frieze is either with or without sculpture. The bed mouldings of the cornice generally consist of a cyma reversa, a dentil course, and ovolo, separated by fillets, together occupying rather less than one half of the entire height of the cornice ; the corona and crown mouldings, with the cymatium, complete this order. The whole of the Roman possessions were covered with massive struc tures which embodied the Roman spirit of de fiance and the supremacy of the conqueror. We find everywhere in her own limits and in her possessions roads, aqueducts, bridges, ports, forums, basilicas, temples, mausoleums, palaces, baths, theatres, amphitheatres, hippo dromes, naumachias, triumphal arches, cloacas, Arch of Titus at Beneveutum. prisons, fountains, cisterns, monumental col umns, villas, grottoes, and markets. During the empire, Rome was adorned with its beauti ful Pantheon, Asia was endowed with many beautiful structures, and Athens itself became embellished with the famous temple of Jupiter Euins of the Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens. ARCHITECTURE 661 Olympius. The baths or tJiermcs of Augustus, Nero, Titus, Garacalla, and Diocletian were re- ! nowned for a magnificence which was hardly . surpassed even by their palaces. In fact, throughout all the Roman structures, from the | palace of the Cresars to the villas of Lucullus, ! Sallust, and Hadrian, the greatest display of j splendor and luxury prevailed. But, of all their ; structures, perhaps the most stupendous was ! the Colosseum, capable of containing more than 100,000 spectators. It was partially destroyed in 1084, by Robert Guiscardthe Norman, who conceived the idea that it was to be used as a ; citadel against him. Though from the ruins the popes have taken sufficient material to construct the Farnese palace, the Cancella- ria, and St. Mark, the cragged and crumbling remains are still gigantic and imposing. V. [ ARCHITECTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. The architecture of this period, although it was. I derived from Greek and Roman models, j applied new principles, forming structures | wholly different from the antique originals, j Through many successive centuries the Ro- j man school of art continued to suffer changes, j From the fragments of edifices which were j torn down to form new structures, arose new combinations. The transition styles which then prevailed were, from their characteristic j peculiarities, designated as the Latin, the By- zantine, the Lombard, the Saxon, the Norman, and the Romanesque, together known as the old or round-arched Gothic. During the 4th century architecture had reached its lowest point. In the religious edifices of this period , marked evidences exist of an utter want of I artistic feeling. The sterling principles which had been the glory of Grecian and Roman schools were either forgotten or not under- I stood. Arches with and without archivolts : were made to spring immediately from the capitals of the columns. Orders were super- i imposed with broken entablature ; in fact, this latter member was altogether done away with in some cases. Grace was wanting in the i mouldings and sculpture ; the different orders I were employed in the same peristyle, and the whole school of architecture became a prey to the general system of innovation which then existed. During this state of tilings hordes of ! barbarians invaded every province of the em- j pire. This universal conflict was not calculated to give a new impetus to art, nor to promote its progress. Italy, however, under the Goth and Ostrogoth rule, evinced in some measure j a renewed architectural zeal. Theodoric re- ! paired the walls and drains of Rome, reorgan- I ized the comitivce Romance, (who guarded day and night the monumental structures of the capital), and by his own devotion to the arts, together with that of his daughter Amalason- j tha, revivified the spirit of a fast perishing craft. After the transfer by Constantine of ; the imperial seat to Constantinople, the arts j were again successfully cultivated by the ! Greeks, who made free use of the architectural i treasures left by the ancients. Then appeared the dome, the glory of the Byzantine school, supported by its pendentives highly ornamented with mosaic. This principal feature of the By zantine school induced their architects to aban don the Latin cross (which form had gradually grown out of that of the Roman basilica) in the plan of their churches, introducing instead the Grecian cross, whose branches are of equal length. The dome no longer rested on circular walls, but was borne by four arches resting on pillars placed at the four angles, in plan. Pen dentives were introduced in order to sustain the circular dome, as otherwise the triangular space in the four corners would have been left without support, the diameter of the dome being equal to one of the sides of the square. In some cases the corner pillars were square, presenting an angle only at the corners, thereby giving an extraordinary degree of lightness to the structure. The semicircular arch of the Ro mans was often elongated, in order to attain an equal height with different spans. The dogmas of the iconoclasts obliged the architects to seek some other means than sculpture of enriching their temples ; hence the profusion of mosaic work. Their ornaments represented foliage in bass-relief and interlaced lines. The capitals of the columns were square blocks similarly carved, tapering down at angles to join the cir cular shaft. Under Narses and Belisarius the dome was introduced into Italy. The Byzantine style, whose chief promoters were Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, also became the basis of the new Persian, Russian, and Sara cen schools. We find its peculiarities existing during the middle ages in Greece, Italy, Sicily, Spain, Arabia, and India. Among the chief edifices of the Byzantine school are St. Mark s at Venice, San Vitale at Ravenna, and St. Sophia at Constantinople, the last being one of the most magnificent of the eastern em pire. The Saracens and Moors introduced into Europe certain forms of architecture which, though differing in very many features from the classic styles, were still founded on the remains of the Grecian school, blended with the oriental elements of the Byzantine. The chief peculiarity of these styles was in the form given to the arch. The Saracenic arch was of greater depth than width. The Moor ish style was distinguished by arches in the shape of a horseshoe or a crescent. The Sara cens and Moors are, however, so completely one people, that it is with difficulty that the differences of their essential features can be discriminated. Their mural ornamentations, styled arabesque, presented more varied designs of graceful and ingenious combinations of geo metrical and floral traceries than had before been known. The reproduction of animated forms was prohibited by the Koran. Another striking feature of this school is the peculiar way in which they ornamented their pendentives, by a series of little niches placed one above another, covering not only the surface of the in- 662 ARCHITECTURE ner projecting angles, but forming at times the super-entablature of the edifice. The numer ous mosques, palaces, bazaars, tombs, and other edifices of the Moslems, existing throughout Pillar in Church of at. John. Constantinople. Italy after the middle of the 6th century, there founded their kingdom. Converted to Catholi cism, they adopted the arts of the people they had vanquished; and, as in Lombardy there existed but few ancient temples whose mate rials could be employed in other structures, we find them originating a complete and sys tematized style, which at length pervaded all districts where the Latin church had extended its infiuence ; the people of each country where it was introduced modifying it to suit their cli mate, customs, and wants. Its branches are variously known as the Merovingian, Carlo- vingian, Saxon, Norman, &c., which together were styled old Gothic, and out of which grew the pointed style, after the introduction into Europe of the pointed arch. During this epoch plain, banded, fluted, and polygonal columns, in spiral or zigzag, were clustered, broken, or knotted together. Their capitals were foliated or had various grotesque animals sculptured on them ; they were supported on brackets vari ously carved, or rested upon the backs of ani mals, which replaced the pedestal. Every license was taken with the entablature, even to the suppression of it altogether. Against the jambs of arched openings were often placed nu merous columns supporting the arched mould- Interior of the Golden Gateway at Jerusalem. ^ various parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, attest the great similarity existing between this style and the Byzantine ; this has been attributed to the employment of Greeks on their works. A fact worthy of note, also, is that the Moslem structures furnish examples of the pointed arches, whence according to many they were brought into Europe. The Lombards, having possessed themselves of the northern part of 3jiid > J l; i . North Transept Window, Lincoln Cathedral. ings. Oftentimes a greater arch encompassed several smaller ones, supported by pillars which intersected each other in various ways. Their openings were quite elongated and often coupled; the circular window, or rose, was also very frequent in their frontispieces. Semi circular, elongated, flat, horseshoe, and foiled arches are to be found, ornamented and simple, and either served as a decoration, crowned their walls, or supported horizontal bands, di viding into panels their walls, which were like wise panelled off by long pilasters or flat but tresses. The angles of their churches (generally in plan in the form of the cross) were often surmounted by a sort of pinnacle. Ribs are also found in their vaulted ceilings. Towers first accompanied the churches ; later they formed a part of the same edifice, flanking or decorating the middle of the facade. The earlier examples were square ; later they were round, and liter still of a polygonal form. The ARCHITECTURE roof, assuming a more and more pointed shape, approached the form of the spire, as it was in troduced in countries where the climate was more severe. The monasteries and convents generally contained an interior court surround ed by porticos, about which were placed the cells of the inmates. The lower stories of the royal palaces and town halls presented a simi lar disposition. External porticos, or lodges, also existed. During this period it is supposed that the construction of houses in stories be came general. The habitations of the mass of the people were poor and irregularly planted about the town hall in the cities, or clustered Celtic Gothic Cloister, Kilconnel Abbey, Ireland. about the massive feudal castles. These edi fices consisted of a main tower, or keep, the walls of which were from six to twelve feet thick, with windows, consisting of holes one or two feet wide, placed at irregular intervals. The several floors were constructed on arches; the roof was flat, or had battlements, and pos sessed a notched parapet for the purposes of defence. The main tower was surrounded by a courtyard protected by a high wall, and the arched entrance was strongly secured by a falling gate or portcullis. Around the whole was a deep ditch, or fosse, which could be filled with water. Many of the castle fortresses were on a plan of great magnitude, consisting of two or more towers and divers inner buildings, in cluding chapels. While the whole of Europe was convulsed with the international and social strife and invasions of barbarians which result ed in its complete reorganization, the study of the arts, sciences, and literature took refuge in the monasteries. The influence of the cler gy declined, however, as free institutions arose, and the pointed Gothic must be regarded as the work rather of secular than of clerical architects. This change was doubtless made more complete by the increasing importance of the fraternity of freemasons. In Italy dur ing the 10th century we find the corporation of magistri comacini exercising great influ- | ence, and giving to Grecian artists shelter from the political troubles of the East, and from the persecutions of the iconoclasts. These artists promulgated among the Lombards the Byzpn- : tine elements of design, whose influence, as we | have seen, was more or less felt throughout ! the architectural schools of Europe. Under Envin von Steinbach of Germany, during the 13th century, the Hutten, or lodges, were or- | ganized, one object of which was the study of ; architecture, over which they exercised a pow erful influence. In Strasburg existed the Haupt- : Hatte, or main lodge. Under Jost Dotzinger I of Worms (who in 1444 succeeded the archi- : tect J. Hult), the various sects of the German freemasons were incorporated into one body, and, in virtue of an act passed at Ratisbon the same year, the architect of the cathedral of Strasburg was elected the sole grand master of the fraternity. These magistri lapidum were likewise sole directors or supervisors of all the religious structures. Protected by the church, architecture in their hands passed from the old Gothic through various phases of the pointed style. The spirit of the age seems embodied in the Gothic cathedral, the work of minds in spired with solemn and devotional feelings. The cathedrals in the pointed style most justly de serve admiration. The pointed style is custom arily divided into three periods : the first, or primary, dating from the latter end of the 12th century ; the second, or decorated, or rayonnant, from the commencement of the 14th century ; and the third, or perpendicular, or flamboyant, ! from the end of the 14th to the 16th century. I The essential element of this style is the point- j ed arch. Were it not for this feature, it would be often difficult to distinguish between the earlier j works of the first period of the pointed and the ; later works of the old Gothic. It is during the first period that the spire surmounting the I tower becomes of so great importance, forming j one of the striking characteristics of this style. | In the finer examples it is octagonal and very pointed, either plain or ribbed, sometimes j pierced, sometimes crocketed, and invariably bearing a finial. Buttresses and flying but tresses also form a striking feature ; these latter being somewhat massive and heavy at first, but gradually becoming more and more elegant as : they approached the second period. The set- \ offs are formed by inclined slabs, or by a ped iment with finial, the face of the buttresses being ornamented at times with panels and niches ; in some cases also the space between \ the arches of the flying buttresses is occupied | by radiating columns. The parapet is uninter- 1 nip ted, and is either decorated or plain. Tur rets were either square or octagonal, their pin- ! nacles being mostly of the latter form, either crocketed or not. The rose windows of this i period are quite simple : small columns radiating I from the centre receiving foiled arches tangent | to the circumference. The lancet arch pre- : dominates. The windows are very long and I narrow, and are either simple or coupled, in 664 ARCHITECTURE which latter case a slender column forms, as it were, the mullion. The ribs of the groined ceilings are decorated with bosses at their in tersections, and rest either upon corbels, or Flying Buttress, Chapter House, Lincoln. upon the shafts of slender columns which de scend to the pavement. The piers are either simple in plan, or present several shafts clus tered around a core of a circular, elliptical, or cruciform shape. The sculpture, wherein the national flora is introduced, supersedes alto gether the ornamentation previously employed ; rosaces, trefoils, quatrefoils, and panelling are introduced to ornament their works in various ways. During the second period the style reached its noblest development. A greater elegance and richness pervade this period, whose characteristic features are thereby dis tinguished from those of the previous one. The flying buttresses are extremely graceful, those at quoins being placed diagonally. The parapets are pierced or embattled, as are also the pediments. The windows gradually assume a less pointed form, the head of the arch being in general equilateral. Replacing the small columns in the windows are moulded mullions, which form graceful flowing traceries in the head of the arch. The drip-stone is often sur mounted by a canopy or pediment resting on ^ masks, and enriched with crockets and a finial. The clustered columns composing the columnar piers are more elaborate, and generally placed diagonally. Their bases be come more important, and are placed upon octagonal plinths clustered together. The ribs, bosses, and carved ornaments throughout have more relief and are more elegant. The third period is remarkable for its profuse ornamenta tion. The panelled walls, with their niches, tabernacles, canopies, and screens, highly deco rated, the flying buttresses enriched with pin nacles and tracery, the corbelled battlements and turrets, and the balustrades intricately carved and pierced, are characteristic of this | epoch. The arch presents many varieties of form. Together with those common in the preceding periods, others exist very depressed, being in many cases almost flat. The ogee, or contrasted form, also appears in the openings and pediments. The doors are generally square- headed, the spandril above being enriched with traceries. The rose windows during the 15th century are most intricate in tracery. The ground vaults also are very elaborate, while their bosses and pendents are unequalled for their wonderful carvings. The mouldings of the archivolts, more prismatic in their forms than in the previous periods, continue down uninterruptedly to the foot of the openings, thus doing away with the columns heretofore employed. The appellations of perpendicular and flamboyant, by which this period is also known, arose from its peculiar modes of tra cery. YI. THE RENAISSANCE OR REVIVAL. With the reformation came the gradual aban donment of the pointed styles, accompanied as it was by the check of freemasonry occasioned by the withdrawal of the patronage of the pope. The consequent architectural reaction sprang less from admiration and a thorough knowledge of the classic styles than from ne cessity. The return, however, to the rules of the ancient schools of design was progressive, save in Italy, where they had constantly exer cised a powerful influence over the artistic | spirit, the architecture of the country having ! retained through the middle ages the charac- I teristics of the classic schools. We find here, I however, several beautiful edifices, termed by j the Italians in maniera Tedesca, which, not withstanding a contradictory statement made | by Muratori and Maifei, were the work of Ger- ! man artists. During the 14th century, or the | trecento period, we discover in Italy, in the secular structures more especially, numerous I examples exhibiting a return to the classic I styles, which possess simplicity and boldness. I At length, in the 16th century, the classic taste | prevailed throughout Europe, and hence the , different names, cinque cento, renaissance, re- I vival, given to that style which supplanted i everywhere the so-called Gothic architecture. Brunelleschi of Florence, who died in 1444, was among the first to encourage and disseminate this taste for a return to the classic architec ture. He had numerous distinguished fol lowers, among whom were Alberti, Bramante, ! Peruzzi, Sangallo, San Micheli, Palladio, Sca- mozzi, and many others, who obtained a well I deserved reputation. In their productions the different elements of the classic style are happily introduced. The application of these elements to ecclesiastical, and more es- i pecially to secular structures, accounts for the | liberties taken with them, among which we | will cite the following : the great variety given \ to the intercolumniation of columns ; the su perposition of different orders, with and with- | out broken entablatures ; the frequent use of ! engaged columns and pilasters ; the various ARCHITECTURE 665 forms given to the pediments ; the substitution of columns for piers supporting arcades; the decoration of blank walls with medallions, fo liage, and scrolls of various sorts, together with Decorated Arch ^Gothic), Dorchester, Oxfordshirs, designs of animals arranged in imitation of an cient arabesques. These and many other so- called liberties originated a style peculiarly well adapted to the wants of modern civiliza tion. Michel Angelo made several innovations in architecture, as well as in the other arts. He abolished many capricious ornaments ; and instead of superimposing several orders, distin guishing as many stories, he employed one, comprising the whole height of the edifice. To him we are indebted for certain bold ele ments of design, although generally wanting in grace and purity. To his followers, Bernini, Boromini, Fontana, and others, is to be attrib uted in a great measure the decadence which followed the architecture of the 16th century. From Italy the renaissance was introduced into France. Among those who distinguished themselves in this kingdom were Pierre Lescot, Philibert de Lorme, and Jean Bullant. Later appeared De Brosse, Androuet du Cerceau, and finally Perrault, under Louis XIV. Eng land boasts Inigo Jones, her Palladio, followed by Christopher Wren, Sir Robert Taylor, Sir William Chambers, and many others of merit and distinction. VII. MODERN ARCHITECTURE. The admirable architectural forms brought in by these men continue in use in all civilized countries to this day, and have been carried wherever European civilization has extended. Their reign has not, however, been undisputed. The spirit of scientific inquiry which has char acterized the last hundred years has not only enlarged our knowledge of architectural forms, | but has promoted a more exhaustive study of : the principles of the art. New movements 1 have accordingly arisen, avowedly actuated by these researches, directed either to improv ing the so-called classical style, or to supplant ing it altogether. These two movements are known as the Greek and the Gothic revival. Both took their origin in England. The Greek revival dates from 1762, when Messrs. Stuart and Revett published the results of their re searches among the antiquities of Attica. The Gothic revival may be said to date from Hor ace Walpole s works at Strawberry Hill about 100 years ago, but its modern development did not begin till about 1820. In England and the United States the Greek revival was merely a reproduction of the Greek buildings or parts of buildings, which, however beautiful in their original position, proved in the more gloomy climate of the north, and when executed in coarser materials, uninteresting and unattrac tive. The Greek originals, moreover, were almost exclusively temples, without windows, and surrounded by columns, a model utterly unsuited to modern uses. The attempted adoption of Greek details proved equally un satisfactory. The movement made consider able mark in England, the British museum be ing perhaps its chief example. In this country the Greek style was adopted for the public i buildings at Washington and for post offices, custom houses, hotels, and banks, in marble i or granite, in all our principal cities. This ; fashion, for government buildings at least, has I not yet passed away! Imitations of these works in wood were very common in the first half of this century, as may everywhere be witnessed ; in country towns ; and a certain style of church with Greek details and a tower imitated from ; the choragic monument or the temple of ; the Winds is still common. In joinery, the Greek forms of mouldings both here and in England have become almost universal. In ! other countries the excitement caused by the discovery of Gre ek art was less superficial, and proved a more efficient inspiration. In I Scotland, where the architecture has always exhibited much independence and local charac- ; ter, the "Greek" style, in the hands of Mr. Hamilton and the Adams brothers, shows great I freedom of treatment and refinement of taste. More recently, in the hands of Mr. Thomson, ; at Glasgow, it has developed, with great ele- | gance and beauty, forms perfectly adapted to modern uses. A similar effort was made in . Germany, chiefly in Berlin and Munich, to rec oncile the methods of the Greeks with mod- \ ern needs ; and in spite of a general effect of bareness and hardness, it is impossible to deny 006 ARCHITECTURE ARCHON to the best works of Schinkel and Klenze a good measure of admiration. It was only in France, however, in an atmosphere at once thoroughly artistic and highly intellectual, that the Greek revival showed enough vigor to throw aside the methods of the ancients and to create new forms. The pedantic fashions of : the first empire, which however hardly ex tended their influence in architecture heyond : the schools, gave place in the reign of Louis I Philippe to a new style, which has been called ! the neo-grecque, or, to distinguish it from the Romanesque, founded upon Roman methods, the romantique, though it has little in com- rnon with the contemporary romantic school in literature. The column of July, parts of ; the Palais de Justice, the Bibliotheque Ste. ] Genevieve, and the Palais des Beaux Arts, by MM. Due, Labrouste, and Duban, are the typ ical monuments of this style. Their erection marks a new era in architecture. Hardly a building of note has since been erected in France which has not been more or less affect ed by their example, and it has sensibly modi fied the related forms in use in Germany. The influence of this style is also extending in the United States, mainly through the agency of the ecolc dcs beaux arts of Paris, whose pupils or pupils pupils are rapidly multiply ing here. Meanwhile in England, the Greek movement having failed, surviving only long enough to kill the Roman classical style, the field was left open for the revival of the medieval architecture, which, fostered by ec clesiastical patronage and by archaeological studies, has during the last 50 years gradually engrossed nearly all the talent of the country. Beginning, as the Greek revival began, with a period of pedantry and purism, under the guid ance of the elder and younger Pugin, and used at first chiefly for ecclesiastical buildings, the ascendancy of the Gothic style was finally established when in 1840 it was decided to adopt it for the new houses of parliament. This great undertaking educated a large body of workmen in all the decorative arts of the mid dle ages, and gave an immense impulse to the Gothic movement. Subsequent works show not only greater knowledge and skill, but more freedom of mind, both in secular and ecclesiastical work. The works of Scott, Waterhouse, Street, Burges, and Butterfield exhibit this gradually increasing tendency. It may fairly be said that in the hands of these architects the "Victorian Gothic," as it has been called, differs as much from the various Gothic styles of the middle ages as they differ from each other. A similar movement has meanwhile been going on in France and Ger many, but less successfully. In Germany, after long and not altogether happy efforts to re vive round-arched or Lombardic styles, the proper pointed Gothic has been taken up, stim ulated by the great works for the completion of the Cologne cathedral. The Votive church at Vienna is perhaps the most noteworthy ex ample of this movement. In France a taste for medieval work has found its chief field in the restoration, often amounting to recon struction and completion, of cathedrals and other monuments ; a work which, in the hands among others of MM. Lassus and Viollet-Le- duc, has been performed with consummate knowledge and skill. The new buildings in the pointed style seem, however, timid and ineffec tive, and it is in the Romanesque or round- arched Gothic that the French seem most at home. Its influence is seen not only in works avowedly medieval, but much of the new Greek work so called, especially that in which the arch is used, recalls these models. The adherents of the Gothic revival in this coun try are as numerous and devoted as those of the Greek revival. But there is less parti- ! sanship here, perhaps, than abroad, and it is more common for architects to practise in both j ways at once. See Fergusson s " History of Architecture," Durand s Parallele, Napoleon s j Egyjite, Stuart and Revett s "Attica," Leta- ! rouilly s "Rome," Viollet-le-Duc s Diction- I naire, Eastlake s "Gothic Revival," and tie i works of Piranesi, Gailhabaud, Penrose, Pu- ! gin, Ruskin, Daly, &c. ; also " The Builder," 1 Remie generale cl* architecture, &c. ARCHON (Gr. apx^v, ruler), a chief magistrate j of ancient Athens, first chosen instead of a king ! after the death of Codrus, about 1008 B. C. Medon, the son of Codrus, was the first archon, and the office was hereditary in his family till 714 B. C., when it was thrown open to all the eupatrid.-e or patricians. Previous to 752 B. C. the archon held his office during life; at that time his term was limited to ten years, and in 683 to one; and at this latter epoch the | office was divided among nine persons. Sev- j eral years afterward the archonship was made : accessible to the citizens generally, who were I subject, however, to some restrictions as to i qualification. The power of the archons be- j came limited by degrees, and at last they had : very little influence in the management of the I government. One of the nine was called the | archon, as being the chief of the whole body, I and his duty was to superintend the greater | Dionysiac festivals in honor of Bacchus, and i the Thargelia in honor of Apollo and Diana,. ! and to exercise a general care over orphans, ! and jurisdiction in matters relating to the law I of inheritance. He was sometimes styled I eponymus (e~uvv/uo, one from whom something is named), because he gave the designation to ; the year, as did the consuls at Rome. The | second archon was entitled king (jSacifavc ), as he occupied the place of the ancient kings with regard to all public religious worship. The third archon was called polernarch (Tro/^ap^of, i commander-in-chief), and originally had su preme control over the army; at the battle of Marathon we find him in command of the j right wing. But it was at length found in- | expedient to intrust this important function , to a person chosen by lot; and after the bat- AKCIIYTAS OF TARENTUM ARCTIC DISCOVERY GGT tie of Marathon (490) the puleinurch ceased to exercise such authority, his duties being in aftertimes confined to attending to the affairs of the alien residents of Athens, to the man agement of the funeral games in honor of Athe nians who had fallen in battle for their country, and the superintendence of other similar rites. Each of these three archons was allowed two assistants, whose appointment had to be sanc tioned by the senate. The rest of the archons were styled thesmothetse (decfioderai, lawgivers), though this name was also sometimes applied to the whole body. At the expiration of their year of office, the archons were obliged to submit to an examination as to the manner in which they had performed their duties, and, if such examination proved satisfactory, were ad mitted members of the court of the Areopagus. AKCIIYTAS OF TARENTUM, an Italian Greek philosopher, mathematician, general, and states man, in the early part of the 4th century B. C. He is said to have been seven times general of the Tarentine forces, and to have always been victorious. He evinced no less capacity in po litical atfairs. He was very intimate with Plato, was the first who applied mathematical prin ciples to practical mechanics, and constructed various machines and automatons. He was accidentally drowned while crossing the Adri atic. A collection of the works ascribed to Archytas will be found in Orelli s Opusculci Grcecorum. ARCIS-SUR-AUBE, a town of France, in Cham pagne, department of Aube, 16 m. X. by E. of Troves ; pop. in 1866, 2,820. It contains cotton and spinning manufactories and manufacto ries of cotton hosiery, and is an entrepot for iron and for the wooden wares made in the Vosges. Near this town, March 20 and 21, 1814, Napoleon fought the allied army under Schwartzenberg, before whose overwhelming numbers he was compelled to retreat on the sec ond day, though rather successful on the first. ARCOLE, a village of Venetia. on the Alpone, a small affluent of the Adige, 15 m. E. S. E. of Verona; pop. about 1,600. It is famous for the victory gained there by Napoleon in his first Italian campaign, over the Austrians, Nov. 15-17, 1796. ARCOS DE LA FRONTERA (anc. Arcolriga), a town of Spain, in the province and 29 m. N. E. of Cadiz, situated on the Guadalete; pop. 11,500. The town is in a very strong position, and portions of its ancient walls and towers remain. ARCOT. I. A district of the Carnatic, in the presidency of Madras, British India, divided into two collectorates, North and South Arcot, and lying between lat. 11 and 14 N. and Ion. 78 and 80 E. ; area, 12,459 sq. m., of which North Arcot contains 7,526, and South Arcot 4,933; pop. 2,638,174. The surface is low in the eastern part, but rises into hills in the western. The principal rivers are the Palaur, the Punnair, and the Coleroon. The climate is exceedingly hot and dry, and in the summer the beds of ! many of the streams are bare. This has led to | the construction of huge tanks or artificial lakes, I of which there are many in North Arcot; one I at Caverypank is 8 m. long and 3 m. wide. The soil when well irrigated produces good crops, principally of grain and cotton. Arcot i was ceded to the British in 1801, on condition ! that they should pay the claims of the creditors of its former ruler, Azim ul-Omrah, nabob of the Carnatic. The committee appointed to in- ; vestigate these claims found them immense, ; and a large sum from the annual revenue of the. district was set apart for their payment. The finances of Arcot, especially under the mal administration of Hastings in India, while the province was partially conquered, but before its cession, had long before formed a subject of discussion in the English parliament, and con cerning them Edmund Burke made one of his most famous speeches, Feb. 28, 1785. II. The principal town and capital of the preceding dis trict, on the S. bank of the Palaur, 65 m. W. by S. of Madras; pop. about 60,000. It is sur rounded by a wall ; and the town itself is of I comparatively modern construction, though a fortress, now partially destroyed, has existed for centuries. In 1751 Clive withstood here a remarkable siege of 50 days. ARCTIC DISCOVERY. Until within a recent ! period it was believed that Columbus and j Cabot were the actual first discoverers of the I American continent. Careful researches on the : part of northern antiquaries, however, would seern to prove that portions of the American ; coast some maintain as far south as what is, | now Long Island were known to the seamen | or sea kings of Norway as early as the 9th and \ 10th centuries. Newfoundland and Greenland | were the regions best known to these rovers. j In 1000 a Norwegian, with a crew of Ice- i landers, landed on the coast of Massachusetts, I which he named Vinland. This party erected monuments on an island in Baffin bay, where I they were discovered in 1824. They estab- I lished colonies on the Greenland coast, which ! flourished for some years, making great gains I by the fisheries, which they pursued as far as i Lancaster sound, and even to Barrow strait. I Greenland and Spitzbergen were for several ! centuries prosperous colonies. Iceland, then at ! the height of its prosperity, found here a fair i field for the enterprise of its inhabitants, who | not only followed commerce and the fisheries, but propagated their faith in the new land, and i built up numerous churches and convents, whose ruins are still found along the Greenland | coasts. The Icelanders and Northmen, then, i were the first arctic explorers. As the Green land and Spitzbergen colonies perished, and the | most important Icelandic expedition was lost ! and never heard from, while Iceland itself I and the countries of the north were distracted | by internal troubles, no trace of the dis- | coveries made by these people was communi- j cated to the rest of Europe. In 1380 two Ve- ! netian navigators, Zeni by name, voyaged to> 668 ARCTIC DISCOVERY 90" J.rmiriturtpWpst 8 ; r from Greenwich. 7,0 the north, and brought back tidings of what they had seen. Their discoveries, however, resulted in nothing important. In 1497 the \ Cabots, John and Sebastian, landed in Labra- i dor, and afterward projected a voyage toward | the north pole. They penetrated as far as 67 30 N., that is to say, about half way up Davis ; strait. They hoped to sail westward around the northern extremity of the American con tinent, and thus reach the much desired Cathay. These, then, were the first seekers for the north west passage. The next explorers were the brothers Cortereal, who made in all three voyages, extending as far as 60 N., but result- ARCTIC DISCOVERY 660 ing in nothing but disaster to the adventurers and loss of life. This was in 1500-1502. In 1553 Sir Hugh Willoughby was sent out by the Muscovy company to find a northeast passage to Cathay and India. He penetrated to Xova Zembla, but was driven back by the ice as far as the mouth of the Arzina in Lapland, where he and his crew perished. In 1576- 8 Martin Frobisher made three voyages to the north west. He discovered the entrance to Hudson and Frobisher straits leading into Hudson bay. These were the first voyages on which we hear of scientific investigations being made. In 1578 Sir Humphrey Gilbert, a relative of Sir Walter Raleigh, received authority to make a voyage of discovery on the American conti nent ; but this, too, was practically without result. Next followed (1585- 7) Davis, who made more important accessions to a knowl edge of the polar sea than any of his predeces sors. He first fairly discovered the strait which bears his name, and surveyed portions of the coast of Greenland. These and other naviga tors, Danes, French, and Dutch, were stimulat ed to energetic efforts for finding a northern passage to India, in great part because Spain, then in her glory and power, monopolized the trafiic across the Atlantic and Indian oceans, and dealt summarily with all intruders. The Dutch persevered in their search for a north east passage. William Barentz made three voyages in this direction, 1594- 6. He and his crew suffered much, and, so far as the prime object of their expedition was concerned, ac complished nothing material. Barentz him self perished on the third voyage, when his crew were in boats near the Icy cape, a head land of Alaska, in the Arctic ocean. Henry Hudson set out in 1607, under the auspices of the Muscovy company, with orders to steer directly toward the north pole. He advanced beyond lat. 80, steering due north between Greenland and Spitzbergen, and returned con vinced that a passage in that direction was im possible. The following year (1608) he tried to discover a northeast passage to India, between Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen. He pushed forward as far as lat. 75, and returned the same year. The next year he tried again, but, finding his way impeded by ice, returned and sailed westward, and, searching along the American coast for a passageway, discovered the bay of New York and the river which bears his name. In 1610 Hudson set sail upon a fourth expedition. He sailed up the strait named after him into the mouth of Hudson bay, penetrating several hundred miles further to the west than any one had ever gone before. The expedition wintered on one of the islands in the mouth of the bay. Their progress in the spring was beset with storms, the provisions gave out, the crew mutinied, and finally a por tion of the mutineers returned to England with out Hudson, whom they set adrift to perish. It was now supposed that Hudson bay was a great outlet into the Pacific waters, and san- | guine expectations were entertained that here I would be found the desired northwest passage. j Within the next five years several expeditions. i were made into Hudson bay ; and two impor- : tant channels, Fox channel and Sir Thomas- Rowe s Welcome, were partially explored. In | 1616 Baffin explored the bay called after him, j even entering the mouth of Lancaster sound. | Baffin s survey was very exact, and for upward of 50 years after his explorations no navigator penetrated beyond him. Meantime, however,, the Russians were seeking, by overland expedi tions through Siberia, and by vessels through Behring strait, to establish the practicability i of a passage to the northeast. On one of these j expeditions the extreme variation of the mag- i netic needle was first closely remarked. In | 1741 Behring set sail with an expedition from the harbor of St. Peter and St. Paul (Petropav- lovsk) in Kamtchatka. After various buffet- ings before severe gales, having twice made the American coast and been driven off to sea, Behring died ; the vessels were wrecked ; the crews wintered on an island known as Behring island, built a small vessel the following spring, and finally reached Kamtchatka Aug. 25, 1742. ! Only a bare mention can be made of the ex- i peditions of Shalaroff (1760), who perished of i starvation with all his crew; of Andreyeff; I and of Capt. Billings, who started from the | mouth of the Kolyma in Siberia. None of I these resulted in important additions to the I stock of geographical knowledge; and so we come to the last of the Russian efforts the sledge expeditions of Von Wrangell and Anjou, i in 1820- 23. These explorers penetrated to I lat. 70 51 N., Ion. 157 25 W., and reported | an open sea in the distant north, which pre- I eluded further operations with sledges. The \ natives whom they met at various points | spoke of land still further north, but they did not see it. Hudson bay was yet considered a I great outlet toward the northwest, and in 1743 | the British parliament offered a reward of 20,000 to the crew who should accomplish a northwest passage through it. Between 1769 and 1772 Samuel Hearne made three overland journeys north toward the polar sea. In the third he discovered and traced to its mouth the Coppermine river. From this time forth | the arctic explorations were no longer merely I for purposes of advantaging commerce, but in ! great part for scientific objects. In 1773 Capt. i Phipps (Lord Mulgrave) was sent out with in- ! structions to reach the north pole. Sailing j along the shores of Spitzbergen, he reached lat. ! 80 48 about as far north as Hudson had gone. I In 1776 Capt. Cook sailed on his last expedition, with instructions to attempt the polar sea by ! way of Behring strait. He penetrated only to lat. 70 45 . A vessel was despatched to Baffin bay to await him, but the ice formed a ! solid barrier across his path. Previous to i Cook s expedition the conditions of the par- ! liamentary reward had been extended so as to i include any northern passage for ships, and an ARCTIC DISCOVERY additional reward of 5,000 was offered to the ! crew that should penetrate to within 1 of the i pole. In 1789 Mackenzie, in a land expedition, , discovered and traced to its mouth the river ; called after him. The next two expeditions set j sail in 1818: one under the command of Capt. i Ross and Lieut. Parry, to discover the north- | west passage ; the other under Capt. Buchan and Lieut. (Sir John) Franklin, to penetrate j to the north pole. Of the latter expedition j the objects were entirely scientific. The com- ; manders were instructed to pass northward between Spitzbergen and Greenland without stop, and to make every effort to reach the pole. They found the temperature along the western shore of Spitzbergen unexpectedly ! mild ; but they did not succeed in penetrating further than 80 34 , and did not get clear of the ice without encountering great danger. One of the ships, the Dorothea, being much shattered by the ice, the expedition was finally abandoned, and the two vessels returned home. With the other expedition it was proposed to j explore the great openings reported by Baffin to exist at the western extreme of Baffin bay. The expedition sailed April 18, 1818, passed along the Greenland coast, and finally, Aug. 30, entered Lancaster sound. They were now upon unexplored ground. It was not supposed that Lancaster sound was in point of fact more than a bay, and the vessels were steered into it with many misgivings. After sailing up some 00 m. it was thought that land was dis covered, extending completely across from shore to shore of the supposed bay ; and, the weather threatening a storm, the vessels were put about. After exploring the coast to the southward and eastward for some distance, the vessels returned to England, where they ar rived in October of the same year. Capt. Ross reported Lancaster sound to be a bay through which there was no practicable outlet to the ocean beyond. In this opinion several of his j officers by no means agreed; and it appears ! that he failed to convince the scientific public i of England of the correctness of his view. Lieut. Parry, who was as positive and sanguine \ that Lancaster inlet was a sound as was Ross \ that it was a bay, was intrusted with another j expedition. The Hecla was his own vessel. The Griper, under the command of Lieut. Lid- i don, was the consort. The expedition num bered 04 men, and was fitted out with provi sions for two years. The vessels sailed May ! 11, 1819, first fell in with ice June 18, and found themselves firmly beleaguered on the { 25th. They entered Lancaster sound July 30, | but it was not till Aug. 3 that both vessels | were able to lay their course fairly up the i channel. Then they made a rapid run as far as the mouth of Barrow strait, and on passing j the mouth of Prince Regent inlet had ad- ! vanced further than any mariners had ever I gone before them. They were approaching the magnetic pole, and found their compasses j of little use. Proceeding through Melville sound, on Sept. 4 Parry announced to his crew that, having passed the 110th meridian, they were entitled to the reward of 5,000 offered by parliament for this achievement. On Sept. 20 they were imbedded in ice, and further progress was stopped. They cut their way out and returned to Melville island, where they passed the winter. On Aug. 2 of the following year the mass of ice broke up and fioated out, setting the explorers at liberty. By the loth they were again imbedded in ice, having made but little advance. They finally put about for home, reaching Britain in safety, and with the crews in a healthy condition. So successful a voyage raised high the expecta tions of all interested, and it was determined to send Parry out again. He accordingly sailed, in command of the Hecla and Fury, in May, 1821, with instructions to make for Re pulse bay by way of Hudson strait, with the expectation of thus avoiding much of the ice. Before this, however, in September, 1819, an overland expedition was sent out from York Factory, on the western shore of Hudson bay, with instructions to explore the northern coast of America, from the mouth of the Cop permine eastward. This expedition consisted of Lieut. (Sir John) Franklin, Dr. (Sir John) Richardson, two midshipmen, Messrs. Hood and Back, and a seaman named Hepburn. In the event of Parry s making the coast on his first expedition, the tAvo expeditions were to co operate. They reached Chipewyan on March 26, having accomplished a foot journey of 856 m. with the weather so intensely cold that the mercury sank to the bulb of the thermometer and then froze. In July, 1820, they travelled 500 m. more to Fort Enterprise, where the party wintered, while Mr. (Sir George) Back returned to Fort Chipewyan, to hurry along the supplies necessary for the next season s operations. Mr. Back, after innumerable hardships, returned to Fort Enterprise March 17, 1821, having travelled over 1,100 m., some times two or three days without tasting food, with no covering at night but a blanket and deerskins, and with the thermometer ranging between 47 and 57 below zero. On June 30, 1821, the party having dragged their canoes and supplies from Fort Enterprise to the Cop permine, 80 m., embarked on that stream and floated seaward. They reached the sea July 18, and immediately commenced paddling to the east. They sailed and paddled along shore 550 in., and imagined themselves upon the point of emerging into the vast Arctic- ocean, when, to their dismay, they discovered that they had just readied the bottom of a huge bay. With but three days provisions remain ing, they turned back, Sept. 1, and, unable even to reach their starting point, built two small canoes of their larger ones, and ascended Hood river, a short distance west of Point Turnagain, the spot where they gave up further progress eastward. Short of food, in a country deserted by animals, ill provided with all that could ARCTIC DISCOVERY G71 facilitate their progress, eating the remains of their old shoes and whatever scraps of leather they had, obliged from exhaustion to abandon their canoes when they came to rap ids, subsisting at the last upon rock tripe and mosses, disappointed in finding assistance at a station where they had expected it, the suffer ings of the party were almost unparalleled, and such as but few men could have endured. They lost two of their companions, and in July, 1822, reached York Factory, whence they had started three years before. In these three years they had made a journey of over 5,500 m., without accomplishing their object. Mean time, Captains Parry and Lyon, in the Fury and Ilecla, made Southampton island, the terminus of Hudson strait, early in August, 1821, and immediately steered to the north up Fox chan nel. Passing a bay hitherto unknown, which they named after the duke of York, they en tered Repulse bay, in the hope of finding here an outlet toward the Arctic ocean. Leaving Repulse bay, they started upon the exploration of a hitherto entirely unknown region. They made slow progress, exploring every indenta tion of the coast. Toward the close of Sep tember the ice began to accumulate, and Parry was obliged to cut into a large floe, and make there a winter harbor for his vessels. It was July before they were once more free of ice, and able to make progress on their voyage. They made their way up Fox channel slowly, against a current setting to the southward, and reached, Aug. 14, the small island of Igloolik, situated at the entrance of a strait called after ward the strait of the Fury and Ilecla. The ships were long detained here by ice, reached the middle of the strait only in September, and were obliged to return to Igloolik for the win ter, Oct. 30. The next spring (1823) proved unfavorable. The expeditions by land were able to effect but little, on account of the extreme ruggedness of the shore. The first week in August was past before the ships were released from their harbor ; and Parry, who saw all advance to the north prevented, returned home, arriving in England in October, 1823. Four expeditions were now fitted out. The first, consisting of two ships, under Parry, was to try Prince Regent inlet, which it was supposed would be found to open at its south ern extreme into the Arctic sea. The second party, under the command of Franklin, was to descend the Mackenzie river to the sea, and there divide, one party turning to the east, the other endeavoring to penetrate westward, even to Behring strait. Captain Beechey, in the Blossom, was despatched around Cape Horn, to sail through Behring strait and make headway to the east as far as Kotzebue sound, where he was to wait for Franklin s overland party. The fourth expedition (Capt. Lyon, in the Gri per) was to pass to the south of Southampton island, up Sir Thomas Howe s Welcome, to Repulse bay ; then to cross the Melville isth mus, and survey the coast as for as Franklin s I Point Turnagain. This expedition was unfor tunate ; the vesssel was twice nearly wrecked, I and the expedition was abandoned when yet ; 80 m. distant from Repulse bay. Parry s ex- | pedition sailed in May, 1824, entered Lancas- : ter sound in September, got into the ice, and j was obliged to winter in Port Bowen, near the j entrance of the sound. The following July, I when starting forward again, the Fury was wrecked, and Parry returned to England in the | Ilecla, with a double crew. The only object i gained by this disastrous expedition was a con- ! trivance whereby the compass Avas made to I work perfectly under all circumstances, and in all places, no matter how near the magnetic ! pole, thus obviating a most serious difficulty in ; arctic navigation. This was accomplished by ; simply placing a small circular plate of iron j near the compass. We come now to Frank- I lin s expedition. The officers forming his ! staff were Dr. Richardson, Lieut. Back, Mr. Kendall, and Mr. T. Drummond, a naturalist. ; They arrived at Fort Chipewyan in July, 1825 ; | passed on to Great Bear lake, where the party ! were to winter ; and thence a small party | with Franklin descended the Mackenzie to the ! sea, which they reached at a point in lat. 69 \ 14 , Ion. 135 57 , 1,045 m. from Great Slave 1 lake. On June 28, 1826, the whole party again | started from their quarters down the Mac- kenzie. The expedition separated, according I to the previously planned course of operations. Franklin, going to the westward, reached the ! sea, and penetrated as far west as Return Reef, i in lat. 70 24 and Ion. 149 37 W., whence on Aug. 18 he set out on his return to the Mac kenzie, the weather becoming bad, and he being ; unaware that Beechey was waiting for him ; but 146 m. to the westward. The hitter, in the Blossom, had passed through Behring strait and anchored near Chamisso island, in Kotze- | hue sound, on July 22. He waited here till | the advancing season made further stay dan gerous, and then sailed for Petropavlovsk. The following year (1827) he again anchored in Kotzebue sound, but of course did not meet Franklin s party as he had hoped. Franklin i traced the coast for 374 in. from the mouth i of the Mackenzie. His voyage extended over , 2,000 m. The other party, under Dr. Richard- ; son, accomplished but little. The whole ex pedition wintered at Great Bear lake, where Franklin instituted a series of observations on I terrestrial magnetism. In 1806 Mr. Scoresby, ! a whaleman and private discoverer, accom- ; panied by his son, had penetrated as far as 81 30 north, further than any one had gone before him. Buchan and Franklin so completely failed in the ship expedition in 1818, that Mr. Scores- I by was led to advise an expedition to proceed i by boats so fixed on sledges as to be easily I dragged over the ice. Capt. Parry received i the command of an expedition fitted out in | accordance with this idea. Two boats, covered, ! well built, and set upon sledges, were to be ; landed upon the northern shore of Spitz- G72 ARCTIC DISCOVERY bergen, whence they were to be dragged or j sailed as ice or "water presented itself. It was June 20, 1827, before Parry started with his ! boats, which contained 71 days provisions. | They met with many difficulties from the out- | set thin ice, rough ice, short tracts of water j interspersed with shorter tracts of ice, and j snow-blindness among the crews. The last j evil they obviated by travelling altogether at | night, completely reversing the usual order of j living, and for many days sleeping regularly ; by day and pushing forward by night. In five j days of unremitting exertions, from June 24 to j 29, they made but 10 in. due north. The ice on which they travelled moved to the south in a body about as fast as they could move north ward, and on reaching 82 45 they gave up their attempt to reach the pole, they were j then by observation distant from the Ilecla i 172 m. To attain this distance they had actually passed over 292 m. of ice and water ; and having to make several of their days journey over three or four times on account of the moving ice, it was calculated that they j really travelled 668 m. They returned from this most discouraging and laborious expedi tion Aug. 21. The object of the expedition ! fitted out by Sir Felix Booth, and commanded j by Capt. Ross and his nephew, Commander ; (Sir James) Ross, in the Victory, a vessel fitted j to use steam in calm weather, was to find a northwest passage by some opening leading out ! of Prince Regent inlet. The Victory sailed in May, 1829, entered Prince Regent inlet Aug. 9, made the scene of the Fury s wreck on the | 12th, and on the 15th reached the furthest ; point achieved by Parry. During the months ! of August and September the explorers worked j their way along 300 in. of hitherto undis- I covered coast, and finally reached a point only j about 200 m. distant from the extreme point : reached by Franklin on his last expedition from i the westward. On Oct. 7 they went into win- i ter quarters at a place they named Felix harbor. Sept. 17, 1830, they once more got under way. After making 3 m. they again entered winter quarters, where they remained till Aug. 28, 1831. After making 4 m. (which consumed a month s time) they again, Sept. 27, went into winter quarters. It was during April, 1831, that Capt. Ross, on a sledging expedition, for the first time reached and fixed the position of the true magnetic pole. The spot was in lat. 70 5 17", and Ion. 96 46 45" W. Scurvy j appearing among the crew, it was finally : deemed best to abandon the ship, and with the boats on sledges to make for the place of the | Fury s former wreck. After almost incredible j hardships they reached this spot July 1, 1832, ; having left their ship April 23. Here, on Fury beach, they were obliged to pass another winter 1832- 3. The men suffered much, and ; several died. They started again for the open sea July 8, 1833, and on Aug. 26 descried a i vessel, which took them on board. The cap tain refused at first to believe that Capt. Ross i and his crew stood before him. They had been given up for dead for two years past. On Sept. 30, 1833, they reached the Orkneys, hav ing been absent since May, 1829. In Feb ruary, 1833, Back, with Dr. King, a naturalist and surgeon, left England for an overland ex pedition in search of Ross s party. They reached Fort Resolution, on the Great Slave lake, Aug. 8, passed on to the north and east, but re turned to winter at Fort Reliance, where they suffered terribly from scarcity of food and a temperature of 102 below the freezing point. On April 25, Avhen they were preparing to start for the seacoast to the north and east, they received news of the safety of Ross and his party. On June 28 they launched their boats on the Thlew-ee-choh or Great Fish (after ward called Back) river, which they hoped would take them to the polar sea. After a diffi cult navigation of 530 m. they reached the ocean, at lat. 67 11 K and Ion. 94 30 W., and pushed on along shore ; but they met with constant impediments, and were finally, Aug. 14, obliged to turn back. The extreme point they reached was in lat. 68 13 X. and Ion. 94 58 W. Back returned to England in Sep tember, 1835, and in June, 1836, set out in the Terror to complete the exploration of the sup posed water connection between Ross s winter harbor, in Prince Regent inlet, and Point Turn- again, which Ross had so vainly attempted to reach. They were unfortunate from the first, and accomplished nothing. Simultaneously with this expedition, the Hudson Bay company sent out two men, Dease and Simpson, to de scend the Mackenzie river to the sea, and fol low the coast to the west, as far as the point from which Beechey turned back to go out of Behring strait. This would complete the survey of all that part of the American shores. They reached Return Reef, Franklin s furthest point (August, 1826), in July, 1837. Beyond this no one had ever been. They reached Point Barrow, the extreme point at tained by Beechey in 1826, Aug. 4, and thus completed their task. They discovered on the way two large rivers, which they called the Garry and the Colville. Returning to winter quarters on Great Bear lake, they started on another expedition to explore to the eastward, in June, 1838. Reaching the coast by way of the Coppermine, and finding their progress stopped by the ice, a portion of the party set out to the eastward on an overland expedition. Passing Franklin s Point Turnagain, the fur thest point hitherto reached from the west, they discovered an ice-encumbered strait (Dease strait), and at its eastern extremity a large headland. To the north lay an extensive tract of land, now first seen, and which they called Victoria land. Surmounting the ice bound cape, the explorers, to their surprise, found the sea beyond entirely free of ice, Vic toria land stretching for 40 m. to the E. N. E., and the American coast trending to the S. E. This was the limit of their explorations in ARCTIC DISCOVERY 1838. In an expedition the following year they sailed through Dease. strait, and not only settled the coast line up to the spot which Back had reached in 1884, but went beyond, and explored the estuary of Back, which here forms a deep indentation in the northern coast of the American continent. In fact, they joined their discoveries very nearly to those of Ross, and were at one time within 90 m. of the place he fixed upon as the locality, during that year, of the magnetic pole. The entire American coast, along the polar sea, was now explored, except that portion lying between Dease and Simpson s extreme point on the west of Boothia and Ross s winter quarters on the east side of the same land, and that tract lying between Ross s winter quarters and the extreme point reached by Parry in 1822, at the entrance of the strait of the Fury and Hecla. The main question now was on the possibility of passing with ships between Boothia and the American mainland, as, if this were possible, the v passage down Prince Regent channel would be the easiest one for the accomplishment of a voyage to the north west. To settle this question the Hudson Bay company in 1846 sent out Dr. John Rae. He and his party reached Chesterfield inlet July 13, 184G, passed Repulse bay safely, and conveyed their boats thence into Committee bay, at the bottom of Boothia gulf. Wintering at Repulse bay, the result asked for from their expedition was not attained till 1847. On April 5 of that year they started again into Committee bay. On the 18th they reached an inlet which Sir John Ross had before discovered, in one of his land excursions, during his two winters sojourn on the coast of Boothia, and (Ross having estab lished the continuity of the coast to that point) thus proved that Boothia is connected with the American mainland, and that consequently there is no outlet toward the west through Prince Regent inlet. Returning to recruit, May 12, Dr. Rae set out to explore the E. shore of Committee bay, and connect his sur veys, if possible, with those of Parry (1822) in the Fury and Ilecla strait. On May 27 the party reached a point from which, during an interlude in the storm, they saw a headland, which Rae calls Cape Ellice, and computes to be in lat. 69 42 N. and Ion. 85 8 W., that is to say, within 10 m. of the Fury and Ilecla strait. This completed the entire survey, with the exception of Fury and Ilecla strait itself; and thus was finished, with this exception, a geographical exploration of the N". coast of the entire American continent, on May 27, 1847. \Ve come now to the last voyage of Sir John Franklin. The achievement of a northwest passage was his life dream, and to him was in trusted a new and so it was hoped final ex pedition. The Erebus and the Terror, long tried in arctic navigation, were the vessels chosen for the voyage. Each was fitted with a small steam engine and screw propeller. Sir John Franklin commanded the Erebus, Capt. VOL. i. 43 Richard Crozier the Terror. The vessels sailed May 19, 1845, in company with a tender, with additional stores. This tender \vas relieved and sent home in Davis strait, where the ves sels were fully provisioned and equipped for a three years stay. On July 26, 1845, they were seen by a whale ship, in lat. 74 48 and Ion. 66 13 , about the centre of Baffin bay, moored to an iceberg, and awaiting an opening into Lancaster sound. This is the last time the vessels were ever seen. The instructions of the admiralty directed Franklin, after send ing home the transport from Davis strait, to make the best of his way to Baffin bay, and through this into Lancaster sound; then to push westward in about lat. 74 15 as far as about Ion. 98 W. From that point Franklin was to penetrate to the southward and west ward toward Behring strait. Toward the close of 1847, nothing having been heard of the expedition, alarm began to be felt as to its safety, and early the following year (1848) three different expeditions for succor were despatched by the British government. The first of these, in the Plover, Commander Thomas Moore, and the Herald, Capt. Kellett, was to enter Behring strait, and advance at least as far as Chamisso island, in Kotzebue sound, and then to examine the coast further to the eastward in boats. The expedition was joined by the Xancy Dawson, a pleasure yacht owned and commanded by Mr. Robert Shed- don, who took a very active part in all the operations. The vessels reached Chamisso island, July 14, 1849, proceeded immediately on to Icy point, and thence sent the boat ex pedition on to explore, if possible, as far as the Mackenzie river. The vessels meantime stood to the north, until, in lat. 72 51 and Ion. 163 48 , they were brought to by densely packed ice. Still exploring, on Aug. 17 they discovered some islands, and a large body of land, in about lat. 71 30 . On Aug. 24 part of the boat expedi tion rejoined the vessels, the remainder, two whale boats, having been despatched, accord ing to previous instructions, up the Mackenzie river, to proceed homeward by way of Fort Hope and York Factory. The returned boats had explored the shore as far as Dease inlet, but had found no traces of the lost voyagers. The following summer (1850) the two vessels reexplored the same ground, but again without meeting with any traces of Franklin. The Plover, Capt. Kellett, was left to winter in Grantley harbor, and the Herald returned home. Meantime part of the land party, under Sir John Richardson, reached the polar sea, Aug. 4, 1848, making deposits of pemmican by the way, at convenient points, along Mackenzie river. They then explored the shore to the east for 800 m., to the mouth of the Copper mine, but found no traces of Sir John Frank lin. The next summer (1849) Sir John Rich ardson having returned to England, Dr. Rae explored the shores of Wollaston sound, and in 1850 he repeated his explorations, but with G74 ARCTIC DISCOVERY no more success. The third expedition, under command of Sir James Ross, sailed from Eng land May 12, 1848, explored the S. side of Lan e-aster sound as far as Cape York, and thence across the month of Prince Regent inlet, win tered at Leopold harbor, and the following spring (1849) explored the shores of North Som erset as far as lat. 72 38 and Ion. 95 40 W., concluding that North Somerset and Boothia were united by a narrow isthmus, where Bel- lot strait was afterward found. They also ex plored portions of the shore N. of Barrow strait, and both sides of Prince Regent inlet. The expedition returned to England Nov. 3, 1849, without having fallen upon any traces of Franklin. The general opinion of those best acquainted with arctic navigation, and with Sir John Franklin, was that his party was ice bound among the islands to the westward of Melville island. Thither, therefore, were the next efforts mainly to be directed. In March, 1849, the British government gave notice that 20,000 would be awarded to any private ex ploring party, of any country, which should render efficient aid to the missing explorers. In 1849 Lady Franklin had a supply of coals and provisions landed upon Cape Hay, S. side of Lancaster sound. In 1850 three new expe ditions were sent out by the British govern ment, with instructions mainly identical with those of 1848. The year 1850 was, however, to see many more expeditions than these three of the government. In fact, there were in all no fewer than eight. First on the list comes the continuation of Dr. Rae s expedition of 1849. He was to penetrate further to the north than he had been able to do before, and to examine the shores of Banks land, the coast about Cape Walker, and the N. side of Victoria land. Two smaller parties were at the same time to follow the mainland to the westward, toward Point Barrow, one descending the Mac kenzie, the other the Colville. Next comes the Behring strait expedition, consisting of the En terprise, Capt. Collinson, and the investigator, Commander McClure. They were instructed to cruise in company as far to the eastward as they could get ; to make friends of the Esqui maux ; to make occasional deposits of provi sions ; and to prevent by every means any de tention of the vessels in the ice. The Inves tigator and Plover (the last already in the Pacific) w r ere last in getting through Behring strait. The Baffin bay expedition, sent out by the government, consisted of the Resolute, Capt. Austin, and the Assistance, Capt. Ommaney sailing vessels and the Pioneer and Intrepid, Capt. Sherard Osborn, both screw propeller steamers. The instructions to this expedition were mainly of a similar tenor to those given the Behring strait commanders. This fleet sailed in the spring of 1850. The schooner Felix and a small tender, the Mary, formed an expedition put forward by public subscription, and commanded by Sir John Ross. He sailed in April, 1850, provisioned for 18 months, and designing to commence at Cape Ilotlmm, at the W. side of the entrance of Wellington channel, and examine all the headlands to Banks land. Finding nothing, he then in tended to leave his tender and push forward for a second season in the Felix. The Lady Franklin, fitted out by Lady Franklin, and commanded by Capt. Penny, with the brig Sophia, sailed also in 1850, intending to explore as circumstances should seem to direct, but having a general plan somewhat similar to the government expedition. Lady Franklin also fitted out and defrayed two thirds of the ex pense of another expedition, consisting of the schooner Prince Albert, commanded by Com mander Charles Forsyth and Mr. W. P. Snow, both volunteers. Their object was to examine the shores of Prince Regent inlet and the gulf of Boothia, and to send out overland travel ling parties to explore the W. side of Boothia, down to Dease and Simpson strait. The Albert sailed in June, 1850. The Advance and Rescue, under the command of Lieut. De Haven, formed an American expedition, fitted out by the United States government, but at the cost chiefly of Mr. Henry Grinnell of Nevr York. This expedition left New York May 24, 1850. Its plan was to push forward with out delay toward Banks land and Melville island, and generally make the best use of every opportunity for exploring in that direction. Lastly comes the North Star, a transport ship, containing stores for the expedition of Sir James Ross. She wintered at the head of Wos- tenholm sound, in lat. 76 33 , further north than any vessel ever wintered except Dr. KaneX an( ^ returned to England in September. 1850. It will be seen that there w r ere now no fewer than 11 vessels, exclusive of the North Star, in the eastern arctic waters. Capt. Om maney of the Assistance came upon the first traces of the missing mariners at Cape Riley, Aug. 23, 1850. A more minute examination of the country immediately surrounding gave indisputable proof that Franklin s party had so journed about there for some time. The site of a tent paved with small stones, quantities of birds bones lying around, as also meat canis ters, were the traces discovered at Cape Riley. At Beechey island, about 3 m. W. of the cape, and just at the entrance of Wellington chan nel, Lieut. Osborn finally came upon an en campment of the party in fact, the first winter quarters of Sir John Franklin. The objects here discovered were a large number of empty meat tins, the embankment of a house, with carpenters and armorers working places, and other remains of a large establishment, and finally, the graves of three men belonging to the Erebus arid Terror, which bore date of the winter of 1845- 6. Further on, on the island, there were the remains of a garden, and vari ous articles of apparel lying about. Lieut. De Haven, of the American expedition, visited the place on Aug. 25, and made another thorough search. The officers of the Prince Albert, as ARCTIC DISCOVERY CM 5 AVI 11 as dipt. Penny, also examined the entire ground very minutely. Singularly, not all this searching brought to light any document which could give the slightest trace of the future in tentions of the party. The government ships wintered but little distance troin each other ; and the spring of 1851 was devoted to land expeditions, in which the shores of Wellington channel, the coast of Banks land, and the waters leading from Barrow strait to Melville island, were to be thoroughly explored. The various parties made a thorough search on their different routes, and explored 675 m. of hitherto undiscovered coast, but found no trace of the lost. Lieut. McClintock s party reached on this occasion the furthest western limit ever attained by arctic explorers starting from Baf fin bay, a point in Ion. 114 20 W. and lat. 74 OS . From the lameness of animals found here about it would seem that few if any human beings had ever touched this point before. Dr. Kane s opinion, on examining the sledge tracks about Cape Riley, was that Sir John Franklin had passed to the north, with his ships, on the breaking up of the ice in 1846 ; had gone through Wellington channel into the supposed great polar basin, and had never re turned. The American expedition, which had gallantly led the way wherever they could go, and whose commander earned for himself at the hands of the English the sobriquet of " the mad Yankee," after undergoing much suffering and considerable danger, arrived in New York, the Advance on Sept. 30, and the Rescue on Oct. 3, 1851. On June 3, 1851, the Prince Albert, which had brought to England news of the discovery at Beechey island, was de spatched by Lady Franklin on another expedi tion to explore the . shores of Prince Regent inlet. She returned in October, 1853. The conclusion drawn from the failure of all the expeditions, including Dr. Rae s of 1851, which was very thorough, was that Franklin had never reached so far south as the American mainland, or the peninsulas connected with it. Sir John Ross had brought back a report that the Franklin party had been murdered in Wostenholm sound by the Esquimaux. To es tablish the truth or falsity of this rumor, Lady Franklin sent the Isabel screw steamer, Com mander Inglefield, to explore this sound. He left England in July, 1852 ; examined Wosten holm sound, finding no traces of the missing ones ; sailed up Smith sound to lat. 78 28 21", 140 m. further than previous navigators had reached ; found, as he thought, a more genial climate than existed to the south ; and estab lished in this voyage the presence of a strait or channel connecting Baffin bay with the great polar basin. Meantime, following the Welling ton channel theory, Sir Edward Belcher was sent out in April, 1852, in command of five ves sels, the Assistance, Resolute, Xorth Star. Pio neer, and Intrepid the last two steamers. The Xorth Star was to be the depot and store ship ; the Resolute and Intrepid were to steer west, to the assistance of Collinson and M<-- Clure ; and the Assistance and Pioneer were to push up Wellington channel. In the spring of 1853 more expeditions were sent out. The chief of these was that fitted out by Mr. Grin- nell of New York, Mr. Peabody of London, and others, and commanded by Dr. E. K. Kane, who had acted as surgeon, naturalist, and his torian of the former Grinnell expedition, under De Haven. Lady Franklin sent out the Rat tlesnake and Isabel, steanier,*for Behring strait, to assist Collinson and McClure. Dr. Rae was despatched for another exploration of Boothia. And finally, the Lady Franklin and Phoenix, Capt. Inglefield, were sent to Barrow strait, to aid Sir Edward Belcher. With Inglefield on this expedition was Bellot, a gallant young Frenchman, who was lost Aug. 18, 1853, by being blown off some floating ice. The west ward expedition of Belcher made a number of explorations in the general direction of their line of search, toward Melville island. They found no traces of Franklin, but fortunately succeeded in finding and rescuing McClure and his ship s company, who had been buried in the arctic ice since the summer of 1850, three years. These returned home with Belcher, abandoning their ship, and are thus the first and only ship s company who ever entered Behring strait and returned to Europe by Baf fin bay. Thus was established, at last, the great fact that there is a continuous passage by water from Baffin bay to Behring strait, parallel with the coast of the American conti nent. McClure reached in his ship in 1850 a point within 60 m. of the western terminus of Barrow strait, and thus had nearly passed through with his vessel. The crews under Belcher s command had meantime made exten sive explorations by land during the spring and autumn of 1853, and the spring of 1854. "The Assistance and Pioneer penetrated up Welling ton channel to lat. 78 10 , making various dis coveries of new land and islands. When the vessels were brought to by ice, the officers set out on sledges, and penetrated overland to a point which Belcher considered an opening into Jones sound from the east. Here, to their surprise, as early as May 20, all sledging operations were stopped by open water. They found at various points structures of ice too well built to be the work of natives, but nowhere the slightest tan gible trace of Sir John Franklin. In the spring of 1854 the vessels composing the expedition, the Assistance, Resolute, Pioneer, Intrepid, and McClure s ship, the Investigator, were abandoned, their crews taken on board the !N~orth Star, Phoenix, and Talbot, and the entire party arrived in England in September, 1854. It must be mentioned here that McClure, in Au gust, 1850, discovered in the ear of an Esqui maux chief, near the mouth of Mackenzie river, a flat brass button. On being asked where he obtained this, the chief made answer that it had been taken from the ear of a white man who had been killed by one of his tribe. The white ARCTIC DISCOVERY man belonged to a party which had landed at Point Warren, near the mouth of the Macken zie, and there built a house. Nobody knew how they came, as they had no boat ; but they went inland. The man killed had strayed from the party, and he (the chief) and his son had buried him on a hill at a little distance. When or the exact spot where this occurred could not be ascertained. Neither the grave nor the house was found. Collinson, McClure s com panion on the Behring strait expedition, eventually returned to England by the way he came. He made numerous discoveries of land, and explorations in the neighborhood of Banks land, Wollaston land, Albert land, and Victo ria land. At Cambridge bay in Prince Albert sound, in about lat. 70 and Ion. 117, where his vessel passed the winter of 1852-% he saw in the possession of the Esquimaux a piece of iron and fragments of a hatch frame or door way. These he thought must have belonged to Franklin s ships; but he was unable to ob tain any intelligence in regard to the manner in which the Esquimaux came into possession of them. There remained now Dr. Rae s expe dition to Boothia, and Dr. Kane s American expedition, to hear from. Dr. Rae reached Pelly bay, on the- S. W. side of the gulf of Boothia, N. W. of Committee bay, in April, 1854. Here he met Esquimaux who had in their possession various articles of silverware, &c., belonging to officers of both the Erebus and Terror. The intelligence obtained by him of the natives may be summed up as follows : In the spring of 1850 some Esquimaux killing seals near the 1ST. shore of a large island known as King Wil liam land (some distance westw r ard of Pelly bay), saw a party of about 40 white men pass to the southward, along the W. shore of this island. They were dragging a boat and sledges with them. They could not speak Esquimaux, but the natives gathered that their ships had been crushed, and they were now going where they could find deer to shoot. They purchased a little provision from the natives, who judged that they were nearly destitute of food. > The officer with them was described as a tall, stout, middle-aged man. At a later date, the same season, but previous to the disruption of the ice, the corpses of some 30 persons, and some graves, were discovered on the continent, and five dead bodies on an island near it, about a long day s, journey N. W. of the mouth of a large river supposed to be Back river. Of the bodies, on the island, one was supposed to be a chief, as he had a telescope slung about his neck. These men, from all appearances, had been driven to cannibalism before they perished. From the fact that shots were heard, and the feathers of wild fowl were found near the bodies, it is conjectured that a few of the men survived till May, 1851. They seem to have had an abundance of ammunition. There were also numbers of telescopes, guns, watches, &c., pieces of which articles were found among the natives by Dr. Rae, in considerable quantities. Dr. Rae s opinion was that the party died by starvation, and not by the hands of the natives. Mr. James Anderson was sent out in 1855, to ex plore more perfectly the spot designated as the scene of so much suffering. On June 80, a little way from the mouth of Back river, he came upon some Esquimaux, who had with them numerous articles belonging to a boat equipage. The natives stated that the owners of these articles had died of starvation. On reac-hing Montreal island, where the five men had perish ed, according to report, Mr. Anderson found chain hooks, tools, rope, bunting, and a num ber of sticks strung together, on one of which was carved the name of Mr. Stanley, surgeon of the Erebus. On a plank was found the word u Terror."" Not a vestige of the remains, nor any paper, was found. At Point Ogle some small articles were also found, but no bodies. i The party were unable to reach King William I land, the scene of the chief disaster. Dr. | Kane, the American explorer, sailed in the Ad- I vance from New York, May 30, 1853. Tho discoveries of Inglefield in Smith strait, and those of Belcher at the head of Wellington channel, had convinced him that there was somewhere between lat. 80 N. and the north pole a vast open sea, and a milder climate than was found some degrees to the south ; and further, that in this sea were to be sought, and he hoped found, tidings of Sir John Franklin s long absent expedition. His determination was therefore to penetrate as far up Smith strait as possible, in the hope of being able to enter the polar sea, and there have clear water for his explorations. He entered the ice Aug. 2, and on the 20th found shelter from a hurricane un der lee of a rocky island, which he named God send ledge. Leaving his men, on the subsidence of the gale, to tow the vessel along the ice, Dr. Kane, Aug. 29, passed ahead with a boating party to explore the coast. He thus passed numerous points of land, and reached Cape George Russell, whence he saw the great glacier of Humboldt, with Cape Jackson on one side, Cape Barrow on the other, and a sea of solid ice between. Not finding on this trip a good place for winter quarters, he returned, and the Advance was moored for the winter in Van Rensselaer harbor, in lat. 78 37 and Ion. 70 40 . During the continuance of daylight in the autumn excursions were made into the interior of Greenland, in which over 800 m. were trav- I ersed, and the coast was traced for 125 m. to the I north and east. Kane s Avinter harbor is further | north than that of any other expedition what ever. The crew w r ere much enfeebled by the long winter, and it was not till April that Kane started on his chief sledging tour to the north. Owing to the severity of the climate and great obstacles, the expedition failed in its main ob ject; but they discovered on this trip some re markable natural features: the Three Brother Turrets, Tennyson s Monument, and the great glacier of Humboldt. They returned to the vessels May 14. Dr. Hayes and William God- ARCTIC DISCOVERY 677 frey started on another expedition May 20. They crossed Smith strait, and attained to lat. 79 45 and Ion. 69 12. They saw, 30 m. ahead, two capes, which they named Capes Joseph Leidy and John Frazer. On June 30 Messrs. McGary and Bonsall left on a third ex pedition, Kane being yet ill. They reached Humboldt glacier on the 15th. Four of the party returned on the 24th, entirely blind. Two, Mr. Morton and a companion, pushed on, and on June 21 saw open water to the north, called by them Kennedy channel. They pene trated as far as Cape Constitution in Washing ton land, lat. 82 27 . The open channel abound ed with animal life, such as bears, birds, and seals. The results of this excursion seemed to Kane to prove that Smith strait in fact opens into Kennedy channel, and this into a great open polar sea, abounding with life. The shores of Kennedy channel and Smith strait had been explored for 760 m. Mr. Morton returned to the ship on July 10. Dr. Kane, seeing no probability of the release of his vessels during this summer, determined to communicate with Belcher s expedition. Failing in this, it was determined that part of the crew should aban don the vessel. The party, however, returned after a few days, and the crew were beset for another winter. It was resolved to abandon the brig in early spring, and make for the Danish settlements at the south. On May 17 they left in boats and sledges, and, after much privation and many narrow escapes, reached Uperaavik Aug. 9, in 84 days from the time of leaving the Advance. Fears for Kane s safety had induced the United States navy de partment to send out in the spring of 1855 two vessels, the Release and the steamer Arctic, to the relief of the missing brig s crew. Capt. Hartstene, who commanded this expedition, reached lat. 78 32 , and then found his on ward progress stopped by a firm barrier of ice. Returning, he found Kane and his crew at Uper- navik, and returned with them to the United States in the fall of 1855. In a scientific point of view, Dr. Kane s expedition attained most important results. These are thus summed up by himself in his report to the navy depart ment of the United States : 1. The survey and delineation of the N. coast of Greenland to its termination by a great glacier. 2. The survey of this glacial mass, and its extension north ward into the new land named Washington. 3. The discovery of a large channel to the northwest, free from ice, and leading into an open and expanding area, equally free. The whole embraces an iceless area of 4,200 m. 4. The discovery and delineation of a large tract of land, forming the extension northward of the American continent. 5. The completed survev of the American coast to the south and west, as far as Cape Sabine ; thus connecting our survey with the last determined position of Captain Ingle- n eld. and completing the circuit of the straits and bay here tofore known at their southernmost opening as Smith sound. The Resolute, one of Sir E. Belcher s expedi tion, was, as before mentioned, abandoned May 15, 1854, not far from Beechey island. On Sept. 15, 1855, she was discovered by Capt. Bud- dington, of the George Henry, whale ship, of New London, off the W. shore of Baffin bay, in lat. 67 N. The vessel was encumbered with ice, but was perfectly tight and seaworthy. The distance between the place where she was abandoned and that where she was retaken was at least 1,200 m. She was brought to New London, purchased by the United States govern ment by order of congress, thoroughly refitted, and presented to Queen Victoria and the Brit ish government, in December, 1856. The Brit ish government took possession of her, and had her stripped and laid up in ordinary in Wool wich dockyard. In 1857 Lady Franklin, hav ing resolved to send out a vessel at her own ex pense for a fresh search for her husband, offered the command of the proposed expedition to Capt. Francis McClintock, who had served with distinction in the arctic expedition with Sir James Ross, Capt. Austin, and Sir Ed ward Belcher. (See MCCLINTOCK.) The screw steamer Fox, of only 177 tons, formerly the pleasure yacht of Sir Richard Sutton, was pur chased, refitted, and equipped with a crew of 24 volunteers. Capt. Allen Young of the merchant service contributed to the cost, and also acted gratuitously as sailing master. Lieut. W. R, Hobson, Dr. David Walker, and Carl Petersen, interpreter, so favorably known as the companion of Dr. Kane, were the princi pal other members of the party. The little vessel left Aberdeen July 1. McClintock s plan was to examine a tract about 300 m. square lying W. of Boothia, and between the northern limits of the explorations of Rae and Anderson and the southern boundaries of those of Sir James Ross, Austin, and Belcher, while to the west he expected to penetrate as far as the track of Collinson and McClure. Having purchased 35 Esquimaux dogs at Disco, on the coast of Greenland, and taken on board two of the natives as drivers, the Fox pushed on toward Lancaster sound until on Aug. 17 she was beset in Baffin bay nearly opposite the entrance to that channel. For eight months the ice held her fast, but the moving pack mean while carried her back upon her course, and when finally released, April 25, 1858, she had drifted 1,395 m. to the southward. McClin tock refitted at Holsteinborg, arrived in Lan caster sound July 12, sailed through Barrow strait, and attempted to pass down Peel sound, between North Somerset and Prince of Wales land ; but having been stopped here by the ice, he passed northeastward around North Somer set in the hope of reaching the mouth of Back river through Bellot strait, which is the water communication between Prince Regent inlet and the western sea (now known as Franklin strait), and separates the North American con tinent from North Somerset. He found the strait obstructed by moving ice, but after much difficulty and danger pushed through it on Sept. 6. A frozen barrier stretched across its western end, and here the Fox remained moored j for three weeks, when she took up her winter I quarters at Port Kennedy, on the N. shore of I the strait. In the mean time extensive sledge 078 ARCTIC DISCOVERY journeys were undertaken. Lieut. Ilobson carried out provisions toward the magnetic pole, Capt. Young: established a depot on the further side of Franklin strait, and McClintock and Petersen travelled southward in the hope of gathering some information from the natives. On March 1, 1859, McClintock met a party of Esquimaux near Cape Victoria, and learned from them that several years before a ship had been crushed in the ice and sunk in deep water off the N. W. shore of King William land. Her people went away to a great river, where they all died of starvation, and their bodies were found the next year. It was impossible to obtain any information respecting the num ber of white men, or the length of time since they left the ship. Another interview with some of the natives in April confirmed these statements, and threw light upon the fate of Franklin s second vessel, which they said drifted ashore at King William land. The skeleton of one man w r as found on board. Sending Ilobson to search for the wreck, Mc Clintock explored the E. shore of King Wil liam land, and on May 7 came upon a vil lage of Esquimaux, from whom he learned that when the white people marched toward the great river " many of them dropped by the way," and their bodies were found the next winter ; some were buried and others were not. Point Ogle, Montreal island in the estu ary of Back river, and Barrow inlet were searched, with no better success than the dis covery of a few scraps of iron, tin, and copper ; and McClintock, having now reached the track of Anderson and Stuart (1855), resolved to fol low the S. and W. coasts of .King William land until he met Ilobson. The first trace of the long lost crew was found near Cape Herschel, the western limit of Simpson s explorations. It was a bleached skeleton lying at full length on the beach ; fragments of European clothing, a pocketbook, and a few letters were picked up about it. A day s march JSL E. of Cape Crozier the party came across a boat fitted to a sledge and apparently prepared for naviga ting the river. In it were two skeletons, two loaded guns, and various other relics, including Sir John Franklin s silver plate, besides fuel, ammunition, chocolate, tea, and tobacco. Its head was turned toward the abandoned ships, from whose first position it was about G5 m. distant. A record was also found which had been left here five days before by Ilobson, who in the mean time had made still more interest ing discoveries. After separating from McClin tock he had tracked the N". and W. shores of King William land almost to Cape. Herschel. Near Cape Felix, the northermost point of the island, he found a ruined cairn, three tents, and other traces of Franklin s party, but no record ; two smaller cairns were afterward examined, and on May 6 a large one Avas ob served at Point Victory, where Sir James Ross had touched in 1830. Lying among some stones which had fallen from the top of the structure was a tin ease enclosing a record, the first authentic account ever obtained of the history of the lost expedition. It was written on one of the printed forms used in discovery ships for the purpose of being en closed in bottles and thrown overboard in order to ascertain the direction of the currents. It read as follows : 28 of May. 1S4T. II. M. ships Erebus and Terror. Win tered in the ice in lat. 70" 5 N., Ion. 98 23 W. Having wintered in 184G- 7 at Beechey island in lat. 74 43 28" N., Ion. 91 39 15" W., after having- ascended Wellington chan nel to lat. 77 and returned by the" W. side of Corn wall! s island. Kir John Franklin commanding the expedition. All well. Party consisting of 2 officers and men left the ships on Monday, 24th May, 1847. Wm. Gore, Lieut.; (Jhas. F. DCS Voiux. Mate. Around the margin was written in a different hand : April 25, 1848. H. M. ships Terror and Erebus were de serted on the 22d April, 5 leagues N. N. W. of this, having been beset since 12th Sept. Ib46. The officers and crews, consisting of 105 souls, under the command of Captain F. li. | M. Crazier, landed here in lat. 69 87" 42", Ion. 98" 4 15". j This paper was found by Lt. Irving under the cairn supposed to Lave been built by Sir James Ross in 1S>31, 4 miles to the 1 northward, where it had been deposited by the late Corn- j mander Core in June, 1847. Sir James Ross s pillar has not ! however been found, and the paper has been transferred to ; this position, which is that in which Sir J. Ross s pillar was [ erected. .Sir John Franklin died on the llth June, Ib47, and i the total loss by deaths in the expedition has been to this ! date 9 officers and 15 rneu.* JAMES FITZJAMES. Captain F. R. M. CROZIER, II. M. S. Erebus. Captain and senior offir. i and start on to-morrow, 26th, : for Back s Fish river. ! The date 184C- 7 given as that of Franklin s j wintering at Beechey island is evidently an j error; it should be 1845- G. Vast quantities of clothing and other articles were found here. The wreck was not seen, nor were any more skeletons found ; but this indeed was hardly to have been expected, as the route toward Back river was almost all the way over ice which breaks up in summer. Meeting no more- of the Esquimaux nor further traces of the lost voyagers, and feeling certain that the whole expedition had perished, McClintock returned to his vessel, June 19, carrying a great number of relics, many of which had been purchased from the natives. Besides solving the problem which had engaged arctic enterprise for 11 years, his expedition had completed the delineation of the N. shore of the American, continent ; laid down the pre viously unknown outline of Boothia and the coast of King William land ; proved the navigability of Bellot strait, the existence of which was before doubted ; opened a new and capacious channel extending N. W T . from Vic toria strait to Parry or Melville sound, and | since named at the suggestion of Lady Frank- j lin McClintock channel; observed many inter- i esting facts in terrestrial magnetism ; and j finally, proved Sir John Franklin to be the dis- I coverer of the northwest passagV With the I aid of McClintock s narrative we are now able * These figures make the original force of. Franklin s expe- j dition 129, whereas it has commonly been stated at 138. It has been ascertained, however, that only 134 actually left England, and 5 of those returned. ARCTIC DISCOVERY 679 to trace out Franklin s last voyage. During the first season it was unusually prosperous. Passing up Lancaster sound, he explored Wel lington channel (then an unknown sea) to a point further N. than was reached by either Penny, De Haven, or Belcher; sailed around Cornwallis island, and wintered at Beechey island. In the spring and summer of 1846 he either navigated Bellot strait, or more prob- ably pushed through Peel sound, reaching Vic toria strait, where he was finally beset in Sep tember, and thus supplied the only link want ing to complete a chain of water communica tion between the -two oceans. The skeletons found in the boat near Cape Crozier show that after the abandonment of the Erebus and Ter ror a party attempted to return, for what pur pose can only be conjectured. The Fox found herself free from ice on Aug. 9, and immediately made sail for home, reaching the Isle of Wight Sept. 20. See McClintock s "Narrative of the Discovery of the Fate of Sir John Frank lin and his Companions " (London and Bos ton, I860); also "The Search for Sir John Franklin," in the " Cornhill Magazine," No. I., January, 1860 (by Capt. Allen Young). Dr. Isaac I. Hayes, a member of Kane s party, and a firm believer in the theory of the open polar sea, soon succeeded, with the aid of private subscriptions, in organizing and fit ting out another arctic exploring expedition. With a company of only 14 men, he left Bos ton July 6, 1860, in the schooner United States, and proceeded directly to the Greenland ports of Proven and Upernavik ; at the latter place he arrived Aug. 12, and besides adding to his crew three Danes and three Esquimaux hunters, he secured sledge dogs for the win ter s work. Carruthers, one of the schooner s crew, died at Upernavik. Leaving port, Dr. Hayes s expedition entered Baffin bay about Aug. 20, but was so delayed by ice, among which the schooner was often becalmed, that although the party had hoped to reach some point between lat. 79 and 80, the schooner was frozen in at a point but little N. of lat. 78, in a harbor which Hayes named Port Foulke. During the winter Dr. Hayes made several sledge expeditions, but attained no important results until April 3, when, . with several sledges drawn by dogs, a life boat upon an other sledge drawn by men, and 12 of the ship s company, he started from Port Foulke to cross Smith sound to Grinnell land; for along the coast of this Hayes had determined to proceed, all progress along the E. shore of the sound being prevented by impassable glaciers. After encountering difficulties of every kind, and after sending back nearly all of the party and several sledges, with the life boat, which could be carried no further, Hayes and three of his men succeeded (May 11) in reaching Grinnell land at a point called Cape Hawks. They im mediately turned to the north, and for several days skirted the coast, travelling on smoother ice and with less danger than before. But Hayes s companions were greatly exhausted, and he was finally compelled to leave two of them. On May 18, 1861, Dr. Hayes and his remaining companion, Knorr, who had been travelling among soft ice for several days, reached a point (lat. 81 35 , Ion. 70 30 ) beyond which further progress was impossible on account of rotten ice and cracks. This was the most northerly land ever reached ; and, climbing a headland, Hayes found himself standing upon what he believed to be the shores of the polar sea, which, though then encumbered with soft ice and floes, would, he felt confident, be entirely open in the summer months. To the north he saw a lofty headland, kl the most northern known land upon the globe." Having no boat, Hayes was obliged to turn back ; rejoining all his companions, he reached the schooner about the 1st of June, after a wearisome journey. Without making further important explora tions, for which, the schooner had been unfitted by injuries from the ice and storms, the expedi tion returned successfully to Boston in October, 1861. The civil war had broken out, and this led Dr. Hayes to at once abandon the project he had formed of returning immediately with a steamer to the arctic seas. In his story of the voyage ( u The Open Polar Sea," New Y ork, 1867), he declared that he had by no means given up the ultimate accomplishment of hig plan. In 1860 Capt. Charles F. Hall, who had for more than ten years been deeply interested in arctic discovery, left New London, Conn., in a whale ship, which, in pursuance of his plan, landed him on the W. coast of Davis strait, whence he intended, with boat and sledge, to make further search for evidences of the fate of Sir John Franklin and his men. He lost his boat, and was obliged to confine his explora tions within comparatively narrow limits. He made, however, an important discovery some traces of the expedition under Frobisher, 300 years before. On Sept. 30 Hall returned. In 1864 he again sailed for the arctic countries, landing, with only two Esquimaux as compan ions, on the coast of Hudson bay. He pene trated to the north as far as Fury and Hecla strait, journeyed into King William land, and met with much success. Besides bringing home many actual relics of Franklin s party, he suc ceeded in obtaining such exact information from the Esquimaux at various points as led him to suppose that Franklin had actually ac-, complished the discovery of the northwest passage before his vessels, then in winter quar ters (at O Reilly island, Capt. Hall believes), were abandoned by their crews. Hall seems to have finally established, by the universal tes timony of the tribes he visited, the truth of the Esquimaux story that Franklin s men died of starvation in King William land. He did not, however, succeed in finding any records of the expedition. After spending five successive years among the Esquimaux, passing much of the time near Repulse bay, and after acquiring a thorough knowledge of their language and cus- 680 ARCTIC DISCOVERY ARCTURUS toms, Capt. Hall returned in September, 1869, to the United States, where he applied himself to the organization of a new expedition. A German arctic expedition, organized by Dr. Petermann of Gotha, and placed under the command of Capt, Koldewcy, left Bremen in the spring of 1868, in the Greenland, a vessel of 80 tons burden. Leaving Bergen, Norway, in May, Koldewey succeeded in reaching a point in lat. 81 5 N., Ion. 16 W. He returned in October to Bremen. In 1868 the Swedish government also sent out an expedition, which sailed to the north of Spitzbergen, but with out any noteworthy discoveries. In 1869 Dr. Hayes visited Upernavik to make preparations for the expedition he had not ceased to plan ; he then hoped to undertake it during the year 1870. In a small steamer, the Panther, Dr. Hayes and his party made a short voyage about the arctic seas, but did not prosecute any ex tensive explorations. On June 15, 1869, an other German expedition left Bremen ; the vessels were the Germania, under Capt. Hege- mann, and the Hansa, under Capt. Koldewey. Through a mistake in the reading of signals, the two vessels parted in July, the Germania following the E. coast of Greenland, and win tering in Sabine bay; while the Hansa was wrecked in October among the ice along the shore. Her crew took refuge on a field of moving ice, which, as it floated southward, gradually diminished, until, after it had become a mere raft, they were obliged to take to their three boats, by means of which they finally reached Friedrichsthal, near Cape Farewell. They reached home in the summer of 1870. Meanwhile the Germanna had endeavored, but without success, to reach high latitudes by fol lowing the E. coast of Greenland ; and in the autumn she also returned to Bremen. Though the voyage contributed much to scientific knowledge, no new discoveries of importance were made by either of the crews. Several other expeditions were sent out from the con tinent of Europe in 1869, but they accomplished little beyond scientific research, conducted in regions already known. Still less was done in 1870. Capt. Sherard Osborn, of the British navy, had for several years urged a new ex pedition by way of Smith sound in search of the open polar sea, but his views were not sustained by the board of admiralty, and he failed to secure aid from the government. A French scheme for arctic exploration was abandoned on account of the war with Ger many. In 1871 several arctic voyages were begun. In the summer James Lament, an Englishman, sailed to the eastward of Green land, but made no new discoveries. In June the Austrian lieutenants Payer and Weyprecht, in a small Norwegian sailing vessel, sailed from Tromso, Norway, into the Arctic sea to the north of Nova Zembla, where they succeeded in discovering an open ocean in \yhich naviga tion was only impeded by very light and scat tered ice. In October thev returned to Troinso, having penetrated to lat. 78 41 N. Dr. Peter- maun, the German geographer, looks upon the discoveries made by this unpretending expedi- ; tion as most important, as he believes that i Payer and Weyprecht actually penetrated into j the open polar sea, and found the entrance of I the best, if not the only water passage to the 1 neighborhood of the pole. Their discoveries ! seem also to confirm the theory originally ad- I vanced by Capt. Silas Bent of the TJ. S. navy, that the pole can best be reached by following ; the course of the Gulf stream northward be- ! tween Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla; it is claimed by the supporters of this theory that the warmer water of the great current not only keeps the northern channel free from ice at this point, but is the cause of the open polar sea. An expedition fitted out by A. Rosenthal of Bre- merhaven began in 1871 the exploration of the ocean N. of Siberia. The Norwegian captains Tobiesen and Mack confirmed the discovery of Payer and Weypreeht. Another Norwegian, Capt. Carlsen, discovered the remains of the winter quarters established 275 ye;ir.s before at the N. E. end of Nova Zembla by the Dutch captain Barentz. Ulve and Smyth sailed to the north of Spitzbergen and found open water even in lat. 80 27 . Finally, Capt, Hall or ganized at last, with the aid of congress, his long desired American expedition toward the pole ; and on June 29 he sailed from New York with a well selected corps of assistants and crew, in the wooden steamer Polaris, of about 400 tons. For nearly two years no important news was received from the explorers. On April 29, 1873, the British steamship Tigress struck an ice floe in lat. 53 35 N., Ion. 35 W. On this floe were found Capt. Tyson, one of Hall s officers, and 18 others, who had been 196 days on the ice, and drifted about 2,000 miles. They reported that on Oct. 15, 1872, the Polaris being fast in the ice about lat. 77 35 , and leaking badly, they had been ordered to land provisions ; and that while so engaged the floe broke up, and they were separated from the ship and rapidly drifted southward, without seeing her again. Their report gave the following details of the expedition. Capt. Hall sailed up Kennedy channel and through a strait which he named Robeson, and on Aug. 24, 1871, reached lat. 82 10 N. It being deemed prudent to fall back, the Po laris was taken on Sept. 5 into winter quar ters in Thank God bay, lat. 81 38 N. On Oct. 10 Capt. Hall started on a sledge expe dition, but did not go beyond lat. 82. On | his return he was taken suddenly ill, and died on Nov. 8. The command then devolved on j Capt. Buddington, who resolved to return, and I on Aug. 12, 1872, the Polaris was turned southward. She drifted with the ice into Baf- ! fin bay, where Tyson left her. ARCTl RIS (Gr. apK-oc, bear, and ot>/?, guard. i or ovpa, tail), formerly a constellation near the Great Bear. Later the name was confined to the largest star in the constellation, which was after- ARCUEIL ward called Bootes. It is a star of the first mag nitude, and was at one time erroneously believ ed to be. the star nearest to our system. AlUTEIL, a village of France, department of Seine, on the Bievre, 3i in. S. of Paris; pop. in I860, 5,024. It is celebrated for an aque duct constructed there by the Roman emperor Julian during his abode in Paris, to convey wa ter from the Bievre to his palace. Remains of this are still seen near the modern aqueduct, constructed by Maria de Medici in 1618, to bring water to supply the gardens and the palace of the Luxembourg and the fountains of Paris. Arcueil was for a long time the resi dence of the chemist Berthollet, whose friends, meeting here for scientific study under the name of societe d?Arciwil, published several volumes of memoirs. The house of Berthollet is now a college of that branch of the Dominican order founded by Lacordaire. ARCY, Grotto of, a vast and beautiful sta- j lactitic cavern, which consists of many com- ! partments. near Vermenton, department of j Yonne, in France, 12 m. S. S. E. of Auxerre. 1 The hill in which this remarkable cavern exists j stretches into the valley of the river Cure, j One of the compartments of the grotto is 1,200 ! feet long, 85 high, and 40 wide. In the first | two compartments are found large blocks of j stone, and in the second compartment is a spring of good water. In the other chambers stalactites hang from the roof, while stalag- | mites rise column-like from the ground. The ! caverns are supposed to have been quarries | in former times, but have been abandoned so I long that every trace of human labor is obliter- j ated. It is said that the stone with which the j cathedral of Auxerre was built was taken from ! the grotto of Arcy. ARDABIL, Ardebil, or Erdebil, a town of Per- i sia, in the province of Azerbijan, 110 m. E. of ! Tabriz, and So m. W. of the Caspian, situated 5,000 feet above the sea, at the foot of the Sa- valan mountains ; pop. about 4,000. A fine and fertile situation has made it a favorite resort j of Persian princes. Abbas Mirza had a fort i built there as a protection against the Russians, j who were for some time in possession of the ! town during the war of 1826-^8. It was flourishing in former centuries under the Suf- I fites, whose founder as well as the first shah i of that dynasty are buried here in a beautiful i mausoleum which is a resort of pilgrims. The j town has been devastated by earthquakes and I is in decay, though still retaining some com- meroia.1 importance. ARDECHE, a S. E. department of France, | bounded E. by the Rhone; area, 2,134 sq. m. ; pop. in 1872. 380,277. The river Ardeche, from which it has its name, rises near its centre and flows S. S. E. to the Rhone. The Loire has its source near that of the Ardeche, and I flows in the opposite direction. A large portion of the surface is occupied by branches of the Cevennes mountains. The department is rich in iron and coal, but deficient in agricultural pro- ARDITI GS1 ducts, though potatoes are largely raised, chest nuts are plentiful in the forests, and "the pas- , turage is fine. Wine, silk, and wool are among i the principal exports, as well as various manu factured goods, including famous stationery. | Privas is the capital, and the other chief towns are Annonay and Aubenas. The department is divided into the three arrondissements of Privas, Largentiere! and Tournon. ARDEMES, a X. E. department of France, bounded N". by Belgium; area, 2,021 sq. m. ; pop. in 1872, 320,217. The forest of the Ar dennes, an elevated wooded tract, from which \ it is named, begins in its X. part, thence spread- i ing in various branches, but chiefly along the Meuse and Sambre, over the Belgian provinces ! of Namur, Hainault, and Liege, and over Lux- i emburg. The department is also traversed, ; mainly in the east and centre, by ridges and off- |. shoots of the Argonnes. The principal rivers i are the Meuse and the Aisne. The valley of the latter is remarkable for its large crops, and there are other very fertile valleys. Among the sheep are several long-wooled and /merino breeds ; the horses are fine, and game abounds. There ave iron, lead, calamine, and coal mines, and important slate and marble quarries. Xails and other iron wares, earthenware, glass, leather, woollens, firearms, and other articles are man ufactured. Timber is the fuel used in the iron and copper works, besides being exported. The capital. is Mezieres. Sedan is the chief place for the manufacture of cloth, and Charle- ville for the iron trade. The department is divided into the arrondissements of Mezieres, Rocroy, Rethel, Youziers, and Sedan. ARDESHIR, Ardshir, or Artaxerxes, Babrgan, founder of the Persian dynasty of the Sassan- ides in A. D. 226, died about 240. According to a critical opinion not fully established, he was the son of Babek, son of Sassan, a shepherd, who claimed descent from the line of the ancient Persian kings ; and the son gradually gained an importance which brought upon him the enmity of Artaban, the last ruler of the Parthian em pire. Ardeshir then announced his intention to recover the throne of his ancestors and to exter minate the Arsacide usurpers. lie gave battle to Artaban, whom he vanquished and put to death, and caused himself to be proclaimed shahan shah, "king of kings." He rapidly re covered the provinces constituting the old Per sian empire, and even extended its limits. A war with the Romans was of short duration. During the years of profound repose which marked the latter part of his reign, he cultivated the arts of peace, and as a jurist and legislator showed remarkable capacity. His principal achieve ment at home was the restoration of the pure Zoroastrian religion. ARDITI, Lnigi, an Italian violinist and com poser, born at Crescentino in Piedmont, July 22, 1822. He received his musical education in the conservatory at Milan, and first made himself known in public concerts as a violin ist in 1839. In 1841 his opera / Briganti 682 ARE AKEQUIPA was produced at Milan. In 1851 he visited Havana and the United States, and was for several seasons conductor at the Italian opera houses in New York. While in that city he com posed an opera entitled La Sjjia, the plot of which was hased upon incidents in Cooper s novel ik The Spy.* To identity it as an Ameri can work, k Hail Columbia" was introduced as the finale. The opera was brought out at the New York academy of music March 24, 1850, but its merits did not entitle it to any great success. Shortly after this production Arditi went to London, where he became the leader of the opera at her majesty s theatre. His songs have met with a greater popularity than his more ambitious compositions. ARE (from Lat. area, a broad piece of level ground), the unit of surface in the French sys tem of measures, equivalent to a square deca metre, or 1,076*44 English square feet. Parts of an arc are expressed by Latin prefixes, de- ciare, centiare, &c., signifying one tenth, one hundredth, CYC., of an are. Multiples of an are have Greek prefixes, decare, hectare, &c., sig nifying ten, one hundred, &c., ares. ARENDAL, a town of S. E. Norway, on .a river of the same name, in the province and 40 in. N. E. of Christiansand ; pop. in 1865, 7,181. It is built on piles and islands, and has been called "Little Venice" on account of its canals and picturesque appearance. The harbor is protected by the opposite island of Tromo, and there is an active trade in iron and timber. AREOLAR TISSUE. See CELLULAR TISSUE. AREOMETER. See HYDROMETER. AREOPAGIS, the hill (Gr. Trdyof) of Ares or Mars, a craggy eminence in ancient Athens, not far from the Acropolis, famous as the spot where the celebrated council or court of the same name held its sittings. This body was, above all similar courts of Greece, distinguished by its great antiquity and high character. Its origin is can-led back by ancient writers as far as the time of Cecrops ; but Solon is supposed to have framed, or at least greatly modified, the historical constitution of the Areopagus, and to have extended its functions, so that from being merely a criminal tribunal, its jurisdiction reached the general morals of society and the political affairs of the state touched every thing, in fact, which concerned the public weal. It is not known of how many members the Areopagus Avas composed, and possibly the number was unlimited, the members serving for life, and consisting of ex-archons of un spotted character. Pericles is said to have de- E rived it, of a portion of its prerogatives, and iter its members were made responsible to the people. Its fame was alive in the time of Ci cero, and even as late as the emperor Theodo- sius. In the records of Christendom the hill of Mars is memorable as the spot where the apos tle Paul commenced the delivery of a discourse, the outline of which is preserved in the book of Acts. There is no intimation that Paul was brought before the council of the Areopagus. AREQHPA. I. A S. department of Peru, bounded S. W. by the Pacific ; area, about 45,000 sq. m. ; pop. about 200,000. It is divided into the provinces of Arequipa, Islay, Castella, Camana, Union, Condesuyos, and Cailloma. The eastern section is a high table land belonging to the Andes region ; the rest lies between the main range of the Andes and the Pacific. The mountains are for the most part covered with perpetual snow, from which rises the volcano of Misti or Arequipa to a height of about 20,000 ft. The west ern section is very fertile, and is watered by the Ocona, Camana, and other rivers, all of which flow to the Pacific. By reason of the diversity of elevation, almost every known, vegetable product of the earth is raised. Oil, wine, and brandy of good quality are made, and the fruits of the department have earned for it the title of the garden of Peru. The western portion is covered with cattle, sheep, and goats, while the mountains Volcano of Misti or Arequipa. and plateaux abound with llamas, alpacas, gua- nacos, vicunas, and other wool-bearing quad rupeds. Silver, copper, tin, lead, sulphur, rock crystal, and coal are found. Earthquakes are very frequent and disastrous, and are invariably accompanied by eruptions of the volcanoes of Misti, Ornate, Tutupaca, and Ubinas. II. A town, capital of the preceding department, sit uated 7,850 feet above the sea, on the river Chili, 40 m. from the coast, in lat. 16 30 S., Ion. 72 20 W., 480 m. S. W. of Lima, in the midst of a fertile district and near several gold and silver mines; pop. about 35,000. It was one of the best built towns in South America, having a cathedral and several other churches, 9 convents, a college, a hospital, and houses of stone solidly constructed and vaulted ; but it was almost wholly destroyed by the earthquake of Aug. 13-15, 1808, in which nearly every house was levelled with the -ground and 600 persons were killed. A similar disaster had ARES ARGALL cs.: happened to the city on four previous occa sions. Its ancient site was two leagues E. of the present one ; the removal was made after Arequipa had been nearly buried in ashes from the volcano of Misti i^ the 16th century. ARES. See MARS. ARETEtS, a Greek physician of Cappado- cia, tloarished about A. D. 100. His contem poraries rank him next to Hippocrates. He wrote a comprehensive treatise, in eight books, on acute and chronic diseases, which is still extant, and was published by Wigan (Oxford, 1723) and by Kiilm (Leipsic, 1828). ARETHISA, a fountain in the island of Orty- gia, which formed a part of the ancient Syra cuse, in Sicily. The ancients supposed its waters to he united with those of the river Al- pheus in Peloponnesus. The naiad of the foun tain was the nereid Arethusa. (See ALPIIEUS.) Another Arethusa was one of the Hesperides, the guardians of the golden apples, to obtain which was one of the 12 labors of Hercules. ARETIXO. I. Guido, or Gnido d Arczzo, a Bene dictine monk, born at Arezzo near the end of the 10th century. He early occupied himsalf in devising new methods of writing and teach ing music. Instead of a group or tetrachords like the Greek method, or of heptachords such as Gregory adopted, he proposed a new system, consisting of hexachords. The six syllables by which he designated his notes were suggested to him, it is said, by a Latin hymn to St. John: UT queant laxis TP.E sonare fibris J//ra gestorum ^ ./Imuli tuorum, SOLve polluti Z^lbii rcatuin, Sancte Johannes. To the seventh note, si, he gave no name, and for a long time it continued to be called b. Guide s new method of solmization attracted much attention. AVhereas ten years had been x-equired to learn to read music, a chant could be mastered by this method in a few days, and a year sufficed to make a skilful singer." Pope John XVIII. (1024- 33) invited Guido to his court and was greatly pleased with his plan. Guido not only facilitated the reading of music, but simplified the manner of writing it. Since St. Gregory, attempts had been made to im prove musical notation. Already the seven letters, formerly written on one line, were placed on parallel lines, to indicate the rising and falling of the voice. Guido, instead of re peating the letter, wrote it at the beginning of the line, and each time it occurred marked a point on the line. He ended by placing the points within the lines, thus rendering the written composition more compact. Guido has the fame of being the inventor of the modern gamut. II. See BEUXI, LEOXAEDO. III. Pietro, an Italian writer, born in Arezzo in 1492, died in Venice in 1557. He was the natural son of a gentleman named Luigi Bacci, and was brought up by his mother, Tita. While still very young he was obliged to leave his native city on account of having written a sonnet against indulgences, and went to Perugia, where for a long time he supported himself as a book binder. Thence he went on foot to Rome, and obtained employment in the service of Popes Leo X. and Clement VII. ; but, having com- i posed 1 G sonnets for as many licentious designs 1 of Giulio Romano, he was forced to retire to ! Arezzo (1524), and soon afterward to the court , of Giovanni de Medici. At length he returned , to Rome, where he made love to a cook, and composed a sonnet in her praise. A Bolognese gentleman, Achille della Volta, was a rival lover, and finding Aretino one day alone, stabbed him j five times in the breast and maimed his hands ! (1525). Displeased with the refusal of the pope i to punish his assailant, Aretino sought once more the court of Giovanni de Medici. This ; prince having been killed in battle in 1526, ] Aretino resolved to have no more protectors, ; but to support himself by his pen. With this j view he went to Venice in 1527, where he I chiefly passed the rest of his life, becoming re conciled with the pope in 1530. His end was peculiar. Having heard of some excesses of his sisters, he found them so comical that he threw himself back in his chair laughing, fell over backward, and was killed. AREZZO. I. A province of Italy, in Tuscany ; area, 1,276 sq. m. ; pop. in 1872, 239,901. It"is watered by the Aruo, and includes the valley ; of the Chiana, 20 m. long, formerly a vast and I pestilential marsh, but which has been drained : within the last century and converted into about 40 sq. in. of the most fertile land of Italy ; and perhaps of Europe. Arezzo is famous for | its wines, corn, oil, and fruits. Among the I towns of this province are Cortona and Monte- I pulciano. II. A city (anc. Arretium or Are- \ tium\ capital of the preceding province, situ- I ated in a fertile valley, near the confluence of the Chiana and Arno, about 3G m. S. E. of Florence; pop. 38,907. In antiquity it was \ one of the principal states of Etruria. Its extensive w r alls are undoubtedly Etruscan, and were of importance to the Romans as a bar- i rier against the Cisalpine Gauls. It was cele- j brated for its terra-cotta vases, ranked by Pliny with those. of Samos and Saguntum. During the contest of the Guelphs and Ghibel- lines, Arezzo, then a very populous city, fought against Florence, but was finally obliged to | yield. Among the public buildings are the < magnificent Loggie, by A r asari, the cathedral I and several beautiful churches, the Museo Bac- < ci, and the Palazzo Publico, which has upon ; its front a curious series of the armorial bear- | ings of the successive podestas, amounting to : several hundreds. It is the birthplace of a ; number of distinguished men, hence known j by the surname of Aretino, as well as of Pe- | trarch, Vassari, and others. ARG.EIS, Mount. See ARJISH. ARGALI. See SHEEP. ARGALL, Sanmel, one of the early adventurers ! to Virginia, born in Bristol, England, in 1572, . died in 1639. His first public exploit was the abduction of Pocahontas, in 1612, from the 684 ARGELANDER ARGENSON care of a chief who had been intrusted by Pow- hatan with the charge of his daughter, but who surrendered her for the bribe of a brass kettle. Taking her to Jamestown, he gave her to the governor, Lord Delaware. In 1617 he became deputy governor of Virginia, in which office he demeaned himself so tyrannically that he was recalled in 1619, returning to England with immense wealth. Under the governorship of Sir Thomas Dale he commanded an expedition which sailed in 1013 to Port Royal in Xova Scotia, which place he reduced and plundered, driving the French colonists into the woods. He also destroyed the French settlement of St. Saviour on Mount Desert island. It has been stated that on his return to Virginia he appeared before New Amsterdam, and summoned the Hollanders to surrender their territory on the ground that Henry Hud son, its discoverer, was an Englishman ; but Brodhead, in his "History of New T York," ar rives at the conclusion that the whole story is fabulous. After the death of Lord Delaware, Argall took charge of his estate, and letters of Lady Delaware now in existence accuse him of the most flagrant peculation. ARGELAXDEK, Friediieh Willielm Angnst, a German astronomer, born at Memel, March 22, 1799. He attended the university of Konigs- berg, where he at first devoted himself to po litical science. His attention was turned toward the study of astronomy by the lectures of Bes- sel, and in 1821 he was made his assistant in the observatory. In 1822 he was appointed an instructor in the university. In the same year he published his Untersuchungen ul>cr die Bahn des grossen Kometen Ton 1811, establish ing the length of the comet s period as 2,840 years. In 1823 he was made chief of a new observatory at Abo, where he passed several years, publishing in 1830 and 1832 the results of his observations in 560 different cases (Obser vation es Astronomies Abom factm, 3 vols., Hel- singfors), and in 1835 the determination of the positions of the stars he had observed (DLX Stellarum Fixarum Positioner Media?). In 1837 appeared his great work, Ueber die eigene Bewegung des Sonnensy stems (St. Petersburg), in which he proved the truth of Herschel s theory concerning the independent movement of the solar system. In 1832 he had been ap pointed a professor at the university of Hel- singfors, and after superintending the building of an observatory, which was completed about the time of the publication of his last-mentioned work, he accepted a professorship at Bonn. Here also he took charge of the building of a new observatory, and completed it in 1845. He published in 1846 Durclimusteru-ng des nordliclien Himmels zwischen 45 and 80 nord- licher Breite (Bonn). His other noteworthy works are : Neue Uranographie (Berlin, 1843) ; Atlas des nordliclien gcstirnten Himmels (Bonn, 1857); and a catalogue of more than 216,000 stars, printed in the third and fourth volumes of the Astronojnische Beobaclitungen auf der Sternwarte zu Bonn. He was chosen a mcm- I her of the French institute in 1850. Within I the last ten years he has devoted himself to ob- : servations of variable stars. ARGENS, Jean Baptiste de Boyer, marquis d , a ; French writer, born in Aix, June 24, 1704, died in Toulon, June 11, 1771. He entered the army, but in consequence of an escapade with an actress his relatives procured his appointment | as secretary of legation to the French embassy at Constantinople. On his return from Turkey he again joined the army ; but during the siege | of Kehl he was wounded, and soon after a fall ; from his horse disabled him for military service. : As his father had disinherited him, he took to literature to support himself; and availing himself of the liberty of the press in Holland, he published there his Lettres juives, Lettres chinoiscs, and Lettres cabalistiques, each in several volumes. These attracted the atten tion of the crown prince of Prussia, the future Frederick the Great, who wished him to come to Berlin ; but D Argens would not go, be cause, as he wrote in apology, he was afraid that his tall figure would tempt King Frederick William to enroll him in his army. However, after the accession of Frederick the marquis went to Potsdam, was appointed director of fine arts in the academy of Berlin, and was on the best of terms with the king until he mar ried an actress without asking the royal con sent. He then returned to France, where he remained till his death. His most important work is his Ilistoire de Vesprit liumain. ARGENSON, Voycr d , a distinguished French family of Touraine. I. Rene Louis, marquis d , born Oct. 18, 1694, died Jan. 10, 1757. In 1741 Louis XV. appointed him minister of foreign affairs, and he held this office till 1747, w r hen the intrigues of Spain, whose policy he had frustrated in his negotiations with Italy, brought about his resignation. From that time he devoted himself principally to litera ture, and wrote, besides essays, Considerations stir le gouvernement de la France. II. Marc Pierre, count d , "brother of the preceding, born Aug. 18, 1696, died in Paris, Aug. 22, 1764. He was for some time secretary of the war de partment under Louis XV., and in this capacity ! did much for France during the war which pre- I ceded and the peace- which followed the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. D Alembert and I Diderot dedicated to him their Encyclopaedia, ! begun during his ministry, and he furnished Voltaire with valuable materials for his Siecle de Louis XIV. HI. Marc Antoine Rene de Palmy, son of Rene Louis, born in 1722, died in 1787. He was ambassador in Switzerland, Poland, and Venice, but, disappointed in obtaining the Roman mission, he resigned his public offices and devoted himself to literary pursuits. He edited 40 volumes of the Bibliotheque unixcr- selle des romans, including some of his own novels. He was elected a member of the French academy, and appointed governor of the arsenal, i and distinguished himself by the splendid col- ARGENTAN ARGENTINE REPUBLIC G85 lection of 150,000 volumes with which he en dowed its library. IV. Marc Ren5, grandson of Rene Louis, born in Paris, Sept. 10, 1771, died there, Aug. 2, 1842. He served for a time as adjutant of Gen. Lafayette. In 1809 lie be came prefect of the department of Deux-Nethes (Yiow province of Antwerp, Belgium), but relin quished his place on account of a disagreement with the ministry, caused by D Argenson s re fusal to sequester the property of the mayor of Antwerp, lie took an active part in the ex pulsion of the English from Walcheren. Du ring the hundred days he was a member of the house of representatives for Belfort, and be longed to the deputation who besought the allied forces to prevent the return of the Bour bons. He was reflected as deputy after the second restoration, and distinguished himself by his eloquent denunciation of the massacre of the Protestants in the south of France. In 1830 he reentered the chamber of deputies as member for Strasburg, and created a great sensation by taking his parliamentary oath with the words Je le jure, sauf les progres de la raison publique. In May, 1832, he was one of the opposition members who signed the famous Compte rendu, and in October, 1833, he signed the manifesto of the societe des droits de Vhomme. He was one of the chief leaders of the secret society charbonnerie democra- tique, and was designated as the future dic tator of France in case of a revolution. ARGENTAN, a town of France, in the depart ment of Orne, in Normandy, situated on the river Orne, 22 m. N. by W. of Alengon ; pop. in 1866, 5,401. It is finely situated on a hill in the midst of fertile plains ; and the ramparts and ditches have been converted into promenades. There are two large Gothic churches and a col lege. Formerly the town was famous for its laces (point d Argentan and point d" 1 Alencori), but the chief industry consists at present in manufacturing gloves, leather, and embroidery, and in exporting cattle and cheese. ARGENTEUIL, a town of France, in the de partment of Seine-et-Oise, on the Seine, 5 m. N. W. of Paris ; pop. in 1866, 8,176. It carries on an active trade in wine of inferior qual ity. Among the adjoining country seats is the chateau du Marais, formerly owned by Mirabeau. The town originated from the con vent or priory of Argenteuil founded in the 7th century, and converted by Charlemagne into a nunnery, of which Heloi se became ab bess, after having been educated and taken vows there. Its ruins are still extant. ARGENTEt IL, a W. county of the province of Quebec, Canada, bounded S. by the Ottawa river ; area, 850 sq. m. ; pop. in 1871, 12,806. The soil is in many parts of exceptionally good quality. There is a quarry of French buhr- stone in Grenville township. Capital, Lachute. ARGEXTEUS CODEX, an old uncial MS. of the four gospels in the Hoeso-Gothic dialect, written or stamped in silver letters (except the initials, which are in gold) on violet-colored vellum. [ It is supposed to have been executed about the : 6th century, and is a copy of the version made , in the 4th by Ulfilas, the Arian bishop of the ; Mo2so-Goths. This codex was discovered in i the library of the Benedictine abbey of Wer- | den in 1597, and after changing hands, either ! honestly or by stealth, several times, came at , length into the possession of the library of j Upsal for the consideration of about $1,250. | Facsimile editions of some portions of it have i been published by Knittel, and also by Angelo | Mai (1819). Mai also discovered some palhnp- I sests of this version in the Ambrosian library, | which have been published. These more recent discoveries have aided to fill the chasms in the Argenteus Codex, and so to enhance its value to Biblical literature. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC (La Eepullica Ar gentina; formerly more commonly called AE- GENTINE CONFEDERATION), an independent state of South America, between lat. 21 and 41 S., and Ion. 53 and 71 17 W., bounded X. by Bo livia, E. by Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic, S. by the Atlantic ocean and Patago nia, from which it is separated by the Rio Ne- j gro, and W. by the Andes, separating it from j Chili. The Argentines dispute with Chili the j right to the territory S. of the Rio Negro as far I as Tierra del Fuego, according to the original ! division by the government of Spain. The area j of the republic, including the undisputed por- j tion of the Gran Chaco, is 841,000 sq. m. If to this be added that part of the Chaco from the j Bermejo N. to lat. 22, as claimed by the gov ernment, the area would be about 1,000,000 sq. m. The 14 provinces into which the country is divided, with their area and population, ac cording to the census of 1869, are as follows: PROVINCES. Area, sq. m.j Population. LITTORAL OR EIVERINE PROVINCES. Buenos Ayres 70.000 Corrientes , 60.000 Entre-Eios ! 50.000 Santa Fe i 20,000 ANDINE PROVINCES. Catamarca. ... i 35.000 Mendoza 65.000 La Eioja : 35.000 San Juan 33,000 CENTRAL PROVINCES. Cordoba San Luis Santiago del Estero Tucuman . . , NORTHERN PROVINCES. Salta 60.000 20.000 35.000 28,000 50.000 Jujuy 30,000 Total... . 591,000 343,366 120.198 115.963 75,178 79.551 59.269 48.493 53,007 20^.771 52,761 132.763 103,602 85,959 37,357 1,526,7:38 ! These figures show an increase of 140 per cent. | as .compared with the census of 1836. All j the provincial capitals bear the names of I their respective provinces except that of Entre- ! Rios, which is Concepcion (La Concepcion del 686 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC Uruguay). The chief towns, with their pop ulation in 1809, are: Buenos Ayres, 177,787; (Jorrientes, 10,070; Concepcion, 6,513; Santa Fe, 10,670; Catamarca, 5,718; Mendoza, 8,124; La Rioja, 4,489; San Juan, 8,853; Cordoba, 28,523; San Luis, 3,748; Santiago, 7,775; Tucumun, 17,438; Salta, 11,710; Jujuy, 3,072. These, added to the provincial population, and 47,270 absent at war, make a total population of 1,879,410. The number of immigrants in ! 1803 was 10,400; in 1804, 11,082; in 1865, 11,770; in 1800, 13,900; in 1867, 23,900; in | 1808, 29,384; in 1809, 37,934; in 1870, 39,007; I in 1871, over 40,000. The principal centres of immigration are Buenos Ayres, Santa Fe, I Entre-Rios, Cordoba, Corrientes, Salta, and I San Juan. The foreign population in the prov ince of Buenos Ayres was set down in 1809 at 250,000, made up of the following elements : ; Italians, 70,000; Basques, 40,000; French, 30,- i - - -Orecho w?j" -Ivirajrpras-. t^ Comprised /( v T- S^fdj-ia / .*} \\-Alrnona #, % ^ 3"^. 1^ Fip^ ^ x i^-S|p^" |^?^ M^^^ v SS> b |^|V ft.SjS^^ *?^ J^""W?^/^K ^ ^p^hf>S)la^ o^L^S^NflAQJUfc^ ^fc^# ** f ^ff gJ 8 *"*! ^ ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 687 000; Spaniards, 30,000; Irish, 30,000; English and Scotch, 10,000; Germans, 10,000 ; other nationalities, 30,000. The number of Italians at present in the province exceeds 00,000, up ward of 40,000 of whom (or about one fourth of the entire population) are in the city of Bue nos Ayres. In the upper provinces there are but few foreigners, Entre-Rios alone excepted, where they are numerous and engaged in all branches of industry. In Santa Fe there are three prosperous colonies. Cordoba has per haps 1,500 settlers. The most numerous class of foreigners are Italians, who are in general skilled in the building trades, and have found constant employment in the various splendid buildings erected of late years in Buenos Ayres; many of them are also engaged in market garden ing. The Genoese are chiefly occupied in river navigation, the monopoly of which is in their hands. Besides this advantage, the crews of the river and coasting crafts have often equal shares in the ventures. The Spaniards present a less striking contrast with the Argentines, the Catalans prospering as wine merchants, the Andalusians as cigar dealers and shop keepers, while the Galicians perform the du ties of street porters, night watchmen, and do mestics. The Basques, after the Italians the most numerous foreign community, are most ly bricklayers, milkmen, shepherds, saladero peons, &c., though some are rich and at the head of lucrative enterprises. To the Irish is due the development of sheep farming that en ables the Argentine provinces to rival Australia in the production of wool. Many of them num ber their acres by thousands, and their flocks by hundreds of thousands. The aggregate number of sheep owned by the Irish is estimated at 30,000,000. Of the French, who are the most equally distributed in the provinces, some are wealthy wine merchants, trading with Bor deaux, and in general they are found in every branch of commerce, especially the fancy trade, which they monopolize. They assimilate more with the Argentines than do the English and Germans. The English and North Americans are seldom occupied in other than mercantile pursuits. The Argentines (Argentinos) are nat urally active and intelligent. The Gauchos, or horsemen of the plains, are descendants of the Spanish colonists, and many of them have sprung from the best families of the peninsula. They live in rude huts built of mud, and subsist almost entirely on the flesh of oxen and game, both of which abound in the pampas, and are taken with the lazo or the bolas, a missile weapon wielded with astounding dexterity by the Gauchos. Of the Indians, who are chiefly of Araucanian descent, by far the larger num ber are independent and live in separate tribes, governed each by its cacique. They dwell in tents of hides, and their subsistence consists mainly of maize, which they procure from the whites in exchange for cattle , salt, and blankets made by their women, and of the flesh of mares, these animals never being ridden, b ut wholly reserved for food. Some Indians are employed as farm laborers. As early as the 16th century missions were established to the east of Cor- rientes by the Jesuits, who did much toward civilizing the Indians; but after the expulsion of the order from South America, near the close of the 18th century, the natives relapsed gradually into savagism. The coast line of the Argentine Republic, which measures 540 rn., is generally low and sandy, and has no very good harbors. The principal port, Buenos Ayres, on the Plata, is 180 m. from the sea, and is difficult of access on account of the shallowness of the river. The only other important ports areRosario, on the same river, 300 in., and San Nicolas, 310 m. from the sea, and Bahia Blanca and El Carmen on the seaboard. The northern and Andine provinces are for the most part mountainous, being covered with spurs diverg ing from the Chilian Cordillera. There are no volcanoes in activity ; but signs exist of some extinct, such as that in the vicinity of Jujuy, from which issues every morning a spiral col umn of dust that extends many miles over the country. The town of Oran, in Jujuy, was overthrown by an earthquake early in 1872. Some peaks of the Despoblado chain in Salta attain a height of 14.000 ft. ; and the culmina ting point of the Aconquija system, traversing Tucuman and Catamarca, reaches IT, 000 ft. at its highest summit. The Cordoba chain, in the province of that name, is divided into two branches, but presents no lofty peaks. Among the mountains of the eastern provinces, the Yerbales in the N. E. of Corrientes are worthy of mention ; and the southern portion of Entre- Rios is bisected by hills of considerable height. AVith these exceptions, and those of the Volcan, Ventana, and Guamini ranges in the S. E. of Buenos Ayres, this country may be regarded as a vast unbroken plain stretching from the foot of the Andes to the Atlantic and the river Uruguay, and from the Bolivian boundary to the frontier of Patagonia, This plain may be considered as forming two grand regions : one, from the Rio Negro to the Rio Salado, com prises the pampas; the other, N. of the Salado and W.*of the Paraguay, embraces the desert of the Gran Chaco, which extends, with little in terruption, far N. of the Bolivian limits. The vast tract of the pampas, over 300,000 sq. m. in area, is itself distinguishable into several subdivisions, differing in climate and products, although under the same parallel. Proceeding from Buenos Ayres, the first of these sub-re gions presents for nearly 200 m. an alternate growth of clover and thistles ; the next a cov ering of long grass and brilliant flowers, extend ing without a weed some 400 m. further west ward ; the third, reaching to the base of the Andes, one continuous grove of shrubs and small evergreen trees, so evenly set that a horseman may gallop at random between them without inconvenience. Change of season brings little variation in the aspect of the two regions last mentioned ; but in the first remarkable 688 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC mutations occur. During the winter months 1 the thistles and clover are exceedingly rich and | strong, and herds of wild cattle are seen brows- i ing in every direction. On the approach of spring the clover disappears, and nothing is j distinguishable save an immense forest of giant ! thistles, tall enough to almost totally obstruct the view, and so closely set and so strong as to form an impenetrable barrier. In summer the thistles give place to a new and luxuriant growth of clover. The Gran Chaco is a vast and for the most part unexplored territory, the interior of which is exclusively inhabited by live nomadic tribes, distinct in language, but similar in physical appearance. The southern portion forms an immense desert interspersed with sand pools ; the eastern, extensive plains and marshes, with here and there tracts en tirely inundated, while the natural features of the northern part are plains of magnificent pasture, dense forests of useful timber, and nu merous rivers and lagoons. Some colonies have been founded of late years and bid fair to pros per. The government offers liberal grants of land to settlers. The Rio de la Plata, with the immense streams which form it, is one of the greatest, and certainly one of the longest, rivers of the western hemisphere. The traveller can take steamer at Montevideo and ascend with out interruption to Cuyaba, in Matto Grasso, over 2,000 in. But it is itself rather a vast estu ary collecting the waters of large rivers, and pouring into the Atlantic an immense and tur bid flood, which is perceptible more than 100 m. to seaward, and produces a powerful cur rent amid the waters of the ocean to a distance of 200. m. The depth of the Plata is nowise proportionate to its width. At Montevideo, where the width is 75 m., a series of sand banks narrow the channels and render them of diffi cult navigation ; and at Buenos Ayres, where the shores are 28 m. apart, even vessels of medium draft have to anchor 6 and sometimes 8 or 9 m. from land. Up to 1855 passengers and goods were brought ashore in carts mount ed on huge .wheels, that went out to meet the boats at a distance of two or three cables length from the water s edge. In tkat year two handsome piers 1,300 and 1,950 ft. in length were constructed of wood and iron ; but when the river is low the old expedient of carts has to be resorted to. Of the two great rivers which unite to form the Plata, the Para na curves from S. to W. on the N. E. border to its junction with the Paraguay, at Tres Bocas, in lat, 27 14 S., Ion. 58 SO W., whence it flows nearly S. to Rosario, in lat, 33, then turns S. E., and falls into the Plata by several chan nels from 25 to 55 m. above Buenos Ayres. The river is navigable for the largest vessels to its junction with the Paraguay, 850 m. ; 150 m. higher for small steamers; and 350 m. further up for small boats. Its chief tributaries in the re public are the Salado, which flows S. E. from the X. W. part of the province of Salta about 600 m., and empties below Santa Fe, and the Tercero, which flows S. E., receives the Cuarto, and empties about 30 m. above Rosario. The Salado is said to be navigable from the plains of Salta. The Uruguay forms nearly the whole E. boundary of the republic, bordering on the provinces of Entre-Rios and Corrientes, to its embouchure in the Plata by a channel m. wide. This river is usually flooded from June to November, and is navigable for steamers up to Salto Grande, about 200 m. The Paraguay, after a long course through Brazil and on the frontier of Bolivia, forms the dividing line be tween the Argentine Republic and Paraguay for 350 m. to its confluence with the Parana, i 25 m. above Corrientes, receiving in that dis- j tance the Pilcomayo and Bermejo. These are both large rivers flowing S. E. through the Gran Chaco, but the former is too shallow for navigation, while the latter has been navigated by steamers for 1,200 m. by its tortuous course. The Colorado or Mendoza, formed by the union of various streams springing from the volcanoes of the Chilian Cordillera, holds a generally S. E. course and flows into the Atlantic at Union bay. It is navigable for upward of 100 m. from the sea. There is a second Rio Salado in the province of Buenos Ayres, S. of the capital, but it is dry for most of the year. The Negro, ; which forms the S. boundary of the republic | as far W. as Ion. 70, falls into the Atlantic below^ El Carmen, and has been navigated al most throughout its entire course, or about 500 m. The pampsean plains are drained by innu merable streams, some of considerable volume, whose waters, for the most part saline, spread and are lost in the marshes or salt lakes that abound in those regions. Among them the Primero and Segundo are large but not per manent streams ; while the Tercero and Cuarto, already mentioned, are perennial. The plains are interspersed with an infinite number of lakes and lagoons, for the most part salt AY. of the Parana and Paraguay, while those E. of these rivers are without exception fresh. In the province of Corrientes is an extensive lake, the Ibera, 130 m. long and 90 m. wide, which gives its name to a marshy territory of consid erable area. The Parana is by some geologists | supposed to have at an early period taken its course through this lake ; and many are of opinion that the latter is now filled by infiltra- I tion from the great river, although there exists no visible connection bet\veen them. No rivers i run into it, but it supplies four of some mag nitude. The Ibera during the season of the : floods extends over an estimated area of 1,000 sq. m., but is navigable only for canoes. The chief permanent lake of the republic is the Guanacache, in the province of Mendoza. There | are also the Bevedero and the Urre Laguen, or bitter lake, both of some magnitude. The countless smaller lakes or lagoons usually dis appear as soon as the rains have ceased, and | leave the ground covered with a salt efflores cence to a depth of several inches, and in some places even of three feet, The geolo- ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 689 gical features of the regions N. of the Plata present a striking contrast with those on the south. The former are elevated, and com posed of granite, gneiss, and clay slate; and indeed all the rocks showing themselves above the plain of the Plata, in the Sierra Ventana S. of Buenos Ayres, in Entre-Rios, Cordoba, and the upper provinces generally, are granitic, a superposition of pure white quartz rock as sociated with glossy clay slate occurring, how ever, over the granite of the Ventana. On the S. side of the Plata all rock formations disappear, and not even a pebble is to be found for hundreds of miles inland. The pam- psean regions are characterized by a diluvial formation consisting of calcareo-argillaceous conglomerate gradually deposited during the lapse of ages, in what was once an arm of the Atlantic, but is now dwindled within the pres ent limits of the estuary of the Plata. It may be observed that this same deposition is still rapidly progressing in the bed of the river, in somuch that it is altogether likely that the great stream which, according to report, was navigable for ships of the heaviest burthen three centuries ago, will in the course of ages flow into the ocean by a delta, like the Nile or the Ganges, instead of entering it, as it now does, through a single mouth. In Entre-Rios there occur at the bottom of the cliffs beds containing sharks teeth and sea shells of ex tinct species, passing above into an indurated marl, and from that into the red clayey earth of the pampas, with its calcareous concretions and the bones of terrestrial quadrupeds, clearly telling of a large bay of pure salt water, grad ually encroached on, and at last converted into a muddy estuary into which Hoating carcasses were swept. The number of the fossil remains imbedded in the grand estuary deposit, says Darwin, must be extraordinarily great. A line drawn in any direction through these regions would, observes the same writer, cut through some skeleton or bones. Fossil mammalia of nine species have been found : the megathe rium, of huge dimensions; the megalonyx and scelidotherium, the latter edentate and prob ably as large as a rhinoceros, and both allied to the first; the mylodon Danrinit, and another gigantic edentate quadruped; a large animal with an osseous coat in compartments, bearing some resemblance to the armadillo; an extinct kind of horse, the eqinis cttrridens, indicative of the existence and disappearance of a native race betore the introduction of the few indi viduals by the Spanish colonists ; a pachyder matous animal, perhaps the same with the macrauchenia ; and the toxodon, an elephant in size, a gnawer by the structure of the teeth, and probably aquatic like the manatee, to which it is allied. The Aconquija mountain chain abounds in gold, silver, and copper ores; and the Famatina in La Rioja affords very fine silver ores. Iron has been found in the Gran Chaco. An immense mass of this metal, pre sented by Sir W. Parish to the British museum, VOL. i. 44 and pronounced to be of meteoric origin, is re garded by him as a genuine production of the soil. Salt, the most abundant mineral in the Argentine Republic, exists in a state of efflores cence covering immense tracts, and in count less brackish springs and pools ; but nowhere is it so common as near Bahia Blanca. The salt occurring far inland consists for the most part of sulphate of soda, and perhaps 7 per cent, of common salt, and does not preserve meat well ; while near the coast the proportion of common salt reaches 37 per cent., and the quality is superior. There are besides mines of rock salt in the country ; and sulphate of soda and sulphate of magnesia, from which the magnesia of commerce is prepared, occur in various localities. Coal is found in the N. W. provinces, also gypsum, limestone, alum, min eral pitch, bituminous shale, and large quanti ties of sulphur ; and there are extensive coal beds in the extreme S. W. angle of the country. The climate, on the whole perhaps one of the finest in the world, exhibits nevertheless considerable variety. In the north the heat is great, and in some localities oppressive, save where tempered by fresh breezes from the Andes. On travelling southward a cooler tem perature is experienced, and especially in the province of Buenos Ayres, where the climate closely resembles that of some portions of south ern Europe. In the plains reaching from the Andes to the banks of the Parana there is a great deficiency of moisture, while the coun tries E. of that river are refreshed by abundant and frequent rains. In Buenos Ayres, where a luxuriant vegetation shows great humidity, the climate is chiefly governed by the wind, a change of which not infrequently brings an alteration of from 20 to 30 in the thermom eter, which rarely rises above 90 in the shade. The prevailing winds are northerly, and these, passing over extensive marshy and saline dis tricts, produce on reaching Buenos Ayres a universal dampness, and upon the bodily sys tem an extreme lassitude, inducing a liability to all the maladies consequent upon checked perspiration. Although the northers are not generally regarded as unfavorable to health if the necessary precautions are taken, while they prevail the most trifling wound or hurt may terminate in lockjaw. The S. W. wind, or pampero, usually follows the norther, and blows at times with great violence, driving back the waters of the Plata miles from the shore, an.d bearing clouds of dust so dense as to produce total darkness. The pamperos very frequently end in a heavy shower of rain, or rather mud, formed by the mingling of the water ;:nd the dust. The thunder and lightning during one of these storms are perhaps unequalled in any other part of the world. A disease called el mal dc siete dias (the seven days sickness), mainly prevalent among the lower classes, carries off an immense number of infants in the first week after birth. The following table shows the range of Fahrenheit s th.er- 690 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC mometer in the shade at Rosario during the ! month of March, and at Buenos Ayrcs from j April to September : Monthly range Greatest diurnal range. Average do. Highest maximum. . Lowest do. Average do. Highest minimum Lowest do. Average do. Mean averages j 1 ^ g > 1 t S 51 26 25 23 26 25 % 18 range. . . do. . . . 43 20 24 ]() IS 9 21 7 14 9 14 7 9 5 ni. . . 93 1 7 71 72 65 66 63 6S 57 55 49 43 49 52 80 63 68 59 54 53 58 n 77 67 61 62 50 61 59 47 51 46 44 39 41 45 64 58 54 51 44 51 53 72 63 59 55 49 54 56 The soil of the Argentine Republic is extreme ly varied and productive, save in the S. plains, the coarse shingle of which is unfavorable to vegetation. As has already been seen, the pampas, and principally to the S. W. of the Parana, afford rich and abundant pasturage. The E. flank of the Andes and the banks of the W. affluents of the Paraguay are clothed with dense forests, the timber of which is, however, unavailable owing to its distance from the sea. The trees are mostly of the mimosa family ; and with the fruit of the algarroba, mixed with maize, the Indians make a sort of bread, j while by fermentation they produce the chica, j an intoxicating liquor. In Salta the cinchona, j various palms, and the mate or Paraguay tea ! are indigenous ; and in Salta and Santiago the j cactus foliosus, on which a cochineal insect feeds, grows to an enormous size. Aloes are very abundant, and from their fibrous materials the Indians manufacture nets, ropes, bags, &c., which they dye with indelible colors of their own preparation from native plants. The coca plant grows plentifully in Salta. Mixed with lime, the Peruvians chew it as a stimulant. Indigo is found in Corrientes, and also the shrub which nourishes the claviilo, an insect famed for the rich green dye it affords. The apple tree was introduced from Chili by the Indians, and forms veritable forests in the S. W. districts near the Andes. Figs, oranges, walnuts, and other fruits are common ; and the peach tree is so abundant as to afford the principal firewood for the city of Buenos Ayres. Good wine is made in Mendoza. The sugar cane prospers in the northwest, and tobacco is extensively cultivated. The cotton tree nour ishes in Catamarca, and red pepper is sent in large quantities to Buenos Ayres. Maize, po tatoes, and the different European cereals are raised in almost all the provinces, and of wheat prodigious crops are produced, principally fur export. But the exportation of productions of the soil has hitherto been inconsiderable com pared to that of animal produce derived from the herds of cattle and horses in the pampas. An idea of the cattle-raising in eight of the prov inces (there being no returns from the others^ may be formed from the following statistics of the farming stock in 1806 : PROVINCES. Honied Cattle. Horses. Males. Sheep. : Swine. Buenos Ayres Kntre-Ilios 6 000,000 2.500,000 2 000 000 1.800,000 600,000 375 000 30.000 7,500 60 O lO 60,000,000 6,OOOiOOO 1 000 000 5,000 1 000 115,000 4 500 185 000 40 000 40 00 80 000 121 000 2500 Mendoza. Salta 21 o.O; to 255 HOO 71,000 50000 7.500 50 000 230,000 150000 70.00;) 95 (HlO 8.500 2500 300 000 96 000 14 00 ) 1 60 000 285000 Tucuman 275 000 85 000 22 000 95000 25000 In the forests of the republic there are ja guars, cougars or pumas (American lions), ant- eaters, and chinchillas as large as squirrels and much prized for the beauty of their furs. The tapir is common in the north. Deer abound in the pampas, as do wild dogs and ar madillos ; and there are three species of par tridge. On the banks of the Rio de la Plata is found the carigueibaju, known in commerce by its fur under the name of nutria ; it is a car nivorous animal, of the size of a cat, web-foot ed, and its flesh is considered exceedingly deli cate. The capybara, the giant of the rodentia, and the carpincho frequent the rivers. The Andine provinces abound in guanacos, llamas, and vicunas; and the Gran Chaco is infested by the various feline animnls already men tioned, besides wild cats, boars, myriads of noxious insects, spiders of monstrous propor tions, enormous mosquitoes, and innumerable swarms of bees. Several varieties of venomous I snakes are met with, especially a trigonoce- I phalus, the fiercest and most hideous of its I kind, and a species of boa similar to the trarja- venado or deer-swallower of Venezuela. The tocutuco and bizcacha, rodent quadrupeds, are found in all directions throughout the pam pas, rendering travelling dangerous from their burrowings. Condors, gallinazos, vultures, and other predacious birds abound in various dis tricts ; and the woods are peopled by numer ous smaller birds of endlessly varied plumage. The rivers, and especially the Rio Negro, abound in fish of all kinds, the lamprey, trout, pejerey, sole, and ray or skate being those most prized. Seals are taken on the N. coast, as also sea lions and sea elephants; the latter often attain a length of 20 to 23 feet, and one will yield two hogsheads of oil. The breeding 1 of mules has of late years declined, though con siderable droves are still to be met with in the i estancias. The sheep, although extremely nu- ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 691 merous, are, like the goats and hogs, of an infe rior breed. A species of ostrich, smaller than that of Africa, is common on the plains, arid hunted for its feathers, an article of export of some importance. Almost the only manufac tures of the Plata provinces are ponchos, sad dle-cloths, ropes, &c., made by the Indians, and morocco leather, wooden bowls, and dishes from Cordoba, the principal manufacturing town. In spite of wars, epidemics, droughts, and other obstacles to the material develop ment of the country, the following tabular statement by Sr. Don Manuel R. Garcia, Ar gentine minister to the United States, shows that the exports have quadrupled in quantity and quintupled in amount in the 17 years from 1853 to 1870: AUT[ "LES. 1S53. i 1S70. Salted ox hides 43,831 774,806 Dried OK hides 604 868 1 824 s95 Horse hides 129005 10^ 259 Hogsheads of tallow ... . 1766S 108384 Packages of wool 20 5 1 4 160869 Sheepskins 1 398 67 214 Quintals of jerked beef 275,000 647,532 Total (tons) 97,453 397 7^2 Value $6,990,770 $39,294,690 This increase, large as it may appear, belongs to a small proportion only of the products of the country, the mineral and agricultural re sources of which have not yet been devel oped, for want of hands, capital, and suitable roads. Official reports show the exports of the products of cattle to have been in the pro portion of $22 50 for each inhabitant in the province of Buenos Ayres alone in 1853, $60 in 1860, and $80 in 1870. The wool clip for 1866 was estimated at 100,000,000 Ibs. The export duties on wool, bones, hides, and tallow amount to about 3,000,000 silver dollars per an num. The total of the exports from the port of Buenos Ayres to the United States during the year ending Sept. 30, 1870, was $6,473,- 1)27 61 ; while that of the imports from the United States in the same period was but $2,087,909, according to custom hous3 returns. The balance of trade from Great Britain was in favor of the latter by over $6,000,000, and that with France by about $1,500,000. The im ports mainly comprise cotton, woollen, and linen fabrics, machinery, coal, and iron. In 1869 there entered the principal ports 1,337 sailing vessels, with an aggregate of 401,070 tons, and 1,158 steamers; and there cleared 970 sailing vessels, with a total of 308,325 tons, and 1,158 steamers. The highways of the re public are, with few exceptions, as nature made them, consisting merely of a beaten track across the pampas. There are four lines of railway in the province of Buenos Ayres. In Entre-Rios there is also easy communication by river steamboats ; but in the interior of Corrientes travelling is done exclusively on horseback. There are now (1872) six railway lines opened for traffic, four of which diverge from the capi tal of the republic in different directions ; the remaining two are from Rosario to Cordoba, and from Gualeguay to Puerto Ruiz. Besides these, there are two railways in course of con struction, and five others projected. Along the lines already opened, new farms have been established, immense quantities of wheat sown tor exportation, and the shipment of wool has so increased as at times to task the carrying power of the railways. In September, 1871, there were 1,230 in. of telegraph open, and over 2,630 m. in process of construction. A submarine cable has been laid between Bue nos Ayres and Montevideo, and an impor tant line is projected to unite the capitals of Chili and of the Plate provinces. The Maua bank was the first private bank established in Buenos Ayres (1858) ; the London and River Plate bank, established in 1863, does a largo and remunerative business. The Argentine bank is of more recent date. The business of the post office department has greatly in creased in a few years ; the number of let ters passing through the Buenos Ayres post office in 1859 was but 400,000; in 1865 it amounted to 2,000,000. The constitution of the Argentine Republic bears date May 15, 1853. The executive power resides in a president elected for six years by the repre sentatives of the 14 provinces, 133 in num ber. The legislative authority is vested in a national congress, consisting of a senate num bering 28, two from each province, and a house of deputies, of 54 members. The vice president, elected in the same manner and at the same time as the president, is chairman of the senate, but has otherwise no political power. The president is commander-in-chief of the army, and appoints to all civil, military, and judicial offices; but he and his ministers are responsible for their acts, and liable to im peachment. There are five ministerial depart ments: interior, foreign affairs, finance, war and marine, and education and public worship. The governors of the provinces are elected by the people for a term of three years. The army of the republic consists, exclusive of the militia and national guard of Buenos Ayres (number ing 19.867 men), of 6,482 men 2,909 infantry, 2,861 horse, and 712 artillery; there are 29 generals, 273 commandants, and 632 subaltern officers. The militia and national guard may be called out in time of war. The navy com prises seven vessels of war, one of which mounts 12 guns. The public revenue is mainly derived from customs duties, which average 25 per cent, on imports and 10 per cent, on ex ports. The national expenditure is made up chiefly of the cost of the army and navy, and the interest of the public debt. The expendi ture was considerably increased from 1807 to 1870, owing to the war with Paraguay. The official estimates of revenue and expenditure for the financial year 1869- 70, presented to the national congress, were as follows : 692 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC REVENUE. Import duties $8.400.000 Additional 5 per cent, (war) 2,100.000 Export duties 1,500,000 Additional 2 per cent, (war) r, 00,000 Storage 200. OHO fctamp duty 155.000 Post office. 105,UOJ Interest on 17.000 shares of Argentine Central railway, at 7 per cent 11 G.920 Sundries 50,000 Total $13,186,920 EXPEXDITUEE. Ministry of the Interior " Foreign Affairs " Finance " Public Instruction. .. War. . . Total $1,297,9?5 111.400 8,452.725 768.270 3,7->7,215 $14,387,595 .The budget for 1870- 71, voted by the nation al congress, showed an estimated revenue of $15,800,000, and an estimated expenditure of $10,000,000, leaving a deficit of $200,000. The public debt, divided into an external and an internal debt, was as follows at the end of Oc tober, 1871 : EXTERNAL. Old Buenos Ayres debt, G per cent, stock. . . . $4529,000 " 8 " " ........ 5.551,500 Loan authorized by act of congress May 27, 1865, 12,50;U)Oi) October, 1870, 30,612,000 Total external debt ...................... $53,195,500 INTERNAL. Consolidated G per cent. Argentine stock Buenos Ayres public stock in paper currency Parana debt, 1&58. including interest Obligations to foreign creditors Loan from Brazilian government, 1 ?51. u authorized by congress October, 18tW. Total internal debt... $12,839.500 2.984 940 2,166.545 94,260 1,142.705 2.000,000 3,003.000 .. $24,227,950 Total debt $77,423,450 The greater part of the foreign loan of 1865 was issued in 1868, to the amount of 1,950,- 000, at the price of 72 1- for 100, by Messrs. Ba ring Brothers of London. It is at 6 per cent, interest, and payable in 21 years. The loan of 1870, amounting to 0,122,400, granted by congress for the construction of railways and other public works, was issued at the London exchange in April, 1871, at the price of 88, to be redeemed by an accumulated sinking fund of 24- per cent. Besides the liabilities above mentioned, there is a floating debt in treasury bills to an unknown amount. Each of the 14 provinces has a revenue of its own, derived from local taxes. The liabilities of all the provinces, except Buenos Ayres, the annual expenditure of which is about $2,000,000, are internal. That province contracted in June, 1870, a loan in England of 1,034,700, issued at 88, with 6 per cent, interest, to be redeemed at par in 33 years. In 1866 treasury notes were issued t bearing interest, for payment of government dues, and to be received in pay ment of customs duties. They represent sil ver dollars, and are of the denominations of $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100. Much has been done of late years for the advancement of education, and in the chief towns it is better than in most parts of South America. There are at present 142 municipal and state schools in the province and city of Buenos Ayres, besides a large num ber of denominational and other private and Sunday schools in that, and a proportionate number in the other provinces. The capital and Cordoba have each a university, and Bue nos Ayres and Corrientes have each a colegio national, the studies in which embrace the | usual classic and scientific courses, besides mod ern languages, and degrees are conferred in theology, law, and medicine. New colleges are being founded in Entre-Rios; and normal schools will shortly be established in all the provinces. About 90,000 children attended school in the whole republic in 1871, and there were 1,884 students in the national colleges. There are extensive libraries, chief among which ! is the liiblioteca national, founded in 1870 un- | der the auspices of President Sarmiento. The i predominant religion is Roman Catholic; but all others are tolerated, and the ministers of some other denominations are paid by the gov ernment. In 1869 it was estimated that there j were 10,000 Protestants among the English, j Scotch, American, and German settlers. The""" i mouth of the Rio de la Plata was discovered in 1512 by Juan Diaz de Solis ; and as early as 1535 Don Pedro de Mendoza began the settlement at Buenos Ayres, while the country as far N. as the site of Asuncion, the present capital of Paraguay, was explored by parties under his orders. Many colonies were founded in that century, and much progress was made in the civilization of the Indians under Don Juan de Garay, who was in 1580 appointed lieutenant governor of those provinces, which were then regarded as forming a part of the viceroyalty of Peru. In 1620 a new government was formed, having for its capital Buenos Ayres, hitherto dependent upon the government of Paraguay, and both continued under the viceroyalty of Peru till 1776, when the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres was created, comprising the territories now known as Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic. In 1806 Buenos Ayres and Montevideo were captured by a small British force, which, however, was soon compelled by the bravery of the inhabitants to relinquish the conquest. An attempt was made in August, 1807, by a British army 10,000 strong, to reconquer the city of Buenos Ayres; but the invaders were defeated. Gen. Whitelock, who commanded the attack, was on his return to England cashiered for in capacity. The struggle for independence was begun about three years later, and was waged on both banks of the Plata, until the only re maining Spanish forces surrendered in Monte video in 1812. During this period the war of independence was also going on in Upper Peru (Bolivia) with varied results, and in the adja cent provinces, the Spaniards suffering con siderable reverses in Salta and Tucuman. In ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 693 January, 1813, the chief power was vested in the "Sovereign Assembly" formed in Tucu- inan, then the seat of government. About the same time Gen. Jos6 de San Martin, the gov ernor of the province of Mendoza, conceived the project of crossing the Andes for the pur pose of driving the Spaniards out of Chili. The enterprise proved successful, and Chili was freed after the memorable battles of Cha- cabnco and Maipu (1817-18). Immediately afterward the Chilians and Argentines carried their united arms into Peru, and entered Li ma in 1821. The Portuguese in 1816, under pretext of putting down anarchical movements set on foot in Uruguay by Artigas, descended into that territory and took possession of Monte video, in spite of the protests of the Argentine government, then too busily engaged in pre serving order at home and in carrying on the war of independence, to enter openly into hos tilities against the invaders. The same year the independence of the United Provinces of La Plata was declared in Tucuman (July 9), in which city, after the dissolution of the sov ereign assembly, a congress had assembled March 26, 1817, and promulgated a provisional constitution, Gen. Puyerredon being named supreme dictator. The seat of congress was afterward removed to Buenos Ayres, in the hope of securing greater liberty of action ; but in 1820 the directory fell, and in the fol lowing year a democratic form of govern ment was established. The administration was composed of Gen. Rodriguez and two secre taries, Don Bernardino Rivadavia and Don Ma nuel Garcia. The riverine provinces soon uni ted themselves with Buenos Ayres, and this al liance led in 1824 to the organization of the re public, under the administration of Las Heras. Brazil forced the United Provinces into a dec laration of war, and blockaded the city of Bue nos Ayres, January, 1826; and, though the Ar gentine arms were for a time victorious by sea and land, the event served to prove the weak ness of the union. It is important to remem ber that the size of the different provinces was extremely various, and that the character and interests of the population were no less varied. It may also be added that the difficulty of establishing communication between the prov inces rendered useless at times prudent meas ures taken by the central government. There was almost a feudal aristocracy in the north ; in the wide ranges of the pastures the herds men felt and exercised a rude power ; but there was a greater degree of moderation in tne agricultural states. Buenos Ayres, as the only seaboard state, and as much the richest, nat urally took the lead, both in preparing the way for independence and in forming the con federacy. The higher classes possessed im mense landed and other property. Many of them had been educated in Europe, and had introduced into South America the refinements of a high civilization, and hoped to extend those refinements over the whole country by means of a form of government. But under their ideas this government was to be wielded by the rich and educated classes. Their party, the Unitarios, succeeded in framing the consti tution of 1825, under which the nation was represented by a small aristocracy. Rivadavia I was the first and only president of the confed eration under this constitution. The greater part of the large province of Buenos Ayres took its political bias from the independent and republican tone of the cattle drivers and herdsmen, who knew their power, and were not averse to asserting it. They soon found a leader in Juan Manuel de Rosas, who was descended from a noble family of Spain. Un tutored in the arts of refinement, and at once daring in the highest degree, ambitious, and cunning, he soon found numerous supporters among the masses of the people, and especially after he had succeeded in extending the limits of the province of Buenos Ayres, by subduing the savages of the pampas and other indigenous tribes, who were implacable enemies of the ganchos or herdsmen. No sooner had he es poused the cause of the federalists than his pop ularity spread to the provinces, and he gained the sympathies of many prominent personages who regarded with a jealous eye the recent excesses of military power. He had opposed the Unitarios at the time of the union, although unsuccessfully; but by 1827 he had acquired sufficient influence, and found himself certain of the aid of other popular chieftains, such as Bustos, governor of Cordoba, Ibarra, comman dant of Santiago, Quiroga, of La Rioja, and Lopez, of Santa Fe. They protested against the constitution and government of 1825, and took up arms in force in support of their pro test. Rivadavia, successor to Las Heras, seeing himself powerless to establish a Unitarian con stitution, and aware that he could neither carry on the war against the Brazilians nor obtain a peace, resigned power, and Rosas and his colleagues chose Dorrego governor of Bue- j nos Ayres. Dorrego made a treaty of peace ! with Brazil, through the mediation of England, in 1828, from which year dates the recognition of the Banda Oriental of Uruguay as an inde- I pendent state, under the triple guaranty of Great Britain, the Argentine Republic, and Brazil. A confederation, based upon voluntary alliance was formed in January, 1831, between the provinces of Buenos Ayres, Corrientes, ! Entre-Rios, and Santa Fe, which were soon ! joined by the other provinces. But some of | the officers who had commanded in the late 1 war now began to regard with distrust the tri- | umph of federal principles under Dorrego and I the other governors ; and the established army ! of the republic set on foot a counter-revolution, ; headed by one Lavalle, an officer of some dis- ; tinction. Lavalle defeated Dorrego and Rosas, I and shot the former without a trial. Rosas, i however, with Quiroga of La Rioja and Lopez i of Santa Fe, formed a new league and over threw Lavalle, who resigned his post, Rosas be- 694 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC ing chosen in his place, which he held till 1832. j Two governments, the first under Balcarce, and the second under Viamont, now followed each other in the space of a few months, neither he- i ing able to maintain itself, as Rosas held the ar my under his control. After the fall of Viamont, j Rosas was reflected governor of Buenos Ayres, j a position which placed him at the head of the : foreign relations of the country, and gave him ! a very general control of its internal affairs. His term expired in 1835, when he refused to I be again a candidate. Five times tiie honor was tendered to him, and as often refused. | He was then offered the dictatorship for five years, which he accepted, and the appointment was twice renewed. He held the office till 1852, and was the sole and uncontrolled ruler of Buenos Ayres, and practically of the Argen tine Republic, during the whole of that time. From 1827 to 1852 there was no meeting of the national congress or constituent assembly. It is difficult to characterize precisely the use which he made of these unlimited powers, lie has been represented as an arbitrary and bloody tyrant, and accused of the treacherous mar- j der of all the friends who placed him in power. ; He certainly ruled with a strong hand, and was neither slo\v nor scrupulous in his means of j defending or of advancing himself; but he main tained a government under which his country increased in population and material prosperity, notwithstanding continual internal dissensions and foreign wars, and retained a strong and gen erally triumphant party of friends till the last. With the idea that all the provinces of the former viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres belonged to the Argentine Republic, a contest was long kept up to attempt to bring into it the states j of Paraguay and Uruguay. The former, pro- | tected in part by its natural position, and | more by the policy of isolation and the strong executive power of its singular dictator, Fran- cia, almost entirely escaped foreign conflict. But Brazil had ever in view the conquest of the latter, while the Argentine government saw the importance of that territory, arid espe cially the necessity of checking the ambition of the neighboring monarchy. The civil dis sensions in the Banda Oriental exercised a marked influence on Argentine politics, and the movements headed by Oribe and Rivera ; served Rosas as a pretext for his intervention I in Uruguayan affairs and for the aid given by ! Brazil to the enemies of the Argentine dicta- I tor. Oribe was a partisan if not a creature and tool of Rosas. To him there was opposed a strong faction led by Rivera, a man who had raised himself to influence much in the ; manner employed by Rosas in Buenos Ayres. I The matter came to a war, first of blockades | and then of armies, between Oribe supported | by Rosas on the one hand, and Rivera sustained by the Argentine exiles in Montevideo, and also by a French fleet, on the other. The inter vention of the French was induced by a quar rel which had arisen between a French vice consul and the dictator. The French difficulty was settled by the appointment of a new con sul, and in 1840 peace was concluded between the confederation and Montevideo. This peace was not of long duration, and in 1845 Great Britain and France, at the special request of the emperor of Brazil, interfered, on the plea of enforcing the treaties of 1828 and 1840. The allies blockaded Buenos Ayres; seized the Argentine fleet, then engaged in blockading Montevideo, and the island of Martin Garcia, which commands the entrances of the Parana and Uruguay ; opened the Parana, which Ro sas had closed to vessels bound to Paraguay, and offered convoys as far as Corrientes, where in repeated attempts by the dictator to oppose the passage of the combined fleets the Argentines sustained heavy losses. This state of things lasted three years, at the end of which period England withdrew (July, 1848), but France continued hostilities six months longer. The rival factions in Uruguay, one of which was supported by Brazil and the other by Rosas, occupied the latter many years, while the opposition party in his own state Avas gradually becoming too powerful for him. This party, headed by Urquiza, governor of Entre-Rios, was now armed and acting in conjunction with the natural enemy, and at the battle of Monte Caseros, Feb. 3, 1852, Rosas was defeated; but, more fortunate than Dorrego had been, lie was enabled to escape to England. Vicente Lopez now became provisional governor of the province of Buenos Ayres. But, by a sudden coup d etat, Urquiza, having the army at his disposal, put himself at the head of the govern ment as dictator, not live months after the deposition of Rosas. The first use of his power was to acknowledge the independence of Para guay. He also secured the future free navi gation of all the rivers flowing into the Plata, a wise measure which still remains in force. But this new assumption of dictatorial power pro duced immediate irritation. Having to attend congress at Santa Fe, he had hardly left the capital when (Sept. 11, 1852) a revolution broke out, and Valentine Alsina was chosen governor of Buenos Ayres. The province of Buenos Ayres, with this government, deter mined to maintain itself as a state independent of the confederation, and another revolution in December, which temporarily changed the governor, did not alter this purpose. The con gress of the confederation did not assemble till Nov. 20, all the states being then represented except Buenos Ayres, and Urquiza was instruct ed to suppress the rebellion in that state. It again met Jan. 22, 1853, and went on with the work of forming a constitution. It also recom mended the president to take all means to stop the civil war and bring Buenos Ayres back to the confederacy. The new constitution of the confederation, which is still in force, was pro mulgated May 1, 1853. It was framed in the apparent expectation that Buenos Ayres, the richest and most important, as the only niari- ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 695 time state of the confederacy, might be induced to return to it, and accordingly fixed that city as the capital. The constitution, with some slight modification, was copied from that of the United States of Xortli America, as being a federal government of independent states. It guar antees the free navigation of the rivers, and provides that there shall be no duties on goods carried from province to province ; grants to foreigners all civil rights; provides for their naturalization after ten years residence, which term may be abridged at the discretion of con gress ; and makes other provisions for the encouragement of immigration. It went into effect at the end of the year. Urquiza was chosen president for six years from March 5, 1854. The seat of government was established at Bajada del Parana, in the province of Entre- Rios. Meantime, in Buenos Ayres a new con stitution had also been formed in January of the same year, but not without a hope ex pressed and provision made for a future return to the confederation, which soon after seemed probable. That province was invaded by a party of filibusters under one Costa, and Ur quiza was suspected, or at least accused, of hav ing fostered the movement. This he promptly denied, and sent his forces to help to repel them; which friendly act failed to bring about an entire reconciliation, but resulted in good will between the parties, and two treaties of peace signed at Buenos Ayres, Dec. 20, 1854, and Parana, Jan. 8, 1855. They provided for independent governments, but contained stipu lations for much mutual assistance. Urquiza continued president of the Argentine Confeder ation, and Pastor Obligado was reflected gov ernor of Buenos Ayres for a term of years. Upon the unanimous request of the congress of the confederation, negotiations were reopened on the subject of reunion, Oct. 10, 1855, and Juan Bautista Pena was sent t<) Parana for the purpose. But the discovery that his authority did not extend to merging the two sovereign ties, produced much irritation in the confedera tion, at the same time that another event occa sioned discontent at Buenos Ayres. On Dec. 24, 1855, some Argentine refugees from Monte video, under Gen. Flores, disembarked at Santa Fe to invade the province of Buenos Ayres. Gen. Bartolome Mitre repulsed them, and in his turn invaded the province of Santa Fe, in which step he was sustained by his government. Upon this, not only was the mission of Pena closed, but the Argentine government signified to him (March 18^ 1856) that the treaties of Dec. 20, 1854, and Jan. 8, 1855, were annulled. Differential duties levied by Urquiza upon all vessels from Buenos Ayres bound up the Plata and its tributaries gave rise to serious hos tilities, which were renewed at intervals dur ing four years, until Nov. 11, 1859, when Bue nos Ayres was reunited to the republic. In 1800 Urquiza was succeeded in the presi dency by Dr. Santiago Derqui ; and in the fol lowing year the exclusion of the deputies of ! Buenos Ayres from congress, on the ground of unconstitutional election, led to the renewal of hostilities. Gen. Bartolome Mitre of Bue nos Ayres defeated the Argentine troops at Pa von (Sept. 17, 1801), and was provisionally intrusted with the government, Derqui having i abdicated. A convention appointed to revise the old constitution adopted a new one, ap- ! pointing Buenos Ayres provisional capital of , the republic, being at the same time the state | capital. In October, 1802, Mitre was elected | president of the Argentine Republic. Urquiza in the mean time remained on the defensive in Entre-Rios, but was soon induced to accept the government of that province, which had enter ed into the newly constituted republic. An insurrection headed by Gen. Penalosa, who for nearly two years held the provinces of Ca- tamarca, San Juan, and Cordoba, terminated in his capture and execution (1803). In 1804 N. Aguirre was elected president of the Banda Oriental del Uruguay, from the ranks of the llancos (whites) or reactionary party; and Ve- naricio Flores, the chief of the colorados (reds) or liberal party and the unsuccessful candidate for the presidency, placed himself at the head of an insurrection and readily obtained the aid of Brazil, in spite of the repeated protest of Lopez, president of Paraguay, to the government of Rio de Janeiro. Lopez now ordered the capture of a Brazilian steamer on its passage up the river to the province of Matto Grosso, and the detention of the crew and passengers as pris oners of war, Nov. 11, 1804. In the follow- ing month a Paraguayan army invaded Matto Grosso, sacked Cuyaba, the capital, and five other towns, and took possession of the dia mond mines. Aguirre had applied to Lopez for aid, which was at once promised ; but the Paraguayan troops could only reach Uruguay by passing through the Argentine province of Corrientes, and Mitre refused them permission of transit. In 1864 Flores was elected and in 1805 assumed the functions of president, the city of Montevideo being occupied by Brazilian troops. Fearing now from the atti tude of the Argentine Republic that it would join the alliance against him, Lopez seized two Argentine war vessels in the bay of Corrientes, April 13, 1805, and the next day that city was occupied by Paraguayan forces, who formed a provisional government composed of three Ar gentine citizens, and declared the provinces of Corrientes and Entre-Rios to be annexed to Paraguay. War was de< -hired by the Argen tine Republic against Paraguay April 10, a like declaration having been issued by the na tional congress of Paraguay against the Ar gentine Republic on the 18th of March. On May 1 an offensive and defensive alliance was secretly entered into between the Argentine Republic, Uruguay, and Brazil, against Para guay, the allies "solemnly binding themselves not to lay down arms until the existing gov ernment of Paraguay should be overthrown." In June the city of Corrientes was recaptured 696 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC ARGONAUTS by the Argentines, but was soon after again invested by the invaders. During the first two months the war was chiefly carried on in Cor- rientes, generally with heavy losses to the Pa raguayans, who, however, had by August suc ceeded in taking one or two towns in the adjacent Brazilian province of Rio Grande do Sul. But their advancing army on the river Uruguay, numbering 7,000, was defeated at Yatay, and finally surrendered in Uruguayana to 10,000 Uruguayans and Argentines. In November following the Paraguayan army had evacuated the Argentine territory, and the close of December found the allies, 35,000 strong, at Corrales on the N. shore of Corrien- tes, ready to cross the Parana and carry the war into the heart of Paraguay. Lopez, com manding in person, was unable to defend his frontiers, and retired northward before supe rior forces, fighting for every inch of ground. This obstinate defence terminated with the battle of Lomas Valentinas, Dec. 25-27, 1868, having lasted upward of three years. The war continued, however, until March 1, 1870, when Lopez was defeated and killed at Aqui- daban. (See PARAGUAY.) In 1806, in some provinces, especially those bordering upon Pa raguay and Bolivia, great dissatisfaction with the continuance of the triple alliance and the war had been expressed, and repeated attempts made to induce the separation of some of the northern provinces from the Ar gentine Republic ; but these disturbances were easily put down. Bolivia, in the same year, protested against the treaty of alliance, assert ing her right to a part of the Gran Chaco claimed in the treaty by the Argentine states. On Dec. 10 a convention to reform the consti tution of the republic met at Santa Fe ; the only important measure adopted was the re newal of the permission to congress to levy du ties on exports. An insurrection headed by one Videla broke out in Mendoza, San Juan, and La Rioja, for the purpose of separating the interior provinces from the republic ; it was put down in April, but the leaders escaped. The opposition to the war had been increasing in strength, and was vehemently expressed in 1868 by Alsina, governor of Buenos Ayres, who denounced the contest as barbarous, murderous, and fatal. A bill which passed congress in the same year to make Rosariothe national capital was vetoed by President Mitre. In April, 1870, a formidable rebellion broke out in Entre- Rios, headed by Gen. Lopez Jordan, the first act of which was to murder Gen. Urquiza, Jordan s father-in-law, sack his palace, and confiscate his property. Two of Urquiza s sons were murdered in Concordia ; and Jordan, hav ing forced the state assembly to appoint him governor, issued a proclamation of liberty, and appealed to the national government for immu nity from punishment. It was not until April, 1871, that the national troops, after immense losses, succeeded in quelling this rebellion. In March, 1871, the city and neighborhood of Buenos Ayrcs were visited by yellow fever ; all business was interrupted for several weeks, and the estimated mortality during the 100 days preceding the 80th of April was 26,000. Toward the close of the year a controversy arose between the Argentine Republic and Brazil, the former having protested against alleged breaches by the Brazilians of certain articles of the treaty of alliance of May 1, 1865. But Gen. Mitre brought his negotiations to a successful termination in October, 1872; and the Argentine government was to commence negotiations with Paraguay concerning boun daries before the end of the year. ARGIVES (Gr. Apyeloi}, the inhabitants of Argos or Argolis, in ancient Greece. During the Trojan war they were the most prominent among the Greek tribes, as Agamemnon, the Greek commander-in-chief, was an Argive. For this reason Homer, and following him some of the Roman poets, often use the name Argives as a generic appellation for all Greeks. ARGOL, See TAETAE. AUGOLIS. See AEGOS. ARGONAUT. See NAUTILUS. ARGONAUTS, a name given from that of their ship, the Argo, to a band of heroes of Greek antiquity, who, according to the legend, first navigated unknown and dangerous seas. The poets have given different versions of the tra dition, but the story generally accepted is briefly as follows. Jason, the son of ^Eson, was ordered by his uncle Pelias, king of lolcus in Thessaly (who had been warned by the or acle to dread his nephew), to capture and bring to him the golden fleece of the rain Avhich had carried Phrixus and Helle when they fled from their stepmother Ino. Phrixus had nailed the fleece to an oak in the grove of Mars in Colchis, where it was watched by a sleepless dragon. Joined by the principal heroes of Greece, whom he had invited to take part in the adventure, Jason set sail from lolcus in the fifty-oared ship Argo, named from Argos, son of Phrixus, who had built it for the expedition. The heroes landed first in Lemnos, where the Lemnian women, who on account of the anger of Venus had slain their husbands, detained them two years. The Doliones, whom they next visited, at first received them hospitably, but afterward, mistaking them for Pelasgians, attacked them; and Jason in the battle killed their prince. In Mysi a, their next landing place, Hylas, led away by a nymph, and Her cules and Polyphemus, who were searching for him, were left behind. In the land of the Bebryces King Amycus, who had challenged the heroes to a boxing match, was slain by Pollux. Continuing their voyage, they reached the Symplegades, two floating islands which crushed, in dashing against one another, what ever came in their way. Availing themselves of an artifice taught them by the seer Phineus and Juno, who acted as their pilot, they let j looee a dove, only the tail of which was crush- I ed by the colliding rocks, and the Argonauts ARGONXE ARGUELLES 697 passed safely between as the islands rebounded. The islands from this time ceased their danger ous movements. Reaching Colchis at last, the heroes sought the king, ^Eetes, who promised the tleece to Jason on condition that he should yoke to the plough two tire-breathing bulls, and sow the dragon s teeth left by Cadmus in Thebes. Aided by the daughter of .Ectes, Medea, a powerful enchantress, who had fallen deeply in love with him, Jason accomplished these tasks ; but finding yEOtcs plotting treach ery, the hero, again assisted by Medea s en- j chantments, seized the fleece, carried it on I board his ship, and set sail, accompanied by Medea and her brother Absyrtus. Pursued by JEetes, Medea killed Absyrtus, and, throwing his body piece by piece into the sea, delayed the king, who stopped to gather the remains of his son, while the Argonauts escaped. But the mast of the Argo, which was made of Do- donian oak having the gift of prophecy, told the heroes that for the crime against Absyrtus | they were condemned to undergo innumerable j difficulties on their homeward voyage. Having j been absolved by the enchantress Circe, they i escaped Scylla and Charybdis with the help ! of Thetis, eluded with the aid of Orpheus j the enticements of the sirens, and after four months of continued danger reached lolcus. | The Argo was consecrated by Jason on the isthmus of Corinth to Neptune. ARGOME, a mountainous and wooded re gion of X. E. France, forming a part of French Lorraine and Champagne, extending along the rivers Meuso and Aisne nearly 47 m. from Sedan (Ardennes) to beyond Ste. Menehould (Marne). It is bounded N. by the Ardennes and S. by the Meuse mountains, and contains many forests and ranges with several almost inaccessible passes. W. Argonne, or the Ar- gonne forest proper, a wooded elevation 800 to 900 ft. high, extends over 30 m., with a breadth varying from 1 to 8 m., from the sources of the Aisne, along that river and the Meuse northward as far as Chene-Popu- leux, separating the fertile plains from the barren steppes between Vitry and Sezanne, familiarly called Champagne Pouilleuse. The forest of E. Argonne, 600 to 900 ft. high, in cluding in the N. the forest of Apremont, 1,225 ft. high, runs parallel with W. Argonne along the E. bank of the Meuse. The forest of Argonne contains several defiles renowned in history, among them the battlefield of Valmy, and has therefore been called the French Ther mopylae. Several important military move ments and actions took place within its limits during the Franco-German war of 1870, pre ceding the battle of Sedan. A&GOOX, or Argnn, one of the two chief branches of the Amoor river. Under the name of Kerulun or Kerlon, it rises about 30 m. S. E. of the sources of the Onon, S. of the Kentei mountains in Mongolia, and runs N. N. E. through tho N. part of the desert of Gobi, ( about 500 m., to Lake Kulon or Dalai Noor (holy lake). Thence, taking the name of Ar- goon, it flows generally N., with large bends, about 400 m., between the Russian and Chinese territories, to its junction with the Shilka, forming the Amoor. Its chief aiHuents are the Khailar, Khalkha, and Gasimoor, the latter running almost parallel with the Shilka. ARGOS, or Argolis (anciently also Argia and Argolice), the N. E. part of the Peloponnesus, between the bays of ^Egina and Nauplia, the Saronic and Argolic gulfs of the ancients. The eastern continuation of the northern mountain range of the peninsula surrounds a part of the inhabited shores, which bear marks of volcanic convulsions, and the plain of Argos, which is fertile, but rendered unhealthy by marshes. The chief mountain group is the Malcvo, called by the ancients Artcmision, on the Arcadian boundary, which rises above 5,000 feet. The largest plain is situated near the town of Argos, behind the bay of Nauplia, watered by the river Planitza, the classical Inachus. Only a few other spots are fit for agriculture, on ac count of the want of water, as all the streams except the Planitza and the Kephalari (anc. Erasmus) dry up. But the many bays render Argolis favorable for navigation. In the ear lier times of antiquity Argolis was strictly the plain surrounded on the west by the Arcadian mountains, and on the north by those of Phlius, Cleonas, and Corinth. In the Roman epoch Ar golis represented the eastern part of the Pelo ponnesus, bounded, on the land side, N. by the territories of Sicyon and Corinth, W. by Arca dia, and S. by Laconia. Argolis belongs to the earliest cultivated regions in ancient Greece. From the remotest times it was divided into the kingdoms of Argos, Mycenae, Tiryns, Trce- zene, Ilermione, and Epidaurus, which all af terward formed republics. About 750 B. C. the city of Argos, under Phidon, was the lead ing state of the Peloponnesus. Its power sank in its wars with Sparta, waged for the posses sion of the district of Cynuria, on their con fines. Cynuria was lost about 550, and a de feat near Tiryns in 524 completed the decay of Argos. In the Peloponnesian war it sided with Athens. It early joined the Achaean league, and, on its fall, was included in the Roman province of Achaia. In the present kingdom of Greece, Argolis is the main por tion of a nomarchy called Argolis and Corinth, and embracing besides these territories a part of ancient Achaia and the islands of Spezzia and Hydra; area, about 1,900 sq. m. ; pop. 128,000. Nauplia is the capital. The town of Argos is situated near the head of the gulf of Nauplia, 20 m. S. S. W. of Corinth ; pop. about 8.000. It suffered much in its capture by the Venetians in 1680, and its recapture by the Turks in 1706. Remains of its cyclopean walls, as well as of a grand amphitheatre hewn in the rock, are still to be seen. AUGOT. See SLANG. ARGUELLES, An2;ustin, a Spanish statesman, born at Ribade Sella, in Asturias, in 1775, died COS ARGUS ARGYLL in Madrid. March 23, 1844. He was one of the committee of the cortes of Cadiz which drew up the constitution of 1812, limiting the royal po\ver. On the reestablishment of abso- lutisin under Ferdinand YIL he was exiled to Ceuta, and thence transferred to a prison in the Balearic islands. The revolution of 182U re stored him to political life. On the restoration of Ferdinand he lied to England, where he re mained until lie was recalled in 1833 by the recent Christina. In the cortes he opposed the government party until the accession of Men- dizahal to power, when lie joined him with the expectation of restoring the constitution of 1812. In 1830 he was appointed a member of the council of regency, and in 1837 a mem ber of the senate. He was tutor to Queen Isabella and her sister. Alldli 8, in Greek mythology, a wondrous per son with a hundred eyes, or, as others have it, eyes all over his body, of which only two slept at a time. Set by Juno to watch the priestess lo, transformed into a white cow, he was lulled to sleep by Mercury, who played soothing tunes on the pipe of Pan, and then slew him with his sword. ARGVLESIHilE, or Argyllshire, a western coun ty of Scotland, including several islands near the coast, and bounded on the land side by the counties of Inverness, Perth, and Dum barton; area, 3,255 s \. m. ; pop. in 1871, 75,635. It is remarkable for its picturesque character rather than for cultivation. The population is perhaps the lowest in the Brit ish isles, about 24 to the square mile, and still on the decrease, owing to the policy of the great land owners, which has been to re move the tenantry, and to create extensive sheep walks. In 40 years the loss of popula tion has been 25 per cent. The mountain dis trict of Argyleshire contains Oruachan Ben, rising to the height of 3,000 feet, with many other lofty hills, celebrated in Scottish poetry. The largest of the inland lakes is Loch Awe. The mountains are chiefly of granitic formation. Of the islands, M\;ll, Islay, Coll, Tiree, Jura, lona or Icolmkill, and Staifa are chiefly note worthy. Argyleshire is not rich in mineral resources. Lead, copper, and coal are worked, but not in very great quantities. The raising of cattle and sheep is carried on with great suc cess. The moors yield abundance of game, grouse, ptarmigan, and blackcock; the red deer is also found. The proprietorship of this large county, which comprises more than one tenth of the area of Scotland, is in few hands. The duke of Argyll, the marquis of Tweeddale, and the marquis of Breadalbane are the chief land owners. There are various natural curi osities, the most remarkable of which are the columns and cave of Statfa. Gaelic is still generally spoken, although of late years the English language has begun to supersede it. The county is popularly divided into the dis tricts of Argyle, Cowal, Kintyre, Lorn, Appin, Islay, and Mull. Capital, Inverary. ARGYLL, or Argyle, Earl and Dnko of, titles in the Scottish peerage held respectively since 1457 and 17<U by the heads of the family of Campbell (called by their Gaelic dependants Mac Callum More, "Campbell the Great ), who had been Lords Campbell since 1445, and who are also ! English peers. It oliu, 2d Lord Campbell, in l 1457 made earl of ArgylJ, died May 10, 1493. lie ! was appointed master of the king s household j in 1404 by James III., subsequently served as i ambassador to England and later to France, I was justiciar or lord justiciary, and finally lord j high chancellor of Scotland. He acquired by i marriage the estates and titles of Lome, which j still remain in the family. If. Archibald, 2d carl, commanded the vanguard at Flodden I Field, Sept. !), 1513, and was killed in the bat- ! tie. III. Archibald, 5th earl, died in 1575. He was one of the most important adherents of Mary, queen of Scots, and commander of her forces at the battle of Langside in 1568. He i was one of a council of nobles who virtually I ruled Scotland after the assassination of Murray. After the murder of Lennox he was an unsuc- j cessful candidate for the regency. He was ! appointed, however, a privy councillor, and in j 1572 lord high chancellor. IV. Archibald, 8th I earl, born in 1598, beheaded at Edinburgh, May 27, 1001. In 1033 his father, the seventh I earl, announced his conversion to the Roman | Catholic faith, and was compelled live years j before his death to surrender to Archibald, then Lord Lome, nearly all his estates. Im mediately on his succession Argyll joined the | side of the Scottish church against the innova- I tions of Charles I. In spite of this opposition, the king, knowing his power in Scotland, made j him a marquis in 1041. On the breaking out of the civil war he at once joined the estates against the king. He was made commander of the army sent against Montrose, but was so signally defeated by that general in two en gagements that he almost immediately resigned. He afterward went to meet the king at New castle, and, rejoining the royal side, took part later in the coronation of Charles II. at Scone, Jan. 1, 1051, placing the crown Avith his own hands upon the king s head. Not long after, however, he submitted to Cromwell after the battle of Worcester, and subsequently sat for Aberdeen in parliament under the protector s son Richard. At the restoration in 1000, he endeavored to make still another change, and hurried to London to conciliate the king ; but he was imprisoned in the tower, and soon after sent to Scotland, where he was tried for | high treason, found guilty, and beheaded. V. | Archibald, 9th earl, beheaded at Edinburgh, June | 30, 1685. He had remained faithful to the king ! during the revolution, and therefore at the res toration his father s estate and earldom (the marquisate having expired) were restored to him. But he refused to take the test oath, nn- i less with the qualiiication a as far as is consis- j tent with the Protestant faith." For this he ; was convicted of hi<j;h treason and sentenced ARGYLL APJALDUS 690 to death, but escaped for a time by disguising ! himself as a page, and going, in the suite of his I stepdaughter, Lady Sophia Lindsay, to Hol land. Returning at the head of an army, he . was defeated, captured, and immediately exe- cuted. VI. Archibald, 10th earl and 1st" duke of Argyll, son of the preceding, died in Sep- i tember, 1703. lie was acknowledged earl in 1689 by the convention of estates of Scot land, though his father s attainder was not formally reversed until several years later. j He took an active part in the revolution of j 1688- 9, which placed William and Mary on the | throne, and at the wish of the convention ten- ; dered the coronation oath to the king. The latter rewarded his services by several impor- | tant appointments, and on June 23, 1701, con ferred upon him the title of duke. YII. John, j 2d duke, born Oct. 10, 1678, died Sept. 3, 1743. j Immediately on his succession, although he was but 25 years old, he was appointed to near ly all the offices before held by his father, as an extraordinary lord of session, privy council- j lor, Are. In the reign of Queen Anne he was j prominent in bringing about the union of Scot land and England, and for his services in this , matter was made Baron Chatham and earl of ! Greenwich in the peerage of England. lie j served with great distinction in four campaigns i in Flanders, and was made a lieutenant gene- j ral. He several times changed his political views to suit the dominant party ; in reward j of the first of these changes, in 1710, he was , appointed ambassador to Spain. On the acces- j sion of the family of Hanover, which he aided | efficiently, he was made commander-in-chief ; of the army in Scotland, and took a promi- j nent part in repressing the rebellion of 1715. i His influence at court at this period was ! also very great. On April 13, 1710, he was i made duke of Greenwich, a title which be- j came extinct at his death. VIII. Archibald, j 3d duke, brother of the preceding, born i in June, 1682, died April 15, 1761. He was i appointed, soon after he became of ase, lord j high treasurer of Scotland, and in 1710 was made lord justice general for life. After he succeeded to his brother s title in 1743, he had almost entire control of the Scottish govern- | ment. lie left no issue, and the title devolved ! upon his cousin. IX. George John Douglas, 8th ! duke, Baron Sundridge and Lord Hamilton i (titles first held by the 5th and 6th dukes) in the peerage of England, 2d son of John Doug las Edward Henry, 7th duke, born April 30, | 1823. His elder brother died young, and he succeeded his father April 26, 1847. Even be- j fore his succession he took a prominent part in ! Scotch politics, especially in the discussion re garding the Presbyterian church. On subjects connected with this he published in 18-12 "A Letter to the Poers from a Peer s Son," and later several other pamphlets. In the contro versy he was an adherent of Dr. Thomas Chal mers, but did not agree with that clergyman j in liia separation from the church. After his i succession to the title and hi^ seat in the house of lords, he became prominent as a debater. lie has generally sided with the liberals. In 1852 he was appointed lord privy seal, under the ministry of Lord Aberdeen. This office he retained under Lord Palmerston till 1855, when he was made postmaster general. He retired in 1858, but in 1851) he was again made lord privy seal, and retired in I860. In 1868 he was appointed secretary of state for India in the Gladstone cabinet. The duke has also be come distinguished in science and literature. In 1854 he was elected lord rector of the uni versity of Glasgow. His principal \vork, "The Reign of Law. " was published in 1866. On March 21, 1871, the marquis of Lome, his eldest son, was married at St. George s chapel, Windsor, to the princess Louise, fourth daugh ter of Queen Victoria. This was the first in stance of the marriage of the daughter of a reigning sovereign of England to a subject. ARGIRO-KASTRO, a town of Turkey, in Al bania, on the river Deropuli, an affluent of the Voyutza, 46 m. X. VV. of Janina; pop. about 7,000. It is built on the side of a moun tain, and the streets are so steep that persons on horseback are obliged to dismount. The streets are separated by ravines, planted with gardens. There is a strong castle, which was enlarged by Ali Pasha, and has accommodations for 5,000 men. ARG1ROPIL6S, Johannes, one of the prin cipal revivers of Greek learning in the 15th century, born in Constantinople about 1415, died in Rome, where he held a professorship of philosophy, about 1486. He was instruc tor in Greek to the son and grandson of Cosmo de Medici at Florence, whence he removed to Rome. His principal works are some Latin translations of Aristotle. He was strongly pre judiced against the Roman writers, and declar ed Cicero to have been alike ignorant of Greek and of philosophy. ARIAME, according to Homer, daughter of Minos, king of Crete, and of Pasiphae. When Theseus landed at Crete, with the tribute of the Athenians for the Minotaur, Ariadne fell in love with him and gave him a clew of thread by means of which he found his way out of the labyrinth. Theseus offered her his hand in token of his gratitude. Ariadne eloped with him, but as they arrived upon the island of Naxos she was killed by the arrows of Diana. According to the common tradition, Theseus abandoned her upon the island of Xaxos, when Bacchus married her, and after her death trans ferred the crown which he had given her at their wedding to the stars. ARIALDl S, a deacon and martyr of the church of Milan, born near Milan in the first half of t!:e llth century, died in that city, June 28, 1066. He began to preach against the corruptions of the clergy at Milan about 1056. Aided by Landulphus, a young noble even more eloquent than himself, lie aroused the popular fooling to such a degree that Pope Nicholas TI. sent TOO ARIANISM two legates to Milan to investigate the matter. They sustained Arialdus, but did not succeed in putting an end to the prevailing corruption. After the election of Pope Alexander II. the excitement again broke out at Milan, foment ed by Arialdus and Erlembaldus, the brother of Landulphus. Pope Alexander excommuni cated the archbishop of Milan, and reproved the other ecclesiastics. But even this did not conquer the abuses; and although Arialdus continued to preach against them, the fickle Milanese became jealous of the attacks from Rome on their clergy. Taking advantage of this divided state of public opinion, his ene mies had Arialdus assassinated on a desert island in Lake Maggiore. His name was enrolled in the list of martyrs by Alexander II. AIUA VISM, a theological system in the early Christian Church, named after Arius, a presby ter at Alexandria. In opposition to his bishop Alexander, Arius asserted that there was a time when the Son was not coequal, since the Father who begot must be before the Son who was begotten, and the latter therefore could not be eternal. As many prominent bishops sided with Arius, synods were called on both sides, and the most acute intellects of the church dissussed the question. The general council of Nice (325), attended by 300 bishops, condemned Arius and declared the Son to be consubstantial with the Father ; but Arius nevertheless gained the favor of Constantino and won many new adherents. After his death (33(>) the movement spread more rapidly than before. When Constantino died in 337, tiie empire was divided among his three sons, two of whom, Constantino and Constans in the West, accepted the Xicene creed, while Constantius in the East was a decided favorer of Arianism. An anti-Nicene council at Anti- och (311), consisting of 90 bishops, issued de crees on the ground of which Athanasius, who in 338 had returned from exile to his dio cese, was again deposed. In the West, on the contrary, a synod at Home in 343 declared Athanasius innocent of the charges preferred against him and the authors of his exile here tics. In order to put an end to this conflict, Constantius and Constans (Constantino had died in 310) convoked the general synod of Sardica in Lower Moesia in 343 or 344 (not, as has heretofore been generally assumed, in 347). The Arians, having a minority of the 176 bish ops present, held a council of their own, at first in the imperial palace in Sardica, and sub sequently at Philippopolis. Each party anath ematized the other ; but the Niercans tri umphed. Constantius so far yielded to the remonstrances of Constans as to allow the re turn of Athanasius (349) ; but when he became soon after sole ruler of the empire, his influence at the synods of Aries (353) and Milan (355) secured the condemnation of Athanasius and the adoption of Arian decrees. Pope Liberius and several bishops, among thorn Athanasius, were banished, and Arianism was completely successful. The sect now became divided into strict and moderate Arians. Eusebius of Cae- sarea declared the Son to be homoiousios or similar in substance to the Father, and his fol lowers were called Homoiousians or Semi- Ari ans. In opposition to him, Eusebius of Nico- modia showed himself an uncompromising Arian. When the emperor attempted to en force the Arian resolutions of Milan in the place of those of Nice, the strict Arians, under the leadership of Ae tius, deacon at Antioch, and Eunomius, bishop of Cyzicus in Mysia, attacked the Semi-Arians as well as the Niccne doctrine as illogical, and developed in opposi tion to it a strict subordinationism. The repu tation of Eunomius in his party was so great, that their original name of Aetians gradually I gave way to that of Eunomians. They were j also called Anomo3ans, Ileterousiasts, and Ex- ucontians, as they maintained that the Son was dissimilar to God (avouoiof), of different essence (t-rtyjof ovaiac;), and created out of nothing (et- ova bvruv). Several synods were held for the purpose of healing these divisions. At the second great synod of Sirmium (357) a confession of faith was adopted, to which not only the strict Arians, but even the Nicene bishops, including their leader Osius of Cor- duba, subscribed. But the confusion became greater than ever. An Arian synod at Antioch (358) condemned, while a Semi- Arian synod at Ancyra (358) approved the expression homoiousios. At the third synod of Sirmium (35!)) Pope Liberius subscribed to a Semi- Arian declaration in order to obtain permis sion to return from Constantinople to Home. The Semi-Arians seemed to be in the ascen dancy ; the emperor is said to have exiled no fewer than 70 strict Arians, and Bishop Marcus of Arethusa was instructed to draw up a new confession of faith, the fourth Sirmian formula, which avoided the word ousias and affirmed that the Son was similar in everything to the Father. In order to reunite the whole church on this platform, Constantius wished to call an oecumenical council ; but the influence of the Arians caused the convocation of two synods, an eastern one at Seleucia, and a western at Rimini. At the former there were present 105 Semi- Arians, 40 strict Arians, and 10 Nicseans ; at Rimini the Nicaeans had a ma jority. Both synods condemned the strict Ari ans, who however succeeded in regaining the favor of the emperor. Threats induced nearly all the bishops of both synods to subscribe to a strict Arian creed, although the most offensive party expressions were studiously avoided, and even a few of the uncompromising leaders of the party, as Aetius, sent into exile. Thus Arianism was looked upon as the official creed of the majority of Christian bishops. But its ascen dancy was of short duration. On the death of Constantius (301) and the accession of Ju lian the Apostate, the bishops of all parties were allowed to return to their sees, and soon the Nicene party reestablished themselves in Egypt under Athanasius, and in Gaul, Spain, ARIANISM ARICA 701 and Greece. Pope Liberius ratified the anti- Arian resolutions passed in 362 by the synod held in Alexandria, and soon the Nicene creed was predominant throughout the western coun tries. In the East, Arianism found a zealous supporter in the emperor Valens (364378), and the violent measures which were adopted against both the Nicseans and the Semi-Arians induced a portion of the latter (36(5) to submit to the Nicene creed. With the death of Va lens (378) Arianism began to decline. The emperor Gratian issued an edict of toleration (378), which allowed the exiled bishops to return and greatly strengthened the Xicene party. In 370 Gratian shared the empire with Tneodosius, who the next year issued an edict threatening all heretics with the heaviest penalties, and as soon as he arrived in Con stantinople took from the Arians all their churches. In 381 he convened the second oecumenical council at Constantinople, which anathematized the Arians. In another synod held at Constantinople in 383, Eunomius pre sented his confession of faith, which is still extant. As the Arian leaders refused to sub mit, still more rigorous decrees were issued, to which they appear to have soon succumbed, for the last trace of them in the eastern em pire ceased under the reign of Arcadius, the son of Theodosius. In Italy the empress Jus- tina, while regent for her minor son Valentinian II., favored the Arians ; but Ambrose, the great bishop of Milan, successfully thwarted her plans, and at the synod of Aquileia (Sep tember, 381) caused the Arians to be anathe matized and deposed. Moreover, the reign of Justina was too short to be of real service to the dying sect. Crushed out in the Roman empire, Arianism for several centuries remained the religion of the Germanic tribes. The Os trogoths professed Arianism, but without per secuting the Catholic church, until their power was lost in 553. The Visigoths were more in tolerant, but in 589, by order of their king Reccared, they joined the Catholic church at the council of Toledo. The Arian Vandals, after conquering Africa under Genseric (429), began a most cruel persecution of the Catholics, which did not cease until the destruction of their empire by Belisarius (534). The Suevi in Spain adopted the Arian form of Christian ity toward the middle of the 5th century ; about 558 they joined the Roman communion. The Burgundians, who had come to Gaul as pagans (407), appear in 450 as Arians. The Catholic church became predominant among them under King Sigisrnund (517), whom Bish op Avitus of Vienne had won over to the or thodox creed. The last refuge of Arianism was with the Lombards, who entered Italy as Arians in 568. The Catholic church gained a footing among them through the wife of King Autharis, the Bavarian princess Theodelinda; and under her second husband Agilulph and her son Adelwald the Catholics obtained pos session of most of the churches. A reaction followed when an Arian ascended the throne ; but he was unable to suppress Catholicism, and for a time every important town had a Catholic and an Arian bishop. Under Liutprand (dud 744) Arianism as a sect became extinct. As a theological opinion, however, it often reap peared, and after the reformation of the 16th century was regarded by more than one reli gious denomination as the true doctrine of the person of Christ. In the church of England Arian views found learned champions in Pro fessor \Vhiston and Dr. Samuel Clarke. The works of the Arian writers are mostly lost; we still possess, however, the writings of Eusebius of Ccesarea, who ranks among the ablest defenders of the ancient system, and fragments of the church history of Philostor- gius. Histories of Arianism have been written by Maimbourg (Histoire de V Ariannme, Paris, 1682) and J. A. Stark (Versuch dncr Ge- scliichte des Arianismus, Berlin, 1783); but the best source of information on the contro versial aspect of the question is Baur s Ge- schichte der christlielien Dreieiniglceit (Tubin gen, 1841- 3); while the history of the sect is nowhere treated of so fully as in Ilefele s Con- cilicngcscJiicMe (vols. i. and ii., Tubingen, 1855). See also Revillout, De VArianisme des peuples germaniqucs (Paris, 1850). ARIAM), a town of southern Italy, in the province of Principato Ultra, 15 in. E. N". E. of Benevento; pop. about 12,000. It is built upon a steep hill, in one of the most frequented passes of the Apennines, and many of the poor er dwellings are dug into the rock and earth. It contains a fine cathedral, numerous churches and convents, several monts de piete, and an academy. This town has frequently been vis ited by terrible earthquakes, the last of which happened in 1732. ARIAS MOXTAMS, Benedittns (BEXITO ARIAS MONTANO), a Spanish ecclesiastic and oriental scholar, born in a village of Estremadura in 1527, died in Seville in 1598. Philip II. sent him to Antwerp in 1568, to superintend the publication of the magnificent edition of the "Polyglot Bible," to be prepared in that city. The task employed him for four years, and he was rewarded with a pension of 2,000 ducats and a royal chaplaincy, refusing a bishopric. His works, which are numerous, are principally on Hebrew antiquities. lie was an unyielding enemy of the Jesuits. ARICA, a seaport town of Peru, in a province of the same name, department of Moquegua, in Int. 18 26 S., Ion. 70 24 W., 640 in. S. E. of Lima, and 30 m. S. of Tacna, with which it is connected by railroad. It has been the theatre of many destructive earthquakes, one of the worst of which occurred Aug. 13 and 14, 1868, involving the loss of 500 lives and $12,000,000 worth of property. Not a building was left uninjured. The shocks were followed by a tidal wave in which the United States storeship Ere- donia was wrecked with the loss of all hands, and the United States steamer Wateree and APJF.GE APJOSTO oilier vessels were carried ashore and stranded. The fortified island of Alacnm, which defends ;he port of Arica, was submerged three times, all the garrison perishing. The first wave, which rose to about 40 feet, was succeeded by three or four others of less height. The shocks occurred on the first day every quarter of an hour, and on the second day every hour. Among the curious effects of the earthquake in the vicinity of Arica was the opening of the earth, and the disclosure of a large number of mummies, which had been buried in the sand in a sitting posture, facing the sea, in a ceme- etery covering a large area. ARIEGE, a southern department of France, formed chiefly of the old territory of Foix, and named after the Ariege river, which, rising in the eastern Pyrenees, flows 1ST. N. W., and empties into the Garonne, after a course of 00 miles. It is bounded by the departments of Haute-Garonne, Aude, and Pyrenees-Oricn- tales, and the Pyrenees mountains; area, 1,889 sq. m. ; pop. in 1872, 2-4(5,21)8. The department lies principally on the northern slope of the Pyrenees, and some of the mountains on the southern border rise to an altitude of 9,000 and 10,000 feet. It contains valuable iron mines, the ore being in some places auriferous, arid large quarries of marble, freestone, plaster, and slate. The Ariege carries gold sand, whence its ancient name, Aurigera. On the highlands are meadows, where cattle and merino sheep are raised in large numbers. The forests fur nish good timber. Bears, wild boars, wolves, foxes, chamois, and deer are abundant. The lowlands are tolerably fertile and well culti vated, producing wheat, rye, oats, maize, mil let, hemp, flax, and fruits of various kinds. Vineyards, to the extent of 5,000 acres, yield a wine of inferior quality, all of which is con sumed at home. The working of metals is the principal branch of manufacturing industry ; but there are saw mills and paper mills, and manufactories of cloth, hosiery, linen, and soap. It is divided into the arrondissements of Foix, St. G irons, and Pamiers. Capital, Foix. ARIEL, a Hebrew word, signifying " lion of God," occurs as a personal name in the Old Testament, as well as a poetical designation of the altar of -burnt offerings (Ezek. xliii.), and, according to general interpretation, of the city of Jerusalem (Isa. xxix.). Among the Jews of a later period, the name was, in cabalistic parlance, given to a water demon. ARION, a musician of Lesbos, the reputed in ventor of dithyrambic poetry, was a friend of Periander, the ruler of Corinth (about 000 B. 0.). Having spent some time in Sicily and Italy, he amassed great wealth by his playing on the cithara, in which he excelled all his contemporaries. On a voyage from Ta- rentum to Corinth the sailors determined to throw him overboard and seize his treasures. Discovering the plot, he begged permis sion to play one melodious tune before it was put in execution, and, having done so, threw himself into the sea. The dolphins, charmed by his music, carried him on their backs to Tumarus, whence he passed over to Corinth, and on the arrival of the ship Peri ander had the sailors put to death. ARIOSTO, Lndovico, an Italian poet, born in Reggio, near Modena, Sept. 8, 1474, died inFer- rara, June 6, 1533. His father was a member of the highest tribunal of Ferrara, and a friend of the duke. Ludovico was the eldest of ten children. He manifested even when a boy great ability in composition, and wrote several little comedies of some merit. At his father s wish lie undertook the study of the law, though the profession was most irksome to him. After five years of study he abandoned the trial and devoted himself entirely to literature. He read the best Latin authors, under the tuition of Gregorio da Spoleto, with such assiduity that he soon became an accomplished Latinist. From ideas suggested by Plautus and Terence he wrote two dramas, La cassaria and / sup- positi. His lyric poems were much admired by Cardinal Ippolito d Este, son of Duke Er- cole I. of Ferrara ; and in 1503 the cardinal took him permanently into his service, and in trusted him with many important affairs, al lowing him a small pension. A few years after this Ariosto began- his poem of Orlando furioso, the composition of which occupied him, for ten years or more. At the age of 24 he had become by his father s death the sole guardian and support of his nine brothers and sisters. He was obliged to fulfil the duties of a courtier and to obey the constant and petty exactions of his patron, to undertake now and then an embassy or a journey, and to take charge of much of the business correspondence of the cardinal. But while discharging all his duties faithfully, he worked constantly at his poem, and was rewarded, on its publication in 1516, by almost immediate fame. Only his patron, whom he had extravagantly praised in it, treated the work with contempt ; and soon after its publication he dismissed Ariosto from his service because the poet refused on account of his health to go with him to Hungary. He soon afterward entered the service of the car dinal s brother Alfonso, then reigning duke, who treated him with generosity, but conferred upon him afterward what seemed a most inap propriate honor, in appointing him governor of the district of Carfagnana, which was every where infested by banditti. With unlooked-for ability in this new sphere, Ariosto soon re stored order, and after three years returned to Ferrara and established himself in a pleas ant home. He repeatedly revised the Or lando, making of it 46 cantos instead of the original 40, and greatly changing the whole. During the last years of his life he also wrote comedies and satires. The large theatre built by the duke for the performance of Ariosto s comedies was burned in 1532. The poem of Orlando fur iow is in part of its plot almost a sequel to the Orlando innamorata of Boiardo, ARIOVISTUS ARISTIDES but the lesser poem did little more than suggest the greater. The Orlando is a fantastic story, involving a thousand interwoven episodes he- sides the plot from which it takes its name a plot which follows the fortunes of Orlando made mad by love of Angelica ; but so rich was its author s fancy and so bright his nar rative, that even now the poem stands in Italy at the head of all poems of chivalry. It has been translated into almost every language. The principal ancient editions of the Orlando f arioso are those of Ferrara, 1516, 1524, and 1532, published under the superintendence of the author, and the Aldine edition of 1545. The best modern edition is that of Morali (4to, Milan, 1818), which follows the original text of 1532. Of the English translations by Har rington, Iloole, and Rose, the last is by far the best. ARIOVISTUS, a chief of the Marcomanni, a German tribe, crossed the Rhine with 15,000 warriors at the call of the Sequani, who were oppressed by the ^rEdui, defeated the JEdui in 72 13. C., but took one third of the land of his allies, invited his countrymen over the Rhine, and made a settlement there of 120,000 Ger mans, belonging to several tribes. The ./Ediii and Sequani called in Julius Caesar and the Romans to their aid. Caasar ordered Ariovis- tus to make no more conquests, to call no more Germans over, and to give up the hostages he held of the Gauls. Ariovistus returned an in solent reply. Cresar marched against him and compelled him to give battle near Vesontium (now Besancon) in 58. He was defeated, and few of his warriors escaped. He himself crossed the Rhine in a small boat, and ended his days in obscurity. ARISTA, Mariano, a Mexican general, born in the state of San Luis Potosi, Mexico, July 16, 1802, died in Spain, Aug. 9, 1855. Having dis tinguished himself in the successive wars which established first the independence of Mexico and afterward the republican form of gov ernment, he attained a high position in the Mexican army, and in 1836 was second in com mand to Santa Anna, then general in chief. By the revolutions which continually agitated Mexico he was twice deprived of his command ; but his military knowledge was indispensable to every dominant party, and he was quickly restored and promoted. In the war with the United States he commanded at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma ; and after its close was ap pointed in June, 1848, minister of war under President Herrera. In 1850 he was elected president of Mexico, but resigned Jan. 6, 1853, and retired to his farm, and was banished soon afterward. ARIST;EI T S, in Greek mythology, son of Apollo and Cyrene, and father of Action. He fell in love with Eurydice, the wife of Or pheus, whom he pursued into the fields, where she was bitten by a serpent. For this he in curred the anger of the gods. He taught men the culture of the olive and the management of bees, and was extensively worshipped in Greece and the Grecian islands as protector of pastoral life and husbandry. ARISTARCHl S. I. An ancient grammarian and critic, born in Samothrace, flourished in the 2d century B. C. He was educated at Alexandria in the school of Aristophanes of Byzantium, and founded a critical school, which long flour ished at Alexandria, Rome, and elsewhere. Al exandria and Rome alone contained at one time no fewer than 40 celebrated grammarians who had been brought up in his academy. He was the preceptor of Ptolemy Epiphanes and Ptol emy Physcon. In his old age he went to Cy prus, and being afflicted with dropsy, he put an end to his life by voluntary starvation, in his 72d year. Aristarchus is said to have written 800 commentaries on the text of the great Greek poets ; but he devoted his chief labor to Homer, whose present text is based upon that adopted by him. Nothing remains of all his writings save scattered fragments. II. Of Samos, a Greek astronomer, flourished about 270 B. C. He was one of the first who held that the earth revolves around the sun, for which opinion some thought him guilty of impiety. The only work of his extant is a treatise on the distance and magnitude of the sun and moon, of which the original was pub lished by Wallis in 1688, and a French trans lation in 1810. ARISTIDES. I. An Athenian statesman, called the Just, died probably in 468 B. C. Of his early life little is positively known. He was one of the ten leaders of the Athenians at the time of the Persian invasion under Darius, and before the battle of Marathon persuaded the other generals to follow his example in giving up the chief command to Miltiades, instead of each claiming it for one day, as was allowed by law. This united action insured the suc cess of the battle. The year after Marathon (489) he was appointed archon, but a few years later, by the intrigues of his rival Themistocles, he was ostracized on the pretext that he was acquiring an influence dangerous in a democ racy. He employed the period of his exile in endeavoring to stir up the Grecian cities to re sist the Persians, at that time preparing for a second invasion. He sought an interview with Themistocles before the battle of Salamis (480), concerted with him the plan of that engage ment, and gave him his hearty support. The success of the Greeks at Plataea (479), where^ie commanded under Pausanias, was chiefly owing to his courage and watchfulness. The Persian war continuing, he, with Cimon, the son of Miltiades, was sent at the head of the Athenian forces to join the confederate army. When the Ionian states, disgusted with the arro gance of Pausanias, decided to form a confed eration under the hegemony of Athens, Aris- tides was appointed to adjust the relations of the various parties to the arrangement, and to assess the expenses of the war on the several states a commission which he executed to the 704 APJSTIPPUS ARISTOMENES satisfaction of all. When Themistocles fell under suspicion he did not join in the prosecu tion; and after the hanishment of his rival he always spoke of him with admiration and re spect, lie died so poor that he was buried at the public cost; his daughters received dowries out of the public treasury, and a landed estate was bestowed on his son. II. /Elius, a Greek rhetorician, born at lladriani in Bithynia, A. I). 117 or 129, died about 180. He was the son of Eudiemon, a priest of Jupiter. After travelling through the countries which border the Mod- I iterranean, and as far as Ethiopia, he took up j his abode at Smyrna; and when that city was | almost destroyed by an earthquake in 178, he j persuaded his friend the emperor Marcus Aure- j lius to assist in rebuilding it. For this Aristides was named the founder of the city, and a bronze | statue was raised to him in the agora. Fifty- | five of his orations and declamations have been j preserved, consisting of eulogies on various di vinities, panegyrics on towns, and treatises on rhetorical topics. In his " Sacred Discourses," where Aristides describes a singular malady, not unlike somnambulism, the disciples of mes merism tind something similar to the mes meric phenomena. A statue discovered in the 16th century, representing Aristides in a sitting posture, is now in the museum of the Vatican. The best complete edition of his works is that of Dindorf (3 vols., Leipsic, 1829). III. Of Thebes, a Greek painter, nour ished from about 360 to 330 B. C. He is said by Pliny to have been a little older than his contemporary Apelles, and to have been the first who expressed upon the countenance the passions of the soul. At the time of the Ro man conquest (146 B. C.), the consul Mummius, discovering the high price set upon a battle picture by Aristides, seized it and sent it to Rome. It was placed in the temple of Ceres, and is said to have been the first foreign paint ing exposed to the view of the Romans. ARISTIPPH3, a Greek philosopher, disciple of Socrates, born in Gyrene, flourished about 380 B. C. He was luxurious, sensual, and avari cious, and prided himself on extracting pleasure from both prosperity and adversity, and con trolling them alike. His conversation was witty and agreeable. He is said to have incur red the dislike of Plato and Xenophon, who accordingly speak of him slightingly. He spent a part of his life at the court of liionysius the Elder of Syracuse. His doctrine, called from his birthplace the Cyrenaic philosophy, was reduced to a system by his grandson, Aris- tippus the younger. It pronounces pleasure the chief good, and pain the chief evil the former a moderate, the latter a violent motion of the soul. Pleasures differ only in their degree of purity. Actions are to be judged good or bad by their results; and in forming a judgment the only authorities are law and cus tom. Whatever conduces to pleasure is ac counted virtue ; but virtue is regarded as a quality of mind rather than of the body, since bodily pleasure is valued for the sake of the mental state it produces. A subject becomes cognizant of objects only through the medium of impressions ; the only existences are states of mind ; and man is the measure of all things. AKISTOBILIS. I. A Jewish writer of Alexan dria, who flourished under Ptolemy Philome- tor, about 160 B. C. lie wrote philosophical commentaries upon the Pentateuch, composed in the purest Greek, in which he undertook to prove that the most ancient Grecian poets, his torians, and philosophers were acquainted with the sacred writings, and in the habit of borrow ing largely from them. In support of this theory, he forged numerous passages, ostensibly from Musa3us, Linus, Homer, and others, with such art as to deceive Greek writers, and also some of the fathers of the church, who speak of him as a Peripatetic philosopher, the founder of Jewish philosophy in Egypt. Of his writings only scanty fragments have been preserved. II. The eldest son and successor of John Hyr- canus, the Asmonean ruler of Judea, and the first of that house who assumed the royal title. His reign lasted only one year (106-105 B. C.). According to his father s will he was to act only as high priest, with the title of nasi (prince), and his mother to carry on the affairs of state. Impatient to rule, he threw his mother into a dungeon, where she perished of hunger, imprisoned three of his four brothers, and proclaimed himself king. The queen, Sa lome or Alexandra, persuaded Aristobulus that his remaining brother Antigonus meditated treason and usurpation, and he was cut down by the royal guards. Aristobulus, who was sick, grew worse from remorse and vomited blood, which, being carried off by a domestic, was spilled on the very spot on which the blood of Antigonus had been shed. The parricide saw in the accident a sign of the vengeance of Heaven, and soon after expired in terrible agony. III. Son of Alexander Jannasus, the brother and successor of the preceding. His his tory can be properly treated only in connection with that of other persons. (See HEBEEWS.) ARISTOGITON. See HAEMODIUS AND AEISTO- GITOX. ARISTOMENES, a Messenian general and statesman, the hero of the second Messenian war, of the royal line of ./Epytus. The Mes- senians, having determined to free themselves from the tyranny of their Spartan conquer ors, selected him as their chief. He formed an alliance with Argos, Elis, Sicyon, Arcadia, and Pisa ; but before the troops they promised him could arrive, he began the war by the in decisive battle of Dera?, 685 B. C. His ex ploits in this conflict induced his countrymen to offer him the throne of Messenia, but he re fused ifc. In the same year he entered Sparta alone, by night, and fastened a shield with a taunting inscription to the temple of Minerva. During the next year he won great victories at the Boar s Pillar (na-pov ofj/ua) in the plain of Stenyclerus, end at Phara3, which latter place ARISTOPHANES ARISTOTLE he sacked. But in 082, betrayed by his ally Aristoerates of Arcadia, who deserted him in the midst of the fight, he was utterly defeated, his army almost destroyed, and he himself compelled to take refuge in the mountains with his few remaining troops. Here he con tinued the war with great pertinacity for 11 years. Having been captured by the Spartans in one of his incursions, he was thrown into a cavern into which malefactors were cast ; but he was uninjured by the fall, and escaped by following a fox through a passage leading from the cave. Again captured, he escaped by the aid of a young girl, lie twice offered to Zeus the hefcatomphonia, or sacrifice prescribed for one who had slain with his own hands 100 enemies in battle. At last the Spartans sur prised at night his fortress of Ira, in the mountains ; but even then they encountered such a resistance that they were obliged to consent to his terms, which permitted him and his followers to retire unmolested. Soon after this he formed a new plan of attack on Sparta ; but for the second time he was betrayed by Aristoerates, who was killed for his treachery. The countrymen of Aristomenes were now exhausted, and their army was too small to continue the war. Many of them, under the hero s two sons, went to Rhegium and formed a colony there. Aristomenes went to Rhodes, where one of the reigning princes had married his daughter, and there ended his life peacefully. ARISTOPHANES, the only writer of comedy in ancient Greece any of whose entire works are still extant, probably born between 450 and 444 B. C., died not later than 380. Very little is known of his life outside of his literary work, the only sources of information being allusions of contemporaries, passages in his plays, and a very unsatisfactory biography by an unknown ancient author. He was an Athenian of the tribe Pandionis, the son of a certain Philippus or Philippides ; though tra ditions, probably having their origin in the attempts of his enemies to deprive him of the privileges of a native Athenian citizen, speak of him as born in Rhodes, others in Egypt, Camirus, or Naucratis. He seems to have ap peared as a comic poet in the fourth year of the Peloponnesian war (427). A clue to the time of his birth is found in the fact that at this time he was too young to compete for a prize, and that his first comedy, "The Ban queters," was therefore produced under the name of another. In 426 he produced " The Babylonians;" in 425 "The Acharnians," still extant, which, put in competition in the name of Callistratus, won the first prize. In some passages of these earliest works he had satirized Cleon, the Athenian demagogue, and the latter avenged himself by making the first of those attempts noticed above to prove that Aristophanes was of foreign birth. This at tempt was afterward twice repeated, but each time the poet successfully repelled the charge. In 424 he attacked Cleon with unsparing sat- VOL. T. 45 ire in the famous comedy of " The Knights; " and finding no actor brave enough to take the part of the demagogue, then at the height of his popularity, Aristophanes played the role himself, with his face smeared with lees of wine ; for no one dared even to make a mask representing Cleon. His plays now appeared in rapid succession. Of the 54 which we are told he wrote, we possess 11, which, besides " The Acharnians " and "Knights" already mentioned, are as follows: "The Clouds," I produced in 423 B. C., directed against the Sophists and their leader Socrates; "The I Wasps," 422, an attack on the corruption of I the courts; "The Peace," 419, written to i point out the evils wrought by the Pelopon nesian war; "The Birds," 414, to ridicule the Sicilian expedition; "Lysistrata," 411, a fur- I ther picture of the evils brought about by the Peloponnesian war; "Thesmophoriazusae," I probably in the same year, an attack on Eurip- | ides ; " Plutus," 408, ridiculing the imitation of Dorian fashions which prevailed at the time ! of its production ; " The Frogs," 405, a second satirical attack on Euripides ; " Ecclesiazusoe," ; 392, a play with the same aim as " Plutus." i Of the comedies of Aristophanes it is exces sively difficult for a modern reader to form : anything approaching to an accurate judgment. His wit is expended on topics so purely local, I that it requires the closest acquaintance with ! the occurrences and characters of the day, the I temper of the people, and the every-day cir- j cumstances of Athenian life, to enable a person I to appreciate and enjoy his humor. His style ! and versification are among the best examples I left us of a complete mastery of the Attic dialect. In general, the persons and things I which Aristophanes attacked were worthy of condemnation. Where a prominent exception 1 to this statement is found in the case of Socra- ! tes, he probably only seized upon the natural temptations offered to a satirist by the philoso- pher s notoriety and eccentricities ; and it seems most improbable that he acted, as many have thought, in collusion with the future accusers. , of the great Sophist. Among the best edi tions of Aristophanes are those of Ktister and Brunck, and that of Invernizzi, completed by Beck and Dindorf; besides some editions of I separate plays of rare excellence by Mitchell,. who has also ably translated some of the num ber, and by Prof." Felton of Harvard university. An admirable translation of five plays waa made by John Hookham Frere while in Malta, : which were first printed for private circula- i tion, but are now contained in the collective : edition of his "Works" (London, 1872). ARISTOTLE (Gr. A^aTor^f), perhaps the greatest ancient philosopher, founder, of the j school of Peripatetics, born in Stagira, .a. Greek colony of Macedonia, near the mouth of the ; Strymon, in 384 B. C., died at Chalcis, on. the island of Eubcea, in 322. From his birthplace : he was called "the Stagirite." He studied for ! a short time at Atarneus in. Asia Minor,, and. ut 706 ARISTOTLE 17 years of age went to pursue his studies in Athens, where he resided for 20 years. He was fi pupil of Plato, whom he sincerely admired, though opposed to him in philosophy. Plato was accustomed to call him, on account of his enthusiasm for knowledge and his restless in dustry, the " intellect of his school. 11 About 343 B. C. Philip of Macedon made him the teacher of his son Alexander, at that time 13 y^ars old. His influence on Alexander and Philip was for many years very great and salutary, and Philip rebuilt at his request the city of Stagira, which had been destroyed, and erected there, in a pleasant grove, a school called Nymphamm, where Aristotle was to teach. Alexander after the conquest of the Persian kingdom presented him with 800 talents, or nearly a million of dollars. He also sent to him whatever he discovered on his marches that was unknown in Greece, such as plants and animals for scientific examination, and is said to have been accompanied by him in several of his expeditions. Aristotle re turned to Athens in 335, or, according to Am- monius, in 331, bringing with him his scientific collections, and established a new school of philosophy in the Lyceum, a gymnasium near the city. In the forenoon he instructed his intimate pupils in a philosophical way, which lectures were called esoteric ; and in the even ing he taught a large popular circle about plainer matters, in what were called exoteric or public lectures. His philosophical school is called the Peripatetic, because he taught while walking up and down (-epi-aTuv}, or from the shady walks (TrepiiraToi) around the Lyceum in which he delivered his lectures, and which in the time of Plutarch were still pointed out to the traveller. His friendly relations with Alexander were at length interrupted, perhaps on account of admonitions which he sent to that conqueror when, in his later years, he precipitated himself into a dissolute life. Yet the Athenians suspected him of partisanship for Macedonia, accused him of impiety, and forced him to flee to Chalcis, where he died. Only a part of his numerous writings on almost every branch of science and art were then published ; of the remainder many were lost, and many published only in the first centuries of the Christian era. The most important of them bear the following titles : " Qrganon " or "Logic," "Rhetoric," "Poetics," "Ethics," "Politics," "History of Animals," "Physics," "Metaphysics," "Psychology," and "Meteor ology." His writings on mathematics, economy, and history are lost, as well as his letters, and a work called Politiai, which contained 158 ancient state constitutions and legislations. Many books bearing his name are spurious, and it is only in the present century that the Spurious begin to be sifted from the genuine. His style is difficult to understand, not only because of the intricacy of the subjects, but also -on account of the technical terms entirely his .own. No other philosopher has exerted so large an influence on so many centuries, and on the ideas of so many nations, as Aristotle. His merits as a metaphysical think er may perhaps be variously estimated, but his performances in natural science, which he first created, and his method of philosophy, constitute his greatness. He was the first care ful observer, dissector, and describer of ani mals. He first divided the animal kingdom into classes ; described a great many animals before unknown to the scientific world ; came near discovering the circulation of the blood ; discriminated between the several faculties, the nourishing, feeling, concupiscent, moving, and reasoning powers of animal organism, and attempted to explain the origin of these powers within the body; and built his moral and political philosophy on the peculiarities of human organization. His philosophical method consists in the principle that all our thinking must be founded on the observation of facts. Logic is the fundamental science, and the principles which he laid down for it have never been superseded. It is ac knowledged by Kant and Hegel, the two most profound thinkers of Germany, that from the time of Aristotle to their own age logic had made no progress. He invented the categories, or fundamental forms of thought, universal ex pressions for the ever-changing relations of things, and limited their number to ten; and he devised the so-called " syllogistics, " or science of forming correct conclusions. He likewise became the father of modern psychology, show ing how the mind creates its speculative meth ods and general notions ; and that though we cannot prove their correspondence with the reality, because there is no direct proof for things which transcend our senses and obser vation, yet we are always compelled to recur to these general notions and take them for in dispensable forms of thinking, if we will think at all. Every science must, according to Aris totle, have a fundamental principle, which need not and cannot be logically proved, because it is in itself certain, and accepted as manifest truth. Aristotle first discriminated between the substance of things and their accidental peculiarities, and created the philosophical no tions of "matter" and of "form." He also established the philosophical notions of" space " and "time," and showed their connection with matter, while he first furnished the world with what is commonly called the cosmological ar gument for the existence of God. He states it thus : Although every single movement and ex istence in the world has a finite cause, and every such finite cause another finite cause back of it, yet back of this infinite series of finite causes there must be an infinite immaterial being, a first something, unmoved, all-moving, pure energy, absolute reason, God. In psychology and anthropology, Aristotle is the author of the theory of different powers of the soul, of dis tinct feeling, willing, reasoning, and moving powers or faculties. The reasoning power is ARISTOTLE ARITHMETIC 707 regarded by Aristotle not as a product of the ! body, but as bestowed on it from outside, and j as perfect only after its separation from the j body by death. Proceeding from the principle : that whatever is to be the goal and highest good of humanity must not depend on casual- | ties and ever-changing minor circumstances, but must be certain in itself, and impart to every other good its value, he maintains that the eudaimonia, or highest possible pleasure which j is conceivable for man, is derived only from j the perfect satisfaction of those faculties which distinguish him from the beasts, that is, of the reasoning powers. Of his earliest pupils and followers, none but Theophrastus, and he not strictly a philosopher is worth mentioning. The age after Aristotle s death was not favor able to purely speculative philosophy. For three centuries Stoicism and Epicureanism took the place of his philosophy in the fa vor of the educated world ; and these were succeeded by Neo-Platouism. Later the phi losophy of Aristotle was rendered obnoxious to the fathers of the church by the pagan tendencies of its expounders at Alexandria, but a few, like Boethius, ventured to defend his views. Up to the llth century Aristotle was almost unknown to the Christian world, but he was a favorite with the Arabians of the 8th, 9th, 10th, and llth centuries. Through I the Arabians, the scholastic writers of the llth \ century made acquaintance with his "Physics" and "Metaphysics," though by means of very f imperfect translations; his "Logic" they had, though not extensively, known before. From that time Aristotle, though sometimes dispar aged as a heretic, remained for four centuries the authority of the Christian world in all mat- | ters not strictly pertaining to dogmas. In the | llth century the dispute between the nominal- i ists and realists began to divide theologians; the realists asserting with Plato that our gen eral notions, called universalia, are the sub stance of things, that our ideas answer not only to the reality of objects, but contain their soul and life; the nominalists, in the name of Aristotle, maintaining that these general no tions are mere abstractions, inventions of the brain, not expressing the real substance of things. From the exposition that we have given, it appears that this pretended Aristote- lianism was a misunderstanding of Aristotle s philosophy, which, though it admits on the one hand that our general notions cannot be demonstrated to express the full substance of things, yet at the same time asserts that they are indispensable for every purpose of think ing. After the restoration of classical litera ture in the 15th century, his writings were ex tensively published, and his philosophy began to be better understood ; and it has been fur ther developed by Bacon, Descartes, Spinoza, and Kant. Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel opposed it, though the latter adopted many of its ideas. It is, however, not so much by his philosophi cal system that Aristotle has wielded his enor mous influence, especially as this is only now beginning to be fully understood and justly ap preciated, as by his logical inventions, and his method of philosophy in general. The best works on the contents, spirit, and bearings of the writings of Aristotle are Stahr s Aristotc- lia (2 vols., Halle, 1830); Franz Biese s Phi- lowpliw dcs Arixtoteles (2 vols., Berlin, 1835- 42); and "Aristotle," a posthumous work, by George Grote (London, 1872). The best com plete edition of Aristotle is that of the academy of sciences at Berlin, by limnanuel Bekker (4 vols., Berlin, 1831- 6), with Latin transla tions and extracts from the old commentaries. ARISTOXEMS, a Greek writer on philosophy and music, a pupil of Aristotle, born at Taren- tum, Italy, flourished about 320 B. C. Ac cording to Suidas, he published 450 works on all imaginable subjects. All these are lost ex cepting his ApuoviKa 2ro^eZa ("Principles of Harmony "), published in Latin at Leyden in 1562 by Gogarinus, and in 1616 in Greek by Meursius, and subsequently inserted by Meibom in the Antique Musicce Auctorcs (2 vols. 4to, Amsterdam, 1652). Aristoxenus s theories of music were opposed to those of Pythagoras, who made music dependent upon mathematics, while the former admitted only the test of the ear. ARITHMETIC (Gr. apiO^n^ from api6/uelv, to count), the science of the properties and rela tions of numbers when expressed with figures or relations of figures. The accepted opinion is that we have derived this science from the Greeks, who obtained it from the Phoenicians ; but if we consider that the Chaldeans, one of the oldest nations, have given us the knowledge of certain astronomical cycles or periods, of which the determination required an advanced knowl edge of arithmetic, it is evident that its origin is of much earlier date. The Hebrews and Greeks used the first nine letters of their alphabet for the numbers 1 to 9 ; the next nine letters for 10, 20, &c., to 90 ; and the others for hundreds ; while for thousands they recommenced the alphabet and added to each letter a mark or iota. The Romans followed a similar system, of which our Roman numerals are a specimen. But arithmetic did not reach its more modern state of progress until the introduction of the Arabic figures now used by all civilized nations. The Arabs admit that they obtained these fig ures from Hindostan in the 1 Oth century. They call them Indian figures, and. arithmetic the In dian science. Boethius, in his work De Geome- tria, informs us that the disciples of Pythagoras used in their calculations nine peculiar figures, while others used the letters of the alphabet ; and it is probable that this philosopher, who had travelled considerably, had obtained this knowledge in Hindostan, and communicating it as a secret to his disciples, caused it to remain sterile in their hands. The Greeks in the ordi nary way of writing expressed the fractions thus : while /3, 7, 8, &c., stood for 2, 3, 4, &c., /3 , 7 . 6 , represented , , , &c. The oldest text book 708 ARITHMETIC on arithmetic employing the Arabian or Indian figures and the decimal system, is undoubtedly that of Avicenna. the Arabian physician, who lived in Bokhara about A. I). 1000; it was j found in manuscript in the library at Cairo, | Egypt, and contains, besides the rules for addi tion, subtraction, multiplication, and division, many peculiar properties of numbers. (For a j translation of a portion of this remarkable manuscript by Marcel, see I)e Montfevrier, Dic- tionnaire des sciences mathematiques, vol. i., p. 141 et seq.} It \vas not till the beginning of the j 13th century that the science of arithmetic be- j gan to be diffused in Europe. One of the earli est writers on the subject was John Halifax, better known as Sacro-Bosco, who ^ in the 18th century composed an arithmetic in Latin rhymes, in which the shapes of the figures are nearly identical with those of the present day. The monk Planudes, who flourished in the early part of the 14th century, wrote a book entitled " Indian Arithmetic, or the Manner of Reckoning after the Indian Style," of which several manuscripts still exist. Contemporary with him was Jordanus of Namur, author of the Algorithmus Demonstrate, and also of a treatise on arithmetic which Jacques Faber published with commentaries immediately after the invention of printing. A great develop ment of the science now took place. In the 16th century Clavius and Stifelius (Stiefel) in Germany and Digges in England were conspic uous for their services to this science, and the Arabian or Indian figures came into uso among the learned ; but it was not till the 17th century that arithmetic began to be a regular branch of common education. The value of our system of arithmetical notation, as is well known, consists in the adoption of a scale and of a system by which the place of the figure in the order in which it appears causes its value to increase in multiples of that scale. The universally adopted scale is the decimal, probably derived from the number of fingers of the human hand, but other scales might have been adopted as well; and the advantages which some persons suppose might have been derived from the adoption of a dif ferent scale, as the duodecimal or twelve, the tonal or sixteen, &c., are more apparent than real. A smaller scale would, however, have sim plified arithmetical operations, as was forcibly demonstrated by Leibnitz, who showed how with the smallest possible scale, the binary, and the consequent use of only two figures, 1 and 0, operations were so much simplified that there might be even a saving of time in redu cing a decimal expression into a binary one, performing the operation, and restoring it back again into the decimal system. The regular series of numbers, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, &c., is expressed in the binary system thus: 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000, 1001, &c. ; in the ternary system, in which three is adopted as the basis, it is 1, 2, 10, 11, 12, 20, 21, 22, 100, &c. When arith- ARIUS mctic goes beyond the practical calculations by numbers, and treats of the properties of num bers in general, it enters the field of algebra. The properties of numbers, are of two kinds: some are general and inherent in the numbers themselves, while others depend on the deci mal system adopted. Thus the law that the sum of two numbers multiplied by their dif ference is equal to the difference of their squares is a general property ; while the fact that if the sum of the figures is divisible by 9, the whole number is divisible by 9, is a property depending on the adoption of the decimal sys tem ; if we had adopted the duodecimal system r 11 would have that property. Besides ordi nary arithmetic, we may distinguish a palpable arithmetic performed by the sense of feeling by the blind ; an instrumental arithmetic, where the solutions are obtained by peculiarly con trived instruments ; a tabular arithmetic, where problems are solved by means of tables com puted for the purpose, &c. Pestalozzi, the great German pedagogue, applied his method to instruction in arithmetic with the most eminent success. It was introduced into the United States by Warren Colburn of Massa chusetts, by the publication of treatises on this subject which have largely influenced the authors of arithmetical text books, a great vari ety of excellent practical works having since been published, to which we refer for further information in regard to the practical details of this science. For many curious facts on the properties of numbers, see Gans, Disqvisitionet Arithmetical, or Legendre, Ttieorie des nombres. ARIUS, the founder of Arianism, according to some a Libyan, according to others a native of Alexandria, died in 336. He joined the Me- letians in Alexandria, but left them, and in 306 was ordained a deacon by Bishop Peter of Alexandria. He afterward returned to the Meletians and was excommunicated, but was readmitted to the church by Achillas, successor of Peter, and ordained priest. After the death of Achillas, Arius came near being elected bishop of Alexandria ; but Alexander was pre ferred to him. According to the Arian histo rian Philostorgius, Arius himself brought about the election of Alexander. It is reported that I for several years Alexander held Arius in high esteem, and that the most perfect agreement existed between them. The great controversy with which their names are connected began | when Alexander made an address to his clergy in which he spoke of the Trinity as consisting of a single essence. Arius exclaimed against this, af- i firmed the distinct personality of the Father and the Son, and accused Alexander of Sabellianism. Alexander demanded from Arius a recantation ; but the latter not only refused this, but sent a j written confession of faith to several bishops, 1 requesting, in case they agreed with him, their intercession with Alexander in his behalf. A number of prominent bishops responded favor ably ; among them were Eusebius of Cfesarea, the church historian, and Eusebius of Nico- ARIZONA 709 media, who as bishop of the imperial residence had a great influence over Constantine and his sister Constantia. Alexander therefore con vened a synod at Alexandria in 320 (or accord- ing to some authorities in 321), which was attended by about 100 bishops from Egypt and Libya, at which Arius and his adherents were * expelled from the church which adores the , divinity of Christ." As Arius nevertheless continued to teach and to hold divine service, : Alexander addressed circular letters to the ; bishops, in which he asked them not to admit j the. Arians to the communion of the church, j and not to believe Eusebius of Nicomedia and | people of that class." Expelled from Alex- j andria, Arius went to Palestine, whence he addressed a defence of his doctrine to Eusebius of Nicomedia. Invited to Nicomedia, he wrote thence a letter to Alexander, endeavoring in language as conciliatory as possible to prove his views to be those of the fathers of the church. Here he also wrote his most important work, the Thalia ("Banquet"), fragments of which are extant in the writings of Athanasius, and composed several songs designed to make known his principles among the people. A synod held in Bithynia about 323 allowed Arius to hold divine service, and interceded in his behalf with the bishop of Alexandria. The division in the church had now become so great that Constantine was induced to convoke the oecumenical council of Nice in 325, to put an end to the controversy. Arius was present at the council, in which the young deacon Athanasius of Alexandria distinguished him self as the foremost opponent of the Arian views. The council decreed the Son to be consubstantial (ouoovmos) with the Father, de posed and condemned Arius, ordered his writ ings to be burned, and made it a capital offence to own them. The emperor banished Arius to Illyria, and soon the bishops Eusebius of Nico media and Theognis of Nice shared the same fate for refusing submission to the decrees of the council. After a time, however, Constan tine was induced by his sister and many in his court, who were in sympathy with Arius, to recall and hear him. This was the beginning of new and violent conflicts. In Alexandria the Arians entered into negotiations concerning a union with the Meletians. A synod at Tyre in 335 deposed Athanasius, who was then ban ished by the emperor to Treves. In 336 Con stantine undertook to enforce the recognition of Arius in Constantinople ; but on the day fixed for the recognition Arius fell dead in the street. Some of his friends ascribed his death to poison, some of his opponents to the effica cious prayer of the orthodox bishop of Con stantinople. (See ARIANISM.) ARIZONA, a territory of the United States, situated between lat. 31 and 37 N. and Ion. 101) and 114 40 W., bounded N. by Utah, E. by New Mexico, S. by Mexico, and \V. by Cali fornia and Nevada; area estimated at 113,000 sq. m. No complete survey of the territory has been made. It is divided into five counties : Maricopa, Mohave, Pirna, Yavapai, and Yuma. Tucson, in Pima county (pop. 3,224), is the capital and largest town in the territory. Ari zona City, in Yuma county (pop. 1,144), is a prosperous business place, situated at the junc tion of the Gila and Colorado rivers. Prescott, the former capital (pop. 668), is situated in central Arizona, and is the headquarters of the military department of Arizona. In 1870 the population of the territory, exclusive of Indians, was 9,658, of whom 3,849 were native and 5,809 foreign born; 1,240 \vere born in the territory. The total number of Indians was 32,083; of these 4,352 were on reservations ! and at agencies, and 27,700 were nomadic. Many of these Indians are friendly to the ; whites, but the greater number are intensely hostile. Of the friendly Indians, the Pimas and the Maricopas rank first in numbers and ! civilization. They occupy a reservation on the I Gila river, about 200 m. E. of Arizona City. i The Papagos live S. of the Gila, along the ; line of Sonora. The Mohaves and the Yumas | live along the Colorado, the Utes on the upper | Colorado, and the Moquis and Navajos in N. E. Arizona. These tribes are engaged in agricul ture and stock-raising. Of the hostile Indians the Apaches are the most powerful and war like. They comprise several tribes distributed over the greater portion of middle and eastern i Arizona ; their raids extend all over the terri- i tory, with the exception of a narrow strip along ! the Colorado river and a portion of the lower I Gila. Besides the Apaches, the Hualpais cr Wallapis, living in the Cerhat range near the 1 Diamond river, and in part of the Aquarius j range, are the only dangerous Indians. The middle and N. E. portions of the territory con- j sist of elevated plateaus from 3,000 to 8,000 ft. i above the sea level, with occasional bluffs and | volcanic cones rising from 500 to 2, 500 ft. above ! the plateau. The numerous parallel ranges of | mountains have a general N. W. and S. E. course, and form long valleys in the same direction. The most marked exceptions to this general direction i are the Mogollon range in the east, which extends nearly E> and W. and joins the Sierra Blanca, i and an E. and W. range stretching beyond Arizona into New Mexico. The axis of the Black mountains and the Cerbat range, in the N. W. part of the territory, lies very nearly N. and S. The S. portion of the territory is a ! plain with a slight elevation above the sea, ! amounting at the mouth of the Gila to only 200 ft. From this plain isolated mountains and mountain ranges rise abruptly. In central Arizona the Sierra Prieta and the Aztec range . send foot hills out in every direction, and their flanks sink very gradually to the level of the high plateau surrounding the San Francisco mountain toward the N. E., and to the mesas or table lands sloping toward the Colorado on ! the S. W. The elevation of the town of Pres cott is over 6,000 ft. above the sea, while the Ton to and San Francisco plateaus, E. and N. E. no ARIZONA of Preset, roach an altitude of from 8,000 to U,000 ft. The San Francisco, a grand volcanic cone, is the highest mountain in Arizona, its summit being over 11,000 ft. above the sea. X. and X. E. of the San Francisco mountains, an immense mesa, increasing in altitude toward the Utah line, extends for hundreds of miles. The largest river of the territory is the Col orado, which is formed by the junction of the (ireen and Grand rivers in the S. part of Utah, and has a southerly course along the W. boun dary of Arizona. It has a very rapid current, and is navigable as far as Callville, (512 m. above its mouth. The cailons formed by the pas sage of the river through the lofty table lands are unequalled in grandeur. In the Grand canon of the Colorado the deep and narrow current flows between massive walls that rise to a perpendicular height of nearly 7,000 ft. above the water. The principal tributaries of the Colorado are the Colorado Chiquito, which flows X. W. through the X. part of the territory, the Diamond river, and Bill Williams s Fork, into which flows the Santa Maria. The Gila rises in Xew Mexico, flows W. through the S. part of Arizona, and joins the Colorado about 180 m. above the gulf of California. It is a very narrow stream with a swift current, shal low during most of the year, but in the rainy season vastly increasing its volume. Its prin cipal tributaries in Arizona are the Salado or Salt river, Verde, San Carlos, Bonito, and Prieto from the north, and Santa Cruz and San Pedro from the south. Granite, red and white sandstone, limestone, slate, quartz, and metamorphio rocks abound in the mountains. The plains along the lower Gila are entirely made up of quaternary and tertiary deposits, which also form the great Sonora desert S. of that stream. In the Colorado valley, the sed imentary strata consist of quaternary and ter tiary gravels and conglomerates, varied in a few localities by a layer of white infusorial earth. The bottom lands consist of calcareous sands and clays, the former predominating. The mountain chains are composed of granites, syenites, porphyries, trachytes, greenstone, ba salt, and metamorphic slates. A section of the Grand canon of the Colorado, 6,800 ft. above the sea level and 5,500 ft. above the river, ex hibits the following sedimentary strata down to the underlying granite : upper carboniferous limestone ; cross-stratified sandstone ; red cal careous sandstone, with gypsum ; lower car boniferous limestone ; limestones, shales, and grits Devonian; limestones, mud, rocks, and sandstones Silurian ; Potsdam sandstone ; granite. Xo one of the mineral-bearing terri tories of the Pacific slope is richer than Ari zona, though the mines have not been generally worked. The inaccessibility of the territory (it being off from the great overland lines of travel and without seaports), and the fierceness of the Apaches, have prevente 3 the full devel opment of its mineral wealth. The mountains of southern and central Arizona are nearly all \ mineral-bearing, and contain lodes of gold, sil- i ver, copper, and lead. The ores of silver found I in this region are argentiferous galena, native i silver, auriferous sulphuret of silver, black sul- ! phuret of silver, sulphate of silver, sulphate of iron, combined. The ores of copper are usually the sulphurets, principally gray. Xearly all I the silver and copper lodes show traces of gold; and placers have been found at many points, but have not proved sufficiently extensive to | attract much attention. Gold is found in cen tral Arizona, the ore yielding from $25 to $100 per ton. Iron in carbonates and oxides is abundant, and traces of tin and nickel exist. | Platinum (metallic) is shown in the placers of | the Black cafion. Copper, silver, and quick- | silver are found together in a rare combination, I but the lode is not large. Lime of a superior : quality exists in large quantities near Prescott and Tucson, and is found at other points. Beds ! of gypsum exist in the San Pedro valley. The I salt mountains near Callville and a few miles | E. of the Colorado are among the most remark - I able formations in Arizona. The deposits of I pure, transparent, and beautifully crystallized : salt are very extensive, and no salt is superior | for table and general use. Traces of coal have been discovered in this locality. The bullion product of Arizona for 1868 was estimated at $250,000; 1869, $1,000,000; 1870, $800,000. The climate is mild and generally healthful. In I southern Arizona the temperature ranges from I 34 to 118 F. The atmosphere is dry, and ! this region is singularly free from malarious I diseases. Snow falls in central Arizona, but, ! excepting in the higher mountains, disappears ! in a few hours. The temperature in summer I rarely exceeds 90, and seldom falls below zero | in winter. Rain falls mainly in the months of July and August, but there are frequent showers I in April and May, as well as in the winter months. The average fall of rain in southern Arizona for 1867 was 2 94 inches; 1866, 4 20; | 1858, 8-57; 1857, 0-33. The climate of Ari- j zona is said to be highly beneficial to those j afflicted with bronchial or lung diseases. Ac- ! cording to the census of 1870, the total deaths I in the territory for that year were 252, of j which 116 resulted from general diseases, 71 I from local diseases, 60 from accidents and in- | juries, and 5 from poisons. Of the local dis- i eases, 44 were diseases of the respiratory sys- i tern and 15 of the digestive system. The j vegetation of southern and western Arizona is scanty and limited to a few genera, such as cac tus, aloe, artemisia, palo verde, iron wood, and | mesquite, the last a remarkably hard wood. In the middle and X. E. portions of the terri- ! tory a more varied vegetation prevails. On j the hills and mountain sides a rich and abun- I dant pasturage is found. Pine and cedar forests : abound ; while along the course of the streams | ash, walnut, cherry, willow, cotton wood, and many other forest trees grow, and large oak j trees are seen on the summits of some of the I highest mountains in the Sierra Prieta. The ARIZONA ARJISII 711 aridity of the table lands prevents their culti vation; the soil of the valleys is rich, but in places very arid. Where artificial irrigation is practicable, o.r where there is sufficient mois ture, the crops are good, and the cereals yield abundantly. The greater portion of the terri tory S. of the Gila river is a sterile waste ; but the river valleys of this section contain many thousand acres of the most fertile bottom lands, which need only irrigation to make them yield abundant harvests. Indian corn, wheat, bar ley, oats, grapes, figs, oranges, lemons, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, the castor bean, <fec., thrive here wherever the land can be irri gated ; there is also much valuable grass land in this section. The valleys of middle and eastern Arizona contain much arable land. Here all the cereals and roots of the northern Atlantic states are grown, while as a grazing country this region cannot be surpassed. A thick growth of gramma and bunch grass covers the whole country, and gives to the pine woods of this region the aspect of beautiful natural parks. Wheat and barley are usually sown from November to February, and harvested in May; the average yield of wheat is from 20 to 40 bushels per acre, and of barley from 30 to 60. After the wheat and barley are harvested, corn can be planted on the same soil with am ple time for it to mature. Much of the land of Arizona is cultivated in this way, and pro duces two crops each year. The average yield of corn is from 30 to 60 bushels per acre. In 1870 there were 14,585 acres of improved land in the territory, producing 27,052 bushels of wheat, 32,041 of corn, and 55,077 of barley; and the estimated value of all farm productions, including betterments and additions to stock, was $277,998. Cash value of farms, $161,340 ; of all live stock, $143,996; of slaughtered an imals, $9,400. There are no railroads in Ari zona. The Atlantic and Pacific railroad com pany have obtained a charter w r ith land grants to build a road along and near the 35th paral lel to the Pacific ocean ; this road has been completed from St. Louis into the Indian terri tory. A charter and lands have also been granted to the Texas Pacific railroad company to build a road on or near the 32d parallel, from Marshall in Texas to San Diego, California. There is a good wagon road from San Diego, crossing the Colorado river at Arizona City, thence to Tucson and Santa Fe. The last named town is connected with Prescott by a wagon road via Albuquerque. From Pres cott to Los Angeles, Cal., there is a wagon road by way of Wickenburg, Ehrenberg, La Paz, and San Bernardino, and also by way of Ilardyville and Mohave. The government is administered by a governor, secretary, treas urer, and auditor, who are appointed by the president of the United States. The legislature and a delegate to congress are elected by the people. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, consisting of three judges ap pointed by the president, and probate courts. The supreme court holds one session annually at Tucson. The salary of the governor and of the jt.dges of the supreme court is $2,500. In 1870 the assessed value of real estate was $538,355; personal property, $871,940; total, $1,410,295 ; true value of real and personal property, $3,440,791; total taxation not na tional, $31,323. The internal revenue collec tions for 1871 amounted to $16,889. Accord ing to the census of 1870, there were in the territory 1,923 persons between the ages of 6 and 21 years; the number attending school w r as 149. There were 2,690 persons over 10 years of age unable to read, and 1,934 over 21 years of age unable to write. The legislature has passed a school law levying a tax for school purposes of 10 cents on each $100 of the taxa ble property of the territory, and giving au thority to the several boards of supervisors of the counties and the boards of trustees of the school districts to levy additional taxes suffi cient to maintain a free school in each of the school districts. Four w r eekly newspapers are published in the territory. As early as 1526 Don Jose de Vasconcellos crossed the cen tre of Arizona toward the Great canon, and the country was subsequently visited by other Spanish explorers. Numerous ruins of Spanish towns and buildings indicate that here was the seat of an early Spanish colonization, and that the land was highly cultivated. In the N. W. part of the territory, on the Colorado plateau, is a group of pueblos in ruins, containing estvfas, reservoirs, terraces, aqueducts, and walls of at least four stories high. The most extensive ruins are found in the Gila valley, which is studded throughout with deserted pueblos and remains of irrigating canals, acequias, pottery, &c. The river banks are covered with ruins of stone houses and regular fortifications, which do not appear to have been inhabited for cen turies. The Avails are of solid masonry, rec tangular in form, and usually two stories high. It is estimated that at least 100,000 people must have occupied the Gila valley at one time. The territory of Arizona was separated from that of New Mexico and organized by act of congress passed Feb. 24, 1863. The portion N. of the Gila river was obtained by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2, 1848, while that S. of the Gila was acquired un der the treaty made by James Gadsden at Mexico, Dec. 30, 1853. The act of Feb. 24, 1863, creating the territory, describes it as comprising all the United States lands W r . of Ion. 109 to the California line, which before that time had belonged to the territory of New Mexico. Since then the N. W. corner has been ceded to Nevada. No thorough explora tion of central Arizona was attempted until 1862 and 1863, while much of the northern portion has never been explored. ARJISII or Krjish Dagh (anc. Argceus), the loftiest mountain of Asia Minor, lying 13 rn. S. of Kaisariyeh (anc. Mazaca Ccesarea in Cappa- docia), and 117 m. N. by "W. from the head of 12 ARK ARKANSAS the bay of Iskanderun. It ascends in an insu lated peak to the height of 1:5,100 ft. Jt is dis tinctly visible at a distance of 1(50 m., and it Avas believed by the ancients that both the Euxine and the Mediterranean could be seen from its summit. It is an extinct volcano, and j its sloping sides are covered with volcanic ! cones and craters. Its summit is covered with perpetual snow, and the natives of the country affirm that it has never been ascended. ARR. I. The vessel (Ileb. tebali) construct- \ ed by Noah, according to Gen. vi., for the preservation of his family and of the different species of animals during the deluge. The form of the ark was that of an oblong chest, while its dimensions were 300 cubits in length, 50 in , breadth, and 30 in height. Two questions have | been raised, with a design to throw discredit j on the Biblical account : the first as to the form of the ark, that it was not adapted for floating ; the second as to its dimensions, that it was not large enough to answer the purposes for which it was designed. Both to strengthen and to obviate the objections raised, many curious speculations have been resorted to, to prove the basis of calculations, but no valuable re sults have been attained on either side. II. The ark (Heb. aron} of the covenant, or testi mony, among the appointments of the Jewish tabernacle and temple. This was built of shit- tim (acacia wood), inlaid and overlaid with pure gold. Its dimensions were two cubits and a half in length, and one and a half in width and height. Its location was in the holy of I holies. The cover of this ark was the mercy ! seat, over which stood the t\vo cherubim. The j contents of the ark of the covenant were, ac cording to 1 Kings viii. 9, exclusively the tables of the law received by Moses (from which the ark had its name) ; but, according to Ileb. ix. 4, it also contained the pot of manna and Aaron s rod, and at a later period probably also a copy of the book of the law. The Jews esteemed j this ark peculiarly sacred. It was made to be carried in procession before them in the jour ney to the promised land, and for this purpose j was committed to the care of the Kohathites, j and none were permitted to touch it but the j tribe of Levi. In war times, after the con- ! quest of Palestine, it sometimes accompanied j the army. At the close of the judgeship of Eli it was captured by the Philistines, but subse quently restored. It seems to have perished , in the destruction of the temple by Nebuchad- ! nezzar. ARKANSAS, the name given by the Algonquins to the Ouquapas, a tribe of Indians of the Da kota family. According to Gravier, a Jesuit missionary in Illinois about the year 1700, the Arkansas had previously resided on the Ohio river, whence after a long struggle they were driven down the Mississippi by the Illinois and their allies. This corresponds with the tradi tion of the Lenni, another Algonquin tribe, as to the Allegewi or Alleghans; and as early French writers use indifferently the term Ar kansas or Akansas, the suspicion increases as to their identity. They comprised several divi sions known as the Quappas or Kappas, Dogin- ga, Toriinan, and Osotteouez or Sothouis. One division, called by the Algonquins Mitchiga- mias, removed to the country of the Illinois, but subsequently returned. The Arkansas were first visited by Marquette, and from his time were always friendly to the French, welcoming La Salle and Tonti, as well as the survivors of La SahVs last expedition. They refused to join the Natchez against the French, and nearly exterminated the Yazoos, who had massacred the French among them. They were at this time a powerful tribe, able in 1740 to send out 400 warriors, but they soon lost by smallpox and other diseases. The remnant, now called Quapaws, are in the Indian territory west of their former country, and number only 200. ARKANSAS, a S. W. river of the United States, the largest tributary of the Mississippi except the Missouri. Its extreme sources, which were first explored in 180G by Lieut. Pike, U. S. A., lie in the Rocky mountains W. of the South Park, in lat. 39 N., Ion. 106 W., at an elevation of 10,000 ft. above the sea level, which is reduced one half in the first 150 m. It flows E. through Colorado to near the centre of Kansas, and thence generally S. E. through the Indian territory and Arkansas to its junction with the Mississippi at Napoleon, 275 m. (direct) above New Orleans; length, over 2,000 m. Near its source the river pours with great violence through a deep and narrow fissure in the gneiss rock ; after leaving the mountains it traverses a sterile hilly region, sustaining con siderable timber. The width of the Arkansas undergoes great variations. From 150 ft. near the mountains, it gradually increases to about a mile as it traverses the sandy desert; and after entering the hilly region it varies from 1,000 to 2,000 ft. Through the prairie region the ordinary depth is about 2 or 3 ft., but there are seasons when the water entirely dis appears, being absorbed by the immense beds of sand through which it flows. The range of the river between low and high water is about 45 ft. at Napoleon, 40 at South Bend, 35 at Little Rock, 25 at Fort Smith, and 10 at Fort Gibson, 642 m. from the mouth. It is navi gable for steamboats of 3 to 4 ft. draught to a point 40 m. above Little Rock, and during the floods as far as Fort Smith and Fort Gib son. Below Pine Bluff it has been neces sary to construct levees to restrain the flood. For a distance of 400 m. from its mouth the Arkansas has many lakes arid bayous. Its principal tributary is the Canadian in the In dian territory. The White and Arkansas are connected by a large bayou G m. above the junction of the former with the Mississippi, through which the current moves sometimes in one direction and sometimes in another, ac cording to the relative stand of the rivers. The principal points on the Arkansas are Na poleon, Arkansas Post, Pine Bluff, Little Rock, ARKANSAS 713 Van Buren, and Fort Smith in Arkansas, and Fort Gil son in the Indian territory. ARKANSAS, one of the states of the American Union, situated between lat. 33 and 36 30 X.. and Ion. 89 45 and 94 40 W., having an extent of 240 m. from X. to S., and varying from 170 to 250 m. from E. to W., the narrow est part being on the S. line and the broadest on the parallel of lat. 30 X. ; area, 52,198 sq. in. The state is bounded X. by Missouri, E. by the St. Francis river, separating it from Missouri, and the Mississippi, separating it from Tennessee and Mississippi, S. by Louisiana, 8. W. by Texas, and W. by the Indian terri tory. The state is divided into 64 counties, as follows : Arkansas, Ashley, Benton, Boone, Bradley, Calhoun, Carroll, Chicot, Clarke, Co lumbia, Conway, Craighead, Crawford, Crit- tenden, Cross, Dallas, Desha, Drew, Frank lin, Fulton, Grant, Greene, Ilempstead, Hot Springs, Independence, Izard, Jackson, Jeffer son, Johnson, Lafayette, Lawrence, Lincoln, Little River, Madison, Marion, Mississippi, Monroe, Montgomerv, Xevada, Xewton, Oua- chita, Terry, Phillips, Pike, Poinsett, Polk, White. 12579 ... 25 671 1840 77.174 1850 162189 1860 324.191 1870 362,115 122,161) State Seal of Arkansas. Pope, Prairie, Pulaski. Randolph, St. Francis, Saline, Sarber, Scott, Searcy, Sebastian, Sevier, Sharpe, L nion, VanBuren, Washington, White, Woodruff, Yell. There are no large cities. The oldest settlement is Arkansas Post (pop. in 1870, G83), the chief town of Arkansas county, on the river of the same name, about 50 m. above its junction with the Mississippi. It was settled by the French in 1685. Little Rock, Pulaski county, the state capital (pop. 12,380), is also situated on the Arkansas river, about 300 m. above its mouth, in lat. 34 40 X., Ion. 92 12 W. It was founded in 1820, is built on a com manding bluff, and is a place of considerable traffic. The other chief towns are Fort Smith (pop. 2,227), Helena (2,249), Pine Bluff (2,081), Camden (1,021), Hot Springs (1,276), and Princeton (1,142). The population of Arkan sas in 1870 was 484,471, of whom 362,115 were whites, 122,169 colored, 98 Chinese and Japanese, and 89 Indians. Of the total pop ulation, 479,445 were native born, and 5,026 foreign born. The native population not born in the state were principally from Tennes see, Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and Xorth Carolina, while the foreigners were chiefly na tives of England, Ireland, and Germany* In population Arkansas ranks 26th among the states. The following table will show the in crease in population since 1820, the year after Arkansas was organized as a territory : Censuses. Whito. Free Col d. Slaves. Total. 1820 12579 77 1.617 14.273 1S30 25671 141 4.576 30 3S8 465 19.935 97.574 60S 47.100 2< 9S97 1.4 111,115 435.450 4>4,471 In 1870 there were 111,799 persons in the state 10 years old and upward unable to read, and 133.339 unable to write. Of those 21 years old and upward unable to write, 13,610 were white males, 21,770 white females, 23,681 colored males, and 22.689 colored females. The Ozark mountains, "which seldom rise to an elevation beyond 1,500 or 2,000 ft., cross the X. W T . corner of the state. They are composed chiefly of limestone, clay slate, sandstone, greenstone, and granite. Extending E. from this range X. of the Arkansas are the Boston mountains, or Black hills. S. of that river is the Masserne or Washita range, which is so barren that the gray sandstone of which it is mainly composed is the prevailing color of the landscape. The eastern portion of the state, bordering on the Mississippi, including a strip ranging from 30 to 100 m. wide, is low and flat, covered by dense forests interspersed with swamps and small lakes or ponds, fre quently of stagnant and unhealthy water. This portion is annually overflowed by the floods of the Mississippi, Arkansas, and other rivers. Passing west, the surface gradually rises, and near the centre of the state the country be comes hilly, and the forests are interspersed with rolling prairies. Still further west these hills terminate in the Ozark mountains, and be yond these is an extensive elevated plain contin ually increasing in height in its course toward the Rocky mountains, in which it finally termi nates. The valley of the St. Francis river, in the X. E. part of the state, is a continuous swamp, filled with shallow lakes and bayous, and cov ered with a heavy growth of cypress, gum, and sycamore, the cypress growing in the water, and the other trees in the marshes or swamps. Rising into the higher land, where the soil is comparatively dry, the surface is covered with a growth of white oak and hick ory, with occasional thickly set canebrakes. Arkansas has no seacoast, but is remarkably favored with navigable streams. The Missis sippi river washes its eastern border for a dis tance of three degrees, though by its tortuous course the actual distance is probably between 300 and 400 m., separating it from Tennessee and Mississippi. The Arkansas river, one of the largest tributaries of the Mississippi, having its source by numerous branches high up in the Rocky mountains, traverses the state by a tor tuous route through its centre, the general di rection being from X". W. to S. E., for a dis- 714: ARKANSAS tance ov the course of the stream of about 500 m., and is navigable far above the limits of the state into the Indian territory. The Red river, a large navigable stream which rises in New Mexico, flows through the S. W. corner of the state. The St. Francis river rises at the foot of Iron mountain in Missouri, forms the boundary between Missouri and Arkansas for a short distance, runs through the N. E. corner of the state, and joins the Mississippi about 13 m. above Helena. Although a large river, its navigation is rendered difficult by numerous rafts or snags. For about 50 m. the river spreads out into a lake from 5 to 20 m. wide, supposed to have been produced by a sinking of the earth caused by the great earthquake of 1811. The St. Francis is 450 m. long, and navigable for 150 m. at favorable sea sons of the year. White river rises in the N. W. corner of Arkansas, and, after run ning N. into Missouri, returns into Arkansas, takes a S. E. zigzag course, and flows into the Mississippi. White river is about 600 m. long, and is navigable for small steamers to Bates- ville, 260 m. from its mouth, and, when cleared of snags an:l driftwood, may be ascended at favorable seasons at least 400 m. It has nu merous tributaries rising in Missouri, the chief of which are the Black or Big Black, Spring, and Cache rivers. The first flows S. and joins White river 30 or 40 m. below Batesville, and j is navigable for steamers during the greater j part of the year a distance of 100 m. The Washita or Ouachita rises in the W. part of the state, S. of the Arkansas, runs S. and S. E. parallel with that stream, passing through a beautiful and fertile portion of southern Ar kansas, thence S. through a portion of Louisiana, and joins the Red river near its junction with the Mississippi. It is navigable for about 350 m. from its mouth. Its chief tributaries are the Little Missouri, Saline, Bayou Boeuf, &c. The mineral wealth of Arkansas is as yet com paratively undeveloped. It is known that the state abounds in cannel, anthracite, and bitu minous coal, which is found in greatest pro- j fusion along the banks of the Arkansas river i on either side, from a point a short distance above Little Rock to the western boundary of the state. Iron ore of a good quality has been I found in the Ozark mountains. Zinc ore exists mure extensively in Arkansas than in any other j state of the Union except New Jersey, Galena \ or lead ore, frequently bearing silver, abounds i in various parts of the state. Gold has been discovered in White county, but has never been profitably worked. Manganese is abun dant, and, according to De Bow, Arkansas con tains more gypsum than all the other states in the Union. Near the hot springs in the Washita valley is an immense bed of superior oil stone, or novaculite, said to be equal to the celebrated Turkish oil stone. Salt of very < good quality is produced from the saline springs in the vicinity of Washita and elsewhere. The climate is temperate, but subject to sudden i changes in consequence of the north winds. ; The temperature at Little Rock usually ranges I from 15 to 99 F., and averages 62-66, though the mercury has been known to fall as low as 8. The mean temperature for the winter months is 45\82 ; for the summer, i 79 66, the mercury reaching 90 or above for ! from 40 to 50 days during the summer. Ter- | rific thunderstorms prevail during the spring and summer. The precipitation of rain during j the months of July, August, and September, i 1871, amounted to 9 23 inches at Mineral Springs, and 3 75 inches at Clarksville. The total number of deaths in 1870 was 6,119, of which 2,096 were from general diseases ; with respect to local diseases, the most numerous deaths were 639 from atfections of the nervous system, 1,476 of the respiratory system, and 602 of the digestive system. The soil of Ar kansas varies from the richest and most pro ductive to the most sterile; and the climate and productions are equally varied. The river bottoms, composed of a black alluvium, are wonderfully fertile, producing bountiful crops of cotton, corn, tobacco, sweet potatoes, mel ons, peaches, grapes, and various other fruits. There are immense tracts of submerged bot toms equally rich, which might be brought under cultivation by a judicious system of drainage. Rising from the valley, the soil be comes less productive, and in many places will not repay cultivation ; while large portions of the uplands, particularly in the northern part of the state, produce good crops of wheat and other grain, as well as the best of apples, and are well adapted to grazing. The uplands are largely interspersed with rolling prairies, which are generally well watered, though Grand prairie, 90 m. long and 30 broad, situ ated between Arkansas and White rivers, is an exception, being almost entirely without water. The low valleys are destitute of good water, the inhabitants resorting to rain water, which is collected and kept in large tanks sunk into the ground, and filtered river water. These valleys are very unhealthy, particularly to the unacclimated. The more elevated por tions of the state are salubrious. The pro ductions of Arkansas are mainly agricultural. The area of the state is 33,406,720 acres, and in 1870 there were 1,714,466 acres of improved and 3,791,873 of wood land. The cash value of farms was $36,457,476 ; of farming implements and machinery, $2,112,020; total amount of wages paid during the year, including value of board, $3,907,188. There were 83,952 horses, 33,381 mules and asses, 119,607 milch cows, 31,673 working oxen, 179,431 other cattle, 149,592 sheep, 772,662 swine ; value of all live stock $15,795,971. The productions were 683,691 bushels of wheat, 23,422 of rye, 12,208,044 of corn, 486,425 of oats, 46,477 of peas and beans, 399,927 of Irish potatoes, 859,842 of sweet potatoes, 73,021 Ibs. of rice, 529,110 of tobacco, 203,275 of wool, 2,531,011 of butter, 12,047 of wax, 261,824 of honey, ARKANSAS 715 221,546 bales of cotton, 0,800 tons of hay, 00,27 V 2 gallons of cane and 138,859 of sorghum molasses ; value of home manufactures, $723,- 07 ( ,; of slaughtered animals, $3,460,152; esti mated value of all farm products, including betterments and additions to stock, $30,524,- , COS. The number of manufacturing establish ments was 1,304; capital, $2,137,738. Of ! these the most important were 272 Hour and j meal mills, 283 establishments for ginning cot- i ton, 35 for the manufacture of leather, 212 saw mills, and 13 wool-carding establishments, j The state is remarkably well stocked with j wild animals, valuable for their meat, hides, | and furs, among which are the deer, elk, bea- | ver, otter, rabbit, raccoon, wildcat, catamount, , wolf, and bear. Wild turkeys, geese, quails, | and various other birds, are also found in great | abundance. The chief exports are cotton, i maize, wool, hides, and lumber, which find a I market in New Orleans, through which port j Arkansas receives her foreign merchandise. A thriving domestic Commerce is carried on along the Mississippi, Arkansas, and other nav igable streams of the state ; and the traffic with the Indians on the western border is of considerable importance. Among the most striking natural curiosities in the state are the famous hot springs, beneficial to those suffer ing from the effects of mercury in the system, rheumatism, stiffness of the joints, &c. These springs are situated on a small tributary of the Washita, about 6 m. from that river, and 00 in. S. W. of Little Rock, in Hot Springs county. From 75 to 100 of these springs, vary ing in temperature from 105 to 100 F., issue from a lofty ridge of sandstone over looking tlie town, while a number rise from the bed of Hot Spring creek, which flows at the foot of the ridge, and, by reason of the springs, is rendered sufficiently warm for bathing in midwinter. In Pike county, on the Little Missouri river, is a natural bridge, and near by is a mountain of very fine alabaster. Up to Jan. 1, 1870, only 128 miles of railroad had been completed in Arkansas ; but many important lines are now in process of construc tion. The Cairo and Fulton road extends from Cairo, 111., S. W. across Arkansas past Little Rock to Fulton in Hempstead county, and thence to the Texas line ; 301 m. of this road will lie in Arkansas. The Little Rock, Pine Bluff, and New Orleans road extends from the former city to Napoleon on the Mississippi, a distance of 125 m. The Little Rock and Fort Smith road connects these two points, which | are distant 150 m. The Memphis and Little [ Rock extends from a point opposite Memphis, j Tenn., on the Mississippi, to Little Rock, and is I 130 m. long. The Mississippi, Ouaehita, and j Red River road extends from Eunice on the I Mississippi westerly to Fulton on the Red river, ; 155 m. The St. James and Little Rock is pro- \ jected from St. James, Mo., on the Southern ! Pacific railroad, 104 m. W. of St. Louis, to Lit tle Rock, a distance of 240 m. The Missouri, | Kansas, and Texas extends from Junction City, Kansas, on the Kansas Pacific railroad, to Fort Smith, Ark., 325 m. The Memphis and St. ; Louis extends from "Wakefiekl, opposite Mem phis, northerly to Morley, Mo., 142 m., with a branch extending southerly to Helena, 00 m. Under the act of 1808 the number of miles of railroad for which state aid could be granted was limited to 850. The bonds, of the denom ination of $1,000, are payable in 30 years, with 7 per cent, interest payable semi-annually in New York city. The amount of aid awarded to the various companies up to Jan. 1, 1871, is as , follows : 5 i |. ^ 5 2 f ~3 to -3 3 -^ ^* ** 01 ^ 3; NAMES OF ROADS. So e | III - "S 1 5 J 3 .2 J*8 - = 2 x 2 _ n2 1 I 3 K 5 " Memphis and Little Rock Little Rock and Fort Smith 180 156 118 | 95 i 120 150 $10.000 10,000 $1.200,000 1.500,000 $40,000 38.125 Little Rock. Pine Bluff, and Ne%v Orleans 125 45 ! 120 15,000 1,800,000 none. Missouri and Ohio Railroad Cairo and Fulton 160 301 45 j 20 130 800 15,000 10,000 1,950.000 3.000,000 210,500 Little Rock and Helena 98 .. 1 30 15,000 450,000 Total 970 323 j 850 $9,900,000 $288,625 The amount of state bonds actually issued to railroad companies to Sept. 30, 1870, was $2,750,000. Pursuant to an act of the legisla ture of 1809, 53 m. of levee work have been completed upon the rivers of the state, at a to tal cost of $505,917, and 107 m. are in course of construction, comprising levees, railroad beds answering the same purpose, cut-offs, and other works securing land from overflow. I>v these improvements many acres of valuable land will be reclaimed. In 1870 there were two national banks in Arkansas, with a total capital of $200,000 and a circulation of $179,- 500. The present constitution of Arkansas was adopted Feb. 11, 1808, and ratified by the people March 13, 1808. The equality of all persons before the law is recognized. The or dinance of secession of 1801 and the state debt contracted in waging war against the federal government are declared null and void. The legislature, which assembles biennially on the first Monday of January (odd years), consists of a house of representatives of 82 members chosen for two years, and a senate of 20 mem bers elected for four years. One half of the senators are chosen every two years. Kepre- 716 ARKANSAS G:ntatives must be ma^e citizens of the United States not less than 21 years old, must have resided in the state for one year, and be qual ified electors and residents of the districts from which they are elected. In addition to these qualifications senators must have attained the age of 25 years. No person holding a federal, state, or county office, with certain exceptions, is eligible as a member of the legislature. A majority of the members elected to each house is sufficient to pass a bill over the governor s veto. Provision is made for taking the census in 18T5, and every ten years thereafter ; and immediately afrer every census, state or fed eral, the legislative districts may be rearranged. The executive power is vested in a governor, lieutenant governor, secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, attorney general, and superintendent of public instruction, who are chosen by the people for a term of four years. The governor must be not less than 25 years of age, a citizen of the United States for five years, an elector and a resident of the state for one year. His salary is $5,000. No member of congress or person holding a federal or state office is eligi ble as governor. The executive appoints a commissioner of public works and internal im provements, who is also ex officio commissioner of immigration and state lands. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, 10 circuit courts, and such inferior courts as the legisla ture may establish. There is a separate chan cery court at Little Rock for Pulaski county. The supreme court consists of a chief justice appointed by the governor with the consent of the senate for eight years, and four justices elected by the people for eight years, two being chosen every four years. -The judges of the circuit and inferior courts are appointed by the governor with the consent of the senate for six years. Two justices of the peace are elected in each township for two years. General elec tions are held by ballot biennially on the Tues day next following the first Monday in Novem ber. Every male citizen of the United States, or person who has declared his intention to become a citizen, who has attained the age of 21 years and resided in the state six months next preceding the election, and who is an actual resident of the county in which he offers to vote, is qualified as an elector, except sol diers, sailors, and marines in the United States service stationed in Arkansas, criminals, idiots, the insane, and the following classes : 1, those who during the civil war took the oath of alle giance or gave bonds for loyalty and good be havior to the United States government, and afterward gave aid, comfort, or countenance to those engaged in armed hostility to the federal government; 2, those disqualified as electors or from holding office in the state from which they came ; 3, those persons who during the civil war violated the rules of civilized warfare ; 4, those who may be disqualified by the 14th amendment to the federal constitution, or by the reconstruction acts of congress. All per sons included in the above classes who have openly advocated or have voted for the recon struction measures of congress, and accept the | equality of all men before the law, are deemed qualified electors under the constitution. The : general assembly is empowered to remove by a two-thirds vote of each house, approved by ! the governor, the political disabilities from any ! person who has in good faith returned to his i allegiance to the federal government, except in ; the case of those who after the adoption of this ! constitution continued their opposition to the reconstruction measures of congress. A regis- j tration of voters is to be made before every I general election. All persons before register- I ing or voting must take an ontli never to coun- I tenance secession, to accept the civil equality of all men, and never to injure or countenance others in injuring any person on account of past or present support of the government of the United States, or the principle of equal rights, or affiliation with any political party. The constitution requires the general assembly to maintain a system of free schools, and enforce the attendance of every child between 5 and 18 years of age for a term equivalent to three years, ! unless educated by other means. A free school i must be kept in each school district for not less | than three months during the year. The legis- | lature is also required to establish and maintain ; a state university, with departments for in- [ struction in teaching, agriculture, and natural sciences, as soon as the public school fund will permit. Liberal provisions are made for the protection of homesteads, and of the separate | property of married women; and taxes are limited to 2 per cent, of assessed value. The funded and unfunded debt of the state, i principal and accrued interest, amounted on Jan. 1, 1870, after deducting estimated assets, to $4,522,297 77, the annual interest on which is about $300,000. The receipts and expendi- I tures of the principal funds from July 3, 1808, j to Sept. 30, 1870, were: General revenue re- : ceipts, $1,110,483 43, including $280,703 57 on hand at former date; disbursements, $327,777 00 ; school fund receipts, $429,449 90, in cluding $04,875 32 on hand; disbursements, | $370,454 95 ; permanent school fund receipts, ; $35,591 74; disbursements, $399 25; military fund receipts, $70,302 20; disbursements, ! $970 84; sinking fund receipts, $142,382 20; disbursements, $43,779 91; excess fund re ceipts, $108,932; disbursements. $2,308 23. I According to the census of 1870, the assessed | value of real estate was $53,102,304; personal 1 property, $31,420,539; true value of real and personal estate, $150,394,091 ; total taxation not national, $2,800,890. At present the state tax amounts to 9 mills on the dollar, of which 5 ! mills are for general purposes, 2 mills for school | purposes, and 2^ mills for the payment of in- j terest on the public debt. The present system | of free public schools was established in 1808. ! The number of children of school age in 1870 was 180. -2 74; attending school, 107,908 ; teach- ARKANSAS ARKWRIGIIT 17 ers employed, 2,302 ; number of teachers in stitutes, 41 ; teachers attending institutes, 944; whole amount paid teachers in 1870, $405,748; number of school houses built in 1869 and 1870, 657; persons subject to per capita tax of $1 in 18(59, 79,544; per capita tax collected in 18(59, $01,4(55; number of schools taught in 1870, 2,537. The second apportionment of the school fund, based on the school tax for 18(59, was made in 1870, and amounted to $187,427 08. The common .school fund on Oct. 1, 1870, amounted to $58,954 95, and the permanent school fund to $35,192 49. In 1868 the legis lature accepted the grant of land, amounting to about 150,000 acres, made by congress in 1862 toward the support of a college of agri culture and the mechanic arts, and provided for the creation of the Arkansas industrial uni versity, not yet established. Among the state institutions, all at Little Rock, are the institute for the blind, having 38 pupils in 1868; the deaf mute institute, with 43 pupils in 1870; and the penitentiary, with 199 prisoners in 1870. There are published in the state 4 daily, 2 tri weekly, and 41 weekly papers, and 4 monthly periodicals. The average circulation of each issue is 650, and the aggregate annual circula tion 2,438,716. Arkansas was originally a por tion of the territory of Louisiana, purchased from the French in 1803. It remained a part of Louisiana territory till 1812, when the pres ent state of Louisiana was admitted to the Union, and the remaining portion was organ ized as Missouri territory, which name it held till 1819, when Missouri formed a state constitu tion and Arkansas was erected into a territory bearing its present name. It remained under a territorial government till June. 1836, when a constitution was formed at Little Rock, and Arkansas became a state. In January, 1861, the people decided by a vote of 27,412 to 15,- 826 in favor of a convention to consider the question of secession. That body assembled in March, and deferred the decision to a popu lar election to be held in August. Meanwhile the state authorities seized the arsenals at Lit tle Rock (Feb. 8) and Napoleon (April 24), and upon Fort Smith on the western border (April 23). The convention reassembled May 6, in consequence of President Lincoln s call for troops, and passed the ordinance of secession by a vote of 69 to 1, withdrawing the submis sion of the question to the people. The battle of Pea Ridge, or Elk Horn, in N. TV. Arkansas, was fought March 6 and 7, 1862, between the confederates under Van Dorn and the Union forces under Curtis, and resulted in a victory of the latter, who then advanced to the Mis sissippi and occupied Helena. On Dec. 7, 1862, the confederate general Ilindman, attempting to prevent the junction of Gens. Blunt and Heron, was defeated by Blunt at Prairie Grove near Fayetteville, with a loss of about 1,200. Arkansas Post, on the Arkansas river, was captured by Gen. McClernand and Admiral Porter, Jan. 11 1863. The confederates under 1 Holmes attempted to retake Helena July 4. br ; t were defeated by Gen. Prentiss. Little Rock I was taken by an expedition commanded by ; Gen. Steele, Sept. 10, without serious resistance, Avhile the W. and S. parts of the state were 1 occupied by Blunt and Stephenson, Holmes being driven into Texas; but the confederates recovered possession of most of the southern I counties after the reverse of Gen. Banks in Louisiana (April, 1864). On Oct. 30, 1863, a meeting of loyal citizens representing about 20 counties was held at Fort Smith to institute measures for reorganizing the state govern ment. A convention assembled at Little Rock Jan. 8, 1864, when representatives from 42 counties were present, and framed a loyal con stitution. At an election held on March 14, | 15, and 16, 12,177 votes were cast for the con stitution and 226 against it. State and county officers, representatives in congress, and mem bers of the legislature from 40 counties were elected ; and in April a state government was organized. During 1865 much suffering and destitution prevailed among the people, and in May the federal government issued 75,097 rations to refugees and 46,845 to freedmen. Under the reconstruction act of March 2, 1867, declaring that u no legal state governments i or adequate protection for life or property now ; exists" in the states lately in rebellion, Ar kansas and Mississippi were constituted the fourth military district. A registration of I voters was made under instructions from Gen. Ord, and delegates were elected in November ! to a constitutional convention which assembled | at Little Rock Jan. 7, 1868. The new consti- j tution was ratified by a small majority of the 1 people in March. On June 22 congress passed over the president s veto a resolution admitting Arkansas to representation, and the adminis- I tration was thereupon transferred to the civil ; authorities. On ^Nov. 9, 1868, Gov. Clayton declared 10 counties in a state of insurrection. On March 22, 1869, martial law ceased through - | out the state. The 14th amendment to the ! federal constitution was ratified in April, 1868, ! and the 15th in March, 1869. ARKANSAS, a S. E. county of Arkansas, I bounded E. by White river and intersected by | the Arkansas; area, about 1,200 sq. m. ; pop. | in 1870, 8,268, of whom 4,212 were colored. ! The surface is level, and about one third of it is occupied by the Grand prairie, the largest in I the state, and very fertile. The county in i 1870 produced 217,450 bushels of Indian corn, j 17,327 of Irish and 28,598 of sweet potatoes, and 12,315 bales of cotton. Capital, Arkansas Post. ARRWRIGHT, Sir Richard, an English invent- i or, born at Preston, Lancashire, Dec. 23, 1732, i died at Cromford, Derbyshire, Aug. 3, 1792. He was the youngest child of a family of 13, i and his parents were too poor to give him any education. He earned his living as a barber, shaving in a cellar for a penny, till he was 28, when he became a dealer in hair, and invented 18 APvKWKIGHT AKL1NOOUKT a dye l\y the stile of which lie accumulated a ! little property. His first experiments in me- ! chanics were attempts to solve the problem of ! perpetual motion ; but he soon directed his attention to improvements in the cotton manu- i facture. At that time English cottons were made with only the weft of cotton, the warp . being of linen, and it was considered impossi ble to spin cotton fine and strong enough for the warp. Moreover, the supply of weft was short of the demand, though Hargreaves of ; Lancashire had shortly before invented his | jenny, and had several machines at work in j Nottingham. In 1708 Arkwright produced 1 the model of his famous cotton-spinning frame, j by which the thread could be spun of any j required fineness and strength and with im- I mense velocity. Fearing the same hostility that had driven Hargreaves out of Lancashire, he proceeded at once to Nottingham. There he met with Messrs. Wright, bankers, who en gaged to furnish the capital necessary to per fect the invention, but soon became frightened and retired. Arkwright then applied to Messrs, j Need and Strutt, and the latter (the celebrated inventor of the stocking frame) saw at once the value of the invention, and the firm took an in terest in it. Arkwright was profoundly igno rant of mechanics, but a few suggestions of Mr. Strutt about the wheel work overcame the last difficulty, and a machine driven by a horss was soon in operation. In 1771 another mill, driven by water power, was established at Oromford, in Derbyshire. The first patent was granted in 1769, and unsuccessfully con tested in 1772. In 1775 Arkwright obtained anew patent for improvements, but it seems he had included in it things discovered before, and six years later it was declared void by the courts; but in 1785 he obtained a decision in his favor, and was reinstated in the monopoly. The object of Arkwright s invention was to spin cotton fine, with a hard twist, and fit for warp. This was done by the use of drawing-roll ers, by sets of two, the second set moving faster than the first, and by a fast-revolving spindle giving a twist to the cotton as it came out from between the second pair. The introduc tion of this machine, which was far superior to that of Hargreaves, caused the latter to die of grief. Arkwright encountered the bitterest hostility, not so much from the working class as from the manufacturers, who at one time even refused to buy his yarns, and tried to ruin him by mischievous legislation in parliament. His energy and perseverance, however, triumphed over all obstacles. In the management of his mill he showed a remarkable capacity for or ganization, and his labors were rewarded with , a fortune of 500,000. lie acquired the rudi ments of learning after he was 50 years old, was knighted in 1786 on occasion of pre senting an address to the king, and in 1787 served as high sheriff of Derbyshire. His in vention enables one man to do as much work &3 13C could do before, and it is calculated that 40,000,000 hands would scarcely be sufficient to accomplish the spinning now done by ma chinery in England alone. ARLES (Celtic Ar-lait, near the waters; Lat. Arelate), a town of France, in Provence, department of Bouches-du-Rhone, on the left bank of the lower Rhone, at the point where the river divides and forms the island of Camargue, 46 m. N. N. W. of Marseilles; pop. in 1866, 26,367. It is an ill-built and somewhat un healthy place, though situated amid beautiful environs. Its ancient amphitheatre, although, not as well preserved as that of Nimes, is su perior in size and magnificence. An obelisk, consisting of a single block of granite about 50 feet high, is yet standing on one of the public thoroughfares, while the ruins of an aqueduct, of two temples, of a triumphal arch, an exten sive cemetery, and numerous fragments of granite and marble columns, are to be seen in different parts of the city. The statue known as the Venus of Aries, a rival to the Venus de Medici, now in the national museum of Paris, was discovered here in 1651. The Ro land tower and the Byzantine church of St. Trophimus deserve mention, as also the town hall, designed by Mansard. Aries contains a school of navigation, a college, a collection of natural history, a museum of antiquities, a public library, and a theatre. Silk, soap, and glass bottles are manufactured, and the sau sages of Aries are held in high esteem. The ancient Arelate was an important toAvn at the time of Caesar s invasion, became a prosperous Roman colony, was for a time the residence of Constantine, became the capital of the Gothic king Euric, was plundered by the Saracens in 730, and 150 years later became the capital of Cisjurane Burgundy, and in 930 of both Cisju- rane and Transjurane Burgundy, united as the kingdom of Arelate or Aries. (See BURGUN DY.) In 1251 it came into the possession of Charles of Anjou, count of Provence. It was united to the crown of France under Louis XL Several important ecclesiastical synods were held here in the 4th and 5th centuries. ARLINCOIIRT, Victor, viscount d , a French poet and. novelist, born in 1789, died Jan. 22, 1856. His fiither, a farmer of the public reve nue, died by the guillotine in the revolution. Victor commended himself to Napoleon s no tice by publishing in 1810 an allegorical poem in his honor, entitled Une matinee de Charle magne, for which he was rewarded with two court offices. He afterward undertook an epic, the hero of which was still Charlemagne, or rather Napoleon, but it was unfinished on the fall of the empire. D Arlincourt easily trans ferred his political allegiance to the Bourbons, but did not meet.with favor from Louis XVIII. The publication of his Caroleide was soon fol lowed by several novels, Le Solitaire, L jfitran- aere, Le li cnegat, Ipsiboe, and Ismalie, the last being in rhyme. These eccentric works acquired an equivocal sort of celebrity, Le Soli taire, of which Charles the Bold was the hero, ARLOX ARMADA 719 having been translated into several languages and widely circulated. His tragedy, Le Siege de Paris, played at the Theatre-Francois, was received with such bursts of laughter that the actors did not attempt a second performance. In the hitter part of his lite he fell into obscurity. ARLON (anc. Orolmmum), a town of Belgium, capital of the province and 1 6 in. W. N". W. of the city of Luxemburg ; pop. in 1867, 5,779. It is situated in the midst of forests on a ridge of the Ardennes, and is rapidly increasing in pros perity owing to its ironware, leather, and other manufactures. It was known to the Romans. At the end of the 18th century it was the scene of various engagements between the Austrian and French armies. ARMADA, Spanish, the great naval armament sent by King Philip II. of Spain, in 1588, for the conquest of England. The fullest account of this armament is given in a book published about the time it set sail by order of Philip, under the title La felicisima Armada que el rey Don Felipe nuestro Senor mando juntar en el puerto de Lisbon, 1588, hecka por Pedro de Pax Sal as. A copy of this work was pro cured for Lord Burleigh, so that the English government was beforehand acquainted with every detail of the expedition. (This copy, con taining notes up to March, 1588, is now in the British museum.) The fleet is therein stated to have consisted of 65 galleons and large ships, 25 ureas of 300 to 700 tons, 1 9 tenders of 70 to 100 tons, 18 small frigates, 4 galeasses, and 4 galleys; in all, 130 vessels, with a total ton nage of 75,868 tons. They were armed with 2,431 guns, of which 1,497 were of bronze, mostly full cannon (48 pdrs.), culverines (long 30 and 20 pdrs.), &c. ; the ammunition consist ed of 123,790 round shot and 5,175 cwt. of powder, giving about 50 rounds per gun, at an average charge of 4^ Ibs. The ships were manned with 8,456 sailors, and carried 19,295 soldiers and 180 priests and monks. Mules, carts, &c., were on board to move the field ar tillery when landed. The whole was provision ed, according to the above authority, for six months. This fleet, unequalled in its time, was to proceed to the Flemish coast, where another army of 30,000 foot and 4,000 horse, under the duke of Parma, was to embark, under its pro tection, in flat-bottomed vessels constructed for the purpose, and manned by sailors brought from the Baltic. The whole were then to pro ceed to England. In that country Queen Eliza beth had, by vigorous exertions, increased her fleet of originally 30 ships to about 180 vessels of various sizes, but generally inferior in that respect to those of the Spaniards. They in cluded a large number of privateers, armed merchantmen, and vessels furnished by the nobility, and were manned by 17,500 sailors. They were wretchedh r provisioned, and so ill supplied with ammunition that they could hardly have made a serious fight but for the powder which they captured from the enemy. The English military force was divided into two armies: one, of 18,500 men, under the earl of Leicester, for immediately opposing the en emy ; the other, of 45,000, for the defence of the queen s person. According to a MS. in the British museum, entitled " Details of the Eng lish Force assembled to Oppose the Spanish Armada" (MS. Reg. 18th, c. xxi.), 2,000 infant ry were also expected from the Low Countries. The armada was to leave Lisbon in the begin ning of May, but, owing to the death of the admiral Santa Cruz and his vice admiral, the departure was delayed. The duke of Medina Sidonia, a man totally unacquainted with naval matters, was now made captain general of the fleet; his vice admiral, Martinez de Ricalde, however, was an expert seaman. Having left Lisbon for Corunna for stores, May 29, 1588, the fleet was dispersed by a violent storm, and, though all the ships joined at Corunna with the exception of four, they were considerably shat tered, and had to be repaired. Reports having reached England that the armament was com pletely disabled, the government ordered its own ships to be laid up ; but Lord Howard, the admiral, opposed this order, set sail for Corunna, learned the truth, and on his return continued warlike preparations. Soon after, being inform ed that the armada had hove in sight, he weigh ed anchor, and as it passed Plymouth, July 31, stood out in its rear and opened a destruc tive fire. Having the windward position, and being greatly superior in speed, he was able to inflict serious damage without loss to himself. All the way along the channel the English fol lowed the armada with the same tactics, taking skilful advantage of the changing winds, harass ing the Spaniards, capturing two or three of their best vessels, and yet keeping all the while virtually out of reach. The Spaniards pro ceeded toward the coast of Flanders, keeping as close together as possible. In the various minor engagements which took place, the Eng lish always w^on the victory over the clumsy and undermanned Spanish galleons, crowded with soldiers. The Spanish artillery, too, was very badly served, and almost always planted too"high. Off Calais the armada cast anchor, waiting for the duke of Parma s fleet to come out of the Flemish harbors; but Parma had nothing but unarmed barges, and could not come out until the armada had 1, eaten off the Anglo-Dutch blockading squadron. Driving the Spaniards out of Calais roads by means of fire ships, Aug. 8, Howard and Drake now forced them toward the Flemish coast, with the purpose of getting them into the North sea and cutting off their communications with Dunkirk. The battle began at daybreak off Gravelines, and lasted till dark. The Span iards were completely defeated. Several of their largest ships were lost, and 4,000 men were killed, and probably at least as many more wounded. It was impossible either to return to Calais or to reach the duke of Parma. The provisions were nearly exhausted, and the English ilect, apparently little injured, st Il ARMADILLO hovered on their weather beam. It was im perative that they should return to Spain for fresh stores. The passage through the chan nel heing closed by the English fleet, the Span iards, now counting 120 vessels, undertook to round Scotland and Ireland. But in the neigh borhood of the Orkneys they were dispersed by a storm. Some of them foundered. About 30 were afterward wrecked on the W. coast of Ireland. Those of the crews who escaped to shore were killed generally, and it was cal culated that about 14,000 thus perished. The remnant which reached Spain in September and October, with Sidonia and Recalde, num bered only 54 vessels and 9,000 or 10,000 starving men. ARMADILLO ((lasypus, Linn.), a genus of the class mammalia and order edentata, forming a small family, intermediate between the sloths and ant-eaters, and having an affinity to the families chlamypJwrus and oricteropm. They are distinguished by the possession of molar teeth only. The armadillos have a singular coat armor covering their whole body and head. It consists of three bony bucklers, com posed of small polygonal plates set in juxta position to one another, but neither connected by joints nor separately movable. The buck lers which cover the rump and shoulders of the animal, each forming as it were a single solid piece, are capable of little pliancy or mo tion save what is allowed during the life of the animal by the partial elasticity of the thin shell Armadillo (Dasypns sexcinctus or D. encoubert). or crust lubricated by the animal oils which penetrate it. These bucklers, however, are connected by a number of transverse movable bands, composed of similar plates with the principal bucklers, which are themselves con nected by the soft and pliant inner skin of the animal, and thus admit of the most rapid motions, being situated immediately above the loins. The buckler or helmet which defends the head has no connection of any sort with the armor of the shoulders, so that" the neck is left perfectly free, while it is at the same time completely protected by the projection of the skull-piece. The legs of the armadillos are ex tremely short and stout, covered with scaly plates, furnished with powerful claws for bur rowing in the ground, and guarded r.a far as the knees by the defending bucklers; these descend so low as to make a complete defence to the belly of the animal, which is covered only with a rough skin, from which originata a few long coarse hairs, and a partial one to the thighs and knees. Except in one species, the armadillos are devoid of hair, save that above mentioned, and a few straggling bristles, which proceed from the inner skin, between the jointed plates of the lumbar region. The tails of all the species but one are armed with annular bands similar to those connecting the bucklers, and in all are adapted to a notch cut out of the posterior buckler in order to receive them. The teeth of the armadillos are of simple cylindrical form, varying from 7 or 8 to 17 or 18. in number, on each side of each jaw, and when the inouth is closed shut one into another. The different species have 4 or 5 toes on their fore feet, and invariably 5 on their hind feet. Their eyes are small, their ears erect and pointed, and they have elongated snouts. They are mostly nocturnal in their habits, though a few of the species go abroad by day; perfectly inoffensive; are never known to bite, or attempt any defence ; but when pur sued immediately commence burrowing, Avhich they do with such power and rapidity that they easily evade their pursuers. The ordina ry food of armadillos consists of fallen fruits, roots, worms, ants, and carrion. Their grind ing teeth enable them to feed only on soft sub stances, and therefore they can devour flesh only when putrid. Abundance of this food they find at all seasons on the pampas of South America, where cattle are slaughtered for the sake of their hides alone. On this food the armadillos become immensely fat, when they are esteemed a great delicacy and are served up roasted whole in their shells. The armadil los are arranged by Cuvier in five small groups, according to the arrangement of their teeth, toes, and other structural differences: 1. The cachicames, with 4 anterior toes, 7 teeth on a side, above and below, a pointed muzzle, and a long, annulated tail. 2. The aparas, with toes and tail as the last species, but with or 10 teeth on each side, above and be low. This animal has also the power of roll ing itself into a ball like a hedgehog. 3. The encouberts, with 5 anterior toes- and 9 or 10 teeth, throughout. In addition, however, they have 2 teeth on the intermaxillary bones of the upper jaw resembling incisors, in which they differ not only from all armadillos, but from all the order edentata. 4. The kabas- sous, which have 5 toes both before and be hind, but the claws obliquely arranged, so as to give them unusual power in burrowing and clinging to the soil when seized. They have 9 or 10 teeth, throughout; and their tails are undefended by armor, as in the other species. 5. The priodontes, or last subdivision of the armadillos, in addition to the unequal toes and enormous claws of the kabassous, have ARMAGEDDON ARMAGNAC 721 from 22 to 24 small teeth, throughout, on each side of both jaws. Of the cachicames, or first division, there are three species, of which the commonest is the dasypus peba, or black tatu of Paraguay. It is aboiit 1C inches long, and was originally known under the appellations of the 7, 8, and 9-banded armadillo, three species being made out of one. The other species of this group are the mule tatu, so called from the length of its ears, and the tatu verda- duro, hardly distinguishable from the last, ex cept by the breadth of the movable bands and the size of the croup buckler. Of the aparas, there is but one species, the inataco, which has in general but 3 bands and a short, blunt tail, covered by a single horny crust. The en- couberts have three species: the poyou, or yellow-footed armadillo, which has usually but 7 or 8 movable bands, and is easily known by its triangular snout, tlat body, and short legs; the hairy armadillo, remarkable for its more copious growth of bristles from between the movable bands, and for its practice of burrow ing into the bodies of dead horses, and remain ing within them until all the llesh is consumed, and nothing left but the skeleton and hide ; and lastly the pichiy, which is the smallest of all the armadillos. The kabassous have but one species, the tatouay, or wounded arma dillo, so called by the Indians from an idea that the scaly covering of its tail, which is naked and looks raw, has been torn off by violence. The last subdivision of armadillos, the prio- dontes, has likewise but one species, the dasy- pus gigas, or great armadillo of Cuvier. It is remarkable for its size, being 3 feet 3 inches long; for its movable bands, 12 or 13 in num ber, composed of rectangular plates ; for the thickness of its tail at the base; and for the spiral lines of the scales by which it is defend ed. All the armadillos are inhabitants of Cen tral and South America, being found dispersed from Mexico, over the pampas of Buenos Ayres, and south as far as Paraguay. The armadillo runs with remarkable speed, easily outstrip ping a man. Although the females in no spe- des have more than 4 mammas, and in some but 2, they invariably produce 0, 8, or 10 young at a birth, bearing hut once in a season. ARMAGEDDON (Ileb. Jwr, hill, and Megiddo), the name probably given to the whole table land of Esdraelon in Galilee and Samaria, from the town of Megiddo, which stood near the centre of it, upon the site, according to Dr. Robinson, of the modern Lejjun (the Roman Legio). Armageddon was the great battle field of Palestine. On this elevated plain were fought the battles of the Kishon, Jezreel, Gilboa, and Megiddo. The fame of this field of many battles explains the passage (Rev. xvi. 14-1 G) in which the seer of the Apocalyptic vision de scribes God as. summoning his foes to "a place called in the Hebrew tongue Armageddon," to the battle of the " great day of God Almighty." ARMAGH. I. A county of northern Ireland, in the province of Ulster," bet ween Lough Neagh VOL. i. 43 on the north and the county of Louth on the south; area, 512 sq. m. ; pop. in 1871, 171,355. In the S. W. part are several groups of incon siderable mountains ; the rest of the surface is level or undulating, "and the soil is generally fertile. The principal rivers are the Black- water and the Bann. The northern and central portions of the county are divided into small farms; grain, vegetables, and flax are their products. Linen weaving is the chief manu facturing industry. The principal towns are Armagh and Xewry ; part of the latter lies also in the county of Down. Portadown and Lurgan are noted for their linen manufactures. II. A city, capital of the preceding county, situ ated on the Callam, an affluent of the Black- water, 36 m. by railway W. S. W. of Belfast; pop. in 1871, 8,952. It is well built round a hill, from the centre of which rises the famous old cathedral, recently repaired and occupying the site of the original building erected by St. Patrick. The town is supplied with water from an adjoining reservoir and is lighted with gas. The Anglican and Roman Catholic arch bishops of Armagh both bear the title of pri mate of all Ireland. The trade chiefly consists in grain, flax yarn, and linen. It has severnl branch banks, and lively weekly corn and general markets, and the prosperity of the town is rapidly increasing. Between the 5th and 9th centuries Armagh was a renowned ecclesiastical and intellectual centre, and sub sequently it was often devastated by the Danes. After the English invasion it was al most uninterruptedly under Irish rulers up to the reformation, after which period it became the scene of many conflicts between the English and Irish forces till the beginning of the 17th century. The military headquarters, formerly in Armagh, have been removed to Belfast. ARMAGNAC, an ancient territory of France, in the province of Gascony, now forming the department of Gers, and a part of Lot-et-Ga- ronne, Tarn-et-Garonne, and Ilaute-Garonne. It was successively included in Aquitaine, in the duchy of Gascony, and in the county of Fesenzac, and was erected into a separate county in 960. Its rulers during the 14th and loth centuries became very powerful. Louis XL united it to the crown in 1481. but it was restored by Charles VI II.. reunited to the crown on the death of the last count in 1497, and, after new changes, descended to Henry of Xavarre, who incorporated it with the kingdom of France on his accession in 1589. Louis XIV. gave the title to Henry of Lor raine in 1645, and it was borne by his descen dants until the revolution. Of the ancient counts of Armagnac, the most distinguished were the following: I. Bernard VII., killed June 12, 1418. He distinguished himself in the war with the English in Guienne. When the murder of Louis, duke of Orleans, broth er of Charles VI., by the emissaries of John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, left the Or- leanists without a chief (1407), he married 722 ARMAND his daughter to young Charles of Orleans, be came the leader of the faction which hence forth assumed the name of Armagnac, and was appointed by the queen constable of France. lie succeeded in seizing on Paris, which he governed with an iron rule. At last the Pa risians became tired of his tyranny, and by treason delivered the city into the hands of L Isle-Adam, one of the Burgundian chiefs. Bernard hid himself, but was betrayed by a mason in whom he had confided, and was im prisoned. A few days later the jails were mobbed by the populace, when all the Arma- gnacs were murdered, Bernard among the rest. II. Jean V., grandson of the preceding, born about 1420, assassinated in 1473. He made himself notorious by his uncontrollable ^ pas sions, and publicly married his own sister, Jeanne Isabelle, who had been engaged to King Henry VI. of England. This crime was made a pretext by Charles VII. for depriving him of his possessions, which were afterward restored to him by Louis XI. Notwithstanding this, Jean entered the league of the public weal against Louis, and was driven into Aragon ; but by the aid of Louis s brother, the duke of Guienne, he recovered his estates, and with stood a siege in the castle of Lectoure. The royalists obtained an entrance by stratagem, put the count to death, and forced his wife to drink of a poison which killed both herself and her unborn child. ARMAND, Charles. See ROUAEIE, Marquis de la. ARMANSPERG, Joseph Louis, count, a Bavarian statesman, regent of Greece, born in Lower Bavaria, Feb. 28, 1787, died April 3, 1853. In the war of 1813- 14 he was commissioner of Bavaria in the allied army, and belonged to the board which governed the conquered regions on the Rhine. He participated in the congress of Vienna in 1815, was one of the plenipo tentiaries with the allied army during the oc cupation of France, and administered a large district of that country. In 1825 he was cho sen president of the chamber of deputies, and became leader of the moderate opposition. King Louis I. made him secretary of the treas ury and of foreign affairs. He was one of the founders of the German Zollverein. By his opposition to the ultramontanes he forfeited the confidence of the king, and retired into private life, but in 1832 was recalled to take the regency of Greece during the minority of King Otho. He entered Greece in February, 1833, and ruled until 1837 with almost limitless power. His administration was in many re spects beneficial, but he finally became unpop ular with the nation, the sovereign, and all the foreign diplomatists except the English minis ter, and was dismissed. ARMATOLES, Christian captains commanding bands of klephts or brigands, who, after the establishment of the Ottoman empire in Eu rope, succeeded in maintaining themselves independent in the possession of inaccessible mountain defiles. These warlike chiefs, con- ARMENIA stantly striving for the independence of Greece, became more and more formidable, especially in j Epirus and other parts of northern Greece ; and j about the beginning of the 17th century the I pashas were obliged "to treat with them, and admit their right to govern their mountain country. They took a leading part in the Greek revolution; and among the armatolic chieftains most distinguished in this war were Eustrates, Gogo, Makry, Saphacas and Karai s- i kakis (both of whom perished under the walls of Athens in 1827), Kaltzodemos (killed before Missolonghi), Odysseus, Panuryas, and Marco Bozzaris, the commander of the Suliotes. ARMEJVGAUD, Jean Germain Desire, a French art historian, born at Castres, department of Tawi, in 1797, died at Passy, near Paris, in March, 1869. He is the author of Histoire des pein- tres de toutes les ecoles depuis la renaissance jiisqu d nos jours (1849, completed by Charles | Blanc), Les galeries publiques de V Europe (1856), Les chefs d wuvres de T art cJiretien (1858), Les tresors de Tart (1859), Le Parthe non de VUstoire (1863- 4), and other illustrated works. ARMENTIERES, a town of France, in the de partment of Le Nord, situated on the Lys, oppo site the Belgian frontier, 10 m. 1ST. E. of Lille; pop. in 1866, 15,579. It has a college, an insane asylum, and important manufactures of linen and cotton goods. Formerly the town was fortified, but after its conquest by Louis XIV. the works were razed. ARMENIA, an inland region of western Asia, | mostly within the present limits of Asiatic Turkey, but extending into the adjacent do minions of Russia and Persia. Its boundaries have varied greatly at different periods, and are not now authoritatively fixed, estimates of its area varying from 50,000 up to 150,000 sq. m. In its largest sense, it formerly reached toward or to the Caucasus mountains on the ! N"., nearly or quite to the Caspian sea on the E., included (according to some) the modern lake of Urumiah on the S. E., and embraced a part of Cappadocia on the S. W. and i W. ; thus extending from about Ion. 36 to I 49 E. and from about lat. 37 to 42 N. Ar- | menia Minor or Lesser Armenia lay W. of the I Euphrates, and was the eastern part of Asia Minor ; Armenia Major or Greater Armenia, usually called simply Armenia, sometimes Ar- < menia Proper, lies entirely E. of the Euphra- 1 tes. In its most flourishing period Armenia I was divided into 15 provinces and 187 cantons ! or subdivisions, the central province being i Ararad or Ararat. Armenia Major is an ele vated and mountainous region, watered with | abundant rains, and covered for some months I in the year with deep snows. Its climate is j severe for its latitude, which is that of New ! Jersey and Delaware, but is generally healthy. Its winter lasts from October to May ; its sum mer is short and warm. It has five principal rivers : the Euphrates and Tigris, which unite , and flow into the Persian gulf; the Kur (an- ARMENIA 723 ciently Cyrus) and Aras (Araxes), which unite and fall into the Caspian sea; and the Tcho- ruk (anciently Acampsis), which falls into the Black sea. A high table land, 4,000 to 8,000 ft. above the sea, constitutes a considerable part of the country, and is supposed to have been once a large inland sea, from which the Taurus, Antitaurus, and other mountains were upheaved by volcanic action. Its highest mountain is the Great Ararat, which rises more than 3 m. above the level of the sea, and is covered with perpetual ice and snow. An eruption of Ararat and disastrous earthquakes occurred in 1840. Traces of volcanic action abound through a large part of this whole re gion. Among its rocks are trap, porphyry, basalt, granite, syenite, limestone, sandstone, tfcc. It has mines of gold, silver, lead, iron, cop per, and rock salt. Its largest lake, Van, is salt, nearly 5,500 ft. above the sea, with an area of about 1,400 sq. m. The lake of Urumiah is also salt, but is not generally included in Ar menia. The lake of Sevan in Russian Armenia is sometimes called "sweet sea," to distinguish it from the salt lakes. The agricultural re sources of Armenia are good, but, in conse quence of misgovernment, much of the land is unimproved. There are rich pastures ; some parts yield abundantly grain, tobacco, manna, hemp, cotton, melons, cucumbers, grapes, figs, pomegranates, apples, peaches, mulberries, and walnuts. Among its forest trees are chestnut, beech, walnut, ash, maple, pine, fir, and oak. Horses, cows, oxen, buffaloes, sheep, and goats are common domestic animals. Erzerum, gen erally considered the chief city of Turkish Ar menia, is the abode of a high pasha, who bears the title of seraskier. Van, Bayazid, Kars, Bitlis. and Mush, to which some add Diarbekir and Batum, are other important places in Tur kish Armenia. Erivan, Xakhtchevan, Shusha, and Akhaltzikh are leading cities of Russian Armenia, which also contains Etchmiadzin, the abode of the catholicos or head of the Arme nian church. Urumiah, Khoi, and even Ta briz, in Persia, have been reckoned as cities of Armenia. The Armenians proper, who how ever form but a small portion of the inhabi tants of Armenia, call themselves Haiks, from a traditional ancestor Haig or Haicus, whom they represent as the son of Togar- mah, who was a great-grandson of Noah through the line of Japheth and Gomer (Gen. x.). ^ Haig, they say, was one of the prefects or directors in building the tower of Babel, but, refusing to pay divine homage to the image of Belus, who reigned in Babylonia, went north ward with his family and others into the region of Ararat. Belus or Bel pursued them, and was slain in battle by llaig, who then went on to found cities, introduce wise laws and regu lations, and promote the prosperity of his people, till his death, at the age of nearly 400 years. His eldest son, Armenag, suc ceeded him as king, and was himself suc ceeded by his son Aramais, who gave name to r Armavir, a large and beautiful city, built of | hewn stone, and situated probably at a place called Kusagh, near the Araxes. Armavir was the capital of the kingdom for about 1,800 years, 1 while the llaig dynasty, including 59 kings, i were on the throne. Aram, the seventh of 1 this dynasty, and contemporary with the pa- triarchs Isaac and Jacob, is said to have de feated the Babylonian and Median invaders, I conquered a large part of Asia Minor, and built i the old city of Mazaca, afterward called Ceesa- j rea and Kaisariyeh, in Cappadocia ; and accord - i ing to some traditions it was he (according to j others Armenag) who left his name to Arme nia. His son Arab, renowned for his beauty, was sought in marriage by Semiramis, and lost his life in the disastrous battle which followed his refusal. Semiramis grieved much over his death, placed on his throne his young son Gar- tos, also called Arab, and founded a magnificent city, long known among the Armenians as I Shamiramagerd (city of Semiramis), now Van, I which she made her royal summer residence. j The Armenians were now for some time trib- I utary to the Assyrians; but their ruler Parsm s I is said to have joined the Median prince Arba- I ces and the Babylonian Belesis in destroying j the empire of Sardanapalus, and to have after- j ward, as king of Armenia, hospitably received | Sennacherib s sons Adrammelech and Sharezer, I whose posterity subsequently established the I kingdom of Vashbtiragan. Ilaikak II, , king of I Armenia 607-569 B. C., joined Nebuchadnez- zar in his expedition against the Jews, and j brought into Armenia a Jewish noble named : Shambat with his family. From this Sham- j bat descended the Armenian royal family of the Bagratides or Bagradites, some of whom, under the name Bagration, still hold high offices in Russia. The Armenians celebrate I Tigranes I. or Dikran as their most powerful and excellent king, who put the Greeks I under tribute ; aided Cyrus the Persian in | conquering the Medes, Lydians, and Babylo- j nians ; built Tigranocerta ; reigned 45 years, I and died five years after Cyrus. His son and successor Vahakn gained by his great courage and strength the title of Hercules the second, and was worshipped as a god. Van, king 371- 351 B. C., enlarged and embellished the city I of Semiramis and called it by his own name. ! Alexander the Great having defeated Vahey I and brought the Haig dynasty to an end, the i Armenians were for 1G4 years (323-159) ruled | by governors really or nominally subject to the \ Macedonians or Syrian Greeks. The Romans i make Artaces or Artaxias, one of these gover- | nors, and an Armenian, the founder of an inde- ! pendent kingdom and of the dynasty of the Arsacidae, as well as of the city and capital | Artaxata, on the Araxes, about 189 B. C. The \ Armenians make the founder of this dynasty ! to be Vagharshag or Valarsaces, brother of the I Parthian king Arshag or Arsaces the Great, j who gave Xisibis to Valarsaces for his capital about 149. According to the Romans, also, 724. ARMENIA Zadriates, another prefect or governor, became king of Armenia Minor about 189 ; but his kingdom lasted only a short time. Great ob scurity rests on the history of Armenia under the Arsacidse. Tigranes II., sometimes called Tigranes the Great, and also Tigranes I., was, according to the Armenians, a great conqueror, and brother-in-law of the Georgian chief Mith- ridates, whom he appointed king of Pontus. This Tigranes is said to have made Nisibis his capital, rebuilt the old Tigranocerta, and found ed another city of the same name on the Nymphius, a branch of the Tigris. Ilis son and successor Ardavast was treacherously seized by Mark Antony, carried in chains to Egypt, and put to death in 34 B. C. Alex ander, son of Antony and Cleopatra, ruled in Armenia a little while ; but, after various changes, we rind Abgar or Abgarus, grandson of Tigranes the Great, on the throne of Armenia at Edessa. The Armenians universally believe that this Abgar wrote the famous letter to Jesus which is quoted as genuine by Eusebius and others. In his reign all parts of Armenia became tributary to the Romans. About A. D. 78 Erovant transferred the capital to Armavir, and then built a new capital, Erovantashad, a little W. of Armavir. The Armenians speak of another Artaces, who ruled A. D. 88-129, built bridges, roads, and ships, encouraged lit erature, science, commerce, and every branch of industry, and died universally lamented ; but Armenia afterward suffered much from struggles with and between the Romans and Parthians, and from persecutions, especially after the Parthian dynasty of the Arsacidne gave place to the Sassanida?, 22 f>. The Arme nian Arsacida3 continued to reign till 428. Then for about 200 years Armenia was subject to the Sassanidre of Persia. In 037 the xVra- bian caliphs first invaded Armenia, and 10 years afterward imposed the capitation tax upon the nation. The rivalries between the courts of Damascus and Constantinople were long a source of great suffering in Armenia.; but in 859 the Mohammedan court set up .a tributary dynasty in that country, the Bagra- tides, of Jewish origin, as already noticed, who reigned there till 1079. Their capital was Ani, 011 the Akhurian, a few miles S. E. of Ears. A branch of the Bagratides reigned at Aars from 9G1. There was also a third Armenian kingdom about this time, that of Vashburagan, with Van for its capital. These little kingdoms, though inferior to the Byzantine empire in population, are said to have surpassed it commercially, industrially, and financially. But after various changes and disasters there came in 1049 the bloody and complete destruction of Ardzen, near the mod ern Erzerum, by the Seljukian Turks under Toghrul, which was followed by the similar de struction of Ani under his successor. One by one the Armenian kings migrated with their people, and their kingdoms soon ceased to exist, though another, established in the Cilician Taurus in ARMENIAN CHURCH 1080 by Rupen, lasted till it was conquered by the Egyptian Mamelukes in 1375. The Arme- i nian nationality was now extinguished ; Arme- | nia itself, devastated by Genghis Khan and about 1390 by Tamerlane, afterward received as con querors first the Turcomans and then the Os- manli Turks, while the Kurds, the Persians, and the Russians have at different times taken pos session of certain portions. The Armenians are ! now widely scattered, yet they everywhere ! retain their own language, customs, and habits, | with a special love of their country, are exten sively engaged in commercial and industrial | pursuits, and possess great influence, partic- ularly in Russia and Turkey. Their present < number is variously estimated at from 21 to 10 | or even 12 millions. Probably there are 2| mil- lion Armenians in the Turkish empire alone. ARMENIAN CHURCH. According to the_ Ar- 1 menians, the early patriarchal religion existed ; in Armenia till about 1700 B. C. ;Vthen Assyrian influence brought in Sabaism, wliich about 725 B. C. became Magism; and- this after Alexan- ! der s conquest was confusedly united with Gre- | cian idolatry, to which were added Scythian : superstitions and the worship of gods from 1 India. They relate that King Abgar, afflicted with a disease resembling leprosy, besought I Jesus by letter to come and cure him, and prof- I fered him a refuge in Edessa from the Jews I who sought to destroy him ; that Jesus an- I swered this letter with a written promise to ! send, after his departure, a disciple who j should cure the king s malady and give life I to him and his ; that after the Saviour s as- | cension the disciple Thomas sent Thaddeus, | one of the seventy, to Edessa ; that Abgar, i with many others, believed and was bap- | tized ; that Sanatrug, one of Abgar s succes- ! sors, put to death Thaddeus, and also flayed I alive and crucified St. Bartholomew; that ! Jude, Eustathius, and other preachers suffered martyrdom in Armenia; that about this time a large part of the nation was converted, but I very soon persecutions produced a general re- | lapse into idolatry till about A. D. 300 ; that I then Gregory the Illuminator preached the ! gospel with wonderful success in Armenia, bap- 1 tized as converts King Tiridates and thousands ; of his subjects, and was ordained first bishop I of the Armenians by Leontius, bishop of Cass- : area, about 302; that Gregory and Tiridates everywhere established schools, in which the children, especially of the heathen priests, were taught the Christian religion with the Greek and Syriac languages ; and that Chris tian churches took the places of heathen altars, and the kingdom received a new life. The Armenians profess to have been the first na tion that unitedly embraced Christianity ; but a long and bloody conflict with Persian Magism followed before the nation fully secured reli gious liberty, A. D. 485. The Armenians re ceived without question the decrees of the coun cils of Nice (325) and Ephesus (431) ; but those of Chalcedon (451) were formally rejected by ARMENIAN CHURCH 725 the Armenian bishops, though they also anath ematized Eutyches, while they strenuously maintained the formula of one nature in Christ. The Armenian church has been therefore anath ematized as heretical by both the Greek and Roman churches. The Armenians agree with the Greeks in maintaining the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father only, and in most other doctrines ; but they make the sign of the cross with two fingers (in reference to the two natures made one in Christ s person), while the Greeks make this sign with three fingers (in reference to the Trinity). They baptize in fants (or adults converted from Judaism or other religion), like the Greeks, by partially immers ing them in the font and then thrice pouring water on their heads; but, unlike the Greeks, they admit to their communion Roman Catho lics or Protestants who have been baptized by sprinkling. Like the Roman Catholics, they believe in transubstantiation, adore the host in the mass, and profess belief in seven sacra ments; but their prayers of extreme unction are mingled with those of confirmation, which is performed by the priest at baptism, and they reject the Roman purgatory, though they pray for the dead. The people have the commu nion in both kinds, the broken bread or wafer (unleavened) being dipped in undiluted wine and laid on the tongue of the fasting commu nicant. They worship saints and their pictures as well as the cross ; insist on the perpetual virginity of Mary ; maintain baptismal regen eration and the spiritual efficacy of penances and sacraments ; and regard confession to the priest and absolution as essential to salvation ; but absolution is not purchased, nor are in dulgences given. They have 165 fast days, when no animal food can be eaten ; 14 great feast days, observed more strictly than the Lord s day ; and more minor feasts than days of the year. Their church services are performed in the ancient Armenian language. They have nine grades or orders of clergy, viz. : the catho licos, bishop, priest, deacon, subdeacon, porter, reader, exorcist, and candle lighter. The monks live according to the rule of St. Basil. There are no regular lay monks among them. The prin cipal Basilian convent is at Etchmiadzin. There are two grades among the priests: the varta- beds (doctors or teachers), who must remain unmarried, and are again subdivided into two classes; and the parish priests, who must be married before attaining the rank of subdeacon. The bishops are generally elected from the var- tabeds, and only in rare instances, by special dispensation of the catholicos or patriarch, from the monks. The metropolitans or archbishops are distinguished from the bishops only by a higher rank and certain honorary rights, but not by superior jurisdiction. At the head of the entire hierarchy is the catholicos; he re sides in the convent of Etchmiadzin, in the province of Erivan, which since 1828 has been under the rule of Russia. His authority as head of the entire church is recognized by all Arme nians except the adherents of the patriarch > of Aghtamar on Lake Van, who since the 12th ! century has claimed the title of catholicos, but | is recognized only by two towns and 30 vil- | lages, and had in the second half of the 17th | century eight or nine bishops under his juris- : diction. Besides the patriarch of Aghtamar, the Armenian church has patriarchs at Sis, | Constantinople, and Jerusalem, all of whom ac- | knowledge the higher ecclesiastical rank of the | catholicos of Etchmiadzin. The patriarchate ; of Sis embraces the churches of Armenia Minor, ! Cappadocia, and Cilicia, under the jurisdiction of about 23 bishops. The patriarchate of Je- I rusalem embraces the pashalics of Damascus, Acra, and Tripolis, and the island of Cyprus, and has 14 suffragan bishops. The patriarch of Constantinople has been since 1461 the civil I head of all the Armenians in Turkey, and under I his direct ecclesiastical jurisdiction are all the | dioceses of Turkey, except those belonging to j the patriarchates of Sis and Jerusalem. Ac- i cording to the reorganization agreed upon by | the provincial council of Constantinople in 1830, the patriarchate of Constantinople embraces 18 archiepiscopal dioceses, with 35 suffragan bish ops. One of the archbishops resides in Egypt. The patriarch of Constantinople, who takes rank with the great pashas of the empire, is elected by the ecclesiastical heads and the no tables of the Armenian community in Constan tinople. The notables were till 1839 chiefly wealthy bankers ; but since then high officials of the Turkish government have obtained the ascendancy. Though of an inferior rank to the catholicos, the patriarch of Constantinople is in all other respects entirely independent, and even the name of the catholicos is no longer mentioned in the liturgical books used in Con stantinople. Under the direct jurisdiction of | the catholicos are the Armenians of Russia ! and Persia. In the former country the Ar menian churches are by a ukase of 1836 | divided inte six dioceses (archbishoprics), with eight suffragan bishoprics or vicariates. Per sia has an archbishop at Ispahan, with a suffra gan bishop at Calcutta in India ; and an arch bishop at Tabreez with two suffragan bishops. I The catholicos is at present elected by his synod, all the members of which reside at I Etchmiadzin, and the election must be con- | firmed by the Russian government. The entire population connected with the Armenian church is estimated at about 3,000,000. The United Armenians, also called Armeno-Catholics, are those who acknowledge the supremacy of the pope of Rome. As early as 1318 Pope John XXI I. appointed a Dominican monk to be their archbishop at Soldania in Persian Armenia (afterward at Nakhtchevan). At the council of Florence (1439) a nominal union between the Roman and Armenian churches was ef- j fected, but it was not ratified. For centuries, however, there have been Armenians in Per sia, Poland, Transylvania, Turkey, &c., ac knowledging the pope and agreeing doctrinally 726 ARMENIAN CHURCH with the Roman Catholic church, but retaining ! them directed their efforts especially to the en- their own usages, such as the communion in both kinds and the marriage of the priests. They have had a patriarch in Cilicia since 1742. The monks of St. Anthony, who have an abbot on Mount Lebanon, and the Mekhitarists, whose labors have been conspicuous in Armenian lit erature, are the principal monks among them. They are estimated to number 15,000 in Con stantinople and 100,000 in the Turkish empire. According to the "Papal Almanac" for 1872, the Armeno-Catholic church has one patriarch (of Cilicia), five archbishoprics in Turkey and one (Lemberg) in Austria, eleven bishoprics in Turkey and one (Ispahan) in Persia. The papal bull JKeversurv^ dated July 12, 1867, which without consulting the Armenian bishops made important changes in the constitution of the Armeno-Catholic church and in its relations to Rome, called forth a violent opposition. At a national synod held in 1869 the major ity of the bishops protested against the bull ; and when the patriarch of Cilicia, Ilassun, the head of the church, attempted to carry out the provisions of this bull, the bishops de clared (Feb. 14, 1871) the election of Ilassun, lightenment and reformation of the Armenian nation, and, though bitterly opposed by the pa triarch and other Old Armenians whose coope ration they sought, gradually extended their operations and intiuence through the empire, giving religious instruction, translating the Scriptures, preparing and distributing religious and educational works, establishing schools, promoting religious liberty, &c. In 1843 Ova- gim, a young Armenian who had in a fit of passion professed Mohammedanism and after ward returned to his former faith, was be headed publicly at Constantinople by the Turkish authorities ; but this led to the British minister s demanding and with the help of other foreign ministers obtaining from the sultan a written pledge that the death penalty should not be applied to such cases. But the opposi tion to the evangelical movement among the Armenians became still more violent. June 21, 1846, the Armenian patriarch finally ex communicated and anathematized all who re mained firm to their evangelical principles, and decreed that the anathema should be annually read in all Armenian churches in the em- which had taken place in 1866, to have been | pire. July 1, 1846, the first evangelical Arme- illegal, and elected Archbishop Bahdiarian of Diarbekir as patriarch of Cilicia. The new patriarch, with all the bishops and priests who had taken part in the election, was excommu nicated by the pope on Nov. 2, 1871. This fate was toward the close of 1872 shared by all the members of the church who refused to recog nize the authority of the patriarch Ilassun and the decrees of the Vatican council. The ex communicated portion of the church has put it self in communication with the Old Catholics of Germany. The Protestant Armenians have arisen within the last 50 years. An Armenian priest, Debajy Oghlu, living at Constantinople, about 1760 wrote a book, which was circulated in manuscript, on the errors of the church, praising Luther, severely chastising both priests and people for their superstition and vice, and testing every principle and ceremony by the Bible. The British and Russian Bible societies published and circulated (1813- 23) thousands of Bibles and Testaments in the ancient Ar menian language, with the approval of the ca- tholicos of Etchmiadzin. They also published (1822- 3) the New Testament in Armeno-Turk- ish (Turkish in Armenian characters) and mod ern Armenian; but the Armenian patriarch and other clergy refused to sanction these transla- man church of Constantinople was formed, with 40 members, including females, and one week later Mr. Apisoghom Khatchaduryan was ordained its pastor. Similar churches were formed the same summer at Ismid (Nicornedia), Adabazar, and Trebizond. Nov. 15, 1847, the native Protestants were officially recognized as constituting a separate and independent community, and in November, 1850, the sultan gave to the native Protestants of Turkey a charter placing them on an equality with the older Christian organizations, and providing for a head or agent (a layman) nominated by their regular ballot, and appointed by the Porte, and also for national, provincial, and local councils chosen by themselves, to regu late their own affairs. The Hatti-Humayum or Hatti-Sherif, issued by the sultan in Feb ruary, 1856, placed them on a legal equality with Moslems. In 1859 the appointment of a Protestant Armenian censor by the Turkish government relieved the Protestants from an noyances proceeding from the Old Armenian censor. The mission of the American board to the Armenians of Turkey has now grown into four distinct missions, to European, western, central, and eastern Turkey, the first having special reference to the Bulgarians, the other tions. In 1830- 31 the Rev. Messrs. Eli Smith L three to the Armenians. In the three Arme- I) wight, sent by the American board [ nian missions there were reported, in January, of commissioners for foreign missions, explored I 1872, 37 ordained and 63 unordained (mostly Armenia itself. The same board had had for j female) American missionaries, 16 stations and several years admission in Syria, where several 184 out stations, 75 churches with about 3,800 church members, 19,411 registered Protestants, nearly 50 native pastors and as many licensed preachers, several theological and training Armenian ecclesiastics were converted. In 1831 the Rev. William Goodell, who went to Syria in 1823, established a mission of the board at Pera, a suburb of Constantinople, and was joined in 1832 by Mr. I) wight. These and other American missionaries who subsequently joined schools and classes with over 130 pupils, 115 pupils in girls boarding schools, and 5,657 pu pils in 197 common schools. ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 727 ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The ! khitarists published at Venice an improved ancient Armenian language, which is still the edition of this Bible from manuscript authori- literary and church idiom of the Armenians, I ties, Zohrab s improved text of the New Tes- belongs to the Indo-European family, is en- i tament having appeared there in 1789. The riched very considerably from the Sanskrit, j influence of Mezrob s Bible was so great that abounds in gutturals, arid has strength, flexi- | the Armenian language suddenly attained a bility, compass, and capability of expressing : high state of perfection and regularity, and thought by evolving new terms from itself. | the 5th century became the golden age of its The conversion of the nation to Christianity literature. Moses of Chorene or Klioren led to the introduction of certain words from j who studied Greek at Alexandria, and after the Greek, and impressed on the language a j returning to Armenia became an archbishop, new character in several respects ; the Persian | and died about 488 at the reputed age of and Turkish conquests produced other changes. I 120 years is considered by the Armenians * ~\ 1 I lT ^1 J" A 1 1 A TT 1 . The modern or spoken Armenian dialects differ very considerably from the ancient the Ara rat or eastern dialect less, however, than the Constant inopolitan or western dialect chiefly in the disuse of certain words, the introduc- their first classical writer. His history or chronicle of Armenia from the time of Ilaig to the death of Mezrob and Isaac (printed in Lon don in 1736, with a Latin translation) is his most famous work, and next to Mezrob s Bible tion of new words and phrases, and a change , the most ancient authentic Armenian book, in grammatical forms, collocations of words, , He also wrote on rhetoric and geography, and and idiomatic expressions. The alphabet con- perhaps translated into Armenian the Chroni- sists of 38 letters, 36 of which were invented con of Eusebius (Venice, 1818; Latin, Milan, by the monk Mezrob about 409, and the other 1818). Contemporary with Moses of Chorene two added in the 12th century. In the form were Elisha or Eghishe, an Armenian bishop, of the substantives generally no distinction is who wrote a history of the religious wars of made to indicate gender ; but besides the ordi- i Vartan (a prince to whom he was secretary) nary cases, nominative, genitive, dative, accu- I with the Persians (Neumann s English transla- sative, ablative, and instrumental, there are j tion, London, 1830), David the philosopher, &c. two others called the narrative and circum- Armenian historical literature throws much locutory, formed by prefixes. The adjective, ( light on the history not only of Armenia, but when not closely connected with the substan- j of all the neighboring nations (Persians, Par- tive, is similarly declined, and changes its form thians, Tartars, Arabs, &c.), and deserves much to denote the comparative degree; but the su- : more attention than it has received. The recent perlative is generally shown by writing the ad- i history of Armenia by the vartabed Michael jective twice, or by prefixing an adverb like the ! Tchamtchean (3 vols. 4to, Venice, 1786 ; after- English most. The verbs, divided according to ward abridged in Armenian, Armeno- Turkish, their vowels into three conjugations, and hav- j and English) is probably their most valuable ing a passive voice, vary their forms to denote historical work in the past 500 years. The the present and imperfect, have two future and j catholicos Nerses Klayetsi, who died at an two aorist tenses, of peculiar form, and the j advanced age in 1173, was distinguished as usual compound tenses formed with an aux- j a theologian, sacred orator, and poet. His iliary verb. The other parts of speech pre- nephew, Nerses Lampronetsi, was a homilet- sent no noteworthy peculiarities. Ancient ical and liturgical writer. The Mekhitarists Armenian literature, older than the introduc- j of San Lazaro, near Venice, have done much tion of Christianity, is now limited to a few | since 1717 for Armenian literature, preparing fragments of ancient songs preserved by Moses ! and publishing editions of the Bible and of of Chorene. With Christianity there came into j many other works, in addition to those named Armenia a taste for Greek literature. Pre- | above ; as a history of Armenian literature by vious to the invention of the Armenian alpha- their abbot Somal (1829), works on grammar, bet the language had been written in Greek, arithmetic, geography, &c., in ancient Armeni- Persian, or Semitic characters; but Mezrob | an, a semi-monthly Armenian newspaper, trans- now instituted schools in which the new alpha- \ lations of French, Italian, German, English, and bet was taught, and with Isaac the catholicos j American books, &c. There are other Arme- gent learned men to Edessa, Constantinople, | nian printing offices and newspapers at Con- and elsewhere, to translate foreign works into j stantinople and elsewhere. Peshtimaljean pre- Armenian. The most important result of this pared about half a century ago a good gram- was the Armenian translation of the Bible by j mar and dictionary of the ancient Armenian Isaac and Mezrob, begun from the Syriac, but . language. Another learned Armenian corn- finally made from the Greek, usually assigned to posed a Persian dictionary (in Persian, Arme- A. D. 411, but apparently completed after the ; nian, and Turkish), which was published at council of Ephesus (431). This translation, still j Constantinople about the same time. But be- in use, is of much critical and more religious , fore the mission of the American board was value, and the oldest Armenian book extant, i commenced (1831), comparatively little was It was first printed at Amsterdam in 1666, un- i done for the languages actually spoken or der the care of Bishop Uscan, and has been i read by the Armenians. Even Peshtimaljean s often reprinted. In 1805 Zohrab and the Me- i school had only a spelling book and one or two 728 ARMIN ARMINIANS other first books in the modern Armenian. But in 1861 the missionaries had translated the whole Bible into both the Armeno-Turkish and modern Armenian languages, and had pub lished many religious, educational, and other works. Much literary progress has since been made among all the Armenians. At the close of 1871 13 newspapers 3 of them dailies, 3 tri weeklies, and 7 weeklies (one of which issues a daily bulletin) were published in Constan tinople for Armenians. AKMI\, Robert, an English player, author, and associate of Shakespeare. His name ap pears in the original list of the performers of Shakespeare s plays, given in the first folio edition of his works, lie translated a small Italian novel, " The Italian Taylor and his Boy," and wrote a dramatic piece entitled u The History of the T\vo Maids of More Clacke ; " and he is alluded to by Nash in 1592 as a writer of stories and ballads. His only work which at present has interest is entitled U A Nest of Ninnies, simply of themselves, with out Compounds. Stiiltorum plena sunt, omnia. By Robert Armin, 1008." Only a single copy of the original edition remains, which is in the Bodleian library. It was reprinted by the Shakespeare society in 1842. ARMINIANS, a religious sect deriving their name from James Armmius (see AEMINIUS), before whose death (1600) the Reformed in Holland were divided into Arminians and Go- marists, the doctrine of predestination being the prominent point raised between them. The Gomarists were supralapsarians, and demanded strict Calvinism in doctrine and the indepen dence of the church in regard to the state ; the Arminians held that the decree to save re garded the elect as believers, but they advo cated Biblical simplicity in doctrine, a peace ful spirit in the church, and a subjection of the church to the state. After the death of Armin- ius, Jan Uytenbogaert, preacher at the Hague, and Simon Episcopius, Gomar s successor as professor at Leyden in 1612, became the Armin- ian leaders. But the strife now assumed a po litical aspect. Jan van Olden Barneveldt and Hugo Grotius, who favored the Arminians, in fluenced the states general to declare a 12 years truce with Spain (1G09), in opposition to the wishes of Prince Maurice of Orange, who was stadtholder, and were thereupon charged with being traitors and in the pay of Spain; while they, in turn, regarded Maurice as seek ing supreme dominion with the subversion of liberty. The Arminians in 1610 set forth their doctrinal views in a remonstrance addressed to the states of Holland and West Friesland, and were hence called Remonstrants ; and their opponents, who presented a counter- remonstrance, were called Contra -Remon strants. The states general made fruitless at tempts at conciliation by recommendations of mutual forbearance, and by the conferences at the Hague (1611) between six Remonstrant pastors and six Contra-Remonstrants, and at Delft (1613), where three appeared on each i side; but finally, urged on by Maurice and the ! Contra-Remonstrants, who were now in the j majority, they convoked a national synod at j Do rt in 1618, before which Episcopius and i other Remonstrants were summoned. The Arminian views presented in the remonstrance, and afterward at Dort, were comprehended in these five points : 1. God, by an eternal and | immutable decree in Jesus Christ his Son, be- i fore the foundation of the world, determined j to save in Christ, for Christ s sake, and through ! Christ, those out of the fallen human race who i by the Holy Spirit s grace believe in this same I Son of his; but, on the other hand, to leave ! those who are not converted in sin and subject to wrath, and to condemn them. 2. Therefore | Jesus Christ died for each and all, yet with this condition, that no one may in fact enjoy | that remission of sins except the faithful man. I 3. Man indeed has not from himself saving ! faith, but must necessarily be born again and I renewed in Christ by his Holy Spirit, that he may be able to understand, think, wish, or per form anything good. 4. This grace of God is the beginning, increase, and perfection of everything good ; so indeed that all good I works which we can think out are to be as- I cribed to the grace of God in Christ, which ! is not irresistible in the mode of its opcra- I tion ; for it is said of many that they resist ed. 5. Those who are engrafted into Jesus Christ by true faith, and are therefore partak ers of his life-giving Spirit, have abundantly of the means by which to fight against Satan and their own flesh and obtain the victory, but yet through the aid of the Holy Spirit s grace ; but Jesus Christ by his Spirit stands by them in all temptations, reaches out his hand, and, provided they are ready for the contest and seek his aid, and fail not of their own duty, confirms them ; but whether they them selves cannot by their own negligence desert the beginning of their being in Christ, make shipwreck of conscience, and fall from grace, must be deeply pondered out of the Holy j Scripture before they could teach it with full j tranquillity of mind and full assurance. This fifth point was afterward modified, and the j Arminians maintained explicitly the possibility I of falling from grace. Before the synod of i Dort was convened, the republican leaders, j Barneveldt, Grotius, and Hogerbeets, were 1 imprisoned ; and the first of these was subse- I quently beheaded. The synod began its ses- ! sions Nov. 13, 1618, and closed them May 29, | 1619. Disputes early arose as to the mode in I which the Remonstrants should defend them- I selves ; criminations were answered with re- j criminations ; the Remonstrants were ejected i from the synod (Jan. 14, 1619), condemned as | corruptors of the true religion, and suspended | from office till they should make satisfaction ; | and the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination was formally confirmed, but in such language ! as to be accepted by infralapsarians. The states ARMINIUS 29 general soon confirmed the decree of the synod. The Remonstrants were deprived of their sa cred and civil offices; their preachers were banished if they did not renounce all exercise of their ecclesiastical functions; many went with Episcopius to Antwerp, others to Ilolstein, others to France, &c. After Prince Maurice s death (1625) their banished clergy began to return. Amsterdam and Rotterdam became their chief seats in Holland; the former city allowed them to build a church in 1630, and since that time they have not been molested. Episcopius published at Antwerp in 1622 the Remonstrants Confession of Faith, which was widely circulated and held in high repute; but he expressly guarded against its being taken as of binding authority. He became in 1634 the first professor of theology in their gymnasium at Amsterdam, where Gurcellceus, Pollenburg, Limborch, Le Clerc, Cattenburgh, Wetstein, &c., have also been professors. These and others set aside human confessions and took the Bible alone as their guide, ascribing special importance to its practical directions. They denied the ordinary doctrine of original sin, modified the doctrine of the Trinity, and some of them were regarded as closely allied with the Socinians. Arminianism has been widely prevalent in the established church of England from the time of Laud to the present ; but under this common name have been ranged many shades of doctrine, Trinitarian. Pelagian, Socin- ian, &c., agreeing in little except their oppo sition to Calvinism. After the rise of Method ism, Whitefield and others avowed themselves distinctively Calvinistic, while Wesley and his followers embraced the views of Arminius. The most complete work of Arminian theol ogy in English, and the text book prescribed for Methodist Episcopal preachers in the Uni ted States, is the u Theological Institutes of the Rev. Richard Watson. The Lutherans, Unitarians, General Baptists, and Free-will Baptists, many in the Protestant Episcopal church of the United States, and the Wesleyan Methodist churches, are all classed as Armin- ians, in the sense of being opposed to the Cal vinistic doctrine of predestination. ARMIMl S (in German improperly called Hermann), prince of the Cherusci, a German tribe, and the liberator of Germany, born about 16 B. C. In his youth he became a Roman citizen of the equestrian order, and served on the Danube as leader of an auxiliary body of the Cherusci. On his return, finding his country smarting under the oppressions of the Roman commander Yarns, he organized an extensive conspiracy. Professing great friendship for Va rus, and admiration for Roman civilization, he induced the general to distribute a large part of his force in small detachments among different tribes, under the plea of maintaining better order among the Germans. The news, true or false, of an insurrection having readied the Romans, Varus marched in October, A. D. 9, from the Weser toward the Teutoburg forest (now partly in the principality of Lippe and partly in Prus sia). Arminius, against whom Varus had in , vain been warned, now gave the signal for in- ! surrection. The Romans scattered in the in- j terior were murdered, and the main body, I which was encumbered with vast trains of I baggage and camp followers, found itself sur rounded on all sides. The Romans fought I their way for three days, until almost all were exterminated, A 7 arus taking his own life. From among the prisoners, the chiefs, civil and mili tary, were sacrificed to the gods, the rest en slaved. This destruction of three Roman le gions filled Rome with grief and shame. For several days Augustus would only utter the words, "Varus, give me back my legions ! r More than four years elapsed before Germani- cus marched from Gaul to avenge the fallen ; he advanced into Germany, but returned, after a short campaign, the same year. Among the Germans dissensions soon prevailed. Arminius carried off Thusnelda (celebrated afterward in German minstrelsy), daughter of Segestes, 11 Germanic chief friendly to the Romans, and married her, but she soon fell again into the hands of her father. Next year (15) Germani- cus entered with fresh troops, relieved Seges tes, who was besieged by Arminius, and liber ated him, but Thusnelda was made a Roman slave. Arminius now called the Cherusci and other tribes to arms. Germanicus led against him 80,000 men in three divisions, and a large tieet on the Weser and the Ems. Ar minius retreated until he had drawn the Ro mans into narrow passes, and then attacked them with such fury that Germanicus, having lost his cavalry, was obliged to retreat, and reached his vessels with difficulty ; four legions under Ceecina scarcely escaped total destruc- j tion previous to crossing the Rhine. The next i spring Germanicus returned with an army of | 100,000 men and about 1,000 vessels on the I rivers. Beyond the Weser, between the pres- j ent towns of Hameln and Rinteln, on a plain | called Woman s Meadow, was fought the great- | est battle between the Germans and Romans. The Germans were beaten, but nevertheless renewed the struggle the next day, and obliged | the victorious Romans to retreat. This was the I last time that Roman armies invaded Germany : beyond the Rhine, and Arminius is therefore I justly called the liberator. According to a le- I gend, he disappeared in a mysterious manner ; during an interview on a half-built bridge with ! his brother Flavus, who remained attached to ! the Romans and tried to persuade Arminius to I return to them. But history says that Arminius, being proclaimed chief by the Cherusci and nu merous other tribes, attacked Marbod (Marobo- j duns), chief of the Marcomanni, his rival in pre- i tensions to supreme power, who was supported i by Inguiomer, the uncle of Arminius. After a terrible struggle in Saxony, and a great undecided battle, Marbod was abandoned by many of his partisans, returned to Bohemia, ! and finally tied to the Romans, leaving Armin- 730 ARMINIUS ins in undisputed possession. Arminius finally excited discontent by the strictness of his rule, and perished by the treachery of one of his relations. His wife Thusnelda, their son Thu- melicus, born in captivity, and Segmund, broth er of Thusnelda, appeared as prisoners in the triumphal cortege of Germanicus in Rome, A. D. 16. The lineage of the Cheruscan princes was extinct, with the exception of Italicus, son of Flavus, who in 47 was given up by the Ro mans to the Cherusci at their request. Tacitus says that the name of Arminius was alive in the songs of the "barbarians of his time," and it still lives in Germany. It was the theme of many patriotic songs during the rising in 1813 against the domination of Napoleon. ARMIMUS, James (in Dutch, JACOB HAKMZEX or HEEMANSZOOX), a Dutch theologian, born at Oude water, South Holland, in 1560, died at Ley- den, Oct. 19, 1609. In his infancy his father died, leaving him with his brother and sister to his mother s care. Theodore ^Emilius, an ex- priest, undertook to educate him, but died when Arminius in his loth year was studying at Utrecht. The boy found another patron in his countryman Rudolph Snellius, who took him to Marburg in Hesse; but he soon re turned to the ruins of Oudewater, where the Spaniards had massacred his mother, brother, sister, and other relatives, with nearly all the inhabitants. Then he went back on foot to Marburg ; but as the new university at Leyden was now opened, he returned to Holland the same year, and the Reformed pastor at Rotter dam, Peter Bertius, sent him with his own son to Leyden, where he remained six years. The magistrates of Amsterdam engaging (1582) to bear his expenses in studying for the ministry, he gave a written bond to devote himself after ordination to the ministry in their city, and to no other work or place without the burgomas ter s sanction, lie went at once to Geneva, where Beza was lecturing ; soon gave offence there by advocating the system of Ramus in op position to the reigning philosophy of Aristotle; went then to Basel, where he lectured pub licly, and the theological faculty offered him a doctorate, which he declined on account of his youth ; returned to Geneva in 1583, and con tinued his study of divinity; went in 1586 to Padua, and heard Zabarella s lectures in phi losophy ; visited Rome and some other places in Italy ; and stopped again at Geneva, where Beza gave him a commendatory letter. Sum moned to Amsterdam, he found himself, in the autumn of 1587, in disfavor with his patrons for having visited Italy without their consent, and, as was reported, kissed the pope s foot, become intimate with Bellarmine and the Jes uits, and abjured the reformed religion; but he exculpated himself, was licensed to preach by the Amsterdam classis, received a unani mous call, and was ordained pastor in Amster dam, Aug. 11, 1588. Here he passed 15 years in a very popular and successful ministry. He married in 1590, and had seven sons and two daughters, only two of whom Lawrence, a merchant, and Daniel, a distinguished physician reached full maturity. Soon after his settle ment in the ministry, Arminius was led toward the theological system which bears his name (see AKMINIAXS), through a controversy which arose at Delft in 1588 respecting Calvin s and I Beza s views on predestination. He was urged and consented to undertake the defence of Beza, but suspended his purpose on account of difficulties respecting some of Beza s and Calvin s positions. He gave public expositions of Rom. vii. and ix. (1591- 3), presenting the views afterward published in his treatises on those chapters, and producing in each case considerable excitement. In 1597 he conferred with Francis Junius, professor of divinity at Leyden, and had a long and friendly epistolary discussion with him respecting predestination, which is published in the works of Armin ius. He opposed in 1600 the annual subscrip tion of the Dutch creed and catechism by all the ministers. During the plague of 1602 he assiduously cared for the sick and bereaved. Junius died of this plague about the end of 1602, and the curators of the university soon chose Arminius to be professor in his place ; but only after repeated applications of the cu rators, aided by leading men in the states, would the authorities of Amsterdam permit him to leave, April 15, 1603. The charge of his being a Pelagian led to a conference at the Hague, May 6, 1603, with Francis Go- mar, primary professor of theology at Leyden, who declared the charge unsupported. He was the first to receive (July 11, 1603) the de gree of D. D. from, the university of Leyden, and delivered on the occasion his oration on the priesthood of Christ. He introduced his course the same year with three finished ora tions on the object of theology, on its author and end, and on its certainty. A fifth ora tion, on reconciling religious dissensions among Christians, he delivered Feb. 8, 1606, on re signing the annual office of rector of the uni versity. A conflict had already begun between the two colleague professors, Arminius and Gomar. Arminius publicly maintained, Feb. 7, 1604, that "predestination, as it regards the thing itself, is the decree of the good pleasure of God in Christ, by which he resolved within himself from all eternity to justify, adopt, and endow with everlasting life, to the praise of his own glorious grace, believers on whom he had decreed to bestow faith ;" and defined " reprobation to be a decree of the wrath or severe will of God, by which he resolved from all eternity to condemn to eternal death unbelievers, who, by their own fault and the just judgment of God, would not believe, for the declaration of his wrath and power." At the end of October Gomar, who was a supra- lapsarian, publicly attacked these positions, and was sustained by the principal teach ers in the universities. Arminius replied. Not only the students and ministers, but the ARMITAGE ARMOR 731 whole republic, now became involved in a re ligious war. Another trouble arose in respect to the word avrddeo^ as applied to the Son of God, Arminius admitting its applicability in the sense of "one who is truly God," but not in the sense, which some maintained, of "one who is God of himself." Arminius was also charged with favoring the brief catechism pub lished by the ministers of Gouda in 1607, which, it was alleged, would open the floodgates to all sorts of error. Arminius and his friend Jan tlytenbogaert, preacher at the Hague, called upon the states general in 1608 to con vene a general synod, before which Arminius might defend himself. After a conference be tween Arminius and Gomar before the supreme court the same year, the states general, advised I by this tribunal, enjoined the parties to drop their dispute, and teach nothing against the j creed or catechism. But the disputes went I on. Oct. 30, 1608, Arminius made before the I states at the Hague his famous declaration j (Declaratio) of sentiments on 10 different j points, viz. : predestination, the providence of j God, the free will of men, the grace of God, | the perseverance of the saints, the assurance of salvation, the perfection of believers in this life, the divinity of the Son of God, the justifi cation of man before God, and the revision of the Dutch confession and the Heidelberg cate chism. The states general as a body were now inclined to favor Arminius. Another conference in 1609 between Arminius and Gomar, aided by four other ministers on each side, was soon interrupted by the sickness of Arminius, who, exhausted in body and mind, and deeply wounded by evil reports, sank un der a complication of fever and other diseases. He was an energetic and eloquent preacher, and personally attractive. Mosheim styles him "a man whom even Ms enemies commend for his ingenuity, acuteness, and piety/ Many have been called Arminians whose views dif fered widely from his, and many have been called Calvinists whose views agreed mainly with his. His works have been published in Latin (Jacobi Arminii Opera Theologica, 4to, Leyden, 1629), and translated into English by Nichols and Bagnall (3 vols. 8vo, Auburn, 1853). ARMITAGE, Edward, an English painter, born in London in 1817. He was a pupil of Paul Delaroche, whom he assisted in the decoration of the a Hemicycle" in the school of fine arts at Paris. He first brought himself into notice in England as a competitor for prizes at the several exhibitions of cartoons and specimens of fresco painting at Westminster hall, Lon don, in IS-iS- S ; and he subsequently executed several frescoes in the new houses of parlia ment. He has produced many large and elab- | orate historical works, and is one of the most j prolific painters of the modern English school. His range of subjects embraces sacred and pro fane history, allegory, and battle scenes. Some of his Scriptural pieces are conceived with originality, but he is deficient as a colorist. ARMOR, a defensive covering for the head, body, and limbs, used as a protection in battle. Armor of some kind seems to have been used by almost every civilized and savage people, from the earliest historic times till the gradual improvement in firearms rendered it useless as a means of defence wherever these were employed. Even of late years body armor has been worn by cuirassiers in the armies of several nations of continental Europe, but it has proved worth less as a protection against bullets from the present perfected small arms. In the most ancient times defensive armor was undoubtedly made of skins ; but history gives little account of this, and the oldest complete and authentic records we possess speak of metal armor. From the earliest times of the Old Testament (a complete panoply being described in 1 Sam. xvii.) to the fall of the Roman empire, bronze or brass seems to have been the material used for helmets and body armor by all the princi pal nations of antiquity, while their shields and bucklers were sometimes made of wood covered with leather or studded with brass, of bull s hide or of wickerwork covered with hide, as well as of solid bronze like their ar mor and weapons ; for the ancients were long ignorant of the art of tempering steel, though they tempered bronze to a wonderful hard ness. Even when the Romans, at an early date, introduced steel for weapons, their de fensive armor remained of bronze ; and the same w r as the case with that of other nations. The armor of the Hellenic chiefs, as described by Homer, and, with slight modifications, that of the Greek warriors during all the period of their country s greatness, consisted of a crested hel met which could be drawn down so as to partly Greek Armor. (From the Ornaments of an Etruscan Mirror.) cover the face ; a small breastplate, worn so low as to leave the whole clavicular region bare ; a plated waistband, from which hung a short kilt or petticoat of cloth or leather covered with narrow metallic plates; and greaves or 732 ARMOR sheaths of solid metal for the legs from knee to ankle; the greaves were moulded to the form of the legs, and sometimes covered the knee. The Greeks carried at first large circu lar shields, covering almost the whole man; afterward smaller ones of the same shape. The Roman soldiery wore armor almost exactly like that just described, save that they carried oblong instead of round shields. After a time, too, they rejected the greaves, and fought with the legs bare. So few changes were made in the tunics or shirts, divided so that they fell on each side the horse of a mounted knight ; but they made their armor of actual mail, formed Koman Armor. (From Trajan s Column.) armor itself, however, that even in the time of the crusades the soldiers of the eastern empire still wore exactly such equipments as are pic tured in the bass-reliefs of Trajan s column. The oriental nations adopted at an early period an armor made of overlapping scales of metal sewn upon leather, and fitting the whole body of the wearer. They also clothed their horses in this armor. The Sarmatians especially are said to have worn this armor, if indeed they did not introduce it. Such were the principal kinds of armor in use among the leading na tions of eastern Europe and of the Orient ; but it was in western Europe that the complete defensive armor afterward used, which reached its perfection in the middle ages, had its origin. A manuscript of the reign of Charles the Bald (A. D. 860) shows the armor of the western nations which had once been Roman prov inces, or had come in contact with Romans, to have been similar to the Roman dress just de scribed. But soon afterward great changes began. We have little to show the manner of these changes, but we find their result, two centuries later, shown in the Bayeux tapestry, executed some time after the invasion of Eng land by William the Conqueror (10(36). This shows the Saxons to have adopted an armor consisting of a long tunic reaching to the knee, and made of leather upon which were sewed stout metal rings, close together. They wore conical steel caps. The Normans wore similar Norman Spearman. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.) of rings woven together like those in a modern curb chain ; they wore long sleeves, which the Saxons had not, and long hose woven of rings. The Norman shield was in shape like a modern smoothing-iron. The fact that this flexible mail might be driven into the flesh hy a hard Full Suit of Chain Mail, Time of the Early Crusades. blow, in spite of the heaviest lining, led to the introduction of plate armor. First the square- topped helmet of the templars was adopted, covering the whole face, and having a door opening laterally on hinges. Then poldrons, or plates covering the shoulders, genouilleres, or ARMOR 733 knee-pieces, of jointed steel splints, and plate shoes, were added to the mail ; and this was the suit of armor, of the best and most approved construction, so late as to the time of the third crusade of Richard Cceur de Lion and Philip Armor comprising both Mail and Plate, A. D. 1370. Augustus, in 1189, both of which monarchs are represented in their great seals equipped and armed exactly as described. Without de tailing the gradual but constant encroachment of plate armor upon mail, it is enough to say that Early Armor of Plate, A. D. 1416. it lasted for 200 years, adding piece by piece, until in the beginning of the 15th century we find complete suits of plate, casing the wearer armor was gradually improved, nntil it reached its perfection during the reign of Henry VII. In the suit of that time we find perhaps the greatest security and beauty ever combined in armor. The whole suit is fluted ; the neck is Fluted and Perfected Plate Armor of Henry VII., 1485-1509. defended by pass guards, rising perpendicularly from the shoulders ; the helmet assumes a natu- Armor of Man aiid Horse, A. I). 1534. ral form ; the back of the neck is protected by flexible plates ; and the whole of the headpiece is made to adapt itself to every movement. in steel from head to foot. From that time this The horse s head is guarded by the chamfront, 734 ARMORICA ARMS to wliich are added the manifaire, protecting the crest and arch of the neck, the poitrel of solid plates covering the counter, and the croupier, also of solid steel, extending over the whole rump ot the animal from the castle of the saddle to the tail. These parts of the horse armor constitute what is called the barding proper. It was in this reign that the art of defence had so far surpassed the means of of fence, that it is on record that in Italy, where the best armor, that of Milan, was made, two armies fought from 9 o clock in the morning till 4 in the afternoon, in which battle not only no person was killed, but no one was wounded. From this date, however, the use of armor has constantly declined, and with the description given above its real history may be said to end ; for piece by piece was gradually laid aside as firearms were used and improved more and more, and hand-to-hand conflicts were avoided. At the beginning of the present cen tury the only troops who still wore defensive armor were the heavy cavalry of the Austrian, Russian, and French imperial armies, who were all cuirassiers. Napoleon I. made great use of this arm, but at Waterloo the iron-sheathed cuirassiers went down like grass before the English household troops, who wore no armor; j and in the last battles of the Crimea, although there were cuirassiers in the armies of all the | three belligerents, no use was made of them in j the field. In the early part of our late civil war an attempt was made to introduce bullet proof waistcoats of steel among the national troops, but they were soon laid aside. For a i detailed history of armor, see especially " A | Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour/ &c., j by Dr. (Sir Samuel) Meyrick (2d ed., London, I 1844) ; also an excellent essay and catalogue in | the Catalogue des collections composant le musee \ tfartillcrie, by O. Penguilly I Haridon (Paris, | 1862). ARMORICA, the name anciently given to the I X. W. coast of Gaul, from the Loire to the i Seine. It had a considerable fleet and carried j on a large intercourse with Britain. Maximus, j a Roman officer, having revolted with the le gions of Britain against the emperor Gratian, A. D. 383, passed into Gaul with two Roman legions and a number of aboriginal Britons, among whom was one Conan Mariadec, to whom Maximus gave the government of Ar- morica. Mariadec obtained the recognition of his independence from the emperor Theodo- sius, and in the 5th century thousands of Brit ish Celts came over, rather than remain under the hated Saxon yoke. They found in Armo- rica a hospitable reception, and a dynasty akin to them in race. The descendants of Conan I Mariadec successfully repelled the Danish, Nor wegian, and Irish pirates from the coasts of \ Armorica, and also, on the land side, the > various German tribes who invaded and rav- | aged Gaul. During the 5th and 6th centuries i it was the most peaceful and prosperous part : of that country. The Christian religion was i early propagated there. Bishops of Dol, Quim- per, and Vannes are recorded at the end of the 4th century, and the annals of Armorica pre serve a long roll of Celtic saints whose names are not known elsewhere. From the influx of Britons Armorica about the 6th century be gan to be called Brittany (Bretagne). ARMS, instruments or weapons of offence, as opposed to defensive armor. Arms may in this sense be separated into two broad divisions of ancient and modern, reckoning the latter from the adaptation of gunpowder to purposes of war ; and each of these may be again distin guished into missiles and weapons for hand-to- hand encounter. It is evident that offensive arms were prior in their invention and use to defensive coverings. In the earliest wars re corded in history, missiles were the principal weapons used. The bow (see AKCHERY) and the javelin were in the period chronicled in the Old Testament the favorite weapons of the Assyrians, Medes, Persians, Parthians, and other oriental races; while their instruments for close fight were merely weak, straight dag gers, acinac.es, which word has been falsely translated scymitars. In the heroic wars, as described by Homer, missiles were still, in the hands of the leading chiefs and heroes, the most important weapons ; a ponderous spear, hurled from the hand, and rarely if ever used to thrust with as a pike, being the instrument which began nearly all the duels of the cham pions, although they were often ended by the short sword. The masses, indeed, seem to have fought in phalanx or close column with the pike, or sarissa, afterward the arm of the free Greeks of the republican cities, and of the barbaric kingdoms of Macedonia and upper Hellas. This was 24 feet long, and the spear men held it in both hands, having their per sons obliquely covered by the great round shield worn upon the left arm. The tactic on which the success of this arm depended was a closely serried phalanx, ordinarily of 12 or 24, occasionally of 50 files in depth. If the enemy succeeded in breaking this phalanx, the men had recourse to their swords, which, however, seldom proved of much use after the spears had given way. The weapons of the Romans were a short, massive javelin, 6 feet long, in cluding the triangular steel head of 18 inches, which they were wont to hurl into the lines of their enemy at 10 or 15 paces distant, and a short two-edged broadsword, probably in the first instance of Spanish origin and manufac ture. This latter instrument, with which they were trained to stab rather than to strike, was that with which Rome cut her way to univer sal empire. Her tactic, adapted to its use, was a loose array of open lines, each man standing three feet from his left and right hand com rades, so that he had a clear space of six feet in which to manage his sword and buckler, and fighting as it were a duel or single com bat, hand to hand, with his immediate oppo nent, over whom his peculiar weapon, his sin- ARMS ARMSTRONG 735 gular skill in its use, and his incessant drilling in athletic exercises of all sorts, gave him im mense advantage. With the Greeks and Ro mans infantry was the front and principal fea ture of their armies. In cavalry they were weak, and in the period of their greatest em pire archery and slingers were contemptuously disregarded". But with the decline of the Ro man empires, especially that of the East, a new arm of the service took the lead in the steel-clad cavalry of the middle ages. Infantry, with but two exceptions, the English and the Swiss, were almost powerless against it. The arms of these feudal troops were the lance, the mace, the battle-axe, and the two-handed sword ; but it is to the first that they owed their success. This was a ponderous weapon of 18 feet in length, balanced by the great weight of its butt end, which was often nearly a foot in diameter at 20 inches from the extremity, having a notch cut out to admit the upper arm of the champion, which steadied it as it was laid in rest, supported by a projecting iron catch attached to the right-hand side of the knight s corslet. With this weapon, protrud ing 10 feet beyond their horse s chest, sheathed in panoply which defied any missiles which in that day could be brought against it, with the sole exception of the English clothyard arrow, infantry could seldom resist their shock. The arms of the infantry of this time were, besides the famous bows of the Englishmen, the bills something similar to a short heavy scythe blade set erect on a shaft four feet long leaden mal lets, and long knives of the Anglo-Xorman archers ; the pikes and halberts of the Swiss, which won them the day of Sempach, and did them good service at Morat, Granson, and Xancy, when the Austrian and Burgundian chivalry had dismounted ; the crossbows of the Genoese; ami the spears of the Scottish foot, who fought like the Greeks in phalanx. Such were the distribution and relative importance of different arms during the greater part of the middle ages, and until the battle of Pavia, in 1525. This date marks the division between ancient and modern arms ; for although gun powder had been long before invented, it was at Pavia that the matchlock was first used in such a form as to make it of any practical value. Even then it was a most imperfect and awkward weapon, fired from a rest. From this time firearms were improved, and the an cient offensive Aveapons, though they held their own for a considerable period, passed slowly out of use. The range of firearms was still very limited, and the accuracy of aim imper fect ; and, till the musket was combined with the bayonet, the musketeer had no means of defending himself either against charging horse, or against infantry with long weapons, at close quarters, and he was therefore of necessity protected by pikemen. But at the beginning of the 17th century the bayonet was added to the arquebuse or musket, which had become from a matchlock a firelock, and now united m itself the properties of both pike and gun, and could be used indiscriminately as a missile or a weapon at close quarters. From this time, so rapid was the progress made in fire arms, and so general their adoption, that the bullet soon became the arbiter of every battle, the combatants seldom coming to sufficiently close quarters to permit the use of weapons of the old form. The American war of indepen dence and the French wars of the revolution brought the rifie, which was by no means a new weapon for the principle of rifling or screwing barrels, as it was then called, and its effect on the bullet, were known and used even in matchlocks as early as the 16th century into general notice, and the invention of per cussion doubled even its utility. From this time began that wonderful series of improve ments in rifled small arms and cannon which has made the military rifle of to-day a most formidable weapon. The invention of the sim ple modern percussion lock, of the Minie rifle bullet, of revolving pistols, and especially of breech-loading firearms of every kind, has enormously increased the means of offensive warfare. (See ARTILLERY, CAXXOX, Gux, GUN NERY, GUNPOWDER, MUSKET, PISTOL, RIFLE.) ARMSTRONG, a W. county of Pennsylvania, intersected and partly bounded by Allegheny river; area, 750 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 43,382. The surface is undulating and the soil gener ally fertile. The Pennsylvania canal passes through its southern extremity. Its most valu able mineral productions are iron, salt, and coal. In 1870 the county produced 298,194 bushels of wheat, 135,257* of rye, 680,314 of Indian corn, 883,846 of oats, 33,192 tons of hay, 126,C68 Ibs. of wool, and 964,020 of but ter. Capital, Kittanning. ARMSTRONG, John, an American officer in the revolutionary war, born at Carlisle, Pa., in 1758, died at Red Hook, Dutchess county, X. Y., April 1, 1843. At the age of 18 he entered the army as a volunteer, and at the battle of Princeton was one of Gen. Mercers aids, and bore him in his arms from the field when he had re ceived his death wound. He afterward became a favorite of Gen. Gates, and served under him, with the rank of major, through the remain der of the war. During the winter of l782- 3, while the army was encamped at Xewburgh, great anxiety was felt as to the arrearages of pay, and the half pay promised to those officers who should serve through the war. After an unsuccessful application to congress, a meeting of officers was called anonymously for the llth of March, 1783, to discuss their grievances. An anonymous address was issued, in which the writer exhorted his comrades to refuse to perform further military duty during the war, or to lay down their arms on the return of peace, unless their just demands were com plied with. Washington immediately issued a call for a similar meeting on the loth, for the discussion of their claims, whicn was followed by another anonymous address, construing the 736 ARMSTRONG ARMY action of Washington into an approval of the course previously proposed by the writer. At this meeting Washington addressed the officers with great feeling, assuring them of his ardent desire to cooperate with them in obtaining the ends which they had in view, but begging them not to follow the dangerous advice of the writer of the addresses. His eloquence was successful, and he afterward obtained from congress what the soldiers -required. Arm strong wrote these anonymous productions at the request of many of his fellow officers, and although Washington had greatly blamed their author at the time, he afterward changed his opinion. Gen. Armstrong was subsequently sec retary of state of Pennsylvania, and a member of the old congress. In November, 1800, he was chosen U. S. senator from New York, and in 1804 was sent as minister to France, where he served with ability, at the same time acting as minister to Spain. He returned home in 1810. At the commencement of the war of 1812 he received a brigadier general s commission, and the command of the district which included the city of New York. In the following year he was appointed secretary of war, and re moved the war department to Sackctt s Harbor. He incurred much blame for the capture of Washington in 1814, but very unjustly, as Gen. Winder, to whom the defence of the district had been intrusted, was appointed by the pres ident in direct opposition to his advice. Gen. Armstrong s indignation at Mr. Madison for taking no steps to relieve him of this unde served disgrace ended in his resignation. He wrote two treatises on farming and gardening, a criticism of Gen. Wilkinson s memoirs, bio graphical sketches, and a history of the war of 1812. He also partly prepared a history of the American revolution. ARMSTRONG, John, a British physician, poet, and miscellaneous writer, born in Castleton parish, Roxburghshire, about 1709, died in 1779. His father was a clergyman. He studied at the university of Edinburgh, and after re ceiving his medical diploma settled in London, where he published anonymously "An Essay for Abridging the Study of Physic" (1735), ridiculing the ignorance of the apothecaries. In 1737 he published an outrageously indecent poem entitled "The Economy of Love." In 1744 appeared " The Art of Preserving Health," a didactic poem whose merits were greatly overrated. In 1760, through the influence, as it is said, of John Wilkes, he was made phy sician to the army in Germany, and held that office until the peace of 1763. His remain ing published writings include a volume of "Sketches or Essays," a collection of short poems under the title of "Miscellanies," a " Short Ramble through France and Italy," and a volume of medical essays. ARMSTRONG, John, an English physician and author, born at Bishop -Wearmouth, May 8, 1784, died in London, Dec. 12, 1829. He grad uated at Edinburgh university, and practised at Sunderland, where he wrote a work on "Typhus" (1816), which had a rapid sale throughout the kingdom. In 1818 he removed to London, where he failed to pass his exami nation before the college of physicians ; but as that institution was exceedingly unpopular in the profession, his rejection was ascribed to jealousy, and he was soon afterward elected physician to the fever hospital. In 1821 he united with Mr. Grainger in founding the Webb street school of medicine, where his lec tures were exceedingly popular. His chief defect was immoderate egotism. He regarded himself as a great reformer in the healing art, and ridiculed almost all medical learning ex cept his own. His lectures, edited by Joseph Rix, were published in 1834. ARMSTRONG, Sir William George, an English engineer and inventor, born at Newcastle- upon-Tyrie, Nov. 26, 1810. He was educated at Bishop-Auckland, and early busied himself with experiments in the physical sciences, the construction of models, &c. At his father s wish he began the study of law, though he had no inclination for that profession; he passed successfully through his preliminary studies, and became a partner in the firm with which he had been placed. But he devoted all his leisure to mechanical pursuits, and in 1838 produced his first invention, an important improvement in the hydraulic engine ; and in 1845 he invented a hydraulic crane, which im mediately proved one of the most useful ma chines of its kind. In 1842 he invented a ma chine for the production of electricity from steam. Mr. Armstrong was made a member of the royal society in 1846, and in the same year was one of a company to establish the Elswick iron works, at which his cranes are manufactured, with large engines, iron bridges, &c. In 1854, during the Crimean war, the attention of Mr. Armstrong was attracted to improvements in ordnance, and somewhat later he produced the plan of the breech-loading cannon which bears his name. For this and his other inventions he was knighted in 1859. The construction of iron-clad ships of war led him to make in 1861- 2 numerous experiments on the penetrability of iron plates; in the course of these he came to the conclusion that shot fired at moderate distances, from muzzle- loading, smooth-bored cannon of large calibre, possess greater power of penetrating and crushing iron plates than the projectiles of the breech-loading rifled ordnance. This result has excited much comment from eminent artil lery officers in England and elsewhere. Since 1858 Sir William Armstrong has been engi neer of the war department, and superinten dent of the manufacture of cannon at the gov ernment foundery at Woolwich, and also manu factures a large number at his own works at Elswick. ARMY, the organized body of armed men which a state maintains for the purposes of war. Of the armies of ancient history, the first of ARMY 737 which we know anything positive is that of Egypt. Its epoch of glory coincides with th<? reign of Rhamses II. (Sesostris), and the paint ings and inscriptions relating to his exploits on the monuments of his reign form the principal source of our knowledge on Egyptian military matters. The warrior caste of Egypt, accord ing to Herodotus, was divided into two classes, hermotybii and calasirii, of which the first was 100,000 and the other 250,000 strong, in their best times. These two classes were distin guished from each other merely by their age or length of service, so that the calasirii, after a certain number of years, passed into the her motybii or reserve. The whole army was set tled in a sort of military colonies, an ample extent of land being set apart for each man as an equivalent for his services. These colonies were mostly situated in the lower part of the country, where attacks from the neighboring Asiatic states were to be anticipated ; a few colonies only were established on the upper Nile, the Ethiopians not being very formidable opponents. The strength of the army, as shown by monumental records, lay in its infantry, and particularly in its archers. Besides these latter there were bodies of foot soldiers, vari ously armed and distributed into battalions, according to their arms, spearmen, swords men, clubmen, slingers, &c. The infantry was supported by numerous war chariots, each manned by two men, one to drive and the other to use the bow. Cavalry docs not fig ure on the monuments. One solitary drawing of a man on horseback is considered to belong to the Roman epoch, and it appears certain that the use of the horse for riding and of cavalry became known to the Egyptians through their Asiatic neighbors only. That at a later period they had a numerous cavalry, acting, like all cavalry in ancient times, on the wings of the infantry, is certain. The defensive armor of the Egyptians consisted of shields, helmets, and breastplates, or coats of mail, of various ma terials. The mode of attacking a fortified po sition showed many of the means and artifices known to the Greeks and Romans. They had the testudo and battering ram, the tinea and scaling ladder; that they, however, also knew the use of movable towers, and that they under mined walls, as Sir G. Wilkinson maintains, is a mere supposition. From the time of Psammet- icus a corps of Greek mercenaries was main tained ; they were also colonized in lower Egypt. Assyria furnishes us with the earliest speci men of those Asiatic armies which for above 1,000 years struggled for the possession of the countries between the Mediterranean and the Indus. There, as in Egypt, the monuments are our principal sources of information. The in fantry appear armed like the Egyptian, though the bow seems less prominent, and the arms offensive and defensive are generally of better make. Spear, bow, sword, and dagger are the principal weapons. Assyrians in the army of Xerxes are also represented with iron-mounted VOL. r. 1-7 clubs. The defensive armament consisted of a helmet (often very tastefully worked), a coat of mail of felt or leather, and a shield. The war chariots still formed an important portion of the army ; each had two occupants, and the driver had to shelter the bowman with his shield. Many of those who fight in chariots are represented in long coats of mail. Then there was the cavalry, which here we meet with for the first time. In the earliest sculp tures the rider mounts the bare back of his horse ; later on, a sort of pad is introduced, and in one sculpture a high saddle is depicted, simi lar to that now used in the East. The cavalry can scarcely have been very different from that of the Persians and later eastern nations light, irregular horse, attacking in disorderly swarms, easily repelled by a well armed, solid infantry, but formidable to a disordered or beaten army. Accordingly, it figured in rank below the char ioteers, who appear to have formed the aristo cratic arm of the service. In infantry tactics some progress toward regular movements and formations in ranks and files appears to have been .made. The bowmen either fought in ad vance, where they were always covered each by a shield-bearer, or they formed the rear rank, the first and second ranks, armed with spears, stooping or kneeling to enable them to shoot. In sieges they certainly knew the use of movable towers and mining ; and from a passage in Ezekiel, it would almost appear that they made some sort of mound or artificial hill to command the walls of the town a rude be ginning of the Roman agger. Their movable and fixed towers, too, were elevated to the height of the besieged wall, and higher, so as to command it. The ram and vinea they used also ; and, numerous as their armies were, they turned whole arms of rivers into new beds in order to gain access to a weak front of the attacked place, or to use the dry bed of the river as a road into the fortress. The Babylo nians seem to have had armies similar to those of the Assyrians, but special details are want ing. The Persian empire owed its greatness to its founders, the warlike nomads of the present Farsistan, a nation of horsemen, with whom cavalry took at once that predominant rank which it has since held in all eastern ar mies, up to the recent introduction of modern European drill. Darius Ilystaspis established a standing army in order to keep the conquered; provinces in subjection, as well as to prevent the frequent revolts of the satraps or civil governors. Every province thus had its garrison, under a separate commander; fortified towns were oc cupied by detachments. The provinces had to bear the expense of maintaining these troops. To this standing army also belonged the guards of the king, 10,000 chosen infantry (called the "immortals"), resplendent with gold, followed on the march by a long train of carriages, with their harems and servants, and of camels with provisions, besides 1,000 halberdiers, 1,000 horse guards, and numerous. war. chariots, some 738 ARMY of them armed with scythes. For expeditions ! of magnitude this armament was considered insufficient, and a general levy from all the provinces of the empire took place. The mass of these various contingents formed a truly ori ental army, composed of the most heterogeneous parts, varying among themselves in armament and mode of lighting, and accompanied hy immense trains of baggage and innumerable camp followers. It is to the presence of these latter that we must ascribe the enormous num bers of the Persian armies as estimated by the Greeks. The soldiers, according to their re spective nationality, were armed with bows, javelins, spears, swords, clubs, daggers, slings, &c. The contingent of every province had its separate commander ; they appear from Herod otus to have been divided by tens, hundreds, thousands, &c., with officers to command each decimal subdivision. The command of large corps or of the wings of the army was gener ally given to members of the royal family. Among the infantry the Persian and the other Aryan nations (Medes and Bactrians) formed the elite. They were armed with bows, spears of moderate size, and a short sword ; the head was protected by a sort of turban, the body by a coat covered with iron scales ; the shield was mostly of wickerwork. Yet this elite, as well as the rest of the Persian infantry, was gen erally beaten whenever it was opposed to even small bodies of Greeks, and its unwieldy and disorderly crowds appear quite incapable of any but passive resistance against the incip ient phalanx of Sparta and Athens; witness Marathon, Thermopylae Platrea, and Mycale. The war chariots, which in the Persian army appear for the last time in history, might be useful on level ground against such a motley crowd as the Persian infantry them selves were ; but against a solid mass of pike- men, such as the Greeks formed, or against i light troops taking advantage of inequalities of ground, they were worse than useless. The least obstacle stopped them. In battle the horses got frightened, and, no longer under command, ran down their own infantry. As to the cavalry, the earlier periods of the empire give us little proof of its excellence. There were 10,000 horse on the plain of Marathon a good cavalry country yet they could not break the Athenian ranks. In later times it distin guished itself at the Granicus, where, formed in one line, it fell on the heads of the Macedo nian columns as they emerged from the fords of the river, and broke them before they could deploy. It thus successfully opposed Alexan der s advanced guard, under Ptolemy, for a long while, until the main body arrived and the light troops mano3uvred on its flanks, when, having no second line or reserve, it had to re tire. But at this period the Persian army had ! been strengthened hy the infusion of a Greek i element, imparted by the Greek mercenaries, who, soon after Xerxes, were taken into pay by the king ; and the cavalry tactics dis- j played by Memnon on the Granicus are so thoroughly tin- Asiatic that we may, in the absence of positive information, at once ascribe them to Greek influence. The armies of Greece are the first of the detailed organiza tion of which we have ample and certain in formation. "With them the history of tactics, especially infantry tactics, may be said to be gin. In Athens every free-born man was liable to military service. The holders of cer tain public offices alone, and in the earlier times the fourth or poorest class of freemen, were exempt. Every youth on attaining his 18th year was obliged to do duty for two years, especially in watching the frontiers. During this time his military education was completed; afterward he remained liable to service up to his 00th year. In case of war the assembled citizens fixed the number of men to be called out ; in extreme cases only were the levees en masse (panstratia) resorted to. The strategy ten of whom were annually elected by the people, had to levy these troops and to organize them, so that the men of each tribe, or pliyle, formed a body under a separate phy- larch. These officers, as well as the taxiarchs, or captains of companies, were equally elected by the people. The whole of this levy formed the heavy infantry (hoplitce) destined for the phalanx or deep line formation of spearmen, which originally formed the whole of the armed force, and subsequently, after the addi tion of light troops and cavalry, remained its mainstay the corps which decided the battle. The phalanx was commanded by a general with the title of strategus, and was formed in various depths; we find phalanxes 8, 12, and 25 men deep, mentioned in Grecian history. The armament of the hoplitoe consisted of a breastplate or corslet, helmet, oval target, spear, and short sword. The forte of the Athenian phalanx was attack; its charge was renowned for its furious impetus, especially after Mil- tiades at Marathon had introduced the quick ening of the pace during the charge, so that they came down on the enemy with a run. On the defensive, the more solid and closer pha lanx of Sparta was its superior. While at Marathon the whole force of the Athenians consisted of a heavy-armed phalanx of 10,000 hoplitas, at Platoaa they had, besides 8,000 hop- litae, an equal number of light infantry. The tremendous pressure of the Persian invasions necessitated an extension of the liability to ser vice ; the poorest class, that of the thetes, was enrolled. They were formed into light troops (gymnetce-, psili) ; they had no defensive armor, or a target only, and were supplied with a spear and javelins. With the extension of the Athenian power, their light troops were re- enforced by the contingents of their allies, and even by mercenary troops. Acarnanians, .ZEto- lians, and Cretans, celebrated as archers and slingers, were added. A class of troops inter mediate between them and the hoplita3 was formed, the peltastw, armed like the light in- ARMY 739 fantry, but capable of maintaining a position. | They were of little importance until after the , Peloponnesian war, when Iphicratcs reorgan- | ized them. The light troops of the Athenians j enjoyed a high reputation for intelligence and ; quickness both in resolution and in execution. | On several occasions, probably in difficult ground, they even successfully opposed the Spartan phalanx. The Athenian cavalry was introduced at a time when the republic was | already rich and powerful. The mountainous j ground of Attica was unfavorable to this arm, but the neighborhood of Thessaly and Boeotia, countries rich in horses, and consequently the first to form cavalry, soon caused its introduc tion in the other states of Greece. The Athe nian cavalry, first 300, then 600, and even 1,000 strong, was composed of the richest citizens, and formed a standing corps even in time of peace. They were a very effective body, ex tremely watchful, intelligent, and enterprising, j Their position in battle, as well as that of the ! light troops, was generally on "the wings of the | phalanx. In later times the Athenians also maintained a corps of 200 mercenary mounted archers (hippotoxotce). The Athenian soldier np to the time of Pericles received no pay. Afterward t\vo oboli (besides two more for provisions, which the soldier had to find) were given, and sometimes even the hoplitas received as much as two drachms. Officers received double pay, cavalry soldiers threefold, generals fourfold. The corps of heavy cavalry alone cost 40 talents (about $40,000) per annum in time of peace, during war considerably more. The order of battle and mode of fighting were extremely simple. The phalanx formed the centre, the men locking their spears and cover ing the whole front with their row of shields. They attacked the hostile phalanx in a parallel front. When the first onset was not sufficient to break the enemy s order, the struggle hand to hand with the sword decided the battle. In the mean time the light troops and cavalry either attacked the corresponding troops of the enemy, or attempted to operate on the flank and rear of the phalanx, and to take ad vantage of any disorder. In case of a victory they undertook the pursuit ; in case of defeat they covered the retreat as much as possible. They were also used for reconnoitring expedi tions and forays, they harassed the enemy on the march, especially when he had to pass a defile, and they tried to capture his convoys and stragglers. The phalanx always operated as a whole; its subdivisions into smaller bodies had no technical significance; their command ers had no other task than to see that the order of the phalanx was not broken, or was quickly restored. At the beginning of the Pe loponnesian war, the Athenian army mustered 1.3,000 hoplitse for field service, 61,000 (the youngest and the oldest soldiers) for garrison duty, 1,200 horsemen, and 1,600 archers. Ac cording to Bceckh s calculations, the force sent against Syracuse numbered 38,560 men, and reinforcements despatched afterward, 26,000. The ruin of this expedition utterly exhausted the resources of Athens. Sparta was preeminently the military state of Greece. The Spartans di rected their attention mostly to strength, endu rance, and hardiness. They valued steadiness in the ranks, and military point of honor, more than intelligence. As long as the phalanx decided the battle, the Spartan in the long run had the best of it. In Sparta every freeman was en rolled in the army lists from his 20th to his 60th year. The ephors determined the num ber to be called out, and they were generally chosen among the middle-aged men, from 30 to 40. As in Athens, the men belonging to the same tribe or locality were enrolled in the same body of troops. The organization of the army was based upon the confraternities (eno- motice) introduced by Lycurgus, two of which formed a pentecostys ; two of these were uni ted into a lochos, and eight or four lochi into a mora. This was the organization in Xeno- phon s time; in former periods it appears to have varied. The strength of a mora is vari ously stated at from 400 to 900 men, and their number at one time was said to be 600. These various bodies of free Spartans formed the phalanx ; the lioplitje composing it were armed with a spear, a short sword, and a shield fas tened round the neck. Later on, Cleomenes introduced the large Carian shield, fastened by a string on the left arm, and leaving both hands of the soldier free. The Spartans con sidered it disgraceful for their men to return after a defeat without their shields; the pres ervation of the shield proved the retreat to have been made in good order and in a compact phalanx, while single fugitives, running for their lives, of course had to throw away the clumsy shield. The Spartan phalanx was gen erally" eight deep, but sometimes the depth was doubled by placing one wing behind the other. The men appear to have marched in step ; some elementary evolutions were also in use, such as changing front to the rear by facing the men about, advancing or retiring a wing by wheeling, &c. ; but they would seem to have been introduced at a later period only. In their best times, the Spartan phalanx, like that of Athens, knew the parallel front attack only. The ranks on the march were distant from each other six feet, in the charge three feet, and in a position receiving the charge only a foot and a half, from rank to rank. The army was commanded by one of the kings, who, with his suite (damosia ), occupied a po sition in the centre of the phalanx. After ward, the number of the free Spartans having considerably decreased, the strength of the phalanx was kept up by a selection from the subjected Perioeci. The cavalry was never stronger than about 600 men, divided into troops (ulami} of 50 men; it merely covered the wings. There was besides a body of 3CO mounted men, the elite of the Spartan youth, but they dismounted in battle, and formed a 740 APvMY sort of bodjjaarJ of hoplita around the king. Of light troops, there were the skiritce, in habitants of the mountains near Arcadia, who generally covered the left wing; the hoplitae of the phalanx, besides, had Helot servants, who were expected in battle to do duty as skirmishers; thus, the 5,000 hoplitie at Pla- trea brought 35,000 Helot light troops with them, but of the exploits of these latter we find nothing stated in history. The simple tactics of the Greeks underwent considerable changes after the Peloponnesian war. At the battle of Leuctra, Epaminondas had to oppose with a small force of Thebans the far more numerous and hitherto invincible Spartan phalanx. The j plain, parallel front attack here would have I been equivalent to certain defeat, both wings | being outflanked by the longer front of the enemy. Epaminondas, instead of advancing in line, formed his army into a deep column, and advanced against one wing of the Spartan fhalanx, where the king had taken his station. te succeeded in breaking through the Spartan line at this, the decisive point ; he then wheeled his troops round, and moving on either hand, he himself outflanked the broken line, which could not form a new front without losing its tactical order. At the battle of Mantinea the Spartans formed their phalanx with a greater depth, but nevertheless the Theban column again broke through it. Agesilaus in Sparta, and Timothcus, Iphicrates, and Chabrias in Athens, also intro duced changes in infantry tactics. Iphicrates improved the peltastso. They were armed with a small round target, strong linen corslet, and long spear of wood. Chabrias made the first ranks of the phalanx, when on the defensive, kneel down to receive the enemy s charge. Full squares, and other columns, &c., were in troduced, and accordingly deployments formed part of the elementary tactics. At the same time, greater attention was paid to light in fantry of all kinds; several species of amis were borrowed from, the barbarous and semi- barbarous neighbors of the Greeks, such as archers, mounted and on foot, slingers, &c. The majority of the soldiers of this period con sisted of mercenaries. The wealthy citizens, | instead of doing duty themselves, found it more I convenient to pay for substitutes. The char- j acter of the phalanx, as the preeminently na tional portion of the army, in which the free j citizens of the state only were admitted, thus j suffered from this admixture of mercenaries who had no right of citizenship. Toward the j approach of the Macedonian epoch, Greece and j her colonies were as much a mart for soldiers J of fortune and mercenaries as Switzerland in j the 18th century. The Egyptian kings had at \ an early time formed a corps of Greek troops. I Afterward the Persian king gave his army | some steadiness by the admission of a body of Greek mercenaries. The chiefs of these bodies were regular condottieri, as much as those of Italy in the 15th century. During this period warlike engines for throwing stones, darts, and incendiary projectiles were introduced, espe cially by the Athenians. Pericles already used some similar machines at the siege of Samos. Sieges were carried on by forming a line of contra vallation, with ditch or parapet, round the place, investing it, and by the attempt to place the war engines in a commanding posi tion near the walls. Mining was regularly made use of, to bring the walls down. At the assault, the column formed the syna&pi&mus, the outer ranks holding their shields before them, and the inner ranks holding them over their heads, so as to form a roof (the testudo of the Romans) against the projectiles of the enemy. While Greek skill was thus mainly directed toward shaping the flexible material of the mercenary bands into all sorts of novel and artificial formations, and in adopting or invent ing new species of light troops, to the detri ment of the ancient Doric heavy phalanx, which at that time alone could decide battles, a monarchy grew up which, adopting all real improvements, formed a body of heavy infantry of such colossal dimensions, that no army with which it came in contact could resist its shock. Philip of Macedon formed a standing army of about 30,000 infantry and 8,000 cavalry. The main body of the army was an immense pha lanx of some 16,000 or 18,000 men, formed upon the principle of the Spartan phalanx, but improved in armament. The small Grecian shield was replaced by the large oblong Carian buckler, and the moderate-sized spear by tho Macedonian pike (sarissa) of 24 feet in length. The depth of this phalanx varied under Philip from 8 to 10, 12, and 24 men. With the tre mendous length of the pikes, each of the six front ranks could, on levelling them, make the points project in front of the first rank. The- regular advance of such a long front of from 1,000 to 2,000 men presupposes a great per fection of elementary drill, which in conse quence was continually practised. Alexander completed this organization. His phalanx was normally 16,384 men strong, or 1,024 in front by 16 deep. The file (lochos) of 16 men was conducted by a lochagos, who stood in the front rank. Two files formed a dilochy, two of which made a tetrarchy, two of which a taxiarchy, two of which a xenagy or syntagma, 16 men in front by 16 deep. This was the unit of evolution, the march being made in columns of xenagies, 16 in front. Sixteen xenagies (equal to eight pentecosiarchies, or four chili- archies, or two telarchies) formed a small pha lanx, two of which a diphalangarchy, and four a tetraphalangarchy or phalanx properly so called. Every one of these subdivisions had its corresponding officer. The diphalangarchy of the right wing was called head, that of the left wing tail, or rear. Whenever extraordina ry solidity was required, the left wing took station behind the right, forming 512 men in front by 32 in depth. On the other hand, by deploying the eight rear ranks on the left of the front ranks, the extent of front could be ARMY 741 doubled, and the depth reduced to eight. The distances of ranks and files were similar to those of the Spartans, hut the close order was so com pact that the single soldier in the middle of the phalanx could not turn. Intervals between the subdivisions of the phalanx were not al lowed in battle ; the whole formed one contin uous line, charging en inuraille. The phalanx was formed by Macedonian volunteers exclu sively ; though, after the conquest of Greece, Greeks also could enter it. The soldiers were all heavy-armed hoplitae. Besides shield and pike, they carried a helmet and sword, although the hand-to-hand fight with the latter weapon cannot very often have been required after the charge of that forest of pikes. When the pha lanx had to meet the Roman legion, the case indeed was different. The whole phalangite system, from the earliest Doric times down to the breaking up of the Macedonian empire, suffered from one great inconvenience ; it want ed flexibility. Unless on a level and open plain, these long, deep lines could not move with order and regularity. Every obstacle in front forced it to form column, in which shape it was not prepared to act. Moreover, it had no second line or reserve. As soon, therefore, as it was met by an army formed in smaller bodies and adapted to turn obstacles of ground without breaking line, and disposed in several lines seconding each other, the phalanx could not help going into broken ground, where its new opponent completely cut it up. But to such opponents as Alexander had at Arbela, his two large phalanxes must have appeared invincible. Besides this heavy infantry of the line, Alexander had a guard of 6,000 hypaspis- t<e, still more heavily armed, with even larger bucklers and longer pikes. His light infantry consisted of aryyraspides, with small silver- plated shields, and of numerous peltastae, both of which troops were organized in semi -pha lanxes of normally 8,192 men, being able to fight either in extended order or in line, like the hoplitrc ; and their phalanx often had the same success. The Macedonian cavalry was composed of young Macedonian and Thessalian noblemen, with the addition subsequently of a body of horsemen from Greece proper. They were divided into squadrons (Ua), of which the Macedonian nobility alone formed eight. They belonged to what we should call heavy cavalry ; they wore a helmet and a cuirass with cuissarts of iron scales to protect the leg, and were armed with a long sword and pike. The horses, too, wore frontlets of iron. This class of cavalry, the cataphracti, received great at tention both from Philip and Alexander ; the latter used it for his decisive manoauvre at Ar bela, when he first beat and pursued one wing of the Persians, and then, passing behind their centre, fell upon the rear of the other wing. They charged in various formations : in line, m common rectangular column, in rhomboid or wedge-shaped column. The light cavalry had no defensive armor ; it carried javelins and light 1 short lances. There was also a corps of acroba- \ lwt(K or mounted archers. These troops served i for outpost duty, patrols, reconnoitring, and ir- I regular warfare generally. They were the con- j tingents of Thracian and Illyrian tribes, which i also furnished some few thousands of irregular ; infantry. A new arm invented by Alexander 1 claims our attention from the circumstance that : it has been imitated in modern times the di- macJice, mounted troops expected to fight either as cavalry or as infantry. The dragoons of the 16th and following centuries, as well as the 1 light cavalry and mounted infantry of our own day, are complete counterparts to these ancient dimachae. We have no exact information as to the success with which the dimachfe were I used. The foregoing statement describes the I composition of the army with which Alexander j conquered the country between the Mediter- | ranean, the Oxus, and the Sutlej. As to its strength at Arbela, it consisted of two large phalanxes of hoplitra (say 30,000 men), two semi-phalanxes of peltastae (16,000), 4,000 cav alry, and 6,000 irregular troops; in all about 56,000 men. At the Granicus, his force of all arms was 35,000 men, of whom 5,000 were cav alry. The armies of the successors of Alexan der show no improvements on his formations. The introduction of elephants was but of short duration; when .terrified by fire, these animals were more formidable to their own troops than to the enemy. The later Greek armies, under the Achaean league, were formed partly on the Macedonian, partly on the Roman system. Of the Carthaginian army we know no details; even the strength of the force with which Hannibal passed the Alps is disputed. The Roman army presents us with the most per fect system of infantry tactics invented during the time when the use of gunpowder was un known. It maintained the predominance of heavy infantry and compact bodies, but added to it mobility of the separate smaller bodies, the possibility of fighting in broken ground, the dis position of several lines one behind the other, partly as supports and reliefs, partly as a pow- ! erf ill reserve, and finally a system of training ! the single soldier which was even more to the purpose than that of Sparta. The Romans ac cordingly overthrew every armament opposed to them, the Macedonian phalanx as well as the Numidian horse. In Rome every citizen from his 17th to his 45th or 50th year was liable to | serve, unless he belonged to the lowest class, or ! had served in 20 campaigns on foot, or 10 cam paigns as a horseman. Generally the younger | men only were selected. The drill of the sol- | dier Avas very severe, and calculated to develop i his bodily powers in every imaginable way. | Running, jumping, vaulting, climbing, wrest- I ling, swimming, first naked, then in full arma- i ment, were largely practised, besides the regu- : lar drill in the use of the arms and the various ; movements. Long marches in heavy marching order, every soldier carrying from 35 to 60 Ibs., were kept up at the rate of four miles an hour. 742 ARMY The use of the intrenching tools, and the throw ing up of intrenched camps in a short time, also formed part of the military education ; and not only the recruit, but even the legions of vet erans, had to undergo all these exercises in order to keep their bodies fresh and supple, and to remain inured to fatigue and want. In the best times of the republic there were gen erally two consular armies, each consisting of two legions and the contingents of the allies (in infantry of equal strength, cavalry double the strength of the Romans). The levy of the troops was made in a general assembly of the citizens at the capitol or on the Campus Mar tins ; an equal number of men was taken from every tribe, which was again equally subdivid ed among the four legions, until the number was completed. Very often citizens, freed from service by age or their numerous cam paigns, entered again as volunteers. The re cruits were then sworn in and dismissed until required. When called in, the youngest and poorest were taken for the velites, the next in age and means for the hastati and principes, the oldest and wealthiest for the triarii. Every legion counted 1,200 velites, 1,200 hastati, 1,200 principes, 600 triarii, and 300 horsemen (knights); in all, 4,500. The hastati, prin cipes, and triarii were each divided into ten manipuli or companies, and an equal number of velites attached to each. The velites (ro- rarii, accensi, feren ta rii) formed the light in fantry of the legion, and stood on its wings along with the cavalry. The hastati formed the first, the principes the second line ; they were originally armed with spears. The triarii formed the reserve, and were armed with the pilum, a short but extremely heavy and danger ous spear, which they threw into the front ranks of the enemy immediately before enga ging him sword in hand. Every manipulus was commanded by a centurion, having a second centurion for his lieutenant. The centurions ranked through the whole of the legion, from the second centurion of the last or tenth ma nipulus of the hastati to the first centurion of the first manipulus of the triarii (primus pilus), who, in the absence of a superior officer, even took the command of the whole legion. Com monly, the primus pilus commanded all the triarii, the same as the primus princeps (first centurion of first manipulus of principes), all the principes and the primus hastatus, and all the hastati of the legion. The legion was com manded in the earlier times in turns by its six military tribunes ; each of them held the com mand for two months. After the first civil war, legates were placed as standing chiefs at the head of every legion ; the tribunes now were mostly officers intrusted with the staff or ad ministrative business. The difference of arma- men^ of the three lines had disappeared before the time of Marius. The pilum had been given to all three lines of the legion ; it was now the na tional arm of the Romans. The qualitative dis tinction between the three lines, as far as it was based upon age and length of service, soon dis appeared too. In the battle of Metellus against Jugurtha, there appeared, according to Sail list, for the last time hastati, principes, and triarii. Marius now formed out of the 30 manipuli of the legion 10 cohorts, and disposed them in two lines of five cohorts each. At the same time, the normal strength of the cohort was raised to (>00 men ; the first cohort, under the primus pilus, carried the legionary eagle. The cavalry re mained formed in turmce of 30 rank and file and three decurions, the first of whom com manded the turma. The armature of the Ro man infantry consisted of a shield of semi- cylindric shape, 4 feet by 2A-, made of wood, covered with leather and strengthened with iron fastenings; in the middle it had a boss (umbo) to parry off spear thrusts. The helmet was of brass, generally with a prolongation be hind to protect the neck, and fastened on with leather bands covered with brass scales. The breastplate, about a foot square, was fastened on a leather corslet with Scaled straps passing over the shoulder ; for the centurions, it con sisted of a coat of mail covered with brass scales. The right leg, exposed when advanced for the sword thrust, was protected by a brass plate. Besides the short sword, which was used for thrusting more than for cutting, the soldier carried the pilum, a heavy spear 4^ feet wood with a projecting iron point of \\ foot, or nearly 6 feet in all long, but 2-^ inches square in the wood, and weighing about 10 or 11 Ibs. When thrown at 10 or 15 paces distance, it often penetrated shield and breastplate, and al most always threw down its man. The velites, lightly equipped, carried light short javelins. In the later periods of the republic, when bar baric auxiliaries undertook the light service, this class of troops disappeared entirely. The cavalry were provided with defensive armor similar to that of the infantry, a lance, and a longer sword. But the Roman national cavalry was not very good, and preferred to fight dis mounted. In later periods Numidian, Spanish, Gallic, and German horsemen supplanted it. The tactical disposition of the troops admitted of great mobility. The manipuli were formed at intervals equal to their extent of front; the depth varied from 5 or C to 10 men. The ma nipuli of the second line were placed behind the intervals of the first ; the triarii still fur ther to the rear, but in one unbroken line. According to circumstances, the manipuli of each line could close up or form line without intervals, or those of the second line could march up to fill the intervals of the first ; or else, where greater depth was required, the manipuli of the principes closed up each in rear of the corresponding manipulus of the hastati, doubling its depth. When opposed to the ele phants of Pyrrhus, the three lines all formed with intervals, each manipulus covering the one in its front, so as to leave room for the an imals to pass straight through the order of battle. In this formation the clumsiness of the ARMY phalanx was in every way successfully over come. The legion could move and manoeuvre, without breaking its order of battle, in ground where the phalanx durst not venture without the utmost risk. One or two manipuli at most would have to shorten their front to defile past an obstacle; in a few moments the front was restored. The legion could cover the whole of its front by light troops, as they could retire, on the advance of the line, through the inter vals. But the principal advantage was the disposition in a plurality of lines, brought into action successively, according to the require ments of the moment. "With the phalanx, one shock had to decide. Xo fresh troops were in reserve to take up the tight in case of a reverse ; in fact, that case was never provided for. The legion could engage the enemy with its light troops and cavalry on the whole of his front ; could oppose to the advance of his phalanx its first line of hastati, which was not so easily beaten, as at least six of the ten manipuli had first to be broken singly ; could wear out the strength of the enemy by the advance of the hastati, and finally decide the victory by the triarii. Thus the troops and the progress of the battle remained in the hands of the general, while the phalanx, once engaged, was irretriev ably engaged, with all its strength, and had to see the battle out. If the Roman general de sired to break otf the combat, the legionary organization permitted him to take up a posi tion with his reserves, while the troops engaged before retired through the intervals, and took np a position in their turn. Under all circum stances, there was always a portion of the troops in good order, for even if the triarii were repulsed, the two first lines had reformed be hind them. When the legions of Flamininus met Philip s phalanx in the plains of Thessaly, their first attack was at once repulsed; but charge following charge, the Macedonians got tired and lost part of their compactness of for mation ; and wherever a sign of disorder mani fested itself, there was a Roman manipulus to attempt an inroad into the clumsy mass. At last, 20 manipuli attacking the flanks and rear of the phalanx,, tactical continuity could no longer be maintained ; the deep line dissolved into a swarm of fugitives, and the battle was lost. Against cavalry, the legion formed the orb w, a sort of square with baggage in the cen tre. On the march, when an attack was to be apprehended, it formed the legio qvadrata, a sort of lengthened column with a wide front, baggage in the centre. This was of course possible in the open plain only where the line of march could go across the country. In Caesar s time the legions were mostly recruited by voluntary enlistment in Italy. After the so cial war, the right of citizenship, and with it lia bility for service, had been extended to all Italy. The pay was about equal to the earnings of a laborer ; recruits, therefore, were plentiful, even without having recourse to the conscription. In exceptional cases only were legions recruited in the provinces ; thus Ca3sar had his fifth le gion recruited in Roman Gaul, but afterward it received the Roman naturalization en masse. The legions were far from having the nominal strength of 4,500 men; those of Caesar were seldom much above 3,000. Levies of recruits were formed into new legions (legiones tironum), rather than mixed with the veterans in the old legions; these new legions were at first ex cluded from battles in the open field, and prin cipally used for guarding the camp. The legion was divided into ten cohorts of three manipuli each. The names of hastati, principes, and tri arii were maintained as far as necessary to de note the rank of officers according to the sys tem indicated above ; as to the soldiers, these names had lost all significance. The six centu rions of the first cohort of each legion were by right present at councils of war. The centuri ons rose from the ranks, and seldom attained higher command ; the school for superior offi cers was in the personal staff of the general, consisting of young men of education, who soon advanced to the rank of trilnni militum, and later on to that of legati. The armament of the soldier remained the same : pilurn and sword. Besides his accoutrements, the soldier carried his personal baggage, weighing from 35 to GO pounds. The contrivance for carrying it was so clumsy that the baggage had first to be deposited before the soldier was ready for battle. The camp utensils of the army were carried on the backs of horses and mules, of which a legion required about 500. Every le gion had its eagle, and every cohort its colors. For light infantry, Caesar drew from his legions a certain number of men (antesignani) equally fit for light service and for close fight in line. Besides these, he had his provincial auxiliaries, Cretan archers, Balearic slingers, Gallic and Nurnidian contingents, and German mercena ries. His cavalry consisted partly of Gallic, partly of German troops. The Roman velites and cavalry had disappeared some time before. The staff of the army consisted of the legati, appointed by the senate, the lieutenants of the general, whom he employed to command de tached corps, or portions of the order of battle. Caesar for the first time gave to every legion a legate as standing commander. If there were not legates enough, the quaestor, too, had to take the command of a legion. He was prop erly the paymaster of the army and chief of the commissariat, and was assisted in this office by numerous clerks and orderlies. Attached to the staff were the tribuni militum, and the young volunteers above mentioned (contubcr- nales, comites prcetorii), doing duty as adju tants or orderly officers ; but in battle they fought in line, the same as private soldiers, in the ranks of the coliors proetoria, consisting of the lictors, clerks, servants, guides (specula- tores), and orderlies (apparitores) of the head quarters. The general had a sort of personal guard, consisting of veterans, who had volun tarily reenlisted on the call of their former 744 ARMY chief. This troop, mounted on the march, but fighting: on foot, was considered the elite of the army ; it carried and guarded the vcxillum, the signal banner for the whole army. In bat tle, Cresar generally fought in three lines, four cohorts per legion in the first, and three in the second and third lines each ; the cohorts of the second line dressed on the intervals of the first. The second line had to relieve the first; the third line formed a general reserve for decisive manoeuvres against the front or fiank of the enemy, or for parrying his decisive thrusts. Wherever the enemy so far outflanked the line that its prolongation became necessary, the army was disposed in two lines only. One single line (ac-ics simplex) was made use of in an extreme case of need only, and then without intervals between the cohorts ; in the defence of a camp, however, it was the rule, as the line was still eight to ten deep, and could form a reserve from the men who had no room on the parapet. Augustus completed the work of making the Roman troops a regular standing army. He had 25 legions distributed all over the empire, of which eight were on the Rhine (considered the main strength of the army), three in Spain, two in Africa, two in Egypt, four in Syria and Asia Minor, six in the Danu- bian countries. Italy was garrisoned by chosen troops recruited exclusively in that country, and forming the imperial guard ; this consisted of 12, later on of 14 cohorts; and the city of Rome had also 7 cohorts of municipal guards (rig lies), formed originally from emancipated slaves. Besides this regular army, the prov inces had to furnish, as formerly, their light auxiliary troops, now mostly reduced to a sort of militia for garrison and police duty. On menaced frontiers, however, not only these auxiliary troops, but foreign mercenaries also, were employed in active service. The number of legions increased under Trajan to 30, under Septimius Severus to 33. The legions, besides their numbers, had names, taken from their stations (L. German ica, L. Italica}, from em perors (L. Augusta), from gods (L. Primige- nia, L. Apollinaris), or conferred as honorary distinctions (L. fidelis, L. pia, L. mvicta). The organization of the legion underwent some changes. The commander was now called prosfectus. The first cohort was doubled in strength (cohors milliaria), and the normal strength of the legion raised to 6,100 infantry and 726 cavalry ; this was to be the minimum, -and in case of need one or more cohortes mil- Iiaria3 were to be added. The cohors milliaria was commanded by a military tribune, the others by tribunes or prcepositi ; the rank of cent ttr-io was thus confined to subalterns. The admission of liberated or non-liberated slaves, natives of the provinces, and all sorts of people into the legions, became the rule; Roman citizenship being required for the prte- torians in Italy only, and even there this was abandoned in later times. The Roman nation ality of the army was thus very soon drowned in the influx of barbaric and semi-barbaric, Romanized and non-Romanized elements; the officers alone maintained the Roman character. This deterioration of the elements composing the army very soon reacted upon its armament and tactics. The heavy breastplate and pi- lum were thrown aside ; the toilsome system of drill, which had formed the conquerors of the world, was neglected ; camp-followers and ! luxuries became necessary to the arrny, and the impedimenta (train of baggage) increased as strength and endurance decreased. As had been the case in Greece, the decline was mark- j cd by neglect of the heavy line infantry, by a ! foolish fancy for all sorts of light armament, and by the adoption of barbaric equipments and tactics. Thus we find innumerable classifica- ! tions of light troops (auxiliatores, exculcatores, I jaculatores, excursatores^prcecursatore^ scutati, | funditores, balistarii, tragularii), armed with i all sorts of projectiles; and we are told by I Vegetius that the cavalry had been improved in imitation of the Goths, Alans, and Huns. . Finally, all distinction of equipment and arma ment between Romans and barbarians ceased, I and the Germans, physically and morally su perior, marched over the bodies of the un- Romanized legions. The conquest of the West | by the Germans thus was opposed by but a small remnant, a dim tradition of the ancient Roman tactics ; but even this small remnant j was now destroyed. The whole of the middle ! ages is as barren a period for the development ! of tactics as for that of any other science. The j feudal system, though in its very origin a mil- 1 itary organization, was essentially opposed to \ discipline. Rebellions and secessions of large I vassals, with their contingents, were of regular I occurrence. The distribution of orders to the chiefs turned generally into a tumultuous coun- ! cil of war, which rendered all extensive opera- | tions impossible. Wars, therefore, were seldom | directed on decisive points ; struggles for the i possession of a single locality filled up entire | campaigns. The only operations of magnitude i occurring in all this period (passing over the confused times from the 6th to the 12th cen- ! tury) are the expeditions of the German em- ! perors against Italy, and the crusades, the one | as resultless as the other. The infantry of the middle ages, composed of the feudal retainers and part of the peasantry, Avas chiefly com- j posed of pikemen, and mostly contemptible. It was great sport for the knights, covered ! with iron, to ride singly into this unprotected rabble, and lay about them with a will. A ; portion of the infantry was armed on the con- 1 tinent of Europe with the crossbow, while in ! England the longbow became the national | weapon of the peasantry. This longbow was i a very formidable weapon, and secured the | superiority of the English over the French at | Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt. Easily pro- ! tected against rain, which rendered the cross- | bow unserviceable at times, it projected its arrow to distances above 200 yards, or not ARMY 745 much less than the effective range of the old smooth-bore musket. The arrow penetrated a one-inch board, and would even pass through a breastplate. Thus it long maintained its place even against the tirst small firearms, especial ly as six arrows could be shot off while the musket of that epoch could be loaded and fired once ; and as late as the end of the 10th cen tury Queen Elizabeth attempted to reintroduce the national longbow as a weapon of war. It was especially effective against cavalry ; the arrows, even if the armor of the men-at-arms was proof against them, wounded or killed the horses, and the unhorsed knights were thereby disabled, and generally made prisoners. The archers acted either in skirmishing order or in line. Cavalry was the decisive arm of the middle yges. The knights in full armor formed the first effective body of heavy cavalry, charg ing in regular formation, which we meet with in history ; for Alexander s cataphracti, though they decided the day at Arbela, were so much an exception that we hear nothing more of them after that day. The only progress, then, which the middle ages bequeathed to us, was the creation of a cavalry, from which our modern mounted service descends. And yet, what a clumsy thing this cavalry was, is proved by the one fact that during the whole middle ages the cavalry was the heavy, slow-moving arm, while all light service and quick move ments were executed by infantry. The knights, however, did not always tight in close order. They preferred duels with single opponents, or spurring their horses into the midst of the hostile infantry ; thus the mode of fighting out a battle was carried back to the Homeric times. AVhen they did act in close order, they charged either in line (one deep, the more lightly armed esquires forming the second rank) or in deep column. Such a charge was under taken, as a rule, against the knights (men-at- arms) only of the opposing army ; upon its in fantry it would have been wasted. The horses, heavily laden with their own as well as their riders armor, could run but slowly and for short distances. During the crusades, there fore, and in the wars with the Mongolians in Poland and Silesia, this immovable cavalry was constantly tired out, and finally worsted by the active light horsemen of the East. In the Austrian and Burgundian wars against Switzerland, the men-at-arms, entangled in difficult ground, had to dismount and form a phalanx even more immovable than that of Macedon ; in mountain defiles, rocks and stumps of trees were hurled down upon them, in consequence of which the phalanx lost its tactical order, and was scattered by a resolute attack. Toward the 14th century a kind of lighter cavalry was introduced, and a portion of the archers were mounted to facilitate their manoeuvring ; but these and other changes were soon rendered useless, abandoned, or turn ed to different account by the introduction of that new element, which was destined to change the whole system of warfare, gunpowder. From the Arabs in Spain the knowledge of the composition and use of gunpowder spread to France and the rest of Europe ; the A rubs themselves had received it from nations fur ther east, who again had it from the original inventors, the Chinese. In the first half of the 14th century cannon were first introduced into European armies heavy, unwieldy pieces of ordnance, throwing stone balls, and unfit for anything but sieges. Small arms, however, were soon invented. Perugia supplied itself in 1304 with 500 hand-guns, the barrels not more than eight inches long; they subsequently gave rise to the manufacture of pistols (so called from Pistoia in Tuscany). Not long afterward longer and heavier hand-guns (arquebuses) were manu factured, corresponding to our present musket ; but, short and heavy in the barrel, they had but a restricted range, and the matchlock was an almost absolute hindrance to correct aim. Toward the close of the 14th century there was no military force in western Europe with out its artillery and arquebusiers. But the in fluence of the new arm on general tactics was not yet perceptible. Both large and small firearms took a long time in loading, and what with their clumsiness and costliness, they had not superseded the crossbow by 1450. In the mean time the general breaking up of the feu dal system, and the rise of cities, contributed to change the composition of armies. The larger vassals w r ere either subdued by central authority, as in France, or had become quasi-in dependent sovereigns, as in Germany and Italy. The power of the lesser nobility was broken by the central authority in conjunction with the cities. The feudal armies no longer existed ; new armies were formed from the mercenaries whom the ruin of feudalism had set free to serve those who would pay them. Thus, some thing approaching standing armies arose ; but these mercenaries, men of all nations, difficult to keep in order, and not very regularly paid, committed great excesses. In France, King Charles VII. therefore formed a permanent force from native elements. In 1445 he levied 15 compagnies cPordonnance of GOO men each ; in all, 9,000 cavalry, stationed in the towns of the kingdom, and paid with regularity. Every company was divided into 100 lances; a lance consisted of one man-at-arms, three archers, an esquire, and a page. Thus they formed a mixture of heavy cavalry with mounted arch ers, the two arms in battle acting of course separately. In 1448 he added 10,000 francs- archers, under four captains general, each com manding eight companies of 500 men. All the archers had crossbows. They were re cruited and armed by the parishes, and free from all taxes. This may be considered the first standing army of modern times. At the close of this first period of modern tactics, as they emerged from mediaeval confusion, the state of things may be summed up as follows: The main body of the infantry, consisting of 746 ARMY mercenaries, was armed with pike and sword, breastplate and helmet. It fought in deep, close masses, but, better armed and drilled than the feudal infantry, it showed greater tenacity and order in combat. The standing levies and the mercenaries, soldiers by profession, were of course superior to the casual levies and dis connected bands of feudal retainers. The heavy cavalry now found it sometimes necessary to charge in close array against infantry. The light infantry was still principally composed of archers, but the use of the hand-gun for skir mishers gained ground. The cavalry remained as yet the principal arm heavy cavalry, men- at-arms encased in iron, but no longer com posed in every case of the nobility, and re duced from its former chivalrous and Homeric mode of fighting to the more prosaic neces sity of charging in close order. But the un- wicldiuess of such cavalry was now generally felt, and many devices were planned to find a lighter kind of horse. Mounted archers, as has been stated, had in part to supply this want; in Italy and the neighboring countries the stradioti, light cavalry on the Turkish plan, composed of Bosnian and Albanian mer cenaries, a sort of bashi-bazouks, found ready employment, and were much feared, especially in pursuits. Poland and Hungary had, besides the heavy cavalry adopted from the West, re tained their own national light cavalry. The artillery was in its infancy. The heavy guns of the time were indeed taken into the field, but could not leave their position after it was once taken up ; the powder was bad, the load ing difficult and slow, and the range of the stone balls short. The close of the 15th and the beginning of the IGth century are marked by a double progress ; the French improved the artillery, and the Spaniards gave a new char acter to the infantry. Charles VIII. of France made his guns so far movable that he could not only take them into the field, but make them change their position during battle and follow the other troops in their movements, which, however, were not very quick. He thereby became the founder of field artillery. His guns, mounted on wheeled carriages and plentifully horsed, proved immensely superior to the old-fashioned clumsy artillery of the Ital ians drawn by bullocks, and did such execu tion in the deep columns of the Italian infantry, that Machiavelli wrote his "Art of War "prin cipally in order to propose formations by which the effect of such artillery on infantry could be counteracted. In the battle of Marignano, Francis I. of France defeated the Swiss pike- men by the effective fire and the mobility of this artillery, which, from flanking positions, enfiladed the Swiss order of battle. But the reign of the pike, for infantry, was on the de cline. The Spaniards improved the common hand-gun (arquebuse) and introduced it into the regular heavy infantry. Their musket (hacquebutte) was a heavy, long-barrelled arm, bored for two-ounce bullets, and fired from a rest formed by a forked pole. It sent its bullet through the strongest breastplate, and was therefore decisive against the heavy cavalry, which got into disorder as soon as the men be gan falling. Ten or 15 musketeers were placed with every company of pikemen, and the effect of their fire at Pavia astonished both allies and enemies. Frundsberg relates that in that bat tle a single shot from such a musket would bring down several men and horses. From that time dates the superiority of the Spanish infantry, which lasted for above 100 years. The war consequent upon the rebellion of the Netherlands was of great influence on the for mation of armies. Both Spaniards and Dutch improved all arms considerably. Hitherto, in the armies of mercenaries, every man offering for enlistment had to come fully equipped, armed, and acquainted with the use of his arms. But in this long war, carried on during 40 years on a small extent of country, the available recruits of this class soon became scarce. The Dutch had to put up with such able-bodied volunteers as they could get, and the government was now under the necessity of seeing them drilled. Maurice of Nassau composed the first drill regulations of modern times, and thereby laid the foundation for the uniform instruction of a whole army. The in fantry began again to march in step ; it gained much in homogeneity and solidity. It was now formed into smaller bodies; the companies, hitherto 400 to 500, were reduced to 150 and 200 men, 10 companies forming a regiment. The improved musket gained ground upon the pike ; one third of the whole infantry consisted of musketeers, mixed in each company with the pikemen. These latter, being required for hand-to-hand fight only, retained their helmet, breastplate, and steel gauntlets ; the musketeers threw away all defensive armor. The forma tion was generally two deep for the pikemen, and from five to eight deep for the musketeers ; as soon as the first rank had fired, it retired to load again. Still greater changes took place in cavalry, and here, too, Maurice of Nassau took the lead. In the impossibility of forming a heavy cavalry of men-at-arms, he organized a body of light horse recruited in Germany, armed them with a helmet, cuirass, brassarls for the arms, steel gauntlets, and long boots; and as with the lance they would not have been a match for the heavy-armed Spanish cavalry, he gave them a sword and long pistols. This new class of horsemen, approaching our mod ern cuirassiers, soon proved superior to the far less numerous and less movable Spanish men-at- arms, whose horses they shot down before the slow mass broke in upon them. Maurice of Nassau had his cuirassiers drilled as well as his infantry ; he so far succeeded, that he could venture to execute in battle changes of front and other evolutions with large or small bodies of them. Alva, too, had found the necessity of improving his light horse; hitherto they had been fit for skirmishing and single combat ARMY 747 only, but under his direction they soon learned to charge in a body, like the heavy cavalry. The formation of cavalry remained still five to eight deep. About this time Henry IV. of France introduced a new kind of mounted ser vice, the dragoons, originally infantry mounted on horses for quicker locomotion only ; but in a very few years after their introduction they were used as cavalry as well, and equipped for this double service. They had neither defen sive armor nor high boots, but a cavalry sword, and sometimes a lance ; they also carried the infantry musket, or a shorter carbine. These troops did not, however, come up to the expec tations which had led to their formation ; they soon became a portion of the regular cavalry, and ceased to light as infantry. In artillery the French maintained the superiority they had gained. The prolonge was invented by them about this time, and case shot introduced by Henry IV. The Spanish and Dutch, too, lightened and simplified their artillery, but still it remained a clumsy concern, and light, movable pieces of effective calibre and range were yet unknown. With the 30 years war opens the period of Gustavus Adolphus, the great military reformer of the 17th century. His infantry regiments were composed of two thirds musketeers and one third pikemen. Some regiments consisted of musketeers alone. The muskets were so much lightened that the rest for firing them became unnecessary. He also introduced paper cartridges, by which loading was much facilitated. T.he deep for mation was done away with ; his pikemen stood six, his musketeers only three deep. These latter were drilled in firing by platoons and ranks. The unwieldy regiments of 2,000 or 3,000 men were reduced to 1,300 or 1,400, in eight companies, and two regiments formed into a brigade. With this formation he defeat ed the deep masses of his opponents, often disposed, like a column or full square, 30 deep, upon which his artillery played with terrible effect. The cavalry was reorganized upon sim ilar principles. The men-at-arms were com pletely done away with. The cuirassiers lost the brassarts and some other useless pieces of defensive armor ; they were thus made con siderably lighter and more movable. His dragoons fought nearly always as cavalry. Both cuirassiers and dragoons were formed only three deep, and had strict orders not to lose time with firing, but to charge at once sword in hand. They were divided into squadrons of 125 men. The artillery was improved by the addition of light guns. The leather guns of Gustavus Adolphus are celebrated, but were not long retained. They were replaced by cast-iron four-pound ers, so light that they could be drawn by two horses : they could be fired six times "while a musketeer fired twice ; two of these were at tached to every regiment of infantry. Thus, the division of light and heavy field artillery was established ; the light guns accompanied the I infantry, while the heavy ones remained in re- i serve, or took up a position for the whole of | the battle. The armies of this time begin to | show the increasing preponderance of infantry I over cavalry. At the battle of Leipsic, Gus- I tavus Adolphus had 19,000 infantry and 11,000 i cavalry; Tilly had 31,000 infantry and 13,000 ! cavalry. At Liitzen, Wallenstem had 24,000 : infantry and 16,000 cavalry in 170 squadrons. I The number of guns, too, increased with the j introduction of light pieces; the Swedes often i had from 5 to 12 guns for every 1,000 men; i and at the battle of the Lech, Gustavus Adolphus | forced the passage of the river under cover of j the fire of 72 heavy guns. During the latter ! half of the 17th and the first half of the 18th | century, pikes and all defensive armor for in- | fantry were finally done away with by the j general introduction of the bayonet. " This I weapon, invented in France about 1640, had to struggle 80 years against the pike. The Aus- trians first adopted it for all their infantry, the Prussians next ; the French retained the pike j till 1703, the Russians till 1721. The flint-lock, invented in France about the same time as the i bayonet, was also gradually introduced before | the year 1700 into most armies. It materially ! abridged the operation of loading, protected to j some degree the powder in the pan from rain, i and thus contributed very much to the abolition of the pike. Yet firing was still so slow that a man was not expected to use more than from 24 to 36 cartridges in a battle ; until in the latter half of this period improved regulations, better drill, and further improvement in the construc tion of small arms (especially the iron ramrod, first introduced in Prussia), enabled the soldier to fire with considerable rapidity. This neces sitated a still further reduction of the depth of formation, and infantry was now formed only j four deep. A species of elite infantry was cre- | ated in the companies of grenadiers, originally intended to throw hand-grenades before coming to close quarters, but soon reduced to fight with the musket only. In some German armies riflemen had been formed as early as the 30 years war ; the rifle itself had been invented at Leipsic in 1498. This arm was now mixed with the musket, the best shots in each company being armed w r ith it; but out of Germany the rifle found little favor. The Austrians had also a sort of light infantry called yandours Croatian and Servian irregulars from the mili tary frontier against Turkey, useful in roving expeditions and pursuit, but, from the tactics of the day and their absolute want of drill, useless in battle. The French and Dutch cre ated, for similar purposes, irregular infantry called compagnies f ranches. Cavalry, too, was lightened in all armies. There were no longer any men-at-arms; the cuirassiers maintained the breastplate arid helmet only ; in France and Sweden the breastplate Avas also done away with. The increasing efficiency and rapidity of infantry fire told very much against cavalry. It was soon considered perfectly useless for 748 ARMY this latter arm to charge infantry sword in hand ; and the opinion of the irresistibility of H firing line became so prevalent that cavalry, too, was taught to rely more on its carbines than on the sword. Thus, during this period, it often occurred that two lines of cavalry maintained a tiring light against each other the same as if they were infantry ; and it was con sidered very daring to ride up to within 20 yards of the enemy, tire a volley, and charge at a trot. Charles XII., however, adhered to the rule of his great predecessor. His cavalry never stopped to tire ; it always charged, sword in hand, against anything opposing it, cavalry, infantry, batteries, and intrenchments, and always with success. The French, too, broke through the new system and recommenced re lying on the sword only. The depth of cavalry was still further reduced from four to three. In artillery, the lightening of the guns, and the use of cartridges and case-shot, now became general. Another great change was that of the incorporation of this arm with the army. Hith erto, though the guns belonged to the state, the men serving them were not soldiers, but formed a sort of guild, and artillery was con sidered not an arm but a handicraft. The offi cers had no rank in the army, and were con sidered more related to master tailors and car penters than to gentlemen. About this time, however, artillery was made a component part of the army, and divided into companies and bat talions ; the men were converted into permanent soldiers, and the officers ranked with the in fantry and cavalry. The centralization and per manence of the armed contingent upon this change paved the way for the science of artil lery, which under the old system could not de velop itself. The passage from deep formation to line, from the pike to the musket, from the supremacy of cavalry to that of infantry, had thus been gradually accomplished when Fred erick the Great opened his campaigns, and with them the classical era of line tactics. He formed his infantry three deep, and got it to fire five times in a minute. In his very first battles at Mollwitz, this infantry deployed in line, and repelled by its rapid fire all charges of the Austrian cavalry, which had just to tally routed the Prussian horse; after finishing with the cavalry, the Prussian infantry at tacked the Austrian infantry, defeated it, arid thus won the battle. Formation of squares against cavalry was never attempted in great battles, but only when infantry on the march was. surprised by hostile cavalry. In a battle, the extreme wings of the infantry stretched round en potence when menaced by cavalry, and this was generally found sufficient. To op pose the Austrian pandours, Frederick formed similar irregular troops, infantry and cavalry, but never relied on them in battle, where they were seldom engaged. The slow advance of the firing line decided his battles. Cavalry, neglected under his predecessor, was now made to undergo a complete revolution. It was formed only two deep, and firing, except on pursuit, was strictly prohibited. Horseman ship, considered hitherto of minor importance, was now cultivated with the greatest atten tion. All evolutions had to be practised at full speed, and the men were required to remain well closed up. By the exertions of Seydlitz, the cavalry of Frederick was made superior to any other then existing or ever existing before it; and its bold riding, close order, dashing charge, and quick rallying have never yet been surpassed. The artillery was considerably light ened, so much that some of the heavy-calibred guns were not able to stand full charges, and had therefore to be abolished afterward. Yet the heavy artillery was still very slow and clumsy in its movements, owing to inferior and heavy carriages and imperfect organization. In battle, it took np its position from the first, and sometimes changed it for a second posi tion, more in advance ; hut manoeuvring there was none. The light artillery, the regimental guns attached to the infantry, were placed in front of the infantry line, 50 paces in advance of the intervals of the battalions; they ad vanced with the infantry, the guns dragged by the men, and opened fire with canister at 300 yards. The number of guns was very large, from three to six guns per 1,000 men. The in fantry, as well as the cavalry, were organized in brigades and divisions; but as there was scarcely any manoeuvring after the battle had begun, and as every battalion had to remain in its proper place in the line, these sub divisions had no tactical influence. With the cavalry, a general of brigade might now and then, during a charge, have to act upon his own responsibility; but with the infantry such a case could never occur. This line formation, infantry in two lines in the centre, cavalry in two or three lines on the wings, was a con siderable progress upon the deep formation of former days. It developed the full effect of infantry fire, as well as of the charge of caval ry, by allowing as many men as possible to act simultaneously ; but its very perfection in this point confined the whole army, as it were, in a strait waistcoat. Every squadron, battalion, or gun had its regulated place in the order of battle, which could not be inverted or in any way disturbed without affecting the efficiency of the whole. On the march, therefore, every thing had to be so arranged that when the army formed front again for encampment or battle, every subdivision got exactly into its correct place. Thus, any manoeuvres to be executed had to be executed with the whole army ; to detach a single portion of it for a flank attack, to form a particular reserve for the attack, with superior forces, of a, weak point, would have been impracticable and faulty with such slow troops, fit only to fight in line, and with an order of battle of such stiff ness. Then, the advance in battle of such long lines was necessarily executed with consider able slowness, in order to keep up the align- ARMY 749 ment. Tents followed the army constantly, and were pitched every night; the camp was slightly intrenched. The troops were fed from magazines, the baking establishments accom panying the army as much as possible. In short, the baggage and other train of the army were enormous, and hampered its movements to a degree unknown nowadays. Yet, with all these drawbacks, the military organization of Frederick the Great was by far the best of its day, and was eagerly adopted by all other European governments. The recruiting of the forces waj almost everywhere carried on by voluntary enlistments, assisted by kidnapping; and it was only after very severe losses that Frederick had recourse to forced levies from his provinces. When the war of the coalition against the French republic began, the French army was disorganized by the loss of its of ficers, and numbered less than 150,000 men. The numbers of the enemy were far superior ; new levies became necessary, and were made to an immense extent, in the shape of na tional volunteers, of which in 1793 there must have been at least 500 battalions in existence. These troops were not drilled, nor was there time to drill them according to the compli cated system of line tactics, and to the de gree of perfection required by movements in line. Every attempt to meet the enemy in line was followed by a signal defeat, though the French had far superior numbers. A new system of tactics became necessary. The American revolution had shown the advantage to be gained with undisciplined troops from ex tended order and skirmishing fire. The French adopted it, and supported the skirmishers by deep columns, in Avhich a little disorder was less objectionable so long as the mass remained well together. In this formation they launched their superior numbers against the enemy, and were generally successful. This new forma tion and the want of experience of their troops led them to fight in broken ground, in villages and woods, where they found shelter from the enemy s fire, and Avhere his line was invari ably disordered ; their want of tents, field bat teries, &c., compelled them to bivouac without shelter, and to live upon what the country afforded them. Thus they gained a mobility unknown to their enemies, who were en cumbered with tents and all sorts of baggage. When the revolutionary war had produced in Napoleon the man who reduced this new mode of warfare to a regular system, com bined it with what was still useful in the old system, and brought the new method at once to that degree of perfection which Frederick had given to line tactics, then the French were almost invincible, until their opponents had learned from them, and organized their ar mies upon the new model. The principal fea tures of this new system are : the restoration of the old principle that every citizen is liable in case of need to be called out for the defence of the country, and the consequent .formation of the army, by compulsory levies of greater or less extent, from the whole of the inhabitants; a change by which the numerical force of armies was at once raised to threefold the average of Frederick s time, and might in case of need be increased to larger proportions still. Then, the discarding of camp utensils, and of depen- I dence for provisions upon magazines, and the i introduction of the bivouac and of the rule | that war feeds war, increased the celerity and I independence of an army as much as its numer- ! ical force was raised by the rule of general ! liability to serve. In tactical organization, I the principle of mixing infantry, cavalry, and j artillery in the smaller portions of an army, in corps and divisions, became the rule. Every i division thus became a complete army on a re duced scale, fit to act independently, and capa ble of considerable resistance even against superior numbers. The order of battle was now based upon the column ; it served as the reservoir, from which sallied and to which returned the swarms of skirmishers; as the 1 I wedge-like compact mass to be launched i against a particular point of the enemy s line ; j as the form to approach the enemy and then j to deploy, if the ground and the state of the I engagement made it desirable to oppose firing j lines to the enemy. The mutual sup-port of the j three arms, developed to its full extent by their j combination in small bodies, and the con:bina- I tion of the three forms of fighting, skirmishers, line, and column, compose the great tactical superiority of modern armies. Any kind of ground thereby became lit for fighting ; and the ability of rapidly judging the advantages and disadvantages of ground, and of at once disposing troops accordingly, became one of the chief requirements of a captain. And not only in the commander-in-chief, but in the subordi- | nate officers, these qualities, and general apt ness for independent command, were now a necessity. Corps, divisions, brigades, and de tachments were constantly placed in situations where their commanders had to act on their own responsibility; the battlefield no longer presented its long unbroken lines of infantry disposed in a vast plain with cavalry on the wings ; but the single corps and divisions, massed in columns, stood hidden behind vil lages, roads, or hills, separated from each other by seemingly large intervals, while but a small portion of the troops appeared actually ! engaged in skirmishing and firing artillery until j the decisive moment approached. Lines of I battle extended with the numbers and with i this formation ; it was not necessary actually i to fill up every interval with a line visible to j the enemy, so long as troops were at hand to i come up when required. Turning of Hanks i now became generally a strategical operation, I the stronger army placing itself completely be- | tween the weaker one and its communications, I so that a single defeat could annihilate an army j and decide a campaign. The favorite tactical < manoeuvre was the breaking through the ene-- 50 ARMY ray s centre with fresh troops, as soon as the state of affairs showed that his last reserves were engaged. Reserves, which in line tactics would have been out of place and would have detracted from the efficiency of the army in the decisive moment, now became the chief means to decide an action. The order of battle, ex tending as it did in front, extended also in depth " from the skirmish line to the position of the reserves the depth was very often two miles and more. In short, if the ne\v sys tem required less drill and parade precision, it required far greater rapidity, exertion, and intelligence from every one, from the lowest skirmisher as well as the highest commander; and every fresh improvement made since Napo leon tends in that direction. The changes in the materiel of armies were but trifling during this period ; constant wars left little time for improvements the introduction of which re quires time. Two very important innovations took place in the French army shortly before the revolution. The first was the adoption of a new model of musket of reduced calibre and windage, and with a curved stock instead of the straight one previously in use. This weapon, more accurately worked, contributed a great deal toAvard the superiority of the French skir mishers, and remained the model upon which with trifling alterations the muskets in use in all armies up to the introduction of percussion locks were constructed. The second was the simplification and improvement of the artillery by Gribeauval. The French artillery under Louis XV. was completely neglected ; the guns were of all sorts of calibres, the carriages old- fashioned, and the models upon which they were constructed not even uniform. Gribeau val, w T ho had served during the seven years war with the Austrians, and then seen better models, succeeded in reducing the number of calibres, equalizing and improving the models, and greatly simplifying the whole system. It was with his guns and carriages that Napoleon fought his wars. The English artillery, which was in the worst possible state when the war with France broke out, was gradually but slowly much improved ; with it originated the stock- trail carriage, which has since been adopted by all continental armies, and the arrangement for mounting the foot artillerymen on the lim bers and ammunition wagons. Horse artillery, invented by Frederick the Great, was much cultivated during Napoleon s period, especially by himself, and its proper tactics were first developed. When the war was over, it was found that the British were the most efficient in this arm. Of all large European armies, the Austrian is the only one which supplies the place of horse artillery by batteries in which the men are mounted on wagons provid ed for the purpose. The German armies still kept up the special class of infantry armed with rifles, and the new system of fighting in extended order gave a fresh importance to this arm. It was especially cultivated and in 1838 taken up by the French, who felt the want of I a long range of musket for Algiers. The tirail- , leurs de Vincennes, afterward chasseurs d pied, were formed, and brought to a state of efficiency : without parallel. The adoption of this forma tion was rendered necessary by the great im- i provements in small arms, and especially in | rifles, by which both range and precision were i increased to a wonderful degree. The names ! of Delvigne, Thouvenot, and Minie thereby be- | came celebrated. For the whole infantry, the ! percussion lock was introduced between 1830 and 1840 inmost armies; as usual, the English I and the Russians were the last. In the mean | time, great efforts were made in various quar- ! ters still further to improve small arms, and to I produce a musket of superior range which ; could be given to the whole of the infantry. The Prussians introduced the needle gun, a rifle j arm loaded at the breech, and capable of very | rapid firing, and having a long range ; the in vention, originated in Belgium, was consider ably improved by them. This gun, although by no means the best of its class either for ac curacy or range, simplicity of construction or certainty of action, was early adopted and given to their troops ; it was used with great effect in the Schleswig-Holstein war, and more recently in the remarkable campaigns of the i Prussians in Bohemi-a and France. Many mili- : tary writers have expressed the opinion that | the Prussians owe their great successes in their I recent wars at least as much to the superiority | of their artillery and small arms as to any I other single cause. But this is scarcely true ; ! for while they were probably provided with i better arms than the Austrians, they were cer- | tainly inferior to the French in rifles, it being | generally conceded that the Zundnadelijewehr I or needle gun is a less efficient weapon than the Chassepot. The English were the first to arm the whole of their infantry with a superior | musket, viz., the Enfield rifle, a slight altera- | tion of the Minie ; its superiority was fully j proved in the Crimea, and saved them at In- i kerman. But the Americans have surpassed all other nations in the invention and use of rifles ! and carbines. The rifled musket made in the | government shops at Springfield, the Spencer ! and Henry magazine guns, and the Remington I carbine and rifles, as Avell as many others which were fully tested during the civil war, ! are now acknowledged to be superior to any ; English, French, or German arms of the same ! class, and have been adopted by many Euro- I pean nations. In tactical arrangements, no \ changes of importance have taken place for I infantry and cavalry, if we except the great improvement of light infantry tactics by the | French chasseurs, and the new Prussian system ! of columns of companies, which latter forma- | tion, with some variations, is now in general use. The formation in several European armies is nominally three deep, but in practice all i nations have adopted the two-rank formation introduced by the English shortly after the ARMY 51 time of Napoleon I. As to cavalry, the Euro pean nations still adhere to the system of Fred erick, with some slight modifications. The Americans during the civil war made great progress in the organization and use of cavalry, or more properly of mounted troops. The first regiments called into service were strictly light cavalry, but the improvements in carbines and revolvers or repeating pistols, combined with the wooded nature of the country in which they were compelled to operate, soon gave a distinctively new character to this arm. Instead of fighting on horseback, using the sabre alone or the sabre and pistol, it became necessary for the cavalry regiments to tight generally on foot; and in this they not only reached a high state of efficiency, but, under Sheridan in the east and Wilson in the west, exerted a powerful influence in bringing the war to an end. The mounted troops operating in Virginia were organized into a separate body from 10,000 to 15,000 strong, called the cavalry corps of the army of the Potomac; while those in Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama, amounting to 72 regiments, and reaching at the close of the war 35,000 effi cients, were organized into one command, of ficially known as the cavalry corps of the military division of the Mississippi. These immense masses of mounted troops were strong enough to act independently against the com munications and depots of the enemy, or in cooperation with the infantry, upon the flanks and rear of the confederate armies. In the final campaigns in Virginia, and especially at the battle of AVinchester or the Opequan, in the destruction of the railroads about Rich mond, particularly the South Side road, at the battle of Five Forks, in the pursuit and cap ture of Lee s army, in the battles of Franklin and Nashville, in the pursuit and dispersion of Hood s army, in the assault and capture of Selma, Columbus, and West Point (Ga.), in the pursuit and capture of Davis and the confed erate chieftains, these corps gave proof of their extraordinary merits, not only as cavalry marching rapidly and for long distances, but as infantry fighting steadily and with great dash against infantry and artillery, assaulting and carrying earthworks, and in the per formance of the various duties of active war fare. The success of these corps was doubt less greatly influenced partly by their com pact and independent organization, and partly by the efficient character of their firearms, which at the end of the war were almost exclusively Spencer carbines or rifles, breech- loading magazine guns of unrivalled excel lence at that time. It is believed that no well directed attack made by troops using these arms was ever known to fail, whether against cavalry, infantry, or intrenchments. (See CAVALRY.) In artillery, considerable improve ments of detail and simplification of calibres, and of models for wheels, carriages, &c., have taken place in every army. The science of artillery has been greatly improved. All mod ern armies now use rifled cannon for field ser vice, as well as for siege purposes. Field guns are made of steel and wrought and cast iron, and are of various calibres, all throwing steel or iron balls, bolts, or shells, more or less elongated ; these guns are also adapted to the use of canisters of small shot, and have almost entirely replaced the smooth-bored brass guns and howitzers in actual service. The Ameri cans, Prussians, and Belgians have been fore most in making improvements in artillery. (See AETILLEKY.) The general organization of modern armies is very much alike. W T ith the exception of the British and American, they are recruited by compulsory levy, based either upon conscription, in which case the men, after serving their time, are dismissed for life, or upon the reserve system, in which the time of actual service is short, but the men remain liable to be called out again for a cer tain time afterward. France is the most strik ing example of the first, Prussia of the second system. Even in England, where both line and militia are generally recruited by voluntary enlistment, the conscription (or ballot) is by law established for the militia should volunteers be wanting. In Switzerland, no standing army exists; the whole force consists of militia drill ed for a short time only. The enlistment of foreign mercenaries is still the rule in some countries ; the French still have their foreign legion ; and England, in case of serious war, is regularly compelled to resort to this expedient. The time of actual service varies very much : from a couple of Aveeks with the Swiss, 18 months to 2 years with the smaller German states, and 3 years with the Prussians, to 5 or 6 years in France, 12 years in England, and 15 years in Russia. The officers are recruited in various ways. In most armies there are now no legal impediments to advancement from the ranks, but the practical impediments widely vary. In France and Austria a portion of the officers must be taken from the sergeants; in Russia the insufficient number of educated can didates makes this a necessity. In Prussia the examination for officers commissions in peace is a bar to uneducated men ; in England ad vancement from the ranks is a rare exception. For the remainder of the officers there are in most countries military schools, though, with the exception of France, it is not necessary to pass through them. In military and general education the Prussian officers are ahead ; the English and the Russians stand lowest in both. With the exceptions named above, the equip ment and armament of modern armies are now everywhere nearly the same. There is, of course, a great difference in the quality and workmanship of the material. In this respect the Russians stand lowest, and the English and Americans, where the industrial advantages at their command are really made use of. stand highest. The infantry of all armies is divided into line and light infantry. The first is the 752 ARMY rule, and composes the mass of all infantry ; real light infantry has become much more pop ular since the American civil war, and the late wars between Prussia, Austria, and France, and the tendency in all armies is to the numeri cal increase of this force. Cavalry is divided into heavy and light everywhere except in America, where it is all light. Cuirassiers are always heavy; hussars and chasseurs, always light horse. Dragoons and lancers are in some armies light, in others heavy cavalry ; and the Russians would also be without light cavalry were it not for the Cossacks. The best light cav alry in Europe is undoubtedly that of the Austri- ans, the national Hungarian hussars, and Polish uhlans. The same division holds good with reference to artillery. Light artillery is still subdivided into horse and foot, the first espe cially intended to act in company with cavalry. The Austrians have no horse artillery; the English and French have no proper foot artil lery, the men being carried on the limbers and ammunition wagons. The infantry is formed into companies, battalions, and regiments. The battalion is the tactical unit ; it is the form in which the troops fight, save in a few excep tional cases. A battalion must not be too strong to be commanded by the voice and eye of its chief, nor too weak to act as an inde pendent body in battle, even after the losses of a campaign. The strength, therefore, varies from GOO to~l,400 men ; 800 to 1,000 forms the average. The division of a battalion into com panies has for its object the fixing of its evolu tionary subdivisions, the efficiency of the men in the details of the drill, and the more com modious economical administration. The num ber of companies in a battalion varies as much as their strength. The English have ten of from 90 to 120 men, the Russians and Prussians four of 250 men, the French and Austrians six of varying strength. Battalions are formed into regiments, more for administrative and disciplinary purposes and to insure uniformity of drill, than for any tactical object; in forma tions for war, therefore, the battalions of one regiment are often separated. In Russia and Austria there are .four, in Prussia three, in France two service battalions, besides depots, to every regiment; in England, most regiments are formed, in peace, of but one battalion. Cavalry is divided into squadrons and regi ments. The squadron, from 100 to 200 men, forms the tactical and administrative unit ; the English alone subdivide the squadron, for ad ministrative purposes, into two troops. There are from three to ten service squadrons to a regiment ; the British have in peace but three squadrons, of about 120 horse; the Prussians four, of 150 horse; the French five, of 180 to 200 horse; the Austrians six or eight, of 200 horse; the Russians six to ten, of 150 to 170 horse. With cavalry the regiment is a body of tactical significance, as a regiment offers the means to make an independent charge, the squadrons mutually supporting each other, and is for this purpose formed of sufficient strength, viz., between 500 and 1,(500 horse. The British alone have such weak regiments that they are obliged to put four or five of them to one brig ade ; on the other hand, the Austrian and Russian regiments in many cases are as strong as an average brigade. The French have nom inally very strong regiments, but have hither to appeared in the field in considerably reduced numbers, owing to their poverty in horses. Artillery is formed in batteries ; the formation in regiments or brigades in this arm is only for peace purposes, except in America, where it is used exclusively during war. Four guns is the least number in a battery; the Austrians have eight, and the French, Prussians, English, and Americans six guns for each battery. Rifle men or other real light infantry are generally organized in battalions and companies only, not in regiments; the nature of the arm forbids its union in large masses. The same is the case with sappers and miners, they being be sides but a very small portion of the army. The French alone make an exception in this latter case. With the regiment the formation of most armies in time of peace is generally considered complete. The larger bodies, brig ades, divisions, and army corps, are mostly formed when war breaks out. The Russians and Prussians alone have their army fully or ganized and the higher commands filled up, as if for actual war. In war, several battalions or squadrons are formed into a brigade, consisting of from four to eight battalions for infantry, or from six to twenty squadrons for cavalry. With large cavalry regiments these latter may very well stand in lieu of brigade ; but they are very generally reduced to smaller strength by the detachments they have to send to the divisions. Light and line infantry may with ad vantage be mixed in a brigade, but not light and heavy cavalry. The Austrians very generally add a battery to each brigade. A combination of brigades forms the division. In most armies it is composed of all the three arms, say two brigades of infantry, four to six squadrons, and one to three batteries. The French and Rus sians have no cavalry to their divisions ; the English form them of infantry exclusively. Un less, therefore, these nations wish to fight at a disadvantage, they are obliged to attach cavalry and artillery respectively to the divisions when ever the case occurs, which is easily overlooked or often inconvenient or impossible. The pro portion of divisionary cavalry, however, is everywhere but small, and therefore the re mainder of this arm is formed into cavalry di visions of two brigades each, for the purpose of reserve cavalry. Two or three divisions, sometimes four, are for larger armies formed into an army corps. Such a corps has every where its own cavalry and artillery, even where the divisions have none ; and where these latter are mixed bodies, there is still a reserve of cav alry and artillery placed at the disposal of the commander of the corps. It has been found ARMY 753 best in the United States to separate the cav alry from the infantry entirely, and form it into separate corps under separate commanders. Napoleon was the first to attach cavalry to his other corps, and, not satisfied therewith, he or ganized the whole of the remaining cavalry into reserve cavalry corps of two or five divisions of cavalry with horse artillery attached. The Russians have retained this formation of their reserve cavalry, and the other armies are likely to take it up again in a war of importance, though the elFect obtained has never yet been in proportion to the immense mass of horse men thus concentrated on one point, except in America, as heretofore stated. Such is the modern organization of the fighting part of an army. But, in spite of the abolition of tents, magazines, field bakeries, and bread wagons, there is still a large train of non-combatants and of vehicles necessary to insure the effi ciency of the army in a campaign. To enable the commanders of armies, army corps, and divisions to conduct, each in his sphere, the troops intrusted to them, a separate corps is formed in every army except the British, com posed of officers exclusively, and called the staff. The functions of these officers are to re connoitre and sketch the ground on which the army moves or may move ; to assist in making out plans for operations, and to arrange them in detail, so that no time is lost, no confusion arises, no useless fatigue is incurred by the troops. They are therefore in highly important positions, and ought to have a thoroughly fin ished military education, with a full knowledge of the capabilities of each arm on the march and in battle. They are taken in all countries from the most able subjects, and carefully train ed in the highest military schools. The English alone imagine that any subaltern or field officer selected from the army at large is fit for such a position, and the consequence is that their staffs are inferior, and the army is incapable of any but the slowest and simplest manoeuvres ; while the commander, if at all conscientious, has to do all the staff work himself. A division can seldom have more than one staff officer attach ed ; an army corps has a staff of its own under the direction of a superior or a staff officer ; and an army has a full staff, with several generals, under a chief, who in urgent cases gives his orders in the name of the commander. The chief of the staff in the British army has an adjutant general and a quartermaster general under his orders; in other armies the adjutant general is at the same time chief of the staff; in France the chief of the staff unites both capa cities in himself, and has a different department for each under his orders. The adjutant gen eral is the chief of the personnel of the army, receives the reports of all subordinate depart ments and bodies of the army, and arranges all matters relative to discipline, instruction, for mation, equipment, armament, &c. All subor dinates correspond through him with the com- marder-in-chief. If chief of the staff at the VOL. i. 48 i same time, he cooperates with the commander | in the formation and working out of plans of | operation and movements for the army. The I proper arrangement of these in European ar- I mies is left to the quartermaster general ; the ; details of inarches, cantonments, and encamp- | ments are prepared by him. A sufficient num- I her of staff officers are attached to headquarters j for reconnoitring the ground, preparing pro- | jects as to the defence or attack of positions, &c. There are also a Commander-in-chief of the artillery and a superior engineer officer for | their respective departments, a few deputies to | represent the chief of the staff on particular I points of the battlefield, and a number of or derly officers and orderlies to carry orders and despatches. To the headquarters are further attached the chief of the commissariat with his clerks, the paymaster of the army, the chief of the medical department, and the judge advo cate or director of the department of military j justice. The staff s of the army corps and divi- I sions are regulated on the same model, but with I greater simplicity and a reduced personnel; I the staffs of brigades and regiments are still less numerous, and the staff of a battalion may consist merely of the commander, his adjutant, I an officer as paymaster, a sergeant as clerk, j and a drummer or bugleman. To regulate and keep up the military force of a great nation, I numerous establishments besides those hitherto j named are required. There are recruiting and remounting commissioners, the latter often con nected with the administration of national es tablishments for the breeding of horses, mili tary schools for officers and non-commissioned officers, model battalions, squadrons, and bat teries, normal riding schools, and schools for veterinary surgeons. There are in most coun tries national founderies and manufactories for small arms and gunpowder ; there are the va rious barracks, arsenals, stores, the fortresses with their equipments, and the staff of officers commanding them ; finally, there are the com missariat and general staff of the army, which, for the whole of the armed force, are even more numerous and have more extensive du ties to perform than the staff and commissariat of a single active army. The staff especially j has very important duties. It is generally di- i vided into a historical section (collecting mate- rials relative to the history of war, the forma- i tion of armies, &c., past and present), a topo- | graphical section (intrusted with the collection ! of maps and the trigonometrical survey of the I whole country), a statistical section, &c. At. | the head of all these establishments, as well I as of the army, stands the ministry of war r or- ; ganized differently in different countries,, but. comprising, as must appear from the preceding observations, an immense variety of subjects. i Such is the vast machinery devoted to recruit- j ing, remounting, feeding, directing, and always | reproducing a modern first-class army. The ! masses brought together correspond to such an 1 organization. Xapoleon s grand armv of 1812, 754 ARMY ARNAULD when he had 200,000 men in Spain, 200,000 in France, Italy, Germany, and Poland, and in vaded Russia with 450,000 men and 1,300 guns, was equalled in 1870, when Prussia put almost her entire armed force in the field against France, under the immediate command of King William, assisted by Gen. Von Moltke and an able assemblage of army and corps commanders. This remarkable campaign, al though it was characterized by no extraor dinary loss of life either to the French or the Prussians, resulted in the capture or annihila tion of the entire French army and the com plete prostration of the French empire. The Prussian army engaged in the campaign earned for itself the reputation of being the most per fect, all things considered, in the world. Its artillery and infantry are specially good, but its cavalry sjcms to be behind the age. The military system of the United States is based upon volunteer armies raised as occasion de mands. During the civil war, from first to last, 2,690,401 men (including reenlistments) were enrolled, equipped, and organized into armies. The principal of these were the army of the Potomac, the army of the Tennessee, the army of the Cumberland, and the army of the Ohio ; the last three were finally united into one command, known as the military division of the Mississippi. The troops constituting these armies were raised by the various loyal states, by regiments, under proclamation and demand from the president of the United States, the numbers being apportioned by the secretary of war, through the provost marshal general, according to the population of the respective states. As soon as the various regiments were mustered into the service of the United States, they were under the complete control of the general government, and were afterward as signed to brigades, divisions, corps, arid armies, according to the requirements of the service, and generally without regard to the states from which they came. They received their pay, arms, clothing, and subsistence from the United States, though, with a few exceptions, as in the case of the colored troops, the field and line offi cers received their commissions and promotions from the governors of their respective states. All general and general staff officers were com missioned by the president, and no officer after having been mustered into the service of the United States could be dismissed by the state authorities. The requisitions upon the various states were generally filled with a reasonable degree of promptitude, although, owing to the great expansion of the currency due to the emission of paper money and the great stimula tion of the various industries of the country engaged in the production of army supplies, the rates of wages advanced so rapidly that before the war ended it became exceedingly difficult to raise volunteers, except by the pay ment of bounties amounting in many instances to $1,500 per man. The use of this system re sulted in the success of the national arms, but at an extravagant cost in men, material, and money. Immediately after the termination of the war the volunteer army, amounting to about 1,100,000 men, was quietly and rapidly disbanded, the various regiments returning to their respective states, and becoming at once absorbed in the body of the people, without the slightest disturbance of the peace and order of society, or derangement of its industries. I The regular army, which during the war had been increased from about 18,000 men to some thing over 50,000, was reduced by successive j steps to 30,000 men. This force is mainly used i for garrisoning the permanent fortifications, for i protecting the highways across the continent, | and preserving order among the Indian tribes ! of the west. ARXAl LI), a French family, several members of which are noted in connection Avith the con- | vent of Port Royal and the Jansenist contro versy. I. Antoine, born in Paris in 1560, died there, Dec. 29, 1019. He was an advocate, and gained celebrity by an argument in 1594 ! against the Jesuits, and in favor of the uni- | versity of Paris. He was the author of Avis an roi Louis XIII. pour lien regncr, and I of various other writings. He was a Roman ! Catholic, although denounced by the Jesuits as I a Huguenot. lie was the father of 20 children, I ten of whom died young, and the others, four i sons and six daughters, became connected with j the Port Royal convent, II. Robert Arnauld j d Andilly, eldest son of the preceding, born in ! Paris about 1588, died at Port Royal, Sept, 27, | 1074. He was originally an advocate, and like | his father distinguished himself by a plea for I the university of Paris and against the Jesuits. | At the age of 55 he retired to a farm adjoining the convent of Port Royal, where he passed i the remainder of his life in seclusion, devoting j his time to theological subjects, and writing | and translating. Among his works are trans lations of the Vk Confessions ? of Augustine and | of Joseplms s "History of the Jews," memoirs i of his own life, L<i Tie de Jesus (a poem), and | Vies des saints peres du desert et de quelquex \ saintes (3 vols. 8vo), which he considered his i best work. HI. Henri, bishop of Angers, bro- ; ther of the preceding, born in Paris in 1597, died at Angers about 1092. He was destined ; for the bar, but on receiving from the crown the gift of the abbey of St. Nicholas, entered the church. lie was elected bishop of Toul by 1 the diocesan chapter, but, some question arising, ! he refused to accept the position. In 1045 he I went to Rome to appease the quarrel between the Barberini family and Pope Innocent X. ; in this he was so successful that a medal was struck and a statue erected in his honor. Re turning to France, he was in 1049 made bishop i of Angers. He became a zealous Jansenist, and was one of the four bishops who refused i to sign the acceptance of the papal bull con- | demning the Augustinus of Jansenius. He was I accustomed to take only live hours sleep, that ! he might gain time for prayer and reading the ARNAULD 755 Scriptures. He left his diocese only on one occasion, and that was to reconcile the prince of Tarento to his father, the duke de ia Tre- mouille. In 1G52 Angers revolted, and the queen mother was about to take heavy ven geance, but was prevented by Arnauld, who in administering the sacrament said to her, "Take the body of Him who forgave his ene mies when on the cross. lie was urged to take one day in the week for recreation ; but replied, " I will do so when you find me a day j when I am not a bishop." His Negotiation* \ d la cour de Rome (5 vols., 1748) contain many curious facts and anecdotes. IVt Antoine, called u the great Arnauld," youngest son of Antoine, and brother of the two preceding, born in Paris, Feb. 6, 1012, died near Liege, Aug. 8, 1694. He studied for the law, but was in duced to turn his attention to theology. In 1641 he became a priest, and was made doctor of the Sorbonne. In 1643 he was made asso ciate of the Sorbonne. In this year he pub lished his famous work De la frequente com munion, which was sharply attacked by the Jesuits. Arnauld replied in his Theologie morale des Jesuites, which was the beginning of a long and fierce controversy. His op ponents endeavored to have him summoned to Rome, to avoid which he retired to the con vent of Port Royal des Champs, near Paris. Soon afterward he became involved in the dis putes concerning Jansenius and his Augustinus, several propositions in which had been (Aug. 1, 1641) condemned by Pope Urban VIII. Ar nauld undertook to defend the work of Jan senius against the papal bull. Besides strictly controversial works, he wrote at this period Mceurs de Veglise catholique ; La correction; La grace ; La verite de la religion ; De la foi, de Fesperance et de la charite ; and the Manuel de Saint Avgustin ; and translated his Frequente communion into Latin. He also undertook the spiritual direction of the nuns in the convent of Port Royal, of which his sis ter Marie Jacqueline was abbess. In connec tion with Pascal, Nicole, and others, he pre pared several elementary works on education. " The Port Royal Grammars " held their place as text books for a long time. In 1649 the Janscnist controversy broke out afresh, and the Augmtinus was again condemned by the pope. In 1655 or 1656 Arnauld found it neces sary to leave Port Royal and seek a secret place of refuge ; he was at this time expelled from the Sorbonne, and from the faculty of the ology. 72 doctors and many licentiates going out with him. For Pascal s famous Provincial Letters," against the Jesuits, Arnauld furnished the materials, the wit and satire being Pascal s. In 1658 Arnauld entered personally into the contest, in his Cinque ecrits en far en r des cures de Paris centre les casuutes reldches, which was followed in 1662 by La nouvelle heresie, and in 1669 by the first volume of his Morale pratique, the last volume of which was not published until the year of his death. All these works were directed against the Jesuits. The peace of Clement IX. (1068) for a time allayed the Jansenist controversy. Arnauld contributed to this by an eloquent memorial to the pontiff. He was presented to the papal nuncio, and to Louis XIV., who received him graciously, and urged him to u employ his golden pen in defence of religion." Arnauld, in conjunction with Nicole, wrote a work Ite la perpetuite de la foi de Veglise catholiqve, which was dedicated to the pope. This work gave rise to a controversy between Arnauld and the reformed minister Claude. The bishop of Paris procured from Louis XIV. ;m order for the arrest of Arnauld, who concealed him self for a time in the house of the duch ess de Longueville ; but in 1679 he went to I Brussels, where he was assured of protec tion. Here in 1681 he published his Apo- \ logie pour les Catholiqites, a defence of his old antagonists the Jesuits against the ab- surd charges brought forward in England by i Titus Gates. In 1689 appeared an anonymous : work, afterward shown to be written by Ar- : nauld, directed against the prince of Orange, William III. of England, in which that states man was designated as u a new Absalom, a new Herod, and a new Cromwell." In opposition to the views of his old friend Malebranche, Arnauld wrote in 1683 his Traite des vraies et , des fausses idees, and in 1685 his Reflexions philosophiques et tlieologiques sur le noureau tysterne de la nature et de la grace dit pere Male- \ uranche. lie continued to the last, even when : more than 80 years old, to carry on his contro- : versies with Maleoranche, with the Calvin- I ists, and with Bayle and other skeptical philos ophers. His last work, Reflexions sur V eloquence ; des predicateurs, appeared in 1694. His writ - j ings, as named by Moreri, comprise 320 works; and as originally published they appeared in i 100 volumes. They were collected and pub lished at Lausanne and Paris in 45 vols. 4to (1775- 83). V. Marie Jacqueline Angeliqne, abbess I of Port Royal, sister of the preceding, born in : 1591, died Aug. 6, 1061. At the age of 14 she was : made abbess of Port Royal des Champs. At 17 ; she was directed by the general of the order of St. Bernard to reform the abbey of Maubuisson, where she subjected herself to all the privations imposed upon the sisterhood. She became con vinced that her election as abbess of Port Royal ! was invalid, and resigned, after having secured ; a provision that thereafter the abbesses should i be chosen triennially. Some years afterward ; the pope chose her to establish a new convent which the duchess de Longueville was about ! to found in honor of the holy sacrament. This I establishment not continuing, Marie Jacqueline | returned to the convent of Port Royal, and ! was again elected abbess, a position which she i retained for 12 years. Racine, in his Histoire \ de Port Royal, attributes to her the authorship j of the history of the persecution suffered by the | nuns, which was published at Paris in 1724. VI. ; Agues, sister of the preceding, born in 1594, died T56 ARNAULT ARNDT Feb. 19, 1671. She entered the convent when a mere child, and at the age of 15 was appointed mistress of the novices. She was at the head of the establishment during the five years which her sister passed at Maubuisson ; then became her coadjutor, and was subsequently chosen abbess, and for 27 years governed Port Royal, alternately with her sister, whom she survived nine years. She was the author of two books, Le chaplet secret da Saint Sacra ment (1663), which was suppressed at Rome, but without being formally censured, and IS image de la religieuse parfaite et imparfaite (1665) . The Constitutions de Port Royal are also attributed to her. These abbesses were two of six sisters, all belonging to one convent, and all attached to the Jansenist party. The arch bishop of Paris said that they were " as pure as angels, but as proud as devils." VIL Aiigelique, usually designated by her conventual name Mere Angelique de St. Jean, born in Paris, Nov. 24, 1624, died there, Jan. 29, 1684. She was the daughter of Robert Arnauld d Andilly, and niece of the four preceding, She was educated in the convent of Port Royal by her aunt Marie Jacqueline. When not quite 20 years old she became a nun, and nine years afterward was chosen sub-prioress of the convent. When the establishment was removed to Port Royal de Paris she retained the same position. A royal order having been issued for breaking up the institution, the inmates were arrested by the police, and dispersed through various convents, every endeavor being made to induce them to accede to the formulary of Pope Alexander VI. From these solicitations Angelique was espe cially excepted, because her " known obstinacy " made it sure that she would not agree. At length the nuns were restored to Port Royal des Champs, but were for years subjected to the surveillance of the police, no intercourse being permitted between them and persons outside of the convent. In 1669 the Port Royal society was reconstituted, Angelique being again elected prioress. In 1688 she was chosen abbess. But the next year her pow erful protector, the duchess de Longueville, died, and the persecution was renewed, it be ing expressly ordered that no new novices should be admitted. Angelique exerted her self to stem the storm ; she consoled the nuns, and put forth all her iriiluence with persons in power. Her efforts were unavailing, and she sank under a complication of griefs. She was learned, pious, and gentle. She wrote several books, the most valuable of which is Memoires pour servir d Vhistoire de Port Royal, et a la me de la reverende Mere Marie Angelique de Sainte Madeleine Arnauld, reformatrice de ce monastere (3 vols., Utrecht, 1742). She also took a considerable part in the preparation of the Necrologie de Port Royal des Champs (Amsterdam, 1723), and wrote other works in defence of the convent. ARNAULT, Vincent Antoinc, a French author, born in Paris in January, 1766, died near Havre, Sept. 16, 1834. He became first known to fame by two tragedies, Marius d Minturnes and Lucrece. After the massacres of September, 1792, he went to London and Brussels, and on his return in 1793 was arrested, but soon set free. In 1797 Bonaparte sent him on a mission to the Ionian Islands. In 1799 he produced in Paris a tragedy, Les Veniticns, suggested by his residence at Venice, which was very fa vorably received by Napoleon himself, before whom he delivered several lectures on that city. He became in the same year member of the French academy, in 1805 vice president and in 1808 principal secretary of the council of the university. All these offices were taken from him after the emperor s downfall, but restored to him during the hundred days. Besides his tragedies he wrote a number of miscellaneous prose works and poems, a collec tion of fables, and Vie politique et militaire de Napoleon (3 vols. fol., Paris, 1822), and prepared with Jay, Jouy, and De Norvins the Nouvelle biographic des contemporaim (20 vols. 8vo, 1820- 25). ARNAUTS. See ALBANIA. ARND, or Arndt, Johann, a German theologian, born at Ballenstedt, Anhalt, Dec. 27, 1555, died at Celle, May 11, 1621. He was pastor successively at Paderborn and Quedlinburg, and in 1599 was appointed preacher to the court at Brunswick. In 1611 he was presented by the duke of Ltineburg to the church at Celle, and he soon afterward became superintendent of all the churches of the duchy, which office he held till his death. His writings are marked by great fervor of devotion. His principal work, on "True Christianity," which has been translated into almost all European languages, approaches so near to mysticism that it was attacked during the lifetime of its author as a dangerous and heretical production. The fact that he gave liberally to the poor, while himself in poverty, gave rise to a belief that he had discovered the secret of making gold. ARNDT, Ernst Moritz, a German patriot, pro fessor of history at the university of Bonn, born at Schoritz, on the island of Riigen, Dec. 26, 1769, died in Bonn, Jan. 29, 1860. He studied at Greifswald and Jena, and after trav elling over Europe was appointed professor at Greifswald, where he soon published his "His tory of Serfdom in Pomerania and Riigen," which roused the wrath of some members of the Pomeranian nobility. In 1807 appeared the first volume of his Geist der Zeit, contain ing his attack against Napoleon, for which he was expelled from the country. lie then went to Stockholm, where, under a feigned name, he supported himself by teaching languages. In 1810 he ventured to return to Greifswald in disguise, but on hearing of the Russian cam paign, he proceeded in 1812 to St. Petersburg, and published pamphlet after pamphlet to rouse the public mind of Europe from its leth argy. His cry was, If Napoleon is successful in Russia, Germany is undone. Baron Stein ARNE ARNIM 757 sympathized and acted with him. At this time he wrote his book defining the Rhine as a German river, and also his stirring national songs, including Was ixt des Deutschen Vater- land f In 1818 he became professor of modern history at Bonn, but his liberal ideas soon gave renewed offence at Potsdam. He was tried for treason, and though no verdict could be found against him, it was 20 years before the king would allow him to teach history again. In 1848 he was sent as deputy to the Frankfort parliament; but on May 21, 1849, he withdrew from parliament with the whole constitutional party, which was in favor of a hereditary em pire. He returned to Bonn, where, constantly employed in literary labor, he passed an active and happy old age, known and honored through out Germany, under the popular name of " Fa ther Arndt," as one of the foremost liberators of the country from foreign tyranny and home abuses. A monument in his honor was placed on a plateau near Bonn, July 29, 1865. His residence and garden have been purchased and presented to the city of Bonn. ARSE, Thomas Augastine, an English composer of music, born in London in 1710, died March 5, 1778. His father, an upholsterer, gave him a good education at Eton, and bound him ap prentice to an attorney, but afterward con sented to his following his inclination and devoting himself exclusively to musical compo sition. In 1733 he set to music Addison s " Rosamond " and Fielding s "Tom Thumb," under the name of the " Opera of Operas," both of which were received with much favor. The former was composed chiefly for his sister, afterward the celebrated Mrs. Gibber. In 1738 he wrote the music to Milton s " Comus," which firmly established his reputation as a compo ser. During the next 20 years he wrote operas for Drury Lane theatre, oratorios, and a vast number of songs. In 1 762 his most famous work, " Artaxerxes," an opera after the Italian style, was produced, and for many years held a prom inent place on the lyric stage. His other most successful works were the "Judgment of Paris," "Eliza," "Britannia," a musical farce entitled "Thomas and Sally," "The Fairies," and "The Stratford Jubilee." His oratorios, owing to the competition of Handel s works, were com parative failures. As a composer of songs Dr. Arne was unsurpassed by any English writer since the time of Purcell ; and many of them, such as "Rule Britannia," and "The Soldier Tired," are still popular. In 1769 he received from Oxford the degree of doctor in music. ARXHEilI, or Arnheim (anc. Arenacum\ a city of Holland, capital of the province of G elder- land, on the right bank of the Rhine, 30 m. E. by S. of Utrecht; pop. in 1871, 33,181, half Roman Catholics, and the rest mostly Protes tants. It was once a strong fortress, but the ramparts have been converted into prome nades, and the fine situation has made the ad joining pleasure grounds and villages favorite resorts of distinguished and opulent persons. including many retired East India merchants. The town hall is called the Devil s House, from the peculiar adornments of its front. In the church of St. Eusebius (the Groote Kerk) are the tombs of the dukes and counts of Gelder- land and a fine mausoleum of one of the former, Gharles of Egmont The pulpit of the St. Wai- burg Roman Catholic church was designed by Cuypers. There are many other interesting public buildings, including the Bronbeek, a hos pital for East India invalid soldiers, various ed- I ucational and literary institutions, and a re- j nowned music hall (Musis sacrum}. The trade, much increased by railway communications, consists in the export of cereals and tobacco, and in a large commission business with Ger many. Carriages, mirrors, turnery, and math ematical and other instruments are manufac tured. In the middle ages it was called Ar- noldi Villa. Sir Philip Sidney died here in 1586. In 1813 it was stormed by the Prussians. ARNICA, a genus of plants of the natural or der composite. The arnica montana or leop ard s bane grows in the mountainous dis tricts of the north and middle of Eu rope, blossoming in June and July. Its flowers, leaves, and root are employed in medicine, but the | flowers are usually I preferred. A tinc- 1 ture and extract are ! prepared from the ; flowers, and a tinc- I ture from the root. An infusion may be used. Arnica con tains a volatile oil, bitter extractive, and resin, the first being probably the active constituent. When taken internally arnica produces increased rapidity of the pulse, headache, dizziness, and spasmodic twitchings of the muscles, with oc casional vomiting and diarrhoea. Externally it is a slight irritant. It has been used, more in I Germany than in this country, in low forms of fever and nervous diseases. It is largely used as a remedy for sprains and bruises. A KM 31, or Arnheim, Johann Georg, a German soldier, born at Boitzenburg in 1581, died in ! Dresden, April 18, 1641. He fought under \ Gustavus Adolphus against Russia, and in the Polish service against the Turks, and was a favorite officer of Wallenstein, who made him field marshal. In 1631 he joined the elector ! of Saxony, commanded the Saxon troops at | Breitenfeld, invaded Bohemia, took Prague, | and was victorious at Nimburg, in 1632 re- ! turned to Saxony, then fought in Brandenburg and Silesia, and in 1634 defeated the imperial- ! ists at Liegnitz. In the following year he left Arnica montana. ARNIM ARNO the service, and in 1037 was arrested by the j Swedes on account of an alleged former secret ! understanding with Wallenstein. In Novem- i ber, 1038, he escaped from Stockholm to Ham burg, and raised at his own expense and with the consent of the imperial and Saxon authori ties an army of 10,000 men against Sweden, but died before it could engage in active operations. ARNIM, Karl Otto Ludwig von, a German au- I thor, born in Berlin, Aug. 1, 1779, died there, j Feb. 9, 1801. His books of travel in France, : Italy, Spain, Russia, and the East (Berlin, : vols., 1838- 50) are much valued. ARXDI. I. Ludwig Achim (Joachim) von, a German poet, one of the leaders of the "ro mantic school " in German literature, born in Berlin, Jan. 20, 1781, died at his estate Wie- j persdorf, near Dahme, Jan. 21, 1831. He de- j voted himself in his youth to scientific studies, ! but even in these Lis researches were of a fantastic nature, and showed the tendency of : his mind, which soon exhibited much of its singular originality in the earliest of his liter- j ary works, Ariel s Offenbarungen (Gottingen, 1804). Soon after the publication of this book | lie travelled in Germany, studying the habits of the common people, and tracing to their sources the current folk songs and legends, j Of the almost forgotten beauties found among | these popular ballads and tales lie made ex- i cellent use in several of his works which ap- : peared soon after the principal portions of Des Kndben Wunderhorn (3 vols., Heidelberg, ! 1800- 8; 2d ed., 1819); Wintergarten, eine \ Sammlung vo?i Novellen (Berlin, 1809) ; Ar- muth, Reiclithum, ScJiuld und Busse der \ Graft n Dolores (2 vols., Berlin, 1810); Halle \ und Jerusalem, Studentenspiel und Pilger- I abenteuer (Heidelberg, 1811); and the Sch.au- \ biihne (Berlin, 1813). In 1811 he married j Elisabeth Brentano, afterward celebrated as ! Bettina von Arnim. During the years of N"a- j poleon s rule in Germany, Von Arnim was j among the patriots who strove most energeti- i cally to arouse his countrymen against the j conqueror s despotism. The years of the war j brought financial trouble upon him, and he wrote but little for a considerable time. That difficulty over, he again appeared in literature and published several works, of which Die Kronemcfichter, oder Berthold s erstes und zwei- \ tes Leben, was the chief. His complete works j were published by Grimm, in 19 volumes (Ber lin, 1839- 4G). II. Elisabeth von, best known as BETTIXA, wife of the preceding, and sister j of the poet Clemens Brentano, born in Frank- j fort-on-the-Main, April 4, 1785, died in Berlin, ; Jan. 20, 1859. Her education was little guided ! by her friends, and its entire freedom from con ventional rules probably exaggerated the ec- j centricities which she began at an early age to ! display. A part of her youth was spent in a convent, a part in Offenbach and Marburg, but Frankfort was her favorite home. She formed a friendship with a canoness, Fraulein Gtinde- \ rode, who exerted over her naturally fantastic I habits of thought a most unhealthy influence ; the two friends acknowledged only a singularly fanciful worship of nature, and natural im pulses, laws, and methods of life; a dreamy brooding over this and the " tyranny " of con ventionalities soon grew into almost a mental disease. Fraulein Giinderode committed sui cide on account of an unhappy passion for the philologist Creuzer, and this event still further affected Bettina s morbid current of thought. Soon after her friend s death she entered into correspondence with Goethe, for whom she contracted a fantastic love. The poet, now nearly 00 years of age, treated this as a child s whim, and, without encouraging, still did not repel it, though he in no way returned her feeling. The outgrowth of their singular cor respondence was Bettina von Arnim s book Goethe s Brief wechsel mit einem Kinde (& vols., Berlin, 1835), a record since proved to be so full of falsifications, distortions, and affectations as to be worth little save as a record of its au thor s egotism and eccentricity. (See Lewes s " Life of Goethe.") She herself translated the work into English. After her marriage to Achim von Arnim in 1811, she lived in Ber lin, where her mind took a healthier tone from her active charity and from the absence of her former surroundings. In 1840 portions of her correspondence with her old friend the can oness were published under the title Die Gun- derode (partly translated into English by Mar garet Fuller). Her house was a well known ren dezvous of the most famous literary characters of the day, among whom she was known only as "Bettina" even in her old age. Her note worthy works besides those mentioned above were : Dies Buck gehort dem Konige (2 vols., Berlin, 1843) ; Ilius PampJiilius und die Am brosia (2 vols., 1848) ; Gespracliem.it Ddmonen (1852). In analyzing Bettina s character, it is difficult to determine how much of her eccen tricity is attributable to her actual peculiarities, and how much to a morbid egotism and affec tation, largely influenced by the opinions of the unsettled and disorganized time in which she lived. III. Gisela von, daughter of the pre ceding, and wife of Hermann Grimm, has be come known as a writer by her DramatiscJie Werke, published two years before her mother s death (2 vols., Bonn, 1857). ARNO, a river of Tuscany, rises on the S. slope of Monte Falterona in the Apennines, in. N. of Prato Vecchio, flows S. to the neighborhood of Arezzo, where it is joined by the Chianassa and the Chiana, thence N. "W. to Pontassieve, where it receives the Sieve, thence follows a westerly course through Florence and Pisa to 7 m. below the latter city, where it flows into the Mediterranean through a channel cut for it in 1003; length 150 m. It is navigable for small vessels from the sea to Florence, but further is liable to be obstructed by floods and droughts. To guard against the former, it has been embanked for the greater part of its course. The valley ARNOBIUS ARNOLD 759 through which the Arno flows between Flor ence and Pisa is the very garden of Italy, and is famous for its beauty. ARXOBIl S, an African rhetorician, born in Sicca Veneria (supposed to be the Tunisian Keif), on the eastern border of Numidia, flourished at the beginning of the 4th cen tury. He was a violent opponent of Chris tianity, which had been introduced into Nu- midia as early as 250, until, tradition says, lie was warned in a dream to embrace the new religion. There is, however, reason to ascribe his conversion to a rational investiga tion of the gospels. On his conversion he ap plied to the bishop of Sicca for admission to the church. The bishop desired some -proof of the sincerity of a man who had been so zeal ous a defender of paganism. Arnobius there fore wrote the famous treatise entitled Adver- sus Gentes, in which he gives proof of his zeal for Christianity by exposing the fallacies of his former faith. The Adrersus Gentes inclines to Gnosticism and Dualism, in the conclusion that, since the Supreme Being would not have cre ated so imperfect a work as the human soul, it must have been created by some inferior be ing in his image. Arnobius taught that immor tality was not an attribute of the soul, but could only be acquired by effort to conquer evil and rise to the supremacy of good. ARNOLD, Benedict, an officer in the American revolutionary army, born in Norwich, Conn., Jan. 3, 1740, died in London, June 14, 1801. He was trained to mercantile pursuits, but, being of a restless and reckless disposition, was invariably unsuccessful in trade. He showed, however, considerable aptitude for military life, and at the outbreak of the American rev olution was the captain of a company of Con necticut militia known as the "governor s guards." At the head of this command he re paired to Cambridge, Mass., after the battle of Lexington, and was commissioned a colonel. He cooperated with Ethan Allen in the capture of Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point on Lake Champlain, arid in the latter part of 1775 was appointed, in connectior with Gen. Richard Montgomery, to the command of an expedition against Canada, whence with Montgomery he made (Dec. 31) a gallant but unsuccessful as sault upon Quebec, receiving a severe wound in the leg. For these services he was rewarded by congress with the commission of a brigadier general. He remained on the northern fron tier during the ensuing spring and summer, and, having organized a flotilla on Lake Cham- plain, fought a desperate battle on Oct. 11, 1776, with a greatly superior British force, in which he was worsted. On the succeeding day he ran his vessels on shore and fired them, and then retired unmolested to Ticonderoga. Notwithstanding these exploits, he was omitted from the list of five major generals who soon after were appointed by congress. A letter from Washington soothed his wounded vanity, but there is little doubt that the injustice of congress in this instance first suggested to his rnind the idea of betraying his country. Re ceiving permission to visit Philadelphia, where congress was then sitting, he took part near Danbury, Conn., in an encounter witli a su perior body of British troops, and again dis tinguished himself by coolness and audacity in the presence of extreme danger. Congress finally commissioned him a major general, but still left him below the five others recently appointed, which only intensified his feelings of resentment. In the summer of 1777 he joined the northern army under Gates, and by a brilliant movement relieved Fort Stanwix, on the Mohawk, besieged by a large force of British and Indians. He was prevented by the jealousy of Gates from taking an active part in the first battle of Bemus Heights, but in the second battle, Oct. 7, he entered the field with out permission, led the last desperate charge against the Hessian encampment, and was se verely wounded in the leg as he rode into the sallyport. Having partially recovered from his wound, he was appointed in June, 1778, to the command of Philadelphia, then recently evac uated by the enemy. During the nine months that he occupied this position he governed with a high hand, and the council of Penn sylvania preferred charges of misconduct, for which he was tried by a court martial, and in January, 1780, was sentenced to lie repri manded by the Commander-in-chief, who per formed the unwelcome duty in as lenient a spirit as possible. Although in presenting his case to the court he had announced in exalted terms his devotion to the American cause, it was subsequently discovered that for many months previous he had been in secret and treasonable correspondence with the enemy. His marriage while in Philadelphia with Miss Shippen, a lady of strong tory predilections, also predisposed him to look favorably upon any scheme of betrayal of his country. In this frame of mind he solicited and received the command of the works at West Point, alleging that his wounds still precluded him from active service in the field. He entered upon his new duties on Aug. 3, 1780, and estab lished his headquarters at a house on the op posite bank, which had formerly belonged to Col. Beverly Robinson of Virginia, a tory. He had now been nearly 18 months in treasonable correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton, the British commander-in-chief at New York, and his immediate object was the surrender to him of West Point, then considered the key of communication between the eastern and south ern states. The correspondence was conducted on the part of Clinton by his adjutant general. Major Andre, who used the pseudonyme of "John Anderson," while Arnold signed him self "Gustavus." In September, 1780, the plot being ripe, Arnold requested a personal inter view with Andre" at headquarters to settle the final details. On the 18th, the very day when this meeting should have taken pla.ce, the 760 ARNOLD ..arrival of Washington and his suite at Ver- planck s Point, on his way to Hartford to meet the French admiral Rochambeau, greatly em barrassed Arnold ; but with characteristic au dacity he showed him a portion of the treason able correspondence having reference to the proposed conference, but which was so artfully worded as to disarm suspicion. Washington strongly advised Arnold to hold no meeting with persons corning from within the enemy s lines, as such an act, taken in connection with the recent court martial, might injure him in public estimation. On the night of the 21st the meeting with Andre, who had disembarked from the British frigate Vulture, finally took place at the foot of Clove mountain, a few miles belo\v Stony Point. It was continued in to the morning of the 22d, when, having given Andre a safe-conduct to pass him through the American lines, and six papers dis closing the plans of the works at West Point and the strength of the garrison, Arnold re turned to his headquarters. The Vulture hav ing meanwhile* dropped down stream in con sequence of a fire from the American batteries, Andre was obliged to return to New York along the eastern bank of the Hudson, and on the 23d was captured near Tarrytown. The papers found on his person were at once de spatched to Washington at Hartford ; but Col. Jameson, the officer in whose charge he was placed, committed the error of informing Ar nold of. the circumstance. After a hurried parting with his wife, Arnold was rowed in his barge to the Vulture, where he then basely delivered the oarsmen to the enemy ; but Sir Henry Clinton at once ordered them to be released. On the same da} r the papers found on Andre s person were examined by Wash ington, and the whole treasonable scheme was exposed, just in time probably to defeat the most formidable plan ever organized to crush the cause of American liberty. Arnold was rewarded for his treachery by a commission as .major general in the British army, and took part in several marauding expeditions into Connecticut and Virginia. After the surrender of Cornwallis he went to England and received a considerable sum in money from the British government. His subsequent life was neither prosperous nor happy. He was shunned by men of honor and repeatedly insulted. After several unsuccessful attempts to engage in busi ness in British America and the West Indies, he sank into utter obscurity. James Robertson, second son of the preceding, born in the United States in 1780, died in London, Dec. 27, 1854. He entered the British army in 1798, and served with credit in many parts of the world. For several years he was an aide-de-camp of William IV. Three years before his death he was promoted to be a lieutenant general. ARNOLD OF BRESCIA (ABNALDO DA BRE SCIA), a religious reformer, born at Brescia in Italy about the beginning of the 12th cen tury, executed at Rome in 1155. He first ap pears in history as a scholar of Abelard, and was distinguished for eloquence. Returning from France to Italy, he attacked the luxury, venality, indifference to religious duties, and degrading worldliness of the clergy. His spe cial doctrine was the antagonism of the church to the world. He held that the same man ought not to hold secular and religious office. This doctrine speedily made for him a party. Disturbances broke out, the clergy protested, the bishop of Brescia became alarmed, a com plaint was sent to Rome, and at the council of the Lateran in 1139 Arnold was condemned as 1 a disturber of the peace, forbidden to preach, and banished from Italy. His party, however, was not annihilated, nor his influence destroyed. In France, where he went to visit Abelard, whose name had been joined with his in the sentence of condemnation, and in Switzerland, where he preached for some years, he gained many adherents. Meanwhile, a bold applica- | tion of his principles had been attempted in Rome itself. The demands of the papal see excited a popular movement (1143), and secu lar authorities were appointed to govern the j state, while the pope, Innocent II., was re- | stricted to the exercise of spiritual authority. This change in the national government being opposed by Innocent and his successors, a re volt broke out in 1145, and Pope Eugenius III. was forced to leave the city. Arnold went to Rome and assumed the direction of the popu lar movement ; but the license of rioters hin dered his plans, reaction came, one by one his reforms were nullified, and the unfortunate murder of a cardinal in the street enabled Pope Adrian IV. to turn against this alleged dis- I turber of the peace and enemy of the church the sympathies of the populace. Arnold was with his friends driven from the city, and sought refuge with some noblemen of Cam pania. When the emperor Frederick Barba- rossa came to Rome to be crowned, the pope asked him to have Arnold arrested. The order I was given and executed, and Arnold was stran- gled, and his body burned and thrown into I the Tiber. The character of Arnold has been | variously represented. Baronius calls him " the | father of political heresies." The truth ap- \ pears to be that he was a great reforming spir- it, who fell into many errors and excesses, but j whose leading idea was to renovate the clerical j order after the apostolic model. Baptist wri ters claim him as one of the forerunners of l their faith, the denial of infant baptism being among the charges against him at the Lateran j council of 1139. A sect called Arnoldists ex- | isted in Italy for some time after his death. | They were condemned at the council of Ve- ; rona in 1184, and the name occurs in a law against heretics of Frederick II. (1224).- ARNOLD, Christoph, a German astronomer, born at Sommerfeld, near Leipsic, Dec. 17, 1650, died April 15, 1695. He was a farmer, but devoted his leisure to astronomy, erected an observatory at his own house, and was the ARNOLD 761 first to call attention to the comets of 1682 and | 1086. He also acquired fame by his observa tion of the passage of Mercury across the sun s i disk, Oct. 31, 1690. The town of Leipsic gave j him a present of money and exempted him | from all city taxation. ARNOLD, Edwin, an English author, born June 10, 1831. In 1852 he obtained at Oxford the . Newdegate prize for one of his poems, became I in 1854 second master in a principal school of Birmingham, and subsequently was president | of the Sanskrit college at Poonah, British India, which office he resigned in 1860. He is a vo- i luminous contributor to daily journals and pe- ; riodicals, and has published "Poems, Narrative and Lyrical ; " "Griselda, a Tragedy, and other j Poems" (1856); "The Wreck of the Northern | Belle" (1857); "History of the Administra- ; tion of India under the late Marquis of Dal- I housie" (2 vols., 1862- 4j ; and "Poets of Greece" (1869). ARNOLD, Matthew, an English poet, son of : Thomas Arnold, born at Laleham, Dec. 24, ! 1822. He was educated at Winchester, Rug- ! by, and Oxford ; won the Newdegate prize for j English verse by a poem entitled " Cromwell ; " in 1845 was chosen fellow of Oriel college; ; and from 1846 to 1851 was private secretary to \ Lord Lansdowne. Having married, Mr. Arnold j received an appointment as one of the lay in- j spectors of schools under the committee of the > council of education. In 1849 he published ! anonymously a small volume of poems under : the title of " The Strayed Reveller and other Poems." In 1852 a second volume appeared, j " Empedocles on JEtna, and other Poems." In 1853 a new volume was issued in his own j name, followed by a second series, the two j containing selections from the previous collec- | tions along with some fresh pieces. On May j 5, 1857, Mr. Arnold was elected professor of | poetry in the university of Oxford. His later j noteworthy works are: "Balder;" " Merope, j a Tragedy " (1858); " On Translating Homer" (1862); "Essays in Criticism " (1865) ; "Study of Celtic Literature" (1867); "Schools and Universities on the Continent" (1868); "Cul ture and Anarchy" (1869); "St. Paul and Protestantism" (1870); "Friendship s Gar land " (1871) ; " Literature ancf Dogma " (1873). ARNOLD, Samuel, Mus. Doc., an English com poser, born in London, Aug. 10, 1740, died there, Oct. 22, 1802. At the age of 23 he became composer to Covent Garden theatre, and in 1766 also to the Haymarket, in 1789 conductor of the academy of ancient music, and in 1793 organist of Westminster abbey. He published 47 operas, of which " The Maid of the Mill " was for many years a favorite on the stage. "The Prodigal Son," an oratorio, also had re markable success. About 1786 he published a collection of cathedral music (4 vols.), which has always been held in high esteem. He un dertook, under the patronage of George III., an edition in score of Handel s works, of which he published 40 volumes. ARNOLD, Thomas, D. D., an English teacher and historian, born at West Cowes, Isle of Wight, June 13, 1795, died at Rugby, June 12, 1842. When 8 years old he was sent to Warrainster, and at 12 to Winchester college, where he was known as an indolent, shy, and restless boy. In 1811, having obtained a scholarship at Cor pus Christi, he removed to Oxford, where in 1814 he took a first class degree, and the year after was elected fellow of Oriel college. In 1815 and 1817 he was chancellor s prizeman for the Latin and English essays. In 1818 he was ordained deacon, and from 1819 employed himself at Laleham, near Staines, in the prepa ration of young men for the universities. From this point his career seems to have fairly com menced. On his application for the post of head master of Rugby school, he was elected, though others had applied before him, the trus tees being assured that " he would change the face of education all through the public schools of England." He entered upon the duties of this office in August, 1828, having shortly be fore taken priest s orders. Dr. Arnold enlarged the basis of education at Rugby by adding to the classics other departments of learning ; but his influence was chiefly felt in the practical bearing upon life and character which he gave to all education, and in the lofty Christian spir it which he endeavored to impart to his schol ars. He substituted for the old system of fag ging a responsible supervision of the younger lads by the boys in the highest class a plan that was criticised in some quarters, but which he defended in the "Journal of Education" (1834- 5). He was a strenuous opponent of the new school at Oxford. He took part in the de bate upon church and state, wrote a pamphlet in 1833 upon "Church Reform," and later "Fragments upon the Church," in which he urged that church and state, instead of being formally united as two separate interests, should rather be identified, the state being in fact the working church. In 1835 he accepted a fel lowship in the senate of the new London uni versity, but resigned it three years later on ac count of the refusal of the senate to make an examination in the New Testament obligatory upon candidates for a degree. He delivered lectures before the Rugby mechanics institute, and in 1831 started a periodical called the "Englishman s Register," of which only a few numbers were published. He declined politi cal preferment; and when Lord Melbourne ap pointed him to the regius professorship of mod ern history at Oxford, he welcomed it as the post of all others best suited to him. He held it but one year, when he suddenly died of heart disease. His "History of Rome," a work of great merit, in 3 vols. (1838, 1840, 1842), em bodying the results of Niebuhr s investigations, carried the narrative to the end of the second Punic war ; a fourth volume extends the his tory, in fragments, to the time of Trajan. He ! also published an edition of Thucydides with ; notes, a course of lectures on modern history, 762 ARNOLD AROLSEN five volumes of sermons, and a volume of mis cellaneous writings. His correspondence in two volumes was published, with a memoir, by the i Rev. A. P. Stanley. ARNOLD, Thomas Kerclicver, an English cler- ! gvman and author, born in 1800, died March 9, | 1853. He was educated at Trinity college, | Cambridge, and in 1838 published the first of a j numerous list of introductory books for the I study of the Greek, Latin, Hebrew, German, j French, and Italian languages. These works were extensively used in England and America. He next prepared a series of school classics, combining portions of the best Greek and Latin authors; and the full classical series of Mr. Ar nold covers the entire ground from first lessons to accomplished scholarship. In addition to these labors, he was an occasional writer on religious and ecclesiastical questions, and pub lished a volume of sermons. ARNOTT, Neil, a Scotch physician and popular writer upon science, born near Montrose in 1788. He studied medicine in Aberdeen and London, paying special attention to natural ! philosophy, and through the influence of his instructor, Sir Everard Home, was appointed surgeon in the naval service of the East India company. The position gave him opportunity for scientific observations in different parts of j the world. In 1811 he began to practise in ! London, but continued his scientific investiga- j tions. His "Elements of Physics, or Natural j Philosophy, General and Medical, explained in plain or non-technical Language" (1827), con- i tamed the substance of lectures previously de livered, and was a successful attempt to illus trate scientific principles in the language of common life. It was translated into different languages, and passed through five editions in England within six years. In 1835 Dr. Arnott was appointed one of the senators of the uni versity of London, in 1837 one of the physi cians extraordinary to the queen, and in 1838 a I fellow of the royal society. He published at the same time his "Essay on Warming and Ventilating." He has invented numerous con trivances for health and comfort, such as the stove and ventilator to which his name is given, and the water-bed or floating mattress, which has often been USIH! with the happiest results. In 1854 he received from the royal society their Rumford medal ; and in 1855 the jurors of the universal exhibition at Paris awarded him a i gold medal, to which the emperor added the | cross of the legion of honor. ARNOl Ll), Sophie, a French actress, born in | Paris, Feb. 14, 1744, died in 1803. Her father, ; an innkeeper, gave her a good education, in ! addition to which she possessed a charming i face and figure, a voice of great flexibility and j compass, and an unusual share of wit. Some | ladies attached to the court of Louis XV., hav ing heard her sing at evening service during Passion week, induced the royal chapel master to employ her in the choir. Here she was not long in attracting the attention of Madame de Pompadour. Her de"but upon the stage at the age of 13 soon followed, and for 21 years, be tween 1757 and 1778, she was the reigning favorite at the French opera. Her beauty, vi vacity, and generosity attracted such men as Di derot, D Alembert, Helvetius, Mably, Duclos, and Rousseau, who sought her society. She was as witty as she was licentious, and the most eminent poets celebrated her charms in verse. Her Ions mots, of which many have been col lected, are brilliant and pointed. At the com mencement of the revolution she retired to a country house at Luzarches, which had for merly been a parsonage, and over the door of which she inscribed the words, Ite, missa est, where she seems to have passed the rest of her days. One of her natural sons, a colonel of cuirassiers, was killed at the battle of Wagram. ARNSBERG, a town of Prussia, capital of a district of the same name in the province of Westphalia, situated on a hill partly surrounded by the Ruhr, 44 m. S. S. E. of Minister ; pop. in 1871, 4,734. The new portion of the town dates from the early part of this century. In the vicinity are the ruins of an old castle where the famous Vehmic court used to be held. The once important county of Arnsberg came in 1368 into the possession of the electorate of Cologne, and the town was subsequently for some time capital of the duchy of Westphalia, of which Arnsberg is the most populous and prosperous district. ARNSTADT, a town of Germany, in the prin cipality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, situ ated on the Gera and on the northern slope of the Thuringian Forest, 10 m. S. of Erfurt; pop. in 1871, 8,603. Among the most notable build ings is a church built in the llth century. The town has a castle belonging to the reigning family, and a gymnasium with a considerable library. Arnstadt is one of the oldest towns of Thuringia, being mentioned as early as 704. It was formerly known as an emporium for the trade in timber and fruit, and has in mod ern times become a seat of manufactures. ARNSWALDE, a town of Prussia, in the prov ince of Brandenburg, 41 m. S. E. of Stettin, between three lakes ; pop. in 1871, 6,522. The town has a church celebrated for its bells, a large chemical manufactory, and extensive man ufactures of linen and woollens. AROLAS, Juan, a Spanish poet, born in Barce lona, June 20, 1805, died in Valencia in Novem ber, 1849. He was a member of the order of the Piarists, and chaplain in the normal school of Valencia, and became insane five years be fore his death in consequence of religious exal tation. His poetical works include Libro de amoves, poesias pastoriles, cartas amatorias (3 vols., Valencia, 1843) ; Poesias cal>allercscas y orientates (new edition, 1850) ; and translations of Chateaubriand s poems and M.olse. A com plete edition of his poems was .published in Valencia in I860, in three volumes. AROLSEN, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of Waldeck (which according to the AROOSTOOK ARRAN 763 convention of 1867 is now administered by the king of Prussia), on the Aar, 12 m. N. of Wai- deck ; pop. in 1867, 2,148. The palace contains many works of art and a library of 80,000 vol umes. In the parish church are statues by Ranch, and by Kaulbach, who was born here. AROOSTOOK, a county comprising the N. and N. E. portions of Maine, and bordering on the provinces of Quebec and New Brunswick ; area, 6,800 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 29,609. The surface is undulating, with a few mountain peaks, the loftiest of which are Chase s Mount and Mars Hill. The St. John s river forms the N. boundary and flows through the W. part of the county, and is navigable for vessels of 50 tons. It is also watered by the Aroostook, a "W. tributary of the St. John s, Allagash, Mat- tawamkeag, and several smaller rivers; and there are many small lakes and ponds. The soil is generally very fertile, but a great part of the surface is still covered by pine forests. In 1870 the county produced 46,946 bushels of wheat, 532,151 of oats, 360,450 of buckwheat, 380,701 of potatoes, 48,052 tons of hay, 86,- 173 Ibs. of wool, 523.510 of butter, and. 53,- 186 of maple sugar. Capital, Houlton. ARPAI), the Magyar national hero, son of Al- mos, who led the Magyars into Hungary, died, after a reign of about 18 years, in 907. He completed the conquest begun by his father, carried on wars with the Bulgarians and Mo ravians, conquered Transylvania, Croatia, and Slavonia, and made predatory incursions into Germany and northern Italy. He also suc cessfully began the organization of his country. His only surviving son, Zoltan, continued the Arpad dynasty, which in 1000 assumed the royal dignity, and in 1301 became extinct in the male line with Andrew III. ARPINO (anc. Arpinum), a town of S. Italy, in the province of Terra di Lavoro, 8 m. S. of Bora ; pop. about 6,500. It has manufactures of woollen cloth, paper, and parchment. It was originally a town of the Volsci, and sub sequently of the Samnites, from whom it was wrested by the Romans in 304 B. C. It is the birthplace of Marius and Cicero, whose brother Quintus had a celebrated villa called Arcanum. ARPIXO, Gioseppc Osari d\ See CESAEI. ARPINOI. See AEPIXO. ARQIA, or Arqnata, a village of northern Italy, among the Euganean hills, 12 m. S. W. of Padua; pop. 2,600. It is famous for con taining the house and tomb of Petrarch. He died here at his villa in July, 1374, and was laid in a sarcophagus of red marble, raised on four pilasters, on an elevated base. ARRACK (Arabic, literally perspiration), a strong spirituous liquor distilled from fer mented rice and from toddy, the fermented sap of the cocoanut tree, and also from rice and sugar or rice and molasses fermented with cocoanut juice. The word is used as a generic term for all distilled liquors, as there are ar racks of grapes, berries, figs, dates, and even of wild flowers, in various parts of the East. Arrack is sometimes made by adding different bitter principles and mastic to the fermenting liquor, putting it into leather bottles, and allow ing it to undergo slow fermentation under the | earth for a year, and then subjecting it to a | crude distillation. It is largely imitated in i various parts of Germany and Holland. The | arrack of commerce is derived from Batavia, I Goa, Ceylon, Madras, and Colombo. The best arrack in the Levant is obtained from the island j of Scio. In order to prepare it for the long voy- | age some oil is added, which on the addition i of warm water often imparts a disagreeable oily I taste and smell. It is used in the composition ! of punch and for medical and culinary pur- ! poses. Anise seed and various aromatic herbs | are sometimes steeped in it to improve its flavor. ARRAft, an island forming part of the Scotch county of Bute, and lying in the great bay j between the peninsula of Canty re and the main | coast of Scotland, 5 m. E. of the former, from which it is separated by Kilbrannan sound, and ! 13 m. "W. of the latter, from which it is sepa rated by the frith of Clyde. Its greatest length i is about 21 m., greatest width about 12 m. j The surface is high and rocky, and the scenery | wild and picturesque. In the N. part the | rugged mountain Goatfell rises to a height of I 2,865 ft. The coast rises in many places into j bold basaltic cliffs ; in others it is low and ! sandy. The island, of which a large portion I is the property of the duke of Hamilton, is divided into two parishes, Kilmory and Kil- j bride ; total pop. about 5,500. supported by the products of small farms, and by trilling local i industries. The three villages are Brodick, i Lamlash, and Shedog. Many ancient monu- : ments, supposed to have been erected by the I Druids, are found in Arran. Gaelic is the | ordinary language of the people, though English j is generally understood. ARRAN, Isles of, three small islands lying at ; the entrance of Gal way bay, off the W. coast j of Ireland ; total area, about 18 sq. m. The I largest is Inishmore, the northern island ; the ; next in size, Inishmain. lies in the centre ; and ! the southern one is called Inishere. They are ; low and barren, producing only potatoes and the most hardy grain ; yet the greater part of their surface, which is divided into plots gene- | rally less than an acre in extent, is under cul- i tivation by a wretched population of about I 3,200, who live in miserable huts. Cn one of I the northern cliffs of Inishmore stands a very ! ancient fort built by the Belg;e, it is supposed, early in the 1st century. Other structures of ! equal age are found in all three islands; and ! there are also numerous ruins of the oratories, dwellings, and churches of early Irish hermits, ! many of whom retired to these isolated places I in the 6th and 7th centuries, giving to Inish- | more especially the name of Arran of the i Saints (Aran-na-naomli). The Irish carls of ; Arran take their title from these islands. ARRAN, Earl of, the title of the holders of the i Scotch peerage of Arran, created for Sir Thomas 764 ARRAS ARREST Boyd in 1467, but in 1503 passing by royal de cree from his son, who had displeased the king, to the house of Hamilton, the successive heads of which bore this as their chief title till the higher rank of marquis and afterward of duke of Hamilton was conferred upon them. James Hamilton, second earl of his name, died Jan. 22, 1575. He was appointed regent of Scotland upon the death of James V. in 1542, and guardian of Mary Stuart, to whom he en deavored to marry his son. Finding this im possible on account of the intrigues of Henry VIII. of England and the earl of Lennox, who also wished by this marriage to obtain the Scottish crown for their own children, Arran finally consented to her union with the dauphin of France, afterward Francis II. For his aid in promoting this alliance, the French king made him duke of Chatelherault, in Poitou, and this French title is still borne by the dukes of Hamilton. James, son of the preceding, con ceived a violent passion for Mary Stuart, and when his father failed to obtain for him her hand, he became insane from disappointment, and from the knowledge of her personal in difference to him. While in this state he was prevailed upon to enter into a plot against her throne ; but becoming conscious during a lucid interval of the iniquity of the plan, he confessed his share in it. On account of his evident in sanity he was only kept in a mild imprison ment ; but he took no further part in political affairs. The titles and estates of Arran passed to his brother John, who was created marquis of Hamilton in 1599. (See HAMILTON.) There is also an Irish earldom of Arran, conferred on Sir Arthur Gore in 1758 (earl of the Arran Islands) ; but none of its incumbents have be come prominent in history. ARRAS (anc. Nemetocenna or Nemetacum, capital of the Atrebates), a city of France, capital of the department of Pas-de-Calais, and I formerly of the province of Artois, on the river Scarpe, 100 in. N. by E. of Paris; pop. in 1866, 25,749. It was fortified by Vauban, and has manufactures of thread, lace, and woollens, with an important trade in grain. The woollen manufactures have been famous from very re mote times, and the tapestries of Arras during the middle ages were so celebrated that the name of the town was generally given to this species of hangings. Arras has been the see of a bishop since 390. It was the seat of ec clesiastical councils in 1025 and 1490. When j Louis XL seized Artois on the death of Charles the Bold of Burgundy in 1477, Arras resisted, whereupon the king assaulted the town in per son, drove out the inhabitants, replaced them by people drawn from all parts of France, and changed the name of Arras to Franchise. Ro- bespierre was both a native and a representa- I tive of Arras. ARRAWAKS, or Lokono, a tribe on the Berbice and Surinam rivers, Guiana, noted for their mild and peaceful disposition and friendship for Europeans. They were, however, formerly a large, powerful, and warlike tribe, extending from the right bank of the Orinoco to the Suri nam, and held all the Carib tribes in subjec tion, driving some to the Antilles. The French found them so powerful that they used them as a protection against other tribes. The Mora vian missionaries in the 18th century did much to civilize them, and studied their language, printing in it various books for their converts. The fullest material for the study of their speech, which is regarded as one of the softest in America, is in the manuscripts of these mis sionaries preserved by the American philosoph ical society (Philadelphia). They were divided into families, apparently on the same principle as the Iroquois, but in greater number, as no fewer than 50 are enumerated. Descent was in the female line. ARREST, the taking a person or thing by authority of the law and into its custody. I. In civil cases, arrest is the apprehension of a person by lawful authority for the purpose of compelling him to answer in a civil action. The present tone of the English law on the subject was probably first given by a statute of George I. (1726). That act, "to prevent frivolous and vexatious arrests," provided that no person should be held to special bail on any process issuing out of any of the superior courts, unless the cause of action were of the amount of 10, and on process of any inferior court unless it were of the amount of 40 shil lings. These amounts were raised from time to time, and by 7 and 8 George IV., ch. 71, no person could be held to special bail, on process issuing out of any court, when the amount in volved was less than 20. The 1 and 2 Vic toria, ch. 100, abolished arrest on rnesne pro cess, but provided that if a plaintiff, who could before that act have had the defendant ar rested, should show that he had a cause of action, or had sustained damages to the amount of 20, and that there was reasonable cause for believing that the defendant was about to quit England unless he were apprehended, a court might issue its warrant for the arrest of the defendant and hold him to bail in the amount of the debt or damage. This act and several others were displaced by the present act, 32 and 33 Victoria, ch. 62, which pro vides again that no person shall be arrested on mesne process in any action, and contains a similar provision to that just quoted from the former act of Victoria, but requiring further that the plaintiff shall show, except in suits for penalties, that the threatened absence of the defendant from the country will materially prejudice him in the prosecution of his action. But the cause of action must now be of the amount of at least 50. In some of the United States arrest in civil causes still remains, but in Xew York and in many others it is allowed only in such cases as the following, or in cases of similar character, namely : in actions not arising out of contract, when the defendant is not a resident of the state or is about to leave ARREST 7G5 it; or in cases of a tortious nature, or for injuries to person and character, or for wrong- j fully converting property; or in actions for ! fines or penalties, or for the recovery of : moneys or property received and fraudulently withheld by persons acting in a fiduciary ca- i pacity ; or where the property sought is con- j cealed or disposed of with the intent to deprive ! the plaintiff of the benefit of it ; or when the [ defendant has been guilty of a fraud in incur- j ring the obligation or in concealing or dispos- j ing of the property for the recovery of which i the action is brought ; or when the defendant ^ has disposed of his property, or is about to do ! so, with the intent to defraud his creditors. I It will be seen that these provisions exclude \ arrest in common actions of contract and debt, j and this is the spirit of the recent legislation on this head. By the constitution of the United j States, the members of congress are exempt ! from arrest in all cases, except treason, felony, ; or breach of the peace, during their attendance j at the sessions of the respective houses, and in i going to and returning from them to their | homes. In New York (and probably there | are similar exemptions in every state) a member of the legislature is privileged from I arrest on civil process during his attendance j at the session of the houses, except on pro- I cess issued in any suit for forfeiture, misde- | meaner, or breach of trust in any office or j place of public trust held by him ; and for 14 | days previous to, and while going to or return- i ing from such session; and also for 14 days j after any adjournment, or while absent on leave of his house. Ambassadors and other public ; ministers and their servants, and consuls and ! vice consuls, are also exempt from all process i issuing out of a state court. Parties to suits, j while attending at or going to or returning from courts or hearings before referees, or be- I fore arbitrators under a statute or rule of court, to attend the trial or hearing of their causes by these tribunals, and their witnesses subpoenaed and their attorneys and counsel, are | also exempt. Attorneys and counsellors are j generally exempt during the actual sittings of i court, and while employed in any cause pend- ! ing there. Married women are generally privi- I leged from arrest on mesne process in all j causes whatsoever, and no female can be ar rested in New York for any cause except wil- | ful injury. Soldiers and sailors in the service I of the United States are exempt in any cause j of debt or contract. And usually, by special ! statutes, voters on election day, members of { the state militia, and certain public officers are ! also privileged. A civil arrest may be made j at any time except on Sundays and legal holi- j days, and at any place except in presence of a I court. An officer may not break the outer door j of defendant s house to arrest him in a civil case, though once in the house he may break i inner doors to ccme at him ; but after an arrest | and escape, the officer may break open even j an outer door to retake his prisoner. An ar- i rest of a person by a wrong name cannot be justified even though he was the person in tended, unless he was commonly known by either name. The party arrested may ordi narily be released at once upon giving bail ; but when the arrest is on final process, as for example when it is to enforce an execution against the person, the defendant, if he has no property, may usually be discharged by taking the benefit of such acts as are provided for the relief of poor debtors ; for mere imprisonment for debt is for the most part abolished. II. In criminal cases, an arrest may be made, under certain conditions, either by a public officer by virtue of his general authority as a conservator of the peace, or upon a warrant or other ex press process or command, issued by a court or competent judicial officer; or it may be made by a private unofficial person upon an implied permission of the law. If any person, whether a public officer or a private person, sees an other committing or attempting to commit a felony, it is not only his right but his legal duty to arrest him, even without a warrant. Indeed, if he does not at least try to arrest him, he is technically guilty of a misprision of the felony. And if a private person make an arrest for a felony, without a warrant, in good faith and upon a reasonable suspicion that the person whom he arrested had committed the offence, he will not be liable either civilly or criminally though his suspicions turn out to have been unfounded, provided the felony was actually committed by some one. Even in respect to crimes of less degree than a felony, a private person may make an arrest, though there is not in such cases the same legal obli gation as in the case of felcnies. Thus, in case of an affray or breach of the peace, any person may on the spot, and without any warrant, detain any of the offenders. Neither a private person nor an officer can make an arrest with out a warrant when the time of the commis sion of the offence is fairly past. A constable is not justified in taking a person into custody without a warrant for a mere assault, unless he is present when the act is done. But con stables, police officers, and the like officials may on reasonable suspicion arrest a person for a past felony, and they will be protected in such an act, r.nlike a private person in this respect, although no felony has been committed by anybody. " Such officers may ordinarily make arrests without special authority, in order to prevent imminent breaches of the peace. An officer may call bystanders to help him in making an arrest, though he is acting without a warrant; and a refusal to give such help is indictable at common law. An officer may also apprehend any one who interferes to prevent his making an arrest, and it is said that he may even take into custody one who encour ages another already arrested to resist. It seems to be the better opinion that an officer, especially one who is commonly known to be such, like a sheriff or constable acting in his r 66 ARREST ARRIIIDJEUS proper precinct, and probably as well one who, from being elected or appointed in the usual way, may be justly presumed to be known to be such officer, need not show his warrant nor even declare his official character before mak ing an arrest; for the power to make the arrest might be lost by going through the form of producing and explaining the process. If the officer have no proper warrant or authori ty, he is liable in damages to the person ar rested; but if the party resist before investi gating the officer s right, and the officer has the authority in fact, then the party is indict able for resisting the officer in the proper dis charge of his duty. "When an officer acts under a warrant, he is justified in executing it, though it was unlawfully issued in fact, pro vided it is in due and regular form on its face, and the magistrate had general jurisdiction of the case. The question of jurisdiction the of licer must decide for himself and at his peril ; and if the process is invalid on that ground, the officer is liable in damages. Tiie maxim of the law that a man s house is his castle, does not hold good so far as to secure asylum to criminals ; and when a felony has been cer tainly committed and the guilty party takes refuge even in his own house, an officer or a private person, even without a warrant, may break into the house to take him, after a proper demand for admission. An officer in such a case, acting in good faith on the positive in formation and charge of another, would be excused even though the party arrested were not the guilty party. But a private person, in order to justify the breaking of doors without a warrant, must in general prove the actual guilt of the party arrested, and it will not suf fice for him to show that a felony was actually committed by some person, or that reasonable grounds of suspicion existed. When an officer has a warrant, he may, even before an indict ment, break open doors in cases of treason or felonies or breaches of the peace ; but it seems to be the law that, without a warrant and before indictment, he may not do so in the case of mere misdemeanors unaccompanied with violence. After indictment, a person guilty of an offence of any degree may be arrested in any place, and no house can give him sanc tuary ; and not only his own house, but the house of a third person, may in such a case be broken into, after reasonable demand, for the purpose of taking him. To constitute an ar rest, there must ordinarily be some physical force or restraint imposed upon the person, though there need not be more than the slight est. Mere words are not enough, unless upon these the party submits without the manifesta tion of any force. The mere laying of the hand upon the prisoner, or preventing his egress from a room, with words indicating the intent to arrest him, is sufficient. If an officer attempts to arrest one committing a felony, and he takes to flight to escape arrest, the of ficer may, after demanding that he stop and surrender, shoot him to compel him to do so. But the officer may not do this in the case of a mere misdemeanor. And if an officer or other authorized person, in attempting to i make an arrest, is resisted, and in overcoming the resistance, and in using what seems to him to be necessary force, kills the man, he will | be held innocent; and if a person already ar- I rested attempts to escape, an officer is justified j in killing him if that is necessary to prevent his escape. But whenever an unlawful arrest is attempted or made, as for example when an : officer arrests for a misdemeanor without a warrant, and neither on fresh pursuit nor when a breach of the peace is threatened, the party arrested may lawfully resist ; and if in making j such resistance he take the officer s life by ! mischance, it is only manslaughter. When a j prisoner is arrested without a warrant, he I should be handed over without delay to some I magistrate. When the arrest is made under a i warrant, all its requirements must be observed, i and such a process usually directs the officer ! to take his prisoner to some court or justice. It is a common practice for police officers j and constables to search a prisoner immediate- | ly after his arrest, and take from him every- i thing found in his possession. There are sev- I oral English cases reported on this subject, and i it is laid down in them that there is no legal j authority for such a proceeding, unless possibly i it be in those cases where the things taken are I probably the fruits of the crime with which the I prisoner is charged. In several such cases in i England the judges have severely denounced the i practice, and have ordered money especially to be returned to prisoners where their possession of it did not appear to have any connection with the offence for which they were taken, and on the ground that therefore there was no possible justification for depriving them of it. ARRHID^IS, Philip, a natural son of Philip of Macedon and the dancing girl Philinna of | Larissa, died in 317 B. C. After the death of I Alexander the Great in 323, tlie Macedonian troops in the East nominated Arrhidaeus king, with the proviso that the child with which Alexander s wife Roxana was pregnant should be associated with him in the government. The claims of Arrhidrcus were strengthened by | the fact that his wife, Eurydice, was the grand daughter of Philip s elder brother and prede- ! cessor. Being of very feeble intellect, he was ! a mere puppet in the hands of Perdiccas. On | the death of the latter (321), Arrhidaeus and I Eurydice were in Cappadocia, where Antipater, j the regent of Macedonia, found them and took j them over with him to Pella. After his death (319), the regent Polysperchon and the dowa- I ger grandmother, Olympias, set up, in pref- i erence to Arrhidreus, Alexander, Roxana s ! young son. Arrhidaeus and Eurydice protest- i ed, and called in the aid of Oassander, Anti< ! pater s disinherited heir, but, falling into the I hands of Olympias, were both murdered by ! her orders. ARRIA ARROWROOT ARRIA, a Roman woman who immortalized herself by suicide, A. D. 42. Her husband, Oaecina Protus, was condemned, as a traitor to the emperor Claudius, to put an end to his own life. As Cnecina hesitated to do it, his wife took up the dagger and stuck it to the hilt in her own bosom. Handing it back to her hus band she said, Pcete, non dolet ("Paetus, it does not hurt ), and expired. Psetus at once fol lowed her example. ARRIAN (FLAT i us AEEIANUS), a Greek phi losopher and historian, born in Nicomedia, Bithynia, about A. 1). 100. He served under Hadrian and the Antonines, obtained the Ro man citizenship, was prefect of Cappadocia, fought successfully there against the Alans, and after holding the consulship retired to Nicome dia about 150, and devoted himself to letters. Being a pupil and friend of the Stoic Epictetus, he published the philosophical lectures and an abstract (Enchiridion) of the practical philoso phy of his master, and wrote dialogues, of which only fragments have reached us. He also published works upon history, geography, tactics, and hunting. The best of them is his excellent history of the campaigns of Alexan der the Great. The Athenians made him a cit izen of Athens under the name of his model in composition, Xenophon, his book being like wise called Anabasis. With this work his Indica is closely connected, in which he de scribes the Hindoos, their institutions and cus toms, as they were found by Alexander. He also wrote a history of Bithynia, an account of the circumnavigation of the Black sea ("The Periplus of the Euxine Sea 1 ), "The Order of Battle against the Alans," and other smaller works. ARRIYABFJVE, Giovanni, count, an Italian po litical economist, born in Mantua in 1789. In 1821 he was imprisoned seven months in Ven ice for refusing to denounce Silvio Pellico, of which 40 years later he published an account (Dhme epogue de ma vie, Brussels, 1861). Sen tenced to death by contumacy in 1824, he spent some time in France and England, and has been since 1827 a resident and since 1840 a naturalized citizen of Belgium. lie trans lated into Italian (Lugano, 1836) Mill s "Ele ments," and into French Senior s "Fundamen tal Principles of Political Economy;" and has written on benevolent societies and the amelio ration of the working classes, besides Situation economique de la Belgique (Brussels, 1843). ARROO, Arm, or Aroe, a group of about 80 islands in the Malay archipelago, north of Aus tralia, between lat. 5 and 7 S., and Ion. 134 and 135 E. At the end of them is a consider able reef of coral, where pearls and tripang abound. The products are pearls, mother-of- pearl, tortoise-shel), birds of paradise, and tri pang. Dobbo, a town in the island of Wam- ma, is the entrepot of the islands, and im ports calicoes, iron, hardware, and gunpowder, shipped from Singapore. The population num bers about 14,000, a few of whom are Chrb- tians. There are two or three native teachers from Amboyna. ARROWROOT, a name loosely applied to the starch extracted from a number of roots and grains, as the maranta, manihot, tacca, arum, potato, &c. It was originally limited to the starch of the maranta arundinacea, a plant which grows in the East and West Indies, and which was considered a specific for the wounds caused by poisoned arrows. It is a simple food, ; in high repute for invalids. Not containing ni- i trogen, it is well adapted for producing fat and j promoting the warmth of the body. According I to Liebig, 4 Ibs. of it contain as much carbon j for supplying animal heat by its combustion as 15 Ibs. of animal tlesh. In its preparation the tubers are mashed, and the pulp is soaked in water. This dissolves out the starch, which is separated from the fibre by straining. After settling, the clear water is drawn 01% and the starch washed with fresh water and again al lowed to settle. It is finally dried in the sun. Maranta arundinacea. The most common adulterations are with the cheap potato starch, sago, and manioc or tapi oca, all which can be detected by the micro scope. The granules of the potato are of very irregular, ovoid, and truncated forms, and of various sizes, f % om ^Tro t ToVo" f an mcn m diameter, while the particles of the arrowroot are very regular ovoid forms, and of nearly equal sizes. Dilute nitric acid is also a good test. When triturated with it in a mortar, ar rowroot changes into an opaque paste, which is some time in becoming viscid; but potato and flour starch thus treated form immediately a transparent, thick paste. From the inferior starches alcohol extracts an unwholesome oil of disagreeable odor, but none from arrowroot. The composition of the fresh root was ascer tained by Benzon to be in 100 parts as follows: volatile oil, 0*07; starch, 26; vegetable albu men, 1 58; a gummy extract, 0*0; chloride of 768 ARS ARSENIC calcium, 25 ; insoluble fibrine, 6 ; and water, C5 5. Of the starch 23 parts are obtained in the form of powder, and the other 3 are extract ed in the form of paste from the parenchyma with boiling water. There is a so-called arrow root brought from Florida, derived from a Florida Arrowroot (Coontie) and Fruit. plant allied to the sago palm, and sometimes known as coontie. The plant grows among the everglades in great profusion. It is of an inferior quality, containing only 12 per cent, of starch. ARS. See AKS-SUR-MOSELLE. ARSAMAS. See ARZAMAS. ARSENIC (Gr. apcreviKdv or a ppeviKfo, male, from its power in destroying), the common name of the white oxide of arsenic, or arseni- ous acid. In ancient times the name was ap plied to a reddish-colored mineral compound of arsenic and sulphur, a substance in use then as a medicine, and also in painting. Metallic arsenic occurs native in veins in the crystal lized rocks and older slates, and it is also pre pared by subliming its oxide in presence of a reducing flux, and protected from the air. Many modern chemists do not regard it as a metal, though it is commonly treated as such. Combined with oxygen, it unites with metals, forming arsenites and arseniates of these metals, but is never itself the base of any salt. The ores of the metal are not therefore carbonates and sulphates of its oxide, but combinations of the metal itself with sulphur, forming the sul- phuret, and this combined with iron, cobalt, or nickel ; or they are oxides of the metal, or else compounds of its oxides with other metals. It is remarkable as the most volatile and one of the most combustible of the metals, is readily sublimed at a temperature of 360 F., apparently before it melts, and at a greater heat it takes fire and burns with a pale blue flame. In subliming, it gives out dense fumes of a pecu liar garlicky odor, which distinguish it from other substances even when present in very minute quantity. It is more brittle than anti mony, and may be reduced to fine powder in a mortar. Freshly prepared, it has a brilliant metallic appearance, a bluish- white color, and crystalline structure ; but in the air the metal becomes black and crumbles to powder. In water it may be kept without change. Its specific gravity is 5 96. It is the softest of the solid metals, its hardness being rated on the mineralogical scale at 8 -5. Arsenic readily combines as an alloy with other metals, render ing them more fusible and brittle. Its presence is particularly injurious in iron ores, making the cast metal exceedingly brittle ; but it gives great fluidity to the melted iron, so that for tine castings that do not require much strength, but sharply defined and delicate outline, it is sometimes desirable. It also increases the brightness of some alloys. It is not employed for any useful purposes in the metallic state. Arsenious acid, or white arsenic, is the most common combination of this metal. It is the sublimate, w hich escapes when arsenic is heated in the open air. The metal combines in the proportion of 1 equivalent with 3 of oxygen, the compound consisting of arsenic 75 76 per cent, and oxygen 24 24 per cent. The subli mate, after exposure, is a white powder, but may be collected in the form of a glassy, trans parent cake, or crystallized in octahedrons. It is partially soluble in boiling water, and less so in cold water. The solution is slightly acid, having but a feeble reaction upon litmus paper. The following are some of the most important tests given for detecting the presence of this poison : The blowpipe develops its peculiar odor, with little liability of mistake, in arsen ical matters, heated on charcoal. It also re duces the metal, and causes it to condense in the form of a metallic ring in the cold part of a glass tube, in which the substance containing arsenious acid has been placed* with carbonate of soda and charcoal, and heated. The pres ence of arsenic may be shown by this method, when the particle containing it is so small as to be invisible to the naked eye, in the follow ing manner, communicated by Prof. A. K. Ea ton of New York : The microscopic particle is placed in a bulb of a small glass tube, and a fine splinter of charcoal is placed by the side of it. The whole should then be thoroughly dried. The neck of the bulb is next to be drawn out to a capillary tube, and cooled. On applying heat to the matter in the bulb, this produces by sublimation a plainly visible arsen ical ring in the fine bore of the tube. The acid is precipitated from its solutions by sulphuretted hydrogen in the form of tersulphuret of arsenic of a lemon-yellow color. This is a very accu- j rate test, and is so delicate that the yellow j tint is apparent when only T o,Viro of the acid is j present, and the precipitate when the arseni- ! ous acid is in the proportion of 1 part to 80,- \ 000 of water. It is precipitated in a white powder by excess of lime water, when forming T J--o part of the liquid. Ammonio-sulphate of i copper gives an apple-green precipitate, appa- rent when the acid forms T Y,-3hnr P art - A still ! more delicate test is that of Prof. Reinsch, to place a slip of bright copper leaf in the aque ous solution acidulated with hydrochloric acid ; a gray film of arsenic is deposited upon the copper, showing the presence of less than To-oVfro part f tne aG id. It i s affirmed that ARSENIC 769 even TToVcro P art f arsenic will not escape de tection by this test. Nitrate of silver gives with it a yellow precipitate. It should be borne in mind, in attempting to determine the presence or absence of arsenious acid in any mixture in which organic substances, partic ularly those which are not volatile, are present, that some of these substances often produce very similar reactions, and, on the other hand, that they prevent or modify those which ar senious acid should produce in mixtures where no organic substances are present. "Marsh s apparatus " has been long known as affording an easy means of detecting the presence of arsenious acid. The process depends on the property possessed by arsenic of forming a gas with hydrogen, and depositing itself in the me tallic state upon the surface of a cold plate held over the flame of the burning gas. Hy drogen is prepared in the usual way, with granulated zinc and diluted sulphuric acid, in n glass flask provided with a tube of glass drawn out to a small orifice at its outer end ; or a mere tube itself may be used, bent in the form of the letter U, one end drawn out, the other left open for introducing the materials, and closed with the thumb when in use. The hydrogen evolved should first be tested by burning it against a porcelain plate to prove that it is free from arsenic, and then the sus pected liquid is to be introduced into the appara tus. If it contain any traces of arsenious acid, it will be shown by the bluish-white color of the flame, by the fumes of the acid, and brown shining spots of arsenic of metallic appearance will be deposited upon the porcelain plates. By heating the glass tube with a spirit lamp, metallic arsenic will be deposited in the colder part of it, forming a beautiful incrustation. The tube may be cut off at this point, the arse nic be converted into arsenious acid by heat, dissolved in hot water, and tested by the am- monio-sulphate of copper and nitrate of silver. This apparatus has been modified by Dr. Ure, so that the gas may be made at will to pass through the solutions by which the arsenic is precipitated, or to deposit the metallic incrus tation in the tube, or the spots upon the plate. In its most simple form, however, it is a very useful contrivance for detecting arsenic. Anti mony combined with hydrogen produces a spot that may J)e confounded with that of arsenic ; but a solution of hypochlorite of soda instantly dissolves arsenical spots, and has no effect upon those of antimony. The arsenical spots also are volatilized at a temperature of 500 applied by a bath of olive oil, while the antimonial are unchanged. The proper solvent for organic matters supposed to contain arsenic is a mix ture of 3 parts of hydrochloric and 1 part of nitric acid, and the quantity of this should be equal in weight to the organic substance, which before being dissolved should be cut into small pieces and dried at a gentle heat. The mix ture being distilled, the arsenic, if present, comes over in the form of the volatile terchlo- VOL. i. 49 ride, which is then to be converted into the tersulphuret by sulphuretted hydrogen. Ar senious acid is manufactured on a large scale at ! Altenburg and Rfcichenstein, in Silesia, from the ore called arsenical iron. In many other i places it is obtained as a secondary product in | the treatment of cobalt ores, and of other me tallic ores with which arsenic is associated. The process consists in roasting the ore in I large muffles, 10 ft. long and 6 ft. wide, in ! charges of 9 or 10 cwt. each, and collecting j the vapors as a sublimate upon the walls of a i succession of chambers, arranged in a tower I through which they pass, and from which the I uncondensable gases escape by a chimney. The muffles are placed inclining upward from their mouth, and are left open for the passage of heated air to aid in subliming the arsenic and converting it all into arsenious acid. A charge is worked off in about 12 hours, and is imme diately followed by another. Charcoal is the fuel used, and as very little more heat is required than what is evolved by the chemical changes, the quantity consumed is very small. The purest arsenic is found in the flues and cham- J bers nearest the furnace ; in the upper cham bers it is intermixed with the condensed sulphu rous vapors. To purify it for market, it is all sublimed again. It is placed in cast-iron or porcelain pots, which hold 3|- cwt. each, and these are set vertically in a furnace. They open above into sheet-iron drums, which serve ! as condensers, and which are connected by a funnel with the condensing chamber. The fire j must be carefully regulated to maintain the I proper temperature for the acid to sublime in j the form of a glassy cake. If the heat is too high, metallic arsenic is apt to be sublimed and I mixed with the acid, appearing in dark spots. I This must be picked out, or the whole sublimed | over. The preparation of arsenious acid is a I most dangerous occupation. The workmen employed generally die before the cge of 40 ; indeed, their mean term of life is stated to be only from 30 to 35 years. Dumas states that they are compelled to avoid alcoholic drinks, and live principally upcn leguminous vegeta- ! bles, with plenty of butter, taking very little ! meat, and that very fat; and to each man two ; small glasses of olive oil are administered daily. In removing the acid from the chambers the workmen are completely enveloped in a dress and helmet of leather, the latter furnished with j glass eyes. The passage for the air is protected I with a wet sponge, by which it is filtered as it : passes to the mouth and nostrils. Arsenious j acid is also found native, crystallized in octahe- I drons and capillary forms, at Andreasberg, in ! the Hartz, and at mines in Hungary and Bohe- | mia. Combined with iron and sulphur, it forms the common ore of arsenic, called arsenical i iron, or mispickel, which is of frequent occur rence in veins of iron pyrites, and of copper,, lead, silver, zinc, cobalt, nickel, and tin ores. This ore is found in many localities in Connec ticut and New Hampshire particularly, but is 770 ARSENIC not rare in any of the New England states, or wherever p yritous ores are found along the range of the primary rocks of the Appalachian chain. The acid is also found in tl* ashes of many plants ; in certain soils and mineral waters ; and Orfila has detected it in the earth of grave yards. Its diffusion in minute quantities is very remarkable. The uses of arsenious acid are principally in medicinal preparations, such as Fowler s solution, the basis of which is the arsenite of potash ; or it may be given in sub stance in the dose of T V of a grain, combined with something to increase its bulk. Exter nally, arsenious acid is used as a caustic and forms the important ingredient in many " can cer cures." It is, however, a very painful ap plication, and in the large majority of cases this method of removing tumors possesses no advantage over the knife. It may be absorbed from the surface to which it is applied, and give rise to the usual symptoms of arsenical poisoning. Internally, it is used chiefly in skin diseases, and in malarial fevers or the cachexia arising therefrom. In these affections it dis plays decided efficacy. It is also used occasion ally in other diseases as a tonic. The symptoms which denote that its use has been carried suf ficiently far are a peculiar swell ing and stiffness of the face and eyes, and some irritation of the digestive apparatus. The statements of Von Tschudi in regard to the habitual use of arsenic by the peasants of Styria, formerly regarded as unworthy of credit, have been confirmed by subsequent observers. Dr. C. Maclagan has published in the "Edinburgh Medical Journal " for September, 1864, an account of two cases, in one of which between four and five grains, and in the other six grains of white arsenic were taken in his presence. The urine passed by each of these men after taking the dose was analyzed, and found to contain the drug. They stated that they took a dose once or twice a week, and one of them said that the good effects lasted for eight days. They were both healthy. It is said to be given to horses to improve their wind and the smoothness of their coats. Ar senic is sometimes chosen for criminal poisoning on account of its taste! essness. Its symptoms in the majority of cases, however, are tolerably characteristic, and it is almost sure to be de tected by proper chemical tests. The symp toms and post-mortem appearances observed in the majority of fatal or severe cases are those of the most violent gastro-intestinal irritation, with proportionate depression of the circula tion, intense burning pain of the stomach, ob stinate vomiting, and extreme depression. In a few cases, however, death takes place rapidly by collapse, and there are no characteristic post-mortem appearances. When a poisonous dose of arsenic has been swallowed, recourse should be had to emetics or the stomach pump, unless vomiting takes place spontaneously. Demulcent drinks may be given until the proper antidote can be procured. This is the hydrated sesquioxide of iron, which should be *. ARSINOE kept at hand in the moist condition by every apothecary. The materials for making a fresh supply, namely, a solution of some persalt of iron, for instance the persulphate or the tinc ture of the chloride, "and water of ammonia, should also be ready, since the oxide is most efficacious when freshly prepared. The two solutions should be mixed, and the resulting precipitate, after being rapidly filtered and washed, administered in the form of a paste. Recently precipitated magnesia has been pro posed as an antidote. A mixture of chalk and castor oil is said to mechanically envelop the particles of arsenic and render them harmless. The effect of the peroxide of iron in neutraliz ing the action of arsenious and arsenic acids is seen in the harmless nature of the chalybeate waters of Wattwiller in Alsace, in which ar senic was found by Lassaigne to the amount of 2 8 per cent. A milder grade of poisoning has resulted from the use of arsenical salts as pigments on wall paper or articles of millinery. ARSINOE. I. A concubine of Philip, the son of Amyntas, who became the wife of Lagus, a Macedonian general, antl the mother of Ptol emy L, king of Egypt. She was said to have been pregnant at the time of her marriage, and her son Ptolemy was generally regarded as the brother of Alexander. II. A daughter of Ptolemy L, king of Egypt, was married to Lysimachus, king of Thrace, who had cast off his former wife Amastris that he might espouse her. Arsinoe, being determined to secure the Thracian sceptre for her own issue, caused her stepson Agathocles, the son of Macris, to be put to death. Lysandra, the widow of Agatho cles, fled to Syria with her children, and im plored Seleucus to avenge the murder of her husband. A war ensued between the Thracian and Syrian monarchs, in which Lysimachus lost his life (281 B. 0.). After this catastrophe Arsinoe sought refuge in Cassandria, a city of Macedonia, where, with her sons by Lysimachus, she remained in security for some time. But Ptolemy Ceraunus, having in 280 assassinated Seleucus and seized the crown of Macedonia, desired to gain Cassandria and get the heirs of Lysimachus into his power; he made an offer of his hand to Arsinoe, who accepted it. No sooner, however, did Ceraunus find himself in possession of the city than he caused the children of Lysimachus to be slain in the pres ence of their mother. Arsinoe now fled from Cassandria to Samothrace, whence she pro ceeded to Egypt. Here she was kindly re ceived by her brother Ptolemy Philadelphus, the king, who speedily made her his queen. III. A daughter of Ptolemy Eucrgetes, wife of her brother Philopator, whom she accompanied to the war against Antiochus the Great in 217 B. C. Some years later a courtier named Phil- ammon put her to death by order of the king ; but her murder was subsequently avenged by her friends, who killed Philammon and all his family. She was the mother of Ptolemy Epi- phanes by Philopator. IV. A daughter ct ARSINOE Ptolemy Auletes, was proclaimed queen by the Alexandrians after her brother Ptolemy Dionysius had become prisoner to Caesar (47 B. CJ. She subsequently, however, fell into the hands of the conqueror, was carried to Rome, and served to adorn his triumph (46). Her deportment excited the sympathy of the Roman people, and Csesar permitted her to re turn to Egypt. In 41 Antony, at the instiga tion of her sister Cleopatra, had her taken from the temple of Diana at Miletus, whither she had fled for refuge, and put to death. ARSINGE. I. An ancient city of Egypt, cap ital of the nome or district of Arsinoitis, W. of the Nile, and not far from Lake Mceris. Ptolemy Philadelphus gave it that name in honor of his favorite sister and queen Arsinoe. Originally, however, it was called Crocodilo- polis by the Greeks, because the crocodile there received divine honors from the Egyp tians. The ruins of the city may be seen in the vicinity of the modern Medinet el-Fayoom. II* An ancient city of Egypt, capital of the Heroopolite nome, at the N.W. extremity of the Red sea, near the site of the present town of Suez. Ptolemy Philadelphus considerably en larged and improved it, and gave it its name. Arsinoe was connected with the Nile by the Ptolemgean canal, and was long the great east ern emporium of Egypt. Its revenues belonged to Queen Arsinoe and her successors. ARSON (Lat. ardere, to burn), at common law, the wilful and malicious burning of another s house. House is to be understood in general to mean a dwelling house, and it included at common law all the outhouses that belonged to the dwelling, even though they were not under the same roof or joined to it, as barns and stables containing hay or corn of the owner of the house ; and anciently even the ; burning of a stack of corn was arson. The | offence was for a long time and until very lately punished by the English and American law with death. The law on the subject is not ! now so simple as it once was ; for malicious ! burnings not merely of dwellings, but of ! churches, warehouses, public buildings, vessels, \ crops, and many other kinds of property are j now made the subjects of express statutory provisions, and usually named arsons ; and the subdivisions of the subject are very minute, and the character of the different offences in i the different cases is very nicely distinguished. Arson is still used as a word of description, but the statutes do not always employ it ; and in- I deed many of the offences which they refer to were not arsons at common law at all. The English law as to malicious burnings of all sorts of property has been revised and consolidated ! in the single act of 24 and 25 Victoria, ch. i 97 (1861). It provides that the unlawful and ; malicious setting fire to any dwelling house, i any person being therein, is a felony. It pun ishes also the burning of churches or other places of divine worship, warehouses, out houses, farm buildings, or any building used in ARSON 771 | carrying on trade or manufacture ; crops of hay, j grass, corn, or grain, or any vegetable produce, whether cut or standing; woods, coppices, heath, gorse, or furze ; stacks of corn, grain, or hay; turf, peat, charcoal, coal mines, and I other kinds of property; and the penalty in almost all these cases is penal servitude for life | or for not less than live years, or imprisonment for any term not exceeding two years, with or j without hard labor. The statutes in the United ; States include not only the burning of dwell- | ing. houses, but also the burning of jails, state ! houses, court houses, school houses^ and other ; public buildings, outhouses and edifices of all descriptions, and in some of the states ships and water craft of all kinds. In many of the states recent statutes of this character also pro vide for cases of burning or setting fire to buildings with the intent to defraud insurers. In Louisiana and Maine burning a dwelling house may be punished with death ; but gen- I erally that penalty has been abolished, impris onment for life or for a shorter term being sub stituted in its place. The statutes of two or ! three of the states will fairly represent the | condition of the American law on the subject. j In Maine any person who sets fire to the dwell- ! ing house of another, or to any building adjoin- | ing thereto, or to any building owned by him- I self or another, with the intent to burn such | dwelling house, and it is thereby burned in the 1 night time, shall be punished with death. But if the accused proves to the jury that there ! was no person lawfully in the dwelling house | at the time, or if the offence was committed in the day time, the punishment shall be in?- I prisonment for life. The statute of California j provides that every person who shall wilfully ! and maliciously burn or cause to be burned in i the night time any dwelling house in which there shall be at the time any human being, is guilty of arson in the first degree. Such burn ing of any dwelling house the property of an other, in the day time, or such burning either in the day or night of any office, shop, barn, stable, warehouse, stack of grain, or standing crop, the property of any other person, or of any church, school house, state house, or any other public building, or any ship, of the value in any case of $50, is arson in the second de gree, and is punishable by imprisonment for not more than ten years and not less than one. If any life is lost in consequence of any such burning, the offender is guilt} 7 of murder. Any jail or other edifice usually occupied by per sons lodging there at night is deemed the dwelling house of such persons. In Massa chusetts the statute enacts that if any person wilfully and maliciously burns the dwelling house of another, or any building adjoining such dwelling house, or sets fire to any build ing by the burning whereof such dwelling house is burned, he shall suffer imprisonment for life; and the same punishment is inflicted on such burning of certain other buildings and of barns and the like structures within the 772 ARS-SUR-MOSELLE ARTABAZUS curtilage of a dwelling house, if it is done in the liight. If the commission of arson causes the death of any person, the penalty is death ; but without that, it is imprisonment from seven to ten years. In New York, arson in the first degree consists in wilfully setting fire to or burning in the night time a dwelling house in which there shall be at the time some human being; and every house, prison, jail, or other edifice which shall have been usually occupied by persons lodging therein at night shall be deemed a dwelling house. The punishment is imprisonment for life at hard labor. No ware house, barn, or other outhouse is to be deemed a dwelling house unless it is actually part of one. Arson in the second degree is such burn ing in the day time of a dwelling house as would be arson in the first degree if done in the night ; or the burning in the night time of any building not the subject of arson in the first degree, adjoining to or within the curti lage of a dwelling house, so that such dwelling is endangered. If a man set fire to a house in the execution of a wicked design to do some other unlawful act as for example, if, in the burning of his own house to defraud an in surance company, he burns another s he is guilty of arson. If one sets fire to a hay stack situated so near the house of another that it is likely to carry the fire to that, and it does in fact, he is also guilty. When the house burnt is said to be another s, it is not meant that it shall be the absolute property of another, but only another s house or dwelling for the purpose of habitation or occupation, and a special prop erty is ordinarily sufficient. As to dwelling houses, it has been held that a building design ed for that purpose, but not yet finished and never yet occupied, is not a house of which arson may be committed at common law ; and the same doctrine was held in the case of a building erected for a dwelling house, but which was not occupied as such at the time of the burning, and had not been for ten months previously. As to the burning, it is not essential to the offence that the house should be entirely consumed. It is enough if the fire takes effect so as to burn, that is, de stroy by. fire, in any degree. ARS-SUR-MOSELLE, a town in Alsace-Lor raine, administrative division of Lorraine, for merly belonging to the French department of Moselle, 5 m. S. W. of Metz, at the junction of the Mance with the Moselle; pop. in 1871, 5,330. In and near the town are important iron mines, iron forges, and paper mills. Dur ing the investment of Metz by the Germans in 1870, Ars had great strategical importance, as the railway from Nancy to Metz here crosses the Moselle ; it was therefore selected as one of the principal depots of provisions for the army of Prince Frederick Charles. ARTA (anc. Ambracid), a town at the south ern extremity of Albania, Turkey, near the northern boundary of Greece, on the left bank of the river Arta, and 7 m. N. of the gulf of the same name ; pop. about 7,000. It is in the pashalic of Janina, under a bey appointed by the pasha. Woollens, cotton cloth, Russia leather, and clothing are the principal manu factures. Remains of ancient Greek fortifica tions extend along the river on one side of the town, and portions of them were used in build ing the castle which is near them. There are also, in another quarter, ruins of two convents, one built by the empress Theodosia in the 9th century, the other of later construction. The river is crossed, opposite the town, by a re markable bridge 200 yards long, built by the Venetians ; it rises rapidly from the low banks to a central point 100 feet above the river. In 1821, during the war of Grecian indepen dence, Arta was besieged and partly occupied by Marco Bozzaris, and was reduced almost to ruins. Before this it was a city of consider able beauty and prosperity, but it has never since recovered, and is now a place of small importance. (See AMBEACIA.) ARTABANUS, a native of Hyrcania, command er of the bodyguard of Xerxes, whom he assas sinated 465 B. C. He persuaded one of the king s sons, Artaxerxes, to kill another, Darius, and then attempted to murder the survivor that he might seize the throne himself. He failed in this attempt and was slain. ARTABAZUS. I. A Persian general, son of Pharnaces, lived in the reign of Xerxes I. He commanded the Parthians and Chorasmians in the expedition of Xerxes against Greece, 480 B. C., and returned to Pallene after the king had recrossed the Hellespont, to punish certain cities which had revolted after the battle of Salamis. He besieged and took Olynthus, killed the inhabitants, and gave their city to Chalcidians. He next laid siege to Potidrea, the walls of which were washed on one side by the sea. The water having for a time receded, however, he marched his troops upon the sand thus left bare between the ocean and the fortifications, and the town seemed lost ; when suddenly an unusually high tide overwhelmed nearly all his army, while the Potidasans by a sally defeated the re mainder. With the few troops remaining, Artabazus joined Mardonius in Thessaly. He endeavored in vain to dissuade that leader from attempting the battle of Platsea (479 B. C.), and after his defeat led the retreat of 40,000 men from the field. With a remnant of these he reached Asia after many difficulties. II. A Persian general in the reigns of Artaxerxes II., Artaxerxes III., and Darius Codomannus. In 362 B. C. he was sent by the first-named king against the rebellious satrap of Cappadocia, Datames, but was defeated by him. Arta xerxes III. made Artabazus satrap of western Asia, but he soon revolted, and, aided by Greek and ^Theban mercenaries, defeated in two battles the armies sent by the king to punish him. Losing the aid of his allies, how ever, by the successful schemes of his enemies, he was at last defeated and taken prisoner, ARTAXATA ARTEMISIA 773 but liberated by the exertions of his brothers- in-law, Mentor and Memnon. Unsuccessful in another attempt at rebellion, he was compelled to take refuge with Philip of Macedon. But Mentor, who had joined the side of the king and had been of great assistance in the war against Egypt, secured his pardon about 3-49. He now returned to Persia, and afterward, in the reign of Darius Codomannus, occupied sev eral positions of trust. His daughters married Alexander, Ptolemy, and Eumenes. He re signed his satrapy in 328. ARTAXATA (Arm. Ardashad), an ancient city on the Araxes, capital of Armenia, 68 m. S. S. E. of Erivan. It was built under the direction of Hannibal while a refugee at the court of Artaxias, after whom it was named. In A. D. 58 it was destroyed with fire by the Roman general Corbulo, but rebuilt by Tiridates, who called it Xeronia. In 370 it was taken by the Persians, who partially destroyed it and carried into captivity most of its inhabitants. In 450 a famous council was held here, at which the patriarch Joseph presided. ARTAXERXES, or Artoxcrxcs (in the Hebrew Scriptures Arta hshashta or Arta hshasta), the name of three kings of ancient Persia, signify ing, according to Herodotus, " great warrior." I. Surnamed Longimanus, was the third son of Xerxes L, and was brought to the Persian throne by the assassination of his father and elder brother Darius (see ABTABANUB) in 465 B. C., and died in 425. Troubles in Bactria, excited by his elder brother Hystaspes, first engaged his attention. Meanwhile Egypt, aided by the Athenians, revolted under Inarus against the Persian yoke. Artaxerxes at length com pelled the Athenians to evacuate Egypt, but they continued to struggle on their own account under Cimon, until on the death of the latter (449), Artaxerxes was forced to make a disad vantageous peace. He was succeeded by his son Xerxes II. II. Surnamed Mnemon on ac count of his good memory, succeeded his father Darius II. in 405 or 404 B. C., died about 359. He is chiefly known in history from his contest with his younger brother Cyrus (see CYEUS THE YorxGEE), after whose bloody end in the battle o Cunaxa (401) he was left in quiet pos session of the Persian throne. The Lacede monians had meanwhile given evidence of a design to take advantage of the Persian com plications to attack the empire in the moment of its weakness ; and now that the critical time was over, Artaxerxes avenged himself by a successful war against them, which hasten ed the decline of the Spartan power. Sparta having consented to the humiliating peace of Antalcidas (387), Artaxerxes prosecuted a war against Evagoras of Cyprus, and subsequent ly against the Cadusii on the shores of the Cas pian sea, rendering them tributary ; he then turned his forces against revolted Egypt, but failed through the unskilful management of his general, Pharnabazus, and 12 years later re newed the attempt with the same result. He put to death his eldest son, having detected him in a conspiracy, and was succeeded by his third son Ochus. III. Ochus, on his accession, assumed the name of Artaxerxes. The princi pal events of his reign (about 359-338), which was stained by cruelty, were the quelling of a revolt raised by Artabazus, the resubjugation of Egypt, and the pacification of Phoenicia and Cyprus. He was poisoned by his favored eu nuch Bagoas. Besides these, Ardeshir, the founder of the Sassariide dynasty, is called by ancient historians Artaxerxes. ARTEMIDORIS OF EPHESIS, a Greek geog rapher, flourished at the end of the 2d and the beginning of the 1st century B. C. He is said to have travelled in Spain and Gaul, and to have made voyages in the Euxine, the Medi terranean, the Red sea, and the Indian ocean, with the object of correcting the errors which former geographers had fallen into in describ ing them. The result of his travels and obser vations consisted originally of 11 books. All of these have perished, save the fragments (collected by Hudson) which Strabo, Marcian, and other ancient writers have preserved. ARTEMIS. See DIANA. ARTEMISIA. I. A queen of Halicarnassus, in Caria, who, as a vassal of the Persian crown, joined the expedition of that monarch against Greece with a squadron of five ships, and shone by her valor and prudence in the battle of Salamis (480 B. C.). According to a doubtful tradition, she became enamored of a youth of Abydos named Dardanus, who did not reciprocate her affection, whereupon she had his eyes put out. Afterward regretting her cruelty, she consulted an oracle as to how she should make atonement, and in obedience to the mandate of the divinity cast herself into the sea from the Leucadian rock. II. The sister, wife, and successor of Mausolus, king of Caria, celebrated for the excessive grief which she manifested at his loss (352 B. C.). She employed the most eloquent rhetori cians of Greece to pronounce panegyrics in his honor, and raised a monument to his mem ory at Halicarnassus, which was considered one of the seven wonders of the world, and from which the now general term mausoleum is derived. She survived him about two years. ARTEMISIA, a genus of plants of the order composite^, noted for bitter, tonic, or aro matic properties. A. absinthium, or worm wood, is a perennial plant with woody stems in clusters two or three feet high, with long- petioled, irregularly pinnatifid, silvery leaves, and small, clustered, inconspicuous flowers. Its common name is derived from its virtues as an anthelmintlc. A. abrotanum, or southern wood, is cultivated in gardens for its aromatic foliage, and much used in Europe in beer mak ing. A. dracunculus, or tarragon, a native of Siberia, is used in pickles for flavoring. A. Chinensis or moxa produces a woolly sub stance on the stems and leaves which is used by the Chinese and Japanese as a moxa by 774 ARTEMISIUM ARTESIAN WELLS burning it upon parts of the body affected with gout or rheumatism. A. Ludoviciana is the common sage bush of the American plains, and is a low irregular shrub, with thick, crooked stems, growing in dry alkaline soils, which un less irrigated will produce little else. Its strong odor may be noticed at some distance away. With greasewood it serves as the principal if not the only fuel on the plains. All artemisias are easily propagated by seeds or divisions of the roots. ARTEMISIUM, properly a temple of Artemis (Diana), the name of several places in ancient geography. The most important of them was the promontory on the N. coast of Eubcea, off which the Greek ships fought with the fleet of Xerxes, almost simultaneously with the battle of Thermopyla3, in 480 B. C. The success achieved here by the Greeks was soon followed by the great victory at Salamis. ARTERY (Gr. aprqpia, from a^p, air, and rripeiv, to keep), a blood vessel conveying the blood outward from the heart to the organs ; so called because the ancients supposed these vessels to contain u spirits " or air. An artery is distin guished from other blood vessels mainly by the thickness and elasticity of its walls. When cut open, therefore, in the dead body, after most of the blood has collected in the great veins and internal organs, the artery does not col lapse as a vein would, but stands open, allow ing the air to pass into its cavity. It was this circumstance which led the old anatomists to believe that the arteries also contained air during life. They supposed that the air, pene trating the lungs at the moment of inspiration, was partly received by the left ventricle of the heart, and thence distributed by the arteries throughout the body, while the blood was sent out If om the right ventricle by the veins. It was not until Galen, in the 2d century, opened the arteries, with some experimental precau tions, in the living animal, that it became known that these vessels during life served as conduits for blood and riot for air. An artery is composed of three coats, the internal or serous, the middle or fibrous, and the ex ternal or cellular. The external coat is the most resisting of the three, and prevents the vessel, under ordinary circumstances, from being distended beyond a certain point. The middle coat is distensible; but, owing to the peculiar nature of the fibres which constitute its substance, it also has the power of elastic re action, and in the smaller arteries that of mus cular contractility. In the larger and medium- sized arteries, the elasticity of their walls re acts upon the blood during the intervals of the heart s pulsation and urges it onward toward the periphery: so that the current of blood in this part of the circulation, though pulsating in character, is yet continuous, or nearly so, and merely increases in velocity with every pulsa tion of the heart, and diminishes, without ceas ing altogether, in the intervals. In the smaller arteries, the muscular fibres of the middle coat, under the varying influence of the nervous sys tem, contract or relax at certain periods ; thus increasing or diminishing the resistance of the vessels to the flow of blood, and causing local variations in the circulation of particular parts. When an artery is wounded the blood escapes in jets, coming with greater force at the instant of each pulsation of the heart ; and it can be distinguished by this feature from hasmorrhage from the veins, in which the blood escapes in a comparatively feeble but continuous stream. If the wounded artery be of considerable size, it requires to be secured by a ligature in order to stop the flow of blood. ARTESIAN WELLS, small holes sunk in the earth, through which currents of water, struck at great depths, rise toward the surface, and sometimes flow over ; so named from the prov ince of Artois in France (Lat. Artesium), in which they have for a long time been in use. Water thus pressed up must have its source in some more elevated lands, and be confined in the strata of rock through which it has percolated ; precisely as water is conveyed in pipes below the surface, and pressed up An Artesian "Well. into buildings to a height nearly equal to that at which the pipes commence. Water finds its way down into the earth by flowing into the crevices and chasms of the rocks, and by per colating through the porous strata. In a region of limestone rocks it hollows out for itself its own bed, by dissolving the limestone, and even in this way produces great caves. When forced by the pressure behind, the water is pushed up through any apertures it meets and flows out as a spring or artesian well. There are three conditions essential to the successful boring of an artesian well: 1. A fountain head more elevated than the locality where the boring is to be undertaken. 2. A moderate downward dip of the strata toward the site of the well ; a steep or high angle of inclination of dip is unfavorable, as the water is apt to flow away beyond the reach of the boring, which must needs pass at an acute angle through few layers of rock. 3. Alternations of porous and impervious strata beneath the surface soil. It is sometimes the case that the head of water is at so high an elevation, that the column bursts forth from the ground as a fountain, ARTESIAN WELLS 775 throwing up a continual jet. The principle is precisely that of our artificial fountains. By raising the water above the surface in a pipe, and letting it flow over, convenient water power is obtained ; artesian wells are applied to this purpose at many localities in France, the water they supply being found sufficient to run heavy machinery. From the great depth at which the currents of water are reached, their supplies may be regarded as permanent. A well at Aire in Artois, France, which was bored over a celitnry ago, has since then flow ed steadily, the water rising 11 ft. above the surface at the rate of 250 gallons a minute; and at Lillers (Pas-de-Calais) one well has flowed steadily since the year 1126. In the vicinity of London it is observed that the height to which the water rises diminishes as the number of wells is increased. In 1838 the supply of water from them was estimated at 6,000,000 gallons daily, and in 1851 at nearly double the amount, and the average annual fall of the height of the water is about 2 ft. But in cases of single wells, the supply of water or the height to which it rises is seldom known to vary. From their depth, also, the water brought up is warmer than that found near the surface. This increase of temperature with the depth takes place at different rates in different places. At Paris, where the mean temperature at the surface is 51 F., the water of the ar tesian well of Grenelle is 82 from a depth of 1,797 ft,, which is about 1 for every 58 ft. deep. At St. Louis, the temperature of the water at 1,515 ft, is 18 18 F. higher than the mean temperature at the surface, making the increase 1 for every 83 -3. ft, descent. At Charleston, S. C., the temperature of the water at the surface is 68 F. ; at 500 ft. it is 73 5 ; at 1,000 ft., 84; and at 1,106 ft,, 88. The average rate of increase is about 1 for every 524- ft., as stated by Prof. Hume of the state military academy. The hot springs that flow out to the surface in many parts of the world are natural artesian wells rising from great depths. In Virginia these springs are found along the lines of great faults or breaks in the stratifica tion of the rocks, by which formations usually separated by thousands of feet are brought into contact with each other. Warm waters obtained by artesian wells have been applied to useful purposes connected with manufactur ing. They are especially valuable where pure w r ater of a uniformly warm temperature is required. In Wiirtemberg large manufactories ire warmed by the water being sent through .them in metallic pipes; a constant temperature of 47 is thus maintained when the tempera ture without is at zero. Hospitals and green houses are also kept warm in the same manner. The strata of clays, sands, and limestones, which form the tertiary basins of London and Paris, are particularly well arranged for fur nishing water by artesian wells. Covering areas of many square miles, the slope of the strata is toward the centre of the basin, and | here, at the depth to which these reach, the j waters must collect in large quantities. The I strata, moreover, are not difficult to penetrate ; by boring. In these basins are concentrated i the greatest number and the most expensive of | these wells. The famous Grenelle well in the ! Paris basin was commenced in 1833, with the i expectation of obtaining water at 1,200 or ! 1,500 ft., in the secondary greensand forma- | tion, which underlies the chalk, the uppermost member of this series. For the first 50 ft. the bore was 12 in., which was then reduced to 9 i in. for the next 1,050 ft, ; a second reduction to ! 7l in. was made till the depth of 1,300 ft. was j reached, where there was a final decrease to | 6 in. At 1,500 ft. the government would have | abandoned the enterprise but for the urgent j appeals of M. Arago. It was continued till, on Feb. 26, 1841, at the depth of 1,797 ft., the boring rod suddenly penetrated the arch of rock over the subterranean waters, and fell 14 ft. In a few hours the water rose to the sur face in an immense volume and with great violence, bringing up sand and mud. To check I the supply a vertical pipe was raised many feet into the air, in which the water rises and flows over. The water is perfectly limpid, and flows at the rate of 500,000 gallons in 24 hours. It I is used for warming the hospitals at Grenelle, j as its temperature is uniformly 82 F. A well very similar to that at Grenelle, though of in creased diameter, was begun at Passy, two miles distant, in September, 1854, and finished , Sept, 24, 1861. The boring began at a height j above the sea of 305 2 ft., and that at Grenelle at 121-3 ft. ; the depth is 1,923 ft., and diame ter within the tube 2 4 ft. The flow from this well began slowly, but on Sept. 27 had reached over 5,500,000 gallons per day. The yield at the mouth was greatly decreased when raised through a tube 25 ft. high; a like result fol lowed at Grenelle, where the yield was 440 gallons per minute at the surface, but de- | creased to 185 gallons when forced through a i tube 33 ft. high. That these two wells, though | two miles apart, drew their supply from the same source, is evident both from their tem- ! perature, 82 C F. in each, and from the fact that I the opening of the Passy well reduced the flow at Grenelle from 135 to 100 gallons per minute, ! though it is anticipated that by forcing the | water at Passy through a still higher tube the I yield at Grenelle may be increased. This de pendence of several wells upon one source is ! shown also in the Pennsylvania oil region, i where the water from one well, when not | pumped out, often finds an exit through the j tubes of those adjoining. The work on both the above-mentioned wells was much delayed by accidents. Wlien that at Grenelle was at a depth of 1.254ft., the drill broke off and fell i with 270 ft. of rods to the bottom; 15 months I were spent in breaking these and removing ! the pieces. The tubing in the Passy well was | also burst by the external pressure of sand and i water, and had to be removed and new tubes 7G ARTESIAN WELLS hiserted, retarding the work for many months. At Kissingen, Bavaria, there is a well 1,878 ft. deep, the last 138 ft. of which passes through rock salt. The water, which flows from it at the rate of 100 cubic feet a minute, contains 3 per cent, of salt; its temperature is 60 F., and the whole cost of boring was about $33,000. Artesian wells are of peculiar value upon desert plains, and those vast prairies that rest upon porous limestone formations, through which the surface water finds its way and is lost. In May, 1858, M. Jus, a French engineer, commenced boring for water in the desert of Sahara, and on June 19 a well was sunk, from which there flowed a steady stream of pure water, having a temperature of 61 F., at the rate of 1,000 gallons per minute. Up to the present time (1872) over 75 wells have been bored in that desert, yielding an aggregate of 600,000 gallons an hour. The effect of this abundant supply of water upon the once bar ren soil ,of the desert is plainly apparent ; two new villages have been built in the midst of former solitudes, 150,000 palm trees have been planted in more than 1,000 new gardens; the oases of Tamelhat, Oum Tliior, and Shegga have each their wells yielding from 25 to 1,000 gallons per minute. A promising feature in these wells is that water is reached at a com paratively slight depth, the one in the oasis of Sidi Nached being hardly 200 ft. deep. There is also a well at Bourne, England, which, though but 92 ft. deep, yields 557,000 gallons of pure water per day, and the pressure is suf ficient to supply the town and force a stream above the highest roofs. The proprietors of the Continental hotel, Philadelphia, have late ly completed a well, 8 inches in diameter and only 200 ft. deep, which supplies them with 50,000 gallons of pure water per day. The success attending the work of the French en gineers in Africa is one of great promise to those who would undertake the irrigation of the rich plains of the Colorado desert ; and al ready a well bored by direction of the Pacific railway company at Point of Rocks, 805 m. W. of Denver, in the midst of the alkali dis trict, furnishes abundant water for the engines on that road, the water rising to within 11 ft. of the surface. In 1855 the United States gov ernment sent out an expedition, under com mand of Capt. Pope, for the purpose of boring for water in the Llano Estacado, near the bor ders of Texas and Xew Mexico. The first well was sunk at a point 15 m. due E. of the river Pecos, on the 32d parallel of latitude. At the deptli of 360 ft. the first stream of water was struck, which rose to the height of 70 ft. in the tubing ; at 641 ft. a second stream was struck, which rose 400 ft. Five miles E. of this point a second well was bored to the depth of 860 ft., in which the water rose 750 ft. Of the artesian wells in the United States, those at St. Louis, Louisville, and Charleston are among the most important, both from their extreme depth and the difficulties attending the sink ing. The well at St. Louis was completed at the expense and under the direct supervision of William II. Belcher of that city. An inter esting account of its progress is given by A. Litton, M. 1)., in the "Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis," vol. i., No. 1, 1857. The boring of this well was begun from the bottom of an open well 30 ft. deep in the spring of 1849. The bore to the depth of 219 ft. was 9 in. in diameter, then 5^- in. for 731 ft. further, and continued at 3^ in. till the full depth, 2,199 ft,, was reached.. At 550 ft., the top of a limestone layer, the water became salty ; 200 ft. below this, in a layer of shale, it contained 1|- per cent, of salt; and at 965 ft., below a bed of bituminous marl, 2 per cent. At the depth of 1,179 ft. the hardest rock was encountered, being a bed of chert 62 ft. thick. The work was stopped on March 12, 1854, in silicious and clayey beds belonging to the lower Silurian formation. The water is at present discharged through a 20-inch pipe at the rate of 75 gallons per minute ; it is only fit for medicinal purposes, having a strong odor of sulphuretted hydrogen, and containing over 8 per cent, of mineral matter, including 6 per cent, of salt ; its temperature is even at 73 4 4 F. The total cost of this work exceeded $10,000. The well at Louisville, Ky., has a 3-inch bore, and is 2,086 ft. deep. The water flows from it at the rate of 330,000 gallons per day, and with a force equal to 10-horse power. It is perfectly clear, though highly charged with mineral substances, being similar in composi tion and medical properties to the celebrated- Kissingen waters, and the Blue Licks of Ken tucky. Of all the wells sunk in the United States, none is so remarkable for the difficul ties encountered and successfully overcome as that at Charleston, S. C. Since 1824 five at tempts have been made by the city govern-, ment to obtain good water by this means. In 1848 the last operation was commenced under the direction of Maj. Welton. The strata first penetrated were alluvial sands, saturated with water, which caused them to rim as quicksand. These were shut out by cast-iron tubing of 6 in. diameter, which penetrated the clays and marls of the postpliocene formation, and finally reached the depth of 230 ft., where it rested upon a rock of the eocene formation. From this point down alternations of hard rock and loose sands were met with, the latter causing the same trouble as those above, run ning in and filling the well, sometimes even to the height of 140 ft. up from the bottom in a single night. When it was found impossible to draw out the sands from these beds, the plan was adopted of shutting them out by tubing. The bore of the lower part, being first enlarged from 3^ to 5^ in., was lined with sheet-iron tubes to the depth of 700 ft. Sand flowing in at 1,020 ft. rendered it necessary to take out the tin tubing, and replace it with heavier tubes of 4 in. diameter and f in. thick, which screwed one upon another; this was ARTESIAN WELLS 77 done to the depth of 1,102 ft. The sinking was extended, of 3-inch bore, to 1,250 ft., the last strata being sandstones, sand, and marls, probably of the cretaceous formation. The dis charge, 10 ft. above the surface, is about 1,200 gallons an hour. The water is saline, and dis agreeable to the taste, but soft. Its tempera ture is 87. In Onarga, Iroquois county, 111., 85 m. S. of Chicago, there are artesian wells that deserve especial notice, both because of their number (over 200 within a radius of 20 m.), and from the fact that they are all flowing wells, though the average depth does not ex ceed 70 ft. They are sunk with an auger 6 in. in diameter, and the water vein, a bed of white sand, is reached after boring through 5 ft. of surface soil. 10 to 20 ft. of common sand, 15 to 20 ft, of blue clay, and 20 to 30 ft. of hardpnn, a mixture of clay and gravel. The flow, which rises several feet above the sur face, varies in amount from 20 to 120 gallons per minute. It has been estimated that the daily yield from these wells is 53,400,000 gal lons. It is a fact worthy of note that the district in which they are located is at a level of 92 ft, above that of Lake Michigan, and that the nearest probable fountain head is at least 200 m. distant. This dependence upon a distant source of supply is also demonstrated by the famous Chicago wells. One of these has a surface diameter of 5 in., which is re duced to 4i on nearing the bottom, at a depth of 711 ft. The other is 5 in. in diameter from top to bottom ; the first 42 ft. are lined with an iron tube, which projects 22 ft. above the surface ; from this level the water flows at the rate of 432,000 gallons per day, and with a resisting power of from 600 to 800 Ibs. The site of both wells is 82 ft, above the level of the lake, and the general character of the sur rounding country is flat; whence it is conjec tured that they may be fed from the region of the Rock river, 100 m. distant. Though the geological structure of Manhattan island is exceedingly unfavorable, yet several artesian wells were sunk in the city of Xew York years ago by Mr. Levi Disbrow. One of the oldest and deepest of these wells is at the United States hotel, known when the well was sunk as Holt s, on Pearl, Fulton, and Water streets. The boring for the first 126 ft. was in stratified sands and blue clay alternating with river mud. At this depth the surface of the rock was struck under a bed of coarse gravel ; and below this the shaft was continued in the gneiss rock 500 ft. further. The upper 200 ft. of the well was bored 3 in. in diameter ; the remainder was 2i in. The water for a time was tolerably good, but soon became impreg nated with the salt river water, and at last unfit for use. At the corner of Bleecker street and Broadway a well was sunk 448 ft., of 7 in. bore the first 42 ft. through sands and gravel, and 406 ft. through the hard gneiss rock of the island. The water, as stated by Mr. Disbrow, rose within 30 ft. of the surface, to the amount of 120,000 gallons in 24 hours. At the dry dock, llth street, East river, the rock, met with at 130 ft., was penetrated 200 ft. further. Many other wells of this nature have been sunk in and near the city, but with no features of particular interest. In con sidering the methods of boring artesian wells, and examining the implements now used, it is interesting to note the similarity between these and those employed by inhabitants of China centuries ago. The missionary Imbert stated in 1827 that in the province of Ou-Tong-Kiao, in a district 10 leagues long and 4 wide, these wells may.be counted by "tens of thousands," sunk at very remote periods for the salt water and bituminous matters which they emit. These products are met with at the depth of nearly 1,800 ft., and some of the wells that had lost them have been carried down even to 3,000 ft. . From this enormous depth currents of carburetted hydrogen come up in such quan tity that it is used to furnish heat for evaporating the salt water. (The gas from the Pennsylva nia oil wells is often burned under the steam boilers.) Instead of using rods to sink their wells, the Chinese suspend the cutting drill, which is attached to a heavy metal rod 6 ft. long and 4 in. in diameter, by a rope or chain, which passes over a wheel. Around the drill is a cylindrical chamber, which by means of sim ple valves takes up and holds the broken frag ments. As the rope is raised and dropped, it gives by its torsion a turn to the drill, causing it to vary its position at each stroke. When the cylinder requires to be discharged, it is easily wound out by a windlass or horse-whim. The rope is protected from wear by knobs of wood attached to it at intervals. This principle has been successfully applied in Germany to sinking holes for ventilating mines; with large drills 18 in. in diameter a hole of this size has been carried down several hundred feet. The demand for improved methods of sinking these wells which the opening of the Pennsylvania oil region created, has resulted in the intro duction of many ingenious labor-saving ap pliances, though the attention of the oil men has been chiefly directed toward the devising of methods by which the boring tools may be safely and quickly removed in case of accident. A general description of the processes of 1 or- ing, tubing, and pumping, as practised in west ern Pennsylvania, may best serve to illustrate the latest advances made in the methods of sinking artesian wells. Directly over the site of the proposed well a wooden derrick or open tower is erected, 14 to 16 ft. square at the base and 30 to 60 ft. high, the four corner posts converging so as to form a square at the top 2 ft. in diameter, upon which rests a heavy framework for the reception of the pul ley over which the drill rope is to play. Near tbe bottom of the derrick, and in ninge with the band wheel from which the power is derived, is a shaft of timber 6 or 8 ft. long, and about 8 in. in diameter, mounted on journals, 778 ARTESIAN WELLS and similar in character to the common hoist ing windlass. Upon each end of this shaft is driven a large pulley called the bull wheel; between these, upon the main shaft, the drill rope, a cable of from 1J to If in. in diameter, is coiled, the outer end passing from it over the pulley on the top of the derrick, and attached to the drilling tools. When these are to be lowered or withdrawn, it is done by means of power applied to the bull wheel. In localities where the rock is some distance below the surface, it is customary to drive down, by the aid of a suitable weight and guide way, a heavy Boring TooL>. ictal pipe, called the drive pipe; this is usu- illy of cast iron, from 6 to 8 in. in diameter and an inch in thickness ; it is driven in sec tions of 10 ft,, and great care is needed that it be not bent or deflected, since it is to guide the drilling tools. The engine is so placed that its drive or balance wheel shall t>e from 20 to 25 ft. from the centre of the derrick, and at one half this distance is planted the sampson post, a heavy hewn timber from 12 to ! 15 in. square and 12 ft. high, the top of which i is fitted to receive the working beam. This working or walking beam transmits and ap plies the power to the drills ; it is of wood 8 or 10 in. square, and of such a length that I when balanced upon the sampson post one end j may stand directly over and connect, by means of a connecting rod, with a crank attached to | the shaft of the drive wheel ; by the revolu- j tion of this crank, which has a radius of about ! 20 in., a reciprocating movement is given to ! the further end of the working beam; on this is bolted an iron joint, to which may be at tached the temper screw when drilling, or the sucker rods when pumping. The drilling tools consist of centre bits, reamers, an auger stem, jar, and sinker bar, with a socket for attach ing this last to the drill rope. The centre bit is of 2tj-inch wrought iron, 3^ ft. long, and having a wedge-shaped cutting edge of steel, 3 to 4 in. on the face. The reamer, which follows this and serves to enlarge and trim out the hole, is very similar in shape, though about an inch broader on the face, which is also more blunt ; the average weight of each is about 75 Ibs. The auger stem, into which bits, reamers, and dislodging tools are screwed, is a wrought- iron bar about 20 ft. long. The sinker bar, a heavy rod of iron 10 ft. long, serves to in crease the Jforce of the blow ; it is separated from the auger stem by an ingenious contriv ance called a jar, consisting of two links or loops of iron or steel, which slide in upon each other when the drill strikes bottom, thus, by a quick blow upon the top of the auger stem, in creasing the effect of the fall ; and on the up ward movement the sudden jerk or jar serves to loosen the tools, in case they become wedged. When connected, these tools weigh from 800 to 1,600 Ibs., as the hardness of the rock re quires. The drill rope is attached to the work ing beam by means of a temper screw, sus pended from it and made fast to the rope by a screw clamp. This temper screw is about 3 ft. long, and is made with a coarse thread that works in a thin frame. At the lower end of this screw is a wheel, by which it is let down after each stroke, whereby the tension is regulated and the drill properly guided. The tools are lifted and dropped by the rocking motion of .the working beam, and lowered or withdrawn by aid of the bull wheel and shaft. The sediment and battered rock is removed by means of a sand pump, which is a heavy metal tube, slightly smaller than the well bore, and about 6 ft, long, with the lower end closed by a simple valve opening upward ; this is lowered and withdrawn by the drill rope, and the well- man by an examination of its contents is in formed of the progress and prospects of his work. The pump is used after each drilling of 6 to 1 2 in. The tubing of a well consists in driving down a heavy iron pipe in sections, the joints of which are flush both inside and out. At the lower end of the first section driven down is a simple ball- valve pump, the piston ARTESIAN WELLS 779 of which is connected with the working beam by jointed poles or metal rods. When it is desirable to exclude all water from above a given point, it is effected by binding around the tubing a leather bag of flax seed before Boring Tools in Operation Pennsylvania Oil Region. driving it down; the swelling of this closes the space between the main wall and the tube. The steam engines in use in western Pennsyl vania range from 6 to 20 horse power, one of 8 horse power being sufficient to bore a well 000 ft. deep. Artesian wells have been sunk, though very slowly, by the aid of two men and an old-fashioned spring pole. Among the accidents liable to occur in the bor ing of artesian wells, are the breaking of the drills, or their detachment from the auger stem, and the loss of the sand pump or the whole boring gear by the wearing away of the drill rope. At times the drill enters what is known as a mud vein, a thin stratum of mud or , uicksand, which often flows in so rapidly as to enclose and bury the drilling tools. There are many ingenious contrivances for the removal of these obstruc tions, and the forms of several of the less com plex are shown in the cut. Fig. 1 is designed chiefly for removing detached or broken pipe Simplest Boring Apparatus. u \ j or rods. It is lowered down the well bore until the rod passes up above the ends of the two arms, when by an upward movement the two catches, being pressed forward by springs. take hold of the rod and grasp it the more firmly the greater the resistance. Fig. 2 is ^ of service mainly in removing a detached drill or reamer; the shorter arm acts as a guide, while the hook at the end of the largei one passes below anc. takes hold of the low er edge of the drill. Figs. 3 and 5 are alsc designed for removing broken rods. In 3 the j rod passes through the metal cylinder, and is | prevented from fall- 1 ing back bv the drop- Tools for t*tcting Obstruc- ? -i -i " -p,. tions. I catch and spring. I ig. 5 consists of an angular claw placed at right angles to the rod by which it is lowered ; this is twisted under the shoulder of the rod, thus securing it as in a wrench. Fig. 4 is the ordinary lazy tongs, and is of very gen^ eral service, as its construction indicates. In addition to the contrivances above men tioned, the French engineers have introduced certain improved drills, pumps, &c. The drill invented by M. Goulet-Collet consists of I a cylinder of sheet iron 6 ft. long, suspended ; by a chain, and armed at its lower end with an j annular cutting head of steel, in which two I knives or chisels are inserted at right angles across the opening. These chisels serve to ci t the rock, which when finally divided rises with the water through the openings ; these may be provided with valves, the instrument thus serving the double purpose of drill and | pump. The method of Ix.ring by means of | the diamond drill is essentially different from | that described above. (See BOEIXG.) When I a well fails to yield a fair amount of oil or | water, an increase in the flow is often effected | by means of the Roberts torpedo. This is a j thin water-tight cylinder of metal or pper, 4 | to 6 ft. long and 2 or 3 in. in diameter, ! charged witli powder, guncotton, or nitro glycerine. It is lowered to the bottom of the | well, or to a depth that will bring it opposite I the desired stratum, and the well then flooded. | The charge is exploded by a cap or electric spark, and the explosion olten clears away the obstruction from the oil or water vein. Wells | yielding only 5 bbls. of oil per day have been | increased by this means to 75 or 100 bbls. - i Negative artesian wells are those which serve to convey away surface waters into some ab- | sorbing stratum. They are of service about j manufactories from which large quantities of V80 AftTEVELDE ARTHRITIS impure liquids are discharged, the flow of which upon the surface would prove a nuisance. ARTEVELDE. I. Jacob van, a citizen and pop ular leader of Ghent, and for a time almost ruler of Flanders, born about 1300, killed in a popu lar insurrection, July 17, 1345. He was of noble family, but caused himself to be enrolled in the guild of brewers as a means of gaining the favor of the people. By the generous use of his great wealth, and by his sympathy with the popular cause, he si>on acquired a wide influence, was chosen leader of many other guilds besides his own, and won the univer sal confidence of the people. War Was at this time raging between England and France. Count Louis I. of Flanders and nearly all the Flemish nobility were openly on the side of the latter, while the sympathies of the people of Ghent and the great Flemish com mercial cities were entirely with the English. Count Louis had made himself most unpopu lar with his subjects by his tyrannous acts, while Artevelde had attained such power that he acted with entire independence of his sove reign. Thus, when a crisis was brought about by a message from Edward III. of England to the Flemings, asking their alliance, Artevelde took it upon himself to make a treaty with him, in which he was sustained by the citizens of Ghent. Aided by the English, the popular leader forced Bruges and Ypres to join in his treaty with Edward, compelled the count to retire into France, and was himself proclaimed leader or governor (ruwaert). He now as sumed complete control of Flanders, removed the officials appointed by Count Louis, and when in 1338 the latter returned to Ghent to seek a reconciliation with the citizens, he made him prisoner, and forced him (Decem ber, 1339) to agree to the English alliance. Soon afterward Count Louis again returned to France. Artevelde retained almost absolute power in Flanders for nine years, until, by an injudicious project for proclaiming the prince of Wales (the Black Prince) governor of the country, he lost the popular confidence. Feuds followed between the different guilds, which he no longer controlled ; the chief of the weav ers, Gerard Denys, aspired to be his rival; and finally a battle was fought in the market place, between the weavers and other guilds, in which the former were victorious. Artevelde now thought himself in danger, and introduced a body of English troops into his house ; this enraged the people, who rose against him and killed him in his own dwelling. II. Philip van, son of the preceding, and like him a popular leader and governor, born about 1340, died in battle, Nov. 27, 1382. During his youth he took no part in public affairs ; but when the ! citizens of Ghent revolted against Louis II., j the son and successor of his father s enemy, his | name and associations brought him into imme- j diate prominence, and he was chosen ruwaert ! in 1381. One of his first acts was to bring to I execution twelve of those who had assisted in i the murder of his father. Count Louis had in the mean time succeeded in so completely cutting off supplies from Ghent that he had reduced the city to great want. But the cit izens endured the suffering bravely, two who proposed surrender being put to death, and Artevelde resolved upon a sally against the count, who had his headquarters at Bruges. With 6,000 troops he encountered Louis near that city, defeated him with great slaughter, and took and plundered the city ; upon this vic tory, the other Flemish towns, except Oude- narde, which he unsuccessfully besieged, sub mitted. The French king, Charles VI., now sent an army to the assistance of Count Louis. It entered Flanders in November, 1382, and on the 27th met and routed the troops of Arte velde, killing an immense number. Artevelde s body was found among the dead, and hung by the victors to a tr^e. ARTHRITIS (Gr. apOpin^ belonging to the joints, from apOpov, a joint), inflammation of the joints, of which there are three kinds, trau matic arthritis, rheumatic arthritis, and gouty inflammation of the joints. For the two lat ter varieties, see GOUT, and RHEUMATISM. Traumatic arthritis is a frequent complication arising from wounds or bruises, contusions, and surgical operations in or near the articu lations. Acute inflammation of the articula tion sometimes occurs also, without external cause, from the absorption of pus or morbid matter within the system. Women suffering from recent childbirth, or persons afflicted with phlebitis, blennorrhagia, or purulent infection, are liable to suffer from arthritis. Blows, falls, sprains, violent distortion of a joint, fractures, and wounds made by sharp instruments, may all produce acute inflammation of the joints. All the parts of the joint may be involved, or some of the external or internal tissues only ; for the intensity of the inflammation is much greater when the capsule of the joint is lace rated and admits the air. During the first day or two the case may seem very simple and with out danger to the patient; but often on the third or the fourth day, or even later, the symptoms become more severe, and the pain excessive. Traumatic arthritis is sometimes so severe as to derange the general health pro foundly, causing delirium and convulsions ; the skin is burning hot, the tongue is red, bile is vomited, and the patient suffers much from bodily pain and mental anxiety. Suppuration is the usual termination of this kind of inflam mation. When traumatic arthritis is superfi cial, it is easily cured ; but when deeply seated and admitting air into the joint, it is a seri ous disease. The proper treatment consists of cloths and compresses steeped in cold water, and placed around the inflamed parts ; rest for the whole body, and particularly for the im plicated limb ; cooling diet, with appropriate sedatives and other medicines. Cupping and leeching are sometimes useful ; and where sup puration has commenced, it is commonly more ARTHUR ARTICHOKE 781 prudent to allow it to form its own opening for evacuation. ARTHl R, a hero of British mythology, be lieved by many to have been identical with an actual sovereign in England in the 6th century. ! Nennius, the most ancient Cymric poetry, the j Triads, and the Welsh bards Lly warchf Hen, and j Taliesin, mention Arthur, a chief of the Brit- j ons, fighting against the Saxons under Cerdic. ! Based upon their statements, many attempts have been made to prove the actual existence of a great sovereign corresponding with the Arthur of romance. It seems probable that a prince called Arthur ruled in Britain about 525, fought many battles with the Saxons, was killed by his nephew, and buried at Glas- tonbury, where his tomb is said to have been found iii the reign of Henry II. But late au thorities (among them George W. Cox, who makes a searching inquiry into the story) may be said to have proved that the Arthur of ro mance is a purely mythical personage. Mr. Cox points out the resemblance between the legends of Arthur and the myths of other ancient nations, and by the aid of etymology shows that many of these were merely al legories derived from natural phenomena. The Arthur of the famous legend was the son of Uther Pendragon and Igerne of Cornwall, whom Uther, by the enchantments of the sage j Merlin, was enabled to visit in the guise of her j husband Gorlois. His high descent was con- I cealed, and he was brought up by a faithful j knight, who treated him as his own son until j after the death of Uther, when Arthur, going j with his foster brother to London, gave evi dence there of his royal birth by drawing from the stone in which it was imbedded a sword with this inscription: "Whoso pulleth this sword out of this stone ... is rightwise born king of all England." He was crowned, and after reigning for several years he married Gui nevere, "the fairest woman in the land." With her, as a part of her dower, he acquired the enchanted round table which had once be longed to his father Uther. About this he formed the famous circle of knights of the round table, and with these began the brilliant court, the wonderful series of exploits at home and abroad, and the countless adventures of various heroes, celebrated in the legends pre served in the Chronicles of Geoffrey of Mon- mouth and elsewhere. The story of Arthur ends with the wound given him by his false nephew Modred, at a battle near Salisbury ; after which the king was borne away by the fairies to be cured by them in the valley of Av al on, whence, said the legend, he should some time come again to lead the British Celts against the Saxons. The legends of Arthur and his knights have been the subject of num berless poems in almost every modern lan guage. Tennyson, more than all others, has added by his "Idyls of the King," "Morte d Arthur," and other poems, to the beauty of the legends as we know them. For discussions as to the actual existence of Arthur, see, for sup port of the theory, " England under the Anglo- Saxon Kings," translated from the German of Dr. J. M. Lappenberg by B. Thorpe (London, new ed., 1857) ; for the opposite view, the in troduction to Cox s " Popular Romances of the Middle Ages" (London, 1871); for history of the old romances treating of Arthur, the ap pendix to the " History of the Anglo-Saxons," by Sharon Turner (London, 7th ed., 1852); for a good rendering of the legends themselves, the work of Cox, just cited. ARTHUR, Timothy Shay, an American author, born near Newburgh, Orange county, N. Y., in 1809. He was about eight years old when his parents removed to Baltimore. He was apprenticed to a trade, was for several years a clerk, and in 1833 visited the west as agent of a banking company. Upon his return to Balti more he became connected with a newspaper, and began to publish a series of short novels. Since 1841 he has resided in Philadelphia, and for many years edited and published a weekly journal and a monthly magazine. His productions are numerous, consisting chiefly cf works of fiction of a domestic character, writ ten with a moral aim, several of them relating especially to the subject of temperance. ARTHUR, William, an Irish Wesleyan clergy man and author, born in the county of Antrim in 1819. After a thorough classical training and special studies in Italian literature, he en tered the Wesleyan theological institution near London, and upon graduating was appointed missionary to India ; but after three years of successful labor, being threatened with total blindness, he was obliged to return to England. Subsequently he was appointed secretary of the missionary society of the Wesleyan church, and soon afterward was elected president cf the British conference. In 1867 he was chosen principal of the Wesleyan college, Belfast, Ire land. In 1870 he was recalled to England, and made honorary secretary of the missionary soci ety of the Wesleyan church. Apart from many valuable contributions to educational and mis sionary literature, Mr. Arthur is best known by the following works: "Personal Reminis cences of a Mission to the Mysore," "The Successful Merchant a Memoir," " The Tongue of Eire," and "State in Transition." ARTICHOKE, an edible plant of the genus cynara, order composite?, resembling a large thistle, known in the south of Europe as early as 1548. C. scolymus and its variety C. her- tensis are the green and globe artichokes of the garden. The portion eaten is the under side of the head before the flower opens. The whole head is removed and boiled, the leaves laid aside, and the bottom eaten, dipped in but ter with a little pepper and salt. A sauce made of butter and spices is frequently used. The French sometimes gather the heads when not larger round than a dollar, and eat the lower end of the leaves raw, dipping them in oil, pepper, and vinegar. The globe variety is ARTICHOKE ARTICULATA generally preferred by gardeners. Artichoke seed should be sown in a gentle hot-bed or warm open border as early in the spring as frost will permit. The plants should be set four feet apart each way, in a stony soil, well prepared. They will bear heads the succeeding year. Some gardeners place six plants in a hill, making the hills six feet apart. Ar tichokes may be raised from sets or shoots, which should be removed and carefully transplant ed. As often as heads are removed from a plant, it should be broken down to encourage the growth of new .shoots. In autumn all plants should re ceive a good supply of earth or litter. Stable dung is too heating, and should never be employed. In the spring remove the autumn covering and take away all offsets except two or three of the best. During the first season the young plants of the previous year will produce heads from June to October. In succeeding years they will give heads from May to June or July. To have them the whole season, an annual plantation must be made. The flowers of the artichoke have the property of rennet in curdling milk. The French use the heads of the second crop of artichokes when dried, baked in meat pies with mush rooms. Artichoke heads are sometimes made to grow larger by tying a ligature tightly around the stem three inches below each. The JEKU- SALEM ARTICHOKE (helianthus tuberosm, order compositcB) is not a true artichoke, but the root Globe Artichoke. Tuber of Jerusalem Artichoke. of a species of sunflower. In Italian it is named girasole, or sunflower, which in English is cor rupted into Jerusalem. In America it is some times called Canada potato or Virginia potato. It was well known in England as an edible root about the year 1620, having been brought from Brazil. The tubers are good for swine and cattle. They are capable of resisting the se verest degree of cold when left in the soil the whole winter ; being lifted in spring, they form excellent food for stock. The Jerusalem arti choke may be raised in all classes of soil, and when grown in light sands and gravels, swine are allowed to dig the tubers for themselves. It is difficult to eradicate this plant from the soil, and it is seldom entirely removed where once rooted in a rich soil. The tops cured in autumn form an excellent hay, yielding five or six tons per acre. Sandy soil of fair quality is said to yield from 1,200 to 1,500 bushels per acre. They are not quite as nutritious as the potato, containing 72*2 percent, of water, being about 4 per cent, more than is contained in the potato. Cordage is sometimes made out of the tops, and in the south of Europe a kind of coarse cloth is manufactured from them. ARTICULATA, the third great division of the animal kingdom in the classification of Cuvier, and by him subdivided into four classes. Other naturalists have added four more, making the following eight classes, of which the first four are those of Cuvier : 1. Annelida, as leeches, earthworms. &c. 2. Crustacea, as crabs, lobsters, prawn, shrimps, &c. 3. Arachnida, as spiders, scorpions, mites, &c. 4. Insecta, as beetles, flies, butterflies. &c. 5. Myriopoda. as centipedes. 6. Cirrhopoda, as barnacles and sea acorns. 7. Eotifora. wheel-shaped animalcules, aquatic. 8. Entozoa lowest of the worms parasites upon or with in other animals. Each of these classes will be found treated un der its own name. The articulata may properly be ranked, upon the whole, as higher ill the animal scale than the mollusca, although, as in this division, some species may be found less highly organized than are some of the radiata, the fourth division of the series ; for the ar ticulata possess a high development of the loco motive organs, in which the mollusca are par ticularly deficient. The nervous system also is so organized that it presents a sufficient characteristic for designating the group ; and the name Jiomogangliata has been proposed by Prof. Owen as a substitute for that of articu lata, this having reference only to the external conformation of the body in transverse rings, which may be of the soft skin or integument, or else serve, in the form of a hard shell, as an external skeleton, to which the muscles are at tached. This arrangement of the nerves is a chain of knots or ganglia, symmetrically dis posed upon a double cord, which passes through the ventral region of the body, and from each ganglion nervous filaments pass off to the dif ferent segments of the body. A nervous ring from the anterior pair of ganglia encircles the oesophagus. Filaments connect this with the organs of the senses, and the oesophageal ganglia have hence been regarded as analogous to the brain in the higher orders. They are more and more concentrated as the animal oc cupies a more elevated position in the division, the members of the body being at the same ARTICULATION 783 time brought into closer connection. The sym metrical arrangement of the nerves suggests that of the members also ; and the limbs are found arranged in pairs, in the centipedes each pair proceeding from one of the articulations of the body. In the higher classes, as the crus- tacea, the same symmetry of pairs of limbs is perceived, and the connection of each pair with a segment of the body, eveii when the thorax, or body, needing no tiexibility for loco motive purposes, has its rings very obscurely detined: The lower groups contain the greater number of articulations or rings, and these are usually soft, upon an elongated body, furnished in most cases with no true limbs. Progressive motion is obtained by the bending of the flex ible body in one and another direction, the muscles which effect this occupying a large portion of the body which in other animals is usually devoted more to the organs of nutrition and digestion. These in the articulate, are not so elaborate as in the mollusca. The organs for respiration are much more highly organized, particularly in the insecta. In the air-breath ing species the blood is aerated by being ex posed to the action of the air introduced within the body, the fluid being distributed in cavities or tubes permeable to the air; the former ap pear to be analogous to lungs. In the articu- lata is found the greatest diversity of forms and habits of life. The largest animals of the divi sion are the lobsters and crabs of the Crustacea ; the rest are, for the most part, of small size, many of them so minute as to pass unnoticed in the watery elements in which they abound. ARTICULATION, a term in anatomy, denoting the various modes of union between the bones of the skeleton. 1-.- Fro. 1. Elbow joint, show ing the hinge-like articu lation of the huincrus with the ulna. 1. Lower extremity of the humerus, or bone of the We may class articu lations under three gen eral heads, viz., mov able joints, immovable joints, and joints of a mixed order, being somewhat movable, without much relative displacement of the contiguous surfaces. Movable joints are the most complex and va rious in structure ; im movable, the most sim ple. Movable joints are common in the limbs, and the articulation of the lower jaw with the skull; immovable joints are common in the head and face and lower por tion of the trunk; mixed forms of articulation upper arm. 2, s. Upper extremity of the are common in the spi- ulna, or bone of the fore arm. nal column and the upper portions of the trunk. The hinge joints of the elbows and the knees, allowing free movements in one plane only, form one order of the movable class ; the ball-and-socket joints of the hip and shoulder, allowing free movements in a circular direc tion, form a second order of the movable class ; I and different combinations of these two orders, j as seen in the articulations of the lower jaw I with the skull, of the hands and feet with the arms and legs at the wrists and the ankles, and i also of the bones of the hands and fingers, feet, j and toes, form a third order of the movable i class. The elbow joint, in fact, is of a com- | pound order, being of the hinge-joint form i with reference to the cubital movement of ; the forearm on the arm, and of the ball- j and-socket form with reference to the radial I movement of the forearm on the arm, in what are termed the supination and pronation of the hand and arm. The class of immovable joints may also be subdivided into different orders and varieties. In the sacrum and the pelvis many bones which- are distinct at first literally grow together in some subjects, so as to efface all trace of original separation, while in others traces remain visible of former separation. In the cranium and the face there are numer ous modes of junction between bones connect ed by immovable articulation. The most prom inent order of this class in the cranium is the serrated suture, the firmness of the union being increased by alternate notches or indentations and projections like the teeth of a saw formed on the edges of the bones, the teeth of the one being adapted to the indentations of the other. In this manner the bones of the skull unite at the top of the head and in the centre of the forehead. In other cases bevelled edges over lap each other, and in this manner the tempo ral bones are joined to the parietal bones of the skull. Another form of fixed articulation is the ridge-and-groove, a ridge being formed on the edge of one bone and a grooved fissure in another to receive it. By this means the bony part of the septum of the nose is inserted into the floor of the nasal cavity to divide the nostrils, and thus form a double cavity by means of a partition wall. The mixed class of articulations contains many varieties of adapta tion. The mode in which ribs are attached to the spinal column behind and to the sternum in front forms one simple order of the mixed class; the mode in which th vertebra are connected with each other in the spinal col umn, another, more complex ; and the mode in which the slightly yielding portions of the pel vic articulations are connected, a third and simple order of this class. The movable artic ulations, being the most complex in form and structure, will give the best idea of the various elements of an articulation ; and the ball-and- socket joint, being the most simple of this kind, will serve the purpose of a simple illustration. In the hip joint we have a kind of ball, or rounded surface, at the head of the thigh bone, which hemispherical surface is capped with a thin layer of cartilage, somewhat elastic in structure, and exceedingly smooth on its exter nal surface. In the bones of the pelvis a socket Si: ARTICULATION ARTILLERY is formed, called the acetabulum, exactly shaped for the reception of this hemispherical head of the thigh bone, and this socket is lined with a thin layer of dense, elastic, and polished car- FIG. 2. A section of the hip joint taken through the acetabu lum and the middle of the head and neck of the thigh bone. L. T. Ligamentuin teres, or round ligament. tilage, so that in the joint two polished surfaces meet together and allow free movement, with the least possible amount of friction ; but to lessen the eflfect of friction, and facilitate the movements of these surfaces one upon the other, a delicate membrane surrounds the ex ternal borders of the articular cartilages, and secretes a viscid fluid which lubricates the sur faces, preventing actual contact and destruc tive friction of the cartilaginous tissues. This lubricating fluid is technically called synovia, and the secreting membrane the synovial sac or synovial membrane. To prevent the dislo cation of the joint, a strong rope of fibrous tis sue, very similar in structure to that part of an oyster which cannot easily be removed from the shell, connects the top of the ball with the bottom of the socket, in a somewhat loose but very strongly attached manner. This is termed the round ligament ; it is very short and very strong. The outer surfaces of the ball and socket (not in the socket, but outside) are connected by means of a strong ligamentous band of fibrous tissue, loosely connecting the head of the thigh bone with the pelvic bones, on the outer rim of the socket, but strongly at tached to the bones them selves, which it binds to gether firmly, while per- Fio. 3. Diagram of a mitting a considerable free- longitudinal section of ( ] om o f motion or rotation an articulation. A. Bones. B. Articular cartilage, c. Perioste- ,-> . . T , m th e joint. In Other joints of the movable class 1 Syn Vial the outer ligaments are not always continuous and cir cular bands as in this case, but take the form of distinct fibrous ropes, strongly attached to the bones, and forming strong, flexible bands, as strips of leather nailed to the body and the lid of a box serve as ligaments where there are no hinges. Thin, dense, elastic layers of carti lage cap the articular edges and surfaces of bones in the great majority of joints ; strong, fibrous, and flexible ligaments connect the bones externally ; and, where the joints are very movable, synovial membranes surround the articulating surfaces, and the synovia which they secrete lubricates the surfaces exposed to contact, friction, and mobility. ARTIGAS, Jose, a South American general, born at Montevideo, in Uruguay, in 1755, died in Paraguay in 1851 (not, as often stated, about 1826). The son of a wealthy landed proprietor, he led for a time an adventurous life as a gau- cho, and then served as captain in the light cav alry of the provinces, but on account of some difficulty with the governor passed in 1811 into the service of the junta of Buenos Ayres, then in insurrection against Spain. At I the head of a band of gauchos, he defeated the Spaniards in several encounters, and vigor ously supported the republican army which be sieged the Portuguese troops from Brazil who then occupied Montevideo. Passionate and scheming, he soon acted independently, and finally detached his men from the besieging army ; whereupon Posadas, director of the junta, outlawed him and set a price upon his head. But the gauchos flocked to his standard, and Artigas, having defeated the troops sent against him, obliged his enemies to cede to him the whole of Uruguay (1814). He next com pelled the Portuguese to abandon their attempt to regain possession of Montevideo, which had surrendered. He now acted as dictator in his native country, and made a vigorous but un successful attempt against Buenos Ayres (1815). After various contests he was twice defeated, in 1819 and 1820, and compelled to flee to Par aguay, where Dr. Francia, the dictator, ban ished him to Candelaria. Here the former gaucho chief devoted himself to husbandry, and to the care of the sick and needy, and at tained a patriarchal age. ARTILLERY, the cannon employed in war, and the troops organized to use them. The Chinese as early as A. I). 969; under the em peror Tai-tsu, tied rockets to their arrows to propel them to greater distances, as well as for incendiary purposes. During the first half of the 13th century all the resources of their mil itary art became known to the Arabs through the Mongol conquerors of China. The idea of the application of gunpowder to projectiles, | though said to have been accidentally sug- j gested to Berthold Schwarz about 1330, is probably due to the Moors or Arabs of north ern Africa, who had artillery at Cordova as I early as 1280. The Spaniards learned its use | from them, Ferdinand IV. of Castile taking I Gibraltar with cannon in 1309, and guns being | employed soon after at the sieges of Baza, I Martos, and Alicante. A knowledge of artil- ARTILLERY 785 lery soon extended throughout Europe, the French having cannon at the siege of Puy Guil- laume in 1338, and the English three small guns at the battle of Crecy in 1346. Cannon FIG. 1. Early English Cunaoa. time of Battle of Crecy. are not referred to in the Hindoo books before the beginning of the 13th century ; but during the next hundred years their use became gene ral throughout India, and upon the landing of the Portuguese in 1498 they found the natives their equals in the construction and use of fire arms. The European as well as the Asiatic can non of the 14th century were made of longitudi nal bars of iron bound together by hoops, being shaped externally and internally like an apoth ecary s mortar; they were called bombards, FIG. 2. Bombard. vases, or mortars, were very heavy, and pro jected stone balls at high angles, doing but lit tle execution ; when put in position they were FIG. 3. Mortar. fired from a timber stock or framework, gun carriages being unknown. These unwieldy ma chines, some of which were breech-loaders, were used not only in siege operations, but in the field and even on shipboard. To give a more accurate direction to the projectile, the bore wns afterwa r d made cylindrical and terminated in a very narrow and deep cham ber, the object being to increase the effect of the powder by retarding the escape of the gas before it acted upon the ball. During the first half of the loth century bombards were improved upon and made very large ; in France one weighed 10,000 Ibs. with a 400-lb. projec tile, a second 36,000 Ibs. with a projectile of 900 VOL. i. 50 Ibs. ; they were generally made of several pieces screwed together, and could not be moved unless taken apart. Mortars only differed from bombards in length, but were very rare. The other cannon of the day were veuglaires, breech-loaders of less size and power than bom bards; crapeaudeavx, still smaller, weighing from 100 to 150 Ibs. ; and cuhcrins, the small est of all, unchambered and using projectiles of lead. To facilitate pointing and firing, two or more of the smaller guns were occasionally mounted on a two- wheeled wagon, the whole being called a ribaiidequin, or organ gun, the earliest form of the modern mitrailleuse. Artil lery was very much used during the French war of independence against the English. At the defence of Orleans in 1428 Joan of Arc herself pointed the guns ; and as the struggle went on the brothers Jean and Gaspard Bureau became very successful in the conduct of siege opera tions, being the first to make regular approaches and place guns in breaching batteries under cover of casks filled with earth, instead of merely hiding them behind wooden screens. The marked progress made by artillery had the effect of everywhere increasing the power of, the crown at the expense of the feudal nobility, whose castles were no longer able to defy the sovereign. The French were far in advance of their contemporaries, Charles VII. being able to retake in one year all the strong places held by the English. On the other hand, as late as 1453 Constantinople had to be taken by assault, the guns of Mohammed II. -being pow erless to breach the walls; while the Greek I cannon, firing 150-lb. stone balls, did less dam age to the Turks than to their own defences. In the middle of the 15th century bombards were universally made of separate pieces of forged iron or bronze, and the greet number of attempts at a suitable carriage for the smaller guns showed the importance attached to such a mechanism ; culverins were frequently imbedded in stocks which could be raised or low ered to change the inclination, a few having small side projections, the forerunners of trun nions, to prevent lateral rotation. We have now come to one of the most important eras in the history of artillery, the striking improvements made by the French in the reign of Louis XL, 1461- 83. Having invented trunnions of suuV cient strength to stand the recoil, they had an axis about which the gun could turn with ease and be elevated or depressed at will ; this great difficulty overcome, they readily devised a car riage at once suited for the transportation and ; service of the piece, while their progress in metallurgy enabled them to substitute cast-iron | for stone balls. The iron projectiles, by their greater density, increasing the tension of the gas | so as to endanger the guns in use, they were ; forced to do away with them and introduce I brass pieces of smaller calibre and increased | thickness of metal, called cannons, culverins \ or serpentines, and falcons. The last were the smallest, and fired leaden projectiles instead of 786 ARTILLERY cast-iron balls. The culverin, though of less calibre than the cannon, was a much larger gun, and differed entirely from the culverin of the preceding century. Artillery had hitherto been employed in attacking cities and castles alone, but the perfection to which it had been brought in France made it very formidable in the field also. The rapid conquest of Italy by Charles VIII., the successor of Louis XL, was entirely due to his improved artillery ; the French guns, mounted on the new carriages, well horsed, and ready to go into battery at any moment, presenting a marked contrast to the cumbersome Italian bombards, firing stone balls, and dragged with great difficulty by bul locks. During the 16th century brass guns and cast-iron projectiles were adopted throughout Europe, while Tartaglia in Italy made great im provements in gunnery, and invented the gun ner s quadrant. The carriages, however, had no limbers and were still heavy and awkward ; and as the principal dimensions only were fixed, great differences existed even in those for guns of the same calibre. The cannon belonging to an army, together with the wagons loaded with implements and ammunition, were collected into an artillery train, to which certain officers and artillerists were attached. The latter were looked upon as mechanics, served a regular apprenticeship, and had a guild of their own ; they were divided into cannoneers, who served the guns, and artificers, who conducted ver tical fire and made up warlike stores. When a war broke out, the different monarchs hired as many as they required or could get, their pay being four times that of a soldier. In battle, artillery tactics consisted in the sin gle detail of putting the guns in position, gener ally in front of the line, taking care to hide them as much as possible behind troops until they were to open fire. In case of disaster they nearly always fell into the enemy s hands, from its being so difficult to move them. The German, Spanish, and Italian cannon of that age were of sizes and calibres innumera ble. Charles V. had more than 50 different kinds, from 124-pdrs. down, and found this such a disadvantage, particularly in the field, that he attempted, though ineffectually, to limit their number to eight, including mortars. About the year 1550 the French calibres, which had run all the way from 80-pdrs. down to 1-pdrs., were reduced to six, viz.: cannons, three sizes of culverins, falcons, and falconets ; there were no mortars. During the last half of the century case shot (IlagclkugeT) was in vented in derm any, but was not brought into general use ; about the same time shells were successfully fired from mortars in that country, the result being kept a profound secret. These projectiles, originally made by fastening toge ther two hollow metal hemispheres, and known to the Chinese and Arabs, were first introduced into Europe by the Italians. In Holland, mor tar shells and hand grenades were first rendered useful and effective during the early part of the | 17th century, and Maurice and Henry Frede- ! rick of Nassau made many artillery improve ments, doing away with the arbitrary distinc- ; tions between cannons and culverins, -based I upon their lengths, and restricting the calibres ! to 48, 24, 12, and 6-pdrs., called cannons, half | cannons, quarter cannons, and falcons, the last | t\vo being proportionally longer and heavier to ; prevent damage to embrasures. The dimen- I sions of these pieces were fixed, while handles I and cascables, shaped for the attachment of ! ropes, facilitated mechanical manoeuvres. The gun carriages, which had limbers and ammu- ] nition chests, were similarly reduced to four, and their dimensions made so uniform that wheels and other parts were interchangeable. 1 About the same time Gustavus Adolphus, per- j ceiving the advantages that would result from i guns capable of quick motion and rapid fire, | introduced light pieces made of thin copper and wrapped about with rope and leather; these, not proving durable, were replaced by | iron 4-pdrs. weighing about 650 Ibs., and drawn by a single pair of horses. Rapidity of fire was attained by the use of cartridges, the slow process of inserting the powder by ladlefuls being thus gotten rid of. Two of these guns were attached to each regiment, and were at first intended to fire canister, before that time only used in siege operations and by ships of war ; but they soon came to fire solid shot, and did great execution at the battle of Leipsic in 1631. Gustavus did much also toward devel oping the tactical powers of the arm by mass ing the heavy guns in strong batteries on the wings and centre, and doing away with the old fashion of stringing them out in front of the. line of battle. lie had great confidence in his artillery, which was very strong in pro portion to the other arms, there being 80 pieces in 1630 to 20,000 men, and 200 pieces before Frankfort to only 18,000, Mai thus, a noble man who had served in the Low Countries, in troduced the mortar shell into France, where it was first used in 1634. Mortars of 10, 12, and 14-inch calibre were cast under his .direc tion, and about this time came into general use throughout Europe. The shell after being in serted was kept in place by a tamping of earth, and its fuse was lighted by hand before the mortar was fired. The small mor tar which still bears the name of its inventor Coe- horn, an officer in the service of the prince of Orange, was first used in 1674. The invention of howitzers was another signal service which the FIG. 4. Cockom Mortar. Dutch rendered to the art of war, the idea hav ing first occurred to them that shells might be used in cannon by shortening the pieces so that the projectile could be inserted by hand. ARTILLERY 87 Howitzers were soon adopted and improved upon by the English ; like the early mortars, they were at first discharged by applying fire both to shell and charge. Light pieces called pierrieres, firing stone balls weighing from 12 to 48 Ibs., were still used in some of the Euro pean services. In France, toward the end of this century, artillery materiel was modified and improved, much attention being paid to the character of the gun metal, to the form of the chamber, and to the proper length and weight of the piece. The calibres were restricted to 33, 24, 16, 12, 8, and 4-pdrs., most of which have been retained to this day among their smooth-bore guns; the ammunition consisted of grape and canister as well as of solid shot. Gun carriages were also changed for the bet ter and provided with limbers, while trains of wagons or carts were organized for carrying ammunition ; some of the field carriages were made of wrought iron. Louis XIV. was the first sovereign to create a special artillery force ; he raised in 1671 a regiment for artillery duty only, and in 1690 founded the first artillery schools. To his age belong also the important inventions of the elevating screw, the prolonge, and the priming tube filled with powder, the old method being to work powder into the vent. During the first part of the 18th century artillery was generally recognized as an arm, had its reg ularly incorporated troops, and in consequence made very marked progress. In the campaigns of Marlborough large numbers of guns were used on both sides, and sometimes handled with judgment and skill ; at Blenheim artillery, massed on the right so as to enfilade the French position, contributed materially to the victory; and at Malplaquet the English put forward 40 pieces in the centre, while the French guns did not cease firing until the intrenchments were assaulted ; only eight or ten were taken not withstanding this persistence, showing that greater mobility had been attained. In 1732 Valliere made important changes in the French artillery, doing away with the 33-pdr. as too heavy, and giving uniformity to the five remain ing calibres as well as to the mortars. In 1747 the French began to fire howitzers in siege ope rations without first igniting the shell, it hav ing been found that the flash from the charge would light the fuse if there was no tamping. The gun carriages and ammunition wagons were still of various patterns, each arsenal having its own way of constructing them ; the axletrees were of wood, and the limbers very low, with horses attached in single file. After the seven years war position grins began to be permanently assigned to brigades in 5 or 10-gun batteries. In Prussia, Frederick the Great in troduced short, light regimental guns, 12, 6, and 3-pdrs., whose weight was but from 80 to 150 times that of the shot ; his example was fol lowed by Austria and other countries. He also made extensive use of howitzers firing 15, 20, and 50-lb. shell, which were afterward united in separate batteries. At the end of the seven years war the Prussian artillery was in a state of great confusion, there being 12 and 6-pdrs. of no less than three different kinds and weights ; this was mainly due to the want of a proper chief of artillery, and to the fact that Frede rick had looked upon the arm with disfavor. After Rossbach, where it did excellent service, he seems to have gotten over his prejudice, and we are indebted to him for the first formation of horse artillery in 1759 : it consisted of a bat tery of 10 light 6-pdrs., and, though long in a very inefficient condition, and destroyed at Ku- nersdorf and again at Maxen, was always reor ganized. The seven years 1 war opened the eyes of the Austrians to the importance of the artillery arm, which was carefully reorganized and improved under the direction of Prince Liechtenstein, who was created chief of artil lery, with rank and authority in proportion to the importance of his position ; this gave their artillery an immense advantage, and assured its constant superiority to that of most of the con temporary powers. The Russians always at tached great importance to their artillery. When they entered Germany in 1758 they had 425 guns to 104,000 men, three licornes or howitzers, with mounted gunners, being at tached to each of their dragoon regiments. Artillery in this century consisted of regimen tal guns attached in pairs to each infantry bat talion, of guns of position organized into large batteries, and of siege or garrison guns. The number of guns was usually 4 or 5 to 1,000 men. The regimental guns advanced with their battalions, unlimbering at 500 paces from the enemy and being thence moved forward by hand. The position guns were posted at the most favorable points along the line ; occasion ally they were able to take a second position, but it was usually impossible to move them in time to decide the result of a battle. The bronze cannon of this age were elaborately ornamented with carvings and with the ciphers and coats of arms of the reigning monarchs, the early custom of giving a special name to each piece being also retained. We now come to one of the foremost names in modern artillery annals, Gribeauval. This celebrated French man, having served in the Austrian artillery under Prince Liechtenstein during the seven years war, returned to France with a thorough knowledge of all the improvements suggested by the experiences of that struggle, and was intrusted in 1765 with the reorganization of the French artillery, then in very poor con dition. He began by creating a distinct ma teriel for each service, field, siege, garrison, and seacoast. His field guns, 12, 8, and 4-pdrs., were 18 calibres long and about loO times heavier than their projectiles. The charges were reduced from one half to one third the weight of the shot; but, as the windage was also diminished, he was able to make the guns shorter and lighter without sen sibly affecting the range. To these were added a 6-inch howitzer, still retaining a small charge, 788 ARTILLERY though proportionally larger than that before used. These pieces were without ornaments, and were cast solid and then bored out, which made their dimensions much more exact than the old hollow-cast cannon; the trunnions were strengthened by rimbases, and copper vent pieces enabled the guns to be rehashed. The horses were hitched in double files, which greatly facilitated the movements of the car riages, and the draught was made easier by iron axletrees, higher limbers, and travelling trunnion holes ; the allowance of horses was six to the 12-pdrs. and four to the 8 and 4-pdrs. Fixed ammunition, elevating screws, and tan gent scales, together with bricoles and pro- longes, facilitated the service and increased the mobility of the piece. Stronger carriages were made for the lighter guns, and uniformity was established in all new constructions by requir ing the arsenals to make every part of the car riages, wagons, and limbers after certain fixed dimensions, so that spare parts could be taken into the field exactly corresponding to those in use. An equipment was thus obtained which could be moved and repaired with a facility hitherto unknown. Gribeauval s reforms did not stop at the materiel, the personnel of the French artillery being completely reorganized in 1765 through his efforts. Two guns were still assigned to each infantry battalion, which were served by detachments from a company of artillery attached to each brigade of four regiments. The rest of the field artillery was organized into two or three reserves, each re serve consisting of divisions of eight pieces, to each of which was assigned a company of artil lery. Here we have the creation of the artil lery unit ; the company organization, afterward merged in that of the battery with its horses and drivers, being for the first time inseparably joined to its munitions and guns. Like all military reformers, Gribeauval encountered most determined opposition, the changes he proposed not being permanently adopted till 1774. His system was for superior to any other of its day, and long served as a model to that of other nations, being introduced with but slight modifications into all the European services. Thoroughly tested in the wars of the revolution, the results triumphantly vindi cated the abilities and military genius of its originator. The French introduced horse ar tillery in 1792, and cut down their divisions to six pieces, eight being found too unwieldy; these divisions received the name of batteries, and were usually composed of five guns and one howitzer. In 1799 they entirely aban doned battalion guns as impairing the mobility of the infantry, one or two batteries attached to each division taking their places. An artil lery train or corps of drivers, composed of en listed men, was organized Jan. 3, 1800, and distributed among the French batteries, to gether with a proper complement of horses bought for the purpose; they had previously depended upon civilian drivers hired with their teams by contractors, the result being that the men, horses, and harness were always in bad condition. No changes in materiel took place under the empire, with the exception of the admission of 6 and 3-pdrs. into the service on account of the immense number of captured guns of these calibres. The tactical combina tions of the arm, however, though at first with out any essential change, were always bril liant ; at Marengo the two batteries of Boudet s division kept the Austrians in check until ree n- forcements came up and materially assisted in gaining that brilliant victory. The use of ar tillery in mass dates from the French camp at Boulogne in 1805, where this great tactical im provement was conceived and taught, the first instance of its employment being at Friedland, June 14, 1807. In this battle Gen. de Senar- mont, chief of artillery of the French first corps, combined the divisional batteries into two masses, which suddenly went into action at GOO paces from the Russian left and gradually advanced to within 300 paces, firing with the utmost rapidity ; seeing the formidable effect produced, he united both masses into one grand battery of 36 pieces at 150 paces from the ene my, who began to waver under the terrible fire of canister. Upon the Russian cavalry s attempting to charge the grand battery, the j general of artillery ordered it to change front and drove them off; the French infantry then i advanced and overthrew the enemy. The artil lery lost 1 officer, 10 men, and 53 horses killed ; 3 officers and 42 men wounded; rounds ex pended, 2,516, of which 362 were canister. The ground was level and very favorable to ar tillery fire. The battle of Wagram, July 5-6, 1809, presents another prominent example of the use of artillery masses. Sixty French pieces under Gen. Lauriston, supported by infantry and cavalry, advanced in two columns without open ing fire up to canister range of the Austrian cen tre ; only 45 pieces got into position, the others being dismounted by the fire of the enemy s artillery, but these were gradually reenforced by 45 more. The fire of this immense battery, which lasted half an hour, though inflicting great losses, failed to break the Austrians, who repulsed an attack of the French infantry and cavalry ; they were however compelled to fall back on account of the turning of their left before the French could reform for a second at tack. At Borodino, or on the Moskva, Sept. 7, 1812, and at Liitzen, May 2, 1813, the French successfully employed artillery masses for de fensive purposes. At the former battle Gen. Sorbier, chief of the French artillery, by uniting 80 pieces, brought the Russians to a stand and finally forced them to retire; at the latter, a battery of 60 guns checked the movement of the allies against the French centre. Further instances of the employment of artillery masses are found in the battles of Ocaila, 1809 ; Gross- Beeren, 1813; Bautzen, 1813; Ilanau, 1813; and Brienne, 1814. The English artillery about the beginning of the French revolution ARTILLERY 89 had boon greatly neglected, and was far behind that of other nations. There was no reserve artillery, each regiment having two guns, whose horses and drivers were hired. As late as 1799 there were only two C-pdrs. to a bri gade of infantry, each piece drawn by three horses in single file, the driver on foot with a long wagoner s whip. Horse artillery was however introduced in 1793, and a drivers corps established the following year. Tn 1802 the battalion guns were abandoned, and were replaced by field brigades (mounted batteries) and troops (horse batteries). Each field bri gade had five guns (12, 9, and heavy or light 6-pdrs.) and one 5J-inch howitzer, while the troops were armed with 9 or light 6-pdr. guns and the howitzer. The detachment of drivers with a field brigade was an independent organization under its own lieutenant, who had no authority over the cannoneers and took rank after all the artillery officers proper. In 1803 Gen. Shrapnel devised a case shot, the first projectile of the kind since the German Hagel- \ kugel of the 10th century. It was first used at j the battle of Vimieira in 1808, but, not proving j very successful on account of the imperfection \ of the fuse, was not adopted by other nations, j We have now come to the period extending from the peace of 1815 to 1859, when rifled guns were for the first time successfully em ployed in war. In France Gen. Paixhans pro posed in 1822 that large heavy shells should be fired from long-chambered guns, resembling those already invented by Bomford in Ameri ca; and he proved, in spite of the greatest op position, that it was as practicable and almost as easy to throw shells to a great distance with slight elevations as to throw shot. Designed originally for the naval service, his chambered pieces, known as Paixhans guns, were felt to be of equal importance for seacoast defence. Their adoption into almost every service, with the consequent development of horizontal shell fire, was beyond question the most important ! event in the history of artillery since Gribeau- val s time, and eventually led to the adoption of iron armor as a protection for vessels of war. The first instance of the employment of this kind of fire on a large scale was at the siege of Antwerp by the French in 1832, where it proved so formidable that the defence were able to make but a feeble resistance. At Si- nope, where the whole Turkish fleet was de molished in about an hour by the Russian shells, at Sebastopol, as well as in the more recent naval combat between the Kearsarge and Alabama, Paixhans s predictions as to the destructive effects of heavy shells have been completely verified. The French field materiel was modified in 1827 by the substitution of 32 and 24-pdr. howitzers, lengthened to corre spond with 12 and 8-pdr. guns, for the 6-inch howitzer and 4-pdr. gun, which were abol ished; the limber of the gun carriage was sub sequently lightened and provided with an am munition chest, its wheels being made of the same size as those of the carriage ; the mode of connecting the limber with the carriage was also simplified, so as to greatly facilitate the ma- nreuvres of limbering and unlimbering ; while the two fiasks which formed the trail were re placed by a single piece called the stock, which permitted the carriage to turn in a smaller cir cle than before. In 1850 a light 12-pdr. gun devised by Louis Napoleon, and known as the gun-howitzer or Napoleon gun, was experi mented upon in France. The object chiefly aimed at in its construction was the substitu tion of a single gun of medium weight and cal ibre, firing both shot and shell, for the 12 and 8-pdr. guns and 32 and 24-pdr. howitzers. The new piece, giving very favorable results, was issued in 1853 to the divisional batteries, taking the place of the 8-pdr. gun and 24-pdr. howit zer, the heavy 12-pdr. gun and 32-pdr. howit zer being temporarily retained in the reserve artillery. It was most successfully used by the French during the Crimean war, and was adopted into various European services as well as into that of the United States. In England the drivers corps was abolished in 1822, and men were enlisted for the royal artillery both as cannoneers and drivers; the troops of FIG. 5. Diagram of Gun Carriage. 1. 1. Foot Boards. 2. Pintle Hook. 3. Pole. 4. Prolonge. 5. Trace Hooks. 6. Ammunition Chest. 7. Elevating Screw. 790 ARTILLERY horse artillery, however, continued to have | drivers specially enlisted for that purpose, j and to this very faulty system the mounted batteries have reverted since the Crimean war. In 1827 three field batteries were organized, each having four pieces and 45 horses. The British artillery continued in a very imperfect state up to 1848, a mistaken ! notion of economy having kept it insufficiently : supplied with guns and horses. At that date, j as well as in 1852, it was largely increased and j placed on a better footing. Each battery now consisted of four guns and two howitzers; the armament being improved by the substitution j of 24-pdr. and 12-pdr. howitzers for the old 5^-inch howitzer, by the introduction of the 32-pdr. howitzer, and by the practical aban- j donment of the heavy 6-pdr. and 3-pdr. guns. The ammunition, particularly the shrapnel, was also made more efficient by the adoption of Captain Boxer s fuse. At Sebastopol in 1854 the English siege pieces consisted of 32 and 24-pdr. guns, 10 and 8-inch shell guns, and j 13, 10, and 8-inch mortars. To these were j joined 68-pdr. guns borrowed from the fleet, j then thought of enormous size ; some of them were fired as many as 4,000 times, with a charge of 16 Ibs. of powder and with great rapidity. The calibres of the French siege cannon did not materially differ from those of their ally. The j artillery improvement of the other European powers was steadily maintained during this generally peaceful era, and the importance of the arm continued to be felt in the few cam paigns which took place. In the Polish war of 1831, as well as in the Hungarian cam paign of 1849, the Russians embraced every | opportunity for the employment of artillery in mass. At "Warsaw the concentrated fire of a large number of guns decided the success of their coup-de-main and put an end to the resis tance of the Poles ; tlte loss in the Russian artillery was however very severe, the killed alone amounting to 40 officers, 400 men, and 800 horses. On the other hand, at Inkerman in 1854 the Russian attack failed on account of the unskilful handling of their artillery masses. The principal large calibres of Rus sian cast-iron guns at the siege of Sebastopol were 120 (shell), 96, 56, and 40-pdrs. In Bel gium the invention (1835) of a new fuse by Gen. Bormann gave case shot an importance and utility hitherto unknown ; while iron came into general use throughout Europe for heavy gun carriages. The systems of field and siege artillery in the United States were chiefly de rived from those of France. After the war of 1812 with Great Britain the artillery arm was almost entirely neglected; no field batteries were kept up, and the heaviest gun mounted j on the seacoast in 1820 was a 24-pdr. About 1839 Secretary of War Poinsett caused field batteries to be organized, which, though few in number, were brought to a high state of efficiency and rendered valuable services during the Mexican war (1846- 8), particular ly at Buena Yista, Feb. 22, 1847, where they saved the day. The columbiad, a long-cham bered piece capable of projecting shot and shell at high angles and with heavy charges, was invented by Col. Bomford and used during the war of 1812 ; a similar gun (Paixhans), as we have already seen, was afterward introduced with great success in Europe. In 1844 tho columbiad was lengthened and made heavier to enable it to stand an increased charge of one sixth of the .weight of the solid shot ; but not proving strong enough, even with these modi fications, in 1858 its use was restricted to shells, a new gun of improved model taking its place. Wrought-iron carriages for heavy guns were about this time introduced into the United States, and great care was taken in the selec tion and treatment of American iron, some of which is specially adapted to gun fabrication. About 1847 Gen. Rodman developed his now universally adopted theory of initial tension in other words, of such a disposition of the metal that when the gun is at rest the interior parts are in a state of compression, while the exte rior are in a state of tension ; this adds great ly to the strength of the metal, the outer lay ers being thus forced to stand more and the inner layers less than would otherwise be the case when the gun is fired. To practically obtain this result in cast-iron guns, Rodman had them cast on a hollow core and cooled from within by passing a stream of water through them. In 1850 Admiral Dahlgren proposed a new system of cast-iron guns for FIG. 6. Dahlgren Gun. the navy, which upon trial gave very favor able results and was adopted in 1855. His guns (9, 10, and 11-inch) were made of cast iron, solid, and cooled from the exterior ; to obviate the difficulty of strain due to unequal shrinkage, they were cast nearly cylindrical and then turned down to the required shape, thus getting rid of the exterior metal which caused the strain by cooling first in the mould. The chamber is of the Gomer form, the thick ness of the metal around the seat of the charge being a little greater than the diameter of the bore; the chase tapers more rapidly than in other cast-iron guns, which makes the breech appear thicker than it really is. In 1857 the calibres of the land service consisted of 10 and 8-inch columbiads, 42, 32, 24, 18, and 12-pdr. guns, 10 and 8-inch and 24-pdr. howitzers, and ARTILLERY 791 13, 10, and 8-inch mortars, all of cast iron. Besides the light 12-pclr. or Napoleon gun, FIG. 7. 13-inch Mortar. the bronze pieces consisted of heavy 12 and 6-pdr. guns, and of 32, 24, and 12-pdr. howitz ers, together with 12-pdr. mountain howitzers and 24-pdr. Coehorn mortars. We have now come to the most recent period in the history of artillery improvement, extending from the Italian campaign of 1859 to the present date (1873). Although the employment of rifle cannon in war was originally attempted by the English, the French are entitled to the credit of first successfully using them in battle. The English 68-pdr. and 8-inch Lancaster rifles failed at Sebastopol in 1854, the shot jamming in the bores; but the French bronze rifled i ours, after a model devised by Col. Treuille de Beaulieu, were brilliantly successful in the Italian campaign of 1859. So recent was their construction that the batteries had to march with empty carriages, the guns being boxed up and sent to the army after it had left France. Once in Italy, the incontestable superiority of the French artillery seemed to recall the days Caxcalle. Breech. Reenforce. Chase. MuzzU. Bore. FIG. 8. Field 6-pdr. smooth-bore Bronze Gun. of Charles VIII. ; at Solferino particularly, it destroyed the Austrian batteries at the unpre cedented range of 1,600 yards before they could get into position to return the fire, and shook the confidence of the reserves by shell ing them at distances hitherto deemed entirely safe. When every gun fired a cast-iron spheri cal projectile, its weight indicated the diameter of the bore, or calibre of the piece ; but with the elongated projectiles of rifled cannon which are of various lengths, the case is very different, the weight of the shot being no indication of the power of the gun, nor giving any definite idea of the size of the bore. With French rifle projectiles whose length does not exceed twice their diameter, the same numbers desig nate their calibres as of old, but they now re fer to kilogrammes instead of pounds ; thus the 4-pdr., or four, formerly meant that the gun fired a cast-iron sphere weighing 4 Ibs., but now signifies that its projectile weighs about 4 kilogrammes or 8 823 Ibs. Compared with English guns of the same diameter of bore, the French throw a lighter shot, the English pro jectiles, particularly the Whitworth, being al ways longer. The rifled twelves, consisting of the gun-howitzers (Napoleon guns) converted by rifling, were not used in Italy, there not being enough ammunition, but were success fully tested in Mexico; at Puebla they were found very useful in breaching masonry. The ! French also transformed by rifling the old i 12-pdr. field gun into a gun of reserve and ! position, the old long 12-pdr. gun into a garri- j son gun, and the short 24-pdr. gun and 50-pdr. j gun into siege guns. None of these pieces fire I solid shot ; the three kinds of twelves use the j same projectiles, but with different charges of powder. The short twenty-four weighs 2,000 I kilogrammes or two tons, and the charge is va ried according to the range desired, up to a maximum of 2|- kilos (5-|- Ibs.), which gives a range of 5,000 metres; the carriage of the gun enables it to be fired as a mortar. The long twenty-four only differs from the short by its length and weight, which is three quarters of a ton (740 kilos) more. The fifty is not heavier than the short twenty-four, and is fired with the same charge of powder; its projectile weighs 51 kilos (113 Ibs.), with a bursting charge of 3 -5 kilos (7 Ibs. 13 oz.). Both are mounted on the same carriage, which is drawn by only six horses. Following the same principles, the French artillerists have- also utilized some of the old Paixhans guns by rifling and hooping with steel ; a gun of this kind of 22 centimetres bore weighs about 14 tons, and throws 170-lb. hollow projectiles to a distance of 6,000 or 7,000 yards. So, too, with their naval guns: the old thirties, origi nally intended to carry spherical 32-lb. shot with a charge of 11 Ibs., after being hooped 792 ARTILLERY and rifled became useful and valuable pieces. Although the French artillery board rejected the breech-loading system as a needless com plication for field guns, they were quick to j adopt it for heavy ordnance as economizing | space, greatly increasing the ease and rapidity of loading, and affording more protection to the cannoneers. The principal French naval guns are the (Ji-inch, 7i-inch, 9i-inch, and 102-inch breeclf-loading rifles, consisting of a core of cast iron with a reenforce of steel hoops made of a double series of steel rings, one over the other, so as to break joints. In the aper ture of the bore a female screw of 15 or 16 threads is cut into the metal of the gun, which receives a cylindrical screw or breech plug, mounted in front, with an elastic steel cup or gas check. That time may not be wasted at each discharge by screwing and unscrewing the whole length of the plug, its surface, as well as that of the female screw in the breech, is divided into six equal parts, from three of which the threads are removed; when the breech is to be closed the threaded portions of the plug are presented so that they come oppo site the smooth parts of the hole, and vice versa; the plug or stopper is then pushed in, and a third of a turn with the handle brings the screws of both parts together. No further changes were ma<le in the materiel of the field batteries before the war with Prussia in 1870, where the French guns for the first time in history were found far inferior to those of their opponents in range, accuracy, and power of execution, the weakest points about them being the want of flatness in the trajectory and the rapidity with which enlargements and lodg ments occurred in the soft metal of the bore. Their projectiles, too, were not effective, many bursting in the air or burying themselves in the ground without producing any effect, while the German percussion shells almost invariably ex ploded on touching the object. The striking superiority of the Prussian batteries with the Krupp breech-loaders was freely admitted by the French, and had a most important bearing upon the issue of the war. In this struggle the mitrailleuse or machine gun was introduced and extensively used by the French, in batte ries of ten pieces each, and with most destruc tive effects. The weapon is on the same gen- j eral principle as the Montigny mitrailleuse, j which has 37 barrels fitted and soldered into a wrought-iron tube, with a movable breech piece worked by a lever, and so arranged that ! the barrels can be fired simultaneously or at I any interval, reloading taking five seconds, and I ten discharges per minute being maintained if necessary. The Gatling mitrailleuse, adopted by the United States several years previously, has not been actually employed in war. Seve ral hundred new bronze breech-loading sevens were made in Paris during the siege and used with effect, and great attention has been paid since the war to the reorganization of the French batteries, it being intended to suppress the old muzzle-loading guns as soon as a definite breech- loading system can be determined upon. The regimental organization of artillery, which has been always maintained by the French and other great European powers, was abolished in Eng land in 1859, brigades of horse, field, and gar rison artillery taking its place; each brigade consists of eight batteries, the terms troop and company being done away with. In 1 802 the royal artillery was consolidated with that of the Indian army, the artillery establishment being then divided into 5 horse artillery brigades and 25 field and garrison brigades ; it now con sists of 6 horse, 8 field, 14 garrison, and 3 mixed brigades of fi^ld and garrison artillery ; to these must be added one depot and one coast brigade. The Armstrong system was adopted in 1859, after the unsuccessful debut of the Lancaster guns in the Crimea, and up to 1864 nearly $13,000,000 were expended in its development. Experience showed, however, that it was too complicated and would not stand the test of active service; the fermature of the breech loaders, 40. 20, 12, 9, and 6-pdrs., proved very defective, and the lighter calibres have been lately superseded by muzzle-loading rifles, 7, 9, and 1 6-pdrs., except in the horse batteries, where a few Armstrong guns are still retained. The heavier calibres, muzzle- loading 600, 300, 150, and 70-pdrs., have been replaced since 1867 by guns of the Frazer sys tem ; these new guns are .600, 400, 250, 180, and 115-pdrs., the corresponding calibres being 12, 10, 9, 8, and 7 inches; they are all rifled on the Woolwich system, the twist being uniform in the 7-inch, but increasing in the higher cali bres ; a 700-pdr. of 35 tons has been recent ly made, its calibre being 11^ inches. The 64-pdr. muzzle-loading rifled gun is of various constructions, Armstrong, Frazer, and Palliser converted cast-iron, the last being rather heavier than the others. All the heavy guns fire the Palliser chilled shot, cast-iron projec tiles with gun-metal studs, x except in those common to the various 64-pdrs., which have copper studs. During the past 20 years a number of different systems of rifled ordnance have been invented in England, the two most prominent being the Armstrong and Whit worth. Armstrong guns are both muzzle-loaders and breech-loaders, the fermature being only strong enough to apply to the smaller calibres. The latter are made by welding together at the ends wrought-iron tubes, made of spiral cords formed by twisting a square bar around a man drel and then welding; two additional thick nesses or tubes envelop it in rear of the trun nions to give it more strength, the outer of the same material as the inner, the inner one formed of an iron slab bent into a cylindrical shape and w elded at the edges ; the breech is closed by a vent piece slipped into a slot and held in its place by a breech screw, which presses against it from behind ; the screw r is tubular, so that the charge can be passed into the cham ber when the vent piece is withdrawn; the ARTILLERY 793 vent is in the breech piece, which can be easily renewed when the former becomes enlarged. In the large muzzle-loading Armstrong guns the barrel or part surrounding the bore is made FIG. 9. Armstrong Gun. of solid steel tempered in oil, which diminishes brittleness and adds to the tenacity ; the barrel in rear of the trunnions is enveloped by three layers of wrought-iron tubes, not welded to gether at the ends, but hooked to each other by a system of shoulders and recesses ; the tube around the barrel opposite the seat of the charge is called the breech piece, and is not made of spiral bars like the others, but has its fibres and welds longitudinal so as to resist the recoil of the barrel against the head of the breech plug screwed into the breech piece. The number of grooves in the breech-loaders is 34, and the twist one turn in 9 feet ; in the muzzle-loaders the grooves are from 3 to 10, and the twist from one turn in 80 to one turn in 38 calibres. The muzzle-loading Arm strongs were formerly rifled upon the shunt system, in which the grooves are much wider than the buttons on the projectile, except near the bottom of the bore ; that part or side of the groove passed over by the projectile in passing down the bore is deep enough to ad mit the buttons freely, while the other side is so shallow that the ends of the buttons are pressed against it as the projectile comes out, thereby forcing its centre or axis toward the axis of the bore. This system has altogether foiled in calibres larger than the 9-inch, and was finally abandoned in 1870 even for small calibres. In 1805 the French soft-metal stud and bearing system of ritiing was adopted for large muzzle-loading guns, under the name of the Woolwich system; after seven years trial it is not found to give general satisfaction, and will probably be changed. The Frazer gun is a modification of the Armstrong; the number of coils being lessened, cheaper iron used for the outer coils, which are shrunk on with the trunnion piece, and the arrangement of shoul ders and recesses, to prevent separation of the parts, being improved. Whitworth guns are made of a substance called " homogeneous iron," a species of low steel said to be made by melting short bars of Swedish iron and add ing a small amount of carbonaceous matter. The smaller Whitworth guns are forged solid ; the larger built up with coils or hoops, which are forced on by hydraulic pressure, being made with a slight taper and the ends joined by screw threads. The hoops are first cast hollow and then hammered out over a steel mandrel, or rolled out in a machine like that used for forming wheel tire ; before receiving their final finish, they are subjected to an an nealing process for three or four weeks, which, though making the metal very ductile, slightly impairs its tenacity; the breech pin is made with offsets in such a way as to screw into the end of the barrel and the next two surrounding hoops, the breech in the larger guns being hooped with a harder and higher steel than that used for the barrel. The cross section of the bores of the Whitworth guns is a hexagon with rounded corners, and the twist is very rapid. The projectiles are very long, those intended for armor punching being made of hardened iron or steel with very thick flat heads to prevent glancing ; shells of this kind have no fuse, the bursting charge being ignited by the heat generated by the violent blow of the projectile on the plate ; the powder before being inserted is wrapped in one or more thick nesses of flannel, thus interposing a slow con ductor between it and the heated metal, and delaying the explosion until the shell has com pleted its penetration. The principal Whit- FIG. 10. Whitworth Gun. worth guns are the 120, TO, and 12-pdrs. of G 4, 5, and 2*75 inches diameter respectively, and firing 151, 81, and 12-lb. projectiles. The Blakely gun combines in its construction the principles of initial tension and varying elasticity, the object being to bring the strength of all the metal of the piece into simultaneous play to resist explosion. The inner tube or barrel is made of low steel, having considera ble but not quite enough elasticity; the next tube is made of high steel with less elasticity. and is shrunk on the barrel with just sufficient tension to compensate for the insufficient differ ence of the elasticity between the two tubes ; the outer cast-iron jacket, to which the trunnions are attached, is the least elastic of all. and is put on with only the shrinkage obtained by wanning it over a fire. The steel tubes are cast hollow and hammered over steel mandrels, under steam hammers ; by this process they are elongated about 130 per cent., and the tenacity of the ARTILLERY metal is increased ; all the parts are annealed. Blakely guns are rifled with one-sided grooves, and are tired with expanding projectiles. The principal calibres are the 700, 550, 350, 250, 200, 120, and 100-pdrs., the diameters of the bore varying from 12 inches to 0*4 inches, and the weights of projectiles from 700 to 100 Ibs. Palliser s manner of making a gun consists in introducing into a cast-iron gun a hollow cylin der of coiled wrought iron, of such thickness in proportion to its calibre that the residual strain borne by the tube has such a relation to the strain it transmits to the surrounding cast iron as is best proportioned to their respective elasticities ; and by varying the thickness of the tube, the transmitted strains can be regulated with the greatest nicety. In the larger guns he proposes to use two or more concentric tubes; in the very largest, three tubes, the inner one to be of the softest and most ductile wrought iron, the next of a stronger and harsher quality, and the third of steel for some distance in front of the chamber. Old smooth- bored guns, chiefly f>8-pdrs., reamed out and strengthened in this way, have shown remark able endurance, and have been thus utilized in large numbers. Parsons s plan of conversion consists in introducing a tube with a jacket, both of steel, through the breech of a gun, which is afterward stopped up by screwing in a large cascabel ; though stronger than Palliser s method, it is much more expensive. Mon- crieffs counterpoise gun carriage is designed to shield heavy guns from direct fire, and enable them to be loaded under cover. Having given satisfactory results upon its trial in 1808, the British propose to use it extensively for coast defence, particularly in low sites where the batteries are but little above the water level. The top carriage rests on a strong bolt con necting two elevators, curved in rear, and with a box between them for the counterpoise, which is rather heavier than the gun. Upon firing the recoil makes the elevators roll backward on the chassis, the gun descending and the counterpoise rising. The weight of the latter gradually checks the motion and brings the piece to rest below the parapet, where a brake holds the elevators down until the loading is completed. During the past decade the Prus sian artillery has taken the foremost place, a consequence in great part of Krupp s ex cellent system of breech-loading rifled can non. The Krupp guns are made of cast steel, composed of puddled steel and pure wrought iron, melted in crucibles and then run into large ingots, which are worked under pow erful steam hammers ; the fermature consists of a ^ block sliding in a horizontal mortise crossing the bore, which is continued through the gun; the gas check is a steel ring, which by its expansion prevents the escape of the gas. In loading, the breech block is only drawn out far enough to allow the charge and projectile to pass through a hole in its end ; an exterior lever working on a hingo starts the block, which being guided by proper grooves can ow readily moved in or out. The rifling is poly- grooved, the lands being very much narrower at the breech, which relieves the initial strain FIG. 11. Krupp Gun. due to the forcing of the projectile into the grooves. % The various calibres are forged from a single ingot up to the 9-inch, in which the trunnion ring is a separate forging; the larger guns are built up by shrinking successive hoops of steel over a central steel tube, the fermature in the experimental 14-inch being slightly mod ified so that the charge and projectile are in serted at the side of the breech instead of through the end. The Krupp projectiles are of cast steel lead-coated, and take the rifling at four raised rings on their surface. The deep grooves cut in the steel to retain the lead re duce the strength of the shells so much that they can only contain very small bursting charges compared with those of other systems; the Armstrong and Whitworth 9-inch shells carrying charges of from 10 to 14 Ibs,, while that of the Krupp 9-inch is less than 4 Ibs. The Krupp cannon sometimes use Gruson s chilled iron projectiles. Krupp sixes and fours, firing 13 8-lb. and 8 5-lb. projectiles respec tively, were adopted in the Prussian field ar tillery in 1804, and gave so much satisfaction that they were exclusively nssd in the war of 1806 with Austria, although ono third of the Prussian batteries were then armed with the old 12-pdr. smooth-bore. In the late war with France the marked superiority of the Prussian field guns was greatly enhanced by the skilful manner in which they were han dled. The principal battles, from Weissen- burg and Forbach to Gravelotte, Beaumont, Sedan, and Metz, as well t as the engagements with the French army of the north and sec ond army of the Loire, were to a great extent a series of artillery combats ; and both French and Prussians attribute the unprecedented suc cesses of the latter mainly to the artillery, which whenever practicable was employed in mass. At Worth a grand battery of 96 guns covered the overwhelming attack on MacMa- hon ; near Gravelotte over 300 guns deployed on the road to the right of St. Privat and ARTILLERY 795 forced the French infantry to retire ; and at Sedan, the greatest artillery battle of the war, the fire of more than 750 guns repeatedly drove back the French troops, with the enor mous loss of 10,000 killed and 20,000 wound ed. The heaviest Krupp guns used at the siege of Paris were 6-inch (15-centimetre), weighing about 6,000 Ibs. and firing 55 to 60-lb. projectiles; they were opposed to the heaviest French naval guns. As a matter of economy, converted twelves and twenty-fours of bronze and cast iron are temporarily retained in the Prussian service for siege and reserve pur poses. The larger Krupp calibres are from 6 to 8, 8 to 0, 9 to 10, 11, 12, and 14 inches, most of them being used in both the land and naval services of Prussia. The 8-inch sea- coast gun (20 ( J-lb. projectile) can be used with great effect up to 1,800 yards against ships covered by 4-inch plates; and within the same range the 9-inch gun (297-lb. projectile) can do very serious injury to 6-inch armor plates ; up to 700 yards the 9-inch gun can breach an 8-inch shield, but at greater dis tances 11-inch guns must be employed, which, with their 495-lb. projectiles, are very effective against the heaviest ironclads at 2,000 yards. But two 14-inch guns have been made ; with an 150-lb. charge they fire shells weighing 1,080 Ibs., exclusive of a bursting charge of 17 Ibs., the weight of the solid shot being 1,212 Ibs. The 14-inch, with its carriage and turntable, weighs about 90 tons; the gun alone 112,000 Ibs., not quite as much as the American 20-inch Rodman. The English have always deemed steel guns dangerous, which is true so far as large solid steel guns are concerned ; the built- up guns of this material have however shown remarkable endurance, but in justice to other systems it should be stated that the Rodman prismatic powder, exclusively used in the Krupp gum ., gives extremely low pressures. In a recent competitive trial of endurance, how ever, between a 9-inch Krupp and a 9-inch Armstrong, both using prismatic powder, the German gun had a decided advantage. To Prussia also belongs the credit of the introduc tion of the new 8]-inch rifled mortar, the pro jectile having a bursting charge of 15 Ibs., and exploding by a percussion fuso; it was used during the late war at the sieges of Paris, Bel- fort, and other places, the precision of its fire being very remarkable. Russia adopted in 1859 French bronze rifled fours; these have been given up and replaced by Krupp fours and nines, as well as by bronze breech-loading fours and nines, the bores lined with steel tubes, made at the arsenals so as to utilize the old material. The fours weigh 765 Ibs., their pro jectiles 16 Ibs.; the nines 1,382 Ibs., and the projectiles 31 Ibs. The Krupp system has been also adopted for heavy guns, some of which are constructed by the government at the Ahukoff works near St. Petersburg; the 8 and 9-inch guns were the largest calibres up to 1868, when the 11-inch gun was added. Russia has also adopted the Prussian rifled mortar; there are two calibres, 8 and 6-inch, weighing 8,624 and 3,360 Ibs., with 195 and 90- Ib. projectiles, the charges being 19 and 8 Ibs. respectively. Immediately after the Italian campaign of 1859 the Austrians put in service field guns very similar to the French fours; later they had rifled guns on the Lcnk system, which were fired with guncotton instead of powder ; finally in 1863 they adopted an entirely new system of muzzle-loading bronze guns, of two calibres, eights and fours, weighing 1.099 and 580 Ibs. respectively, with 14 and 8-lb. projectiles. For mountain service bronze rifled threes are used, weighing only 185 Ibs. and firing a o-lb. projectile. The Krupp system has been adopted for all their heavy guns. Italy and Spain adopted without modification the French system of bronze muzzle-loading rifles, which in the latter country were replaced in 1868 by Krupp field pieces, some bronze breech-loaders being also made. Following the example of France, Spain had her large cast-iron cannon hooped to increase their dura bility, the results giving great satisfaction. The 8-inch Krupp is now included among her heavy guns, and in Cuba she has in service a great many large American cannon, Parrott rifles and Rodman smooth-bores. Belgium has Krupp fours and sixes with calibres of 3 and 3*5 inches ; her heavy guns are on the same system. The Krupp field guns are also used by Turkey, Ron- mania, and Servia, as well as in China and Ja pan. Switzerland, after adopting in 18G2 rifled muzzle-loaders, exchanged them in 1866 for steel breech-loaders. The Swedish, Dutch, and Danish governments, like the French, construct their large rifles of cast irdft hooped with steel ; some of them have shown great endurance, a Swedish rifle, it is said, -having been fired 1,100 times. In the United States cast-iron cannon attained an unrivalled degree of perfection. Gen. Rodman s model, which does not ma- FIG. 12. Rodman Gun. terially differ from that of 1858, was adopted in 1860 for all seacoast cannon; the exterior shape is remarkable for its simplicity and relative lightness, the parts being proportioned with reference to the exact amount and locality of the strain, to the entire neglect of the merely ornamental or traditional. Rodman s method of hollow casting having, in conjunction with 796 ARTILLERY his big-grained powder, obviated the main difficulties in making very large cast-iron can non, a 15-inch gun weighing 50,000 Ibs. was successfully cast in 1800, followed in 18G3 by a 20-inch gun weighing 115,000 Ibs. and firing a 1,080-lb. solid shot. The Rodman smooth-bores are the 20, 15, I- ), 10, and 8-inch, the last two being but temporarily retained in service until replaced by heavier guns ; only two 20 arid two 13-inch guns have been made for experimental purposes, but they have given favorable results. A large number of 15-inch Rodmans are now in service; the shell weighs 330 Ibs., the solid shot from 440 to 425 Ibs., the service charge being 100 Ibs., which will give an initial ve locity of 1,500 feet. The accuracy of the gun at 1,500 yards is as great as that of any rifle; its trajectory within this distance is flatter, and the projectile bein 2; round has greater precision in ricochet fire. On the other hand, rifles can project loaded shells of peculiar construction so as to penetrate and then explode in the ob ject ; their projectiles do not lose their velocity as soon as those of smooth-bores, so that they are more effective at long ranges; while if made of wrought iron or steel, though far more costly, they have much greater endurance than cast-iron guns. The experimental Rodman cast- iron rifles, 12 and 8-inch, the former having the exterior form of the 15-inch smooth-bore, were found not to possess the requisite strength, and the United States is now (1873) about to ex periment upon several other systems of rifled cannon, with a view to the adoption of that found most advantageous. The 20, 15, and 13- inch, and of late the 11-inch, naval guns have the Dahlgrcn exterior shape, but are cast hol low with the Rodman elliptical chamber. A 3-inch rifle muzzle-loading wrought-iron gun was adopted in 1801 ; it is made by wrapping boiler plate about an iron bar so as to form a cylindrical mass, which is brought to a welding heat in a furnace, and then passed between roll ers to thoroughly unite it ; the trunnions are afterward welded on and the piece bored and turned to the proper size and shape, the latter being of the general character of the Rodman pattern. Its weight is 820 Ibs., that of the projectile being only 10 Ibs., in which respect it does not compare favorably with the Prus sian, Russian, and Austrian fours, which fire a much heavier projectile in proportion to the weight of the piece. The 4^-inch rifle is simi lar in shape to the 3-inch, and was adopted about the same time : it is of cast iron cooled from the exterior, its weight being 3,450 Ibs., that of the projectile 30 Ibs., while the Russian nine, which only weighs 1,382 Ibs., fires a 31J- Ib. projectile. Though intended for siege and garrison purposes, it has been used with an army in the field in spite of its want of mobility. The Parrott muzzle-loading rifles are cast-iron pieces of ordinary dimensions, strengthened by shrink ing a wrought-iron hoop or barrel over that portion of the reenforce which surrounds the charge ; the cast-iron body in the larger cali- j bres is hollow-cast on the Rodman plan ; the i barrel is shrunk on by the aid of heat, the cast ; iron being prevented from expanding by a stream of cold water made to run through the bore. Parrott guns consist of 300, 200, 100, I 30, 20, and 10-pdrs., the diameter of the bores being respectively 10, 8, 6 4, 4-2, 3-67, and < 3 inches, and weights of projectiles 250, 150, I 86, 28, 19, and 10 Ibs. This system has not ! been adopted by the United States government, | though a great many Parrott rifles were used \ during the civil war, and a certain number of guns of the larger calibres are still temporarily retained. While some Parrott cannon have shown very great endurance and been largely used in breaching masonry and other siege operations, a number have burst, particularly in the navy, the accidents being mainly ascribed to the breaking and wedging of the projectile in the bore ; the inventor, however, now as serts that he has corrected this evil. At the beginning of the war a number of old 42 and 32-pdrs. were rifled on the Parrott system for temporary use, and served with projectiles of Fro. 13. Parrott Gun. j twice the weight of the corresponding round shot ; the 42-pdrs. only were hooped. The | Brooke gun, made and used by the confcde- i rates, is very similar to the Parrott in shape ! and construction, except that the hoop is made I of wrought-iron rings not welded together. I King s counterpoise gun carriage, recently tried j in the United States, was found to excel Mon- j crieff s in strength and simplicity, while giving equal protection to the piece and cannoneers. The counterpoise, connected with the top car- I riage by ropes and pulleys, is placed in a well j made in the parapet opposite the gun; the chassis slopes considerably to the rear, so as to 1 form an inclined plane for the descent of the ! piece and top carriage ; as the recoil forces them | back and down, the counterpoise rises in the well until its weight suffices to bring the piece to rest behind the parapet. The counterpoise being heavier than the gun, the cannoneers have no difficulty in making it run up into battery after throwing the eccentric wheels into gear. An improved form of the ribaudequin or organ gun of the loth century, temporarily in the United States service, received favorable men- \ tion at the siege of Charleston in 1863, under the name of the Requa rifle battery; it con- j sisted of 25 horizontal barrels in an iron frame, ARTILLERY ARTOIS 797 a sliding bar in rear worked by two levers forcing the cartridges into the chambers. Gat- ling s mitrailleuse or machine gun was adopted just too late to be used in the war. It is com posed of six barrels, a hand crank causing them to revolve about a central axis parallel to their bores ; as each barrel comes opposite a certain point a self-primed metal-cased cartridge, fall ing from a hopper, is pushed into the breech by a plunger, where it is exploded by the firing pin. The machinery is simple and not apt to get out of order, and the gun can fire 200 shots a minute with great range and precision. There are two calibres in the United States service, 1-inch and l|-inch, the former firing, besides the ^-lb. bul let, a cartridge containing 1C smaller projectiles, which at short ranges is highly effective. As the weight of the Gatling gun (1,000 Ibs.) is very great compared to that of the charge, there is little or no recoil, and when once pointed it requires hardly any adjustment. It is an admirable arm against night attacks, as FIG. 14. Gatling Gun. well as to sweep flanks of fortifications, bridges, streets, breaches, &c., and is in general use in the United States for the defence of military posts on the Indian frontier. The Gatling gun has been also adopted by England, Russia, Austria, Turkey, and Egypt. The light guns employed by the United States troops during the civil war consisted of 3 -inch wrought-iron rifles, 3-inch Parrotts. and 12-pdr. Napoleon guns; the last, though abandoned in Europe, being still retained in the American service. Heavy rifled guns played a very prominent part in siege operations, the reduction of Fort Pulaski demonstrating that at 2,400 yards they can breach the best constructed brick scarp ; at Fort Sumter the barbette fire was entirely destroyed and the work badly crippled by 14 Parrott rifles (300, 200, and* 100-pdrs.)* at ranges varying from 3.428 to 4,290 yards. Ver tical fire was largely used also on both sides. In April, 1862, Fort Jackson, Louisiana, was bombarded at from 2,950 to 3,980 yards by 19 13-inch mortars from the mortar flotilla under Admiral Porter ; the fire was exceedingly ac curate, and at the end of seven days made the place untenable. At the assault alter the ex plosion of the mine at Petersburg, July 80, 18(54, 10 10-inch mortars, using case for the first time in America, prevented an annoy ing confederate battery from firing a single shot. The little 24-pdr. Coehorn mortar proved very useful, particularly at the sieges of Charles ton and Petersburg. This war also presents various instances of the employment of artil lery masses. At Malvern Hill, July 1, 18(12, the repeated assaults of the confederate infantry were handsomely repulsed by a grand battery of more than 150 guns under Gen. Barry, chief of artillery, posted on the heights to the west of the plateau. At Chancellor.sville, May 2-8, 1863, after the rout of Howard s corps, the vic torious confederates were checked and driven back by 24 pieces in mass hastily collected from different corps ; and at the same time another battery of 38 guns assembled near Fairview under Col. Best, chief of artillery of the 12th corps, did great service in keeping back the enemy. At Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863/120 confederate guns under Gen. Pendleton, chief of artillery, opened on the left of the Union army preparatory to an assault. Their fire was, however, too much dispersed; and although Gen. Hunt, chief of artillery, could only bring 80 pieces to reply, he was able to render most efficient assist ance to the infantry in repulsing both of their grand columns of at tack. Rapid as the development of artillery has been since 1850, we are still in a period of transition due to the successful introduction of rifled cannon. This condition of change has also necessarily extend- ! ed to the science of fortification, which must f conform to the offensive capacities of artillery. : (See CANXOX, GUNXEEY, and GUNPOWDEE.) ARTIODACTTLES, a name given by Owen to the even-toed division of the ungulata or hoofed, herbivorous animals, including the ru minants or the two-toed animals which chew I the cud, like the cow, sheep, antelope, camel, and the fossil anoplotherium, and the omniyo- | rous mammals like the hog. In the opposite ! division of the perissodactylcs, there is an odd number of toes : either one, as in the solidungu- i late horse and hipparion ; three or five, as in 1 the multungulate tapir, rhinoceros, and pala?- i otherium; or five, as in the proboscidian ele phant and mastodon. ARTOIS, a former province of northern France, which, with a small portion of Picardy, ; now forms the department of Pas-de-Calais. : It lay principally between Flanders on the X. E. and E. and Picardy on the S. W. ; area, about 1,800 sq. m. The*land is here almost level, and 798 ARTOT ARUNDEL the soil is exceedingly fertile, owing to the abun dance of streams. Artesian wells receive their name from Artois, where they have been com mon for many years. (See PAS-DE-CALAIS.) Artois was named from the Atrebates, its origi nal inhabitants. After being subject from the 5th to the 9th century to the Franks, it was made in 863 a part of the dowry of Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, when she mar ried Baldwin of Flanders, but it was restored to France when Isabella of Hainault married Philip Augustus in 1180. Louis IX. made it a county in" 1236, under his brother Robert as count. Artois was henceforth governed by Robert s descendants, male and female; but one of the latter marrying a Flemish prince, the county became part of Flanders until the treaties of the. Pyrenees and of Nirneguen (1659 and 1678), when it was again made part of France. Before his accession to the throne (1824) and after his abdication (1830) Charles X. bore the title of count of Artois. ARTOT, Joseph, a Belgian violinist, born in Brussels in 1815, died in Paris, July 20, 1845. When a mere child, he was able to execute very difficult pieces on the violin. In the con servatoire at Paris, he won at the age 13 the first prize for violin playing. After travelling over Europe with marked success, he associated himself in 1843 with Mme, Damoreau, and they gave concerts in the United States, soon after which he died. ARUNDEL, Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel and Surrey, an English patron of art, born July 7, 1592, died in Padua, Oct. 4, 1646. Un der Elizabeth he enjoyed by courtesy the title of Lord Multravers. The titles forfeited by the attainder of his father were restored in 1603 ; he was created earl marshal in 1621, and earl of Norfolk in 1644. He served as privy coun cillor, lord high steward at the trial of Lord Strafford, envoy to the queen of Bohemia and I the states general of the Netherlands, and am bassador extraordinary to the emperor Fer- | dinand II. lie is best remembered by his i gallery of statuary, which he commenced | during his residence in Italy (1607- 14), and for the collection of which he sent John Evelyn to Rome, and Mr. (afterward Sir) William Petty to Greece and Asia Minor. The English am bassadors at the Hague, Turin, Brussels, and | Madrid also aided in its formation. Petty ac- | quired valuable works at Paros, Delos, and Smyrna, particularly the celebrated Parian Chronicle, a long, oblong slab of marble, with | important chronological records. The Arun- delian collection, when entire, comprised 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 marbles with in- ! scriptions, exclusive of sarcophagi, altars, and fragments ; it included also gems, medals, and other intaglios which Lord Arundel had pur chased at Venice from Daniel Nys for 10,000. During the civil war (1 642), when he returned to Italy, part of the collection, chiefly the gems, j were believed to have been removed by him ; I while of those confiscated by parliament, a i number were said to have been secured by the Spanish ambassador in London, through the medium of Cromwell, for removal to Spain. On Lord Arundel s death his personal estate was divided between his eldest son Henry and his second son Sir William, the celebrated Viscount Stafford, who was executed in 1680. His grandson Henry, 6th duke of Norfolk, in 1667 presented the inscribed marbles forming a part of his moiety to the university of Oxford, at the instance of Evelyn and Selden. The statues, chiefly the busts, were in 1755 pre sented to the university of Oxford by the coun tess dowager of Pomfret, into whose possession they had passed. Other works of the Arundel collection were scattered; some went to Chis- wick House, others to Beaconsfield, to Fawley Court, to the Norfolk seat at Worksop Manor, &c. The divorced duchess of Norfolk, by whom the busts and statues were sold, was also the owner of the cameos and intaglios, which finally passed to the duke of Marlborotigh and are known as the Marlborough gems. Lord Arunders favorite bronze head of Homer, which is introduced into his portrait by Van dyke, was purchased by Lord Exeter and pre sented by him to the British museum. The greater part of the Greek inscriptions in the Arundel collection at Oxford were, according to Gassendi, discovered by Peiresc at Smyrna previous to their having been secured by Petty. They were increased by Selden s private col lection and other contributions to 150 in scribed marbles of various descriptions. It is proposed to remove both the Arundel and Pomfret marbles from the rooms beneath the Bodleian library, where they now are (1873), to the new Oxford museum. The Parian Chronicle was executed at Paros about 263 B. C., and contains chronological records from 1582 to 264 B. 0. Celebrated among Lady Pomfret s contributions to the collection are a colossal torso of a Minerva, and several statues of Roman senators, including one supposed to represent Cicero. At the suggestion of Sir Richard Cotton, and in concert with two em inent scholars, Selden published Marmora ArundcUana (1628). An edition by Prideanx of the whole set of inscriptions, issued in 1676 under the title of Marmora Oxoniensia, ex Arundelianis, Seldenianis, &c., was repub- lished with additional comments by Mattaire in 1732. In 1763 a new and splendid edition was published under the auspices of Dr. Chandler of Magdalen college, including ancient inscrip tions collected by various learned travellers and engravings of 167 marbles, 103 of which belonged to the Pomfret donation. Among the other valued authorities on the subject is Bockh s Corpus Inscriptionum Gra carum, The Arundel society in London, for the multi plication of fine chromotint copies of remark able monuments of the old masters, was founded in 1849, and has given a wide and cheap circu lation to works of art which had been pre viously accessible only to the rich. AltUNDELIAN MARBLES ARYAN LANGUAGE 99 ARODELIAN MARBLES. See ABUNDEL, THOM AS HOWARD. ARUNDELL, Blanch, daughter of the earl of Worcester, and wife of Lord Thomas Arundell, died in 1649, aged 66. With only 25 men she for nine days defended Wardour castle against 1,300 of the parliamentary troops, and finally made an honorable surrender, the conditions of which were broken by the victors. Her tomb is in the chapel of the castle. ARWIDSSON, Adolf Ivar, a Swedish poet, born at Padasjoki in Finland, Aug. 7, 1791, died at Viborg, June 21, 1858. He was in structed in history at the university of Abo, where he founded in 1821 t\\e Abo Morgoriblad, a literary and political journal. This enter prise was unsuccessful, as the Russian gov ernment suppressed the publication in a few months, on account of its outspoken judgments of the acts of the authorities. Soon after this Arwidsson published a political essay in the Mnemosyne, which was of such a tone as to lead to his immediate banishment. He went to Sweden, secured a position in the royal li brary at Stockholm, was made its chief libra rian in 1843, and continued in this office till his death. In the last years of his life the Russian decree of banishment against him was annulled, and it was while taking advantage of this to revisit Finland that he died. His principal works are : Ungdoms Rimfrost ( " The Hoar frost of Youth," Stockholm, 1832), a collection of poems ; an excellent collection of Swedish folk songs under the title Svenslca Fornsdnger ("Ancient Swedish Songs," 3 vols., 1834- 42); Stockholm forr och nu (" Stockholm formerly and now," 1837- 40); and a translation of the Icelandic Friiliiofs Saga (2d ed., Stockholm, 1841). ARYAN RACE AND LANGUAGE. Arya (San skrit, dry a ; Zend, airy a] is a name by which the cultivated race of parts of S. W. Asia (Iran and India) anciently called itself, by way of distinction from the ruder aborigines by whom it was surrounded or among whom it had intruded itself; and the adjective Aryan is now commonly used to designate collectively the principal tongues and races both of the re gion indicated and of Europe. Ariana, Iran, Iron, and other kindred appellations, are de rived from it; its own derivation is wholly ob scure, and the various conjectures formed re specting it are not worth reporting here. At tempts have been made to trace it also in European use, but they have not been success ful. It is, then, strictly applicable only to the Asiatic or Indo-Pe-sian division of the family, and it is so applied by the great majority of German authorities, with many French, Eng lish, and others; while the whole family is styled Japhetic, or (oftenest by the Germans) Indo-Germanic, or Indo-European : it is doubt less the unwieldiness of the last two names that has given superior currency of late to Aryan. The Aryan family of languages is divided into seven principal branches : 1, Germanic or 1 Teutonic ; 2, Slavo-Lithuanic or Letto-SIavic ; I 3, Celtic ; 4, Italic (Latin, &c.) ; 5, Greek ; | 6, Iranian or Persian ; 7, Sanskritic or Indian. That all the languages mentioned do really form one family together, as common descen- ; dants of a single original, is beyond all question ; 1 the correspondences which they exhibit, both of material and of structure, are such as admit of no other explanation. The comparative I study of languages shows that there may he between any two even unrelated dialects a cer tain number of resemblances purely accidental ; , also, that one may borrow from another either single scattering words, or, under the influence i of mixture of races or of influence exercised by I conquest or by superiority of civilization, whole parts of a vocabulary ; but only common <le- I scent can account for resemblances that reach even into, and are most conspicuous in, the I whole series of numerals, the personal and ! other pronouns, the words of relationship, and the like; and, yet more, that reach into the j apparatus of verb and noun inflection, and of ! derivation. On the other hand, there is no ! amount and degree of discordance which may not arise between languages originally one, but | long separated and growing apart. The difter- i ences between English and Irish and Polish and Hindi are merely greater in amount and i degree than between English and Dutch and German, covering up and disguising more effectually the common basis which really underlies the one series as well as the other, and making a more thorough and skilled search necessary to its discovery. By way of speci men of the correspondences of Aryan language, we give below the forms in all the brandies of one word out of each class mentioned above : English. Slavic, Lithuania, Celtic, Latin, Greek, Iranian, Sanskrit, three, tri, tri, tri, tres, treis, thri, tri, me. man. manen, me, me, me, me, ma, mother. mater. motcr. math air. matfr. meter. matar. matar. In verbal conjugation, relics of the original i personal endings mi, ti, si in the singular, and masi, tfisi, nti in the plural, are more or less distinctly traceable in all the branches, espe- cially among the older dialects. It is needless | to go further in this illustration : the compara tive grammars of Bopp and Schleicher give a ! complete exhibition of the accordant ground- | work and superstructure, phonetic and gram- | matical, of the whole body of languages in- I eluded in the family ; and a host of less com- ! prehensive works show in like manner the con nection of one and another branch with the rest. It is held by those who have studied j Aryan language most successfully, that its en- tire structure is developed out of monosyllabic i elements, usually called roots. These were of two classes: predicative or verbal, indicating action or quality ; and demonstrative or pro- ; nominal, indicating position or direction. By i the combination of these two, especially, were 800 ARYAN RACE AND LANGUAGE grammatical forms made and parts of speech distinguished. The addition of pronominal | endings to verbal roots made a verbal tense , in three numbers (the dual perhaps of later j origin than singular and plural, and mostly lost j again in the later languages), with three per- | sons in each. The prefixion of an " augment " (doubtless a pronominal adverb, meaning "then") made of this a past tense; but this augment-preterite has left only scanty and doubtful relics, except in Indo-Persian and Greek. Another past tense, or perfect, was formed by reduplicating the roots, apparently to signify completed action. This is the original of the Greek and Latin perfects, our ( " strong " or irregular) preterite, &c. Futures were made later, with auxiliary verbs; one, from/, "go," apparently passed over into a modal use, as an optative, and was succeeded by another, from as, "be." A subjunctive mood, of more doubtful derivation, was added ; and an imperative, probably limited at first to the second person. This, along with parti ciples or verbal adjectives (for the develop ment of distinct infinitives, verbal nouns, was probably later), appears to have been the whole primitive structure of the simple verb ; a cau sative conjugation, besides, has had important developments in the derived tongues. The de clensional inflection (of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns) distinguished also three numbers, and (including the vocative) eight cases in each number ; or, besides the six we know in Latin, an instrumental, denoting with or by, and a locative, denoting in. Into this inflection was introduced further a distinction of sex : first, by the special characterization of a feminine ; later, by the additional separation of a neuter (which in general differs from the masculine only in nominative, accusative, and vocative). From the original basis of sex, however, there was a very wide departure even in the primi tive period, the system of grammatical gender becoming very complicated and artificial. The declension of pronouns was in many points ir regular ; there were as yet no relative pro nouns, that order having grown later out of the demonstratives or interrogatives. Of the other parts of speech, the adverbs alone were a fully formed class ; prepositions were still only adverbial prefixes to verbs ; conjunctions were very few, and only the merest connec tives, the construction of sentences being of the simplest character ; articles did not come into existence till comparatively modern times. Numerals had been produced at least up to a hundred ; as to thousand, the case is very doubtful. The apparatus of noun and adjec tive derivation, in both primary and secondary suffixes, was already elaborated in its principal features ; conspicuous examples are the endings of comparative and superlative, and of par ticiples. This primitive structure of Aryan language has been variously modified, reduced, and added to, in the later history of the family ; it was most fully and distinctly preserved in the Sanskrit, which on that account casts most light upon the common history of all ; but there are points in which each branch leads the rest. On the whole, the tendency has been toward a reduction of earlier synthetic structure, and a prevalence of analytic methods of expression, by the substitution of prepositions for case- endings, and of auxiliaries for verb inflections, and by the multiplication of relational words. Of all the languages of the family, the English has gone furthest in this direction. Aryan language is called distinctively " inflective " (as is also Semitic, although its inflectiveness is of a very different character). By this is meant that it not merely forms combinations from elements originally independent, reducing one of them to a subordinate position, as "forma tive element," indicating a modification or re lation of the other or radical element ; but that it also peculiarly integrates or unifies the com bined elements, losing sight of and disguising their separate individuality, and even allowing the radical part to become modified within itself by the addition of the other : thus, San skrit vid, Teda, vaidilca ; Greek AE/TTW, ehnrov, /.e^onta ; Latin fid, jfldo, fcediis ; English (where the endings have disappeared) sing, sang, sung, song. It is matter of dispute among linguists whether such changes are by origin purely phonetic, or symbolically significant : the former appears to be the better opinion. The unity of Aryan language necessarily im plies the former existence of a unitary Aryan people ; that is, at some time in the past there must have existed somewhere in the world a single limited community, in whose use the language above described grew up and took shape, and by whose extension and separation it became so widely spread and so diversified as we find it actually to be ; but when and where, it is impossible to say with any definite- ness. The greatest antiquity we can attain in the history of the family is 3000-2000 B. 0., when the Indians and Persians formed together one people. The oldest parts of the Vedas may be as old as 2000 13. C. ; of the Avesta, considerably less. We have no trustworthy scale as yet with which to measure chrono logically the changes of language; and our I opinions of the time of Aryan unity must be I governed greatly by our opinions as to the j wider question of the antiquity of man ; the I former is variously estimated at from three up to five or ten thousand years before Christ, As I to the place, current opinion is inclined to fix it on the highland of central Asia, near the head waters of the Ox us and Jaxartes ; and I this situation is claimed to be pointed out by ! the evidence of the language itself. That, I however, is by no means the case ; the mere fact that Indo-Persian language is less changed from original Aryan than is the speech of any other branch (which is all the linguistic evidence ! that can be alleged) does not at all prove that the Indo-Persian common abode is nearest to the original aoode of the family ; the changes ARYAN RACE AND LANGUAGE 801 of language arc not dependent on and measured by "emigration. It is in reality only the testi mony of the Bible as to the place of origin of the whole human race, and the long-rooted opinions which have grown up partly under its influence, partly under that of the known growth and spread of civilization, that have led men to look to southwestern Asia as the cradle of the Aryan race and speech. Some recent scholars, rebelling against these influences, have fixed it rather in Europe ; but there is nothing of definite value to say for this view. With reference, however, to the degree of cultivation reached by the Aryan mother tribe before its separation, more definite and trust worthy information is obtainable : by inference, namely, from the words which, as occurring in all or nearly all the branches, must be sup posed to have formed a part of the primitive vocabulary. The items of such information were first" put together by A. Kuhn ; Pictet later produced an elaborate but uncritical and untrustworthy work on the subject ; the last attempt at reconstruction of the Aryan vo cabulary is by Fick. The main facts established are that the tribe was already far past savagery, having all the principal domestic animals that we have, practising the arts of weaving and agriculture, being acquainted with one or two metals (whether iron is not certain), and pos sessing some of the most important cereals ; it was rather pastoral-agricultural than nomadic in its way of life. It is, of course, vain to attempt tracing the history of dispersion and migration of the branches of the dismembered family into their present seats ; but such dis persion must have taken place mainly by grad ual spread and unconscious separation, not by a deliberate parting and marching off in different directions, as some seem to please themselves with fancying. Even the grade of kinship between the branches is not made out beyond dispute. That the Sanskrit-speaking race of India parted from the Iranians, on Iranian territory, and entered India by the northwest, not very long before the Vedic period, is, indeed, universally acknowledged. And the closer relationship of Greek and Italic, on the one hand, and of Germanic and Letto- Slavic, on the other, is quite generally held ; but which of these two pairs stands nearer to the Asiatic is a matter of less unanimity of opinion, though with a preponderance to the side of the classic tongues. The place of the Celtic, again, is still more disputed : some con nect it closely with the Italic, others rather with the Germanic, &c. ; while yet others re gard it as quite separate from all. These are matters which will doubtless be determined by and by; and their determination may throw more light than we have at present upon the general course of the movements of the family. There may have been other branches, as inde pendent as the seven mentioned, but driven out of existence in the course of the historical changes that time has brought ; it is doubtful VOL. i. 51 whether the Albanian, or Shkipetar, is not a relic of such a branch, the Illyrian ; after long doubt, the best authorities at the present time appear to set it down as Aryan. What other races may have earlier occupied a part of the present seats of the Aryans is also mainly matter for conjecture ; but that the latter have encroached upon the domain of Finno-Hun- garian (" Turanian ") tribes in northern, and of Iberians (Basques) in southwestern Europe, does not admit of question. More or less of mixture with aboriginal races is a natural or unavoidable result of such wide extension ; so that Aryan speech is likely to be everywhere purer than Aryan blood ; and there may be nations or tribes in which, by successive in termixture, Aryan blood is in a minority, even a decided one ; yet it is not at all to be questioned that, on the whole, the present geographical limits of the family have been reached by the growth and spread of the original Aryan community. No hypothesis of borrowing, or of the dominating influence of one tribe, propagating and imposing its own idiom through wide regions, can possibly ex plain the facts of the case ; such influence is absolutely impossible without high culture, aided by literature and the art of writing, of which there are no traces in the pre-historic Aryan period. One of the evidences that there is a unity of race as well as of language among the branches of the Aryan family, is the emi nence, historical or literary, or both, which most of them have won among mankind. The family was far from being the first to rise to impor tance, but it has reached a higher place, and maintained itself there more persistently, than any other. The Persian empire may be re garded as the earliest appearance of an Aryan people as a leading actor in the drama of his tory ; then Greek and Roman supremacy fol lowed one another ; and in the modern era, it is the European nations of this kindred, with their colonies, that have been and are almost monopolizing the progressive force of humanity. India has lived a more isolated life, but a grand and notable one ; and, through Buddhism, it has powerfully influenced a great part of Asia. This historical importance of the Aryans con stitutes one great source of the importance and interest belonging to the study of their languages. Another is the high rank of those languages themselves, as being confessedly the most perfect instruments of human expression and aids to human thought. Moreover, the immense range and variety of Aryan dialects, taken in connection with their high develop ment and with the legibility of their history, have made the study of this family the train ing ground and the basis of general linguistic science. For more detailed discussion of the matters presented here, see the " Lectures on Language " of Professors Max Miiller and W. D. Whitney ; the second volume of Duncker s Geschichte des Alterthums ; Pictet s Origines indo-europeennes ; and Fick s Vergleichcndes 802 ARZACHEL ASBESTUS WdrterbucTi der IndogermaniscJien SpracJien. The last two, with Bopp s and Schleicher s comparative grammars, have been mentioned above. The relations of Latin and Greek re spectively to the family have been best set forth by Oorssen, Lateinische Sprache, and G. Curtius, Griechische Etymologic. ARZACHEL, Abraham, a Jewish astronomer, born at Toledo, Spain, flourished about 1060. He wrote a work on the obliquity of the zodi ac, and determined the apogee of the sun. The famous Alfonsine astronomical tables, prepared in 1252 by order of Alfonso X. of Castile, were derived in part from the writings of Arzachel. Several of his works are extant in Latin. ARZAMAS, or Arsamas, a town of European Russia, capital of a district, in the government and GO m. S. of the city of Nizhni Novgorod, on the Tyesha; pop. in 1867, 10,517. It is an old town, and has 34 stone churches, a fine cathe dral built in 1812- 41, several convents, manu factures of silk, linen^ iron, and leather, and two annual fairs. AS, a Roman weight, equivalent to the libra of 12 ounces. It was also the name of a Ro man brass coin, originally an as in weight, but reduced at successive times, until it weighed but half an ounce ; it was stamped at first with the figure of a sheep, ox, or sow, afterward with the face of Janus, and a ship s prow. AS, or Asa (Norse, plur. ^E^ir ; Ger. plur. Aseri), in northern mythology, a member of the ruling race of gods, 12 male and 12 female, including Odin, Thor, Baldur, Freyr, Frigga, Freyja, Idunna, Eira, and Saga, who dwelt in Asgard. (See MYTHOLOGY.) ASA, the third king of Judah, reigned 41 years, about 957-916 B. 0. He was the son and successor of Abijam, and great-grandson of Solomon. He distinguished himself by his opposition to the forms of idolatry which had become prevalent in the preceding reigns. Be ing assailed by Zerah, an Ethiopian king, with an immense army, Asa won a complete vic tory, and for ten years enjoyed peace. Then he became involved in a war with Baasha, king of Israel, and, at the cost of the accumulated treasures of the temple, induced the king of Damascus to enter into alliance with him. His reign was upon the whole a prosperous one. He was succeeded by his son Jehoshaphat. ASAFCETIDA (also called stercus diaboli and cibus deorum), a resinous gum derived from the root of the narthex asafocMda, a plant of the family unibellifero}, which grows in Persia, Afghanistan, and neighboring regions. It yields all its virtues to alcohol. Triturated with water, it forms a w r hite or pink milky emulsion. Its peculiar property is its strong disagreeable odor and taste. This resides in the volatile oil it contains, which may be sepa rated by distilling the aqueous or alcoholic so lution. The oil is said to contain from 15 75 to 23 per cent, of sulphur. Asafoetida is used in Persia as a condiment for flavoring sauces and food. The leaves are eaten and the root roasted for the same purpose. It is used in medicine as an expectorant and antispasmodic or nervous stimulant. It is supposed to act beneficially in Narthex usafoetida. hysteria, flatulence, and some spasmodic affec tions of the respiratory organs. (See AXTI- SPASMODICS.) The volatile oil is undoubtedly absorbed, as is shown by the odor being per ceptible in the breath and other excretions. ASAPH, a Levite, appointed by David as lead ing chorister in the musical services which he organized in connection with divine worship. The duty thus assigned him descended by a certain succession in his family, constituting them a kind of order parallel with the priest hood, though not equal to them in dignity or influence. The "children of Asaph" appear still in the times of Ezra and Neheiniah as holy singers. Asaph is called in Chronicles a seer (hozeK), and twelve psalms (1. and Ixxiii.- Ixxxiii.) are attributed to him. Another Asaph was chancellor of King Hezekiah. ASBEff, in Africa. See AIE. ASBESTUS (Gr. aafieoTos, a substance unaffect ed by fire, from a privative and cj3vvvfj.t, to quench), a term used rather to denote a pecu liar form assumed by several minerals than to designate any particular species. Tremolite, actinolite, and other forms of hornblende, ex cepting those containing much alumina, pass into fibrous varieties, the fibres of which are sometimes very long, fine, flexible, and easily separable by the fingers, and look like flax. These kinds, like the corresponding mineral pyroxene, are called asbestus. Pliny supposed it to be a vegetable product, although good for making incombustible cloth, as he states. The amianthus of the Greeks and Latins was the same thing ; the word meaning undefiled, and alluding to the facility of cleaning the cloth by throwing it into the fire. The colors vary from white to green and wood-brown. The name amianthus is now applied usually to the finer and more silky kinds. Mountain leather is a ASBURY ASCAPJDES 803 kind in thin flexible sheets, made of interlaced fibres, and mountain cork the same in thicker pieces ; both are so light as to float on water, and they are often hydrous. The individual crystals of asbestus are easily separated from each other, are very flexible and elastic, and have a fine silky lustre. A single fibre fuses into white enamel glass ; but in the mass it is capable of resisting ordinary flame, and has hence been extensively applied in the manu facture of fire-proof roofing, flooring, steam packing, clothing, and lamp wicking. The ancients were familiar with its incombustibility, and wove a cloth out of it for the purpose of wrapping up the bodies of the dead when ex posed on the funeral pile ; they also made nap kins of it, which were cleaned by throwing them into the fire; and they employed the finer varieties for the wicking of votive lamps. Gloves for handling hot iron and firemen s clothing have been made of it in Bohemia and France ; and at one time it was thought that an important industry would grow out of this application, but experience has developed some practical difficulties, and asbestus fabrics are now a curiosity. The use of this material for a non-conducting envelope of steam pipes, for fire-proof roofing, and for safes, bids fair to become extensive. Asbestus occurs abundant ly in Switzerland, Italy, Scotland, on the island of Corsica, on Staten Island, and in numerous | other localities. A magnesian-iron hornblende j called anthophyllite frequently occurs as a ! bowlder on the island of New York, and has ! been found in situ at the corner of 59th street and 10th avenue. ASBURY, Francis, the first bishop of the Meth odist Episcopal church ordained in America, born at Handsworth, Staffordshire, England, Aug. 20, 1745, died at Spottsylvania, Va,, March 31, 1816. At the age of 14 he was apprenticed to a mechanic ; but through the influence of the Methodist preachers who visited his father s house, he was led at the age of 16 to commence his labors as a local preacher. In 1767 he I joined the itinerant ministry, and after three I years of home service was sent in 1771 as mis- j sionary to America, and the next year was ap- ! pointed by John Wesley general assistant in ! America. He reinvigorated the itinerant sys- ! tern, and sent missionaries into wide ranges of | country to preach and found new societies. On j the outbreak of the revolutionary war, many | of the clergy of the church of England and j some of the Methodist preachers returned to j England. Among the latter, in 1778, went T. j Rankin, who had succeeded Asbury as general j assistant. Asbury resolved to remain in Ameri- | ca. In common with many others, he was from j conscientious scruples a non-juror. From this ! cause, and from the eflfect of Mr. Wesley s "Calm Address, &c.," Asbury and his Metho dist coadjutors were regarded with suspicion by the^ struggling colonists, and often molested in their work ; his prudence however at length al layed prejudice. On the return of peace it was deemed expedient to establish an independent Methodist Episcopal church for America. Ac cordingly, on Sept. 2, 1784, Thomas Coke was j duly ordained by Mr. Wesley and two other I English presbyters superintendent of the Meth odist societies in America, with instructions to | ordain Asbury as joint superintendent. On I Dec. 27, 1784, after unanimous election by the | American preachers, he was inducted into of fice. For more than 30 years his personal his tory is the history of the progress and develop ment of Methodism in America. In middle life he was of robust frame, of medium stature, with a fresh and healthful countenance, and a keen, penetrating eye that told of his wonder ful insight into character. Though not privi leged with the culture of the university, he had acquired a moderate knowledge of the Greek and Hebrew languages. In connec tion with Coke, he devised a plan for a com plete system of academic and collegiate educa tion, and as early as 1785 laid the foundations for the first Methodist college in America. As an organizer and administrator Asbury was only inferior to Wesley, by whom he had been instructed, and much of whose spirit he had imbibed. During his American ministry he travelled over 270,000 miles through the entire extent of the country; he preached about 16,- 500 sermons, or nearly one each day for 45 years ; he presided at 224 annual conferences, and ordained more than 4,000 preachers. The organization, discipline, and marvellous pro gress of Methodism were largely due to the sagacity, administrative ability, and untiring activity of Asbury. Through the itinerant system, of which he was the reinvigorator and life-long illustrator, the spiritual destitution of our pioneer population was relieved. He was never married. His only literary works are his "Journals" (3 vols. 8vo), an invaluable record of his remarkable life. , ASCALON (Heb. AshMon ; Arab. Askalan\ one of the five leading or princely cities of Philistia, was situated midway between Gaza and Ashdod, on the Mediterranean, about 37 m. S. W. of Jerusalem. Though several times mentioned in the poetical books of the Scrip tures, it figured less conspicuously in the early history of the Hebrews than in that of the Maccabees and the crusades. It was twice taken by Jonathan the Asmonean, was the scene of a great victory of the Christians under Godfrey and Tancred in 1099, was taken by Baldwin III., king of Jerusalem, in 1153, and was recaptured by Saladin in 1187. By treaty between Richard and Saladin (1192) it was destroyed jointly by the Mussulmans and Chris tians. The wine of Ascalon is celebrated by Pliny. Near the town stood in antiquity a famous temple of Derceto, the Syrian Venus, of which, however, no trace remains now. Altogether, as Zephaniah predicted, Ascalon has become "a desolation." ASCARIDES (Gr. dmeapfr), a term used by Hip pocrates, and now applied to several nematoid 804 ASCENSION" ASCHERSLEBEN" worms which infest the intestines of man and animals : the ascaris vermicular is, mawworm or pin worm, which infests the rectum or low est intestine; the tricocephalus dispar, or long thread worm, found in the ca3cum or upper part of the large intestines ; the A. lumbri- coides, or large round worm, mostly found in the small intestines. The body of the large round worm is long, elastic, and fusiform, or tapering at the two extremities; the anterior being somewhat obtuse and furnished with three tubercles, which surround the mouth. (See EXTOZOA.) ASCENSION, a S. E. parish of Louisiana, inter sected by the Mississippi river and bounded N. E. by the Amite river and E. by Lake Maure- pas; area, 420 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 11,577, of whom 7,310 were colored. The parish consists chiefly of an alluvial plain. A great -part of the land is subject to frequent inundations, and is extremely fertile, particularly on the banks of the river. In 1870 the parish produced 160,542 bushels of Indian corn, 981 bales of cotton, 15,926 Ibs. of rice, 6,423 hhds. of sugar, and 308,587 gallons of molasses. Capital, Don- aldsonville. ASCENSION DAY, a festival of the Roman Catholic and Episcopal churches, kept in com memoration of the ascension of Jesus, recorded by the evangelist to have happened on the 40th day after his resurrection. It is kept on Thurs day, and the day is also called Holy Thursday. It has been observed at least since A. D. 68. In the 5th century Mamertus, bishop of Vienne, instituted a three days preparation for this festival. This occupies the three days imme diately preceding Holy Thursday, which are called rogation days. ASCENSION ISLAND, an island about 8 m. in length and 6 in width, lying in the south Atlan tic ocean, in lat. 7 56 S., Ion. 14 25 W. It is of volcanic formation, mountainous, and was barren and uninhabited until the imprisonment of Napoleon at St. Helena, when it was occu pied by a small British force, who have con tinued to cultivate and improve it. Its shores supply a vast number of turtles. It serves as a depot and watering place for ships. ASCH, a town of Bohemia, situated near the frontiers of Saxony and Bavaria, 14 m. N. W. of Eger; pop. in 1869, 9,405. It is the seat of an important industry, especially in silk and woollen goods. Formerly the "dominion of Asch," embracing an area of 41 sq. m., was an immediate territory of the German empire ; in 1331 it was made a fief of the Bohemian crown, but received in return a promise of a perpetual exemption from taxes ; its entire incorporation with Bohemia did not take place till 1770. ASCHAFFENBURG, a city of Bavaria, in the circle of Lower Franconia, on the right bank of the river Main, which is here crossed by a handsome stone bridge, 23 m. E. S. E. of Frank fort; pop. in 1871, 9,212. It has a fine palace, the Johannisburg, formerly the residence of the electors of Mentz. Among the other nota ble buildings are the Stiffs Kirche, erected in 980, and the Pompejanum or Pompeian house, which Louis I. built from 1842 to 1849 in imi tation of the house of Castor and Pollux at Pompeii. Aschaffenburg was a town as early as the 8th century, and in the middle ages often appears in history. During the war between Prussia and Austria, in 1866, an engagement took place at Aschaffenburg on July 14, in which the Austrians were defeated, and 2,000 of their troops were cut off from retreat and captured in the city. ASCHAM, Roger, an English scholar, born in Yorkshire in 1515, died Dec. 30, 1568. He was of humble parentage, and was brought up by Sir Anthony Winglield, with whose sons he was educated. In 1534 he graduated at St. John s college, Oxford, where he gained a fel lowship. Ascham early embraced Protestant principles. In 1537 he became a college tutor, and was appointed by the university to read Greek in the public schools. When Henry VIII. founded a Greek lectureship Ascham was appointed to it, and in 1544 was made uni versity orator, a post which obliged him to prepare all addresses and write the complimen tary and business letters to great men. For this his elegant Latinity particularly qualified him. In 1548 Ascham was appointed teacher of learned languages to the lady Elizabeth, afterward queen. He continued in her house hold two years, when he quitted her suddenly from a pique against persons in her establish ment. In 1550 he was appointed secretary to Sir Richard Morysine, the English ambassador to the emperor Charles V., which appointment he retained for three years, until the death of Edward VI. and the ambassador s recall. While abroad, he travelled in Germany, visited Italy, and wrote the results of his travels in " A Report and Discourse of the Affaires of Germa ny." On his return in 1553 he was appointed Latin secretary to the queen, and on the death of Mary he was continued in his office by Eliz abeth, who required his services as tutor in the languages, in which he read with her several hours each day. He wrote a small treatise on archery, entitled "Toxophilus," and dedicated it to Henry VIII., who ordered him an annual pension of 10 for it. He also wrote "The Scholem aster," a treatise on the study of languages, which was first published by his widow. His letters to Oxford during his stay abroad were also collected and published. His works were published entire, Oxford, 1703, and his English writings, London, 1815, with a life by Dr. Johnson. ASCHERSLEBEN, a town of Prussia, in the province of Saxony, about 32 m. S. by W. of Magdeburg, on the river Eine ; pop. in 1871, 16,734. It has manufactures of woollen and linen. In the middle ages the counts of Asca- nia (a district including the present circles of Aschersleben, Ermsleben, and Ballenstedt) re sided here, and the ruins of their castle are still in existence on the neighboring Wolfs berg. ASCIDIANS ASH 805 ASCIDIANS. See MOLLUSCOIDS. ASCLEPIADES, called from his native country Bithynus, a physician, born at Prusa in Bithy- niu in the 2d century B. C., flourished in Rome in the early part of the 1st. He first studied rhetoric and philosophy, hut afterward aban doned them for the study of medicine. Though his system contains some rules approved by modern science, such as reliance upon gentle measures, diet, fresh air, &c., he seems to have attained success rather by indulging the whims and caprices of his patients, flattering their prejudices, and caring for their comfort, than by any ability of his own. After successful practice in several Grecian cities, he went to Rome, where he gained great fame and wealth. He is said never to have been ill, and to have died at a great age by an accident. He left sev eral disciples, who attained considerable promi nence as teachers of his doctrines. ASCOLI. I. A city (anc. Asculum Picenum) of central Italy, capital of the province of Ascoli Piceno, on the right bank of the Tronto, 18 m. "W. of the Adriatic and 87 m. N". E. of Rome ; pop. about 11,000. It is well built, and has a citadel, a Jesuit college, a museum, library, and a number of private palaces. Its harbor, Porto d Ascoli, at the mouth of the Tronto, is de fended by two forts, and is frequented by coast ing vessels. II. Ascoli Piceno, a province of cen tral Italy, formerly belonging to the papal territory, and now constituting one of the four provinces of the Marches ; area, 808 sq. m. ; pop. in 1872, 203,009. Part of the province is traversed by branches of the Apennines and by numerous valleys watered by the Tenna, Aso, Tesino, Tronto, and other rivers. The chief products are corn, wine, oil, honey, silks, wool, and fish. III. Ascoli di Satriano (anc. Asculum Apulum), & town of S. Italy, in the province of Capitanata, situated on the E. slope of the Apennines, 65 m. E. X. E. of Naples ; pop. about 6,000. Near it Pyrrhus in 279 B. 0. gained a great victory over the Romans ; and in 1190 Count Andrea, general of the emperor Henry VI., was defeated here by Tancred and slain. The ancient town was on a branch of the Appian way, and considerable remains ex ist outside the modern town. ASCOT HEATH, a race course in Berkshire, England, 26 m. from London and 6 m. from Windsor, near the London and Southwestern railway. The annual meeting in June is one of the principal events of the turf. The first prize is a gold cup valued at 500. ASELLI, or Asellio, Gasparo, an Italian anato mist, born in Cremona about 1580, died in Mi lan in 1626. He was professor of anatomy in the university of Pavia. In 1622, while dem onstrating the recurrent laryngeal nerves by the dissection of a dog, he first observed the lacteal vessels as a congeries of white cords disseminated through the mesentery; and on opening one of them with the point of the scal pel, the milky chyle flowed out, and the dis covery of the absorbent vessels was accom plished. Before that period the mesenteric veins were supposed, as in the time of Galen, to collect from the intestines all the nutritious j products of digestion and to carry them to the i liver, where they were worked up into the I perfected blood, and the blood thence dissemi nated, through the rest of the venous system, ! outward to the whole body. A part of the ! blood only, passing to the heart and lungs, was j thought to be arterialized, and so sent out through the arteries from the left ventricle, as the venous blood was sent out through the veins. The discovery of Aselli consisted sim ply in finding a new set of mesenteric vessels which took up from the intestines the chyle alone, and conveyed it toward the central or gans. He did not detect their real ultimate course, but supposed them to terminate in the liver, which still remained the supposed organ for the elaboration and perfection of the blood. It was only some years later (see PECQUET) that the independent course of the lacteals and lymphatics was ascertained, passing through | the receptaculum chyli and the thoracic duct | to the left subclavian vein. Aselli, however, | was the pioneer in this discovery, and the sub- | sequent success of others depended on the facts demonstrated by him. They are embodied in his dissertation De Lactibus sive Lacteis Venis (Milan, 1627). ASGILL, John, an English lawyer and writer, I born about 1655, died in London in 1738. After acquiring considerable reputation in Lon- | don in his profession and as a political and legal | pamphleteer, he went to Ireland in 1699, where i he was elected to the Irish parliament. Before , taking his seat, however, he was expelled, Oct. I 11, 1703, for blasphemy in his pamphlet on the j possibility of avoiding death, u An Argument j proving that, according to the Covenant of i Eternal Life revealed in the Scriptures, Man may be translated hence into that Eternal Life without passing through Death " (London, \ 1700), which was publicly burned. Returning j to London in 1705, he was elected in 1707 to I the English house of commons; but he was | also expelled from this for the same cause. He passed the last 30 years of his life in prison for debt, continuing to transact professional busi- I ness, and publishing numerous pamphlets. ASH, a name applied to four genera of forest trees. I. Fraxinus (Gr. ^pd^f, separation, from the wood being used for fences, or from the facility with which it splits), of the family : oleacem, Juss., dicecia diandria, Linn. Polyga mous, calyx minute, 3 to 4 cleft ; corol deeply 4-parted or none. Stamens 2 to 4 ; pistillate flowers ; ovary superior, compressed, 2 -celled, with 2 ovules each ; capsule with a membrana- ceous lanceolate wing (samara), 1-seeded by abortion ; seed pendulous. Most of the species are indigenous in North America (more than ; 30 E. of the Mississippi), many in Europe, few i in Asia (one in Nepaul). Most are large trees, affecting shady and moist places, banks of riv- ; ers, or marshes ; they prosper less in barren and 806 ASH bleak localities. The wood of most species is tough and elastic, and is used by wheelwrights, carriage-makers, and ship-builders, for many purposes. The most important species are the following: F. acuminata (Americana, discolor, white ash) ; leaves pinnatifid, leaflets petiolate, oblong, 3 to 4 pairs and 1 odd one, acuminate, shining, entire or slightly toothed, glaucous beneath, downy when young ; grows 60 to 75 feet high. This furnishes the best wood of all. It flourishes from Canada to Carolina, and is believed to be an antidote to snake poison. F. sambucifolia (black or water ash) ; leaves large ; leaflets 7 to 9 pairs and 1 odd, sessile, ovate, lanceolate, rounded at base, rugose, shi ning and smooth above, villous beneath on the veins ; 60 to 66 feet high. F. tomentosa (pu- lescem, red ash) ; leaflets 7 to 9 pairs and 1, elliptic, acuminate, nearly entire, very long; petioles and young branches downy. It fur nishes good wood, more reddish than that of the others. F. juglandifolia (viridis, swamp ash); leaves very large, leaflets 4 pairs and l, petiolate, ovate, serrate, glaucous beneath, pu bescent on veins ; a small tree. Michaux and Nuttall describe 7 more species and some varie ties, among which F. quadrangulata (blue ash), of Tennessee and Kentucky, attaining TO feet in height, with valuable wood, and F. Oregona, attaining 80 feet, are the most remarkable. In Europe the principal species is F. excelsior (common ash), attaining 90 feet, with excellent wood, though inferior to the Americana. On its leaves swarm cantharides (Spanish flies), spreading a disagreeable smell. A variety with drooping branches (weeping ash) is grafted on tall stems, and converted into an arbor shading all around. II. . Ornus (Gr. bpiv6(;, mountain ous) of Persoon (fraxinus ornus, Linn., flow ering ash), of the same family with fraxinus, filaments; stigma emarginate; fruit winged, 1 -celled, 1 -seeded; leaves opposite, unequally pinnate ; flowers in terminal or axillary pani cles. It grows in shady woods in Europe, N. Asia, and America. Among the American species, 0. dipetala and 0. Americana are most remarkable. In Europe, 0. rotundifolia exudes the manna, a sweet substance which differs from sugar by not fermenting with water and yeast, and serves as a purgative medicine. The best manna is collected in Calabria and Sicily. The lilac and olive can be successfully grafted on the species of fraxinus and ornus. The cultivated species of omits are often grafted on fraxinus excelsior; and as ornus grows the more rapidly, a curiously protuberant stem is formed, and may by alternate grafting be made to take grotesque shapes. III. Sor~bus (its bark being supposed to be an absorbent in consumption), of the family pomacem, Juss., icosandria 2-5 pentagynia, Linn., classed under the genus pyrus. Calyx tubulous, urceolate, limb 5-parted ; petals roundish ; styles 2 to 5 ; drupe closed, 5-celled, with cartilaginous putamen ; cells 2-seeded. The species are : P. or S. Americana (mountain ash) ; leaves Mountain Ash. but of the class diandria monogynia, Linn. Calyx 4-parted ; corolla 2 or 4-parted, segments long, ligulate ; stamen inserted, with 2 barren Oak -leaved Mountain Ash. pinnatifid ; leaflets oblong, lanceolate, acumi nate, somewhat serrate; common petiole very smooth; flowers white, in terminal corymbs; fruit globose, yellowish red, persistent almost .all winter. It grows in Canada and the northern states. P. microcarpa (small-fruited) extends from New York into Carolina; smaller than the preceding; fruit scarlet. S. aucvpa- ria (rowan tree), common in the forests of 1ST. Europe ; grows up to 25 feet ; fruit edible, after being frost-bitten and kept in hay for some time. The fruit of other species also affords food to many birds. Only one species (on the Sandwich islands) is known in the tropical regions. The fruits of many con tain malic acid, and the flowers, bark, and root of aucuparia yield hydrocyanic (prussicj acid. ASH ASHBURTON 80 The wood is valuable for many uses, and the branches were employed by the. Druids in their rites. IV. Xanthoxylum (Gr. %av66q, yellow, and ZV?MV, wood), of the family xanthoxylacece, Juss., dmcid pentandria, Linn. X. Caroli- nianum (prickly ash, toothache tree), a mid dle-sized tree with prickly branches. X. ma- crophyllon (pterota, bastard ironwood), in Ar kansas and Florida ; from 15 to 20 feet high. This species, as well as others (called yellow wood, satin wood, &c.) of much greater size, have hard, cross-grained wood. ASH, John, an English Baptist divine, born in 1724, died in 1779. He was pastor of a con gregation at Pershore, in Worcestershire, and published " A New and Complete English Dic tionary" (2 vols. 8vo., London, 1775). ASHANTEE, the most notable of the existing savage kingdoms on the W. coast of Africa. Its boundaries are not accurately defined ; but approximately the kingdom may be consider ed the region fronting the Gold Coast, between lat. 5 and 10 X. and Ion. 1 and 6 W. Un til the commencement of the present centu ry Ashantee was unheard of by Europeans, for the Fantees, a hostile tribe, occupied the coast. In 1807 Osai Tutu was king of Ashan tee. He appears to have subjugated many of the neighboring tribes. Two of his tributary chiefs having fled to the Fantee country, Osai demanded that they should be given up to him. The demand was refused, and the Ashantee messengers were put to death. Osai thereupon made an incursion into the Fantee country, which he ravaged down to the coast. The British, who had a fort at Anamboe on the coast, undertook to shelter the flying Fan- tees. The Ashantees invested the fort and compelled the British governor to ask for peace. This peace was of brief duration. In 1817 the Ashantees again invaded the Fantee country, and took possession of it, their acqui sition by right of conquest being recognized by the British governor of the fort. In 1823 the Fantees, encouraged by the British, rose against the Ashantees, who again marched into their country. Sir Charles McCarthy, the British governor of the Gold Coast, undertook to chas tise the invaders. A sharp action took place, Jan. 21, 1824, in which the British were de feated, the commander and nearly all his offi cers being killed. The victorious Ashantees came near capturing the British stronghold of Cape Coast Castle; but sickness coming on, they were obliged to withdraw to their own country. Since that time the Ashantees have kept aloof from the seaboard, but appear to have extended their dominion into the interior. Now and then travellers have made their way to Koomassie, the Ashantee capital, in lat. 6 51 X., Ion. 2 16 W. They report that the government is an absolute despotism. The king is the great property owner, and is the legal heir of all his subjects. Slavery exists on a large scale, many of the nobles having as many as 1,000 slaves. Up to within a few years the i slave trade prospered and gave a large income I to the masters ; but now that the trade has ! declined, slavery seems likely to die out. Po- \ lygamy may be considered the special institu- ! tion of Ashantee. The importance of a man is j measured by the number of his wives; for these ! are the cheapest laborers. The king, it is said, I is limited to 3,333 wives, who during the work- ; ing season are scattered over his plantations. : While at home in the capital they occupy two streets, where they are secluded from all but the king and his female relatives ; any other person who looks upon one of them, even by accident, is punished by death. As to their ! religion, human sacrifices seem to constitute ! the distinguishing feature. The soil is fertile, I producing every kind of tropical grains and fruits. The abundance of gold displayed as ornaments shows that mines are common ; many of the richest, however, are held sacred to the divinities, and so not worked. Among the special industries may be mentioned a beautiful fabric of cotton, woven in strips four inches wide, and afterward sewn together. A considerable commerce is carried on between i Koomassie and Hoossa, Bornoo, Timbuctoo, and other points in the interior ; the principal i exports are gold dust and ivory. The popula- 1 tion is estimated to reach, or even -to exceed, I 3,000,000. (See GOLD COAST.) ASHBURTON, Alexander Baring, baron, an Eng- ; lish merchant and statesman, born Oct. 27, | 1774, died May 13, 1848. He was the second son of Sir Francis Baring, who sent him to the United States, where he married in 1798 the eldest daughter of William Bingham of Phila delphia. After his return to England, he pub lished in 1808 a pamphlet relating to the orders in council and to the conduct of Great Britain toward the neutral commerce of America, which passed through several editions. From ! a partner he became on the death of his father . in 1810 the head of the house of Baring, and | was a member of parliament from 1812 to | 1835, when, after having been for four months president of the board of trade and master ; of the mint, he was raised to the peerage under the title of Baron Ashburton, which had i become extinct in 1823 on the death of his I first cousin. (See DUNXIXG, JOHN.) In the S house of commons he had opposed the reform ! bill, and in the house of lords he opposed the i repeal of the corn laws. The unsettled con- | dition of the northeastern boundary question ! led Sir Robert Peel to send him on a special mission to the United States, where he con cluded, Aug. 9, 1842, the so-called "Ashbur- ! ton treaty." It was assailed by the opposition in England, led by Lord Palmerston, as the i " Ashburton capitulation ; " and in the United ! States, Mr. Webster was charged with having been overreached ; but public opinion on both . sides of the water has sanctioned it as a satis factory adjustment of difficult matters of con- j troversy, some of which had embarrassed- the ; relations of the two countries for 60 years. 808 ASHBY DE LA ZOUCH ASHER The extraordinary compliment of a vote of thanks for a diplomatic achievement was paid to Lord Ashburton, on the motion of Mr. Hume in the house of commons, and of Lord Broug ham in the house of lords; and an earldom was offered to him, which he declined. The negotiations were facilitated hy his high char acter and intelligence, by his amiable disposi tion, and by his excellent personal relations with Daniel Webster, then secretary of state, one of whose grandsons was named after him. Lord Ashburton was a privy councillor, a trus tee of the British museum, and D. C. L. of Ox ford. Talleyrand at one time confided to him the custody of his memoirs, and presented him with Canova s bust of Napoleon. He died at the country seat of his daughter Harriet, the widow of the marquis of Bath. His wife, who was a woman of superior accomplish ments, died about six months after him. His eldest son, WILLIAM BINGIIAM BAKING, Lord Ashburton, who was a member of parliament for 17 years and held various official positions, died March 23, 1864; and his brother FRANCIS, the 3d baron, died Sept. 6, 1808. The present and 4th baron, ALEXANDER HUGH BAKING, is the son of the latter. ASHBY DE LA ZOUCH, a market town of Lei cestershire, England, 15 m. N. W r . of Leicester; pop. 3,800. It is a place of resort for its salt water baths, and has an ancient church and the remains of a fine castle, in which Mary queen of Scots was once imprisoned. ASIIDOD (the Azotus of the Greeks and Ro mans ; now called Eadud), one of the five chief Philistine cities on the Mediterranean coast, lying midway between Ascalon and Ekron, about 10 miles from each. It is 21 m. S. of Jaffa, and 32 W. of Jerusalem. Its Hebrew name signifies a stronghold, and as it lay in the only practicable route between Egypt and As syria, its possession was of great importance in all the wars between those powers. The Hebrews were never able to hold it for more than a brief period. About 715 B. C. it was taken by the Assyrians, and 85 years later was retaken by the Egyptians, after a siege by Psam- metichus which Herodotus states to have lasted 29 years. It remained a place of some conse quence 1,000 years more, for Azotus was the seat of a bishopric, the incumbent of which had a place at the councils of Nice and Chalcedon. In the time of Jerome, about A. D. 400, it was a small unwalled town. Travellers of the last century describe it as an inhabited site, marked by ancient ruins, such as broken arches and partly buried fragments of marble columns, with what appears to be an ancient khan, the principal chamber of which has been used as a Christian church. This ruined khan, to the west of the present village, marks the site of the acropolis of the ancient town, and the grove near it alone protects the site from the shifting sand of the adjoining plain, which threatens to overwhelm the spot. ASHE, a N. W. county of North Carolina, bordering on Virginia and Tennessee, bounded E. and S. E. by New river ; area, about 300 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 9,573, of whom 582 were colored. It is a mountainous region, with portions good for grazing, but is general ly not fertile. In 1870 the county produced 16,341 bushels of wheat, 32,311 of rye, 120,545 of Indian corn, 42,350 of oats, and 23,211 Ibs. of wool. Capital, Jefferson. ASHE, John, an officer in the war of the American revolution, born in England in 1721, died in North Carolina in October, 1781. He was six years old when his father emigrated to Amer ica and took up his abode in Newton, now Wil mington, N. C. He was several times a repre sentative in the colonial assembly, of which body he was speaker from 1762 to 1765, and is said to have been the first to suggest the provincial con gress, in which he occupied a prominent posi tion. He joined the army at the first outbreak of hostilities, led a force to destroy Fort John son in 1775, and as brigadier general took part in the movements of Lincoln on the Savannah in 1778 and 1779. In the latter year he suf fered a severe defeat at the hands of Gen. Pre- vost, at Brier Creek. He was made a prisoner in 1781, but was released on parole. ASHER, the eighth of the sons of Jacob, and the second by Zilpah, the handmaid of Leah. The name signifies "happy." The tribe of Asher at the exodus numbered 41,500 males over 20 years of age, being exclusive of Levi the ninth in order of number, Ephraim, Manas- seh, and Benjamin only being below it. Be fore entering Canaan, the numbers of the tribe had increased to 53,400, making it the fifth. The territory allotted to the tribe of Asher was on the seashore, from Carmel northward, with Manasseh on the S., Zebulon and Issachar on the S. E., Naphtali on the E., and Syria on the N. Its assigned N. boundary on the seashore was a little N. of Sidon ; but the Asherites were unable to expel the Sidonians and the other Phoenicians within their limits, with whom they appear to have lived on friendly terms. Their territory contained some of the most fer tile portions of Palestine, including a part of the great valley of Esdraelon. Asher and Simeon were the only tribes W. of the Jordan which furnished no judge or hero to Israel. In the time of David the tribe had become so in significant that it is omitted from the list of the chief rulers ; and in the time of Hezekiah it is mentioned with a kind of surprise that some from the tribe of Asher came up to the passover at Jerusalem. END OF VOLUME FIRST. S OF VOLUME I. PAGE A, a letter 1 A, in music 1 AA, several rivers 1 Aachen. See Aix-la-Chapelle. Aalborg 1 Aak-n 2 Aali Pasha 2 Aalst. See Aclst. Aalten 2 Aar 2 Aarau 2 Aard-Vark 3 Aard-Wolf. 3 Aargau 3 Aarhuus 4 Aaron, high priest 4 Aaron, a physician 4 Aarsens. Frans van 4 Aasen. Ivar Andreas 4 Aasvar 4 Ab 4 Ababdeh 4 Abaco. Great 4 Abacus, in architecture 5 Abacus, a cupboard 5 Abacus, a mystic staff 5 Abacus, a calculating machine 5 Abad I. Ill 5 Abaddon. See Apollyon. Abaka Khan 5 Abana 5 Abancourt, Charles Xavier Joseph d 5 Abano, Pietro d 5 Abarbanel. See Abravanel. Abarca. Joaquin 5 Abarim 5 Abascal, Jose Fernando 5 Abauzit. Firmin 6 Abbadie, Jacques 6 Abbadie. Antoine Thomson and Ar- naud Michel d\ . . 6 PAGE Abbott, Austin 10 Abbott, Lyman Abbott, Edward Abbott. Charles, Lord Tenterden. Abbreviations. . . . Abd . . Abbas I., the Great Abbas ben Abd-el-Mottalib Abbas Mirza Abbas Pasha Abbassides Abbatucci, Jacques Pierre Abbatucci. Charles . Abbatucci, Jacques Pierre Charles. Abbe Abbeokuta ;... . Abbess Abbeville. France A bbeville county Abbo CVrnuus Abbo Floriacensis Abbot .... Abbot. Abiel, D. D A bbot. Bcniumin. LL. D Abbot, Charles, Lord Colchester Abbot, George Abbot, Gorhain Durnnier, LL. I) Abbot Samuel 9 Abbotsibrd 9 Abbots-Langley 10 Abbott, Jacob 10 Abbott, John Stephens Cabot 10 Abbott, Gorhain. See Abbot. Abbott, Benjamin Vaughan 10 10 11 11 11 12 Abdallah ben Abd-el-Mottalib 12 Abdallah ben Zobair 12 Abd-el-Halim 13 Abd-el-Hamid 13 Abd-el-Kader 13 | Abd-el-Wahab 14 ! Abdera 14 Abderrahman 1 14 I Abderrahman, sultan of Morocco. ... 14 i Abdias 14 j Abdication 15 Abdomen 15 Abdul-Aziz 1 Abdul-Medjid i Abecedarians A Becket. Gilbert Abbott Abeel, David, D. D Abegg, Julius Friedrich Ileiurich . . . Abel Abel de Pujol, Alexandra Denis Abel de Pujol, Adrienne Marie Louise Grandpierre Deverzy Abe lard, Pierre " .. Abelites Aben Abenaquis Abencerrages Abendberg Aben Ezra Abensberg Aberbrothwick. See Arbroath. Abercroinbie. James Abercrombie. John. M. D Abercromby, Sir Ralph Aberdare Aberdeen, New Aberdeen, Old Aberdeen, Earls of Aberdeen, Sir George Gordon, 1st Earl of Aberdeen, George Hamilton Gordon, 4th Earl of. Aberdeen, George Hamilton Gordon, 6th Earl of Aberdeenshire Aberdevine Abernethy. John Aberration of Light Aberration in Optical Instruments.. . Aberystwith Abeyance Abiad, Bahr el. See Nile. Abiathar.... Abib Abich. Wilhelm Hermann Abimelech (two) Abinger. James. Lord Abington, Frances Abipones Abjuration. Oath of. Abkhasia Ablution Abner . . PAGE Abo ... 27 Abo-Bjorneborg 27 Aboiney ^7 Aborigines, American. See Ameri can Indians. Abortion 27 Aboukir . . . . 30 About. Edmond 30 Abracadabra 30 Abraham 31 Abraham a Sancta Clara 81 Abrantes 31 Abrantus, Andoche Junot, Duke of. . 31 Abrantes, Laure Permon Junot, Duchess of 31 Abrantes, Napoleon Andoche Junot, Duke of 32 Abrantes. Adolphe Alfred Michel Ju not. puke of 32 Abrantes. Josephine Junot d 32 Abrantes. Constance Junot d 32 Abravanel, Isaac ben Judah 82 Abraxas 32 Abruzzo 33 Abruzzo Citeriore 83 Abruzzo Ulteriore I. and II 33 Absalom 33 Absalon 33 Abscess 33 34 : 1 84 85 85 87 38 88 17 17 19 Absinth 19 Absolon, John 19 Absolute .... 20 Absolution 20 Absorption 20 Absorption of Gases 20 Absorption of Heat Absorption of Light 20 Absorption Spectrum 8S 20 Abstinence 39 20 Abstinence, Total. See Total Absti- 21 nence. 21 Abt. Franz 41 22 Abubekr 41 22 Abul-Casim. See Albucasis. Abulfaragius. Mar Gregorius 41 22 Abulfeda. Ismail ibn Ali 41 Abu Sambul. See Ipsambul. 22 Abu Shehr. See Bushire. Abu Temam 41 22 Abvdos (two) 41 22 Abyla 42 23 Abyssinia 42 23 Abyssinian Church 48 23 Acacia 49 24 Academy 49 24 Academy, Italian 50 24 Academy. French 50 Academy. Spanish 52 25 Academy, Portuguese 52 25 Academy, German 52 25 Academy, Switzerland 52 25 Academy, Belgium 52 25 Academy, Holland 52 25 Academy, Scandinavian 52 26 Academy, Russian 53 26 Academy. British and Irish 53 21! Academy. Turkish Empire 53 26 Academy. Australian 53 26 Academy, Asia. 53 11 CONTEXTS PAGE Academy, American 53 Academy, Itio Janeiro 54 Acadia 54 Acalepho? 54 Acanthus 54 Acapulco 54 Acarnania 55 Acarus 55 Acastus 55 Accad 55 Acceleration 55 Acceleration of the Moon 55 Acceleration of the Stars 56 Acceptance 56 Accessory 58 Acclimation 59 Acclimatization 59 Accolti, Benedetto 60 Accomack county 60 Accordion 6 ) Accra CO Accrington 60 Accubation 60 Accum. Friedrlch 01 Aceldama 61 Acephalocyst 61 Acetates 61 Acetic Acid 61 Acetylene 6- Achaean League 62 Aclueaus 63 Acluemenes (two) 63 Achaia 63 Achard. Franz Karl 63 Achard. Louis Amedee Eugene .... 63 Achates 63 Achates, a river 63 Acheen 63 Achelous 64 Achenbach, Andreas 64 Achenb ach, Oswald C4 Acheron (three) 64 Acherusia 64 Acht-rv, Dom Jean Luc d 1 64 Achilles 64 Achilles Tatius (two) 65 Achinet. See Ahmed. Achmim. See Ekhmim. Achromatic Lens 65 Acid 6(5 Acilius Glabrio, Manius 66 Aci Kcale 66 Acis 66 Ackermann. Konrad Ernst 66 Ackermann. Sophie Charlotte 66 Acland, John Dybe 60 Acland, Henry Wentworth 67 Aclinic Line CT Acoemetfe 67 Acolyte 67 Acoma 67 Aconcagua, a province 67 Aconcagua, a mountain 67 A conite 68 Aconite. Winter 68 Acomtia. See Aconite. Acosta, Jose de 69 Acosta, Uriel 69 Acosta, Joaquin 69 Acoustics 69 Acquaviva, Claudio dc 72 Acquaviva delle Fonti 72 Acqui 72 Acre 72 Acre. St. Jean <T 72 Acrelius, Israel 73 Acroceraunia 73 Acropolis.. . 73 Act. See Bill. Acta Diurna 73 Acta?on 74 Acta Eruditoruin 74 Acta Sanctorum 74 Actian Game 74 Actinia 74 Actinism 75 Actinometer 76 Action 76 Actium 77 Acton, Sir John Francis Edward. . . 77 Acton Burnell 78 Acts of the Apostles 78 PAGK Acuna, Cristobal de 79 Acupuncture 79 Ada county 79 Adairco., Ky 79 Adair co.. Mo 79 Adair co.. Iowa 79 Adair, Sir Robert 79 Adal 79 Adalbert (three) 80 Adalbert, lleinrich Wilhclm SO Adalia 80 Adam 80 Adam. Adolphe Charles SO Adam, Albreeht 80 Adam, Alexander 81 Adam of Bremen 81 Adam de la Halle 81 Adamawa 81 Adamites 81 Adams co., Penn 81 Adams co., Miss 82 A cams co.. () 82 Adams co., I ml 82 Adams co., Ill 82 Adams co., Iowa 82 Adams co., Wis 82 Adams co.. Neb 82 Adams township 82 Adams. Charles Baker 82 Adams. Charles Francis 82 Adams, John Quincy 83 Adams. Charles Francis. Jr 84 Adams, Henry Brooks 84 Adams. Edwin 84 Adams, Hannah 84 Adams, John 84 Adams, John 97 Adams, John, LL. D 98 Adams, John Couch 98 Adams, John Quincy 98 Adams, Nehemiah. 1). D 106 Adams, Samuel 106 Adams. William, I). D 110 Adams, William T 110 Adam s Peak 110 Adana 110 Adanson, Michel Ill Adar Ill Adda Ill Adder. See Viper. Addington county Ill Addiifgton. Henry, Lord Sidmouth . Ill Addington, Henry Unwin. . . Ill Addison county Ill Addison, Joseph 112 Adel. See Adal. Adelaar 112 j Adelaide 113 | Adelaide, Eugenie Louise 113 j Adelaide, Saint 113 I Adelsberg 114 Adelung, Johann Christoph 114 i Adeluug, Fried rich von 114 j Aden 114 Aderno 115 Adet, Pierre Auguste 115 Adhesion 115 Adijro 117 Adipocere 117 Adipose Substances 118 Adipose Tissue 119 Adirondack Mountains 120 Adit. Adjutant 122 Adjutant Bird. See Marabout. Adlerberg, Vladimir, Fedorovitch, Count 123 Adlerberg II., Alexander, Count. . . 123 Adlerberg III., Nicholas 123 Adlercreutz, Karl Johan. Count.. .. 123 Adlersparre, Georg, Count 123 Adlersparre, Karl August, Count... 123 Admetus 123 Administrator. See Executor. Admiral 124 Admiralty 124 Admiralty Islands 128 Admonition 128 Adobe Houses 128 i Adolphus, John 128 ! Adolphus. John Lycester 129 i Adolphus, Frederick 129 Adolphus of Nassau 129 Adonai 129 Adonia 129 Adonis 129 Adoptiani 130 Adoption 130 Adour 130 Adowa lyo Adrastca 131 Adrastus 131 Adria 131 Adrian, a city 131 Adrian, a Eoman emperor. See Hadrian. Adrian I. VI., Popes 131 Adrianople 132 Adriatic Sea 132 Adullam 132 Adulteration 132 Adultery 134 Advancement of Science, Associa tions for the 137 Advent 137 Advertisement 137 Advocate. See Lawyer. Advocatus Uiaboli Advowson yEacus yEdiles yEdui yEga>on. See Briareus. yEganis yEgean Sea. See Archipelago. yEgina /Egis yEgisthus yEIia Capitolina yElianus. Claudius Aelst. See Alost. Aelst, Evert van Aelst. Willem van yEmilius, Paulus. See Paulus, L. yEinilius. yEmilius, Paulus, historian yEneas yEneas Sylvius. See Pius II. (Pope). yEneid. See Virgil. yEnianes YEolian Harp yEolian Isles. See Lipari Islands. yEolians yEolipyle yEolis yEolus (two) yEon yEpinus. Johann yEpinus, Franz Ulrich Theodor yEqtii Acrians Aeroe Aeroklinoscope Aerolite Aerometer Aeronautics yEschines. an orator yEschines. a philosopher yEschylus yEscuiapius yEsop yEsopus. Clodius yEsthetics ... yEthrioscope Action Aetius Acting, a general yEtolia Afauasieff, Alexander Nikolaievitch. Afer, Domitius Affidavit Affinity Affinity. Chemical Affirmation Affre. Denis Auguste Afghanistan Afium Kara-llissar Afragola Airanius, Lucius Africa Africa, Languages of Africanus, Sextus Julius Afzelius, Adam Afzelius, Arvid August 141 141 142 142 142 142 142 142 142 143 143 143 143 143 145 145 151 151 151 152 153 153 153 154 154 154 155 156 156 156 157 158 158 159 159 160 163 163 163 163 171 171 171 171 CONTEXTS in PAGE Asra 171 AgacK-z 171 Asradir 172 Airamcmnon 172 179 171) 17!) Agami 172 Aganippe 172 Agapa- 172 Agapemone 172 Agapet.t 173 Airard. Arthur 173 Agardh. Karl Adolf 173 Airardh. Jacob Georg 173 Agaric. Mineral 173 Airaricus 1 73 Agasias 1 73 Agassiz, Louis John Rudolph 173 Agate 177 Agatha, Saint 179 Agatharchides 179 Aiiatharchus Agathias Agathocles Agathou 179 Agave 179 Agde lt-0 Age 180 Agen 185 Agent 1 85 Ages 185 Agesilaus 186 Aggerhuus 187 Aghrim 187 Agincourt 187 Agincourt. Jean Baptiste Louis Se- roux d 187 Agis I. IV.. kings of Sparta 187 Aglaophon 183 Agmegue Indians 183 Agnano 188 Agnes, Saint 188 Agnes Sorel 183 Agnesi, Maria Gaetana 188 Agnesi. Maria Teresa 188 Agnoeta? 1 :V5 Agnolo. Baccio d 183 Agnone 189 Agnus Dei 189 Agobard. Saint 189 Agonic Line 189 Agonistici 189 Agosta 189 Agostino and Agnolo 190 Agoult. Marie Catherine Sophie de Flavigny. Countess d 1 190 Agouti 190 Agra, province and city l .0 Agram " 1 y 1 Agrarian Laws 191 Agreda. Maria de 192 Agreement. See Contract. Agrib. Mount 192 Agricola. Cneius Julius 192 Agricola. Georg 193 Agricola. Johann Friedrich 1!>3 Airricola. Johannes Agricola. Rudolf. Agricultural Chemistry Agriculture \ Agrigentum 207 Agrionia 208 Agrippa, Herodes. See Herod. Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius 203 Agrippa von Nettesheim, Heinrich Cornelius 208 Agrippina (two) 208 Agua. Volcan de 209 Aguado. Alexandre Marie 209 Aguas Calientes, state and city 209 Ague ". 209 Aguesseau, Henri Francois d 209 Aguilar 209 Aguilar. Grace 209 Aguirre, Jose Saenz de 210 Aguirre, Lope de 210 Aguihas 210 Agustina 210 Agyniani 210 Ahab 210 Ahanta 210 Ahasuerus 210 Alinz. See Hebrews. Ahaziah, king of Israel 210 PAGE Ahaziah. king of Judah 211 Ahimeleeh 211 Ahithophel 211 Ahlefeld, Charlotte Sophie Luise Wilhelinine 211 Ahlfeld. Johann Friedrich 211 Ahlquist, August Engelbert 211 Ahhvardt. Tlieodor Wilhelm Ahmed Shah Ahmedabad Ahmednuggur, district and town.. . 212 Ann. Johuun Franz 212 Ahrens. Heinrich 212 lan ... . . 212 211 211 212 Ahrii Ahwaz Ai Aidan, Saint Aidin, province and city Aiguebelle Aiguebelle, Paul Alexandre Ne- veue d 1 Aiguille Aiguillon, Armand Viguerot Du- plessis Richelieu, Due d 1 Aigues-Mortes Aiken Aikin. John. . Aikin. Arthur. Aikin, Lucv. . Aikman, William Ailantus Ailly. Pierre d n Ailred Ailsa Craig Aimard. Gustave Aime-Martiu, Louis Ainion, the four sons of Ain Ain-Madhi Aiunuiller, Maximilian Emanuel... Ainos Ainsworth, Henry Ainsworth, Robert Ainsworth, William Francis Ainsworth, William Harrison , Aintab Air Air. an oasis Air Bladder Air Cells... Airdrie Aire. a river. Aire (two). . . Air Gun Air Plants... Air Pump. . Air Vessels.. 212 212 213 213 213 .213 213 213 213 213 213 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 214 215 215 215 215 215 215 210 216 216 210 216 216 216 217 217 213 218 218 213 218 219 2 1! 3 193 193 200 Airy. George Biddell Aisne Aisse. Mile Aitkin countv Aiton. William Aitaema. Lieuwe van Aix..... Aix-la-Chapelle Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Congress of Aix-ies-Bains Aizani .. 223 223 223 223 223 223 A jaccio Ajalon Ajan Ajax Ajmeer. district and city A kabah Akabah. Gulf of. Akbar. Jelal-ed-Deen Mohammed. Akenside. Mark Akerblad. Johan David A kerman Akers. Benjamin Paul Akhaltzikh Akhissar Akhlat Akhtyrka Akiba ben Joseph Akmolinsk Akron Ak-Shehr Aksu , Akyab Al (Arabic article) , 224 224 224 224 225 225 225 225 225 225 226 226 226 226 226 226 226 220 226 227 227 227 227 227 PAGE Alabama -_ 27 Alabama River 2C4 Alabaster i.3 i Alachua county 235 Alacoque, Marguerite Marie 2S5 Ala Dagh 235 Alagoas, province and town 235 Alain de Lille 235 Alais 235 Alajuela 235 Alaman, Lucas 235 Alamance county 2o5 Alamanui. Luigi 236 Alameda county 236 Alamo 236 Alamos. Real de los 236 Alan, William 236 Aland Islands 287 Alani 237 Al-Araf 237 Alarcon. Hernando de 237 Alarcon v Mendoza, Juan Ruiz de. 237 Alaric I. and 11 237 Alarm 238 Alasco. John. See Laski. Ala-Shehr 239 Alaska 239 Alava 243 Alb 243 Alba 243 Albacete, province and city 243 Alba Longa ". 243 Alban, Saint 243 Albanenses 248 Albaui. Francesco 243 Albania, in ancient geography 243 Albania, in modern geography 244 Albano 245 Albany co., N. Y 245 Albany co., Wyoming 245 Albany, a city 245 Albany, a district 243 Albany, Louise Marie Caroline He- loi se. Countess of 248 Albategnius 249 Albatross 249 Al-Beladori. Abul Hassan Ahmed.. 249 Albemarle county ; 249 Albemarle Sound 250 Albergati-Capacelli, Francesco, Mar- chesed 250 Alberic I. and II., rulers of Rome. . 250 Alberoni. Giulio 250 Albers, Johann Friedrich Hermann 250 Albert county 250 Albert (Alexander Martin) 250 Albert I.. Emperor 251 Albert. Duke of Prussia 251 Albert. Prince 251 Albert Friedrich August 252 Albert Edward. Prince of Wales 252 Alberti. Leone Battista 252 Albertinelli. Mariotto 252 Albert N yanza. See N yanza. Albertus Magnus 252 Albi 253 Albigenses 253 Albinos 253 Albinus, Bernhard Siegfried 254 Albion 254 Albion, N. Y 254 Albion. Xew 254 Albirco 2.54 Alboin i 54 Alboni, Marietta 254 Al-Borak 2M Albornoz. Gil Alvarez Carillo -254 Albrecht Friedrich Rudolph 2.M Albrechtsberger, Johanu Georg. . . . 251 Albret 255 Albret. Jeanne d 255 Albucasis 255 Albuera 255 Albufera 2r5 Albumen 255 Albuminuria 256 Albuquerque 258 Albuquerque, Alfonso d 258 Alburnum 259 Alca-us 259 Alcaide 259 Alcala de Ilenares 259 CONTENTS PACE AlcaUi la Eeal 259 Alcalde 259 Alcamenes 259 Alcamo 260 Alcantara 260 Alcantara, Knights of 260 Alcavala 260 Alcazar 260 Alcazar de San Juan 260 Alccstis. See Aclmetus. Alchemy 260 Alciati. Giovanni Paolo 262 Alcibiades 262 Alchindus. See Alkindi. Alcinous 262 Alciphron 263 Alcira 263 Alcriiii-on (two) 263 Alcmaoonida: 263 Alcman 264 Alcmona 264 Alcock, Sir Eutherford 264 Alcohol 264 Alcona county 265 Alcorn county 266 Alcott, Amos Bronson 266 Alcott, Louisa May 266 Alcott, William Alexander, M. D. . . 266 Alcoy 267 Alctiin 267 Alcyone 267 Aldan mountains 267 Aldan river 267 Aldborough 267 Aldebaran 267 Aldegonde, Saintc. Philip van Mar- nix, Baron of 267 Aldegrever, lleinrich 267 Aldehyde 267 Alden. John 268 Aidenhoven 268 Alder 26S Alderman 26S Alderney 268 Aldershott 269 Aldhelm 269 Aldine Editions 269 Aldini, Antonio. Count 269 Aldini, Giovanni 269 Aldobrandini family 269 Aldrich, Thomas Bailey 270 Aldridge, Ira 270 Aldrovandus, Ulysses 270 Ale. See Beer, and Brewing. Aleandro, Girolamo 270 Alecto 271 Alegambe. Philippe 271 Alcman, Mateo 271 Alernanni 271 Alembert, Jean le Eond d 1 271 Alembic 272 Alemtejo 272 Alencon 272 Alenfou, Francois, Duke of. See An]ou. Aleppo 272 Aleshki 273 Alesia 273 Alessandresku, Gregory 273 Alessandri, Basil ". 273 Alessandria 274 Aleutian Islands 274 Alewife 275 Alexander co., N. C 275 Alexander co.. Ill 275 Alexander the Great 275 Alexander I. VIII., Popes 279 Alexander I.. Emperor 280 Alexander II., Emperor 2S3 Alexander I. III., Kings of Sect- land 285 Alexander. Alexander Humphreys. 285 Alexander, Archibald, D. D 285 Alexander, Sir James Edward 286 Alexander, James Waddel, D. D.. . 286 Alexander. Joseph Addison, D. D. . 286 Alexander. Ludwig Christian Georg Friedrich Emil 286 Alexander. Stephen. LL. D 286 Alexander, William (two) 2^7 Alexander of Aphrodisias 2S7 Alexander Archipelago 287 PAGE Alexander Balas 287 Alexander of Hales 287 Alexander Jannitus 288 Alexander John 1 288 Alexander Karageorgevitch 288 Alexander Nevskoi . 288 Alexander Sevcrus 289 Alexandrc, Aaron 289 Alexandretta 2S9 Alexandria county 289 Alexandria, Va 289 Alexandria, La 290 Alexandria. Egypt 290 Alexandrian Codex 291 Alexandrian Library 291 Alexandrian School 292 Alexandrine 292 Alexandropol 292 Alexandrov 292 Alexandrovsk 292 Alexei. See Alexis Alexis I., Comnenus. Emperor of Trebizond 202 Alexis I., Comnenus, Emperor of Constantinople 292 Alexis, Wilibald. Sec Ilaring. Alexis Mikhailovitch 293 Alexis Petrovitch : 294 Alfani 294 Alfarabius . . 2i)4 Alfieri. Yittorio. Count ^94 Alfonso I., the Catholic 295 Alfonso II., the Chaste 295 Alfonso III., the Great 295 Alfonso VI.. the Valiant 295 Alfonso VII. or VIII., Ilaimondez.. 295 Alfonso X., the Wise 295 Alfonso I. of Aragon 296 Alfonso V. of Aragon and I. of Na ples .... 296 297 2!)7 Alford, Henry 297 I l Alfonso I. of Portugal Alfonso V. of Portugal. . Alfort Alfred the Great Algardi, Alessandro Algarotti, Francesco Algarovilla Algarve Algazzali, Abu Ilamed Mohammed. 801 Algebra 301 Alireciras 302 Algerba 302 Alger, Horatio, Jr 302 Alger, William Eounseville 302 Algeria 302 Alghero... . 307 Algiers 307 Algoa Bay 308 Algoma Algonquins Alguazil Albania Alhambra Alhondega AH Pasha All ben Abu Taleb 311 Alibaud. Louis 81 1 Alibert, Jean Louis 811 All Bey 312 Alicante, province and town 812 Alicata. Sec Licata. Alien 312 Alighieri, Dante degli. See Dante . Alighur Aliment Alimentary Canal Alimentus, Lucius Cincius. . . Alimony Alison. Archibald Alison, Sir Archibald Alizarine Alizarine, Artificial Alkali Alkalimetry 322 Alkaloid 322 Alkana. See Henna. Alkanet 822 Alkindi 322 Alkmaar 322 Alkmaar, lleinrich von 323 .. 314 . . 314 . . 317 . . 318 . . 319 . . 320 . . 320 .. 321 .. 321 322 PAGE Alkoran. See Koran. Allah 323 Allahabad 323 Allamakee county 323 Allainand, Jean Nicolas Sebastien. . 323 Allan, David 323 Allan. Sir \Villiam 324 Allan-Kardec, Ilippolite Leon Deni- zard 324 Allard. Jean Francois 824 Allardice, Eobert Barclay. See Bar clay. Allegan county 324 Allegany co., N. Y 824 Allegany co., Md 324 Alleghany co., Va 3 24 Alleghany co.. N. C 325 Alleghany College. See Meadville. Alleghany Mountains. See Appa lachian Mountains. Alleghany Eiver 325 Allegheny co., Penn 325 Allegheny City 325 Allegiance 825 Allegri, Antonio. See Correggio. Allegri, Gregorio 327 Alleine, Joseph 327 Alleinc, Eichard 327 j Allemand, Zacharie Jacques Theo dore, Count 328 j Allen co., Ky 328 ! Allen co., Ohio 328 Allen co., Ind 328 Allen co., Kansas 328 Allen, Bog of. See Bog. Allen, Ethan 328 Allen, Ira 329 Allen, Joseph W 3.9 Allen, Paul 329 Allen, Samuel 329 Allen, Solomon 329 Allen, Thomas 330 Allen, William, D.D 330 Allen, William 330 Allen, William Henry 330 Allen, William Henry, LL. D 380 Allende, Jose 331 Allentown 331 Allestree, Eichard 331 Alleyn, Edward 331 All-Fours 331 Allgaier, Johann 331 All Hallows. See Hallow Eve. Allibone, Samuel Austin. LL.D 331 Allier 332 Alligator 332 Allix, Jacques Alexandre Francois. . 333 Allix. Pierre 333 I Alloa 334 i Allobroges 834 j Allodium 334 Allom, Thomas 334 i Allomakee. See Allamakee. Allopathy 334 Al .ori, Alessandro 334 Allori, Cristofuno 334 Allotropism 384 Allouez, Claude Jean 335 Alloy 335 All Saints 1 Bay 337 All Saints 1 Day 837 All Souls 337 Allspice 387 Allston, Washington 337 Alluvium 338 Alma 840 ! Almacks 340 Almaden 340 Almagest 340 Almagro 340 i Almagro, Diego de (two) 840 Almaii 341 Al-Mamoun, Abu Abbas Abdallah.. 341 Almanac 341 Al-Mansour, Abu Jaffar Abdallah. . 342 Almaric.... 343 Almeh 343 Almeida 343 Almeida, Francisco de 343 Almeria 343 Alniodovar, Ildefonso Diaz de Eibe- ra, Count of. 343 CONTENTS PAGE Ahnohades 344 Almon. John 344 Almond 344 Almomle, Philippus van 345 Almoner 345 Almonte, Juan Nepomuceno 345 Aimoru 845 Ahnoravides 345 Almquist. Karl Jonas Ludwig 345 Almy. William 346 Alnwick 346 Aloe 346 Aloe. American. See Agave. Aloes 34G Aloidae 347 Alompra 347 Alost 347 Alpaca 347 Alp Arslan 347 Alpena county 348 Alpes, Basses and Hautes. See Basses- Alpes. and Ilautes-Alpes. Alpes-Maritimes 348 Alpha and Omega 348 Alphabet 34S Alpheus 351 Alpine county 351 Alps 351 Alpujarras 355 Alsace 355 Alsace-Lorraine 356 Alsen 357 Alsted. Johann Heinrich 357 Alston. John 357 Alstr rimer. Jonas 357 Alstriimer, Klas 357 Altai 358 Altamaha 359 Altamura 359 Altar 359 Altdorf 360 Altdorfer, Albrecht 360 Altena 360 Altenburg 360 Alten-Oetting 360 Altenstein 360 Altenstein. Karl, Baron 361 Alteratives 361 Alternate Generation. See Jelly Fish. Althfea 361 Althen. Khan 361 Althorp. Viscount. See Spencer. Altitude 362 Altkirch 362 Altmiihl 362 Alt-Getting. See Alten-Oetting. Alton 362 Alton, Richard, Count d 362 Alton. Edward. Count d 362 Alton, Johann Wilhelm Eduard d 1 . . 363 Alton. Johann Samuel Eduard d 1 .. 363 Altona 303 Altoona 363 Altorf 363 Alto-Kilievo 863 Alturas county 363 Alum 3G3 Alumina 866 Aluminum 367 Alumnus 361) Alunno, Nicolo 369 A lured. , 369 Aluta 369 Alva, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo Duke or 369 Alvar , 371 Alvarado 3T1 Alvarado. Pedro de 371 Alvarez. Francisco 372 Alvarez. Juan 372 Alvinczy, Joseph. Baron 372 Alxinger. Johann Baptist von 372 Alzey ,. 372 Amadeus 373 Amadeua V.. Count of Savoy 373 Amadeus VIII., Count of Savoy. . . 373 Amadeus I.. King of Spain 373 Amadis of Gaul 373 Amador county 373 Amalario 873 Amalasonth= ... . . 373 PAGH Amalekites ....................... 374 Amalfl ........................... 874 Amalgam ........................ 874 Amalgamation .................... 375 Amalia, Anna, Duchess of Saxe- Weitnar ........................ 375 Ainalie, Marie Friederike. Queen . . . 375 Amalie, Marie Friederike Auguste, Duchess of Saxony .............. 376 Amals ............................ 376 J Amalthsea ........................ 376 Amanus ......................... 876 Amar, J. P. Andre ................ 876 Amaranth ........................ 876 Amarapura ....................... 377 Amasia ........................... 377 Amasis I. and II .................. 377 Amati family ..................... 377 Amati, Andrea .................... 377 Amati, Nicold ..................... 377 Amati, Antonio ................... 377 Amati, Geronimo ................. 377 Amati. Nicolo ..................... 377 Amatitlan ........................ 378 Amatus Lusitanus ................ 378 Amaurosis ........................ 378 Ainaury, Count of Joppa ...... .... 378 Amaury, King of Cyprus .......... 378 Amaury of Chartres. See Almaric ofBene. 378 Amaxichi ........................ 378 Amaziah, King. See Hebrews. Amazon .......................... 378 Amazonas. Brazil .................. 380 Amazonas, Peru .................. 380 Amazonia ........................ 380 Amazons ......................... 3SO Ambassador ................. .... 881 Amber ........................... 3S1 Amberg .......................... 382 Amberger. Christoph. . . ........... 383 Ambergris ........................ 8S3 Ambiorix ........................ 3S3 Ambleteuse ...................... 8S3 Amboise ......................... 883 Amboise. George d ____ , .......... 3;3 Amboyna ......................... 383 Ambracia. . ................... ... 384 Auibriz .......................... 3S4 Ambrones . ....................... 384 Ambrose, Saint ...... ............. 384 Ambrosia. , ....................... 385 Ambrosian Chant ................. 385 Ambrosian Library ................ 885 Ambulance ....................... 336 Amelia county .......... . ......... 386 Amelot de la Houssaye, Abraham Nicolas ......................... 386 Amelotte, Denis .................. 886 Amenophis I. I II ................ 386 Amerbach. Johann ................ 387 America ......................... 387 American Antiquities ............. 393 American Indians ........... ...... 401 American Indians, Languages of the 407 Americanisms .................... 414 American River ................... 416 American Wines .................. 416 Amerigo Vespucci. See Vespucci. Amersfoort ....................... 422 Ames, Edward R., D. D ........... 422 Ames. Fisher .................... 422 Ames. Joseph (two) ............... 422 Ames, William, D. D .............. 423 Amesbury ........................ 423 l Amethyst ........................ 423 Amga. ; .......................... 423 | Amharic Language ....... . ........ 423 j Amherst county . ........ ." ........ 423 I Amherst. Mass .................... 423 | Amherst, Burmah ................. 424 l Amherst, Jeffery, Baron ........... 424 Amherst, William Pitt, Earl ....... 424 i Amianthus. See Asbestus. j Amice ........... ................. 424 Amici, Giovanni Battista .......... 425 ! Amidas, Philip .................... 425 ! Amiens .......................... 425 Amiot, Joseph .................... 425 425 PAGE Amman, Johann Konrad 426 Amman, Jost 426 Ammianiis Marcellinus 426 Ammergau. See Ober-Ammergau. Ammon 426 Ammon, Christoph Friedrich von.. 426 Ammonia 427 Ammoniac 428 Ammonites 428 Ammonium 428 Ammonium, Oasis of. See Siwah. Ammonias Saccas 429 Ammonoosuck, Upper and Lower. . 429 Ammunition 429 Amnesty 429 Amoeba. See Animacules. Amoutons, Guillaume 432 Ainoor 433 Amoor Country 433 Amor. See Eros. i Amoretti, Carlo 433 Amoretti, Maria Pellegrina 433 Amorites 434 Amortization 434 Amory, Thomas 434 Amos , 434 Amoskeag. See Manchester, N. H. Amoy 434 Ampere, Andre Marie 434 Ampere, Jean Jacques Antoine 435 Ampfing 435 Amphiaraus , 435 Amphibia 435 Amphictyons 4% Amphilochus 438 Amphion . . 439 Amphipolis 439 Amphisbsena 439 Amphitheatre. . , 431) Amphitrite 441 Amphitryon 441 Amphora 441 Ampulla 441 Amputation 441 Amritsir 442 Amru ibn el- Aas 442 Amru 1-Kais 442 Amsdorf, Nikolaus von 443 Amsler, Samuel 443 Amstel 443 Amsterdam 443 Amuck 445 Amulet 445 Amurath 1 445 Amurath II 44C> Amussat, Jean Zulema 447 Amvgdaloid 447 Amyl. 447 Amylene 447 Amyntas I. Ill Amyot, Jacques Amyraut, Moise Ana Anabaptists Anabas Scandens Anabasis ........... 1 Anableps Anacharsis Anacletus I., II 448 448 448 448 448 450 451 451 451 451 Anaconda ......................... 451 Anacreon Anadyornene . Anadyr Anaesthetics . . Anagni Anagram 452 452 452 452 455 455 Amite river Amite county Amlwch ...... 425 426 Anahuac 455 Anaitis , 455 Analytical Geometry 455 Anam 456 Anamboe 457 Ananias (three) 457 Anastasia, Saint (three) 457 Anastasius I. IV.. Popes 458 Anastasius I., II., Emperors 458 Anastomosis 458 Anata. See Anathoth Anathema 453 Anathoth 459 Anatolia. See Asia Minor, Anatomical Preparations 459 Anatomy 460 VI CONTENTS PAGE Anatomy, Comparative. See Com parative Anatomy. Anaxagoras 463 Anaxarchus 468 Anaxiraander 4*58 Anaximeues (two) 463 Ancach 464 Ancelot, Jacques Arsene Francois Polycarpe 464 Ancefot. Marguerite Louise Virginie Chardon. . . 464 Anchises 464 Anchor 4i!4 Anchoret 467 Anchovy 467 Anchylosis 467 Ancicnne Lorette 468 Ancillon, David 468 Ancillon. Charles 468 Ancillon, Ludwig Friedrich 46S Aucillon. Johann Peter Friedrich.. 463 Anckarstroem, Johau Jakob 40S Anclaiu. See Anklam. Ancona, province and city 468 Ancre. Concino de 1 Concini, Mar shal <T 469 Ancus Marcius 470 Ancyra 470 Andalusia , 470 Andaman Islands 470 Andelys, Les. 471 Andenne 471 Anderlecht 471 Anderloni, Pietro . 471 Anderloni. Faustino 471 Andersen. Hans Christian. 471 Anderson co.. S. C 472 Anderson co.. Texas 472 Anderson co., Teun 472 Anderson co.. Ky 472 Anderson co., Kansas 472 Anderson, Alexander 472 Anderson, Sir Edmund 472 Anderson. James (two) 472 Anderson, John ; 478 Anderson. Martin Brewer, LL D . . 473 Anderson, Robert 473 Andersonville. 473 Anderssen, Adolph 475 Andersson, Carl Johan 475 Andersson, Nils Johan 475 Andes 475 Andlavv, Franz Xaver von . 480 Andocides 480 Andorra 480 Andover. Eng 481 Andover. Mass 481 Andrada, Antonio d 1 481 Andrada e Sylva. Bonifacio Joze d . 481 Andral, Gabriel. 482 Andrassy. Gyula 482 Andre, Johann Anten 482 Andre. John . . . 482 Andrea. Girolamo d 1 483 Andrea Pisano 483 Andrea del Sarto. See Sarto. Andrea?, Jakob 483 Andrese, Johann Valentin 483 Andrea?, Laurentius 484 Andreani, Andrea 484 Andreanov Islands. See Aleutian Islands. Andree. Karl Theodor 484 Andreini, Francesco 484 Andremi, Isabella 484 Andreini, Giovanni Battista 484 Andreossi, Antoine Francois, Count d 484 Andres. Juan 484 Andrew countv 484 Andrew I. Ill 4R5 Andrew. Saint 485 Andrew, James Osgood, D. D 485 Andrew. John Albion 485 Andrews, James Pettit 486 Andrews. Lancelot 486 Andria 486 Andrieux, Francois Guillaume Jean Stanislas 486 Andriscus 486 Androclus 486 Androides. See Automaton. PAGE Andromache 487 Andromeda 487 Andronicus I. IV 487 ] Andronicus, Livius 47 Audronicus of Rhodes 487 Andros, Greece 4b8 i Andros , Bahamas 488 i Andros, Sir Edmund 488 Androscoggin county 488 j Androscoggin river 488 ! Andryana, Alexandre 488 Andujar 488 Anegada 489 Anel, Dominique 489 | Anemometer 489 Anemone , 490 ! Anemoscope _ 491 Anerio, Felice . 491 i Anerio, Giovanni Francesco 491 Aneroid. See Barometer. Aneurin 491 Aneurism 491 Anfossi, Pasquale 492 Angara 492 [ Angel 492 Angel, a coin 492 ! Angel Fish 493 Angeli, Filippo 498 Angelico, Fra 493 Angelina county 493 Angeli, Joseph K 493 Angela , 494 Ansjclo. Michel. See Buonarotti, Angelus Domini 494 Angelus Silesius 494 Angerman , 494 | Angermiinde. 494 Angers, r 494 Anghiera, Pietro Martire d 494 Angilbert, Saint 494 Angina Pectoris , 495 Angler 496 Angler Fish. See Goose Fish. Angle 497 Anglesea 4J7 Anglesey, Earl of. See Annesley. Anglesey, Henry William Paget, Marquis of. 497 Angling 498 Anglo-Saxons , 498 Anglo-Saxon Church 500 Anglo-Saxon Jurisprudence 500 Anglo-Saxons. Language and Liter attire of the . 501 Angola 506 Angora 506 Angorno. 507 Angostura 507 Angostura Bark 507 Angot, Jean 507 Angouleme 507 Angouleme, Charles de Valois. Duke of 507 Angouleme. Louis Antoine de Bour bon, Duke of 508 Angouleme, Marie Therese Char lotte, Duchess of 508 Angoumois 508 Angua 508 Anguisciola, Sofonisba 508 Angus. Earls of. See Douglas 508 Anhalt 508 Anhydrides 508 Ani 509 Anciet-Bourgeois 509 Anicetus 509 Aniello, Tommaso. See Masaniello. Anilic Acid..* 509 Aniline ? 509 Animal 509 Animacules 513 i Animal Electricity 518 1 Animal Heat 522 Animal Magnetism 524 Anime 527 Anise Seed 527 Anjou 527 Anjou, Margaret of. See Margaret Anklam 528 Ankwitz, Mikolaj. Count 528 Anna Carlovna 528 Anna Comnena 528 PAGE Anna Ivanovna 528 Annaberg 528 Annals 529 Annapolis 529 Annapolis county 530 Annapolis. Nova Scotia 530 Ann Arbor 530 Annats 531 Annatto. See Annotto. Anne. Queen 531 Annealing 531 Anne Arundel county 532 Anne of Austria 532 Anne Boleyn 532 Anne of Brittany 533 Anne of Cleves 533 Annecy..., 533 Annelida 533 Annesley. Arthur 533 Annesley. James 534 Annius of Viterbo 534 Anno, Saint 534 Annonay . . . 534 Annotto 534 Annuity 534 Annunciation 535 Anodyne 535 Anointing 535 Anoka county : . . . . 536 Anolis 536 Anquetil. Louis Pierre 536 Anquetil-Duperron, Abraham Hya- cinthe.. 536 Ansaloni, Giordano 537 A nsaries 537 Anscarius. Saint 537 Ansdell. Richard 537 Anselm. Saint 538 Anson county 538 Anson, George. Lord 538 Anson, George. 538 Ansonia 538 Anspach 538 Anspach, Elizabeth. Margravine of. 539 Ansted. David Thomas. 539 Anster. John. 539 Anstey, Christopher 539 Anstey, Thomas Chisholm 539 Ant 540 Antacids 542 Ant 542 Anta?us 542 Antalcidas 542 Antar 542 Antarctic Discovery 542 Antarctic Ocean, and Antarctic Cir cle. See Polar Seas, and Polar Circles. Ant-Eater 543 Antelope , : 544 Antenna; 546 Antenor . 546 Antequera 547 Anthelmintics. See Entozoa. Anthemius (two) 547 Anther 547 Anthon, Charles, LL. D 547 Anthony. Henry B 548 Anthony, Saint (two) 548 Anthony. Susan Brownell 548 Anthracene 548 Anthracite. , .* 548 Anthropology. See Anatomy, Ar cheology, Comparative Anatomy, Ethnology, Moral Philosophy, Philosophy, and Physiology. Anthropomorphites 559 Antibes 559 Antichlor 559 Antichrist 559 Anticosti 559 Anticyra (two) 560 Antidotes 560 Antietam, Battle of 560 Antigone 562 Antigonus the Cyclops 562 Antigonus Gonatas 563 Antigonus Doson 563 , Antigonus, King of the Jews 563 I Antigua 568 i Anti-Libanus 568 I Antilles ... 564 CONTEXTS. vn 569 509 570 PACK Anti-Masonry 564 Antimony . . " 564 Antinoinians 5(5(5 Antiiious 566 Antioch 560 Antioch (. oik-are 507 Antioohus I.. Soter 568 Antiochus III., the Great 568 Antiochus IV.. Epiphanes 569 Antioquia A ltiparos Antipas. Herod. See Herod. Antipater Antiphon Antiphony 570 Anti-Rentiam 570 Antisana 571 Anti-Scorbutics. See Scurvy. Antiseptics 571 I Antispasinodics 571 Anti-Slavery. See Slavery. Antistheues 572 ! Antitaurus. See Taurus. Antitrinitarians. See Unitarianism. Antium 572 Ant Lion 573 Antoine de Bourbon 573 Antommarchi. Carlo Francesco 573 Antonelli. Giacomo 574 Antonello da Messina 574 ; Antoninus. Marcus Aurelius 574 Antoninus Pius, Titus Aurelius Fulvius 575 | Antonio. Nicolas 575 Antonius. Marcus 575 : Antony, Mark 576 . Antraigues. Emmanuel Louis Henri d Launay, Count d 576 Antrim, county and city 577 j Antrim co., Mich 577 Antwerp 577 j Ami bis 578 : Anvil 579 j Anviile. Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d 579 Aorta 579 Aosta 579 Apaches " 579 Ape 580 Apeldoorn 581 Apelles 5S1 Apelt. Ernst Friedrich 5S1 Apennines 581 Apenrade 5S3 Aphis 5S3 Aphrodite. See Venus Apicius (three) 5S4 Apis 584 Aplanatic Lens 584 Apocalypse 584 A pocrypha 585 Apolda 586 Apollinarians 586 Apollo 586 Apollo Belvedere PAGE Appiani. Andrea 598 Appiano, Jacopo 1 598 Appiano, Gherardo 598 Appiano, Jacopo III 598 Appiano. Jacopo IV 598 Appian Way 598 Appius Claudius. See Claudius. Apple 598 Apples of Sodom 601 Appleton 601 Appleton. Daniel 601 Appleton, Jesse, D. D 601 Appleton. Nathan 601 Appleton. Samuel 602 Appling county 602 Appold, J. George 602 Appomattox county. . ; 602 Appomatto.\ Court House 602 Appomattox River 602 Appouyi Gyorgy Antal, Count 602 Apponyi, Antal 602 Apponyi. Rudolf 602 Apponyi. Gyorgy (502 Appraisement 603 Apprentice 603 Apollodorus of Charystus 5S6 Apollouia 586 , Apollonius Perirtt-us 5S7 Apollonius Rhodius 587 : Apollonius Tyanieus 587 Apollo* 587 i Apollyon 587 ! Apoplexy. See Brain, Diseases of the. Apostles 583 ! Apostles Creed Apraxin, Fedor Apraxin, Stefan Fedorovitch Apricot Apries April Apteral Apteryx Apuleius Apulia Apure Apurimac Aqua Aqua Tofaua Aquarians . ." Aquarium Aqueduct Aquila Aquila. Kaspar Aquileia Aquinas, Thomas Aquitania Arabella Stuart. See Stuart. Arabesque Arabgir Arabia Arabic Language and Literature. . . Arabici Aracan Aracato Arachne Arachnids Arad Aradus Arafat.. Arago, Dominique Francois Arago. Jean Arago. Jacques tienne Victor Arago. Etknne Arago, Emmanuel Aragon Aratrona Araguay Araktcheyeff, Alexei Aral. Sea of. Aram Aram. Eugene Aranda. Pedro Pablo Abarca y Bo- lea, Count of " Aranjiuv Arany. J;mos Aropahoe countv. . . , Apostolici (three) Apothecary A ppalachee Bay Appalachees Appalachian Mountains Appalachicola River Appalachicola. a town 93 Appanoose county 593 Apparatus " 593 Apparition 5!\3 Appeal 594 Appenzell 597 . Apperlev Charles James 597 Appert, Benjamin Nicolas Marie. . . 597 Appetite 597. Appian 598 j Arapahoes Ararat. Asia Ararat. North Carolina. Aras. Sec Araxes. Aratus (three) Araucanians Arauco Araxes . . . Arbaces. , Arbalast. Arbela . . Arbitr . . See Archerv Arbitration Arblay. Madame d 1 Arbogast Arbois . . . PAGK j Arbor Vita? 03S Arbrissel. Robert of 6o3 Arbroath 63S Arbuthnot, John . 683 Arbutus 639 Arc 640 Arc. Joan of. See Joan of Arc Arcachon 640 Arcadia (140 Arcadius 641 Arcesilaus 641 Arch 641 Archaeology 642 Archa-opteryx 645 Archangel 645 Archbishop 646 Archdeacon 646 Archduke 646 Archelaus (eight) 647 Archeaholz, Johann Wilhelm 648 Archer county 648 Archery 648 Arches, Court of 64i) Archias. Aulus Licinius 650 Archiater 650 Archibald, Adams G 650 Archidamus I. V., kings 650 Archil 650 Archilochus of Paros 651 Archimandrite 651 Archimedean Screw 651 Archimedes 651 Archipelago 652 Architecture 652 Archon 666 Archytas of Tarentum 667 Arcis-sur-Aube 667 Arcole 667 Arcos de la Frontera 667 Arcot 667 Arctic Discovery 667 Arcturus 680 Arcueil 681 Arcy. Grotto of 6^1 Ardabil 681 Ardeche 681 Ardennes 681 617 Ardeshir 681 617 Arditi, Luigi 681 617 Are 682 622 Arendal 682 626 A reolar Tissue. See Cellular Tissue. 626 ! Areometer. See Hydrometer. 626 Areopagas 682 626 Arequipa 682 626 Ares. See Mars. 627 Aretaeus 683 627 Arethusa 683 627 Aretino, Guido 683 628 Aretino. See Bruni. Leonardo. 628 Aretino, Pietro 683 628 Arezzo 683 628 Argseus. Mount. See Arjish. 629 Argali. See Sheep. 629 Argali, Samuel 6S3 630 Argelander, Friedrich Wilhelm Au- 630 gust 684 630 Argens. Jean Baptiste de Boyer. 631 Marquis d ? 6S4 631 Argenson, Rene Louis Voyer d\ 631 Marquis d 1 684 | Argenson. Marc Pierre Voyer d , 632 ! Count d 634 ( 32 I Argenson. Marc Antoine Ren? de 632 j Palmy.. 684 632 > Argentan 685 ( 32 I Argenteuil 685 633 Argenteuil county 685 Argenteus Codex 6-5 Argentine Republic 685 683 Argives 696 634 Argol. See Tartar. 635 Argolis. See Argos. 635 ! Argonaut. See Nautilus. 635 ! Argonauts 696 ! Argonne 697 635 ! Argoon 697 T-35 ; Argos 697 035 Argot. See Slang. (!37 Arguelles, Augustin 697 63S Argus 698 638 i Argyleshire 698 Vlll CONTENTS. PAGE Argyll, Colin, 1st Earl of. 698 Argyll, Archibald. 2d Earl of. 698 Argyll. Archibald, 5th Earl of 698 Argyll, Archibald, 8th Earl of 698 Argyll, Archibald, 9th Earl of 698 Anryll. Archibald, 10th Earl and 1st Duke of 69!) Argyll, John. 2d Duke of 699 Argyll, Archibald, 3d Duke of. 699 Argyll, John George Douglas, 8th Duke of 699 Argyro-Kastro 699 Argyropulos. Johannes 699 Ariadne 699 Ariaklus 699 Arianism 7<0 Ariaiio 701 Arias Montanus, Benedict us 701 Arica 701 Ariege 702 Ariel 702 Arion 702 Ariosto. Ludovico 702 Ariovistus 702 Arista, Mariano 702 Arista?us 702 Aristarchus (two) 703 Aristidcs (three) 703 Aristippus 704 Aristobulus (three) 704 Aristogiton. See Harmodius and Aristogiton. Aristomenes 704 Aristophanes 705 Aristotle 705 Aristoxenus 707 Arithmetic 707 Arins 708 Arizona 709 ArjishDagh 711 Ark (two) 712 Arkansas Indians 712 Arkansas Paver 712 Arkansas, a state 713 Arkansas county 717 Arkwright, Sir Richard 717 Arlos 718 Arlincourt, Victor, Viscount (T 718 Arlon 719 Armada. Spanish 719 Armadillo 720 Armageddon 721 Armagh, county and city 721 Armagnac 721 Armagnac, Bernard VII., Count of. 721 Armagnac, Jean V., Count of 722 Armand, Charles. See Kouurie, Marquis de la. Armansperg, Joseph Louis, Count.. 722 Armatofes 722 Armengaud, Jean Germain Desire.. 722 Armentieres 722 Armenia 722 Armenian Church 724 Armenian Language and Literature. 727 Armin, Eobert 728 Arminians 728 Arminius 729 Arminius, James 730 Armitage, Edward 731 PAGE Armor 731 Armorica 734 Arms 734 Armstrong county 735 Armstrong, John 735 Armstrong, John (two) 730 Armstrong, Sir William George. . . . 736 Army.... 736 Arnauld, Antoine 754 Arnauld d Andilly, Eobert 754 Arnauld, Henri 754 Arnauld, Antoine 755 Arnauld, Marie Jacqueline Ange- lique 755 Arnauld, Agnes 755 Arnauld, Angelique 756 Arnault, Vincent Antoine 756 Arnauts. See Albania. Arnd. Johann 756 Arndt. l-.rnst Moritz 756 Arne, Thomas Augustine 757 Arnhem 757 Arnica 757 Arnim. Johann Georg 757 Arnim, Karl Otto Ludwig von 758 Arnim, Ludwig Achiin von 758 Arnim, Elisabeth von 758 Arnim, Gisela von 758 Arno 758 Arnobius 759 Arnold, Benedict 759 Arnold of Brescia 760 Arnold, Christoph 760 Arnold, Edwin 761 Arnold, Matthew 761 Arnold, Samuel. Mus. Doc 761 Arnold, Thomas. D.I) 761 Arnold, Thomas Kerchever 762 Arnott. Neil 762 Arnould. Sophie 762 Arnsberg 763 Arnstadt 763 Arnswalde 763 Arolas, Juan 763 Aro sen 763 Aroostook county 763 Arpad 763 Arpino 763 Arpino, Giuseppe Cesari d\ See Cesari. Arqua , 763 Arrack 763 Arran 763 Arran. Isles of 763 Arran, Earl of. 763 Arran,James Hamilton, Earl of (two) 764 Arras 764 Arrawaks 764 Arrest 764 Arrhidaeus, Philip 766 Arria 767 Arrian 767 Arrivabene, Giovanni, Count 767 Arroo 767 Arrowroot 767 Ars. See Ars-sur-Moselle. Arsamas. See Arzamas. Arsenic 768 Arsinioe (four) 770 Arsinoe, Egypt (two) 771 PAGE Arson 771 Ars-sur-Moselle 772 Arta 772 i Artabanus 772 I Artabazus (two) 772 ! Artaxata 773 ; Artaxerxes (three) 773 I Artemidorus of Ephesus 773 I Artemis. See Diana. Artemisia, queen (two) 773 Artemisia, a plant 773 I Artemisium 774 ! Artery 774 ! Artesian Wells 774 i Artevelde. Jacob van 780 Artevelde. Philip van 780 Arthritis . 780 Arthur 781 i Arthur, Timothy Shay 781 Arthur, \\ illiam 781 Artichoke 781 | Articulate 782 { Articulation 783 * Artigas, Jose 784 Artillery . . ; 784 Artiodactyles 797 Artois 797 Artot. Joseph 798 Arundel. Thomas Howard, Earl of. 798 Arundelian Marbles. See Arundel, Thomas Howard. Arundell, Blanch 799 Arwidsson, Adolf Ivar 799 Aryan Race and Language 799 Arzachel, Abraham 802 Arzamas 802 As, a weight 802 As 802 Asa 802 Asafcetida: 802 Asaph ,02 Asben. See Air. Asbestus 802 Asbury, Francis 803 Ascalon 803 Ascarides 803 Ascension parish 804 Ascension Day 804 Ascension Island 804 Asch 804 Aschaffenburg 804 Ascham, Roger 804 .. 804 Aschersleben Ascidians. See Molluscoids. Asclepiades Ascoli -0,-) hit, ) 805 S05 805 805 Ascoli I Ascoli Piceno ! Ascoli de Satriano | Ascot Heath ! Aselli, Gasparo ... Asgill, John 8UO Ash 805 Ash, John 807 : Ashantee 807 Ashburton. Alexander Baring. Baron 807 : Ashby de la Zouch 808 ! Ashdod 808 i Ashe county 808 ! Ashe, John SOS i Asher , 808 4^ RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT 202 Main Library LOAN PERIOD 1 HOME USE 2 3 4 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 1 -month loons may be renewed by calling 642-3405 6-month loans may be recharged by bringing books to Circulation Desk Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW R FEB 1 SSG UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY FORM NO. DD6, 60m, I I /78 BERKELEY, CA 94720 // 0- UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY sr